PROCEEDINGS OF THE Iowa Academy of Sciences F^OF^ lir^Ol VOLUME IX. EDITED BY THE SECRETARY. PUBLISHED BY THE STATE. DES MOINES: B. MURPHY, STATE PRINTER 1902. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. uy {^^iiumlKt\.\%,\<^(iZ PROCEEDINGS OF THE Iowa Acadettiy of Sciences I^OP^ IQOl. VOLUME IX. EDITED BY THE SECRETARY. PUBLISHED BY THE STATE. DES MOINES: B. MURPHY, STATK PRINTER. 1902. c LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Des Moines, Iowa, January 20, 1902. To His Excellency, Albert B. Cummins, Governor of Iowa: Sir — In accordance with the provisions of title 2, chap- ter 5, section 186, code 1897, I have the honor to transmit herewith the proceedings of the sixteenth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Respectfully submitted, your obedient servant, A. Gr. Leonard, Secretary loiva Academy of Sciences. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Letter of Transmittal 3 Table of Contents 5 Officers of the Academy 7 Members of the Academy 9 Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Session 13 Presidential Address, by A. A. Veblen 21 Some Improved Laboratory Devices and Apparatus, by A. A. Veblen 34 A Study in the Hereditary Transmission of Finger Patterns, by A. A. Veblen 44 Factors of Extinction, by Herbert Osborn . 47 Forestry in Iowa, by B. Shimek — 53 Analyses of Certain Clays used for Making Paving Brick for Cedar Rapids, by C. O. Bates 61 The Sanitary Analyses of Some Iowa Deep Well Waters, J. B. Weems 63 The Chemical Composition of Sewage of the Iowa State College Sewage Plant, by J. B. Weems, J. C. Brown and E. C. Myers . 70 Menke's Method of Preparing Hvponitrite-s, by Alfred N . Cook 82 Calcium Carbide as a Dehydrating Agent for Alcohols, by Alfred N. Cook and Arthur L.Haines 86 The Sioux City Water Supply, by Alfred N. Cook and C. F. Eberly .... 90 Igneous Bocks of the Central Caucasus, and the Work of Loewinson-Lessing, by Charles R. Keyes 101 Evidences of Recent Uprisings of the Shores of the Black Sea, by Charles R. Keyes 103 A Devonian Hiatus in the Continental Interior — Its Character and Depositional Equiv- alents, by Charles R. Keyes 105 Paroxymetamethylacetophenone and Some of Its Derivatives, by J. Q. Goodwin 113 On the Occ irrence of Rhizopods in the Pella Beds in Iowa, by J. A. Udden. 120 Pleuroptjrx in Iowa Coal Measures, by J. A. Udden 121 The University of Montana Biological Station, by Maurice Ricker 122 A Large Red Hydra, by Maurice Ricker 125 Some New Double Bromides and Their Dissociation in Aqueous Solution, by Nicholas Knight 127 The Vasciilar Cryptogams of Iowa and the Adjoining Parts of Southeastern Minnesota and Western Wisconsin, by L. H. Pammel and Charlotte M. King 134 Preliminary Notes on the Flora of Western Iowa, Especially from the Physiographical Ecological Standpoint, by L. H. Pammel, 152 A Ruling Engine for Making Zone Plates, by W. M. Boehm . 181 A List of Plants Collected in Lee County, Florida, by A. S. Hitchcock 189 Ustiloginae of Iowa, by H. H. Hume 226 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. igoi. President .—K. A. Vhblen. First Vice-President. — H. E. Summers, Second Vice- Pre <;ident. — J. L. Tilton. Secretary. — S. W. Beyer. Treasurer. — J. B. Weems. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Ex-Officio.—A. A, Veblen, H. E. Summers, J. L. Tilton, S. W. Beyer, J. B. Weems. Elective.— M.. F. Arey, H. M. Kelly, C. O. Bates. 1902. Presidr'nt. — H. E. Summers. First Vice-President.— J . L. Tilton. Second Vice-President.— S. W. Beyer. Secretary'. — A. G. Leonard. Treasurer. — B. Shimek. executive committee . Ex-OfHcio . — H. E. Summers, J. L. Tilton, S. W. Beyer, B. Shimek, A. G. Leonard. Elective.— 'L.. H. Pammel, C. O. Bates, M. F. Arey. PAST PRESIDENTS. OsBORN, Herbert 1887-88 Todd, J. E 1888-89 Witter, F. M 1889 90 Nutting, C. C 1890-92 Pammel, L. H 1893 Andrews, L. W 1894 NoRRis, H. W 1895 Hall, T. P 1896 Franklin, W. S 1897 Macbride, T. H 1897-98 Hendrixson, W . S 1899 Norton, W. H 1900 Veblen, A. A • 19C1 MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY FELLOWS. Alden, W. C .r .^ „ „ Mount Vernon ALMY, F. F T r- ,1 ^ . Arev M P Iowa College, Grinnell ^ ' Mb Sjate Normal School, Cedar Falls ^ARRis, W^ H Griswold College, Davenport ^ATES, C. O. Coe College, Cedar Rapids Beardshear, W. M ot ^ /^> 1, „ , ' state College , Ames Begeman, Louis state Normal School , Cedar Falls Bennett, A. A ef„t on T5 ' „, State College , Ames Beyer, S. W «f . r> n a ■o „ „ „, State College, Ames BlSSELL, G W yf , f- ,, A p.„ , „ Stale College, Ames ^ROWN. J. C University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Calvin, S ct^f,. tt ■ ^^ t .,- „ ^ State University , Iowa City Chappel^George M State Weather Service, Des Moines Clark, Dr. J. Fred i. • c , . r^^ . ^^ Fairfield Cook, Alfred N Morningside College, Sioux City Cratty, R. I A CuRTiss. C. F ■.