\ OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAHBRIBGE, MASS. The gift of thJL (^'(TUfCL JyxuO^jJjbnrrujy' No. 13., 5V-^. PROCEEDINGS IOWA ACADEMY SCIENCES 1 s.sT, 1 s.s.s, ] ss',) t(M;K iHi'.R wriH rfn-. r(;»xsTri-t"rTON. i.isrs oKorncKus axi> mkmi;kks ICDITKU lU" rilK SKCRKTARN' KjS MOINKS, loNVA ; OFFICERS OF THE ACAD EM Prc-srWe,ri:—PROh\ HERBERT WSUC^RN. >vVrf l''A.e President— PROF.. }. K.. TODD Secortii i'ice President— VROY ^ 'Y . H. M cBK-I IXt'. . .Secretary-Treasurer— VROY. R. !•',. CALE. R .^ectJtivc Council (.-onsistecl of the-ie Offi.cevH ;«iu.'i the- f(>Howing pt j PROF, H. W. PARKER, PROF.- F. W.. WlT'JER- P'resi,i'e,i(-VKOV. J. E. TODD. First I'ice Preiident—VKOV. E. .M. WEI'I'ER. Seco7td Vice President— VROY. 1!. D. .HA LSI ID S^,-7-etarv-rrcasurer—VROV V. V. C.\EE. "Jh^ Ee Council reniainefl iHicha-iitjed.. i 889-^6./:). 'ffe.E WITlElx'. /■'/Vi-/ /"/W- /''-t'.r/cr<'/a;->-7'?-i'rtj'«rfr— PROF. R, E. CAI.E. 'he F.*ecmive Council was increased bj' the addition of i'ROF. C. C. NUTTiXG. PROF. C. P. GIEEE'lTi:. FELLOWS OF THE ACADEMY. PROF. V,. D. HAl^STKI) fU I'ROK. 1'. M. \VIT'rKR (I). I'ROP. H. W. PARKER (IK ■pROF. R. F,. CALL (1). PROF. TIF.RBERT OSB(3RN (I> 'PROF. J. i:. lODD (l). DR. H. S. WH.l.IAMS (III. •pROF. A. A. CROZIKR (11^ PROF. W. J. McGKF, (lit. PROF, C. P. GILI.ETTF. (lli. PROF. C. C. NUTTING (111). PROF. ERASMUS HAWORTH (111 PROF. SE'PH E. MEEK (111). PROF. I,. H. PAMMET, (III). PROF. C. II. GORDON (III). PROF. F. W. .MALI.V illl). PROF. A. S. HITCHCOCK (llU. l>arc;)tlie" •'•" <1"' candidate. (r. ) The Council shall have power to nominate Fellows, to elect memhers of the Council, fix tiuu" and jjlace of meetinirs, to select pa[)ers for puhlication in the proceedina'^ and have control of all meetini^s not provided for in izeneral .session. Itniav, hvvote, deloirate any or all of these pt)wers, (wcept the (Pkoc. I. -A. S.. 1887-0.1 5 |Uec. II. (5 I:AVA ACADICMV OF SCIF.NCF.S. election of mcmhcrs of t!ic Cyouiicil to an exocutivc coinniittee, consistino- of the ofKcers and of thico ot'.iei Fellows to he elected by the ('ouneil. Sec. \i. The Academy shall hold an animal nieetino- in I)es ^Moines, connncMicinu' Thursday of the week of the State Fair. Otlier meetiiiu-s may he ealled l)y the Conneilat times and places deemed advisal)le. Sec. VII. All |).i[)ers presented shall he the result of original investigation, hut t'.ie Council may arrani>-e for publie lectures or addresses upon scientific subjects. Sec. Vin. 'Ilie Si'cretary-Treasurer shall each year pub- lish the proceedini>-s of the Academy in pamphlet (octavo) form, ii-ivinii' iuithors' abstracts of papi-rs and, if pul)lished elsewhere, a reference to the ]i)lace and date of publication ; also the full text of such pap^u-s as may be designated by the Council. If published elsewhere tho author shall, if prac- tical)le, publish in octavo form and deposit sejjarates with the Secretary-Treasure!', to be permanently preserved for the use of the Academy. Sec. IX. This constitution may be amended at any amiual meeting- by assent of a majority of the Fellows voting, and a majority of the Council, [)rovided, notice of pro- posed amendment has I)een sent to all Fellows at least one month previous to the meeting, and provided that absent Fello^vs may deposit their votes, sealed, with the Secretary- Treasurer. HISTORICAL NOTE. The Iowa .Vcademy of Science was organized on Tuesday, December 27, l.Si'rs;»ns look \)Ar{ in I Ir' i);-i:-;nil/.;i1 ion proceed in us whidi \\ rvr coutliu-t'.'d in t!if p.ii-lors of l!ic l\ii-I<- wood Monsi- in Do .Moines: Professor .1 . K. To. Id, Professor li. D. 1 1 aisled. Professor F. M. Witter. Professor II. W. I'ark.-r. Professor U. K. (".ill. Professor L. W . Andicws. Professor llerl)ert Oslxn-ii. 'I'he ori^ani/ation was dctei-mined upon as l»'!nL;' t!ic oidy practical metliod l)y wlii'-'i ih" workini:- s-icntisi^ of the State could be brouii'ht into close association. At this first nu'ctinij' tlie usual Ijusin^s-- of oi-i;ani/,alion was sup[)leuient(>d hy tlie i)resentation of a few s:'i{>utitic pa[)ers which are, so far as those readinu' them liaxc responded to the request of the Secretary to fui-nis!i abstracts, presented here- with. The chief business of the session was rathei- luoi-e for purposes of peruiauently estal)lishiuii' the society on a useful basis than for the presentation of discoveries made in the course of oriainal i n vest i,i>-at ion. The Academy wislies to be understood as fosterinii' only orii^inal in vest iijat ions, and only such as are eapal)l(! of woi-k of this sort are kn(;wini;-|y admitted to Fellowshij). PROCEEDINGS OK 'IHK Iowa Academy of Sciences, lricultural College at Ames. The foUowinii- abstracts were prepared l>y the respective authors who are severally to ])e held responsible for the opin- ions expressed : ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. i;v PROi't:ss(tR h. w. parkkk. So far as evolution is concerned, it really matters little at what point intelligence ap[)ears. Intelligence pi-»)i)er includes the reasoning power as its chief and distinguishing characteristic. Facts regarded as proving a degree of this power in animals were reviewed in detail, and shown to be susceptible of a lower interpreta- V.\ K K. I'. K A N 1 \l \ 1 . 1 \ 1 !■ 1 , 1 ,1 ( ; i; N (■ tion ill li.innoiiy with the i:' 'iicrai |tli'i)(nii('n;i <»!' iiiiiiiin! life. Somo ()l)s('i-v;iti()iis l)y t li • >|) MXcr were uiciit ioix-d -is il lust rat - i njjf the ufrcat principal tint iiiidcrlics t'lc (piasi-inicHio-ciicc of hnttcs — in irxclloiis keenness (if s Mis^'s ahtni:" \villi no less wonderliil ipiiekness and relent ixcness of association. This, wilhcMit t!ie inu- inlluence of reason, renders l)ai-\vin"s theory of the Imildiiiii' u[) of instincts a po^siMe and credible solntion. Sp"ucor is riojit in classino- these with retiex acti(M)s and referring', for example, the pnrsnit and cai)ture of prey to the direct action of \ isnal seiisat ion or motor impnlses. No line can Ite di-awn except that we nsnally confine the word reflex to inxolniitaiy acts that immediately concern th" inleerity of the ori;anisni. I^ercep- tion may or may not l»e [)resent in eitlier case. Th? analoo-y hetwM'cn human and hrnte acts, w liich is some- times so strikinir outwardly, is not \alid psycholouicaHv, I. because instinct is nntjuest io.ia l>Iy tlic ruliuL;- fact in animals. Besides there may lie many latent or occasional instincts, or these may he simply modifi 'd I>y t!ie foi'cc of cir- cnmstances in the ontworkini^-. 'J. The exce[)tionality of the (piasi-intellii>t'nt acts lireak in upon t!ie analoiry: and it is mot i)y another analoo-y in the l)urely accitlental character of some of niairs secmino-ly wise deeds. li. The sii|)(>i-|iiinian senses and sense-associations of ani- mals weaken the anaIoi;y. while accoimtinir foi much (piasi- intelliiicnce. 4. ^\'itll such extra(U-dinary senses, the fi'cipient and i;ross !)lnnders of hriito in perception should n(»t occur on the t!uH)ry of reason. ."). Animals low in the seal-, includinir three suh-kiuir- doms, are not claimed to l»i' intelliu-ent : yet their acts, as •riven on liood authority, offer as strikino- instances of seem- iu'j- wisdom as in man\ of the hii^licr (li\ isions. Hi IOWA ACADKMV OF SCIKNCK, (i. The qviasi-reasoniiio' of brutes is conlined to sjn'-ifi;- lines of suhsistenee and defense, jiist where we may s;i])p()se their (>r"aiiisin is ciidowed with all Ih" activities rieeded. J. It docs not ()hser\al»ly [)roi>Tess in the individual for !:[;' ov in the species for ai2-es. Sueh instances as nvw places (>'' ncst-huildinu- and inrreas-d wariness, are not of i>ro,ii-res- ■ . (• Hiind; and this is not sustained by the facts used in f;ivor o'' im[)rovement or instinct by intelliii-ence. 'hest ape is no better than a microce;)]\alous idiot, in its volume. ]>el(nv vertebrates, nothinii- has yci Ix-en proven to be homoloirous with the cerebrum, iu)t e\ (ai \\i ants. The i>est authorities sIujw that the invertebr.it ;■ I)rain. so-called, is .shaped by the s(ais(>s. It is a s^'usovi-motor apparatus. ANIMAL AESTHETICS- nV CKOF. H. U. i'ARKKK. KKcad by TitlcA This is a review of all the material facts bearinir on tiie appreciation of beauty by animals l)elo\v \\\\\\\. 'I'lie cuncbi- sion was that no such appreciation has been proven, a,nd lliar it is excluded by the only theory of beauty that satisfu's ali demands. T.i:)r>-r :-.HR.\c '..^ oi ni. mi .-;mi io )) THE TERRACES OF THE MISSOURI. IIV l'K(»F. j. K. MOOU This ]>M)>or I'lix^smtiMl Ihc ro.-wlts of ol^x'-rNM'ilDn^ mndc h\ the uiit'.un", uudcr tlw diivcf ion «!' 1 In- I'uilcd Stjitcs (itM*- 3() L.'HWcr l>\\ Watci". Ix'low the mdulh o) l!!c Niohrara. aiiJ ris;- o-raduailv iiort!!- Avard to the iii'ijjlit of aluMit loic IhiikJiccJ aiuJ tliii-tv icrT near the month (if C'rinv ('reck. 'Dm' scvoiid a.Jsc* ris- ud-tliwaiij fi-o;ij ahotit srvcntv iVct ai I'lc Mnxjlli of {')- I*Jat1;\ lo t!irco ]ii!iidiT-d iVi'i alunc Hie (ircal HmhJ. 'J'Ik- thirtJ, wliicls cor- r('s[)onds to the upjxT lijuit <»!' t.'ic (Jrift, hch^w t'lc iiuMith of the Xiohran\, at an altihuic of four hundred and t\vt'Rty-6\-e to four hundve. and i(f freijnent clnnii-es while the tv\)niiii was iicinu- dcepcjUHi. All of t'hem. e.-i)eeia}]y 1 he liia'lier uues. av< hivi;c]y comi^osiHl of Cretaeoons roeks. Al>o\-e 'diesc, ir. lixr IJouMery terraees, tJK're is ijcenerally a thick stratum of V(M,ldish till smuetinn's vsli/jhtly haiKled or stratiti;'d. 'l]\\< i> cuven'd with a stratunt of ,i;-ravel an})(«r Ikmhh'ry terrace. The Silt terrac(>s were referred to recent time; t!ie Lower Bouklery. to the occupation of the .'Second Moraine hy ;iii ice- sheet ; t!ie l'|)|)er Iiouhh'ry IciiMce- tea similar <> •cii])ai ion of the Fii>t .Moi-aine. l^ ro^OfA ACADEMY OV SCrESi'CF.S- The tT(fiii;!i of t!i(' \[iss()uri has Ix'cu funned sirrce the fiflveiit of t!i(' Ico Auc I>;ik(' ('hcvcnuc liua-ered till the svatcrs from the i^rcat f •c-sIj 'ct reph'iiislicd it. AI)()V(' Yank- ton t!u' Missonri mwcs its |)i-cs<'nt cunrsc. and poi^sihly it.S" exi&tence^ to the iitHuciuc aud in^t "rf(n-(>nc(^ of the ice-sheet. The disti-jhution of ])re-i;lacial hieustrine (h'posits, and the 'liift and h)'.-ss, the character and iM-iitht of t!ie terraces the I ontinucd coiTasifMi of the hottoiu of the trongh tu the pre<- «'nt time, a U sustain these conclusions. THE ORIGIN OF THE EXTRA-MORAINIC TILL. V.V I'koK. j. K. 'lODl). Tliis [MjK^r ti-eit;'d pai'ticnhirly of th ■ nsoraiisi" tifl of th<" Missouri \ alley. To explain th • orJLiin of tliis till, tii-rc are two theories acceptal)le ; one tliat it is suU-ulaci d, the oth 'r, that it \va?* formed at the bottom of a lil icial lake, i>radiially Hilino- with dehris hrou-iit from a iilacier and lln^ sliore, hy ice-rafts. 'Ihe suh-o-hicial lhcor\- is fi;\oie(l l,y (1) its ch se ies(ni- itlance to till unipiest ionahly suh-iiiacia I. ( "2 ) striae on the underlyinii' rocks, { ;> ) the i)resence of osar-like ricjo-cs. (4) its difference from th<' reddish l)oaldery clay, often found a])o\-e it, which is cei-tainly of suI)-a(pu'ous ori<>-in. and ( ."> ) the thickeninii', and ^renter elevation of this till, near its outer mariiin, as alono- the east side of tlu* Vno- Blue in Nebraska, suir.iZ'Cf^tini'- an imi)erfect moraine. Aii-ainst these points, respec ti\-ely, it was ui-i>-ed : (1) ( 'lose exannnation, not int're(|uently, re\('als traces of strati- ticatiori, )»y differences of coloi', and in the distribution of pebbles and l)o\il(lers. (2) Stri.e are the exception, e\('n on siiinlarly piominent surfaces. The}', in some cases, show on the same surf.ace directions diNcruiuu- (iO de«>rees, and V()l)l)_()KU;iN Ol I X I UA-N!OR.\NK 111.1.. ] .", Mitli (M|ii;il tV<'.>!ii!('ss. 'I'licir (lircclioii sonid iiiics docs not harmonize \vit!i llicir i;l;ici:il oriiiin. CA) TIic osnr-likc ri(lir<'.^ arc soiiu't iiitc-^ touiul on tlii- iiiit'T slope of tlic ontcr moraine, and .^o related to channels across it as to indicutc tlieii' contemiiorancoiis or siihseipient {"orniat ion, and tiierefore cannot furnish e\iden<'e for an icc-slieet, uhicj) must liave loiio- antedated the moraine. (4) Not withstand in.a" the dirt'erences hctwcen t!ie till and red clay, the I'lirnn'r has heen I'onnd to sometinu's to i)as> oradiiidly into tlic latter, and tiiick strata <>f the latter often present the same features and structure as the former. Therefore the rehition of these formations to each other seems t.) favor suI)-a of unde'.lyinij- forma- tions 4or))ids the idea that the rei>ion has been occi.pied by an ice-sheet. ;5. The .-.liiiht proportion ol loc;d material, in the cxtr:i- morainic drift, indicates the snine. 4. The evident former hori/ontality of the wolerii mar- 2-in of the drift, and the abseiu-e of drift :it a !iii.'her elevation anywhere outside of the principal moraine. ."). The difficulty of coneeivin.<>- an exten.^ion of an ice- shoet over the extra-morainie till,, without violatini;- well reeoo-nized conditions of irhieial motion. (). The fillina- of Lakes Airassiz, Minnesota and I)akot;i, with till to a considerable extent, arijues stroni;ly by analo<:y that Lake Missouri may have been similarly tilled. 7. The correspoiulenee of th<> upper limit of the drift in Nebraska to tin' upper bouldery tei'race of the Missom-i ;ibo\-e 14 iOWA ACADKMV OF SC Il.NCKS. the moutli of the Niobrara, indicates th:il the drift ui'iit ioiic I H'as deposited under water. al features aiul applications of the principle. Directive (M:)loration is tliat which is in any way useful to a species by assisting in nuitual recognition between individ- uals, or by indicating one to another their attitude and i)r()b- able movements. To this head are referr(!d : 1. Marks and tints promoting recognition at a dis- tance, to guide in straggling flights, or to bring stragglers together, [A]. 2. Those indicating the attitude of body, and its prob- able movement. [P>] in darkness; [('] in close movements of •roDD- IUKI I M\ ! I Ol 1 KA lloN IX \M.'AI,S. l;irii-(' mimluTs, in lii^ht as well as in darkness: [D] in s-xnal intcrcoursjc ; [Kj in t he care of \ onni;'. A. [a] By oHMicral coioi- contrasted with t!ie en\ ironnient ; orows, Itlue birds, etc. {/)] \\y strikinii- e(»lors. which may he hidden whcMi at rest, hut automatically s!iown eithei' durini;- llii!!it. a1 the monuMit of stoppiuii', or dmin.; a calling; cry, \ iz : * About the tail, most mammals and birds wliich are protectively colored. ** About lateral appeiidau-es : earsiii mammals, winiis, in birds. R. {(/] \]y strikiui;- marks al>out the head and neck: rac- coon, badi^-er, etc., finches, etc., etc. [AJ ^)^■^arious spots and lines, on shoidders and sides: skunks, ef. [cj By paleness of Itelly and innt'r sides of le;^s. C [a] Not only l)y marks ah'eady mentioned, but esi)ecially by vivid and extensive markina's on sjioulders, sides or flanks; zebra, etc. [//} l\y si)ecial marks on leet and lei»-s. I), [rt] By many of the lateral and caudal markiniis already mentioned. [h] \\y difiVrent coloi-s accordinu" to sex: niiiht-hawks. etc., et< ." [c] By difi'erenee in extent or shape of markiniis accord- ino- to sex ; antelope, etc. E. By various spots or lines ui)i)earini;- only in the younii' SOME FERNS OF THE OZARK REGION OF MISSOURI. I!V I'ROI'KSSOR K Kl.l.SWOR TH I' A I.I.. This paper lists with (crtain remarks on habitat and ir^o- graphical distiibution, the s[)ecies of Filirrft incidentally eol- Icetcd durini;- a two months exploration of Shannon, Reynolds and Texas counties, .Missom-i. The sjx'cies eollected and represented by s[)ecimens exhibited with tlie |)aper are the followinii': Pforis (Uiiu'liim Linn, abundant; Pjn'ijoplci-is ] ( J K , \v.\ A CA D K M 's- ( ) 1 ■ S":: r ;■•. vcks. hexaf/onojjferc Fee, rare: Asjii'ltimi achrnsfico/ifes >\\"a.. among- the .speoiniens ('\!iil)!t('d are many witli liil'ureated raehis or bifurcated i)inn;v or pinnules ; (Uniq)f')S()ni.'< vliizo- plu/Jhfs Link, nhmulaiit on linjcstono dirt's; Aspjfnimii ti-U-]io- maiK'S Linn.: eonnnon A.-^ploiinm ('haifinn /Viton, .somewhat rare ; Aftplfniitnu ruta iniirariu Linn .. ran- : A.^jiJf^ii/Kiu hrwJleyi Eaton, occurred but once and then in s(>me ahnndance on lime-stone rocks in Texas county; A.spleHi'uin parvulnm rare; Pdlcm atropurpinra Link, abundant; Poli/podimtt vulgare Linn., not very abundant: Pohjpodium invamnii Snvz., very a])undant in numerous hx-alitics : Onoclea scnslhiUs Linn., occurred but once in Shannon county, in a mars!i-iike area hii>-h uj) in tlu' mountains; CJie/lnufltrs lani/f/iifosa Nutt.. very abundant on limestone dirt's in dry situations and very larg'e, occasi(mally ; in some localities the rocks wcnM'utirdy carpeted with this form; Adianturn pedoium Linn., occurred only in wvy damp situations and then was not eonnnon: Adiantu..! rapiUKs-venci'is; Linn., occurred only once to us and then on limestone dirt's overhang-ino- the Currant river, close to the water; Woodsia ohtusa Torrey, aljundant at one locality in Dent county, close to Shannon county; Botrychiinii virgianum Svi-z., rare; Osmnnda regaJix Linn., occurred once in a marshy area hig'h up in the mountains: Cy.sfopteris fra- gi'h's Bernh., abundant; Cystopferis hidhifcra Lernh., abun- dant. The collection ineludes in all fourteen g-enera and twenty-one si)edes. It is r/resented not as an illustratu.n of the full fern flora, l)ut as a centribution to ;i i)etter knowl- edge of a little known area. NOTES ON THE GROSS ANATOMY OF CAMPELOMA. ■ROF. K. F.I.LSWOK in CAl.t (A/'S-lra,t.) This paper gave the results of certain studies made on abundant s[)ecimens of CdniiiehniKi xtdtstd/diiui. completing CAI.l,-->il-.AV TOSSll. I.lMN.im IROM I'OS I -I'l.l.K )tl.NK OV ( A 1,1 1( )RM A. Ij <<'('rl:iiiJ d('t:ii!> in t!ic ;m:itiis were made t<» (IctcM'iiiiiic wh'thci' \\)v\{- wci-c ;niv fact- in llir- ■I'xtcnial auatoHJV that roiiJiJ Uv iilili/cd in tiic (Jctc^nniualion «()f .sex. Tiii-^ (jijfstion was answcrcti in t!ic afHi-niativc 'I'ho ;i»T()ss auatoiiiv (if I'lc r('|(r(t!!!i''li\ c origans was then discussed m\d iliiislratioiis of tk;- \arious parts wen- exiiihited. \otes •<)U feeiiiidity wcic also sulunittcnl. Tlic entire paper was pul)lished in tke Aiinu-jcdi) Xalural^sf. \.<)].XXI.l. pj). 4i)l- f!)7, in dijjH". JSSS. ON A NEW FOSSIL LIMN^ID FROM THE POST-PLEIOCENE OF CALIFORNIA. )V\ VROV. \<. F.lJ,SWORI>J <\l,l.. This pa[)er descrilted as new to science, a fossil sliell for.nd 111 the post-i))cioc(Mie deposits of the Tassajara Hills, and now deposited in the coDectious of the University (tf California. It l)elonirs t<» t'.iat suh-iiroup of linunvifl mollnsks whieli is typ- ified hy the \ielded almost no water inollusk>. 18 IOWA ACADFMV OF SCI F..VCF.S•.. FoUl■ cx.-unplf's of Uiiio sfliooJcraffii Le;i,()iH' U. 1wvi.ssi)nus Lea, tuid one Helix chnisa Say. Of the Ferii.s the folh)wina" were observed: (hmfinda t-Joyfomana., Botryrhinni rir- ginicuiiij A.dicnit>fni pedafKHi, (U/fifopferis frazil is, A.^ple- nium felix-funniini and ())ntcha sen,sihilifi. In Kansas, at Topoka, an ainindance of Physn and Plon- orhis were seen alon<>- the river in a })ond. At Emporia in the Neosha, in an hour, the folh)wini>- were taken ; o2 Unio i(iululaf((f< Barnes, 21 U. gibhosus Barnes, 7 of which had wliite naere, 11 U. nihigiiiosH,s Lea, o U. schoolcraftii Lea, 4 each of occi(le)i.s Lea, anodontoides Lea. laclirymosus Lea, and coccineus Hild., ^5 parpurains Lam., 2 each of subrosfatus Say, tubercidatuft Barnes and JigarDeidimis Lam., 12 Marg. complanafa Barnes. 1 rugosa, Barnes, and 1 Ano. bealei^ Lea, in all, 108 specimens. In Allen Creek, near by, were found Unio camptodon Say, suhrostratns Say, l'ni(t parvus Barnes, undulatus Barnes, JSJarg. couqylanafu Uar.. Ano. beaJei Lea, Planorbis trivolvis Say, bicarinafK.s Say. Physa anatina Lea, Ancylus tardus Say, Sph. staiitintum. Con, transversum Say, Succinea ovalis Gould, and the curious little mimic insect Helicopsyche areniferu. Unio camptodon (12 specimens) were found to be alive after remaining out of water, in a very dry place, from July 22d till August 29th, 1886. They were kept alive at Muscatine in a tub of water till about the 1st of Januarv, 18.S7. PROCEEDINGS OK IHK Iowa Aca(ltMii\' of Sciences, KOK 1 H S S . 'I'hc ;mmi,-il s.'ssioii lor l.SSS convciu'd in llic ll:ill of the "^'oiiiiU- M<'ir>^ Cliiistian Association, Dcs Moines, Iowa, on Scplonihcr .")t!i. witli a I'nll attendance of the i-ecoo-nized nionibershii* present. Aftei- the foi'inal indnction into the ofHee of presick'nt of the president-elect, l*rof. Herbert Osborn, of tlie Iowa A\vinu- annual address: LOCAL PROBLEMS IM SCIENCE. H^ I'KI SIKKN I HKRP.I-Rr OSHORX. It may he said, withtrnth, that science knows no boundaries of i^-eoii^rapliy, [)olities, sect or race. Tliat if thei-e is to lier credit, any characteristic of pornianence, it is tjiat of univer- sality. P»ut atiniittin^tlii^^f'osmopoiitaii, universal characteris- tic, we may airr- your ;itt(Miti(>n t(» :i i)riof oiitliiic (vf ccrtuiii sciciitifi;- prolylems -wlicv^' solution h;i< sixM'iai rcLit ion to t!i(> State ol low:i. My paper itatm-ally assiuucs the ioi-ni of a I>ri('f review of the scieiititic work in the State, t!i(- |-n'oi;ress that has I)e('n made in certain lines and. the hasty mention of such as- force themselves (vn yonr attention for the future. The pro.secution (rf scieatitic in\estii>-ation in the State has not, a.s a iiile, 1>eeo as.sif^ted by orii-anized societies or institii- tions to the extent seen in sister States, l)iit sii-h as hav(> existed shonld, perhaps, receive tirst mention. The tirst of such ore-anizations to (x[>ed{tion to the Northwest T(n'rit(>ry in lsiU-2!)', colleeted and subs;-- quently described many forms (>f life (Kcnrring- in th:^ State. His descriptions are to be found in the repoi'ts of the ex})edi- tion and in the jiublicati(>ns of the Philad(^lj)hia AcadcMny. The geological survey of AVisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota In 1848-;')2 appears to have been the first carelnl investiga- tion into the geologi<'al formations of the State, followc^L shortly after, in lS.'),')-i), ]>y the tirst ."^tate g-eological sur\('y under Professor James Hall. The second State g-eologica! ^»ur\ cy a\ as (rrgani/ed in the s'pring'of I)S()(i and placed in charg'c of Dr. ( *. A. White. This i^urvey was continued till iSiiU and reports printed in 1S70. The l)aven])ort Acaflemy of Xatnral Sciences was org-anized. in 18(!7 and has since 1S7<) published ])r()eeedings which con- tain many Naluable papers upon the geology, natural history, etc, of tlie State of Iowa, more (-specially the [)ortion adjacent to Davenport. The loAva Academy of Sciences, the only State Soriety, pre- vious to onr own, devoted strictly to the sciences and embrac- ing especially the scientific prol)lems of the State. )\as ori;an_ Osr.ORN— ANM' Al. ADDKI.SS. 2l izi'd in l''^?."), ;iihI .-il'tcr li;i\iii;i- Ik-cii the imc;iii> of cncoiirMi:-- iiiii' iiivostiiiatiou in many portions of the Stato unfortunately died in 1SS4. Its brief published record of ])roeeediniis eon- tains titles and altstracts of many valuable pajxTs. many of M'liich were jjublished in full in \:irious seientiti;- journals. Other seieutltic ()rirani/ation> have existed here and there <)\-er the Slate, but none publish re;jiilar pre »ceed in lis and it is , has since 1^^7^t received finan- cial assistance from the State and the pulilished re])orts of the service contain records of ol>servation at many stations throULdiout the State. These have been the princii)al channels of public:ition for essentially local scientific contributions and almost the only ones not dependent upon individual enterprise. Students of anthropology have found in Iowa some extremely interesting fields for stud}', and the work in this branch which has centered mainly in the Davenport Academy 22 fOWA ACADEMY- OK SCfF,NCF;S. has resulted in l>riiii>iiii;- to liuht many valiuihle faets. Soni^ of the discoveries there made haA'e been of so o-reat iniijort- ance in aft'ecting' the views of leadini>- anthropologists as to have been the source of se\'ere contention. There still exists an opportunity in the Indian tribes on the reservation in Tama County to study some of the details of Indian life, but I am not aware that the opportunity has been improved by any Iowa anthropolog-ist. Possibly tliese Indians have mingled too nmch with civilization around them t() furnish much of value concerning their former mode of life, and it may be that the tribes are already too well known to need further study. The great advance made of late years in all studies per- taining to the past inhabitants of this continent render the further investigaticm of prehistoric remains in this State not only more interesting and signiticant, l)ut must render the prosecution of such work and the interpri'tation of results more easy, certain and reliable. The desire to know all we can of the past inhabitants of the soil Ave occupy has in it more than idle curiosity. The fact that nations were born, develoi)ed to their fullest powers, grew old and died, and were replaced by others to follow the same cycle on this the soil where we have estab- lished in their place a higher civilization, sh(mld lead us to look well to all weak points in our social and political structure. The history of the Aborigines of America may have its place in our educ:ition as well as the histories of the dynasties oi the Old W(n-l(l. In the line of zoology, while 1 !iere has never l)een otHcial sii|)- port or workers numerous, such |)rogrcss has been made as may furnish ready foundation for tlie work of coming students. As elsewhere, and from the uatin-e ol the case, more is kn»)wn of the local fdidta in our State anu)ng the vei'te- brates than in the lower groups ol animals. The niaminals I JSP.O UN — A N N r A I , A I )1)R K in r-!i llic s.iiii ■ :(>- t!i()s,' ol tlic iidjoiiiiiii^- Stiltes, l)ilt oc- i.iiiir tli" ixiidcr l.iiul Ix'twc'cu tlie Viillcy :iiul the plain I (list riliiii ion prcsi-nts niiiny intorestinii- (incstions. The !S ) "-i 's MOW cxtiiirt or doomed to cxtinctioii l)\ tlic in\:idini»- ■j)]' •■^(Mi<'(' (»|" man !ia\(' need of an liist(»rian, aniJ his woi-|< can not I)" hcLjain too soon. rii ' Itrst attention ^-ivcn to tlic liirds of the State was ii'-'oUdily ahout t!ie year JSi'd, by 'I'homas Say, th(>iii:-h to M'.iat extent his collections were made stricth' within onr bordei-s it is dilHcnit to determine. Donljtless the tamons Audubon in his many travels throu«h the Mississippi Valley ton "lied more than (»n<'e upon our soil, and collected hei'c soni" of th(* material for his famous drawinifs and descrip- tions. I do not recall, however, his statement of any local- ities now rec()<»-iiizablo as within the State. In l(Sl)le addition in a note in the American Natural- ist,'' entitled, "Iowa liirds"; and in the re|)ort of the State ueoloirical survey under Dr. V\'hite. Prof. Allen presents a much more (•oin})lete catalonne. Pecently, Dr. II. S. Wil- liams and Mr. C. R. Iveyes have eonjointly made an ex- haustive study of the State Invd fauna, and it is probable that but few species remain to be added to their eataloiiue. i'lol. F. K. L. I'.eal. Charles Aldrich. Prof. II. W. Par- ker, Mr. F. M. Tripp and others jiavc <'oiitributcd to onr knowiedo-e of local l»ird fa/u/'c within the State. l)reediiii:' hal)its, mi;irat ion, etc. While little may l»e left to do u|)oii the a rfii k fniiiiu of the State at lari;-e, much may be done concerniiiii- local distribu- tion as to valhy, hill, forest or prairie, breedinii- iri'ounds and time of a})pearaiicc and disappearance of niii:atorv spe- I — Mem. Host. Soc. N.tt. H^st. Vol. 1. ,.. W . ?— American Nati.r.ilist, Vol. V.. p. iftS. 24 rou'A acaukmv of strKNCF.s.. cics. EsixM-ially is there the (jiue'stioiii .so ah.sorhiiiii- both econoiiiieally and scientifically, as to their food, hahits and the precise relation of each species to other l)ranches of the organic Avorkl, all of \vhireatcr significance and value. 1 am not awai-e of any record of the re[)tiles, I)atrachians or fishes, which pretends to represent the faiota of the State in these classes, and in the latter chisses especially there is opportimity for rich returnino- to the investigator. A be- ginning has ])een made by Profs. ^Jordan and Meek who, a few years since, collected in some of the streams of Southern Iowa and published a list of species collected in Iowa, in the Proceedings of the Nati(mal Museum. The ec(m()mic aspei-ts of the fishes are ])robably not fully ai)preciated by the people of the State, but are recognized to the extent of an official fish commissioner. A l)etter knowledge of the breeding habits and food supply and enemies of the food fishes connnon to our streams and lakes would doubtless be of great advant- age in assisting their multiplication, andalcnigside of atteni[)ts to introduce food fishes from abroad (and it seems to me more important than them) there shonld be an intelligent efl'ort to further theproduction of the best species native to the State. Of the inverteln-ates, no grouix-an eSi;()KN-\NNr \l. AIiDKl'.SS. 2') MikIi i»r t!ic work doiic li:is \ci-\ iialiirallv Ix'cn upon llic. life liistoi-ics of species, and Ireipientiv wilh l-eferenee to tlio vast economic relations tliey assmne. While there is niiicli oi Coniplexit y in tlieir study . and the l)eainuei' soon Itecomes appalled at the mult i plicity of forms observed in his own locality, tiiere is much to whet his iutei'csl and repay his cfl'orts in study. (\)llection> are easily tmule, ami with a little attention to impoitant details for their preservation miii'ht form us-ful and |>enn inent adjimcts to education in every school district. Xo fauual list in this oicMip appi-oximatinii- completeness has ])een puhlished, and tor the present is out of the (piestion. Prof. ('. K. I'x'ssey puhlished a preliminary list of tlie Ovthoptcra of Iowa in 1S77.' Mr. .1. Duncan Putnam pub- lished lists of the lA'pidoplera and CoJeoptera for Duvenport, and also lists of Coleojifcra collected atMonticello and Fred- erick/ Miss Alice ^^'alton has i>iven a lists of Lepidoptera for Muscatine^ including mostly ^lacro-h'pi'hijtUn'a.^ The writer has presented lists of Illiopnloccra SphiiK/vhc wwd Qilon- (ifd for the central i)art of the State to the Iowa Academy of Sciences, and at the last meetinif of this association a l)reliminury list of the II-i-eat(!st numl>er of probhnns open for further study. In the Crustacea we have a wealth of material which no lowan has as yet seen tit to mine. Whik' doubtless owv fauna ao-rees closely with that of Illinois or Minnesota, where this o-roup has been studied more thorcmn-hly, it would be both interestin<>' and useful for some student to oive the g-roup his attention so far as to determine to what extent they are identical. The moJIufdift of the State are receivina" the attention of our worthy secretary, Prof. R. E. Call, and have been studied also by Profs. Pratt, Witter, Pilsbry, Shimek and others. We have as yet no complete faunal list, though the list by Prof. Pratt^ and Prof. Call^ oiven for certain localities cover |)retty well the fauna of the State in the g-roups treated . The economic relations they b;'ar to a(iuatic life and to higher animals as the inteiinediate hosts for mimci'ous para- sites renders t'.iem im|)ort int objects to study. Of worms we kno\\ comijaralixcly little. A few para- sitic species and th" universal earth worm (which means several genera and s[)ecies) have been studied, but unich i-c- mains to be done. Darwin (in his admirable memoir on the Earth-worm) has shown us [)lainly the great importance of this apparently insigniticant animal, and other forms await 6— Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vd. 1.. p. i6^->7. 7— Bull. Des Moines Sci., Vol. 1., No. i. p. -67. Osr.()RN-ANNl-.\l, ADDUKSS. 27 future Dill-wins 1<» show their rchitioiis to the ('coiioinx of iiatiirc. Our strciMiis. |)<>n(ls, ditches and swamps, like those of other States, swarui with tlie minute forms of life whose size renders them iiiuiotieed. hut \v!u>se existence is as full of iu- <-ident as tiiat of liiulnu' forms. I ly Prof. C. C. Nutting,'' of Iowa City, no attemi)t at a systematic study of them has l)een made. The flora of Iowa is to be congratulated on the fact that it has received the attention of some of the most eminent l)ot- anists of the day. Parry, Bessey, Arthur, Ilalsted, Ilolway, McBride and many others have contributed to a knowledge of our native plants. The first contribution which has come to my notice is an elaborate list of species by Dr. C C. Parry, published in the IJeport of the (Geological Survey of the Northwest. The list enumerates above eiifht hundred species, a large part of which are credited to Iowa. Messrs. Ilaupt and Naucl have listed the tlowei-iug plants of I)aven[)ort."' 8— Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1S87, p. 157-279. g — Amer. Nat. Vol. XXII., p. i^. 10 — Proc. Pav. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. 1., p. 153-164. "JS It ) WA AC A I) K M y ni- sf 1 1-. X c ;■ s. Of the liiii'licr loriiif^ -especially tlic HowcriiiL;- [)laiits — the cutaloi^iK'S by Prof. J. C Arthur in the [jrocoodiuofs of the Davenport Academy may he taken as fairly complete for the State, hut in the lower ur()U[)s — to judife hy the nuinher of recent additions — the list is hut heoini, n!iile their relations to ai>ricultui-e call for careful study. Kven for t!ie hetter known })art of the flora there is work for local collectors in determinino- the richness of their localities, in tixina' the houndaries of species, or recordini;- the proiri'ess of invadinu' forms. Amono" the lower forms, whose presence is of so nnu h iu)- portance as sources of disease to both animals and jjlants, we have onr full quota, and, while many of these are of equal importance elsewhere, there is eveiy reason to push their investie we sliouid hud investigations in progress on all hands. It is to be hoped that the State of lowu shall producer its full share of investigators and reap as rich rewards as other States in the harvest of discoveries that have hut begun. In this branch of study we have the con- tributions by Prof. i\ E. Bessey, also nunu'rous papers by Dr. J. C. Arthur, Dr. B. D. Halsted. Prof. T. 11. McBride, Dr. C. M. Hobby and others. I have already mentioned briefly the existcMice of the various geological surveys of the State. The first organ- ized under the general government as the Northwest sur- vey, and embracing \\'iseonsin, Iowa and Minnesota. So far as Iowa was concerned it must be considered as but a par- tial reconnaissance, and scarcely more than touched upon the geological problems in the State which are of most vital in- terest to her people and the science. It went far enough, however, to locate in general the different geological areas OSBORN -ANNlAl, ADKRl SS. 21* of the St:it('. limited to some extent the (-(tal :ire:i mikI de- serihefl ill a iiM(hintly utilized. Its reiK)rts contain al-«« valiialde papers upcui the paloon- tohiLiy and Itotany of the ."^tate. aiuJ many cliemJcal analyses of rocks, soils, fossil hones, etv. 'J'he first State survey, orijanized when only a nairow !)<)rder of the eastern portion had hei-n settled, naturally di- recteht tt» a siulden clost\ and in a way that has ever since left discredit upon the Iciiisla- ture that permitted it. The director wa.s left without funds lor the ])rosecution of his work when hut partially finished, a portion of his salary un[»aid. and the State even refused to reimburse him for money he had advanced to pay his assist- ants and prepare i)lates for his reports. The second surx'ev, undei- State su[)i)ort, (Mideuvorcd to operate more particularly in the portions of the State not pre\ iously examined, hut in order to nfive a correct outline of the i^eolouy of the State as a wdi(»le and fill sfaps in the previous sur\ev, had necessarily to re-examine much <»f the iiround alrea hrouiiht to a sudden termination; n(»l, however, with .so mncli of discredit in the manner of its termination. In \iew' of the circumstance of its preparation we must consider this )-ep<»ii u])on this sin*\ey as a most \alual»le cod- HO' rOWA ACADEMY OF SCTENCES. tributioii to the ircolo^rv of the State. The fornuitioii.s wen- mapped with approximate accuracy, and in the location of the coal areas atone there has doubtless lx3en a savins- of vast sums of money to the State in prevention of ust^less pros- pectino' for coal in |)ortions of the State where coal could not possibly occur. Prof. \V. J. ^NlcGee icives in the Tenth Census lie port an excellent review of the quan-ics and (fuarry products of the State. Of individual workers in «feoloi>y we have had many of wlnmi we may feel proud, and the contributions to this sub- ject hy Profs. Todd, Calvin, McGee, (':dl, Harris, Wach- smith and others* have added nmch to oui- kiiovrledoe. Of especial interest and in^portance have been the studies of recent deposits, drift, hjess, etc., by Profs. McGee, Call and Todd, which, .owini>- to the paramount importance of agriculture in our State, are of direct interest to the ])eople of every portion of the State. But how much remains to be studied in this direction? The recent discoveries and great advances in utilization of oil and gas render of absorbing interest all the geological formations where these may possibly occur, • Their careful examination would be of great service to the people of the State, and might be the means of saving thousands of dollars by preventing useless prospecting. The coal formations merit further investigation, and peat bogs, quarries, gypsum and other mineral deposits, with a host of minor sul)jects, in one [)art of the State or another, await scientific examination. The location of areas >vhere artesian wells are liable to be secured would also be of great service, and even an approximate outline of such areas, pos- sible from a knowledge of the chnracter and slope of the geological strata in given localities might savi^ large sums * Since the above was penned we have been please'1 lo note the appearance of several papers on Iowa geology, from Mr. Clement L. Webster and Mr. C. R. Keyes. in The .-Xnieri- oan Geologist and American Natnralist. •OSP.OU^— .\N"NUA"L ADDRF.SS. 32 cxpondcd 111 l)i>i-ii(L;- lor micsi.-ui ^ncJIs in ]));iccs wlicrf such M'oUs oiinijot Ix' cxpcch-rJ. Our Stale, with (tllicrs in ils latitude, lias nudcruonc the antercstinu- ijliciiouiciu)!! ol' !i-^'K'itili()ii, aiKl cvcu'V .sludoiil of ii-ooloii-y must have hccomc absoi-lxx:! in the problcins pi-c- s(Mit;'d, i!i(' exac:! oiilliiic of the moraines, the deptli ol llie drift, the nature and oriuin of \\\c detritus, th(^ coui'se of ohi- eial aiul pre-irlaeial streams, and a host of other (jueslious Av'.iich re[)eat themselves in every uoi£i-hI)Oi-Iiood of the State, ■ofl'er ahundaut opportunity for the local student of i^eoloiiv, tuid every contrihution to the suhjeet, no matter how local It may appear, helj)s to s\v(dl our kiiowledo-e of tlie liiound on which wo live. Erratic houlders ijrect u.s on every liand, like s))irinxos, oach burdened witli unanswered (]ucstioiis. Whence came they? How did they come, where and how were they formed? What their c'jmposition, their structure, their his- tory? Surely, these (piestions cannot be answered alike for all we sec. \\'hile some we ma\' consider as for the i)resent, ut least, a[)parently settled, what we know must certainly l)e far less than that which is unknown. In elucidation of thes<« the chemist, the physicist, and the ijeolooist have all a ])art Avith test tube, crucible, microscope and a host of other ap- pliances. Closely int(>rmiii_i;led Avith the geolosfical problems of the State are certain lines of investiiration in ]iliysics and chem- istry. 'i"h(> physical conditions connected with the formation of our soils and various ireolooical dejiosits, while many of them universal in theii- nature, have all a local interest and many nuiy be studied to excellent advantai>e at various parts in the State. The causes and conditions incident to irhiciatioii, the phenomena of erosion and sedimentation which have so much to do wit'.i the pres(>nt condition of our sui-face soils haxc all a pliysica! explanation to be applied in individual loi'alit i<'s. $2 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIEISrCES. Here, too, we may consider those physical conditioiTS of t lie? atmosphere whose chaiiofcs liave vso iniicii of vital couccni for the orgaiiisnys which exist ujx)n the eurtli's s-urface. 'Ihe s«h|ect of nieleoroloi^y has received a coiisider;i1)le amount of attention in the State. It wiH I>e, of course, im- possible to nu'ution all the parties who have contributed to this subject, either as individual observers or as reporters for some of the ori>-anized weather services. Records by Prof. Parvin were l)eofun at Mnscatine in lanization, sonuM)f which have l)een volunteer and others supi)orted by the service. The records have, for the most part, only appeared in the reports of the service, but for the station at Ames and conducted by Profs. Macomber and Hainer summaries of the more imi)ortant ob- servations have been pul)lished in the Colleoe Biennial re- ports. The State Weather Service already mentioned, oriranized and directed by Dr. Gustavus Hinrichs, receives reports from some fifty volunteer observers scattered over the State, and the published records contain extensive tabulations of their reports. Inasnmch as this service receives direct suppcjrt from the State and the expense of publication is borne by the State, people naturally look for some return in the way of assistance in meeting the idiosyncracies of the "weather". It is perhaps too much to expect that people in general will appreciate a nun-e record of the weather which is past. no matter what its scientific value or interest may be, nor will many appreciate the claim that long series of observations are still necessary as a basis for useful forecasts. The farmer gathering his crops, the merchant with perishable articles on hand, the man in any calling Avhose work or whose pursuit OSBORN-ANNUAl, ADURKSS. 33 of pIcMsurc is ;iir(' f:ir jMorii iiitcrcslcd iu wlint I lie roiidit ions w ill he in t!ic twenty- four to forty-ciiihl hours nhcnd of liiiu tli.-in lie cin lie in th(^ woMthor of six nioutiis or a year in the past. Tlic o('casi(tiial wail w!iie the casc^ if tfie service did not in the majority of cases piovc useful l)y liivinii: accu- rate [)rcdictions. 1 helieve tliat )»ot}i science and t!i<' i.ul)lic welfare would he henetitted if there could he a |)ro[)er connection hetwcou tlic State and (iovernmcnt services. Tlie Sioual Service spends annually larire sums of uioney in suj^ijortini;' ohservers aud distril)utini;- |)redictions hy telegraph in our State. In so far as tiie State Service du[)lieates such work, there is loss of ef- fort aud uioney. The ohsc^'vatious taken at different hours aud uudcr ditVerent instructions, are not readily compared for lack of uniformity. I would not he understood as depreciatina' the work of our Stat(^ Service or favoriuir any reduction of its resources hut as suiriicstiuii" merely the effort to so comhine the work now <"irricd on in entirely independent ways as to secure records capahle of c^xact coin|)arison, aud distril)ute the greatest amount of valuahle information to the })eople of the State. In all of the various o-eoloiiical surveys a i)roniinent place was iiiven to cliemical determinations of the ditl'ercut rocks heloniiiui:" to various formations, and in a «i-eneral way we have iiiforination upon this suhject for the most important strata. The survey hy Owens seems to lunc confiiu^d its work in this line to the Lake Sui)crior i-ei;i()U. In the survey uu(h'r Prof. Hall much attention to the>ul)je-el\' throuo'h the efforts- of the State Board of Healtli. Messrs. Pope, lii)l)l)ins,. Shearer, l>ennett, Andrews, II -n-ick and others have done much in this line, and v/hile in many cases these analyses hive not been puhlislied in any fvn-m acce,s-;il>h> to the scien- titic world, I believe that a careful collection and comparative statement of all that could be hrouoht tosrether would fur- nish an exceedino-ly valuable and interestinu' document. Aside from the economic question of water su[)ply for cities and towns, and omitting- the question of mcn-e organic contam- ination, such analyses must furnish a hint, at least, as to the mineral constituents of the soils from which the water is col- lected, and especially in the case of mineral springs or arte- sian wells some information as to the character of the deeper geological deposits, of their respective areas. Chemical analyses upon rocks, coals, fossils, etc., throw light upon the conditicnis of their formation and though re- peated for every locality in the State where a certain geologi- cal formation occurs each one Avould have its especial value in comparison with the others as determining- difference in con- dition during formation at such various localities. Moreover the immense changes in chemical composition between contigu- ous strata of dift'erent formations and even in ditl'erent strata of the same geolog-ical age indicate some striking change of physical conditions in the waters from which such rocks were precipitated, changes which we may neAer be able to discover but which must apparently l>e approached from the chemical .standpoint and for Avhich very complete series of determina- tions for related rocks must be essential. ■jF.rou'N- \N>;rAi. addrkss. Tho clKMiiislry ol" |)1;iiits iiiul .•iiiimals is a siibjc'l as \cl Iml. sliillitly worked, and one of iirowinu ini])ortaii(c. Wliilc it f'ajiiiol l»o considered as ]o'-a] in ils i)atiir<\ tli(> (jnostion as to }io\v much of variation in composition is possible, and to wiiat ■extent suc!i \ariation is iitflueneed I)y climatic and other p!i\'s- ieal conditions, is one which can only he (h-teiniined h\- hical investiu'ations. Not oidy tiie ori>-;niisnis tlieniselves 1)ut tJie product of oro-anie activity and oi-o-anic deeay and dissolution :ire rich with unsolved problems. The prin.cipal means at ])i-esent existini;- for tlie iilnsti-ation of the fauna, llora, ircoloii-y and mineraloiiv of the State are <'onnected with educational institutions. 'I'hv Stale Tniver- sity. Aiiricultural (V)lle,u-e, loua ("olleo-e at ( irijiiiell. Coi-nell ("oiieo-e at Mt. \'ernon, and po.-sibl_\- some others posse.-s col- lections of some extent. In all of tliese, however, and neces- sai-ily from the (educational stnudpoiiit, it Mill he found that much space is i>iven to foreign animals, and tliat our local fauna is mea^-erly represented. In none of them is tliei-e anv- thini;- like a comprehensive exhibit of t!ie State fauna. The State Tniversity is rich in mammals fioni the Hornadav col- lection, aiid will doubtless !i;;ve a u'ood i-ej)reen that in no place in the State is their a eolh^e- ti(m esi)ecially devoted to exhibitiuL;- the resources of the State. For the i)urpos(^ of bi'ini;ini;- su'-h material t'>o-,.ther and m:dtor\- of the 3(j IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. State. Until provided with such State cabinet or hihoratory of natural history, Iowa will he hehind her sister States in means for presentini>' to her citizens in concrete form a knowl- edge of her wealth in animal and vegetable life, in fossils, rocks, minerals, ores and soils, with all the other stores of geologic wealth, a knowledge of which has just begun. Such a cabinet and laboratory should have for its scope the illustration by properly mounted specnnens of all the mam- mals that are resident in the State, or that have been known to occupy its territory in past time. The luson, the cayote, the deer, bear and panther thus brought out in the midst of our civilization would furnish us strikiiiL'" pictures of the rapid progress our State has seen, and these with the relics of their human contemporary, who occupied but did not pos- sess, who inhabited but did not develop, who existed but did not live, whose history is but one of gluttony or starvation, warfare or animal enjoyment, all these so grouped as to teach their lesson of possibilities in human progress and attainment mihlems herc^ mentioned are of such strictly local iutercst that w-e cannot expect scientific nu'u or socie- ties from Avithout the State to ensfag-o upon them. l>eini>- <'onn(^cted with the sources of wealth in the State, of \ ital economic interest to the State at larsfe, it would seem tliat no nriifumcnt would bo necessary to show' the propriety of the .Statc'y assistino- iu their study. From the very nature of the <';ise their full solution is impossible, and cannot be expected from private cnter[>rise or excn frmu conununity, town or county effort. The sources of wealth they affect are vital to the people of every section of the State, and as all would be l)enetitted all should bear jiart in support. A geological survey of the State, for instance, can never be hoped for fnmi private enterprise, though many scientitic men have by their individutd and unpaid efforts brought to light many facts of value to the State at large. Such a sur- vev would not be confined in its direct assistance to the min- ing interests of .the State, the study of regions likely to pro- duce coal, oil aud gas, or the quarries scattered hero and there. Even if it was the Iieuefit from fuller dovolopnunt of these resources nuist accrue to people throughout the State as well as to the immedltite operators of such industries. But the geology of the State of Iowa cannot but be occu- pied in large part with the more recent formations. The boss and the drift, the alluvial deposits along our streams, in short, the formation and character of all our surface soil> ^S' rOWA ACADKMV OF SCfENCES.- iviih tln'ir spccia! ;i)>titu(l('s for airT'iciiIturo. In these lie the- S^reat wealth of our State, richer than tike silver sprinkled kills of the llockij's or the 2-olden threaded (juartz of C'lilifor- rtin : nion^ p)-eci(>us than thediiuoond strewed fi.^lds of Africa. The prairie soil of this fair State is rich in all that l>rin.2:s comfort and enjoynKMit to au bonest, etmiest [>eopU? in quest of the Rteans for self-inipr*>venient, Ureh because it furnishes a iiever-failino: mine of wealth. Its treasures are not e.v- liausted witli a sinirle turning' f>f the earth, but vvill remain a perpetual source of revenue to i\ny ]M-o])le who will intelli- gently conserve and protect it. It may be nested thtit I have not rcfen-ed to the s'/ience o^ political economy, psychology, etc., but this is not becau.se 1 ttudeirate in any deijree their importance in human progress- and attainmient. From their nature they are both local and nniversaU but it \vi>ukl proU>n«jf fbisaddres-^ too ranch to irive them any udccjuate eonsi(i(>ration. Problems of .so -ial life are Ijeinir studied on every hand » iind it may perhaps not be statinir it too strouofly to say that their results can b;* of irnrat value only as th"y proceed upon the scientific method. Tiie relations of ijtrlividuals, com- ttiunitles, States and ndions are not to !>;' adjusted by the bombast of the politician or th.' mere oratory of the states- man. A scicntili;' analysis of the conditions, eomplete as they may be, and accurate ap})reciation of cause and etlVct, are necessary in the study of these as well as biological or areo- losrical problems, and the best statesman is he whose talent 'And traininjr tenable him to follow the method of the scientist. In the fouiidius' of this Society whicdi meets now on the first anniversary, we have rcco^^nized the exi.^tence of prob- lems in our State demandiuijf scientific investiijation. We have reeoflfnized, to(», the well known principle of advantage in organized effort, the added stimulus and benefit accruing to associated work. We find the field broad aiid the work in ^jiltinu liToiit. Wc" ti ul our immlnTs sir.iill :in(l ffcqucntly broken into l»y roiudvals re discourair- hvj; t'lau (uiis. We sitould strive to ni:ike ww work endurinu;, S(v that those who follow will not ntu'd to re[jeat what we have done, ^\'e should strive for that perfection of result that may eiiaUenire t!ie iiis[) 'C'tion and eritieism of the world of seicnce. We .sliould Iiold our seieuee as ahove any eoni[)arison with the \\nin- jon or su'^jport t(» any theory as h:'yond thj^ reaeh of eontami- natiou Avith money. The laws of Nature do not ohauirc, and he wh('> ^ives a wronij cxpressjlon to them knowini^ly subverts the very foun- dation of si-ientiti:; proijress, for the proiTi'fss of seienee is the propfress of truth. The folhjwiu'i" papers were also road :\i^(\ aJe hen" iiivcMJ in id.straet: ON THE METAMORPHOSIS OF A SPECIES OF ALEYRODES. i;V I'UKSIDF.NT HKRBKKI- (isr.oKN. A sp(M'ies of Al('>/r<>fl(%>i oeeurriiiiif on Fcs/unt was studied at time of enieryenee of imae simmi. at the earliest staii^e noted, only a irianular mass with(»ut dis- iiiietion of head or other j»arts; later eyes i»ecome cons|)ic- uons, head flistinct from body and thv jrrof /tort irtr and aJKlom- inal seiiinents extend in tlitlened lolu's to the niarL^n of thf 40 rOWA ACADF.MV OF ;;crKN"CF.s:. sctile, while the me,s-ofhoraru- autl mefaflioracic seginents rtro- contracted and thicker. The uiukjo i.ssue!> from a coiiipound fissure on the dorsal surface, one limb of which is transverse- and h>^"it(*d o\ cr the thorax; the other arises from the me- dian point of this fissure and extends- anteriorly to the ceph- alic m ir^-in. Fresh inwfjos when suJ)je('ted to slii>-ht })res- sure, as under the c(>ver g'lass when inormtt'd in balsant, have an extensive protrusion of the pleural fold oai the piXitlioroT and abdomen corresponding' tothe^ lol>os of these parts in the pupa. The iDMfjo does not accjuire its farinose character un- til some hours after emergence. The extension of the jjleund, fold on all but the wing* bearing segnnents of the body sug- gests some interesting- inferences on the origin of these organs (in Aleyro'Jes, at least), and it is h(>[)ed that more thorough study of the material in hand will furnish some Ixasis for con- elusions. THE HEMIPTEROUS FAUNA OF IOWA» BY I'ROF. HERBRKT OSRORX. {.■Jl>s/r,trt} Xo attemi){ at a catalogue of the insects of this order has- yet been made, and though for several years attention lia.s^ been given by the author to g-athering material for such a catalogue, many of the families are as yet certainly very in- complete. The following groups are represented : lieteroptcru ., twenty-one families, as follows: SfutfUerida>. two g'enera, two species; C(>ri)iiela'nvla% one genus, three species; CydiiMm^ two genera, two species; Penfafomrlce, sev- enteen genera, twenty-six species; Cotr/rhc, eight gxMiera, twelve species; Iteryfrhv^ three genera, four species; Li/ga'- ida% seventeen g-enera, nineteen species; Capsi'hc, twelve genera, fourteen s[)ecies; AcantliHcc, two genera, two s|)e- cies; Tingifida'., two genera, three species; Aradidm, one \")SliC)KN nr-.Mll'l 1 KOLS lAUN A ul- loWA. 41 jjonns, four spi'ci(\>: l*li>iiii(il(hi\ one ircims. one species; Jiahilm, two i^cncr.i, four sp;-;-ii's; lif/iiruhr, seveu ireiiera, eiirlit species: Ih/'lnflxth' J(i\ three ireuera, four species; VeU- idoe, one ir^^nus, one species; ,S(il(lrl and Allen, -lordan. and also ;i list by Dr. M. F. (iodin--, p;il)lis!ied in th> Transactions of the Iowa State A^-ricult ural Society ( ISS^). pair<^ •">-'•'. and wliei-c the spccic^s i'^ not known to me to occur in the State I have addefl in parcnthes-'s the name of t!ie aulhlL coywtc. F'-n'mi-i'Iy very.. eonimou.. Vtd2)fs: uidf/aris Fl. it-id fox. Not co.niint>.n, Umc^/mi virgi'iiicDeim- ivux. U-ray fox. We?>tern [Hr;iU'io> {'And./ i, '«jf-t>ciiuir;i Miwteta Jiuirk'K L>. oibU;-. y^ot «'()11>jik>i>.. MiiMdu- pennnnJii Erx,. FLsacr.. Xortiicnx X. A. (.ror- dau/, Anw'ji 'vj-ou. _a'; I-^idorms vnlgari-s Jiiv.. Le-as-t w'eassel;.. N- U. k>. ^ Jordan)., low 51 (.uouia<^> l^aforiiK- er,ii.ii):^i§>f Ca-v. CouMiiou. weasel. AUiwxIaiit, Pidori'iK lafiralufi i2-\\\' ~ 2\iui;v. Oonnuon.. Galo- UmMn u<. W-C'tveriue. X. U.. S. (J<3>.rdaii),, Iowa fGoaino-; Taxi'leiC andermtftzc BiimL .Aiijcrk-an. 1'ki4<>:("i'.. .Reeoiuini:.- liar'. Mf'p/iz'is- mt^pliitica Shaw. S'kunk.. Comm;o«. L>nfra vaim'fetish Siihiii^e. Otter. Kntliicn' rare. Uyi^Kx aniihs L.. l>(>;n'. Od'C* emniXKJit, now c^nifined t-.ii zoolo^-ieaS o*ardeii.s, traveiino" .sbi>\v,s, etc. Prcx-i/on lofar h- liaeeooii. Couunoii in wooded iT-gion^- UNGULATA. Bison' amerwanus:. Buffalo, evidently oiK-ealmndaHt. OermiH canadenxis Erx. A^nserfcan Elk. Onec eoiBnion. Cermi,^ virginiawu,^ Bodd. Deer, Once- ecHunieni. now «?are or i>oue,. (IIIKOPTEKA.. Vefijjertilio siSnkif'n.^ iynj, Eittie brown fiat. Vcffjm-ttHo hicifugus Ix'C. Very srniilar to pref«?in,eC. Twilio-ht bat. X«>t abmidant .. A(cdaj)Jta cmereus' M.^'dm. Iloaiy li^at. Itather rare. Atalaplia noveb(yracensis Ya-\ . Red bul , dur uui-st uUuu- dant speeies. INSECTfVORA. ScalopH aquaficus L. Mole. Probal)Iy eoujTnorr, frut f atii ttnable to .say as to relative al>nndaiice of tins and the foUow- ing- sjjecies. Scalops argentafua Au(S. and Uicli. Prairie mole. S^ST.m^^-CATALOCVUI". OK MAMMALS OF IOWA |3 ( '()))/1 i/lin'(\ rri^iiihi L. Stiir-nostyl mole. \<'>t sei'n. U. S- M-hi-'fly iKM-lbcrly ( J(.)r(J:iit ), I(»\v;i (Clodiug- ). Soi'cx r(toiwri H:ic!i. Western .shreu'. F.iirix coininoii. Blarina bn'vicanthi Say. X«t .scou. lown ((jrodiiiir). Bhinna lalporlcti .Say. Not .s'.'cw. Iowa (Cfodiiiir). Blann.a ex^jipej^. One .'?[)tM'injor3 in Iowa A liTiciiIt ural Col- 8 ('ire iuu.sc'uh). KQDKN'ilA. S'iinruplerna lalaris !>. Flyiitij^ sfjiiirreL (3omm(Mi.. S-inras dinei^Jis L. Fox sijuin-cL Abm^cJant. \ -at . Indo- Sciarn^ Caroline tiKis Aud.. (Jray squirrc--). Ahu!>daijfc. Tami'ax .slr'/affis L. Chipinimk. Coninion. SperuMpJ/f'hfs tmleeemU)mahes Mitch. .Striped iroi'tjcr. Vei-y :;il>nudaut. Spennoplnlufi fninkUm SaU. Graj gopkcr. Coinmoii. Arcl'.mys inonax L. Woodchuck, srround Iwir. (>)mii)on, Cafitor fiJwr L. lieaver. Ikcoiuiuir ralkcr rare. Geo'iifffi bnrs^my'ns vShaw. Pocket _2f<»pi^^'i"- Almndaiit. Zapn.^ hit'lx(i^n.nis Zinjiio. Jmapjni.'^ lueuse. Fairly rom- IliOli. yfiiK flfffDiwrt/'.^ I'alL l>T()^ii or Norway rat. CoiniDon, 3fn.rf'n Uaiid. Co«*pers' mouse. Fiber zibHJiicia^ L. .Muskrat. AlwnKJ^int. Li'pifx syhaficff:^. C^mmum )-aJ*hit. Ai)3iiw):inl <'Yerv- where. L^pnfi campf'/ifyix l?aeh. JVaJrle hare. One s^peeiMieu at -Vtiies. LcptiK caUoth Wau. -Jack r.ild>it { ( JoiJJni:). "^'erv doubt- ful. MARSUPIAUA. DmdelpJiys virgitnana Slwi\v\. Oporisuiii,. ( 'oiitiiKni t^' Wooded reo-ions. FRAGMENT OF A CATALOGUE OF THE COLEOPTERA OF IOWA. BV PROFS. HK.RBKRT OSBORN AXD FT. F. WICKHAM. ■AhsiradA The collection.s in tin's extensive order of Insects, are now sufficiently full to give usy we believe, a fair idea of the Col- eopterouff fauna of tlie State. We desire however to make the list a» complete a.** possible and present this fra' that individ- uals haviniT a eollection of Iowa Coleopfcra Avould send vis either specimens' or^ if accui-atc^ly determirjetl, lists of the species they possess to be incorporated in the list. Some credit will of conrse be given for nil such assistance and names of species returnc^d if desired. The list will have as its prirrci[)al basis, first, the private collection of II. F. Wickham, second the collection of the Iowa Agricultural College, and third, the pri^'ate collection of Herbert Osborn. The fragment herewith presented embraces twenty one families containing two hundred and thirty-nine s[)ecies. As a number of the most extensive families are not included the enumeration will i)ossi])ly exceed five tim«>s the number t-ees.se.s many of the rharaeter.s of the loess and since it passes by insensil)le uradations into the latter it seems rather to belong to the loess than to the drift. The lower ]i)ortion is generally most perfectly and beau- tifully stratifi;'d, the strata consisting of sand, clay, and occasloually some gravel, with small boulders of the granitic- series, fragments of bituminous coal, etc. A very few cal- careous concretions are found in t!ie stratifir'd basal l)eds and at one point i^ood specimens of these concretions have imbedded pebbles. In the less evidently stratifi.'d [jortions abound several species of land s!i"lls and the eggs of one species are found. But little saud and this of the finest grain isfouud in the unstratifi'd higher portions. lu this have been found the teeth and largely the bones of two examples of liangifer caribou and the greater portion of the antler of the same species most probably. Two or three species of fresh water mollusks have been found in wh.it appears to l)e loess. THE PARVUS GROUP OF UNIONID/E, BY PROF. R. KLLi>\VORTH CALL This paper i^ave a resume of the known facts iu the geo- graphical distribution of these small Um'os and proposed the reduction of a number of forms to synonymy. The relation of the assumed specifi-' differences to conditiiuis clearly con- nected with environment was pointed out and a somewhat close relationship of forms hitherto supposed to be very distiu'.-t was evid.'nced by the specimens exhil>ited. The dis- [Pk.k. I. A. S.. 1SS7-9.] 45 [February la. 1890.I 46 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. tribution of the various forms Avas adduced as an argument in support of identity particularly of those species which occur in Texas and in Georoia. The type of the group is the very small form descril)ed by Barnes from the waters of Ohio. This form with consider- able variations occurs throughout the eastern half of the Unites States as far as the State of New York. To the south it ranges westward to Texas and has there been subjected to such environmental conditions as to become very much pro- longed posteriorly. The sexual variations here are so marked that the two forms, male and female, have been described under at least two specific names. In Georgia occur two or three forms which have been called species mainly on the difi'erences of color of the nacre. Some of these at least are but modifications of the common Unio parvus of the North. The group includes the following species descril)ed by Dr. Isaac Lea, of which list those in italics are believed to be syn- onyms. In the list the forms Avhi'ch it is proposed to recognize as species ai-e given in the order of the date of their descrip- tion, so that, if for any reason the reader should M'ish to de- termine the chronologic arrangement of the species it will be possible to do so. Unio glans Lea. (Read May 7, 1830.) "Observations on the Genus Unio,'' Vol. I, p. 92, PI. VIII, Fig. 12. Unio pauhis Lea. (.Read October 2, 1840.) "Observations on the Ge^nis Unij,'' Vol. Ill, p. 51, PI. XV, Fig. 29. Unio minor Lea. (Read August iS, 1843.) "Observations on the Genus Unio," Vol. IV, p. 27(3, PI. XXXIX, Fig, 3. CALL-PA RVUS GROUP OF UNIONID.'E. 47 Unio texasensis Lea. (Read March 24, 185;.) "Obsorviitions on the Genus Unio" Vol. VIII, p. 39, PI. LXI, Fig. l«i. Unio bairdianus Leu. (Read April 7. 1857.; "Ohsorv.'itioiis on the Genm Unio" Vol. VIII, p. 42, PI. LXI, Fig-. 18(5. Unio (jramdutiis Leu. (Read March 5, i860.) ''Observations on the Genus Unio" Vol. XI, p. ;32, PL XVI, Fig. 46. Unio gerinanus Lea. (Read February 5, 1861.) "Observations on the Genus Unio" V'ol. XI, p. 53, PI. XIX, Fig. 54. Unio bealii Lea. (Read June j, 1862.) "Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. IX, p. 2(5, PI. XXX, Fig. 273. Unio marginis Lea. (Read >.'ay it, 1S65.J "Observations on t!i3 Genus Unio" Vol. XII, p. 15, PI. XXXI, Fig. (iy. Unio cromu'ellii Lea. (Read May i6. i86=.l "Obssrvatioas on th • Gewis Unio" Vol. Xll, p. 18, PI. XXXI, Fig. 54. Unio cylindreUus Lea. (Read June 2, 1868.) "Observations on the Genus Unio, Vol. XII, p. 68, PI. XLVIII, Fiir. 121. 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Unio corvinus Lea. (Read June 2. 1868.) "Observations on the Genus Lhiio, Vol. XII, p. 70, PI. XLVIII, Fig. 123. Unio corvunculus Ijea. (Read June 2. icSnS.) '•Observations on the Genus Unio, \o\. XII, p. 74, PI. L, Fi.o-. 12 7. Unio vesicularis Lea. (Read Septemb?r 15, 1873.) "Observations on the Genus Unio" VoL XIII, p. 41, PL XII, Fig. 34. The synonymy of this gronp, therefore, will stand as in the sul)jolned lists and even here there is some doubt that the Texas forms should be held to be distinct. Unio parvus Barnes. U. pca/Ius Lea. U. minor Lea. U. marginis Lea. U. corvinus Lea. U. vesicularis Lea. Unio texasensis Lea. U. hairdianus Lea. U. hecdii Lea. Unio glans Lea. U. pullus Conrad. CT. gramdatus Lea. U. germanus Lea. U. cromivelh'i he'A. U. cT/IindreJlushen. U. cormmcuivs Lea. Tlie xyi'O of the group is the form described b}^ Dr. Biirnes to whicli Ixjth in anatomv, hai its and general characters all CALI.-PARVUS GROUP OF UNIONID^. 49 the >li('lls Iicrciii iiMincd show most inaikccl i-csciuMmih-cs. If the TcxMs tonus Itc cxcluclcd as synoiiyins, then llicy will fall uikIci- t he (li\ isioii hradcd hy l^. jxirriis. Tlic main fads on whicli tliis species reduction is based tire set forth in tln' suhjoinetl tabular synopsis. 'I1ic various species have Ixh'h studied in sucli detail as lariie series of shells from all sections of tlu' south and the west would enable. In some cases authors" types have been available. 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. i 11 2" OS II 2 , III < II .1 1 5 r ^ Ir "J si J-E 11 '.I 3..C 1 1 .S2 0. 1 1 1 u .a 1 '.5 .5 .5 s il II '■i II ■§■£ £ c 5 X £ li .fill lit 72 -2.5 Pi 1.1 Is, 1^ |£ S.I '& u o U 1 c I 'Sl 1 ^ i i 1 . ..=■ X X .£ .5 .S 5 5 111 c E S p. ^ X 1| II 1 "1 s S ■Si E C 3 o o il c a. a ■^ s B 5^ u ■ 1 1 a. II P< .-s U ■ill jji Ei 1 Sl c § 1 1 c Q o 1- • 1 ■2 1 .2 .1 .' : c 1 a: 1 a i lex H 1 3 1 '5 i J u a .2 .5 s 1 1 > i 1 ■|cS ■!■ ■ 1 22 3 ,'l E II £ i = c CO iti 1 i rt 0 E >, 1 £ = E g I-.f a II il 1 V OS 1 2. •i 1 1 0 ii 1 ;■§ 3 _C z 1 .5- 1^ li 'e 2 o- ■ i. 1^ 3 1 E 1 u £ S s c'" H £ II u 5 a 1 ll 1 X .£ X 1 1 If .PI Is is 55 "Si ij E 55 C/5 II!* jil u > 1.' "1 II E| i E o"" -o 1^ o i 1 c 3 m 2o >> 1 .2 O 11 ojcc 1 1 =' 1 'o 2 -S 1 ! .& ■3 1 1 J ■a c <; 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 £ 2^ ■^ S3 1 CALL-SYNOPSIS OF CIIARACTKRS OF PARVUS CVROUP. 51 C z 7. ll k I .s -5 H 1 1 1 Si u .2 7? 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 J c c3 o Ix 1 1 1 i 11 il' i i 1 ii 1 X il j i i jl ii i 1 .5 < ■f. 1 •if ■S 1 C/2 |i=i. 1 ill it. 1}}! III nil i l=s il 1 1 i 1 ii a. Is c = .11 < i — i Ii 11 1 c •£ . ii.5 11 i It % Ii i ill ■" 0.1 '.5 ' c'o < i s ill 1 : 1 •i t 1" ^ i 1 i a 1 i .5 ll 05 1 1" III ill I ■?. i i, 5 S 1 •- 1 ■7. It P 1 il III Ii i i 1 •f -9 c c 00 •«■ i <= .^ 2 i <: 1 S a OS = •5 :ii -1 11° if l! i 1 1" "o. 1! :i1 11 c5 •1 S il i 1 1 1 1 .ti i is. J g = 1 ■J. ■s 1 , "5; * % ii f = ils '. * # .1 1 .5 a % a u J o o 1 i # # # .i. . * • * z > i ii Is < If < B II 1 "1 p. 1. ill a 1 E 1 c« OS SI* >. 1 1 i u la . i : 1 1 1 F"^!:: _ i S 1 J 1 9-1 = - •fl Ex 111 X 1 1^ .i >> * 2 w 1 sit 1 -^ i ! f. Jl 1 N i.li 0 ' ^ ! ||, ft; u I 1 0 ' jl i: « 1 i 1 ll 1 1 5 Jl i if si, 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. THE GEOLOGY OF CROWLEY'S RIDGE, ARKANSAS. BY PROF. R. ELLSWORTH CALL. '.A/tstract.) ( *rowloy's Rido-e is si low ranoe of hills fonnino- tht" only conspicuous feature in the topoiiraphy of Northeastern Arkan- sas, and extends in a «'eneral nortli and south direction from the Missouri state line to the ( ity of Helena, where it ends al)ruptly. The total lenoth is therefore about 145 miles. It is a rano-e of hills of varyin<>- width, its averao-e beino- Ml)out four to six miles. The elevation is, on the average, from 1 75 to 250 feet above the surrounding- country. The «-en(n'al sui'- face is very irreo-ular and presents a line example of quaqua- versal erosion, the heads of the numerous ravines often departino- from the same point. The aofe of the rid,o-e is a mattei- of some (juestion for it is largely made up of deposits that are believed to ])e of the ag-e of the Orange Sand deposits. That the age of these sands is yet in dis[)ute results from tiie fact that their mode of origin is not well understood, and ])esides they differ so widely tit many j)oints of their distribution. It has, however, been assumetl in these notes that they are ])roperly to ])e classed with the (juaternai-y, anrl that has been the constant reference made; whether this treatment is a proper one must be determined ))y additional work in the field. In general, the ridge may be said to be composed f)f ter- tiar}^ strata of Eocene age representing the Claiborne l)eds of Alabama. These beds contain many Claibornian fossils, though the Ostreidce occur in the greatest abundance. The localities in which these forms occur most numerously are few and widely scattered, but are of the same age and of the same value petrographically. The ridge is capped with de- posits of loess that are the same in all essential features as are the deposits in the regions farther north. These loess beds lie directly upon the gravels of the Orange Sand, and are some- [Pkoc, L a. S.. .887-9.] 5a [Feb. 19, 1889.J rAi.i.-c.r.oi 0(}^ ok cki a\ i,ia-s ridck. ,):, linio. th()tii:li not ;il\v:iv>. scpnr.-ilrd t licrdroiii hv i)c(ls of s.mikI :ip[);ir('iitly derived Iroiii lli<' tcit i.iiy deposits of tiic nts, therefore, the platean of ter- tiary Ix'ds which resnlted from the retirement of tlie (Jnlf in tlie early (piaternary. There is little of economic \alne in these deposits, althono-h the shell ma.rl of one oi- two localities promises to have some local valne. Xo mineral deposits of any moment are to he fonnd in the ridi;'e. and its top is of little airricnltural valne hecanse of the difiienlty of tillinii'. The pa[)er was to he considered as tentative only a.s an addi- tional season of field work was needed to settle some facts conneeted with the ^enesis of certain sands thonirht to he ter- tiary in age. The final results will ai)pear in tlie annual re- ports of the Arkansas Geologic Survey, under the auspices of which oraaiii/ation the work was done. CYNIPIDS AND CYNIPIDOUS GALLS ON OAKS COMMON TO IOWA. ['A PROF. C. 1*. Gll.I.K J ll-.. l,.i/>Stf4 (OWA ACADKMV OF SCI F.XCKS. six-te'iitlis oi an iiicli in length ; color of h(>a(l and tiiorax (>Iack, fadinii- into hrown : ahdonion a shinini;- hrown, darkest al)ovc; scntcHnni with two i)its at Uasc; aiffeiui.a\ \o-}o\nted. Malt' nol kiiow!!. BioHiiza nihinus, n. sp. 'J'hc o-alls appear in th(^ fall on tlio leaves (.f tlie white oixk { Q. alba), :i little before the foiiaiic heoins to turn dark hrown. They are sub-o-lohular in form, and while g-rowino- are rosy in color (sometimes almost white), and are translucent and pulpy like a _o-reen urape. L!iri»'e specimens measure one-eiorhth of an inch in diameter. After reachiuii" their lirowth, the --shape(l central cell that is easily removed by cutting ojx'u the gall. •r.ri.Tl.KVTF.^r\ NH-IDS \ .M ) ( NM I'H >( A S i . Al 1 > ' iN i»\K->. ,).» "I'lTis ltmII (litfrrs jroin a wry similar species. //. thir'<-\ cm- il)er, and are all feiiiales. lueniilh, (»ne-sixth (»f an inch; [)re- •vailinir colors, Ulack and hrown; Unt on aecouut of a dense irray puhcscence which e^nevs nearly all p:\rfs, they have ;i irrayish api)earance nnti! denuded ; nnfennfr. 1 ;)-jointe<^l, third joint the Utnirest. Thorax markeci \rith what seems to he six Jonofitudinal black lines whicli ext(Mid i)artiany or entirely ncross it; ahdomen shinino- Mack with a jjatch of i;ray pnhes- cence heneath the winirs on eitiier sidv^ (Jyntps n/gricon:^, n. sp. Jrrc^iruiar eone-sha])ed iialls which oceiir in elusters on tln> midcr side of the leaves of tlie swamp oak {Q. hicolor). The iralls are attached to the inid-rih and fall to the irronnd a little Ix-fore the leaves beirin to di-oj) in October. These resemble very much small clusters of f'l/uijjs xfrobilana O. S. Fly, black in color: nearly one-eii>hth of ari inclr in lenath ; body appearinir to be covered with minute scales, when viewed with a hiirh power: n)tfr)))i-jointed :ind sli^'htly clublted ; parapsidal i^roox cs dee]) and narrow ;ind widely sepnraierl at collar; abdomen mi\iut(>Iy pnnclal<> :md set with hairs. Only known m female form. ^irrffsjj/s ri/Jf)SHs, n. sp. The iralls aie very hard i;lobulai" oxcrescence.s on tlie under side of the leaves of tln^ I>urr oak (Q. mn<')r)rarjia). The irallsare liirht yellow in cohu- and'are covered with a dense irrowth of stout hair of the same color. LarL'"c sjn'cimens of this ifall measure over one-fourth of an inch in diainetei-. TIjc L'"alls contain a >ini;le tly each, app<-ar ^>f>> cow A ACAOF.MV O f'' SCTKS CF.S'. ;il»()ut, iiuVl-suiiinicr^ ami the flic-- hcoiit- t«) cscaix' aljorii' ((\( la.st of ( )c1;,()lH>y, Flv, m'arlj om'-^^txtli '»f au inch in Icui^-th r. pri'vailins" cwlovs^ cHi-uaniftm l>m\vii» and black. rUc >h(1<'s of the alxlcmicB. have a )M_*^aiitifuI velvety laster, c^uls<^d in a deii>?<^' jelh)vyish-«-iiiy [jU'lx^scem'C whicb sui>■;<>•e^its the iiaiiic oi the -.pecies^ The wtiigH ave alM)rted,. ]>e¥ibo- «)iily sLkoiI, stubs.. Foina!e>s tm\y harc^ heeii Keased. j^eur&teroas nigvumj »,sp. TIk' i^alts og t&is s|>ecie?« appeal as small piiiipleft ois the Iwiveis-of th(r white »>alv ( Q\ hUmi).- find the l)i>rv twik ((/. iiiorv(X'f(rp(r). llwy arc from ti>ne-si.\'- teenth t» ».Mie-twelfth wf au iiicb tii diam-etetv and show P(iuall3' well fvf)m either siuface of the leaf. Tke ii'itlilf^iippciir ill Auf>Vi&t and tfete flies enjerize the ff^llowinir summer. Fly, very siiwill^ alx)ut one-tw(Mvty-li*ft!i «)f an inch in leR<>th. and f)lack Ml ct)kw excerpt the tarsi au.d jjoiuts nf t!ie leos-, which, are bvowii. AiitpliihoUps (-mjlai, n. sp\ ^ilifhiUar ir^iJls nitli central fH'lls and stout radiating- tshers-. 'riiey «K'cur in, thefaU of the year ou the l>uds of the red <«ik {Q. nrhf-a). The iirowing- g-all reseinhles very EiucSi the _<>-all of .1. i/iants, (). S., but it is smaller, and the radiatina" fil)ers and the outer shell are much heavfer. A little Ix'fore the leaves fall these «>-al}s drop to the yroHiid, turn brown in colnr, aiKl soon iH^'ome much shriveled wp. The Hie* do not appear until late the follow- liit^- summev. FlVr only females were reared. Lenijth, one- fifth of uii inch; i>ei>eral color, ])>lack; (infenjfrv, 13-jointed, with the third joint the longest : face deei)ly pittotl or sculp- tured; thorax and seutellum deeply sculptured ; legs, amber colored; wings somewhat smoky and with a large stigmaS spot. Only females reared- (>I.li_l,lNl A(.I dK I.AKK AGASSI/. 57 THE LINEAGE OF LAKE AGASSIZ. -lAs/r.u/., As LaUr Wimii|H'o- has succeeded Lake Agassi/, so tin! lattei- may trace its liiieanH' hack three aiics, ms follows: Fir.^f. When the ic-e sheet tilled the hasin> of Lake A,s River valleys. Lake Dakota extended 1 K) niile> loni:-, ten to thirty miles l.road from Oakes to .Mitchell, Dak. A le\-el [)lain loODfeet altoN'e t!ie sea now occupies its formei" hasin. Seconil . When the Ice Sheet jccupied the second or(iray Moraine in the .lames \'allev, tillinii- the hasin of Lake, Dakota, there was a (|uite extensive White Lake, oceupvini; the hasin of a diminutixc descendant of t!iat name in Aurora County, Dak., its altitude about l.")"<7 feet. Also, a >maller and more tl'ansieut lake James Lake ^southwest of Mitchell, ext.'iidinii- into Dou'jlass Countv: the proent alti- tude of its western border is about 14.U) feet. 'I'Ji/nl. Still earliei', when t!ie ice occaipied the lirst oi Altamoni Moi-aine, or as some leadini:- irhicialist- would say far antecedent to that tinu', durini;- the latter part of a first i:lacial cpocli, a ^I'cat Ixxly oj water occupied all eastern Nebraska, western Iowa and adjacent pai't> of Miniu'sota and Dakota. lis most diaracterisl ir ,|,.p,,>it is the he^s. This lake was named Lake Missom-i al)out ten years ai^o ( rifle I'roc. A. A. A. S. I,s77. p. I'll] ). The ooiuM-al level of the hess slopt^s >outhwar(l. two feet to the mile: and eastward tlireo to five feet, west of the Missouri. ;ind one to two feet east of it. Its altitude is l-SOO feet in Wayne ('((unty. Neb.. :ind 100') feet at .Marysville. Missouri. (pRor. 1. A. S., 18S7-0.J =v |Kcb. 10. iSSo-l ;>'^ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCKS. ruder the drift in the Missouri X'alley urc Liieuslriiie cl;iy» and sand, w hicli, further west lie direetly beneath the la'ss, .strongly sui;\i;-estini;- the eonehision tliat r^aice Missouri ma}' hav(^ been th(^ direct successor of the line of i>-rand Tertiary lakes, so ably outlined by Kino- ( Kxpl. 4()th Paral., aoI. 1, i). 4:>.S). Fourth. Lake ( 'iieyenne occupied the phiijisfroui Texas to Ahinitoba and eastwaril well toward the Mississippi diirinu- the Pliocene. Fifth. Sioux Lake in the Miocene covered th(? western portion of the (xreat Phiius. Sixth. In tlie Eoccuk', the surface of the phiins was dry^ ])ut probal)ly not so further north. If not, then this Eocene hike or l)ay would lill t!ie gap and connect this royal line of hdves Avith the ocean. Possil)ly Lake Missouri may have- done so unich later with the Gulf of Mexico. ON THE FOLDING OF CARBONIFEROUS STRATA IN SOUTHWESTERN IOWA. \\\ PROF. J. E. TOD!). {Alts/ract.i Most who examined the rocks alono- the Missouri River in the reo-ion vnider consideration liave been constrained to re- cord sonje foldiuii-. but such statements have l)een ration- indefinite and have hardly (>\pressed sufHciently the al)ru])t- ness of the folds. Before notin,i;- the evidence of foldin,u's it will be well for us to briefly notice the character of the strata folded. They consist of a mixture of limestone, clays, marlites, slates and sandstone. The chanii'e from one to anotluu- is usually' abrupt and fretiuent. Meek concluded that the nature <»f a stratum chana-ed so much horizontally tliat litholoii'ical char- acters were of little im[)ortance in delerminini>- (Niuivalence TODD— ON Kol.DfNi. oF (. AKT.OSl KKRdUS >lK.\r.\ IN 1 U \. ,)».» "5i\ adjaccnl l(ic:!)il ics. 'JMiis iDav We liur c.tiuiiariMJ wit ii iconic vciricms, hul Jhc inorc ircrjiu'iit exposures <»f the pnvscut tiinr. •make it cjiiitc possible to sliow tkat Xko strata liavc fair pcr- sistcuco, and Winy lie traced secores of inilcs, \>\ tiicir lilholo- .'^ical jiiid stratiLrraphical ckaraotcrs alone. A fairly complete section wf the rweks (♦! >oiith\N oteni Iowa !,!iay he f^njnd l-t; placing- in (WTler the section at Wyo- ining, t !ie s(>ct i(M) at .Xelsraska ('ity, \i'ith Croxlon"- l>oriiig-, ii'ifh^ Uaydet>"s FinaJ Report.. Nehraska, pjk 101. KMI). the sections at )\'ils(Mj's, ( ^\'hite^s Report om Jowa, \'ol. I, p. v>')(S)^ the sectjou at Rock IJliitF, and the section holow Plattsmouth-, (Ilaydeu's I\ei)ort). (iiviui^ this in hi-.ief foi'U), on)itt ini'- t])e ;riner rletails w<' have the followinu-,- SKCTK^N OF > ri'KI," ( W i;i'.(*MrKi:< »r S 1;(K'KS in SOl rinNKSTKltN IOWA. 1, IS to 11) H. Blue, red and ash colored clays, with two ilistiiut layers of jinH'sloue J i'v.ot and 4 feet in thickness -i-es[)ecti>ely. 2. 10 ft. Yellowif-h, mieaceon.s, soft stindstone. o. ol' ft. Drah, ash, lead c<)k)red and chocolate colored <<'la\s, with only one thin hiyer of l»luish limestone. 4. 1-2 ft. Limestone in thin layers^ light yellow and gray» .">. IS') ft. Thin layers, mostly of gray shades, though red and blue v)ccur, with five thin beds of limestone and four of sandstone. (This is derived only from Cr(»xton's iKjring :;ind is (piite indefinite both as to its real character and as to its relation to observed sections). li. 12 ft. Hluish limestone, inter-strati tied with i)lack sliades and with nearly one foot of fair coal near its center. 7. ."{Oft. Drab elavs. enchjsing tlwee distinct shades of linicstoHc. i> to 4 feet thick. s. 20 to 24 ft. Compact linHv-tonc. tljin bed(l(Mi and sty- lolitic mor(^ or less. 11. li to 12 ft. Dral) ciavs carbonaceous in iwd ln)ii/ons and c(»utaiuinii- twct t!iin strata of limestone. 10. 12 to 2.") ft. Soft, tine-grained, yellow sandstone. 11. ;>.") to 4.") ft. (lays and slates, bluish and gray, con- laininn .'> (U' f stiata of limestone, one much the thickest. soiuet iuies 7 feet tiiick. fyf' COWA' ACADKMV OF Sf'TV.N'CF.S; 1 2*. I () to 20 it. Liruesti-ay ( F/isiJi/ia')^ KL T) ft. Clays. 14, tit. Yollowisli iiTcofoereixt saiid. If., 10 to 12 ft. Limes^tone. l(y. 2r)ft. (ireeni.sh :ui4 chocoLnte'cLiy* alvovcaiKi shalcs Ik'low. 449 ta4*H>ft. Total tWekifOS&. Th'is is a rathc^r surprisina- vesult^ after nv havr Twnni ac- ■fustomed to rcfei'inn-g- only 200 loct t«.> tb^^ u]>per rari)oiii- ferousv as^ estimated by Dr. White. Some *vf this may l?c con- sidered somewlKit doubtful stilK but at k^jist )>')(> f(^et is deniaixled by facts, as we sIkiU set\ 'lliie nlo^st frequently exposed meml)ei"s of tbe sertes are th(^ upper ami Imrer beds- of liniestooe, Nos-. 8 aiKl lo, which,, frrnu their relation to the clays and sniKi,, are especially apt to form benches', cliCs and li-ock-h ousels. It is the upper of these whiick bas furnished the most sloue m qmirries as at South Bend, Weepini>- Water., Bennett and lloca, iu N("braska. and S!ia\\Vai?d Wilson's, in; lo\va. The saudstoue 12 to 1 .> feet IndofW tlse liuicstcvne was- f()n:^idered by Dr. White to lix' tls;' lowest stratum ev[>osed iui southwestern Iowa. Several years residence in t!ie re^-idiu and uuiiierous observations of many c.vposures which were not accessible to Meek and Whit(^. have- UhI the writer tl. 1, /// loc. ), luit is of a considerable hiirher g'eoloorical hori/.on. This is shown by the following- facts. y\:) Although the two sandstone strata may be traced at nearly the same level within a half a mile of each other, yet their associated strata are entirely different. One is No. 2, -ON KOl.DINc; OK CAKItoNlKI KOrs STKAI A IN loWA. »;i the other No. 11. 'I'lic loi'iuci- is tlu- sMiulstoiic in tin- Nc- braskii City iiiid XN'vominir !^cc'ti()iis, tlio hitlci- tii.it in tlir Codiir HliifV and Rock lilutr soi^tions, on the Xchraska side. (-2.) At doiics" Point, just ahovc tlic junction of tlic W('Oi)in«>: AVator with the Missouri, there is a fine expanse, which seems to Irave escaped Meek and Ilaydcn. It shows a dip of four to five deo-i-(.('s to tlie soutli-southeast, which cai-- ri(\s over lOD feet of strata, whi'.-h are expos-d as the sunnnit of an anticlinal, shown about a mile north, entirely below the level of the river, in less than that distance. (.").) Tile hio-host limestone in Croxton's boring" at all comparable with stratum S, is that of Xos. H4 and /i"), {ride Ilayden's Final lieport, Nebraska, p. 10(5 ), 200 feet below the surface of the Missouri. As this stratmn has been quite con- stant for twelve to lifteen miles east and west, it may fairly pi-esumed to be so to this distance south, and makino- fair aHowance for the oI)scurities of Ijoianuf records we may con- sider the identification (juite probable if not demonstrated. (4.) 'J'akini^- the l)()tt()m of stratum held in the <'ity of Dcs Moines on Scptcnihcr -Mli. I ss|), in the Science Rooms of the IIi<>-h Scliool buildiuir. TlKn-e wore i)rcscnt a li-oodly number of the woikino: naturalists of the Stati-. At this session the followinir ))a|)ers were presented, and are here "•ivcn in abstract. THE BLUE QUAIL (CALLIPEPLA SQUAMATA) IN IOWA. HV PROF. J. K. rol)l> (Afisirac/.) A specimen of this bird was exhibited, which was shot at Tabor, Iowa, May 20, l.S.Sl). The occurrence of this species, which ranijes from Texas southward, was connected witii the mildness of the past winter, and the cfi'eat reduction in num- bers of the common (piail, in southwestern Iowa for the last few years. IS THE PLUM CURCULIO DOUBLE-BROODED !Y PROF. C. P. GILI.F.TTK, Afisir,,,/ In this paper it was concluded that the plum curculio is not wholly or even very largely double-brooded ut Ames, [Proc, I. A. S., 1887-9.1 63 l^'^- '*' '*'^9-l (,J4 (OWA ACADF-MV OF SCIKNCKS. Iowa. Tlie more iniportuiit facts orathercd durinof the past siminier IxMrins^ u[)oii this subject were: Kcro- lavin."" began about the '2')th of May and practically ceased l)y the last of June. Eijgs began again to be depos- ited in considerable num!)ers about the 20th of July. Un- hatched eggs were found constantly from July 22 to August 22. The number of efregan appearing in tlu^ breeding cages as early as July 22. l^eetles were seen pairing July 22. The eggs of the late punctures hatch as well as any and the larvii? develojk in the plums. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN HEMIPTERA. BY PROF. HERBF.RT (ISHORN. The Hennptera present some instructing cases of special distribution, a few of which are considered. The relation of the distribution to distribution of food plants is discussed and cases cited where there is apparently entire independence of climate, latitude, altitude, etc. For several of the species localities are recorded which extend the range of the species as heretofore known. The species mentioned more particu- larly are: Anasa armigera, Alydns jnlosulns, L(qjtocorifi tri- mttatm (recorded for eastern Iowa), Macrocohus coagulatiis, Emhletlds arenarius, Calocoris rapidus. Pygolamjns peetoraUft, Me la iwcoryj) // ?/.<>• h n-rva's . ON THE WAX GLANDS OF THE PEMPHIGINiE. MY PROF, HKRBKRl OSBORN. After considering the accepted ideas concerning the wax ands of the ('occida^ and Aphid(t\ the i)a])er descriljes the MAl.l.Y-HIM ORV or MONOSI T.dlA (SKLANDklA) ICNoilA. ().> structure of these i:l:iii(l> in PcinpJiujus (c.^iselhifa l-'itdi :i> an il- lustration of till' unicellular foi-ui, (apparentlA' the onlv fonu hitherto reco^-ui/ed ), and in Sdiizoneiwa cratargi OcstliuKJ, :i8 illustratiui,'- a eoini)lex izland. In the hitter the waxy se- eretion is forced throunii chitiuous rims to cup like glands, the glands arranged in clusters four to six or sc^veu in a clus- ter and each composed of numerous cells. ADDITIONS TO THE CATALOGUE OF IOWA HEMIPTERA. I'.V VKOV. HKKF.Kkl OSBORN, The additions to my list of two years ago presented in this <'ontril)ution number thirty and I have a few species undeter- mined that can probably be included by the time the full list is published. LIFE HISTORY AND EMBRYOLOGY OF MONOSTE- GIA (SELANDRIA) IGNOTIA (NOR). HV PROF. FREDKRICK W. MALLV. M. S ^ Abstract.) This pai)«»r was a brief extract, giving the more important i-esults of a study of tiie al>o\ c named species as etiecting the strawberry, and included in a Thesis ])rei)ared for the degree of Master of Science at the Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa, and is published m Insect Life, \o\. II. The adults of this new strawberry pest appear about the 1st of April and begin egg deposition soon after. The period of greatest de[)osition l)eing about the middle of Aj)ril. In two weeks the Q^^^^^ hatch. Larvte are found from the middle of April, being most ulmndant during the tirst half of May, and by the 1st of June all the larvie have matured and entered the earth. The larviv of Monostegia itjnota {Xor.), are distinguislied from those of Harpiphorus maculatus by having a uniform [Pkoc. I. A. S., 18S7-9.) 65 [February 26, 1890.] \i,ii . roWA" aca'dkmv"- or sconces: j>ale Hrown head, while the latter have one hhick s;)(ft \'>:u'k af each eye and one oit the vertex. M. kjmda is }>i-()l>al)l\ siiio-lc T>i-(){xled, as- none <.vf the hiFvsi wbich entered the otirth June 1st have pn4)ated, hut up to. date. Sei)teui.lxn* 2d, have on.-ly conrtracted to on.e-ha}| the len-gth. Mmiostegki igneta npfx-ars* and iigaiiv disapi)ear^ ahA)ut a month earlier than the old pest H. rtwctdc&tus- {J^04':\. T!ie younu' lai-\te, therefore, are plenty Inifore the strawberry phmts bei>-in- hlooniini! aiKl hence can he easily exteriiMnated by tlie applh^atiou of any of the ars^nueal pois(Mis witlioat the dan-i^er of [X)isoiiii>g" tlie herrie^v. These [xdsoi^s can be effectively applied alxHit the hitter part o£ April or tirst of May. THE CRYSTALUNE. ROCKS OF MISSOURI.^ BV PK.OF.K RASMUS HAWORIH , PH. 1). iA/'sirnai.) Ill the May and rlune ininil>ers Aniericau Geoi'oiiist the Writer published a preliminary deseriptioii and classiticatioiii of the ciystalline focks «>f Missouri. Since that tin^e consid- erable more field work has b(>en done, and nmch new material «>-ather(Kl which is n(m' l>ein!u- (^v.anvin.l'd in. the lalM)ratory, 'Llius far nothinii- has beeui disco-verttJ. wliich would originate- any new ideas regarding th<' geology (m- [>etrographv of the district under discussion, but a great deal of c-vidonce has- been ol>taJned eonfirining vi(!ws advanced in th.e publication above mentioned. The relative ages of the <'rystalliiie antl s<^liii»entary rocks', may U'^w l)e considered established. The stKlimentary rocks •Are younger than th<; underlying granites and ixn-phyries. This has been stated by every geologist who has written on the subject, but the evidence, so far as made known, was sim- ply that of super-position. This evidently is not conclusive : 1 . Kead by L<.ii!«.-nS of »h« Director of ihc U. S. Ccologii al Survey. 'WAWOKTfl-CRYSTAl.l.INK ROCKS OK NflSSOllRl. »)?,' Tor if the ar-iHit^*!^ and jx^rpbyvic'' arc, rrupti^hi l)(' luMUNith \h" -("(.liircii) nry )v>cl, liincsitiiio Mini -sandsUmes, and conijloiruM-Jitcs wliick had IraairK'ut.s of the crystailivio ivm-Ks ^mlicddi^d in tkom, varyiRir in size? fivoiu very small k) jiM)rf- Uimh two foot ip. d4ainoter. It Js the rule rath'M- iliaii t ho except i<*ii ihaJ- t-ko.so frao-ni cuts arc present. There viu\ tiicrofore he \w douhl wha-tcver hut that the scdi- iiKMitaiy rooks are yuuii<;'-or thaw tko ujiderh'inir .12;rauit(^s and porphyries. 'I'lliis ^s all the more interesthiir oh ao(\iunt of 'tiio o«nol nsiM reached hy the Dircottn* of t!ie Arkansas State '(xooloifioal Survfv. \vjf:;iclo had korotofore In'oii (•<')unt('d arohccan. ' The porphyries and proHahly tlv liranltes of NJissouri arc iintpiostioiiahly of eruptive (vriijii). Both tho field and petro- ifrai>kioai evjdonoc m su[)i)ort ■eif this propositii^n lias hoen irreatly inoreased sinoe June, 1SS8. The interestiwiT relations hetu eon tke porphyries and gran^ Jtes have been .studied in detail in several looalities. At present positive statements oannot he made, hut it seems prohahlc that tlie granites and por|)hyries belons: to one and the same eruptive mass. The ftranite areas are quite small, some of then\ n^easurinir on^y a fraotion of a mile in diameter while others are three or four miles. The lioundaries be- tween the two ro -ks \voro \racod in ditF(>ront i)laoes, and hand sp?;'iineiis caroiully taken foi petroirraphio >tud\ . All the evidence <:all'.ore(J fav(\rs Hie view advaneed ai»ove. In the .\nuM-i(Mn ( M'n]()iii>t. \'(5l. 1. p. L>'.iO-i>:»l, the uriter has fi<)furod (mmM liii eiilarijfoments of feldspar crystals in the ijranito, i\nd explain<'d this secondary urowth by supposinir that the o.nlar the same sfeneral class observed in frairniental rocks ])V dif- ferent workers, especially by Irving- and Van Hise.3 It seems to the writer that the examples produced l>y Prof. Judd from Mull, in the Western Isles of Scotland, Jire so dis- similar to the Missouri specimens that it is unsafe to class them together. His is a Lahradorite-cuidesite with large por- phyritic crystals of labradorite, and a g-lassy base. The Mis- souri specimens are from a fairly well crystallized granite: on(^ having- idiomorphic crystals, it is tru(>, but which is very far removed from a rock with a glassy base. Judd's idea is that "the g-rowth of crystals of felspar and quartz goes on, at the expense of a more or less vitreous matrix, long after the solidification of the rock," etc. Neither the field work nor the laboratory work on the Mis- souri crystalline rocks is completed. The writer will hold himself ready to alter his views on any of the subjects, or to entirely abandon them, should subsequent evidence demand it. THE NATIVE FOOD FISHES OF IO\A/^A. RY PROF. SKTH K. MEKK, \I. S- iAtstract.) In the waters of Iowa, including- the Mississippi River along her eastern border, are found about one hundred spe- cies of fishes, of these about thirty-six are usually found in our markets, and are regarded as food fishes of more or less value. About eight of the remaining species are large enough for food, but for various and just reasons, have no market See Bull. 8, U. S. G. S. and Am. J. Science, (3). 30. 233, 35. ■MK>.K-"S.\ 1 1\ K roOl) TISTIKS OT 1<)W\. Tj!!* vnln \ Im some tlio (\vsh is \nnn\ toiijrh JHkI rank llavorcd, M-Iiil(> ill others It is dry, tasteless tnul fiiU of very small hones, Amoii',' such ar(> the .•^hovel-nosed sturireon, tlie v the same person. The reiHiiiniii;^ species are aHl smaU, and whih' dh-cs to^'^^ther with a few notes as to their dislrihiition in our waters, their habits and their value as ijood fish's. DL'tailed dcsi'riptioiis of all the fishes ei\un)lade which overhauirs th^' broad terminal snout : it iiiiiabits only the larir^M- strc^ams of the Mississippi l)asin. In this State specimens are oceassionally taken from t!ie ( 'edar River, the Iowa River, the Missouri River and from the Mississippi River. It no doubt inhal)its all of the larirei streams of the State. Fishermen on the Mississippi River find it more com- mon in the fall and tlien in bayous. It liv(\s chiefly on small forms of animal life which it stiis uj) from the mud with it.'* Ions: snout. This remarkable fisli attains a lenu-th of six feet and is but little esteemed for food. i[f IOWA ACADKMY OF SCIENCE-?. Family 2— ACIPEMSERIDiE. 2. Acipensei riibic ujidus iji Sueur. I^nke Stui'Ljeoii, Ruck Sluigcdir, Til is HpocioS' may he known from tho shovel-nosed sturo-eoira by the |)resence of spiraeles, the suh-eonie snout and by the tail Avhich is not depressed nor eompletely mailed. This- s[)e('ies is common in the Mississippi Ri^•er in, the sprino-,. rather scarce at other times of the year. 1 have no positive record of its being taken in streams within the state, yet it no doubt inl>abits them. It reaches a k'ngtli of six feet and is a fairly good food fish. Famify 3— SILURID^. 5. /tfa/nr us f itrcat us; (liw. 3.w\ Vaf. Chuckle 1 leaded Cat, This species may be known f)y its deeply forked tail, and h)ng anal fin, the latter with thirty-two to thirty-five rays. This species is not common in the state, and is fcnind only in tli(^ larger rivers. It reaches a length of t^vo and one-half feet and is the best food fish in the family. Jctalui us punctatus, Rafinesque. Channel Cat, Silver Cat. This species difl'ers from the above in having twenty-four to thirty rays in the anal fin. It is conmion in all the streams and the larger bodies of water in the state. It is. larger than the preceding, and as a food fish is not distin- guished from it. 4, Ainciu) us niLnicam. I.eSticiir. This s})ecies is distina'uished from the othei- Amciuri by having a forked tail, and from the two preceding it can be recogniz(^d by its more robust form and darker color. \ know of no s[)ecimens of this s[)eci(>s being taken in this state except fnmi the Mississippi Ilivei-. It no doubt inhal)its the larger streams. This is the largest cat-fish found in the state. 8[»ecimens of immense size used to be taken from the Missis- sippi River, some said to weigh two hundred pounds. At pres- MKKK-NATIVF. FOOD FlSHl.S OF IdWA ,1 out one is seldom taken icaeliini;- :i weiiilil of sixty ixtmids. It is a o-ood lood (ish tlioiio-li its lleslj is rather toiii:!). S .lijuiunis luitii/is, l>t- Sueur. ^■cll(.luC'at. The tail is not ioi-ked in this species and the rollowini;- spe- <'ies of t!ie u'eniis. Anal i'a\s t\\ cnty-ronr to 1 wenty-six ray>. I liavc eoUeeted hut one specimen ot this s[)eciesin the State; it was taken from Indian Creek neai- Marion. This species attains a hMii^tli of t\vel\e to fifteen inches. Jt fi'eipients slni:;i>ish streams and still bodies of water, 'ilie lari^-e head and small body i)revents this s|)<'cies as well as the two fol- lowiin>- from cNcr heini;' used extensively as a food fisli, all rank fairly well as food tislies, especially when jiot taken from warm stagnant pools. 6 .liiu-iunts iicl'iilosiis, Lc Sueur. Hull Utad, Horn I'out. .\iial rays twenty-two, similar to the precedin^ii:. This tish is very tenacious of life. It is common every wliere in the State yet less so than the followinti-. Length twelve inches. 7. Aiiu-iu) us niclas, Rafinesciue. Small 151ack Cat. Aiud rays eighteen to twenty. Found with the iirecedinir from which it not distini;ii!shed hy fishermen. >. Laptops iu null ii, Kalnic-quc. Mud Cat, Flat llca.i ( al. This is the largest of the cat tislu's excei)tul. niijri'amt. from which it may I)e di>t inguislu-d hy its flat head and shorter anal fin. .\nal rays twelve to fifteen. It inliahits tlie larger stretmis of the State and is less common in the Missis.sip[)i River than in former years. It reaches a weight of !^eventy-tive pounds, hut seldom one is fonnd at present which reaches half this weight. .\ very good food tish. I-amily 4— CATOSTOM ID-(E. llie Suckers. <.). Ictiohus cvpiiiu-Hii, Cu\ . ami \ al. Common IJuftalo Umi. This species may he distinguished from the other buHalo fishes b\- its thin lips, laige teiminal month, whii-h is pro- rS f(»\v'A ACADK.M-S Of SCTF.SCT.S'. ir.'ictihlc ft>r\v;iv(l. It inhaWits still water and i^^ seldom faumt ill the river euvrents. Very eouunoii in baywus. Jt iis exten- sively used as Ji fwod foh, thou<>li its tiesh is rather eoarse and full of small boucs. It freqiieixtly reaches a weight of thirty pounds, io. ictiobiis Iff us, Ag;abaz. Razor Backed Baftalo. Kn<.)\vn by the thin lips- and the sub-iiiferior mouth whieh- is protruetible downwards. It is very similar to the preced- ing, and more frecjueiitly found in t!u- river eurvent. I^ength •about two and one-half feet. M. Jctichts bubal us^ Rahiifsqiie. SuiaU Mo«tl>etI Bnftalo. Lips thick and sucker-hke, mouth sul)-inferit)r» Commoit in Mississippi River, less frequently taken in bayous. It reaches a length of two and one-half feet and is usually more abundant in the market than any of the l)uftalo fishes.. 12. Cvcli'pius flciv^atus, Le Sueur. Black Horse, Miisoari Sucker. This species is known l)y the very long head, pointed snout and small eye. Not ery ahundant in the State. It reaches a length of two ivv\ and is not re<>-ardod as a val- uahle food fish. It is found usually in cleai" water. l-amiiy 5— SALMONIDiE. The Salmons. 17. Sii/7't-/iiiiis fi>n/iii<7/is, Mitchill. Brook Trout, .Speckled Trout. On May, 14, 1 S-Sil, a sj)e('imen of this spceies was taken from Mad Creek, Museatine, Iowa. I am also informed by Mr. Minott, a well known hunter and tislicrman on the Cedar ]{iver, that they used to l)e found frequently in a small tribu- tary of the Cedar River, near Mt. Vernon. At present but few are taken in Iowa and these are stragglers from farther north. I do uot know of other salmon being taken in Iowa. As a food fish the brook trout ranks among the very best. Family (.— ESOCIDi^. Tiie Pikes, i'^. /-'.SOA 7;-i iinni/iitiis. Lc Sueur. Little Pickerel. This species is known from the other pikes of this region by its entirely scaled cheeks and opereles. Jt is (juite com- mon in this State. It attains a length of twelve to fifteen in- ches. Its Hesh is excellent, l)ut its small size makes it a food tish of little imi)ortance. •' It delights to quietly loiter in the shelter of the pads of the pond-lily and in the shadows of the den.se masses of Potinnocjcton, a few inehes below the surface of the water. Motionless, in sueh situations, it awaits the [Pkoc. I. \. S , iS37-g.j 7J [February 2S. 1890.] IOWA ACADEMV OF SCIKiVCF.S. comiiio- of the unwary minnow, wIrmi, (]ui('ker than thoug'ht, it dart.s upon its prey, and. while you look sinks slowly from sioht. There is no apparent motion of fin or tail, but ere yon realize it, the ravenous l)eaut}' is ijone. Its eominir to the- siirfaee is as motionless and unex])eeted." — Call. 39. /^sox /uciiis, Linn.'eus. Pike, Noithern Pickerel. This speeies is known l)y the half ])are opereles and by be- ino- light spotted on a darker back gi-ound. The hal)its of this species are similar to the preceding. It attains a length of four feet and is one of our very best food fishes. It is a favorite game fish and many :ire caug^ht each year by anglers in the lakes in this state. 20. Ilsox nohilior, Thomp.son. Mtiskallunge. This species is known by the absence of scales on the lower half of the cheeks and opereles and by being dark spotted on a lighter back ground. The muskallunge reaches a length of six feet and attains a weight of over eighty pounds. It is one of the most voracious of fishes and decidedly ganiey. They are found only in small numbers. Specimens are occa- sionally taken in the Mississippi Kiver. The head of a large specimen taken from the Skunk River, near Ames, is in the Iowa Agricultural C'ollege Museum, others are said to have been taken from the same place. This species is not always distinguished from the i)receding. It is an excellent food fish. Family 7— ANGUILLID/E. The Kcls. 21. Angitilla lostrala, Le Sueur. C'oninivjn Amei ican Eel. The common eel is found in all the larger streams of the State, though it is not abundant anywhere. As a food fish it ranks well. Family 8— CENTRARCHID.'E. The Sun Fishes. 22. Poinoxis sparoides, [>acepede. Calico Bass, Grass I>ass, Crappie. This species is ver}' abundant near Muscatine. It is usually called crai)pie and usually not distinguished from the lattm- ■An'VK"K-"N.MlN K FOOD TISIIKS OF KWA. (^ h\ the fishcniicn. It ran he l(i](] from olhcr suii-fislic- in thi> Stato by the prc^stMU-e of .seven or eiatche'loi, Sew l.ii;lil. Ai>parentl_v much less a))undant tiian tlie former, from wliich it difffers ciiiefly In color aaid -one h'ss -th of aU(Hjl Iwchc iMches and is w o-(>ovi\ie. 'GTeeii Smii 1'~i>1\. 27. Le/kvi/is ni(-gh •2S. I.cpoiiiis l^aUidiis, Mita'iill Hkie Sun Fish, 2r). [.epeinis gibhostts, l.iiin,vu>. Common Sun Fish, I'lmipki n^ord. These four species are found throufifhout the State, the lasl beiuji" llic more ai»un but their sni.ilj size prevents them from being important food fishes. 3". Aficrc/'li-ius Johviiirn. I.accpede. Small Moutliet! Klack Bass. 31. Afiirn/iti'jiix uiliiniidi-s, l.acepede. Large Mouthed i;\ack l>ass, Oswei^o liassv 'i'hese two species are perhaps our best game fishes. 'IMieV are found in consideralile nnnd)ers in the rivers and lakes of the State, one seems about as abundant as tlic other. Tlu'y grow about thesan\e size, seldom (wceediiig a weight of cliiht pounds. The small mouthed bass is a dull olive green, the vouni: with ci-oss bars. The lari^-e mouthed is liirhler with 7()' IO\VA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCKS. usually a broad dark lateral hand. As food tislics botli arc aiHoui:- our hcsl. Family 9-PERCID^. The Fevcne<. 32. Perca flavcscfiis. Milchill. \"eil(.« IVrch, Ringe.l Verch. This species is (juite coninion iti this State ospeeialiy in some of our uorthei'n lakes. It seldom reaches a leus'lh of fifteen inches. It is a a"<><'d i>ame fish. Its small si/e j)ievents- its beini;- an important food fisli. 33. Slizostrdioii -i'itmtni . Wall Kvfsl I'ike, jack Salmon. This species is one of our most inii)ortant food tishes. It is-- taken in lavi>-c numbers every year in Spirit Lake and in our laro-er streams. It is an excelhMit iu>tiis x> iiii'iii'iis. Rafines<|ue. Frf>h Water Drum, Cniake!'. This species attains a length of two feet or mor(» but is a food fish of inferior ((uality. NOTES ON THE NATIVE FOREST TREES OF EAST- ERN ARKANSAS. BY PROF. R. F.LLSWOR IH CALL. (Abstract.) During the summei-s of 1 Iron M(timt;iin R:iili-<»:i(l iiikJ jiortli of the Arkjiiisas KiNcr. These oi-iiiiiial notes, tlm> made, have been cheeked by various fraiinuMilary puhlieations, I'hief of which are those by ]*rot'. Leo Les(]U(!icaux.* IVof. F. L. Harvey, t Dr Charh's S. SarirentJ and Dr. (ieoriic Kn: to habitat and, further, by the <]uestiouahle identification of certain forms. These causes of error could not well have ))een axoided, however, since the observations included in tlie report were made under j^reat limitations of time, havins^^ been com- menced in the month <»f ()ctoI>er and ended in December. It is understood that neither flower nor fruit w^as accessil)le in many instances and thus it happened that on the most trivial general characters alone, plants includmij trees, were credited to the flora of Arkansas that have not since been seen by any observer. \\'it!i respei-t to the otlici- references, little newl be said, more than that they are ij:<'i>erally (juite accurate and afford valualile and reliable information for the State i>-ener- ally. Little, howevei-, can 1» • irleaned from them cxce[)t in a most iifeneral way, resjx'clinir the trees of the area limitefl above. It is hoped to conti'ibute, herein, a little specific in- formation based upon careful and extended observation, par- ticularly of every county from Helena north to the Missouri line and west of the St. Fnineis River. * "Recent Botany and General n'strihntion of the Plants of Arkansas," in Second Report o! the Arkansas Geological Survey for the years 1859 and iSho. (Philadelphia i860), pp. 146-399. t " The i-'orest I'rees of .\rkansas," (Cincinnatii, 1883, heing a reprint irom the .\merican Jour- nal of I'orestry, lor June and July, 1883. J Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. IX. "The Forest Trees of the United States," i.\V.ash- ington 1884.) ** Transactions of the .\cademy of Natural Science of St. I.ouis, Vol. III. No. -„ p. 371, f/ se;. (187O). and \'ol. III. No. 4. pp. ;8; and 5<- the his-t decade only has nmeh been dooe l)y the haixl of niau toward the removal of this- vast forest, hut s$> suited ai)pear to be the soils and climatic- conditions to the i^reat development of an arboreal flora that even in those i'e<:ions once practically ch^ared of the forest, there is now a rank g-roAvth of the common forms of hardwood trees; the cleared pine areas, too, g-ive promise of future val- uable forests. So that Arkansas is still, practically, a forest covered State. As a whole the State may l>e divided rouiifhly into two prime areas, the irt'eater of wdiich may be denon>inated the lowlands. Somethin<»- more than one-half of the total area of the State will be included in this division. The renuiining section comprises the Arkansas portion of the Ozark uplift,, which consists of numerous somewhat parallel ranges of high rocky hills or low mountains trending south of westward,, and which have a constantly lessening altitude as they are traversed at right angles or toward the south. To the east- ward the highland area is limited by the palaeozoic .scarp, which may l)c, for our pur[)os('s, indicated by the course of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Railroad. The total area above sea level is oidy about eight hundred square miles or little morc^ than one and on(^-half per cent, while by far the gTeater portion of the State will fall ])elow four hun- dred feet elevation. This higher portn)n has a large number of interesting trees and shrubs, some of which are peculiar to it, but lying witliout the area [)ersonally examined, is with- out the iH'oper scope of this papcM-. Attention may, however, be called to the fact that very many of the loulaud trees pen- etrate far within this hilly country but keep in the main, along the valleys of the larger streams — the Arkansas, the Little Red, the White and the Black Rivers. This is espe- cially true of the cyi)ress, sweet gum, willow-oak, over<'up- oak and post-oak. C.M.T.— "XAVIVK TOKI-sr VKKKS OY KASIKKN AKXANSAS. 7'9 Vin- the i)iiri)os('> (if this skclch cnstcni Arkansas may ho ^•<)nsi(l('^(>eo]<><»-ic fea- ture of the ari'a. 'l\\v soils are ireuerally stitV and clayey, sometimes c<)ntaininrietly. about as fol- lows: Deposits of ((uatei'uary age ca|) it. the hess being the chief i)etrographie fc.'ature of the southern lialf. This lacust- rine or rtuviatile terrane lies directly upon a gi-avel l)ed. of varvinir thickness, which is believed to be correlated piojierly with the Orange Sand gravels. Following this inemiter are vari-colored cross-bedded, and sometimes indurated, sand- stones and <-lays of tertiaiy au'c. the lowest strata y<'t (.!)- served bein-j- Focenc in a-je and beloniring to t!ie Claibornian. ii(t (OWA ACADKMV Of SCI FACES. These tertiarv str;it:i oiit-t-rop in the rjiviiics throu^-hout the ridge wherever erosion has removed the ([uaternarv deposits. and also, in a measure, may be seen throuirhout tlie ridge at its foot, partieuhirly along the eastern portion of the south- ern half and the western portion of the northern half. Aside^ from the Iffiss deposits the soils of t!ie ridge are noted for th<^ amounts of silieious matter, ineluding sands which they eon- tain, and for the paucity of lime in the form of the carbonate. Except in the cas<' of the pine — Pinus mili.s — the tree flora does not respond, in an^' certain measure to this chemic con- dition of the soil. The ridge is botanically interesting as fos- terinsf the orowth of a few tree-forms found nowhere else in the State of Arkansas, though al)undant in other .States in similar and likewise in diverse soils. Of the Comferre only the short leaved pine — Piiiufi mttis — and the cypress occur. North of the Arkansas Prof. F. L. Har- vey reports the occasional occurrence of the "old-field pine" — Pinus tfvda — but it is confined mainly to the suital)le areas south of that stream and is never conspicuous north. Only the common short leaved form may be seen at any point north of Helena. In connection with this form it may l)e observed that the distribution of trees in eastern Arkansas is deter- mined more by the general uniformity of soils and topo- graphic features [)resented than by any niarked differences in climatic influences. This species is found mainly, on sandy or gravelly ridges and is confined almost solely to the high- est portions of Crowley's ridge, though small areas, as narrow sti'ips, are found along the White River, l)ut mainly south of the latitude of St. Francis County. North of that latitude the pines do not, as a rule, descend to the bottom lands at all. On these highest ridges there is a thin covering of quater- nary soils, mixed with varying quantities of tertiary sands and clays. It is, as a whole, a highly silieious sod, of no possible agricultural value when the forests shall have been iTAM.—NA IKVK KOKKS 1 IKI IS oF KASTKRN ARKANSAS. S) <<)U('v r('tii(i\(*(l. ( 'I'ou iiiiii: :i> it (Joes the lops oi' these hiiiliot, ricli;»'> ( !ic piiic /.(»iie, in t liis ixM-tion of A i-|<;iiis;is, i- comitrix-d A\itliiM a single narrow strip of (• Jlian one-half l(t t hree-fc.urt hs of a niih' w i(h'. lhonL:!i in wlev"s Jvidac permits of a series of somewhat parallel i-ido-es the top< of which arc often crownc*! with pines. At sncl» place- the zone ma\ wid<'n to two or ovoii thi'ec miles. So ijreat haxc Ijeeii the inroads on the })inesof this narrow 1)elt that C()ni[)arati\ cly little of niarketahle \alne now ic- mains and that little is difficult of ac< ess, beinu, for t he most pai't, far j-emov(>d from railroads. The top()i!frai)hy of the i-id-er swamps and the supplies for shin.iil(> and other uses have been obtained chietlv aloni: their nnir^inx. The tree is one of eompara- ^2 roWA ACAr/KMV OF SCfK.NCKS; tivcly r:i|)id unAvth and attention to the laws of foivstrv wi'l'l render forever valuable a ijfryat portion of eas>tern Arkansas useful for no other purpos<^ The specie* is a lii>-ht loviuii" tree, that is to say, the erown must have the full forre of the- iiobt and heat of the sun. No niattin" then how soniher the shadoAVS that enshrine its trunk it will thrive. Uy one stand- ing on the hi<>her portions of the face of Crowley's Ridii(^ whence a stretch of country full sixty miles in width may Ix- commanded, the cy\>ress patches and .zones ntay he e^asily dis- tini,^uished as dark irreeii islets or even Indts which tower far above the surroundinii- forests. The size tittained is often very <>r<-:it occasional s])ecimens having- been noted by the writer over seven fe<>^t in diameter. Aside friMU the niaini- factuve of s^hinofles the chief use to Aviiich the lumber is put is in fence Imildinii-, for posts^, its power of resistance to the action ()f water being- very irreat. The tree of present chief value in eastern Arkansas is the white oak — Quercus alba. It attains a veiy great size on Crowley's Kidge and is, beyond (juestion, the largest tree there growing. It extends, also, into the ))ottom lands of the Anguille and Cache Rivers, on the west. On the east of the ridge, in the bottom land of the lower St. Francis com- paratively little white oak occurs, it being there replaced by the "over cup" and "cow odk^^ —Qupraus Jyrata and Quercus micheauxu — together with other less useful forms. Many specimens occur on(i hundred and thirty to ouv hundred and forty feet in height and five to six feet iu diameter. It once constituted the glory of the eastern forest but the richest areas have V>een thrice c\it over and the most of this valuable timber is gone. The use to which this timber is })ut is chiefly in the manufacture of staves for whiskey and alcohol barrels, and for exjjort, much of the product being made into barrels, which are then "knocked down" and shipped to Europe. Their use abroad is understood to be for wine C.M.l— NATIVK T(M balance allowed to decay. Stave mills and factories, for both rou_<>U and tinished pro- of eastern Arkansas i.» the sweet t'-nm, or LJ(jiitil(iii)hrr sfi/nififJiut , which abounds throughout the low country. Occasional speeiniens were noted in the St. Francis liottoms, the diameter of which ex- e(>eded six feet, while in Craiiihead County, trees of five feet diameter were common. 'Iliis species is probably the most beavitiful of the nati\e forest trees of the south. The live- l)ointed, star-like, leaves, crowdino- the branches and stems, even to within a few feet of the oround, r deiri'ee to which it warps or twists in dry- iai^ renders it untit for very many purjjoses to which its texture admirably adapts it. It is, however, Iarir<'ly used for h(" made from this species. The wood takes a hiiih jjolish aud maintains well it^s positiou as ^i rival to cherry. Two species of forest tretw, one t>f <>Teat economic value the- othci- of none, occur on Crowley's Kid_<>-e aud (me of them is. found nowhere else in the State. These are the so-called "•yellow pophir" — Linodendron fulijnfera — and the Ameri- can beech — Fagus ferruginea. The iirst, the tuiip tree^ occurs throuirhout Crowley's Kidf^e,.alon<>' its l)ase on either side. XotM'ithstandinii- that inuncnse (piantities have l)ee!B removed and sold in northern ntarke^ts under the name of '•[)o|)}ar" and "yellow poplar" immense (juantities are still standing-, es]>ecially in sections somewhat removed from the railroads. It is a noble tree, often one hundred feet hi«-h and with its oreat trnidv extendini>-, fre(juently with slioht variation in diameter and devoid of branches, for forty to sixty feet, is peculiarly valuable for many economic uses. I do not know how or wlw the tulip tree came to be called a poplar. It is one of the Magnohareau while the poplar pro- per belonops to the Sahcacem — two families botanicalh" far removed and utterly unlike. But by the name of "pophir'" it has long- been known in eastern Arkansas and will so be known, probably, so lont>- as suificiently abundant to attract attention. The beech, of which no use is nnide except for firewood, is found on both slo[)es of Crowley's Hidoe and occasionally, thouidi sparin \:\1.1.-^t-.K'n,()i;V OF KAS'IV.KN .\kK.\N.->.\.S. .s,» ;'(M-()ll(>cti(ii)s of m\ lt()\lu)i»() diivs Mi-c too iiidrlinitc lo Ix-rcr- Tlicsc i;(M»cr:il Holes w err f()llo\V('s('r\(*cl ill wliicli were li-ivcii notes on size, ahund.iiK-e, otanicaJ rehitions of the area need a thoroniih •siftiui; and pr^nnise a licli ;tie]d t(» \\hoe\('r sjiall nnd<'rlake the stud\. ON THE GEOLOGY OF EASTERN ARKANSAS, in I'KOF. K. KI.I.SWOK f n (.Ali i'his paper \va>> a euntinnation anil iwtension of the one presented at the meeting- of I ^S.S, niid like it was based on thetield work done under the auspices of the Arkansas (reo- !o,i>i<"iil survey. The area studied was much more extensive than that reported on in the i)recedini>- y(>ar. The ijeiieral re<»i()ii examined is all tliat portion of the .State which lies east of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railroad and north of the Arkansas River. The fi'oion particularly examined extends from Helena north to ■he Missouri State line, included a particular study of the licoloirical formations seen in Crowley's Ridae and souaht to <'onnect these terranes with those of similar -.x^xv in other por- tions of the State. The more obvious fact> iileancd durinir the field investiii-ations are the followinuf: 'I'he eastern half of the State of Arkansas is included within an area which, until coinparati\ cly recent liCoIoeicMl time, was entirely sul)incr<»:i'd under a northward extension of the (iulf of Mexico. l{eachini>' away southwestward from near the mouth oi the Ohio River, in a nearly direct line, this old [Pk.ic. I. A. S . i'!-!7-;. I 85 [March 0. 1800.I ^ii IX) trati- irraphic niul pctrouraphi ■ ralln'r lli.iii upon pala'oiitoloLjir ilifcrous (li\i>- ions, cxccpl ill thai whicli is tcut.itivcly, luTciii, dciioiiiinatcd till' Ostrca l)c(l. and the ahsolulc doart Ii of such ivinaius in most of the strata lit iKtlo^ically rcco^ni/cd as Koccnc tertiary precludes a classiti'-alion based upon thoii-fauiial contents. As has been above indicated the fa( ies of the fauna which has been collect'd and studied ajtMears to necessitate tjje corj-ehi- tiou of the lowest l)eds with the ClaiboiMiian . To sum up the strati^raphic oi' ireoloijic jiistory t>f ("I'ow- ley's Ridue and with it that of the reirion of which it f(»rnis u <'()nsiderable topoii'i'iiphic feature it may be said that tlie rid,ir<* is the remains of a former extensive jjlateau, the western limit of which was the i)aliVo/oic scarj) of middle Arkansas, as noted above. That erosion occurred fi-om the M'ost, l)y the; waters which ai'e now i-epreseuted by the \\'hite Kivei- and other streams, to which, nearly at the northern boundary of the State, the Mississippi ad(h'd enormous vohimes of water, either continuously or periodically. These did their work so completely that the whole of the country between Crowle}'':^ Ridsre and the paheo/oic rocks on the west has been lowered and carried away except where a few^ unimportant secondary ridijes, such as that at Auo'usta, in Woodruff County, remain to bear witness to the past former height of the whole coun- try, 'i'o the. eastward the Mississi})pi was enirant Mississippi bed is but the merest pigmy, lint while it dug its valley wider it also dug it deeper. \or has the retilling which foi' ciuituries has been occurring yet brought the eastern level u[) to that west of Crowley's Ridire. Dui-ing tli" jirogress of denudation, t!ie whole southern basin of the Mississijipi was slowly sinking, til" tiulf traveled northwards, until ('r(»wlev"s Hidire became ^8' U) WA ACA [ > F M r () r SCTV.SCKS. entirely sumerucci while the silt laden Nvaters whieli caiiK" slowly rtowinii- frcMU the north (le])()si,tecl tlieir Uurciens as the great hlaiiket of hess the remains of which caps it tli()r<>ui!h- out nearly its entire leniith. Then canu' tlxe time of coiiti- nenttil resurrection s^ince which }>eriocls the ri\ crs and their trihutaiT creeks and l>rooks aided by frost, w ind and rain, have reconinienced the wtwk of destruction, the task, of the removal of Crowley V Kidge. The !^m"faee soils- of the region are i-oughly di\ isil)le into two groups, each one of which maintains well its chief fea- tures in all sections. To the (^ist of t!ie ritlge and in, the val- ley of the L'Anguille the sm-face soil is a rich l^lack loam. such as is usually found on lands sultject to overHow and which may stand as the type of t!ie first grouj). The culti- vable soils in the St. Francis-Mississippi hottcMus are detjpei" and i-ieher than any other locality, hut they are limited to, comparatively speaking, small areas and these are ridge-like in their distrilmtion. In the I>'Anguille bottom the area of black loamy soil is not only a minimum but is also l(>ss in depth, rarely exceeding two or three feet at most. This "•roup of soils on both sides of the ridge is remarkal)ly pro- ductive, but, since they are in both sections und(!rlaid — gener- allv on the west but only locally soon the east of the ridge — with a limonitic clay or "'buckshot" hardpan which in many places comes ((uite to the surface they have a defective drain- 'Ao-e. While these lands produce ;d»undantly certain cereals, such as oats and less abundantly corn, they give but light yields of the staple of the region which in common with all the south is cotton. The yield of this product is usually about one-half bale to the acre. The ridge soils are the type of grou[) two and are the least adapted for cultivation profitably. They are usually light colored, reddish or yellow predominating, and always nioi-e or less sandv, though in niany localities they are stifl" with r.\n,-r,i-,()i,(n-,v (H- r.\si r.kN aukansas. ,s5I n)>iiii(l:inl cliiv. W'hci'cvcr llic ii;iti\ (• dense iiT:i--es or ol !ier \'ei;'et;it i(»ii is reiiKiNcd ill" soils w.isli badly and sin -e the slopes of th- i-idij-e are pre-i pitoils s()<»!l ViTV I ll'i:'!' liMlllie^ are loiMued, \v!iic!i in time i^rou into e.\len-ive ra\ ine- or e\eii (le(>i) <-anon-like einl)a_vments. Nevert liel(>s> tli-.M' soil< yield a lair retmai to earel'nl Imsl.andry, i>iit are liable to sjx'edy I'xlia list ion, a condition due to tli'.' li-enerally prevalent method oi farininu". •> lu'tliod wliieh does not eoiitemplate rotation (tf (•rojis as one of its iearlinu" j)riiieipl"s. These soils will pro\<' permanently \alual)le only tlirouiih the Li-reatest care and a eomplete ehan'i'e in tlie met liods of <'ulture no\v in Noiine. To the second uroup of soils beloni;-, also, all those lands which lie alonu" the slopes of therid the products of erosion and are lar<:-ely com- posed of the he^sian clays wdiieh cap the ridii'e. 'I'hcy are iicnerally miniiled with much sand and oecasional pebbles from the e sands. They are ii"oii- erally deficient in lime, thouuh this defieieney could be easily remedied by the us(> of the extensi\e beds of calcareous marls w hieh are found in some portions of the eastern p:irt of the State, notably in St. Francis County. With a view to the detoi'mination of the value of certain of theses soils for a^-ricultural purposes the chemist of the sur- vey, Dr. K. \. Brackett, has made such analyses as are usual in determiniiiii" the actual value as far as this can be decided by the chemical study of the soil. A chemical analysis in itself, however, does not represent a verdict defimtive of the \ alue of a soil for farminii' purposes. Soils are very complex, the nuijor i)ortions of the elements cnterin2: into their con- stitution arc very small in quantities, and their fertility is dependent somewhat on the rate and completeness of the de- composition to which the niineral elements arc subject. The analysis then decides nothing as to its agricultural value save IH/ rovi'A ACAr)KM\' of' scr::.vcKS". ^vithi'n rather imri-ow limits. liiit it inav dccith^ (a) tfr.' afr- sence of some iiii})()rtant clciiK'nt or (h) th;' proseiicc of some- oioment deleteriou.s to i>laiit iirouth. Ana ly.sis of tho soils- of the rcitioii, it luay hr said i>-eii(M-all\', show that its (ailtiva- hlc area is comijosed of a soil e(MtlainiirL;- [/laiit fo(Kl in fair ahnndaiKH^ and in a tolerably s()]ul)h' condition: t'.iat its chief deficiency is lime and avai}al>le i)h()s|)horic acid : that the ridire soils are easily tilled and t!n-ifty w hen ww hnt |)os- sess little dural)ilit3' ; that, for the fntnre as ninv, t!ie best farminii' lands will be those that lie ahm^- the ucMitle slopes of the ridue. In this In'ief estini ite, of course, the rpcli alln- vinni of the overflowed regions is not considered, for from the l)re8ence of abundant deeoniMosino- nnd det'oniposed orij'anic matter, as well as Ix'cause of constant additions of Hue soil from other n^ij-ious, this ([uality of land is always fertili^ and easily tillable. There are no (>cononiic products of a distin-'tively ii-eoIoi;ic character to be foiuirl in northeast n-n Arkansas. There are no ores nor are tlru'c anv' dopo-iits of cod. Its al>uKlant Wix- nite is unavailable for fuel, tirst, b''au>' it is a rather [)()or variety of brown lignite, wit!i mu "Ii !iy .>tos -opic moisture and comparatively little volatile m dter and a minimum of Hx;'d carbon, and second, because its sti'ati:rraphi;- r(d dions to ovcr- lyino- and underlyino- soft (days are such as to render its min- ing' difficadl and ex])ensi\-e. BEGGIATOA ALBA AND THE DYING OF FISH IN IOWA. nv i'ROF. L. H. PAMMI'.r,. UV IKVll llsl.l.> IM KAVA. \)l ».)rjX.niic luatlcr coiitaiii '<| in the \val;'i', l»iil also I.) the iri'owth of a iuior()-or<>"auisiu. Tli' water Ik'Idw tlii' glucost; and stirch works al the alKuc phici-s coulaiiiccl lai-irc (luaiititics of a urcvisli L;('lalinoiis suh-taiicc. In iuicros('()|)ica] cxainiu- utioii lliis was found to (-(Mitaiii lar^-c lunuhcrs of putrefactive bacteria, hut especially coiiinioii was Be'(datin()ns masses were wasljed away and caused little trouhle for the rest of the .season.' SOME FUNGOUS DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES IN IOWA. 1;Y I'KOK. 1.. H. I'AMMK!,. iAbstract.\ \.V.\y r.LlOUT OFTilK I'EAll. ENTOMOSl'OUir.M MA(a LATTM LK\ , Last sunnner while investio-atinir a cotton disease in Texas, Mr. R. 1). Bhicksliaw caUed n\y attention to a disease among some of his r^e C'onte [)ear trees. This was in the hitter part of June, the lea\ (^s were falling ra|)idly and of some all had fall(Mi. Since then new leaves and flowers have heen pro- duced. On returning to Ames I found that many of the seedling pear trees in the (u'chard were affected in a similar way. The disease was (»s[)e 'ially had in the nursery. With t he e\ee])tion of some of t !i(> Chines;^ peai's every variety in the orchard sut1"ered more or h'ss. Nearly all of th(> young trees set out hy Captain Speer in tlie expi'rimental orchard of the ex[)erimental station lost most of their foliage [)rematurely, regardless of variety. The I — The reader i< rererred lo Dr. Kennedy's paper in July i5ull. Iowa State Board of Health. i53o. for an extended account. For an account of the I'fe history, Zoof. "Die Spiltpilze," 1884, p. - ■: l>e Kary, •■V'orl'isungen uh-r Bacterien," Knjlis'i trnnsKtion Garnsey and Balour, p. ;rf ; VUiui^f! M ikro-organisnien. p. 39'^, Warming, Oin nogl,- ved; Danmarks Kepter leoende; Bacteri' r in Vilc-nsk N'cddel Uer fr.i d. Naturhsi. Korenina, Copenhagen, 1S75; I''arlow Ma'ine .\ljac 01 New Kngl.md, p. 28 and p. 32; Colin, B; ira.;e, I Heft 3, p. 157, etc., etc. |r.;i)C. I. A. S. iS-^r-g.) ,,i IM-Jirch 10. iSoo.] li-j fo^vA AfA/>r.