■;. ^VVrV, r°^ Davis, Floyd State College, Ames T^ „ ,. Des Moines Dennison, O. T. ht ^. p „ Mason City £.CKLES C. H University Of Missouri, Columbia, Mo Ende, (^. L.. . ot .. TT • ■ ^ t, ' ,^ • State University, Iowa City Finch, G. E ,, . p „ Marion „ ■ Upper Iowa University, Fayette Fitzpatrick, T. J. T . . r, „ ,, Iowa City FULTZ, F. M T^ ,. „ ^^ Burlington GrETTENBURG, H. N. TIT u ,,. Goodwin, J. G.... Marshalltown Gow, J. E Indianola TT T^ ' Iowa City Hadden, David E Hendrixson, W. S ,^''' n 'u r^ '■' f. „,,, o „ Iowa College, Grinnell rliLL, G. H r , TT T^ T-,T ^ Independence HOLWAY, E. W. D r^ ,T _, ^ Uecorah HOUSER, G. L Ctof^ TT ■ Kkttv W m -State University, Iowa City KeppJl J T CornellColIege,Mt. Vernon ', ■ Upper Iowa University, Fayette Keyes, C. R J^ ^/. j^ „ Des Moines King, CHARLOTTE M State College, Ames Knight, Nicholas Cornell College, Mount Vernon KuNTZE, Dr. Otto 2 I A S (9) ^°^^ ^'^y 10 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Lkonard, a. G Geological Survey, Des Moines M ARSTON , A State College , Ames Macbride, T. H State University, Iowa City Metcalf, Haven Tabor Mueller, Herman Winterset Myers, P. C Iowa City Newton, G. W State Normal School, Cedar Falls Norris, H. W Iowa College, Grinnell Norton, W. H Cornell College, Mt. Vernon Nutting , C . C State University , Iowa City O'DoNOGHUE, J. H Storm Lake Paddock, A. Estella State College, Ames Page, A. C State Normal, Cedar Falls Pammel , L . H State College , Ames Repp, John J State College , Ames Ricker , Maurice Burlington Ross, L. S Drake University, Des Moines Sabin , Miss Mary Ames Sage, Hon J. R Des Moines Sanders, W. E Alta Shimek , B State University , Iowa City Stanton, E. W , State College, Ames Stookey, Stephen W Coe College, Cedar Rapids Stull, W. N Harvard University, Cambridge, Ma?s. Summers, H. E State College, Ames TiLTON, J. L Simpson Col'ege, Indianola Veblen, a. A State University, Iowa City Walker, L. R State College, Ames Weems, J. B State College, Ames WiCKHAM , H . F State University, Iowa City Wilder , F . A Grand Forks , North Dakota Witter , F . M Muscatine Wylie , R . B Morningside College, Sioux City ASSOCIATE members. Adams , P . E Durham Allen , J R Marble Rock Bailey , Dr. Bert H Cedar Falls Baldwin, F. H Tabor Barnes , Wm . D Blue Grass BiERiNG, Dr. Walter Iowa City Blount, Mary Marshalltown BoEHM, Walter, M State University, Iowa City Bond, D. K Rockwell City Boody, Dr. George Independence BousKA, F. W Dairy Commission, Des Moines Brainard , J . M Boone Brown, Eugene Mason City Brownlie , I . C Ames Cameron, J . E Cedar Rapids IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. II Carter , Charles Corydon Graven, William, N Knoxville Crawford, Dr. G. E Cedar Rapids Deyoe, A. M Britt Ellis, Sarah State College, Ames Erwin, a. T State College, Ames Ford , L. A Webster City Gifford , E . H Oskaloosa Gray, C. E Ames Greene, Wesley Secretary of the Horticultural Society, Des Moines Guthrie, Joseph E Amts Haines, A L Morningside College, Sioux City Hamilton, Dr. Arthur S Independence Hersey, S. F State Normal, Cedar Falls Hess, Alice State College, Ames HiNKLE, Hon. G. W Harvard Hodson, E. R Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C Johnson , F . W Des Moines Johnson, C. P Ea^t Side High School, Des Moines Lewis, W . H Winterset LiTTiE, E. E State College, Ames Livingston , D«. H Hopkinton Main , J . H . T Iowa College . Grinnell Miller, A. A Davenport Murphy J H. A Burlington High School , Burlington Myers , E . C Ames OsBORN , B . F Rippey Powers , H . E Columbus Junction Radebaugh , J . W Simpson College , Indianola RiGG, G. B Woodbine Rolfs, J. A State College, Ames Sample, A. F Lebanon Savage, J. E Western College, Toledo Simpson, Howard Columbus Junction Skinnkr, a S Upper Iowa University, Fayette Smith Dr. G. L Shenandoah Stewart , Helen W ... Des Moines Treganza. J. A Britt Vandivert, Harriet Wichita, Kansas Walters, G. W Cedar Falls Weaver , C . B Denver, Colorado WiLLARD, W. A Grinnell Williams , I . A State College , Ames Young, Lewis E State College, Ames CORRESPONDING MEMBERS Arthur, J. C Purdue University. Lafayette, Indiana Bain, H. F Idaho Springs, i olorado Ball, C. R Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Ball, B. D Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colorado 12 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Barbour , E . H State University , Lincoln , Nebraska Bartsch, Paul Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Beach, S. A Geneva, New York Beach, Alice M University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Bessey , C . E State University, Lincoln , Nebraska Bruner, H. L Irvington, Indiana Call, R. E 283 Winthrop St., Brooklyn, New York Carver , G . W Tuskegee , Alabama CoBURN , Gertrude Kansas City , Kansas CoLTON , G . H Virginia City , Montana Conrad , A . H 1621 Briar Place , Chicago Craig, John . . .Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Drew, Gilman C State College , Orono , Maine Faurot, F. W Missouri Botanical Gardens, Saint Louis, Missouri Franklin, W. S Lehigh Univ., South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Gillette, C. P Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colorado Gossard , H . A Lake City , Florida Hall, T. P .Kansas City University, Kansas City, Missouri Halsted, B. D New Brunswick, New Jersey Hansen, N. E Brookings, South Dakota Hansen , Mrs . N . E Brookings , South Dakota Haworth, Erasmus State University, Lawrence, Kansas Heileman, W. H Pullman, Washington Hitchcock, A. S Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas Hume, H. H ...Lake City, Florida Leverett , Frank Denmark Mally, F. W Hulen, Texas McGke, W J Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. Meek, S. E Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, Illinois Miller , B . L Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , Md . Mills, S. J Denver, Colorado Newell, Wilmon Ohio Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio OsBORN, Herbert State University, Columbus, Ohio Owens, Eliza Bozeman, Montana Patrick , G . E . . . Department of Agriculture, Washington , D . C . Read, C. D Weather Bureau, Vicksburg, Mississippi Sirrine , F . A Jamaica , New York SiRRiNE, Emma Dysart, Iowa Spencer, A. C U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Todd, J . E State University, Vermillion , South Dakota Trelease, Dr. William St. Louis, Missouri Udden, J. A Rock Island, Illinois WiNSLOw Arthur Kansas City, Missouri YouTZ, L. A New York City, New York PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL SESSION OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The sixteenth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences was held in the rooms of the Iowa Geological Survey at the capitol building in Des Moines, December 26 and 27, 1901. In the business session the following matters of general interest were passed upon. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. To the Members of the Iowa Academy of Sciences: The year 1901 has been one of substantial growth for the Academy. At the fifteenth annual session eleven fellows and seventeen associate members were elected. Of these, nine fellows and fifteen members qualified. Five new names were added to the corresponding membership list; two, Dr Wilham Trelease, director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, and Prof. J. A. Udden, of Augustana College, Rock Island, 111., by special election, and three by transfer. Dr. H. F. Bain, now of Idaho Springs, Colo- Prof' John Craig, Cornell University, New York; and L. A. Youtz, a student in Columbia University, New York. On account of the non-payment of dues the names of two fellows and seven members were stricken from the mem- bership list. The revised roster now shows sixty fellows, fifty -eight associ- ate members and forty-five corresponding members, or a total membership of one hundred and sixty-three, the largest in the history of the academy. Messrs. Faurot. Leverett and Miller, fellows of the Academy, have removed from the state and should be transferred to the corresponding membership list. A considerable number of associate members have presented papers for the Academy and are eligible to promotion to the fellowship l^st. I trust (13) 14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. that the committee on membership may scrutinize these lists very closely and make such recommendations as the best interests of the Academy appear to justify. The current volume of the proceedings is the largest ever issued and was distributed to those entitled to receive it some months earlier than Volume VII of the preceding year. The amendment to the printing bill passed by the last legislature is not yet sufficiently explicit in its wording. The object of the amendment was to provide for the illustration of the proceedings at state expense. While the intent of the law is clear enough no appropriation was made for the purpose. The bills for illustrations were allowed finally by the state executive council. This defect st ould be remedied by the new legislature. The Academy has outgrown the statutory limit fixing the maxi- mum size of the volume of the proceedings at 250 pages. Such limit should be stricken out, leaving the matter entirely at the discretion of the Academy officials or a much larger number be substituted. These are matters which ought to receive attention at once and doubtless will be accorded the consid- eration due them by the legislative comiaittee. The records of the Academy contain numerous resolutions and recom- mendations which have long since served their purpose and rightly have been forgotten. The records also contain certain regulations f jrmulated from time to time which are still in force and should be observed or else rescinded. For the information of the newer members of the academy and to quicken the memories of the older ones I take the liberty of presenting the more important regulations. A. RULES GOVERNING THE ELECTION OF MEMBERS, ETC. 1. It was voted that as a rule the Council should recommend to fellow- ship only associate members who present themselves with paper, or such other persons as come to us from similar organizations in other states. It was voted that all applications be made out with a statement of qualifications and signed by two fellows of the Academy. Tenth session, January, 1896. 2. It was recommended that associate members on leaving the state be dropped from the Academy roll, unless they signify their wish to retain their associate membership. Twelfth session, 1897. 3. It was ordered that persons owing for reprints be notified if they do not pay this and any delinquent dues promptly taeir names will be dropped. Fourteenth session, 1899. B. RULES GOVERNING PUBLICATION, ETC. 1. Members taking part in the discussion of papers and desiring such remarks published may furnish the secretary a written copy of the same. Seventh session, 1892. 2. Authors of papers shall receive 50 separates of their papers at the expense of the Academy, and may receive additional separates at their own expense. Seventh session, 1892. 3. Each member shall receive one copy of the proceedings and have the privilege of buying additional copies at 20 cents each. To persons who are not members the price of the proceedings shall be 50 cents per copy. Sev- enth session, 1892. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15 4. That the secretary be authorized to sell pt. 1, Vol. I, at one dollar each and the proceeds to be remitted to Professor Herbert Osborn. Seventh session, 1892. 