\:v or sen nci S'. disojij^c IS wtdcsprcad in hotii F>ur()|)(' and Aincrica.' iii Iowa it has Ix-c-u known fur sonic time as Dr. Ilalslcd writes nic, and orcurs in tliii'crcnt parts of tlie State. Mr. l>ea<-li sent some i;-ood material from Atlantic. in tliis abstract I cannot cntei" into the dcAclopment of the funi^us antl its life history nor is it necessary a-^ tliat is fi-ccly ,L{i\'en l»y authors cited in foot-notes, 'line sjjores, howe\ei, seem to \:\Yy con- sideral»l_\-. Mr. Kelsey, a special stndent in tl)e laboratory, foinid that a aood many lea\cs were, nnifovndy ltro^\ n, and that such leav(^s had an abnndance of black pustules inde[)en- dent of the spots, and in tiiese the spores were Sarii'er and much iK'tter develo[)ed than in the pustules found in tlic spots. Tile disease is known to occur on several species of Pi/rifs, {('i/(lonia, tncspPus), and on a closely related li'cnus (Jutoneaster. It is (juite trouljlesome at times on the fruit of the quince and pear. It also occurs on the ap[)le (Pi/fiis 4iialus), hut is not connnon. Amon-x a row of seedlini;- jx'ar trees in the colleo'c nursery a few ajipie tree seedlinits ha(5 accidently i>-otten in the leaves of th<'se antl th(\\ were also att'ected, thouo-li the fnuL>-us M'as found on no other trees on the Ci'ounds. Kxperinients with fungicides have not I>een nnide on the gnmnds, hut GallowayUias recently shown tliat the ai)plication of funiri<"ides at the [)roi)er time has pr lost theii- tolia,£ri' l>v the middh' of Anirnst, while others lost oidy a small proportion. Scarcely a variety is wholly exempt. The mahalel) had tlie hest foliaoc, hein^- attacked only to a slight deiii'ee and nsmdiy only on th(> lower lea\-es hy this funiiais, while it was entirely free frtri!uited it from New Jersey. Prof. Arthur^ foimd it very trouhlesome in New York and in his report has iriven quite a full account of it. Kellerman'' has distrihnted it from Kentucky. Mr. T. T. Eyon" finds it occurs on the follow- ing host.s : Pruntts (hnncstica, P. padiift, P. cfva.sus, P. amevi- cana, P. avmoniaca, P. pn-sica, P. serod'na. At Anie.s it has heen found most commoidy on the eultivated cherry. .Mr. Morris, a special stucUuit at the lal)oratory, found it on the 4 — Xonli American Fungi, Series II, Cent. XXIll. No. 2>8i. 5— New Vork .Aurituluiral hxperimcnt Scation, i836, p. 293. and 1887, pp 547, 3i" i> — North American Fungi, No. 1151. 7— Michi;,'an MortlcuUiir .st. VoK 1, i836, p. 134. 1)4 iowA ACAUv.y.v nf scn.xcf'.s. ;![)ri( ot, thona'h oiilv on a few leaves. Little seems to have been written about thi.s fungus. Prof. Arthur aav,. consid- erable attention to it but it was first deseril)ed by Karsten, ' ])ut I iind few European referenees. Pi'of. Peek' describcMJ the fungus a,s Septi>r>a rrras/iia. Some specimens of th» Iowa fung-ns were sent to ]Mr. Ellis who writes that lie com- pared it with Karsten's (Ji/lhvh-ospon'Kiu paili with whicli it agrees arid that UVM) of liis distribution is ai)[)arently the same thins:. T\\Q specimens on plum collected by Aitluu' are cer- tainly like the form on < herry only our specimens seem to be a little more vigorous. Arthur"- considers Septoria pruni Ellis, to be a synonym of S. rcra.suni. They are certaiidy much alike and I think it is safer to refer these S(pfona' to Cylimh'OHpovmm. padi Karst. The fungus may be l)rietly characterized as follows: Dull or red spots make their ap[)earaucc on the upper surface of the leaves in ^m\^ and July, later these beconu' brownish, and on examination of the under surface of the leaf a yellow- ish pustule is readily distinguished, ^^'hen mature, the e[)i- dcrmal cells become ruptured and a large number of coloi-lcss one-celled spores issue. The spcnes are borne on colorless vertical threads, and usually collect in whitish [)atches near the pustule. It is easily recognized by this character. Prof. Arthur considers this fungns to be connected with an ascosp(n-ic form, which he has not naujed A more detailed account of this stage was givtMi in his Sixth Report. The conidia do not germinate readily, sevcu'al media were tried but all j)roved unsuccessful. The leaves on the terminal shoots are usually affected worse than any of the others. In mahalel) the lower leaves on lateral branches are s[);)tted and diseased. S_K.ii^i'i:. >\i;. \!\' . 1.1, \ \' y 1=0. Si-' .irdo, Syilos;e, KiiiiKonni ni. p. 7-;S. SoraiiT, ll.m, n l\i Mi KMiiirii, > 1 I l. II, p. 424 Roiimegiiere, Fungi F.uropaei pre-ipac ,,ir ,\.:.,,ti. k.'vi." Msh,,1m-- pi.-, iSoS, p. IS. q— Twenty-N'inth Report New \\.tk State Mu-eum of Natural H story, p. 4S. 10— l.oc. ot . 1385, p. :/97. M' 1 1 INC. — NKMA'IOCYSTS. NEMATOCYSTS. HN I'ROI'. t . C. NL "I'lINC, M. S. Ao.s/ra,t; N(Mnat(>;-\ sts or ciiidocclls or ".stinniiiu- cells"" :i> they \\\\\v Ih'cii \ :iri()usl\- called, are fomul in many ( '(nloiftn-afcs and some Pld iKirid IIS. Three types occur in J Ii/(1y(i\ \\\\\\\v\x : First, small i)ear- ^haped : second, small oval with l()ii<; thread; tliird, flask- shaped \vit!i harhs, the latter oceiirin<>- also in JMfUtqxn'd and known as the Injilnnd type. In Piii/siiJtd drefhiisd they are found in head-like purple hodies which are arranii-ed alo'.iof the locomotor tentaclos and curled around them when retracted. These tentacles ai'e homoloii-ous with t lie '' tii-htinii' JL/(/r(c" of JIi/(lroiiir(/>is(('. The ncmatocysts are loimd, purple and i)r()ject a crimped tliread. \'ery complicated ncmatocysts o;-cur in certain corals, udta- l)ly /sdj//i////id t/qisdcid where they are found jiacked aloni;- oni^ side of tentacles which [)rotrude from the mouth of the coral. These laru'e and complicated ncmatocysts were doscrihed and experiments and ohscrxat ioirs reirai'diii'jf them related. The use of these cells was discussed, and the testimony of Agassi/, Dana, Tarr and (iosse to the fact that thcthi-ead penetrated the suhstances attacked, was o:iven. The testimony of Lewes and observations of tlie author were i^iven in op[)osition to the views of those who upheld that l)enet ration was necessary to efl'eetive use of iieniatoeysts. The author stated that the neniatoeysts of Phifsah'(f eovdd net oi- at least produce irritation lonir after tliey had heen eoni- pletely di-ied and presumably incapable of projectinir their threads. [I>R.K. 1. A. S.. iSS;- .] 95 |M.irch lo. 1889.) The author hi-hl that " water fleas"" when eoir.iiii;- in cori- taet with the tentacles of JL/h-rr were s-kloni kiih'd or even |)aralyz:ecl lev any leniith of time wvA t!iat t!iey often acted in the s-anu" Avay \vhen touclied l)y an\ unfamiliar ohj-ct. 'rhc difficulty of provokinuf a diseharife of nematocxsts hy nieehanieal stiuudus was meiitioned and ex{)erimeivts and observations on Hviuu- corals relaled. Tlu' author denied t'.iat tlie tlu'eads wcrc^ projected with li,i;-htninij--like rapidity, as statt^l l>y A'^-assi/. and others. The nuinner of projection was discnss;'d at sonte len.;th, and it was considered pro!>al>le tliat it was l>y partial ever- sion. The m(H-hai)isiii ol thescr cells was touched upon as o.Teriuir iuterestin,i>' meclianieal problems not yet solved. The iiematoe^sts are thoui;-ht to oriiiinate in the nucleus of eetodermal cells, and the author thouirht that scvei-al some- times originated in one cell. The ap[)arent absence of nen)atoeysts in GorffoHrhr was announced and the .systematic imi)ortanee of this fact insisted upon. (The paper was illustrated by sketches by the author.) THE FERNS OF MUSCATINE COUNTY, IOWA. I,V. PROF. F. M. WrrTF.R. •.Af'stract.) The followino- ferns have been lujted or collected by me in Aluseatine County. They are included in thirteen genera and twenty species: Adtantum pedatum, Aspidium aclirosticoides, Aspt'rlnon gold- ianuni* Aspidium thelypteris^ Aspidium spinulosum, Asple- nium felix-fcetnina, Asplejiium. angustifoUum^ AspJenium tlie- * 'Ihe correctness of this determination is somewhat questionable. — Kditou. IPkoc. I. r S., 1SS7-9.I 0 [NJarch 10, iSoo.) 0()Rl>ON-l'"OS .11, WOOD KKOM KKoKTK I.IMISIOM '.I ( hijitrroi'lcs, li()(fijcU!i(iii r/rtjf'iu'ciiHi^ ( '(iiitjilosoriis rjiizoiih ijUiix, ('i/.s((tpf('rls hnlhit'crd, (JijKtoplcris fr(t(/ili's, Oiioclcd st^iisfhi/is, (Jsinif}i(Ia c/(n//oiii(ni(i, Osinnii'la riamnmnni'a^ PJicrjopfcri'^ lii'X{iti(j)i()pli'v})fiiKit. PEARL BEARING UNI03. I'.V I'ROI-. V. M. Wll 11- R. {No Ahstracf.) NOTES ON A FOSSIL WOOD FROM THE KEOKUK LIMESTONE, KEOKUK, IOWA. \\\ I'kOK. C". H. C.ORnON. {Al'iiract.) Some years since a [)()rli<)n of supposed fossil wood was ob- tained from an eighteen inch limestone layer al)ont six or eio-ht feet helow tlie ( ieode Ix'd. It was s(>cure(| hy Mr. S. .). \\'ailaee and placed in t h(> rooms of tli(> Keokuk Lihi'ary Association. A hi-iel' mentiou was made of it in a letter lo the editors of tlr.' ^in/cr/'cf/ti p/oiinui/ of Science ami Arts, as noted ill t!io May issue of ISTS. It I'onsists of a "seetii)n ahout thre(> feet lon<>", one end of wliicli disappL'ars in the hank and tlit^ otlier a[)[)arently taken ofl" in qiuirryini:- years Ix'fore. It is flattened into a tliin coaly layer one-sixteenth to oae-sixMi of an inch thick and IwcKe inches across, and seems to l)e s;'[)aiMted hy pressure into two [)arts ajjparently not ((iiit" on the same plane." 'j'lio thittened layer of carhonaceous matter has hiriivly disappeared tliouah enouirh remains to show itsnatuvo, and the cast of the woody Hher in t!ie limestone is \vell marked. At one place a leaf s"ar is (piite ch'arly defined and at others small trans\erse ridires prohahly due to |)ressure. It [Pkuc. I. A. S.. i8S7-g| g7 [March lo, 1S90 J UX roW'A ACADKMV OF .scf k..vcf:». allows conrsoly tlic costiitc^ stru^'tare h [)r()l) i- l)ly distant and not continuous. As stated by Lesquereux tlie- flccovticated layers are (rf little if any speeifi' value, hut tlu!- fiet that, so far as we can learn, tliis f(>rni.:i,ti{)n his thus far proven destitute of land [)lants o-ives this ex un[)le peculiar interest and on this account a name may [)r()ve serviceable. We therefore designate it Siriilhtrki trallacii, in honor (>f it- tinder. CVAHJ^rACM. IKVKIZON AND L(K ALITV. From the Keokuk limestone six oi- eii>-ht feet bchtw the hase of the Geode bed; found in the t)lu{f just below the Keo- kuk and Des Moin(>s depot, Keokuk, Iowa. ON THE KEOKUK BEDS AND THEIR CONTAINED FOSSILS IN THE VICINITY OF KEOKUK, IOWA. l;V PKOF. r. H. GORDON. AltKA AM) THICKNESS. Outside the region covered by this paper, the most uotal)ie exposure of this formation occurs at Crawfordsville, Indiana, where its thickness is said to he two liundred and eiijhtyfeet. ' '-ioiitli of the Iowa line, exposures o''cur aloni^- the Missis- sip[)i in limited areas, and southwestward in ^lissouri, yield- iui>- most of the lead mined in that ren'ion. At Keokuk it consists of two well defined divisions — the lower or Calcareous and the upper or (icodc division. The Calcareous division consists of forty t(» sixty feet of limestone in varyini:' layers, with clay or shale parting's one to six inche:^ thick. About the middle of this division occurs a l)ure massive layer termed the "white ledge"" which furnished I — Aniefican tleologist, Vol. II, p. vT- [Pkoc. 1. A. S., 1887-9. I 9S [March 10, 1890.J r.oTiDON— Ki'.oxrK r;Ki»s AMI in:.iK contain ki > T'ossii.s. .*>!♦ "^hc stone fo]- tln' noted Moimhui tenipje Mt .\!in\<>(<. Some of those i.'iyers abound in chert. The ui>i)er division or (ieodc hr-d e(»nsists principally of 'ir lai'irest Lj-eodos. 11. Fine, blue saudv layei*. Rarely found. Se\t'n- teon species. PoteiiorriniJiv. Jhilocrinii.s ht- fjioiciffus Hall •') inche> 30. Soft gritty siiale that dcc feet !♦. Shale, moreealcareous. (rcodcslaru-er; occasional bai«l.-> of linu'stonc 2(» feet J. CALCAltKOlS DIVISION. •s. Limestone, hard in thin varial)le layers 2 feet 7. Shale, arijilla( eons 2 feet 0. Limestone; layers thin and chorty below. Dori/- <:re;r?/.s bed at toix'ontaininjy D. i}izssifisi'j)2Ufnsi's Roemer; BatocnwiK nashvilhe Troost ; B. hiturhiudtnn Hall ; Agarinooinus uoi-f/iFnt lii[]\ ; Barri/m'nxfi fitht '■.\. Shal", hard, calcareous, ap[)roachinr/o.sv/.s' Hall. St« Ills and [ilates of Eudadocvimis below. Fish remains ;> f ^ 1 1 1. Limestone in thin layers, ('lif-rty. LoMer tish btcl. PlalifceraK fi^^xurcUa Hall. PJafii'<>re£>-atini>- twenty feet. COIMIKLATION. The uppermost layer, No. 11, was discovered ;it a sinu'le locality by Mr. L. A. Cox. In its lit'.iolo^ical character as well as its fo?sil remains, it very much r 'sembles Wn crinoid beds of Crawfordsville. The most common forms in the cal- careous division at Keokuk ar3 wantini>- at Crawfordsville. We are disposed to consider the lower part of those ])eds con- sisting of twenty-five feet of shale as the C(pii\;;!eiU of th3 goedo bed at Keokuk. FOSSILS. The criiioids, the most prominent form, though not t!ie most numerous. One-half the Keokuk forms apjiear at Keo- kuk and about one-fourth at Crawfordsville. Braehijiods numerous, Spinfera and Prodnctiibc predomi- nating, ^lost interesting collections of ci-inoids made hy Mr. L. A. Cox and Mr. N. K. Hurk't. OBSERVATIONS ON THE KEOKUK SPECIES OF AGARICOCRINUS. i;\- I'koF. c. H.(;()KnoN. {A /:■/,■„,■/.) Six species of A(janrorn'iuf.'< obtained from t!ie Keokuk beds, of which three, viz: ^1. ahicn'raviis IJo'iner; .1. IPkcc. I. A. S.. 18S7-9.I >oo [Mar.li .0, iScp.l ik;>i)n-ki".():<.i:k sria'iKs or .\(.auic(.i kim 101 ?/7/;///V/'// II;ill : and A. iroi-//jr,u II ill, (.-cur at Iv-oxuk. A. H)iii'r.>'r(iitiis ai'.d A . voiili(ii/' •AY.\):\vv\\\]y well disliiiLi-uis!ic(l . The latti'r appaiv utl y t!u! ruliuiiiitioii of l!iis o-.-neric form which h^'coni' s (xliiict at (!u' clos'i oj' this p rio;]. .1. (nii(')-ic(iiins j)!-. s iits inanv (lill'. rtMiccs of stnictiiri?. Sp '- cie.s sadly in m-t d of ivnis'on. I^'tcins In fore us ha\e \ns of \. K. Burl^et, L. A. Cox and tlie writ(>i-. The sixteen armed form-- of A. (niu^yicawi.'^ [)re.sent persist- vnt charaeters tliat may he sutH -ient to entitle tliem to more th.an varietal distin -t ion. A rran/ins- nt of arms ir nerally acc()rdinL;- to comnion ])]an. l>as;d (onca\i1y exceptionally !'t^ ROBERT CLARKE & CO. CINCINNATf, OHIO, EniTEi^isix THE lE'ox.x.o-VvrxiNrG- Valuable Scientific Works. Carr ( Lticicn)^ The Mound's of ifie Mississippi Vatey, HisloricaJly CoTiskrerecf, 4C0 ^r-sc Carr ( Lttcien) and SItahr ( N. 5". ', On the Prehistoric Remains in Kentucky, vrilhr 7 fie.i- otype plates, containing 53 figures, 4to, paper ,, '^■h'-' Clnypole (Pro/. E. IK J, The Lake Age in Ohio, or, Some Epi?o(Jes During ihe Retreat of the North American Ice Sheet, 4 maps, 8ro, pap>er 7' Davis {W. J.), Kentucky Fossi! CoraJs, a Monograph of the Polypi o3 the SiKirian and Devonian Formations, 2 vofs., 4to, paper. Voj. i, text in press, S5.00. Vol. 2. 139 aiuo- type plates, ready , , , 2001' Fo>'ce(M. Kj.Some Ear)y Noliceii of the Ohio' Indians: To What Race Did the Mound Builders Belong ? 8vo, paper ■ ■ S' ■ Garinan (Samuel ) ., On the Reptiles and Batrachian.s of North America. Part 1, (.lenera! Introduction and Ophidians, q p)ates, 410, paper 40- Hovey ( Horace C.).,Q,c\'&hx-!Ae.A American Caverns, Historical, Scientific and Descriptive, Illustrated, 8 vo, cSoth 2.ckv MacLean (J. P.), The Mound Builders. IHustrated, i2mo, cjoth i 5<,- jl/rtc/.(frt« ^7. /'.;, The Antiquity of Man. IHustrated, i2mo, cJoth i.oo' MacLean ("J. P.), Mastodon, Mammoth and Man. llUistrated, i2mo, cloth 6u- Moorehead (Warren A'.^, Fort Ancient, the Great Prehi.storic F.arthwork of Warren County, Ohio, with a Description of its Mounds and Graves. From Actual Survey, with a topographical map and 35 photo types of the earthwork, relics, etc. 8vo, cloth ... 2.oi.' Ketielroth ( Henrf), A Monograph of the Fossil Sheik of the Silurian and Devonian Rocks of Kentucky, with 36 lithographic plates, containing 22(5 species. Folio, paper 5 ot> Shaler ( N^ 5.j, On the Fossil Brachiopods of the Ohio Valley, with 8 heliotype plates, con- taining over 200 figures. 4to, paper. ■ . 2 . 5c < Smith (Col. yatites). Captivity with the Intlians in 1755-59, 'I'heir Manners, Customs, Tra- ditions, etc, 8 vo, cloth 2-5'- Anv of the aboi'c sent !>y tnail prepaid, on receipt of the price. ROBERT CLARKE & CO., PUBLISHERS, CINCINNATI, OHIO. ^i^ W'^S'^^t^^t^ ^i^-^t^^i^^i^'^t^ ^i^Vt? 'i^ ^t^ 'i^ ^1^ ^t^ Vj^ 'i^ tji' "ij^ "ij^ ''A^ "^i^ Q PROCEEDINGS m mm of scusces FOR 4890-i89d X^OI^TLJIVIE: I, F».A.r^"r II. P.DITED BY THE SECRETARY, Herbert Osborn, Ames, Iowa. I'lUNTED l',Y Ol'.DKK OK THE GENEI5AI- ASSEMBLY. DES MOINES: G. n. RAGS1>A1,E, STATE PRINTED. 0FFIGEK5 OF THE rIGrIDE31Y. 1890-1891. President — C. C. Nutting. 1st \'ice-President — C. P. Gillette. 2nd Vice-President — S. E. Meek, Secretar5'-Treasurer — R. E. Call. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Ex^Officio— C. C. Nutting, C. P. Gillette, S. E. Meek, R. E. Call. Elective— H. Osborn, L. H. Pammel, J. E. Todd. 1891-1892. President — C. C. Nutting, ist \'ice-President — L. H. Pammel. 2nd Vice-President — Erasmus Haworth. Secretary-Treasurer — Herbert Osborn. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. £x-Officio — C. C. Nutting, L. H. Pammel, E. Haworth, H. Osborn. Elective— J. E. Todd, F. M. Witter, R. E. Call. MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY. FELLOWS. Andrews, L. \V State University, Iowa City Bates, CO Coe College, Cedar Rapids Beal, a. M Des Moines Bennett, A. A Agricultural College, Ames Beyer, S. W Agricultural College, Ames Bruner, H. L Drake University, Des Moines Call, E . E High School, Des Moines Calvin, S State University, Iowa City Chappel, Geo. M Signal Service, Des Moines Davis, Floyd Drake University, Des Moines Drew, Gilman A Newton GossARD, H. A Experiment Station, Ames Haworth, Erasmus Penn College, Oskaloosa Hendrixson, W. S Iowa College, Griunell HoLWAY, E. D. W Decorah Jackson, J. A Des Moines McBride, T. H State University, Iowa City Nutting, C. C State University, Iowa City OsBORN, Herbert Agricultural College, Ames Pamjiel, L. H Agricultural College, Ames Patrick, G. E Agricultural College, Ames Reppert, F Muscatine Sage, J. R State Weather and Crop Service, Des Moines Shimek, B State University, Iowa City SiRRiNE, F. A Agricultural College, Ames Stalker, M Agricultural College, Ames Stoner, C. E Des Moines Todd, J. E Tabor College, Tabor Weld, L. G State University, loAva City Witter, F. M High School, Muscatine ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. Ankeny, Miss Nellie W Des Moines Hadley, S. M Oskaloosa Howe, Miss Minnie Des Moines Osborne, T. B NoRRis, H. W Grinnell 6 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS . Barbour, E. H State University, Lincoln, Nebi'aska Bessey, C. E State University, Lincoln, Nebraska Gillette, C. P Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado Halsted, B. D Rutgers College, New Brunswick New Jersey Mally, F. W Department Agriculture, Washington D. C. McGee, W.J United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Parker, H. W New York City, New York WiNSLow, Arthur Geological Survey, Jefferson Citj, Missouri CONSTITUTION. Section I. This organization shall be known as the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Sec. II. The object of the Academy shall be the encouragement of scientific work in the State of Iowa. ' Sec. III. The membership of the Academy shall consist of (1) Fellows, who shall be elected from residents of the state of Iowa actively engaged in scientific work, of (2) Associate members of the State of Iowa interested in the progress of science but not direct contributors to original research, and, (3) Corresponding Fellows, to be elected by vote from original workers in science in other states; also, any Fellow removing to another State from this may be classed as a Corres- ponding Fellow. Nomination by the council and assent of three-fourths of the Fellows present at any annual meeting shall be necessary to election. Sec. IV. An entrance fee of three dollars shall be required of each Fellow, and an annual fee of one dollar, due at each annual meeting after his election. Fellows in arrears for two years and failing to respond to notification from the secretary-treasurer shall be dropped from the Academy roll. Sec. V. («) The officers of the Academy shall be President, two Vice-Presi- dents and a Secretary-treasurer, to be elected at the annual meeting. Their duties shall be such as ordinarily devolve upon these officers. {b) The charter members of the Academy shall constitute the Council, together with such other Fellows as may be elected at an annual meeting of the council by it as members thereof, provided, that at any such election two or more negative votes shall constitute a rejection of the candidate. (c) The council shall have power to nominate Fellows to elect members of the council, fix time and place of meetings, to select papers for publication in the pro- ceedings, and have control of all meetings not provided for in general session. It may by vote delegate any or all these powers, except the election of members of the council to an executive committee, consisting of the officers and of three other Fel- lows, to be elected by the council. Sec. VI. The Academy shall hold an annual meeting in Des Moines during the week that the State Teachers' Association is in session. Other meetings may be called by the council at times and places deemed advisable. Sec. VII. All papers presented shall be the result of original investigation, but the council may arrange for public lectures or addresses upon scientific subjects. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE>JCKS. 7 Sec. VIII. The secretary-treasurer shall each year publish the prcceeJings of the Academy in pamphlet (octavo) form givingr authors' abstract of paper.-i, and, if pub- lished elsewhere, a reference to the place and date of pub lication; also the full text of such papers as may be designated by the council. If published elsewhere the author shall, if practicable, publish in octavo form and deposit separates with the secretary-treasurer, to be permanently preserved for the Academy. Sfx. IX. This constitution may be amended at any annu al meeting, by assent of a majority of the Fellows voting and a majority of the coun cil; provided, notice of proposed amendment has been sent to all Fellows at least one month previous to the meeting, and provided that absent Fellows may deposit their votes, sealed, with the secretary-treasurer. :note on the origin and objects of the academy. It seems desirable in this place when beginning the publication ot' the proceedings of the Academy under the authority of the State, to give a brief explanation of the origin and object of the Academy. The present Academy is the lineal descendant of an organization of the same name organized in 1875, but which from failure to hold any meeting after 188i died by the lapse of its membership, a clause in the constitution providing that members failing to attend a meeting or present a paper during two consecutive years should be dropped from membership. Under the circumstances it seemed best to the orsfanizers of the new Academy, nearly all of whom had been members of the older organi- zation, to organize under a new constitution, but with special effort to secure the co-operation of such of the members of the old society as were still within the State. This was so far accomplished that at present as will be seen by examining the list of members that nearly every member of the old Academy now in the State is working in the present organization. The aims and purposes of the two organizations are stated in almost identical terms in their respective constitutions and look to the en- couragement of scientific work, especiall}' in the State of Iowa. The first Academy of Science was organized in 1875 and held its last meeting in 188.1. It published proceedings in 1880 in pamphlet form giving abstracts of papers read up to that date and in 1882 a supplementary paper containing a necrology of one of its deceased members, J. Duncan Putnam, of Davenport. The present organization was effected December 27, 1877, and meet- ings have been held at least once annually since that date, and in a previous publication, which will be denoted as Part I, of Volume I, the proceedings for the years 1887, "88, "80, were presented to the public. The funds of the society being insufficient to publish papers as they were presented, and it being felt that their distribution among the people of the State would be of great educational and practical value, it was decided to ask the State assembly to provide for such publi- cation. IQ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. This has been j^euerously granted, and the following act, approved by the Governor April 22, 1892, sets forth the conditions and methods- of publication: Be it enacted hij the General Assemhly of the State of Iowa: Section I. The s^ecretary of the State Horticultural Society is hereby author- ized to include in his annual report to the Governor, as an appendix thereto, the proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences, the same to be printed and bound with the retorts of the said society . Sec. il. This, act beiug deemed of immediate importance, shaU take effect on and after its publication in the loira State Recji^ttr and Des Moines Leader, newspa- pers published in Des Momes, Iowa. The present part, which wnll be denoted Part II, of Volume I, will embrace the proceedings of the meetings held during the years 1890-91^ and brins the work of the Academy up to date. The next meeting of the Academy will be held in Cedar Kapids, during the week of the State Teachers' Association. Arrangements have been made for the preservation of the books and papers belonging to the Academy in the rooms of the State Horticul- tural Society, and it is believed, with this opportunity for the perma- nent preservation of the Academy exchanges, and the facilities for publication now afforded, that tlie Academy will enjoy renewed growth and accomplish more fully the objects aimed at by its promoters. Meetings have been held and papers read during 1890 and 1891 as follows: MEETING OF SEPTEMBER 5. 1890. F. M. W iTTER— President's Annual Address. C. P. Gillette— " Gall Producing Cynipidaj of Iowa." " Oviposition of Amomalon." "Egg-laying of Apple Curculio." " A New Cecidomid Infesting Box- Elder." C. R. Keyes— "Evolution of Strophystylus." "Age of the Iowa City Sand- stone." " Notes on the Red- rock Sandstone." R. E. Call — "Two Quarternary Sections near Des Moines." "Preliminary Notes on Fishes of Polk County and Central Iowa," with Exhibition of Specimens. R. E. Call and C. K. Keyes— "On a Quarternary Section Eight Miles South- east of Des Moines." Herbert OsBORN—" Abnormal Pelage in Lepiis Si/lraticus." "Additions to Catalogue of Iowa Hemiptera." "Notes on the Life History of Certain Hemiptera." J. E. Todd — " Further Notes on the Geology of Northwest Iowa." " Exhibition of Volcanic Ashes from Omaha, Nebraska." " The Shore Lines of Ancient Glacial Lakes." L. H. Pammel— "The Woody Plants of Western Wisconsin; A Contribution to the Local Flora ot Lacrosse, VViscontin." "Introduction of Weeds." Some Parasitic Diseases of Iowa Forage Plants." " Plum Scab." S. E. Meek—" Fishes of the Cedar River Basin." IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIH:NCES. H MEETING OF JANUARY 1, 1891. S. E Meek — "The Occurrence of Lepns Cainpentria in Muscatine County." " Two Cases of Albinism." J. E. Todd — "Observations on Concretions and Lignilites." L. \V. Andrews — "The Separation oFTin and Tantalum." L. H. Pammel,—" Structure of the Seed C^ats of Crotahiria saglitalU and Astragalus molUssimns.'''' R. E. Call—" Sketch of the Life and Work of Dr. C. C. Parry." C. C. NUTTINC4— "Same of the Cuises and Results of Polygaaiy Among the Pinnipedia." MEETING OF SEPFEMBER 3, 1891. G. E. Patrick— "Composite Milk Samples in the L iboratory." G. E. Patrick and D. B. Bisbee — "'A New Distilling Flask for Use in the Kjeldahl Process." R. E. Call—" On the Tertiary Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas." " E.xhi- bition of a Hydrographic Map of Iowa." L. H. Pamm EL— " Vegetation Alons the Mississippi from Terapleleau, Wis- consin to Dubuque, Iowa." " Fungi from Various Localities." Herbert Osborn— " Notes on Some Carboniferous Fossils from .Tackson County, Iowa," with Exhibition of Specimens. MEETING DECEMBER 29 AND 30, 1891. C. C. Nutting — Address, "Systematic Zoology in Colleges." J . E. Todd — " Striation of Rocks by River Ice." "Further Notes on the Great Central Plain of the Mississippi." L. H. Pam.mel — " Bacteria of Milks, with Exhibitionsof Cultures." " Report of Committee on State Flora." "Phrenological Notes." "Experiments in the Pre- vention of Corn Smut." F. M. Witter-" Notice of an Arrow Point from the Loess in the City of Mus- catine." "The Gas Wells near Letts, Iowa." G. E. Patrick — " Sugar Beets in Iowa." R. E. Call — "An Abnormal Hyoid Bone in the Human Subject," with exhibi- tion of specimen. Herbert Osborn — "The Orthopterous Fauna of Iowa." "Notes on Certain Iowa Diptera." (By title.) Herbert Osborn and H. A. Gossard— "Notes on the Life History of Agallia Sanguineolenta." W. B. NfLES- "The Action of Disinfectants on Nutrient Media." Charles R. Keyes — "Geological Structure and Relations of the Coal-bearing Strata of Central Iowa." " Brick and Other Clays of Des Moines." "Aluminum in Iowa." Erasmus Haworth — " Notes on Missouri Minerals. (1) Melanite in a Basic Dike Rock, and (2) Limonite Pseudo Morphs after Calcite." " Prismatic Sandstone from Madison County, Missouri." H. L. Bruner—" Aboriginal Rock Mortar.'' J 2 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. *J. L. TiLTON—" Erosion by Middle River for November, 1S91." "A Three- legged Snow-bird;" exhibition of specimen. S. Calvin— "Distinction Between Acervularia Davidsonii and A. Profunda." S. E. Meek—" Fish Fauna of Arkansas and Iowa compared." fT. H. McBride— "Slime Moulds." C. P. Gillette — " How the Female of Cacaecia Semiferana Protects Her Eg^ ■Clusters." Synopsis of the more important items of business transacted at the annual meetings, 1S90-91: A Committee of Iowa Fauna was appointed, which consists of the following Fellows: C. C. Nutting, J. E. Todd, F. M. Witter, Heroert Osborn. A Committee on Iowa Flora, which consists of L. H. Pammel, J. E. Todd, E. D. W. Holway. Steps were taken toward the organization and encouragement of local auxiliary societies. The constitution was amended in such manner as to provide for three classes of members as given in the amended constitution printed herewith, also changing the time of annual meeting so as to take advantage of the gathering of the State Teacher's Association. The Executive Commiteee was authorized to see to obtaining a place of deposit for the exchanges and other property belonging to the Academy and to prepare articles of incorporation. *Prof. J. L. Tilton, of Simpson College, presented by title a paper stating the meas- urement of the material transported by Middle River, Warren county, during Novem- ber, 1891, and the consequent erosion by the river. He also presented for examination a three-legged snow-bird (Jimco hyemalis). The specimen is of special interest, since deformities, though common in domesticated animals, are rarely found in wild ani- mals. The third leg was of the size of the other two legs but apparently useless. It was situated on the dorsal side of the sacrum. + SLIME-MOULDS.— (Prof. T. H. McBride)— Upon invitation. Prof. McBride" ad- dressed the Academy briefly upon the subject of Slime-moulds, discussing their nature, habits, habitat and distribution. About sixty species are now known to occur in the State, although but little attention has been paid so far to their collection or to the investigation of this most interesting group. For the elucidation of the problems set by the Myxomycetes, the co-operation of the largest possible .number of careful ob- servers are absolutely essential. The forms they assume are varied, but extremely interesting and beautiful, and it is hoped the number of Iowa observers may contin- ually increase. Prof. McBride promises all possible assistance to any who may wish to engage in the investigation of these remarkable organisms. Whether plants or animals, need not concern us at all. Botanists have so far studied the Slime-moulds and to botanists they will doubtless be relegated for all time to come. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. la NOTES ON THE GEOLOCtY OF NORTHWESTERN IOWA. BY PKOF. J. E. TODD. I handed in the subject of this paper, intending to throw together various notes which have been accumulating for several years. I recently took a trip to the region under consideration intending to visit several localities and examine the borings of several wells, which, however. I was pre- vented from doing for lack of time. Had I been able to procure careful notes from all the wells I should be more decided on several points stated below. The following is a tabular list of the wells noted with elevations of top and bottom : LOCALITY. ALTITUDE OF TOP. DEPTH. ALTITUDE OF BOTTOM. Tonca.Neb 1175 1160 1275 1215 1260 1230 698 2071 1400 960 145 869 477 Le Mars -125 255 Peterson Emmetsburs 1015 231 Of the Ponca well I had access to notes published by Prof. S. Aughey, who visited a well when it was being bored at that place in 1880, and I also had the opportunity to examine the somewhat complete core taken out by the diamond drill in 1888. A summary of the result is as follows: Eighty feet — More or less, drift clays. Forty-five feet — Chalkstone capped with siliceous layers. "Inoceramus beds." Sixty-Sve feet — Alternate layers of fine, stratified sand and light and drab clay. A pretty compact stratum of sandstone at the top, with a layer of lignite above, sometimes for a little ways, 6-8 inches thick. Two hundred and thirty feet — Sand and sandstone. (Dakota.) Thirty-five feet — Sandy shale and fine light green clay with grains like "green- sand." Fifty feet— Rusty gray, porous granular limestone above, blotched blue and cream color below, dolomitic, few casts of shells resembling maci-ocheilus. Forty-five feet — Limestone, whitish above and capped with a layer more argillaceous, containing fragments of dolomite; below blue, becoming blue car- bonaceous clay. One hundred feet — Compact gray limestone, with portions below darker, vesicu- lar in several strata. A print of a large trilobite near the top. Filty feet— Compact limestone with fragments of greenish Hint. 14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The following condensed statement of the Sioux City well is based upon notes kept by the foreman, furnished me by Mr. J. C. C. Hoskins, and interpreted by samples preserved by Mr. D. A. Magee, and submitted to my examination. The mouth of the well is about thirty-eight ftet above the top of the sand rock exposed by the river near by. Sixty-five feet — Soil and gravel. Twenty-five feet — Gravel. Fifty-four feet- Shale. (Benton.) One hundred and ninety-one feet — Sand and sandstone. (Dakota.) One hundred feet — " Chalk-rock." One hundred and ten feet — Gray limestone. One hundred and fitteen feet — Alternation of sand and gray limestones. Water from near top of this rose to within twelve feet of the surface. One hundred and fifty feet— White and gray limestones. Four hundred and forty-five feet — Limestones and shales in thick layers, alter- nating. Twenty feet — Red mass, five feet underlaid with sand. Water rises strongly to surface from 1,250 feet. Forty-five feet— Sand and marl. One hundred and ninety feet— Hard " micaceous limestone and compressed sandstone." Fifteen feet— Hard, brow^n rock; Sioux quartzite? Five hundred and fifty feet — Hard, gray granite, or gneiss, a five foot layer of white limestone at 1,860. My knowledge of the Le Mars boring has been derived from communications from Mr. Maurice Vincent, for a time resident of the place, and Mr. M. A, Moore, who was largely interested in the enterprise. I have also examined samples from various depths and visited the locality. Seven feet— Soil. Thirteen feet — Yellow clay. Forty-four feet— Blue clay. Twenty-seven feet — Sand and gravel, hardened above. (Tertiary?) Eight} -nine teet — " Soapstone and slate. (Niobrara?) One hundred and thirty-eight feet — Alternating strata of sandstone and clays, some lignites. (Benton?) One hundred and forty-seven feet — Sandstone with some shale. (Dakota?) At 1,060 red rock 2-3 feet, from that to 1,400 gray granite with three thin layers of white limestone in the upper part. What little I know of the Cherokee well was learned from Prof. G. W. Foster, and specimens kindly saved for me oy Mr. A. Z. Wellman. It was bored in the center of the city of Cberokee and being out of the old channel which had furnished a fine flow from moderate depth, a little noith, and nearer the Little Sioux, it failed to strike any artesian water. After penetrating 400 feet of light blue limestone, at 700 feet it passed into blue clay or soapstone, which continued to the bottom, 960 feet irom the surface. The Peterson boring was for coal. Mr. J. A. Kirchner, who had an interest, gave me a record of the boring and specimens showing plant remains similar to those at Sioux City and Ponca were scattered about the mouth of the shafc. Fifty-seven feet— Bouldery drift clay. Eighty-eight feet — Sandstone and shaly clay layers alternating with some layers of lignite. The shaft was abandoned because of water. Veins of lignite 3-4 feet thick are said to have been passed through near the bottom of the shat't. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15 The well iit Eniiuetsburtr ! find reported by Prof. N. H. 'Winchell from notes Ijy the borer Mr. Swan, in the Minnesota report for 1S79. From it we derive the following: Two hundred and twenty feet — Drift and cretaceous clays. One hundred and nine feet — Sand, dark above, g^ray below. (Dakota.) Twenty-two feet — Red marl. .lurasso-Triassic. Thirty-two feet— Broken and sandy limestone. Four feet— Black shale. Thirty feet— Limerock. Fifteen feet— Gray shale. Two hundred and twenty-four feet — "Mapfnesian limestone." Ninety-five feet — Shales gray and blue. One hundred and seven feet — White sandstone, "St. Croix." Six feet — "Granite" (quartzite?). Besides these wells which reveal the depths, much additional light has been derived from numerous exposures along the Big Sioux and Missouri rivers. There are very few elsewhere. The Drift has buried the older rocks almost everywhere else. The following generalizations are offered tentatively: 1. There seems to be a slight development of the later Tertiary just below the drift. This is found in the shape of fine sands found in the Le Mars well and more clearly in the high sand pits which are opened 4-6 miles northwest of Sioux City along the bluffs of the Big Sioux, 160-180 feet above the stream. No fossils have been found in them, but the absence of northern erratics and their horizontal stratification indicate their age to be older than the Ice age. Laminate clays and similar sands are found east of Canton, S. D., on the Iowa side of the Big Sioux. 2. The chalky beds of the Cretaceous are usually uppermost through the region. I have not been able to trace a definite horizon very widely but the following sumtoits of exposures determined by barometer from adjacent railway station, may be helpful: Dakota City, Neb., 1251; St. Onge's, Iowa, 1255; Ponca, Neb., 1245;" Hartington, Neb.. 1-324; Yankton, S. D., 1240; Scotland. S. D., 1275; Volin, S. D., i:!00; Medicine Knoll, S. D., 1330; Akron, Iowa, 1175; Canton, S. D.. 1290; Brandon, S. D., 1315. The most complete natural section of the rocks, as was pointed out by Dr. White in his report. Vol. 2, p. 196, is at Cedar Bluffs. The thickness of the chalk- stone, or "Inoceramus beds," is 45-50 feet. Instead of repeating, I will refer the reader to the sections well given by Prof. St. John in the report just mentioned. The Cretaceous dips to the north so as to drop below the Big Sioux a little above Akron, but it reappears near Canton and is still higher a little above Brandon, S. D.. where it may be seen in place only a few feet above the red quartzite. The Benton clays, or the upper part of the Woodbury shales of the Iowa geolo- gists, are 80-90 feet thick. 3. The Iowa geologists divide the strata differently from Dr. Hayden. The latter seems to make the top of the sandstone at the foot of the bluff at Sioux City the division between the Benton and Dakota, and this horizon passes below the river on the west side at Ponca. There is much shale below this, 24 feet exposed at Cedar Bluffs and estimating from the relations at Sioux City as shown by the well, we may calculate to extend over 120 feet lower, before it comes to the continuous sandstone which the Iowa geologists have called Ni.shnabotna sand- stone. The divisions of the former seem to correspond better with the lithologica characters of the beds. 16 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE^XES. 4. Taking a geceral view of the formations, there seems to be a slight anti- clinal axis, trending in a northeasterly direction. North of this a broad depression in which, as said before, the firmer cretaceous rocks sink below the Big Sioux. In the vicinity of the red quartzite the cretaceous beds rise again to prominence. In this basin considerable thickness of lignite is reported in the vicinity of Center- ville, S. D. Water has prevented an opening of the beds which are said to be 4 or 5 feet thick ami within ICO feet of the surface. 5. It is an interesting fact that the cretaceous clays and chalkstone are usually attended by MenlzoUa ort.aia, Shtphodia atgeniea and Schrank'm uncitiata. In fact the last has often disclosed to me the cretaceous character of a slope, which otherwise might have passed unnoticed. EXHIBITION OF VOLCANIC DUST FROM OMAHA, NEBRASKA. This material was from a stratum of whitish aspect, about 18 inches in thick- ness, found in the bluffs facing the Missouri river about 1}4 miles north of Omaha. It has the same general characteristics as the volcanic dust which has been found in quantity along the Republican, m southern Nebraska, also in Knox, Cumming and Seward counties in the same State. This statement is made on the authority of J. S. Diller of the United States Geological survey, who has examined samples from all these localities microscopically. This ditfers in being stained with oxide of iron, and the sharp angular grains are coated with carbonate of lime. Like the rest it contains with the finely pulverized glass, a tew rounded grains of quartz, and angular grains of feldspar less than .02 of a millimeter in diameter. The dust is such as is carried through the air from volcanoes. The sand grains and occasional diatoms indicate its deposition in still water. The lollowing is a secticn of the bluff containing the volcanic dust stratum: Twenty-five to thirty feet — Loess, exposed as much more on slope above. Seven feet— Stratified yellow clayey loam, with many calcareous concretions. One and one-half feet — Volvanic dust, stained with iron oxide. Five feet — Yellow clayey loam, slightly stratified. One-half toot— Fine gray sand. Twenty leet — Coarse sacd and pebbles obliquely stratified. Fifteen feet— Unknown, probably in part blue till. Level of the Missouri river. This locality is the most eastern exposure of the volcanic dust stratum which is found scattered over most of Nebraska. Dilligent search has as yet failed to dis- cover it on the Iowa side of the Missouri. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17 TBE SHORE-LINES OF ANCIENT GLACIAL LAKES. BT PROF. J. E. TODD. As most are aware, there art areas of drift external to any terminal moraines, the origin of which is still in dispute. On general principles, it would be expected that numerous lakes would have frequently occurred during the Ice Age. As the ice advanced, streaflis would frequently be dammed, and their channels more or less changed, and the weight of the ice, with its chilling effect, in level areas would not infrequently produce a subsidence toward the ice, which would often become filled with the floods escaping from the ice. Geike, in his "Ice Age," last edition, draws a graphic picture of such lakes in central North America. Inferences derived from the Merjelen Sea, and similar lakes in the Alps, Greenland and the Himalayas, strongly urge the probability of much larger ones of the same kind during ancient times. Such have been found in side moraines upon the more recent drift. Lake Agassiz, and of the Blue Earth region in Minnesota, and Lake Hakota and James Lake in Dakota, readily come to mind in tnis connection. But can similar lakes be recognized in the much eroded and fragmentary deposits external to the great terminal moraines? Some, as one with whom I was talking a few j-ears ago, when discussing Prof. Wright's hypothesis of Lake Ohio, said, " Glacial lakes are a delusion and a snare," and yet the same person has mapped sueh a lake in central Wisconsin. Others would refer most of the extra-morainic drift to this cause. One difficulty, and one which some consider insuperable, is the absence of dis- tinct barriers and shore-lines and old water levels. The beaches of Lake Agassiz have been readily traced, but where are there any such traceable about Lake Ohio or Lake Missouri, or anywhere upon what has been called the older drift? The even, flat topography impresses one with lacustrine character in traversing the Blue Earth region, or that between Scotland and Mitchell, S. D.; but we can readily see that if a lake has been of transitory duration it would fail of producing a plain. Before dwelling on a few recent observations, which it is the main purpose of this paper to present, let us consider briefly a few reasons for the common obscu- rity of the shore-lines of old glacial lakes. 1. The surface of such lakes would usually be very inconstant. The ice would have been a very uncertain barrier. The chance of depositing a beach or cutting a cliff would therefore have been small. 2. The accumulation of shore deposits would not only be slight, but being made largely by floating ice would be quite unequally distributed, especially in wide and shallow lakes. Prevalent winds would drive the drift-laden ice to cer- tain shores much more than to others. If the lakes contained islands, the more remote shores might receive no erratics. 2 18 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3. The difierence in the ease of erosion between g:lacio-natant drift clays and the formations bordering them, may produce marked changes in topography and drainage. ^Jhe regions of Dakota and Nebraska illustrate this well. Loose sands and easily eroded clays border the western edge of the compact and often boulder clad drift clays. While the latter are little affected by rains and stream- lets, the former are rapidly removed. Moreover the former are peculiarly subject to sliding and slushing out at base The amount of erosion which has taken place since the occupation of the earlier glacial lakes may be more perfectly realized, when we learn that the prominent high terrace found flong the Missouri, White and Cheyenne rivers is more than 300 feet above their present water level. This terrace dates from the time of the second moraine, or possibly of the first, of the "second glacial epoch." And this terrace is mucli more recent than the lakes under consideration. An erosion, which has excavated these valleys to such a depth, must certainly have greatly changed the surface along the old lake borders. 4. Yet another influence may have frequently done much to mask lacustrine features, viz., orographic changes. Gilbert has recognized as prominent in the cases of lakes Bonneville and Ontario. Chamberlin finds an elevation of Cham- plain deposits, of 330 feet in eastern Wisconsin, and of -5-600 feet in northwestern part of the same State. And this has been in a much less time than has elapsed since Lake Missouri was filled with loess. So much on general principle. As may be remembered the writer has held that the extra-morainic drift of the Missouri valley is probably of sub-aqueous origin, that Lake Missouri which deposited the loess, at an earlier stage was partly filled with sand, gravel and boulder clay; that a similar lake occupied the Red Lake region, from the Bijou Hills to the Big Bend. Also that a similar one covered a w^ide scope of country from near the mouth of the Moreau northward. Hitherto, 1 have found rather scanty evidence of an old water level in the distribu- tion of boulders about the Bijou Hills, 590 above the Missouri or 1.900 above the sea, and a patch of bouldery gravel and clay 510 feet above the Missouri, covering an acre or so, south of the mouth of White River. In 1888 Prof. G. F. Wright reported the finding of something like a moraine. along the divide south of the Moreau river. (See Proc. A. A. A. S. 1888.) It has been my privilege the past season (1890) to traver&e the course of Prof. Wright, with the same companion, Rev. T. L. Riggs, and to spend a few days in the examination of this feature. I found Fox Ridge a high sandy plateau, forming the divide between the Moreau and Big Cheyenne rivers. Upon it, and on its south slope, I found no northern erratics. Its summit twenty miles west of the Missouri is about 2,400 feet above the sea. Along its northern slope is a peculiar flat-topped, butte-like ridge run- ning east and west for 15-20 mile.s, its top being nearly horizontal and about -50 feet lower than the summit of Fox Ridge. This was determined not only by several barometric readings, but by distant views from both north and south. The ridge is well coyered with granite boulders, and drift 2-5 feet thick, but strange to say no nortliern drift was found south of the ridge, except where its presence could be accounted for by recent transporta- tion. The land just south of the ridge is frequently 50 feet lower than its top. This ridge is not strictly continuous. There is a wide gap, particularly, where it is crossed by the Virgin creek. The margin of the drift I had not time to trace fully, but was informed by Mr. Riggs, who knows the region well, that it crosses the Moreau 25-30 miles west of its mouth and runs northward at about the same distance from the Missouri for an IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19 dndefinite distance. Inside this inarpin the land nowhere rises higher than the margin, and it is here and there sprinkled with northern boulders, often in patches, especially on the higher levels. The divide between the Moreau and Grand rivers has an altitude of about 2,o00 feet. Most of the surface is of Cretaceous clays, and is much eroded, the alternating layers of hard and soft material, producing an interesting topography, studded here and there with high, flat-topped buttes. The course of the marginal ridge south of the Moreau is in line with some high ■clay buttes on the east side of the Missouri, just above the mouth of the Little Cheyenne, which are known as Welland Buttes. They are strewn with a thin layer of boulders, and are the west end of a high divide separating the Little Cheyenne and Swan Lake Creek. Crossing this divide is a well preserved ancient •channel, more than 400 leet above the Missouri, and there are traces of an old ter- race along the Missouri, near the Welland Buttes, at about the same level. Putting these things together, we come with some confidence to this conclusion: Fox Ridge, with its eastern extension, the Welland Buttes and the high land south- west of Bowdle and west of Faulkton, once formed the divide between the Chey- enne and Moreau rivers, when they flowed through to the J ames river valley. When the great ice sheet came down the latter valley during the glacial period, and occu- pied the outermost terminal moraine, there was lor a time a great lake formed north of this Fox ridge divide. It was deep enough to float ice-floes and probably bergs from the edge of the ice sheet further north. These formed a bouldery beach along the margin, particularly along the southern side. Of the two outlets indicated, the western one cut down more rapidly, and formed part of the course •of the Missouri. As erosion proceeded the bouldery margin became a ridge, be- ■cause it yielded less rapidly to degradation than the soft clays and loose sands adjacent. For this glacial lake we propse the name Lake Arikaree, after the Indian tribe whose home formerly occupied a considerable portion of its area. STRIATION OF ROCKS BY RIVER ICE. BY J. E. TODD. Though it IS commonly admitted by geologists, that both land-ice and floating- ice are capable of striating rocks, when armed with erratics; careful discrimin- ations seem to be largely ueglecttd. The question, whether river-ice was ever the active agent in scratching locks, had been raised in the writer's mind several years since by a few obseivaticns in Dakota. Diligent search at several seemingly favorable localities had given only negative evidence, until this past season, when two or three observations seem to demonstrate the fact that such is not very infrequently the case. In this abstract theie is room but for the clearest example. Three miles above Grand Tower, Illinois, there is a hard even-topped stratum of dark lime-stone, jutting out from the eastern bank for several yards, and dipping at a slight angle toward the bank. Tlie steep face resting upon it and extending further up stream is covered with large sandstone boulders. The dip of the rocks 20 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. is 4-6 degrees E. N. E. The principal seams of the rock are N. 10='-12° E. The surface, which was quite generally planed and striated, was 10 feet wide, on an average, and 60-75 feet long. The direction of most of the strife wasS. 10° -11° W., and of a few, S. 18o W. The striated surface reached from the water level up to two or three feet above. A small patch toward the southern end of the area was scratched in a direction, S. 56° E. The striae were, if anything, more strictly parallel than in most glacial strife. They were short, being rarely more than three inches long. This was mainly due, it would seem, to the much-cracked and nod- ular character of the rock. One other peculiarity of the stone affected the form of the markings. Scattered through it were numerous black grains like iron oxide. These usually headed the narrow ridges between the strife. The strife were mostly fine, rarely more than an eighth of an inch across. As if to leave no doubt con- cerning the cause, a long, deep, horizontal scratch, about four feet long and as high above the ledge just described, was found on the nearly vertical face of a large sandstone boulder. This was in the same general direction as the strife below. The reasons for referring these phenomena to river-ice are briefly, as follows: 1. Their recency, as indicated by their appearance and their location where water and weather would obliterate them in a short tune. 2. Their parallelism with the present channel of the river. 3. Their occurrence outside of the recognized limit of glacial action. Other localities where similar phenomena have been found which are reasonably referred to the same origin, are as follows : Running Water, S. D., a little above landing, S. 73 E., "Chalkstone," few feet above low-water. Sioux Falls, S. D., a few rods east of Cascade Mills, N. 57 W., Red Quartzite, few feet above low-water. Wellington, Mo., a few rods N. W. of depot, S. 45, 61 and 73 E., Limestone, few feet above low-water. Grand Tower. III., 3 miles up R. R. from depot, S. 10 and 18 W., Limestone, few feet above low-water. Cape Girardeau, Mo., at landing, S. 10 to 35 E., Limestone, few feet above low- water. All these directions are magnetic. Besides the«e, we would provisionally refer to the same cause strise reported by Dr. C. A. White as found near low water at Omaha, Neb. [Geol. Iowa, Vol. I. p. 95]; some reported by Prof. S. T. Trowbridge, from the vicinity of Glasgow, Mo., and some reported by Prof. J. W. Spencer, as occurring at St. Louis, at low water mark. It seems not unreasonafcle to suppose that this same influence was even more efficient when the rivers were flowing at higher levels, with stronger currents and when erratics were more abundant and ice cakes larger and more abundant, as must have often been the case during the Glacial epoch. It is no doubt true that ledges are often exposed long to the ice action of rivers without being striated. The conditions producing the effect may not yet be fully understood, but the following seem to be some of them. 1. The localities most favorable, seem to be on the outside of a bend, or near a strong current, near low water mark, and below a point where silicious eiratics are abundant at the water level. 2. The dynamical conditions necessary are probably a sudden breaking up of the ice before it is rotted by thawing, while it still adheres firmly to the shore, and when there is a flood to wield it. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21 EASTERN EXTEISSION OF THE CRETACEOUS IN IOWA. BY CHAKLES R. KEYES. In connection with a casual reference to the cenological features of Central Iowa mention may be made to the recent discovery in the drift at Des Moines of a mass of rather soft ferruginous sandstone charged with fossils of unmistakable creta- ceous type, the greater part being in a good state of preservation. When first discovered the mass was perhaps two feet in diameter and contained upwards of a dozen species of fossils. A iew of the best preserved specimens were taken at the time; and the place revisited a few days later for the purpose of securing the entire piece, but unfortunately, workmen had removed it. The species obtained were: Otodiis appendiculatus Agassiz, Lamna texanci Rcemer, Fasciolaria culbertsoni Meek it Hayden, Liinata concinnia. Meek «& Hayden. Announcements have already been made of the occurrence in the drift of Iowa beyond the limits of known Mesozoic strata in situ of Cretaceous fossils and fossil- iferous sandstone. Dr. White has reported an ammonite from Waterloo, Iowa, a fragment of baculite from Iowa City,* and six specifically determinable forms from Hardin county, f and has shown that the facies of the fossils in question has a close alfinity with the fauna of the Fox Hills group, or the upper-most portion of the marine Cretaceous in the continental interior. The recently discovered Des Moines specimens afford additional evidence in support of this supposition. The good preservation of the moUuscan remains, though so fragile, together with the fact ot the comparative softness of the ferruginous sandstone, suggests, as in the other cases mentioned, that the fragments of Cretaceous strata are not far removed from the locality of original deposition. The satisfactory determination of the easteiTi extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa is attended with much difficulty, chiefly on account of the great depth of the drift, covering the northwestern part of the State. But doubtless outliers will be discovered considerably to the east- ward of the present ascribed limits. *Geol. Iowa. vol. I, p. 98. +Am. Geologist, vol. I, p. 223 22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. CONTRIBUTION TO THE FAUNA OF THE LOWER COAL MEASURES OF CENTRAL IOWA. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. Among a large number of species recently discovered in the lower coal measures near Des Moines are some hitherto unrecognized forms. The following are the descriptions of three of the most important shells.* CHONETES L.55VIS. Shell small; much wider than long; transversely semi-elliptical; the cardinal line as long as the greatest width of the shell, or often slightly extended beyond the lateral margins. Ventral valve convex, with no indication of a mesial sinus;- beak not promiaent; cardinal area rather narrow but well defined centrally, becoming linear toward the extremities; foramen moderately wide; cardinal mar- gin bearing from four to seven oblique spines on each side of the beak. Dorsal valve flat or very slightly concave; with no mesial fold. Surface of both valves apparently perfectly smooth; but under a magnifier it is seen to be marked by numerous fine concentric strife, and more prominent, often somewhat imbricated, lines of growth; these are sometimes crossed by fine nearly obsolete radiating strias. Length 7 mm.; breadth 12 mm. This species is found in the superimposing black shales of coal No. 3 at Des Moines; and is associated with Chonetes yw^oloha, Productus mnricatiis, and the minute gasterpods mentioned elsewhere. The glabrate character, and the absence of a mesial fold and sinus, as is constant in all eight of the specimens found, forms a marked contrast with the associated congeneric forms, in which the radiating striae are unusually sharp and well defined; and also with the other carboniferous forms of the same genus. This species is closely allied to, and perhaps identical with, the form described by Oeinitz i as Chonetes glabra; but this naine, however, was preoccupied by Hall in 1857, for a species from the Upper Helderberg. PLEUROTOMARIA MODESTA. Shell small, sublenticular, spire greatly depressed, volutions six, obliquely flat- tened above; body whorl very large, rapidly increasing in size, sharply angular on * Described and figured along with other forms in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1888, pp. 232-246. 1 Carhonformation und Dyas in Nebraska, 1866, p. 60. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23 the periphery, flattened or very slijfhtly concave above, prominently rounded be- low, siiture line linear; spiral band very narrow almost linear, very slifflitly im- pressed and occupying a position just above the peripheral angle; on the spire the band is obscured by a single series of conspicuous nodes; aperture sub- quadrate, or subrhombic; umbilical region slightly impressed, but not per- forated; surface glabrate; under a glass exhibiting fine lines of growth; the last whorl with a series of small transverse folds, or wrinkles, toward the tuberculated margin; each fold apparently originating at a node and extending about one-half or two-thirds the distance to the periphery. Twenty or more specimens of this beautiful little species have been obtained from the black superimposed shales of coal. No. 8, at the Giant Mine, No. 1. It approaches more closely than any other the form described by Cox as P. depressa and may eventually prove identical with it. P. depressa, however, was preoccupied by Phillips in 18o6; and this name was also used by de Koninck and by Passy. SOLENISCUS nUMILIS. Shell very small, short, subfusiform, or elongate-subovate; spire prominent, forming one-third or more of the entire length of the shell; volutions about six, increasing moderately in size, slightly convex. Test rather thin. Columellar fold distinctly visible within the aperture, which is subelliptical; callosity clearly defined but not conspicuous; outer lip thin, sharp. Suture well-defined but not deeply impressed. Surface smooth, but under a glass exhibiting lines of growth. Length G mm. ; width 3.5 mm. Ibis little species is from the superimposed black shales of coal No. 3, at the Giant mine; and is found associated with the numerous other small gasteropods mentioned in another place. A NEW CONOCARDIUM FROM THh] IOWA DEVONIAN. BY CHARLES R. KETES. CONOCARDIUM ALTUM. Shell of medium size, subtrigonal, anterior view broadly cordate. Anterior end truncate, with a forward slope from the umbones to the lower anterior sharply rounded extremity. Dorsal margin behind the beaks slightly curved, with the edges of the valves incurved, while in front of the beaks it is oroduced forward into a more or less prominent alate extension; basal margin crenate within; posterior extremity at tl.3 hinge line decidedly argular. Beaks rather prominent, gibbous, incurved. Hiatus lanceohte; occupying about two-thirds of the lower posterior margin. Surface marked by simple, regular, radiating cost;i', about forty in num- ber, twenty-five of which occupy that poition of the shell behmd the umbonal slope; the umbonal slope is broad, bordered on each side by a prominent costa • Described and figured with other forms in the Proceedings Academy Natural Sci- ence of Philadelphia, 1868, pp. 247-248. 24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. which gives it a decided biangular appearance; the costa;" are crossed by numerous fine, crowded concentric lines; and a few larger somewhat imbricated lines of growth. Length 24 mm. ; breadth 21 mm. ; height 20 mm. Horizon and locality. Limestones of the Hamilton at Iowa City, Iowa. This species somewhat resembles certain forms of C. trigonale of Hall, but the very broad, strongly biangular umbonal slope readily distinguishes it from that species. It also approaches some congeneric forms from the Devonian of Europe, especially certain species from the western part of France, recently described by M. CEblerfi 1 Etude sur quelques Fossiles Devoniens de I'ouest de la France. PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE SEDENTARY HABITS OF PLATYCERAS.* BY CHARLES R. KEYES. Platyceras is a generic term which has been proposed for a Paleozoic group of moUusks whose shells are " sub-oval or sub-globose, with a small spire, the whorls of which are sometimes free and sometimes contiguous; the mouth gener- ally campanulated or expanded." These fossil shells had been frequently referred to the genus of modern mollusca known as Capulus. In the case of Platyceras as in many other Paleozoic genera, numerous species have been based, not on any apparent distinctive character, but seemingly simply on their occurrence at different geological horizons; and this has given rise to the establishment of many species which are unquestionably invalid. For specific distinction con- siderable importance has been attached to the configuration of the peristome, but even this feature now appears to have little classiflcatory value in the majority of species of the genus. A careful comparison of a large series of different species of Platyceras reveals the fact that the apertural margin in various specimens of the same species often presents considerable variation: a phenomenon not to be entirely unexpected in a group so closely allied to the modern Capulus. Notwithstanding the comparative abundance of Platyceras in some of the Paleozoic strata of both this country and Europe direct paleontological evidence of the sedentary habits of the members of this group is not often met with; yet the instances presented, independent of their bearing upon Platyceras, are of unusual significance as furnishing a solution to certain important morphological problems relative to the Paleozoic crinoids. From time to time Paleontologists have mentioned the occurrence of Platyceras attached to crinoids and numerous explanations have been advanced, but it was not until about the year 1873 the correct solution was given. In a large number of instances lately examined the gasteropod covered completely the anal opening of the crinoid, the sinuosities in the lip of the Calyptraean shell corresponding exactly to the irregularities of the surface to which the shell was attached. The conclusion, therefore, is that the intimate association of the two organisms was not the result of accidental pressure but that the molluscan shell was actually attached during life. The inference is, then, that the Platyceras was not truly parasitic in its habits, as has been urged by many writers. *This and the three preceeding papers were read at the meeting of September 5. 1S8S, but through an oversight were omitted from the Academy's proceedings of that year. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25 EVOLL'TION OF STROPHOSTYLUS. BT CHARLES R. KEYES. ABSTRACT.* Recently a larg^e series of ot the most important species of Platystoma and Stro- phostylus was examined and the matrix carefully removed from the apertural por- tions of many of the shells. The structural features disclosed in the various forms show a relationship between the two established genera that was long suspected. The two types are now regarded as identical. The genetic relationship, as at present understood, cf the leading species of Stro- phostylus are graphically represented in the accompanying scheme. The earliest known forms of this group are from the Niagara rocks; but the extended vertical range of such species as 6". veniricosiis would indicate that the specific type had a higher antiquity than present information would suggest. Three principal series developed from this primitive form: (1) one preserved more or less distinctly the original characters: (2) another degenerated more or less, giving ri?e to loosely coiled shells and those approaching the Copulus group; and (3) a third acquired intensified features, which are particularly noticeable in the region of the columella. At the base is the species upon "which Conrad founded his genus Platystoma, and was called P. rejitricosum. It chances to be the most generalized as well as one ot the oldest forms of the group. The (o) third series shows a continued progression in the development of the axial parts, and finally ended in a form having a conspicuously twisted columella, as was acquired by 6'. nudreivsi. This exaggerated character in the species last alluded to was the basis of Hall's genus Strophostylus. But it will be seen at once that the species selected was actually an extreme development of a variant series, and is connected by a complete gradation of forms with the earlier and less specialized one. Later in the history of the most primitive form now known an exceedingly variable series was given off, which assumed in the several species diverse characters. Some vary towards the 5. amh-eicsi type, while others tend towards the S. niar/arensis section. In the variable forms of i>. ttirbinatiis some significaut phases are represented, which suggest the relationship of these shells to certain other genera. In the extreme form appears an elevation of the spine, that is unknown elsewhere in the group. Some examples show scarcely any thick- ening of the inner lip or columella, while others have these features well de- veloped. It must be borne in mind that the scheme as here represented is intended to indicate merely the lines along which the several developments took place, rather ♦Published in full with one plate in the American Naturalist. Vol. XXIV. pp. 1111- 1117. pi. x.x.xiii. December, 1890. 26 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE^XES. than the phjlogenetic history of the group. The correct determinations of the- phylogeny of animals from paleontological evidence is attended with many difficul- ties, for, as repeatedly shown by Darwin and others, new variations tend to be transfered backward in the ontogenetic history of a. species, and may dispose older characters. 'Ibis taken in connection with the fact that variant changes may occur in one part of an organism without materially affecting other parts, calls for extreme conservatism m passing judgment on phyogenetic problems from evidence- afforded by fossils. AGE OF CERTAIN SANDSTONES NEAR IOWA CITY. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. The sandstones under consideration lie in old gorges in Devonian limestone a short distance north of Iowa City. On account of the presence of plant remains, which, however, were too fragmentary for identification. Hall regarded the arenaceous deposits as belonging to the upper coal measures. Others visiting the places, since the announcement of the discovery in 1858, have adopted the same view as to the age of the rock, without attempting to question the correctness of the assumption, or to obtain further evidence. Lately some molluFcan remains have been found in the sandstones. Comparisons show that they are very closely related to Kinderhook species occurring abund- antly in the yellow sandstone at Burlington. IVlore perfect specimens however are necessary before final judgment can be passed. Careful research will, no doubt, reveal soon large numbers of good fossils in the beds in question. The Kinderhook is well exposed i-outh of Iowa City at Burlington, and north- westward at Le Grand, in Marshall county. It is probable that exposures are accessible at numerous intermediate places. The Burlington limestone— the stratum superimposed immediately upon the Kinderhook in Iowa, is said to be well exposed northward from the city of Burlington to within 9 miles of Iowa City. Hitherto the shore deposits of the Kinderhook have not been recognized in Iowa except near Burlington. The Iowa City locality fills up the gap. However^ some additional information is required before the question can be regarded as. deflnitely settled. And the present note is merely suggestive. NOTES ON THE BEDROCK SANDSTONE. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. The sandstone of Redrcck, in Marion county, Iowa, has long attracted popular attention. The bright vermillion cliffs rise to a height of one hundred to one hun- dred and fifty feet above the water surface of the Des Moines river. The red col- oration of the rock, however, is ocal. The formation has a known geographic IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 2T extent of at least twenty miles; and probably stretches out much farther. At Red- rock Cliff the stone is massive for the most part, but rather soft and thin-bedded above. At this place it is a very fine grained and horaopeneous sand rock, some portions even affording excellent material foi grindstones. But southeastward, and at Elk Bluff, two miles below, the sandstone passes into a fine-grained, ferrugin- eous conglomerate. The dip is everywhere to the south and west; and at a short distance above the quarry, a short distance above the village, the mclination is very considerable. A mile beyond, the sandstone has disappeared completely and the section shows only shales and clays. The space between the latter exposure and the last known outcrop of the sandstone is perhaps half a mile, the interval being hidden by quaternary deposits down to the water level. The abrupt change in the lithological characters of the rocks in so short a distance has been mentioned by Owen and by Worthen; but the true explanation is entirely different from the suppositions of those writers. Recent observations have cleared up many of the hitherto doubtful points con- cerning the geological history of the Redrock sandstone. It is not the basal member of the coal measures, as was regarded by Worthen; nor is it a shore extension of the Kaskaskia limestone; neither is its geographic extent as limited as has been supposed. Twenty miles to the southeast of Redrock a sandstone of great thickness, having identical lithologic characters and with a similar strati- graphical position is believed to be its extension southward. And it may also rise a few feet above low water in the northwestern corner of Marion county. The most interesting consideration in regard to this Redrock sandstone is the fact of its considerable elevation above the surface of the sea and its subjection to subaerial erosive agencies for a long period of time before submergence again took place. During that interval the great thickness of sandstone was probably almost entirely removed in places. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND RELATIONS OF THE COAL-BEARING STRATA OF CENTRAL IOWA. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. The exposed stratified rocks of central Iowa are made up chiefly of Lower Coal Measure clays, shales and sandstones. In the southeastern portion of the area the upper member (for Iowa) of the Sub-Carboniferous— the St. Louis limestone- is exposed along the Des Moines river. To the westward the so-called Middle Coal Measures and the Upper Coal Measures are represented. Hitherto it has been supposed that the three recognized divisions of the upper Carboniferous rocks in the State have each a maximum thickness of about two hundred feet. Lately, however, the Upper Coal Measures alone have been discovered to have at ♦ Published iu full in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of Americii. Vol. II. pp. 277-292. pis. ix, x. (1891.) :28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ileast double this estimate; and at a still later date the vertical extent of the other .two formations has been found to differ very much from the limit usually assigned: the Middle Coal Measures being considerably thinner than was supposed, and the Xower Coal Measures very much thicker. From an economic standpoint, the coal of the region forms by far the most important deposit. The seams vary from a lew inches to seven or even eight feet in thickness; the average of the veins at present worked being between four and .five feet. These are disposed, not in two or three continuous layers over the entire area, but in numerous lenticular masses from a few hundred yards to several miles in diameter. A single horizon may thus contain several of these lens-shaped beds of greater or less extent. Along the line of the general section the coal-bearing horizons have been found to number more than a score; and the extension of the investigations beyond the limits of the particular area here considered has very greatly increased this figure. Recognizing this fact, the aggregate amount of coal is far in excess of what has been supposed hitherto. The peculiarities of its disposition and the consequent popular misunderstanding concerning the actual ■extent and distribution of the coal beds has led to a large but useless expenditure •of capital. This phase of the question will receive turther expansion in another fplace. Summing up the more salient features in the present preliminary consideration •of the Coal Measures of central Iowa, it may be said that: 1. The Lower Coal Measures are very much thicker than has been hitherto supposed. 2. The so-called Middle Coal Measures are are not so extensive, vertically, as ■was once supposed; and the designation as a formation name is of very doubtful •utility, at least in so far as Iowa is concerned. 3. The recognition of the very subordinate importance of the " Middle" member ■suggests that the Coal Measuies in Iowa may more properly be regarded as form- ing two, instead of three, divisions.* 4. The unconformity of the Lower Coal Measures of Iowa upon limestones of the Lower Carboniterous is much more pronounced than heretofore suspected. The confirmation of this statement is found in excavations recently made at Elk Cliff, at Harvey, at Fairfield, in Jefferson county, and elsewhere. 5. The striking unconformities in the Lower Coal Measures have never been so apparent as at present. Ihe most remarkable instance of this sort is the case of the Redrock sandstone. The va-st sand bed had manifestly been consohdated and elevated above the surface of the sea for a considerable distance; then it was sub- jected to long-continued denundation, as is shown in the deep gorges and ravines which are still preserved in the hard sandstone. So widespread and intense was the action of the erosive agencies that the great sandstone, more than one hundred and fifty feet in thickness, was largely removed; and at the present day only a few isolated outliers tell of its former great extent. When regional submergence again set in, the old gorges and shore depressions were occupied by coal swamps. 6. The earliest formed coal seams are far more extensive, both geographically and vertically, than the later ones. On the whole, the coal of Iowa may be regarded as distributed in innumerable lenticular basins, sometimes several miles in diam- eter and six or seven feet in thickness centrally, sometimes only a few hundred yards in extent. These occur at many different horizons and interlock with one another, so that a boring may pass through a score or more coal horizons without meeting more than one or two veins of sufficient thickness tor profitable working. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29* BRICK AND OTHER CLAYS OF DES MOINES. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. (ABSTRACT.) In the absence of extensive exposures of grood building stone, in the immediate- vicinity of many of the largrer cities of the State, architectural materials must be derived in large part always from other sources. Fortunately, in and about these towns there are exhaustless supplies of good clays from which may be manufac- tured easily the ordinary structural and ornamental materials. These clays, how- ever, as is well known, have diverse properties, certain ones being better adapted for particular purposes than others, while some may be used more advantageously in different ways. Hence the indiscriminate working of the deposits is not attended by the highest economic results, and often ends disastrously. This does not appl to one locality, but to the entire State. Clay is constantly being put to a multi- tude of uses which were undreamed of a decade ago. Everywhere this material is becoinmg more and more important, economically, in draining farm lands, in sewering, in paving, in all kinds of building. And there are still countless other ways in which it might be used with great profit. Manufactured clay is daily replacing other building material, such as granite and similar rocks, on account of its cheapness, its practically equal durability, and its great range of artistic effect with a requirement of much less labor than is possible in the case of the natural rock. ALUMINUM IN IOWA. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. (ABSTRACT.) Attention is called to the birth of an industry in Iowa that promises to be one of the greatest industries of the State in the near future. It is the establishment of a plant for the production of aluminum. As is well known, this metal is soon to be the metal of the world — replacing largely iron, steel and other metallic sub- stances used in the arts. The properties of aluminum need not be dwelt upon here. The cost of producing the metal has hitheno been the great drawback to its general usage. A few years ago the price was 115.00 or more a pound. Now 30 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. it is about 50 cents. And improved methods have just been announced by which it may be extracted at a cost of less than 20 cents per pound. A few months ago a plant was established at Hampton, Iowa, which is working a clay yielding three ounces more oi aluminum to the bushel than in any other known locality m the west, and, perhaps, in the United States. The suggestion is important. Iowa has within her borders inexhaustible supplies of good clays admirably adapted for this purpose. But they require careful investigation that they may not be worked indiscrimmately and thereby lead to complete failure in many cases. When the industry shall have become thoroughly established the gold fields of California, of Australia, of indeed the whole world will sink into insignificance as compared with the wealth coming from this source. ON A QUATERNARY SECTION EIGHT MILES SOUTH-EAST OF DES MUlNES, IOWA. BY CHAKLES E. KEYES AKD U. ELLSWOllTH CALL. The section is located on the line of the Wabash railway about two miles below the little station of Hastie. It forms a continuous exposure of nearly three-fourths of a mile in length; and in some places has almost a vertical face of from 125 to 150 feet. It is capped by twenty feet of loess, carrying characteristic fossils such as Succinea amraSay; SiiccineaohliqiiaSsiy; Heliciua occulta Say; Pupa muscomm Linne; ValloniapithheUa MuUer; Zonites arboreus, Say; Patula sfrigosa, .Gould; and a large Helix, probably Mesodon thi/roichs, Say. Below the loess to the track level the section is made up of blue clays and straticulate sands and gravels with occasional large boulders, in the gravel several large fragments of carboniferous limestone with fossils were found. The lower sands rest directly upon the coal measure shales probably since these are well shown in the river bed 10 teet below the track. The section is of special inteiest, inasmuch as it is near the terminal moraine of the Des Moines lobe of the great glacier usually referred to the second epoch of the North American Ice Age. NOTE ON THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACERVULARIA PROFDNDA HALL, AND ACERVULARIA DAYIDSONI EDWARDS AND HAINE. BY S. CALVIN. The original description of Acervidarki profunda Hall, is found in Hall's Report on the Geological Survey of Iowa, published in l::^58. The specimens on which the species was founded came from near Independence, in Buchanan county. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31 Iowa. In the same report Professor Hall, not without some hesitation identifies ■another form found abundantly throuijhout the Devonian area in Iowa, with Acerruhd-ia davidsoiii Edwards and Ilaine. This, so far as I have been able to ascertain, was the first time the name had been employed in a work published in America; for although Edwards and Haine's specimens came from near Jefferson- ville, Indiana, the description of Acernilaria davidsoni appeared in the great Monojjraph of the authors, published in France. It should be noted that near Jetfersonvillo, Indiana, there occurs another form which authors, foHowingr the •example of Edwards and Haines, usually refer to Curiihophiilhim riif/osHin Hall. The three species mentioned above, as recotfniz°d by everyone who has ever handled them, are somewhat closely related. Dr. Rominger in Geology of Mich- igan, Vol. Ill, page 107, is disposed to regard them all as but varieties of one species. The A cervulnria daridsoni, an it occurs in Iowa, is certainly very sharply •defined from either of the other two, while A. profunda exhibits a very intimate correspondence as to structure with Ci/aihophf/Unn) riigosum from the Falls of the ■Ohio. Comparing J. /jroA^u/rt with yl. f/«c/V/.so«( we may note that it differs in the appearance and mode of growth of the corallum, in the greater tendency to inde- pendent growth of corallites, in the size of its corallites, the shape of its calyx, the thicker non-corrugated wall by which the individual corallites are bounded, the almost entire absence of an inner pseudo-wall bounding a central area, and the thinner septa with more numerous and conspicuously developed carina. The A. profunda is a much coarser lookmg species than A. davidsoni. Its lower surface is never as smooth and flat as is that of most coralla of the other species from Iowa. This surface is transversed radially by the outer corallites which stand out in strong, transversely wrinkled ridges, sometimes almost entirely free from union with contiguous corallites. All the corallites show a remarkable tendency to independent growth, so that in some specimens a large proportion of the whole number of corallites stand apart from those adjacent on the upper sur- face of its corallum and are individually covered externally with an independent epitheca. In certain modes of preservation the corallites are even separable into wrinkled, polygonal prisms that exactly imitate a very common condition in CjiathophijUum rugosum. In the region from which Hall's type comes the corallites of A. profunda are on the average somewhat larger than those of A. dacidsoni. It is true that the corallites of both species vary within very wide limits, and it is therefore quite possible that the superiority in size of A. profunda may not be maintained in all localities. In the Paleontology of Ohio, Vol. II, page 240, Dr. Nicholson describes a form under the name of Acenularia profunda. Hall, that is distinguished among other things by having the corallities smaller than A. davidsoni. The shape of the calyx is markedly different in average specimens of the two species. In A. profunda the calyces are separated by relatively thin partitions owing to the manner in which the sides of the cup slope abruptly downward and inward from the margin; the septa are thin and have conspicuous, crowded carina? which are as fully developed near the margin of the calyx as around the central iirea, particularly in respect to which they are in marked contrast with the septa of A. davidsoni. The septa differ still further from those of A. davidsoni in having more of their edges free and in having their edges beautifully denticulated. There is but little thickening of the septa to form a pseuJo-wall around a central area; indeed this feature is in a large proportion of cases wholly wanting. The secondary septa are nearly as long as the primaries inside the central area. 32 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Acervularia davidsoni, Ed. and H., has a much wider geog:raphical range in Iowa than A. profuiHla, Hall. The area in which A. profunda occurs is nearly all included in part of Buchanan and Black Hawk counties, while the area over whicb the other species is distributed is many times greater. As pointed out in the American Geolof/lst for September, 1891, A. profunda is not associated in the same beds with A. daridsoni, but occurs uniformly at a horizon a few feet lower. Outside the area occupied by A. profunda its place seems to have been taken by PhUlipsaktrea gigas Owen. At least this last species, while never very common, occupies the same relative position a few feet below the horizon at which A~ davidsoni is found, and so far as known it is not present in the region in which A. profunda attains its maximum development. With respect to the particulars in which A. profunda diiters from A. davidsoni it agrees essentially in structure with Cgathophi/lhitn rugosum of authors, and it may therefore be regarded as the western i-epresentative of the last named species. If carinated septa have any generic significance, then Cyafhophi;Uum rugosum is not a CgaihophgUum at all. Whatever the decision may be (J. rugosum and J. profunda must ultimately stand side by side in the same genus. A. davidsoni stands somewhat apart from both of the foregoing species in a number of particulars. The calyces have a sharply defined central pit with explanate margins. In typical specimens the floor of the calyx, except in the central pit, is almost on a level with the margin; the septa are thick, scarcely denticulated, with but a small portion of their edges free, the carinte are few and clumsy and chiefly developed in the region immediately surrounding the c-mtral area. Both primary and secondary septa are conspicuously thickened around the edge of the central area, the carinte are also developed there better than elsewhere, the effect being to produce in polished sections the appearance of a bi-areal coral with a central area bounded by a definite inner wail. Under the magnifier this wall is never complete. The thickened septa and strongly developed carinse never quite coalesce, so that the outer area is never, as in true bi-areal corals, perfectly shut off" from the central space. At the margin of this central space the secondary septa all end more or less abruptly, and only the primary septa are con- tinued as thin non-carinated lamellae into the central area. Acervularia daridsoniis certainly congeneric with some of the species referred to Acervularia by Edwards and Haime and other authors. Whether or not it is generically related to the type species of the genus maybe left an open question. So long as genera are mere artificial creations without sharply defined natural boundaries it will do no violence to the facts, but will be a matter of convenience and at the same time will give effect to a recognizable structural difference, if we keep ^. davidsoni apart from the typical forms of the genus Ci/athophi/Jhon,* and for the present at least retain it in the genus Acervularia. Along with A. davidsoni must go Acervularia inequalis. Hall and Whitfield. As a mere matter of convenience, but with less confidence as to the justness of the arrangement, we may for the present add to the recognized species of Acervularia the A. profunda. Hall, and the CgaihophijUum rugosum of authors. The last two species may yet, with perfect justice, be separated generically from A. davidsoni. *Dr. Rominger and Mr. W. J. Davis place this and related species under the genus Cyathovhylhwt. See Geolo.gy of Michigan, Vol. III., and Kenhickij FoksU Corctls. IOWA acadp:my of sciences. 33 NOTES ON MISSOURI MINERALS. BV EKASMUS HAWORTII. 1. Mehmite in a Basic Dike Bock. II. Linionile PesitdoiHorpJiOHs after Cahile. (Fublished with foiirient of tlie Stat"' Geologist of Missouri.) I. At various places in the Arcluwin areas of Missonn the granites and porphyries are cut by dikes of ba^ic rocks which usually trend N. E. and S. W. but occasion- ally in other directions. The dike rocks are comparatively constant in composi- tion. When holo-crystalline they are a diabase, or an olivine diabase, and when less perfectly crystallized they ^'enerally correspond to diabase porphyrite. Usually there are no marked indications of contact raetamorphism, either in the wall rock or the dyke rock. la Sec. 1(5, T. oo, N. R. {I, E., on the East Fork of Black River, in Reynolds county, is an important exception to the above state- ment. On the left bank of the stream, at a point where it makes a short turn from east to south, just above a small cataract, locally called The Falls, is a large dike trending N. W. and S. E. which foruis the bank of the stream for a few yards. At this place the dike rock rises in the form of a bluff ten metres high or more, filled with vertical fissures, and presenting m every respect the appearance of an eruptive rock. In some places along the base of this bluff the contact between the dike rock and the quartz porpyhry through which the eruption occurred is quite plainly shown. It seems that the lava has overflowed the walls of the fissure and is here resting on top of the quartz porphyry. This dike rock is a good example of what was formerly called a "green stone." Its specific gravity is 2.74o4. A determination of its acidity by the St. Louis Sampling and Testing Works for the Missouri Geological Survey showed that it had 4."j.40 per cent Si 0-z. Macroscopically it seems to be perfectly compact excepting an occasional gas cavity now filled with calcite and epidote. The freshest specimens obtainable were somewhat altered by weathering, so that the hammer marks on them were ashy white. Microscopically it is seen that there is a considerable amount of glass present, with small tnclinic feldspar crystals and much green fibrous hornblende, probably secondary in origin. No pyroxene or olivine was seen in the thin sections ex- amined, although it is quite possible one or both of these minerals was originally present, and has been altered into the fibrous hornblende. In a few places along the contact line between the dike rock and quartz por- phyry the dike rock has been corroded apparently by water or gas, probably by a fumerole action at the time of eruption. The corrosion is not very extensive, perhaps never exceeding a metere vertically. The action was sufficiently vigorous to give to the rock an irregular, porous appearance. The cavities thus produced 3 34: IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. are filled with small crystals varying in size from almost microscopic dimensions to a centimetre or more in length. They are brown in color, varying on the one hand to greenish brown, and on the other to nearly black, especially those which are weathered. Their crystallographic properties are interesting on account of the different kinds of symmetry they have approached by the excessive development of planes in certain zones. They are all rhombic-dodecahedrons, the edges of which are occasionally truncated by minute icoistetrahedrons never large enough to alter the general appearance of the crystal. In addition to the regularly formed dodecahedrons four different types have been noticed. First — The four planes normal to the plane of the lateral axis are elongated, as in Fig. 1, giving the crystal an apparent tetragonal sym- metry, and resembling a combination of the unit, prism, oo P, with the pyramid of the second order P. co- But as all the angles are either 90" or 120" there is no doubt but that t is a modification of the rhombic dodeca- liedon. Fig. 1. Second— In this case six planes are elongated, as in Fig. 2, so that the crystal assumes the sym- metry of the hexagonal system, and appears to be a combination of the hexagonal prisim as oo P. and the rhomboliedron R. The angles are here also 120", just what they should be for the hex- agonal prism, making the resemblance all the more striking. These two figures are similar to two of those given for garnets in Dana's System F'f^- '•^- of Mineralogy, p. 266. Third— I'lais case differs from the first given in the excessive development of two of the faces resembling the pyramid of the second order, as is shown in Fig. 3. In this way it seems to have a monoclinic symmetry, and to be formed by a com- bination of the two lateral pinacoid faces, 00 P55 and cxdPqc w'ith the positive and negative pyramids + P. ■ Pj„_ 3 Fourth— ]n this case the six faces are elongated as in Fig. 2, and also two of the, faces resembling the rhom- bohedrons, while the third is very small, as in Fig. 4, giving the crystal apparently the monoclinic symmetry, and seeming to be composed of the clinopinacoid, 00 PS, the unit prism 00 P, the clino dome, P 00, and the plus orthodome -j- Po), a combination which is not contrary to the monoclinic symmetry. Fig. 4 is drawn in this position in order to illustrate the pseudo symmetry, and should be rotated 45*^ to the left if c is placed vertically. I'^is. 4. Small fragments of the mineral examined in polar- ized light, with the nicols crossed, transmit some light, showing that the optica anomalies so common in garnets occur here as well. Oorreotioii. !>y a mistake in printiiiii^ s on JNIissouri Minerals" by Eiasi position. They should be as fo )nu' of the fin'tires used to i luis Ilaworlli. were inserte< lows: usti-ate "Xotes in a hoi'izontal Fig. 1. Pseudo— tetragonal symmetry, ap- [tareutly with unites prism x \\ and pyramid of second order, Px . Fig. 2. Pseudo- hexagonal symmetry, ap- l-arently with prismatic, cc P, and rhombohedral. I?, faces. Fig. 3. Pseudo— monoclinic symmetry.ap- parently with the two lateral pina- coidal faces, ^ F^ , aiid ^ p\ . and both plus and minus pyramids, +P. Scaleiujhedron of calcite with al- ternate polar edges beveled and modilied, as in text. IOWA ACADEMY OF SC1P:NCP:S. 35 The speci6c gravity of fresh looking, well formed crystals was found to be 0.6002. A chemical analysis kindly furnished by the Missouri State Geological Survey, made by the St. Louis Sampling & Testing Works, gave the following results, which leaves no doubt but that the mineral in question is a lime-iron garnet, of the variety melanite. although it is more of a brown in color than that variety usually is: SiO:i = 00.88 per cent. MnU = O.'JO per cent. Fe- 03 = 29.35 per cent. AI2O3 = 5.5o per cent. (.'a 0 = 30.71 per cent. MgO = 0.63 per cent. 100.30 per cent. The occurence of this mineral is of interest because it seems to be the first time it has been found in the State, and because garnets of all kinds are so rare. In fact, with the exception of one instance reported to the writer in a private com- munication, by Prof. (t. C. Broadhead, and which has not yet been published, this is the only locality known in the State of Missouri where garnets of any kind are found. In Bulletin No. 5, of the Geological Survey of Missouri, p. 42, it is stated that garnets have not been found anywhere within the area of the crystalline rocks of the State. It should be noted that, occuring as they do here within a dyke rock, they in no way have a bearing on the question there discussed, viz., the origin of the granites and porphyries. II At diiTerent places in Southeast Missouri some of the many fine specimens of calcite are coated with a thm film which is a beautiful, rich amber in color. An examination of this coating showed it to be a compound of ferric oxide the exact •chemical nature of which was not determined. One of the specimens from Potosi, in Washington county, which has been in the Penn College Museum for a few years, so well illustrates, not only the controlling force a crystal has over the molecules of a pseudomorph deposited on it, but also the law of symmetry in crystallization, that it is thought worthy of mention. It is a collection of modi- fied left handed scalenohedrons from one to two centimetres, for a half length, for the most of which the formula — 2 R~ was estimated. Usually each scalenohedron is terminated by rhombohedral faces. In addition to this each acute polar edge is beveled by a second scalenohedron producing another set of six faces from one to three millimetres wide. The coating on these crystals is comparatively light and the mole- cular control exerted by the calcite has caused it to be deposited on these narrow-scale no- hedral faces only, leaving the remainder of the crystal entirely unaffected. Fig. 5 illus- F'S. ii- trates this. By comparing this specimen with others it is found that as the coating became thicker it was next deposited on the rhombohedral faces, and covered the whole crystal only after it became so abundant that the molecular force of the calcite could no longer control it. This is the finest (xample the writer has ever seen of a crystal controlling a pseudomorph deposited on it, and especially illustrating so well at the same time the law of symmetry in crystallization. 36 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. PRISMATIC SANDSTONE FROM MISSOURI. BY ERASMUS IIAWORTH. (Published by consent of the State Geologist of the Geological Survey of Missouri.) On the right bank of the St. Francois River, in S. .31; T. 33, N.; R. 6. E., about 200 yards southwest of the St. Louis Granite Company's cfuarry, near Knob' Lick, Madison county, Mo., is a little sandstone ridge, trending northwest and south- east, nearlv 200 yards long, 10 yards wide, and not more than 8 to 10 feet high above the nearly level ground on either side. The country rock here is the Cam- brian sandstone, which overlies the granite, as is beautifully illustrated at the quarry near by. This little ridge is interesting on account of the peculiar form of the sandstone composmg it. In places where the soil has been somewhat worn away, instead of revealing flat layers of sandstone, as can be found near by in any direction, the surface is covered with fragments of sandstone of a prismatic form, resembling in shape the basaltic columns so well known in different parts of the world. In size the prisms range from about three-fourths of an inch to one and a half inches in diameter, and from three to eight inches in length. They are not uniform in geometrical outline, some having four sides, some five, and a few six. Quite often two and occasion- ally three prisms adhere together, side by side, but generally so loosely that they can easily be broken apart. In such cases the boundary between them is usually a single plane, but sometimes two new planes are exposed by the lireaking, forming a re-entrant angle on one prism. Fig. 1 fairly represents a com- bination of two of these prisms. The nature of the rock was studied cfuite carefully, both macroscopically and microscopically, and it was found to be nothing but an ordinary, somewhat irregu- larly indurated, fine-grained sandstone. The grains of quartz are waterworn, as is usual. The induration is produced by the interstitial spaces being more or less filled with silica, but the thin sections examined showed no instance of secondary growth of the quartz crystals. The existence of the ridge is probably due to the induration of the sandstone. Why this limited area should be thus indurated, and the surrounding country should not be, there seemed to be no obtainable evidence. However, this of itself IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37 is of little importarce. But the prif-nnitic form of the sandstone is much more in- teresting. The specimens gatliered were on or near the surface, and were not seen in siiii; but from their great abundance it must be argued that they extend down- wards for a considerable distance. It was first thought that possibly a dike rock had once existed here, which had assumed the prismatic character, and that in some way by surface decay it had left moulds into which the sand had been carried. But a careful examination revealed no indication whatever of there ever having been a dike here, although they are quite common in the surrounding country. The gran- ite close by is older ' than the sandstone, and could not therefore have played any part in the matter by metamorphosing the sandstone in any way. ^ See Bull. No. 5. Mo, Geol. Sur. p. 12, et seq. THE TERTIARY SILICIFIED WOODS OF EASTERN ARKANSAS. BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL. Read September 1891. (Published by permission of the State Geologist of Arkansas.) The occurrence of silicified wood in the sands and gravels of the Tertiary of the Lower Mississippi Valley has long been known. Aside, however, from the numer- ous localities mentioned by Ililgard,* nearly all of which are in the State of Mis- sissippi, little attention has been given it. Numerous geologists have spoken of it or incidentally studied it in connection with other investigations, but hitherto no attempt has been made to recognize the species and fix their taxonomic value, if, indeed, they possess any such value. Among those who have investigated the Orange Sands and other Tertiary deposits of the Mississippi Valley and who have added to our information as to the occurrence of these fossils are Hilgard,f Pen- rose,!: and Knowlton.§ The last named has made the only microscopic study of these fossils which is on record. Since his investigations are based upon material which, for the most part, was collected by the writer, it is thought that it will be useful to place on record in this form, a more detailed statement of the conditions of the occurrence •of the silicified woods, their peculiarities, their structural relations and their stratigraphical position, in the hope that it may eventually prove to be of use in correlating the deposits in which they are found. These fossil woods occur throughout the area covered by Tertiary sands and gravels in the State of Arkansas. When in large masses they are apparently rarely far removed ircm beds of Tertiary lignite, if in small masses or in small * Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi, 1860. pp. 20, 21, et seq. + Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi. 1860. pp. 20, 21. ct seq. $ First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas. 1889; "A Preliminary Report on the Geology of the Gulf Tertiary of Texas from Red River to the Rio Grande." By. R. A. F. Penrose. Jr.. pp. 1-101. § See Annual Report of the Arkansas Geological Surrey for 1889, Vol. II. pp. 249-267, Plates IX-XI. 38 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. fragments they occur in the gravels of nearly all the region and in the beds of the streams and brooks of the area covered by the Tertiary. Occasionally whole trunks of trees are found, often partially buried in the sands or deeply imbedded in the gravels which cover the flood plains of the creeks and ravines within the Tertiary area and especially along Crowley's Ridge, from Helena to the Missouri line. Specimens have been obtained from logs or stumps in sitit and in undisturbed Ter- tiary beds at the following points: Hope, Hempstead county ; Camden, Ouachita county; near Red Land, Cleveland county; at Red Bluff, Jefferson county; at Helena, Forrest City. Wittsburg, Wynne, Harrisburg, Jonesboro, Gainesville, Boydsville, and St. Francis in the country traversed by Crowley's Ridge in the eastern part of the State, All of these localities have furnished examples of silic- ified wood from large logs or stumps in place and always imbedded in Tertiary sands or gravels. It is a remarkable fact that hitherto, in Arkansas, silicified woods have been seen but very rarely in the Tertiary clays. At all the localities mentioned above, except one, the wood is found only in gravels or sands in situ, or in redeposited gravels and sands in the low valleys. The geological section of the Crowley's Ridge region, to which area this paper especially refers, shows the following sequence, seen in the generalized section in St. Francis county, which is characteristic for the southern portion. GENERALIZED SOUTHERN SBCTION ON LITTLE CROW CREEK. 1. A loess soil, with enough sand to render it decidedly siliceous. This is the surface member and is usually of but little depth. 2. Typical loess, varying in depth froai thirty to ninety feet, eroding rapidly, and presenting a characteristic loess top:graphy. This member caps the ridge even at its highest points. .3. A clayey, pebble-bearing, bluish or otherwise dark colored loess clay which forms the base of the typical loess deposits and probablv marks the first stage in the loess deposition. This member varies somewhat in different localities, being often quite thin and is even sometimes wanting. The pebbles are most abundant in the lowermost portion. 4. Orange-colored gravels, irregular in thickness, rudely stratified, sometimes well assorted so that only coarse gravels, or vice versa, are seen ; there are occasional pockets or lenses of sand derived from the underlying member. In rare instances this bed lies directly under the clays. Silicified coniferous wood often occurs in this member. 5. Party-colored sands, of variable fineness, often quite irregularly stratitied, sometimes overlying the pebble bed, but usually occurring underneath it. The sand grains are well rounded. There are occasional masses or pockets of red, drab, white, or yellow pipe clay. 6. Blu(!, black ordrab clays, horizontally stratified, with small, sometimes larger,, pieces of coniferous lignite. This member constitutes the greater portion of the body of the ridge. Along its margin it is to be seen only in the deepest ravines, or along the St. Francis and such of its small tributaries as flow from the ridge. _ It is often penetrated in deep wells, as at Forrest City, and underlies the whole region. The lower exposed portion is fossiliferous. the fossils are marine, and Claibornian in age. The clays are, therefore, Eocene Tertiary. Slight differences in the section appear in various portions of the ridge, but are not worthy of remark in this connection. The generalized section for the northern portion of the ridge, made at a point seventy-five miles north of St. Francis county, shows the following sequence: GENERALIZED NORTHERN SECTION NEAR G AINIiSVILLE, GREENE COUNTY. 1. A humus, largely siliceous, or a soil mainly sand. At the highest hilltops this soil contains gravel or may be entirely replaced by waterworn gravel. 2. Gravel bed, commonly removed by erosion. IOWA acadp:my of scie:nces. 39 8. Sands of Tertiary age, false bedded, party-colored, coarse or fine, banded often with drab, red or white pipe clay, or the last may be in pockets or lenses. These sands are {jenerally loose, but in certain localities they have metamorphosed into a very hard, trlassy (juartzite. The areas of metamorphism are linearly dis- tributed over many square miles, but are confined chiefly to the west side of the ridge. Silicified woods are found in this member at many localities, but none has yet been discovered in the metamorphosed portions. 4. Drab, blue and black clays of Eocene Tertiary age, horizontally stratified, occasionally fossiliterous, the fossils being chiefly the leaves of deciduous trees. These clays contain rare beds of lignite of small extent and erratic vertical distri- bution. Moreover, the clays are commonly gypsiferous and are further character- ized by abundant small plates of rauscovite in the cleavage planes. Silicified wood was seen at a single locality, on Cache River. The absence of fossils in nearly all the members of the Arkansas Tertiary ren- ders necessary their distinction upon lithological and structural data. The large masses of silicified wood in the upper members of the series are the only organic forms known above the Eocene clays. If in any way these silicified woods may be genetically connected with the lignite beds a means of correlation will not cer- tainly be had, but the fact may sometime possess taxonomic value. Studies made in Eastern Arkansas seem to show that all or nearly all of the silicified woods of the Tertiary sands and gravel beds are derived in some manner from the underly- ing beds of lignite. In many places whole tree trunks, stumps standing in place, or large fragments of silicified wood occur so related to lignite deposits as to show that they are derived therefrom. In the northwestern portion of Greene county, on the west side of Crowley's Ridge, are masses of wood partly in the form of lig- nite and partly silicified. The lignitized part is buried in Eocene clays; the silici- fied ends are buried in Eocene Tertiary tands. It would appear that in this case, before the sands were eroded away, the portion of the trunk which had been buried therein was subjected to the action of waters containing silica in solution and the lignitic matter was replaced by silica. The silica is. of course, all present as secondary quartz, is often massive but, also, frequently crystallized. Especially is holocrystalline quartz abundant in specimens of wood that were partially decayed when the older lignification process began. In the drusy cavities of such lignite are found large numbers of perfect and rather large quartz crystals. These are often, in some specimens always, characterized by a uniform dark or brownish color which is due to inclusions of limonite.* Prof. F. H. Knowlton, of the United States Geological Survey, has studied raicrc- scopically both the lignite and silicified woods found in Eastern Arkansas. The results of his work may be found in Vol. II. of the Arkansas Geological Survey Reports for 1889. His studies have developed the interesting fact that the woods belong to both dicotyledonous and coniferous types. This occurrence is the first known dicotyledonous wood found in this country in rocks older than Pleistocene and is the first dicotyledonous form determined by internal structure. If, there- fore, examinations of both lignites and silicified woods are made and it results that the same form or forms are represented in both, a strong reason exis-ts for genetic- ally connecting the silicified woods with the lignites. Unfortunately for taxonomic purposes all the forms described by Prof. Knowlton are new, but some otherwise valuable results have been reached. In the first place * An especially fine example of this nature was taken from a section in Tertiary sands thirteen miles southeast of the town of Camden on the line of the Camden & Alexandria Railroad. Of the many thousands of quartz crystals which this specimen exhibits not one has been seen which is free from inclusions of limonite. 40 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. he finds, among the four new species studied, two forms which are clearly dicoty- ledonous, and two other distinctly coniferous m relationship. The species are: Coniferous. Dicotyledonous. Cupressinox)jlon arkansanum, Lcmrinoxijlon hranneri, Cupressinoxi/Ion colli. Laurinoxylon lesquereuxiana. There was also a single additional specimen whose affinities appeared to be dicotyledonous and to belong to Laurinoxylon; the condition ol the material would not admit of a clo.ser determination. The specimens found indicate comparatively few species, but these few must have existed in great numbers. One of the most valuable and pertinent facts in this connection is the finding of the dicotyledonous Laurinoxylon hranneri in the lignite bed of Bolivar Creek, as lignite, deeply buried in Eocene clays in massive form. Thus far sufficient distributional facts to give a taxonomic value to the fossil woods have not been discovered. Until extensive collections throughout the whole region of the southern Tertiary have been made it will not be possible to use these forms for purposes of diflferentiation or of correlation. It is believed, however, that since in the Tertiary sands of Arkansas, Louisana, Texas and Mississippi the same relations of silicified woods to lignites have been observed, it may be possible to co-ordinate the divisions recognized in those States by geologists and devise a system of nomenclature that will explain the relationships of the various beds to each other, though it cannot be done at present. During the progress of the study of the region by the writer it became more and more clear that the silicified wood had some intimate relation to the pockets or beds of lignite which are scattered throughout the ridge. It was early noticed that no lignite occurs in the sands or gravels above the clays, and that no detached masses of silicified wood occur entirely in the clays. As the investigation proceeded it became a favorite hypothesis that the silicified wood was transformed lignite, and that careful microscopic study would probably prove the hypothesis to be cor- rect. Professor Knowlton's investigations appear to verify the hypothesis. The opinion that the silicified wood was, in some way, to be connected with the lignites of the bed underlying the sands was suggested by Hilgard* many years ago. Speaking of the occurence of fossils in the Orange sands he says: "... . The closest scrutiny I have bestowed on hundreds of extensive exposures, has failed to detect any fossil apparently peculiar to the formation as such. This might seem paradoxical enough to anyone acquainted with the frequent occurrence of silicified wood in these strata, but it soon becomes quite obvious to an attentive observer that the regions of the frequent occurrence of this fossil in the Orange sand are coextensive with those in which fossil wood, either silicified— when imbedded in siliceous sands— or lignitized, occurs in the underlying lignitiferous Cretaceous or Tertiary strata. It is not unusual to find trunks of silicified wood imbedded partly in the unchanged lignitic strata, partly in the Orange sand; the portion contained in the latter being nearly or wholly deprived of carbon, while the part imbedded in the lignitic material is, if at all silicified, of an ebony tint and often contains pyrites." Again, "I am convinced that the greater part, if not all of this fossil wood, is derived from the underlying strata and will be represented in their flora." There can be little question, therefore, that the process of silifieation has occur- red, in some cases at least, since these masses were torn from the underlying beds American Journal of Science, II, Vol. XLI. p. 313. 18l>6. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41 Ity the waters which deposited the sands above the clays.* As ordinarily under- Btood the process is purely a chemical one and perhaps very slow. It consists in the replacement, particle by particle, of the carbon of the li<;nite by silicic acid, or silicon dioxide. It is by no means essential that theorfjanic matter be unchanged when the process begins. If the belief that this wood represents what was once lignite be a correct one, then the process of silicification can occur in the case of •organic matter which has already undergone a partial change. Where found in clays in a silicified condition, it has probably resulted from the same processes that are seen to obtain in the highly siliceous sands or gravels which overlie them. Though the impervious nature of most clays renders the •percolation of silica-charged waters a matter of great ditticulty such percolation •certainly occurs in them. The silicified masses of wood are often far too large to •have been removed from the clays and deposited in the overlying gravels by an •ordinary wave or current action, for they sometimes weigh tons. In the form of iignite the same masses could have been transported by currents, but since very large pieces have been rarely, if ever, found far from lignite deposits, even that proposition has very little weight. The vertical distribution of the silicified woods of the Arkansas Tertiary is limited by the line of contact between the sands and clays which constitute the Arkansas series. Below this line the silicified wood never occur.s with the single exception above, f so far as observations have yet extended. Above it no lignites have ever been found. The vertical range is therefore limited by the thickness of the sand and gravel bed which is commonly, in Arkansas, between fifty and eighty feet. There is a marked difference in the vertical range of (his fossil in the Tertiary of Arkansas and the Tertiary of California. In the latter State the vertical range is often many hundreds, even several thousands, of feet. Whitney says 4 "It will be proper to add some of the most important facts gathered during the investi- gation of the gravel deposits in regard to the mode of occurrence of the fossil plants of the Pliocene epoch. The vertical range of these has been alluded to, and it may *Dr. K. A. F. Penrose, Jr. (op tit., pp. 24, 26, 50, et seq ). has placed on record the numerous occurrences of silicified wood in the Tertiary of Te.xas; he finds it in both sands and clays. In his description of the Sabine Kiver beds he says: "Silicified wood is of very frequent occurrence in tlicse strata; sometimes occurring as small frag- ments; and at other times as large trunks of trees. On tlie Brazos River, in the^ northern part of Milam county, was seen a trunk one and a half feet in diameter, pro- truding from a clay bed. Ten feet of it were exposed, while the rest was imbedded in the clay. In many places such fragments are collected in great quantities, but it is especially plentiful in the lower part of the Fayette beds. It is generally dark brown or black inside, and weathers gray or butf color on the outside. Sometimes it occurs partly lignitized and partly silicified. It frecjontly shows shrinkage cracks which are filled with quartz or clialcedony. and are often lined with quartz crystals." In this case stratification was but partial or was still in progress, and since there is exposed in the face of the bluff a log which was partially lignitized and partly silicified it proves all but conclusively that, even in the Texan Tertiarios. the lignitic precedes the siliceous condition of these woods. tin this case the stumps are still standing, the roots, also silicified, ramifying in all directions in Eocene blue clays. Less than one hundred feet east, however, tlie line of contact between the sand beds and tlie clays was disclosed in a vertical cut in a liillside. This line was at or near the elevation of the stumps. It was clear that, if the stumps did not actually project into the overlying sands, they were but a short distance below and under conditions to favor silicification from waters percolating through the clay to them. •t Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 2:ii. 2;if.. See also American Journal of Science. II, Vol. XLI, p. 359. 18t56. 42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. be more distinctly stated that either fossil wood or leaves have been found at every elevation, from the lowest to the hig:hest, where gravels occur. iLven as high a& Silver Mountain City, at 7,000 feet of elevation, large masses of fossil wood are found in the volcanic deposits; and in Plumas county the same occurrence has been noted on several of the highest mountains in the region, as Penman's Peak and Clermont, peaks from 7,000 to 8,000 feet high Fragments and often large masses of wood are found, both in the gravels and the associated clayey and tufaceous beds. In the gravel they frequently bear the marks of transportation from a distance, as would be expected." In the California Tertiary the most completely silicified and best preserved specimens of wood occur in connection with deposits of a volcanic character, some- times a rhyolitic ash.* It is suggested by Whitney that these relationships have something to do with the process of silicification. For that region Whitney believes that not only were the woods silicified after their imbedding in white pulverulent volcanic ash but "the lava itself exhibits signs of having been acted on by silicifying agents after its deposition." That the greater part of the series of beds included in the gravel formation has been thoroughly permeated with waters holding silica in solution and that chemical changes induced thereby are sutticient to explain the phenomena appears quite probable. The relations which the phe- nomena sustain to the facts of volcanism so abundant in that region are set forth and the conclusion is drawn that that relation explains silicification in these woods. In California it becomes a subordinate problem under volcanism. The chemical processes which obtained in the case of the Arkansas gravels were- not co-ordinate with those in California, for there is no evidence of volcanism or any similar phenomena associated with their silicification. The silica in the east em locality must be sought in the accompanying sand beds and was probably brought into solution by the action upon it of organic acids. The study of the Arkansas Tertiary silicified woods appears to justify the follow- ing conclusions: 1. The silicified woods of Eastern Arkansas are all of Tertiary age. 2. They are derived from the beds of Eocene clays that underlie the sands and gravels in which they commonly, occar. 3. They are silicified lignite; the process of silicification has occurred either while they were still in the clays or most often after they were removed and buried in the sands and gravels. 4. They possess as yet no taxonomic value in determining the relative ages ot the members of the Tertiary series. ADDITIONAL NOTE ON SILICIFIED WOOD IN IOWA. Nearly all who have had occasion to make any extended study of the Pleistocene strata or deposits in Iowa have found, somewhat farely it is true, specimens of silicified wood which occur under varying conditions. Most of those which the writer has seen have been found in rearranged Pleistocene strata and bear evidence of having been rather roughly handled since silicification. The generic position of most of these examples is uncertain since there have been no careful microscopical examinations, save in a single instance, of any of these specimens. Professor F. H. Knowlton, of the United States Geological Survey, has studied very carefullyt a single example of these woods, basing his investigation upon a ♦Op. cit., pp. 32;-329. + Proceedings United States National Museum, Volume 11, 1888, p. 5-6. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43 specimen taken in Emmet county. He found the material to represent a species new to science and gave it the name of Citpressiiw.cijlon ghtsrioiri, after its discov- erer. He concludes that it represents a horizon which is Cretaceous in age. In the absence of anj* information to the contrary it is fair to assume that the speci- men came from the rocks in situ but, if so, it is the only case on record of the occurrence of silicified wood so situated in the limits of the State. It would be interesting to institute studies of these woods in connection with the great masses of silicified woods found so abundantly along the upper Missouri; such study might serve to indicate the real origin of these straggled specimens. In the Pleistocene of this State occasional large examples of silicified wood have been found; the ones examined by Professor Knowlton were small. The writer has noted two or three, in and about the city of Des Moines, that would weigh an hundred pounds or more; the largest of these was little water-worn. Throughout the central and east-central portions of the State, and occasionally, in other parts of the commonwealth, large trunks of coniferous trees are reached in well and coal borings. I'hese belong, without question, to that earlier. Pleisto- cene stratum which many geologists denominate "the forest bed." In the debris which was thrown out of the famous Belle Plaine artesian well, when water was found, there came from this stratum large masses of coniferous woods, sometimes quite large logs, mingled with sands and gravel. They constituted one of the features which made the well famous. Similar woods have occured in deep wells within the city of Des Moines, even when the highest lands within the city were penetrated. The writer has now in his possession fine examples of such wood taken from a well thirty-six feet in depth in the heart of the city. They are much crushed and twisted, one end of one piece being broken or crushed into fibers by some heavy grinding weight, and give clear evidence of the harsh treatment which they have received. In no case have these fossil woods been compared with those which are silicified; so that identity in generic relation cannot be postulated. It is fair to remark, however, that no member of the forest bed proper has yet furnished a single example of silicified wood; that is no specimen of wood which became silicified since burial in that particular stratum. It would appear, therefore, that the real origin of the silicified woods found in the Pleistocene of this state must be sought outside of its imits. THE FISHES OF THE DES MOINES BASIN. BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL. To one familiar with so much of the literature of science as pertains to the natural history of the State of Iowa it is surprising that so little has been done in relation to its fishes. A list designed to stand for the icthyic fauna of the State has yet to be compiled. There have appeared but three papers devoted to Iowa fishes. Of these three oiie was published under the auspices of the United States 44: IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. National Museum,* the others were both published in Iowa§", under Iowa auspices and by an Iowa man. The first of these papers lists thirty species from the Des Moines river, at Ottumwa, of which list two were new to science. The two forms were Xot)-o))is gilberii and Ammocrypta clara. From the Chariton river, at Chariton, there were listed in the same paper thirteen species. From the Hundred and Two river, near Bedford, there were taken nineteen forms. The latter stream furnished no new species while one, Etheostoma ioww, was found in the Chariton. The second of these papers was preliminary to a complete account of Iowa fishes and is not yet finished. It aims to present the main facts, reg'arding- species and their identification, thus far gathered through personal observation and collated from other sources. In it may be found certain notes on the geographic distribution ot the more common forms, but recent investigations have already rendered this feature of little value. But little may be found in it concerning the forms that occur within our limit. The third paper deals only with the larger forms of Iowa fishes and mainly with those that have food value. It also contains notes on geographical distribu- tion, but this feature here likewise does not represent the facts as now understood. With this brief list the bibliography of Iowa fishes practically ends. Such work ^s has been done and as has been published indicates that veiy much yet remains to be accomplished before the list of Iowa fishes can be completed. To facilitate this work and to secure as a basis for comparison in respect to richness in species, abundance, and geographical distribution a list that would be fairly representative of the strictly defined Iowa fish fauna the writer has collected and studied a great many fishes from the basin of the Des Moines. The main facts i; which this study has made known are made the basis of this preliminary paper. As yet the investigations of the area limited by the hydographic basin of the Des Moines are unfinished. Practically only the streams of the central portion of the area have been studied. These streams all present, as would be expected, a great sameness of fauna, but at the same time they present a characteristic one. Without exception they are all typical prairie streams with physical features com- mon to all alike. Minor differences, such as greater clearness, less depth, more •vapid current, rockier bottoms and a greater number of cold springs characterize all as their source is neared. Correlated with this are certain forms found only at or near the rivers' sources that have, therefore, a somewhat limited distribution. Several small streams, chiefly located within a few miles of the city of Des Moines, have been examined with the greatest thoroughness and they have little or nothing more to yield to continued exploration. These streams may therefore stand as typical for all similar streams in Central Iowa. One of these, Beaver Creek, will be further described in connection with the list collected therein and this list, it is believed, will stand as a type of all similar ones based on so small an area as a single creek. The physical features of the Des Moines river demand but a passing mention. Its bed is ever varying from soft ooze to hard rock, grading in all ways from mud through sand and gravel to coarse boulders. With these varying conditions there is also a various fauna. Certain forms as the Sihiridae, the Acipenseridae and * Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1885, Vol. VIIT. § Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa Vol. I, No. 2, 1889. ° Proceedings of the Towa Academy of Sciences, for 1889-00. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45. the Cdtosiom'ulac delight in muddy waters and muddy bottom. The Centratrhidae, the Percidae and the Ci/prinodontidne delijj:ht most in clear cold streams. Especially abundant are they if to clearness and coldness be added a bottom studded with boulders and smaller rocks affording' thus means for hidinpr. In such situations especially may the beautiful i and is quite common in our area. The lari>liaryiix carinatus Cope. — Raccoon river, Adel and Perry. This form will yet, no doubt, be found throughout our area. It is essentially western, having been described from the upper Missouri. It is difficult of separa- tion from the common red-horse which it greatly re-sembles superficially except on careful examination of the pharyngeal teeth. It is " a large coarse sucker, exter- nally similar to the species of Moxostonui, from which genus it differs only in the remarkable development of the lower pharyngeals and their teeth; the bones are very strong, and six to ten of the lower teeth are enlarged, little compressed, with a broad rounded or flattened grinding surface; the mouth is larger and more oblique than in Morostoma macrolepidolniii and the lips are thicker." — Jordan. Large numbers of this form were taken the present year in Northwestern Iowa, but the localities are all outside the limits imposed by this paper. CYPRINID.E. (The Minnows.) Campostoma aiiomaliiiii Rafinesque. — Beaver creek; Four Mile creek; Raccoon river at Adel, Des Moines; North river; Middle river; Walnut creek; Beaver creek, and Four Mile creek, Polk county. This usually abundant form has not occurred to us in the great numbers which characterize its pi-esence generally. It is one of the most easily recognized of the ■Cfiprinidae because of the great peculiarity of certain anatomical features, the intestines alone being several times the length of the body. Moreover this organ is coiled in a characteristic manner about the air-bladder, a fact which no other minnow, the world over, presents. A vegetarian in food habit, the great length of the intestines is readily understood. When taken the abdomen, or ventral region, is usually distended and greenish in color, due to the nature of the contained food. The scales are irregularly mottled, giving to the fish a peculiarly dirty appearance. In common with the other Ci/prinidae it never attains but small size. Chrosoinus erytbrogaster Rafinesque. — Walnut creek. This most beautiful minnow has occurred but once in our area. Three specimens represent the results of most assiduous collecting. The small but clearly defined scales, closely crowded, the graceful outline, the brilliant spring colors of males and females all conspire to render this form of easy determination; the infrequency of its occurrence in aquaria, therefore, seems to point to its rarity in this section of Iowa, though it is reported abundant in other localities. While widely distributed throughout the great Mississippi Valley, it attains its maximum abundance and beauty in the Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas. It is, in nuptial coloration, probably the most gaudy fish in our waters. Hybognathiis imcIialisAgassiz.— Walnut creek; Raccoon river at Adel, Perry and Des Moines; Beaver creek; Squaw creek, Ames. 4S IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A minnow not easy, always, of separation because of great variability. Rather common in our collections, that is, occurs in nearly all our streams, but not in great abundance. Plinephales iiotatus Rafinesque. — Middle river; North river; Raccoon river at Adel, Des Moines and Perry; Des Moines river at Des Moines and Ft. Dodge; Beaver creek; Walnut creek: and in a small stream without name in the city of Des Moines, but connected with no other stream. Without exception this form is the most common and most abundant Cyprinoid in Iowa. Throughout our area it occurs in nearly every collection made and in the greatest abundance. All collections made in the spring presented males with a black head, much enlarged, apparently, due to the great number of large epi- dermal tubercles. These number, usually, fourteen and are generally arranged in constant order. The somewhat large light, colored scales render it of easy separation from its only congener, the following species. It is the one fish to be alwavs found in the bait-pail of the sportsman. Pimephales promelas Rafinesque — Four Mile creek; North river; Raccoon river at Perry, Adel and Des Moines; Walnut creek, Beaver creek. P. promelas is easily distinguished from its congener by the dark coloration of the anterior portion of the body, the smaller scales crowded before, the dusky color line along the side of the body, the short blunt head, and the incomplete lateral line. It does not attain the size of P. notatus, specimens rarely or never exceeding three inches in length. It is commonly abundant in ail our collections. Cliola vigilax Baird and Girard. — Middle river; Raccoon river at Des Moines Perry and Adel; Des Moines river at Des Momes. This species is readily known by the black spot at the end of the lateral line at the base of the caudal, its light coloration and the short, blunt, decurved snout. From Phenacohius tnirabilifi, which it superficially resembles, it is readily distin- guished by the peculiar mouth of the latter. This form occurred in our collections in warm waters, with muddy bottoms, being rarely taken in streams with rapid currents. It occurred to us in great abundance at Adel in a shallow bayou repre- senting a former river channel. Sotropis ardeus Cope. — Des Moines river, Des Moines; Beaver creek. This form is rare in our collections, one locality, the first, presenting but a single specimen. Among the difficult forms belonging to this genus this takes rank among the most ditficult, has a synonymy which is increasing as more is known of the genus, and is the smallest species of Notrojtis in Iowa. Doctor Jordan justly remarks of the genus that it presents the most puzzling fishes in the world. Its Iowa representatives are especially difficult owing to the great similarity of habitat and the absence of those marked station peculiarities which may be assumed justly as a cause of the more marked differences in the Notropkles of other States. Only the closest scrutiny succeeds in establishing specific characters and then the result is often not satisfactory. That this form is more widely distributed than our personal collections indicate is probable. Notropis cajiig'a Meek. — Squaw creek; Beaver creek; Raccoon river, Adel. This is a rare form in Iowa. Occasionally occurring in fair numbers it is yet true that a day's collecting in a most favorable locality will discover but a half dozen in number. The chief characters presented are the very close or large scales, few in number before the dorsal fin and the well defined black line passing from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. This line, moreover, is continuous to and around the front of the face, on the upper lip only, which fact serves as a clear diagnostic character. In forms looking much like it the color IOWA ACADEMY OF SC1?]NCES. 49 bainl descends to and includes the upper portion of the lower lip; this form constantly never has the line on the lower iip. In habit Xotropis cai/uc/a is somewhat peculiar. It has never occurred to us except in water that was warm, with muddy bottom, and never yet in water flowing swiftly or cold water. It would seem, therefore, that it may be sought for in bayous and similar situations with hopes of success. It is one of the most beautiful fishes in the genus, Xotropis (Icliciosns Girard. — Des Moines river, Des Moines and Ft. Dodge; Raccoon river at Des Moines, Adel and Perry ; Beaver creek ; Walnut creek; Squaw creek; Middle river. It will be noted that this species is of wide distribution in our area and it is likewise abundant, being exceeded in point of numbers only by FiniepJiales nutatus. It is difficult of distinction from certain of its congeners, notably Notrupis gilbertl, the last named, however, having a much larger eye and larger mouth, with a greater number of scales before the dorsal, the scales being, also, somewhat larger. In deUciosiis the mouth is very small, on which character the specific name is based. Notropis (lilectus Girard. — Beaver creek; Walnut creek; North river; Raccoon river at Des Moines, Adel and Perry; Des Moines river at Des Moines. A form of common occurrence, but few in numbers. It is believed that the form called rubrifrons, listed below, is to be properly considered a synonym of this species. Notropis gilberti Jordan and Meek. — Raccoon river at Des Moines, Adel and Perry; Four Mile creek; Walnut creek; Beaver creek; North river; Middle river. This species' name is based upon certain forms discovered by Messrs. Jordan and Meek in the Des Moines river, at Ottumwa. Allied to Notropis hoops Gilbert, it is readily distinguished from that form by the smaller eye. It is very abundant in all ot our collections, hardly less so than is Notropis deliciosus with which it pre- sents some features in common. Notropis megalops Rafinesque.— Beaver creek; Four Mile creek; Raccoon river at Dts Moines, Adel and Perry; Des Moines river at Des Moines and Ft. Dodge; Walnut creek; North river; Middle river. This species is the largest and most variable Notropis in Iowa if not in North America. The old forms, especially the males, present features so entirely different from those of the young that the wonder is not that so great a synonymy is found um^er this species but that the list of names is not greater. The old males are very deep, the lateral line much decurved, the scales larger and pro- portionately broader, the eye smaller and the whole facies of the fish, as seen in the smaller forms, entirely different. Its synonymy will embrace more names than any other species in the genus. Throughout our limit it is a very abundant and ever present form in the small and large streams alike. Like Fintephales notatus it is rarely absent from the fisherman's bait-pail. It is a common form in the aquaria in Des Moines. Notropis rubrifrons Cope. — Squaw creek. A form which is properly to be placed in the synonymy of Notropis aniens Cope. Notropis iimbratilis Girard. — North river; Raccoon river at Adel, Des Moines and Perry; Des Moines river at Des Moines; Middle river; Walnut creek; Beaver creek. This small but well defined form is common in occurrence but somewhat rare in point of numbers, three or four specimens alone rewarding patient and continued search in each of the above localities . 4: 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Notropis wliipplei Girard. — Raccoon at Des Moines, Adel and Perry: Walnut creek; Middle river; North river; Des Moines river at Des Moines and Ft Dodge; Squaw creek; Yader creek. Tliis specimen is one of the prettiest of the genus. The closely set scales, bluish or steel blue in color, the graceful outline, the brilliant yellow or red fins of the nuptial dress in spring all make this species as conspicuous in the seine as the beautiful Chrosomns erijthrogaster. It is very abundant in all parts of our area. The males are armed in spring with a great number of small tubercles which extend backwards over the head and nape even to the dorsal fin. Compared to its length its depth exceeds that of any other iV"ofro/)(s except' JV"o/ro/;/s lufrensis, a species not found in our limit but abuodant in Northwestern Iowa. The form was originally described from Arkansas, thus showing the wide geographical distribution of this species. As a usual thing great range of distribution is cor- related with great variation in certain characters, but in this case there is a marked departure from the law, the variations being slight. Little or no differences are noticeable on careful comparison. Pheuacobius mirabilis Girard.— Middle river; North river; Beaver creek; Raccoon river; Des Moines; Squaw creek; Four Mile creek. Large, fine examples of this species are found in the smaller streams and in the bayous along the larger ones all over our area. The marked black spots at the base of the caudal is a conspicuous character which, joined to the peculiar mouth, ren- ders the form of easy identification. The only fish with which it is likely to be confused is Notropis caynga but from this it is readily distinguished by color and size and by the mouth. The species is fairly common. Rhynictliys atrouasus Mitchell.— Walnut creek; Beaver creek. A single example of this form occurred in each of these streams, indicating its rarity in our area. The genus, which com [rises two species only in tbe United States, is one confined mainly to clear mountain streams and the State of Iowa does not offer suitable habitats for the forirs. It is to be classed among the rarest of our Cyprinoids. Hybopsis keutuckiensis Rafinesque.— Raccoon river at Des Moines, Adel and Perry; North river; Beaver creek; Des Moines river at Dps Moines and at Ft. Dodge; Walnut creek. This chub is one of the most abundant ot th*^ larger Cyprinoids and is rather constant in its characters. In some localities, especially in the smaller streams named above, it is very abundant and large. Those streams which are clear the major part of the summer or which are fed by cold and perennial springs are most favorable to its development. In Walnut creek occurred many specimens which were affected with a crustacean parasite fastened to the soft flesh at the angle formed by the junction of the pectoral fins with the body. While many of these ■fishes were so affected it was noticeable chiefly on those fishes which were taken in muddy water or in water with deep muddy bottom. The parasite is as yet unstudied. Hybopsis storeriauus Kirtland.— Raccoon river, Perry, Des Moines and Adel; Walnut creek; Middle river. This easily recognized and highly characteristic species is very abundant in the larger of the streams named. The largest and finest specimens came from the Raccoon river at Adel and from the Middle river, the form being especially abun- dant in the last named stream. The decurved mouth, giving it a sucker-like appearance at first view is characteristic and is a feature presented by no other IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCP:S. 51 form in our area. Specimens nearly eight inclies in lenj^th were collected in the Middle river. Seiiioiiliis atromaciilatiis Mitchell. — Walnut creek; Beaver creek; Raccoon and Des Moines rivers, Des Moines; North river. A species of very wide distribution in all streams, both large and small, but pre- ferring clear creeks or brooks. This dace often attains a length of quite one foot, fhough none that would exceed seven inches have been taken by us. The locality producing t'-'is form in greatest numbers is Walnut creek, in which many and large examples were taken. Noteiuigronus chrjsoleucus Mitchell. — Raccoon river, Des Moines; Beaver creek. This beautiful fish has occurred in only the two localities named though it is said to be common in sluggish or weedy waters. The form is rare with us, only six or seven specimens having been taken. Its bright golden hue, great depth of body, characters of the opercular covering, and the sharp ridged dorsum will enable it to be readily distinguished. It occurred in our collections in a deep hole, removed from the Raccoon river, and seems to do best in streams of muddy bot- tom. It possibly occurs in plenty in favorable localities. CYPRINODONTID.E. (The Top-Minnows.) Zygoncctes uotatus Rafinesque. — Squaw creek; Raccoon river, Des Moines. This form is rare at Des Moines, only one specimen having been taken, but it is abundant in Squaw creek at Ames. None of the specimens seen attained the maximum size which is stated to be three inches. It thrives best in still waters. ESOCID.E. (The Pikes.) Esox vermiculatus Le Sueur. — Beaver creek; Yader creek. Three examples were taken in Beaver creek and one seen in an aquarium, said to have been seined in Yader creek, a small stream in South Des Moines, tributary to the Des Moines river but dry the most of the year. The peculiar character of the markings on the side of the body distinguish the least pickerel from its remaining congeners. In the following species, the pike — Esox hicius — these markings are a deeper yel'ow, are disconnected commonly, and are oval in shape. The general jellow cast of the pike enables ready distinction, though by fishermen the species are not separated. The least pickerel rarely ever exceeds twelve inches in length though specimens have been seen from the northern portion of the State fully fifteen inches in length. Esox liicius Linnieus. — Raccoon river, Des Moines and Adel; Des Moines river, Des Moines and Ft. Dodge. This is the common pike and is now commonly taken by sportsmen in our region. It takes the hook far more freely than the preceding form. It is comr mon or even abundant in the lakes and streams of the northern and northwestern portions of the State. Prof. S. E. Meek and the writer have taken or seen specimens of eight and ten pounds weight in number in Storm Lake and in the Cherokee river. It is found in deep and still water and most abundantly in deep streams that have many weedy patches. A seine pulled over or through such a locality is certain to capture a specimen, the fish lurking in the shadow of the weeds escaping thus the observation of the unsuspecting minnow. They are very ravenous and are 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. exceeded in this particular by no fish in our waters. The writer has frequently placed a minnow in the mouth of a pike just or recently landed and watched "the thing swallow", which is done in great haste. Even on land, thus, is shown the inordinate appetite of this veritable shark of the fresh water streams. Esox masquinogy Mitchell. — Skunk river, near Ames. While not found within our area so far as known this species is likely to be found though not commonly. It is known from the Mississippi river but from the locality mentioned above this is the only representative. The head of this mag- nificent specimen is now preserved in the Iowa Agricultural College museum. It is reported from the Squaw creek but no authentic specimen is known therefrom. This form is the Esox nobilior or '• Muskalunge " of the northern waters. ANGUILLAD^. (The Eels.) Anguilla angiiilla var. rostrata Le Sueur. — Raccoon river, Adel; Des Moines river, Des Moines. This species is common in the larger streams throughout our limit though most common in the Des Moines. The form is anadromous, that is, it is a marine fish which ascends the fresh-water streams to spawn. Very little is known of its life history though its food habits have been well made out. It is extremely voracious foraging most freely at night; it is commonly taken on trot lines set at night in this region though the writer has several very fine specimens, including one very large one, taken in the Des Moines with hook and line in the day time. ATHERINID^. (The Silversides.) Labidesthes sicculus Cope.— Raccoon river, Des Moines and Adel; Des Moines river, at Ft. Dodge. The specific name of this little fish is by no means always indicative of its habitat. Though common in " half dry pools," in allusion to which the name is bestowed, it is very common in the Raccoon at Adel in the rapidly flowing stream where the bottom is sandy. A number of specimens were there captured and had their presence been suspected many more might have been taken. The snout reminds one of the " pipe-fishes " of the Atlantic coast but is far less produced; of course the resemblance is superficial. The fish is quite transparent, so much so that the gross anatomy may be fairly made out without dissection — a feature presented by at least one other fresh-water fish in our area. It is in many respects our mo6.t interesting fish. CENTRARCHID.E. (The Basses.) Pomoxys annularis Rafinesque.— Raccoon river, Des Moines; Middle river. These two localities have together furnished but four or five specimens. Very Taluable as a food fish, its flesh being both white and sweet, it is the delight of the youthful angler. It has occurred to us only in an abandoned channel of the Raccoon, in deep water, and in a deep hole in Middle river; from the circum- stances of its habitat, in these localities, it would seem to prefer quiet and deep muddy waters. It is a powerful swimmer, takes the hook with great eager- ness and is quite gamey making it a good fish for sport. The localities named are among the most northern known, the fish being a southern form. The related "crappie", Pomoxi/s sparoides, has not yet been found in our limit though an abundant form in the Mississippi on the eastern border of the State. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53 Aiiibloplites rupostrls Rafinesque.— Raccoon river at Adel, Des Moines and PeiT}'; Des Moines river, at Des Moines, Ft. Dodge and Estherville. Tliis abundant fish is to be found wherever there is a clear rocky bottom afford- ing means of concealment. In clear streams with bottoms thus characterized, and affording abundant weeds, grass or river-moss it is always to be found loitering in the shadow of the rocks alike alert for food or enemies. It does not take the hook readily and is very suspicious of danger when one is temptingly dangled in its very face. The numerous black blotches on the side, extending from the dorsum to nearly the base of the anal and pectoral fins sufficiently well indicate the color markings by which it may be distinguished from related forms. Loponiis hiiniilis Girard. — Beaver creek; Walnut creek; Middle river; North river; Raccoon river at Des Moines, Adel and Perry; Des Moines river at Des Moines and Ft. Dodge; Squaw creek. Always abundant this species is nevertheless to be found in excessive numbers in nearly all streams in which it occurs in the State of Iowa. There is a well marked difference between the females anl the males in respect to color markings. The females have little of the deep yellow or red color on the belly while they have a number of the coppery colored markings on the sides scattered without order or apparent arrangement. The males are characterized by the presence of a great many orange colored spots, also without definite order, on the sides, while the lower 6ns are deep red or bright yellow. The more somber hues assumed by the females render it sometimes a matter of question as to specific identity. The organs of reproduction are then the last resort. The species is very abundant throughout the entire northwestern portion of the State occurring in every stream; in some of the smaller muddy creeks which empty into the Missouri it is almost the only fish we found. This and the next form are the most common ones of the genus in our area. Lepomis cyauellus Rafinesque. — North river; Walnut creek; Beaver creek; Raccoon river, at Adel, Des Moines and Perry; Squaw creek; Des Moines river, at Des Moines, Ft. Dodge and Estherville. The " green sun-fish " is nearly or quite as common as the preceding form. Its deeper coloration, inclining more to blue than to green enables ready separation. Then, too, it is a deeper and thicker fish, attains a greater size, and the sexes are not so easily discerned. Indeed, so far as our observations have extended the sexes cannot be readily separated. The habitat is the same as that of Lepomis humUls and where one is found the other usually comes to light also. Lepomis pallidiis Mitchell.— Raccoon river, Adel and Des Moines. This form is rare in our area, but three specimens having been discovered. Lepomis megalotis Rafinesque. — Beaver creek. A single specimen of this species has thus far alone rewarded our search. In common with all the members of the genus little is known of its breeding habits though all have a similar habitat. All are used more or less for food but their small size renders them of little value for that purpose. They are tenacious of life and make acceptable aquaria stock. As justly remarked by Doctor Jordan the genus is among the most dirficult of our fish fauna. Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede.— Raccoon river, at Adel and Des Moines; Middle river; Beaver creek; Des Moines river at Des Moines and Ft. Dodge. The small mouthed black bass is very common in the larger streams in our limit. In the deeper portions of the clear rivers it best thrives though it is not uncommon in the muddy streams like the Raccoon. It is a darker fish than its congener and far more abundant but less commonly taken by the hook. It is the stream bass 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. while the following is found in still waters like biyou^ and lakes. It.is considered a very good game fish ranking all others for sport. Its habits, food, chief charac- ters, distribution, relationships, all are quite well understood and form the subject of numerous memoirs botli scientific and popular. It is, probably, the most widely known fresh-water fish. Micropterus salmoides Lacepede.— Beaver cr>iek; Raccoon river at Adel and Des JVIoines; Des Moines river at Des Moines. This form is far less common than the preceding but is often taken on the hook. It is a lighter colored fish, much larger, and esteemed more highly than any other of our native game fishes. The largest specimens seen came from the Des Moines. It is rather more slender than Micropterus dolomeiu and is leadily distinguished by the less number of rows of scales on the cheeks, this form having but ten, the preceding possessing seventeen rows. PEKCID^. (The Perches.) Of this family only the genus Etheostoma is represented in our area so far as specimens establish the fact. Known commonly to the professional naturalist and rarely seen by the sportsman or amateur, this interesting group has lately been carefully studied with the result that rich avenues for investigation have been opened. The forms are among the smallest that are known to us and at the same time comprise many that are of surpassing beauty and grace. Among them are to be found the gaudiest of our fishes. Common alike in large and small streams they escape observation because they do not take the hook, being too small, and their habits also render them less liable to be noticed. In muddy streams certain protectively colored forms live in great numbers, while, again, in streams with grassy or weedy bottoms other forms abound. Among rocks or weeds, on gravel and shallow sandbars, in pond, lake, creek, river, even rill, the "johnnies'' are to be found, and always found in situations seemingly conducive to personal safety. About fifty species are recognized with the probability that the field is not yet exhausted. Of these seven have thus far been found in our area. Etheostoma aspro Cope and Jordan.— Beaver creek; North river; Raccoon river, at Adel; Des Moines river, at Des Moines and Ft. Dodge. This is one of the largest species of the genus and is found in considerable abundance, locally, throughout our limit. The large black blotches on the sides distinguish it from associated forms. It loves streams the bottoms of which are paved with rocks. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque.— Des Moines river, at Des Moines and Esther- ville. A single specimen only has come to light in the collections we have made at Des Moines. It is the largest darter known. Our specimens are not of the maximum size. Etheostoma flabellare Rafinesque. — Beaver creek; Raccoon river, Des Moines. But few specimens have been found by us. It is said to be abundant in clear streams. Among other peculiarities this form has the lateral line developed about halfway. Etheostoma jessi.T Jordan and Brayton. — Beaver creek; Squaw creek. This form, a southern one, is very rare in our collections, but a single specimen having been found in Polk county. It is among the smaller of the darters. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55 Etiioostoma iii^-riiiii Kalinesque. — Beaver creek; Squaw creek; Raccoon river, at Des Moines, Perry and Adel; Walnut creek; North river; Des Muines river, at Ft. Dodjre. Tiiis is the most abundant etheostomoid fish in Iowa. In nearly every stream it is abundant, often, in favored localities exceeding in numbers all other members of the genus together. The general light straw colored back ground, on which are arranged the characteristic "W" markings will enable its ready separation. In all streams examined by us from Ft. Dodge to the Missouri it is a most constant member of their fauna. It appears to delight equally in muddy and clear waters, with bottoms of all natures. It loves to lie in concealment under leaves, stones, twiss, or even lies half buried in the sand. Etheostoma peHuciduiu Baird.— Raccoon river, at Des Moines and Adel; Des Moines river, at Ft. Dodge. The pellucid darter is well named. Like Labidesihes siccnlus it is quite trans- parent and the gross anatomy may be made out, measurably well, without dissect- ion. It is nearly white in color, with a few double but small dark spots along the dorsum from the nape to the base of the caudal. A similar row is to be seen, often but faintly, on the sides just above the lateral line. The lateral line itself is in the midst of a series of from five to six rows of scales which widen out to a fan- like shape at the base of the caudal 6n. Otherwise the fish is without color. Its choice habitat is in shallow water, on sandbars, its coloration being admirably adapted to protection. It is possibly the best illustration of protective coloration that the genus affords. It is very abundant at all the localities named on sandbars in swiftly flowing water. From its habit of concealment by plunging beneath the sand with only the eyes out of " sand " it has been made the type of the subgenus AiHinocn/pta. A related species, possibly but a synonym, has been described from the Des Moines under the name of Animocn/pta clara. The locality for the new species is Ottumwa. Etheostoma phoxocephalum Nelson. —Raccoon river, at Adel. But two specimens have been found by us at tuis locality. They were taken in rather rapidly flowing water and in a portion of the stream abounding in large drift boulders. The species is easily recognized by the color markings and peculiar tapering head, which latter character it shares in common with no other etheosto- moid fish. While the present paper is designed only to record the results of personal collection and the study of the fishes of Central Iowa it will be helpful, perhaps, to list in addition all forms recorded by others from our area. The first bibliographic reference given above lists from the Des Moines, at Ottumwa, the following: Xotiirus flaviis Rafinesque. Sotropis boops Gilbert. Hybopsis dissiuiilis Kirtland. Aineiurus uebulosus Le Sueur. Hybopsis hyostomus Gilbert. Hybopsis biguttatus Kirt. Hadroptenis evides Jordan and Copeland. Bolcosoiiia oliustodi inaoiilatum Agassiz. Amuiocrypta clara Jordan and Meek. The total number of species now known from this limited area is, therefore, sixty-three. A few more than one hundred species are known in the State. Our 56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. area then shows, thus far, a fauna numbering over 60 per cent of the species known to Iowa. That this list will be largely increased is most probable. The nature of the fish fauna of Central Iowa, so far as known, may be best exhibited in the following tabular view: FAMILY. GENERA. SPECIES. Petromyzontidcw One One Three Four Twelve One One One One Four Si.x One Siniridae Six Six Cyprtnidac Twenty-flve Anguillidae One Atherintdae One Eight Ten Percidae, . ... Eleven. Thirty-five. Sixty-three. ON AN ABNORMAL HYOID BONE IN THE HUMAN SUBJECT. BY K. ELLSWORTH CALL. ( ABSTRACT.) The hyoid bone lies at the base of the tongue just above the upper border of the thyroid cartilage. It is not articulated with any other bone in the body. It is usually studied as consisting of five parts, all of which may readily be distinguished in the normal specimen, especially in the young subject. There is the body of the bone, or the basi-hyal; there are also two cerato-hyals, or lesser cornua, and two thyro-hyals, or greater cornua. The whole forms a horse-shoe shaped bone to which the name hyoid has been given in allusion to the shape of the Greek letter tipsUon, which the bone greatly resembles. In the normal bone the body is commonly compressed antero-posteriorly, curved and extended transversely. On the anterior lower border is a rather prominent but blunt tubercle. Owen describes the cerato-hyals as "mere pisiform nodules of bone projecting from the line of union of the basi-hyal and thyro-hyal portions,'' that is to say, they arise from the area of junction. Strong, somewhat rounded ligaments extend from the cerato-hyals, or lesser cornua, to the styloid processes of the temporal bones, or rather to their petrosal portions, Also, normally, both the thyro-hyals and the cerato-hyals are separated from the basi-hyal or body to a late period in life. A slight expansion of the posterior end of the thyro-hyals is usually seen and these often bear — indeed I have never seen any other condition — epiphyses. From these processes extend ligaments which reach to the thyroid cartilage and this occasions the name bestowed upon them. All these five bones become completely ossified and ankylosed at from thirty-five to forty years of age. It may be further remarked that the cerato-hyals are described by Holden as being " of the size of barley-corns." IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57 In the specimen before us the process of ossification and ankylosis is complete and the subject was probably past the middle of life. The vertical ridge on the anterior surface of the basi-hyal is .scarcely to be noticed; equally poorly indi- cated are the lateral ridges which depart horizontally from the median line. There is but one cerato-hyal and it is completely ankylosed to the basi- and thyro- hyalson its side. This one ia excessively long and styliform and is also slightly curved. It is in no sense a mere projection nor is it " the size of a barley-corn." It is nearly six times longer than the normal structure in the normal bone. With respect to the missing cerato-hyal careful examination reveals no articu- lating surface for it ; it probably did not exist in this subject. Referring now to the points of attachment of the various muscles it will be seen that an exceedingly rough surface is presented to notice. It is highly probable, though of this I have no personal knowledge since the specimen came into my hands after complete dissection, that much of this roughness results from the necessary rearrangement of the muscles and ligaments in respect to their points of attachment. The area of surface for attaching them was certainly below the normal. ARTESIAN WELLS IN IOWA. BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL. (ABSTRACT.) The demand for artesian waters in the State of Iowa is not to be connected with unfavorable climatal conditions. The State is well watered; a considerable number of rather large streams and innumerable smaller ones combine to make it, from a hydrographic standpoint, unique among prairie states. The annual rain- fall is a little more than thiity-five inches and chiefly comes at a time of year when every crop necessity is fully supplied. The main grounds upon which artesian waters are sought, therefore, are first, the convenience of such flows for farm and urban use, and second, the supposed purity of such waters. These are the prime reasons which have induced exploratory drilling, the chief results of which it is the purpose of this notice to record. About four-fifths of the area of Iowa has now been demonstrated to possess artesian conditions. Most of this area lies northwards of a line which may be drawn across the State, in a northwestwardly direction, from near Keokuk to Sioux City, except in the igneous area indicated below. South of this somewhat arbi- trary line but one or two artesian flows are known; these appear to be connected with the Nebraska artesian area and are in the immediate neighborhood of the city of Omaha and Council Blutts. By reference to the sketch map accompanying it will be seen that the greater number of the wells lie along the Des Moines river or its tributaries; this distribution, which is well marked, is to be correlated with the distribution of the great terminal moraine within which most of these wells are situated. This peculiarly interesting feature is further discussed beyond. The very deep and permanent artesian wells lie mainly east and north of the line above 58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. mentioned; or better still, east of a line drawn north and south through the city of Ottumwa, number 109 of the map. With but a single exception, that at Washington, number 54 of the map, these deeper borings furnish abundant flows of water. But there are also, east of this north and south line, two smaller areas of shallow wells whose characters are essentially identical with those exhibited by the wells within the terminal moraine. One of these lies along the Iowa river, see map, numbers 60-66, etc.; the other, and by far the smallest single artesian area in the State, is in the valley of the Wapsipinnicon river, in Bremer county, see map, numbers 11-12, 42. The shallow wells, therefore, constitute well defined groups; the deep wells are widely scattered. It has been found convenient to classify the Iowa artesian wells in terms of the geological structure which they exhibit. To the shallow v/ells, those that form groups and which present similar geological sections, the term, '"glacial wells," or wells of the first class, has been applied. To all others, no matter what may be the geological age of the strata into which they may pass or in which they end, the term " deep wells " or wells of the second class, may be appropriated. There is no distinguishing mnemonic on the map by which these wells may be differ- entiated. A few important deep borings have been made, in various parts of the State, but more particularly in the northwestern and southwestern portions, in which artesian waters were not found. But, in the greater number of these borings, the waters rose to constant heights, always, however, some distance below the top of the boring. These are called on the map '" deep wells not artesian" and are indi- cated by a specific mnemonic, as in the well at Glenwood, in Southwestern Iowa, see map number 120. In depth the glacial wells range from forty feet to two hundred and fifty feet in a few cases; this feature is dependent on the relation of the borings to preglacial drainage, on the one hand, and to the thickness of the morainic materials, which is a variable, on the other. A generalized section may be given as follows, being based upon the sequence of strata as exhibited in Hancock and Wright counties: Soil 1 to 5 feet Bouldery clay, with water 10 to 50 feet Sand and gravel 8 to 20 feet Bluish, bouldery glacial clays 30 to 120 feet Sand and gravel, with water 15 to 25 feet These materials are irregulary distributed over the surface of the State and exhibit a variable relation. However, whenever the gravels and sands of the lower series are reached, especially in the valleys of the larger streams within the terminal moraine, flowing wells are likely to be obtained. The deeper artesian wells, or those which present the characteristic feature of penetrating the country rock are typified by the following section which is that of the deep artesian well at Cedar Rapids: No. Feet. 1. Dark gray limestone 50 2. Light gray limestone 85 •8. Gray limestone 40 *4. Coarse grained, reddish-brown limestone 65 *5. Coarse, brown and very porous limestone 60 ♦Contains water. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCP:S. 59 No. Feet. 6. Coarse, light brown limestone, mixed with shale oQ 7. Shale 20 8. Coarse, dark graj' limestone '25 9. Coarse, light gray limestone 45 10. Tough blue clay 200 11. Reddish brown sandstone 295 12. Shale 5 13. Dark bliiish-grcy sandstone 65 14. Shale 1 15. St. Peter's sandstone 50 16. Gray sandstone 74 *17. Brownish sandstone 40 *1S. Coarse grained porous brown sandstone 270 19. Light sandstone 88 20. Dark colored and hard sandstone 42 21. Brown, very close grained and hard sandstone 140 22. Blueclay 100 23. Soft, reddish-brown sandstone 160 24. Potsda m sandstone 200 25. Red sandstone 75 Over the eastern third or more of Iowa, east and north of the line drawn from Keokuk to the vicinity of Sioux City, as above mentioned, thence northeastwardly to Worth or Mitchell counties, the St. Peter's sandstone may be reached in deep wells and flowing water found. North of that part of the line which extends northeastwardly from Sioux City flowing water will not be found, if the indications of the strata penetrated in the Hull, Sioux county, well are reliable. From that place igneous rocks, presenting a volcanic facies, have been submitted to us. The southwestern part of the State, that is all that part of Iowa which lies south of the first arbitrary line above indicated, will not furnish artesian waters. The section, which is given elsewhere, of the Glenwood deep boring furnishes the most complete vertical section of the Carboniferous rocks which is exhibited in Iowa. It further affords no hope that artesian waters will be reached at reasonably profitable liepths in that portion of the State. The south central parts of Iowa will likewise not, probably, repay drilling for artesian waters. There will, however, doubtless be found very many wells that will furnish abundant water by pumping. These wells will need to go down until the St. Peter's sandstone is reached. If they should stop in the Carboniferous rocks which form the country rock of the region there is little hope that good water will be had. ♦Contains water. 60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. SECTION OF THE GLENWOOD DEEP WELL. All members of this section, except the first seven, belong to the Carboniferous eries. The first seven are Pleistocene. STRATA. a 3 ;5 li Bee i n .2 Alluvial soil.. I 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 i 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 2 115 140 154 160 163 164 167 175 J 78 182 187 188'/2 195 203 204 208 218 222 227 232 237 240 244 254 257 263 279 317 323 340 342 347 3.50 363 366 372 373 380 385 39(j 405'' 407 415 419 438 456 457 467 468 470 476 491 496 504 2 113 Yellow with marly concretions. Loess 25 14 Gravel bed (water). Drift 6 Quiclisand. Drift . . 3 1 Fireclay Blue marl . 8 3 Bluish marly clay .. 4 5 IM fii/, Shaly clay or muclt h' 1 Compact limestone 4 Slate 10 4 Blue limestone 5 5 5 Hard blue limestone 3 Shale 4 Compact limestone Blue clay with shaly limestone 10 3 Blue shale 6 Hard silicious limestone 16 Bed ochre 10 ?8 Sandstone [Fissure] 6 BASE of UPPER COAL MEASURES. Blue Shaly limestone 17 Blue shale 2 Compact limestone . . 5 Mottled red and blue shale Hard grey limestone Clay . 3 13 Fossiliferous limestone.. 6 1 Hard gray limestone Sandstone 5 11 Black slate '4 Sandstone, and sandy limestone White marl >y. Hard grey limestone Blue fossiliferous limestone 8 4 19 Orey limestone 18 Blue shale.. 10 Limestone 1 Slate 6 15 Black slate. .. 5 Grey limestone Sandstone 8 4 IOWA ACADP]MY OF SCIENCES. 61 STRATA. 1 aw i a S Blue shale 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 6!) 70 71 7'' 73 74 7,5 76 77 78 79 8') 81 82 i! 85 86 87 89 90 91 92 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 IW 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 508 519 529 550 570 574 579 581 595 612 613 617 623 625 61^ 638 655 685 720 721 725 730 732 740 7.52 7,55 758 760 768 787 791 793 815 825 845 868 875 884 886 910 911 912 920 922 925 930 940 942 945 951 956 9.59 962 965 970 985 989 999 1 nnn 8 10 21 20 4 Sandy slate. . Marly limestone 2 14 Blue shale 1 4 Silicious limestone Blue shale 2 3 17 Vari^ated clay and soapstone ... Varigated sandstone 35 4 5 Blue limestone . Blueshale Sandstone 2 g Slate . ... 12 3 Fine sandstone Blueshale j{ Gravelly sandstone g Fossiliferous shale 19 Slate 2 Blue shale with sandstone band 10 Sandstone+ 20 Slate .• 3 Sandstone 2 Soft blue shale 24 Slate 1 Green soapstone 2 Slate 3 Sandy limestone 10 Blacif slate, 3 feet; coal, .3 feet... g Limestone 3 Slate . . 3 Sandy limestone Sandy limestone Brown sandstone 5 15 4 Limestone 9 Soft sandstone 20 Brown sandstone 118 1,028 13 Sandstone 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 1,078 1.081 1:S I.OIU 1,102 1,120 1,125 1,:28 3 Blue sliale 5 Fireclay g Limestone AVhite shaly clay . . 18 5 Sandstone 22 *716 strucit salt water. Rising to 176 feet of surface. +Second vein of salt water rising to within fifteen feet of surface. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Hard blue limestone Sandstone Sandy limestone Limestone Black limestone Possiliferous limestone with iron pyrites. White sandstone Brown limestone* Grey limestone White limestone Fine brown sandy limestone Hard grey limestone Brown sandy limestone Hard grey limestone Brown sandstone Ijimestoue Magnesian limestone Grey limestone Magnesian limestone Grey limestone Brown sandy limestone , Brown sandy limestone Fine sandstone Grey limestone Sandstone Magnesian limestone Magnesian limestone Mottled shale Blue slate Sandy shale Limestone Grey limestone Grey sandstone Grey sandstone •. Grey sandstone Slate Sandy limestone , Black sand White sand, shells and slate Sandy limestone White sand, shells, and slate Soapstone Brown sandstone White sand, shells and slate Brown sandstone Light brown sandstone White sandstone Grey sandstone Dark brown sandstone Brown sandstone [flinty] Dark brown sandstone White sandstone [water 40 feet from surface] White sandstone Brown sandstone Light brown sandstone Brown sandstone [quartzite?] White sandstone Light brown sandstone Brown sandstone [quartz crystals] Grey sandstone Grey sandstone Dark grey sandstt>ne Coarse, hard, reddish sandstone Brown sandstone Blue limestone [18.53 bottom of water-bearing rock] Grey sandstone White sandstone Light brown sandstone Fine white sandstone Light brown sandstone White sandstone 1,1.50 1,160 1,180 1,185 1,195 1,200 1,205 1,235 1,250 1,275 1,280 1,300 ,345 ,350 ,355 ,366 1,370 1,380 1,405 ■ 450 1,470 1,475 1,490 510 1,.560 1,565 ,600 ,634 1,644 1,6.50 lOlll.i 1,675 1,680 1,691 1,697 1,709 1,715 1,720 1,725 1,727 1,733 1,738 1,744 1,7.55 1,765 1,770 1,775 1,784 1,794 1,832 1,835 1,836 1,837 1,840 1,848 1,850 1,857 1,875 1,880 *1,210 ft. struck fresh water, rising to 126 ft. from surface. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63 Llglit grey sandstone Dark grey sandstoue Magnesiaii sands one* Magnesiau limestone Magnesian rock [gypsum?]. Light colored sandstone Dark grey sandstone Light grey sandstone , White sandstone •Grey sandstone Blue sandy limestone si 1 s»- ti aS D 71 S5 o 2on 1,915 201 1,920 202 i,9ao 2(»:{ 1,93.5 204 1.938 20.5 1,941 2(m 1,948 207 1,9(» 20H 1,990 20il 1.995 210 2,000 ♦Struck water, rising to 171 feet from surface. It is interesting to note that no water was found in this deep well until at a depth 'of 716 feet when salt water was reached in the Carboniferous strata through which the boring was then progressing. Another hundred feet and a second vein of salt water, rising to withing fifteen feet of the surface, was found. Fresh water was not reached in appreciable volume until the drill had penetrated to a depth of 1,235 feet and then the pressure was sufficient only to bring the water to within 126 feet of tbe top. Water, whether salt or fresh is not stated, was found again at 1,794 feet and at 1,836 feet, but neither vein sent water to tbe surface. At a deptb of 1,930 feet the last water-bearing stratum was passed, the drilling ending at 2.000 feet. From this section it is clear that the differentiation of strata has been carried far beyond the point to which the geologist would go*. However, it is valuable since it shows clearly the heterogeneous character of the lowermost coal measure strata in Southwestern Iowa. This section appears to give corroborative evidence of the general conclusion above indicated, that artesian water would not be found in that portion of tbe State. The accompanying map, which appears through the kindness of Hon. J. R. Sage, Director of the Iowa Weather and Crop Service, for whom the facts con- tained in this paper were originally gathered, does not locate all the wells known to us in Iowa. Very many of the wells, especially those which are classed as glacial, occur in groups and are so close together that it is impossible to indicate them on a map of this scale. In a large number of cases, as in Story, Hancock, Hamilton and Iowa counties, each character represents a dozen or more wells. At a future time it is hoped to present all this evidence in the form of a larger map with appropriate mnemonics. * I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Setii Dean, of Glen wood, for the details of the Section. 64 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. SOME EXPERIMENTS FOR THE PURPOSE OF DETERMINING THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES OF BREAD MAKING. MINNIE HOWE, (ABSTRACT.) This paper described a series of experiments made by the author at the Iowa State University during the winter and spring of 1891, together with their results. The problem was to seperate the bacteriam, Bacillus subtiUs, and the yeast plant, Saccharomyces cereviske, found together in ordinary soft yeast, to obtain pure cultures of each, and to determine the part each played in bread making. It was found that bread made of sterilized flour and raised with the pure Bacillus culture was light, but not as spongy as ordin ary bread, sweet, close-grained, rather dark colored, smelling and tasting much like " salt-risen " bread. Bread raised with the pure yeast culture under exactly the same conditions as the first was somewhat light, sweet, not so fine grained nor as light as either ordi- nary bread or that made with bacteria. It had a peculiar, insipid odor unlike either of the other kinds, and was tasteless, as if made out of sawdust. The results of these experiments seem to show that neither the yeast plant nor the Bacillus alone will make as good bread as both together; that either without the other will produce alcoholic fermentation and cause the bread to rise; that the Bacillus is rather more efficient alone than the yeast. No one set of experiments, however, can be regarded as conclusive. ABORIGINAL ROCK-MORTARS. BY H. L. BRUNER. A few notes by the writer, under the above title, were published in the American Anthropologist for October, 1891. These "mortars", excavated in rock in situ, are located on the east slope of the Franklin Mountains, about eleven miles north of El Paso, Texas, and near the mouth of the ''House Canon." In the canon, about three-fourths of a mile above the excavations, is a spring of excellent water. To the eastward is a gradual slope toward the mesa, which is perhaps three hundred feet lower. Within a few steps of the excavations is a trail leading northward to another spring, and thence westward over the range. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65 The mountains in the immediate vicinity are composed of intrusive pranite^ which also underlies the detritus below the mouth of the canon and crops out here and there in low knolls and ridf^es. In two such pranite knobs, about one hundred yards apart and one-fourth of a mile from the mouth of the canon, the excavations are found. One of these, which is quite bare, contains a small number. The other is partly over-laid and partly fringed with larpe granite rocks, all more or less tilted or moved from place. On this knoll, some in detached rocks, some in undisturbed granite, are upwards of sixty excavations. All stand nearly or quite perpendicular, the detached rocks having undergone little change of position since the excavations were made. A description of this group will sei-ve the purpose of this paper. The excavations themselves are of two kinds, which differ both in size and shape. The larger, thirty-two in number, are uniformily semi-fusiform, the diameter and depth being about in the proportion of three to five. The largest of these measures fourteen inches in diameter at the mouth, and nineteen inches in depth. A small one is ten and one-half by fourteen inches; a wide one, fifteen by sixteen inches; a narrow one, twelve by eighteen inches. The wide excavations are, naturally most weather-worn, other things being equal. A few in sound granite and particulary narrow or shaded holes, are in a perfect state of preservation. Fourteen are well preserved. Five, made near an edge of a rock, have been partly worn away on the outer side; one sirailai-ly situ- ated has been split open lengthwise and others, crowded in a small! area, are more or less fractured. Twelve excavations, in seperate groups of five and seven, are found a few steps apart from the rest and are more exposed. The remainder lie in or near the shadow of a large, tilted block of granite. These excavations also appear oldest, and in the shade are much crowded. Scattered among or near these shaded excavations are found more than thirty smaller basin-shaped ones, which, moreover, occur nowhere else. These vary in size from six inches wide by three inches deep, to two inches wide by ©ne-half inch deep. Seven only are of the former size, the majority being much smaller. Some plainsmen say that the excavations are Indian grain-mortars; others as- sert that they are cooking-holes in which food was boiled by throwing heated stones into the water covering it. It has been suggested, also, that they were used for crushing ores, but the absence of any workable ore in the vicinity would seem to render this improbable. The writer would add that they may have served, also, for the storage of water from the spring which is somewhat difficult of access. They were, however, doubtless used for a variety of purposes as occasion required. The basin-like excavations probably served to hold round-bottomed vessels, such as are still used by the Indians of the Southwest, or the largest of them may be mortars . The knoll was, presumably, a camping place for hunting parties or roving bands. The site commanded an extensive view of the mesa and of the approaches to the spring, and the loose rocks afforded shade and an ambush to the hunter and concealment from enemies. No excavations are known to exist in the canon near the spring, though suitable rocks are abundant. Such a site would be distant from the trail and further from the mesa. Preference for this rock-covered knoll was quite natural. Numerous small fragments of pottery were found, both plain and decorated, and resembling very much in quality and style of adornment some of the modem 66 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ware. A few of these fragments were on the surface; others 'were buried a few inches. Some at least were very old. A few flakes were dug up between the loose rocks and a rude ax was found on the surface. The place, frpquented at present by hunters and stockmen and formerly by prospectors, is not likely to yield many relics of a portable kind at this day. However one very interesting implement was obtained and has been pro- nounced unique by the Bureau of Ethnology. This was found on the surface about one-third of a mile below the excavations, having been transported presumably by water. It is an oval-lenticular tool of quartzite, its greatest length, breadth and thickness being respectively four and one-half, three and one-third and one and three-eighth inches. One surface is somewhat rough and has been worked into its present form, which nicely fits the hollow of the hand when the fingers are slightly curved. The other surface is smoothly worn and shows distinct longi- tudinal scratches; these, moreover, make a small angle with tlie line of greatest length, which fact, together with its shape, curvature and markings, suggests that the stone held in the concave palm, was used as a sort of pestle, by a vertical motion against the sides of the larger excavations or "mortars." How much reduction the pestle has suffered cannot be known. Other pestles may also have been used, but the large excavations were uniformily pointed at bottom and would not permit the use of the ordinary sort. NOTICE OF ARROW POINTS FROM THE LOESS IN THE CITY OF MUSCATINE. Read December 29th, 1891, by F. M. Witter. No other question has ever engaged the attention of man more than that which relates to the origin and destiny of his race. Many theories have been advanced to account for man's origin and there is likewise great diversity of opinion as to his destiny. Evolution, it seems to one, is competent to explain the natural order of things from the crystal to man. Except we build on the sure foundation of the past and present all speculation concerning man's destiny must be conjecture. The geologic history of the earth is determined from its rocks and what they contain. The beautiful and multifarious forms of nature's mineral flowers, the legions of plants and animals whose impress are stamped in its rocky beds form chapters in the history of our globe. So, too, the imperishable remains of primeval man, such as the cave-dwell- ings, shell-heaps, earth-mounds and works of stone are the sources from which the early history of this paleolithic man or man-like animal is derived. Man began his career as master of the world when he commenced the use of fire and stone. The various forms of quartz, such as chert, flint, agate and obsidian, bore to him the same relation that iron bears to us. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE^X'ES. 67 Out of these he fashioued his spear aud arrow points, knives and drills. In the beds of those ancient lakes, the geologist has described, the arch- u'ologist looks for the tools and weapons of prehistoric man. Near the close of the great Ice Age in this latitude, especially in Iowa, numerous lakes were formed along the courses of the rivers by occasional barriers of ice across the valleys of the streams. The city of Muscatine stands on the bed of one of these lakes. At that time the surface of this lake stood nearly at the top of our highest hills, perhaps one hundred and fifty feet above high water in the great river at our feet. The tine grained yellowish brown material, so conspicuous at our brick- yards and in all streets where cuts have been made, was deposited in this lake. It covers the Drift, or at an}' rate the coarser materials of the Drift, and lies over our hills like a great mantle. In places it is from fortj' to fifty feet thick. The geologist calls it Loess. It is the last in the series of marked physio- graphical ciianges that have occurred in this region. The border or shore- line of this Loess lake is quite easily found. From this Loess have been taken several species of land and fresh-water shells, the remains of two American reindeer, fragments of wood, the antler of some species of deer, etc. Long ago I was led to believe we ought to obtain evidence that men were here befoi*e this lake had disappeared. Ou Eighth street, near St. Matthias church, Mr. Chas. Freeman was for many years engaged in chang- ing a fine hill of this Loess into brick. I have before me a rather rudely formed spear point of pinkish chert. This, Mr. Freeman says, he took from the Loess at this place at a point about twelve feet from the surface. In answer to my questions he said it could not have possibly dropped from the top, for he was digging under the bank for the purpose of caving it down when the spear point was struck, and he was specially interested in the impress or matrix where it lay. Several of the deeper depressions on this implement are still filled with the characteristic Loess. About the same time in the same bank as the Loess was caved off, Mr. Freeman noticed a stone, as he supposed, projecting from the vertical wall. As such things were rare in this compact homogeneous Loess, he examined it and found it to be an arrow point projecting from the undisturbed earth, at least twenty- live feet below the surface. At a brickyard about two blocks to the north of this, as Mr. Freeman was moulding brick, he took from the clay a well- formed arrow point. This was covered with a blue clay quite different from tiie usual Loess. Inasmuch as this arrow point had passed through the bed where the clay is mixed it seemed as if the story it told was not very clear. At a point in this bank a bed of fine blue clay was uncovered. The top of this blue clay was over eight feet from the surface. On examination of the bank and^inquiry into the circumstances 1 believe, with Mr. Freeman, that the arrow point must have come from the blue clay. About one mile from where itcempties into the Mississippi river. Mad Creek has cut away the l^oint of a hill, the top of which is Loess. This cut forms a bank almost perpendicular, probably forty feet high. About ten feet from the top is a bed of gravel perhaps one foot thick. In this gravel bed Mr. Joe Freeman, a third jear student in our High school, found a considerable fragment of the tooth of an elephant. I examined this gravel bed and found in it 68 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. numerous flint chips, such as are supposed to have been struck from arrow and spear points, knives, etc. On both sides of our great river in this region, on the most commanding sites, are mounds of earth, the works of men. These mounds do not seem to be built on Loess. They are considered to be very ancient. Might it not be possible that the men who built these mounds were of the same race as those who pursued their game and lost their weapons by the shore of our ancient Loess lake? THE GAS WELLS NEAR LETTS, IOWA. Read by F. M. Witter at the Sixth Annual Session of the Iowa academy OF Science, in Des Moines. In the early part of December, 1890, Mr. T. L. Estle, living in section 3, township 75, north, range 4, west 5th p. m., sunk a well on his farm for water. In drift at a depth of about one hundred feet he struck gas, which burned readily but in two or three days the gas ceased to flow. Between forty and eighty rods west of this place, about the same time Mr. R. M. Lee bored for water. At about one hundred feet he failed to get water and stopped boring. In the evening he commenced to pull out his casing, and succeeded in raising it perhaps eight or ten feet. During the night a great roaring was heard and on approaching the well with a lantern the gas took fire and a great flame shot several feet in the air with a fright- ful noise. In a few days the flame was extinguished and the gas piped into Mr. Lee's house a few rods away, where for over a year it has furnished him light and fuel. This well now furnishes Messrs. R. M. Lee, T. J. Estle, J . E. Lee and Robt. Lee with all their fuel and light. Robt. Lee is a little over one mile from the well. It is carried in common gas pipe laid on top of the ground. This is two inches, one and one-half inches and the last half mile one inch in diameter. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69 76 • J ML'S Idle. CATIN E COU NTV. • • R. M. Lee. L OUISA CO UN TY. l', • • • t^Letts. GAS WELLS NEAR LETTS, IN MUSCATINE AND LOUISA COUNTIES, TOWNSHIPS 75 AND 76, N. R. 4 W, 5 P. M. This well supplies twelve fires and sixteen lights. No estimate has been made as to how many more it might supply, but the number would certainly be quite lai-ge. Mr. J. E. Lee stated that the opening admitting the gas from the casing of the well to the main was considerably less than the size of an oi'dinary lead pencil and that it Howed a half mile in the main in fourteen seconds. How this rate was satisfactorily ascertained we did not learn. The same gentlemen said the pressure at first was about five and one-half pounds, which has steadily risen till it is now twelve pounds. From a large stream issuing in our faces we could detect a faint odor of ether or chloroform. It gives a fine light and a most intense heat in the stoves and artistic grates. It seems in all respects to be equal or superior to the best artificial illumi- nating gas. The gas is used just as it is when it issues from the well. Within a circle of about three miles in diameter in the townships named above from at least seven wells sunk, for water, gas issued. The depth to the gas ranges from about ninety feet to one hundred and twenty-five feet. At a depth from six feet to twenty-five feet below the gas a good, constant supply of water is obtained. It seemed to be very easy to shut off the gas by the rapid sinking of the casing in a soft blue clay with some sand in which the gas is thought to be stored. The clay seems to form a tube as the drill and casing descend and thus prevents the gas from getting into the well unless it is given a little time at the right place. The country for miles around is full of wells which are all believed to reach the water below the gas without discovering the gas for reasons given above. 70 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. I made the following tests on the water from below the gas : With Potas- sium Ferrocyanide 1 observed no re-action. On evaporating perhaps fifty c. c. a considerable amount of solid matter was obtained. This was some- what of a yellowish brown color and effervesced with Hydric Chloride. This solution when tested with Potassium Ferrocyanide gave a deep blue. I was led to believe from these tests that the water contained a cai'bouate and some compound containing iron in solution. My stock of water would not admit of fui-ther tests. At a depth of eighteen or twenty feet water has generally been found in this locality, but the supply is variable. Mr. Robt. Lee has a well which he dug several years ago, the water of which was excellent and in good quan- tity. This well is about eighteen feet deep and carefully walled. Last summer he bored for water about one hundred feet from this well. At a depth of a little over one hundred feet he found a little gas issuing at irreg- ular intervals. Immediately after the appearance of the gas the water in the shallow well became muddy and unfit for use and has remained so, though the water seemed to be much worse at times, not periodic. It seems to me the gas rises outside of the casing to the porous bed holding the water of the shallow well and injures the water. The country in which these wells are located is comparatively level. In- dications are at hand everywhere of a boggy or peaty nature. There are but few low hills, and no ravines of any note. The soil is a rich, black loam and the whole region is said to be destitute of boulders, so common in many parts of Iowa and especially of Muscatine county. Mr. J. E. Lee stated that wells in this region had been sunk two hundred and eighty feet and no rock had been reached. The well in Muscatine county from which gas is used is on the farm of Mr. John Idle, in section 35, township 76, range 4 west. The farmers in the neighborhood of these gas wells ai-e about to complete an arrangement to put down a well two thou- sand to two thousand five hundred feet deep. This is to determine whether there is oil below the gas. It is my own opinion that the gas comes from considerable beds of vege- table matter buried in this unusually heavy drift deposit in this I'egion. The area, it seems to me, which is thus underlaid is six or eight miles long and three or four miles wide. I should expect to find the rocks here directly below the drift to be of Devonian age. This locality is on the east side of the Cedar river. The nearest well to the Cedar river is about two miles distant. No gas has yet been found on the west of the Cedar. This region is directly on the edge of what I have considered the sub-carboniferous. Some eight or ten miles to the south of these wells rock are exposed along the creeks and deep ravines. I have not seen these rocks, but I think Mr. Frank Springer reported several years ago that certain beds of these rocks were well filled with the remains of fish, especially their teeth. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 71 A NEW DISTILLING FLASK FOR USE IN THE KJELDAHL PROCESS. By G. E. Patrick and D. B. Bisbee. The only serious drawback to the Kjeklahl method of nitrogen determin- ation is the breakage of distilling flasks, and in laboratories where many determinations of albuminoid nitrogen are made by the Stutzer process this breakage is often a matter of much annoyance and considerable ex- pense, since only the best quality of flasks will long stand the requirements of the process. Some mouths ago the breakage in a certain lot of flasks purchased for this laboratory having become unendurable, the writers hit upon the idea of distilling from copper flasks; and upon trial, the results have been so satis- factory that we can with confidence recommend the plan to other chemists. The copper flasks used were the ordinary one pint oxygen retorts, minus caps, delivery tubes and clamps. At first, trials were made by distilling ammonia from a solution of pure ammonium chloride and NaOH, to assure ourselves that no ammonia was retained by the copper. These results were made comparative by distilling from both glass and copper flasks. Exactly 10 c.c. of an ammonium chlor- ide solution of known strength were used in all following tests. The results, after deducting for ei-ror found by blank experiment, wei*e as follows: IN GLASS IN COPPER FLASKS. FLASKS. No. of C.C. of decinormal acid neutralized 14.4 14.25 14.23 14.23 14.2 14.30 14.28 14.25 14.3 14.25 14.15 14.30 -Mean of six 14.26 , 14.26 Next a salt of mercuiy was added to the ammonium salt in the flask, and K2 S sufficient to precipitate the mercury was added before liberating the ammonia and distilling. The following were the results after deducting for the error in the blank: IN COPPER FLASKS. No. of C.C. decinormal acid neutralized 14.13 14.25 14.25 14.2 14.25 14.25 .Meanofsi.\ 14.22 72 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. These results compare favorably with those from glass just reported. Next, to imitate the condition of Stutzer's process, copper hydrate, as well as a mercuric salt and K., S, was added. Results after deducting the blank were as follows : IN COPPER FLASKS. No. of C.C. of decinormal acid neutralized 14.2 14.2 14.3 14.25 14.25 Mean of five 14.24 Here again, the results were practically identical with those obtained by distilling from glass. The plan was then tried upon the product of the Kjeldahl digestion in fodder analysis, both in total and albuminoid nitrogen determination, the results in all cases bemg in substantial agreement with those obtained by distilling from glass; and now we use the metallic flasks in the regular an- alytical work of the laboratory. A few results will suflice to illustrate: SUBSTANCE TAKEN. RESUIiTS— IN COPPER. IN GLASS. Sborts, total Nitrogen 2.81 per cent. 2.81 per cent. Shorts, Albuminoid Nitrogen 2.26 '■ 2.26 Cream Gluten Meal, total Nitrogen 6.28 " 6.27 " Cream Gluten Meal, Albuminoid Nitrogen -j ^'.^^ [[ ^'H Sugar Meal, total Nitrogen 3.3a " 3.19 " (Determinations made two months apart.) We employ 200 c.c. of water in transferring the contents of the digestion flask into the distilling flask, using about half of it in diluting and cooling the acid licquid before actually transferring. We are also in the habit of introducing 80 c.c. of the K-iS solution, instead of 35 c.c. as is usually directed. This may not be necessary, but the fact that the residual liquid after distillation is always free from (binary) sulphur, the excess being re- moved by the flask itself, seems to render a little extra sulphide advisal^le. This action between the sulphide and the copper will doubtless in time de- stroy the flasks; but long before that time arrives, the.y will have saved in glassware manj^ times their cost. The flasks are heated by rather small, naked flames; a large flame under the one pint flask will boil the charge over. The receiving flasks ai'e marked at the 200 c.c. level to show when the operation is flnished. No zinc or pumice is required to prevent "bumping ;" otherwise, the arrangements are as usual. The distillation is completed within thirty minutes; so the saving of time is very gi-eat. Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 73 COMPOSITE MTLK-SA.MPLES IN THE LABORATORY. BY G. E. PARTICK. Composite milk- samples for use at creameries, as a means of savins: labor in the valuing of milk by any of the "oil tests," I first proposed (in detail) in Bulletin No. 9, of the Iowa Experiment Station, May 1890. The preserving agent there rec- ommended for preserving the samples was corrosive sublimate, HgCl 2, numer- ous experiments having shown that it preserves the mechanical, as well as the chemical, condition of milk better than any other common antiseptic. For use in creameries I insisted that the sublimate have mixed with it some suitable aniline color, as a guard against accidental poisoning; and to hasten solution in the milk, admixture of common salt, NaCl, was recommended. , For six months past I have employed the same principle m the laboratory, in analyzing the milk of experimental cows, not only for fat (by one of the "oil tests") but also for solids, gravi metrically. (See Iowa Station Bulletin No. 13, page 29, May, 1891.) For this purpose the preservative is of course used without admixture of aniline color in common salt, as these would bring error in the results on solids. The corrosive sublimate is powdered finely and passed through a very fine gauze sieve. Only a very small amount is needed to preserve milk-samples five or six days without material change; and five days is as long as such keeping is desirable in most experiments on milk production. For keeping five days, .125 gm. of the HgCl-i is sufficient in cool weather, and .200 gm. in summer weather, provided the daily samples are 50 c.c. each, making the complete composite sample 250 c c. The theoretical error thus introduced in the result of solids is only .05 per cent with the smaller amount, and .08 per cent with the larger; the former figure is within the " limits of error " in ordinary routine work, and the latter nearly so if not quite. Many comparative trials have, however, convinced me that there is a ten/ slight loss in the solids of milk preserved for five or six days, but that it rarely exceeds .05 per cent; therefore it is my custom to neglect correction for the HgCl-,' when it amounts to only .05 per cent; and when it amounts to .08 per cent to correct by deducting .03 per cent. These corrections are accurate enough for use in routine work, by the method of drying in air on fine asbestos in open watch-glasses — the method which 1 h^ve thus far employed; doubtless finer work could have been done, and perhaps more accurate corrections found, by the method of drying in hydrogen, had time permitted the employment of this method. The following test determinations were made by Mr. E. X. Eaton, assistant chemist in this station. 74 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1. — Experiments in which the entire sample of milk was preserved for the time named, no daily additions of fresh milk having been made. (rt.) With .05 per cent of Ha;Cl 2; added no correction is made for this in final results. to "Ti >> £ ■ (S^ SAMPLE. ll c^ X > 'a:;3 SPL< -C l^ ?S M Z m No 1 10.34 12.35 10.95 11.13 5 5 5 5 10.34 12.45 >^o 3 10.92 No.4 11.13 (fc.) With 10 per cent of HgC12 added: results corrected by deducting .05 per cent: SAMPLE. FRESH. NUMBER OF DAYS. PRESERVED. No 5 11.27 11.27 8 8 11.27— .05= 11.23 per cent. No. 5 11.33— .05=11.28 per cent. (c.) With .65 per cent HgCl2 added, by mistake; results corrected by deducting »0 per cent. PRESERVED. 13.94- .60= 13.34 per cent. 14.06— .00= 13.46 percent. No. 6. No. 6. 13.47 13.47 This last trial (c) indicates that the usual amount of HgCh , viz. .05 per cent, is as efficient as a much larger quantity. (II.) Composite samples; fresh milk added each day; HgCb added .05 per cent on entire composite sample. Results not corrected. iiS ■" m = sj S, 'd ? IstA t5 C H cows. a^ oa ^.11 ^a a 33 ooaS 3 c "^ S Z O No 114 . • • . 10.53 10.80 14.30 5 10.45 No 115 10.78 No. 37 14.36 No. .38 14.60 5 14.58 In warm weather I prefer the use of .08 per cent or .10 per cent of HgCl2, with a correction of .03 or .05 per cent. Lightning or Mason jars are convenient receptacles for the composite samples. The mercuric chloride is weighed out and placed in the jar at the time of adding the first daily sample, or before. Upon tlie addition of each daily sample to the composite, the latter should be well mixed by a rotary motion — not by shaking — in order to redistribute the cream throughout the whole; and this mixing should be done every day, whether the samples be added every day or not. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75 Sometimes, especially in warm weather, the composite sample will have floating upon its surface flecks of milk-solids; these can be broken up, and the sample brought into almost perfect mechanical condition, by means of a stiff test-tube brush used as a pestle inside the jar, rubbing the flecks to pieces against the walls of the latter. One must guard against error from the rising of minute flecks of milk-solids to the surface while weighing out the charge; this is easily done by inverting the weighing pipette once or twice just before running out the charge upon the asbestos. It hardly needs saying that in summer the composite samples should be kept in as cool a place as possible; ice or cold water would of course be useful. Experiment Station, Ames, loiva, Aug. 10, 1891. ON A NEW ASTATIC GALVANOMETER WITH A SINGLE SPIRAL NEEDLE. [Abstract of paper read Dec. 27, 1887.1 LAUNCELOT W. ANDREWS. Two types of astatic galvanometer are in common use. la one, two needles with poles reversed are united to form a rigid system, in the other, a single suspended needle is emploped, the directive force of the earth's magnetism being compensated by an inmovable magnet suitably placed north or south of the needle. (Hauy's method.) In both these forms the sensitiveness is very variable because a slight change in the magnetic movement of either needle of the astatic combina- tion, or of the fixed compensating magnet, exerts a disproportionately great influence upon the sensitiveness of the instrument. It is, however, possible to construct a galvanometer not subject to this disadvantage, having only one needle and no compensating magnet. A magnetic needle hung in such a way that a straight line passing through its poles shall be parallel to its axis of suspension will experience no hori- zontal directive force if placed in a uniform magnetic tield. It will be in a word astatic. The author has utilized this principle in the construction of a galvanometer of constant senstiveness, as follows: The needle is made in the form of a helix of one turn and is supeuded by a cocoon fibre in such a way that the axis of the helix nearly coincides with the axis of suspension. The extremities of this needle play freelj' within the cores of two coils of insulated wire closely surrounding them. Its oscillations may be veiy effi- ciently damped by winding the coils upon solid copper bobbins. The coils are advantageously so arranged, as in the instrument exhibited before the Association, that they may be connected either in series or in parallel circuit. 76 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. WOODY PLANTS OF WESTERN WISCONSIN, BY L. H. PAMJVIEL. This paper simply embodies the results of some observations made about La Crosse, Wisconsin, from twenty to twenty-five miles northeast and south, and the southwestern part of Minnesota in Houston and Fillmore counties. The region is entirely in the driftless area.i This part of the State is lower than the area lying to the northeast. Its most marked feature is the absence of drift. This area (driftless) occupies about 12,000 square miles. So far as the soil is concerned, it is not unlike that fouud in many other parts of the State. Sandy soils abound as elsewhere in the State. In some cases the topography is nearly flat, but generally it is hilly and in some cases slightly rolling. The alluvial bottoms along the streams and creeks abound in as rich a soil as is fouud anywhere in the State. Prairies are limited and of small size, in some cases sandy with black, sandy depressions of better soil. La Crosse Prairie, on which La Crosse is built, may be given as an illustra- tion. Few trees abound except along its margins near the rivers. This prairie is bounded by La Crosse river on the north, Mississippi river on the west, and Mormon Cooley creek on the south. The regiou is abundantly supplied with water, there being numerous small streams and springs, which occur in almost every valley, besides there are streams of consider- able size like Black, Root, Kickapoo and La Crosse rivers. The geological formation belongs to the lower Silurian which shows abundant out-crops of potsdam sandstone everywhere. According to Moses Strong,'- the maximum elevation of the hills at La Crosse is 470 feet above the river. The hills are only 350 feet at Fountain City, 200 feet at Maiden Rock and eighty feet at Bay City. The higher hills facing the Mississippi river are covered with lower magnesium limestone, varying considerable in thickness. The fact that the soils on the ridges, as well as the valleys, were once thickly covered with timber, and is returning to that condition, when allowed to do so, is largely due to the decomposition of the limestone rock and the physical condition of the soil. This soil is not only fertile, but retentive of moisture, which is an important feature in forest growth. The alluvial soils, which are derived from the washing of the hills, have a somewhat different growth than is found on the ridges and valleys, since iGeology of Wisconsin, Vol. I. p. 260-608. 2Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. IV, p. 39. lUWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77 a portion of this land is often covered with water. Peat-bogs and wet swamps also abound. The vegetation hei'e is quite uniform. A marked feature is the absence of trees and woody plants as a rule. Salix, Nemo- panthes fascicularis. Larix, Carex, Cypcrus, Scirpus, Eleoeharis, Sarra- cenia, a few grasses, especially Spartina cynosuroides in the drier places, Habcnaria psycodes, Lilium Canadense, etc., abound. The woody plants of this region are represented by the following orders: I. Menispcrmacca' ; 2. TiUaceiv; 3. lintacecc; 4. Celastracecr; 5. Bhamnacece; G. Vitacea"; 7. Sajmidacece: 8. Anacardiacece ; 9. Leguminosce; 10. Rosacece; II. Saxifragaced': 12. Eamamelidce: 13. Cornacece: 14. Caprifoltacecp ; 15. Hubiacea:; 16. Oleacect; 17. Urticacece; 18. Juglandacecr; 19. Cupulifercp; 20. SalieacecK; 21. Coniferce; 22. Liliacece. In the arrangement of the genera Gray's Manual, Gth edition, has been followed. MENISl'ERMACE.E. 1. Meni^pcrmum canadense, L. Moonseed. TILIACE.E. 2. TUia amakana, L. Basswood. 3. Nemopanthes fascicuJaris. Raf. CELASTRACE^. 4. Cclastrutf seamlcns, Li. Climbing Bitter-sweet. 5. Euonymusatrt)puriJur€n8..Ta.cq. Burning-bush, Wahoo. RHAMNACE^. 6. Ceanothn-s amcrkanus, L. New Jersey Tea. Red-root. 7. C. ovatun, Best. VITACE.E. s. Vitis hkolor, Lc Coute Summer Grape. •I. r. riparkt, Michx. Wild Grape. 10. Ampdopsiit quinquefoUa. Michx. Virginia Creeper. SAPINDACE^. 11. Acer spkatum. Lam. Mountain Maple. 12. A. harbatum. Michx. Sugar or Hard Maple. 13. A. saicharinum , L. White or Silver Maple. 14. A. nihi-um, L. Red or Swamp Maple. 15. A. negundo. L. Box Elder or Ash-leaved Maple. 16. Staphyka trifnUa, L. Bladder Nut. ANACARDIACE.E. 17. RlniK typhina, L. Stag-horn Sumac. 18. R. okthta, L. Smooth Sumac. 19. R. venmata, D. C. Dogwood. 20. R. radkom, L. Poison Ivy. LEGUMINOS^. 21. Amorpha c/nif*ccji.«, Nutt. Lead Plant. 22. A.fnitkoso. L. False Indigo. 23. Rohinia p>. Marsh. 102. .^. caitdidd, Willd. lOy. Populus alha. L. 104. P. tremuloidcx, Michx. 105. P. grandidentata, Michx. 100. P. monilifera. Ait. CUPULIFERyE. Sweet or Black Birch. Canoe or Paper Birch. Red or River Birch. Low Birch. Speckled Alder. Smooth Alder. Wild Hazel-nut. Beaked Hazel-nut. American Hop Hornbeam. Iron-wood or Water Beech White Oak. Bur Oak. Swamp White Oak. Red Oak. Scarlet Oak. Quercitron or Black Oak. SALICACE^. Black Willow. Prairie Willow. Hoary Willow. White Poplar. Frequent escape. Trembling Aspen. Large-toothed Aspen. Cottonwood. Pi))i/ss?r../.i/8, L. P. baiihsiana, Lambert. P. >r.si)i.(.so. Ait. Tsiii/a r(t)inde)m.t, Carr. Larir Inriciiift, Koch. JfOM'p'/K.x cinntmtnis, L. J. virginiana, L. Tnxuii caiiademis, Willd. Sinilax rotundifoUa. L. White Pine. Northern Scrub Pine. Red or Norway Pine. HemlocK. Tamarack or American Larch. Common .Juniper. Red Cedar. American Yew or Ground Hemlock. Common Green Brier. It may be well to compare the woody Hora of Western Wisconsiu with that of the prairie region. Since presenting this paper several catalognes have appeared that will give us an accurate idea of tlie woody flora of prai- rie regions. Bessc-y and Webber, "Flora of Nebraska," "Bessey's Prelimiu- 80 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ary Report on the Native Trees and Shrubs of Nebraska." These two papers cover a large territory, while Hitchcock's Catalogue of the "Anthophyta and Pteridophyta of Ames," is limited in its scope, but includes, perhaps, nearly all of the woody plants within a radius of thirty miles. Bessey's list con- tains sixty-one trees and sixty-four shrubs, making one hundred and twenty- live woody plants. When Nebraska is more fully explored a few more may be added. Hitchcock's catalogue only gives seventy-five. Within a radius of thirty miles several more species probably occur, but the number will certainly not reach much beyond eighty. In the region about La Crosse, Wisconsin, one hundred and fifteen are enumerated. The genera Crataegus, Salix and Fraxinus carefully worked over will probably bring the number close to one hundred and twenty. Three of the species enumerated above have escaped from cultivation and a fourth has been naturalized. Comptonia asplenifoUa, Picea nigra and Thuja occidentalis may still be found within this range. Several species named ai'e scarcely shrubby. On the whole the region is well represented in woody plants. With few exceptions the species are northern, Juglans nigra, Morus rubra, Oymnocladus dioicus, have reached nearly their northern limit. FOREST VEGETATION OF THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI. BY L. H. PAJIMEL. The paper before the Academy consisted in a verbal communication of the salient features of the forest vegetation. It was afterward written out in full and sent to Garden and Forest (See Vol. IV. pp. 460, 472 and 531). As the paper may be of general interest to Iowa readers I give it essentially as it appeared in Garden and Forest. A few notes have been added. The Mississippi river and its tributaries, from Trempleau, Wisconsin, to Dubuque, Iowa, are enclosed by bluffs, varying from two hundred to six hundred feet high. At Dubuque they are much lower than at La Crosse; in the latter place they are something more than five hundred feet above the level of Lake Michigan; sometimes they present steep, sandy rocks, in other places they are covered with a dense growth of trees. The region is well watered by numerous small streams emptying into the Mississippi, while it contains a number of streams of good size, as the Wisconsin, Black, La Crosse, Root and Turkey rivers. The smaller as well as the larger streams are well timbered with Oaks, Poplars, Birches, Maples, Hickories, Butternut, Walnut, Plums, Cherries, a few Conifers and southward, the Coffee-tree and Honey-Locust. Much has been written concerning soils and the character of the vegeta- tion. It is indeed a puzzling question, and I doubt whether it can truly be IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81 said that certain species, strictly confine themselves to certain detinite soils, yet certain trees, as well as herbaceous plants, may preponderate in certain soils. Perhaps this may be due to the physical condition of the soil, rather than its chemical constitution. The Soft Maple [Acer saccharinum, L.), Red Birch [Betula nigra, L.), are the predominating trees in the Mississippi, Wisconsin and Black river bottoms. They also follow up the smaller streams which tlow into these rivers, but as soon as these streams are left these trees become rare. The Soft Maple and Black Birch occur most numei'ously where the lands are subject to overflows every year. Most of the Oaks never occur in such situations, yet the Swamp White Oak [Quercus Oicolor, Willd.) is an exception. The only place where this species occui-s is in the low, sandy and black bottom lands of the Mississippi and Black rivers. The White Pine only occurs in the sandy rocks or sandy loam soil of the region, always near streams, but in the northern part of La Crosse county it is encroaching on the loamy soil. The Tamarack {Larixlarcina) only occurs in cold, wet swamps The soils of the region may be classed under sandy, loamy, calcareous, alluvial and peaty. The greatest areas of sandy soil occur near the mouths of the rivers. (This is not true for the interior of the State.) These sand prairies are not, however numerous on the west side of the river. As an illustration, at La Crosse, Wisconsin, there is a sand prairie some eight miles long and from one-half to three miles wide. The only arboreal vege- tation growing on these soils are two species of Oak, Burr Oak {Quercus tnacrocarjm, Michx.), Black Oak(^. tinctoria, Bartram), and occasionally the Green Ash {Fraxinus viridis, Michx.) and Black Birch {Betula lenla). These trees, however, only occur in close proximity to the Mississippi bottoms. Other sand prairies similar to this one occur at Trempleau and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. As regards the herbaceous vegetation on these prairies it might be said that it is a typical prairie flora. Liatris cylindrica, Verbena stricta, Baptisia leucantha, Petalosternon violaceus, P. candidus, Oenothera rhombipetala, Botc- teloua hirsuta, B. racemosa, etc., occur very frequently, though the Sand Bur {Cenchrus tribuloides) is the most characteristic plant where the soil has been plowed or loosened by the winds. The calcareous soils occupy the tops of the hills and are of smaller extent near La Crosse, Wisconsin, than Dubuque, Iowa. Birches, especially the Canoe Birch {Betula papyrifera, Marshall), are a most marked feature of it- but this species is by no means confined to soils of this character. Two other plants only occur, so far as I have observed, in this region on the cal- careous soils; they are Zygadenus elegans and Camptosorus rhizophyllus. Loamy soils are by far the most abundant; they occur on the slightly rolling ridges and in the valleys. The White Oak {Quercus alba, L.) grows excel- lently in such soil. Alluvial soil does not occupy great areas, except at the mouths of some rivers. The great bottoms of the Mississippi consist mostly of a sandy soil, covered over in some places with a black, rich soil. The White Elm, Box Elder, and Soft Maple are common. The peaty soils are impassable during early spring and summer. Few trees are able to grow — only an occasional Willow or Tamarack. The bulk of the vegetation consists of species of Carex and Scirpus. Now and then Lilmm canadense Cypripedium speclabile, or, here and there patches 6 g2 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. of Drosera ratundifolia and Pogonia ophioqlossoides, where the soil is very peaty and wet, appear. During the past thirty years some important changes have taken place in the gi'owth of timber along the river. The pioneer settler found little tim- ber on the hills, except those with a northern slope. The timber standing on the sunny side was usually of poor quality, owing to numerous fires. Now, these lands are mostly fenced and fires are kept out, at least by the more enterprising farmers. The bleak hills are being rapidly covered with a forest growth. It is not an uncommon thing to observe patches of Hazel {Corylus ameri- cana, Walt.) beyond the outskirts of the timber; here, in the course of a few years, will be found Oaks, Birches, Hickories and Poplars. The humus formed where Hazel grows is extremely rich and fertile, and I doubt whether trees could cover our treeless hills very fast without its help. The best Oak growing along the Upper Mississippi is the White Oak {Quercus alba, L.). It is not uncommon to find trees with trunks eight to twelve feet in circumference. This species once covered a considerable portion of the ridges, especially on clay soil. The shaded slope on which the snow long remains in the spring is also a favorable situation for it. Youug growth of White Oak is rapidly covering situations of this character, which formerly contained no timber. Flattened expansions of the stem are found just underneath the sui-face of the ground. From these arise a number of trunks. It is not improbable that, before the country was settled, late fires in spring kept the forest growth down, but after the ces- sation of fires a vigorous growth started. The timber of the White Oak is uniformly straighter and easier to cut than the Scarlet Oak {Q. Coccinea, Wang) or Black Oak (Q. tinctoria, Bartram). These Oaks grow in more exposed localities whex*e the soil is drier and vegetation starts earlier in the spring, and for this reason fires usually damaged them more than any of the others. The old timber is usually gnarled and hard to split. The young growth is, however, straight and easy to work where fires are kept out. The soils on which they occur vary considerably. They do well on sandy, gravelly soil, as well as on clay and black soil, and even make considerable growth on poor, sandy soil. Q. coccinea, Wang, is the more common species, although the foi'ms are puzzling. The Red Oak (Q. rubra, L.) is the finest of the Oaks in this region so far as beauty is concerned. The trees are tall and straight, and some- times yield five coi'ds of wood. It is not an uncommon thing for them to yield three cords. The wood is easily worked, and this is owing largely to the locality and soil where the species usually grows. The large trees were less effected by the early forest fires than were the Black Oaks. The Red Oak occurs principally on shaded hill-slopes, where the snow long remains on the ground, also on clay ridges and black bottom lands. Young ti'ees of Q. rubra, are the most easily recoguizable of the Black Oaks when growing in such localities. Smooth bark and straight trunk, with few lateral branches distinguish them at once from specimens of Q. tinctoi-ia and Q. coccinea. One of the most variable Oaks, at least so far as general appearances go, is the Bur Oak (Q. macrocarj)a, Michx.). On the sandy soil it is diminutive in size, producing numerous lateral branches. Here it is a spreading tree. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIf:NCf:S. 83 Oa the poor sandy soil lietweeu the Black and La Crosse rivers it is the most common Oak. On clay and rocky soil it occurs mainly in small groups. Some thirty miles east of La Crosse, in the Kickapoo Valley, Bur Oak is a most valuable forest tree. The trunk is straight with but few large lateral branches. In its habit it is wholly unlike the form growing on sandy, rocky soil. Many trees are ten feet in circumference. It does not grow in isolated groups, but acres are covered almost entirely with this species. It also occurs in the rich alluvial bottoms of various streams. The Swamp White Oak((^. bicolor, Willd.) occurs only in the bottoms of the Black and Mississippi rivers. A large number of small trees occur near North Bend, Wisconsin. I have observed a few more just below La Crosse. It becomes moi'e com- mon southward; and a considerable number were observed near Turkey River Junction, Iowa. No large trees have been seen, though Mr. J. S. Harris informs me that he noticed some near La Crescent, Minnesota, many years ago. The only other Oak I have seen is Q. Muhlenbergii, Eugelm. It occurred in considerable numbers on the south slope of a limestone blulT just west of North Mc(Jregor, Iowa. The most conspicuous Maple is the Soft Maple (Acer saccharimim, L.) It occurs everywhere along the Mississippi, Black and Wisconsin rivers and their tributaries. It forms more than one-half of the forest vegetation of the Mississippi rivei', but becomes less common as the sources of the smaller streams are reached. It gi'ows where the lands are usually subject to over- flow, and the soil is sandy or alluvial. The Red Maple (Acer rubriim, L.) is not a common species. It occurs in the interior of the country, away from the Mississippi, on the black, sandy loam. Although the Sugar Maple [Acer barbamm, Michx.) occurs in the rich, rocky soil aloug the Mississippi river, it is most common in the interior of Wisconsin, away from the river. On low ridges drained by the Kickapoo river it is one of the most common of forest trees. Acer spicatum Lam., although not a forest tree, deserves mention. It grows in sheltered situations, frequently overhanging sandy rocks, about La Crosse and Galesville. Between Dubuque and McGregor, Iowa, it grows in shaded, moist situations, in calcareous soils, commonly with Sambticns raeemosa, L. The Ash-leaved Maple (Acer negimdo, L.) occurs in groups in the richer soils of ravines and bottom lands; it is seldom found in the bottom proper of the Mississippi river. Two species of Hickory have been observed. Shell Bark [Hicoria ovata) and the Pignut Hickory (H. glabra. Mill., Brittou). Both species attain considerable size. The habits of the trees are quite different. H. ovata grows on clay soil, usually in groups. H. glabra grows on various soils, such as rocky, sandy, and along creek-bottoms. Shaded and moist localities are favorable to its growth, which is much more rapid than that of E. ovata. The Butternut (Juglans cinerca L.) is much more com- mon than the Black Walnut (•/. nigra, L.), although both are found on the rocky banks of the Mississippi, and the Butternut is abundant in sandy and gravelly -soil aloug the Kickapoo river, while Black Walnut was not ob- served iu this region. The latter tree is confined quite closely to the imme- diate tributaries of the Mississippi. Along the Badaxe river and smaller streams about La Crosse it is quite common, but as the sources of the stream 84 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. are reached it gradually diminishes in numbers. It needs a much richer soil than the Butternut. The Cottonwood {Poindus monilifera. Ait.) gi'ows abundantly along the Mississippi river in bottoms, where both sandy and rich soil seem favorable for its development, and the trees are often of very large size. They are seldom found, however, on the uplands away from the streams except as recent introductions. The species is now sometimes found in the neighbor- hood of stone quai-ries in the loose clay soil. Trembling Aspen {Fopulus tremtiloidcs, Michx.) is common in the rich, black soils of second bottoms, or the humus soil on the ridges. Near Dubuque it occurs around rocky ledges. The species grows in groups, sometimes several acres in extent. It is a short-lived tree, and is followed by more useful tx-ees, like the Oak. The Large Poplar (P. grandidentata, Michx.) is less common than the last. It is found in more or less isolated groups in sandy and clay soils, and its growth is more rapid than that of the Trembling Aspen. A few trees of the Sycamore (Platamis occidentalish.) were observed at Turkey River Junction, Iowa. From this point southward it is moi*e fre- quent in the Mississippi river bottoms. The Hackberry [Celtis occidentalis, L.) occurs in rich soil of the bottoms of Root river and other streams; and not infrequently it is found on the rocky limestone cliffs, as at North McGregor, Iowa. It is a tree which can adapt itself to a variety of soils, and when cultivated does admirably on poor, sandy soil. The Birches are fairly well represented, the most common species being the River Birch [Betula ingra, L.) It, with the Soft Maple, more typifies the timbered region of the Mississippi bottoms than any other tree. The Red, or River Birch, diminishes in numbers southward. The Canoe Birch [Bet- ula papyrif era, Michx.) is common about La Crosse and Trempleau, Wiscon- sin, where it is usually found on the tops of the limestone bluffs, though also occurring in ravines and ridges as well as in sandy soil. On some of the rocky hills it is almost the only tree. It rarely attains great dimensions, except when growing in rich clay soil. Near Dubuque it is scarce. Mr. Reppert reports it from Muscatine; how much farther south it occurs in Iowa, I have not learned. Yellow or Gray Birch {B. lutea, Michx.) is found more abundantly along the sandy, rocky cliff's of the Kickapoo. It also occurs near a Tamarack- swamp not far from La Crosse. It is not a common tree. Quite a grove of small Kentucky Coffee-trees [Oymnocladus dioicus,L., Koch.) occurs south of La Crescent, in the Root river bottoms, and on the Wisconsin side there are two or three trees about seven miles below La Crosse. They are from twelve to fifteen feet high. The species is much more numerous on steep hillsides near North McGregor, but none of the specimens are large. From this point southwai'd it is more numerous. I noted it at Clayton, Tui-key River Junction and Dubuque. It does not occur in the interior of the country east of La Crosse, although I have seen it cul- tivated in Madison, Wisconsin. The Honey-Locust ( Gleditschia triacanthos) was observed near Turkey River Junction, Iowa, though it occurs as far north as McGregor and perhaps further. It is occasionally cultivated in La Crosse. A fine tree occurs on Mississippi street, near Western avenue. IOWA ACADEMY Of SCIENCES. 85 Pynis coronarktt, L. Since this paper has been written Prof. L. H. Bailey* has worked out our Wild Crab and established several species. I have not had an opportunity to study carefully the character of the Wild Crabs found about La Crosse. The Pyrtis co7'onaria as described in older sys- tematic works is very common in thickets, sometimes forming large groves. Beautiful large trees occur in isolated places. Plum {Prunus americanot, Marshall) is widely distril)uted. It comes up spontaneously everywhere. In rich bottom lauds, clay soil, black sandy loam and rocky .soils. Clieuey Plum, now well known in cultivation, occurs wild near Chaseburgh and elsewhere on the ridges. The species, if it be one, and there is certainly much doubt, is a very variable one. Prof. Bailey informs me that there are sevei'al good species in Prumis americana. Near La Crosse occur several distinct forms. I remember a case where one form occurring on a sunny hillside and ripens in August; the fruit is yel- lowish red. On the same sunny side of the hill, but some three quarters of a mile farther north, is another group. The plums are sevei-al weeks later, are longer and red. Choke Cherry {Prunus virginiana, L.) is a very commons pecies, forming small groves in clay and black soil. It frequently occurs at the bases of gullies or ravines. The Wild Red Cherry [Prumts j^ennsylvanica, L.) occurs in State Road Cooley near La Crosse on rocky hills in woods. Wild Black Cherry [Prunus serotina, Ehr.) is widely distributed, though somewhat local. In Coon Valley it is abundant, forming quite an extensive grove. Trees from six to eight inches in diameter occur, though the tree never attains the size it does in Missouri and Illinois. Several species of Crataegus ai-e common, but as I have not worked over my material care- fully they are omitted. Basswood (Tilia amerirana) is largely intlueuced ])y moisture. Rich, damp, grounds, sloping to the north, are favorable situations for it, and it is commonly found along the rich bottoms of the smaller streams and creeks. On the low l^luffs and rivers of the Kickapoo river it is abundant. The American Elm, or White Elm [Ulvius americana, L.), is a common tree everywhere along the creeks and streams near springs; occasionally, also, in upland woods in dry soil. The Red Elm ( Ulmus fulva, Michx.) is not uncommon on the rocky slopes of hills along the Mississippi. It is absent or rare in the interior of the country. The Cork Elm (Ubnus racemosa, Thomas) is far less common than U. Americana. It occurs near La Crosse, especially in the Kickapoo valley near Bloomingdale, and I observed it also near Turkey River Junction, Iowa. According to Mr. J. S. Harris, the Red Mulberry formerly grew in the Root river bottoms. I have not, however, seen it growing wild, though speci- mens said to have been brought from there are gi'owing in Hon. J. W. Losey's old lot on Fifth street. Scattei-ed specimens were found at North McGregor, Iowa. Since writing the above 1 have learned of its occui-rence at McGregor also, though evidently it onlj' grows in sheltered situations as Mr. Kennyou writes. It is more numerous near Dubuque. Two other conspicuous deciduous trees occur in rocky woods and shaded north slopes, Hop-Hornbeam (Ostrya virginica, Willd.) and Hornbeam [Carj)inus caroliniana, Walter). ♦American Garden, Vol. XII. No. 8, 1891. p. 469, 8g IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The White Pine [Pmus strobus, L.) is the most common conifer along the Black River. In the northern part of La Crosse and in the eastern part of Vernon county it is common on the sandy, loamy soil; near the Mississippi river it only occurs on the sandstone ledges. Small groups occur on stiff sandstone ledge near Oehler's Mills, Morman Cooley and the sandstone ledge about seven miles from La Crosse near the Tamarack Swamp. Small groups also occur at Bangor. One small tree grew spontaneously in State Road Cooley on my father's farm. The nearest tree growing wild from this point is four miles. Large trees were once found at La Crescent, Minnesota, and quite a group of these Pines occurs near Clayton, Iowa. Northern Scrub Pine [Pinus banksiana, Lambert) occurs on the sandy prarie soil along the La Crosse and Black rivers, where little else grows besides Bouteloua hirsuta, Fanicum virgatum, Aristida, Petalostemo?i violacetis, Pentsteman ptibescens, Lupimcs perennis, Viola delphinij'olia, Anemone pjatens var., nuttalliana, Potentillaargentea, Baj)tisia leucophcea. Norway or Red Pine {P. resinosa. Ait.) occurs in solated places in sand bottoms of the Black River, and much more commonly on the sandy, rocky ledges of the Kickapoo River near Rockton. Hemlock [Tsuga canadensis, Carr) I have not seen along the Mississippi River, nor does it occur near the mouths of the Black, La Crosse and Wis- consin Rivei-s, but near Rockton on the Kickapoo River, which is tributary of the Wisconsin, numerous groups occur. Dwarf Cornel [Gornus canaden- sis), Trailing Arbutus or May Flower {Epigcea repens) and Glintonia borealis as well as ferns like Asplenmn thelyteroides, Aspidium spinulosum var. inter- medium, Onoclea struthiopteris, flourish under its shade among decaying logs and leaves. Tamarack [Larix laricinva) grows in the peaty swamps of La Crosse and Trempleau rivers. During dry portions of the year tamarack swamps are pass- able, but during wet years they are for the most part impassable. Owing to frequent overflows, which carry with them much soil from tilled land, these swamps are gradually tilling up, and as a consequence, the Tamarack in these localities is losing ground. I found a small swamp near La Crescent, Minnesota, but in a few years this swamp will be a thing of the past. Red Cedar [Juniperus virginiana, L.) grows along the Mississippi River in the sandy out-crops and limestone rocks, and most abundantly in the sandy bottoms of the Black River. I have indicated, in a measure, the principal forest trees between Trem- pleau, Wisconsin, and Dubuque, Iowa. In the northern portion Betula papyrifera, B. nigra, Juglans cinerea, Larix, Pimis strobus are much more numerous than farther southward. Platanus occidentalis, Gleditschia triacanthos, Gymnocladus dioicus, Juglans nigra, Quercus miihlenbergii, and Morus rubra are southern ti-ees which have moved northward along the Mis- sissippi, and, therefore, are found close to its shores and the smaller streams tributary thereto. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87 PHRENOLOGICAL NOTES. ABSTRACT, BY L. H. FAMMEL. Among the many interesting observations in connection with our flora is the relation that plants have to climatology. It is true the question is an agricultural and horticultural one only so far as it bears on questions of our cultivated plants. But with the addition of new plants every year to our list of those cultivated for utilitarian or ornamental jjurposes, it is important to record exact data in regard to their behavior under cultivation. But in plant climatology all plants should be studied with reference to various climatic conditions. These studies should be made not only in other countries, but every State in the Union. If this is done it will be possible to say, with some certainty, whether given plants are adapted to certain climates. It will be possible for us to determine positively the variability of some plants and their behavior under different conditions. This subject has not received the attention it deserves in this country. Investigations of this kind have been made by Trelease, Halsted, Britton, Henry, etc.^ Valuable observations have been made in Europe by Fritsch- and others. Observations like Keissenberger's, on the time of flowering and maturing of seed of cultivated plants like oats, wheat, corn' and grape over long periods of years, ai'e of great importance. The paper will be published in full in Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club. The paper was divided up into the following heads: I. A comparison of the appearance -of flowers and leaves, etc., for the years 1886 and 1891. II. Notes on the effects of frost on the falling of leaves, as well as the frost limit of certain plants. III. A succession of flowers for the years 1886 and 1891. 'F^rst and Second Annual Report Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 1883, p. 56; 1884, p. 59. Bulletin of the Iowa Agricultural College Department of Botany, 1886, p. 44. Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. VI, No. 42. p. 2a5. Report of Board of Resents University of Wisconsin, 1881. 2Thermische constanten fur die Bluthe und Fruchtreife von 881» Pflanzenarten K. K. A Kad. d. Wissenschaften, Vienna, 1861. Sitzung.28, Nov., pp. 120, 1 plate Vienna, 1863. ^Ueberdie zeit der Bluthe und Fruchtreife des Roggens der Weinrebe und des Maises nach viel.iahrigen Beobachtungen in der Umgebung von Hermannstadt. Verb, und Mitth, d. siebenburg Ver. f. Naturw, in Hermannstadt XXXVIU, 1888, p. 121-132. Just. Johresb, 1888, Vol II, p. 51. 88 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The observations for 1886 are based on those reported by Dr. Halsted. Those for 1891 were partly made by Mr. Eugene Browr, a special student in botany, Prof. Rolfs and myself. In 1886, the Soft Maple {Acer saccharinum) was in flower on March 22; in 1891, April 11. Ulmus aviericana, in 1886, in flower, April 12; in 1891, April 18. The succession of flowers in herbaceous plants in 1886 and 1891 was: Eepatica acutiloba, April 9 (1886), April 12 (1891); Capsella bursa- pastoris, April 15 (1886), April 24 (1891); Merlensia virginica, April 20 (1886), April 28 (1891). Frost and its effects on some plants were noted: Portulaca oleracea, early in September, tips frost-bitten; October 7, more or less des- troyed; October 9, plants black in an open field; Panieum sanguinale, in- jured seriously on October 8; Borrago officinalis, Oaiober 22, a few leaves affected; October 23, many leaves killed; Scabiosa atropur2nirea, October 7, no injury; October 23, no injury; Nov, 11, no injury; November 21, some injury to leaves. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STATE FLORA. BY THE CHAIEMAN, L. H. PAMMEL. The several catalogues of the flora of Iowa (Arthur, Bessey), as well as the early contributions by the late Dr. Parry and briefer articles and notices in journals and Gray's Manual give us a pretty accurate knowledge of the the phaenogams and vascular cryptogams found in Iowa. In most cases, however, the range of species is not given. With a number of excellent local collectors in the field a lively interest has been awakened in collecting and bringing together information. Since the appointment of this commit- tee one important contribution to the State Flora has been published. I refer to Prof. Hitchcock's Catalogue of the Anthophyta and Pteridophyta of Amesi. It is indeed a model catalogue in every respect. A short notice •of trees found north of Dubuque has also appeared in Garden and Forest. 2 In the preparation of this report I am indebted to Mr. F. W. Reppert, of Muscatine, who is a most excellent collector. Some specimens have also been conti'ibuted by Messrs. Stewart (Greenfield), Holway (Decorah), and Prof. Rolfs (Le Claire ank Keokuk). 1 have arranged the matter as follows: I. Plants new to the State; II. New localities for rare plants; III. Local distribution of some Iowa trees; IV. Changes in our flora, especially in the introduction of weeds and their dis- tribution. 1. Contributions from the Shaw School of Botany, No. 7. From St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. V, No. 3. 2. L. H. Pammel: Forest Vegetation Along the Upper Mississippi, Garden and Forest, Vol. IV., p. 460, 472 and 531. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89 I. Plants New to the State. Arabis perfoliata. Lam, Iowa City (Hitchcock). Dicentra canadensis, D. C, Decorah. Mr. Witter informs me it is not uncommon on the Illinois side of the rive opposite Muscatine. C/irysosplenium alternifolium, L Decorah; "In a deep ravine, northside of hill, in damp moss and probably the only localiti* within hundreds of miles." (Holway.) Hypericum nudicaule, Walt. Muscatine; poor sandy soil. Amjihicarpma pitcheri, Torr. and Gray. Muscatine; common. Lespedeza violaeea, Pers. Muscatine; in dry sandy soil, border of wooded hills. Rhexia virginica, L. Muscatine; in wet, swampy depressions on sandy hills along Cedar river bottom. Not common. Aster macropihylhis, L. Muscatine; rich, hilly woodlands. Two localities — Pine Mills, Montpelier Township. Aster drumondii, Lindl. Muscatine, Iowa City. (Hitchcock.) Oayliissacia, resmosa, Torr. and Gray. Muscatine; "The plant is quite abundant within a limited area, one-fourth to one-half mile." (Reppert.) IpoiiKfa lacunosa, L. Muscatine; "Along the Mississippi river just above the city." (Reppert.) In sandy as well as rich soil. Breweria pickxringii, Gray. Muscatine; "Sandy soil along railroad; Fruit- land Station six miles below Muscatine." (Reppert.) Tecoma radicayis, Juss. Muscatine; Wyoming Hills, seven miles above Muscatine. "It occurs near habitations, but evidently spontaneous." (Reppert.) Cycloloma platyphyllum, Moq. Muscatine; "Along B. C. R. «& N. R. R. near the city; of recent introduction." (Reppert.) Perhaps brought with sand used for road ballast, 1891. Brehmeria cylindrica, Willd. Muscatine. 11. New Localities for Some Plants. Ranunculus JIanimida var. reptans, E. Meyer. Webster City; in moist, sandy soil near artesian wells close to the Des Moines river. Polanisia graveolens, Raf. Muscatine; a form with narrow leaves and pods. Astragalus distortus, Torr. and Gray. Muscatine; sandy soil, Muscatine Island. Desinodium iUi7ioiense,(Jrra.j. Muscatine; sandy soil. Ames. (Hitchcock). It is rather common in clay soil at La Crosse, Wisconsin, along the Missis- •sippi river. Parnassia caroliniana. Muscatine; banks of streams. (Lawler.) Oenothera fruticosa. Muscatine, (Witter); not common. (Jreenfield;" low grounds with Spartina cynosuroides; perhaps introduced. Opuntia rafnesquii, Engelm. Breckenridge Ferry, Cedar River, Musca- tine. IZupatorium aUissimum,^,. Mu.scatiue; Ames (Hitchcock, HaLsted); Vin- ton. E. sero (Elliott), (c) "The bulls fight savagely among themselves, and turn off from the breeding ground all the younger and weak males." Callorhinus ursinus (Northern Fur Seal), (a) Extreme sexual disparity. The males weigh three times as much as the females, (b) Ulti-a polygamous, the males maintaining a large harem, and guarding the females with the greatest vigilance and courage. In fact, this animal is the most polygamous of all the Mammalia, (c) Males tight with greatest desperation and persist- ence for females. 5 A consideration of the above series will disclose the fact that there is a close and constant relation between polygamy and disparity in size among the Pinnipedia. It also indicates that this relation is a direct one, the dis- parity increasing pari 2)Cissu with the polygamy throughout the series. Another fact is rendered evident by this series, and that is that the com- bativeness of the males increases part passti with sexual disparity and polygamy. These facts having been reasonably well established, it is possible to con- struct a hypothetical history of events which will illustrate the successive stages by which a species might pass from a simply gregarious habit, in which monogamy, or at least promiscuity, prevails, to the extreme of polygamy practiced by the northern fur seal. Such a transition may be con- ceived to take place by the following steps or gradations: 1st. An eminently gregarious species would offer more favorable condi- tions for the introduction of polygamy than a nongregarious species. Our point of departure in this part of the discussion would then be a gregarious, monogamous species. If the principles deduced from an examination of the series presented in the first part of this paper be correct, this species should also be one in which there is little sexual disparity, and little or no fighting among the males for the posseession of the females. All of the 4 "The sea elephants appear to be exceptional among the Phrocidte in the great dis- parity of size between the sexes, in which, as well as in their hrceding habits, they closely resemble the Otaries." Monograph of North American Pinnipeds (Allen), p. 755. The Italics are mine. habits." [c) The males "fight desperately for the females." 5 Elliott says he has seen one male fur seal fight fifty or sixty battles during a single season. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99 above conditions seem to l)e fiillilled in tlie case of the walrus (Odobn'iius rosmarus). This species will then stand for our point of departure. 2nd. The gregarious habit of the walrus offers a constant opportunity for a departure from the path of monogamous rectitude. This fact is well illustrated in human affairs by the great amount of social immorality found among the crowded tenements of our large cities. Constant opportunity offers the most powerful temptation to gratify desire, and this is doubtless as true among Pinnipedia as among men. The result of this is a departure from strict monogamy in the direction of promiscuity.*! The harbor seal [P/ioca viUdina) illustrates this stage in the process. So far as I can ascertain, this species is simply promiscuous in sexual affairs, but does not attain to polygamy in the sense used here. The sexual disparity is slight, the males being somewhat heavier, and but little, if any, longer than the females. 