5 {a) That hereafter no papers will be published in the proceedings of the Academy which are not placed in the hands of the secretary, in full or in a written abstract, before the adjournment of the annual meeting, [b) That no paper shall be placed upon the printed program of the Academy unless the title, when handed to the secretary, be accompanied by a brief abstract and that these abstracts be printed with the program. Tenth session, January, 1896. I submit these rules and regulations for your consideration and recom- mend that those deemed advisable to retain be published in the next volume of the proceedings. During the past two years the Academy has been fortunate in being able to secure a man, eminent in his chosen line of work, from outside the limits of the state, to deliver an address before the members and their friends, at each session. This year, because of the small size of the Academy bank account, it was deemed advisable to abandon the public address by an imported speaker. Fortunately there will be no hiatus in our program because of the absence of an address delivered by an outsider. Professor Calvin, a charter member of the Academy, has been prevailed upon to give his lecture on " The Ice Age in Iowa," which will conclude our program. In conclusion I cannot refrain mentioning some of the satisfactions and trials incident to the publication of the proceedings. As you are doubtless aware the state furnishes the paper, and the work of printing and binding is done by the state printer and binder as in the case of the printing of other public documents. The paper furnished for both plates and text is a satis- faction and the press-work is uniformly good. But the dilatory tactics pursued in requiring six months to put a 250 page volume through the press, which at most should not require to exceed six weeks by any first class print- ing house in the state, is a serious trial. Since our last meeting the office of state printer has changed hands and the new incumbent has adopted a very different schedule of prices for authors' reprints from his predescessor. In settling with the state printer, the secretary was laboring under the impression that the Academy furnished but twenty-five reprints and yet the bill presented, after being several times reduced, was for $64.50. The original bill against the Academy for the twenty-five reprints was some hundred sixty odd dollars. These are matters worthy of the closest attention of the committees on publication and legislation. Respectfully submitted, S. W. Beyer, Secretary . REPORT OF TREASURER FOR 1901. RECEIPTS. Balance from 1900 $ 66.61 Membership dues , 74.00 Fellowship dues 21. 00 Bat'kdues . 20.00 Sale of reports 3. 00 Reprints (to be transmitted to state binder) 17.50 Total $202.11 16 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. DISBURSEMENTS. Rent of hall $ 30.00 Expenses of Professor Treloase . . .. ... 29.59 Binding proc-eedings fourteenth meeting 25 00 Printing tickets, program and circulars 0. 50 Reprints furnished members .35. 00 Binding proceedings fifteenth meeting liO.OO Expenses, secrt^tary 2. 75 Paid for members to state printer for reprints 17. 50 Stamps, secretary, $5. 25 ; treasurer, $2. 10 7. 35 Expenses, $0. 91 ; ckn-ical work, $1 1. 91 Total $ 185.60 Balance on hand 16. 51 At a meeting of the executive council of the Academy the following fellows and members were elected: FELLOWS. Louis Begeman, State Normal school, Cedar Falls, Iowa; J. C. Brown, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; C. H. Eckles, University of Mis- siouri, Columbia, Mo.; G. E. Finch, Marion, Iowa; J. G. Goodwin, Simp- son college, Indianola, Iowa; J. E. Gow, Iowa City, Iowa; H. N. Gretten- burg, Marshalltown, Iowa; Dr. G. H. Hill, superintendent Iowa Hospital for the Insane, Independence, Iowa; Herman Mueller, Winterset, Iowa; P. C. Myers, Iowa City, Iowa; Miss Mary Sabin, professor of domestic science, Iowa State College, Ames; Dr. W. E. Sanders, Alta, Iowa; W. N. StuU, Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass. ; F. A. Wilder, professor of geology, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, N. D ; R. B. Wylie, Morning- side college, Sioux City, Iowa. ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. Walter M. Boehm, State University, Iowa City; William N. Craven, Knoxville; C. E. Gray, Ames; Joseph E. Guthrie, Ames; A. L. Haines, Morningside college, Sioux City; Arthur S. Hamilton, Independence; C. P. Johnson, East Side High School, Des Moines; W. H. Lewis, Winterset; J. H. A. Murphy, Burlington High School, Burlington; E. C. Myers, Ames; G. B. Rigg, Woodbine; J. A Treganza, Britt; W. A. Willard, Grinuell. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. F. W. Faurot, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.; Frank Leverett, Denmark; B. L. Miller, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. The nominating committee reported the following officers for the ensuing year: President. — H. E. Summers. First Vice-President.— i . L. Tilton. Second Vice-President. — S. W. Beyer. Secretary. — A. G. Leonard. Treasurer . — B. Shimek. Elective Members of the Executive Committee. — L. H. Pammel, CO. Bates, M. F. Arey. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17 A committee was appointed to draw up resolutions memorializing congress regarding the establishment of forest reserves. On this committee were appointed L. IJ. Pammel, B. Shimek and M. F. Arey. RESOLUTIONS OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES WITH REFERENCK TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FOREST RESERVES BY THE UNITED STATES. The Iowa Academy of Science approves of President Roosevelt's message on forestry and irrigation, two great internal questions and heartily concurs in the statement that, ' 'The fundamental idea of forestry is the perpetuation of forestry by use. Forest protection is not an end of itself; it is a means to increase and sustain the resources of our country and the industries which depend upon them. The preservation of our forest is an imperative business necessity. We have come to see clearly that whatever destroys the forest except to make way for agriculture threatens our well being." The useful- ness of the forest reserve has been demon trated and to have them wisely and justly administered is therefore an imperative necessity. We heartily concur in the recommendations made by Secretary Hitchcock in his annual report that the forest reserves should be under the direction of trained for- esters and that forestry, dealing as it does with a source produced by the soil, is an agricultural subject and should ultimately come under the head of the Department of Agriculture if found practicable, because of the trained foresters in the department. This will be to the interests of the reserves and the people who use them. We heartily commend the action of Secretary Hitchcock in creating the Division of Forestry of ;he Interior Department and appointing men who are specially fitted to look after the management of the reserves, until such time as the forestry work of the government shall be under one management, the United States Department of Agriculture. In regard to the grazing of sheep in our reserves we are glad to note that a more enlightened policy shall prevail. We commend specially the state- ment of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, that ''the wise adjustment of the grazing question must be a compromise founded on a just consideration of all vari- ous interests concerned." The resources of the forests should be wisely used and all matters pertaining to the forest and tributary country should be considered on its merits. We approve most heartily, also, the recom- mendation of Secretary of Agriculture Wilson in regard to the proposed Appalachian reserve which is urged in order to protect the headwaters of important streams, to maintain an already grea'ly impaired supply of tim- ber, ard to promote a national recreation ground which, with the single exception of the Adirondacks, will be readily accessible to a larger number of people than any other forest region in the United States." Resolved, That the Iowa Academy of Sciences hereby petitions Congress to take favorable action on the following recommendations: "1. To set aside for park and forestry purposes the timber tract of the Leach Lake Indian Reservation and other lands at the headwaters of the Mississippi to protect the waters of this great stream which have greatly diminished during the summer months. Also to conserve the immature 18 IOWA ACADEMl OF SCIENCES. white pine and other timbers so useful in the arts and industries. The cutting of mature white pine should be permitted under restrictions laid down by the Interior Department. We favor also the setting apart for similar purposes of such other lands as Congress may control in the states of Wis- consin, Minnesota and other states, to the end that the timber supply of said states may be at least partially saved or restored, and that the forests on such tracts may serve to conserve the moisture and to protect and pre- serve wild game in said regions. That Congr ss take favorable action on the recommendations of Secretary Hitchcock with reference to the transfer of forestry work; since the concentration of forestry work is highly desirable to give stability and permanence to the management of the forest reserves. ''2. The purchase of land by the government for a southern Appala- chian national park in the Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada regions. We favor therefore, the passage of House bill No. 3128 introduced by H. Brown- low. ' '3. The withholding from the market by the government of public lands covered with timber and making provisions for the sale of the mature tim- ber thereon under the supervision of a technically trained forester. ''4. The enactment of a law embodying the recommendation of Hon. Binger Herman, commissioner of the general land office, in his last annual report 'that all public lands which are more valuable for forest uses than for other purposes shall be withdrawn from settlement, entry, sale or other dis- position and be held for the protection and utilization of the timber thereon, in accordance with the provisions of the forest reservation law.' ''5. The adoption of the recommendation of the said commissioner of the general land office that the president of the United States be vested with the authority to reserve tracts of government lantl for national park purposes without approval or further action of congress. ^ ' Resolved, That the Iowa delegation in Congress is hereby respectfully requested to urge the enactment of laws embodying the recommendations herein contained." Signed, L. H. Pammel, Ames. B. Shimek, Iowa City. M. F. Arey, Cedar Falls. The committee on pure food laws, appointed a year ago, was authorized to continue its work and the following resolutions were passed by the Academy: Resolved, That it is sense of the Academy of Sciences: First. — That the committee on pure food laws be authorized to continue its work. Second. — That the committee co-operate with committees from other organizations in the enactment of pure food laws. Third. — That the attention of the legislature be called to the necessity and value of pure food laws in this state. Iowa as a state should not be surpassed by other states in the enactment of pure food laws. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19 The state should not remain an open field for imposing adulterated food products upon our citizens to the detriment of both health and pocketbooks. Neighboring states are in advance of Iowa on this subject and the time is ripe for our state to take the position which rightly belongs to it in order that the citizens may be protected. J. B. Wehms, CO, Bates, W. S. Hendrixson, Nicholas Knight, Maurice Ricker. At the literary session the following papers were pre- sented: The presidential address, ' 'The Relation of Physics to the Other Material Sciences." — A. A. Veblen. 1. "The Effect of Changes in Temperature on the Index of Refraction of a Gas when Heated at Constant Volume." — N. F. Smith. (Introduced by W. S. Hendrixson.) 2. ' 'Forestry in Iowa." — B. Shimek. 3. "Some New Double Bromides and their Dissociation in Aqueous Solution." — Nicholas Knight 4. "Character of the Devonian Hiatus in the Continental Interior." — Charles R. Keyes. 5. ' 'Evidences of Recent Uprisings of the Shores of the Black Sea." — Charles R. Keyes. 6. ''Igneous Rocks of the Central Caucasus; and the Recent Work of Loewinson-Lessing. " — Charles R Keyes. 7. "New and Interesting Species of the Flora of Iowa." — T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. 8. "The Liliaceae of Iowa."— T. M. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. 9. ''The Scrophulariacae of Iowa." — T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. 10. ''A Ruling Engine for making Zone-plates." — W. M. Boehm. (Introduced by A. A. Veblen.) 11. ''Some Improved Laboratory Devices and Apparatus." — A. A. Veblen. 12. "A Study in Hereditary Transmission of the Papillary Finger Pat- terns."— A. A. Veblen. 13. "The Biological Station of the University of Montana." — Maurice Ricker. 14. "A Large Red Hydri " — Maurice Ricker. 15. ''Nearcric Species of Acanthiidae. " — H. E. Summers and Char- lotte M. King. 16. ' ' Nearctic Scutelleridae. " — H E. Summers. 17. ' 'Notes on the Physiographic Ecology and Distribution of Plants in Western Iowa, Especially of the Loess." — L. H. Pammel. 18. "Notes on Ferns from Iowa and Western Wisconsin, and South- eastern Minnesota, Chiefly in the Herbarium of the Iowa State College." — L. H. Pammel and Charlotte M. King. 19. "A List of Plants Collected in Lee County, Florida."— A. S. Hitchcock. 20 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 20. "The Ustilaginae of Iowa."— H. H. Hume. 21. ' 'The Sanitary Analyses of Some Iowa Deep Well Waters."— J. B. Weems. 22. "The Chemical Composition of Sewage of the Iowa State College Sewage Plant." — J. B. Weems, J. C. Brown and E. C. Myers. 23. "Menke's Method of Preparing Hyponitrites. " — Alfred N. Cook. 24. "Calcium Carbide as a Dehydrating Agent for Alcohols." — Alfred N. Cook and A. L. Haines. 25. "The Sioux City Water Supply. "—Alfred N. Cook and C. F. Eberly. 26. "On the Occurrence of Rhizopods in the Pella Beds in Iowa."— J. A. Udden. 27. "Pleuroptyx in the Iowa Coal Measures. "—J. A. Udden. 28. ' 'Factors in the Extinction of Animals." — Herbert Osborn. 29. "Analyses of Certain Clays Used in the Manufacture of Cedar Rapids Paving Brick." — C. O. Bates. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. THE RELATION OF PHYSICS TO THE OTHER MATERIAL SCIENCES. BY A. A. VEBLEN. The last year or two of the nineteenth century and this first year of the twentieth liave been prolific in literature dealing in one way or another with science topics. There have been addresses before learned and educational gather- ings, articles in science journals, and in periodicals of well-nigh all kinds, much of all this writing having been produced by the masters and leaders of science; and the object of these productions has been, generally, to give a view of the present condition and importance of scientific work and knowledge, or to review recent progress either of science in general or of special departments. The con- dition of science at the beginning has been contrasted with that at the end of the century just past, or the greatest discoveries and most important researches have been passed in review, and the consequences that have followed have been appraised and estimated. The services of the great investigators, whose names adorn the pages of nineteenth century history, have been appreciatively explained, and the debt which humanity owes them has not been for- gotten. The comforts and necessities we now possess, which were unknown a hundred years since, and which we owe to scientific discoveries and their application in prac- tical affairs, have formed the burden of some of these writings. Some of the boldest of this army of authors have ven- tured to prophesy as to the future of science; or they have discussed the problems which next are to be attacked and 22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. solved by scientists, and have in some measure endeavored to foreshadow the manner of their solution. Now, it goes without saying that much good has been accomplished by all this writing and the thought and dis- cussion it has occasioned, and that from it benefits will accrue to us for many years to come. Science workers themselves