3d. The departure from monogamy in the direction of promiscuity results in constant rivalry on the part of the males to possess the most attractive, or the greatest number, of the females. Rivalry begets warfare, the world over. This pui'ely individual and personal rivalry among the male Pinnipedia results in individual combats, in which courage, fcrocitj-, and size are the controlling factors. We thus have instituted the most rigorous kind of sexual selection, by means of which the above desirable qualities are secured, propagated, and intensified on the part of the males. The females, on the contrary, seem to be practically passive. The writer has been unable to find any evidence that the female Pinnipedia exercise any choice in the matter of accepting or rejecting individual successful males. The sexual selection thus instituted is true sexual selection as defined by Darwin as follows: "This [sexual selection] depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex or species, in exclu- sive relation to reproduction.'"' It differs, however, from a vast majority of instances of sexual selection in apparent absence of choice on the part of the female. This stage in the development of polygamy is illustrated by the hooded seal ( Cystophora cristata), which appears to be promiscuous in sexual matters, and in which the males fight fiercely for the possession of the females. The divergence in sex has become considerable, as already indicated, the males being more than twice as heavy as the females. 4th. The struggle for the possession of the females having become a fixed and intensified habit, and the sexual disparity continuing to grow more pronounced, the following results might be expected: (((} The larger and lustier males would have their desire greatly intensified and their sexual powers appreciably increased. (6) The smaller and weaker males would be crowded to the wall, and, in many instances, entirely deprived of all conjugal rights, which would be usurped by the larger and stronger animals. As a result of these conditions, certain males would obtain possession of several females, and deprivu all other males of access to them. This would be polygamy in the sense used in this paper. The whi-skered seal [hrignathus 6 This word, although (luestionable. Is the only one known to the writer by which the meaning, indiscriminate intercourse, can be tersely e.xpressed. 'The Descent of Man. p. 248. The italics are mine. 100 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. barbatus), in which the male weighs two and one-half times as much as the female, and polygamy prevails, would illustrate this stage in the process. 5th. Polygamy having become a fixed habit, all the conditions would tend to accelerate the divergence in size between the sexes. The selection by which the bulkiest and most pugnacious males would succeed in obtaining the females would be as rigorous as could well be conceived, and would result in very great sexual disparity. The males would become remarkably fierce and aggressive. The females, on the contrary, would become less and less disposed to offer any resistance to the males, and hence a remark- able difference in temperament would eventually separate the sexes. The males would be intensely pugnacious, jealous, and aggressive, while the females would be gentle, indifferent, and passive. 8 Polygamy having become established, the causes or conditions which aided in its establishment would tend to its intensification to such an extent that some males would have scores of females in their harems, while others, indeed the majority, would be entirely deprived of marital rights. Such, in brief, is the state of affairs among the sea lions, of which the fur seal [Cal- lorhinus ursinus) is the best example. The above hypothetical history of events will serve to convey the writer's opinion as to what may have been the stages by which polygamy has arisen and become intensified among Piunipedia. For the sake of the nonscientific reader, it may be well to say that there is no intention to convey the idea that the fur seal was first a walrus, then a seal, and finally evolved into a sea lion or fur seal. Two other points deserve mention in connection with this highly interest- ing animal. The question naturally arises, why do not the females increase in size by inheriting the increased bulk of the male? There ai'e few more interesting and perplexing laws than those of inhei'itance, and among these one of the most elusive is the inheritance of certain characteristics by one sex alone. Darwin attempts to explain these facts by the hypothesis of' pangenesis,— a theory which seems to have few, if any, supporters at present. Whatever may be the cause of the transmission of certain characters to one sex only, there are two facts that may help us to understand the disparity between the sexes of the fur seals: 1st. The great size of the male is purely a secondary sexual character, and as such would not be expected to be inherited by the female, whatever may be the reason or cause ultimately found to explain the fact. 2d. Small size is of direct advantage to the female in this case, and hence a natural selection'' would tend to intensify this feature, or what is prac- 8 Curiously enough, Darwin quotes Captain Bryant to the effect that the females of the fur seal "appear desirous of returning to some particular male" (Descent of Man, p. 257). A careful perusal of the detailed accounts of the habits of this animal collated t)y~Alien, in his Monograph of North American Pinnipeds, fails to discover any exer- cise of choice whatever on the part of the female. It may further he said that even if she had a choice there would be no chance toe.xercise it, as she is immediately pounced upon by the nearest male upon landing, and usually handed about by the scruff of the neck by several males before finding her ultimate resting place. 9The selection here spoken of can hardly be termed a sexual selection, as the advan- tage accrues directly to the mother, and does not have the direct and exclusive bear- ing upon the reproductive act which is the essence of sexual selection. It is, of course, true that one sex alone is affected; but this fact alone is not sufficient to stamp it as sexual selection as set forth by Darwin. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101 tically the same thing, to keep the females from sharing in the increased size of the males. The advantage referred to arises from the manner in wiiicii the females are handled by the males upon the landing of the former, which is descriljed as follows by Elliott: "The little covvs have a rough-and-tumble time of it when they begin to arrive; for no sooner is the i)i-etty animal fairly established on the station of bull number one, when bull number two, seeing bull number one off his guard, reaches out with his long, strong neck and picks the unhappy but passive creature up by the scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits her on his seraglio ground; then bulls numbers three, four, etc., in the vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all assail one another, and especially bull number two, and have a tremendous tight, perhaps for half a minute or so, and during this commotion the cow genei-allj- is moved or moves farther back from the water, two or three stations more, where, when all gets quiet, she usually remains in peace." Allen also quotes Captain Bryant as follows: "Frequently a struggle ensues between the two males for the possession of the same female, and, both seizing her at once, pull her in two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth." It is evident that the more easily and quickly the females can be moved the better for them, as they are thus more likely to avoid being lacerated by the males, either in being stolen from one by another, or in being fought over as described in the last quotation. If this is true, the lighter females would be less likely to be injui-ed by the savage males, and hence the heavier ones would be weeded out by a natural selection, which by its constant action would go far toward accounting for the great sexual disparity exhib- ited by these animals. The remaining fact demanding explanation is the wonderful ability of the male sea lions to endui-e long-protracted fasts. On this point Mr. Elliott says that they '■ abstain entirelj' from food of any kind or water for thi'ee months at least, and a few of them stay four months before going into the water for the tirst time since hauling up in May." "This alone is remarkable enough, but it is simply wonderful when we associate the condition with the increasing activity, restlessness, and duty devolving upon the bulls as heads and fathers of large families. They do not stagnate, like bears in caves." It seems highly probable that this astonishing ability to endure protracted fasts is one of the results of the ultra polygamy practiced by these animals. A marked intensification of desire seems to be one of the immediate con- committants of polygamy among animals. A writer in a recent number of th^ *Xnttiralist, says, in speaking of monogamous birds adopting a polyga- mous habit: "We may infer, therefore, that sexual power and high sexual characters go hand in hand, and that in proportion to the advance toward organic perfection virility increases." The virility of the sea lion is probably more excessively developed than that of any other mammal. The sexual organization is of the most highly * Anierioan Naturalist, Novemljcr, 1890. p. 1030. 102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. specialized type and differs in some important particulars (e. g., external scrotum) from most other pinnipeds. t This excessive virility might lead to the habit of abstaining from food in order to secure and then guard the females. This abstinence in its incip- iency would not be of very great duration, but the period might be length- ened by almost imperciptable increments throughout hundreds of genera- tions until the surprising results noted above would be reached. The animals live on their own blubber during their. long fast, and it is reasonable to suppose that the male progenitors of the sea lions which were the strongest and lustiest and possessed the most blubber, would be able to out stay their rivals, and hence obtain possession of a greater number of females and beget a greater number of offspring than those having less strength and blubber. Thus a process of selection would be instituted whereby animals would eventually be produced possessed of sufficient blub- ber and endurance to survive the effects of even such phenomenal fasts as are endured by the fur seal of the pi'eseut day. In the preceding pages the writer has endeavored to account for the fol- lowing peculai'ities met with among the pinnipeds: 1. The relation between great sexual disparity in size and polygamy. 2. The manner in which polygamy may have orginated. 3. The origin and effect of excessive pugnacity. 4. The origin and advantage of great sexual disparity. 5. The origin and advantage of the ability to endure long protracted fasts. The sexual disparity, excessive pugnacity and ability to endure protracted fasi^s, are all intimately related to polygamy either as cause or effect. Up to a certain point pugnacity and disparity seem to have acted as causes of polygamy. Beyond that point they seem to be effects of polygamy, or at least, are accelerated or intensified by it. The ability to endure long fasts would seem to be purely an effect of polygamy. SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY IN COLLEGES. BY C. C. NUTTING. A few months ago one of the curators of the Smithsonian Institution took occasion, in private conversation, to complain of the fact that our universi- ties and colleges did not turn out men capable of taking hold of a collection of zoological specimens and working it up systematically. He said: "We can find plenty of students from Johns Hopkins, Harvard, the University of Penn- + For further interesting particulars, see Monograph of North American Pinnipeds, pp. 382-405 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103 sj-lvania, etc. , who can do good work if they are put to investigating the enabry- ology of a single species, or writing a thesis on the histology of certain organs. But we have great difficulty in finding men who are able to take hold of a collection brought in by some dredging expedition, for instance, and identifying and describing the specimens in a satifactory manner." Dr. David Starr Jordan, now of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, pro- tested earnestly, in a public address against what he termed the '• German craze for morphology," which occupied the attention of biologists almost to the exclusion of much important systematic work which was being neg- lected. Theodore Eimer, in his "Organic Evolution," says: "The tendency of the 'Scientific Zoology' of to-day is to neglect the study of entire animals. Anything that is not teezed with the needle, or cut with the microtome or examined with the microscope, is scarcely noticed at the pi'esent day, except by those who are exclusively systematists — even in questions connected with the evolution theory. For, strange to say, even the doctrine of evolution is left entirely, in Germany, to the decision of anatomy and embryology; that is, of the microscope, or else is given up to mere speculation, although Dar- win himself used neither the former nor the latter, but external form, the life and the distribution of plants and animals^ for his theory." Far be it from me to belittle in the slightest degree the woi'k of the mor- phologist. Upon the result of his labors must be reared the whole struc- ture of the systematic zoologist. His work is not only important, but it is vital to any correct solving of the maze of questions which the systematist attempts to unravel. Upon the faithful and minute researches of the anato- mist, the histologist, and above all, the embryologist, the success or failure of the systematist depends. As the foundation is to the building, so is mor- phology to Systematic Zoology. But after fully and candidly admitting our great obligation to those who work with the dissecting needle, the microtome and the microscope, is there not still some justification for the complaints of such men as Rathburn, Jordan, Eimer and Cope? Is it not true that our largest and best institu- tions allow the "German craze for morphology" to monopolize the grountl to the detriment of systematic work? Is there not a tendency to convey the impression to the student that there is little to be gained by "studying the entire animal," and that the specimen must be cut up before any observa- tions of value can be made? For my part, I think the men whom I have quoted have pointed out a real danger, which should be forced upon the attention of biologists, especially those engaged in educational work. This state of affairs has come about in a perfectly natural waj*. The inven- tion of the microscope and the perfection of methods in histological and einbryological investigations, have literally opened a new world to the sci- entist, and the usual result of opening a new territory has ensued — a universal rush to occupy every available spot in the land of promise and the abandoning of equally valuable and important fields already under cultiva- tion. But now that the rush is over, and the new territory fairlv well occu- pied by eager and zealous workers, it may not be amiss to ask ourselves whether the old farms "back east" are not worth our attention, especially as we can now undertake the work enormously enriched by the wealth of 104: IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. facts which come in exhaustless profusion from the workers in the new ter- ritory. One of the main reasons why systematic work has failed to command tlie attention that it deserves on the part of the college students is a wide-spread misapprehension as to its real natui"e and scope. A majority of students ai'e wont to regard systematic zoology as particully to be shunned on account of what they consider its most essential character — an endless succession of fearful names — a veritable nightmare of polysyllabic horrors, the dead lang- uages resurrected for the special discomfort of the unfortunate students. And when we consider the mutilations to which these same dead languages are often subjected before being introduced to the student, the wonder is that any youngster survives the first shock! I speak feelingly because I speak from a sad experience. Never will I forget the abject despair with which I contemplated the long pages of class- ification, sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, genera and species in the back of Tenny's Manual, all of which I was expected to learn by heart and write on the blackboard under the pathetic delusion that I was learning "Zoology." Not a single animal, alive or dead, was presented for inspection during a term's work in zoology (save the mark!) and if some of us, impelled by an unsatiable desire to learn, went to the woods and secured a few living facts, they were rigorously excluded if not expressly substantiated by the inspired Tenny. And this was in a so-called "university." The professor of science had a microscope and one slide showing scales on a butterfly's wing, and for any student to have asked for permission to actually use that sacred instrument would haYe been as appalling as Oliver Twists' request for "more! " This, although an extreme case, is not by any means an unique one, and many students still regard the endless and, to them, meaningless, classifica- tion as the sum and substance of systematic zoology. Huxley hits the nail squarely on the head as usual when he says: "The idea that the ability to repeat any number of so-called "natural classitica- tions," has any thing to do with real knowledge, is injurious alike to students and their examiners." At the present time, fortunately, but little remains of what Laukester characterizes as "that state of mind which led to the regarding of the classes and orders recognized by authoritative zoologists as sacred institutions, which were beyond the criticism of ordinary men," and he goes on to say: "There was a theological dogmatism about the whole matter. To deny the Linnean, or later, the Cuvierian classes, Avas very much like denying the Mosaic Cosmogony." The student should be given to understand that these formidable classifi- cations -are but the skeleton which his studies and investigations should clothe with living facts, so that finally the dry bones will be almost forgot- ten as he contemplates the beauty and the symmetry of the well-rounded, vital structure. He should be taught that classifications, so far from being inspired or sacred or permanent, are but tempoi'ary expedients to express the individual opinions of their originatoi's, which opinions change with every review of the group classified. The main question which I wish to present for your consideration is this: Is the study of systematic zoology especially adapted to the conditions of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCP:S. 105 college course ? Has it any claim to rank along with structural zoology as u means wliereby the best educational results may be attained? The answer to these questions depends very largely, it seems to me, upon the college or university under consideration. In those institutions where well equipped biological laboratories are at the disposal of students, and the endowment is such as to make successful investigations in morphology possible, the study of comparative anatomy, histology and embryology ofters unsurpassed attractions to the student and insures earnest and faithful work of the very highest educational value, unless the instructor is painfully lack- ing in the ability to use tiie means at his command. In institutions possessing both laboratories and museums, both structural and systematic work can be undei'taken. In this case, if it is considered best to divide the zoology between two chairs, two courses may be pursued. 1st. The systematic zoology may be regarded as supplementary to the .structural, which excludes all students from systematic work who are unable or unwilling to devote two yeax's to zoology. '2d. The structural and systematic work may be offered as two indepen- dent and coordinate courses, in which case each professor should be free to give so much instruction in the department of the other as may be required for a satisfactory understanding of the work in hand. But there is a large class of colleges scattered over our State, where well equipped laboratories can not for the present at least, be afforded, and where the duties devolving upon the "Professor of Natural Sciences" are too manifold to admit of his taking the time necessary for good laboratoiy work even if the equipment were provided. In these colleges, it seems to me, systematic zoology offers some superior advantages if wisely taught. One cogent argument in its favor is that it need not demand any great amount of equipment to commence with. The compound microscopes and their adjuncts, which usually require the bulk of the outlay in laboratory equipment, can be dispensed with. Dissecting microscopes, or even good coddingtou lenses with a few inexpensive accessions will suffice for the work. Considerable tield work is indispensable on the part of both instructor and students. But field work is the very best way to learn zoology and is withal the most attractive and physically beneficial. Text books can and should be eschewed as text books, and their place taken by some reliable manual, as Jordan's. The time for going over the whole animal kingdom in a single term has long since passed. It can never result in anything but "going over it" in a very literal sense, without going into it at any point. Almost every teacher who can be said, in any true sense, to be prepared to teach zoology has made a more or less special study of some definite group of animals. That means that he knows a great deal more about some particular kinds of animals than of any others. Now, it is manifestly his wisest course to dwell most upon that which he knows the most about. Let us suppose, for instance, that the "Professor of Natural Science" is an amatuer ornithologist. Birds, then, are obviously the animals whicii he should teach about. He, in all probability, has several of the standard works on ornithology such as Cones' "Key,"Ridgway's "Manual, "and perhaps Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's "History of N. A. Birds." It is likely, too, that he has a more or less extensive cabinet of bird skias. If not he can put his 106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. class to work collecting. Any boy that is old enough to go to college is old enough to handle a gun, and there are natural collectors in almost any class. It may be a survival from savage' life, but a boy who does not like to hunt is a rare and abnormal specimen. The boys will provide specimens, or some resident farmer's lad will gladly scour the woods and secure birds at a few cents each. After the instructor has given a few preliminary lectures on the general character of animals, Vertebrata, Aves, the external parts of birds, he is ready to instruct them on field work, and spend a half Saturday with the class in the woods, each person armed with his field note book and two or three armed with shot guns. Jordan's "Manual" can be used in identi- fication of specimens. But there is a distinct danger in the use of manuals, or rather in a sort of slavish adherence to them. The manual is intended simply as a means of identification usually by purely superficial characters, and its unrestricted use is apt to give undue prominence to these characters in the mind of the student, while other facts of fundamental significance are allowed to pass unnoticed. The manual should be supplemented by some more extensive work of reference such as Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's. Give a specimen to each student, if there are enough to go around, or let several work together on one specimen. It is by no means enough for the student to simply identify the specimen, for he should learn all he can about the habits, distribution, etc., of the species represented, and report all these facts to the class for general discussion and comment by the instructor. Certain specimens will furnish texts for special lectures on such subjects of general interest as protective coloration, migration, secondary sexual char- acters, rudimentary organs, adaptive structures, mimicry, nesting habits, etc. Such talks will seldom fail to secure the attention of the class when brought in in reference to some specimen recently secured and studied. The instructor will often make the unexpected discovery that whole animals and live animals are often fully as interesting to bright boys and girls as animals which have been teezed with the needles or cut up with the micro- tome. Two lectures a week, upon which full notes are taken and copied in per- manent form, two hours devoted to field work, two to preparation of speci- mens, and two to identification and study, will fill up the time in a manner which will give variety to the work, exercise to the body, induce habits of observation and discrimination, and bring the student into direct contact with Nature. What more can we expect to accomplish in the time usually allotted to zoology in our smaller colleges? The best ornithologists that we have became so by this vei-y method of field work, combined with the con- sequent identification and study of specimens and recording of observa- tions. Year after year the cabinet will become more and more complete, and the gaps in the series less and less conspicuous, until the local fauna will be well worked up for publication, when both class and instructor will feel that they have actually contributed something to the sum of human knowledge. The true spirit of the naturalist which has lain dormant in many a boy and girl, will be awakened to life and healthful activity; thanks to the teacher who wisely introduces them to Natui'e at first hand, without the dreary inter- vention of the text book and the disheartening task of learning pollysylla- bic "classifications which have nothing to do with real knowledge." IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 107 Of course, the above is offered simply as a sample of a method of teaching systematic zoology. If the professor is an entomologist, let him make insects the subject of the term's work; if a conchologist. mollusks will yield the best results. If he has never become especiallj' interested in an^^ group of animals he should seriously consider the question as to whether or not he has missed his vocation. OVIPOSITION OF ANOMALON SP. BY C. P. GILLETTE. While passing an apple tree August 18, on which were a brood of Datana vdnistra larva^ about one-third grown, my attention was attracted by the presence of a large Hymenopterous parasite busily ovipositing in their soft bodies and apparently much to their discomfort. The parasite was a large black Anomalon sp. not in my collection, unless, possibly, it is a variety of A. pallitarse Cress. It differs from Cresson's description by having it.s^ middle and hind pairs of legs entirely black and its face and antenniv entirely yellow. This parasite was so intent upon her work that she did not leave when I pulled the limb dovvn close to my face so that I could distinctly watch opera- tions. The entire brood of larvai were apparently alarmed and were strik- ing their heads violently from side to side to frighten away their enemy The parasite stood upon a leaf in easy reach of a number of her victims, watching their movements and as soon as one became quiet enough she would (juickly thrust it with her sharp ovipositor. The manner in which this was done was what especially interested me. I had supposed that these parasites would stand upon or above their victims and thrust down upon them, but such was not her manner. I was reminded of one who fences and with a quick thrust straight in front pierces his combatant. This insect stood upon her two back pairs of legs the front pair not being put to any use. The long abdomen was bent under the thorax and between the legs and the thrusts were made straight in front of the face. As the abdomen was brought forward the short ovipositor pointed straight in front like an index finger. The larvie when pierced did not drop to the ground but threw their heads higher in the air and ejected a dark colored liquid. So far as I saw, but one egg was deposited in each larva. 108 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A NEW CECIDOMID INFESTING BOX-ELDER [Negundo aceroides.) BY C. P. GILLETTE. Cecidomyia negundinis, n. sp. Galls. — The galls are produced from terminal buds on all parts of the tree, and each is made up of a number of transformed leaves and petioles, arranged in pairs opposite each other, in which the two leaves are opposite. They are sub-globular in outline and vary from less than one-half of an inch to nearly an inch in diameter. The outer basal portion of the gall is formed by an enormous enlargement of the bases of the petioles of two leaves which unite and form a receptacle like the cup of an acorn, holding the inner por- tions of the gall. In the central part of the gall the leaf blades may be entirely involved or their tips may be expanded. Oall Flies. — Females, dry specimens. Eyeslavge, coal black and coarsely granulated. Antcnncv, one half the length of the insect, 13 jointed, first joint globular, remaining joints cylindrical; second and third joints contracted in the middle; pedicels of joints, short, about one-fourth the length of the joints; all of the joints moderately set with hairs, the longest of which nearly equal the joints in length. Thorax, very dai'k brown, opaque, and naked, except two rows of long gray hairs in longitudinal grooves, running from collar to scutellum, and similar hairs at the sides of the thorax; scutel- lum of the same color as the meso-thoi'ax, and with a few long gray hairs. Beneath the wings it is yellowish. Dorstirn, dark brown; sides of abdomen and venter, light yellow; abdomen sparsely set with gi'ay hairs above and below. Ovipositor, yellowish brown, and in specimens taken while oviposit- ing, it is exserted one and one-half times the length of the insect. Legs, rather pale; tibitv and tarsi infuscate, rather densely set with silvery hairs. Wings, beautifully irridescent, and rather sparsely set with long gray pubes- cence, fringed all the way around; costal and first longitudinal nervures, rather heavy, and united at the apex of the wing as one continuous vein; the little cross vein between the first and second transverse nervures and the outer or upper branch of the fork in thethii'd transverse nervure are almost obsolete and scarcely visible, except in favorable light. Length of dry speci- mens, one and one-half mm.; length of fresh specimens, two mm. The eggs are of a bright orange color, four mm. in length, and much elongated; some are straight, others are variously bent, and all are pointed at one end, and usually with a short pedicel attached. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109 This insect is decidedly an injurious species. Trees upon the college campus that were worst attacked by this fly the past summer, have had not more than one-half their normal amount of foliage. On the 18th of April, last, the writer noticed the flies abundant among the branches of the trees, and the process of egg-laying was carefully watched with a hand lens. The females were so intent upon their duties for the propagation of the species that they were not easily disturbed. They do not pierce the bud scales, but work their long, slender ovipositors far down between the scales, and there deposit a large nest of eggs, sometimes forty or more in a place. By separating the scales these clusters of eggs can be plainly seen with the naked eye. The irritation set up by these eggs and the maggots that hatch from them, aided, perhaps, by a poisonous secretion from the mother insect, causes the abnormal development of the part. The galls and the twigs supporting them all die a few weeks later, when the maggots drop to the ground. These dead galls turn black, and remain upon the trees, giving them an unsightly appearance. EGG-LAYING OF THE APPLE CURCUL[0-(Anthonomus quadrigib- BUS SAY). BY C. P. GILLETTE. I am not aware that anyone has published actual observations on the method of oviposition by this insect. On the 13th of June, 1889, I was for- tunate enough to see a female perform the entire operation which was £s follows: First a cavity was eaten in the apple as deep as the beak was long, the bottom being much enlarged and sub-triangular in outline. The walls of the cavity converged to the opening which was only large enough to admit the slender beak. When first noticed the beetle had but just begun her work and it was thirty minutes before she had the egg cavity completed. The beetle, almost immediately after withdi-awing her beak turned about and applied the tip of her abdomen to the small opening. After remaining in this position for about five minutes she walked away without turning about to inspect the work she had so neatly done. I at once plucked the apple and examined closely the identical spot where the beetle had been at work and was surprised to find that there was no punc- ture to be seen, but a minute brown speck insteail which would not arouse a suspicion of what had been done. The beetle had smoothly plugged the little opening wiHi what appeared to be a bit of pomace, probably excrement, and she had done the job so nicely that no one would suspect that the little speck marked the place of oviposition unless he had seen such marks before and had learned what they signify. With a sharp knife a section was made through the egg-chamber, with the egg at the bottom. 110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Although at tirst it is almost impossible to distinguish stung fruit from external appearances, it becomes very easy after a few days when the apples become gnarly and ill-shapen. THE GALL-PRODUCING (;YNIPID^E OF IOWA. BY C. P. GILLETTE. The Cynipidaj form one of the most interesting, but one of the least studied families of the Hvmenoptera. It is the object of this paper to encourage the collection and study of the gall-pi-oducing Cynipida3 of the State. The species here mentioned have, with one exception (Rhodites mul- tispinosa), been taken by the writer in the past two years in the vicinity of Ames, Iowa. There can be no doubt but what two or three times as many species occur in the State. The writer will be glad to receive for study or determination any species that may be sent to him. I give with each species mentioned a reference to the original description, a bi-ief description of the gall and the localities from which the species has been taken, so far as known to me. LIST OF SPECIES. Rhodites multispinosi Gill. Bull. 7, la. Exp. St., p. 284. Entomologica Americana, v. VI., p. 25. The galls are abrupt tumor-like excresences from three-fourths of an inch to over an inch in diameter and densely covei'ed with shai'p spines, growing on new shoots of a species of wild rose. Flies issue early in May. Iowa, Minnesota. Amiihibolips coccinea O. S., Proc. Eut. Soc. Pha., v. I, p. 243. This species produces one of the largest " oak apple " galls that we have. Large galls measure one and three-fourths inches in their greatest diameter, and about a fourth of an inch less in their smallest diameter. Externally there is a thin, smooth, brittle shell; at the center there is an egg-shaped central cell, surrounded by a loose spongy mass, which is easily separated from it; occurring on the leaves of Q. coccinea. Flies emerge about the 20th of June. Michigan, Iowa, D. C. Amphibolips cookii Gill. Rep. Mich. B'rd of Agr., 1887, p. 475. Psyche, Vol. V, p. 220. The galls are globular and juicy when green, much i-esembling the galls of A. inayiis O. S., and measure from three-eighths to live-eighths of an inch in diamete. The galls are composed of a rather thin outer shell, and central cell held in place by stout radiating fibers. The galls are always found IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. HI attached singly to buds of Quercus rubra; they fall to the ground in Sep- teuil)er and October, The tlies emerge the following summer, la., Mich. J)np/iiholips inajiis O. S. Proc. J^ut. Soc. of Pha., Y. I, p. ;i42. Globular tiiin-shelledgall from three-fourths of an inch to an inch in diame- ter with small central cell held in place by delicate radiating fibers. Occuring on leaves of Quercus rubra and Q. coccinea (?) in June. A common species east and west and one of the so-called oak-apples. Amphibolijys sculpta Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. II, p. 324. Produces a globular translucent gall from three to six eights of an inch in diameter, much resembling a large green grape but usually rosy in color. The galls are attached to the underside of the leaves of Quercus rubra and Q. coccinea ['i). Flies appear about July 4. Connecticut, Michigan Iowa. Rather rare in Iowa. Andricus [Sab-gen. Callirhytis) clavula Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. IV, p. 351. The galls are club-shaped enlargements of the ends of the twigs of Quercus alba. Flies emerge in July. Common east and west. A. (Callirhytis) cornigera O. S. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. IV, p. 3r)3. Galls corresponding well with those of this species have been taken by the M-riter in Michigan aud Iowa from twigs of Quercus rubra, but no flies have been reared from them and they may prove to belong to a different species. The gall usually occurs on Q. palustris. It is an abrupt woody enlargement surrounding small limbs and is usually from one to one and a half inches in diameter. From the outer rim of the gall are pushed out numerous seed- like bodies each containing the larva of a gall-fly. Virginia, Michigan, Iowa. A. [Callirhytis) operator, O. S. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. I, p. 257. Galls undoubtedly of this species, but from which the flies had emerged, have been taken by the -writer in Michigan and Iowa from twigs of Q. coccinea. The galls are an inch or more in diameter and appear as a mass of brown ■wool. If the woolly growth is picked in pieces it will be found to have many seed-like bodies attached to the twig. The flies emerge in July. D. C, Iowa, Michigan. The gall occurs in the eastern states on Q. nigra. A. {Callirhytis) punctatus, Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. II, p. 524. The gall is a smooth, hard, woody swelling entirely surrounding a limb of Q. rubra. The galls vary from one to four inches in length and from one to two or more inches in diameter. The flies emerge in May. Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa, Delaware. A. Callirhytis scittdus, Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. Ill, p. 683. The gall is a woody enlargement of the tips of the twigs of Q. rubra and Q. linctoria, sometimes causing the death of the affected part: The flies emerge about July 1. Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa. A. [Callirhytis) seminator, Harr. Treat, on Ins., 2d Ed., p. 432. The gall of this species is a brown woolly mass from one to two inches in diameter and enclosing a large numl)er of seed-like bodies each one of which contains an in.sect. Always occuring on the twigs of Q. alba. Iowa. Michigan, Flordia, Eastern U. S. A. [Callirhytis) tumijica, O. S. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. IV, p. 356. The gall is a hard swelling along the midrib, generally near the petiole of a leaf of Q. tinctoria and Q. rubra. Each gall contains several flies which emerge about June 20. New York, Iowa. 112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Andricus Jiocci, Walsh. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., V. II, p. 482. Galls appear as little bunches of brown wool attached to the underside of the leaves of Q. alba and Q. macrocarjm. Under the woolly growth, attached to the midrib, are several small seed-like bodies about one-half as large as a kernel of wheat. The galls remain attached to the leaf over winter and the flies emerge in the spring. Illinois, Michigan, Iowa. Andricus petiolicola Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. II, p. 325. The galls are hard, semi-globular swellings on the petioles of the leaves of Q. montana, Q. macrocarpa, Q. alba, Q. bicolor and Q. prinus ('?). They vary in size from three-eighths to tive-eighths of an inch in diameter. Flies emerge about June 20. Iowa, Michigan, Connecticut. Atidrictis piger Bsifis. Can. Ent., v. XIII, p. 105. The galls much resemble those of Andricus tumijica. They are irregular swellings along the midrib on the under side of a leaf of Q. coccinea (rubra). Galls collected in the fall of 1888 did not give the flies until the spring of 1889. Mr. Bassett in his description of this species says he obtained the flies in the fall. Connecticut, Iowa. Andricus singularis Bass. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. II, p. 336. Produces globular, thin-shelled galls with the central larval cell held in place by radiating fibers. The galls grow through the blades of the leaves of Q. rubra, projecting more from below than above. Flies emerge about the 10th of July. Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa. Andricus utriculus Bass. Can, Ent., v. XIII, p. 78. Producing small globular galls about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, on the leaves of Q. alba. Very often the galls entirely prevent the develop- ment of the leaf blade. The gall is without a larval cell. Flies emerge about June 10. Connecticut, Iowa. Cyriips dimorphits Ash. MS. Producing red globular galls about one-eighth of an inch in diameter when full grown and occurring in clusters of from twenty to fifty, along the mid- rib and usually on the under side of the leaves. I have taken this gall in Michigan on Q. macrocarpa, Q. 6icoZor and Q. prinus, and it is very common in Iowa on the leaves of Q. macrocarpa. The galls fall from the leaves in September and October, and the flies do not emerge until the following sum- mer. Florida, Michigan, Iowa. Cynips strobilana O. S. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. I, p. 2.54 (gall), III, p. 690 (fly). Producing clusters of galls from one to two inches in diameter, and made up of a large number of wedge-shaped pieces, attached to the tip of a twig of Q. macrocarpa or Q. bicolor. The galls remain attached to the twigs over winter, and the flies emerge the following summer. District of Columbia, Michigan, Iowa. Acraspis erinacei Walsh. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. II, p. 483. The galls are hard, globular or oblong excrescences, .the size of a large pea or bean, attached to the midrib or one of the main veins of the leaves of Q. alba. The surface of the gall is densely covered with little seed-like points, most of which terminate in a vegetable hair. The galls are of a light yel- low or straw color, often tinged with red. The insects issue in October, and are wi IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 113 Acraspis villosus Gill. Rep. Mich. B'rd Agr., 1887, p. 474. Psyche, v. V, p. 218. Galls much resembling those of the preceding species, of a light yellow color, with longer and more dense growth of hairs, always globular and single-celled, attached to the under side of the leaves of Q. macrocarpa. Flies emerge in October. Michigan, Iowa. Acraspis 7iiger GWl. Bull. 7, la. Exp. Sta., p. 282; Ent. Amer., v. VI, p. 23. The galls are perfectly globular in form, from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch iu diameter, and are covered with a short, dense pubescence, which gives them the appearance of felt on their outer surface. Attached to the under side of the leaves of Q. alba and Q. ma«rocarpa. The galls mostly fall before the leaves, and the flies emerge the following summer. Michigan, Iowa. Acraspis macrocarpce, Bass. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, v. XVII, p. 84. The galls are hard, egg-shaped excrescences from two to three-eights of au inch ia length, occurring usually on the under side of the leaves of Q, macrocarpa and always attached to a vein. The black, wingless gall-flies emerge in October. New York, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa. Biorhizajorticornis Walsh. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. II, p. 490. A large number of the galls are usually crowded together about a young, thrifty shoot of Q. alba. They remind one of a large number of puff-balls closely crowded together, or of closely packed figs. The galls are yellowish in color, and each has a larval cell, held in place by radiating fibers. This species is also wingless, the insects emerging in the spring. New York, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa. Biorhiza rubinus. Gill. Rep. Mich. B'rd Agr., 1887, p. 472. Psyche, v. V, p. 215. The galls are small, globular, juicy bodies from two to three inches in diameter, occurring upon the leaves of Q. alba in October. Flies emerge the following summer. Michigan, Iowa. Eolcaspis duricoria Bass. Trans Am. Ent. Soc, v- XVII, p. 64. Producing sub-globular sessile galls surrounding twigs of Q. macrocarpa and Q. bicolor. The galls are from three to four-eighths of an inch in diam- eter, and usually terminate in a small teat-like point. They are of a dense, corky material, and each has a free egg-shaped larval cell at its centei-. The galls are often so crowded together as to be much pressed out of shape. Flies emerge in October. Connecticut, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa. Eolcaspis globulus Fitch. Proc. Ent. Soc. Pha., v. II, p. 328. The galls are globular, of a corky structure, like the preceding, occurring singly on the twigs of Q. alba and Q. montana. Flies emerge in October. Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa. Dryophanta papula Bass. Can. Ent., v. XIII, p. 107. The galls are very hard, irregular swellings upon the upper surface of the leaves of Q. rubra and Q. coccinea. The galls often have many sharp cone- like points. Flies emerge about July 10. Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mich- igan, Iowa. Dryophanta liberce-cellula^ Gill. Bull. 7, la. Exp. St., p. 283; Ent. Amer., V. VI, p. 24. The galls are globular, from two to throe-eighths of an inch in diameter, and grow through the blades of the leaves of Q. rubra and Q. coccinea. The 114: IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. galls much resemble those of Andricus singularis when green, but the outer shell is not so firm, and they collapse upon clryiug. The larval cell is not held in place, but rolls freely about iu the gall. The flies emerge about May 20. Michigan, Iowa. Neuroterus Jloccosus Bass. Can. Ent., v. XIII, p. 111. The galls of this species appear as little brown, woolly patches on the under side of the leaves of Q. macroc.arj)a and Q. bicolor. Hundreds of these often occur upon a single leaf. On the upper surface above each gall is a little raised light colored spot. Ohio, Michigan, Iowa. Neuroterus vesicula Bass. Can. Ent., v. XIII, p. 97. The galls of this species are little thin-shelled vesicles, about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. These galls occur in the buds of Q. alba and Q. mac- rocariia. Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa. Neuroterus nigrum Gill. Rep. Mich. B'rd Agr., 1887, p. 475. Psyche, V, p. 218. The galls appear as little pimples from one-twelfth to one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter, showing equally Avell from either side of the leaf. In the vicinity of Ames, Iowa, this gall is enormously abundant, many trees of Q. macrocarpa having hundreds of the galls upon nearly every leaf. The galls occasionally occur upon the leaves of Q. alba. Flies emerge early in the spring. Michigan, Iowa. Neteroterus Jlavi2)es Gill. Bull. 7, la. Exp. St., p. 281; Ent. Americana, V. VI, p. 21. The gall is a hard, woody swelling on the midrib or one of the main veins of the leaves of Q. viacrocarpa, the leaf becoming wrinkled and deformed as the result. Large galls measure three-fourths of an inch in length by one-fourth of an inch in width. The flies issue early in July. Iowa. Neuroterus vernus Gill. Bull. 7, la. Exp. St., p. 281; Ent. Amer., v. VI, p. 22. The galls occur upon the leaves and stamen catkins of Q. macrocarpa. Upon the leaves they may occur anywhere along the midrib, but are most common at the base of the petiole. They do not pi'oduce a well-defined gall upon the leaves, but only a slight swelling of the part. The leaves, how- ever, become much deformed, and sometimes the development of the leaf is almost entirely prevented. When the catkins are attacked they become much swollen and remain hanging to the tree until the larva; are fully grown. Flies issue early in June. A very abundant species at Ames, Iowa. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hfe, ON SOME CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS FROM JACKSON COUNXr, IOWA— [with exhibition of specimens.] Br HERBERT OSBORN. While on a hasty visit to Jackson county, Iowa, this summer, I was taken, by the kindness of Hon. C. M. Dunbar, to a lime quarry near Monmouth, in the western part of that county, about sixteen miles fromv Maquoketa. I found there in the possession of Mr. Stewart, the owner of the quarry and kiln, some fine specimens ©f Lepidodrou and Calamites, which naturally excited ray curiosity (especially as they were so large as to preclude the idea of their having been brought from a distance as specimens), and led me to make special inquiry as to their occurrence. Mr. Stewai-t stated that they were found on a hillside near his place, and described the formation in which they occurred as compact sandstone, out- cropping near the top of the hills and extending in isolated outcrops as an open segment of a circle for a distance of about three miles. The fossils, which are typical carboniferous forms, are imbedded in a com- pact sandstone. The size of some of the specimens seen, as well as the direct statements of Mr. Stewart, who is well informed on geological subjects, and whose statements may be taken as perfectly reliable, preclude any doubt as to their location. There would be no ground for supposing them erratics and deposited by glacial action, as no carboniferous rocks are known in the direction from which such deposits have come. It seems therefore certain that we have here a limited occurrence of carboniferous strata at a point very distant from the other strata of like age, and indicating a much more extensive area than present strata show. Whether this was actually con- nected with the great carboniferous area, and the intervening portion has been removed by erosion, or whether it represents a small area adjacent to the principal seat of carboniferous deposit, it would be difficult now to con- jecture. It would seem well worth while to make a careful examination of the localiti", and also of all elevated areas intervening between this and the nearest earbonifei'ous outcrops to the south and west. 116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES. ABNORMAL PELAGE IN LEPUS SYLVATlCUS. BY HERBERT OSBORN. The specimen of rabbit exhibited was killed a few miles south of Ames, in the early part of the past winter (1889-1890), and sent to me through Mr. H. P. McLain, of Ames. It is remarkable iu having two extensive patches of very long hair, one running along each side of the back from the ears to the hips, so long as to droop down the sides to the lower line of the body, and also similar long hairs, in tufts, in front of the ears and on the upper part of each leg. The color is about like that of a poodle dog. and the extreme length of the hair gives the whole animal a certain resemblance to that variety of dog. The mounted specimen is preserved in the museum of the Iowa Agricultural College. ON THE ORTHOFTEKOUS FAUNA OF IOWA. BY HERBERT OSBORN, AMES, IOWA. (Presented December 29, 1801.) The Orthoptera are among the most important of the injurious insects of this State, almost all of the species being destructive, and scarcely one that can be considered as of any benefit. A list of the species occurring in the State is therefore of more than scientific interest and becomes important while considering the distribution of the destructive species. The present notes refer almost entirely to the central part of the State, principally in the vicinity of Ames, and there are, doubtless, many other species to be secured by careful collection with special reference to this group in this locality, and still more with collections in the extreme corners of the State. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 117 lu the seventh bieunial report of the Iowa Agricultural College (1877), Prof. C. E. Bessey published a " Preliminary List of the Orthopetera of Iowa," but since tb.at publication a number of otlier species have been col- lected and some of the names included there were from incorrectly deter- miued specimens, so that a I'evision is desiraljle. Almost all of the species noted here are represented by specimens in the collection of the Iowa Agricultural College at Ames, but a few have been included on the authority of Prof. Lawrence Bruner, to whom also, I am indebted for deterjninations of a number of species. Family ForfiCUlid^ (Order Dermapteua of some authors). While differing in many respects from the true Orthoptera the Earwigs have been quite generally associated with them, and it will be in place to mention that we have one rather common species here, coming occasionally to light in summer time. Labia minor is the species referred to, but the species suspected of occur- ring in the State by Prof. Bessey, has not as yet been observed in the State. Family Blattid^ (The Cock-Roaches). Peri2)laneta orientalis L., Oriental Cock-Roach, apparently confined to larger cities. 1 have never seen it in houses in thinly settled localities. The insect mentioned under this name in Prof. Bessey's list must have been the following, which is very common: Platamodes pennsylvanica. Very common indoors and out. Ischnoptera horcalis. Common in woods, especially under loose bark of fallen trees or stumps, Ectobia germanica. I have seen this very ijlentiful in depots in Des Moines, but never in houses away from the city. Family Phasmid^. Diapheromera femorata, Walking Stick, common, but never noticed in numbers sufficient to seriously defoliate trees. It is one of the most gro- tesque of our insects, and with its long slender legs and wingless body always excites the curiosity of observers. Family Acridid^. Tettix granulata Kii'by. Tcttix ornata Say. A quite common species, and with others of the genus to be found in numbers in fall and early spring, on smooth patches of earth on hillsides or in roads. Tettix femoi atus Scudder. Not so common as some of the species. Tettix cucullata Burm. A plentiful species. Acridium americanum Drury. Rare at Ames; has been received from Lee county, and is probably more common in the southern part of the State. Acridium cdutaceum Harr. Rather common. Acridium emarginatum Scudd. Rather abundant at times, and, doubt- less, capable of doiug considerable damage. Pezotcttix scuderii Uhl. Rare at Ames, or at least, but seldom observed. Pezotcttix occidentalis Br. This, and the three species following, included on the authority of Professor Bruner. Pezotcttix gracilis. Pezotcttix ulbus Dodge. Pezotcttix ncbrasccnsis Thos. lis IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Melanoplus spretus Thos. " Rocky Mountain Locust." was in many parts of the State in the years 1875-8, but none, so far as known, for a number of years past. Melanoplus femur-ruhrum De G. Probably our most abundant locust, and one which causes great losses in grass land and clover. Melarioplus bivitattus Say. Sometimes quite common and doing no little damage to clover and other crops. Melanopjlus differentialis Thos. Often abundant and destructive; confined mostly to grasses and cereals, but gathering in autumn on vegetables, aspar- agus, etc. Melanoplus Junius Dodge. Included on authority of Prof. Bruner. Melanopthis luridus. On authority of Prof. Bruner. Melanoplus anguslipennis Dodge. On authority of Prof. Bruner. Melanoplus abditum Dodge. On authority of Prof. Bruner. Brachystola magna " Lubber Hopper." This species occurs in the western part of the State, but appears to reach its eastern limit in Crawford county. Eippiscus lialdemanni Soudd. A rather common species. ^ippiscus phcenicopterus Germ. Occasionally plentiful. nippiscus haUlemanni Scudd. Another common species. Sippiscus pluenieoptei-us Germ. Occasionally plentiful. Dissosteira Carolina Linn. " Dust Hopper." A very common species, easily recognized by its dusty color and the black under wings with yellow border. Trachyrhachnia cincta. Rather rare. Arpliia tenebrosa Scudd. Rare in the central parts of the State, but prob- ably common in the northwest. Arphia conspersa. One specimen collected at Ames. Prof. Bruner informs me it is a Texan species, and its capture here unique. Sphceragamon cequalis Say. A common species. Sph(Rragamon collaris Scudd. Tomonotus sulphureus Fab. Quite common. Tomonotus carinatus Scudd. Sometimes abundant. Encoptolophus sordidus Scudd. Generally common. Tragocejyhala viridijasciata DeG. Common. Tragocephala infuscata Harr. Common; very similar to the preceding, except in color; both forms appear quite abundant in early spring. Stenobothris curtipennis Harr. At times rather common. Stenobothris tricarinatus. Not noted as common. Stenobothris cequalis Scudd. Probably the most common of the genus and likely to be destructive in grass where it abounds. Chrysochraon viridis Scudd. Chrysochraon cojisperstwi Harr. Mermiria bivittatus Serv. Usually rare. Mermiria brachyptera Scudd. One immature specimen. Family LocusTiDiK. Orchelimum nigripjes. Orchelimum vulgare. Quite common. Xiphidium fasciatum. Avery abundant species at times, and occurring on grass land and probably feeding in part at least, on gi-asses and clover. Xipjhidium nig rupleurum . IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 119 Xiphidium brevipcnnis. Xiphidmm loyigijicnnis Sciuld. Xiphidium lanceolulu7n. (Jonocephalus cnsiger Havr. Fairly common. Along with other species of these prominent cone-headed species, it is a conspicuous insect during autumn. Conocephalus ncbrascensis Bruner. Conocephalus altenuatus. Conocephalus crtpitans. A single specimen of this large and interesting species is in the collection of the Agricultural College. Scuddcria curvicauda DeG. Usually quite common. Seiidderia furculata. Scudderia J'urcata. Scuddcria pistillata Bruner. Aviblycorypha rotundifolia. Amhlycorypha oblongifolia. Cyrtoiihyllus concavus Say. Not common. Thyreonotus pachymerus. A specimen presented by Mr. H. H. Raymond, was collected at Camp Douglas, Wisconsin, so it seems probable that it occurs in the northeastern part of the State. It has never been collected at Ames. Ceuthophihis maculatus. Apparently not common. Cetctho]ihilus lapidicohis. Not observed as common. The insect recorded under this name by Prof. Bessey proves to be the U. nigra. Ceuthophilus divergens. Rather common. Udeopsylla nigra. Our largest and probably most common Stone Cricket. Udcopsylla robusta. Included on authority of Prof. Bruner. Family Gryllid^. Triductylus apicalis Say. Seldom found in any numbers, but it may be swept from grass or low herbage in low ground and quite likely is more abundant than supposed, as it is so small as to easily escape notice. Xabea bipunclata Fab. Rare, or at least but very seldom taken in the vicinity of Ames. (EcMJithus niveus Serv. Often abundant, but the adults have not been taken so commonly as Jasciatus. (Ucanthus latipennis Riley. Rare. Probably more common in the southern part of the State. fEcanthus angustipennis. Evidently not abundant. But few taken. (Ecanthus Jasciatus. Quite abundant. Seems to be our most common form and is taken in numbei's on wild sunllowers during autumn. Possibly the reason it seems moi'e common is because of its abundance on these plants where it is noticeable and readily captured. Oecanthus yiigricornis Walk. Specimens apparently of this species occur with other forms, but ai'e perhaps simply very dark forms of fasciatus. Neinobius vittatus Harr. Very common antl doubtless often destructive in meadows. It has been observed as especially abundant on hillsides with south exposure. Gryllus abbreviatus. Very abundant, both indoors and out. Often injurious to clothing and doubtless destroys a considerable amount of vege- tation, especially while in the larval stages. 120 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Oryllotalpa borealis. Oryllotalpa longipennis Scntld. This and the preceding species of Mole Cricket are evidently common at times, but from their habits seldom observed. The former has been sent us as injuring potatoes. CATALOGUE UF THE HEMIPTERA OF IOWA. HERBERT OSBORN, AMES, IOWA. A first notice of the Hemiptera was presented to the Academy in Decem- ber, 1887, and a second in 1889. The third installment was presented September, 1890, and comprised sixty-seven species. The previous lists, not having been published, it will make the catalogue of much greater value to combine them here. This group of insects is an exceedingly important one, containing many very injurious species. While many of the especially destructive forms have had extended notice, no list of the species occurring in the State has hitherto appeared. Even now it is impossible to present anything like a full list since many species have been collected that are yet undetermined, and some of them ax-e certainly undescribed. Moreover, from the numerous species constantly added to collections and the species known to occur in adjacent territory we may be sure that many species still await the collector. It is believed, however, that the publication of the list at the present time will greatly assist in increasing our knowledge of the group and enable us more rapidly to complete a catalogue that shall be fairly com- plete. It has been considered best to include only those species actually seen or recorded by some competent authority. Many species could be included as probably occurring here, but to include them would make the list of small value as indicating geographical distribution. Sub Order Heteroptera. family scutellierid^. Eomcermis proteus Lhl. Sometimes rather common, but apparently somewhat local in distribution. Eurygaster alternatus Say. Not common. FAMILY CORIMEL. Protenor belfragei Hagl. FAMILY BERYTIDiE. Jalysus spinosus Say. Not common, or but seldom seen. Corizus hyalinus Fab. Corizus nigristernum Sign. Common, often swept from low herbage. Leptocorisa trivittatus Say. Common in the west part of the State, sometimes destructive to Box Elder trees. FAMILY LYG.KID.E. Nysius angustatus Uhl. False Chinch Bug. Very abundant at times; resembles chinch bug in size and form, but is of a light gray color, feeds maioly on purslane, amaranths, etc., but may injure potatoes and other crops. Orsillacis prodtictaVhl.t One specimen. Ichnorhynclms didymus Zett. Not common; appears to be more ^enti- ful westward. Cymus angustatus Stal. Common. Cymodema tabida Spin. Isclmodemus falicus- Say. Common. Blissus leuco2yter7is Say. " Chinch bug." Very abundant at times. Geoeoris limbatus Stal. Qeocoris bullatus Say. Common; affects sugar beets. (Edancala dorsalis Say. Not common. Ligyrocoris sylvestris Linn. Common. Ligyrocoris constrictus Say. Several specimens from Des Moines.. Myodochn serripes Oliv. Rather rare. Pamera basalis Dallas. Common. Pamera bilobata Say. Rare. Cnemodus mavortius Say. Trapezonotus nebulosiis Fall. Common. Erablethis arenarius Linn. Not rare. Rhyparochromus minutus Uhl. (MSS.) Eremocoris fertis Say. Not common. Microtorna carbonaria Rossi. Not rare; Ames, Iowa City, Des Moines. Peliopelta abbreviata. Uhl. Common. Melanocoryphus bicrucis Say. Rare at Ames. Lygceus redivatus Say. Common. Lygmus turcicus Fab. Common. Oncopelttis fasciatus Dallas. Not common. FAMILY CAPSID^, Megaloccrcea dcbilis Uhl. Abundanr. Megaloccrcea rubicunda Uhl. Miris affinis Rent. Common. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123 Leptotcr7ia amcena Uhl. Common. Trachelomiris oculatus Rent. Not abundant. Lopidea conjiuens Say. Phytocoris tibialis Reut. Ames. Neurocolpus niibilus Say. Fairfax. Not common. Compsocerocoris annulicornis Reut. Fairfax. Rhodes. Calocuris rapidus Say. Very abundant; affects clover. Oncognathus binotahis Fab. Ames and Fairfax. Li/gus prute7isis Linn. "Tarnished plant bug." Very abundant and destructive, occurring on a great variety of plants. Lygus plagiatus Uhl. Lygus hirticulus Uhl. Lygus invilns Say. Lygus monachus Uhl. Lygus ushilatus Uhl. Coccobaphes sanguinarius Uhl. Pieciloscyius bnsalis Reut. Pcecilocapsus lineatus Fab. Common. Pcecilocapstis goniphorus Say. Common. Poecilocapsus affinis Reut. Fairfax. Pcecilocapsus marginalis Reut. Rather common. Syslratiotus americanus Reut. Fairfax. Callicapsus histrio Reut. Campttobrochis nebulosus Uhl. Camptobrochis grandis Uhl. Rare. Eccritotarsus elegans Uhl. Not common. Sericopha?ies ocellatus Reut. Hyoliodes vitripennis Say. Not common. Ilnacora stalii Reut. Malacocoris irroratus Say. Halticus braclatics Say. Stiphrosoma stygica Say. Ldolocoris agilis Uhl. Macrocoletis coagulatus Uhl. A species agreeiag with this, or very similar to it, occurs in abundance. Plagiognathus pallipes Uhl. Agalliastes associatus Uhl. Agalliastes Sp. FAMILY ACANTHID.E. Triphlej)s insidiosus Say. Very abundant. Acanthia lectularia Linn. "Bed-bug." Very abundant, locally. Acanthia hirundinis Jenyns. Occurs in swallows' nests. FAMILY TINGITID^. Piesma cinerea Say. Very abundant in 1887, occurring and breeding on Amaranth. Corythuca ciliata Say. Abundant on Sycamore. Corythuca arcuata Say. Common on Oak. Gargaphia tilice Walsh. Common on Basswood. Physatochila plexa Say. Fairfax. Tingis clavata Stal. Fairfax. 124 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. FAMILY AKADID^E. Aradiis robustus Uhl. Abundaut in 1886, locally. Aradus similis Say.V Aradus acukis Say. Aradus amcricanus H. Schf. Common. Aradus rectus Say.? Phymata wolfii Stal. FAMILY PHYMATID^. FAMILY NABID^. Nabis fiisca ^tQxn. Not common. CorisGus suhcoleoj)tratus Kirby. Common. Coi-iscus ferns Linn. A very abundant species. Occurs in grass and IDreys upon a variety of injurious species. FAMILY REDUVIID^E. Sinea diadema Fab. Common. Acholla muUispinosa DeG. Common. Fitchia nigrovittata Stal. Not abundant. Milyas cinctus Fab. Common. Bijilodus luridus Stal. Not common. Melanolestes picipes H. Schf. Common. Melanolestes abdoniinalis H. Schf. Not common. Pygolampis pectoralis Say. Rare. Emesa sp. One specimen larva from Iowa City. FAMILY HYDROBATID.E. EygrotrecJius remigis Say. Common. Eygrotrechus sp. One specimen. Limnotrechus marginatus Say. Common. Stejjfiania picta H. Schf. Metrobates hesperius Uhl. One specimen. FAMILY VELIID.E. Mesovelia bisignata Uhl. Once found quite plenty. Hebrics pusillus Burm. FAMILY SALDID.E. Salda coriacea Uhl. One specimen. Salda interstitialis Say. Common. Salda humilis Say. FAMILY BELOSTOMATID^. Zaitha Jiuminea Say. Abundaut. Belostoma americanum Leidy. Vei'y common. Benacus griseus Say. Easily confounded with americayium FAMILY NEPID^. Nepa apiculata Uhl. Not common. iJareaira/jisca Pal. Beau V. Common. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125 FAMILY NOTONKCTIl)^ Notonccla nndnlnta Say. Common. Anisops phdycyicmis Fieb. Plea striola Fieb. FAMILY COKISID^. Corisa alternaia Say. Common. Corisa Earrisii Uhl. SuH Order Homoptera. Diedrocephala moUipes. Say. A very common species everywhere. Diedrocephala noi^eboracensis Fitch. Quite common but more frequent near thickets or in rather rank herbapje. Diedrocephala coccinea Forst. Not an al)undant species, the form dis- tinguished as quadriviltatus by Say. is a quite well marked varietj' and apparently quite constant. Tettigonia hieroglyphica Say. A very common form and quite variable presenting extremes of light green and also almost black in color. Tettigonia bifida Say. But rarely taken. Proconia costalis Fab. Received from Carpenter, Iowa. Not found in the central part of the state. Dorycephalus Sj). An interesting species collected at Ames by Prof. Gillette. Parabolocratus viridis Uhler, Not very common. Eelochara communis Occurs in the state but appears to be very much less common than in some parts of the country. Gypona octolineata Say. A common species represented by varieties which doubtless include the forms described as flavilineata and scarlatijia by Fitch, all of which seem to connect by intergrading forms with the typical octolineata. Oypojia colon Fitch. Rare. A well marked form. Penthimia americana Fitch. Acocephalus sp. An undetermined, probably underscribed, species occurs quite commonly on low herbage. Scaphoideus immistus Say. Rather common. Typhlocyba vitis HaiTis. The common and abundant Leaf Hopper affecting the grape. Typhlocyba vitifex Fitch. Common. Typhlocyba comes Say. TyjMocyba basil laris Say. Typhlocyba tricincta Fitch. Typhlocyba oblir/tia Say. Typhlocyba-vnlnerata Fitch. Typhlocyba trijasciata Say. Empoa albipicta Forbes. Empoa Jabic Harr. A species very abundant on beans must belong to this species though no full description is at hand by which to reach a posi- tive conclusion. 126 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Empoa rosre Harr. Doubtless common but as in i^receding species availa- ble descriptions are meager. Empoasca mali LeB. Common. Em2)oasca obtusa (— ?). Fairly common. Deltocephahis inmiicus Say. A most abundant and injurious species affect- ing grasses. Deltocephahis debilis Uhl. Abundant and destructive in grass. Deltocephalus Sayi Fitch. Common but not abundant. Deltocephalus melsheimeri Fitch. Deltocephalus Harrisii Fitch. Deltocephahis retrorsus Uhl. (MS.) Deltocephalus virgulatulus JJhl. (MS.) Onathodes 2)unctatus Thunb. Conogonus qagates. Platymetopms acutus Say. This odd form is often to be found in consid- erable numbers. Platymeiopius frontalis VanD. Rare. Grypotes tmicotor Fitch. Common. Athysamis curtisii Fitch. Taken in small numbers at Ames and Fairfax. Athysanus striola Fall. Not common. Athysamis obsolettis Kirsch. Cicadula exitiosa Uhl. Common. Cicadula 4-lineata Forbes. Cicadula 6-notata Fall. Phlepsius irroratus Say. A very common species here as well as through- out most of the United States and Mexico. Phlepsiiis Julvidorsum Fitch. Phlepsius sjmtulattis Van D. Not common. PhlejJsius nebulostis Van D. One specimen quite certainly collected in Iowa. Eutettixjticundus Uhl. Rare. Specimens from Ames and Des Moines. Paramesus sp. An interesting species undescribed. Thamnotettix clitellarius Say. Rather common. ThaniJiotettix seminudus Say. Common. Thavi7iotettix melanog aster Frov. Common. Thamnotettix kennicottii Uhl. Coelidia olitaria Say. Common. Cmlidia suhbifasciata Say. Quite common. Idioceriis maculipennis Fitch. Idiocerus alternata Fitch. Idiocerus unicolor Fitch. ? Idiocerus j^rovancherty a,xi.Y). (MS. ?) Agallia quadrijmnctata Prov. Common. Agallia sangtiinolenta Prov. Very common, especially in clover. Pediopsis insignis Van D. Pediopsis tristis Van D. Pediopsis viridis Fitch. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES. 127 CERCOriD^. Clastopetera obkisa Say. Common. Claslopetera 2^roteus Fitch. Common. A])h7-ophora quadrangidaris Say. A very common species. Jphrojihora quadrinolata Say. Common at times, but not so constantly present as the preceding. FULGORIDuE. Stcnocranus dorsalis Fitch. Stenocranus s]?. DeJphax Iricarinatus Say. Rather common. Liburnia ornata Stal. Common. Liburnia sp. approaches r;7<«<(/>'o«s. Uhl., but is larger, darker and with longer wings than I have seen in specimens from other localities. Cixuis stigmatus Say. Not abundant. Oliarus sp. An undertermined species; rather rare. Helicoptera nava Say. Not abundant. Ormenis priiinosa Say. Common. Ormcnis septentrionalis Spin. Am quite sure I have seen Iowa specimens of this common species, but have none at hand. Amj)Msccpa biviltata Say. Quite common. Brurhomorp>ha dorsata Fitch. Occasional. Bruchomorjjha ocuJata Newm. Rather rare. Aphelonema simpiJex Uhl. More common than the preceding. Latnenia vulgaris Fitch. Never noted as abundant. Otiocerus signoretti Fitch. Seems to be our most common species of the genus. Otiocerus woJfii Kirby. Otiocerus stolUi Kirby. Sometimes rather common. Otiocerus amyotii Fitch. Otiocerus degeerii Kirby. Not observed as common. Phylloscelis jmllescens Germ . Scolops sulcipes Say. Sometimes rather common. Scolojys angustatus Uhl. Scolops s]). A darker, longer winged form than either of the preceding is somewhat common. CICADID^. Cicada tibicen hinn. The common "Dog Day Harvest Fly." Cicada dorsata Say. One specimen from Poweshiek count}' brought in bj- a student. Cicada rimosa Say. Specimens from Worth county and Tama county. Cicada noveboraccnsis Fitch. Common, smaller than the preceding, and appears to me to be distinct though it has been regarded, by some writers, as a form of that species. Cicada sejietendccim L. The seventeen year Cicada. Remarkable for the great length of its lar^-al life. Two broods occur in the state, one occupying the eastern central portion and the other the south central portion. 128 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. MEMBRACID^. Ophiderma mera Say. Fairly conimou. Ophiderma salamandi'ct Fairm. Keokuk county. Probably will be found wherever black locust occurs. Telamona reclivala Fitch. Telamona monticola Fab. Not common. Telamona ampelopsidis Harr. Not common. Perhaps this is identical with the preceding, but specimens iu my collection show pretty distinct dif- ferences. Telamotia coryli Fitch (?). The single specimen at hand differs very slightly from Fitch's description which, however, is rather too meager for satisfactory determination. Telamona acclhmtaYMch . ? Telamona crata:gi Fitch (var. ?). Differs from Fitch's description and fig- ure in lacking white band on back part of pronotum. Telamona Jagi Fitch (?). The outline of pronotum is a trifle different. Telamona jugata Uhl. Apparently rather common. Telamona fasciata Fitch. Thelia acuminata Linn (?). Thelia bimactilata Fab. Thelia univittata Harr. Thelia Uhleri Stal. Rather common. Archasia galeator Fab. Smilia vittata Am. et Serv. Several specimens from Waverly, Bremer county. Cyrtosia vau Say. Atymia querci Fitch. Rare. Atymia inornata Say. Ceresa diceros Say. Sometimes taken in numbers. Ceresa bubalus Fab. A very common species and often destructive to trees by puncturing the twigs in depositing eggs. Ceresa brevicornis Fitch. Not usually common. Stictoeepiahala inermis Fab. Common. Stictocephala festina Say. Probably same as the preceding but smaller and slightly different in form. Entilia sinuataF a.h. Quite common. Publilia concava Say. Often abounds on Helianthiis and other plants. Enehenopa binotata Say. Common, not abundant. Enchenopa curvata Fab. Common. Lives on clover. Microcenirus caryce Fitch. Rare, or at least seldom seen. PSYLLID^. Livia vernalis Fitch. Psylla quadrilineata Fitch. Psylla ca?7)wi Fitch ('?) Pachypsylla ccltidis-mammcc Riley. Very common on hackberry. Pachypsylla sp. Very abundant on hackberry leaves. IOWA acadp:my of sciences. 129 AVHIDID.K. Siphonojthora rudbeckia' Fitch. A couiinoii species ou Rudbeckia? and a number of other compositiv. Siplionophora ambrosuv Thos. Reported from Sioux City by Dr. Cyrus Thomas, Third Rept. 111. Ins. p. 50. Siphonophora asclepiadis Fitch. A species common on milkweed is quite surely this species. Myzus ceraai Fab, "Very common on cherry. Myzus pcrsicce Abundant on wild plum. Myzus ribi.t Linn. Common on currant, producing curled and highly colored leaves. Drepanoftipimm acerifolice. Thos. Common on Soft maple and a vei'y similar form has been taken on the sycamore. Aphis mnli Fab. Common on apple. Aphis pruniYioch.. [I) I cannot say with certainty that this species has been observed though common plum plant lice would seem to belong here. Aphis pnmifolice Fitch. Common on plum. Aphis rumicis Linn. Ou Wahoo, Pigweed, Shepherds Purse, and is recorded by authors as occuring on a variety of other plants in other states and Avill doubtless be found the same here. Aphis maidis Fitch. Reported to me as occurring on corn. Aphis b7-assicceL\un . Very common on cabbage. Aphis viburni Schr. On Snowball. Aphis carduella Walsh. Common on thistle. Aphis medicaginis Koch. ? Rare ou clover. Aphis cornifolia' Fitch. Common on Cornus. Monellia carydla Fitch. Collected once on hickor}- at Ames. Chaitophorus nexjundinis Thos. Common on box elder. Myzocallis ("?) sp. A species apparently undescribed observed in abund- ance on wild i*ye, Elymus canadensis. Callipierus sp. Collected from clover. CaUipterus {'i) sp. Has been collected by Mr. F. A. Sirrine on Quaking Asp Populus tremnloides. MelanoxanVms salicis Linn. Common on poplar and willow. It'has been determined by Mr. F. A. Sirrine to migrate in fall from willow to poplar to deposit winter eggs, and the second agamic brood in spring to acquire wings and return to willow. Lachnus salicicola Uhl. (?) Abundant on willow. Lachnus dentatus LeBaron. Abundant on willow. Lachnus longistigma Monell. Occurs on European basswood. Schizoneura lanigera Hauss. No specimens of this species have been collected here, but specimens of what is very evidently its work have been sent me from various parts of the State. Schizoneura crata;gi Oest. Very plentiful on Thorn trees. Schizoneura americana Riley. Common on elm, curling the leaves. Schizoneura corni Fab. "V ery common ou Cornus and is considered as identical with the S. panicola of Thomas, which occurs during summer and early autumn on grass roots. . 9 130 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. GlypMna ulmicola Fitch. Quite common on elms, producing tlie "Cocks- comb gall." PempJiigtis tessdata Fitch. Occurs on alder and has been sent to me from the northeastern part of the State. Pemphigus acerifolii Riley. Pemphigus populi-irajisversiis Riley. On cottonwood. Pemphigus pojmlicatdis Fitch. Abundant on cottonwood. Pemphigus vagabundus Walsh. Its galls often to be seen on cottonwood. Pemphigus rhois Fitch. Common on sumac. Pemphigtis sp. On smilax. Chermes pinicorticis Fitch. Sometimes abundant on pines. Phylloxera vastairix Planch. Common on grapes. Phylloxera carym-folia; Fitch. On^^hickory leaves, producing galls. Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam., Aspidiotus nerii Bouche. Common on oleander. Diaspis cacti Comstock. On cactus in green-house. Chionnspis furfur us Fitch. Common on a variety of trees and shrubs. Chionaspis salicis Linn. Very abundant on willow and ash. Chionaspis pinifolii Fitch. This species has been reported, but I have not seen it myself in the State. Mytilasx>is citricola Pack. Frequently seen on oranges and lemons in the market, and doubtless occurs on orange trees where grown in the State. Mytilaspis pjomorum Bouche. Common on apple. DacLylopius adonidum Linn. Common "mealybug" of green-houses. Lecanium hespieriduvi Linn. Common on oleander, etc. • Pulvinaria innumerahilis Rathvon. Common on maple and other trees. Kermes galliformis Riley. Common on oak. Kermcs sp. A species evidently different from the preceding has been collected several times. Orthezia americana Walk. Sub Order PARASITA. « PEDICULID^. Pediculus capitis DeG. A not infrequent insect in some places. Pediculus vestimenti Leach. Not collected in Iowa, but should, doubtless, be recorded. Phthirius inguinalis Leach. Occurs in Iowa as well as other States. Eamatopimis euryternus Nitzsch. The most common suctorial louse of cattle. Ecematopinus viiuli Linn. Less common than the preceding. Infests cattle. Ha;matopinus urius Nitzsch. Common on hogs. Ea'm aioinnus macrocephalus Burm. Occurs on horses; not common. Ecemat02nnus pilifer us Burm. On dogs; not often seen. Eamatox)inus snturaUs Osborn. Very common on the ground squirrels Spermophilus tridecemlinatus and Franklini and also probably on the chip- munk Tamias sti'iatus. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCP:S. 131 Ha:matopinus antennatufs Osborn. Collected from fox squirrel. Hirmatopinus scmropteri Osbora. A very iuteresting species occurring on the Hying squirrel Sciuropterus volucella. Hiiniialopinus hes2)eromi/rHs OsboYu. Occurs on the white-footed or deer mouse Hesperomys lencojms at Ames. Hicmalopinus spinulosus Burm. On the x'at, but not found in any great numbers; it is a very ?mall species. Eivmatopinus acanlhopus Bux'm. Apparently common on our species of Arvicola. Hoimatopiyioides squamosics Osbora. Taken in very small numbers from the pocket gopher Geomys bursarius. INDEX. PACE Officers of the Academy 3 Membership of tlie Academy 5 Constitution 6 Note on Origin and Objects of the Academy 9 Lists of meetings 10 Notes on the Geology of Northwestern Iowa 13 Exhibition of Volcanic Dust from Omaha, Nebraska 16 The Shore Lines of Ancient Glacial Lakes 17 Striation of Rocks by River Ice ly Eastern Extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa 31 Contribution to the Fauna of the Lower Coal Measures of Central Iowa 22 A New Couocardium from the Iowa Devonian 23 Preliminary note ou the Sedentary Habits of Platyceras 24 Evolution of Stophostylus 25 Age of Certain Sandstones near Iowa City 26 Notes on the Red Rock Sandstone 26 Geological Structure and Relations of the Coal Rearing Stata of Cen- tral Iowa 27 Brick and Other Claj's of -Des Moines 29 Aluminum in Iowa 29 Ou a Quartenary Section Eight Miles Southeast of Des Moines Iowa 30 Note ou the Dilierences between AcQrmdaria profunda Hall, and Acer- vtilaria davidsoni Edwards and Haime. 30 Notes on Missouri Minerals 33 Prismatic Sandstone from Missouri '. 36 The Tertiary Silicitied Woods of Eastern Arkansas 37 The Fishes of the Des Moines Basin 43 On an Abnormal Hyoid Bone in the Humau Subject 56 Artesian Wells in Iowa 57 Some Experiments for the Purpose of Determining the Active Principles of Bread Making 64 Aboriginal Rock Mortars 64 Notice of Arrow Points from the Loess in the City of Muscatine 66 The Gas Wells ne-ar Letts, Iowa 6S A New Distilling Flask for Use in the Kjeldalil Process 71 Composite Milk Samples in the Laboratory 73 On a New Astatic Galvanometer with a Single Spiral Needle 75 Woody Plants of Western Wisconsin 76 Forest Vegetation of the Upper Mississippi 80 134 INDEX. PAGE Pha3uological Notes 87 Report of the Committee on State Flora 88 Some Fungous Diseases of Iowa Forage Plants 93 Bacteria of Milk, Cream and Cheese with Exhibition of Cultures 94 Corn Smut 95 Some of the Causes aud Results of Polygamy Among the Piunipedia 96 Systematic Zoology in Colleges , 102 Oviposition of Anomalon sp 107 A New Cicidomid Infesting Box Elder 107 Egg Laying of the Apple Curculio Anthonomus Quadrigibbus 109 The Gall Pi'oducing Cynipidaj of Iowa 110 On some Cai'boniferous Fossils from Jackson County, Iowa 115 Abnormal Pelage in Lepus Sylvaticus 116 The Orthopterous Fauna of Iowa 116 Catalogue of Iowa Hemiptera 120 ERR/^TA. Page 6 after line 7 insert, Meek S. E. Arliansas Unversity, Fayettcville, Arkansas. Page 10. line lU from bottom for Strophnxtyluii read Strophoatylui^. Page 10. line 3 from Ijottom for Lacrosae read LaCrosiic?Hs/o»s.— Perhaps one of the most exclusive proofs of the eruptive nature of some of the Maryland granites is the occurrence in the mass of large numbers of inclusions— fragments of foreign rocks, both sedimentary and eruptive. These have all been described more or less at length in another place, to which reference may be made for fuller details. At Sykesville, where they occur so abundantly, the irregular angular fragments and blocks of all sizes are identical with rocks in the neighborhood. In most of the cases the interior of the foreign pieces are scarcely altered at all, though the exterior forms more or less com- pletely metamorphosed shells of varying thickness. The Woodstock and Dorsey's Run granites show similar phenomena equally well, or even better. In both instances blocks of highly puckered gneiss are very prominent; and they all pos- sess narrow marginal borders of dark, fine-grained, completely changed rock, which contrasts sharply with the light colored, surrounding granite. Certain out- crops near Garrett Park furnish good illustrations of the same kind; though here the granite has been squeezed considerably more than in the other cases mentioned. At this place there is one exposure showing numbers of small lentic- ular masses of a black color, which might easily be taken for inclusions but for their regularly bounded outlines. These are, doubtless, basic secretions which developed in the acid magma. (3) Contact Phenomena. — For reasons elsewhere explained the contacts between the granitic masses and the adjoining rocks are rarely seen to advantage. The investigation of the contact zones have therefore been carried on largely with the inclusions. This has been very satisfactory on account of the variety of foreign rocks represented and the abundance of the fragments. In most of the fragments 26 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. it is only the outside which is changed, to the depth of from two to four centi- meters, or more, the interior still often preserving the rock in its original character, so that no doubt arises concerning its composition and structure previous to its embedding in the granite. The contact zones are in all respects identical with the contact belts of other localities where acid eruptives have pushed up against the same kind of rocks. Chemical analyses of the unaltered inclusions, the metamorphosed shells and the surrounding granites show that the altered shells have an acidity intermediate between the inclusions and the granites. These proofs of eruptive origin of the Maryland granites are quite similar to those -which Barrois* has formulated from granites of Rostrenen. (4) Microscopical Examinations.— ks'ide from the ordinary microscopical char- acters indicative of cooling from fusion, certain of the granites under considera- tion show some additional phenomena pointing to the same end. These are large grains of micropegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and feldspar rounded through magmatic corrosion apparently and having the characteristic embayments so commonly associated with Cases of this kind. STRATA BETWEEN FORD AND WINTERSET, BY J. I>. TILTON, INDIANOLA. [The following article was accompanied by a series of diagrams representing the size, location, and relative position of the various out-crops.] Middle river rises on the eastern slopes of the divide in Adair and Guthrie coun ties. It flows just south of Winterset, in Madison county, then northeasterly to the northeast corner of Warren county, where it takes an easterly direction for four miles and flows into the Des Moines river, about eight miles below the city of Des Moines. Consequently, a line drawn along Middle river from its mouth to Winter- set, a distance of about fifty miles, passes from close to the lower strata of what White calls the "Middle Coal Measures," across the entire series of both the " Middle" and " Upper Coal Measures." In the sections iound along this line we may ascertain the local thickness of the different strata, some facts in regard to the continuity of the different strata and of the different seams of coal, also the posi- tion of the border between the " Middle" and " Upper Coal Measures;" or between the "Lower" and "Upper Coal Measures," following the classification that will probably be accepted. In the diagram! before you the different out-crops are so drawn by a scale as to represent the relative'thickness of each of the strata, their distances apart and loca- tion. These diagrams are so placed side by side as to represent the continuation of the strata. The explanation accompanying each stratum describes the surface appearance at the out-crop, regardless of what the texture of the stratum may be where atmos- pheric agencies have had less chance to work than at the exposure; yet, comparing the out-crops of the same stratum in sections adjacent to each other, we see in various places a change in structure not to be wholly explained by the action of atnios- . *Ann. de la Soc. geol. du.Nord, t. XII, p. 106. 1885. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 27 pheric agencies. The composition of the strata themselves is different. Here are not only numerous places where solid sandstone graduates into shale or into sand, but also places where sandstone graduates into clay, and places where the same strata differ in thickness. If the relation of the strata is correctly represented, six different seams of coal are here represented, all but one cut by erosion and varying in thickness, one, especially, a foot and a half thick thinning completely out in a mile and a half, its place being taken by a foot and ten inches of sandstone. The change in the strata due to the decomposition of the sandstones is readily understood; the surface water percolating through the soil leaches out the iron oxide m the stone thus allowing the stone to crumble to pieces. The change from sandstone to clay in this particular locality seems to be due to differences in the direction and velocity of currents, while the same changes of elevation in the earth's crust that submerged the swamps and raised them aboye the water, also aided in varying the margins of the sand deposits. Close tO'the western boundary of Warren county the river strikes against the hills which are here more precipitous than to the eastward. About three miles southeast of Winterset we find the section represented by the left diagram. The sandstone stratum lowest in this diagram I judge to belong to the "Middle Coal Measures," and to mark the division between the "Middle" and "Upper Coal." This stratum of sandstone you noticed continued in adjoining out-crops. The ledge of marble shale twenty feet in length is clearly a continuation of correspond- ing strata measured by White at Winterset three miles further on. Near the mouth of the river indications of coal are much more abundant than further up the river. The last diagram on the right presents a section found one- fourth mile east of a bridge near Clarkson, though the strata were traced by out- crops along the bluff from this point to Ford, four miles further on. In the side of this bluff are to be found numerous entries near Ford, in one of which at a dis- tance of fifty feet from the face of the blutf, three and one-half feet of pure coal was measured, the out-crop in the face of the bluff being two and a half feet. ANALYSIS OF WATER FOR RAILWAY ENGINES. BY C. O. BATES, CEDAR RAIMDS. The following is one of a hundred analyses made along the Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern Railway. Nearly all the samples are from the State of Iowa. The analysis is supposed to explain itself so far as the results of such an analysis are concerned. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Albert Lea, Minnesota, Well. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Cedar River. 1 When collected. July 5, 1890. July 10, 1890. iFair. 7 12.0U0 600 ft. S. Depot. 2. When analyzed 3. Kind of weather week previous to collecting. . 4. Numljer of trains watering per 24 hours eral Analyses atditferet sea- sons of the This water contains in solution Grains per 28.10 14.28 .24 7.41 .40 .08 1.60 24.01 .80 2.34 3.14 32.49 22.33 28.10 27.15 4.09 3.14 3.43 2.32 Bad. Gallon. 12.49 8. Carbonate of Lime, CaCOg 9. Sulphateof Lime, CaS04 . 10. Carbonate of Magnesia, MgOoa -^ j 11. Sulphate of Magnesia, MgS04 12. Oxides of Iron and Aluminum, FejOa and 1 AI2O3 1.13. Silicia. SiOs 14. Total Incrusting Solids t, j 15. Alkali Chlorides, NaCl and KCl ^ ' J6. Alkali Sulphates, Na2S04 and K2S04 6.56 .29 2.48 1.07 .28 .28 10.96 .64 .28 IT Total Non-Inorusting Solids .95 12.56 1 19. Total Magnesia and Lime Salts 1 7 Total Solids on Evaporation 10.46 12.49 1 20. Total Solids on Analysis 11.92 1.53 22 Alkalies by addition .1)6 23. Pounds of Incrusting Solids per 1,000 gallons. . 24. Comparison with Cedar River as unity 1 25. Comparative rating 1.56 1.00 Good. A— Incrusting Solids. B— Non-lncrusting Solids. C— Additional Information. Good 6 to 12 1 Medium... 11 to 18 I Comparative rating based on Bad 18 to 28 ; total gains of Incrusting Solids. Very bad 28 to 00 J SOME OBSERVATIONS ON HELIX COOPER!. BY F. M. WITTER, MUSCATINE. In "Land and Fresh Water Shells," Part I, by W. G. Binney and T. Bland, 1869, the mollusk to which I invite your attention is called Helix cooperi. In " Manual of American Land Shells," by W. G. Binney, 1885, this little mollusk is honored with the following synonymy: Helix strigosa, Gould; Anguispira stri- gosa, Tryon; Helix cooperi, W. G. Binney; Anguispira cooperi, Tryon; Helix hngdeni, Gobb, Patula strigosa, W. G. Binney; Anguispira hruneri, Ancy. In this work Mr. Binney uses the second name proposed by himself, viz: Patula strigosa. Inasmuch as the regions inhabited by this creature are quite diverse in regard to climate and food, it would seem most likely a considerable variation in size, form and color would necessarily follow. It appears to be at home throughout the Rocky Mountain region in the United States. On July 12th, 1892, I was just starting up the Rabbit Ear mountains, from the southwest corner of North Park. After crossing Colorado creek, a branch of Big (rrizzley, dead Helix cooperi were noticed in the road. A little search soon revealed the living mollusk. Here is plenty of sage brush about two feet high, with here and there clumps of a woody plant about the same height as the sage brush, with a dark green leaf. Bunches of two or three kinds of herbaceous IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29 plants were common. The snails were in these bunches of herbaceous plants. A few I found crawling, but the greater portion were quiet, resting? on the coarse sand or grravel, or on the stems or leaves of the plants in the shade. I could oot determine the nature of their food. They did not seem to be under the sage brush. This, I thought, was due to the absence of herbaceous plants around and under the sage brush. There were four in our party, and we collected a quart in about twenty minutes. On July 20th I was deer hunting in Danforth Hills, on a branch of Spring creek, about twelve miles north of Meeker on the White river, Rio Blanco county, Colorado. During a rain, I happened to observe snails crawling about the damp weeds among the sage and other short brush. These were Helix cooperi. The weeds and brush were so wet I collected but few. Colorado creek in North Park, and the Danforth Hills are on opposite sides of the great divide, about 100 miles apart. There is but little difference to be noted in the shells from these two localities, sep- arated as they are by lofty, snow clad mountains. On my return through North Park I collected a considerable number of Helix cooperi at the same locality on Colorado creek. These I wrapped in paper and brought with me alive. They formed an epiphragm over the aperture, and some of them may still be alive. A few were broken and I was surprised to find some of these almost filled with young snails, containing from 13^^ to2J^ whorls. In looking up the literature of Patula strigosa — Helix cooperi, I find 1 am not the first to observe that it is viviparous. These snails inhabit treeless, almost barren regions. The altitude on Colorado creek is probably near 9,000 feet, and perhaps a thou- sand feet less in the Danforth Hills. I have the pleasure of presenting specimens of these moUusks for inspection by the members of this Academy. ON THE ABSENCE OF FERNS BETWEEN FORT COLLINS AND MEEKER COLORADO. BY F. M. WITTER, MUSCATINE. Partly because of their grace and beauty, and partly because of the small num- ber of species in any given locality and of their singular mode of growth and development, this group of plants has, to me, for many years been of more than common interest. Muscatine county is honored with about twenty-two species of ferns. As a rule these plants seek damp and shaded spots, and it would seem as if some of them will not thrive unless certain conditions of soil, water and exposure are secured. Hence, a rough, rocky region, with springs and more or less swampy ground would, most likely, be rich in individuals and in species of this jnteresting family. It was my good fortune to make a wagon journey from Fort Collins to Meeker, Colorado, from July 6 to August 5, 1892. Our route lay from Fort Collins north- west through a continuation or southerly extf»nsion of the Black Hills to a point on the Union Pacific i-ailroad, twenty miles from Laramie City on Laramie Plains, thence west across Laramie Plains and the Medicine Bow mountains to North 30 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Park, a few miles north of Pinkhampton, thence along the west side of North Park to Rabbit Ear Peak, thence through Babbit Ear Pass over the Park Range to the Bear river, at a point near Steamboat Springs, down the Bear river to Craig on Foitification creek, across Williams' River mountains, and the Danforth Hills to Meeker on the White river. I was on a sight-seeing and collecting tour, and among other things I expected a rich harvest of ferns. From the beginning to the end of the journey, over three hundred miles, entirely across the Rockies, 1 kept a close watch for ferns and orchids. The first ferns observed were along the foot of heavy sandstone and igneous rocks in the hills about fifty miles from Col- lins. These ferns were not in a flourishing condition, were small and scarce. The specimens I collected were lost, but I think they were a Woodsia or Cystopteris. No ferns were seen from this point till in a gulch near the foot of Park Range mountains, within two or three miles of the Bear river. Here the ferns were very abundant and very large. But one species Pteris (aqiiilina ?), was noticed. Many plants were almost my own height. These two, and at the places named, only, make the list of ferns seen on this road across the Great Divide. One orchid, the species not yet determined, was abundant on the summit near Rabbit Ear Peak. Nothing further was observed in this family. There must be some general cause operating to produce such marked absence of ferns along this line of travel. But one such cause suggests itself to me. Could it be the Alpine or sub- Alpine climate? The ferns observed were near the ends of my journey. Woodsia ( V) was apparently struggling for an existence, but Pteris was well favored in a gulch on the south side, at the foot of a lofty mountain range. I have the general impression that ferns, other things being equal, become larger and more abundant in individuals and species as we approach the warmer regions of the globe. I could scarcely be mistaken as to the paucity of ferns as men- tioned above. This may have been noticed long ago and perfectly satisfactory reasons set forth, but mention of any such observations have escaped my atten- tion. NOTICE OF A STONE IMPLEMENT FROM MERCER COUNTY, ILLINOIS, AND ONE FROM LOUISA COUNTY, IOWA. BY P. M. WITTER, MUSCATINE. The Mississippi river separates Mercer county Illinois, from Muscatine county, and Louisa county, Iowa, borders Muscatine county on the south. Both of these counties have yielded many valuable relics of the prehistoric people who once filled and owned these lands. The Davenport Academy of National Sciences has care- fully worked these fields and Muscatine antiquarians have done likewise. But it is not of the numerous, conspicuous, fertile mounds of these regions I wish now to speak. Mr. Jas. Wier, of Muscatine, for the past few years has become a zealous collector of a great variety of curious things. Chief among these are stone imple- ments which have bean made or are supposed to have been made by some prehis- toric or savage race. An implement was brought to him by a farmer in Mercer county, Illinois, which it seems tome bears the internal evidence of being genuine. The stone seems to be a kind of porphyry. It is quite systematically wrought in the shape of a double ax. At the common eye it is 1% inches thick and 1^ inches IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31 wide. It is 4;lj! inches between the extreme convexity of the cutting edges. The cord of the cutting edges is 'if^ inches and from the center of the eye to the angle on the cutting edge is 2J4 inches. The cutting edges are but slightly convex. The sides of each bit are nicely worked, concave next to the eye then convex near the edge. The cutting edge itself on each bit is nearly '\i of an inch thick. -ffm 1 ._..i.': ■te 1 i i^^^^UHHI r i ^H ^^' m ^ Hk ■yk ■ Stone implement, about ^J, actual size. (From Photograph.) I have examined all the literature at my command and fail to find anything satisfactory as to what this instrument is or was intended to be. The point, how- ever, to which I wish to call especial attention is a start made to drill the ej'e. A hole is commenced nearly % of an inch in diameter. This was done in such a manner as to leave a core. Now, what kind of a tool could this primitive man have had to do such work? It seems to me we are limited to the supposition that it was wood or bone. The cutting must then have been done with sand. Would this be the only way to do such work with the means at his command? The implement from Louisa county is of Red Porphyry. It is supposed to be a shuttle. It was found near Grandview, Louisa county, Iowa, and is now owned by Mr. James Weir. I can hardly see how a stone so hard to work should have been chosen when a much softer rock would have done equally well. The following measurements will give some idea of this instrument: The rim of the open side is flat or all in one plane, 2^ inches long and l^l at its greatest 32 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. width, an ellipse; the trough is J^ inch deep, with holes near each end; these were drilled from both sides with a conical instrument. The greatest depth of the implement is 1,^4 inches, somewhat flattened on the convex edge over the holes. Through the kindness of Mr. Weir I am permitted to exhibit these relics to the members of this Academy. SOME REASONS WHY FROGS ARE ABLE TO SURVIVE. BY OILMAN DKEW, OSKALOOSA. The Leopard frog [Rana halecina, Kahn) and allied species occur in con- siderable numbers and have a wide geographical distribution. Being entirely defenseless, beset by enemies at every turn — fish, reptiles, birds and mammals — as well as being cannibals among themselves, subject to many diseases and the hardships of great extremes of temperature, they are, withal, able to maintain their numbers. They are able to survive— first, on account of their activity and mode of life, being equally at home on land and in water ; secondly, they are able to resist great changes in temperature ; thirdly, they can go for many months without food, and fourthly, they are very productive. Disturbed on land, they generally jump into the water, where they find a hiding place and remain motionless unless danger approaches very near. Pursued in water, they either dive among the rocks or into the mud, or in some cases escape to the land. In either case, in localities where they have not often been disturbed, they may easily be approached if all motions are made slowly and carefully, but quick motions will generally cause alarm. A frog can be most thoroughly alarmed, especially one that has lived for some time in a region infested with snakes, by running a stick toward it, causing the grass to rustle. In such a case, if not where it can immediately plunge into the water, it executes a series of frantic leaps with great rapidity, stopping only when at a considerable distance from the place of disturbance. When disturbed in any other way, the same frog will seldom make more than three or four jumps, and these are made with more deliberation. Living, as many frogs do, in a climate where the temperature for some months is below the freezing point of water, and having no covering to pro- tect.themselves against severe cold, they survive this part of the year in a state of hibernation in the bottoms of the rivers and ponds, supposedly buried in the mud or sand. Judging by the time frogs disappear from the banks of streams, they seem to hibei-nate at about six to ten degrees C, and by the time that the first hard freeze comes, they have disappeared, in gen- eral, for the winter. In some cases, they may, during thaws, come out before the general break-up in the spring, but not as a rule. For some time before they finally hibernate, they spend the nights under water, probably in a state resembling hibernation, coming out again during the warmer por- tions of the day. In warm weather, a frog, when disturbed in the water, will generally dive, remaining under water only two or three minutes. When they receive IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 33 a bad scare, they may remaiu below the surface for twenty minutes or more, and in a glass can, where they are able to watch all movements around them, they may stay under water for more than thirty minutes without any move- ments being made intended to scai'e them. How long they can be forced to stay under water without drowning, when not in the hibernating state, was not experimented upon. Caged frogs, left in a moderately warm place, about twenty degrees C, seldom move unless disturbed, but when disturbed are very active. As the temperature is lowered they become less active. At from ten to five degrees C, when confined in a vessel of water a frog will genei'allygo to the bottom, and after scratching around for some time, stop its movements, remaining entirely submerged, and respiring through the skin alone. It may rise to the surface and re.spire several times before finally settling down. At about two or three degrees C, frogs seem to become unea.sy, slowly stretching their legs and attempting to crowd themselves further down. This contin- ues for some time after zero is reached, at which temperature they are quite restless. At any time down to this point activity can be restored by gradual warm- ing, and after torpor has set in, complete activity can be restored only by heat. In this condition of torpoi-, the muscles readily respond to stimuli both electrical and mechanical, showing them to be quite irritable. After repeatedly punching such a frog with a stick, it sh'ows its uneasiness for a number of minutes, stretching its legs, spreading its toes, and even coming to the surface for a few swallows of air. The eyes generally remain closed most or all of the time while in this condition of torpor, but in some cases they are not closed at all, although the frog is not disturbed by quick and direct motions very near them. When the eyes are touched they respond with a wink, commonly remaining closed thereafter. Two frogs were placed in a jar of water which was reduced in tempera- ture to the freezing point seven different times. For the first three times they responded much in the manner described, but the fourth time and thereafter, one of them, after staying down for some time, arose to the sur- face and respired just as the water began to freeze, continuing respiration even while the ice was forming around him. On the seventh cooling both came to the surface in the same manner. These actions, however, may have been accidental. No delicate instruments could be obtained to experi- ment on the difference in temperature of the frogs and the surrounding water, but it was not great, as the thermometer used would show no change when the bulb was placed immediately upon the body of one One frog was placed in a towel whei'e the temperature of the atmosphere was two degrees below zero C. for six hours, and although in a perfect tor- por was capable of slight movement on handling, and on warming regained perfect activity. A frog kept in my room was one night subjected to a fall in temperature that froze the water in which he sat sufficiently to inclose the principal part of the head, all of the legs and the sides in ice. A little water remained, bathing the under surface of the body, and the back, which was above the surface of ihe ice, had a moist appearance. By carefully thawing this frog out he lived and was kept for fully two months afterward, showing that the vitality had not been greatly reduced. On going to the frog cage in the o 34r IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. morning, all of the frogs, thirty-seven in number, were found entirely motionless and surrounded by ice, which, as the water had frozen had evi- dently by the movements of the animals been kept in a mushy condition, in which there was a very little water. This happened a second time, and in neither case was there a single death. Two frogs were placed in a room where the temperature was one-half degree above zero, one wrapped in a towel, the other put in a pasteboard box filled with water, so that most of the expansion due to freezing would be relieved by the bi'eaking of the box rather than exerting the whole strain on the frog. These were left over night. In the morning the thermometer marked sixteen degrees below zero. The one wrapped in a towel was found frozen stiff and the other in a block of ice. Neither of these showed signs of life on being thawed out. Four frogs were left in a cage for a week, during which time the tempera- ture must have fallen at least twentj' degrees below zero. When examined they were still enclosed in ice, and on being thawed out gave no signs of life. Thus far no frogs have been frozen in ice without reducing the tempera- ture much below zero, and under such circumstances it is barely possible that life can be sustained. Last spring, while obtaining sets of developing frog eggs, a bottle con- taining a number undergoing the second cleavage, was placed on the win- dow sill where it remained several houi's. When examined the eggs were found to be completely enclosed in ice, but when shaken they would quiver in the albuminous mass surrounding them, showing that the albumen at least was not frozen. Supposing the eggs were killed, the bottle was left by the register, and when next examined the water was found to be much warmer than my hand. After all this many of the eggs completed their development and gave rise to active, evidently healthy, tadpoles. The amount of heat that adult frogs can stand is considerable, but no appliances were at hand with which to experiment. The moist skin bars them from standing such high temperatures as have been stood by men, but it must be remembered that with men the temperature of the body varies only a few degrees, although the surrounding temperature may vary a great many degrees. With the frog the body varies through nearly as many degrees of temperature as the surroundings in which it is placed. The prolonged vitality possessed by the muscles after destruction of the central nervous system, or even after isolation from the body has led to the use of frogs for some experiments in preference to most other animals. The heart may be beating thirty-six or forty-eight hours after removal from the body, and muscles will sometimes reopen to electric stimuli even after putrefaction has set in. In all cases, in the live frog as a whole, or in the isolated tissues, vitalty is quickly destroyed by a lack of moisture. A frog escaping from a cage to a dry floor will generally die within twelve hours, and a muscle under experiment must be moistened at intervals or it loses its irritability in a very few minutes. The length of time that frogs can live without food has caused many stories, such as finding live frogs in closed cavities in rocks. During the summer frogs eat great quantities of food chiefly insects and worms, and IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35 when winter comes they are in excellent bodily condition. The winter being passed in a state of hibernation the slight wastes are supplied immedi- ately from the tissues, no food being taken. In tropical countries this is said to be reversed, the hot dry summer being passed in a doraiant condi- tion. When kept in captivity they readily eat flies and other insects, but as they will live for a considerable period of time without food, they are com- monly so keijt. It has thus been found that frogs will live three or four months without food and suffer but slight loss of tissue. They have been kept nine months in cages where there was no chance for them to obtain food, and in one instance some were kept fourteen months. In this case a number died, evidently by disease, which could not be resisted in this starved condition. At the end of this time the remaining frogs were greatly emac- iated and apparently could not have lived many more months, but as they were then needed for laboratory purposes the experiment on their powers of endurance came to an end. The productiveness of frogs has to do only with the preservation of the species, and with the great number of the tadpoles and adult frogs destroyed every year, it is necessary, if the species are to be preserved, that a corres- pondingly large number of eggs be produced. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. BY C. C. NUTTING. What tee hare been doing: — In choosing a subject upon which to address you on this occasion, it occurred to me that it raiffht be profitable to present briefly as possible, the work done by the individual members of the Academy, aside from the papers presented before this body. In calling upon the State to publish the proneedings of this Academy we have assumed to be a representative body of the working scientists of Iowa. Such an assumption could be made by any body of men who chose to call themselves scien- tists. It is my purpose in giving a resume of the year's work done by our Fellows, to demonstrate that the real workers are in our ranks, and that our body can sup- port its claims by a creditable showing of achievement. And this we are able to do in spite of the havoc made in our ranks by the removal from our midst of an unpre- cedented number of our best and most active workers. Glancing down the list of Fellows we find that the following workers are no longer among us: R. E. C«/?, charter member, secretary for several years, and prominently active in all our meetings. //. L. Bruner, formerly of Drake Univer- sity. Erasmwi Haworth, called from Penn College to the State University of Kansas, one of the very first and best scientists on our list. J. E. Todd, charter member and at one time president of this Academy; a man beloved and honored by us all. Seth E. Meek, called from Coe College to the Arkansas Industrial Uni- versity, the only Ichthyologist of eminence that we had. All these known to have left the State since our last meeting. We can ill aS"ord to do without them, and it will take not only good, but the best men to replace them. 36 IOWA ACADEMr OF SCIENCES. About two months ago I sent a circular letter to the members of the Academy, requesting information concerning their work during the past year. The response: was quite general and gratifying, although several have not been heard from. This fact will explain the greater part of the discrepancies in the following resume. But one of our mathematicians has been heard from. Prof. L. G. Weld, of the State University, has completed a work in "The Theory of Determinants," which is about to be issued. Competent reviewers have given it the highest praise. The subject is one involving discussion of mathematical principles of the most advanced order. Prof. Weld has also nearly completed a definitive determina- tion of our latitude by means of a combined .zenith and transit instrument fur- nished by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; probable error of result not > Ih of arc. Our chemists have carried on their hazardous occupation without loss of life. Prof. A. A. Bennett, has published Part I of a text-book on Inorganic Chem- istry, and is now working on Part II; the whole work will embrace some seven hundred printed pages. Prof. Floi/d Davis has published a work entitled An Elementartj Hand Book on Potable Water, published by Silon, Burdette &, Co., Boston, and has, in the course of preparation, a work on Water Anah/sis, Chemical, Microscopical and Biological. He has also been working on a basis for Sanitary Analysis of Water. Prof. W. S. Hendrixon has been carrying on investigations in chloe-nitro- iolnicline. He has prepared six of these bodies, including their acid derivations, and determined their constitution. Prof. G. E. Patrick has published conjointly with F. A. Leighton and D. B. Bisbee a series of experiments on "Sweet versus Sour Cream Butter."' He doubtless has published other papers during the year, of which I have obtained nO' list. The ranks of our geologists have been thinned by the removal of Profs. Haivorth and Todd, but the remainder have been working all the harder. Dr. S. Calvin, State Geologist, has published the following papers:^ -'Report on Some Fossils Collected in the Northwest Territories, Canada, by naturalii-ts from the University of Iowa; illustrated, giving a description of Pentamerus dicussntus Whitearos. "Two Unique Spirifers from the Devonian Strata of Iowa;" illus- trated; a description of Spirifera tirbana Calvin, and Spirifera machridii Cal- vin. "A Geological Reconnoissance in Buchanan county, Iowa," in which a rec- tified section of Devonian strata is presented, in which seven strata are represented. "Notes on a Collection of Fossils from the Lower Magnesian Limestone from Northeastern Iowa," in which the following new species are described: Strapnr- ollus claytonensis, Straparollus pristiniformis, Raphistorna multivolvatum, Rap- historna pancivolvatum and Ci/steceras luthii. Dr. Calvin has also published numerous reviews and editorials in the American Geologist,. besides organizing and getting under way the Geological Survey of Iowa. Dr. Charles R. Kei/es has completed and sent to press during the past year his re- port for the Missouri Geological Survey on the Paleontology of Missouri, embracing about 600 royal octavo printed pages and over sixty plates— 600-700 figures, and large colored geological map of the State; also a report for the U. S. Geological Survey on the Granites of Maryland including about 100 pages of text and fifteen full paged plates— some of them colored. For the forthcoming annual report of the iBulletin No. IS, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. 2Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa Vol. II, No. 2. ^ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37 Iowa Geoloprical Survey he has prepared a preliminarj- report on coal, a sketch of the geolo American Geologist, Vol. X. pp. :^80-:i84. •> Engineering and Mining .Journal. Vol. LIV. p. 634. ■^liulletin from the Labratories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa Vol. II. No. 2. STrans. St. Louis Acad, of Scl. Vol. V., No. 3. 38 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. « Vesicle," the first of a series of "Studies on the Development of the Ear of Amblystoma," commenced in the Journal of Morphology, Vol. VII, No. 7. So far as I am aware this is the most important morphological work done by any Iowa zoologist during the year. Reconstructions in wax from serial sections were made, and the whole subject clearly presented in a series of excellent figures. Prof. Nor- ris has also published an account of the " Development of the Ovule in Grundilia squamatay ^ He is at present continuing his studies of the Vertebrate Ear, espe- cially in Batrachia. C. C. Nutting has published a review of the late work on "Coloration of Ani- mals, by Beddard - "What is an Inherited Character?"^ in which an atempt is made to show the impossibility of finding such a character th^ will be accepted by the Neo Darwinians. " Report on Zoological Explorations on the Lower Saskatchewan River.* This report is devoted largely to the collection of birds made by a party from the State University in the summer of 1891. Over one hundred species were collected, and many interesting phases of plumage are described. A specimen of grouse containing the characters of Dendragapiis canadensis and D. Franklinii, and a warbler containing specific characters of GeotJihjpis macgiUivratjii and G. Phil- adelphia, are described. A paper has been prepared for publication on the "Vascular Supply of the- Teeth of the Domestic Cat," and investigations on the poison apparatus and fangs of Heloderma horridiim have been made resulting in the discovery of a beautiful demonstration of the homology oHeeth and scales, the scales containing true dentine. Prof. Herbert Osborn, of the State Agricultural College, has been active as ever. An important work is a paper on Lice Affecting Domestic Animals.^ Illus- trated. Fifteen species of these pestiferous insects are described. An introductory account written in plain English for the people is a commendable feature. The methods for exterminating several of the parasites are also given. Professor Osborn and H. A. Gossard are the joint authors of Rejyorts on Injurious Insects. Prof. Osborn 's most important work this year, from a systematic stand- point, is his "Partial Catalogue of the Animals of lowa."^ The list of mammals is from a previous list by the author and one by F. W. Coding. The list of birds is, as the author says, condensed from one published by Chas. Keyes and Dr. H. S. Williams in 1888. Two species are added by Prof. Osborn,. Lanis africilla, Ia.(?) and Callipepla squamata, reported by Prof. J. E. Todd in 1889. The lists of Reptilia and Batrachia are based on the collections in the Agricul- tural College museum. A list of fishes is added by Prof. S. E. Meek. The lists of Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera are based on the collections of the Agricultural College. In his list of Coileoptera, Prof. Osborn has added 384 species to the list of 871 species published by H. F. Wickham in the Bulletin from the Biological Labora- tories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1888. The following is a partial list of other scientific papers published by Prof. Osborn during the year 1892: Am. Nat., Aug., 1892. Science, 1892. Am. Nat., Dec, 1892. Bulletin from the Biological Laboratories of S. U. I., Vol. Ill, No. 1. 5 From Bulletin No. 16 Iowa Agric. Experiment Station. 6 Published by authority of the Board of Trustees of Iowa Agricultural College. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39 Report of a Trip to Kansas to Investigate Reported Damages by Grasshoppers. Insect Life, Vol. IV. pp. 49-56. The Clover Seed Caterpillar (in connection with H. Gossard). Insect Life, Vol. IV pp. 56-58. An Experiment with Kerosene Emulsions. Insect Life, Vol. IV, pp. 63-64. Origin and Development of the Parasitic Habit in Mallophaga and Pediculidae. Insect Life, Vol. IV. pp. 187-101. Notes on Grass Insects in Washington, D. C. Insect Life, Vol. IV. pp. 197-198. The True Bugs, or lleteropteraof Tennessee. Insect Life, Vol. IV, p. 224. (Review.) Notes on the Life History of Agallla sangulnoelenta, Prov. (Osborn and Gossard.) Canadian Entomolgist, Vol. XXIV, p. 35. (Abstract of same paper in Proe. Acad.) On the Orthopterous Fauna of Iowa. Can. Ent., Vol. XXIV, p. 30. (Abstract from Proc. Acad.) Note on the Species of Acanthla. Can. Ent.. Vol. XXIV, pp. 262-265. Honey Bee, or House Fly. Can. Ent., Vol. XXIV, pp. 270-271. Also newspaper articles on economic subjects. Prof. F. M. Witter has been at work on the fauca of the region around Mus- catine. Prof. B. Shimek, of the State University, has published a paper on ''Pj/rgitlopsis scalnrifonnis,''^ in which the author concludes that P. scalariformis and P. missis- sippiensis are identical and calls them by the former name. A list of 38 species of shells found associated with PyrguJopsis is added. When it is remembered that every one of the men whose work has been referred to in the preceding account is forced to respond to the innumerable calls made upon the college professor or teacher for time and energy, and that all of the work was done in addition to regular work, and papers read before this Academy, tbe showing which I have been able to make has certainly been most creditable. It amounts to a demonstration that a majority of the real scientific workers of Iowa are included in our number, that this Academy is a thoroughly representative body of men. In looking over the list of persons in attendance on the last meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Rochester, N. Y., I find the names of ten lowans; seven of the ten are members of the Iowa Academy of SciVxcfs, and one of the remaining three is the wife of one of our most honored members, leaving only two of the ten not connected with this body. Such facts are surely significant and show that our legislators were right in officially acknowl- edging our Academy as the representative body of Iowa scientific workers. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STATE FAUNA. BY C. C. NUTTING, CHAIRMAN. About two months ago the chairman of this committee sent a circular letter to all the members of the Academy asking for notes that could be used in this report. Up to the time of writing, December 19th, only one member has responded to this request, giving an interesting note concerning one species of animal nevv to the State, and a note concerning the disappearance of the beaver from Big creek, Tama county. Under these circumstances it is impossible to give as full a report as could iBulletin from Laboratories of Nat. Hist. State University of Iowa. 40 IOWA ACADIIMY OF SCIENCES. be desired, as an individual cannot be expected to cover the whole fleld of Zoology. We will attempt, therefore, a i-eport on the Vertebrates alone. During the past year Prof. Osborn has published a "Partial Catalogue of the Animals of Iowa\" which furnishes a convenient basis upon which to build in completing the list. In this report all species not mentioned in Osborn' s catalogue will be regarded as new to the State. MAMMALS. Putorius longicauda, Bonaparte. — New to the State, Two specimens col- lected Id Johnson county and now in the University museum. Mephilis putorius (L.). — New to the State. Reported from North Tama county, and specimen deposited in Agricultural College museum. It has also been reported from Johnson county, but specimens have not been sub- mitted. Canis lupus, L. — Reported as appreciably increasing in numbers in the northern part of the State, especially in Fayette county. Cariacus virginianus, fBodd.)