have been cheered and in- spired by the enormous showing of results that has in this way been presented. The reviews of the difficulties over- come and the success achieved by our predecessors can not fail to strengthen and encourage us; and the essential unity and similarity of all the various and individual lines of research, as it becomes apparent to the thoughtful reader, must have cleared the mental horizon of many a hard working student of nature, who has been perplexed about the outcome of his own efforts. To science men themselves, therefore, have come and are coming the first and most obvious benefits of the pub- lications under consideration, especially in the proof that their efforts are well worth while, on the one hand, and on the other, in that by the aid of the discerning reviews made by the masters in their respective departments, they are enabled to take their bearings and establish their lines of orientation with greater certainty and confidence. Perhaps no less important is the effect upon the mass of the non-scientific public, who have certainly come to see more clearly than ever before the debt which the race owes the indefatigable scientist, and who have thus come to place a higher value upon his work, to sympathize with him, and to assume an attitude of friendliness and become imbued with a desire to aid and comfort and applaud him. The cause of science education has already received an added impetus plainly traceable to this increased popular interest; and this is only the beginning of a movement which it cannot be doubted will be of large proportions and great benefit. Bequests and gifts for the endowment or establishment of schools of all grades and kinds, and of libraries and museums, and for the promotion of research, exploration, and discovery, are multiplying day by day and IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23 surprise us by their munificence and freedom from ham- pering conditions. Governments and parliaments have felt the influence and have made enactments and appro- priations greatly favoring and aiding the advancement of pure science and promoting the extension of the benefits resulting from its practical application to industrial affairs. It is especially pleasant to me to be able to speak my appreciation of the magnificent manner in which Con- gress responded to the appeal for a standardizing bureau, a movement which was set on foot, fostered and pushed by the science men of the country, and to which this academy gave its earnest, and, as it proved, most effective support and aid. This same popular interest in science and science edu- cation has also loosened the purse-strings of many state legislatures and caused them to become more liberal toward their universities and other scientific schools and establishments. Our own law-givers, the men who offi- cially reflect the popular disposition and give formal expression to the popular sentiment in our common- wealth, will honor themselves by dealing with our institu- tions of learning in a manner entirely befitting the dignity and wealth of the state, the standing of her scholars and science men, and the acknowledged eminence of her whole people in respect to intelligence and enterprise. One matter sugo-ested by this mass of writing on science progress, is the relationship and interdependence of the different sciences. This would however, form too vast a subject for a single short paper. A sufficiently ambitious theme for the present occasion may be found in the relation of physics to tlie other branches of natural science, and her position among them, let us say, as a sister and servant. Noticing briefly some of the more salient and obvious points of contact, certain contrasts will doubtless become apparent, but in the main there will be found similarity and substantial identity in aims and methods. Such a study, in which the aims of a large body of workers in a given line, their methods and standards, the 24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. development of principles recognized by them as essential or fundamental, and the practical value of the results achieved by them, are reviewed or scanned, comparisons being made in these respects with the activity of those engaged in other and related departments of study, should result in considerable gain to all concerned. It should bring them together in mutual appreciation, and promote co-operation and sympathy. And if such an inquiry is carried out faithfully and thoroughly, it may be the means of preventing such waste of energy as surely takes place many a time because investigators lack knowledge of fail- ure or success that ha-; attended the employment of this or that method in other helds of work. A conscious and consistent method of attack upon the problems presented in the study of any part or phase of nature's plan and operations, and the presence of a body of formulated principles and laws, which do not deny the regular operations of man's intelligence or the truthful action of his senses, may be taken as criteria by which any department of knowledge may be judged to have established itself as a science, or to have entered upon the beginning of its career as one. Judged on this basis physics certainly is one of the pioneer departments of science, and on this basis none can claim a higher and more honorable antiquity. It appears that the earliest development of science was along physical rather than biological lines. Yet it would seem reasonable to expect