— A specimen of this deer was killed last winter in Johnson county. There is a strong probability, but not a cer- tainty, that the animal had escaped from confinement in another part of the State. Castor fiber, L. Beaver. — A family of beavers is reported by Sirrine as having worked on Big Creek, North Tama county, for eight years past, but not a trace of them could be found last fall. Lepus campestris, Bachman. Prairie Hare. — This species is slowly work- ing its way south. Last year it was reported by Prof. Witter from Musca- tine county, and during the past fall a specimen was killed in Johnson county, and is now in the State University museum. The following species are for the first time reported from Iowa: Sterna hirundo, Linn. Common Tern. Johnson county, Iowa. Speci- men in University museum. Sterna stchegrava, Lepech. Caspian Tern. Johnson county, Iowa. Re- ported by John Williams. Specimen in University museum. PhaJacrocorax diloplms Jloridanus, Aud. Florida Cormorant. Johnson county. Specimen in University museum. Olaucionetta islandica, (Gmelin). Barrow's Golden-eye. Secured by Robt. E. Leach. Independence, Iowa, October 11, 1892. Specimens in University museum. Chen caerulescens, [Linn.).^ Blue Goose. Whiting, Iowa. D.H.Talbot. Specimens in University museum. Philacte canagica, (Sevast.). Emporer Goose. Johnson county, Iowa. Fall of 1887. J. T. Paintin. Plegadis guarauna (Linn.) White-faced Glossy Ibis. Rippey, Iowa, 1891 B. F. Osborn. Specimen in University museum. Mr. Osborn reports there was a flock of thirteen near Rippey, but only one was secured. 1 Published by the a llo-126. Just. Bot Jarhesb. Is82, p. 26!». X-^ * Monatschr. d. Vereins zur Beford. des Gartenbaues der Konlgl. Preuss. Staatens, 24 Jahrgang, 1881, pp. 204-205. Just Bot. Jarhs., 1881, p. 291. 5 First annual report of Wisconsin Agrl. Exp. Station, p 56. 6 Bailey, Bull. No. 31, Agrl. College Mich. 1887, p. 67. 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. from a considerable observation, that even these selected and isolated specimens represent very closely the characteristics of the species." By way of comparison I have added a table showing the appearances of some flowers in Ames, Iowa; Madison, Wisconsin; Lansing, Michigan, and Vienna, Austria. I have had to choose woody species as they were the only ones recorded for Lansing, New York, and Madison. It is to be re- gretted that these comparisons could not be obtained for the localities of the same year. Those of Vienna, however, represent the mean of ten years. Nothing is said about the lateness or earliness of the season in New York or Lansing. The season of 1893 for Ames was somewhat backward, and the spring of 1884 for Madison was normal, I think. In preparing these notes the writer is under obligations to several of the students of the College, but especially to Geo. W. Carver and F. C. Stewart. Many of the notes were made by myself at odd times. The length of branches is given; in some cases the greatest length is recorded, in others the average. A = average; T = terminal; L = lateral branches; Sh = long shoot; F = falling of leaves; O = early appearance of leaves. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. K S, Flowers close between 5 and 6 p. M. Flowers probably earlier. s 1 a 1 II 3 1 "in C If ■a — a ^s a jj S^ c == .-, o •saqoui niiqgiaH •odii spaas t-i : - : : : m H : L- H O a . . O ; ; o : : > ' ' i i i bi : : : ° • • • a : : : ® : : • 1 ; :; •jaqoioo ~ — — •jaqmairias :3 ~-. •IsuSny ~: •^inr : .'^ •s • :2 ■ aunf : * :S : : -"?! : : S •A«i\r moj ''Si : . :SS : .g.o : 00 ^ ....«,. •ludv S : : SSS? : ^ : : gj g^ : :|? : :^ : — ■no.v.n "~7 V c C <— at:£ = a c 3 a i o E < 1 c £ ,c s o a c .5 1 3 > cl a 1? a^ 11 ill a h il il J :a IIJ .2 2 S SSI 111 a a a - 1 1 m U 111 .5.11 Nasturtium armoracia Nasturtium palustre Barbarea vulgaris Erysimum oheiranthoides 6 "is a ■3 S 0 a 3 'Z a IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51 C B 3 3 :8 eS 22 ■< a! B '' y te P- K C •<." d 3 Ed aaa JOOO ills = 5S^ a. c s 01 m C o c c c PS rt rt— - a S3 a I ^"8 c O- • o a 1^- ■< = CO B O 3 ;s « = <" W S o3 3 S 5 £ ■- o ! - 'c "E — . *< ^ J! ° 5 : M V i. >^ •■ bOowo; o S3 3i 3> !JC J5- B- 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. < S In flower a second time, 7-5. Represents the largest growth. 1 "a 1 03 >• s be a In flower. St. Charles, Mo.. 5-19. In fl wer, St. Charles. Mo.. 5-19. In flower, St. Charles, Mo.. 5-19. In flower, St. Charles, Mo., 5-19. Planted April 15. 7-16 Large, fleshy and somewhat sweetish, pods still •saqoni nnqSaiH : : : i r- % :S ■adij spaas • :S : :2 K' : o 03 IS > ■ : : fc 2 ; Ol c c *■ E ?■ 1 ; : ; i i :u3 .'OS M M ; M : •jaqoioo •jaqcaaidas •IsnSnv :::::::': •^I"f '" : : : : : : : Sg :::::: :g5 aunf ^ : : S : :825 : 2 : :==2;g'iS2i'^= : : ■Kv.^ «S • : : : S : : : ; : : ;2S : •n.idv •qouTixv 3 I £ 3 ;. 3 O if Rhamnaceae— Ceanothus ovatus var. pubescens. Ceanolhus americanus Rhamnus frangula Vitaceae— Vltis rinaria +2 > Ampelopsis qulnquefolia Sapindaceae— iEsculus glabra Acer saeoliariniim. I > in o o-»>>oo 5$ S C 0) o S3 d be C fcC" a3 tn: = I-Sli|splife^=lllli=i: i?i:^^r=^i B2 is c -3 c m -* — « 2 !s i£ >o.i? =.P 3 C" ^ ^ ^ , _ - . ^ - «S -U * Ol a) «5 en r/-, tn »; b[ 5C 3 oSaJS5'==^ = = = 3 = 33 = 3 = s = = = = =--^-r: ^^;S^^33r.t.fc.t.t.t-t.t-l.i.3as3s-3:3Ut.- '—3 = 3 :— y^ t. :« 3 3 r:: 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 03 i 1 ID JS 1 00 § to £ i "3 •saqoDi *: ^ : .§ : : :^ ; i • : ^ •adu spagg S :" "^ ; I- : : ; !;i O !> < •agqoioo £h : : : : : : -.— •aaq i.ajrtag . : •jsngnv • -co • • •Ainf : 15 gS-* : : :S : :S : S : m- ~r S ■ : •aiinf •OS :2 : ; : o> • •0-* ■X13W ■ : : i5« : S S ""T— —r- :gS •lijdv : ~~" •qojtJW : ■ i Hi 1 1 a = St 1 ,1 ■a < j: ip Onagraceae— Oenothera biennis Circfea lutetiana FiCOIDEAE— Mollugo verticillata Umbelliferae— • '■£ Hi 111 OOO •■.2 I'D • C '■" : 0 iJ 5a Polytrenla nuttallii Eryngium yucua3folium Tiedemannia rigida Arliaceae— 1 1 o c a 88 la ii (CO ^> O J' III ill! a a a a S5.sa IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55 rt rt rt S 5 s rt s ^ ■^:k%-^ )wer on )wer on )wer on tweron )wer on )wer on )wer on nver on nveron )wer on )wer on iwer on )wer on 5==: = = = =: ■^ ~= ■£ = = a a Wintc Late Earll< Matu Flowe 2 11 2 0 4.S tn^anaoTjSo^TiaDTja'Si-n w • -ireo • -o • ■ -CD : :g : : '.^ : § ; ; : :^ ; : i : . : : : .3?i :?! : • :| : h M a : : : : • bo : 7 ; ; ;^7 ;^ ■ : - 5.5 ':::: ".■•.■. : : ; : • ; ; « •_ ;!:::: :^ : : : : : :§P.- ::-::-:.::§:: '-"^'^ ::;::: .:.::: :22 : 2EJ : : : :S . :i^ :SSS : : :5; : : :S;S :-':.:.•:■ :::::'*: ^ : . . ..r..o .«^, . :S : : : :S :=":::::::::•::• : : : :S :S : : 2 ■ : : :S : : :^ : £5 : :£ : : : -* : -JI^S :::::::: - : :?I :g : : : : :g i m E s: j: --r.-a r> :t = '-'i C ■ : : • : :5 ■ :e3S .g : liifeli- J u u o .-e J 5i— 3 3 1 V 5' 3 ■e- lii ill 1 nJiii . : : : : i : isj ill iiiii :TjI:T.X:TI«« — ' — .:: a a 56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ■< Late flower, October 1. Cleistogamous flowers much earlier. 12-24. Many leaves still hanging to the trees. Leaves falling rapidly on 9-29. •saqoui ui^qSi9H 36 50 sprouts L. 6, sp. 24 oi ] f ■ ^ : •adu spaas g CO i : : : ] : : : : = : : : : : ' : : fc Si •jaqoiOQ •jaqmaidas : g isnsnv :- : : : : : : ■Xinp : : : :~'2 : : :2 : : ■aunf 22 : : . : : 2i: ?, S3S § : SgJ : X^IM : : : §5 : : : : : '^ s •ludv •qojTjpi : CM LOBELIACEAE— Lobelia spicata Lobelia cardinalls Lobelia syphilitica CAMPANULACEAE— Specularia perfoliata Campanula aparinoides Campan ula americana Primulaceae— Steironema lanceolatum Steironema ciliata Eleagnaceae— J. 2 o 3: "I a 3 1 il Ai 1 < < ! C C a < II i-ac a; a. Asclepias syriaca Gentianaceae— Gentiana alba Polemoniaceae— +- n Z 1 c 0^ c a i a o a IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57 CI ?> Ot g-l — I-! g y^ ~ ./ , 3 C =5 H 33 X-- 6 Z e V o c o cHwopa J C O 3 C > > :; > 3 C '•" z O O = ',3^=3 S£^a a rfa>o 3 3S d rffl IS aa c o I (B-S C^ ri 33 33 :« d < C = C C 3 55 CJ o O 0) » -; t. t, t. t. t. , o IV 0) . ill 58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. i < a: s Oi O Si §§ a s 22 n to o •a 1 <1 •saqoni : -Si ■adij spaas H O : : ■ be : • • ■ S ' •jaqoioo ■jaqcaajclas : : : :3 • :3 : •IsnSnv •A'lnf rtTC^'-i : 3 : :S3 : :- ■auii|" SS'~ S 2 : :§?::: : :'-°3 . S?5 : •A-^lVi : : : §g : : : •Iiaclv : •qojTJH : 3 Ed 3 '^ 'Si \ i li Ph Nvctaginaceae-^ OxytiMphus nyctagirieus aiirabilis jalapa Illicebraceae— Anychia canadensis Amarantaceae— ill POLYGONACEAE— Rumex acetosella Rumex altissimus Rumex ciispus Polygonum aviculare Polygonum ramosissimum £ -b 1 m Ml sasc = 3 = : o o 5 c C be t£ bc b ^ >,>>>,& a il la| III "^ o a saa 411 m IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59 0) 0) > > bicti; -co a a o o :« rf ^ 4) (D o SSl i^S 552 Ra c^a I "^ a •/; x ai a — < ~ ^ ? -r. ■/! 'Ji 3 ■- Ti 1. ^ "■ n :i 5||i||p|| .3 OJ 0) 2 *> j'S'SS 3 13 3 3" a. o SoOO'CC'O' ~ 2s ;" 3 o -^jL£:i.£:i,S£-= a 111 Bl m IP ^ a n pi c- c 1 £ C s h 3'i: P i| 1-3 w - il po, but his account is quite inaccurate in some important particulars. Mr. Gentry assumes that they are pollinated by the wind. Insects, especially Ilgmenoptera, are the importantpollinators. Cohoptera, especially Diabrotica vittata, D. longicornis, D. punctata, are frequently found in flowers and incidentally carry the pollen. Some of the Syrphus flies also assist in the pollination of Citrullus vulgaris. Nectar is secreted in considerable quantity especially by the flowers of Cucurbita pcpo and C. maxima. So large was the amount of nectar in some of the covered flowers of C. maxima that a halt spoonful might have been collected. The odor of the flowers of C. maxima is quite pleasant and agreeable. Concerning the sexes, Cucurbita maxima and C. pepo and Cu- cumis sativus are monoecious. In Cucumis melo some varieties have perfect flowers, e, g., they are polygamo-moncecious. Some varieties of Citrullus vulgaris also are polygamo-moniecious. Before 12 m. seems to be the proper time for polli- nation in Cucurbita pepo and C. maxima, while Citrullus vulgaris may be polli nated in the afternoon. 80 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. THE STOMATA AND PALISADE CELLS OP LEAVES. BY F. C. STEWART. The name stomata (sing, stoma) has been applied to the elliptical apertures in the epidermis of leaves and other green parts of plants. The stoma is a modified epidermal cell and consists of a rift and guradian cells (usually two in number). The guardian cells are rightly named for it is their function to regulate the amount of evaporation from the leaf by opening and closing the rift. Unlike ordinary epidermal cells, the guardian cells contain chlorophyll, and for that reason they were once thought to belong to the parenchyma. Goodale^ says, " Stomata belong especially to green organs exposed to the air, but they have been detected on all superficial parts of the plant with the exception of roots." As authority he cites De Bary, who found stomata on the tubers of the potato, on the perianth and anthers of Liliittn hidbifertim and on the pistil and seed coat of the Canna. In the higher plants they occur for the most part on the leaves. In the majority of Monocotyledons- they are found on both sides of the leaf, but in Dicotyledons they are seldom found on the upper surface except in leaves which present both sides to the sun. In some Coniferce^ there are more stomata on the upper than on the under surface. They are entirely absent from the leaves of submerged water-plants, and appear only on the upper surface of floating leaves. In regard to arrangement, there seems to be no general law except in a few orders, viz: in Equisetacece, Conifene and Gramhiece. Since the object of the stomata is to bring the interior of the leaf into communication with the outside they world, are so placed as to communicate directly with the intercellular passages. Their arrangement, therefore, depends upon the internal structure of the leaf. The rift is a narrow ellipse whose major axis is generally the major axis of the stoma as a whole. {Poriitlacca oleracea is an exception.) Outside of the orders above named, the stomata are found scattered irregularly over the surface of the leaf, and with their axes pointing in every conceivable direction. Being together with the lenticels, the aerators of plants, their number and size are thought to bear an important relation to the behavior of plants. In general, the plants of arid regions have few and small stomata, while water plants and plants native to moist climates have numerous and large stomata. This rule has a great many preplexing exceptions, and we are foiced to acknowledge that we 1 Goodale's Physiological Botany, p. 70. 2 Thome's Struct, and Phys. Bet., Eng. Translation, Bennett, p. 61. 3 Gray's Struct. Bot., p. 90. Leaf I. Leaf IL IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81 really have but little exact knowledge of these curious little plant valves. The number of stomata on a square inch of leaf surface is surprising. It varies all the way from a few thousands up to hundreds of thousands. However, all com- putations of stomata are only approximations. The number varies on different portions of the same leaf, and the difference is often great. To get even an approximation it is necessary to take sections from different portions of several leaves and get an average. For an example of this variation take the Duchess- apple. Counts were made on different parts of three leaves with the following: results: f 29 stomata in field of microscope. I 26 -, 20 I -A " f 30 stomata in field of microscope. 1 80 ] 27 " [ 28 Leap III i ^^' stomata in field of microscope. " ^ 38 " " A difference of one stoma in the field makes a difference of over 5000 on a square inch. Thus it is seen that the number in the Oldenburg (Duchess of Olden- burg; varies from about 120,000 to 200,000, while we get as an average 1-50 000- per square inch. From the table below it will be seen that this is about the average number in the varieties of apples examined by me. Prof. Bessey^ found from 150.000 to 200.000 and Mr. Wellman' observed about the same number, while- Lindley" gives but 24,000. To obtain accurate measurements of stomata is even more difficult than to obtain- their number. They are so very small and it is so difficult to get them always- under the same conditions. In this work, also, we must make a large number of measuremt:-nts and take the average. Stomata on the same leaf vary considerably in size and somewhat in shape. While the majority are elliptical in outline, some circular ones will be found. In some species they are rectangular. To show how stomata vary in size in leaves of the same tree we will again take the Oldenburg apple. Stomata were measured on three leaves. The largest, the smallest and intermediate sizes were taken. L. stands for length and W. for width: ilowa Hurt. Report, 18T9, p. 131. 5Iowa Hoit. Report. 187a. p. 117. 6In his Introduction to Botany, p. 145, Lindley gives the number of stomata in thirty- six species of plants, twenty-eight of which were computed by Thomson. 82 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. liEAF I r ) L. .00109 inches. I Stoma 1 [ I ) W. .00094 " I ( L. .00109 " I Stoma 2 ■ I ( W. .00078 " Leap II... { Stoma 3 Stoma 4 Sto mal Stoma 2- Stoma 3- Stoma 4 Stoma A Leap 111.. { Stoma 2- Stoma 3 L. .00109 W. .00086 L. .00125 W. .00078 L. .00156 W. .0C094 L. .00125 W. .00094 L. .00094 W. .00094 L. .00125 W. .00094 L. .00139 . W. .00109 ( L. .00094 I W. .00078 ^ L. .00139 W. .00109 ( L. .00125 " I Stoma 4 -A t ( W. .00109 " The variation inditterent species may be seen in the table. Weiss' gives the length and breadth of the stomata in forty species. The least length in his table is .00047 in., the length of the stomata in Amaranius caudatus ; the least width is .00031 in., in Morns alba; the greatest length is .00279 in., in Lilium bnlhifenim; and the greatest v?idth is .00197 in., in Avena sativa. The average length of the stomata in the forty species is .00126 in., and the average breadth is .00091 in. While studying stomata 1 also made some observations on palisade cells. The number of rows of palisade cells in each species is given in the table. The number varies from one to four, two bemg the most common number. Prof. Bessey^ found from two to four rows in the various varieties of the apple. Except in vertical leaves, palisade tissue is seldom found on the under surface of the leaf. Stomata 7Gooclale's Phys. Bot., p. 171. siowa Hort. Rep't, 1879, p. 132. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. b3 are confined mainly to the under surface and palisade cells to the upper surface. The nature ot the palisade tissue depends largely upon the amount of light the leaf receives during its growth. Frequently the innermost layer of palisade cells will be incomplete, that is, in places it will be absent, or the cells may be but little ditterent from the ordinary parenchyma cells. In the table, incomplete layers are indicated by the sign +. The following table gives the results of some observations made during the past summer. It gives the number of rows of palisade cells, the number of stomata per square inch, and the size of the stomata in the species and varieties named. For tlie species given in the latter part of the table the size of the stomata is not given. I'artly dry and partly alcoholic material was used and in these conditions measure ments of stomata would be unreliable, and hence are omitted: TABLE. STOMATA PER SQ. INCH. Sugar pear (Pyfws communis) Rutabaga {Brassica compestrHs) Portukteca oleracea Salix laurifoUa Primus pennsuli'ctnica Polygonum cuspidatum PontecUria cordata Apple (Canada Baldwin) Pyrus mains. Apple (Peffer No. 1) Pyrus mains Apple (97S) Pyrus mains Nymphcea rcniform is Acer iiigrnm Pynui coronaria Cratcegns tomentosa, van. mollis Apple (Oldenburg) Pyrus mains Sagittaria variabilis Virginia Crab C M (Russian cherry) Prunus cerasus. 12 M (Russian cherry) Prunus cerasus. Silphium la/iiniatum Lactuca scariola Popidus certineimis Populus tfcmuki 9,024 21,150 0 0 0 91,000 0 0 0 458,332 0 0 • 6,768 12,690 8,460 135,000 215,000 62,500 118,332 290,000 123,332 32,500 0 350,000 300,000 L. .00085 W. .00075 .00429 .00285 0 0 L. .00094 W. .00078 0 32,500 0 0 0 45,000 120.000 43,750 150,000 37,500 153,750 160,000 142,.500l 50,000 122,000 109,000 L. .00182 W. .00130 0 Tj. .00102 W. .00172 L. .00101 W. .0il0i)8 L. .00130 W. .00081 JL. I W. JL. 1 W. L. W. (L. 1 W. JL. I W. JL. IW. L. W. JL. |W. (L. I W. JL. .( W. ) r (L. "/ W. JL. ( W. jL. ( W. IL. "/ W. JL. MV. S L. 'I W. I L. ■| W. IL. W. L. W. L. W. .00151 / .00119 f .00119 I .00079 f .00070 I .00092 f .00150 / .00143 f .00107 ( .OOO.'iO f .00381 I .00261 f .00579 ( .00266 f .00125 / .00094 r .00128 I .00086 f .00115 / .00093 )' 0 .00073 r .00100 I .00062 ( .00102 ; .00084 r .00124 I .00095 f .00192 ( .00156 I" .00138 I .00101 f .00127 I .00106 f .00146 I .00098 f .00198 ( .001.56 ( .00101 ( .00078 \ .00114) .00070 r 84 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. TABLE — CONTIKUED. STOSIATA PER SIZE OF STOMATA IN SQ. INCH. INCHES. 6 p\e)Pynis iiHiUis 75 M (Apple) Pynis mains Wythe (Apple) i'//r(/N im,his 413 (Apple) Pi/n'N /(/((/"s 15 M (Apple) Pi/ri/x iiinliis Fluke's wild Ura,l) ^Puriis loensis) .... Talman Sweet (Pyrus nialus) Rawle's Janet {Pyrus malus) Pyi~us toringo 210,000 91,000 315,000 82.500 150,000 55.000 253,500 33,000 90,000 88,0(10 197,000 150,000 167.500 155,000 220.000 170,000 j L. .00088 I W. .00070 J L. .00057 ) I W. .00044 r L. .00102 / W. .00070 f j L. .00119 ) I vv. .00091 r J L. .00177 I I W. .00135 f j L. .00115 / I W. .00075 f 1 0 2+ 0 0 2 0 2 0 9 0 1 + 0 2+ 0 2 2(?) 1 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 3 0 0 3 0 2 e 2 0 A KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE WEED SEEDS FOUND IN C1.0VER SEED.i BY. T C. STEWABT. The identification of weed seeds, though an important matter, is not an easy one. The average person knows Fox-tail, and probably that is about all. Even botanists, who have not given the subject special attention, will be surprised to find how small a number of weed seeds they are able to identify without study. Outside of systematic works' but little has been written on seed characters. What has been written is scattered through Experiment Station Bulletins and Agricultural Reports, and is not in an available form. However, the Germans have done some good work in this line, notably Harz» and Nobbe.* A good key for the identification of American weed seeds would be of great iPart of a thesis on The Impurities of Clover Seed, written for the degree of Bachelor of Science, Iowa Agricultural College. 2 Gray's Manual of the Botany of the Northern U. 3., Chapman's Flora of the South- ern States, Coulter's Rocky Mountain Botany, etc. Landwirtschaftliche Samenkunde, two volumes, Berlin 1885. Paul Parey. Handbuch der Samenkunde, Berlin, Wilgandt, Hempel and Parey, 1876. ' IOWA ACADEMY OF SUIEXCKS. 85' value to our hot.inists and seedsmen. The key of Dr. Hirz is ^ood, Init it is too general in its nature for our purpose. 13 jlow is offered a key designed e£pecially for the uiontification ot weed seeds comunnly found in clover seed. Tnough rude and incomplete, it may be of some service. Fruit not enclosed by a glume and palet; not a caryopsis. I. Acheties, sharply triangular. 1. Black and shiny; sides concave; length, 1". Pohigoniiin acre, H. B. K. 2. Black, but not shiny; usually enveloped by the close fitting calyx; sides not concave; length, \%-2" . Folfjgoiuim convolriiJus, L. 3. Brown and shiny; embryo peripheral. a Not enveloped by calyx; length, 1". i Crispus, L. Till HI ex. . . -\ i AUissimitfi, Wood. b Usually closely enveloped by calyx; length, about }4" . Rumex acetosella, L. 4. Brown or light colored not shining; embryo central. Carex. 5. Reddish black; not shiny; pointed; length, IJ^". Pohjgonum avicnlare, L. II. Achenes or nutlets, slightly triangular. 1. An achene, nearly flat; one angle very obtuse and rounded; somewhat ovate; dull blaok; length, l.^a". ''FoIi/goiiiiDi hgdrojjiper. L. 2. Nutlet; brown; narrowly ovate; length, 1'; one face flat, the other two meeting in an obtuse angle which is bordered on each side by a line of darker brown ; very smooth. Bninella vulgaris, L. III. Achenes, lenticular or ovate and ilatteaed. 1. Usually black; embryo'"' coiled in a ring around the albumen; never more than 1" in length; not pointed at apex; sides convex. a Shiuv black; without utricle. * Orbicular; i-j" bi-oad. Amaranlus albus, L. ** Somewhat ovate; length ^-s". Amarantus retroflexus, L. *** Less shiny; orbicular; f-1" broad. Amarantus blitoides, Watson. b Dull grayish black; orbicular; utricle frequently present; J" broad. Chenopodium album, L. ■'lu the fjencra Polygonum and Rumex many achenes are found from which the pericarp has been removed in tlirushiug. 6uoh are flesh colored and of the same shape as the achenes before mutilation. "The pericarp is often partially removed in Amarantus &niX Clienopodium showing the flesh «olored seed. The coiled embryo can be readily seen with a hand lens. Usually enough of t'ue pericarp remains to identify the genus. 1 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 2. Black aud shiuy, 1" or more broad; abruptly tipped with a short . point. a Gibbons flattened, sometimes slightly triangular; orbicular to slightly ovate; l-lj" broad. Polygo7mm persicaria, L. b Concave on both sides; oi'bicular; li-lf" broad. Polygonum pennsylvanicum, L. IV. Seeds sharply angled in various ways, but not triangular; not achenes. 1. Dull black or brown seeds with one convex face which is more or less rough. Angles not winged except in Verbena hastata. a Nearly uniform in size throughout the entire length of the seed; length, 2i-3 times the thickness; 3-faced, one convex, the other two plane and meeting in a moderately sharp angle; light brown. Verbena. * Convex face prominently 4-ridged longitudinally; upper half transversely wrinkled. / Length, 1-1 i"; plane faces with whitish roughen- ing. V. bracleosa, Michx. // Length, 1-1 V'; little or no whitish roughening on plane faces. V. angusiifolia, Michx. Jff Length, l^-H"; otherwise same as in V. angusii- folia. V. stricta, Vent. ** Not prominently ridged nor wrinkled. f Length, |-1"; angles not winged. V. urtica;folia, L. ff Length, 1"; angles between the convex face aud the plane faces slightly winged. V. hastata, L. b Seeds flattish; angled in various ways; smaller at the ends than in the middle. / Dark brown, nearly black; length, f-lj". Plantago rugelii, Decaisne. jy Light brown; length, i". Planlago major, L. 3. Seeds irregular and winged on the angles, giving them a shriveled appeM-ance; light brown; length, |". (Enothera biennis, L. V. Obconical achenes; longitudinally ribbed; light colored. 1. Ribs beset with tubercles; light brown; length, |". Anthemis cotula, D. C. 2. Not tubercled; truncate at apex; length, f"; lighter colored than last. Anthemis arvensis, L. 3. More slender; stripes of black between the ribs; f" long. Chrysanthemum leucanthenitim, L. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87 VI. Boat shaped seeds, oblonged and hollowed on one face. 1. Shiny brown; about twice as long as broad. Light colored line running lengthwise the convex face; length, ]i". Plantago lanceolala, L. 3. Brown but not shiny; a slight transvei'se depression running across the middle of the convex face; length, 1-U"; the hollow white lined; two white rimmed depressions at the bottom of the hollow. Planlago imtagonica var. aristata, Gray. VII. Seeds globose or nearly ovoid. 1. (Treeuish, oily, naked seed; nearly ovoid; pointed; length, 1". ( artemisicv folia, L. '^"^^^^^^■«ii5si?osef. 21. Chenopodium album (with utricle). 22. Polygonum acre. 24. Rumex acetosella. 25. Ambrosia artemisioefelia (naked). 37. Rumex crisinis. ■28. Anthemis cotula. •29. Verbena bracteosa. 30. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum . NATURAL SIZE DRAWINGS. 31. Setaria viridis. 32. Setaria glauca, 33. Panicum glabrum. 34. Panicum sangtiinale. 35. Panicum crus-galli. 36. Plantago lanceolata. 37. Plantago rtigelii. *S. glauca. S. viridis and P. crus-galli frequently appear naked; P. crus-galli and S. glauca are orbicular, flat on one side, well rounded on the other, and are quite difB- oult to separate. S. viridis is oblong ovoid. All these are light green in color. 10 This rery frequently occurs naked. Then It is light brown, ovoid, Vi" long. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89 31 43 f ^ * « 32 33 34. ,. 3 6- 57 38^ 39 4 9 43 6 t 9 ^•4 4 5. ^6 47' 48 49 50' 5.^ 52 53. ^ 54 55 90 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 38. Amarantus retrojiexus. 39. Amarantus albus. 40. Amarantios bliioides. 41. Chenopodmm album (without utricle). 42. Polygonum persicaria. 43. Polygomim hydropiper. 44. Polygonum aviculare. 45.' Polygonum acre. 46. Polygonum convolvulus. 47. Rumex acetosella. 48. Anthenus coiula. 49. Ambrosia artemisice folia (with utricle). 50. Eumex crispus. 51. Ambrosia artemisicefolia (naked). 52. Verbenia bracteosa. 53. Chrysanthemum leucanthemuvi. 54. Polygonum convolvulus (enlarged three times). 55. Ambrosia artemisice/olia (enlarged, with involucr( PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON A CATTLE DISEASE FREQUENTLY OCCURRING IN IOWA. BY W. B. NILES. This disease is called hydrophobia by the people at large in a majority of cases. By veterinarians it is diagnosed as rabies, cerebro-meningritis, enteritis and im- paction of the third stomach. As regards its distribution, it may be said to occur most frequently north of a line drawn east and west separating the State into halves. In the extreme south- ern part cases are rarely reported. Nature, Symptoms and Course of the Disease. — In some outbreaks the nattle are reported to have been bitten by a dog, but seldom has the owner been able to posi- tively say that such is the case. In a majority of cases no dog is mentioned in connection with them, and no strangely acting dog has been reported in the neigh- borhood. In all outbreaks the disease runs a lingering course in the herd. Several cases occur and the time elapsing between the first and last case extends over several ■weeks; in some outbreaks over five or six months. The symptoms observed in the different outbreaks are very uniform. So uniform that it is easy in most instances to recognize the trouble from descriptions written by the owner of the cattle. At first the animal appears^uneasy. is alert, taking more notice than common of everything taking place about it, is very attentive if a strange man or dog appears, and a slight switching of the tail is often observed. The eyes soon become staring and wild, and eventually reddened. The animal early refuses food and drink, and as a consequence becomes very gaunt in appearance. Early in the course of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91 disease saliva dribbles from the mouth and continues to a greater or less extent until death occurs. Soon after the appearance of the first symptoms the animal begins to bellow or low very much like an animal lost from its fellows. This is continued with intermissions of quiet until the animal dies, and is the most char- acteristic feature of the disease. Some become quite " mad " or furious and chase anything that comes in their way, man as well as beast; many have been reported to me as having chased their attendants, and I have myself been charged at by a steer which at first sight appeared to be inoffensive. At other times the sick animal has a desire to follow one about— to start after and follow other cattle in the herd without any desire to injure them. Within a short time after the first symptoms appear the animal shows weakness in the hind limbs with a tendency to knuckle over at the fetlocks. This is also often seen in the fore extremities, and as the disease advances becomes more marked until in some cases the animal will when trotting along suddenly go down by first going over on the fetlocks and then down on the knees, chest and abdomen. The animal will get up perhaps to repeat the act again shortly. This, I think, is due to a loss of the co-ordination powers more than to weakness. In many cases during the trouble severe straining occurs, as if the animal were trying to pass dry fceces. Nothing except a small quantity of dark fiBces is passed however. Death occurs in from four to eight days, most cases living about one week. The disease is uniformly fatal. I have yet to hear of the first recovery. In some out- breaks about fifty per cent of the cattle become affected. In a majority of cases, however, the loss is not above ten per cent. Post mortem examination shows almost uniformly an absence of what are usually called fatal lesions. The liver, spleen, kidney, heart and intestinal tract are usually normal. In a few cases I have found the folds of the abomasum I'eddened and oedematous, and again the capsule of the kidney has been observed in some cases to detach easily, and on sections of the organ a congested condition of the vessels have been noted, together with several small calculi in the pelvis. The%lood, if at all changed from normal, is lighter in color and clots more quickly. The brain and surrounding membranes show the greatest change. On incising the dura mater there is usually an escape of considerable clear serum. On removal of the dura an intense black color of the pia mater covering a large part of the organ is some- times observed. At other times this dark color is not so marked, and is confined to the anterior portion of the cerebral lobes. A small piece of the membrane placed under the microscope shows the dark color to be due to a great number of minute dark bodies resembling micrococci, situated on the underside of the pia mater. (This black condition I have found in apparently healthy animals slaughtered for focd, but present only to a slight extent.) The vessels of the brain are much congested, ecpccially those of the choroid plexus, and those in the region of the fourth ventricle. This condition is even well marked after the animal has been destroyed by bleeding. A section of the organ shows no apparent change in the brain tissue. What is the disease and what is its cause? Is it rabies, communicated to cattle by the bite of some rabid animal, or is it something very similar to it, contracted in some other way? These are questions not easily answered. It must be ad- mitted that the symptoms are very much like those shown by rabid cattle, yet, when we observe that hydrophobia in man is very rarely met with; that but few rabid dogs are seen; that the disease seems to be a cattle disease, and that it ex- 92 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. tends over such a longr period of time and rarely exists on but one farm in a neigh- borhood, we are loth to accept the diagnosis of rabies. Thinking it was possibly a bacterial disease, I have made quite a thorough bac- teriological study of the trouble. I have made cultures from the liver, spleen, kidneys, blood, brain substance and brain serum. Some of them have been made in the field and others in the laboratory from tissues carefully removed for that purpose. For culture media, agar-agar, nutrient gelatine, blood serum, bouillon and potato have been used. Culture tubes inoculated from the spleen, liver, blood and kidneys often remain sttrile. In some instances organisms have been obtained from these organs, but no one of these has been met with in a majority of the cases examined. From the brain and brain serum, several chromogenic varieties have been isolated, some of which have been obtained from more than one animal. Rabbits and calves have been inoculated with bouillon cultures of those organizing with negative results. An organism not chromogenic has appeared in one or more of the culture tubes from four different outbreaks. It has been obtamed from the brain, spleen and liver. From its frtquency of occurrence it would seem possible that it may have a casual relation to the trouble. Rabbits, calves and one dog have been inoculated subcutaneously and intravenously with bouillon cultures with negative results, and no organism so far observed has proven pathogenic. The organism last referred to is a micrococcus, considerably larger than the most micrococci. In agar-agar stab-culture it develops slightly along the track of the needle and extends slowly over the surface, forming a raised, soft, tenacious mass. At first white, the growth gradually becomes dirty white or cream colored, border- ing on brown. On blood serum the growth does not form a circular confluent mass, but development occurs on the surface in lines extending in different direc- tions from the seat of puncture. It grows better in bouillon than in solid media, and does not produce gas in ordinary media. In bouillon no film forms on the sur- face, but a sediment forms at the bottom of the flask which in time becomes quite abundant. It grows at the ordinary room temperature, but faster in thermostat at about 37°. In agar- agar I have observed in a few instances individual colonies develop along the track of needle, which eventually became very dark colored, almost black. Recently an outbreak of the disease near Greene, Iowa, furnished some material for more experiments, and with the assistance of Drs. Moore and Kilborne from the Bureau of Animal Industry, a yearling heifer was inoculated under the dura mater — a piece of bone having first been removed with a trephine — with an emul- sion of brain matter from an animal which died from the effects of the disease On the nineteenth day after the inoculation the inoculated animal began showing symptoms similar to those described heretofore. Death occurred on the sixth day after the first symptoms were observed. A post mortem examination showed much the same conditions met with in regular outbreaks. Before the death of the animal, saliva was collected and a rabbit inoculuted inside the thigh under the skin. This rabbit died in nine days. Inoculations have been made from both the calf and rabbit brains, and it is hoped we will now be in a position to say whether the disease is rabies or something else, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 93 PELL^A ATROPURPUREA, LINK.. ON SANDSTONE LEDGES IN MUSCATINE COUNTY, IOWA. BY F. KEPPEKT, MUSCATINE, IOWA. There are in Muscatine county two localities where this fern occurs. These stations are sandstone ledges belonging to the carboniferous forma- tion. This seems to be an exceptional and as yet uni'ecorded habitat for this fern. These localities are both along the Mississippi river, the one at Wyoming hills, seven miles, the o.her at Moutpelier, fourteen miles above Muscatine City. The sandstone composing these ledges is soft, more or less shaley, par- ticularly that at Montpelier. That these ledges are natural drainage points is evidenced by the facts that at both are found living springs and a more or less wet condition along neaiiy the full length of their exposure. In places, at the base of each of these ledges, tufa is found in limited quantity. These evidences indicate the presence of lime, which is confirmed by chemical tests, both the water and the stone showing the presence of a considerable per cent of this base. The lime may not be an original constituent of the rock, but a secondary addition, resulting from the lime-charged waters which filtrate into these ledges, supplying the necessary lime and moisture which make these sandstone ledges congenial to this fern. In "Ferns of North America," by D. T. Eaton, it is stated that "this fern was collected by John Clayton about 1736, on the shore of the river Rappahannock, in a shady place by the root of a juniper." It may be worthy of mention that at both of the Muscatine stations for this fern the red cedar ( Junipcrus virginiana, L.) is found on the brinks of the ledges. These are the only known places in the county where the juniper is found native. 94 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. LIST OF IOWA CLOVER INSECTS AND OBSERVATION ON SOME OF THEM. The following list of Iowa clover insects comprises those species enumer- ated by Profs. J. A. Lintner and C. M. Weed as clover feeders which are known to occur in the State with such additions as personal observation or accepted authority will permit. All insects listed occur in the collections of the Iowa Agricultural College, and the notes in connection with any in- dividual insect refer only to its occurrence on clover. A few doubtful determinations were referred to Prof. Herbert Osborn, of Ames, Iowa. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. FAMILY PAPILIOND^. Callidryas eubule, Linn., var. sennw, L. Colias cresonia, Stoll. Common. Colias eurytheme, Bd. Common. Colias philodice, Godt. Plentiful. FAMILY LYO.ENIDiE. Lyctena comyntas, Godt. Common. FAMILY HESPERIDjE. Eudamus pylades, Scudd. FAMILY BOMBYCID.E. Spilosoma isabella, Sm-Abb. Hyphantria cunea, Drury. Hyperchiria io, Fabr. FAMILY NOCTUID^. Agrotis fennica, Tausch. Agrotis annexa, Treitsch. Agrotis saucia, Hlibn. Mamestra trifolii, Esp. Mamestra renigera, Steph. Mamestra picta, Harr. Prodenia commelina?, Guen. Nephelodes violans, Guen. Leucania unipuncta, Haw. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 95 Plusia brassica;, Riley. Heliothis armigera, Hiibn. Very commoa. D)-asteria erechtea, Cram. Very plentiful. Exceptionally injurious the past season, FAMILY GKOMERTID^E. Ha'matopis grataria, Fabr. Plentiful. Aspilates dissimilaria, Hi'ibn. FAIMILY PKALIDiE. Asopia farinalis, Linn. Asopia costalis, Fabr. Reported as very destructive to stacked clover, in some of the southern counties of the State. FAMILY TORTRICID^. Cacoecia rosaca3na, Harr. Dichelia sulphureana, Clem. Common at times. Grapholitha iuterstinctana, Clem. Our most destructive moth. Have seen it damage the clover seed crop more than fifty per cent in some fields. FAMILY TINEID.E. Gelechia roseosuft'usella, Clem. Common. ORDER DIPTERA. FAMILY CECIDOMYID^ Cecidomyia leguminicola, Lint. Our most formidable clover insect. Widely distributed over the State. ORDER COLEOPTERA. FAMILY EROTYLID.E. Languria mozardi, Latr. Not plentiful. FAMILY CHRYSOMELID.E. Colapsis brunnea, Fabr. Diabrotica longicoruis, S.\y. Common. Diabrotica 12-punctata, Oliv. Common. FAMILY TENEBRIONID.-E. Tenebrio inolitor, Fitch. FAMILY MELOID.E. Macrobasis unicolor, Kirby. Plentiful. FAMILY OTIOUHYNCHID.E. Epiciurus imbricatus, Say. FAMILY CURCULIOXID.E. Sitones flavesceus, Marsh. Plentiful and very serious at times. FAMILY CALANDRID.E. Sphenophorus placidus, Say. 96 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ORDER HEMIPTERA. FAMILY CAPSID.^. PiBcilocapsus liaeatus, Fabr. Very plentiful. FAMILY COCCID^E Pulvinaria innumerabilis, Rathvon. FAMILY THRIPID.E. Thrips tritici, Fitch. ORDER ORTHOPTERA. FAMILY ACRIDID.E. Caloptenus femnr-rubrum, De G. Very pleutifnl. Calopteuus bivittatus, Say. Common. Caloptenus differeutialis, Thos. Plentiful. ORDER THYSANURA. FAMILY PODURID.E Smynthurus arvalis, Fitch. Swarms in clover in May and June. Cannot be found in late summer and autumn. Perhaps not very injurious. ORDER ACARINA Bryobia pratensis, Garman. Very plentiful, and doubtless injurious in the spring. Additional list of known and doubtful feeders. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. J^AMILY NOCTUID.E. Plusia precationis. Guen. Adults very abundant in clover in September. Doubtless an injurious insect. FAMILY DELTOIDES. Hypena humuli, Harr. Adults captured in clover in September. Doubtful. FAMILY PYRALID^. Nomophila uoctuella, S-V. Adults very abundant in clover in Septem- ber. Very doubtful. ORDER OOLEOPTERA. FAMILY CHRYSOMELID.E. Diaehus auratus, Fabr. (Authority ot Osborn.) Disonycha triangularis, Say. Swept from clover and very probably feeds upon it. Psylliodes punctulata, Welsh. Plentiful in May. ' Pachybrachys othonus, Say. Taken sweeping. Pachybrachys infaustus, Hald. Taken sweeping. FAMILY MELOID.E. Epicauta pennsylvanica, De G. Not often taken in clover. FAMILY OTIORHYNCHIDJB. Tanymecus confertus, Gyll. One specimen taken. A probable foe. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 97 FAMILY PIIILACUIDyE. Alibrus cousimilis, Marsh. Alibrus nitidus, Welsh. These two species are common on the flowers upon which they doubtless feed, though it is questionable if they do any noticeable injury. ORDER IIEMIPTERA. P'AJtILY COREIU.l^:. Alydus eurinus, Say. Fairly common (authority of Osborn). FAMILY CORKIER. Coriyus hyalinus, Fab. Common. FAMILY CAPSIDyE. Lygus pratensis, Linn. (Recorded by Osborn.) Abundant and injurious. Calacoris rapidus, Say. (Recorded by Osborn.) Plentiful. FAMILY JASSID.E. Agallia sanguinolenta, Prov. Abundant and serious. Tettigonia hieroglyphica, Say. May have been an accidental occurrence. Empoa albipicta, Forbes. The most serious Jassid at Ames last season. Cicadula 4-lineata, Forbes. One specimen taken by sweeping. Phlepsius irroratus, Say. Not common, perhaps not normal. Thamnotettiex melanogaster, Prov. Not plentiful; perhaps not common. Platymetopius acutus, Say. Not uncommon. Chloroteltix viridis. Van Duzee. One specimen taken in sweeping. FAMILY FULGORIDuE. Amphiscepa bivitatta. Say. One specimen taken in sweeping. Probably accidental on clover, and its normal food plant some of the fruil trees. FAMILY MEMBRACID^. Campylenchia curvata, Fabr. (Authority of Osborn.) Larvae collected on clover by Miss Alice M. Beach. FAMILY APHID^. Aphis medicaginis, Koch. (?) (Rare. Authority of Osborn.) Callipterus trifolii, Monell. (Recorded by Monell and for Iowa. Author- ity Osborn.) Siphonophora sp. Extremely abundant and serious the past season. FAMILY THRIPID^. Phloeothrips nigra, Osborn. (Recorded by Osborn.) Very abundant in the heads. ORDER ORTHOPTERA. Tragocephala viridifasciata, Han. So common in spring that it seems worthy of special mention, with the three species listed by Weed. 98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NOTES ON APHIDID^ HERBERT OSBORN AND F. A. SIRRINE. A list of the Aphidid?e of the State as far as collected was published in the pro- ceedings of this Academy for 1890-91 as part of the catalogue of Iowa Hemiptera. It was known at the time to be very incomplete, but it was considered best to include only such species as had been actually observed. As the past season was favorable, especially during aufumn, for collecting in this family, considerable more material has been added. We present, therefore, a supplemental list with notes on habits and references to host plants. Siphonophora erigeronensis Thos. On Erigeron canadensis. (Common "Horse Weed.") This is one of the most common species, occurring on a number of common weeds besides the above, and also on greenhouse plants. Siphonophora sp. Apparently identical with S. Geranii Oestl. On leaves of Ostrya virginica (Hop Hornbeam). Siphonophora tilise Monell. On Tilia americana (Basswood). Siphonophora granaria Kby. On volunteer oats and has been abundant in different parts of the State. Was overlooked in making up the previous list. Siphonophora sp. On Trifolium pratense (Red Clover). Siphonophora sp. On Scrophularia nodosa. Siphonophora sp. On Cicuta maculata (Poison Hemlock). Siphonophora sp. On Polygonum Hartwrightii. Phorodon humuli Schrank, on Hop. Collected on Des Moines river in Boone county, and on Squaw creek in Story county. Phorodon sp. On Monarda punctata (Horse Mint). This species is probably identical with the Phorodon which Mr. T. A. Williams lists without description as Phorodon monardse n. sp. on Monarda fistulosa. Siphocoryne xanthii Oestland. On Xnathium canadense (Cocklebur). This pretty species was quite abundant on the above plant daring the latter part of the summer. Rhopalosiphum nymphaese L. On Nymphfea odorata (Pond Lily). What is apparently the same species occurred also on the Arrow leaf Sagittaria variabilis. Rhopalosiphum rhois Monell. (?) On Rhus glabra (Sumach). Rhopalosiphum serotina3 Oestl. (?) On apple leaves. Aphis maidis fitch. Abundant on corn, Broom corn and Sorghum. Given in previous list but not from this locality. IOWA ACACEMY OF SCIENCES. 93 Aphis nionardi Oestl. On Monarda punctata (Horse Mint). Aphis miniuli Oestl. On Minuilns ringens (Monkey Flower). Aphis helianthi Monell. (?) On Ilelianthus gross-serratus. Taken in Tama county and at Ames. Aphis sp. On Amaratus albus (?) (Tumble Weed). Aphis cardui L. Oa Thistle. Aphis sp. Probably A. Asclepiadis Fitch, on Asclepias cornutum (Milkweed). Perhaps the same as S. asclepiadis of last list Aphis setaria^ Thos. On Panicum crus-galli (Barnyard grass). Aphis eupatorii Oestl. (?; On Eupatorium perfohatum (Boneset). Aphis ageratoides Oestl. On Eupatorium Ageratoides. Aphis sp-. Probably Aphis lonicera Monell. On cultivated Honey suckles. Aphis cenothenc Oestl. On CEneothera biennis (Evening Primrose). Aphis maruta? Oestl. (?) On Crataegus coccinea (Hawthorn). Aphis frondosie Oestl. On Bidens frondosa (Burr Marigold). Aphis euonymi Fab. On Euonymus atropurpurus (Wahoo). Included in prev- ous list under A. rumicis but now considered distinct. It agrees more closely with A. viburni but is given as a distinct species by Buckton. Aphis cratnegifbliiis Fitch. On Crataegus tomentosa (Thorn). Hyalopteras pruni Fab. On Plum and Choke cherry. Hyalopterus arundinis Fab. Pruni Fab. (?) On Phramites communis. At first only the winged form of Hyalopterus pruni was found on the plum, and in no case was the apteious viviparous form found. The blades of Phragmites showed that the Aphids had been there for some time and probably for most of the summer. Pupa; of both the viviparous females and of the males were found in the colonies on Phragmites. There is no difference in structural characters of the winged viviparous forms found on plum and those found on Phragmites. Slight differ- ences may be noted in color evidently due to age. Hence it seemed more than probable that this aphid migrated from the grass to leaves of some of the plum family to deposit the oviparous females; these latter depositing their eggs around the buds. Winged forms were taken from the grass and confined on leaves of plum. These winged forms established colonies of oviparous individuals, and these deposited eggs around the buds. Monelliacaryella Fitch. On Hicoria alba and amara. One specimen listed in previous list, a single specimen from a small colony having been secured a few years ago (1889). The species was rather common this season, a point of interest, since this species was for some thirty years after its description by Fitch unrecog- nized by any other entomologist, but was a few years ago recorded in Minnesota by Mr. Oestlund about the same time our speciman was taken here. Callioterus bellus Walsh. On Quercus coccinea. (?) In markings this resem- bles Monellia. Callipterus asclepiadis Monell. On Asclepias cornutum. Callipterus discolor Monell. On Oak. This and the preceding seem to be iden- tical so far as descriptive characters go even when compared side by side in fresh specimens. It seemed possible that they move from Milkweed to Oak in autumn, but egg-laying broods and eggs were found on both plants. Callipterus sp. On Quercus raacrocarpa, and coccinea. Callipterus sp. Probably the same as Chaitophorus spinosa Oestlund. On Quer- cus macrocarpa. 100 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Callipterus trifolii Monell. Abundant in autumn on Trifolium pratense Red Clover). Mentioned in previous list as Callipterus. On Clover. Monell's descript- ions in Canadian Entomologist had been overlooked. Chaitophorus populifolise Fitch. On Populus monilifera. Chaitopborus populicola Thos. (?) On Populus tremuloides. Aspen. Chaitophorus sp. On Populus tremuloides (Aspen). Chaitopborus nigra Oestl. Oq Sabx nigra. (?) (Willow). Chaitophorus sp. On Salix longifolia. ( ?) Melanoxanthus sp. Apparently undescribed. Occurs at the base of willow bushes, and the secretion covering them is of such a color as to give the bushes the appearance of being covered with the sediment of high water. Usually hidden in rubbish or loose leaves. Only apterous forms have been taken. Cryptosiphum sp. On Artemisia frigida. Probably C. Artemisise Buckton, but only apterous forms taken. Schizoneura lanigera Hauss. Not abundant on Pyrus coronaria. Since previous list was published this species has been taken at Ames on Wild crab. Tetraneura graminis Monell. On Leersia virginica. Tetraneura ulmi L. On Ulmus americana winged forms of Tetraneura gram inis were found flying from Leersia virginica, and at the same time winged speci- mens of Tetraneura ulmi were observed alighting and hiding under rough bark of the elm. where afterward the peculiar males and females of the latter were found as also the single egg of the female. Colopha ulmicola Fitch. Included under Glyphina in previous li?t. Specimens this season were taken on the bark of Cork elm in October. Colopha eragrostidis Middleton. On Eiagrostis Frankii and Purshii. Not compared with the original description. So far as descriptive characters go there is no difference between this species and the one occuring on elm. Pemphigus attenuatus n. sp. On Smilax rotundifolise. They accumulate in colonies extending for a foot or more along the vine and give it the appearance of being two or three times its normal diameter and of a grayish woolly surface, or as if covered with some abnormal growth. The lice hang by their beaks with the end of the body held at right angles to the vine so that the outer surface is quite uniform. Some specimens nearly the same it not identical with the winged forms of Smilax were taken in August, 1889. These were covered with an extremely long white excretion. In flight the dense cottony mass made them appear like large flakes of snow. Description. — Body robust purple black. Head broad. Antannse wide apart nearly as long as body, dusky throughout. Wings narrow, attenuate at tip, veins very slender, legs black, tibiae slightly pale toward apex. Described at time of collecting. Alate viviparous female form: Length of body 1.8 to 2 mm. of antenna, 1.33 to 1.34(10.5; m. II 0.12mm.; Ill 0.22 mm.; IV 0.25 mm.; V0.30mm.; VI includ- ing nail 0.30 mm.) Width of body 0.7 mm.; length of wing, 3.6 to 3.9 mm.; width, 1 mm. Rostrum reaching beyond second pair of caxae. Wings narrow, pointed, from which the name is derived. Third discoidal obsolete at base; the first and second discoidals approximate at point of issue. The same is true of the discoidals of hind wings. Stigma long and narrow ; stigmal vein nearly straight and running nearly to apex of wing, approaching in this respect some species of Lachnus. Cauda and cornicles obsolete. Antenna) not annulate, third joint with IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101 a few enlarged sensoria, remaining joints slightly rough or irregularly rugose. From specimens in balsam. Apterous viviparous form: Length of body 3.50 to 3.90 mm.; width 1.80 to 2mm.; length of anntenna 130 to 140 mm. (.FointlO-lO mm.; 110.15 mm.; 1110.32 mm.; IV 0.25 mm.; V 0.27 mm.; VI 0.30 mm.) Antenna slightly roughened and with a few hairs. Rostrum reaching second pair of coxfc, stout. Body walls and appendages brown, the fluids of the body give a dark olive green background, while the whole surface is covered with a gray flocculent secretion. In balsam the color changes to a purple black. Cauda obsolete Cornicles barely indicated. Apterous males or larvse: Length of body 1 mm width 0.4 to 0.5 mm.; Rost- rum reaching nearly to end of abdomen, stout. Antennae length 0.7 mm.; Only five joints visible. Eyes small, red. LIFE HISTORIES OF JASSID^. BY HERBERT OSBORN. Observations upon the grass feeding species of Jassidce have been directed par- ticularly throughout the season to learning important steps in their life history The first point which we tried to determine was the stage in which the winter is passed. Adults of Deltocephalus inimicus, D. debilis, AgaJlia sanf/uineolenta and many other species bad been taken in sheltered locations last season up to the time when actual winter commenced, and with the opening of spring search was at once begun for them in places where it seemed most likely that they might be found, viz: sunny spots of lawn on the south side of buildings, south slopes of sodded hills in the woods, under debris and weeds, and in such other places as seemed to afford any promise of shelter for them. The only distinctively grass feeders found were Agallia sa>iguitieoleuia and TeUiffonia hieroglijphica, the for- mer in a variety of situations, the latter only in the woods. No specimens what- ever of Deltocephahis, Diediocephala or other conspicuous grass feeding genera were found. Search for adults began March 8th and continued at sbort intervals till larvie appeared all over grass land, and had adults been present they could hardly have escaped notice. This seemed to show pretty certainly tbat the eggs must be deposited in the fall and that the adults perish during winter if not in late autumn. To determine more accurately the place of deposition of the eggs and to secure additional evidence as to whether it was necessary for adults to survive the winter to oviposit, a pen about 6x10 feet was built, enclosing a patch of bluegrass lawn, the sides consisting of tightly fitting boards. The bottom edges were set nto the ground and all cracks and openings carefully stopped; the pen was open, however, at the top to sun and rain. This enclosed patch was carefully exanimed to make sure that no adults were present and both it and the outside territory were examined carefully at very freqent intervals to determine the first appearance 10 i IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. of insects. Larvse from without could not possibly enter, a leap of two feet being far beyond their powers, a few inches being the most that they can rise. The proba- ' bility of the adults entering the enclosure, even if any had been found elsewhere, was very slight indeed. As soon, however, as larvae appeared over grass land in gen- eral, and they appeared in millions within a few days of the time that the first larvse were found, this pen also contained larvae in numbers, showing, we believe, that the eggs must have been deposited withm that particular area the fall pre- ceding. This observation coupled with the fact that the eggs of the summer broods have been found inserted under the epidermis of grass blades seems to give conclusive proof that the spring brood of larvae hatch from eggs that have been de- posited in the grass in the autumn or early winter preceding. The first larvae were seen April 28d, in grass, on the south side of one of the •college buildings, but were not to be found elsewtiere, nor did they appear in great numbers till May 12th, evidently being retarded by the cold wet weather. The larvae taken April 2.3d were nearly black in color and developed into Deltocephalus inimicHS, one adult being obtained .June 29tb. Larvae of the same species, belong- ing to later bro( ds, are usually much lighter colored, almost whitish, with occa- sional individuals of darker color, and after first or second moult all present a characteristic marking, consisting of a black lateral margin to thorax and abdomen. Larvffi of D. inimicus and D. debilis, though very similar when first hatched, are readily separated after the first or second moult by this character, debilis being uniformly light, through the first two or three moults which have been observed. Deltocephalus inimicus has been pretty carefully studied and its life history is quite complete. The eggs have been found inserted beneath the epidermis of blue grass blades, forming minute blister-like swellings near the tips, the end of the tips beyond the point of oviposition turning yellow and dying in all the cases examined. By pressing the blisters the incubating insects can sometimes be extruded through the slot made by the ovipositor, and the young insects have been reared from such blades when put in breeding jars. July 8th some adults were caged on growing bluegrags and had all died by the 15th of July. July 25th larvae appeared in the cage. The period of incubation, therefore, when subjected to breeding jar conditions, would not be less than ten nor more than seventeen days. Five distinct stages of growth are known, young larvae, first, second and third moults, the last producing the pupa stage, and lastly the imago. Moults occur at intervals of seven or eight days depending somewhat upon temperature, and some insects that hatched July 25, matured August 26. When ready to moult the insect ascends some blade of grass, fastens its legs to the edge of the blade, and so far as observed with the head invariably upward. The old skin splits along the median line of the head and back and the soft creature struggles out, grasshopper fashion, leaving its cast clinging to the grass. When fii-st moulted it is very soft and transparent, the heart showing as a reddish streak along the back. The dark lateral stripes do not characterize the specimen until about an hour after the moult occurs. Deltocephalus debilis. We captured the first specimens of adult debilis June 2d, ten days or two weeks before any adults of inimicus were taken, though as before stated the first larvae found developed into inimicus at a later date, June 29th. By July 7th the first brood of debilis had nearly disappeared. Adults of debilis confined in breeding jars June 3d, died in about ten days, and larvae hatched in these jars July 5th, so the period of incubation of this generation and with breed- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103 ing jar conditions would be between three and four weeks. The bulk of the sec- ond generation disappeared about the middle of August, and if an incubation period of four weeks be accepted as something near an average, the larvie of the third brood should have appeared shortly before the middle of September and would mature about the middle of October. That the mature brood appears before this calculated date, we have noted both in 1891 and in 1892, though we have no record as to the time when the larvte appeared. DehocfphnJuf! iniitikufi Say had very nearly reached its maximum and was well gone by the end ot the month. The larv;e of the second brood were very conspicu- ous during the early part of August and were maturing in the latter part of the month and early September. As an adult brood is known to be present about the middle of October it seems that there must be three broods of this insect also. D. inimicus seems to differ from debilis in its life history only in being about two weeks later in maturing its respective broods. It is possible that some of the very latest individuals of debilis represent a fourth brood as a few scattering specimens may be taken as late if not later than inimicus. These insects have such a vastly important economic relation that some practi- cal deductions from these studies will, I trust, not be considered out of place here. I have in earlier publications called attention to^burning as a means of preventing the increase of these pests and some observations that showed advantage where this was practiced. Now that it is determined that the eggs of the most destruc- tive species of the grass leaf-hoppers are deposited in the olades of grass during late autumn it is evident that there is a substantial basis for practical results from burning either in late fall or early spring and wlaere the old growth of grass is too short to allow of ready burnmg it may be excellent policy to spread a thin layer of straw to assist the spread of flames or even to take stock from pasture early enough in fall to permit a growth of grass that will burn readily the following spring. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS TO CATALOGUE OF HEMIPTERA. HERBERT OSBORN. I desire here to make a few additions and corrections to the list of Hemiptera presented in last report. Aiiasa tristis, DeG. The common squash bug reads Batmsa tristis, and as there is a genus Banasa in a preceding family the correction is important. The family Beri/tidd' is made to include the species of Corizxs and Leptncorisa, but should include only Jahjsus spinosus, Say. This ariangement follows Uhlers Check list, but there the sub family Rhopaliua is made to include Corizus, etc., all these being included with CoreiiUe in the super family Coreoidea. It would prob- ably better the arrangement and still preserve the super family and the sub family 104 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. distinctions which have some desirable features to transfer Beri/tidce to the end of the Coreoidea bringing the sub family RhopaUna next to Pseudophlwina. The previous list includes Cymodema tahida vrhich should probably be omitted from the list entirely. The name was inserted in a preceding list from specimens from an excellent authority on Hemiptera, who has, however, since stated the de- terminations were incon-ectly given to hina, the species so named being Cj/tnus claviculus, and I find my specimens to agree with European specimens of this species. I am unable at present, however, to find any Iowa specimens of this species and fear that the former record was inadvertently made from other speci- mens. Gypona flavilineata. Fitch. After a careful comparison of a large number of specimens of this form with Fitch's descriptions and with typical octolineata I am satisfied that it is a distinct form. The entry of Acocephalus sp. was made from an early generic determination from Mr. Van Duzee who has since described the species as Anthysanus comma. and the species should so stand. Grypot'es unicolor, Fitch, is now made the type of Van Duzee's new genus Chlorotettix. Chlorotettix tergatiis, Fitch. This is a rather common species, having somewhat similar form and habits as unicolor, but of a tawny color Phlepsins strohi. Fitch. This is a common species, and occurs commonly on the undersurface of the leaves of Pigweed, (Chenopodhim) causing them to turn purple in spots. Its name — strohi — could hardly have been given with reference to its food habits, as it appears here to be quite constantly confined to Pigweed in larval stages and pretty generally, also, in the adult form. Paramesus twininqii, Uhl., is the form entered in precedmg list as Paramesus, sp. Mr. Van Duzee having reached this conclusion after careful comparison with the type of the species. Telamona accllvata andfaffi should be referred to the genus Heliria, Stal. Enchenopa curvata is now included in Campylenchia, Stal. Pachypsylla c-minuta Riley, is entered m previous list as Pacliypsylla sp. Pachypsylla c asterisciis, Riley, is another form occurring on the Hackberry. In another paper will be found additions to the list of Aphididte. I am indebted to Mr. E. P. Van Duzee for a number of these corrections. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ]0{ THE FISHES OF THE CEDAR RIVER BASIN^ BY SETH E. MEEK, PH. D. The Cedar river is the second largest river within the State of Iowa, and one of the most picturesque. It, together with its northern tributaries, rises in south- ern Minnesota. It", general course is southeast to Moscow, about fifteen miles from the Mississippi river; at this point it turns almost at right angles, and flowing southwest about thirty miles it empties into the Iowa river. Above Moscow the current is rather swift, and its bottom sandy with few rocky places and occasional stretches of mud. The Cedar basin is, for the most part, an undulating prairie, with considerable timber along the banks of the streams, especially the eastern tributaries of the Cedar river. There are a large number of ponds and bayous along the river, especially the lower third of its course, which are always connected with the river in times of high water. In these ponds there is much swamp vegetation and always an abundance of sunfishes, pickerel and bullheads. The slough near Cedar Rapids is one of the largest of these bayous. It is the great fishing ground for the small boys of Cedar Rapids. If attended by a fair degree of luck they may be seen on their homeward trips with a string of small bullheads and sunfishes as long as the average boy himself. The Cedar is, in my judgment, the finest stream in Iowa. It is only exceeded in size by the Des Moines, which it excels in swiftness of current, in being bor- dered to a greater extent by timber, and being fed by larger supply of springs and spring brooks. I do not think it has been more thoroughly explored than the Des Moines and its tributaries, yet I have recorded from it a larger nnmber of species of fishes. As to which has or affords the larger quantity of fishes for the market I have not the data to judge. I find anglers complain of the scarcity of game fishes, or at least the remark is often made that fishing with hook and line is not as good as it used to be. Yet during the months of June and .July it is good enough to entice men day after day into the water waist deep just below the dam at Cedar Rapids. These men seldon fail to come out except with a respectable string of Black Bass, Wall-eyed Pike, or Channel Cat. The streams of Iowa have undoubtedly changed much in character since the country has become so thickly settled. The soil, since loosed with the plow, is much more easily washed into the streams than when it was covered with the stiff native sod. The more thorough underdraining and the surface ditches enables the *Thls paper, presented at Sixth Annual Meeting, was too late for Insertion In last report. 106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. water, after heavy rains, to find its way at once into the large creeks and rivers. Thus the water in the streams is muddier than formerly; in wet weather is deeper, and in dry weather is more shallow. These features, together with the fact that the rivers are becoming, to some extent, the sewers for the large cities, is a proba- ble cause for a dimunition of some of the food fishes. The natural features of the Cedar river make it an excellent stream for fishes, and it is sure to be many years before angling will cease to be an enjoyable and profitable pastime for those who are fortunate enough to reside along its banks. To all such I will say, you have in the Cedar a beautiful stream, and in it are some excellent game and food fishes. Protect your stream as far as possible from pollution, and protect your fishes from wholesale slaughter by the use of dynamite or any other barbarous methods used for their capture, and you will be amply rewarded. During my four years' residence in Cedar Rapids as a teacher in Coe College, I utilized some spare time in making a study of the fish fauna of the State. The result of my studies is being published in the present bulletin of the United States Fish Commission. The larger share of the work done in the Cedar basin was under the direction and by the aid of the United States Fish Commission. I wish to acknowledge the services of my students who, from time to time, assisted me in making collections near Cedar Rapids, of which Mr. W. T. Jackson and Mr. E. P. Boynton and Mr. B. Bailey, deserve especial mention. I was also assisted by Prof. P. B. Burnet, of Lincoln, Nebraska, in making most of the ftollections from the upper part of the river basm. I have given, in foot notes, oth(!r species not found in Cedar Basin, but which belong to the Iowa tauna. This makes the paper also serve as a preliminary catalogue of the fishes of Iowa. No doubt other forms will be added when a more thorough survey of the State is The Cedar river and its tributaries were examined as follows: The Cedar river at West Liberty, Mt. Vernon, Cedar Rapids, Palo, Waverly and Austin (Minnesota.) Turtle river and Rose creek, "Austin (Minnesota.) West Fork and Hartgraves creek at Dumont. Shell Rock river and Quarter Section Run, near Waverly. Dry creek, near Palo. Prairie creek, near Beverly. Indian creek, near Marion. ♦Excellent food fishes. (Good food fishes. —Poor foodnflshes. tVery good food for larger.fishes. Those unmarked are of little or no economic value. ORDER I, HYPEROAKTIA. FAMILY 1, PETROMYZONTID^ (THE LAMPREYS.) 1. Ammocoetes branchialis (Linnseus). Mud Lamprey. This small lamprey ascends clear brooks in the spring for the purpose of spawning, during which time large numbers can easily be captured. At Cedar Rapids they spawn about the middle of April, the season lasting about two weeks. They are seldom taken ex- cept during this season. The species is small, specimens seldom reaching a length of more than Q% inches. It would be an easy matter to destroy large numbers of IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 107 these lampreys in the spring: it" thought expedient, in view of the injury which they are supposed to intiict on some of the food tisnes. They undoubtedly do some destruction, but how much is difficult to sny. From an economical standpoint the lampreys in the Cedar basin are of no importance. 2. PelroDif/zon coucohr {Kirtiarii}). Brook Lamprey. Prof. F. Starr collected this species in the Cedar River a few years a^o. I have never seen them spawning although I have searched more carefully for them than for the precedine: species. This species is quite frequently taken with large food fishes by fishermen on the Mississippi river. ORDEK II, SELACIIOSTOMI. FAMILY 2, POLYODONTID.E (tHE PADDLE-FISHES). 3. ^Poli/odon spatula (Walbaum). Paddle-Pish, Spoon-Bill, Duck- Billed Cat, Cedar Rapids, rare, one specimen taken from the Cedar river in November, 1861, is in Coe College Museum. The snouts of a few individuals taken during the past ten years are in the same museum. ORDER III, GLANIOSTOMI. FAMILY 3, ACIPENSERTD.E. 4. Scaphirhynchus plati/rrhynehits (Ra,finesque). Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. An occasional specimen is taken from the Cedar river with hook baited for suckers. ORDER IV, GINGLYMODI. FAMILY 4, LEPIDOSTEID.'E (tHE GAR FISUES). 5. Lfpidosteiis osseiis f Linnaeus). Common gar-pike. Long-nosed Gar. Com- mon in the spring in the river at Cedar Rapids. They, with the (bllowing, may be frequently seen from First Avenue bridge. Specimens sometimes reach a length of four or five feet. Of no economical value whatever: 6. Lepidosteiis platijstomus, [K-A^nQ^qne). Short-nosed gar-pike. Occasionally seen in the river at Cedar Rapids. Scarce. ORDER V, HALECOMORPHI. FAMILY 5, AMID.E (tHE BOWFINS). 7. Aniia calva (Linnaeus). Dog-fish, Mud-fish, John A. Gundle. Very abundant in the slough, and occasionally taken from the Cedar river. Ot no value except to the biologist. This species, together with the preceding, are much studied and are of much interest from their relation to earlier forms and for the light they throw upon the subject of evolution. ORDER VI, NEMATOGNATUI. FAMILY 6, SILURID^ (tHE CAT-FISUES). 8. \[ctaJurus pitnctnfus (Rafinesque). Channel cat. White cat, Silver cat. Common, during the months of June and July; many specimens of this species are taken fiom the Cedar river with hook and line. The oest bait seems to be clotted WAcipenser rubicumhts (Le Sueur). Lake sturgeon. A resident of the Mississippi Val- ley, and no doubt inhabits the lower part of the Cedar river, as specimens have been frequently taken from the Iowa river at Iowa City. i Ictalwus furcatus (Cuv.&Vul.} Chuckle headed cat. A resident of the Mississippi river. Not recorded from the Cedar basin. 108 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. blood from swine. The favorite fishing places are just below the dam and below- T. M. Sinclair's packing hoase. The latter being the best, although the water is less pure and clear than below the dam. 9. I A mei iirus natalis {he Saem). Yellow cat. Scarce. 10. WAtneiurus nebulosus [LeSaenr). Common bull-head. Apparently scarce. 11. — Ame.iurus melas (Rafinesque). Bull-head. Common in all streams of Iowa, This and the two preceding constitute the common bullhead in Iowa, the latter being by far the most abundant. 12. * Leptosolivaris(RA^nesque). Mud cat, Flathead cat. Specimens weighing twenty pounds are occasionally taken from the Cedar river a short distance below the dam in the early summer. Some of these large specimens may be A. nigricans^ 13. Noturus flavus (Rafinesque). Stone cat. Cedar Rapids. Rare, 14. Noturus gyrinus, [WiicheW). Stone cat. Common. ORDER VII EVENTOGNATHI. FAMILY 7, CATOSTOMID.E. (tHE SUCKERS). 15. f Carpi odes ?;e/!yer (Rifinesque). Quillback, crap sucker. Very common in the larger streams of the entire basin. Different individuals show considerable variation. I have been unable to find any constant characters by which to sepa- rate it in two or more species. 16. — Catostomus teres [NLitcheU). Common white sucker. 17. —Catosiomus nigricans (Le Sueur). Hog sucker. Stone-roller. Hog Mul- let. Found usually with the preceding, and nearly as abundant. 18. —Erimiizon sitcetta (Lacepede), Chub sucker. This species seems rare in Iowa. I have found it only in the Cedar river near West Liberty, 19. — Moxostoma anisurum (Rafinesque). White-nosed sucker. Rare in lowa.- In Cedar basin known only from Austin, Minnesota, and from Waverly. 20. —Moxostoma duqnesnei (Le Sueur), Common red-horse. The most abund- ant of Iowa suckers. 21. Minytremia meJanops (Rafinesque). Striped sucker. Scarce. FAMILY 8, CYPRINID^ (THE MINNOWS). 22. -fCompostoma anomahim (Rafinesque). Stone- lugger. Stone-roller, Com- mon, especially in spring brooks. 23. fChrosomus eri/throgaster {Ri^aesqac). Red-bellied minnow. Not com- mon. An inhabitant of clear, cool water. I Ameiiiriis niaricans, (Le Sueur). Great cat fish, Mississippi cat. A resident of the Mississippi river. iVoturus eariZis (Nelson). Des Moines and Skunic rivers. Rare. Noturus miiirus (.Jordan). An inhabitant of Minnesota. Not yet recorded from Iowa.. Ictiobus cyprinellaiOav.&Vul.). Red-mouthed buffalo. Common buffalo fish. Mis- sissippi river. Usually talvn eater. Clear and Spirit lakes and Sioux river. Locally abundant. iyotrnpin lutrensis (Baird and Girard). Very abundant in western Iowa. iRhinichthys cataractac (Cuv. and Val.) Loup;. Upper Iowa river. Scarce. fHiibopsis gelidus (Girardi. Common in the Missouri river. ■f Hybopsis hyostomus (Gilbert). Southwest Iowa. Scarce. fPlatygobia gracilis (Ricliardson). Flat-headed chub. Missouri river. Scarce. 110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ORDER VIII, ISOPONDYLI. FAMILY 9, HIODONTID.E (tHE MOON EYES). 49. i Hiodon tergisus (Le Sueur). Moon-eye. Silver bass. Cedar Rapids. Scarce. FAMILY 10, CLUPEID^ (tHE HERRINGS). 50. t Clupea chrijsochloris (Rafinesque). Skip-jack. Cedar Rapids. Scarce. 51. \ Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur). Gizzard shad. Hickory shad. Not common. FAMILY 11, SALMONIDjE (THE SALMOn). 52. *Salvelinus fontinaUs (Mitchell). A few specimens are occasionally taken from McLeod's run, near Cedar Rapids. This species was originally placed here by Mr. Shaw, formerly State Fish Commissioner of Iowa. Mr. Minott, a trapper and fisherman, Mt. Vernon, Iowa, informs me that he has seen this species in small tributaries of the Cedar river near Mt. Vernon. FAMILY 12, CYPRINODONTIDvE (tHE KILLIFISHES). 53. f Ftindithis zebrinus (Jordan and Gilbert). Not common in the Cedar basin. More abundant in the lakes. 54. f Zygonectes notatus (KsL^nesqne). Top minnow. Usually found in small numbers. 55. Zi/gonectes dispar (Agassiz). West Liberty. Taken from a large bayou. FAMILY 13, UMBHID.E ( THE MUD MINNOWS). 56. Umbra llmi (Kirtland). Mud minnow. Rather scarce; taken only in small grassy ponds. FAMILY 14, LUCIID^ (THEPIKES). 57. — Lucius rermkidaius [ha ^ViQnx). Little pickerel. Common in the grassy bayous. 58. * Lucius lucius (Linnseus). Pike. Northern pickerel. Common. It loiters in grassy and weedy places. This species is known as pickerel in Iowa. It is the true pike. The name pike is erroneously given to the wall-eyed pike. ORDER IX, APODES (THE EELS). FAMILY 15, ANGUILLID^E 59. *Angu)lla crysypha (Rafinesque). The common eel. Cedar Rapids and Waterloo. Not common. ORDER X, HEMIBRANCHII. FAMILY 16, GASTEROSTEID^. 60. EucaUa inconstans (Kirtland). Brook stickleback. Scarce. Found only n small brooks. + modo?ia?osoides (Rafinesque). Missouri river. Scarce. FAMILY PERCOPSIDiE (THE TBOCT PERCHES). iPercopsis giittatus (Agassiz). Trout perch. This species is very abundant in the tributaries of the Missouri river. , ,. , ^Fandulm diaphanus (Le Sueur). Not recorded from Iowa. Evidently belongs to her fauna. *Zygon6ctcssciadlcus {Cope). Le Mars. Scarce. *Luciu8 masquinonmj (Mitchell). Maskallunge. Scarce. Known from Mississippi river, also the Skunk river near Ames. The largest and most voracious fish m Iowa waters. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. HI ORDER XI. PERCESOOES. FAMILY 17, ATHERINID/K (THE SILVERSIDES). 61. -t Lnbidesthes sicculus {Cope). Brook silverside. Not common.' ORDER XII. ACANTeOPTERII. FAMILY 18, CENTRARCHID^ (THE SUNFISIIES). 62. \\ Ponwxi/s sparoides (Lacepede). Calico bass. Strawberry bass. Common. 63. II Pomoxys annularis (Rafinesque). Crappie. Less common than the preceding. 64. \AmhlopUtes rupestris {Kdi?ine^(\nQ). Rock bass. Redeye. Goggle eye. Common. 65. II Chcenohryttuf! gulosus (Cuv. & Val.) War mouth. Common in grassy ponds. 66. \ Lepomis cyanellus (Ri^rxQsquQ). Green sun-fish. Very common. The small boy's game fish. 67. Lepomis machrocMrus (Rafinesque). Waverly & Dumont. Scarce. 68. Lepomis humilis (Girard). Scarce in eastern Iowa. Abundant in the western part of the State. 69. \\ Lepomis pallidus (MiichiU). Blue sun-fish. Very common. 70. I Lepomis megaloiis (Rafinesque). Long eared sun-fish. Scarce. 71. Lepomis holUrooki (Cuv. & Val.) Scarce. 72. II Lepomis gihhosus (Linnseus). Pumpkin-seed. Common in slough, scarce in the rivers. 73. * Macropterus dolomieii (Lacepede). Small mouthed black base. 74. * Macropterus saJmoides (Lacepede). Large mouthed black bass. Common. FAMILY 19, PEUCID.E (THE PERCHES). 75. Etheostoma clarum (Jordan & Meek). Sand darter. Scarce. 76. Etheostoma nigrum (Rafinesque). Johnny darter. • The most abundant of Iowa darters. 77. Etheostoma caprodes (Rafinesque). Log- perch. Scarce. 7S. i'^/jeostoma ffs/>ro (Cope and Jordan). Black-sided darter. Common. 79. Etheostoma phoxocephalum [^ehoxi). Scarce. 79a Etheostoma erides (Jordon & Copeland). Scarce. 80. Etheostoma zonaJe (Cope). Common. 81. Etheostoma fiahellare (R?i^ne?,qnQ). Not common. 82. Etheostoma cveruleutn (Storer). Rainbow darter. Soldier-fish. Common. 83. Etheostoma jessice {Jordon ii Brayton). Scarce. 84. Etheostoma loivce (Jordan & Meek). Very common. 85. Etheostoma microperca (Jordan & Gilbert). Least darter. Sc.irce. 86. WPerca lutea (Rafinesque). Yellow perch. Not common in rivers, abund- ant in lakes. 87.. *Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchill). Wall-eyed Pike. Jack salmon. Not common in rivers. Very common in the lakes where it is erroneously called pike. 88. * Stizostedion canadense {CYi.'imiih). Sanger. Sand pike. Not alwayi distinguished from the preceding by fiahermen. Enneacanthus eriarchus (Jordan). A very rare species. At present not recorded from Iowa Etheostoma blennoides CRu&aesque). Green sided darter. A doubtful resident. Etheostoma shumardi (Girard). Mississippi river, at Muscatine. Scarce. 112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. / FAMILY 20, SCIENID^. 89. — Aploidonotus grunniens (Rafinesque). Fresh-water drum. Common in the spring. FAMILY 21, COTID^. 90. Cottus ha'.fdi (Agassiz). Millers thumb. Common in spring brooks. FAMILY SERRANID^. IIBoccwS oharysops (Kafinesque). White Bass. Not common. WMuroneinterruvta {Gill). Yellow bass. Scarce. TAMILY GADID^. —Lota lota (Linna;us). Lawyer. Ling, Aleky trout. Mississippi river. Scarce According to the foregoing list, there are in the Cedar Basin, 90 species of 1 in Iowa, 121 species. Those of the Cedar Basin are distributed among 12 orders, 21 families, and 48 genera ; in the State, 12 orders, 24 families, and 58 genera. Fishes known from Mississippi river 62 Fishes known from Cedar river basin 90 Fishes known from Des Moines river basin 66 Fishes known from Skunk river basin 49 Fishes known from Iowa river basin 52 Fishes known from Wapsipinicon river basin 42 Fishes known from Maquoketa river basin 31 Fishes known from Turkey river basin 31 Fishes known from Yellow river basin 17 Fishes known from Upper Iowa river basin 18 Fishes known from Missouri river 11 Fishes known from Big Sioux river basin 33 Fishes known from Floyd river basin 35 Fishes known from Soldier river basin 6 Fishes known from Boyer river basin 15 Fishes known from Chariton river basin 13 Fishes known from 102 river basin 19 Fishes known from Clear lake 16 Fishes known from Silver lake 11 Fishes known from Storm lake 16 Fishes known from Spirit and Okoboji lakes 19 IOWA ACAI)P:MY of sciences. 113 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. I, PART III PAGE. OfHcersof the academy 3 List of papers ' .5 Membership of the academy 6 CAiiViN on Cretaceous Deposits, etc 7 Note on Cerionites dactylioides Owen 13 Keyes. Natural Gas in Iowa 15 Iowa Mlneralogical Notes 18 Surface Disintegration of Granitic Masses 2a Some American Eruptive Granites 24 TiLTON. Strata between Ford and Winterset 26 Bates. Analysis of Water for Railway Engines 27 Witter. Some Observations on He?i.r cooperr 28 On the Absence of Ferns between Fort Collins and Meeker, Colo 29 Notice of Stone Implements 30 Drew. Some Reasons Why Frogs are Able to Survive 32 Nutting. President's address 35 Report of committee on state Fauna 39 Significance of Concealed Crests of Fly catchers 42 Pammel. Phaenological Notes for 1892 46 Notes on Flora of Texas 62 The Relation of Frost to Certain Plants 77 Pollination of Cucurbits 79 Stewart. Palisade Cells and Stomata of Leaves 80 Key to Weed Seeds in Clover 84 NiLES. On Cattle Disease 90 Reppert. Pellaea Atropurpurea on Sandstone Ledges 93 GossARD. Clover Insects 94 OSBORN AND SiRRiNE. Notes On Aphididae 98 OSBORN. Life Histories of .lassidae 101 Additions and Corrections, Iowa Hemiptera '...103 Meek. Fishes of Cedar Basin . .105 PROCEEDINGS Iowa Academy of Sciences, I^OI^ 18Q3. "volxjixih: 1, i^jPli^t i\t. EDITED BY THE SECRETARY, Herbert Osborn, Ames, Iowa. TRINTED BY OKDEIl OK THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY, DES MOINES: G. n RAGSDALE, STATE PRINTER. 1894. OPFIGERS OF THE :fIG£DEMY. 1893- President— \j. H. Pammel. First Vice Preside?it—C. 0. Bates. Second Vice President — A. A. Veblen. Secretary ■ Treasurer— R^iXBKUT Osbokx. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Ex-Officio—L. H. Pammel, C. O. Bates, A. A. Veblex, H. O.sbokx. Elective—^. Calvin, F. M. Witter, H. W. Norris. 1894. President— L. W. Andrews. First Vice President— B.. W. Norris. Second Vice President— G. R. Keyes. Secretary-Treasurer— Mts^k^ekt Osborn. executive committee. Ex-Officio—L. W. Andrews, H. W. Norkis, C. R. Keyes, H. Osborn. Elective— (J. C. Nutting, M. F. Arey, W. S. Hendrixsom. MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY. FELLOWS. Andrews, L. W State University, Iowa City Arey, M. F State Normal Scliool, Cedar Falls Bain, H. F Geological Survey, Des Moines Harris, W. H Davenport, Iowa Bates, CO Coe College, Cedar Rapids Beach, Alice M Agricultural College, Ames Beal, a. M Western College, Toledo Bennett, A. A Agricultural College, Ames Beyer. S. W Agricultural College. Ames Bissell. G. W Agricultural College, Aiues Calvin, S State University, Iowa City Chappel. Geo. M Signal Service, Des Moines Conrad, A. H Parsons College, Fairfield CuRTiss. C. F Agricultural College, Ames Drew, Gilman High School, Oskaloosa Franklin, W . S Agricultural College, Ames FuLTz. F. M Burlington GossARD, H. A Albion Seminary, Albion Hall, T. P Tabor College, Tabor Hansen, N . E Agricultural College, Ames Hazen. E. H Des Moines Hendrixson, W. S Iowa College, Grinnell HoLAVAY, E. W. D Decorah Howe, Minnie High School, Des Moines HousER, G. L State University, Iowa City Jackson, J. A Des Moines Jameson, C. D State University, Iowa City Keyes, C. R - Geological Survey, Des Moines Leonard, A. G Geological Survey, Dubuque Lonsdale, E. H Geological Survey. Des Moines Mally, C. W Des Moines Marston, A Agricultural College, Ames McBride, T. H State University, Iowa City Newton, G. W Cornell College, Mt. Vernon NiLES. W. B , Agi-icultural College, Ames NoRRis, H. W Iowa College, Grinnell Norton, W. H Cornell College, Mt. Vernon Nutting. C. C. State University. Iowa City Osborn, Herbert Agricultural College. Ames Page, A. C State Normal School. Cedar Falls Pammel, L. H Agricultural College, Ames Patrick, G. E Agricultural College, Ames Q MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY. Repfkrt, F Muscatine Ross, L. S Drake University, Des Moines Sage, J. R State Weather and Crop Service, Des Moines SCHAEFFER, C. A S*:ate University, lov^a City ScHLABACH, Carl High School, Clinton Shimek, B State University, Iowa City SiRRiNE, F. A Agricultural College, Ames Spencer, A. C Geological Survey, Des Moines Stalker, M Agricultural College, Ames Stanton, E. W Agricultural College, Ames Stewart, F. C Agricultural College, Ames Stoner, C. E Des Moines Stookey, Stephen Coe College, Cedar Rapids TiLTON, J. L Simpson College, Indianola Veblen, a. a State University, Iowa City Wachsmuth, Chas Burlington, Iowa Walker, Percy H State University, Iowa City Weld, L. G State University, Iowa City WiNDLE, Wm. S Penn College, Oskaloosa Witter, F. M Muscatine associate members. Ankeny, Miss Nellie W Ottumwa Beardshear, W. M Agricultural College. Ames Brown, Eugene Mason City Hadley, S. M Oskaloosa Miller, G.. P Des Moines Mills. J. S Western College, Toledo OsBORN, B. F Rippey Rolfs, J. A LeClaire Youtz, L. A Simpson College, Indianola corresponding members. Barbour, E. H State University, Lincoln, Nebraska Bessey, C. E State University, Lincoln, Nebraska Bruner, H. L Irvington, Indiana Call, R. E Louisville, Kentucky COLTON, G. H .Virginia City, Montana Crozier, a. a Ann Arbor, Michigan Davis, Floyd Socorro, New Mexico Gillette, C. P Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colorado Halsted, B. D New Brunswick, New Jersey Haworth, Erasmus State University, Lawrence, Kansas Hitchcock, A. S Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas Mally, F. W .Dickerson, Texas McGee, W.J United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Meek, S. E State University, Fayetteville, Arkansas Parker H. W New York City, New York Rolfs, P. H Agricultural College, Lake City. Florida Todd, J. E State University, Vermilion, South Dakota WiNSLOW, Arthur Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Missouri PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The eighth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences was held ill Des Moines, December 26 and 27, 1893. The following papers, read in full or by title, were, by action of the Executive Committee, referred to the Secretary for publication: L. W. Andrews— Ou the Assumption of a Special "Nascent State." Some Peculiarities of Solutions of Sulpho-cyanate. A. A. Bennett — Work in the Chemical Laboratory of the Iowa Agricult- ural College. W. S. Hendrixson— The Electi-olysis of Silver: Some Laboratory Appa- ratus. G. W. BissELL— Experimental Engineering at the Iowa Agricultural Col- lege. S. Calvin— On the Geological Position of Benetlites dacotensis Macbride, with Observations on the Stratigraphy of the Region in which the Spe- cies was Discovered. Wm. H. Norton — Some Preliminary Notes on the Lower Devonian Strata of Iowa. C. R. Keyes— Relations of the Cretaceous Formations iu Northwestern Iowa. Derivation of the Unione Fauna of the Northwest. Process of Formation of Certain Quartzites. J. L. Tilton— Origin of the Present Drainage System of Warren County H. Foster Bain— Structure of the Mystic Coal Basin. The Deep Well at Sigourney. 8 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. E. H. Lonsdale— Southern Extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa. Topog- raphy of the Granite and Porphyry Areas in Missouri. A. G. Leonard— Zinc Deposits in Northeastern Iowa. Satin Spar from Dubuque. A. C. Spencer— Occurrence in Iowa of Fossiliferous Concretions Similar to those of Mazon Creek. F. M. FuLTZ— Evidences of Disturbances During the Deposition of the Bur- lington Limestones. A. J. Jones— The Coal Measures of Poweshiek County. On the Occurrence of Cardiocarjms in Iowa. T. H. McBride— Notes on the North American Cycads. The Distribution of Bhtis lyphina. L. H. Pammel — Presidential Address— Bacteria, Their Relation to Modern Medicine, the Arts and Industries. Powdery Mildew of the Apple. Further notes on Cladosporiuni carpophihirn. Mary Alice Nichols— Observations on the Pollination of some of the Com2yosilce. B Fink — Some Additions to the Flora of Iowa. H. W. NoRRis— The Paraffine Method Applied to the Study of the Embry- ology of the flowering Plants. The Development of the Auditory Vesi- cle in Necturus. An instance of the Persistence of the Ductus Veuosus in the Domestic Cat. B. Shimek — Additional Notes on Iowa Mollusca. Variations in the Sue- ciniclce of the Loess. Wm. S. Windle — Work at the Johns Hopkins Marine Biological Laboratory. C. C. Nutting — The Vascular Supply of the Teeth of the Domestic Cat. The Homology of the Inca Bone. An Informal Report on the Practica- bility of Dredging in Deep Water Without the Use of Steam. Herbert Osborn— On the Distribution of Certain Hemiptera. Laboratory Notes in Zoology. Alice M. Beach— Additions to the Known Species of Iowa Ichneumonidce. F. A. Sirrine— A New Species of Pemx>higus Occurring on Thorn. C. W. Mally— Hack berry PsyUidce found at Ames, Iowa. The following resolution was adopted in business session: Whereas, The State has begun the good work of a Geological Survey of the State, a much needed investigation, and Whereas, This work has been prosecuted for two years with vigor and success; therefore, be it Resolved, That we, the Academy of Sciences, do most heartily commend the Geological Survey to the liberality of the General Assembly, with the hope that the Survey may receive all liberal encouragement and the support of such appropriations as may enable it to carry forward the various lines of its most excellent work. A resolution was also passed and a committee appointed with ref- erence to securing a better representation of scientific works in our State library and in other libraries of the State. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ON THE ASSUMPTION OF A SPECIAL "NASCENT STATE. BY LAUNCELOT ANDREWS, PII. D. The assumption frequently appears in chemical literature that elements at the moment of being set free from their compounds exhibit properties which the same elements do not ordinarily possess. This alleged specific condition is designated as the "nascent state" or status nascendi. The hypothesis of such a condition dates back to the time when the dualistic theory held sway and, so far as I am aware, has not been subjected to crit- icism in the light of modern views. It is my purpose in the present paper to consider the following pertinent questions concerning this hypothesis: First. Is it necessary to our understanding of any known facts? Second. Does it otfer a simpler explanation of any facts than can be given without its aid? Third. Is it inconsistent with known facts? Fourth. Can it be consistently applied to any class of phenomena with- out the aid of additional auxiliary assumptions? One of the classes of chemical reactions which is most often explained by the assumption of a nascent state is that in which reduction is eflected by metallic zinc in acid solutions or by sodium amalgam in aqueous neutral alkaline or acid solution or by other oxydizable metals. Here the metal is said to act upon the water or the acid, setting free hydrogen which in turn, by virtue of the peculiar properties it is supposed to possess in the nascent state, effects the i-eduction. Thus the reducing of ferric chloride to ferrous chloride by zinc in acid solutions would be represented by the following two equations: Zn+2H Cl=Zn CU+H^ [I 2H+2FeCl3=2FeCl2+2HCl [2 The reduction of a copper sulphate solution would be represented thus: HjSO.+Cu^Cu S0,+2H [3 2H+CU SO,=Cu+H, SO, [4 And in the same way the reduction of metallic Cu at the negative electrode during the electrolysis of a Cu SO,, solution would be represented as sec- ondary and due to the nascent hydrogen appearing there. In the familiar process of preparing sulphurous anhydride by the action of copper on con- centrated hot sulphuric acid we find it assumed that hydrogen is first pro- duced as in equation 3 and then in statu nascendi immediately reacts on the sulphuric acid, 10 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Cu+H^SO.^Cu SO.+Hj [5 2H+H,SO,=2H,0+S02 [6 formiug water and sulphurous anhydride. Many other cases might be cited of simple reactions in which it is consid- ered necessary by some authoi's to employ the nascent hypothesis, but I shall, for the present, confine myself to these and in the light of the facts seek an answer to our four crucial questions. If we dispense with the hypothesis we must assume in each case a direct action of the metal on the salt; thus zinc and ferric chloride would give zinc chloride and ferrous chloride. Zn+2Fe Cl3=Zn Cl2+2Fe Clj [7 Zinc and copper sulphate would simply present a case of direct inter- change of metals. Zn+Cu S04=Zn SO^+Cu [8 The reduction of copper by electrolysis would be primary not secondary. To negative pole. To positive pole. Cu < Cu SO. ^> SOg+O [9 This yiew iu the latter case will not be seriously questioned by any stu- dent of the recent work of Arrhenius and Ostwald and their followers. Lastly, we can simply represent the reduction of hot concentrated sul- phuric acid as consisting in the first stage in an oxidation of the copper at the expense of the acid. Cu+H,SO,=Cu 0+ B.2 SO3 H2O SO2 The sulphurous acid becoming dehydrated of course at the high temper- ature of the reaction; and the copper oxide being soon converted into copper sulphate. In the cases named it is clear that the nascent state hypothesis is not nec- essary and does not lead to a simpler explanation of the facts than can be had without it. Is it inconsistent with any of the facts? Considering first the reduction of sulphuric acid by copper, the following phenomena may be observed: When metallic copper, carefully cleaned, is heated gradually with concentrated sulphuric acid until sulphurous anhydride begins to be evolved, the surface of the copper becomes coated with a black crust. If the metal is nowi'emoved from the acid, then washed and placed in hydrochloric acid, the coating dissolves, forming a solution of copper chloride. In fact, this crust consists of copper oxide. Its formation is not explained by the hypoth- esis in question (eqs. 5-6) but is a dii'ect confirmation of eq. 10. If the acid is reduced by hydrogen some of the hydrogen might be expected to escape unoxidized. In order to test this point pure sulphui'ic acid was heated with copper which was obtained by electrolysis from a recrystalized specimen of copper sulphate and subsequently ignited in an atmosphere of carbon monox- ide. The gases evolved were collected over mercui-y and about 50 c. c. were treated with caustic potash. All was absorbed except a small bubble, which consisted essentially of oxygen. No hydrogen could be detected. In order to demonstrate, however, that none had been formed it was nec- essary to show that if formed it would not be wholly oxidized by the hot acid. To get direct evidence upon this point, a quantity of nearly pure zinc was heated with the same acid that had served for the copper experi- ment and in the same way. Fifty c. c. of the evolved gas was only partly IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. H absorbed by potash, a resiiUie of about 3 c. c. being left. This residue con- sisted essentially of hydrogen. The chain of evidence now appeared complete, for unless there were two kinds of nascent hydrogen it would be all oxidized in both cases if in either. the conditions l)eing the same, and the fact that none was found in the cop- per experiment must be taken for valid proof that none was formed. In reality the correct view would appear to be that at the temperature of the reaction the acid is for the greater part dissociated into HjO and SO3, the copper being oxidized by the latter only. The zinc acts upon the SO3 form- ing SO.^, and also upon the undissociated part of the acid, setting free hydro- gen which escapes. Further light may be thrown upon this matter by a consideration of the reduction of the sulphuric acid by carbon. This reaction takes place at about the same temperature as that with copper, in accordance with the equation C+2H, SO,=2Hj04-C02+2S02 [11 Here there can be no question of nascent hydrogen unless by assuming the existence of a sulphate of carbon, thus C+2H2SO^=C(SOj2+4H |12 which is wholly unwarranted, and thei'e is no ground for supposing the mechanism of the action of carbon on sulphuric acid to be entirely difl'erent from that of copper on the same compound. A favorite field in which nascent hydrogen often disports itself lies in the extremely complex reactions between nitric acid on the one hand and vari- ous metals on the other. Here the nitric acid may be reduced to ammonia, hydroxylamine, free nitrogen, nitrous acid, any of the oxides of nitrogen, and possibly still other products. Often many of them are simultaneously formed. Of these, ammonia and laughing gas and N2 ai-e never formed by the action of mercury, Bi., Cu. and Ag.^ Iron, on the other hand, may reduce the whole of the nitric acid to ammonia. Montemartini, who has made a special study of this group of reactions", and others have shown that the various metals reduce nitric acid in various ways, giving reaction pro- ducts in different proportions and of different kinds. The bearing of this upon the subject of the present paper is evident. If, for example, iron, zinc and copper all reduce nitric acid indirectly through the primary forma- tion of nascent hydrogen, we would expect the ultimate products to be the same in kind and in relative amount, the absolute amount depending sim- ply upon the quantity of hydrogen formed. Since this is not so, the conclu- sion is inevitable that the nascent hydrogen is not the reducing agent but the action of each metal is immediate and specific, removing oxygen from the acid and forming unstable intei-mediate products which elude direct observation but which, by their reactions, give rise to the products charac- teristic of each case. I have endeavored, in this discussion, to select the fairest instances of the application of the nascent condition hypothesis and find myself forced to the conclusion that it is the survival of an obsolete doctrine; that it explains nothing which cannot be as well or better explained without it; that it cannot be reconciled in certain cases with known facts, and that. 1 Bo: 92, 616, 898 f . 21,0c. cit. 12 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. therefore, we are not at present justified in the assumption that elements at the moment of formation or liberation from their compounds possess prop- erties in any way different from those they commonly exhibit. SOME PECULIARITIES OF SOLUTIONS OF FERRIC SULFHOCYAN ATE BY LAUNCELOT ANDREWS, PH. D. The deep blood-red color of solutions of ferric sulphocyauate has fre- quently been taken advantage of for the determination of small quantities of iron in river or spring water, in blood, in alloys, in alumcake, etc. The earliest method of this kind, so far as I have been able to ascertain, is due to T. L. Herapath, who proposed to determine minute quantities of iron by the addition of potassium sulphocyanate to the acidified solution con- taining an unknown amount of iron, and also to a standard iron solution of known strength, the latter being then diluted until both showed the same tint. Very similar methods have been employed or devised by A. Thomsen {Gh. Soc. Jour., 47, 493), Ad. Joles {Arch. f. Hygiene, XIII, 402 ), L. Lapique {Bull Soc. Chim., 2, 295, and by R. R. Tatlock {Jotir. Soc. Gh. hid. 6, 276). Vierordt {Quant., Speklralanalyse), suggested a fundamental modifi- cation of Herapath's colorimetric method, in that he dispensed wholly with a standard comparison solution, substituting for it a direct spectrophoto- metric determination of the amount of light of given wave length, trans- mitted by a layer of the ferric sulphocyanate solution one c. m. thick. In this method the assumption, based upon analogy, is made that the light absorbing power of the solution is directly proportional to the amount of iron contained therein; or in other words, that the negative logarithm of the Jraction of light transmitted is jiroportiotial to the concentration of the solution, and the assumption seems to be confirmed by Vierordt's observa- tions. Subsequent investigations by Kriiss and Moraht {Lieb. Ann., 260, 193; Kalorimetrie, u. Spektral analyse, 1891, p. 125), and by Magnaniui {Zeit- p)hys. C/t. 8,1) have shown the assumed proportionality to be non-existent in fact. If aqueous solution of ferric sulphocyanate be diluted its color fades away in a much more rapid ratio than corresponds to the diminishing con- centration of the solution. The depth of color is much enhanced by an excess of either generatrix, i. e., of KSCN or of Fe CI3, and as Magnanini has shown the change follows the laws of mass action qualitatively and quantita- tively. Magnanini dismisses the affair at this point ^s a res adjudicata assuming that the sulphocyanate is subject, in its solution in water, to a progressive electrolytic dissociation in the ions, Fe and S C N. In accordance with well IOWA ACADEMY Oi< SCIENCES. 13 kuowu principles this dissociatiou must become more complete with increas- ing dilution, and of course the formation of colorless ions from the colored salt must i-esult in a diminution of the intensity of the color. There is, however, another explanation not only possible, but probable. Ostwald has shown that other salts of ferric iron, undergo in dilute solution more or less complete hydroly&is into colloidal ferric hydrate and free acid. If this hydrolysis also occurs in solutions, as we have no reason to doubt, of the sulphocyanate, in accordance with the equation. Fe (SCN)3+3 H., 0=Fe (O H)3+ 3 H S C N, It would offer a complete explanation of the phenomena hitherto observed. II. EXPEKIMENTAL PART. In order to obtain further insight into the nature of the changes occurring upon dilution of solutions of ferric sulphocyanate, and indirectly of solu- tions in general, it seemed advisable to operate in solutions containing no water. In such solutions the hydrolysis called for by the second theory given above could rot occur and the electrolytic dissociation called for by the first theory could occur only in a subordinate degree. Hence both theories would lead us to expect that a solution of stated concentration of Fe (SCNjg in ether or in amyl alcohol or in absolute ethyl alcohol would have a much more intense color than a solution of the same strength in water, and second that the color would be proportional to the strength. My observations have coutirmed the tirst prediction, but not the second. A solution in ether was tirst prepared containing 4.7 m. g. Fe (S C N)^ per cu. cm., both the iron and sulphocyanogen being dii*ectly determined and found in accordance. From this solution, which was kept in the dark, the other solutions were prepared and their absorbtion coefficients deter- mined by repeated observations in a Vierordt spectroscope with double sym- metrical slit. /''m-s^.— Comparison of absorbtive power in amyl alcohol and water solu- tions. A solution containing .0625 m. g. Fe (S C N)3 per c. c. of amyl alcohol transmitted 42 per cent of light of wave length 587, or about the same amount as an aqueous solution containing .247 m. g. per c. c, or nearly four times as strong. I. Amyl alcohol containing .05 m. g. Fe (S C N)3 per c. c, T=15^. .MIDDLE OF REGION. PER CENT TRANS- MITTED LIGHT. EXTINCTION COEF. ABSORBTION RATIO K. 617 589 564 517 501 84.0 .56.2 42.5 19.1 16.0 .07^ .250 ..372 .719 .796 .200 .134 14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. II. Aiuyl alcohol contaiuiug .1 m. g. Fe (SCN)3 per c. c. T=152. MIDDLE OFRKGION. PER CENT TRANS- MITTED LIGHT. EXTINCTION COEF. ABSORBTION RATIO K. G17 589 564 41.0 14.8 0.8 .377 .830 1.167 .120 III. Amyl alcohol containing .094 m. g. Fe (SCNjg per c. c. T=18^. Older solution, stood 48 hours. MIDDLE OP REGION. PER CENT TRANS- MITTED LIGHT. EXTINCTION COEF. ABSORBTION RATIO K. 622 599 568 556 61.0 42.9 12.2 9.0 .215 .367 .914 1.045 .436 .263 .104 .090 IV. Ethyl alcohol .094 m.g. Fe(SCN)3 per c. c. T=183. MIDDLE OF REGION. PER CENT TRANS- MITTED LIGHT. EXTINCTION COEF. ABSORBTION RATIO K. 568 556 21.6 :3.7 .665 .896 , Other series of experiments with ethyl alcohol, amyl alcohol and ether, demonstrated that the absorbent power of solutions of ferric sulphocyanate in these menstrua diminishes more rapidly than the concentration. The amyl alcohol was distilled from phosphoric acid to remove traces of organic bases and then thoroughly dried. Hydrolysis of the ferric salt can therefor not occur. If electrolytic dissociation occurs, the molecular conductivity of these solutions must increase with diminishing concentration and in proportion to the diminishing light-absorbing power. The electrical resistance of the same solutions which had been examined optically was thei'efore determined in a resistance cell of the form described by Arrhenius, byOstwald's method with Kohlrausch-Wheatstone bridge and telephone. The specific resistance of the amyl alcohol employed was about 100,000,000 ohms per m. m. cube. All the measurements showed that the molecular conductivity of the non-aqueous solutions examined diminished with increasing dilution and in about the same ratio as tie reciprocal of the absorbtion coefficient, whereas the molecular conductivity should be greater at high dilutions than at low if the tapering off of the color of the former is due to electrolytic dissociation. I am not prepared to present tinal quantitative results at present because my apparatus is not perfectly adapted to the measurements of such high resistances, but there is no reason to question the qualitative results nor the general character of the numerical data. A cell now in course of construc- tion having a much smaller I'esistance constant than that heretofore in use is expected to furnish results of the desired accuracy. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15 Ivau lvlobukofT(Zeit. Phys. Chem. IV, 429,) has observed that solutions of hj'drochloric acid in ether and iu arayl alcoliol exhibit a diminution of molecular conductivity with increasing dilution of the solutions and has shown that it is not due to any chemical action of the acid upon the alcohol. This phenomenon evidently belongs in the same class with that which I have observed iu the case of ferric sulphocyanate solutions. Neither of the theories as yet advanced seems capable of explaining all the. facts and more extended studies of the spectroscopic and electrical behavior of other colored salts in non-aqueous solvents must be made before any theory can be advanced with profit. ELECTROLYSIS OF SILVER— LABORATORY NOTES. ■\V. S. HENDRIXSON. (Abstract.) The author exhibited some pieces of appai'atus devised in connection with his work on the atomic weight of tin, and also a quantity of pure silver prepared by electrolysis of the pure silver of Stas in strong nitric acid solution. The method of electrolysis was essentially that of Abrahall* as modified by Richardsf. By using a strong acid solution containing fifteen per cent of silver and a battery consisting of sixteen gravity cells the silver was obtained iu large crystals and no peroxide was formed at the positive pole. Separate experiments showed that silver deposited under these con- ditions, from a solution to which copper had been added, contained no trace of the latter metal. The apparatus exhibited included: 1. A platinum condenser for the preparation in pure condition of such substances as attack glass or metals other than platinum, viz, water, hydro- chloric, hydrobi-omic and nitric acids. Cork or other connections are avoided by selecting a retort into the neck of which the condenser tube tits closely. The first portion of the vapor condenses between the glass and platinum and forms a seal. The condenser tube is bent so that the neck of the retort or flask may be inclined upward to secure a back flow and to avoid the mechanical carrying over of substances by the spray. 2. A separatory funnel having a doubly-bored stop-cock like that in the well-known Lunge's nitrometer. On turning the cock to arrest the flow of the liquid the column in the stem, which in the ordinai'y funnel remains in the stem, being held by atmospheric pressure, falls at once since it is replaced by air which enters the stem through the second hole in the stop- cock. •Journal Cliem. Soc, 1892, p. 660. tProc. Amer. Academy, Vol. XXVIII, p. 22. IQ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3. Au adjustable attachment for a Buuseu burner, having three upright posts for the support of dishes, and a platinum triangle, made of wire, pass- ing through holes near the tops of the posts, to support a crucible, watch- glass or small dish. The attachment permits the use of a "crown top" if it is desired to evaporate a liquid rapidly without boiling, and it is provided with supports for a cylindrical chimney which encircles the posts and pro- tects the flame from drafts of air. 4. An apparatus for electrolysis, consisting of a dessicator containing a platinum triangle to support a platinum dish. A wire of the same metal is connected with the triangle and passes through the side of the dessicator. To prevent loss by spray, the dish is covered by a large watch-glass, iu which is sealed a large platinum wire ending iu a spiral below to serve as the positive electrode. The wire extends through a very small cork fitted in the top of the dessicator, and thus can be raised, lowered or supported in any position. EXPERIMENTAL ENGINEERING AT THE IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. BY G. W. BISSELL, PROFESSOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Experimental engineeiing at the Iowa Agricultural College is of two kinds. The first kind has for its object the instruction of the student in the use of and calibration of the instruments employed, and in the performance by improved methods of a series of graded experiments whose variety and selection are such as experience has shown to be productive of the best results attainable with the facilities of the laboratory. The experiments under this head which are conducted by the students in mechanical engiueei'ing are: Tension, tx-ansverse and compression tests of the materials of construction, properties of lubricants, measurements of power by absorption and transmission dynamometers, steam gauge and indi- cator spring calibration, cement testing, fan-blower tests, calorimetry, weir and water-meter calibration, efficiency tests of steam engines, boilers, injectors, air compressor and steam heating, electric lighting and pumping plants, and the thermal analysis of the steam engine. Owing to the number of experiments and students and the lack of dupli- cate apparatus, it is necessary as well as advisable to maintain all apparatus in working order, so that the student is not obliged to lose time and patience and courage iu looking for things. While the experience obtained iu arrang- ing apparatus might be useful as instruction, such preliminaries are apt to discoux'age the beginner. Moreover, the practice, if followed with large classes, would cause confusion and sacrifice discipline. System is necessary in this particular. The actual performance of the above or any other set of experiments is secondary to another feature of the work, which consists in the writing of IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17 a satisfactory report of the experiments. This report includes several dis- tinct things, and is genei'ally arranged under heads as follows: 1. Object of the experiment. 3. Metiiod to be employed in attaining it. Under this head is placed the derivation of the fundamental formulae for the experiment. 3. Description of apparatus. This includes all apparatus, principal or accessory. The description is often assisted by sketches. 4. Describe the experiment. Every operation having direct or indirect bearing on the results. 5. Give numerical data. These are usually taken on printed blanks and afterward copied on similar blanks for pasting in the note books. 6. Derive results. 7. Draw conclusions. When the student has the results obtained from the above experiments upon the pages of his note book he has a valuable store of knowledge to draw upon in his future work. For the tests of the materials of construc- tion he finds certain constants. Experimenting with lubricants shows him that the value of an oil for lubrication depends upon many properties. Testing the transmission of power by various devices opens his eyes to the extent of the friction losses, resistance of the air, etc. The calibration of instruments, calorimetry, flue-gas analysis are essential in establishing the value of the efficiency tests; and from these efficiency tests, he learns, above all, the value of accui'acy in each and every step and the importance of perfect honesty in the recording of observations. With the exceptions of the tests ui)on materials, the numerical results of much of this work are far from correct because of the Inexperience of the experimenters and because also of the variability of conditions peculiar to engineering problems. The exactness of the physical and chemical laboratories are unusual in the engineering laboratory. But education and not figures is the result sought by the instructors. Professor Carpenter, in charge of experimental engineering at Sibley College, Cornell University, says "The undergraduate laboratory should be equipped so as to demonstrate in a practical and convincing way the principal laws or facts that the student must master in order to finish his course. Its course of instruction should be such as to i-equire systematic work of the student, teach him how to observe, how to use apparatus, how to deduce conclusions from his mass of data and finally how to make a neat and systematic i-eport of his work."* Having completed, or nearly so, the above outlined work, the student takes up the second kind of experimental work which is offered to him chiefly in the form of thesis work. That "there's nothing new under the sun" cannot be said of man's knowledge. And in engineering there are countless problems still unsolved for the lack of evidence which those actively engaged in professional work have not the time to gather and the technical schools are expected to help by contributing facts. Hence the necessity for original work in the technical schools. This can almost alwaj's be accomplished by assigning it to students as thesis work and the results of so doing when the instructor can give personal supervision to the work are good. Educationally, the results are good because the student is thrown largely upon his own resources and because in opening the gates to the new ♦Engineering Laboratories, K. 0. Carpenter. Science, November 3, 1893. 18 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. fields of knowledge thus brought to view he has new experiences and new thoughts and is taught the increased importance of application, reasoning and preliminary training. In short we aim to benefit first the student and next the profession by the second kind of experimental work. The time spent on thesis investigation and writing ranges in amount from one hundred to two hundred hours of actual work. The scope of the original work in experimental engineering for the past two years is indicated by the following subjects chosen from the whole number assigned: Thejorce exerted in cutting cast iron, wrought iron a7id steel in the lathe. — For cast iron the force is proportional to the amount of metal removed. For wrought iron and steel the force does not increase as rapidly as the amount ot metal removed. Determination of the point pressure and twisting 7noment exerted by twist drills in cast iron, steel and brass. — A collection of data useful in the design of drill presses. The resistance of swing check valves in the return pijyes of steam heating systems.— ¥o\in& to be very slight, indeed — not over one-quarter of a pound. Some of those projected for the coming year are: Friction of cylinder oils. Variatio7% of stress in the jiunching of metals. Variation of economy of the steam engine with change oj load. Experitnents with small venturi meters. In the other departments of the engineering, electrical, civil and mining, the experimental work plays an important part and is prosecuted with vigor by the instructors and students. Ames, Iowa, December 26, 1893. ON THE GEOLOGICAL POSITION OF BENNETTITES DACOTENSIS MACBRIDE, WITH REMARKS ON THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE REGION IN WHICH THE SPECIES WAS DISCOVERED. BY SAMUEL CALVIN, IOWA CITY. Since Professor Macbride's paper on Bennettites dacotensis was published in the American Geologist for October, 1893, there have been numerous inquiries respecting the exact geological horizon from which the cycads were derived. The close resemblance and the intimate relationship indi- cated between the Dakota fossil and Tysonia marylandica Fontaine, while not conclusive, would point toward a common horizon for the two species, and so make it possible to correlate the Potomac formation with a definite Mesozoic horizon in the northwest. Prosessor Macbride's paper left IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE^XT.S. 19 tlie slratigraphical position of liis species uudecided. To settle, if possil)le, the question detiuitely. the writer recently made a visit to the locality that furnished the types of Macbride's species. Specimens of Bonnettites are not very numerous in the Black Hills of South Dakota. At all events not very many have yet been brought to light All the individuals at present known have been found in a rather limited area around Minnekahta, a small station on the Deadwood branch of the B & M. railway. By far the greater number, some forty or fifty altogether, were discovered on an area of only a few acres, about four or live miles southwest of Minnekahta. They all lay partly imbedded in the soil on the southern slope of one of the low, rounded, grassy hills that characterize the marginal portion of the Black-Hills uplift. Separating the cycad hill from the next on the south is a comparatively shallow, but steep sided cailoa, supporting a moderately dense growth of Pinus- ponderosa Doug- lass. The walls of the canon reveal the edges of gently folded and tilted beds of sandstone. Sandstones— yellow, brown or red, sometimes in mass- ive, and sometimes in thinner layers— often project above the grassy surface on the gentler slopes above the canon walls; while here and there are high buttes rising two or three liundred feet above the general level, and com- posed of conformable beds of sandstone throughout their entire elevation. A single sandstone formation therefore, extends from the bottom of the small secondary canyons of the region to the top of the buttes; and, though no cycads were seen in place, there is no reason to doubt that it was in this sandstone, at some level, that they wei'e originally imbedded. The sand, stone exhibits the characteristics of the Dakota group of the Black Hills as described by Hayden, Winchell and Newton; still it was thought best not to decide the question of its age on lithological grounds alone. Diligent search during the time at our disposal failed to disclose the remains of recognizable plants or animals belonging to the sandstone in place. Fragments of silicified trunks, probably of deciduous trees, lay loose on the surface. Some of these were mingled with the cycad trunks, and, since the condition of mineralization was the same in both, it was inferred that the silicified trunks of both types had been imbedded under the same conditions, and that they probably came from the same horizon. A short distance east of the cycad field a gray shale, supposed to be the Jurassic of the geologists who have written on the Black Hills, was revealed by an upward arching fold in the bottom of the canyon, but as it contained no fossils judgment was for a time reserved. Three or four miles west of the main group of cycads the ash colored shales, recognized beyond a doubt by Belenuiitcs densus, M. and H., and other characteristic fossils as the Black Hills "Juras- sic" are exposed in full force in the east side of Big Horn basin. The whole thickness of the Jurassic, two hundred feet or more, is thus revealed; while beneath the Jui'assic shales, at the bottom of the basin-like valley, there is an exposure of lied Beds having a thickness of twenty or thirty feet. The rim of Big Horn basin, on the east side at least, exhibits ten or twelve feet of heavy, cross bedded sandstone resting directly on the Jurassic shales. These cross bedded layers constitute the base of the great sandstone formation, to which reference has already been made. The formation extends from the Jurassic shales to the summits of the adjacent buttes. On stratigraphical evidence we are now prepared to recognize it as the Dakota 20 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. sandstone. 'Ihe cycad beds are therefore Cretaceous and belong to Meek and Haydeu's Cretaceous No. 1. A considerable thickness of the sandstone at the top of all the higher buttes of the region has been converted into a very hard, brittle quartzite. The process of vitrification has in some instances almost completely obliterated the original structure; in other cases the original grains are seen imbedded in a a secondary deposit of silica. Contrary to the opinion of some observers, I believe the vitrification to be due to conditions that existed in the sea at the time the beds were deposited. The waters were charged with an unusal amount of soluble silica, which was not only precipitated among the,sand grains, converting the whole mass into a homogeneous quartzite, but some of it was substituted for the molecules of wood and other tissues in the stems of cycads and deciduous trees, that by accident were floated in from adjacent lands. The silicified trunks of ordinary trees now found on the lower slopes occupied by the sandstone are very much broken and weathered and polished by long exposure. On the shoulder of one of the buttes a mile or two west of the main cycad field, not far below the level of the vitrified bed, there was noted a silicified log two feet in diameter at the base, twelve feet of the basal part unbroken, with a train of fragments of varying dimensions extending from the smaller end far enough to indi- cate an original length of seventy or eighty feet The fresh appearance of- this specimen, with its fractures all sharp angled and its parts of consid arable length all in their natural relative positions, was in striking contrast with the short, polished, worn, disassociated fragments found in the residual soil on surfaces two or three hundred feet lower. The differences in condition and appearance indicate enormous differences in the length of time the speci- mens have been exposed. The effects on the better preserved specimen, of rain and frost and wind driven sands, with frequent falls from undermining cliffs, during the years necessary to reduce the hill on which it lies to the level now occupied by the fragments with which it is compared, will not be left to conjecture so long as the worn and dismembered fragments lying at lower levels remain to furnish objective illustrations of what those effects have been in the past. These are reasons for the conclusion that all the silicified trunks, including those of Bennettites, came from the same hor- izon, and that that horizon was the vitrified beds near the summit of the Dakota sandstone. East of the valley followed in this vicinity by the B. & M. railway, rises Arnold's peak, a high butte, the summit eight hundred feet above the valley, and like the other high points of the region, capped with vitrified sand- stone. The geological structure at the base is concealed, but a mile or two farther north, almost directly east of Minnekahta, the high ridge of which Arnold's peak is simply the most prominent part, reveals at its base the belemnite-bearing beds of the Jui'assic. The plain on which Minnekahta stands is some scores of feet below the top of the Jurassic, and not less than six hundi-ed feet below the vitrified sandstone near the summit of the Dakota group. On this plain a few specimens of Bennettites have been found, but in most cases they were so far decomposed as to fall to pieces when attempts were made to remove them. Again we find some relation between the abrasion and decomposition that the fossils have undergone and the vertical distance they lie beneath the level of the vitrified beds. Assuming that all IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21 the fossils were imbedded at essentially the same horizon, then those that now occupy the lowest level haye been longest exi^osed to atmospheric and aqueous agencies. At Hot Springs, about twenty miles as one has to travel from the prin- cipal group of cycads, the valley of Fall river has been cut down through the entire thickness of the Dakota sandstone, through all the Jurassic, and down into the purple limestone and gypsiferous red clays of the Red Beds. Battle Mountain, east of the town of Hot Springs, has an elevation of about a thousand feet above the valley. The upper part of the mountain is com- posed of the Dakota sandstone, and away up at the summit is the quartzite seen on the higher eminences around Minnekahta. Fall river, formerly known as Minnekahta creek, Hows off toward the southeast to join the south fork of the Cheyenne river. About four miles from Hot Springs, the stream emerges from the sandstone hills in a series of cascades which constitute the falls of Fall river. At the falls, as previously observed by Newton, the sandstone is inclined at a high angle and passes beneath the dark colored shales of the Fort Benton group. Crossing the nearly level plain that sep- arates the last of the sandstone hills from a high escarpment that curves around nearly parallel to the mai'giu of the uplift, we tind ourselves on cal- careous beds of the Niobrara group. These are charged with Inoceramus prohlemaiicus Schlotheim, with occasional colonies of Ostrea congesta, the whole aspect of the formation resembling closely the Inoceramus bearing beds near Sioux City, Iowa, and Pouca, Nebraska. The similarity of the Sioux City deposits to Niobi-ara beds on French creek, a locality probably thirty miles northeast of the point just noted, was remarked by Prof. N. H. Winchell in 1874. Over on the Cheyenne river, about six; miles east of Fall River Falls, is an exposure of Niobrara that reminds one of the massive chalk beds at St. Helena, Nebraska. The resemblance is not complete, for at St. Helena the beds are for the most part white, only occasionally portions are bluish in color owing to the pi'esence of organic matter. On the Cheyenne the beds are all bluish. They give out a strong fojtid odor when struck with the hammer. There are indications of the presence of organic matter in unusual amount. But the massive bedding of the soft, calcareous material, the manner in which the layers break down, the huge blocks of talus, the occasional small colonies of Ostrea congesta, the vertebrre and scales of fishes, are each and all perfectly duplicated at the two points mentioned; namely, on the Missouri at St. Helena, and on the south fork of the Cheyenne southeast of Hot Springs. Around Edgemont, south of the hills, the country for some distance is occupied by the Fort Benton shales. A steep escarpment which constitutes the vertical face of the first terrace south of Cheyenne, reveals with their usual characteristics, the Inoceramus beds of the Niobrara: but passing on southwest over the hills toward the valley of Cottonwood creek, the Fort Benton is again exposed. Erosion of the shales has formed a series of Bad Lands on a diminutive scale. It has at the same time made proiuinent cer- tain beds of impure limestone, from which we obtained numerous fossils. Among the collections here were specimens of Prionocyclus wyomingensis Meek, Scaphites warre?ii. Meek, Lunatia coticiniia M. and H., Lioceramus pseuclo-mytiloicles Scheil. two or three other species of Inoceramus, a Pteria or two, and many other less obtrusive forms that have not yet been identified. 22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. At the town of Hot Springs some portions of tiie valley are occupied by horizontal beds of a very coarse conglomerate that lies uncouformably on the folded and tilted Red Beds. The thickness of the conglomerate is about forty feet. It is composed of fragments of all the harder formations from the crystalline rocks at the center of the uplift to the purple limestone of the Red Beds and the quartzite of the Cretaceous. When the conglomerate was deposited the valley had essentially its present depth. In some places the streams have just fairly completed the work of cutting through the conglomerate, in other places they have cut twenty or thirty feet below its base. This conglomerate is probably the equivalent of that lying at the base of the White river Miocene. If so it would indicate an enormous amount of erosion between the beginning and middle of the Tertiary as compared with the amount accomplished since. Returning linally to the main object for which these observations were undertaken, it is clear that BenneUites dacotensis Macbride, belongs to the Cretaceous period, and the evidence is practically conclusive that the exact horizon at which the individuals of the species were imbedded is represented by the uppermost layers of the Dakota sandstone. NOTES ON THE LOWER STRATA OF THE DEVONIAN SERIES IN IOWA. BY VTILLIAM HARMON NORTON. In a report recently made to tlie State Geological Survey, the wi'iter com- municates in detail some facts regarding the breeciated zone of the Devonian in Linn county, Iowa, and the tei'ranes subjacent. The following is in part a brief summary of this report: In the breccia which occupies the same horizon from Davenport to Fay- ette, and which has been termed by McGee the Fayette breccia, four stages are discriminated. The fourth, or upper stage, involves in Linn county to a greater or less extent several life-zones of the Cedar Valley limestone, including the hor- izons of Acervtdaria davidsoni (E. and H.), Phillipsastrea gigas (Owen), Spir. ijera 2)ennata (Owen), and IS pirifera dimesialis (Hall). Matrix and fragments are alike being fossiliferous and shaly, and the fragments are usually large and often but slightly disturbed. The third stage is distinguished by the predominance of fragmental masses, often large and rectangular, of a tough, grey, crystalline or serai- crystalline, heavily bedded limestone, containing a distinct fauna, of which a large Oyroceras and Rhynchonella intermedia {Bnxv'xs) are the most charac- teristic fossils, and Oypidula occidentalis (Hall) and Orthis macfarlnndi (Meek), the most common. The limestone of which these fragments is com- posed is not found in place in Linn county. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23 The second stage is defined by the abundance of fragments, usually small, of a hard, drab, unfossiliferous limestone of finest grain, often thinly bedded, often finely laminated, the lamimo frequently being Hexed or contorted. This limestone also is not found undisturbed in Linn county. The first stage is characterized by an abundant buff or brown matrix, the fragments beiug sparse and small. Some of them are quartzose, belonging like the matrix to the subjacent terrane. This subjacent terrane, locally called the Kenwood beds, consists of mas- sive argillaceous and ferruginous buff and reddish-bi'own limestones, irreg- ularly bedded, often Hexed and arched and passing horizontally and verti- cally beneath into buff thinly laminated or shaly limestone, weathering into slopes of marly clay. In these beds nodules of crystalline quartz with cal- cite and angular fragments of the same are common. Beneath the buflf shales which constitute the bulk of the Kenwood beds lies a layer of green- ish or bluish fissile shale from a few inches to five feet thick. The upper limestones ai*e usually involved, more or less in the Fayette breccia. The total thickness of the Kenwood beds is nearly forty feet. The basal blue shale in especial is believed to represent the horizon of the Independence shales. The latter term, originally designating some sixteen feet of dark car- bonaceous and grey fossiliferous shale pierced by a well near Independence, may readily be extended, however, to include all the limestone and shale of the Kenwood. The latter term is, therefore, used on-ly as a local synonym for the Independence shales, of which it offers many natural sections, the first discovered. Beneath the Kenwood beds in Linn county lies a Devonian terrane not hitherto known, termed the Otis beds. Like the Kenwood beds, from which it is somewhat sharply divided, the Otis limestone is remarkably constant and uniform in its lithological features, some layers with special character- istics being traced across the county. It consists of nearly pure non-mag- nesian limestones, some macro-crystalline and some non-crystalline and compacted of impalpable calcareous silt, often heterogeneous in texture, often lying in heavy lenticular masses, passing into thin calcareous plates. In all the numerous exposures of these beds from the Cedar River above and below Cedar Rapids to near the Jones county line southeast of Spring- ville, Hpirifcra subumbona (Hall) is found gregarious in a typical form dis- tinct from the varietal form found in the Independence shales at Inde- pendence. On the Buffalo and Wapsipiunicon rivers the numerous sections of the Otis limestone are unfossiliferous. The Otis beds, whose total thickness is thirty feet, include hard thinly-bedded magnesian limestone basal layers by which they pass without unconformity into softer heavily bedded dolomitic limestones, probably Silurian in age, provisionally called the Coggan beds. It is believed that the Devonian succession in Linn county will be found to obtain elsewhere in the State where the lower strata of the system are exposed. At Davenport, for example, the lower limestone out-cropping along the Mississippi river from the city northward to Gilbertsville, thinly bedded, arched and partially brecciated, is identical in appearance with the frag- ments of the second stage of the Fayette breccia from Fayette to Cedar Rapids. Under the saddles of its folds there emerges a brown ferruginous limestone indistinguishable from the Upper Kenwood, whose horizon it 24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. seems to occupy. Lithologically and paleoutologically the fossiliferous beds resting on these limestones at Davenport, referred by Barris to the Cornifer- ous, ai-e believed to be equivalent to the Oypidula occidentalis and Rhyncho- nella intermedia limestone, whose presence defines the third stage of the breccia in Linn county, and which in Buchanan county has been named the Gyroceras beds. At Davenport, as in the counties to the northwest, the Gyroceras beds are succeeded by a soft, shaly limestone with a character- istic fauna. The writer has felt the need of definite terms to designate these beds, and therefore suggests for the consideration of workers in this field the name. Lower Daveniyort beds for the lower unfossiliferous limestone at Davenport, the limestone which furnished the fragments for the second stage of the Fayette breccia. If a geographical as well a paleontological term should be found convenient for the fossiliferous limestone overlying these lower beds, the term Upper Davenport beds could be appropriately used as a synonym of the Gyroceras beds. The change in fauna is so distinct at the summit of the Gyroceras beds that it seems to the writer that they should be separated from the Cedar Valley limestones, as the Independence shales have been. If the inferences we have drawn are correct, the "Upper Helderberg" of Hall, and the "Cornifei-ous" of Barris, at Davenport, are superior to the hox-izon of the Independence shales. They must therefore be included in that broad biotic unity whose termini are the Independence shales and the Lime creek shales, whose fauna have been shown by Calvin to be so similar. It is an interesting fact that the new Devonian terrane, the Otis beds, found beneath the Independence shales, contains, as we have stated, as its characteristic fossil a Hamilton and Chemung species, and carries no species, so far as known, allied to pre-Harailton faunas in other states. Geological Laboratory of Cornell College, December 28, 1893. CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS OF NORTHWESTERN IOWA. BY CHARLES K. KEYES. {Abstract.) Until recently little definite information has been accessible concerning the distribution and subdivisions of the Cretaceous deposits of Northwestern Iowa. Strata of Cretaceous age have been recognized from time to time at various points, but, as a rule, little detailed information has been recorded. As early as 1840 Nicollet called attention to certain sections near the mouth of the Sioux river which he regarded as Cretaceous in age. Since that time Cappellini, Marcou, Meek, Hayden, White and others have been through this region. In all these cases the rocks noted were in the imme- diate vicinity of the Missouri river. White gave more attention, perhaps, to IOWA \CADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25 the Iowa strata tbau any of the other writers mentioned, and recognized out- liers as far east as Guthrie county and as far south as Montgomery county. Recently numerous deep well records and Held observations have shown that the Cretaceous deposits cover a much larger area than has hitherto been recorded. The northwestern fourth or tifth of the State may now Ije regarded as occupied by deposits of Cretaceous age. White, in considering the Iowa Cretaceous, divided the beds as found iu tlie Sioux river region into the Woodbury shales and sandstones and the luoce ramus beds. As recently shown by Calvin the Woodlniry shales are equivalent to the Dakota sand- stone and the Fort Benton shales of Meek and Hayden and the Inoceramus beds are the same as the Niobrara of the same authors. Thus three of the formations differentiated by Meek and Hayden are known to be well rep- resented in Iowa. Daring the past season another formation of the Cretace- ous age has been found to extend into Iowa. This is the Fort Pierre shale. It was first noticed iu the State by Mr. H. F. Bain, who found it well developed in the vicinity of Hawarden, in Sioux county, where it attains a consider- able thickness. The easternmost location heretofore known showing the Fort Pierre beds has been Yankton, South Dakota, at which place the deposits are used largely in the manufacture of Portland cement. There is another division of the Cretaceous of the upper Missouri valley which Meek and Hayden have recognized. This is the Fox Hills group. It will be seen, therefore, that four out of the five Cretaceous formations of the region are now known to extend into the State of Iowa. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the Niobrara chalks have been recently recognized as far east as Auburn in the southeastern part of Sac county, eighty miles east of any hiterto reported locality. The Cretaceous deposits have also been extended southward by Mr. E. H. Lonsdale nearly to the Missouri line. The gypsum deposits of Webster county, Iowa, are also thought to belong to this age. It may not be out of place here to mention the fact that iu the drifc of northwestern Iowa boulders have been found consisting of soft friable ferruginous sandstone, highly fossiliferous, the organic remains being characteristic Fox Hills forms. As remarked by White the presence of the friable sandstone blocks indicates that they are not far removed from their original localities. It would not, therefore, be wholly unexpected should outliers of the Fox Hills group yet be found within the limits of Iowa. DERIVATION OF THE UNIONE FAUNA OF THE NORTHWEST. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. One of the most striking features in the zoological history of the Missis- sippi basin is the exceedingly rich and varied moluscan fauna, which is characterized particularly by the Unio family, including all the common river mussels. The great abundance of individuals, the large number of 26 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. forms and the wide geographic I'ange of many of the varieties has perhaps no parallel elsewhere. The first of these statements requires no further procf to one who has worked anywhere within the limits of the region under consideration. The second proposition finds ample evidence in col- lections of more than sixty diffei*ent kinds of these moUusks from a single locality. Altogether more than seven hundred species of the family Union- idfe have been described from North America— over four-fifths of the entire number known to exist in the world. Having such a large number of closely related forms to deal with, it has become very convenient, and indeed very necessary, to separate the chief genus into a number of sub- ordinate groups, naming each after its leading species; thus the sections are known as the "gibbosus," "undulatus" groups, etc. The distribution in space of the uniones of the continental interior has been shown to be in many respects very peculiar. As the problem finds no satisfactory solution in an ordinary zoological treatment, an inquiry has nat- urally been made in regard to how far the present regional disposition of the various groups may have been determined by the conditions of former geological epochs. This involves by far the most important factor in the consideration of the present geographic distribution of organisms, and one which continually assumes gi'eater and greater prominence in dealing with facts pertaining to that subject. It has also been clearly shown in other zoological families that the range of many genera and species in time is very much more extended than has been generally regarded, and that some of the living types have a high antiquity. The recent discoveries of rich land and freshwater fauna; in the Mesozoic and later deposits of the Northwest have done much toward elucid- ating the early history of American fluviatile mollusks. White* has already intimated in a general way the probable close genetic relationship of these fossil uniones and the forms now living in the waters tributary to the Missis- sippi river, but no specific references were made to the mollusks now exist- ing. Laterf it was incidentally mentioned that among the Laramie Unionidse were found the prototypes of Unio Ugamentiims, U. unchilatus and other groups. In the upper Mississippi region the Unionida; are easily separable into three grand sections which are commonly ranked as genera: Anodonta, Margaritaua and Unio. The generic distinctions are based entirely upon the characters of the hinge "teeth;" but there are also other good structural features to support this separation; and the ti'ansitions are few and not well marked. The leading North American groups of Unio may be typified by the following species: Uaio ligamentinus Lam., U. undulatus Barnes, U. ellipsis Lea, U. gibbosus Barnes. U. tuberculatus Barnes, U. pustulosus Lea and U. parvus Lea, besides others which have no bearing in the present con- nection. Of these at least five groups are known to have fossil representations in some portion ot the western Cretaceous or Tertiary strata. In the pi'es- ent consideration no forms from rocks earlier than the Mesozoic age are con- sidered, for the reason that so much doubt at present exists concerning the shells referred to the Unioaidaj from the Davoaian and Carboniferous of this country. As regards the Tertiary forms described under Anodonta and *U. S. Geol. Sur.. 3rd Ann. Bep., 1883. tKeyes: Annot. Cat. Iowa Moi., Bui. Essex Inst,, vol. xx, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 27 Margaritana considerable confusion also prevails; and it is quite certain that some of the species have been wrongly referred to these genera. It has been' stated by Binney and others that among the living land inol- lusks a wide geographic distribution is indicative of a high antiquity for the group. This observation has lately* been extended to certain Carboniferous moUusks. By carefully reviewing the American Unionidai it will be found that the generalization is applicable to this family also. Those (subgeneric) groups having the widest geographical range at the present time in the basin of the Mississippi river are the ones which are best i-epresonted in the Mesozoic strata of the upper Missouri region. As examples. Unio ligamen- tinus, U. ellipsis, U. undnlalus and U. rectus are the most prominent, per- haps. These four species range from Ottawa, Canada, and western New York, to southwestern Kansas and Texas, and from Alabama to northern Minnesota and Dakota. All four groups, along with others, are present in considerable numbers in the freshwater Lai'amie deposits of the Northwest. Of the group typified by the first species mentioned — Unio Ugamentinus — there are a number of forms now known among the fossil Uniones. The shell of the living representative is exceedingly variable, as might naturally be expected of a species occurring under the many diverse conditions of environment such as are imposed by its wide geographical distribution. Throughout its range many specific terms have been applied to the various varietal forms. In some localities this species has a very thin and fragile shell; in others the shell is very thick and massive, with large, heavy hinge- teeth, and rough, deep, muscular impressions, resembling in many respects the early described Unio crassidens of Lamarck. To the latter category the majority of the Laramie forms of the group appear most closely to aijproach, particularly such shells as Unio velustus Meek, from southwestern Wyoming. U. prisons M. and H., seems also to belong to the group. The type contin- ued through the Eocene as U. shoshonensis White. Unio ellipsis is the type of a rather large and variable group of shells. The beaks in this species are far forward, even extending beyond the anterior margin of the shell. It is thus a representative of a series having but few examples among the forms at present living, but which was almost universal among the Laramie species, as was first pointed out by W^hite. The most nearly related of the fossil species now known is perhaps U. proavilus W., but in the former the "teeth" are somewhat heavier and the outline more rotund. Other forms of this type are are found in V. cryptorhynchus and U. propheticus. Unio gonio7iotis White, is evidently one of the "undulatus" group; but it more closely resembles some other members of this section rather than the leading species itself, U. belliplicatus, while differing considerably from the type of the group, is believed to have a close relationship with other members of the section, particularly certain forms that have recently been noted from Kansas. The Unio recttts gi'oup is characterized by rather large, elongate forms, having heavy shells, rounded in front, and more or less attenuated behind. The Laramie representatives are best known under U. co7iesiW., and per- haps also U. daiia; ^l. and H. In the Eocene U. clinopisthus appears to have flourished as the; descendant of the early "gibbosus," or "rectus" type- •Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phlla., 1888, p. 245. 28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Among the fossils already alluded to are a number of Anodontte, the most prominent of which is A. prepatoris, a member of the "grandis" group. Margaritana has been reported from the Cretaceous, but at present there is much doubt as to the correct reference of the form to this genus. At present the oldest American form of Unio is U. cristonensis Meek. It was described from a horizon doubtfully referable to the Triassic, and was first figured by White. The type spec'mens are imperfect, but show dis- tinctly the generic characters. White* has expressly called attention to the fact of the extreme shorten, ing of the Laramie Uniones in front of the beaks, or rather the forward posi- tion of the umbones as compared with the modern shells. This fact is of great interest in its bearing upon the phylogeny of the group, as it is au important consideration in support of Neumayr's recently advanced sugges- tion concerning the derivation of the Uniones from the Trigonidfe. Should this near relationship of the two families be established it is very probable that the view just mentioned would require some slight modification. For the two families had ah'eady, in the Cretaceous, become very much diffei'- entiated, so that the two types were probably derived from a common, but rather remote ancestor, rather than one fi'om the other. A most remarkable feature concerning the Unione fauna of North America is the striking individuality of the forms of each drainage basin, however limited it may be. This peculiarity is so marked that one acquainted with the American species of the family has little difficulty in telling from which particular portion of the country, or indeed the stream, a given series of shells was taken, even when the most widely distributed species are under consideration. It was probably this fact more than any other that occasioned the vast multiplication of species by Lea whose wide familiarity with these bivalves enabled him from the external characters alone to readily determine tlie locality of the various forms of Unionidaa brought to his notice. It is, perhaps, one of the best known examples show- ing how persistent, how exclusive, how united a particular fauna of a lim- ited geographic area may be, when the physical conditions are seemingly quite diverse. It also illustrates how well the peculiarities of two contigu- ous basins may be fully preserved even when the conditions of environment are presumably the same. A hint towards a partial explanation of these phenomena is derived from geological data concerning the permanency of river basins; for it has been satisfactorily shown that the water courses are among the longest lived of all the topographical features of a region. This being the case the Unionida3 would be admirably adapted to flourish through long periods of time and undergo but slight structural modifications, and this certainly seems true of these bivalves in the Missouri basin, for they have come down from Mesozoic tiiues almost unchanged. The distinctness of unione faunte in separate drainage basins has some striking illustrations in the upper Mississippi valley. One in particular has I'ecently been brought into notice in the case of the Des Moines and Iowa rivers, which flow parallel to one another southeastward across the State of Iowa. The peculiar distribution of the lamellibranchs in the eastern and western portions of the State was pointed out some time ago in an annotated catalogue of the Mollusca of Iowa. Of the species found in *U. S. Geol. Sur., 3rd Ann. Rep., p. 431, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIP:NCES. 29 the Des Moines river there are seven that do not occur in the Iowa, while in the latter stream there are twenty-one forms that are not found in the former; twenty-six species are common to both rivers. Of the latter, four are rare in the Iowa but abundant in the Des Moines, while two are rare in the last mentioned water course and common in the eastern stream. Now the molluscan fauna of the Iowa is identical with that of the Minne- sota river, suggesting that an intimate connection may have existed, at a period not very remote, between the latter stream with some oue of the drainage basins of eastern iowa. That the connection was probably of a comparatively recent date is shown by the distribution of the living Unionidie in the upper Mississippi valley which points strongly t© the wide- spread influence of certain peculiar agencies during glacial times which modifled the former range of the mollusks of the region. The present topo- graphy, however, of southern Minnesota, does not seem to exhibit any direct indications of such a relation as is above alluded to, except in the central part. But it is probable, as has been urged by Chamberlain, McGee and others, that during the glacial period the elevation above the sea level of the region under consideration was very different from that of the present time. The objection raised by tlie previous statement therefore loses most of its force. The persistence, with such slight structural modifications, of the mem- bers of the UnionidiB for the long period of time that must have elapsed since the close of the Cretaceous appears to indicate a high antiquity for this type of molluscan life. But since so very little or nothing is known concerning the internal characters of the shells of the Paleozoic lamelli- branchs, it is very probable that a number of other Unio representatives will be found among forms already described under genera not at all related. On the other hand future research will doubtless bring to light new types connecting more closely the family with others. In this con- nection it is of interest to note that Whiteaves has latelj' described some lamellibranchs from the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia which with little doubt possess characters which would cause great difficulty in the attempt to separate the forms from typical Unio. PROCESS OF FORMATION OF CERTAIN QUARTZITES. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. ( Abstract. ) In the extreme northwestern corner of Iowa there is a small area of very hard, thoroughly vitreous rock, which has been known for more than a quarter of a century as the Sioux quartzite. The mass is also well exposed in the adjoining portions of Minnesota and South Dakota. The Sioux "granite," as it is now locally called among quarrymen, is of considerable 30 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. interest for the reason that it has long been the only altered formation known within the limits of Iowa. The apparent metamorphic characters of the qnartzite beds is all the more remarkable from the fact that the rocks of the State are so horizontal in their position, so undisturbed by mountain making forces, and so unchanged in lithological characters that it is com- monly supposed that all the strata of the State are essentially the same as when deposited in the quiet waters of the great interior sea which once occupied the heart of the American continent. Although so thoroughly ci-ystalliue and so closely resembling quartzitic rocks altered from sand beds through regional or contact metamorphism no massive crystallines have been mentioned in connection with the Sioux quartzite until quite lately when a large mass of diabase was discovered in the midst of the quartzite of southeastern Dakota. Still more recent borings in northwestern Iowa have revealed no great distance below the surface other rocks of undoubted eruptive origin among which may be mentioned quartz-porphyry. The Sioux quartzite formation has received considerable attention from time to time, but for the most part the observations have been somewhat cursory; incidental to other examinations rather than special examinations. Irving's description of the lithological featui'es of this formation essen- tially agrees with observations made during the past few mouths. It is as follows: "Loose sandstone to the hardest and most complete vitreous quartzite, the prevalent phase being a distinctly quartzitic one. The loosest and most completely indurated portions are arranged in the most iri'egular relations to one another. Occasionally they will be iuterstratified. At times the exposed parts will be completely vitrified, while below artificial openings will display an entirely loose sandstone, suggesting an induration of the exposed portions by weathering. In other cases, however, exactly the I'everse of this will be met with, while very often the more and less indurated phases pass into each other latei'ally by I'apid graduations, the two phases traversing the layers and dovetailing iato each other in the most irregular manner. The prevalent color of the formation is red, but the loosest varieties are often very pale coloi'ed, while the most vitreous kinds frequently present a very dark purple hue. In western Minnesota and again in certain points of Dakota, there is associated with the quartzite the fine clayey rocks known as pipestone, or catlinite. Intermediate between this pipestone and the purely silicious quartzite are clayey sandstones and quartzites, often of a blotched appearance, and not a little resembling externally certain of the Keweenavvan sandstones of Lake Superior. So far as the microscope studies have gone these rocks are in the main mixtures of red clay and quartz. Con- glomeritic phases of the quartzite are met with at a number of points, but no other rocks but those already mentioned have been recognized in this great formation." Thin sections under the micx'oseope show that the great sandstone beds have become consolidated and rendered quartzitic through the secondary enlargement of the sand grains, by additions of silica, the added parts being oriented optically with the internal grains they surround. In South Dakota a few miles northeast of Carson station on the Sioux City & Northern Rail- road, there is exposed in the i-ailroad cut some sections which show an alter- nation of thin layers of the hardest quartzite and soft incoherent sands. In IOWA ACADEMY OF SC1EN(;ES. 31 places the alternatiug quartzitic layers are only one or two inches in thick- ness, and are each separated by several inches of loose sand. By selecting the sand grains near the qnartzite and examining them carefully under a microscope, the grains may be found abundantly showing secondary enlarge- ment. In many cases the crystalographic faces are well defined, and the common hexagonal pyramid of typical quartz is found perfectly repi'oduced, each with a sand grain inside. In many instances the sand grain is especially well defined for the reason that red oxide of iron has filled the irregularities in the surface. It appears, then, that in these enlargements there is a more or less rounded irregular grain, thickly coated with iron oxide, and around this has been deposited secondary quartz with crystal faces often well defined. As the secondary enlargement goes on the contiguous grains become closely interlocked, forming the compact vitreous qnartzite which is so well known. ORIGIN OF THE PRESENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF WARREN COUNTY. J. L. TILTON. Synopsis: First.- -In Warren county the drift is of uneven depth. As in other drift areas, this unevenness is not dependent entirely on the pre-glacial surface. In the unconformity of the drift on this pre-glacial surface a rela- tion is seen indicating a similarity between the present drainage system and the pre-glacial drainage system. Second. — The present river valleys and larger ravines are larger than present streams require. They fit into the pre-glaciai valleys. Third. — In the smaller ravines only do we find erosion without regard to the pre-glacial configuration of the county. In connection with field geology work in the northern part of Warren county and the adjacent townships of Madison county, a question of con- stantly increasing interest to me has been this: To what is the present drainage system of the county due? I will endeavor to make clear an answer to this query, without too much detail, leaving other questions to l)e presented at some future time. It is generally understood that the drift is laid in irregular deposits, here thick on the hill tops, there thick in the valleys. Are we to expect, then, that the present drainage system has been marked out since the "Ice Age," with lit- tle regard for the previously existing systems? It is true, that in the county referred to there is no regularity in the depth of the drift deposit. At times the drift rests on sandstone, at times on limestone, at times on shale. Two-thirds way from lujianola to Spring Hill is a valley; its sides with equal pitch. The road down the east side shows Carboniferous outcrops 32 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. very prominently, while by the road clown the west side is a drain, cutting deep into loess, without a trace of Carboniferous strata. A little east of this ravine is another ravine crossing the road, cutting through loess and vari- ous Carboniferous strata; here is an excellent illustration of unconformity, for within a hundred feet the surface of the Carboniferous strata slopes northward, in the direction of the present drainage, allowing the loess to rest successively on clay shale, coal, fireclay and shale. Indianola is built on a hill thickly capped with drift, while a hill east of Carlisle has shale, clay, and coal out-cropping in the road, even near the top of the hill. To see the bearing of these illustrations of unconfornaity, let it be I'emem- bered that the old surface was exposed to erosion during untold centuries from the close of the Carboniferous Age till the "ice Age." In that long period there was opportunity to cut out the immense valleys occupied for ages then as now, by small streams. The unconformity of the drift on this ancient surface reveals the direction of drainage in pre-glacial times. This unconformity indicates that the more prominent ravines of the present lie in pre-glacial ravines, though frequently on one side of the ravine. At pi-esent three rivers caiTy the surface water to the Des Moines. At times in the spring these rivers are tilled till their flood plains are sub- merged, but ordinarily they are nearly dry. Making what seems due allowance for high water iu spi'ing, one cannot help but wonder how these streams could cut into Carboniferous strata or even wash away drift material till each little river had such broad flats as those to be seen north of Greeubush on North river, at Summerset on Middle river, and south of Indianola on South river. Comparing the ravines that open into these rivers, we notice that where the surface rocks are least easily decomposed there the sides of the ravines are steepest and out-crops most easily found, while in sections where the surface rocks are soft, as north of Lathrop, there the sides of the I'avines are rounded and out-crops less frequently found; yet over it all the loess is generally undisturbed. Some of these main ravines cut deep into loess, while the same deposits are apparently as deep on the knolls that separate parts of the ravine. Back from the main ravines reach the smaller ones, rarely cutting deep enough to remove anything but loess. East of Buffalo bridge a valley nearly a quarter of a mile wide is cut through a hill fully a hundred and seventy feet high composed of masses of limestone, but the ravine mentioned now contains a stream nearly dry the larger part of the year. What little water there is in this gorge flows north- ward. Comparing the valleys running to the north with those running south- ward there is nothing to indicate that one set has been favored more in its formation by either ice or water from melting ice masses. We should natur- ally expect ice moving from the northeast to gouge out the soft material lying on the north slopes near the tops of the hills; yet such material is still found exposed. At the unconformity mentioned where the ravine opens to the northward the strata referred to are very exposed to such erosion. The valleys sloping to the northward have no characteristics in common, distin- guishing them from valleys sloping southward. Especially is it difficult to conceive how ice, or water from a melting ice mass, could erode such a IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIP^NCES. 33 valley as that lueutioued as lying jnst east of Buffalo bridge, Madison county, or of those in White Oak township, Warren county. A similar statement may be made in regard to the river valleys. The rivers wander here and there over a partly alluvial plain with drift along the margins, at times even on the very banks of the rivers themselves. Comparing these different data it is clear the river valleys were mai'ket! out chietly in pre-glacial times. During Mesozoic and Tertiary times when this region was subject to constant erosion, wide valleys were cut into the carboniferous strata as deep as the present valleys. While the drift is an important factor in the present configuration of the country, yet in the region referred to the ice had little to do in erosion, and the waters from melting ice sought in general the natural previously determined drainage courses thus keeping open the rivers and many of the chief ravines of pre- glacial times, while only the lesser ravines have been marked out since the drift was deposited. STRUCTURE OF THE MYSTIC COAL BASIN. BY H. FOSTER BAIN, IOWA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. The lower measures of the Iowa-Missouri coal field consist of a series of sandstones, shales, fire clays and coal beds, which have been found to inter- lock in a characteristically irregular manner. The different individual beds have, with rare exceptions, only a limited extent, and frequently grade into each other in a manner making their stratigraphy quite complex. This varia- bility has been recognized by many workers* and has recently been elab- oratedf so fully that only a reference is necessary in this connection. The explanation of the irregularity is found in the conditions of the depositions of the beds. It depends primarily upon the facts indicated so abundantly by the nature of the beds themselves— that these measures are marginal depositions, and it has been suggested^ that in this field the lower coal measures represent the marginal deposits, of which the upper coal measures are the, in part, contemporaneous open sea beds. In certain portions of the field the irregularities may be directly traced to the iuffuence of the uneven nature of the fioor upon which the beds were laid down. •Swallow: Rep. Mo. Geol. Sur., p. 87, .Jefferson City, 1853. Wortlien: Geol. of Iowa, vol. I, p. 250. 1858. Broadhead: Rep. Mo. Geol. Sur., II., p. 1H6. Jefferson City, 1872. Norwood: liep. Mo. Geol. Sur., pp. 200-215. 1873-1874. Jefferson City, 1874. tlveyes: Stratigraphy of the Carboniferous in Central Iowa; Bui. Geol. So. Am II pp. 277-292, 1891. Winslow: Mo. Geol. Sur., Prelim. Rep. on Coal, pp. 21-22, 1891. tWlnslow: Missouri Coal Measures and the Conditions their Deposition; Bui Geol. Soc. Am., III., 109-121, 1892. Keyes: Geol. Sur. Iowa, vol. I., First Ann. Rep., pp. 84 85, Des Moines, 1893. 3 34 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The limitations of tlie various strata are perhaps more strikingly shown in the coal beds themselves than in any others. The fev^r limestones known to occur in the liOwer Coal Measures, such as that shown in the banks of Walnut Creek at Mystic, are of course persistent over wide areas. Certain of the sandstones, such for example as that exposed at Red Rock, in Marion county, attain a considerable geographic extent. The shales, however, and even more particularly the coal beds, usually cover areas quite limited. Indeed it is the exception to tind a coal bed which can be traced more than a few miles at most. In marked contrast to this general character is the coal seam at present worked in Appanoose and adjoining counties. As compared with the other coal seams of Iowa the extent of the one in question is quite exceptional. As nearly as can now be determined it extends over a distance of nearly fifty miles north and south and at least forty miles east and west. There is probably no other vein in the Lower Coal Measures of the State which extends unbroken over an equal stretch of territory. Not that it is now absolutely continuous over the whole extent, but that its identity may be accepted with considerable assurance. A general section representative of the strata of this i-egion taken from the record of several mines at Centerville is as follows: FEET. INCHES. 17. Soil, fine black 3 16. Clay, yellow 33 15. Clay, blue, containing boulders and fragments of wood, coal and limerock 30 14. Limestone 6 13. Shale, argillaceous, blue 3 12. Shale, argillaceous, red 11 11. Sandstone, soft with thin hard layers 8 10. Shale, argillaceous 10 9. Limestone, compact gray 3 8. Shale, bituminous pyritiferous 7 7. Limestone, usually bituminous "Caprock" 3 6 6. Shale, firm bituminous 1 2 5. Coal 1 8 4. Clay-parting 2 3. Coal 1 2 2. Fireclay 3 1. Limestone (seen in the bluffs at Mystic) 2 10 The thickness and character of these different layers vary within certain limits, but the general features of the section may be considered as fairly constant. Other bauds of limestone occasionally make their appearance, and the character of the shale is of course inconstant. The presence of numbers 9 and 14 is tolerably constant throughout the field. They are known respectively as the "Seventeen" and "Fifty foot" limestones from their general occurrence at about those heights above the coal. They may be relied upon as fairly accurate guiding marks, though they have in certain places been removed by later erosion. An examination of the coal in the above section shows that it.has several points which ai'e peculiarly chai'acteristic, and make its recognition easy and secure. The following five sections are taken from different parts of the field, and are a few of a large number showing the characteristics of the vein. They IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35 will show the main evidence relied upon to estal)lish the identity of the seam, though much confirmatory material could be added from the nature of the coal and the general geological and topographical relations of the region: { 1.) Section measured as exposed along Walnut Creek at Mystic, in the north central part of Appanoose county: 7. Limestone, massive, grey (seen in Lone Star drift) 6. Shale, bituminous 5. Coal 4. Fireclay 3. Ooal 2. Fireclay 1. Limestone SET. INX-HES 6 •} 2 y 2 10 { 3.) Section as seen in a mine at Seymour, Wayne county, at a depth of 242 feet: FEET. INCHES. Limestone "Caprock" 2 Shale, bituminous 1 6 Coal 1 6 Clay 2 ('oal 1 Fireclay 1 2 Limestone bed-roclv , (3.) Section examined in a mine at Centerville, Appanoose county, at a depth of 150 feet: FEET. INCHES. 7. Limestone 6. Shale, black 1 5. Coal 1 5 4. Fireclay 3 3. Coal 1 2 2. Fireclay 1 g 1. Limestone (4.) Section at Blackbird Coal Company's shaft, two miles north of Unionville, Putman county, Missouri: FEET. INCHES. 7. Limestone, hard gray 3 » i Clayey gray sliales (Clod) 6-8 ^- '1 Black fissile shale 1 5. Coal 1 8-10 4. Clay parting I.3 3. Coal 2. Clay 3 1. Limestone (5.) Section of coal bed at Stahl, Adair county, Missouri:* FEET. INCHES. 7. Limestone 1 10-12 P JClay(Clod) 0.3 "• I Black fissile shale 1 ti'^'o 5. Coal 2 4. Clay partings j.3 (Coal 1 3. ^Clay ■.■.■.■.■;.■.■.■. 1-0 Icoal \.o 2- Clay 1 4_; 1. "Bottom Rock" 1 g * Sections IV and V taken from Missouri Geol. Sur.. Prelim. Rep. on Coal, pp.56 and 61 Jefferson City, 1891. 10-12 36 IOWA ACADEMY O? SCIENCES. An examination of these different sections shows a remarkable persist- ence of character. The thin clay parting remains constant between two and three inches over the whole distance. The greatest variation is shown in the underlying fire clay and overlying shales. In Iowa this coal has been found along both branches of the Chariton river in the northeastern part of Wayne county, and mined near Grffiins- ville and Milledgeville, in the northwestern part of Appanoose county. Its presence on Little Walnut creek, near Walnut City, is known. It is well exposed along Big Walnut, and is extensively mined at Brazil, Mystic and Rathburn. It has been mined at Piano, Garfield, Dennis, and a few miles southwest of Moravia. There is a coal exposure on Soap creek, at Foster, in Monroe county, which may be the same. At Centerville, Numa, and Jerome, the coal is mined at depths of about one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and sixty feet, while at Seymour in Wayne county, it is reached at two hundred and forty-three feet; and at Howard, in the same county, is reached at a slightly less depth. At Livingston and Cincinnati in the south- ern part of Appanoose county, it lies neax'er the surface; near Hillstown, in the southeastern part of the county, it outcrops along the Chariton. Coal is mined at Coatsville, in Schuyler, Stahl, in Adair, and Mendota, Union- ville, and other points in Putmau counties in Missouri, which has been con- sidered* to belong to the same seam, and part of it at least, has been dix'ectly correlatedf with the Mystic coal. Without doubt this is a continuation of the vein mined in Iowa; since the mines at Cincinnati, Iowa, and Mendota, Missouri, are only a short distance apart, and the same is true at Hillstown and Coatsville. The character of the coal, and the attendant strata, as well as the general geological relations in the region in question, all bear on this assumption. The presence of a seam of coal with such exceptionally uniform charac- ter and wide geographical limits within the boundaries of the lower coal measures as now recognized, is an item of considerable economic, as well as scientific interest. It has had a very important bearing upon the develop- ment of the coal iudusti'y of that portion of Iowa, and has been one of the leading factors in the remarkable growth which that industry has there experienced. SIGOUFtNEY DEEP WELL. Br H. FOSTER BAIN. During the summer of 1888 a deep well was drilled at Sigourney, in Keokuk county. Captain Parker, who was at that time mayor, carefully preserved samples of the dift'ereut strata passed through. These samples have recently been re-examined, and form the basis of the following notes. *Winslow: Geol. Sur. Mo., Prelim. Rep. on Coal, pp. 54-62, Jefferson City, 1891. tNorwood: Rep. Mo. Geol. Sur., 1873-1874, p. 295, Jefferson City, 1874. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37 While the unreliability of records derived from the ordinary or churn drill is fully recognized, it is believed that the care with which these samples were selected and preserved, at least considei'ably reduces that element of doubt. Previous accounts of this record have been published in the local newspapers, and re-published by C. H. Gordon in the American Geologist." Recent studies in the region, as well as a revision of the material, give, however, considerable information not available at that time. The following table represents the record as i-ecently determined, as well as the interpretation: 1- 98 Earthy matter 98 Drift 98 98-120 Limestone, impure, eartliy 22 120-135 Limestone, ctierty 15 13,5-155 Sliale, calcareous 20 155-165 Limestone and shale 10 165-170 Limestone, liard, bluish gray 5 170-187 Limestone, cherty, light 17 Saint Louis... 89 187-189 Shale 2 189- 314 Limestone, hard, white with brown particles 125 314- 315 Shale, dark green 1 315- 356 Limestone, grayish white to drab, Zij/»c?io»efJa at 342 ft.. 41 Augusta 168 356- 554 Shale, soft, green 198 554-556 Limestone ... 2 55(5- 5S5 Shale, soft, green 29 Kinderhook.229 585-835 Limestone 250 Devonian 250 835-865 Sandstone 30 805-871 Limestone 6 Niagara 36 871-1030 Shale, blue argillaceous 151 Maquoketa..l51 1030-1275 Limestone 245 1275-1281 Sliale 6 Trenton and 1281-1315 Limestone 34 Galena ....285 1315-14C0 Sandstone 115 Saint Peter.. 115 1430-1717 287 1717-1888 Limestone 171 Oneota. A comparison between this and the previously published record shows several discrepancies. The drift is in both cases given as 98 feet deep. The next 89 feet is now referred to as the Saint Louis, whereas it was formerly considered to be Keokuk. There are a number of reasons for this change. In the first place, an examination of the samples shows that the beds are not a single homogeneous limestone as represents the Augusta of this region, but are made up of alternating bands of limestone and shales such as compose the Saint Louis. It is also worthy of note that the particles of limestone preserved are of the tine grained, compact character and ash to brown color so constantly seen in the Saint Louis of this immediate region, and not of the coarser crystalline variety shown in the nearest exposures of Keokuk. The topographic features also bear out this assumption. A line of levels shows that the mouth of the well is 118 feet above the bed of the river two miles south of town. Saint Louis limestone is exposed along the river, reaching here a height of nearly twenty feet, or about what it would be if on a level with the strata found in the well, which are referred to the same age. ♦Gordon, Notes on the Geology of Southeastern Iowa (Am. Geol.. IV. 237-239, 1889.) 38 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Keyes* has recently shown that the two limestones found in southeastern Iowa, and long known as the Keokuk and Burlington, ai'e really conforma- ble members of the same formation to which the name Augusta has been given. Worthen.f in his notes on Washington county, calls attention to remark- able thinning out of the Keokuk; it being greatly reduced or entirely absent over the regions studied. This observation has, during the present field season, been completely substantiated, not only for Washington, but Keokuk county. These facts taken together, all point to the same conclusions: that the first 89 feet of limestone pierced belongs to the Saint Louis, while the Keokuk is represented merely in a few feet of the succeeding 168 feet of strata. The two bands of heavy limestone comprised in the strata thus referred to, the Augusta, are closely similar in lithological character, and resemble the Augusta limestone of the region as nearly as can be determined. At a depth of 342 feet a fossil, Rhynchonella sp. und., was brought up, it being the only fossil preserved. Below this point the element of uncertainty becomes greater. The succeeding 239 feet of shale is probably all referable to the Kinderhook, though the thickness is somewhat greater than an exam- ination of the Washington county outcrops seem to indicate. The 250 feet of limestone which succeeds is most probably Devonian. The succeeding 30 feet of sandstone and 6 feet of limestone are more probably Niagara, since Calvin has shown that the Niagara at Washington is arenaceous. It is prossible, howevei', in this case, that the sandstone encountered may be of Devonian age and represent the Montpelier sandstone. The overlying limestone being the Cedar Valley. The Maquoketa shale seems, by comparison with neighboring i-ecords, to be well recognized. The heavy limestone band, 285 feet, succeeding the shale is probably representative of the Trenton and Galena, though it seems impossible to draw a good line between them. The 115 feet of sandstone which succeeds seems to be the Saint Peter. Beneath this for some distance no samples were obtained as the current of water struck was so strong as to wash away all the drillings. The lower position of the well yielded samples which an examination proved to be limestone as Gordon surmised, and not sandstone as published. This seems to clearly prove that the well ended in the Oaeota, though the top of the formation was not definitely located nor was it penetrated, so that its thick- ness under this portion of Iowa is as much a problem as ever. The well was sunk in hopes of obtaining strong flow of artesian water. A moderate flow was obtained but has never been used to any great extent. At 1,320 feet in the Saint Peter sandstone a vein of water was struck which contained mineral matter and possessed a strong odor. At 1,360 feet in the same formation an opening was struck and the drill suddenly dropped two feet. A strong current of fresh water carried oft' all the samples and the water increased to the depth of 1,388 feet, when it flowed over the top of the well while drilling and stood within thirty feet of the top when the drill was at rest. No more water was struck from here to the bottom of the well. ♦Keyes, Geological Formations in Iowa (Iowa Geol. Sur. I, First Ann. Rep., 1892, 59- 60, Des Moines, 1893). tWorthen, Geol. of Iowa, vol. I, p. 244. Albany, 1858. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39 SOUTHERN EXTENSION OF THE CRETACEOUS IN IOWA. BY E. H. LONSDALE. The Cretaceous deposits of Iowa, from time to time, have received the attention of a number of geologists. The most important researches were made by Mai'cou, Meek, Heer, White and Calvin. Their investigations were carried on chiefly in the vicinity of Sioux City. The formation elsewhere in the State has, with a few exceptions, received no consideration. Its exact extent is yet to be determined; its vertical thickness is yet unknown; the aelative ages of some of its beds remain to be established. Over western Iowa, in fact, over practically the whole State, resting upon the pre-tertiary beds, whatever these beds maybe, is a mantle of debris collected and carried by the great glaciers as they advanced and receded, then and in the end depositing that material which is now recognized as drift clays, sands, gravels and boulders. This drift material, as a whole, commonly so extensive in vertical thick- ness, so persistent in its occurrence, and so readily yielding to the weathering agencies, has almost completely concealed the older rocks upon which it traveled and deposited itself. There are, however, occasional exposures of these rocks standing out more or less precipitously along preglacial streams which were of such magnitude or position, as the case may be, to withstand the attack made by the glaciers, and thereby continue their existence; along postglacial water courses which have cut through the drift and upper strata of the underlying formations thus developing a narrow or broad channel and growing new exposures along its way. These few outcroppings afford about the only source from which reliable geological results can be gathered. The Cretaceous, made up as it is of soft layers, such as sandstones, whose particles are commonly loosely or not cemented together, and beds of clay shales, would naturally suffer to a greater extent from the effects of the glaciers and weathering than would the limestones and other hard rocks of older formations. It would consequently be expected that the limits of the former would not now be even approximately the same as the original restriction of the Cretaceous in Iowa, nor, as nearly the same as are the boundaries of the earlier formations. Again, on account of the texture of the Cretaceous the exposures soon became covered with debris, even though at the close of the glacial period they were yet bare. Therefore, only rarely will faces of rocKs be left to view. This is the case not only inland but along the bluff's of large and small streams. White has probably given more attention to the inland exposures of Cretaceous than any one else. In addition to the Sioux City region he 40 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. described beds in situ, in Guthrie and some of tlie southwestern counties and set them down as Cretaceous. To those in Montgomery county, con- sisting of almost wholly of ferruginous grits, he gave the name Nishnabotna sandstone. The exposures farthest to the southeast were located in Guthrie county; the southernmost at Red Oak, Montgomery county. These are all described as outliers, the distance from the assumed eastern and southern limits of the mam Iowa Cretaceous deposits, of which the Sioux City beds form by far the most important adjunct, varying from twenty to nearly one hundred miles. In individual size these outliers have been considered as only a few miles, perhaps one to less than twenty, in their greatest diameter. During the field season which has recently closed a cousidei'able amount of work was done in southwestern Iowa; additional information pertaining to the Cretaceous outliers in general, was secured; the southern limit was extended and conclusions pertaining to areal mileage of the different outliers have been drawn with greater or less satisfaction. In the first place let the topography of southwestern Iowa be considered briefly. Eastward from the bluffs which are pi-evalent along the great flood plain of the Missouri or adjacent to the river itself the counties consist of gently rolling uplands, which rise gradually to a height of one hundred to two hundred feet above the near by waterways. The tops of the ridges between the usually parallel streams continue in their axial lines in an almost unbroken plane for many miles. The bottom, level land next to the larger streams varies in width from a few yards to one or two miles, this width depending largely upon the size of the stream which penetrates the low land. From the outer margins of these bottoms there rise gradual slopes curving smoothly to the upland drainage lines. Occasionally are found outcroppings of bedded rock in these slopes but they are in no wise extensive in any locality. There are, however, in western Iowa beds of the Coal Measures which are exposed, but rarely are any such beds exposed at a great distance above the streams near which they are situated. The top of many are but a foot or so above the water, others fifty or possibly more; but those approximating the former in extent predominate. In the vicinity of the Cretaceous outliers this is even so and such occurrences would undoubtedly indicate if not certainly prove that these inland streams have cut through friable beds of the Cretaceous and but only a few of the upper beds of the hard Coal Measures, that possibly not unfrequently has the former formation not been passed through by the streams now existing and some of the so-called outliers are connected and not separated as here- tofore supposed. The fact that the drift, though omnipresent, in this sec- tion of the State is not excessively heavy, not heavy enough to hide pre- cipitous limestone bluffs, if they be of considerable thickness, makes this state of affairs moi'e plausible. This condition seems even more probable in parts of Guthrie county where the bottom lands are much narrower than those to the southwest. Again, it is quite possible that these outliers in Montgomery and adjoining counties extend farther northward and those in Guthrie county farther northwestward, towards the sources of and between the streams along which they lie; at the same time shortening the space intervening between the outliers and the present limits of the main Cre- taceous body in Iowa. Although no positive information can be given in support of this theory, the exposures being few in number and only adjacent IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41 lo Ihe streams, one must readily infer that this condition exists at least to a greater degree than heretofore accorded. It is a notable fact that between the Guthrie and Cass county outliers there are no exposures of bedded rock either of the Coal Measures or of the Cretaceous and it may even be that one or more of these outliers in the one county are connected with those in the other. Further, as results of recent investigations, new or previously unrecorded. Cretaceous outcrops have been found; the southernmost deposits of this age are no longer contined to central Montgomery and northeastern Mills counties. In Montgomery county along the western slope of the ridge lying adjacent to and east of the East Nishnabotna, Cretaceous beds were recognized by an almost continuous exposure from Red Oak, the locality where White claimed the southernmost Cretaceous existed, to the south boundary of the county. The character of the bed varies here from a tine white to brown nou-tirm sandrock to a compact pudding stone. This latter is composed largely of pebbles from one-fourth to one-half an inch iu diameter, imbed- ded in a somewhat to quite siliceous limonite matrix. In some of these exposures are absorbed excellent samples of cross bedding. At Coburg, only one mile north of the south line of Montgomery county a bluff rises abruptly from the outer margin of the here rather broad alluvial plain. Near the base of this bluff is a bed of fine friable sandrock eighteen feet thick lying beneath a few feet of coarser sand, small pebbles occurring in bands, over which bed I'ests about ten feet from the pudding stone. This entire section presents an elegant cross bedded character. About half way between this point and Red Oak these same beds occur and are more fully exposed. The total exposed thickness of the lower sandstone is thirty feet while that of the overlying pudding gtone is perhaps as great. This latter rock is very hard and firmer than any Cretaceous rock yet noticed in Iowa, and is quite persistent in this vicinity, withstanding to a great degree the eroding agencies, so preserving the under deposits. Two and a half miles eastwai'd from Cobarg, on the county line a soft, Cretaceous sandrock rises above Ramp creek forming on the south side of the creek a perpendicular bluff twenty feet iu height. South of this bluff, in Page county, small outcrops of such stone are noticed; some in the slope of the hill higher than the top of the bluff' just mentioned. On the hill to the northward a well entei-ed the sandstone at an elevation some higher than that of the top of the creek bluff. These facts go to prove that the thick- ness of the bed here is not much less than it is found to be in northern Montgomery county. The bottom of the bluff extends into the bed of the creek and only a short distance up the stream Coal Measure limestone crops out, with no perceptible dip in any direction, several feet above the water, indicating again the unconformability of the Cretaceous upon the lower rocks. In Page county about one mile east of Essex (Tp. 70 N., R. XXXIX W.) the pudding stone such as described elsewhere, is found exposed along the roadside. Here it has about the same relative position above the East Nishnabotna as at points farther northward. This outcrop is only twenty miles north of the Missouri line and is decidedly the southernmost exposure of the formation recorded as existing in Iowa. South of this exposure 42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. about five miles a well more thau 300 feet deep was bored and no bed, definitely recognized as Cretaceous, was shown in the record; though it is possible that some of the upper clays there met were of this age. No samples of the borings were seen. It must be remembered that the surface of the Upper Carboniferous at the incursion of the Cretaceous sea in Iowa was not regular; perhaps even more irregular and broken than the surface of the strata is to-day. Deep channels, gorges, depressions, and rises marked the entire surface. The Cretaceous as a shoi'e deposit maj'^ have wholly filled these Carboniferous channels and hollows, spreading itself in great depth near the floor, or partly leaving protuberances and ridges of higher elevations uncovered. However this may have been, the friable Cretaceous was, after the time of its laying down, greatly modified both by the preglacial weathering agen- cies and the glacial grinding and corroding. Daring those stages new channels were cut, others more deeply corroded, many extending through the entire thickness of the formation; large areas were disturbed, only to be obliterated by the i-epeated advancement and retreat of the glacier, and the high and low points were alike mantled with drift debris. The southern and southeastern limits, would, since the glaciers traveled in a southeasterly direction, naturally be more altered than would other portions of this shore deposit, the original shoi-e line would be wholly displaced and a new line, probably a number of miles northward, left to mirk the present irregular boundary. Thus it may be seen that the Cretaceous is not one persistent bed everywhere of the same thickness with its boundary an unbroken line, and its character unvarying. Now extending from some of the outliers noticed the topography presents itself, just as it appears at the outlier, sometimes for several miles in length. To cite a case, consider the outlier which is exposed at Coburg and in that vicinity. Here for several miles to the southwest, between the WestTarkio and the East Nishnabotna rivers the upland topography such as at Coburg, continues without any abrupt change. Again, while no Cretaceous has been noted as occurring between the East Tarkio and the West Nodaway rivers, the topography in Page county between these streams resembles, in many respects, that between those streams to the west, along which Cretaceous beds have been found in Montgomery county. It would appear, therefore, from surface features of this county, that the upland between these four streams are made up largely of Cretaceous depos- its covered only by a mantle of drift. If this is so, it is probable that in the two counties lying in the most northwestern portion of Missouri, along the northern border, and through the entire length of Page county, Iowa, will be found jnst such beds of Cretaceous age as occur farther northward in the latter State. Additional examination of the region at hand may bring out definite results and prove that Cretaceous beds do now in reality exist in the doubtful localities just mentioned. In doing this work it must be borne in mind from what has been said, that because the topography appears so in any place it does not necessarily follow that under such topography rests the Cretaceous; the marginal shore deposits may have been so modified and the debris from the Ice age so unevenly laid down that the existence or non-existence of the Cretaceous can no longer be recognized by mere topographic features of the land surface. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43 Near Coburg the Cretaceous appeal's to be quite heavy, but if this forma- tion is found to extend southward and into Missouri where no areas, how- ever limited in extent, have yet beeu found, it would no doubt be quite thin unless in exceptionally rare cases, for towards the southern boundary of Page couBty the Carboniferous rocks are not infrequently found, where exposed, a considerable distance above the drainage line, the ridges are not more elevated above them nor the drift less thick upon the upland. Just how far the shoi-e line of the Cretaceous sea extended southward cannot detinitely be figured now, but, considering the position and abun- dance of outliers to the south and southeast along the present border, the direction the glaciers advanced and the readiness with which the friable beds could be broken off and carried away, one can immediately conceive how this shore line and the main deposit have been extensively altered, and how the present southern boundary may be far northward of the southern shore-line of the then probably continuous deposit. For the present, however, it seems desirable to call the exposure near Essex at least very near the farthest south any Cretaceous in situ exists in Iowa; realizing at the same time the possibility, if not probability, that such may yet be found southward and in Missoui'i. The finding of Cretaceous boulders amongst the drift is by no means uncommon. At the foot of the Missouri bluffs near Henton, in Mills county, a number of irregularly shaped masses of pudding stone were secured. Those were quite similar to the bedded stone in some of the coun- ties further eastward. Just across into Missouri from Blauchard, Iowa, on the bank of the West Tarkio is, in a cut recently made, a fifteen-foot bed of more or less clayey sandstone doubtless Cretaceous in origin but modified on being removed and deposited here by the glacier. It would not seem that this sandbed nor the pudding stone had been carried away any great distance from their place of original deposition but their soui'ces are yet to be traced. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE GRANITE AND PORPHYRY REGION OF MISSOURI. BY E. H. LONSDALE. When speaking of the Arch;van hills of Missouri Pumpelly has likened them unto "an archipelago of islands in the Lower Silurian strata which surrounded them as a whole and separate them from one another." To one who knows this interesting territory with its isolated and grouped knobs hills and mountains of crystalline rocks standing out more or less promi- nently and dotting the broad expanse of more recent sedimentaries, this figure is an exceedingly happy one; one most admirably taken. In order to appreciate the picturesqueness of the scenery there presented it becomes requisite that not merely a birds-eye view be taken but also to 44 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. look deeply and well into the mountains and vales, trace out the tortuous water courses as they have etched their tangled way through oftimes seem- ingly impenetrable measures and softer strata; to survey the streams and behold there the narrow chasms or gorges with mural escarpments which occur in irregular succession. Thus will the hidden scenery, t-he beauty of the landscape, sculptured by natui-e, be revealed. The ci-ystalline rocks of Missouri are for the most part porphyries and granites and are confined exclusively to the southeastern portion of the state. They occur southeastward, almost to the northern limit of the earthquake or sunken area of Missouri; they occur westward more than one hundred miles from the Mississippi, the neai'est known outcrop to this stream lying less than twenty miles distant. If a quadrilateral with township lines be here drawn to include all exposures of Archtean rocks, it would contain about four hundred square miles; a circle drawn to surround these exposures would have a diameter of more than eighty miles. Yet the surface of either of these figures which is occupied by the crystallines is less than one-tenth of the total enclosure. Occurring in ten counties, they are more abund- antly exposed in Iron, Saint Francois, Madison, Wayne and Reynolds coun- ties. In the others the exposures are scattering and not unfrequently quite isolated. In fact, some of these isolated outcrops being quite low, not much, if an J, above the general level, are found, perhaps, only by chance. These crystalline rocks are the oldest in the state. They stood long prior to the forming of the latter sedimentary rocks. After standing for ages as parts of the continental body, they now appear with sandstones and lime- stones originating from the degradation of this continent surrounding them. The Ai'cha3an hills often occur in groups each separated by divides or val- leys of the same formation or they occur as individual and grouped points separated by Lower Silurian or Cambrian beds. The distance from Archrean, across Cambrian, to Archrean, may be a few feet or twenty or twenty-five miles and the length or broadest diameter of the continuous crystalline areas varies to about this extent, though the great majority of these are much smaller than the upper extreme. Made up almost wholly of the crystallines and other hard rock and void of any glacial drift, southeast Missouri abounds in excellent exposures of the beds there existing. Presenting such varieties of rock, frequently in occur- rences somewhat singular, the attention of the geologist is ever attracted. Problem after problem has arisen and been solved, yet to-day the field is oew; many problems of great importance stand out for solution. In addition to the porphyries and granites here present there are large areas of sandstone, limestone, or limestone capped with chert masses and fragments. Each of these is represented by a type of topography entirely distinct from that of any the other formations. The valleys of the sedimen- tax-y rocks do not resemble the valleys of the crystallines more than the hills of the former the mountains of the other. Of course in some places the type may be less chai'acteristic than in others. To the east of the southern limit of the crystalline region the elevation of the Mississippi river is approximately 300 feet above sea level. The highest ascertained altitude of the Archtean hills is 1,800 feet whilst the greatest ele- vation of the Cambrian hills is about 1,700 feet. Of the former the porphyry hills are the highest; of the latter the chert-capped limestone ridges are more elevated, consequently more conspicuous. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45 The well known higher porphyry mountains may frequently be recognized many miles away; their position, and consequently name, being readily detected, owing to the peculiar or distinct topographic features characteristic of the individual mountains. Famous Pilot Knob and its neighbor just across the valley of Knob creek, Shepherd mountain, are excellent examples of such forms. In the case of the former it is especially so, for, besides standing out a rather sharp, conical mountain, singular in form it is also marked by the deep cut from which iron has been mined for years which extends almost to its sum- mit. Although this mountain is not so high by nearly 300 feet as some others, the distinctive form which it possesses together with the artilicial cut makes its recognition doubly easy. In the extreme southeastern portion of the State extending northward from the Arkansas-Missouri line and westward from the Mississippi river lies what is known as the earthquake region. This is now a rather exten- sive territor^^ composed for the most part of lowlands, swamps and marshes. The lowlands commonly rising not many feet above the "Father of Waters" on the east are of Tertiary and Qnatern-ai'y age. Grading seemingly some- what gradually on the west on account of the contact with the low or l)ot- tom land naturally approaching the waters of the Black river, and quite abruptly on the north, the topography of the swamp region stands in marked contrast with the rough topography of the Archa3an and Cambrian hills; the first with far sepai*ate contours and sluggish streams, the last with a magnificent drainage, high hills and narrow valleys. As has been said, each formation in distinct area, whether it be porphyry, granite, limestone, sandstone or a combination of two or more of these will have its own special type of topography, each peculiar in' itself as well as when compared with others. So by means of the topographic maps one can ordinarly discern the formations represented thereon. Whilst in territories of limestones and sandstones the number of streams possessed by each is nearly the same, such may be said of granite and porphyry fields; but the number of larger streams and stream-ways in the Cambrian greatly exceeds the number in the Archasan. The streams in the former are more tortuous, the channels considerably wider and the flow less rapid. This is all largely due to the great difference in the texture of the rocks of the two geological formations, the compai'ative softness of the sedimentaries augmenting erosion. What is but a dull drainage line in the crystallines becomes, in a corresponding period, a well marked ravine in the sedimentaries. The regularity with which the Archa!an streams have been and are being formed depends primarily upon the form of the upland. If it con- sists of hilltop after hilltop the streams or gullies will be more common and more strongly marked than if the summit is not pointed, but is a narrow or wide plane of some length. The limestone areas in southeastern Missouri are of two kinds; the com- mon is the irregularly broken ridge with a crest having about the same level, from which extends more or less successively, often for a considerable dis- tance, points or spurs of various lengths. Nearly the whole surface is cov- ered with detritus which consists mainly of chert fragments often coated with drusy quartz. These ridges made up for the most part of the Mag- nesian limestones in heavy ledges, are only recognized as bearing such by 46 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. occasional out-croppings of the same at the base and on the slope at variable altitudes. The topography of this country is rather simple and in a way monotonous, yet somewhat difficult to map on account of the numerous protruding spurs or points. The contours appear near the base rather far apart; toward the summit they run closer together and at nearly regular intervals until the topmost contour is reached, when a break in the regu- larity is occasioned. Hei-e when the interval is as great as twenty feet the line frequently extends perhaps a mile or more with little curvature, both sides parallel with the axis of the ridge. When these chert-covered areas are more limited in extent hills rise as individual points separated by syncliues whose troughs are of nearly the same level. In this case the reg- ular contouring is unbroken from base to summit. The other limestone regions are recognized by. gently sloping fields cap- ping the heavily bedded stone which, upon decomposition gives rise to the dark red coloring prevalent in the soil above and the associated clay. The larger streams traversing a region of this character leave banks of roughly weathered rock and but little detrital material; along the smaller ones bed- ded rock is seldom exposed. There is presented in a region distinctly of sandstone a barren, for the greater part level, ai'ea cut by ravines, one or both banks being of solid sandrock ofttimes left in ovei'hangiug ledges by the eating out of the under portions of the bed. Along the nearly level tops, outcrops of sandstone are frequent, as the overhanging soily material, which in time accumulates does not foi'm a mantle of equal thickness over the surface of the stone, but being of a coarse, sandy nature, is transferred from place to place and col- lected in heaps leaving other portions bare. Over southern Missouri the limestones and sandstones are so closely, albeit irregulai'ly, associated that their mode of occurrence, extent and rel- ative position in the geological scale has long been a subject of discussion. Here there are extensive i-egions where both kinds of rocks prevail. Out- crops are common; first one then the other appear, over-lapping and inter- locking. The problem of classification becomes intricate. The general sur- face features of a combination of the two sedimentaries are not like those of either alone. However, the type exhibited is but little more than a com- bination of the types represented by the rocks separately. The topography of the Saint Francois mountains, this name having been applied by Winslow to the porphyry and granite hills and mountains of the region in question, is indeed striking, much more so than is that of the Ozarks to the west. These Archasan mountains stand out in bold relief among the knobs of the Cambrian. Where both occur the beauty of the relief maps is greatly enhanced by the presence of narrow gorges and steep acclivities which not uncommonly form solitary high peaks of conical form, which are sur- rounded on all sides by lower lands of the Cambrian. Porphyry makes up by far the greater portion of the 400 square miles of crystallines. The style of topography although varying is impressive, and in not a few instances at all similar to that of the granite. But as a whole, the type which represents either rock will almost invariably prove itself strictly characteristic of the ancient rocks. The nearest approach to the porphyry type is that of the ch6rt-capped limestone hills previously men- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47 tioned. These occasionally do resemble in outline the lower pointed por- phyry knolls, though the angle of slope is commonly greater in the latter and the contours less sinuous. From the sandstone and limestone uplands great hills of granite or por- phyry not unfrequbutly ascend abruptly to diversitied heights. Often do the sedimentary rocks almost completely conceal the crystalline. In other cases the stratified rock now extend only a short distance up the hill and across the valleys and shallow divides. As a rule the porphyry mountains are either pointed at the top or have a long, narrow crest, but occasionally large mountains have summits quite broad, grading into the steeper hillsides; Taum Sauk mountain, perhaps the highest in the region, is a good example of this form. The contouring of these mountains is quite plain, yet distinguished in being as a whole different from that of other hills in this region. The angle of slope from base to summit is, of the larger mountains, almost constant, no matter whether this angle be small or great, whether the mountain top be pointed or narrow crested. Pilot Knob may again be taken as an exam- ple to illustrate the former and Buzzard mountain, adjoining the Knob on the north, to illustrate the latter. Over the inclines of the steeper porphyry hills great blocks and fragments of the rock have accumulated as they weathered from the body mass. This detritus is often of great thickness and hides the solid rock except in case of almost perpendicular faces. Thus it modities somewhat the otherwise rugged surface. Soily material is here commonly very thin, and vegetation is not abundant and the rocks are of slow decomposition. Canons are not unfrequent in their appearance over the Archrean region. They are found of variable lengths in the granite as well as in the porphy- ries. The many water-courses, in seeking an outlet, have cut through great bodies or hills of these excessively hard beds, which as yet confine the water to very narrow channels with more or less expansive precipitous walls, bare and rugged in outline. The beds of the streams are broken and waterfalls abound. It has been mentioned incidentally that the topography of a granite field is essentially different from that of the porphyry. The porphyries, almost without exception, have an aphanitic structure, whilst the granites are often extremely coarsely crystalline and are, therefore, subject to much more rapid erosion, erosion on all exposed faces to about the same extent leaving a rounded surface in every case. Of the porphyry, weathering takes place not in decomposition of the surface, but by merely a sepa- ration of the stone into blocks and fragments along joint planes, in this rock always numerous whilst comparatively rare in the granite. Occa- sionally large blocks of granite break away along joint planes and, weather- ing, are transformed into huge boulders, which either remain on the solid rock bed or tumble into the streams at the foot of the mountain. Granite mountains are commonly rounded at the tops and often the upper gently rolling surface extends over quite a large territory. They are of less height and may make up the greater part of a mountain whose highest point is of porphyry. The slopes are irregular and broken. To map (using compass, aneroid and level) with accuracy and detail, a field of granite must necessarily be traversed at frequent intervals, perhaps more so than is 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. required in the mappiug of any other formation in the Archaean regions. Where canons occur in the granite their walls are more rugged, less pre- cipitous and higher than in the porphyry, and the waterways are broader. Closely associated as they are, the crystallines and the Cambrian ledges exhibit the contact of the two formations in many places. In some por- tions of the region it is not uncommon to find sandstone more closely accompanying the granites; limestone, the porphyries. Dikes are found more commonly in the granite. Iron ores are found mainly in the por- phyry, while the lead ore in the crystallines is confined largely to the granite. Specimens from many localities show an almost continual change in the hue, if not in the texture, both of the granites and porphyries. Between fifty and one hundred hues ai'e represented in the former, while in the latter about two hundred distinctly different hues are shown, each in the cor- responding number of specimens collected. Associated as a dike rock in the granite, olivine diabase is also found, making up a few areas of considerable size. These have a topography much like that of the smaller granite fields. Limited areas of so-called syenite occur; also other forms of crystallines, rocks which will not here be men- tioned. OCCURRENCE OF ZINC IN NORTHEASTERN IOWA. BY A. G. LEONARD. In the Upper Mississippi valley for a considerable period after the mines began to be operated much more lead than zinc was produced. It was not until 1860 that the latter metal came into market. Since then the zinc pro- duction has rapidly increased. During the ten years previous to 1882 the output of zinc more than doubled that of lead, while in 1889, according to the last federal census report the proportion between the two was as 13 to 1 for the entire region. On account of their increasing importance the zinc deposits will be especially described in this paper, but as the two metals are so closely related in occurrence what is said of one will, in many cases, apply equally well to the other. Not until the year 1880 were the Iowa mines worked for zinc carbonate or "dry bone," as it is called by the miners. Up to that time the carbonate, though found in many of the mines, was thought to have no special value and had been throvvn away as worthless, or when found in the diggings the latter were abandoned. In the fall of 1880 two wagon loads of zinc were taken to Benton, Wis- consin, by Mr. William Hird and sold for $16.00 per ton. So far as known this was the first zinc ore sold from the mines of the State, and from this time on the carbonate has been mined in rapidly increasing amounts. The IOWA \CADEMY-OF SC1E^XES. 49 first mine to be worked for zinc was the McNulty, often called the "Avenue Top" mine, at the head of Jiilien avenue. Dubuque. This had previously been operated for lead and $25,000 worth is said to have been taken from it. The galena gave out in the crevice and a short distance beyond the zinc car- bonate began to appear. It is estimated that this mine has yielded not less than $50,000 worth of the latter. After the sale of the first dry bone many began at once to search for it and numerous mines were soon being oper- ated. Old lead mines that had been abandoned were again opened and worked for zinc when the associated ore began to appear. A slight examination of the great mining regions of the globe will show that they are situated in regions of disturbance in the earth's crust. The strata have been more or less tilted from their original horizontal position, or are fractured and igneous masses intruded into them. lu other words, the ore deposits of the globe conform to the general law stated by Humboldt that "the deposits of the precious metals and of lead, zinc, and mercux'y are usually associated with intrusions of igneous rocks." The zinc deposits of the Upper Mississippi form a notable exception to the above law. They occur in practically undisturbed strata which show no evidence of having been subjected to metamorphic agencies or of having any connection with igneous masses. The manner in which these deposits occur is also unusual. They are not in true veius, tilling fissures produced by some deep seated cause and extending to a considerable depth, but the zinc is found in crevices which have a comparati\iely limited extent downward, and show no evidence of having been connected with igneous masses below. Whitney says, in connection with the Upper Mississippi region,* "These deposits approach most nearly in character to what have been designated as gash veins; but they are in some respects peculiar in character, no min- ing region exactly resembling this in mode of occurrence of its ores, having been observed by me in any part of the world, unless it be in the Missouri mines in which the conditions of the Upper Mississippi region are closely imitated although upon a somewhat limited scale." In Missouri the zinc ores occur in the sub-Carboniferous formation. There is in that region an apparent connection between the surface drainage of the country and the deposits. Other occurrences for zinc are those of Kansas, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Tennessee and Virginia. The principal foreign countries for the production of this ore are the Rhine District and Belgium, Silesia, Great Britain, France and Spain, The fii'st named region has for years yielded more than the other four combined. The zinc ore of Iowa is found in crevices in the Galena limestone. The strata of that region are cut by fissures, and it is in the expansions or open- ings of these that the deposits occur. There is a very noticeable uniformity in the direction of these crevices. With few exceptions they have either an east and west or north and south direction, the former being much the more common. Besides these two sets there are others, known as "quarterings," that cross the main ones at varying angles. The larger crevices and those carrying most of the deposits are the east and wests, while the north and souths are narrow, and, when occurring in them, the ore is in sheets. The * Wlacousia Report, vol. 1, 1862. 4 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. latter set in many cases serve as feeders to the major clefts, and at their intersection large bodies of ore are apt to occur. The zinc as a rule is found in what are called "openings." These are formed by the widening of the crevices due to decomposition or solution of the rock in these particular layers. These cave-like expansions usually include a number of strata whicii form more or less irregular walls of either side. At the surface the fissui'es commonly appear simply as a seam in the rock, which followed down probably contains little or no mineral until it suddenly widens out into the opening where the ore, if any, will be found to occur. The dimensions of these openings are very variable, their height being all the way from three or four to forty feet, and their width from one or two up to twenty and in a few instances even forty feet. They are com- monly limited above by a hard persistent layer of limestone appropriately called by the miners the "cap-rock." The latter is almost invariably cut through by a seam which may be so small as scarcely to be distinguished, or by an open fissure of varying width that often cai-ries ore. The opening frequently extends up above the main level of its roof, forming large cone- shaped or irregular cavities or "chimneys" as they are called. On the other hand it may widen out and form large rooms or "caves" filled with the zinc ore. It is not uncommon for the ore-beai'ing cavity to be divided or almost blocked up by a large mass of limestone known as the " key-rock." This obstruction has probably been left because of its greater compactness, that has enabled it to i-esist the destructive forces that have removed the sur- rounding rock. The expanded crevices often contain rounded blocks called "tumblers," that, like the key-rock, have escaped decomposition, their edges and cor- ners worn away by air and water. The term "opening" is liable to be misleading as conveying the idea of an open space. They are, as a matter of fact, usually tilled with ore mixed with more or less clay and rock fragments. Even where large caves are foi'med these may be tilled to the top with crevice material mixed with zinc carbonate. On the other hand openings are found empty or only partially filled with clay, and can be traversed for hundreds and even thousands of feet through passages where no work has been done to clear the way. The ore-bearing crevices, when followed down, are found to widen out into several openings, one below the other. The upper one is called the "first" opening, the next below is the " blue rock" opening of the miners, and still lower is a third and fourth. In the mines of the Dubuque region, the first is the only one that has been largely operated, the water hindering progress at the lower levels. The second has, however, been woi-ked when possible. In the Center Grove mines, two miles west of Dubuque, ore has been removed from the thii'd and, in one case, from the fourth opening. The ores of zinc found in the Iowa mines are the carbonate (Smith- sonite), sulphide (Sphalerite), and, in comparatively small amounts,' the sili- cate (Calamine). The carbonate or dry bone is by far the most common. It occurs in a great variety of forms; in cellular masses; as botryoidal coatings; in earthy masses and impregnating the rock. It is found coating galena crystals and also entirely I'eplacing the lead and forming pseudomorphs. Several inter- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51 esting specimens were seen in which fossils had been replaced by the car- bonate. One of these was a slab of dry-bone on which were several large gasteropods, their substance changed over into the zinc ore, which had pre- served their outline perfectly. The carbonate will contain on an average 35 to 40 per cent of zinc. The sulphide or "black-jack" of the miners is not found so abundantly in Iowa mines as is the Smithsouite. This is doubtless due to the fact that the former has been largely altered into the latter as will be explained later. The ore contains considerable iron and is so dark colored as to resemble the galena on a cleavage face. The silicate is rarely found. When occurring it forms coatings on the the Smithsonite. Some specimens collected had a banded structure and were not unlike quartz in appearance, All the carbonate has without doubt been derived from the blende. Several facts indicate this to be the case: (1) It is not uncommon to find pieces, the outside of which ai'e dry bone while the unaltered interior is composed of the sulphide. (2) In the lower levels and where it is below the water the ore occurs as the blende. This is the universal rule and would seem to be owing to the fact that the deposits beneath are not subjected to the alteration agencies at work nearer the surface. The zinc ore may occur pure or mixed with more or less clay and rock. The carbonate is found coating the sides and top of the opening and cover- ing the rock fragments in these. As before stated large masses of nearly pure dry bone occur filling large caves. In one of these great cavities the ore was so loosely deposited that a blow of the pick would cause tons of it to come tumbling down. la their vertical distribution the lead and zinc ores of Iowa are unlike the occurrences in other parts of the region. Chamberlain makes the fol- lowing statement concerning this: " It is a law to which no noteworthy exceptions have yet been authenti- cally reported, that lead predominates in the upper beds, but relatively decreases in the lower, while the zinc ores are very scant in the upper hori- zons, but relatively increase and often predominate below." This law does not hold good for the Dubuque region. There the zinc ore commonly occurs on the same level as the lead, and in some cases even above it. The zinc ore occupies the upper beds of the Galena limestone, few shafts reach- ing a greater depth than 120 feet, and then the upper portion of many is in the Maquoketa shales. It is doubtless true that the majority of the mines are in the upper one hundred feet of the Galena limestone, while in Wis- consin the zinc is confined mostly to the underlying Trenton. It often happens that the lead gives out in the crevices and, a short distance beyond, in the same opening, zinc ore will appear. Why the Galena should sud- denly cease and the carbonate come in within a few yards, is a fact hax'd to explain. The two oi'es I'arely occur mixed together, and where they are mingled the lead is in small quantities. It will not be in place hei*e to discuss at any length the theoretical ques- tions connected with the zinc deposits. The subject is a difficult one, and sufficient data are wanting to prove, in a satisfactory manner, some of the theories advanced. But the questions connected with the origin of the zinc deposits are of much interest, both practically and scientifically and will 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. be stated briefly. They are best set forth by Whitney* aud more recently, and in greater detail, by Chamberlainf. First, then, as to the formation of the crevices. Extending east and west through the zinc region are numerous and abrupt undulations of the strata. These were caused by a horizontal pi'essure acting from the south resisted by a corresponding force from the north. To state it differently, the oscil- lations are due to lateral force from the Interior Sea to the south and I'esisted by the Archa3an laud area to the north. These flexures pi'oduced the crevices. As the strata were elevated the heavily bedded limestones were fissured parallel to the axis of elevation and more or less open crevices formed. In a direction at right angles little force was exerted and the beds were only fractured, producing north and south Assures. As suggested by Whitney, the shrinkage of the rocks may account for some of the crevices, at least to their open character, though it is difKcult to see how shrinkage could have the great influence attributed to it by that writer. The ore receptacles having been formed, whence caiue the zinc to fill them? It will be necessary simply to mention hei'e the rejected hypotheses, namely, those of sublimation, and of thermal waters. Facts ai'e well nigh overwhelmingly against the idea that the fissures extend to any great depth, being confined chiefly to the Galena aud Trenton limestones, and without such extension downwards either of the above theories are very improbable if not impossible. All the facts indicate that the zinc comes not from below, but from the limestones in which occur the crevices. It was deposited along with the sediments by the waters of the Silurian sea. The latter derived its metallic salts from the waste of the pre-existing land sur- faces. Chamberlain describes in detail the cause of localization of the deposits to a few areas, ascribing it to the currents of the ancient sea, taken in connection with the precipitating agencies of organic matter. After their deposition in the limestone beds the zinc was concentrated in the crevices by the action of drainage waters percolating through the metal-bearing beds. In this way the zinc was concentrated in the fissures where it is now found. SATIN SPAR FKOM DUBUQUE. BY A. G. LEONARD. Located less than six miles south of Dubuque and one and three-fourth miles due west of Massey station on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad are some curious "spar caves" as they are appropriately called. In these caverns are some occurrences of satin spar that are very unusual and of much interest. It is ♦Geology Wisconsin, vol. I, 1862. + Geology Wisconsin, vol. IV, 1873-1879. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53 doubtful whether there is another locality where such peculiar forms of calcite are found, two varieties beingr associated toarether in the stalactites. The latter have also undergone a change in structure since first formed. The caves were discov- ered by Mr. Baule, of Dubuque, while prospecting for lead. They are openings in the crevices of the Galena limestone like those in which the lead and zinc ores occur. Large and productive crevices have been worked less than a half mile to the north, and the spar-bearing fissures also carry lead at a lower horizon. Fol- lowed west out on to the high prairie land back from the river these crevices are marked by sink holes, and on a winter day the moisture is seen rising from them. The magnesian limestone of the region is cut by innumerable large and small fissures that at certam horizons form extensive openings that can be followed for thousands of feet, and form a labyrinth of underground passages. All the latter are formed by approximately east and west, north and south, and "quartering" crevices. The openings vary in size from those so small that one can scarcely force his way through, to others having a width of ten or twelve feet and height of five feet. Some are over forty feet in height. These caverns are either empty or filled entirely or in part by clay. The deposits of lime carbonate occur only in certain portions of these openings where the moisture is most abundant. At these points the top and bottom are decorated with stalactites, stalagmites, and a wonderful variety of beautiful and fantastic forms. The passages are in places closed up by thick deposits requiring blasting to remove them. Strong currents of air pass through these caves and are doubtless instrumental in producing the curious formations. In these underground passages two varieties of calcite occur. 1. Satin spar, formed of radiating fibers with silky luster. Color'ess and white varieties both occur, 2. Argentine (Schieferspath). This variety has a pearly luster and is com- posed of more or less undulating lamellse. Color, white. It agrees with the descrip- tions given by Dana and Tschermake for Argentine, and is to all appearances that variety of calcite. The latter author mentions it as occurring in Bohemia, Saxony and Cornwall. Satm spar occurs in several different forms: (1) Includes those which are pearly white, on the surface of fracture and have a silky luster due to the radiating fibers that form a velvety surface of great beauty. This variety occurs in bunches or clusters of twisted and gnarled stem-like forms. (2) Includes those stalactites proper which are formed of radiating fibers. These have in cross section a sub- vitreous luster, but on the surface they are (a) either covered with a fine white powder (which under the microscope is seen to be composed of irregular grains or minute crystalline bodies), and have no luster, or (b) the outer surface is formed of little rhombohedrons and has a silky luster. These stalactites are white or color- less, opaque or translucent. There are still other stalactites differing from any of the above that have a concentric, banded structure. These are of unusual interest. Beginning at the center they have (1) a crystalline or granular core, often showing bright rhombo- hedral cleavage faces; (2) a thin band of clay apparently wanting in some cases; (3) peary white lamellar calcite (Argentine); (4) band of clay; (5) fibrous calcite and (6) outer surface composed of little rhombohedrons. There are several points in the structure of these stalactites deserving special notice. They have not, as yet, been studied microscopically, as is hoped may be done later, but the following facts regarding them are reasonably well ps>tahlished. There is every indication 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. that the crystalline core was once fibrous, but this structure has mostly disap- peared, especially in the larger stalactites and the rhoiubohedral cleavage has replaced it. In the smaller forms the transition from the radiating fibrous condi- tion to the crystalline aggregate of rhombohedrons can be traced; the long acicu- lar crystals become less distinct, but traces of them can still be seen after the rhora- bohedral form makes its appearance. Recrystallization has taken place and the particles have rearranged themselves to conform with the interior structure of the rhombohedrons; in other words, they are identical with the crystal form of the latter in all but external outline, and this has been prevented from developing, showing itself only on cleavage faces. A strong indication that this granular core was once fibrous is the fact that this is the common structure found in all these caves. The small forms all show the fibers, but as they increase in size alteration has taken place. Another point of interest about these stalactites is the band of pearly, lamellar calcites occurring between the granular, crystalline core and the fibrous external layer. These white, undulating lamellae form concentric rings in marked contrast to the radiating fibers associated with them. Occurring on both sides of the Argen- tine there is in most cases, if not in all, a thin band of clay. It is this that has doubtless slopped deposition for a time and the different variety was formed on account of the changed conditions. The rhombohedrons forming the outer surface, while the interior is still formed of the radiating fibers, also deserve more than passing notice. They occur on the larger stalactites, not on the delicate branch-like forms. The outer surface of the latter owes its silky lustre to the innumerable fibers composing the surface. These frequently form delicate, cotton-like masses covering the outside of the satin spar. But on the majority of the stalactites occur the crystal aggregate of rhombohe- drons. These may have have been deposited after the radiated interior was formed, but they seem to be due, rather, to the alteration or recrystallization of the fibrous mass, as in the case of the granular core. The conditions under which the fibers were formed have changed and there has been a corresponding altera- tion in the crystalline condition of the calcite. If not the most interesting to the mineralogist, the white satin spar occurring in the large branch-like clusters is at least notable on account of its great beauty and rarity. It is difficult to give any idea of the rare and delicate appearance of these masses as they hang suspended from the roof of the caverns. At a distance they resemble white branching coral as much as anything. But near at hand the twisted and gnarled stems vpith their beautiful silky luster bear no resemblance to coral. The peculiar shapes assumed by these forms, differing so much from the ordinary stalactites, are no doubt due to the air currents moving through these passages. The wind coming now from one direction, now from another, causes the dx'ops holding the lime in solution to be blown to one side and another of the slowly growing stem, the drop being held by the surface tension. The water does not trickle down undisturbed, as when forming the long straight stalactites depositing an even layer on the end and sides, but the carbonate is deposited for a time on one side of the branch and then, later, on another side. These clusters are extremely delicate and are removed with difficulty from the rock to which they are attached. In these caves are found many large and fine stalactites and stalagmites. Some are short and stumpy, others long and slender. In one small opening IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55 three by three feet the deposition of calc spar had gone on to such an extent that there was a deposit several feet thick on the lloor, while hanging from above were numerous stalactites. These were arranged mostlj' in two rows along the sides of the cavern and touching the bottom or joining the stal- agmites below they formed columns. The passage-way thus made resembles a miniature colonade. OCCURRENCE IN IOWA OF FOSSILIFEROUS CONCRETIONS SIMILAR TO THOSE OF MAZON CREEK. BY ARTHUR C. SPENCER,] The wide celebrity of the fern-bearing concretions from the Carboniferous beds of Mazon creek, Illinois, attaches more than passing interest to the occurrence of similiar structures in the Coal Measures of Iowa. These concretions are found in a small ravine near the Des Moines river, north of Dunreath, in Marion county. Careful search for similar concretions in the gullies of the neighboring streams has not been successful, from which it seems that the strata, which are cut by the streams in question, lie above their general level on a slight anticline. The other alternative is that the concretions are limited to a very small area, but from the relations of the overlying beds the first explanation seems to be correct. The plant remains are found in nodules or concretions, scattered through beds of drab shale. These, when broken open, often display very perfect formt?. Plant remains are not, however, present in all the concretions. Others are like small septarial masses and are filled with zinc blende. The nodule-bearing shale is from three to perhaps ten feet in thickness, and of a light drab color. It rests upon an irregular layer of large septarial masses which, exposed in the dry bed of the stream, resemble roche-moutenees on a small scale. Above are shales in part bituminous and in part areaceous. Four inches of compact gray limestone, bearing fern impressions follows, above which is more sandy shale and a thin seam of coal which has been mined near by. The coal is about fifteen feet above the concretionary bed. Many of the concretions have been washed out and are found already opened, but the best specimens are those recently exposed, which afford very per- fect leaflets of several ferns. Among the forms identified were: Neuropteris hirsuta, Xeuvopteris angustifolia and Annularia longifolin. Others will undoubtedly be found when more material is examined. 56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. EVIDENCES OF DISTURBANCE DURING THE DEPOSITION OF THE BURLINGTON LIMESTONES. BY F. M. FULTZ. In a general way the lithological characters of the Burlington limestones, including both the lower and upper divisions, are the same. It is true that some layers are more compact than others, some more massive and a few are even crystalline enough in texture to imperfectly resemble marble, yet they all owe their origin to the same source. The material comprising them is almost wholly crinoidal. To such an extent is this true, that, with the exception of a very few layers, it is scarcely possible to find a cubic inch of rock that does not show its crinoidal origin. There are a few layers of shales, clays, etc., but for the most part they are quite thin and form but a very small part of the whole. However, they are deserving of some attention and I shall take occasion to refer to at least one or two of them specifically. What I will endeavor to point out in this paper is, that during the deposition of these limestones, there were some periods of disturbance. The evidences of such disturbance are: (I.) The more or less abrupt changes in fossil forms. (2.) Change in lithological characters. {?>.) Erosion and unconformability. I wish to speak more particularly about erosion, but will first say a few things about the change in fossil forms. I have already mentioned that the prevailing life was crinoidal. Not counting synonyms there are probably between 350 and 400 species of crinoids found in the Burlington limestones. The greatest number occurring in any one layer is not more than one-fourth of the whole; usually much less than that. Besides, many of these species do not lap over each other and there are several breaks where not a single species bridges over the change from one stratum to the next higher, without some difference in form. So universal a change in fossil forms would indicate a sudden change in climatic conditions, and since in each succeeding stratum there seems to be no diminution, either in number of species or individuals — the genera remaining nearly the same and the species closely allied to former existing ones — there must have been a comparatively early return to the former conditions. Of course, while all life may have been extinguished at one point, no doubt it flourished in full vigor at no very great distance away, and as soon as the conditions again became favorable it once more occupied its old ground. If the period of interruption was short, or the area of disaster not too widely spread, the new forms of life would not differ much from the old. But if the area of disaster was extensive or the period of interruption prolonged, then the result would show the extinction of species and the beginning of new ones. As a rule species do not gradually die out, they are killed off. At least this is the apparent fact if the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57 study of life is confined to a single locality. Of course to try to make the rule general would be to deny the theo'y of evolution. Since life is largely dependent upon climatic conditions, it follows that a sudden change in these conditions means a sudden change of life. So that, if in passing from one stratum to another, we find a considerable change in fossil forms, we must accept it as evidence of change of conditions under which the depositions took place. Now, as I have already stated, we find such comparatively marked changes of fossil forms at several places in the Burlington limestones. Knowing such to be the case I have been on the lookout for further evidences of changes in the way of erosion, unconforinability, etc. It has generally been accepted that the deposition of the whole lower Carboni- ferous group in southeastern Iowa was uninterrupted. I quote from White, Greol. of Iowa, 1870. Vol. 1, page 202. "The accumulation of the strata which compose all the formations of the sub-Carboniferous group in southeastern Iowa, from the lower Burlington limestone to the Saint Louis limestone, inclusive, was evidently uninterrupted." And this seems to have been the generally accepted idea. White admits the change of fossil forms, but limits the changes to siliceous beds only, and advances the theory that life died out owing to the waters becoming charged with siliceous material. He makes no statement of the tact that some of the most distinct lines of change are at intervals between the lower and upper flint beds, and also below the lower one. It is most likely, too, that the flint beds mark gradunl rather than sudden eras of. change. However, of this I will say more later. White gives 50 feet as the thickness of each division of the Burlington lime- stone, making 100 feet for the two. Now, at Burlington, the typical locality, the two together measure scarcely more than 50 feet. Of course there are deposits at other places in southeastern Iowa belonging to the Burlington series which are not represented at Burlington iti:elf. And no doubt the complete section of the two divisions together would reach 100 feet. Now, while there was a cessation of deposit and corresponding absence of life in one locality, the rock building was steadily going on at other points not far distant. So that while 50 feet may be the maxirrum thickness at any one locality, the total thickness of the complete series mieht easily be 100 feet. The lower division of the Burlington limestones gives a more continuous sec- tion than the upper. As to fossil forms there are some pretty distinct lines of change, but so far I have been unable to find any evidence of a corresponding era of disturbance. There is no positive evidence that there was a cessation of deposition The surfaces of some of the strata have a water-worn appearance, but no erosion has so tar been discovered. It would not surprise me, however, to hear of such evidence having been found. The lower half of the lower division is well-bedded and seems to have been laid down in comparative quiet waters. The upper half is poorly bedded and contains many flint bands and irregular pockets of coarse sandy clay. It shows much disintegration. As to the origin of these flint bands there has been a great deal of speculation, but so far no very satisfactory theory has been advanced. An examination of the beds will show that life did notsuddenly cease with the advent of siliceous material. Frequently layers are found which are literally covered with fossils. My attention was first called to this fact by Mr. Chas. R. Keyes about two years ago while examining the Burlington limestone at Louisiana, Mo. I have since found it to be true at Burlington and other places. The fossils are ahvavs fully solicified, 58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. although perfect in form and detail. Also they are usually very small, not exceed- ing one-fourth the size of individuals of the satne species found in the associated limestone layers. So White's statement that the conditions seemed to have been unfavorable for the support of life, is true, at least in part. But I think the flint beds contain much more evidence of life than he has given them credit for. There is no doubt, however, that the flint beds of both the upper and lower divisions mark eras of change in fossil forms. It would be strange if they did not, consider- ing that the minimum thickness of either is fully ten feet. But they do not fur- nish the most distinct lines of change inasmuch as some of those in the limestone takes place in passing from one stratum to the one directly superimposed. In the upper division I have found direct evidence of disturbance and erosion at one of these lines of change in fossil forms. Everywhere in the vicinity of Bur- lington, where the upper division is found, there occurs, well down toward the base, a stratum of heavy bedded white limestone. It is about six feet in thickness and generally underlying it there is either a thin layer of blue clay or friable, yel- low, sandy limerock. Immediately overlying it there is uniformly found a bed of tough blue shale. I had frequently noticed the upper surface of the limestone layer as exhibitmg a water-worn appearance and so was not surprised when I found direct evidence of erosion. This discovery was made in the Cascade quarry in the south part of the city limits of Burlington. In this quarry nearly the whole depth of the Upper Burlington limestone is worked. The massive white layer spoken of is here between 5 and 6 feet in thickness and furnishes a goodly part of the rock taken out. The Cascade ravine is about half a mile in length and enters the Mississippi river at right angles. These quarries are situated about a quarter of a mile back from the river and on both sides of the ravine. It was in the one on the south side that the discovery was made. This quarry is on both sides of a short, but deep, lateral ravine, the bottom of which is several feet lower than the stratum of white limestone. In working off the corner between the main and lateral ravines, the white limestone layer was found to be much eroded. The erosion is lateral rather than surface and occurs on the side toward the lateral ravine. The layer of blue shale is deposited directly upon the eroded surface and conforms to all the inequalities, some of which are quite abrupt. One bench of the eroded surface amounts to fully two feet and yet the blue shale covers this without a break. The blue shale itself is capped by well-bedded limestone. This is direct evidence of erosion in the early part of the deposition of the upper Burlington limestone. An interesting fact is developed that the present drainage system was probably fixed at that early date. The position of the eroded surface of the white limestone layer, and the inclination of the directly superim- posed beds all indicate that the lateral ravine had its beginning at a time at least as early as that. Of course the principal ravine must have existed to furnish an outlet. Along the banks of the principal ravine I have never seen the white lime- stone layer exposed, but have no doubt it would exhibit the same erosion as found along the lateral ravine. All the superimposed strata exhibit a decidert inclina- tion towards the ravine, which would tend to confirm the theory. In conclusion, I would state that there seems to be no doubt whatever that the deposition of the Burlington limestones was not continuous. I expect to see other evidence of this fact discovered in the near future. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59 COAL MEASURES OF POWESHIEK COUNTY. BY ARTHUU J. JONES. Nearly all of Poweshiek county is covered by loess and drift to such a depth that little is known concerning the underlying stratified formations. Almost the only natural exposures of rock in the county are in the southwestern part where there are frequent outcroppings of Saint Louis limestone and Coal Measure strata; for the remainder of the county the only data obtainable are from wells sunk in various places. From these it appears that the northern, middle and eastern portions of the county are underlaid immediately below the drift with Lower Carboniferous strata. The Saint Louis limestone was found at Grinnell a little over 200 feet from the sur- face, while a little farther east the drift is still thicker with no indication of shale or coal. Coal has been found in paying quantities a few miles west of the county line in Jasper county at the Black Oak mine, and also a short distance from the south county line at the Evans mine. A direct line drawn from one of these mines to the other would cut across a considerable part of the southwestern corner of Poweshiek county. At Thornburg also, not far from the southeast boundary, coal mines are being operated. But although coal has been found on both sides so near, few workable veins have yet been found within the county limits. At Searsboro two drill holes were sunk during the past summer and small quantities of coal were found not over ninety feet from the surface. Almost directly south of this place near Moore there are numerous traces of coal. Here the Saint Louis limestone appears for several miles along the north Skunk river. In the hills south of the river where they have been undisturbed, the Coal Measures are seen to lie unconformably upon the limestone. In a number of places in these hills prospect holes have been sunk but only a small amount of coal has ever been taken out. A short distance southeast of Moore, on the south side of the river, there is a fine exposure of limestone and shale. Here there is a blutf which shows over forty feet of Coal Measure strata with the Saint Louis limestone appearing at the base. At this place there are seen two seams of coal, the lower eighteen inches thick and the upper twelve. They are separated by twenty feet of shale and a thin layer of impure limestone which is only a few inches below the upper vein. Here a drift was at one time operated, and in a ravine near by considerable quan- tities of coal were taken out and sold to local trade. 60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The section at the old Petit mine is as follows: J >=Ci> ' ■^St ---^ =^fe ^%t 3e:-^ 7^ IDYcEI^ -i1;- - TT^ri FEET. INCHES. 12. Drift 5 11. Shale, argillaceous 6 10. Coal 10 9. Limestone, impure 1 6 Shale, light colored above, getting darker below. . . 18 7. Shale, dark, bituminous, somewhat fissile 2 6. Coal 1 5. Fireclay 3 4. Shale, variegated 3 3. Shale, light colored, calca- reous 4 2. Sandstone, brown and yel- low, with limestone nod- ules 2 1. Limestone, compact, brit- tle (Saint Louis exposed) 7 Section near Old Petit Mine. But both mines have been abandoned for fifteen years, the larger coal seams near New Sharon receiving all the attention. Farther eastward on Buck creek shale outcrops in numerous places, and a small vein of coal is also found. Drill holes put down in the neighborhood dis- close several small coal seams, but none sufficiently thick for profitable working. There have been various reports of coal both west and south of Montezuma, and it is probable that the Coal Measures occur here also, although probably quite thin. In the southeast part of the county, near Deep River, three feet of coal have been found at a depth of 157 feet, overlain by seven feet of shale. It is, then, highly probable that the Coal Measures extend over the entire southern tier of townships, including the towns of Searsboro, Montezuma and Deep River. Systematic borings may yet reveal coal in paying quantities within the limits of this county. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 61 CARDIOCARPUS IN IOWA. BY ARTHUR J. JONES. While engaged in geological work in Guthrie county a number of peculiar seed-like structures were collected from a seam of bituminous coal. They occurred in the newly opened mine of Mr. Scott, three miles northwest of Fanslers. These seeds are not more than half an inch long and are quite thin. They are acuminate and vary from oval to broadly heart-shaped. At the base is a scar evi- dently indicating the juncture of the stem. No connection, however, was seen between the seed and the stalk of any plant in the coal. They are covered with a thin coating of pyrite and they all occurred in an eighteen-inch vein of coal. Similar seeds are described by Lesquereux and Newberry as belonging to the genus Cardiocarpus and found in the coal measures of Pennsylvania, Ohio and neighboring states. The structures observed are evidently merely nuclei, although scarcely a trace of an encircling rim can be seen on any of them. The specimens collected are similar to the nuclei of Cardiocarpus bicuspidatus and C. zonulatus. It is now generally conceded that the seeds called by the generic name Cardio- carpus are merely the mature fruit of certain species of Cordaites. The Cordaitese form a distinct order of gymnospermous plants very closely allied to the Cycads on the one hand and to the conifers on the other. They, however, bear a strong resemblance to the Lycopods and for some time were classed under this head. The living plant which most nearly resembles Cordaites is Cycas revoluta. Newberry says that the fruit Cardiocarpus was probably somewhat drupaceous when living, the nucleus being entirely concealed, but compressed by the great weight of the overlying strata it has become flattened ; the fleshy pericarp is now the thin mem- braneous rim, and the nucleus appears at the center, not so much crushed on account of its more solid structure, but somewhat flattened. This fruit and other remains of Cordaites have been found in Ohio, Pennsyl- vania, Tennessee, Indiana, and various other states, but they have not been reported from Iowa. 62 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NORTH AMERICAN CYCADS. BY THOMAS H. M BRIDE. As is well known the Cycadaceae constitutes a small section of the feymnosper- nious plants. They are therefore, related on the one hand to the Gnetaceoe or joint-firs, and on the other to the Coniferce, the conifers, our familar pines, cedars, firs and yews. The Cycads are, however, both in habit and structure quite unlike in many ways, all other existent plants. Nevertheless the fruit is borne in cones as in the Conifene, and their stems, such stems as they have, are full of a gummy, resinous (?) sap, and the general structure of the wood, the disposition of the medullary rays also resembles these features in some of the coarser grained larches. On the other hand some of the Cycads, notably the species of the genus Cycas, resemble in some respects the ferns, their leaves unrolling from the stem's top are circinate in vernation. To Saporta Cycads have the appearance of small, low palms, the trunk is so short and massive, supporting its crown of far-spreading leaves. Again the roots of most Cycads are poorly developed and resemble those of the Monocotyledones . Accordingly it may be said in a general way that Cycads are plants having leaves like the ferns, cones like the conifers, stems lite the palms, and roots like lilies or grasses. In days gone by these curious plants have been variously classified, accordingly as an author in his description laid stress upon this or that feature of the confused make-up. It must be said also in this general description that while most Cycads are as has been said simple low stumps a foot or two high, there are species, nota- bly the Moluccan, that have tall and branching trunks forty to fifty feet in height. The nature and habits of Cycads are fairly illustrated by Cycas revoluta, a not uncommon species in our greenhouses, and by our native American species Zaniia integrifolia, of which more is to be said presently. Miquel, a Dutch botanist as it appears studied the cycadaceous plants and pub- lished his work as long ago as 1812. Sir Joseph Hooker's descriptions in Genera Plantarum are drawn largely from Miquel's work. An abstract from Hooker (Gen. PI.) is here presented for the better understanding of our subject. " Flowers dioecious strobilaceous, Perianth always wanting. In staminate flowers the strobiles subterminal toward the apex of the trunk or caudex, generally solitary, oblong, ovoid or cylindric, very rarely subglobose; scales thick, coriaceous, alternately multiseriate, imbricate or vertically superposed and valvately united bearing on the dorsal side the poUiniferous locules; these are arranged without order, three or four in a place, sometimes stalked but generally sessile opening by a slit and showing ellipsoidal pollen. The pistillate strobiles in Cycas have flat pectinate elongate scales bearing two or more ovules on the margin ; in other genera the scales are shorter, more or less peltate, and bear one ovule on each side of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63 narrowed base. The ovule is orthotropous and sessile; the seeds large, ovoid or oblongr and usually fleshy and red outside but with a tough inner coat; the endos- perm is thick, rather abundant; the cotyledons grown together, unless at the base; the plumule squamose emerging through a cleft in the cotyledons." •'Cycads are perennial plants abounding in gum, growing at the apex only, and as if corticated by the persistent bases of leaves and prophylla; the vascular system made up of rings of bast and wood, surrounding a well developed medulla or pith, which is rich in starch. Demarcation of annual rings does not appear and some- times there are woody strands in the pith; the roots are fibrous and make up cor- alliform masses which are often partly above ground and sometimes by buds reproduce the plant." Of existing Cycads there have been recognized some seventy species, of which the greater number occur in the tropics around the world. Some, however, are found in the temperate regions of South Africa and many in Australia and the adjacent islands. In Florida there is one species, as has been said, and one has been reported from Japan. Our species Zamia iiitegrifoUa "Coontie" is a remarkable plant, having for stem a sort of subterranean bulb which has, however, a scarred cortex, a woody, cylinder and an abundant pith; large coriacious pinnately divided leaves which appear one after the other in a sort of a whorl, thus including leaves of different size, and for fruit shows cones of two kinds, staminate and pistillate, much alike although the latter is larger. Each cone is made of scales which are thickened, finally peltate, outwardly and bear at base the pollen-sacs or ovules as the case may be. The cones are not quite apical and they appear to spring from the axils of the leaves although this is not yet clearly made out and leaves and foliar organs are strangely mixed. In Cycas the cone is apical and subsequent growth starts up at one side of the cone's pedicel. All this has been said of living or existing Cycads in order to make clear what may be said in reference to our North American fossil species. Saporta has pointed out very clearly that the ancient European Cycads (for there were once such plants in Europe although none there now) of which we have the trunks, do not difiFer from our modern forms much more than these now widely separated species differ from each other. "Fossil species are as a rule," he says, "far smaller than existing forms." A curious fact which leads to many surmises. For it must be said that the group under discussion as at present defined is but a rem- nant of a flora that from the Trias, probably, on down and through the Cretaceous shared with loftier plants all the forest regions of the earth, as these forests shifted through the ages from shore to shore, from zone to zone. Here in North America where now but a single species exists, persists, these remarkable organisms spread at one time from the Dakotas to Greenland, probably covering all that was then United States from Colorado to Maryland. As long ago as 1874 Lesquereux described from a single leaf fragment a species of Cycad which he named Podo- znmiies haydenii from the Dakota sandstones of Nebraska. A few years earlier Heer in his Flora Artica described fossils representing at least four genera of Cycadaceous plants from the Atane Schists of Greenland. It speaks volumes for the wonderful botanical instinct of these men, that their conclusions, founded upon the study of mere leaf impressions and these often fragmentary were never- theless accurate. These conclusions have since been wonderfully confirmed by the discovery of undeniable Cycad fossils in the regions and from the very formations and strata from which some of the leaf fragments came. While the ordinary 64 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. botanist fincls*sometimes on a single tree leaf differences enough for his confusion, these pioneers in Paleophytology have from the dim venation preserved in sand laid a sure foundation for our knov/ledge of the flora of the ancient world. In 1878 Lesquereux describect, from what he supposed tertiary beds, (since regarded as belonging to the Laramie group) a single species', and in 1883 he added six luore from the Dakota sandstones; all as heretofore represented by foliar remains except the Laramie specimen, which is described from supposed fossil fruit. In the meantime, however, rather, far before, in 1859, so long ago, the state geologist and chemist of Maryland, Dr. Tyson, had found two Cycad trunks near Coontie station, on the line of the Baltimore & Ohio railway. Dr. Tyson seems not to have appreciated his find. He seems to have referred to the matter in his correspondence, and Rogers, of Pennsylvania, Uhler and others, have pub- lished references to the Maryland Cycads, but for some reason the fossils, strangely enough were never described, never found place in our American geological literature. They lay in the museum of the Baltimore Academy of Science where still they lie, and so neglected were foigotten. We may be sure Lesquereux knew nothing of them, nor Hall, and not until Fontaine in 1889 — thirty years after Tyson first saw the specimens — began the study of the Potomac beds for the United States Geological Survey, did these notable old fossils receive merited recognition and description. In volume XV, Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Fontaine figures the Maryland Cycads for the first time, and so for science gives them at last " a local habitation and a name." Fontaine unable, as he thought, to refer the specimens to any established genus, erected for the Maryland fossil a new genus which, in honor of Dr. Tyson, he called Tymnia, and has thus described it: "Trunks varying considerably in shape and size, petrified with silica, more or less flattened; seen with the broader sides in front they are oblongate and trun- cate; in cross-section they arefbroadly sub-elliptical; medulla proportionately small; woody cylinder comparatively thick ; cortical exterior layer with the permanent basis of the petioles very thick; basis of the petioles in cross-section normal sub-rhombic, or sub-triangular with the lower angle very obtuse ; the outer angles acute and prolonged, the superior side forming a curved line bent upwards or forming an obtuse angle, but often from pressure distorted into irregular rhombic or triangular forms; trunks each with a large eccentric terminal leaf-bud, or growing bud; some of the trunks, prob- ably of female plants, have numerous Literal buds; others, probably male plants, are without lateral buds, basis of petioles represented by open casts," etc, Mr. Fontaine regards the Maryland forms as constituting a single species — T. marylandka. His new genus, he says, is intermediate between two genera estab- lished by Carruthers, viz. : MantelUa and Bennettites. Garruthers, on being shown a photograph of one of Dr. Tyson's specimens, said: It is obviously a Ben- nettites, and near B. saxbi/atms. It is further to be remarked that Mr. Tyson's specimens are all badly weathered and worn, if we may judge from Tyson's figures. Still the macroscopic characters seem in the main plain enough, but the microscopic characters have never been looked into, at least never published. In 1891, in the posthumous volume of Mr. Lesquereux's work,* seven addi- tional species are added to the North American list, as before, all represented by leaf impressions. Such was the state of affairs in reference to our North American Cycads down 1 United States Geol. Survey of the Territories. Vol. VII. ♦Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. XVII. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65 to July of the present year (1893). That is to say, our North •American Cycads were represented up to that time by one living species, about a score of fossil species from the Dakota group of the west, known to Lesquereux by more or less fragmentary leaf casts, such species as Herr, of Lausanne, had described by leaf- fragments from Greenland, and Tyson's two trunks, siliciSed, but withal poorly preserved, kept in the museum at Baltimore. In July of the present year the writer, being in Hot Springs, South Dakota, came across a handsome fossil offered for sale. The fossil proved to be a magnifi- cently preserved, silicified Cycad. Some days later, on a bare hill, about thirty additional specimens were found in a more or less perfect state of preservation. Time has not as yet permitted a microscopic examination of the Dakota specimens, but all macroscopic characters are decidedly those given in Dr. Carruthers' definition of his genus. Our form is referred to a new species; for, while very much like B. gihsonianua, of Carruthers, it yet differs in the distribution of the leaves, as well as in the distribution of fibro-vascular elements of the leaf-petioles themselves. That the Maryland specimens are also members of the genus seems, as already stated, most probable. It will be remembered that Mr. Fontaine, in his descrip- tion calls attention to the flower buds bursting through the cortex, and to the elliptical section of the fossil. Mr. Fontaine claims two sorts of buds on the Maryland specimen but offers no microscopic sections in proof of the claim, besides his specimens it would seem are too far weathered to allow the exact determination of such points. These specimens cannot represent the genus Mantellia for in this genus the stems are globular. In fact, the Maryland and Dakota forms are very closely related — are probably species of the same genus and that: genus is, in the writer's opinion, neither Ti/sonia nor Mantellia. Microscopic characters indicate two distinct species, but microscopic details as yet are lacking for definite and con- clusive comparison. It is hoped later to offer the Academy the microscopic char- acters of the Dakota species. For further details, descriptions and figures the reader is referred to the Amer- can Geologist for October, 1893, and to the Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural History, volume II, No. 4, State University of Iowa. RHUS TYPHINA Linn. BT T. H. M BRIDE. {Abstract) Rhus typhina is a northern plant, ranging from New Brunswick to Minnesota. It comes into Iowa in the northern counties only, being found in Allamakee and Clayton counties, hut, so far as reported, nowhere else. The plant along the bluffs of the Mississippi river rises to a height of some thirty feet and has a stem at base six inches in diameter. It is a beautiful shrub or tree, differing, at sight, by its velvety branches and long-pointed leaflets, from the ordinary sumac {Rhus gla- bra L.) and well worthy a place in our dooryards to say nothing of a wider and better acquaintance. Where it prevails it seems to exclude the other species. I have never found R. typhina and R. glabra on the same hillside. That the plant should extend down the Mississippi river on the bluffs to McGregor and Lansing or thereabouts and not go farther south along the same stream is an interesting fact in connection with the problems ot plant distribution. 5 ee IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIA, THEIR RELATION TO MODERN MEDICINE, THE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES. BY L. H. PAMMEL. It has been customary for the president, in making his retiring address, to choose some popular subject and discuss it on broad lines. In some cases my predecessors have given a resume of the scientific literature in our own State, and I need not say that we all feel proud of the work accomplished by this small band of workers. I shall venture, in this address, to discuss the subject of Bacteria along general lines and hope I may be able to correct some popular misapprehen- sions concerning the subject. The word Bacteria has almost become synonymous in the minds of some with certain diseases in lower animals and man, but this popular construction is so erroneous, that I propose in this address to show the extent and importance of the question of bacteriology to many important problems. We shall treat this question in the following way: History, methods of study, structure, question of species, hygienic problems, Bacteria and their relation to economic problems in agriculture and other industries. We are told in an admirable treatise by Loeffler- on the historical development of bacteria that the presbyter, Kircher more than 235 j^ears ago observed that air, water, soil, cheese and putrefactive substances contained countless numbers of " worms " as he designated them. Having observed these living organisms he at once concluded that the Italian plague of 1656 could be traced to these " worms;" but, the most remarkable of the early workers was Antony von Leeuwenhoek a mechanic of Delft, Holland, who had learned the art of making lenses while an apprentice in a linen factory. With his simple lenses and excellent powers of observation he was enabled to observe Bacteria of putrid material, tartar of teeth, etc. Some of the forms were figured and described. He says": " Mit grosser Bewunderung sah ich, dass uberall in den genannten Material viele sehr winzige Thierchen enthalten waren, welche sich auf die ergoetzlichste Weise bewegten." From his figures and descriptions one cannot doubt but that he was dealing with bacteria. We cannot here give in detail the conclusions reached by Vallisneri, Goiffon, Nicholas Andry and Varro, but they concluded that these organisms caused disease. The celebrated Linnaeus^ could not dispel from his mind that certain living organisms caused disease. The learned Viennese physician, Marcus Antonius Plenciz, discussed in a clear and logical way the cause of contagious diseases. He iVorlesungen ueber die geschichtliche entwickelung der Lehre von den Bacterien fur Aerzte und Studirende, Erster Theil bis zum Jahre IS7S, 37 figures and 3 plates pp 252, Leipzig, F. C. W. Vogel, 1887. 2LoeHier 1. c. p. 5. SLoefBer 1. c. p. 6. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 67 argued that a period of incubation must occur for each disease, and as wheat seed only produces wheat, so too the particular seniinia of a disease only produces that disease. He too aryued that decomposition is brought about when sown with material, that this material propagates and grows. In 1820 Ozanam wrote a learned dissertation on epidemic and epizootic diseases, in which he says it is not neceesary to show that the theories of Plenciz and others are purely hypothetical and erroneous. Notwithstanding that Ozanam doubted the correctness of the view of Plenciz on the contagious nature of diseases, others continued to carefully study the organisms of water, etc. Russworm designated them by their form, and, although he carefully studied them, this subject advanced but little. A host of scientists studied these so-called animals because it afforded great amusement. Little, however, was added till the celebrated Danish investi- gator, Otto Friederich Mueller, of Copenhagen, in 1776, made an exhaustive study of these so called Infusoria. He recognized the great difficulty in the study of these organisms, for he says "the certain and clear distinction of these requires so much time and sharp discrimination with the eyes, as well as excellent judgment and so much evenness of mind and patience that scarcely anything else equals it." He described ten species of the t^erwis Monas and thirty-one of the genus Vibrio. He used such characters as motion, biological characteristics. Morphology and habitat. These germs were accurately figured so that it has been possible to recognize some of the species. But we must rapidly pass in review the work of Paula Schrank, who divided these vibriones into those with motion and motionless. Bory de St. Vincent placed these low forms in the family Vibrionides, deriving some of his characters from Auguillula. He recognized five genera. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The theory of spontaneous generation long held sway in the popular mind. During the middle of the eighteenth century the defenders of this theory pro- mulgated their doctrines and for a long time the field was held undisputed. In this cause were enlisted such men as Needham, who observed the development of living organisms from grains of wheat and barley. Although this material had been boiled and heated for a time and the vessel closed, still they dfiveloped. The arguments seemed impregnable and Buffon, and Wrisberg, Treviranus and others dunng the early decades of this animated discus- sion championed the cause of abiogenesis with a great deal of empha^is, During the fifties and sixties and in the seventies and even down in the eighties abiogen- esis has had its defenders in such men as Pouchet, Joly, Musset, Wyman, Mante- gazza, Huizinga, Bastian, and Wigand*. It is strange that the clear and logical thinker Wigand should, as late as 1884, assert that bacteria can arise independ- ently without pre-existing forms from an organic substance e. g. spontaneously. This, it seems to me, shows a lack of the proper methods of experimentation. Wigand had scarcely reached the stage of experimental work, where it was left by Spallanzani in 1769, who, as some one has said, was the most celebrated experi- menter of that century. We may also mention Bonnet who was in thorough accord with this celebrated experimenter. With Spallanzani began the system of sterilization and making of tests to set aside spontaneous generation. It led Appert to utilize heat in.the preservation of organic substances and has opened the way for glorious modern achievements. Later investigators held that Spallanzani's experiments were not above criticism, *Eatstehuns uud Fermentwirkung der Bakterien vorlaufige Mlttheilung, Zwelte Auflage, N. G. Elwertssche Verlagsbuchhadulung, 18S4, pp. 40 Seep. 5. 68 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. but they were fortified and strengthened by Schwann, who demonstrated that fer- mentation could not occur unless germs were present. The presence of these organisms was not denied. Braconnet (1831), Berzelius (1827) and Liebig, that briUiant, but conservative chemist, strongly held that these ferments simply accompanied the process of fermentation. Some held that the action of these fer- ments was entirely catalytic. Schwann, however, showed that various substances heated sufficiently under ordinary conditions will decompose, but if the air before having had access is heated, putrifaction did not occur. Schroeder and von Dusch were able to show that these precautions are not necessary, since a cotton plug will completely filter out all germs, and owing to this, which now seems a small mat- ter, bacteriology has accomplished wonders in modern medicine and the arts. Hoffmann, Chevreul and Pasteur demonstrated that cotton is not essential for holding out germs. This can be done by simply drawing a tube out and bending it. As the germs simply follow the law of gravity they cannot enter. In rapid succession the work of Pasteur, Klebs, Lister, Rindfleisch, Burden- Sanderson set at rest the theories of spontaneous generation. They are no longer advocated. All existing bacteria arise from pre-existing forms; so much is settled. Bacteria are, no doubt, subject to the same general laws as to the origin of species as other living beings are; their growth and reproduction is determmed in a measure by surrounding conditions. Bacteria are, no doubt, modified by cli- mate and environment as are other living plants, but as yet we know little about this. We may now ask, what are bacteria? Undoubtedly, plants amongthe lowest in the ves'etable kingdom. In form, method of growth, and reproduction, they strongly resemble Schizophi/cece. Chlorophyll is absent. A few of the species described by Engelmann'' and Van Tiegham^ like Bacillus chlorinum and B. virens have Chlorophyll, and hence apsimilate, but it may be doubted whether these forms are bacteria. They are, no doubt, closely related, and are important links in the chain of evidence showing the relation of bacteria to some of the algse. With these exceptions they are fungi which do not form true hyphag. nor do they make a true apical growth or branch; pseudobranching occurs in forms like Cladothrix. In shape bacteria are round, elliptical, rod-like comma, and spiral, sometimes growing in threads, and now and then certain aberrant forms. A peculiar group is found in Dr. Thaxter's' Myxobacteriaceae, which resemble Myxomycetes. "These consist of motile, rod-like organisms, multiplying by fission, secreting a gelatin- ous base and forming pseudoplasmodium-like aggregations before passing into a highly developed cyst-producing resting state, in which the rods may become encysted in groups without modification or may be converted into spore masses." Bacteria reproduce by division, the cell divides and two new individuals are formed. Many species form spores; these are usually of the endogenous character; a few form arthrospores, as in Leuconostoc and Cladothrix . In this genus we have the curious anomoly that C. intricata, Russell, branches like Cladothrix and forms eudospores like Bacillus^. The cells are all provided with a cell-wall which appears to be made up of cel- lulose. Many of the species have motion, and this is in all cases probably due to 5Bot. Zeltung, 1882, p.321. 6 See Fluegge Mikroorganisms, p. 289; DeBary Bacteria, p. 4, 7 On the Myxobacteriacere, a new order of Schizomycetes, Contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory of Harvard Uaiversity, XVIII. Bot. Gazette, vol. XVII., pp. 389, 406, with plates XXII.-XXV. sZeitschrift fur Hygiene Vol. XI.,!1891, p. 192. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69 cilia which may be numerou.^ coniinp: from the periphery, as in Typhoid fever Bacillus, or several from the end. or a single one at one end of the extremities. Motion has recently been observed in a Micrococus. In some cases the cell-wall is extensible, some species are provided with a gelatinous envelope, the thickness and composition varies in different species. In some this sheath is a carbohydrate nearly like cellulose or in some putrefactive species, it is an albuminoid known as mycoprotein. In some cases these sheaths contain iron, other colors are sometimes found in the sheath, blue, yellow, red, etc., but it may be questioned whether these colors in all cases really belong to the sheath, although they do in some cases. The contents consist of protoplasm which in some cases appears to be nearly homogeneous, but in a number it contains alouminoid bodies. In Begqiatoa roseo persicina it is colored according to Lansester''"'. In Clostridium butyricun small refrigent granules occur that color blue on t;he application of iodine, in that respect they are similar to |the granulose of starch. Deggiatoa alba and others contain highly refrigent granules of sulphur which are readily made out. Nucleus occurs as Buetschli' and others have shown. These authors believe that the nucleus is large. Minot'" says, "This important discovery in conjunction with the extraor- dinary power of proliferation in bacteria confirms our generalization that a small proportion of protoplasm is essential to rapid growth." Koch, however, holds that the nucleus is not distinctly separated from the remainder of the protoplasmic mass. Bacteria are among the smallest of plants, they vary in size from 0.0001 milli- meter ("lu) or less, to 0.004 (Bacillus crassus) in width, length varies greatly Bacteria are ubiqutous occurring in soil, air, water, ice, snow, dust, animals' plants. They are especially common in filthy and putrid substances; their use in such places is so important that we shall discuss this at greater length in the proper place. SYSTEMATIC POSITION. It will be seen from what has previously been said that'the earliest investiga- tors variously arranged bacteria. It seemed certain to them, that they were ani- mals, for had they not motion? The learned Ehrenberg in 1888 ascribed to some, complicated digestive organs, owing to the way in which coloring matter was taken up. He recognized the division Monadina and Vibrionia. We may now mention another systematist who still adhered to the animal nature theory: Felix Dujardin in his "Historre naturelle des Zoophytes," 1841, admirably figured the species in some cases, and it is worthy of note that this man observed that these "Infusoria" brought about certain chemical changes. He found that oxalate of ammonia which had been added to his culture material entirely disappeared when the germs had been growing in it for a time. Perty, in 1852, indicated that some of these so-called animals were plants. Two years later Cohn published an admirable paper on the microscopic algae and plants in which he clearly indicated that the organisms in question were plants and not animals. Nsegeli had previously recognized that some of the colorless forms found on algae were fungi, they did not assimilate like algae. In 1857 he brought all these forms together and called them Schizomycetes, a term generally adopted by bacteriologists at the present time. ?aQuart. Jour. Mic. Science, Vol. XIII, 1873, Vol. XVI. 9 Ueber den Ban der Baeterien. 1890. 10 Proc. American Association Adv. of Science, Indianopolis meeting, 1890, p. 284. 70 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. We may now briefly discuss the later classifications of bacteriologists. TheHe begin with Davaine in 1868, who placed thein in the following genera. Bacterium, Vibrio, Bacteridium and Spirillum. Hoffmann (1869) also adopted form as a leading character. He lays stress upon the fact that motility is not a good character, that this character may be absent or present depending somewhat on the conditions of the medium and temperature. As he was not dealing with pure cultures hig observations in this respect are of little value. Ferdinand Cohn", of Breslau, who devoted himself largely to a study of bacteria smce 1853 formulated and adopted an excellent sys- tem of classification which was largely followed, till better methods of culture were in vogue. Cohn's work made a profound impression on the chaotic condi- tion of the science at that time. Cohn was too able an investigator to rely exclusively on the morophology of these organisms, for he states that germs cannot be separated morphologically, since they will show different chemical and phy- siological characters. He was not able to use many of these characters, since cul- ture methods were very crude at that time. How far his predictions have held is only too well known to workers in this field at the present time. He made three groups — Chromogenic, Zymogenic fand Pathogenic, characters which certainly find use in our present systems of classifications. Cohn believed that species of bacteria could be established just as well in this group of plants as in more highly developed organisms. The views of Cohn were not left unchallenged, for in 1874 Billroth published his researches on Coccobacteria sepfica, an organism which he obtained from milk serum. He argued that in different media the same species varies greatly; he says " es gibt bis jetzt Keinerlei morophologische Kennzeichen irgend einer Micrococcus-oder Bacterien form, aus welcher man schliessen konnte, das-sie sich nur bei dieser oder bei jener Krankheit in oder am lebenden Korper entwickeln konnte." Lister, who has achieved such renown because of the introduction of antiseptic treatment of wounds, believed that mor- phological characters used by systematists from Ehrenberg's to Cohn's time were not to be relied upon, because he thought species changed in different media. Thus he held that his Bacterimn lactis when grown in decoction of beets, urine and other media presented quite different morphological characters. In some media it had motion, in some it had not. He overlooked the fact that this single drop of milk contained many organisms. The accomplished bacteriologist, Buchner, at a much later day, thought Bncillus siihtilis, a harmless species, could be converted under different conditions into Bacillus anthracis, a virulent patho- genic germ. Dealing with such small objects and methods of culture in vogue at that time caused a mixture of the two species. Is it to be wondered at that mistakes should have been made and wrong conclusions drawn? We may conveniently now refer to the work of Hallier, a German botanist, who became greatly impressed with the work of DeBary and Tulasne on the polymor- phism of higher fungi. Why should not this polymorphism occur in these small organisms? Luders had indeed advanced the theory that they were connected with higher fungi. Hallier constructed a culture apparatus in which his isolated germs were grown. Moulds of all kinds appeared, and the same common moulds appeared m widely different cultures. He concluded that the medium is the most important element in showing this polymorphism. He states that it is nonsencical to describe separate species of yeasts and bacteria with long names. His study of Asiatic cholera, diphtheria, glanders and other contagious diseases convinced him that they had their origin in a Micrococcus uUntersuchung ueber Bacterien, Beitraege zur Biologie der Prflanzan, Vol. 1877, p. 127. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 71 which was derived from higher fungi or algae. Many physicians and scientists were inclined to accept these wild doctrines. Was not the evidence good? Had he not the microscopical and culture demonstrations? Opposing these theories were two eminent botanists, DeBary and Hoffmann, the latter a strong believer in polymorphism, both were able investigators, the former one of the most brill- iant botanists of our time. They held that species of bacteria could not be changed into higher fungi. DeBary maintained that the flrst canon had not been observed, namely, watch- ing the development of these forms. Hoffmann went so far as to state that polymorphism does not occur in bacteria. But we cannot close this part of the subject without referring to the work of Nasgeli, an eminent German botanist and author of a celebrated work on "Die Niederen Pilze," who maintained that species of Schizomycetes cannot be defined by morphological characters. DETERMINATION OF SPECIES. For several years the writer has been studying the flora of butter, cheese, milk and cream. Many species have been found, and of these but few could be located, largely due to the inperfect descriptions; the chromogenes were much easier because more attention has been given to them and their color affords good characters. Saccardo" in his Sylloge Fungorum, gives descriptions of a large number ot species. This work of De Toni is, of course, largely a compilation, the descriptions are largely abbreviated so that it is a hopeless task to properly or even approach the species. The tables of Eisenberg'^ are much more satisfactory, though even these are sometimes wanting in fullness. Nevertheless Eisenberg's tables are samples of what should be done in this line of study. The works of Flugge'3, Sims, Woodhead'^, Crookshank'', will enable one to locate some of the more common species. Of special importance in this connection 1 may mention the paper by Edwin 0. Jordan'^* on the Bacteria of Sewage. The descriptions of the species found there are especially full. The paper by Welz"^ on the bacteriolo- gical examination of air, contains excellent descriptions of several species. A paper by Dr. H. L. Russell'^, on the bacteria occurring in the water of the Bay of Naples, is certainly a model in its way. The imperfect descriptions of pathogenic organisms are not so numerous because of the importance of the subject from a hygienic standpoint. In some cases these contain many valuable notes on the biology of the organisms, as Kruse and Pansini'* on the Diplococcus of Pneumonia and related Streptococci. The excellent papers of Dr. Theobald Smith'^ that are replete with biological and 11 Sylloge Fungorum, vol. VIII, pp. 923-10S7. i2Bakteriolo?lscbe Diagnostlk Hilfstabellen zum praktischea Arbeiten, second edition, pp. 159. Leopold Voss, l»?B. 13 Die Mikroorganismen, mlt besondeier Berueckslchtigung der Aetlologie der Infections Krankhelten, pp. G92, with 144 figures. Second edition, Vogel, Leipzig, 1S86. 1* Bacteria and their products, pp. 459, with 20 photo-micrographs, London, Walter Scott, lfi92. 15 Manual of Bacteriology. 15h a report on certain species of bacteria observed in Sewage. Mass. State Board of Health, ISOO, Pt. II, p. 821. iSBacterlologische Untersuchungen der Luft in Freiburg und die Umgebung. Zeltschrift fur Hygieine und Tnfectiouskrankheiten. Vol. XI, p. 121. I'Untersehuugen ueber im Golf von Neapel lebende Bacterien. Zeitschrlft fur Hygiene und Infectionskrankheiten. Vol. XI, pp. 165-20G, plates XII-XIII and three figures. I'Unterschungen ueber den Uiplococcus pneumoniae and verwandte Streptokokken_ Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und Infectionskrankheiten. vol XI. p. 227. i»Hog Cholera Report, 1889. Swine Plague Report, 1891, U. S. Dept. of Agrl., etc. 72 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. physiological observations. Dr. Sternberg-" has also recorded a very large num- ber of observations on the bacteria found in connection with yellow fever. One of the most important works of its kind ever issued is Sternberg'fe^' Man- ual of Bacteriology. This should be in the hands of every bacteriologist. The descriptions are so thorough that little more need be desired. Most of the species are easily identified by the diagnostic found at the end of the volume, while the descriptions are very thorough and complete. CHARACTERS IN BACTERIA. It is convenient here to discuss what characters should be used in the descrip- tion of bacteria. Those who have given any attention to the classification of Schizomi/cetes are aware that the work of purely systematic botanists like Winter-, and Burrill's'^* translation of the same; Trevi8an2\ DeToni, Cohn cannot be used or offer, in suf- cient data, since morphological characters to separate species are not reliable. Many species are of the same size and shape. The species, however, seem to be quite constant in their morphological characters as shape and size do not appear to vary much within a species. Cohn-^ largely used shape and color in the determi- nation of species, l)ut this was largely pioneer work and many of the species defined by him cannot be recognized, and this is worse as we go back in the history of this science. Zopf -^ has been an earnest advocate of pleomorphism of species, and his classification rests on this doctrine. But pleomorphism is not so general as was at first supposed by Zopf. It is true that some species produce resting spores that resemble cocci as in Anthrax and other bacilli, but they never vegetate as such. But pleomorphism does exist in certain forms as in the group to which Cladothrix, Beggiatoa, and Crenothrix belong. These are truly pleomorphic, at least if we are to trust the work of those who have given the subject attention. In some forms, culture experiments have shown that a certain amount of pleomorphism does exist as in Cladothrix intrieata, Russell. But in many cases the facts of pleomorphism have not been brought forth by culture experiments as was at first supposed. FrsenkeP^ makes the statement that these organisms {Cladothrix, Beggiatoa) do not belong to bacteria, although they may be closely allied, to them. " We may therefore maintain that, thus far at least a many formed species of bacteria has not been observed, and the rule one can distinguish by the growth and from clearly recognizable genera and species of bacteria, which do not run into each other." Morphologically then, the different species are distinct, quite constant, although many species are similar. Our main reliance must be on physiological characters. And this is used nowhere else in the vegetable kingdom. Physiological charac- ters are sometimes used in the classification of animals, as in the Hexacornllinna. The Madroporice secrete stony skeletons while the Actinarice do not. In other 20Report on Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, U. S. Marine Hospital Serv- ice. Washington, Government Printing office, ISaO. See p. 181. aiA Manual of Bacteriology, pp. 886. Illustrated by heliotype and chromo litho- graphic plates and two hundred and sixty-eight engravings. New Yorli, Wm. Wood & Co., 1892. 22DlePllze. 23The Bacteria, an account of their nature and effects, together with systematic desoription of the species. Eleventh report Board of Trustees, Illinois State Uni- versity, pp. 92-157. 24 Genera e. Spec, delle BatteriaceEB, 1889. 25Beitraege zur Biologic der Pflanzen, Vol. 11, p. 130. 28 Die SpaltpUze, pp. 101 with 34 flsrures, Breslau, E. Trewendt. 188i. 27 Text book of Bacteriology, English translation. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 73 respects they are essentially alike. Prof. Osborn further calls my attention t) the fact that in gall insects the character of the gall produced by the insect is of great importance in separating species. I may be permitted in this connection to briefly quote from several prominent writers on this question. Trealease-* summarized the chf'racters as follows: 1. Morphological characters, mode of growth in which cultures show full range of variability of each species, behavior of cells to staining fluids, motion of the cells. 2. Physiological characters, production of pigment, specific fermentation and liquefaction of gelatin are apparently reliable. 3. Pathogenic characters for the most part are unreliable to render species which depend at all upon them above suspicion, though they may offer valuable collateral evidence. Any physiological characters therefore to be useful in the delimitation of species of bacteria, must be reasonably constant as well as pronounced. The fact is with our present. means of cultivating bacteria, strictly parasitic, like the Spirochceta of relapsing fever; that it grows with great difficulty in artificial cultures, like the Micrococcus of gonorrhoea, that it dies after a short time when cultivated, unless re-innoculated like the swine plague bacillus of the Germans and our Department of Agriculture all the pecular- ities have at least a suggestive value." Fraenkel-" writes: "Were the micro, scopical examination of the bacteria as they occur in their natural state, the only means at our disposal for studying them, our knowledge of bacteriology would never get beyond the experimental stage of certain very narrow limits." H. Marshall Ward'" in an admirable article says that before new species are described the fol- lowing points should be clearly made out: 1st. Habitat, air, soil, milk, etc. 2d. Nutrient medium agar, gelatin, potatoes, broth, saccharine liquids, etc. 3d. Gaseous environment, aerobic, anaerobic, whether carbon dioxide, nitrogen or hydrogen aff"ect the growth. 4th. Temperature-optimum is the most important though maximum and minimum should also be recorded. 5th. Morphology and life-history, shape, size, mode of union, presence of sheaths and capsules, spores, endospores and arthrospores, cilia, involution forms, etc. 6th. Special behavior. Does the germ peptonize and liquefy gelatin? 7th. What is the shape and course of the area? What is the shape of the colony? 8th. Pathogenic properties. But before we can do a great deal in this line some general code should be adopted. From these observations it will be seen that it is not an easy matter to recog- nize species; partial descriptions must be entirely ignored. I will admit with H. Marshall Ward that some general standard should be set up. But it would seem to me that we should soon begin to do something more on the biological charac- ters of many species. Many of these points in our species are still in a somewhat uncertain state. They have, in fact, not been determined. Much bacteriological work can be done with little equipment, but the systematic portion of this work can not be done without the literature at hand. To work out our bacteriological flora is needed, but it may be a long time before this work is accomplished. What is needed is a thorough scrutinizing of species to determine how many of these are synonyms. Marshall Ward^' has attempted this for a good many of the species occurring in water, and he has what appears to me, placed together some species which are distinct. Marshall W'-^rd is however, a most careful investigator, who discriminates with great care. This part of the work can 2«The Weekly Medical Review, Vol. XIX, March 23, 1889, p. 315. St. Louis 2»Text Book of Baeterioloiiy. 30Oa the Characters, or Marks, eL\ployed forclassiflying the Schizomycetes, Annals of Botany. Vol. VI, No. XXI, Apill, 1392, pp. 103-144. siPhllosophical Transactions, 1892 or 1893. 74 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. not be clone by a novice. I am greatly inclined to believe that many species have been described, as was true in many cases, of early systematic efforts with higher plants, without looking up the literature or carefully comparing specimens. It is out of the question in smaller institutions where library facilities are so meager that they should have access to much of the literature, and this is especially true where many of the species are described in out of the way journals. It seems to me that it would be expedient to describe species only in well recognized journals devoted to this line of work like Zeitschrift fur Hygiene, Centralblatt fur Bakte- riologie und Parasitenkunde. The Botanical Gazette, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, or possibly the American Monthly Microscopical Journal might undertake to do this line of work on this side of the Atlantic. BACTERIA AND THEIR RELATION TO THE DISEASES IN MAN AND LOWER ANIMALS. The subject of Bacteriology has become so important in modern medicine that no physician can claim recognition as an authority in zymotic diseases unless he treats it from the standpoint of the modern advancement in this the newest of sciences. The author who ignores the facts of bacteriology can no longer find place as an authority in the library of a physician. Facts are being established however, so rapidly that even the best of works soon become obsolete. Dr. Baumgarten says^^: "In a study of diseases, the aetiology must not be considered by itself, when in this case we are dealing with organic beings , bacteria and animal life, which bear certain relations to each other, the success in treatment cannot be controlled by a single factor." Patrick Geddes''^, in that most charming of books. Chapters in Modern Botany, says: "Most important, however, is the fact expressed in the germ theory that bacteria are constantly and intimately associated with some of the most fatal of human diseases, such as consumption, diphtheria, small pox, or typhoid, malaria or leprosy. Bacteria, in fact, will kill most of us." DeBary35 gays: " It is not necessary to .enlarge upon the manifold interest attached to these organisms at a time when the statement urged daily on the educated public does not fall short of saying, that a large part of all health and disease in the world is dependent on bacteria." So long as the old ways of looking at the nr ture of contagious diseases was in vogue, little could be expected, since it was before the advent of the cotton air filter by Schrceder and Von Dusch (1854) methods of sterilization, used by Schwann and others of his time, and perfected by Pasteur, Koch and modern workers, (he use of analine dyes to stain bacteria, the introduction of culture media by Cohn, Pasteur, Brefeld, Schroeter, and the plate method of separating germs first used by Koch; these landmarks have, in a large measure, helped to give us a clear understanding and knowledge of the contagious natuie of diseases. We have seen that several authors believed that diseases like anthrax and cholera were supposed to be carried by specific organisms. In some cases, as in anthrax, Davaine had observed, in 1850, that the Wood of anthrax animals contained stiff rods of the anthrax bacillus. PoUender observed the same rods in 1849. In 1863 and 1864 Davaine presented to the French academy the results of his innoculation experi- ^^Lehrbuch der Pathologischeu Mykologie Vorlesungen fur Aerzte uud Studlrende. pp. 973, with 108 figures, Harald Bruhn. Braunuschweig 1890, see p. VII. 34 Chapters in Modern Botany, New Yorlt, Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1893, pp. 201, with 8 figures. 35 Lectures on Bacteria, second improved edition, English translation by Henry E. F. Garnsey. revised by Isaac Bayley Balfour, pp. 193 with 20 figures. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1887. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75 ments with the blood of diseased animals. It was also shown as early as 1865 that sputum taken from tubercular patients would produce tuberculosis. As yet, however, the eridence was not conclusive. In 1S77 Koch publi.'^hed the results of his work on this disease, in which he showed conclusively that this special bacillus, which he had isolated from diseased animals and cultivated outside of the animal body, produced typical anthrax; that in the animal only the vegetative condition occurred, but when the animal dies these rods break up into spores; that infection in cattle and sheep commonly results from the taking up of spores while grazing in an infected pasture. The organism thus lives a dual life, one in the animal and one in the field. In ordinary cultures, spores are readily formed and these retain their vitality for a long time. The writer has found that these when kept in silk threads retain their vitality for at least six years. We mention this disease in particular because it shows what rules must be followed in bacteriological research. The classic canons of Koch must ever be obsei'ved, and these are, first, constant presence of the germ with the disease; second, isolation and cultivation of the germ; third, successful innoculation experiments with the germ isolated, and followed by the same disease; fourth, this germ must be the same as in the original diseased animals. Dr. Russell^" well says that these canons are just as applicable to phytopathology as in animal diseases. For my own part, I am sorry to say that so many bacterial diseases of plants have been described in which these canons have not been observed. But to follow through in detail the various stages of the history of this part of bacteriology, however interesting it is, would make this paper entirely too long. We shall therefore touch only upon the more important points. Let us briefly consider the pyogenic organisms and their relation to septic infection. The lengthy disputes between different investigators on the subject of septic infection and the causal relation to the same and definite micro-organisms had a most excellent champion in Weigert,^' who, in an able paper, set aside the gen- erally accepted theories, that septic infection resulted from poisonous products of ordinary saprophytic germs, or that certain changes occurred in the body before the germs could develop. It was the old story of Justus von Liebig.'s who strongly argued that germs and fungi follow a diseased condition. Weigert especially empha- sized the importance of recognizing bacteria in different diseases. He should receive much credit for having done a great deal towards perfecting methods of staining bacteria. The pyogenic microbes have been a rich field for investigators. For is not this subject of great importance to the physician? Almost daily he meets with the germs in question. They are concerned in such diseases as septicismia, pytemia and erysipelas. Then, too, these cocci are found in diphtheria. The forms of septicaemia occurring in lower animals are numerous, as Koch^^ first showed. A form of MicrococcKS commonly placed in the genus Streptococcus h widely distrib- uted in nature, and also produce septicaemia in lower animals. Dr. V. A. Moore has 3fiBacteria in their relation to vegetable tissues. Dissertation presented to the Board of University studies for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University. Freidenwald Company, Baltimore, 18!t2: pp. 41. '^Ueber pockenaehnliche Gebilde in parenchymatosen Organen und deren Bezle- hung zu Bacterieneolnlen. Breslau, 1875. See Loeffer Die Geschichtliche Entw, etc, p. 203. 38Chemistry. in its application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by Lyon .Playfair, Philadelphia. T. B. Peterson, Part Second, pp. 87, 119. s»Wundinfectionskrankheiten, Leipzig, 1878. Mith. d. kais- Ges. Amts Vol. T. 76 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. isolated twenty-eight species of this genus. Five of them are pathogenic to common mice.-"" Many of these Streptococci are not, however, pyogenic. Ever since Ogston, Rosenbach and Passet demonstrated the presence of Staph- ylococci and Streptococci in pus, it has been universally held that they had some causal relation to the formation of pus. But, it is also a well established fact that pas may be formed without germs as was first demonstrated by Grawitz and later by Scheurlen and others. The aseptic introduction of turpentine, nitrate of silver, and sterilized pus cultures under the skin will give rise to pus. That certain other pathogenic bacilli and some saprophytic bacteria when sterilized can cause the formation of pus seems also to be reasonably well demonstrated. So universally are these pyogenic micro-organisms distributed that unless the greatest precautions are taken, they gain entrance to the wound and, the surgeon finds his patient not recovering as rapidly as he should. These pus organisms have a low thermal death point. The Streptococcus pi/ogenes*^, 52-57.4° C. Staphi/lococcus pyogenes var. aiireusis according to Sternberg is killed at 56° C, but Mr. Wade found in the writer's laboratory that it is somewhat higher, perhaps a different race'^^^ 'pjjjg jg ^ relatively low thermal death point since many species especially the anthrax bacillus produce resistent spores which stand 100° C. for several minutes. Some of the germs commonly found in the air like Sarcina lutea which do not form spores are only destroyed above 70''^ C. when heated for ten minutes. There are few diseases which have awakened a deeper interest than tuberculosis in man and lower animals. The announcement of the discovery of the Bacillus was made by Koch*'' in 1832 and independently, about the same time, Baum- garten*'^ discovered a specific Bacillus as the cause of tuberculosis. Villemin'" as early as 1866 had shown that tuberculosis might be induced in healthy animals by innoculation of tuberculous material. These results were later confirmed by Cohn- heim,*" Salomonsen** and others. Baumg^-rten and Koch demonstrated the ident- ity of tuberculosis in bovine animals and man. Later it was shown by Ernst and otherb*' that milk from tuberculosis animals was infectious. There was much hesitancy at first to accept the conclusions of Koch in regard to the infectious nature of tuberculosis, for the theory that tuberculosis was an lOVeranus A. Moore in a paper on Miscellaneous Investigations concerning Infec- tious and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated animals. Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Ani- mal Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 9-30, gives an interesting account of the biology of some of thiese Streptecocei and also refers to tiie work of Smith, Salmon, Rosenbach and others. "Sternberg's Manual of Bacteriology, p, 274. 42]. c. p. 267. 43lt is possible that in this species as in Bacillus pyocyaneus there are different races as has been shown by several investigators. WDie AetiologiederTuberculose, Berlin Klinische Wochenschrift, 1882, No. 5. 45See Baumgarten Lehrbuch der Pathologischen Mykologie Vorlesungen f ur Aerzte und Studirende, Harold Bruhn, Braunschweig, pp. 973 with 100 figures. See page 535. 4«Etude sur la tuberculose, Paris, 1868. i^Uebertragberkeit der Tuberculose, Berlin, 1877. 48How far may a cow be tuberculous before her milk becomes dangerous as an article of food, Hatch. Experiment Station Mass. Agricultural College Bulletin No. 8, April, 1890, Bang. Proc. Inter-nat. Medical Congress, Copenhagen, Vol. I., Path. Sect. p. II. 1884. McFadeyean and Woodhead, see Woodhead, Bacteria and their Pro- ducts, p. 224. Smith & Schroeder, Bull. No. 3, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agri- culture. A contribution to the question of the danger of infection with tuberculosis through ordinary milk. The Journal of Comp. Path, and Therap., Vol. VI, p. 97. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77 inherited disease, was too strongly intrenched in the minds of physicians and peo- ple generally. But Koch brought such conclusive evidence in his first paper that the contagious nature of the disease could not be doubted and is now almost universally accepted. Physicians to-day use the methods proposed by Koch, Ziehl, Ehrlich and others for determining the presence of tubercle bacilli in sputum, lupus and other forms of the disease. A subject that was widely com- mented upon a few years ago in the press of the whole civilized world was the discovery of a toxic product, tuberculin in cultures of tubercle bacillus. This product discovered by Koch is soluble in glycerine. It is a powerful therapeutical agent. In very minute doses, when injected subcutaneously into tuberculous animals, it produces febrile and other decided symptoms. Dr. Sternberg'''' says: " Thi^ discovery must rank as one of tbe first importance in scientific medicine whatever the final verdict may be as to its therapeutic value in tubercular diseases in man." Numerous experiments have been made to determine its value as an agent in diagnosis of tuberculosis in bovine animals. These investigations have not only been carried on in Europe, but in our own country Dr. Pearson^^ has shown how valuable it is in cases of this kind. I may also refer to the value of another product, mallein, which Dr. Theobold Smith*^ and others have used with great success in diagnosis of glanders. These and other results which have been obtained along the lines of bacteriology have been of inestimable value to the world at large. We cannot overlook the great work of Pasteur in affording immunity to persons bitten by mad dogs. Hydrophobia, that strange malady which has baffled medical skill will, it is to be hoped, be held in check by the work of this savant. Although the cause of this strange and fatal disease is still a mystery, the bene- fits resulting from a series of innoculations are beyond dispute. SUSCEPTIBILXTY AND IMMUNITY. We can now discuss briefly susceptfbility and immunity. No question in gen- eral medicine and biology is more interesting than those which relate to suscepti- bility and immunity from disease in plants and animals. Certain animals and plants are much more subject to some diseases than others. Tuberculosis is com- mon to man, bovine animals, apes and small herbivorous animals. Anthrax is most common in cattle and sheep; it may be communicated to man, guinea pigs, rabbits and mice. Rats, dogs, and birds are generally exempt. Glanders is most common in equine animals, occasionally forms a loathsome disease in man, but mice, rabbits and cattle are generally exempt. But this difference of a disease is not confined to different species; it often occurs in different individuals of the same species. Thus hog cholera of the U. S. Department of Agriculture^" nearly always takes away a majority of the animals, but a few will not take the disease. A case has come under my observation in which various pathogenic germs were innoculated into a rabbit, but all without avail. Again common laboratory expe- rience shows that very young animals are much more liable to resist diseases than Weitere Mittheilungen ueber das Tuberkulin, Deutsche Med. Wochenschrift, 1891, No. 43. 50 Manual of Bacteriology, p. 387. MBull. No. 21, Pennsylvania Agrl. Experiment Station. E. P. Niles, Tuberculosis and the Koch test, Virginia Agrl. Exp. Station, vol. II, N. S. No. 3. 55 W. B. Niles, Bull. No. 20. p. 729, Iowa Agrl. E.vp. Station. 56Hog Cholera: Its history, nature and treatment, as determined by the inquiries and investigations of the Bureau of Animal Industry, pp. 199. with 16 plates. Govern- ment Printing office, Washington, D. C. See p. 34. 78 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. older animals. The same thing holds true in the human race, and very properly the term "children's diseases" is used for a number which are common to chil- dren and not older people. In older people some diseases are rapidly fatal, while other persons are exempt. The negro race is much more subject to tuberculous troubles than the white race. Small-pox is much more severe in dark races than fair skinned. The negro and latin races of tropical climates are more exempt from yellow fever than northern people. It is said on good authority that where cholera is indigenous, that the percentage of death is smaller than where it is not." Dr. Sternberg says:^* "The tendency of continuous or repeated exposures to the same pathogenic agent will evidently be to establish a race tolerance; and there is reason to believe that such has been the effect in the case of some of the more com- mon infectious diseases of man, which have been noticed to prevail with special severity when first introduced among a virgin population, as in the islands of the Pacific, etc." In bacterial diseases of plants the same thing has been noticed; every horticul- turist is familiar with the fact that some varieties of apples are more subject to the attacks of blight {Bacillus amylovorus) than others. It is certain that this sus- ceptibility muft depend on certain conditions in the animal body or plant, either favorable or unfavorable for the development of the pathogenic organism. It may be that the temperature fluids, of the body, or the blood serum as Buchner^", Han- kin'^'' and others claim have valuable germicidal properties. The products of cer- tain glands like the thymal are said to afford immunity. Fokker'"'* has recently published results which show that fresh milk has germicidal properties. It may be that the tissues of plants or structure of parts of cells, or the fluids of the plant are different from those attacked. Immunity from subsequent attacks varies in different diseases, and the time also varies. The theories advanced for immunity are the exhaustive theory, which holds that the organism growing in the animal exhausts the supply of some substance essential for its growth. But this has been set aside by Sternberg*'^ and others. • The retention theory, proposed by Chauveau: This investigator holds that cer- tain products formed during the development of the germ in the body accumulate and are retained. The vital resistance theory of Sternberg*^'- explains immunity upon an acquired tolerance to the toxic products of pathogenic bacteria. There is much evidence to support this theory. The theory of phagocytosis, first prominently advocated by Metchnikoff, and sometimes called the Metchnikoff theory, is based on the fact that bacteria in the blood are picked up by the leucocytes. That immunity depends upon the power possessed by these leucocytes in destroying bac- teria. There is no longer any doubt that the leucocytes pick up and destroy micro- organisms in animals, for since the germs found m these leucocytes are often corro- ded, and finally disappear entirely when health has been restored. Hankin*^ believes there is found in the body, as a result of disease, autitoxine, and these substances which are found in immune animals, he calls "defensive proteids;" these are das- 57 Sims Woodhead, Bacteria and their Products, Chapters VIII and IX. 58 Manual of Bactierology, p. 927. 59 0entralblatt fur Bakt, and Parasitenkunde Vol. V, p. 817; Vol. VI, p. 1. 60 Proc. Royal Soc. London, 1890, May 22. 60a Fortschritt der Medicin Vol. VIII, p. 7. 6i.Iournal of Medical Sciences, April, 1881; Manual of Bacteriology, p. 238. 62 American Journal of Medical Sciences, April, 1881. Manual of Bacteriology, p. 2J0. 63 See Sternberg's Manual of Bacteriology, p. 260. IOWA ACADKMY OF SCIENCES. 79 sified according to whether they occur in normal animals, sozins; second, those occurring in animals which have acquired an immunity, phijlaxlns. Sternberg,"* than whom there is no higher authority in this country, says: "The experimental evidence detailed gives strong support te the view that acquired immunity depends upon the formation of antitoxine in the bodies of immune animals; as secondary factors, it is probable that tolerance to toxic products of pathogenic bacteria and phagocytosis have considerable importance, but it is evident that the principle role cannot be assigned to these agencies." Sims Woodhead"" thus summarizes immunity: "It appears probable that both the antagonistic action and this summative action are due to the bringing into play, or the depressing, of certain specific functions of the protoplasms of the cells by the products of different micro-organisms. It is not necessary that these func- tions should always be manifesting themselves; after being once evoked and exer- cised they may remain latent for a considerable period, and only be again called into action under the regular specific stimulus. It is a case of wiitingonthe looking-glass with ink and with French chalk — the ink is always in evidence, and we might say that it corresponds to the enzyme, or the peptonizing functions exerted by certain cells, animal and vegetable, whilst the French chalk, though always there, is only brought out when the glass is breathed upon." BACTERIA OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT. In a previous paragraph I referred to studies made by Hallier and others on Asiatic cholera, and the pleomorphism of bacteria. This disease, which for cen- turies has carried away thousands of human lives every year, is certainly worthy of the deepest and most profound studies of physicians and bacteriologists. That the disease is contagious in its nature has long been recognized. The dis- tinguished investigator, von Pettenkofer, long worked in vain for the specific cause. His work on the spread and distribution of the disease is a most import- ant contribution to the literature of the subject, especially his researches on the relation of ground water and the "drying zone" to cholera epidemics. The splendid achievements of Robert Koch who was sent by the German government in 1883 to study cholera in Egypt and India made his name famous. On this mission he demonstrated a specific micro-organism which he called the "comma bacillus," but which belongs to the spiral forms and is known as Spirillum cholera osiaticce. This germ was found in the dejecta of patients suffering from this disease, in cesspools and water which received the dejecta, in milk, etc. It was not as easy to convince scientists and physicians that the germ found by Koch was the cause of Asiatic cholera, since Finkler and Pryoi'^*' found a germ in Cholera nostras which appeared to be identical, and Deneke"" found apparently the same germ in old cheese. Miller"* found a comtua bacillus in the human mouth; moreover, Klein, an emi- nent English authority, claimed that Koch's material was entirely harmless. Although the evidence of a spncific germ is not so conclusive in this disease as in anthrax and tuberculosis, yet the accidental innoculation of a young physician in M M inual of Bacteriology, p. 262. «5Bacteria and Their Products, p. 379. «6Untersuchunfren uber cholera nostras. Deut. med. Wochenschr, 1884, No. 36. etc. 67 UeDer eine neue den Choleraspirillen ahnliche Spaltpilzart. Deut. med. Wochen- schr, No. 3. 1885. 68Kommaformlger Bacillus aus der Mundhole. Deut. Med. Wocb, 1855, No. 5. Micro-organisms ot the Human Mouth. Philadelphia, 1890. 80 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Koch's laboratory in Berlin with this germ, who became sick and had the symp- toms of genuine cholera, the experiments of Ferran, Koch, Gamaleia and others with guinea pigs, leave no doubt as to the causal connection of organism and Asiatic cholera. It is generally recognized now as the cause of this disease. There are many apparent anomalies as shown in the distribution of cholera and von Pettenkofer's "groundwater theory," which are fully set forth in Dr. Shakespeare's^* splendid monograph on cholera. If the contagious nature of the disease and the biological questions are taken into account, these conditions can be accounted for. The history and spread of this disease all show how important it is to take heed of sanitary conditions. It shows that the disease spreads most rapidly where effluvia and excreta contaminate the water; food, too, may be an important item. That old habit of using sewage water to sprinkle over vegetables, or the use of night soil for growing vegetables is an extremely dangerous thing. WATER ANALYSIS. This brings up the question of making bacteriological analysis of water and in this connection we may discuss typhoid fever. It is a well recognized fact that this disease is caused largely through the use of water and food that contains the active virus. The causal connection of the Koch Eberth bacillus and typhoid fever is generally conceded, but the proofs are not as certain as in some of the other contagious diseases, since bacteriologists have not been successful in producing' typical typhoid fever in lower animals. This is not surprising since there are no animals that take this disease as man does. But it is pathogenic to mice and lower animals. A study of the typhoid fever bacillus is not an easy matter since there are several closely related species like Bacillus coU-communis which norm- ally occur in the colon of man, other forms of this species occur in dysentery, cholera infantum, catarrhal enteritis, gastroenteric catarrh, peritonitis and other diseases. Other germs of this general character are quite common in decaying substances, and some are pathogenic. The hog cholera germ, swine plague; the Bacillus coli-comniunis are well known for their pathogenic properties. Dr. Theo- bold Smith"' has, however called attention to some important characters of the germs when grown in the fermentation tube, which enables us to separate coli- communius from nearly allied forms. It has long been customary to regard a chemical analysis of water sufficient to determine whether water is good for drinking purposes or not. There seems how- ever, to be a rapidly growing tendency to move along biological lines. I would not underrate chemical analysis, it should go hand in hand with this biological work. There are so many problems that the biologist cannot explain unless the chemist is at his elbow. Dr. Stevens says: " It is perhaps enough to say that a chemist is not of necessity a sanitarian, nor is his work the most important basis upon which a sound or safe conclusion is built as to the proper hygienic value of water for potable uses." Mr. Rafter'-" a well known sanitary engineer says: " Attention should be called moreover to the general proposition that the chemical methods are so refined in their nature that a slight error is liable to invalidate the results; whereas the microscopic analysis has the advantage of making the bulk of the organic contam- inating material visible to the sense of sight." The chemist can determine that ««Report on cholera in Europe and I idia, pp. 945, with numerous charts and dia- grams. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1890. 69Centralbatt fur Bakteriologie and Parasitenkunde, Vol. XII, p. 367. 740n the micro-organisms In Hemlock water. The quotation from Stevens Is taken from this paper. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81 there is an organic impurity, the bacteriologist can tell what the impurity is. Bacteriologists have made many analyses of water and sewage. The methods used are still open tor improvement. Water analysis is indeed a difficult problem. Prof. Sedgwick,"' in an exhaustive treatise on purification of water and sewage in report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, says: "Although microscop- ical analyses (so-called) of water or sewage have often enough been undertaken the methods employed have hitherto been so imperfect that little importance has been attached either to the examinations themselves or to the results." There are two ways in which water may be examined: First, microscopically; second, cultures. The former was the method chiefly in vogue before the use of the Koch system of cultivating germs. This method was employed by Cohn '"^ and Radelkofer "' in making examination in Breslau and Muenich. The bacterial exam- ination of water requires cultures, and this is a very important part of the work. But I do not believe that culture examination is sufficient for this work. The Massachusetts State Board of Health employed Dr. Sedgwick, a well known authority in biological research, to make a biological study of sewage and drink- ing water. A new method was introduced as the combined work of Kean. Sedg- wick and Rafter"^ which makes it a comparatively easy matter to determine approximately the microscopical organisms. Jcergensen"*' has well stated that the exclusive use of gelatine in this branch of biology may introduce sources of error. Hansen's work, as well as that of Joergen- sen, was more especially intended for zymotechnical purposes, and yet I believe it is equally applicable in hygiene. It may be well to start a series of cultures in small flasks that contain sterilized sewage or water'with some organic matter. For a study of these germs the Hansen method may be used. I believe that good results may be obtained by using liquid media. Miquel's" work certainly shows good results. The use of the fermentation tube, as suggested by Dr. Theo- bald Smith, •= is a most excellent device. Many of the bacteria found in faeces are gas generators and by use of the fermentation tube which contains bouillion and sugar, the kind and quantity of gas produced may be determined readily. Stoller'* has recently used this apparatus extensively with some success in arriving at the quantity of faecal bacteria in water. The most important methods in bacteriological examination of water are those of the Koch school. In this method a known quantity of water, a fraction of a cubic centimeter is put in gelatin or agar and the number of germs which develop are counted. Obviously the smaller the fraction the more danger there will be of making errors in giving the result of the number of germs per cubic centimeter. '5 A reporter the Biological work of the Lawrence experiment station of Massachu- setts State Board of Health, 1888-1890. ^sUeber den Brunnenfaden (Chrenolhrix polyspora) mit Bemerkungen ueb'er die Mikroscopische Analyse des Brunnenwassers, Beitraege zur Biologle der Pflanzen I, p. 108 Breslau 1870. "MikroskopischeUntersuchung der Organlschen substanzen im Brunnenwasser, Zeitschrift fur Biologie I (1865), p. 26. •8 Experimental investigations, Mass. State Board of Health, 1888, 1890, Pt. II, pp. 803. 811. Recent Progress in Biological Water Analysis, Journal of the New England Water Works Association. September 1889. The Biological Examination of Potable Water, Proceedings Rochester Academy of Sciences, 1890. 'OL c, p 48. "Annuaire del' Observat.oire de Montsourls 1877-1890. Not seen in the original. 'SOentrallblatt bur Bakterlologie und Parasltenkunde. Vol. VII, p. 302. and Vol XII, p. 367. "3Sclence, Vol. XXII, No. 564, p. 286. 32 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Various bacteriologrical analyses made in Europe and the United States show that the bacterial contents differ greatly. Dr. Grubei'^ sets the maximum number of colonies to be found in spring: water from 40 to 50, in well water 300 to 500 per c. c. Fraenkel states that g:ood drinking water should not have more than fifty g^erms per cubic centimeter. Many bacteriologists place the limit at 1,000 germs per c. c. It is stated that water taken from the Croton reservoir. New York, contained from 5,000 to 15,000 germs per c. c, and Messrs. McCall and Patton found in well water from a well near the Iowa Agricultural College, 320 germs per c. c. Spring college water supply only contained 56 germs per c. c. Water taken from the Muenich supply contained from 305 to 12,606 germs per c. c. FrsenkeF estimated the num- ber of germs in the water supply of Berlin at 6,140, while below the city there was a great increase, the number being 243,000 per c. c. The Kiel water supply, according to Breuning*"*, has from 62 to 1,712 germs per .5 c. c, the number of liquefying species varying from 4 to 188. Wells in the same city in some cases had more than 26,000. Sewage, of course, contains an enormous number. Out of 126 analyses of Law- rence sewage, the number was 708,000 per c. c; the minimum was 102,400; and maximum, 3,963,000. Fourteen analyses show more than 1,000,000 per c. c. It is not strange that sewage should contain such large number?, since the putrefying material is especially favorable for their development. Nor is it strange that well water should often contain large numbers, since the upper strata of the soil teem with bacteria, and it is especially easy for water from the surface to find its way into the well. In bacteriological analysis of water it is not so important to deter- mine the number as it is the quality of the germ. It is of special importance to take into account the pathogenic organisms, like the typhoid fever bacillus, and the spirillum of Asiatic cholera, in cases of epidemics of the latter disease. The liquefying species, such as peptonize gelatin, are more important than those which do not, since many of these give rise to very disagreeable odors, and perhaps poi" sonous products. What becomes of the germs found in sewage? It is certainly important to know whether they will continue to contaminate cities using the same water and lying farther down the stream. Water may be purified in two ways: 1. Self-purification; 2. Purification by fil- tration. In this paper we are only concerned in the first. Destruction by various small animals, chemical action, sedimentation, and direct sunlight. The chemical action is perhaps due largely to oxidation; the mechanical effects of the small par- ticles m the water must act to a considerable degree on the germs; the sediment carries with it much organic matter; this sediment, as experiments have shown, contain pathogenic germs. Perhaps the most powerful agent is sunlight. Buch- ner,8^ Marshall Ward, and others, have shown that exposure of typhoid bacillus, anthrax and other germs to direct sunlight destroys their pathogenic properties and inhibits their growth very materially. That there is a constant decrease in the number of germs at some distance below the point whei-e sewage empties into the stream, numerous analyses have shown. "SSehrank. Anleitung zur Ausfuehrung bacteriologischer Untersuchungeu zum Gebrauche fur Aerzte, Thieraerzte, Nahturungsmittel— , Agricultur and Gaehrungs- chemiker, Apotheker and Bautechniker, pp. 255, with 137 figures. Leipzig and Vieuna. Franz Denhicke, 1894. 801. c. p. 820. soaBacteriologischeUntersuchung desTrinkwassersderStadt Kiel im August und September, 1887. Inaugural Diss., pp. 38. Kiel, A. F. .Jensen. siBot. CentralDlatt Vol. LII., pp. 61, 398. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. DISEASES OF PLANTS AND INSECTS. 83 In this lenprthy sketcli on pathosrenic germs the relations to hygiene have been touched on sufficiently. I have not discussed many of the diseases, but with such a vast subject, it is impossible to do so. Before I proceed to discuss the uses of bacteria to agriculture, let me briefly refer to a few of the diseases they cause in plants. Scarcely a decade ago DeBary,*^ Hartig*' and other phytopathologists believed that the acid reaction of higher plants was detrimental to the growth of bacteria in living tissues. Since then it has been shown that many bacteria find acid media an excellent medium; moreover European, but more especially Ameri- can investigations have shown that quite a number of plant diseases are caused by these minute organisms. The pioneer work in fact in this direction was paved by Americans. Most European authors like Kramer** and other bacteri- ologists scarcely enumerate the work done by Americans. The only writers who have fully comprehended the subject are Ludwig of Greiz,*' and Comes''^ of Itu.ly, yet more than a decade ago Professor BurrilP' worked out the causal relation between pear blight and Bacillus ami/lororm. This was soon followed by the work of Prof. Arthur** on the same disease, and finally some excellent work by Waite. Then followed the investigation of Hurrill'*'-' on sorghum blight, the work of Kellerman and Swingle"' on the same disease. Tuberculosis of the olive by Savastano", blight in oats by Prof. Galloway^- and Wakker's^' Yellows of Hyacinths has become quite familiar to phytopathologists of Europe. It has been demonstrated that there are other plant diseases caused by micro- organisms. These have been tabulated in an interesting paper by Dr. RusselP*. Not the least value may be expected from the part that micro-organisms play in causing diseases of insects. Flacherie of the silkworm (Streptococcus bombi/cis) long ago studied by Bechamp'^ and Pebrine [Nosema homhycis) discoveied by Cornalia and carefully studied by Pasteur anu Naegeli are the oldest among the known diseases caused by bacteria. Both are most troublesome enemies of silk culture. Pasteur rendered this industry most important aids in suggesting the separation of the moths m pairs in isolated numbered cells, and a microscopical examination of the mates after they had deposited their eggs. The eggs from diseased insects are not to be used for breeding purposes. Whether this organism is to be classed with Bacteria or is one of the Sporozoa is still undetermined. Metchnikoff classifies it with Sporozoa. Foul brood of bees, a most troublesome disease in the apiarj-, is caused by Bacillus »■- Lectures on Bacteria, 1S87. 83Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten. 8iDle Bakteriologie in lliren Beziehungen zur Landwirtschaft und den Landw, Technlschen Gewerben. Pt. I, pp. 171. Pt. II, pp. 178. Carl Gerold's Sohn Vienna. 1890-1892. 85Lehrbuch der niederen Kryptogamen, 1892. 88Annual Report New York State Agr. Experiment Station, 1881, p. 357. 89 Eighth Ann. Meeting See. Prom. Agrl. Sci., p. 30. 90Annual Report Kansas Agr. Experiment Station, 1889. »iAnn. D. R. Scuola. Sup. d'Agri. in Portlci, Vol. V, fasc. IV, 1887. »2Journal of Mycology, vol. VI. 1890. 93Bot. Centralblatt, Vol. XIV, 1883, p. 315. 941. c. pp. 35-41. 95Bechamp. : Compt rend., Vol. LXIV. Pasteur: Etudes sur les Maladies des vers a sole, Paris, 1870. Balblanl, Lecons, sur les Sporozoairies, Paris, 1884. 8i IOWA ACADEMY O.? SCIENCES. alvei. The causal connection of this germ and "foul blood" was first established by Watson Cheyne.»« Many bacterial diseases of insects are beneficial, like "flacherie" of the cab- bage butterfly {Pieris rapae) the bacterial disease of "chinch bugs" {Streptococus insectoruu) carries large numbers of this troublesome pest away. In this country Prof. Forbes'' was the first to study '"flacherie" and other bacterial diseases of insects. That these spread rapidly was shown by Prof. Osborn^' who introduced diseased worms of the cabbage butterfly from Illinois. Later, C. V. Riley. '^ and under him F. W. Mally,'™ carried on some experiments with contagious germs to deter- mine whether the "boll worm" could be held in check. Prof. Snow^^^ of the Uni. versity of Kansas, has also carried on a'long series of experiments with the "chinch bug" disease. From the results obtained by these investigators there is no doubt that if the germs are carried over successfully either by the insects, or cultivated in nutrient media, that they may be utilized with advantage. Of course the insects must be gregarious, so that the disease can be spread easily. It is too soon to make any general predictions concerning the application of this work in holding insects in check, but we may confidently expect that it will find application in applied ento- mology. We may note in this connection that Loeflit^r has successfully spread a disease of field mice, Bacillus ti/Dhi-murinum, in Southern Russia, and in this way mate" rially checked this plague. BACTERIA OF SOIL. Let us briefly turn our attention now to a consideration of the bacteria of soil and the decomposition of organic matter, the formation of nitrates and nitrites. It has well been said that while bacteria cause much misery in the world they are great benefactors. Without them there would hardly be any rot nor decay. Our beautiful landscapes could not exist. The earth, garnished with the bloom of flowers, the green herb, its magnificent forest.*, our cereals and food plants, would not have the material from which to build up their fabric, except for these tiny plants. The nitrogen so essential for all living plants is only made ready for the use of most green plants by these wonderful micro-organisms. Nitrification formerly meant the production of niter, a natural product of cer- tain soils and rocks, but modern chemists have given to the word a wider meaning. It concerns the formation of nitrates and nitrites. The older theories are discussed in various works on agricultural chemistry^°^. The first suggestion that nitrification was caused by a ferment was made by Mueller'"^ but the true nature of nitrification was worked out by the French 96 Frank R. Chesire and Watson Cheyne, .lournal of the Royal Microscopical Soc. 1885, p. 11. J. J. MacKenzie, The Foul Brood Bacillus, B. alvei; its vitality and development' 18th Annual Report Ontario Agricultural College and Exp. Farm, 1892, pp. 267-273. 97 Contagious diseases of insects, 111. State Laboratory of Natural History. Bulletin 98 Iowa Horticultural Report, 1885, Insect Life, Vol. Ill, p. 143. 99 The Outlook for Applied Entomology, Insect Life, Vol. III., p. 197. 100 Report on Boll Worm of Cotton, Bull. No. 29, Division of Entomology U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1893. 101 Insect Life, Vol. III., p. 279. 102 Johnson, How crops grow, d. 391, New York, Orange Judd Co., 1888; Storer, Agriculture In its relation to chemistry, etc., etc.; Warrington, six lectures on the investigations at Rothansted Experimental Station, delivered under the provisions of the Lawes Agricultural Trust, before the Ass. Am. Agrl. College and Experiment Stations, Washington, Aug. 12-18, 1891; Experiment Station Bulletin No. 8, office of Experiment Stations U. S. Dept. of Agrl., Washington, Government Printing office. 103 Land w. Versuchs Stat. Vol. XVI, p. 233. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 85 chemists, Schloesinp: and Muentz"'*, who announced, in 1877, that they had estab- lished, by a series of experiments, that nitrates in the soil were formed by a micro-organism. They showed that 212 degrees Fahr. for one hour was sufficient to destroy the agent that caused nitrification. Further experiments made by these investigators show the importance of taking into consideration the temperature of the soil. In summer the temperature is more favorable for nitrification. The absence of strong light is a necessary condition for this same process. An alkaline condition of the medium is essential, but the amount, as Warrington says, is injurious if anything beyond a small proportion, and a large amount will prevent the action altogether. The present theory of nitrification is that there are two stages, and each process is brought about by a distinct organism. At least this is true in the nitrification of ammonia, and the nitrification of nitrogenous matter falls under the same head. Warrington, •'^° in an admirable paper, says: "By one organism the ammonia is converted into nitrites; by the other the nitrite is converted into nitrate. The existence of these two distinct agents, each of which has special conditions favora- ble or unfavorable to its development, explains at once the particular formation of nitrous or nitric acid, so frequently observed in laboratory experiments on nitrifi- cation." In the soil these two different organisms are abundant; the conditions for their growth being similar, they work together. The most interesting point in connection with these organisms is their growth in nutrient media. Isolation has been attended with much difficultv. The first attempt to grow them was made by Schloesing and Muentz; although they may have had the nitrifying agent, they worked with material that contained other germs. Koch's methods of growing bacteria in solid media, like agar and gelatin, wholly failed to accomplish the desired result. The first success in cultivating the nitrifying organism was made by D. P. F.Frankland^"^ His cultures were started in an ammonical solution, and by the dilution method he finally succeeded in obtaining a single species. Warrington'"' by the same method succeeded in isolating the organism in the same way. Winogradsky'"- also succeeded in isolating and growing the germ. So much for the isolation of the nitrous organism. The separation of the nitric organism has been attended with equal difficulty, but Winogradsky'"' by an ingen- ious method has succeeded in growing the nitric organism on gelatinous silica. A most interesting feature of these organisms, the nitrous and nitric, is that they grow in inorganic fluids. Warrington"'^ says: "That an organism unprovided with chlorophyll and growing in darkness, should be able to construct organic matter out of ammoniacal carbonate is certainly of the highest interest." Con- nected with the subject of nitrification is that of denitrification. Numerous investigators have called attention to the breaking up of nitrates in sewage. In some cases as in Bacterium (hnitrijicnns^^^ the nitrate is changed into nitrogen gas. But these nitrogen gas species are evidently not common. The species which reduces the nitrates are numerous as shown by various recent investigations. iwCompt. Rend. Vol. LXXXIV, p. 301. 105 1. c.p. 63. 106 Phil. Trans. Roy. See, 1890. B.,p. 107. lO'Transactlons Chem. See. 1891, p. 502. lOSAnn. d 1" Instltut Pasteur, 1890, p. 213. iwCompt. Rend., Vol. CXIII, 1891. p. 89. iioj. M. N. Munro, Trans. Chem. Soc, 1886, p. 651. Warrington 1. c. p. 49. Wlnogradsky, Ann. d 1' Instltut Pasteur, 1890, p. 268. iiiGayon and Dupetlt, Ann. de la Science Agronomlque I (1885), p. 226. ge IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Warrington found 37 ; Jordan"^ has also found several in the sewage of Boston water supply. Prof. G. E. Patrick made an examination for the writer of eight species; of these five were energetic reducers of nitrates to nitrites. This property was not confined to facultative anaerobes. Sarcina lutea. Streptococcus cinnabar- eus are both aerobic, and yet are energetic reducers. This field of bacteriology is a most fascinating and an important one. The whole subject of decomposition of organic matter might well engage the attention of many investigators. The results of Schlce^ing and Muentz on nitrification and the erosion of rocks through the agents of bacteria, the brilliant achievements of Winogradsky, Warrington and others on these questions should be brought to the attention of agriculturists. These problems are important in the production of crops, and may well stimulate tor a knowledge of things that seem hidden. Let us now consider the appropriation of nitrogen in leguminous plants. Leg- uminous plants as renovators of our soils has been an established axiom in agricult- ure for years, but it is only within recent times that this was properly accounted for. Did not Boussingault show that plants cannot take up the free nitrogen of the air through the leaves of plants? Scientists generally opposed Ville's idea that some plants have the power of taking up free nitrogen, but after nearly half a century of investigation, the world at large has come to accept his conclusions. The various phases of the appro- priation of atmospheric nitrogen because of the nitrogen found in the tubercles, and the symbiotic relation to the plants in question, has received wide discussion in the agricultural and scientific papers. It is because the economic and scientific phases are so important and interesting from practical and chemico-physiological standpoints that they have been considered in this way. The practical farmer is interested in the accumulation of nitrogen in soil through the decay of tubercles and the appropriation of nitrogen by the plant. It makes his soil more productive. The chemist and biologist are interested in finding out facts in regard to how this is accomplished, the structure, form and relationship of the organisms in question. I presume most of you are familiar with the earlier work. At one time they were supposed to be insect galls. Bivona"^ thought they were fungi and placed them in the genus Selerotium. Tulasne, with his great knowledge of fungi, cast them out of this group of plants. Later they were held to be normal structures of the plants, "swollen lateral roots," "imperfect buds," normal structures of the roots for the storage of reserve food material. Prof. Atkinson,"^ who has made a most excellent summary of the investigations, reviews the status of the question in three periods, early, middle and recent. During the middle period the preponder- ance of evidence seems to have been to regard them as normal structures for the storage of reserve food material, although the views of some authors were dia- metrically opposed. Frank, who at first supposed them to be fungi, related to the genus Protomtjces, established by De Bary, later entirely abandoned this view and thought they were simply for the storage of proteid material. In this he was supported by Brunchorst, Tschirchand VanTieghem. Worooin, Knyand others held that they were living structures related to Plasmodium hrassicce. Later 1121. c. 113 Quoted by Atkinson. Contribution to the Biology of the organism causing legu - minous tubercles, Bot. Gazette. Vol. XVIII, pp. 158, 226, 257, where there is a most excellent bibliography. There is also a good review Dy Conn. Experiment Station Record, Vol'. II, pp. 686-693. 1141. c. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87 researches made by Ward"*, Hellriegel ami Wilfarth"«. Laws and Gilbert"', Beyerinck"\ Prazaiowski"», Liurent""*, Frank'=', Atkinson, and a host of others, leaves no doubt as to the organisms found in the tubercles. The results of these later investigations show that in sterilized soil, leguminous plants make but little growth and the tubercles will not develop. The results have been further supplemented by the successful culture of the organisms by Frank, Prazmowski, Laurent, Atkinson and others. There is much conflicting testimony as to the true nature of the changes produced and the structure of the organism. Atkinson says: "The important question is, can these various conflict- ing notions of the biology of the microsymbiont be harmonized? Leaving out of consideration for the present the real nature of the organism it will be admitted by those who take the trouble to familiarize themselves with the scope of the work covered by the most important investigations that the organism in question con- sists of an elongated thread-like structure, which branches freely within the tuber- cle and possesses enlarged portions which present a more or less finely lobed sur- face; and very much smaller forms which must exist to some extent within the tubercle, are capable of multiplying in artificial media, and when transplanted from artificial media to the roots of leguminous plants, are capable under these more natural conditions and the stimulus of the microsymbiont, of growing out again into the threadlike structures." As to the place of the organism in the system of plants there is much diver- sity of opinion. Laurent, as well as Ward, concluded that they were not bacteria but low fungi. Atkinson says: "While in some characters, as noted above, the tubercle organism is very much like Claodochj/trium tenue, yet in the sum of essential characters it departs too widely from that genus, so that even if it should eventually be clearly shown to be one ot the Chi/ti-idiacece, it would still be refera- able to Phutottuixa.''' Frank, Prazmowski, and others placed it with bacteria. Whatever the final disposition will be, Atkinson, it seems to me, has good grounds for calling it PJii/tomi/xa. It is not my purpose to discuss at length the chemical problem, but it may be well to give the opinions of the more recent investigations. J. H. Gilbert^- says: "The facts at command did not favor the idea that the plant was enabled to fix this free nitrogen by its leaves. It seemed more consistent, both with experimental results and with general ideas, to suppose that the nodule bacteria fixed free nitro- gen within the plant, and that the higher plant absorbed the nitrogenous com- pounds produced." Atwater and Woods "\ while they show that there is an acqui- ts Ou the tubercular swellings on the roots of Vicia Faba. Phil. Trans. Koyal Society, ULXXVIII (1887). pp. 139. 116 Untersuchungen ueber die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen und Legumlnosen. Beilageheft z. d. Zeitschr. f. d. Rubenzucker Ind. d. D. R. Berlin, Nov., 1888. Review In Hot., Central b. XXXIX. (1889). ta8. ii"On the present question of the sources of the nitrogen of vegetation, etc. Phil. Trans. Royal Society, CLXXX. B. 1-107. ii8Die Papilionaceenknoellchen, Bot. Zeit. 1888, p. 725-73.5, 741-750. 757-771, 780-790, 797-804. iiSDas Wesen und die blologische Bedeutung der Wurzelkncellchen der Erbse. Bot. Central b. XXXIX. (1889). 3.56-362. i20Ann. d.rinstitut Pasteur. V. (1891). 105-139. i2iUeberdie Pilzsymbioie der Leguminoseen. Berlin, 1890. 122 Experiment Station Record, Vol. Ill, p. 333. i23Atmospheric nitrogen as plant food. Bull. No. 5, Storr's School Agrl. E.\-p. Sta- tion, Conn., Oct.. 1889. 38 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. sition of nitrogen in Isguminous plants above that found in the soil, are certain of the symbiotic relation of the plant and organism. They leave the question how it is done an unsolved problem. Nobbe, Schmid, Hiltner and Hotter^-* are of the opinion that the nitrogen which the plant contains comes from metabolic processes. Whatever the future may decide, it is certain that the tubercles are widely dis- tributed on exotic and indigenous, leguminous plants ^-^ The ground seems to be gaining that certain low forms of plants'-*', including bacteria, have the power of greatly enriching the soil in nitrogen, and we may add that Frank believes that many higher plants can appropriate free nitrogen without tubercles. Frank's gene.-al conclusions are not generally accepted by botanists and agricultural chemists. We have another most interesting case of symbiosis among bacteria. Professor H. Marshall Ward'=" who studied the fermentation of ginger beer finds that a number of micro-organisms are concerned in this fermen*-ation. Ginger beer as most of you know is made by adding to saccharine solutions a quantity of ginger, and a ferment, the latter changes to an effervescing beverage. This alcoholic and viscous fermentation contain moulds, yeast-fungi and a constant bacterium. The yeast-fungus concerned in this fermentation is Saccharmgees pi/riformls, the Schizomycete is Bacterium vermifonne. This according to Prof. Ward originates from the ginger. The vermiform bacterium is enclosed in hyaline, swollen gela- tinous sheaths. This organism imprisons the j'east. The anaerobic bacterium only produces the gelatinous sheaths in saccharine liquid in the absence of oxygen. Now Ward has shown experimentally that only when these two species occur together can the ginger beer be produced. BACTERIA IN THE DAIRY. One of the greatest achievements in modern science is the application of scien- tific principles and utilize them in the arts and industries. Since time immemorial yeast has been used for the manufacture of beer'-^ known to the ancients as barley or Pelusian wine. Its manufacture evidently spread from Egypt over Europe. Much advancement has been made. Beginning with Pasteur's Studies on Fermenta- tions, the subject was treated from a rational and scientific standpoint, culminating in the brilliant researches of Emit Christian Hansen and Joergensen of the Copenha- gen school. The nomadic tribes of Tartary since time immemorial have prepared a fermented drink from mares' milk known as koumiss. The kefir, another fer- mented drink of milk has long been made by the inhabitants of the Caucasus. Scientists were made familiar with this drink as early as 1784, but it devolved upon modern scientific investigation to rationally explain the causes of this fermen- tation. There are other ways in which a study of bacteriology is renderin-g impor- tant aid to our modern industries. We need not go far back in the history of bac- teriology when it was supposed that the souring of milk was a purely chemical pro- cess. Sheele had discovered lactic acid in whey in 1780. Pelouze and Guy Lussac laiLandw. Vers. Stat., Vol. XXIX, pp. :i27-354. 125 H. L. Bolley, Agricultural Science, Vol. VII, p. 58; records them on tweaty-eight indigenous and sixteen exotic plants in North Dakota. i26Berthelot. Compt. rend.. Vol. CXVI, pp. 841-849. Experiment Station Record Vol. IV, p. 854. i27The ginger beer plant and the organisms composing it. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc Vol. CLXXXIII. p. 125. 128 Pasteur, Studies on Fermentation. The Diseases of Beer, their causes, and the means of preventing them. English translation, Faulkner and Robt. Landon. Mao- millan & Co , 1879, p. 418, with 85 figures and 12 plates, see pages 1 and 17. lUWA ACADEMY OF SC1EN(;ES. 80 solated lactic acid in milk in 1833; Turpin in 1837, supposed that the cause ct souring milk came from the mammary gland and was contained in the fat glob- ules. Schwann and Latour, 1837, had laid the foundations to rationally explain the process of fermentation, making it certain that organized living beings caused the changes observed in a fermenting substance. Fuchs '-" was the first in modern times to examine luilk microscopically. He found two germs; one he termed monas and the other infusor. Blandeau, 1847, incorrectly ascribed lactic acid fermentation to yeast (Torula) and the common blue mould {PenkiUium). Liebig supposed that fermentation was a property of all albuminoids and this view gained credence in many quarters. But we must pass over these stumbling blocks in the history of this work and give in rapid succession the vital points which have made it pos- sible to put the fermentations of milk on a high road to a successful use in prac- tice. Pasteur, in 1837, thought souring of milk was due to an organized Ferment lactique; he also recognized that other organisms were present; to distinguish the two, he called it Levenre lactique caused by his Vibrio huturiciis^^". This germ was capable of standing a much higher temperature than the lactic acid organisms. In 1874 Lister, by using bacteriological methods, separated his Bacillus lad is, which we have seen led him to erroneous ideas. Hueppe'3' somewhat later, 1884, made ajthorough study of souring milk and referred Lister's Bacillus lactis to one which he described as Bacillus acidi lactici. In a second paper he concluded that souring was not caused alone by this species, but several. Marpmann,'^- Conn,'^^ Storch,'^^ Weigmann'^^ and others have all shown that species of lactic acid germs are numerous. The power of changing milk sugar to lactic acid is not conSned to Saprophytic species, but some of the pathogenic, like the Micrococcus £of osteo-myelitis^e bas the power coagulating the casein of milk. Some of the chromogenes are very active in this direction. The Bacillus prodigiosns which often causes red milk in Europe, has this power. It is the famous blood-portent, connected with several superstitions, and certain lesions of the teats, which were supposed to cause bloody milk, is due to nothing more than the development of this bacterium, which may form lactic acid. Schottelius and Wood'^" have pointed out tie interesting fact that as the tem- perature rises the power of forming pigment is lost " and, if it is grown on potato or bread paste, for example, in an incubator at blood heat instead of at the tem- perature of the room, the color is gradually lost and the culture no longer smells of herring brine, but the power of forming lactic acid from milk sugar, with the accompanying precipitation of casein, is frequently increased, so that it would appear that the energy required for building up pigment was, in this case, directed iMMag. f. d. Ges. Thlerlieilkunde, 1841. 130 Hoffmann, 1869, also described two species, a motile ano anon-motile; the latter he thought caused the souring of milk. isiUntersuchungen uber die Zersetzungen der Milch durch MiKro-organismen mitth, aus dem K, Gesundheitsamte, Vol. II.. 1884, Deutsche Med, Wochenscrh, 1884, No. 48. i32Ueber die Erreger der Milchsaeure Gaehrung Ergaenzungshefte, Z., Centrallblatt f Allg, Gesundheitspflege.Vol. II., p. 117. i33Storrs' School, Conn, Agr. Exp. Station. 1889, p. 82: 1890, p. 136; 1891. p. 192. i34Nogle Cndersogelser over Flodens Syrning, etc. i35Die Bakteriologie Im Dieuste der Milchwlrtschaft Milch Zeitung, 1891, Nos. 19 and 20. i36Krause, see "Alfred Jorgensen Micro-organisms and Fermentation, English translation, p. 63. i37Biologische Untersuchungen ueber den Mikrokkus'prodiglosus, Leipzig, 1887, p 185. See Sims Woolhead Bacteria, etc., p. 11. 90 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. into another channel, and lactic acid and, perhaps, other substances are produced in place of the usual pigment." Investigation has shown that the flora of milk is a variable one, owing to cir- cumstances under which they make their entrance. The normal milk from a healthy cow contains no germs. This is easily deter- mined by using a sterilized catheter. The pails and water used to clean milking' vessels and cans, the stable, hair from cows, and hands of milker, all have germs that find their way into the milk. The species found are not only abundant, as shown by various bacteriological studies of milk, but both good and bad occur. Cnopf and Escherich,"' found from 60,000 to 100,000 per c. c, in milk a few hours after milking. Mr. B. F. White, in the writer's laboratory, found that when milk was obtained in the ordinary way, and cultures made soon thereafter, it contained 40,000 germs per c. c. Milk coming to the creamery had, in some cases, as high as 1,976,000 per c. c. Prof. Conn^^* inierestingly shows the enormous number in milk, as well as the great increase. The writer^'' has also brought together the results obtained by Miquel, Weigmann, and others, on the enormous increase, when milk is kept under favorable conditions for their development. That our milk supply of cities contains an enormous number has been shown by Sedgwick and Batchelder."" It is not to be wondered at that milk will sour in the course of a few hours on a hot day in summer. The fact that different samples of milk left standing in a warm room will develop quite different odors is due to particular germs. The practical dairyman is well aware that he cannot always make butter of uniform quality, and this is owing to injurious species. Experiments made during the last few years have shown that by Pasteurizing milk and using the germs that have the right odor, butter of uni- form and high quality may be produced. These results were first brought to notice by Storch, of Copenhagen. Weigmann, of Kiel, has also experimented with these germs in a practical way, sending them out to creameries. Prof. Conn, of Middletown, Conn., writes me that he has had success in using one of his own germs. Islo one questions the fact that odors and products of bacteria are very charac- istic. Storch has called attention to butter that had a flavor of beets, but the ani- mal from which the milk came had never been fed on beets. Dr. Jansen"^ refers to a bacillus which was found in milk that produced a very fetid odor, his Bacillus fceticliis. The writer has isolated a Bacillus which he has called Bacillus aiomaiicus,^*- because of the powerful volatile odor produced. In some media it has an odor characteristic of walnuts. Again it resembles limburger cheese, and a more inter- esting fact is that it tastes like cheese. The importance of bacteria in ripening cream is very important, since cheese will not ripen unless Bacteria are present. Duclaux,^''^ Adametz,"* Freudenreich,"^ and 137 Abst. Centralb. Agrl. Chm., 1890, p. 575. 138 The Fermentations of Milk, Office of E.xperiment Stations. Bull. No. 9, U. S. Dept. of Agrl pp. 75, see p. 30. 139 The Bacteria of Mlll<, Cream and Cheese. Report Fifteenth Annual Convention of the Iowa Dairy Association, held at Waverly, 1891, p. 81. 110 A Bacteriological Examination of the Boston Milk Supply. Boston Med. and Surgical Journal. 18!j2, p. 25. liiCentralblatt Bakt u Parasitenkunde, Vol. XI p. 409. ii2Bull. No. 21, Iowa Agrl. Experiment Station, pp. 792-796. ii3Le Lait etudes chimiques et microbiologiques, Paris, 1887. i«Bakteriologische Unteruschungen ueber den Reifungsprocess der Ktese Landw Jahrbucher, Vol. XVIII. p. 228. w5Landw, Jahrbuch der Schweiz, Vol. V, p. 16, Vol. IV, p. 17. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91 others have studied the flora of cheese. All find an abundance of bacteria present. They are rerobic and aniombic. Bacteria are very important to the cheeseniaker. Cheese without bacteria cannot be made. First of all, in most cases it is necessary for the milk to sour so that the whey can be removed. Af^ain it must pass through a stage of ripening before it becomes digestible. The species differ for different kinds of cheese, and there are several kinds connected with every cheese. As in milk, cheese has its enemies in bacteria. Some that cause abnormal npening, or color it black, yellow or red.'" Bacteria always play an important part in the formation of Koumiss. Kefir and other alcoholic fermentation* come from Asia and Europe. Mix has shown that forms of alcoholic fermentation of milk occur in North America. The so-called Kephir grains contain the organisms essential for fermented drink Kephir. Yeasts and bacteria have been found. Kern'" considers that Diaspora caucasica causes the fermentation. Recent investigations leave much doubt in regard to its being an organism at all. Little is known concerning Koumiss, but that it is caused by some living ferment cannot be doubted. The nomadic tribes of Tartary prepared it from mares' milk, which readily undergoes alcoholic fermentation, Ordinarily it is prepared by adding a little Koumiss or sour, to the sweet milk. Another interesting group of organisms found in milk are the slime forming bacteria. These organisms cause milk to become very viscous and 'ropy.' It can be drawn out in long threads. This slime, a product from the cell- wall, is anal- agous to the zoogloea formation in certain bacteria, and comes from the decom- position of sugar. Some of the species that can cause this are Bacillus mesenter- icus, B. viscoisus, and Micrococcus discosus, Bechamp the so-called Frog- spawn {Leuconostoc mesenterioides) found in molasses, etc. The species are not uncommon. Lastly I should mention that bacteria are indispensable to housewives in the making of bread. In this case they are aided very materially by yeasts. Miss Golden"' has made a contribution to our knowledge of this process and the role bacteria play in bread-making. Miss Golden concludes that bacteria as well as yeast separately can cause bread to rise but that both usually act together. Laur- ent'** believes that his BaciUius panificans causes the rising of bread besides forming lactic, acetic, and butyric acids. In conclusion, you will pardon me for having consumed so much of your time. In fact as I look over this question I cannot but think that the subject is so vast that one address will scarcely touch upon the many important problems. The sub- ject of ptomaines and various products of bacteria, disinfection and other points have not been touched up, except incidentally. I venture to say that any one of the topics taken up in this address might very appropriately have consumed the entire time. I shall, however, feel repaid in preparation of this paper if some of the popular notions concerning these baneful and useful organisms, stand cor- rected. ii*Adametz ueber die ursachen und erreger der abnormalen Relfungsvorgange beim Ka2se pp. 70. with 6 illustrations. Bremen, 1893. M. Helnsius nachfolger. "^Contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory, Harvard University. "SUeber ein Milchterment, Bot. Zietung, 1882, p. 264. "9Bot. Gazette. Vol. XV, p. 204. "8See Centralblatt f. Bakt. und Parasitenkunde, 1887, p. 504. 92 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. POWDERY MILDEW OF THE APPLE. BY L. H . PAMMEL. (Abst7-((ct.) The past season was very favorable for the development of the Powdery Mil- dews. During the month of September Mr. G. W. Carver, a special student in the botanical laboratory, brought in a fine lot of The Apple Powdery Mildew. An Eri/siphe and the common Powdery Mildew of the cherry, Podosphaora oxyacan- thce, have been reported on Pyrus mains* But our fungus does not belong to either of these genera. It agrees with the descriptions given for Sphterotheca mali (Duby) Burrill. It is easily recognized by its persistent perithecia, two kinds of appendages. The long appendages come from the upper end; they are straight or curved, rigid, usually septate, and occasionally forked at the end The base is deeply colored. The rudimentary appendages are floccose and attached to the smaller end of the pyriform perithecium. Prof. Burrill records this species abundant at times in the Mississippi valley, and first referred it correctly to Duby's Erysiphe mali. Bot Gall, p. 869. FURTHER NOTES ON CLADOSPORIUMCARPOPHILUM— VONTHUEMEN. L. H. PAMMEL. (Abstract.) This fungus was first recorded on the native plum (Primus americana), in a short note presented to the Academy some years ago. I thought at first that the fungus on the plum and cherry might prove to be a new species, but I cannot see how the fungus diifers materially from that found on the peach. This fungus has become a source of considerable annoyance to the cultivation of the americana plums, in many sections of the United States and Canada. Most of the commonly cultivated forms of this specie are affected in Iowa. The DeSoto, Rollingstone and Speer, being attacked with special severity. The Wolf plum, which is a variety of Primus americana, is but little subject to the attacks of this fungus. Prunus anQustifoUa and Primus domestica are not affected. Some varieties of Prunus cerasus are also affected. *Ellis and Everhart: North American Pyrenomycetes, p. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 93 An interesting feature connected with the attacks of this fungus and diflFerent parts is that a hybrid of Fniiuts americana (DeSoto) and Oregon Plum, (Pruniis domestica or possibly a Japan Plum) show the disease in a very marked form. This is interesting as indicating that the mother plant was strongly prepotent in carrying over a tendency to take a disease. The fungus, or what appears to be the same thing, has been cultivated in nutrient agar, but innoculation experiments tried on matured plums did not show the characteristic appearance. The fungus grown in agar is either different or it attacks plums before the epidermal cells are uncuticularized. Field observations indicate that plums become affected early and that these spots increase in size as the season advances. NOTES FROM THE BOTANICAL LABORATORY OF IOWA AGRICUL- TURAL COLLEGE. BY L. H. PAMMEL. It is a good plan to make a permanent record of some of the work done by undergraduate students, provided the observations are carefully made and recorded. I)urine the winter of 1892 and 1893 there was a serious epidemic of typhoid fever in La Crosse, Wisconsin, which came to my notice through my brother, H. A. Pammel. I was asked to make a bacteriological examination of the water and report. It was impossible for me to do so because of other work on hand at that time. Two senior students, Messrs. McCall and Patton, then at work in the bac- teriological laboratory, consented to work it up for their thesis. My brother col- lected the samples on May 2. They were placed in thoroughly scalded bottles and sent to me by express. Most of the samples of water were submitted to an analy- sis on May 10. It is an extremely difficult matter to get satisfactory results made in this way. Some of the successful results in obtaining the typhoid fever bacillus of polluted water have been reported by Mr. Rafter and Dr. H. C. Ernst' in this country, and my friend, Dr. Ravold has reported some from Mississippi water taken at St. Louis. The number of successful cultures of this organism from polluted water is, how- ever, somewhat limited, and in some cases, at least, there are doubts as to whether the investigators had the Koch Eberth bacillus or some closely related species. Cassedebat", who made an extended study of the river water at Marseilles, found several species closely related to it, but the true typhoid fever bacillus could not be found. This uncertainty is also indicated by the results of Babe's work'. The tabulated results of the work of Messrs. McCall and Patton show the number of colonies present to be as follows: iReport on an epidemic of typhoid fever at the village of Springwater, N. Y., In October and November, 1889. 2Zur un bacille pseudo typhique trouve dans les eaux de riviere Compt. rend. Acad, des Sci. Vol. CX, 1889. Le bacille d' Eberth-Gaffky et les baclllis pseudo- typhiques dans les eaux de riviere, Ann. d I'lnstitut Pasteur, 1890, p. 625. sUeber variabilitat and varietaten des typhus-bacillus. Zeitschrift fur Hygiene, Vol. IX, 1890, p. 823. Upon an outbreak of typhoid fever In Iron Mountain, Michigan, see Vaughan and Novy: The Medical News, 1888, p. 92. On the detection oi typhoid fever bacillus see Foote: Medical Record, New York, 1891, p. 506. 94 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. •snupiiq a) j3Aaj pioqdA'i o o i c 0 0 C 0 a 0 a 0 a S5 Z » Z Z z Z z ;z; Z •sisaaaSomiid o o i *j «• o' o' 0 0 ^• Z iz; 2, Z z Z Z z ^; Z ■3 a A a 5 c3 a OJ'S S *^ 0 K 3 a o S "■ -^ 2 i li 1 ll ^ ^ >< ^ g |ii •-3- L = lii Ig' °li >n z ■< < =■ I* — 6 .^ =< O g in ^ So- H 1 ^^ -"S^'i » _ ,Z — H M " o o -Z" p = q3 ||i 3 .- — 3 t3 J., 1, ' J_ B4 O „ 0 — a a ii ^2; . 6 .5" = O H r/'^ -< < lit -2 -c be a >> 41 5 i •a "J -M >, 3 -•"t S o 1 = 1 = J !■- = •0 -0 lacl sain 1 1 1 1 1 "T 1 "I in ~l -0100 JO wqcunM -*" ^? 5'g So 9 o S "" d ^ d > d 3 3 d la II •a II 1 ■a-' a . °*^ . ill TS a'^d |5^ ■0 < % S .2 '^ !ii _' a ti -m" « n "!< ^' in 0 ^2 6 Z2 p d 6 d d d d . d d . %- » « ZtD » zj:: z ^5'^ ^N H o 0 ->^ 0 M 0 w ■Jf £-■ 3 D 3 3 3 •< bc-S >i 6t >> M >. a be n s 3 =S « 3 c3 3 03 3 3 s O^ S ', o 'A sS h 3 3 ^ 2 = .H is tic .5 2 >." ~ 3 __. 3 £"S 1« 5. !0 n % .n 1 1 < 6 Id u 1 1 to" 2 S o 3 = s i s a 96 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Some experiments were also made in filtering germs out with the following results: Water from veterinary hospital filtered through two, three and five thicknesses of filter paper, funnel, flasks and filter paper previously sterilized: Unfiltered. Filtered. Two filter papers 250 germs per c. c. 129 germs per c. c. Three filter papers 250 germs per c. c. 24 germs per c. c. Five filter papers 250 germs per c. c. 4 germs per c. c. ('ollege water supply from main building filtered through a Pasteur-Chamberland filter after sterilization : Unfiltered. Filtered. Fifty germs per c. c. Sample No. 1, 4 germs per c. c. Sample No. 2. none. Water supply of North Hall standing in tank partially open, filtered through sterilized asbestos: Unfiltered. Filtered. Six hundred and fifty germs per c. c. 4 germs per c. c. October 11th. Water taken from farm barn and filtered through sterilized glass wool. Unfiltered. Filtered. Four hundred and eighty germs per c. c. Sample No. 1, 120 germs per c. c. Sample No. 2, 100 germs per c. c. These results show that so far as studying the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever, samples should be collected on the spot; examinations and cultures should be made immediately. A good many species were obtained, but none of these could be identified with the Bacillus 1i;phi-abclominalis. Nor were any pathogenic germs present. Water kept in a cool place showed that in the course of several months, there was considerable diminution in the number of germs, but the number was still large for potable purposes. Water can be advantageously filtered by the Pasteur-Chamberland filter, ordinary glass wool; asbestos, and filter papers also remove many of the germs. BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OP MILK AND ITS RELATION TO PUBLIC HYGIENE. We present here also a very brief report of the woik done by Mr. B. F. White on the above topic. By ordinary methods it is an extremely difficult matter to get milk from cows without germs. This, however, was accomplished quite easily by using sterilized milking tubes. The number of germs was determined by taking .25 c. c. of milk and pouring it in a known quantity of agar, making three dilu- tions. Each tube was poured out on sterilized glass plates and allowed to stand from 48 to 72 hours. They were then counted and some of the species cultivated in the usual media. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The following table shows the results of the work: 97 Q 0 4) . 3 Ma z August 27 September 15 September 26 September 27 September 28 6|October 540.000 1,076,000 2,246,400 1,701,000 1,200,000 3,510,000 Fresh milk in sterilized flask, without preoautlons, from Oollege farm. Skim milk from veterinary barn, brought from I. A. O. creamery. Buttermilk, I. A. C. creamery. Morning and evening milk brought to I. A. C. creamery. Six hours on road. Milk from I. A. C. creamery. College kitchen milk kept in room over night. Many of the species were cultivated and tests were made with several species and different disinfectants. Corrosive sublimate, 1-1,000; pyoktanin, 1-1,000. They were left in the solution for 30 seconds, 5 minutes and 10 minutes. The material was taken up on the end of a platinum loop and placed in the disinfectant solution with the following results: A COMMON BACILLUS. THIRTY SECONDS. FIVE MINUTES. TEN MINUTES. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. Rapid growth. Slow. Very slow. PVOKTANIN. Rapid growth. Quite rapidly. Very slow. It was evident from the work that the material in direct contact with the dis- infectant was destroyed, but thit in 'Aie interior of the ma?s was less readily acted on, and grew, after a longer time, the disinfectant having not destroyed, but merely inhibited the growth of the germ. Another experiment was tried in this case. The germs were thoroughly dis- tributed in the solution and allowed to remain for a given length of time. A platinum loop full of the material was added to a known quantity of agar, and poured. The plates were allowed to stand twen.ty-four hours, with the following results: CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 1-1000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-2000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-3000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-4000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. PYOKTANIN. 1-1000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-2000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-3000 Ten minutes. Nogrowth. 1-4000 Ten minutes. Not all destroyed. 98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NOIES ON THE POLLINATION OF SOME LILUCE^ A.ND A FEW OTHER PLANTS. BY MARY C. ROLFS. It will not he necessary in this connection to refer to the literature. This may be obtained from such works as Herman Mueller and Darcy W. Thompson. In the identification of insects help was obtained from Prof. Osborn and Miss Beach. Erythonium alhidum, Nuttall. Tnis is the earliest of the Liliacece to come in flower, in fact one of the earliest of our spring flowers. Owing to numerous rains last spring it was difficult to study the species, and insect visitors were few. Flowers perfect. Nectar is secreted near the base of the inner divisions of the perianth. Two small beetles were found feedmg near base ot the perianth. Ants were found as incidental visitors often walking over stamens and pistil. Visitors— HEMrPTERA—Crtjjs/rfrte, Li/gens pratensis, was also found in the flower. Mr. Charles Robertson reports twenty-two for Carlinville, Illinois. Smilacina stellata, Desf. Found growing in low moist places. Flower perfect. Visited during early partot the day by flies feeding upon the pollen. The floweis opening in the early part of the spring, and are visited at first by Diptera almost entirely, but later its visitors were increased. The pistil hasi a three cleft stigma, ripens simultaneously with the stamens. They are of the same length. Insects m seeking the nectar, which is secreted at the base of the corolla, leave some of the . pollen from another flower on the stigma. Visitors — Diptera — Muscidae: Mtisca domestica, Scaiophago sqiialidn, Tachinaflavicaudla. Syrphidae: Syrphus fly. Bibionidae: Bibio albipennis Lyretta pipens and Mesoc/rapta marginata (feeding on the pollen), Hymenoptera Apidae: Halictus albipennis, Halictus tegularia, H. zephi/ras. Nomada bisig- nata. Angochlora jmra and Agapostemon radiatus feeding on the nectar. Polygonaium biforum, Ell. Grows on shaded hillsides in large patches, peren- nial herb with simple curving stem, from creepmg root stock. Flowers axillary greenish and nodding. Perianth cylindrical oblong, six lobed at summit. The six stamens are inserted on or near the middle of the segments of perianth, with introrse anthers. Style slender, obtuse, slightly three lobed stigma. Flower perfect. The perianth is about half an inch in length and the summit, or top of the tube, is filled by the anthers and pistil, thus warding off" uninvited guests. The insect is guided to the flower by the odor and to the nectar by the slightly yellowish color near the base of the inner segments of the perianth. Insects feeding on the nectar alight on the flower and force their way to it by pushing aside the anthers; in so doing the pollen falls upon the insect, and, when it searches for food on some other plant, it comes in contact with the pistil and leaves some of the pollen. It is mostly visited by large insects, such as the bumble bee. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99 Visitors— Hymenoptera—^P»(7«?; Bombus Amerkamta. B. vctffdns, Halictiis coriaceiis, H.fasciatfv, H. tegidaria, Ceratina dvpla. Stelis lateralis, Auf/ochlora piira,Vespi(lu': Odi/iierits forainiuatus. CoiiEOi'TEUA — Capsiihi-: Liiffus prateusis, feeding upon the pollen. DiPTKiix—Surphidn': Plati/cheirus hy/jerhoreus,ieed- ing on pollen. Lepidopteka — Pamphila zabuhm. Allium cepa. Flowers in umbels from a one or two-leaved spathe, which soon becomes dry. Flowers with a six parted perianth; segments white, with a single green rib or nerve. Stamens six, style slender with single stigma, which receives pollen from its own and neighboring stamens, but pollination is also often brought about by insects. The insects are attracted by color and the alliaceous odor which is peculiar to the plant. Visitors — Hymenoptera — Apidae: Bombus Americanus hurriedly ran over several of the heads. Megachile cent uti culaii s coWected nectar and pollen. Hal- ictus coriaceus, H. gracilis collecting nectar and pollen. Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica. Tachina flavicatilda. Syrphidae: Syrphus fly, with two or three other species, all feeding on pollen and aiding in pollination. Asparagus offlcicinatis. L In flower during the latter part of spring and in the early cart of summer, but it also blossoms later in the season in August and September, when it produces but one kind of flower, and consequently no seeds are formed. The flowers are small, green and axillary. Perianth six parted, spread- ing above, six stamens attached to its base, anthers turned inwards, style short, stigma three cleft. Flowers are of two kinds ; that is, it has both staminate and pistillate flowers. Rudimentary stamens are found in the pistillate flowers, and rudimentary pistil in the staminate flowers. Flowers have a pleasant odor, and in spite of their green color they can easily be seen at a distance, the male flower being more conspicuous than tbe female. The insect is first attracted to the male flower, after which it visits the female, and leaves some of the pollen which has adhered to its body, on the pistil; thus the flower is pollinated. Visitors — Hymenoptera — Apidae, Megachile centuncularis, Halictus tegu- laris, H. Cressonii, Agaposfemon radiatus, these are all the insects which I was able to secure or took note of. Hermann Mueller gives the following list: Hy'men- OFKTEMK— Apidae: Apis mellifica, Osmia rufa, Prosopis ammilaris, Halictus sexnotatus, collecting pollen and looking here and there in female flowers, and effecting pollination occasionally. COMPOSIT.E. Helianthus annuus, L. In Compositaj the flowers, being in such close proxi- mity, it is not difficult for poUijaation to take place. The flowers of sunflowers are perfect, but proterandrous. The insect creeps over the head and thus causes pollination. It also, in its efforts to obtain honey, dusts some pollen on its head and thus carries it to another flower. Visitors— Hymenoptera Apidce: Apis mellifica collecting pollen and nectar. Megachile centuncularis, collecting pollen. Xomada luteola. Perdita sp. Eucera sp. Helianthus tuberosus, L. Visitors— LEPiDiPTERA—CAn/s/)oyAflH?io2?tera. The nectar of the flower appears to be secreted at the base of the corolla, where the style is attached. To reach the nectar it is not neces- sary that the proboscis of the insect be inserted inside the anther tube. Hence, it would seem at first thought quite probable that it might escape without carrying any pollen. This may in some instances be true, but it is to be further noticed that the slightest mechanical pressure at the base of the style, before dehiscence, thrusts the stigma out with an explosive effect so that a bee entering the flower at this point would be completely dusted with pollen. The complete exposure of the stigmas of older flowers would insure the deposit of some of this pollen upon them as the bee passes over. Furthermore, the fact of the legs of the insect being sticky from the resin so abundant on the disk, together with the abundance of pollen produced, would afford reasonable grounds for the conclusion that pollen is thus transported. Actual observation confirms this view and it is a well known fact that flowers of this family are subject to frequent visits from both nectar and pollen gatherers. Sir John Lubbock in his "British Wild Flowers" shows the Composita' to be specially adapted for fertilization by insects from the facts that (1) the heads are conspicuous, (2) the honey easily obtained, and (3} the small size of the florets insures the touchii-ig of many by one insect and hence effectual pollination. Hermann Mueller also recognizes this agency and notes the special modification of certain parts in the insect for this purpose. It is not the purpose of this paper to furnish complete lists of the insects which have been found on the species cited, but rather to point out some of those most persistent about certain flowers and determine, if possible, something as to their importance in pollination. On HeVmnthus annnus L. by far the most frequent visitor was the common honey bee (A2)is melUjica). This was especially true of plants growing near hives of bees, but was also true of plants observed in other localities. Bombiis Pentisyl- vanicus was also a frequent visitor. It was sometimes found with its legs heavily laden with pollen, but usually it was packed into a sort of wax. This was also true, many times, of the honey bee, but in both cases loose pollen grains were found scattered abundantly over the head and body of the insect, in a position to be easily brushed off. Other visitors were Mellisodes obli(]uus. closely resembling 102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. the bees just described, and Diabrotica lonfficontis, whose proboscis and antennae were frequently found sticky with nectar or resin, to which numerous pollen grains adhered. On Helianthns grosse serratus Martens, a very showy species which flowers in September and forms corymb like clusters, the following were found: Diabrotica longicornis, Bombylini, whose downy body and barbed proboscis were admirably adapted for transportation of pollen, and Morclellestina comnta, a small brown beetle found in great numbers buried deep in the disk both before and after the open- ing of the disk flowers. The legs and antennae are slightly downy and in some cases adherent pollen occurs. On H. rigidus the common visitors were Bombylini, Bombus, and Apis mellifica. In addition to these, Hermann Mueller gives for H. multiflorae: Megachile cent- HHCularia, Halictus zonulus, Eristalis tenax, Syrphus pyrastie, and Syrphus ribesii. On H. laetiflorus Pers. were found Bombus Pennsyhnnicus, and Diabrotica longicornis. On this, as on several other members of the genus, grasshoppers fre- quently appeared. They were very destructive, to the ray flowers, but apparently played no part in the process of pollination. The genera Lepachys and Rudbeckia stand so close, structurally, to Helani- thiis, as to need no special description. On Lepachys pinnata Torr. and Gr., MelUsodes obliqiuis and Phymata tvoljii, were found. On Rudbeckia hirta and R. triloba, the only common visitor observed was Phy- mata ivolfii. Since these are abundant and widely distributed species, and since this insect is one of slow movement; and, moreover, one on which no pollen was at any time detected, it seems reasonable to conclude the species of this genus are largely self- pollinating; R. subtomentosa, however, being sweet-scented, is fre- quently visited by bees {Apis mellifica). In smaller heads, but scarcely less showy than the Helianthoideiuli(D C) Burrill on Agrlmonia Eupatoria. S. Pannosa, (Wallr.) Lev. on Rosa hlanda. *S. Malt, (Duby.) Burrill on Pi/rus Mains also reported from Ames, by Prof. L. H" Pammel and G. W. Carver abundant on young suckers. New. S. MoRS-uvAE, (Schw.) B. and C. on Rihes. S. Castagnei, Lev. on Sonchus pleraceus. Erysiphe communis, (Wallr.) Fr. on Astragalus Canadensis. E. CiCHORACEARUM, D C On Phlox Drumondii. *Y,. Galeopsidis, D 0 on Scutellaria lateriflora. New. E. Gramimis, D C on Poa pratensis. Uncinula CLiNroNii. Peck, on Tilia Americana. U. nkcator (Schw.) Burrill en cultivated grapes {Vitis lahruscce). U. CIRCINATA, C. & p., Acer bnrhntum. U. macrospora, Peck, on Abuts Americana. U. Salicis,(D C), on Populus tremuloides. Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sacc. on Cornus stoloni/er, Xanthoxylum Americanum. 104 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. PoDASPH^RA OxYACANTH^E (D C), Duby On Pniniis Cerasus. MiCROSPH^BA RussELii, Clinton on Oxalis^corniculata var. stricta. *M. Grossulari^ (Wallr.) Lev. on Sanibucus Canadensis. New. M. Euphorbia (Peck), B. & C. on Euphorbia coroUata. New. M. Alni (D C), Winter on Vibumnm lentago, Si/ringia vulgaris. M. QuERCiNA, (Schw.) Burrill on Quercus rubra. THE PARAFFINE METHOD APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS. BY H. W. NOKRIS. These few notes are given, not that they contain much if anything new, but simply as the record of a year's experimenting. The difficulties con- nected with the use of paraffine in the sectioning of plant tissue are well known to all students in botanical microscopy. The cutiu, cork, etc. of the cell wall resist peneti'ation. The heat necessary to melt paraffine often I'en- ders the tissue too hard and brittle for successful manipulation. Free- hand sectioning is often the only available method. Frequently this is all sufficient. Celloidin (or collodion) is available for imbedding young and soft tissues, requires no heat and its general cleanliness and easy manipula- tion recommends its use whenever possible. But many plant tissues are of too firm and resisting a structure to render the use of celloidin even possible. Seeds in their mature condition, will not permit the use of celloidin, and seem to almost defy the penetration of pai'affine. In attempting to study the development of ovule in the Compositte, I was led to find some way of obtaining perfect series of sections through the flower. The forms studied were Qrindelia squarrosa, Eelianthus anmms, and a cultivated species of Ageratuni. In most of the Composita3 the tissues of the flower become very i-esistant to the section knife, even at an early period. The testa of the seed is not easily penetrated by reagents. The peculiar structure of the ovule found in many Compositas, called endodermis by Hegelmaier, becomes very hard and brittle on application of heat. Rowlee' obtained good sections of ripe seeds by the paraffine method, after first soaking them in water twenty-four hours before dehydration. Having seen his sections I determined to try some modification of his method. As I did not study the mature condition of the ovule, I did not soak any of the material in water. The tissue was hardened first in 25% and then 50% alcohol, and pre- served in the latter. Then as material was needed it was dehydrated in a Schultze's dehydrating apparatus into 95% alcohol, then placed in the fol- lowing substances successively, one to several days each: 95% alcohol and ilmbedding and Sectioning Mature Seeds, Proceedings American Society Micro- scopists. 1890. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105 cnloroform equal parts, pure chloroform, chloroform with a small per cent of paraftine dissolved, iucreasing the percentage of paraffine frcm time to time, using just heat enough to to keep the solution a liquid, "soft" melted parafine, finally "hard" melted paraffine. The time required for the process was sometimes two to three weeks, but with the younger tissue, much less. As will be seen, I followed the ordinary method, but used more time. I am satisfied that many of the so-called insuperable difficulties connected with paraffine infiltration can be overcome by patience and time-serving. Turpentine, I did not find as satisfactory a reagent as chloroform, probably because the latter will penetrate even if dehydration is not complete. I find alcohol a stisfactory hardening reagent. McClatchie recommends the use of chromic acid in hardening plant tissue. I failed to see its superiority over alcohol. The staining was done mostly on the slide. Most of the ordinary nuclear stains worked well. The most satisfactory stains all around were Czokor's Alum Cochineal for the nucleus, and an alcoholic solution of bismarck brown for the cell wall. When managed properly saflfraniu gave most beautiful results. Alum-cochineal, borax-carmine, saffrauin, haematoxylin, fuchsin, and picro-carmiue utterly failed to penetrate the specimens in mass. Orth's lithium-picro-carmine was the only stain that penetrated in mass enough to differentiate the structure of the embryo-sac. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AUDITORY VESICLE IN NECTURUS. BY H. W. NOKRIS. Owing to the lack of a complete series of embryos, T have been unable to trace the earlier stages of the development of the ear. In all the Amphibia, so far as studied, unless we except the species of Axolotl figured by Houssay, and he was doubtless in error, the ear arises as a differentiation of the inner of the two layers into which the ectoderm is early divided. This inner sensory layer thickens on each side of the head so as to form a small sensory tract, the anlage of the ear, closely analogous, if not homo- logous, in formation to the lateral line sense organs. An ingrowth or inpushing of the thickened ectoderm results in the formation of a pit. The outer layer of indifferent ectoderm takes no share in the formation of the auditory vesicle, but it is slightly involuted into the opening of the pit. The pit deepens, its edges approach each other until the pit becomes a closed vesicle. This description applies to development of the ear of the frog as studied by Villy' and of the salamander, Amblystoma, as studied by myself=. 1 Development of the Ear and Accessory Orsans of the Frog. Quart. .Four. MIc. Sci..No. CXX.. 1890. 2 Development of the Ear of Amblystoma. Jour. Morph., Vol. VII, No. 1. 1892. 106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The earliest stage that I have as yet found in the development of the ear of Necturus is that shown in Fig. 1. The auditory involution has just begun. In Fig. 2 the growth has proceeded so far that the pit is nearly closed. After the complete differentiation of the vesicle the ear is of a pyriform shape with the apex directed toward the dorsal part of the brain (Fig. 5). The apical portion soon becomes distinctly marked off from the rest of the vesicle as the recessus labyrinthi (Fig. 6). In Amblystoma I observed that the dorsal side of the primitive pit was the last to close up, thus giving support to the belief that the recessus of the Amphibian ear is strictly homologous to the recessus of the Elasmobranch ear, in which the primitive connection with the exterior is maintained through life. Just the reverse process is said, by Villy, to occur in the frog. In Necturus I have not satisfactorily decided how the recessus is formed. As the vesicle increases in size the recessus becomes more distinctly marked off, its apex grows dorsally till it lies over and upon the brain. Instead of opening into the dorsal portion of the vesicle its aperture is situated on the median side close to the brain (Figs. 8 and 10). The semi-circular canals are formed in the tyi)ical manner. As in Amblystoma the horizontal canal is the first to make its appearance. Folds of the walls of the vesicle grow in so as to imperfectly divide the ear into a number of parts: sacculus, utriculus, semi-circular canals, etc. The beginnings of the processes that result in the differentiation of the various parts of the ear are shown in Figs. 8 and 10. The later stages have not been studied in detail, owing partly to lack of material. But this much may be stated with certainty: The ear of Nec- turus in its morphology and ontogeny does not differ in any important respect from that of Amblystoma. Necturus is regarded as representing a more ancestral type than Amblystoma; hence we should expect to find its organs more genex-alized. But it is usually unsafe to base sweeping com- parisons in relationship on the similarities or dissimilarities of single organs. The sense organs connected with the various parts of the ear cor- respond to those in Amblystoma. But of the existence of the 2^(''''>'S basilaris I can state nothing. Retzius^ denies its existence in Proteus, the near rel- ative of Necturus. The orders of recent Amphibia are three. Each order has its peculiar modification of the membranous part of the ear. The ear of the Caecilians seems to be the most primitive of these, from the research of the Sarasin Brothers*. I tind in Necturus no vestiges of the peculiarities of the Caecil- ian ear. The material on which this paper is based was obtained from Miss Julia B. Piatt, of Chicago University. Explanation ot figures and abbreviations used: Au auditory involution, auditory vesicle, ear; cmg auditory ganglion; br brain; ca anterior semi-circular canal; ch chorda; ei indift'erent layer of ecto- derm; ent entoderm, roof of mouth; es sensory layer of ectoderm; mes mes- oderm; nr neural ridge; oiJt eye; o aorta; r recessus; sed dorsal fold of septum of horizontal canal; sev ventral fold of septum of horizontal canal. Figs. 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 10 are camera lucida drawings of sections. Figs. 3, 4, 7, 9 and 11 were drawn under the writer's direction from alcoholic material, by Mr. H. G. Willard. SDas Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere, Stockholm, 1881-84. lUeber das Gehororgan der Caeciliiden, Anat. Anz., Nos. 25 and 26, 1892. NoTTisVWillard. dei. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. lOT Fig. 1. Transection of head through auditory region at time auditory involution is just beginning. Fig. 2. Similar section of-embryo of the age of the one shown in Figs. 8 and 4. Fig. 5. Similar section of somewhat older embryo. Fig. 6. Similar section of embryo shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Similar section of embryo shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Similar section of embryo shown in Fig. 11. Figs. 1, 2, 5, 6, 8 and 10 are magnified 50 diameters; Figs. 3 and 4 five and one-third diameters; Figs. 7 and 9 four diameters; Fig. 11 three diameters. AN INSTANCE OF THE PERSISTENCE OF THE DUCTUS VENOSUS IN THE DOMESTIC CAT. BY H. W. NORRIS. After injecting with starch-mass through the right femoral vein it was found that the entire arterial system of the cat was filled with starch. Investigation showed the presence of good sized functional ductus venosus through which the arterial and venous systems communicated. The indi- vidual possessing this peculiarity was, in life, troubled with what is vulgarly called " fits," whatever that may have been in this particular case. I should be loth to admit any relation between "fits" and the presence of afunc- tional ductus venosus without more extended data. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON IOWA MOLLUSCA. BY B. SHIMEK. About five years ago the writer published an annotated list of Iowa Mol- Z?^sca* under the title "The Mollusca of Eastern Iowa." Material has been secured since by which many of the species have been traced across the entire State, and which also throws much additional light on the synonymy of some of the species. Without an attempt at a thorough and complete revision of the former list a few notes on species heretofore mentioned are presented, and a num- ber of species which have been collected or recognized in the State since the •Bulletin from the Lab. of Nat. Hist, of the State University of Iowa, Vol. I, No. 1, November, 1888. 108 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. former publication, are included. These notes are presented in the follow- ing annotated list: Family Strepomatid^. Oenus Ooniobasis. O. Uvescens, Menke.— In the former list O. cubicoides, Anth. is reported on the authority of Prof. Witter. Mr. Keyes also reports it*. Since the publication of the name about 100 specimens of a Ooniobasis which was col- lected in the Des Moines river, at Humboldt, by Mr. L. B. Elliott, were received. Most of them agree exactly with the description of O. cubicoides, but a comparison of the entire set with authenticated specimens of O. Uve- scens, Mke. from Michigan, Indiana, and New York leaves no doubt that they are the same. The specimens from Humboldt are, therefore, referred to O. Uvescens, Mke. Family RissoiD/E. Oenus Pyrgulopsis. P. scalar if ormis. Wolf. — The identity of P. mississippiensis, Call and Pilsbry, reported heretofore, and Wolf's species have already been estab- lished by me.f Family Viviparid^. Genus Gampelom,a. In the former list three species were admitted: C decisum, Say, C. subsolidum, Anth., and C. rufum. If we accept Call's revision of the genus:j: two other specimens (?) should be admitted, namely C. integrum, Say, and C. obesum, Lewis. I cannot, however, see any valid reason for recognizing all these "species" and feel like exclaiming with Mr Simpson: "Why name anything that has neither beginning nor end?" These shells form a series of which the narrower, more elongated (J. subsolidum and decisum form one extreme, G. integrtim is a form usually intermediate and C. rufum and obesum, proportionately wide forms, represent the other extreme. Extreme, or "type" forms are apparently distinct, it is true, but there is such a gradual transition from one form to the other that the student who would attempt to separate a large number of specimens sootr becomes inex- tricably tangled. In this connection I would speak with the least assurance of C. decisum as it is possible that the Iowa forms which have been vari- ously referred to in this species are merelv variations of G. subsolidum. G. subsolidum and G. obesum connect closely by intermediate forms, and G. integrum cannot be separated from either satisfactorily. G. rufum, in its extreme development, seems to be very distinct, but in a large series of the form obtained at Cedar Rapids, where I have collected it in the Cedar river during almost every one of the past eleven years, the pink color of the apex and interior of the aperture and the sculpturing of the surface are by no means the reliable characters which they are repre- sented to be, and the form grades insensibly into C. obesum. It seems that Mr. Binney's disposition of these forms]! is still the best, and that all should *An Annotated Catalogue of the Mollusca of Iowa.— Charles R. Keyes, in Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Vol. XX, 1889. +Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. S. Univ. of Iowa, Vol. I, No. 2, June, 1892. $0n the Genus Campeloma, ^R. Ellsworth Call— Bull. Wash. Call. Lab. Vol. I. No. 5. IILand and. ¥r. Water Shells of iV. Am., part III. • IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109 be grouped under C. decisum. Say, if that form is a part of the series, or under C. integrum, Say, if the former is distinct. Reversed specimens of 0. rufum, subsolidum and obesum have been collected. Family Zonitid^. Oenus Zonites. The Loess fossil which vpas repoi'ted in the former list under the name Z. limatulus. Ward with the suggestion that it is probably distinct has since been described by Mr. H. A. Pilsbry, under the name Z. shimekii. A large series collected in the La'ss of Iowa and Nebraska shows this to be very con- stant in its characters. Fam,ily Helicid.e. Genus Vallonia. In the former list two forms were reported: V. jndchella, Muell, and V. ptilrhella costata, Muell. Dr. Victor Sterki, who has recently published an extensive monograph of the genus* recognizes four species among the forms occurring in Iowa. They are: V. Pulchella, Muell — The large, smooth (ecostate) form with nucleus smooth. V. gracilicosta. Rein hard — Equally large or larger, but with distinct costs? and nucleus spirally marked with faint ribs or Hues. Y. parvula, Sterki — Small; ribs prominent; nucleus with fine revolving lines; body-whorl not descending to aperture above. Lip retiexed. V. perspectiva, Sterki — Small; ribs prominent; nucleus without lines; body-whorl descending to aperture; lip none, or only slightly expanded. Of these V. pulchella is the form formerly recognized by that name, while the last three were collectively included under the var costata, speci- mens of gracilicosta being also mingled with F. pulchella. I have specimens of V. imlchella as here restricted from Iowa City and Muscatine. V. gracilicosta, Reinhard, was collected by me at Eastport, in Fremont county. V. parvula, Sterki, is the form which was most commonly sent out as var. costata. It is very common at Davenport, Muscatine, Iowa City and Eastport. This is clearly a distinct species, not like var. costata, as compar- isons with European specimens of the latter clearly show. It is not at all difiicult to distinguish between this and V. pulchella, and the only wonder is that they were ever united. V. perspecliva, Sterki— Four specimens of this species were sent to Dr. Sterki from Eastport. A microscopic examination of a large number of shells shows that the markings of the nucleus and the deflection of the body- whorl are not always satisfactory characters and it may be necessary to con- sider V. j)erspectiva a variety of V. parvula and perhaps V. gracilicosta a variety of V. pulchella, unless other characters than those enumerated should determine otherwise. Family Pufid^. Of the species heretofore reported, the following have been found at Eastport, Fremont county: Pupa armifera. contracta, jientodon, fallox and milium, and Vertigo ovata. Vertigo milium should have been Pu2)a milium ♦Observations on "Vallonia, by Dr. V. Sterki.— Proc. A. Nat. Sc. Phil, May 30. 189.3. 110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. and V. simplex is Ptqm edentida alticola, IngersoU. The following are addi- tional species: Pupa curvidens, Gld.— Found at Iowa City and Eastport. Rare. Fupa edentula, Gld.— Two living specimens of this species were found at Iowa City. Pupa procera, Gld. — This species, which is usually distributed under the name P. rupicola, Say, is common in Fremont county at Eastport, and one specimen was found at Iowa City. Piqya holzingeri, Sterki.— Very common at Iowa City, Davenport (Prof. Sheldon) and Eastport. One specimen from Eastport is reversed. Vertigo tridentata, Wolf. Rare at Eastport. Not rare at Iowa City. This was reported as V. gouldi, Binn. Vertigo boUesiana, Morse. Iowa City and Eastport. Rare. Family Succinid.e. The form reported as Succinea higginsi, Bid. cannot be considered as distinct from S. ovalis and should be dropped from the list. The very large form heretofore referred to S. avara, which is common in low lands and as a fossil in the Loess, and which sometimes approaches 5'. ohliqua in size, is probably entirely distinct from S. avara and all described species. A thorough study of the shells and anatomy of this form will be made as soon as possible in order that this point may be settled. Siiccinea lineata, W. G B. should be added to the list. It is common in the Loess westward, and a few bleached though probably recent speci- mens were found near Hamburg, Fremont county. Family Auriculid.e. Oenus Carychium. C. exiguum var. exile, H. C. Lea. This slender form is common at Iowa City and Eastport, and probably in all other portions of the State in which C. exiguum occurs. Faynily Limn.bid.e. Physa lordi, reported on the authority of Call, should be dropped from the list. The specimen proved to be a deformed P. heterostropha, Say. Planorbis albus, Muell., reported as rare and only in the northern part of the State; is common in "Cedar Lake" at Cedar Rapids. Family Cyrenid.e. Genus Sphoirium. Twelve species were reported in the former list, but this number must be cut down. S. solidulum, Pr. is without doubt S. sulcatum. Extreme forms differ, but a great number of immediate links can easily be found. S. stami7ieum. Con. as reported, were old S. rhomboidexim. The specimens were named by Call, and included in the list on his authority. Comparison with a series of 8. rhomboideiim, since dredged in the same pond, shows that the shells were old, heavy S. rhomboidetim. The true S. stami7ieum, Con. is common at Iowa City, but after an exam- inaton of several quarts of specimens I cannot distinguish this from S. stria- timim, and more than that the S. sulcatum and 8. striatinum series often approach so close together that it is almost impossible to satisfactorily place some species. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. HI S. Jahulis, as reported, is an extreme form of S. solidulum. It should be dropped from the list. S. partumeium, S. jayamim, and S. sj^hoerictim, as identified by Prof. Witter, also from one series, and are the same species, S. splmrictwi being intermediate. Our specimens are not typical S. j)arlumemni, but resemble tyi>\ciil S.jayanuin more nearly. If 8. j^nrtumeium should prove to be a valid species, which is doubtful, then all of our specimens (including S.sphaericum as identified by Prof. Witter) must be referred to S.jayanum, Prime. This leaves seven species of Sphaerictim in the State: S. sulcatum, Lam., S. stiiatmum, Lam., S. rhomboideum. Say, S. jayamim, Prime, S. trans- versum, Say. S. sec^ire. Prime, and »S. triuicatum, Lius. Mr. Charles R. Keyes. in the list already referred to, also reports the fol- lowing additional epecies: Tridopsis palliata, Say. Ancylus tardus, Say. Am^nicola orbiculata. Lea. VARIATION IN THE SUCCINID.E OF THE LOESS. BY B. SHIMEK. The recent species of the genus Succitiea are certainly puzzling, but those which are found as fossils in the loess deposits of the Missouri and Missis- sippi valleys are positively bewildering. The fossil forms belong princi- pally to the avara and obliqua groups, but few specimens belonging to the ovalis group occurring. Without entering into a detailed discussion of the various forms it may be briefly stated that an examination of the specimens, both recent and fossil, which are herewith submitted, will show the follow- ing facts: The three forms which are commonly found in the loess are S. obliqua. Say, S. avara. Say S. lijieata, Binn. A careful weighing of the variation in the recent specimens of these species, supplemented by the almost unbroken series of fossil forms, shows that typical S. avara varied through the larger form of the same species to S. obliqua in one direction, with a smaller branch running into -S. lineata in another. In other words, I am convinced that however dift'ereut these species may appear now, they were once the same, the original stock occurring perhaps just before the loess. The variation in these forms, or in the original form, was not the result of climatic conditions, for all forms often occur in the same deposit. It is expected that a more complete report on this variation, with proper plates, will be elaborated in the near future. It may be of interest to note that our small typical fossil, .S. avara, is identical with S. oblonga, Drap., from the loess of Germany. 112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. THE JOHNS HOPKINS BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. W. S. WINDLE. For the past fifteen years it has been customary for the members of the biological department of Johns Hopkins University to devote their summer vacations to pursuing their studies upon tho sea shore, where living marine animal forms may be secured for daily use. The Johns Hopkins Marine Laboratory, as the organization is called, is under the direction of Prof. W. K. Brooks, and has been confined to no per- manent location, but has been moved about fi*om place to place as the wishes of those most intei'ested demanded. The work of many seasons was devoted to the study of forms found in the waters of the Chesapeake Bay. For six years the laboratory was stationed at Beaufort, N. C. Then three summers were spent in the waters which bathe the shores of the Bahamas; Green Turtle and Binning islands having been chosen as stations for bio- logical research. Finally the organization went as far south as the island of Jamaica, upon the coast of which it has spent two seasons. The site of the present marine laboratory is Port Henderson, a private seaport on the south side of the island. It >s a quaint eld village of a dozen buildings or more, used as a seaside resort for Jamaicans of leisure and wealth. A more attractive and suitable spot in that vicinity couldnot have been found for onr party of seven. In the immediate rear of the village Salt Pond Hill vises abruptly to a height of 1,000 feet or more, and upon its highest point are the ruins of an old stone fort known as Rodney's Lookout. Here, in the early days of pirates and buccaneers. Admiral Rodney had his stronghold, whence he could look out upon the harbor and open sea and detect the approach of hostile visitors. From the verandah of our laboratory, which was within a stone's throw of the sea, we were afforded a grand view of Kingston Harbor, in which the entire fleet of the English navy might anchor with safety. To the north of the village the low sandy beach extends past the village of fish- ermen's cabins, and beyond old Fort Augusta to the Rio Cobra I'iver. Across the harbor, four miles away, Kingston, the capital of the island, appears in dim outline. Across the neck of the harbor, two miles to the southeast, the old town of Port Royal stands upon the end of a low, narrow promontory, known as the Pallisadoes. To the south the shore rises rapidly to form a steep, rocky and dangerous coast. Between this coast and the pallisadoes, the harbor opens out into the deep waters of the Caribbean Sea. The beau- tiful landscape stretched out thus before us was completed, from an artist's IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIP:NCES. II3 standpoint, hy the Blue Mountain range, which formed a dark gray back- ground to the east and north, leaving the boundless sea to meet the horizon in the southeast. The building which we termed our Marine Lab. was a large one-story stone structure known as the " Sister -Houses." It was light, airy and com- fortable, affoi-ding ample room for our party of seven. Each member of the company occupied a sepai-ate table and upon this his microscope was placed, together v\ ith a varied collection of specimens, preserving fluids, dishes, aqua- ria, scalpels, needles, pipettes, etc.. the whole forming a veritable biologist's corner. It was through the kindness of Dr. Brooks that we secured a temporary loan from the Johns Hopkins Biological Dept., of all the necessary chemical reagents, general apparatus, many valuable books of reference, etc., to equip our seaside laboratory very fully and satisfactorily. We had a sloop and light I'ow boat at our command, also the services of a native boatman. While we were supplied with more than that needed for our immediate wants, yet a steam launch and apparatus for deep sea dredging by steam power, would have been very acceptable. It is hoped that these additions will be made during next season. The location at Port Henderson offei's many facilities for biological research. Numerous small coral islands, so called Cays, from two to ten miles out at sea, are rich in Crustaceans, Anemonae, Ophlurans, Astrophy- tons, Serpula. Terebrella and numerous species of Alcyonaria, Astraea and Madrepora. Near Port Royal were numerous mangrove ponds— where the bushes hang extended into the shoal water so as to form ponds and channels of quiet sea water— we found life very abundant there. Clusters of Clavelina, Simple Ascidians and colonies of hydroids grew upon the mangrove roots in endless px-ofusion, while star fishes, sea urchins and Holothuriaus were abundant. A large salt water lagoon two miles south of our laboratory and along the coast was inhabitated by numerous crocodiles and turtles. There we also found a large jelly fish- cassiopoea in abundance; also gasteropods and crust- aceans. The surface collections in the bay afford aa endless variety of forms for study. Good opportunity for work is also found on land. The hill in the rear and the broad valley ot the Rio Cobra river not far away are stocked with laud crabs, lizards, termites, scorpions, etc. Bird life is not so abund- ant as we had anticipated, and the herpetologist will find no snakes, but only the mongoose in their places. The flora of Jamaica is rich and varied; ferns, palms, crotons and cacti predominating. By those best acquainted with the coast of Jamaica, the site of Port Hen- derson is considered to be the most suitable location on the island for a per- manent marine laboi'atory As indicated above, it offers superior advan- tages for study of animal forms in the tropical waters. Situated in the imme- diate vicinity of Kingston all the temporary needs of the school may be readily supplied. It is also in direct communication by steamer and cable with New York and Liverpool. The location affords such general satisfac- tion that prominent biologists at home and abroad have considered plans for establishing a permanent international marine biological station at that place. It is sincerely desired that all preliminary steps taken in this direc- tion may lead ultimately tojthe establishment of the much needed institution on American shores. 8 114 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A complete report of the various expeditions taken by our party with detailed accounts of collections taken, also of the work of each student, explaining his methods of preserving and studying material, would require moi-e time than the present occasion admits; suffice it for the present, to submit the following: PRELIMINARY NOTES ON PELAGIC ANIMALS FOUND IN KINGSTON HARBOR. The only suitable times in the day for surface collecting were early in the morning or late in the evening, when neither land nor sea breeze disturbed the placid surface of the water. Our outfit was quite simple, consisting of a light row boat, two water pails and two nets of fine silk bolting-cl&th. The nets were similar to dip nets in shape; no handle, however, it being replaced by a long cord arranged to draw the net horizontally through the water. When engaged in surface-collecting we usually rowed out upon the bay a half-mile or more from shore, then threw over the nets to drag from the stern of the boat. Richest collections were taken when the rims of the nets extended partly out of the water, so as to skim the surface to a depth of twelve inches. Huxley recommends following the "plancton streifen" or trails of "dead water," but we found so much debris from the shores in these trails that we abandoned them, although richer in animal and plant life than other places. The nets were emptied every few moments in the pails which were one-half full of fresh sea water. After about an hour's rowing we returned to shore, filled the pails with fresh sea water and repaired directly to the laboratory. The catch was examined in a preliminary way, very hastily, by dipping out small portions in glass dishes. These were held toward the light of a win- dow or lamp, when swarms of pelagic forms appeared, swarming about in great confusion. If desirable specimens appeared they were transferred by means of a wide-mouthed pipette to small aquaria of fresh sea water, or put directly into the fixing reagent previously prepared. Small jelly-fish and Ctenophores were removed very carefully by means of deep watch- glasses. Among the countless multitudes of varied forms taken we found larval crustaceans px'edominating. Representatives of the Nauplius, Zoea and Megalops stages were all present, a few only of the best, however. Larvae of shrimps (Pala>monetes), land crabs (Maji), lobsters (Homarus), rock-crabs (Cancer), Stomatopods, etc., were among those present. Of adult crustaceans we found Copepods, Lucifers, Phyllopods and Ostracods. l\o Nebalia were taken. Numerous Plutei of Ophiurans and Sea Urchins (Strogylocentrotus), also a few Bipinnaria were collected in early part of July. Sagitta repi'e- sented the Annelids chiefly, while Appendicularia alone of the Tuuicates appeared,— no Salpa being found as at Binning, Woods Holl, and other places. A number of Cwlenterates were always collected in the "tow" — i. e., Medusa of Obelia, sections of Diphyids, Aurelia, a few planula?, Irene, etc. Large Ctenophores (Cydippidte) continually annoyed by their presence. Larval fish, in various stages of development, also minute adults were frequently caught. It is interesting to note the fact that plant life was richly represented in the "tow" by numerous species of Algse, Diatoms, species of Protococcaceae, also Trichodema were determined. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1J5 In preserviug the delicate larval forms alive in aquaria, for stud}' we found ditriculty, and only succeeded by using large glass dishes (scrupu- lously clean) They were kept from direct sunlight and the water was changed or fresh quantities added every three or six hours, as the case might require. Several methods were adopted for fixing and preserving the material, according to the character of the specimens in hand. Medusai were successfully prepared by — 1. Placing into solution, until they sink to bottom: j 10% CuSO, — 100 c. c. I Sat. sol. Hg Cl.^ — 10 c. c. 2. Into 5% KjCroO^— 1-7 days. 3. Wash thoi'oughly in water. 4. Graded alcohols, 35-90. Larger Jelly-fish and Ctenophopes were preserved for histological pur- poses by using — 1. Erlicki's fluid, G-10 days. 2. Wash in water slightly acid. 3. Graded Alcohols, 33-90. Crustacean larva were treated. 1. Sat. aq. sol. Hg CI,— 5 minutes. 3. Wash with 33% alcohol and transfer through graded alcohols to 90% . Other methods were tried but best results were obtained by using those above described. Surface collections from tropical waters are intensely interesting to the student of animal life. There in the surface water of the sea he finds the great nursery of marine forms, both plant and animal. Further, we are informed, sufticient reason warrants the statement that, likewise, all living forms had origin in minute, fi'ee-swimuiing organisms upon the bosom of the ocean in past ages. A candid study of the life histories of typical animals— in which they pass from a simple cell through various meta- morphic stages to the adult forms— confirms the doubtful in the doctrine of evolution. And a true conception of relationships existing between mem- bers of so called families reveals the truth of the oft repeated statement, that "the ocean is the original haven of all life." The more we become conversant with marine life the more definitely are we impressed with the fact that it is from that source we must ask further information, that shall throw light upon many Biological problems at present unsolved. THE VASCULAR SUPPLY OF THE TEETH OF THE DOMESTIC CAT. C. C. NUTTING, IOWA CITY. After all that has been written about the anatomy of the domestic cat it would seem a hopeless task to find any facts of real importance in a field so carefully gleaned by Wilder and Gage and a host of othtr writers of the past and present. 116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. While pursuing investigations on the teeth of the mammalia as a prepar- ation for lectures on Comparative Odontography before the Dental Depart- ment of the State University of Iowa, the writer became convinced that there were certain radical misconceptions among anatomists and histolo- gists as to the manner in which the blood is distributed to the teeth. It is quite possible that this has already been correctly stated by some writer unknown to me. If such is the case it is evident that little heed has been given to the matter by English and American authorities, among whom I have been unable to find a single clear and lucid, as well as correct account of the vascular supply of the teeth. This, then, is my excuse for adding to the already multitudinous contributions to the anatomy of the domestic cat. Dissections and microscopic preparations of injected decalcified teeth of the cat, and also of the rat, in which the entire jaw with all the teeth has been ground down to the requisite thinness, show conclusively that the manner in which the teeth obtain their vascular supply is not understood or at least not properly expressed by the best authorities accessible to the student. This matter obtains a further importance in view of the sti'ong prob- ability that there is no great difference between the human and feline anatomy in this particular, and a likelihood that the errors in the one case have been paralleled in the other. First— ^Yha.t is the present teaching as to the method by which the teeth are supplied with blood? The following quotations will be sufficient to answer this question. 1 " The pulp contains the nerves and blood vessels of the tooth, which pass into the pulp through the foramen at the point of the faug." -"This (the pulp cavity) communicates with the external surface of the toolh by a small aperture at the apex of the root." 3"The blood vessels and nerves penetrate by a little orifice at the extremity of each root." •» "The vessels of the pulp are very numerous; three or four arteries enter at the apical foramen." *"The lower teeth derive their vascular supply from the branches given off to each tooth by the inferior dental artery, itself a branch of the internal max- illary." «"The pulp consists of a soft connective tissue, and some nerve fibres which pass into the pulp cavity along with the blood vessels by a minute canal at the apex of the fang." ' "The arteries and nerves, which are derived from the internal maxillary and fifth pair respectively enter by the aperture at the point of each faug." « "The dental and incisor arteries during their passage through to the substance of the bone give off a few twigs which are lost in the cancellous tissue, and a series of branches which correspond in number to the roots of the teeth; these enter the minute aper- tures at the extremities of the fangs and supply the pulp of the teeth." Dr. G V Black, in his work on the periosteum and peridental membrane, eomes nearer a correct statement of the manner in which blood is supplied to the teeth than any other writer whom I have been able to consult. He says: iProf. Wm. Turner, Enc Brittanica, Vol. VII., p. 234. sProf. W. H. Flower, Enc. Brittanica, Vol.. XV., p. 349. 3Human Physiology, Flint, p. 191. iDental Anatomy, Tomes, p., 106. SDental Anatomy, Tomes, p 36. 6The Essentials of Histology, Scbafer, p. 128. 7Quain's Anatomy, Ninth Edition, p. 550. SGray's Anatomy, p. 523. IOWA ACADEMY OF SClEiVCES. 117 "The blood supply of the peridental luerubraue is very bountiful in the young subject. The larger arteries enter the alveolus mostly at the apical space, or rather one or two vessels enter here and immediately break up into smaller ones. One or two of these enter the root caual to supply the pulp of the tooth, while the others, from four to six or eight, pass down along the sides of the root to supply the peridental membrane. In their passage down the membrane these divide into many branches, a consider- able number of which enter the haversian canals of the alveolar wall or receive branches from that source."" My own sections convey a somewhat different impression. By far the greater number of arteries enter the alveolus in the spaces between the roots, of molars, and none of these, so far as I can discover, go directly to the root canal and thence to the pulp. A very large number of vessels enter the peridental membrane from the entire extent of the alveolus. Dr. Black seems to have drawn his conclusions largely from sections of teeth of the lower animals, such as the sheep, dog, cat and pig. Indeed, I can find no one who seems to have made a special study of injected human teeth ground down in situ. The extreme difficulty of securing suitable material for such investigations may account for this fact. From the above quotations, which give all that is said on the subject by a number of our best and most recent authorities, it is evident that they understand the blood to be supplied to the teeth in the following manner: The internal maxillary and inferior dental arteries supply the teeth of the upper and lower jaws by giving oS a branch to each root, the branch entering by a single aperture at the apex of the root. We are also given to understand, although detinite statements seem painfully deficient, that the branch which supplies each root passes from the main artery (internal max- illary or inferior dental), directly through the peridental membrane, and thence through the single apical foramen to the pulp. The present writer considers that he has demonstrated an essentially different method of sup- plying the blood to the teeth; at least of the domestic cat and the rat. The points of special importance are: First. The inferior dental artery is not a single vessel; on the contrary, after entering the inferior dental foramen, it divides, within the canal, and the divisions anastomose and redivide in the most irregular and perplexing manner. Second. Thei'e is nothing at all resembling the single branches of this artery which are supposed to be given off to supply each root; on the con- trary, by far the largest and most numerous branches of this artery pass into the alveolar spaces between the roots of the teeth, and then break up into a maze of small vessels, most of which ultimately pass into the peri- dental membrane, considerably above the apex of the root. Third. No vessels, so far as my series of sections shows, pass directly through the peridental meml)rane below the apex of the root, and thence upward into the pulp. On the contrary, a multitude of vessels enter the peridental membrane throughout its extent and pass downward toward the apices of the roots, where they enter foramina, through which the pulp is reached. The blood is thus distributed, first to the membrane, which is exceedingly vascular, then conducted by vessels in the membrane to the apices of the roots. 'Periosteum and peridental membrane, Black, p. 85. 118 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Fourth. The blood does not ordinarily enter each root by means of a single apical foramen as commonly taught. On the contrary there are usually several, sometimes more than a dozen such foramina in a single molar root after the animal has reached maturity. The above statements indicate such a radical change of view regarding the vascular supply of the teeth that something more satisfactory than mere assertions will doubtless be expected. In order to meet this reasonable expectation the illustrations accompanying this account have been prepared with considerable care. The sections from which the drawings are taken ai-e injected and not decalcified, and were prepared by the writer, who still has them in possession. It will be understood that the views here advanced are based on numerous dissections and sections besides those illustrated by the drawings. It was found that drawings were more available than photographs, for the reason that the thickness of the sections and the irregularity of the vessels required a depth of focus which could not be secured by use of the camera. Although all drawings are uecessai-ily interpretations of the artists views, it is hoped that there is nothing misleading in the illustrations here- with presented. They may be considered correct in so far as they do not represent a single vessel pursuing a course not found in the sections exam- ined. In conclusion, your attention is called to the fact that this matter has a practical bearing. The teeth of the Carnivora, as Owen says, so closely correspond in their intricate structure both with each other and with those of the " Quadrumana " as not to require separate discussion. More than this it is highly improbable that there should be any essential difference between the teeth of the cat and those of man in the method of furnishing blood to this important structure. Dr. A. O. Hunt, dean of the dental faculty of the State University, says that the excessive hemorrhage sometimes attending extraction of the teeth is due to the breaking of the septum between the teeth, which, as my sec- tions show, contains large branches of the dental arteries. If these arteries penetrated directly to the pulp through the root excessive hemorrhage would always result from the pulling of the tooth. It makes a vast prac- tical difference whether a multitude of minute vessels or one large vessel is broken. In the former case, little hemorrhage would result, while in the latter it would be a serious matter. These sections are necessarily thick, as thin sections would fail to show the continuity of the vessels, a vital point in the investigations upon which this paper is based. The sections, although quite thick, were rendered sufficiently translucent by long immer- sion in benzole, after which they were mounted in Canada balsam. << (« (fi 2 3 r: ^ fi IOWA AGADEMY OF SCIENCES. 119 THE HOMOLOGY OF THE "INCA" BONE. BY C. C. NUTTING. About two years ago, while examining the interesting series of prehis- toric skulls in the collection of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, the •writer became involved in an attempt to account for the supernumerary bone which some one has marked the "inca" bone. What the significance of the name may be, I do not know, but the significance of the fact is the object of the inquiry involved in this paper. In a series of about twenty skulls examined by me there were at least six which exhibited the so-called "inca" bone, which is a portion of the occipital, separated from the remainder by a very distinct suture extending across the bone, following the "superior curved line," and about one-half inch above it. This suture is quite constant in position in every skull show- ing the "inca" bone. The portion of the occipital which is thus cut off shows a tendency to itself divide into two or three pieces. But the sutures in this case are not constant in position and may, in fact, occur in almost any portion of the "inca" bone. In attempting to homologize this peculiar bone, three possibilities occur; First— The inca bone is the homologue of the supraoccipital of certain of the lower mammalia. Second— The, inca bone may be simply an enormously developed wormian bone. Third— It may be a persistent embryonic character. As to the first hypothesis, i. e., that it is the supra occipital, we find that the supraoccipital in lower mammalia reaches to and forms part of the borders of the foramen magnum. The "inca" bone, on the contrary, is always remote from the foramen magnum, being above the superior curved line. It can thus be seen that the bone in question cannot be the supra occipital. The second hypothesis, i. e., that we have here merely an enormously developed wormian bone, would, at first thought, seem to be unworthy of serious consideration. But Gray' says, in his classic Anatomy: "They (the wormian bones) vai-y much in size, being in some cases not larger than a pin's head, and confined to the outer table; in other cases so large that one pair of these bones may form the whole of the occipital bone above the superior curved lines." This is the extent of the ''inca" bone in all cases, and in at least one iGray's Anatomy, Eleventh Edition, p. 18i. 120 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. skull, No. 9 in the sketches, the inca bone is vertically divided into two by a suture a little to the right of the median line. It is probable that if this particular skull were placed in the hands of Dr. Gray he would consider the "inca" bone enormously developed wormian bones. It seems to me, how- ever, that there is a more natural explanation and one more in accord with the facts. I have here the tabular portion of the occipital of a well advanced human foetus. It is what would correspond to the supraoccipital of some of the lower mammalia. The bone is cleft on each side, the fissure being just above what will ultimately be the superior curved liue. Looking on the inside of the bone, there are indications that at a still earlier stage of development this bone was separated into two parts, the separation being along a line a little above the superior curved line. This is exactly the condition of affairs found in the skulls with the "inca" bone. In other words, we have in the ordinary human embryo a condition of affairs which we find in the adult skulls of these prehistoric people. It seems likely, therefore, that we have here a persistent embryonic character. Unfortunately I was unable to find any satisfactory record of these skulls in the catalogue of the Academy. Most of them were simply entered by number. One was marked "De Kalb Co., lllr," and I was told that it and several others came from prehistoric graves in that locality. If the "inca bone" was a characteristic of a definite race of human beings, it would certainly be sufficient to constitute a new species of the Genus Homo. If itfwas only an occasional, or even somewhat frequent abnorm- ality, it may be regarded simply as a "reversion" indicating that the race possessing it was of a peculiarly low type. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEMIPTERA. BY HERBERT OSBORN. During the past few years I have received from a number of difterent sources, partly by purchase and partly by sets sent me for determination, a number of collections of Hemiptera, and as some of these records extend the known distribution of the species, or give more specific data regarding them, it seems desirable to give them a permanent record. The principal collections on which the paper is based, aside from my own, are those made by Mr. Wickham in New Mexico, Arizona and Cali- fornia, and in the northwest, and purchased by the Agricultural College or by myself, those from Prof. C. P. Gillette, of Colorado, Prof. Lawrence Bruner in Nebraska, Prof. V. L. Kellogg in Kansas, Dr. C. M Weed in New Hampshire, and others. The Hemiptera present us with a number of interesting cases of distri- bution. In some cases apparently dependent upon food plant, in others IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIf:NCEi:. 121 upon climate or temperature, but in some independent of any apparent condition. Witli some of the species it may be an endless task to determine the conditions which most affect their geographical distribution, and in such cases it is probably a combiuation of inlluences and no single one that determines their range. Some of these notes were presented in a paper, abstract of which appears in part I, page 64, the full paper never having been published. Since the presentation of that paper, however, I have examined a number of col- lections and much increased the list of species mentioned, as well as the number of localities recorded. Eurygaster alternatus Say. Mass., Iowa; Wyoming; Huntington, Oregon. Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; N. H. Corimelcena atra Am. et Serv. Colorado. Corimelccna albipennis Say. Colorado. Probably i-are. Seems not to have been recognized since Say's description till a specimen came into my hands from Prof. Gillette. Pangaeus bilineatus Say. Dallas, Oregon. Amnestus spiiiifrons Say. Colorado. Perillus sj)lendidus Uhl. Colorado. Ferillus exajHus Say. Winnipeg. Perillus claudus Say. Albuquerque, New Mexico; var. Huntington, Oregon; var. c Say. Colorado. Podisus cynicus Say. 111., Teun., Tex., Colorado. Podisus placidns Uhl. Colorado. Podisus sinnosus Dallas. Williams, Ariz. Liotropis Immeralis Colorado. Specimens from that state are larger than those collected in Iowa. Prionosoma podopoides Uhl. Colorado and southwest. Podops dubius Pal Beauv. Colorado. The specimens from Colorado seem to agree better with dubius than with cinctipes which is credited to the United States, while dubius is given in Uhler's check list as belonging to the West Indies. Brochymena annulata Fab. Colorado. Cosmopepla carnifex Fab. New Hampshire. Cosmopepila consjncillaris Dallas. Colorado; Vancouver Island. Mormidea lugens Fab. New Hampshire. Euschistus fissilis Uhl. Coloi'ado; Tacoma, Wash. Euschistus trisligmus Say. Colorado; New Hamphire. Euschislus iminnctiventris Stal. Portland, Oregon. Euschistus variolarius Pal Beauv. Albuquerque, New Mexico; Colo. Lioderma ligala Say. Seligman and Williams, Arizona. Lioderma sayi Stal. Seligman, Arizona. Peribalus limbolarius Stal. Albuquerque, New Mexico; Colorado. Thyanta rugulosa Say. Winslow, Arizona; Needles, California. Thyanta custator Fab. Colorado. Thynnta perditor Fab. S. Dakota. Murgantia histrionica Hahn. Barstow, San Diego, Cal.; Albuquerque, New Mexico. This species is distributed very generally over the southern portion of the country extending from New Jersey on the east to southern California on the west. It was at one time feared it would overrun the 122 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. northern states, and Prof. Riley some twenty years ago and other writers more recently have predicted such a danger but it would surely have as good an opportunity in the Mississippi valley as anywhere and the fact that it has made no advance to speak of in the last twenty-five or thirty years seems good evidence that it has a pretty definite southern limit. It will doubtless remain a serious pest to cruciferous plants through all the south- ern region and may be expected to become a pest in all settled localities in the southwest portion of the country. Chariesterus antemiator Fab. Colorado. Leptoglossus cinctusYi.iiha.i. (?) Colorado. Anasa trislis DeGreer. Albuquerque, New Mexico. This familiar east- ern pest is generally distributed over the southwestern country and will doubtless prove a pest in those regions. I have seen it in destructive num- bers in central Kansas. Alydus conspersus Montandon. New Hampshire; Iowa. This form has been confused with the European calcaratus from which Montandon has separated it under the above name and has stated its occurrence in Michigan; Burlington, Iowa; Massachusetts, Colorado and Dakota. It is generally smaller and lighter colored than eurinus Say, but specimens can be picked out of any large series which approach that species in size and markings and the two seem to me to be quite closely related, though I believe Mont- andon is correct in distinguishing them. Alydus jyluto Uhl. (?) This is a large black form, but if my specimens are good examples it might be considered an extreme foi'm of eurinus lai'ger and blacker than the average forms. Scolopocertcs seeundarius Uhl. Colorado. Jalysus spinosus Say. Albuquerque, New Mexico; San Diego, California; San Bernardino, California. Nysius thyvu. New Hampshire. Nysius Angustatus Uhl. Colorado. This species is widely distributed and somewhat variable. It approaches thymi in northeastern part of the country and calijornicus of the southwest, and it seems to me to present a very close relationship to the senicionis of Europe. Nysius californicus Stal. Seligman, Ariz.; Albuquerque, New Mexico. Orsillacis producta. New Hampshire. Ischnorhynclms didymus Zait. Colorado; Washington; New Hampshire. Cymus angustatus Stal. New Hampshire. Cymus claviculus. New Hampshire. Oedancala dorsalis Say. New Hampshire. Ligyrocoris sylvestris Linn. Colorado; New Hampshire. Emblethis arenarius Linn. Barstow, Cal.; Peach Springs, Williams, Ariz.; Colorado. EremoGorisferus Say. Colorado. Feliopelta abbreviata Uhl. Lawrence, Kans.; New Hampshire. MelanoGoryphus bicrucis Say. Colorado. It occurs very rarely at Ames, Iowa. Melanocoryiihusjacetus Say. Winslow, Ariz.; Colorado. LygcBtis bisiriangularis Say. Seligman, Winslow, Ariz.; Los Angeles, Cal. Lygceus reclivatus Say. Barstow, San Bernardino, Cal. Oncopeltus fasciatus Dallas. San Bernardino, Cal. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123 Largus cijiclus H. Schf. Los Angeles. Cal. Largus succinctus l^inn. Colorado. Trigonotylns rvjicortiis Fall. Colorado. Eeslhenia insiiiva Say. Colorado. liesthenia conjraterna Ulil. Colorado. Resthenia insignis Say. Colorado. Resthenia rubrovittata Stal. Colorado. Onceroniitopus nigriclavus Reut. Colorado. Lojndea media Say. Colorado. Lonintoplenra Cctsar Reut. Colorado. Hadronema mililaris Uhl. Colorado. Hadronema 2^ulverule7ita Uhl. Colorado. Phylocoris colon Say. Colorado. Neurocolpus nubilus Say. Colorado. # Compsocerocoris anyiulicornis Rent. New Hampshire. Calocoris superbus. Colorado, New Mexico. Oncognalhus binotatus Fab. New Hampshire. Poeciloscylus basalts Reut. Albuquerque, N. M. Poecilocapsus lineatus Fab. New Hampshire. SyslralioUis americanus Reut. Colorado. Camptobrochis 7iebulosus Uhl. Colorado. Monalocoris filicis Linn. New Hampshire. Labops hespemis \]\\\. New Hampshire. Uhler refers this to the west- ern states, but typical forms and also a short-winged form have been received from Dr. Weed. Dicyphus califoriiictis Stal. Colorado. Orectoderus amoemcs Uhl. Colorado. Macrocoleus coagulatus Uhl. Colorado Neoborus pettiti. New Hampshire. Piesma cinerea Say. Colorado. Corythuca arcuata Say. Colorado. Aradus rectus Say. Colorado. Aradus debilis Uhl. New Hampshire; Colorado. Phymata wolfii Stal. Seligman, Ariz.; San Diego, Ci\. Coriscus inscrip)tus Kirby. New Hampshire. Coriscus fer us hmn. Colorado. Suiea diadema Fab. New Hampshire. Smea spinipes H. Schf. Albuquerque, N. M. Sinea conspersa Uhl. Los Angeles, Cal. Filchia nigroviltata Stal. Colorado. Diplodus luridus Santiago. Winslow, Ariz. Apiomerus sjnssiiyes Say. Albuquerque, N. M. Apiomerus jlaviveniris H. Schf. Albuquerque, N. M. Apiomerus ventralis Say. Colorado. Pelogonus americanus Uhl. Nebraska. Oalgulus oculahis Fab. Albuquerque, N. M.; Colorado. Zaithajluminea Say. Needles, Cal. Serphus dilatatus Say. San Bernardino, Cal. Notonecta undulata Say. Albuquerque. N. M. Notonecta mexicana Am. et. Serv.; Peach Springs, Ariz. Corisa harrisii Albuquerque, N. M. 124 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. LABORATORY NOTES IN ZOOLOGY. HERBERT OSBORN. It is my purpose, in these notes, to call attention to some matters of experience in laboratory work which may be of service to other teachers and also to place on record the results of some studies by students that appear to be worthy of pi-eservation. Laboratory work in zoology has been carried on at the Agricultural College since 1876, and for nearly all of that time under my own super- vision, so that while my own specialty has kept me busy in other lines some notes from the experience of these years may be of service to teachers who may be situated in similar localities. It is needless to suggest that work in an inland laboratory will naturally take somewhat different lines than a seaside laboratory. We first began the use of marine material in our laboratory about ten years ago and at that time there was but one place where material suitably prepared and at prices consistent with laboratory work could be secured. Now a number of seaside laboratories as well as individual collectors fur- nish excellent material and no laboratory need want in this direction. Hydroids, starfishes, sea urchins and squids seem most essential as repre- sentatives of groups unknown away from the sea coast. The ease with which such material may now be had, the full treatment of these types in various guides and convenience of dissection may, however, almost be considered a danger as it may tend to the neglect of our common inland forms which it may, possibly, be a little more inconvenient to secure just at the time they are wanted. I believe we should be careful to avoid this danger, for students, especially those who may become teachers themselves, should be impressed with the fact that material for study is available at any point, and so far as they may be representatives of the groups to be studied, the species close at hand should be used. The protozoans ai'e of course available in every stagnant pool, but it is sometimes desirable to be sure of abundant supply of amoeba and other forms at a certain time, and this may be accomplished by keeping the con- tents of jars over from year to year, allowing them to dry up before winter or when not in use. For a number of years I kept a particular block of wood that furnished amceba regularly for a number of different classes. It was allowed to dry in autumn, the ooze with which it was coated of course remaining, and then two or three weeks before the material was wanted the jar in which it was kept was partly filled with water, and in due time an abundant crop of amoebie could be secured. IOWA ACADEMY OF SC1E^'CES. 125 The earthworm, clam and crayfish are of course standbys, and the only point I might suggest here is to have an abundant supply of these preserved, as it is sometimes difticult to secure these in abundance at just the time they are wanted. It is naturally demoralizing to a class to be short of material, and with classes numbering forty or fifty the question sometimes becomes a serious one. This is especially true in case the time for these subiects falls within a period of drouth when the earthworms may be out of reach except in favored spots, the crayfislies hidden in some very moist corner, or, with the clams, to be found only in some pool that has survived the drouth. Such material may be kept fresh in good sized tanks or aquaria, or preserved in alcohol; some at least should be prepared in the latter way for use in dis- secting certain parts. I have a large cement lined tank sunk in the floor of the basement of the building occupied by the laboratory, which is very con- venient for keeping clams, crayfishes, frogs and fishes, and it also forms an attractive feature, being as much sought for as the museum cases by visitors, especially by children. I find in the vicinity of Ames that the common Differential Locust {Melanophis differenlialis) forms one of the most available species for laboratory work. It is much larger than the more common femur-rubrum, hence more easily studied by the beginner and is more easily collected in quantity than the large species of Acridium. For fishes I generally find it most convenient to order through the meat market undrawn fishes of eight to twelve inches in length. Sometimes we get fresh mackerel or other marine fishes, but more commonly lake or river species. Snakes and turtles have to be secured as they turn up, but students usually secure enough to answer the purpose. Turtles are not kept on the market with us, and to order them from a distance is rather expensive. For birds, pigeons, or in case these are wanting, blackbirds or robins serve the purpose. If classes are not too large the embryology of the chick forms a most entertaining and instructive study, but the work is somewhat difficult to manage except with students somewhat advanced, and even then it is best not to attempt to direct too many at once. The eggs may be incubated artificially, but about the most satisfactory way is to use a hen, especially if a good, persistent setter is available. Sometimes one can be kept busy for five or six weeks and in this time incubate a large number of eggs. For small mammal the most available, easily secured and satisfactory with us is the striped ground squirrel [Spermophilus tridecemlineatus). These are very abundant on the campus, may be caught very quickly by the use of slipnoose cord and without any injury to any part of the body as occurs with rabbits if shot. This Tuakes them available for injection or for any treatment desired. Rats I have seldom used, as with us it is more bother to secure them than squirrels, but of course rats, rabbits, cats and dogs are used on occasion. It seems to me fully as well to use a species different from the one described in the guide, if a guide is used, since it throws the student on his own resources, incites comparative study and prevents too close following of the guide, either in description or drawing, in fact the main object of the guide is to ensure attention to all structures that should be studied, and to avoid waste of material, in case the animal is 126 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. one not to be had in unlimited quantity. Also to secure careful dissecting and not mere cutting and slashing. A "Study of the Brain of the Common Striped Squirrel," by Mr. T. J. Kerr of the class of 1890, yielded the following results that may be worthy of record, though it needs the drawings prepared in the study to fully exhibit the results. The brain was studied especially in comparison with that of the rabbit as described by Parker (Zootomy, pp. 365-379). The brain in general differs from that of L. cimiculus in being a little broader in proportion to its length. The olfactory lobes are smaller, shorter and more angular in outline. As the depressions on the ventral surface between the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and the white bauds connect- ing the olfactory lobes with the temporal are very shallow, the surface is smoother than that of L. cuniculus. The frontal and parietal lobes do not show on the ventral surface as much as they do in the rabbit. The number of convolutions in each division of the cerebellum varies in different bi-aius. The least number observed in the superior vermix was six, the greatest eleven, the average being about eight. The least number for each lateral lobe seven, the greatest fifteen, the average being about ten. For each flocculus the least number was four, the greatest eight, the average being about six. The vertical longitudinal sections present the usual tree- like appearance or arbor vitre. The vertical transverse sections are less tree-like in appearance. In L. cuniculus there is a slight elevation on which the pituitary body rests, but in S. iridecemlineatus there is a slight depression, a sort of nest. The corpus callosum is a strong white transverse baud connecting the cerebral hemispheres. It is about half as long as the cerebrum, instead of one-third as long, as in L. cuidc7ihis. The peduncles of the pineal body are thin white bands on the posterior two-thirds of the upper surface of the optic thalami, instead of one-half as in L. ctmiculus. The two peduncles unite at the posterior boundary of the thalami and then pass backward and upward to the pineal body. The optic lobes or corpora quadrigemina are two pair of rounded lobes lying just above the crura cerebri, just posterior to the optic thalami and third ventricle, just below the hippocampi majores and dorso-posterior part of the parietal lobes and just anterior to the cerebellum. The nates, the larger pair, lie almost entirely above the testes, instead of anterior to, as in L. cuniculus. As seen from behind after removing the cerebellum the testes are transversely elongated as in the rabbit. The brain of the pocket gopher, studied by Mr. W. E. Harrimau of the class of 1893, was compared particularly with that of the rabbit, as detailed by Parker (Zootomy, pp. 376-397), and with that of the striped gopher as given by Mr. Kerr in the paper previously quoted. The brain of the pocket gopher (Oeomys bursarius) is moi'e nearly the shape of the brain of L. cuniculus than of SpermopJiilus tridecemlmeatus, its width being less than is the same dimension in S. tridecemlineatus. How- ever, it resembles the latter in point of there being comparatively smaller parietal lobes than in L. cuniculus. The dimensions, as averaged from measurements of thirteen brains, are as follows: Antero-po^terior (from anterior end of olfactory lobe to posterior end of medulla) twenty-six milli- IOWA ACADKMY OF SCIENCES. 127 meters. Lateral (throujth base of cerebral hemispheres) seventeen millime- ters. Dorsoventral (throuprh median commisure), eleven millimeters, the largest 30x20x14 mm. The average weight of nine brains is three and tive- tenths grams, the heaviest 3.'J23, lightest, 2.3013. On the dorsal aspect of the pons at the end of the fourth ventricle is a curtain like aflfair at right angles to the longitudinal dimension of the ven- tricle called the valve of Vieussens. In G. burscums this portion is very small. It appears to be attached to the anterior crura of the cerebellum. Anterior to this valve of Vieussens are two bodies, each deeply cleft or lobed into two hemispheres. They correspond to the Corpora quadrigemina of higher animals. The anterior body miglit be termed the tubercular nates, the posterior the tubercular testes. Still more anteriorally situated are two masses which are longer comparatively in G. bursarius than in either S. tri- decemlineains, or L. cunictdus. They are the Thalami optici. :»: # * The cerebellum is rather spheroidal in shape, aud in mass compares with the cerebrum as about one to four. In the higher animals this portion of the eucephalon is divided into two distinct hemispheres, each hemisphere being in turn cleft into several lobes. But in G. biorsaruis it is:more accu- rate to consider it as composed of three distinct lobes, called respectively, the central lobe and the two lateral lobes. Just lateral to these parts, on either side, is a peculiar body coiled upon itself, somewhat like a snail shell, called the Flocculus. * » * The surface shows a sort of convolution being traversed in a general transverse direction by numerous curved furrows or sulci, which vary in depth in different parts, in this respect the cerebellum is quite similar to that of higher forms, which is also true of its structui'e and the arrangement of the gray and white matter which on cross section shows the character- istic arbor vitaj appearance. On thvi ventral surface of the cerebrum, extending well forward from about the center of each hemisphere, are the olfactory lobes; they protrude about two to four millimeters beyond the frontal lobes. The eighth pair, or auditory nerves, are large comparatively, and origi- nate in a groove between the olivary body and restiform bodies at the pos- terior border of the pons. The earthworms of the State wei-e studied by Miss Vinnie Williams of class of 1893. with the result of finding, according to her determination, tvo distinct species in the State. These were the Allolobophora turgida, specimens of which were secured from Tama county, and the Ltanbricus rubellus, species of which were obtained from Chickasaw and Powesliiek counties. Doubtless other species occur, but apparently no one has hitherto recorded any determinations. The species most common at Ames is prol)- ably the Allolobophora ttirgidn, but with ordinary preparation the positive separation of species is difficult aud few have been examined when prepared so as to permit rigid examination. 128 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ADDITIONS TO THE KNOWN SPECIES OF IOWA ICHNEUMONID.E. BY ALICE M. BEACH, AMES, IOWA. The list herewith presented embraces those species taken in Iowa which are not recorded in the Catalogue of Iowa Animals, prepared by Prof. Her- bert Osborn and published in 1892: Ichneumon galenus Cress. Ichneumon pulcher Brulle. Ichneumon otiosus Say. Ichneumon pervagus Cress. Ichneumon vittifrons Cress. Ichneumon sp. undetermined. Ichneumon vinnulus Cress. Ichneumon longulus Cress. Amblyteles indistinctus ? Prov. Amblyteles subrufus Cress. Herpestomus sp. two, undetermined. Centeterus tuberculifrons ? Prov. Phygadeuon subfuscus Cress. Phygadeuon sp. three, undetermined. Cryptus sp. undetermined. Cryptus contiguus Cress. Joppidium sp. undetermined. Linoceras sp. Hemiteles sp. five, undetermined. Nematopodius sp. Pezomachus sp. Nototrachys four, undetermined sp. Exochilum sp. Heteropelma two sp., undetermined. Heteropelma datanje Cress. Anomalon sp. Anomalon ambiguum ? Norton. Anomalon semirufum Norton. Campoplex diversus Norton. Limneria five, undetermined sp. Cremastus two, undetermined sp. Angitia six, undetermined sp. Thersilochus sp. Exetastes sp. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 129 Mesoleptus sp. Tryphon four, imdetermiQed sp. Polyblastes sp. Bassus two, undetermined sp. Bassus sychophanta Walsh. Coleoceutrus sp. Ephialtes sp. Theronia sp. Pimpla teuuicornis Cress. Pimpla inquisitor Say. Polysphinctasp. Glypta tuberculifrous Cress. Glypta rufiscutellaris Cress. Arenetra ventralis Cress. Larupronota rutipes Cress. Xjlonomus stigmapterus Say. Xylonomus albopictus Cress. A NEW SPECIES OF PEMPHIGUS OCCURRING ON THORN. BY F. A.TWOOD SIRRINE. CEstlund', in describing ttie characters and work of Aphis crataegifolice Fitch, says: " Found on leaves of Crafaegrjis corrugating them. Specimens taken during May on Crataegus tomeiitosa Linn, were found to curl the leaves very much, and as they turned dark brown or red they became very conspicuous." v The past season what Avas taken to be the fundatx'ix of a Schizoneura, possibly crataegi, was found May 23d corrugating the leaves of Crataegus tomentosa (?) and at the same time causing them to turn a bright red or scarlet color. The fondatrici of what was supposed to be Aphis crataegifoliae were found at the same time and on the same plants, curling the leaves but not to such an extent as the supposed Schizoneura, nor did they cause the leaves to change color. Later in the season as Aphis crataegifoliae increased in numbers they were found in the colored corrugated leaves with the Schizojieura'7 On June 26th winged specimens of the latter were obtained. The venation of the Aviugs proved that they were Pemphigus and not Schizoueura. By the 10th of July these had all left the Hawthorn. On October 7th, dead, shriveled specimens of Pemphigus were found under the rough bark of Hawthorn (Crataegus tomeiitosa Linn.) which agreed in venation with the form taken in the curled leaves in the spring; an oviparous female was also taken, though the latter may have been an oviparous female of Schizoneura, as both iSynop. Aphididae of Minn. (Bull. No. 4, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. p. 51.) 130 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. the Hchizoneura aud Pemphigus females are known to occur under the rough bark of trees. To the naked eye the form taken in June resemble the color of the corrugated leaves, while older specimens of the fundatrici, being covered w^ith a pulverulent secretion, aside from the flocculent secretion near cauda and sides of the body, are of a bluish purple. Though this may prove to be the spring migrant of a form already described, and named, as occurring on some other plant, it does not agi'ee with any description of Pemphigus to which I have access, moreover no Pemphigtis has been described as occurring on Hawthorn. Hence the specific name of corrugatans from its habit of corrugating the leaves on which it feeds, is proposed for the present, or until its complete life cycle shows it to be one stage of a known species. The following descriptions of the fundatrix, pupa and alate migrant are appended: Pemphigus corrugatans, n. sp. Alate Vivip. form. Spring Migrant, from corrugated colored leaves of Crataegus tomentosa (?), June 26th, 1893. Expanse of wings, 6.53 mm.; length of body, 2.35 mm.; width, 1.10 mm.; length of antenna?, 0.85 mm.; (Joint I., .05 mm.; II., .07 mm.; Ill, .30 mm.; IV., .13 mm.; v., .17 mm.; VI. plus unguis, .16 mm.); Joint HI, with about fif- teen transverse sensoria. In some cases part of these are double, making upward of twenty-five in all; IV., with from six to twelve; V., with from three to five; VI., slightly roughened. (These sensoria are situated on raised portions of chitine, so they appear as transverse ridges, but not as complete chitinous rings in any case). Rostrum reaching second pair of coxae. Dis- tance between base of first and second discoidals varies from 0 to .08 mm., in some cases the second discoidal is united with the first for a distance of .20 mm. Distance between base of cubital and second discoidal varies from .05 mm. to .10 mm ; the former subobsolete at base. Stigmal with a simple curve. Distance between apices of all the veins approximately equal; (the apices of the stigmal and cubital may average a trifle nearer than the others). Stigma, .59 mm. by .16 mm., rhomboidal. Distance between discoidals of the posterior wings approximately the same as in anterior pair; costal abruptly curved forward where the discoidals issue. Color.— (Specimens not mounted, observed with hand lense) antenna?, head and wing callosities black; thorax, yellowish green; eyes, brown; legs, dusky. The two median and the lateral lines of dermal wax glands* secrete the longest flocculent material, so there is a ridge of the latter between the wings, and a margin of the same at the sides of the body. These masses of waxy secretion crowd the wings into an oblique position. (The variation in the length of the secretion from the dermal glands is true for the pupa, and larval fundatrix; those on the latero-caudal portion of the abdomen secreting the longest flocculent material so the body appears flattened.) (Specimens mounted in balsam and examined with compound micro- scope) ground color yellowish green, apex of abdomen a shade lighter; wing callosites dusky to black, antenna? and head somewhat darker; pro- * On the abdomen there is a dermal gland on each segment between the median pair and the one on the lateral margin. As far as observed in vemphigus there are a pair of these glands on the head, two pairs to each thoracic segment, a median pair and one on each lateral margin; three pairs to each abdominal segment, median, sub- median and lateral. Those on the abdomen are united in some instances, especially toward the cauda. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 131 thorax with a narrow black Hue ou the anterior dorsal margin; eyes Ijrick red; legs dusky; wing insertions yellow, apex of beak dusky, remainder, unicolorus with body. Cauda distinct. The median dorsal glands larger than either the lateral or the submedian. Pupa— Length of body, 3:09 mm.; width. 1.39 mm.; length of antennre, .83 mm ; separation between joints, III and IV, not distinct: sensoria, not distinct. Cauda, distinct, .22 mm. long. Rostrum reaches second coxce. sometimes beyond. Color— (Unmounted, examined with band lense.) Yellowish green; wing pads, whitish. (Mounted, examined with compound microscope.) Whole body light green with a yellow tinge, sometimes yellowish white, depend- ing on age after moulting; antenna?, wing pads and legs whitish; eyes, brick red. The last abdominal segments are crescent shaped, producing an indenture each side of the cauda. Fundatrix — Length of body, 3.66 mm.; width, 2.74 mm.; length of anten- na\ .87mm. (Joint I, .087 mm.; II, .12 mm.; Ill, .24 mm.; IV, .14 mm.; V, .14 mm.; VI with unguis, .15 mm.); separation between III and IV not distinct in immature forms. Beak, barely reaching second coxte. Color— (To naked eye) Greenish purple; (mounted, examined with com- pound microscope) olive green with a yellow tinge. HACKBERRY PSYLLID.E FOUND AT AMES, IOWA. BY CHAS. W. MALLY. The insects now under consideration belong to the family Psyllidae; subfamily Psyllinae; and the genus Pachypsylla. The genus, according to Dr. C. V. Riley, "has no equivalent in the European fauna; but some allied, still undescribed, genera occur in the New World." The species which first attracted attention was Pachypsylla celtidis- mamma. Some observations were recorded during the autumn of 1891, but no regular observations were made till March, 1892. At this time the weather was cold, and the adult insects were hidden away in the cracks and creases of the hackberry bark. It was difficult to tind them at first, because their general color closely resembles that of the bark. Large numbers of the adults were found on the sticks and pieces of bark that were lying around under the trees. The old hackberry leaves were examined with special reference to the galls that remained over winter, and in no case was a gall found that contained a living larva, proving that in this case, at least, they had issued from the gall in the fall and transformed to the adult stage. Some difficulty was experienced in finding the old leaves as they had prob- ably been carried away by the wind. If any of the larvie fail to issue in the autumn, the evidence seems to prove that they perish in the galls. The chief hiding-place of the adults is in the rough sheltering bark of the 132 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. trunks of trees. Toward the top of the tree the bark is younger, less rough- ened, and therefore furnishes less protection for the insect. Consequently, very few of the adults are found in the top of the tree and out toward the end of the branches. During the latter part of March, as the days grew warmer, the adults became active, but moved about very little. During the afternoon ot April 7th, which was warm and pleasant, they were out toward the ends of the limbs; but as night came on most of them went back to the trunk of the tree, only a few remaining on the slight excrescences of the bark, in the angle between two twigs, or at the base of a large bud. They could be removed from the last named places by simply shaking the limbs. Hence, if they settled down for the winter on the twigs, the many fierce winds would soon sweep them off and carry them to destruction. About April 30th the buds of the trees began to swell and open out for the year's growth. The Psyllidse now begin to migrate to the buds and probably feed on the juices of the young tissue. The first eggs were found on the young leaves May 5th. After this time the adult females could be found depositing eggs in the opening buds and on the undei'side of the expanded leaves. In the opening buds, where the leaf veins are small and close together, they tend to deposit the eggs in rows between the veins; but as the leaves expand to their full size, they are deposited at random and in large numbei's. Adult females of different species are often found depositing eggs on the same leaf. Hence the larvre, and later on the galls of all the species are found on one leaf. The time of first egg deposition depends largely on the season and the location of the tree. If, for example, a tree is located in a warm, sheltered place, the adults become active, the young leaves put forth and consequently the eggs will be deposited earlier. If the tree is in a cold, exposed place, the development of both tree and insect is retarded. More time is required for the eggs to develop on exposed trees than on those more favorably located. This indicates that a low temperature retards the devel- opment of the embryo. In general the eggs seem to develop best at the temperature most favoi'able to the healthy growth of the leaves. During the month of May eggs are continually deposited. May 27 a number of eggs on one tree were compared, and judging by their general appearance, some were recently deposited, while others were quite well developed. On a tree vei-y favorably located a number of the young larvce were found on the upper surface of the leaf. After searching sometime for larvte, a leaf was found bearing a small gall already closed around the insect. On the upper side of the leaf this gall was but slightly raised, having a small cone-shaped projection. On the under side the gall was roundish and covered with a white frosty pubescence. Careful dissection of the gall revealed a young larva which proved to be identical with those on the surface of the leaf. From the above stated facts we learn that there is a great variation in the hatching of the larvre. This variation continues throughout the larval stage and greatly augments the difficulty of working out the successive stages in their development. From May 27 to June 22 the larvas appeared in great numbers and many galls were starting. From this time till August 16 larvas developed quite slowly. The galls, however, developed quite rapidly and in a short time IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 133 the species could be distiuguished. Many of the galls contained more than one larva. Some of the typical P. c. mamma galls were two-celled. Others had a large cell in the normal position, and three or four smaller ones located just above the normal one and around the cup-like depression. In one or two cases five were found, six being the highest number ever found in one gall. After the latter part of August the changes in the larva were more rapid the abdominal spines are more rapidly developed, and a short time before changing to the adult stage the larva produces a white cottony substance which is quite abundant on the posterior portion of the abdomen. They also undergo one moult a short time before sawing through the gall. This is quite certain, for cast skins have been found wiih the larvai. THE EGGS. The eggs are oblong-oval, being widest at the middle, where they meas- ure about .15 mm. Their greatest length is about .3 mm. They are broadly rounded at one end, but taper more strongly at the other, thus giv- ing the eggs a pointed appearance. When deposited on the leaf they have a white, glistening appearance. The first eggs were found May 5th, and the first larvte May 27th. Judging from this, in a general way, it is safe to say that the eggs hatch iu about twenty to twenty-two days. The Larvce. — Soon after hatching the young larva? measure about .15 mm. in length and about the same iu greatest width. The head and the divisions of the thorax can be but faintly recognized. The abdomen is drawn cephalad, so that only the tirst segment is visible for its full width, and only the tip of the seventh and the small eighth or anal segment. The antennas are invisible at first: tarsi, two-jointed, but very indistinct; claws represented by two very small bladder-like bodies. As the larva grows older, the antennas make their appeai'ance, at first showing but four joints. The compound eyes soon become largei', and the abdomen develops so that five of the segments are visible. The posterior end of the body now pre- sents a lobed appearance, because the last three segments are very small, and drawn cephalad, pushing the central portion of the tirst five segments forward, while the sides extend backward, forming a lateral lobe on each side. The lines separating the abdominal segments are most clearly seen on the dorsal surface. In some cases they do not reach the sides as closely defined lines, but seem to terminate in little circular, transparent spots, probably representing the division between the tergum and the pleurum. From June 1st to June 22d, no very marked changes, except in size, take place. The last three abdominal segments are very slow to develop. The larvfe examined August IGth showed some important changes. The antenna? increased iu comparative length, having from six to ten joints. The compound eyes more prominent, mouth-parts larger, and the different divisions quite distinct; legs much larger, more prominent and furnished with numerous hairs. The two joints of the tarsi are quite inconspicuous, the strong curved claws apparently being attached to the distal end of the tibia rather than the tarsus. The two pairs of \\ing8 have begun to develop and appear as small transparent pads arising from the mesothorax and the metathorax respectively, and are immovable. The divisions of the sternum are quite distinct, and the coxiv much more prominent. The abdominal segments are all closely defined; the last three, however, are quite closely 134 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. united and are more chitinous. The fleshy anal process of the young larva is represented by a chitinous oval spine. On either side of the base of this oval spine can be seen a small tubercle which may represent some of the developing abdominal teeth. Each segment is provided with conspicuous hairs which are shortest at the division of the segment. Segments seven and eight contain a tube extending longitudinally, and sends out two small, round branches in the seventh segment and terminates in two short curved branches which extend nearly to the tip of the notched oval process. This tube cannot be traced beyond the seventh segment, and probably represents the developing genital organs. LARVA AND PUPA. The full grown larva and pupa are described as follows: Color, in general, bluish green; antennae and legs more yellowish; "broadly oval in outline; widest at the middle of the abdomen;" head dis- tinctly separated from the pronotum; "including the eyes it is as wide as the mesonotum at middle;" front margin broadly rounded; but not lobed as in the adult, and furnished with numerous hairs. Frontal cones, obsolete; eyes are of a black color, large, reaching the posterior margin of the head, and have a granular appearance. The antennaa differ from the adult form in being thicker and therefore appear to be somewhat shorter. The lateral hairs are more conspicuous. No essential difference in the mouth-parts. The anterior pair of legs thicker than in the imago; tarsus about the same width as the tibia, and the articulations not so marked as in the adult, thus giving the tibia and tarsus a more blended appearance. The second pair of legs virtually the same as the first, but the third pair has been developed so that in the adult they will be fitted for leaping. The mesonotum presents three main divisions, as in the adult, but not so clearly defined. The metauotum is moderately distinct, having the two divisions but faintly marked, and joins the first abdominal segment by a wavy line. The wing-pads are smooth, shining, and diverge posteriorly, not quite attaining the apex of the second abdominal segment. The anterior ones are larger and wider than the posterior ones, but the latter project internally and posteriorly. During the development of the larva the venation and folding of the wings cannot be seen, but when about to transform the vena- tion and folding are usually quite distinct. The abdomen is composed of eight segments, is widest at the middle; tapers gradually at the base, but strongly at the top. The first segment is quite short, as wide as the metanotum, and the dorsal surface is ornamented with numerous reddish lines passing obliquely outward and forward from .he central portion. The second segment is nearly twice as long as the first and distinctly separated from it. The third is a little longer and wider than the second, the fourth being widest of all, but about equal in length with the fifth. The last three segments are rather indistinctly separated, much shorter, more- over, and beginning at the latter half of the sixth are more chitinous than the preceding ones. The lateral part of the first five segments especially are separated by slight constrictions, giving them a bulged appearance. The sides of the abdomen are furnished with hairs, which are larger and more numerous on the central portion of each segment, growing smaller IOWA ACADEMY 01 SCIENCES. 135 and less numerous toward the joint. They are longest on the posterior part of the abdomen, but do not form a fringe. The eighth segment is drawn out into a horny anal process. The last three segments are usually provided ■with a number of backwardly-directed teeth, which Dr. C V. Riley has described as follows: "Sixth joint at middle of hind mai'gin with two or three very small teeth placed transversely, and with no lateral teeth; seventh joint at middle of hind margin with a tranverse row of four teeth, and on each side with two or three (often obsolete) teeth or tubercles; anal joint with the horny process about half as long as the joint and pointed at tip, while at the base of the process, on each side, a lateral row of four small closely placed teeth extends to the underside, and finally on the disk of the joint three teeth, triangularly placed, the posterior being the largest; behind this group, and just above the base of the process, is another tooth, nicked at the tip." In many specimens the teeth of the sixth segment were simply indicated by a more chitinous texture than the surrounding tissue. In others these teeth are represented by very slight tubercles, while in still others, they were larger, but indistinctly sepai'ated. By examining a large number of specimens it was found that the teeth of the seventh segment were subject to considei'able variation. Usually there were three placed transversely. In some there appeared to be four teeth represented, the central one being the largest and most posterior, having a small tooth on one side of its base, and two small ones on the other. In still others there seemed to be five teeth represented. The large one same as before and then two small ones at the base on either side. In the latter case the four basal spines were placed in a gentle curve around the larger tooth. Is there any way of accounting for the variation in this group of teeth? In one specimen having four teeth, one of the two basal ones seemed to be very deeply nicked, while the other was not. In the case where five teeth were present we could consider that both of the small basal: teeth were very deeply nicked, even to such an extent that the two parts became separated, thus presenting the appearance of four distinct teeth. The first lateral teeth occur on the seventh segment. From a dorsal view some speci- mens present only one lateral tooth, but further examination reveals two or three. In one case five latei-al teeth were found, the central ones being the larger. No important variations were found^in the aual segments, although one of the four small teeth on either side of the anal process was difficult to find. One very attractive feature of the color of the larva is the blending of the bluish-green parts and the rosaceous markings of the abdominal segment. TRANSFORMATION OF PUPA TO ADULT. When exposed to the air for a short time the pupa changes to a slightly paler'color. Soon the longitudinal muscles of the al)domen begin to con- tract and draw it forward in the surrounding pupa skin, and thus allowing it gradually to assume its natural position. In this process the displaced portions of the abdomen catch in front of the depressed divisions of the segments, and by tending to assume their former position uses them as points of support from which to force the body forward. 136 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. At the same time, irregular movements of the legs and antennae take place. Soon the pupa skin splits on the dorsal side of the head and thorax, and by the longitudinal contractions of the muscles the dorsulum is first forced out, then the head and antennae, the legs, and finally the abdomen is slowly withdi-awn and the pupa skin remains attached by the claws. At first the adults are of a light yellowish green, but soon change to a darker color. Some specimens seem to have great difficulty in starting the tip of the abdomen, it apparently being held by the anal spines. THE GALLS. The galls are subject to great variations. The typical gall of P. c. mamma has been described by Dr. C. V. Riley as follows: "This gall on the upper side of the leaf is represented by a cup-shaped impression meas- uring on an average 4.5 mm. across, with the outer rim always regularly cir- cular, and not, or but slightly, elevated above the surface of the leaf; at the bottom of the cup a small medium nipple (often obsolete); walls of the impression greenish, the bottom more yellowish. On the under side of the leaf it is much lai'ger than any of the other leaf galls, conical, either slightly narrowing apically, or, more frequently, slightly enlarged. The sides are vertical or nearly so; the top broadly rounded without medium depression or central nipple, size very variable, averaging in height 6.7 mm. and in diameter at base 4.5 mm. Color, pale greenish yellow, with the tip more brownish; surface opaque, rugosely reticulate; at the base often cov- ered with a whitish pruinescence, rarely with a few scattered hairs at the tip. The walls of the gall are hard and woody, at bottom averaging 1.75 mm., and at roof 0.75 mm. in thickness. The cell is large, and in cross-section much more crescent-shaped than in the preceding species." The above description is for the typical form for P. c.~mamma. But when the galls are compared we find that the shape and size of the gall is not at all constant. Besides those that are enlarged and rounded at tip, we find a great many that taper gradually to the apex which in some is slightly rounded, in others almost truncate, and in still others slightly depressed. Some have the basal half large and rounded, but at middle it contracts rather abruptly and tapers more strongly to the top which is I'ounded. In another variation the basal half and the apical half are both rounded and subequal, but separated by an acute circular constriction at the middle. In another Jorm the sides of the gall begin to curve outward just as they rise from the leaf, giving the gall a general circular outline. By collecting a large number of the galls and placing them singly in little pill-boxes, the adults that issued from each gall could be noted. It was found that P. c-mamma occurred in all the different variations, thus show- ing that these variations are not of specific importance. Besides the typical form of P. c.-mamma, a number of variations were found in the galls just mentioned, but as they present such a gi-eat number of variations, and no constant characters being found as yet, no attempt will be made to describe these varieties. DISSEMINATION. Mention was made of the fact that it was difficult to find the old leaves in sufficient numbers to be of any great value for observation, as they had been carried away by the winds. This is one of the means provided for IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 137 the dissemination of these insects. In the autumn of 1891 many of the leaves fell to the ground and were carried away by the winds before the larvic could issue. Many trees are located on the banks of streams into which the leaves may fall, and in case the larva; has not begun to issue so that the water cannot enter the gall, they may be carried many miles down stream and cast ashore; then the larva? issue, transform to the adult stage, migrate to the proper host and are in condition to multiply during the fol- lowing season. In a number of cases the adults have been found in places quite distant from any hackberry trees. At first thought it might be held that a strong wind caught them while on the wing and carried them away. But this is doubtful, since they may have come from leaves that were carried away. NATURAL ENEMIES. A number of parasitized larvae were taken about September 1. At differ- ent times small white larva? were found in the cell with and devouring the Psyllid larva. Upon further examination it was found that the cause for some of the Psyllid larvae changing to such a brown color and having such a dry, shriveled appearance was that the egg for this white footless larva had been deposited within the Psyllid larva; others were prol)ably deposited outside the Psyllid larva, and so fed externally. This parasite belongs to the family Chalcidida in the order Hymenoptera, and attacks all the species found at Ames, Iowa. Specimens of the Psyllida^ were sent to Dr. C. V. Riley, U. S. Entomolo- gist, Washington, D. C, for determination and the following species were named: Pachypsylla celtidis-mamina. Pachypsylla celtidis-minuta. Pdchypsylla celtidis-asteriscus. Since then specimens ot Pachypsylla celtidis- gemma have been found, and also a new species that infests the twig of the hackberry. As far as I know, no mention has been made of it, and so liberty will be taken to give the most prominent characters, i. e., those used in determining the species as shown in the table below. The following is a table prepared by Dr. C. V. Riley for the classification of the three most common species of the genus Pachypsylla. Perhaps many members of the Academy do not have access to this table, and therefore I take liberty to insert it in this article and also add the char- acters for separating the species which infest the twig of the hackberry. " Head and dorsum opaque; front wings submembranaceous or subllgatine, not rugose: pterostigma. distinct: both marginal cells very long, narrow, and of about equal size and length ; anal style of full-grown larva and pupa long. Dorsulum and mesonotum alutaceous, glabrous; front wings narrowly rounded at tip, widest In basal lialf ; genital segment of female longer than the rest of the abdomen; anal style of full grown and pupa notched at top venunta. Dorsulum and mesonotum rugoso-punctate, with distinct but very short, sparse pubescence; front wings broadly rounded at tip, widest in terminal half; genital segment of female sliorter than the rest of the abdomen: anal style of full-grown larva and pupa pointed at tip c.-mamma. Head and dorsum shining, without pubescence; front wings somewhat convex, basal half not wider than terminal half, broadly rounded at tip, distinctly rugose. 138 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Pterostigma indistinct: marginal cells less narrow, the first shorter and somewhat smaller than the second: genital segment of female shorter than the rest of the body; anal style of full-grown larva and pupa very short, nicked at tip c.-gemma." Pterostigma distinct black, marginal cells less narrow, the first being shorter and more nearly i V-shaped than the second; head and thorax black, marked with yellow; antennae black; wings with a smoky band along the anal and apical margins, and extending along the branching of the veins toward the base. Full- grown larva and pupa larger than the preceding one, anal style moderately long and notched at tip. (Galls oblong-oval, and are located in the twig or base of the larger limbs, just beneath the bark) c.-inteneris, n. spj AUTHOR'S INDEX-YOLUME I. (parts i-iv). Andrews. Launcelot W., II, 75. IV, (-), (-). Bennett. A. A . IV. (-;. Be;ich. Alice M., IV, (-). Bniner. H. L., 11.64. Bissell, G. W..IV. (-). Bates. CO., in, 27. Bain, H. F., IV, (-), (-). Bisbee, D. B., III. 71. Calvin, S.. II, 30, III, 7. 13, IV. (-). Call, R. Ellsworth, f, 15, 16, 17, 45, 52, 76, 85, II, 30, 37, 43, .56, 57. DrewGilman, 111,32. Fink, B. IV, (-). Fultz, F. M., IV, (-). Gordon, C H., I. 97, 98, 100. Gossard, H. A . II, 94. Gillette. C. P., I. .53, 63. II, 107, 108. 109, 110. Baworth. Erasmus. I, 66, II, 33. 36. Howe, Minnie, II. 64 .lories, A. J., IV. (-). Keyes. Chas. R.. II, 21, 22. 23, 24. 25. 26. 27, 29, 30. Ill, 15, 18. 22, 24, IV, (-), (-). Leonard. A. G., IV. (-). (-). Lonsdale. E. H.,IV, (-), (-). Meek. Seth E.. I. 68. Ill, 10.5. Mally, Frederick W., I, 65. Mally, C. \V..IV, (-). McBride, T. H., II. 12, IV, (-). Nichols, Mary A.. IV, (-). Niles, W. B., Ill, 90. Nutting, C. O., I, 95, II, 96, 102. Ill, 35 IV, (-), (-). Norris, H. W., IV, (-). Osborn, Herbert, I, 19, 39, 40. 41. 44. 64, 115, 116, 120, III, 98, 101, 103, IV, (-), Parker, H. W., 1.8, 10. Patrick, G. E.. II. 71, 73. Pammel, L. H., I, 90, 91. 92. II. 77, 80 93, 94, III. 46, 62, 77, 79,IV, (-), (-), (- Reppert, F., Ill, 93. Stewart, F. C, III, 80, 84. Shimek. B., IV, (-), (-). Spencer, A. C. IV, (-). Sirrine, F. A., Ill, 98, IV, (-). Tilton, J.L.. in, 26, IV, (-). Todd, J. E., I, 11, 12, 14, 57, 58, 63, II, 17, 19. Wickham. H. F.. 1.44. Windle; W. S., IV, (-). Witter. F. M.. I, 17, 44, 45, 96, 97, II, III, 28, 29, 30. 65, II, ), (-). SUBJECT INDEX— VOLUME (PARTS I TO IV.) A. Abnormal Hyoid Bone, II, 56. Abnormal pelage In lepus sylvaticus, II, 116. Aboriginal Rock Mortars, 11, 64. Acerndaria DavMsmii. II, 30. Acervulariaprofuuda, II, 30. Acipenseridae, I, 70. Acrasjjis inllotms. n. sp., I, 55. Active principles of Bread Making, II. 64. Additions to the Flora of Iowa, Some, IV. Additions to known Species of Iowa Icheu- monidae. IV. Address, President's (1892), III, 35. Address. Presidential (1893), IV. Aesthetics, animal. I, 10. Agaricocrinus, Observations of the Keokuk Species of, 1, 100. Asassiz, Lake, Lineage of, I, 57. Aleyrodes, Metamorphosis of, I, 39. Aluminum in Iowa, II, 29. Ampliibolips cookll. n.. so.. I. 56. Analysis^ of Water for Railway Engines. AudrivusfoUaformis, n. sp.. I, 53. Animal Aesthetics, I, 10. Anguillldae, I, 74. Anomalon, Sp.. Oviposltlon of, II, 107. Anthonomus Quadrlgibbus, II, 109. Aphidldae, Notes on. III, 98. Apparatus. Some Laboratory. IV. Apple Curcullo, Egg Laying of. II, 109. Arrow Points, from tiie Loess. II, 66. Artesian Wells in Iowa. II, 57. Astatic Galvanometer, New. II, 75. Auditory Vesicle in Necturus, Develop- ment of, IV. 140 INDEX. B. Bacteria, IV. Bacteria of Milk, Cream and Cheese, II, 94. Beggiatoa Alba, I, 90. Benettites docotensis, Geological Position of, IV. Biorhiza ruhlnus. n. sp., I, 54. Bread Making, Experiments in, II, 64. Brick and Other Clays of Des Moines, II, 29. c. CalUpepla Sqnamata, I. 63. Oampelona, Notes on Gross Anatomy, 1, 16. Carboniferous Fossils from Jackson County, II, 115. Carboniferous Strata, Folding of, In Southwestern Iowa. I, .58. Cardiocarpus in Iowa. On the Occurrence of, IV. Carnivora. I, 4t. Catalogue of Iowa Hemiptera, II, 120. Catalogue of Mammals of Iowa, I, 41. OatostomidfB, I, 71. Cattle Disease, III, 90. Cecidomid, Infesting Box Elder, II, 107. Centrarchidse, I. 74. Cerionites DaclyUoides. Ill, 13. Cheese, Bacteria of, II, 94. Chemical Lalioratory Iowa Agricultural College, Work in, IV. Cherry Disease, 1,92. Chiroptera, I. 42. Chonetes LcBvis, II, 22. Cladosvorium carpophilum, Further Notes on, IV. Clays, Brick and Other, II, 29. Clover Insects, III, 94. Clover, Weed Seeds in. Ill, 84. Coal Basin. Mystic, IV. Ooal Measures, Fauna of II, 22. Coal Measures of Poweshiek County, IV. Coal Bearing Strata, Structure and Rela- tions of II, 27. Coleoptera of Iowa, Fragment of Cata- logue, I, 44. Coloration in Animals, Directive, I, 14. Colleges. Systematic Zoology in II, 102. Committee on State Fauna, Report of, III, 39. Compositfe, Pollination of, IV, — . Composite Milk Samples, II, 73. Coiiocardium altum, ] I, 23. Conocardium from the Iowa Devonian, II, 23. Constitution, T. 5. Constitution, II, 6, Corn Smut, 11, 95. Contents, Table of, Part III, 13. Contribution to the Fauna of the Lower Coal Measures of Central Iowa, II, 22. Cream, Bacteria of. II, 94. Cretaceous Formations In Northwestern Iowa, Relations of the, IV. Cretaceous in Iowa, Eastern Extension of II, 21. Cretaceous in Iowa, Southern Extension of the. IV,-. Cretaceous Deposits, Relations of. III, 7. Crests Concealed of. Ply Catchers, III, 42. Crowley's Ridge. Arkansas, Geology of, I, 52. Crystalline Rocks of Missouri, I, 66. Cucurbits, Pollination of. III, 79. Curculio, Apple, Egg Laying of, II, 109. Ourculio, Plum, 1,63. Cycads, Notes on North American. IV. Oynipidre, Gall Producing, II, 110. Cynipids and Cynipidous Galls on Oaks, Common to Iowa, I, 53. Cynips nigricens, n. sp. I, 55. D. Deep Well at Sigourney, IV. Depositions of the Burlington Limestones, Disturbance During, IV. Derivation of the Unione Fauna of the Northwest, IV. Development of the Auditory Vesicle in Necturus, IV. Devonian Strata, Lower, of Iowa, IV. Directive Coloration in Animals, I, 14. Disease, A Cherry, I, 92. Disease. Cattle, III, 90. Diseases, Fungus, of Iowa Forage Plants, Disintegration of Granitic Masses. Ill, 22. Distilling Flask, 11,71. Distribution of Certain Hemiptera, IV. Distribution of Rhua typhina. IV. Disturbance during Deposition of Burling- ton Limestones, Evidences of, IV. Domestic Cat, Persistence of Ductus Ven- osus in the. IV. Drainage System of Warren County, Ori- gin of Present, IV. Dredging in Deep Water Without Use of Steam, IV. Ductus Venosus in Domestic Gat, Persist- ence of, IV. Dust, Volcanic from Omaha, II, 16. E. Electrolysis of Silver, The. IV. Embryology of Flowering Plants, Parafflne Method Applied to Study of, IV. Engineering, Experimental at the Iowa Agricultural College, IV. Eruptive Granites, Some American, III, 24. Errata. II, 135. Esocida3, I, 73. Experimental Engineering at the Iowa Agricultural College, IV. Extension. Eastern, of the Cretaceous in Iowa. II, 21. Extra-moralnlc Till, Origin of, I, 12. F. Fauna, Hemipterous of Iowa, I, 40. Fauna of the Lower Coal Measures, II, 22. Fauna, Orthopterous, 11, 116. Fauna, State, Report of Committee on, III, 39. Ferns, Absence of, between Fort Collins and Meeker, Colorado, III, 29. Ferns, Notes on, T, 17. Ferns of Muscatine County, I, 96. Ferns of the Ozark Region of Missouri, I, 15. Fishes of Cedar Basin, III, 105. Pishes of the Des Moines Basin, II. 43. Fishes, Native Food, of Iowa. I, 68. Flask, Distilling, II, 71 Flora of Iowa, Some additions to, IV. Flora of Texas, Notes on. III, 62. Flora, State, Report of Committee on, II, - 88. Fly Catchers, Concealed Crests of, III, 42. Food Fislies of Iowa, I, 68. Forest Trees of Eastern Arkansas, Notes on, I 76. Forest Vegetation of the Upper Missis- sippi, 11,80. Formation of Certain Quartzites, Process of, IV. Fossil Limna^id from Post-pleiocene of California, I, 17. Fossil Wood from the Keokuk Limestone, 1,97. Fossils, Carboniferous, from Jackson County, II, 115. Fossils of the Keokuk Beds, I, 98. INDEX. 141 FroRS, Reasons for Survival, III, 32. Frost, Relation of, to Certain Plants, III, Fruit Trees, Fungus Diseases of, I. 91. Fundus Diseases of Fruit Trees In Iowa, L91. Fungus Diseases of Iowa Forage Plants, IE. 93. G. Gall Producing Cynlpldre, II, 110. Galls. (;ynlpldous and Cyniplds, I, 53. Galvanometer, New Astatic, II, 75. Gas, Natural in Iowa, III, 15. Gas wells near Letts, Iowa, II. 68. Geological Position ot Benettites dacotensis Machi-UlclV. Geology of Crowley's Ridge, Arkansas, I, 52. Geology of Eastern Arkansas, I, Sr>. Geology of Northwestern Iowa, Notes on, II, 13. Granite and Porpiiyry Areas In Missouri, Topography of the, IV. Granites. American Eruptive, III. 2i. Granitic Masses, Disintegration of, III, 22. Gross Anatomy of Campelona, Notes on, 1,16. H. Hackberry Psyllida3 found at Ames, Iowa, IV. Helix conpei-i. Observations on. III, 28. Hemiptera of Iowa, Additions and Correc- tions, III. 103. Hemiptera, Additions to Catalogue. I, 65. Hemiptera, Distribution of, I, 64. Hemiptera, Iowa. Catalogue of, II, 120. Hemiptera. on the Distribution of Cer- tain. IV. Hemipteron'i Fauna of Iowa, I, 40. Historical Note. I. 6. Holcn^tpis basi^ettii. n. sp , 1,54. Hom^losy of the Inca Bone, IV. Hyoid Bone. Abnormal, in the Human Subject, 11,56. I. Implements Stone, Notice of. III, 30. Inca Bone, Homology of the, IV. Insectivora, I, 42. Insects, Clover, III. 94. Interruptions during the Depositions of the Burlinzton Limestones, IV. Iowa Hemiptera, III, 103. Iowa Ichneumnnidre, Additions to known species of, IV. Iowa Mineralogical Notes, III, 18. Jassidne, Life Histories of. III, 101. K. Keokuk Beds and their Contained Fossils, Key to Weed Seed In Clover, III. 84. Laboratory Apparatus. Some. IV. Laboratory Notes in Zoology, IV. Lake Agassiz, Lineage of, I, 5". Lakes. Ancient Glacial, Shore Lines of, 11,17. Lepus sylvaticus. Abnormal Pelage In, II, 116. Limnn?id. New fossil, from Post-plelocene of California, 1, 17. Limonlte Pseudomorphous after Calclte II, 33. List of Meetings, II. 10. Local Problems in Science, I, 19. Loess in and about Muscatine I, 45. Lower Devonian Strata of Iowa, Some Pre- liminary Notes on. IV. M. Mammals of Iowa, Catalogue of, I, 41. Marsuplalla, 1, 44. Meeting December 29-30. 1891, IF, 11. Meeting .lanuary 1st. 1891, [I, 11. Meeting of September 3d, 1891, II. II. Meeting September 5th, 1890, II, 10. Meetings, List of. II, 10. Membership, II, 5. Melanite in Basic Dike Rock, II, 33. Middle River, Erosion of, II, 12. Milk, Bacteria of, II, 94. Milk Samples. Composite, II, 73. Mineralogical Note-, Iowa. III. 18. Minerals, Notes on Missouri. II, 33. Missouri Minerals, Notes on, II, 33. Missouri, Terraces of, I. 11. Monoste^ia igmita, Lite History and Embry- ology, I. 65. Mortars, Aboriginal Rock, II. 64. Muscatine. Loess In and About, I, 45. Mystic Coal Basin, Structure of, IV. N. Nascent State, Assumption of a Special, IV. Natural Gas in Iowa, III, 1.5. Nematocysts. I, 95. Newotenis nigrum, n. sp., I, 56. New Species of Pemphigus Occurring on Thorn, IV. North American Cycads. Notes on. IV. Note, Historical, I, 6. Notes on the Gross Anatomy of Campel- ona. 1, 16. Notes, Phaenological for 1892, III, 46. Notes, Phaenological, II, 87. Notice of Arrow Points from the Loess in the City of Muscatine, II, 66. yj. Objects of the Academy, Note on. II, 9. Observations of Geological Position of Benettites dacotensi>i, IV. Observations on Helix cooperi III, 28. Occurrence of Cardiocai~pu» In Iowa, IV. Officers. 1892, III, 5. Officers, I. 2. Officers, of the Academy, II. 3. On the Assumption of a Special Nascent State, IV. Origin and Objects of the Academy, Note on, II, 9. Orthopteruus Fauna of Iowa. II, 116. Oviposition of Anomalon, Sp. II. 107. Ozark Region of Missouri, Some Ferns of the, 1, 15. Palisade Cells and Stomata of Leaves. Ill, 80. Parafflne Method Applied to Study of Embryology of Flowering Plants, IV. Parvus Group of Unionlda\ I, 45. Pelage, Abnormal, in Lepus sylvaticus, II. 116. Pellrvn atrnpurpurea on Sandstone Ledges, III. 93. PempbiglnjB, Wax Glands of. I,«4. 142 INDEX. Pemphigus Occurring on Thorn, New bpecies of, IV. PercidjB, I, 76. Persistence of Ductus Venosus in the Domestic Cat, an Instance of, IV. Phonological Notes II, 87. Phasnological Notes for 1892, III, 46. Pinnipedia, Polygamy, among. II. 98. Plants, Woody, of Western Wisconsin, II, 76. Platyceras, Sedentary, habits of II, 24. Pleurotomaria Modesta. II, 22. Plum Curculio, I, 63. Pollination of Composita3, IV. Pollination of Cucurbits. Ill, 79. Polygamy among the Pinnipedia, II, 96. Po!yodontida3, I, 69. Poweshiek County, Coal Measures of, IV. Preliminary Notes on the Lower Devonian Strata of Iowa, Some. IV. President's Address (1888), I, 19. President's Address (1892), III. 35. Presidential Address (18GH), IV. Prismatic Sandstone from Missouri, II, '36. Problems, Local in Science, 1. 19. Proceedings 13^8, 1, 19. Proceedings 1889, I, 63. Proceedings 1992, III, 5. Process of Formation of Certain Quartz- ites, IV. Psyllidae, Hacitberry, found at Ames, Iowa, IV. Q. Quail, Blue in Iowa, I, 63. Quartzites, Formation of. IV. Quaternary Section, II, 30. Red Roclt Sandstone. Notes on, 11, 26. Relations of the Cretaceous Formation in Northwestern Iowa, IV. Report of Committee on State Fauna, II, 39. Report of the Committee on State Flora, II, 88. Rhus typhina, The Distribution of. IV. RocifS, Crystalline of Missouri, I, 66. RoclfS, Striation of by River Ice, II, 19. Rodentia, I, 43. Salmonidas, I, 73. Sandstones, Age of Certain, near Iowa City, II, 26. Sandstone. Prismatic, from Missouri, II, 36. Sandstone, Red Rock Notes on. II, 26. Science, Local Problems In, 1, 19. Scieuidas, I. 76. Sedentary Habits of Platycerus, II, 24. Seranidne. I, 76. Shells, Notes on. 1, 17. Shore Lines of Ancient Glacial Lakes, II, 17. SIgourney, The Deep Well at, IV. Silicified Woods, Tertiary, of Eastern Ar- kansas, II, 37. Silver, Electrolysis of, IV. Silurida?, 1, 70. Slime Moulds, 11.12. Smut, Corn, II, 95. Snow Birds, Three-legged, II, 12. Soleniscus humilis, II, 23. Solutions of Sulpho-Cyanate, Some Pecu- liarities of, IV. Southern Extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa, IV. State Flora, Report of Committee on, II, 88. Stomata of Leaves, Palisade Cells and 111,80 Stone Implements, Notice of, III, ,30. Strata Between Ford and Winterset, III, 26. Striation of Rocks by River Ice, II, 19. Strophostylus, Evolution of, II, 25. Structure of the Mystic Coal Basin, IV. Sulpho-Cyanate. Some Peculiarities of Solutions of IV. Systematic Zoology in Colleges, II, 102. Terraces of the Missouri, I, 11. Tertiary Silicified Woods, II, 37. Till, Origin of Extra Morainic, I, 12. Topography of the Granite and Porphyry Areas in Missouri, IV. Trees, Forest, of Eastern Arkansas, I, 76. u. Ungulata, I, 42. Unlonidae, Parvus Group of, I, 45. Unios, Pearl Bearing, I, 97. Vanessa Antiopa, Experience in Rearing, I, 44. Vegetation, Forest of the Upper Missis- sippi, II, 80. Volcanic Dust from Omaha, II, 16. w. Warren County, Origin of Present Drain- age System, IV. Water, Analysis of, for Railway Engines HI, 27. Wax Glands of, Pemphiginte, I, 64. Weed Seeds in Clover, III, 84. Wells, Artesian, in Iowa. II, 57. Wells, Gas, Near Letts, Iowa. II, 68. What we have Been Doing, III, 35. Wood Fossil from Keokuk Limestone, I, 97. Woody Plants of Western Wisconsin, II, 76. Work in the Chemical Laboratory of the Iowa Agricultural College, IV. Zinc Deposits in Northeastern Iowa, IV. Zoology, Laboratory Notes on, IV. Zoology, Systematic in Colleges, II, 102. n ■j^r HROCEBDINGS OF 1 HK IOWA ACADEMY SCIENCES Is.sT. isss, 1NS!I. rodi: 1 HKK wn H thk cons rixu iion. i.isis oi oikkkrs and mkmkkr^ /2,S^ 7 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR 1890, 1891. VOLUME I. PART II. TOGETHER WITH THE CONSTITUTION, LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS. JUN fl IBM PROCEEDINGS IOWA ACADEMY SCIENCES 18Q:2, VOLUME I. PART III 3 2044 i06 262 306 ^^hf^fcT /PH||t.j| ^kt.. ii^sS :%'^