that a systematic or exact study of the plants and animals, especially such as were essential to his very existence, would mark the first important step in man's entrance upon the condition known as civilized. This was probably the case; but it seems that this study was not carried beyond the requirements of immediate needs. Perhaps biological study was early tabooed, as too practical, and therefore vulgar. Man early became inter- ested in the things farthest out of his reach; and astronomy perhaps must be considered the first branch of human research, if research is a proper term to apply to the IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 25 astronomy of the ancients. The positions and motions of the heavenly bodies were loni^ observed and a mass of information about them accumuhiteri and handed down. Theories were formulated about them; and plans of the universe were conceived. It was unfortunate that mm began his scientitic studies with astronomy; for he did not see things as the}^ are, and the theories he formed were therefore all wrong. He carried his errors and false theories and unnatural conceptions in astronomy into his early study of terrestrial phenomena. The botany and zoology of antiquity wer^, like ancient astronomy, the results of observation. The habits of animals and the properties of plants were no doubt investigated with patience and accuracy; but as astronomy did not invite men to experimental tests, and as astronomers were per- haps the model and famous scientists of those times, it was perhaps too much to expect that methods independent of theirs should be developed in biological or natural his- tory research. Whatever the cause, biolog}^ did not develop to any such extent as the opportunities for study would seem to warrant us in supposing. Astronomy had moreover the aid of mathematics, which in this science found useful and interesting applications. In physics the conditions were different. It was necessary that man should understand the laws of inamimate nature and be able to trace the connection between cause and effect, that he might be able to subjugate the animal kingdom, and in order to provide food and shelter and make his condition comfortable. As he advanced in his development these same motives led to more systematic and searching study; and mathematics found more obvious application than in biology. Mathematics might reasonably be expected to grow on the material furnished by astronomy and physics, while mathematics would in turn furnish solutions for new problems in the physical branches. Accordingly physics developed first along the lines of optics and mechanics. Without extensive and correct knowledge of physical laws and of the properties of matter, the wonder- 3 I AS 26 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ful achievements of the ancients in the arts and industries would have been impossible. Ancient chemistry was a cult rather than a science. It was a study in which influences of an occult and mysteri- ous kind were invoked. It was largely a supernatural line of inquiry. And it was late before anything like a rational body of principles or laws was formulated. While chemistry or alchemy was the only department of study in which experiment played any important part, the experiments were devised not to exclude unknown and uncontrolled conditions, but rather to include as many unknown factors or agencies as could be brought into play. And experimentation on that basis would do little to promote discoveries. What we know of the science of antiquity has come to us almost wholly from the Greeks. The Romans seem to have let pure science alone. In the middle ages there was of course some progress, but it was slow and tedious. There was no notable change in processes. The more ancient the method the more highly it was prized. But the scientific method of the ancients was character- ized by certain serious shortcomings, which were at least partly responsible for the painfully slow progress made among them. Men were in early times handicapped in a manner now difficult to appreciate, by a lack of most of the ingenious devices and instrumental aids to research which we possess. But if their methods had been right they would have acquired these means as men acquired them later, because modern scientific methods led to the discoveries which made these aids possible. The science of antiquity grew by the often treacherous method of deduction, and by what we may by courtesy call observation. Such was the mental bondage of men at the close of the middle ages, that when observations revealed natural conditions which were at variance with the dicta of earlier authorities, the evidence was disre- garded or discredited as being but deception of the senses, and the phenomena were frequently ascribed to the agency of the evil one. IOWA ACADEIVrY OF SCIENCES. 27 Of course when men would nob believe the evidence of their senses if it contradicted any of the standard author- ities, there could be little scientific observation. And under such a despotic rule of authority experiment would be useless and would be calculated to bring men into trouble. It was when authority was deposed and experi- mental research was enthroned in its place, that modern science had its beginning. Four hundred years ago many men had begun to acknowledge the inadequacy of the old methods ; and the real war of intellectual independence was waged during the century that followed. A long time was spent by men in striving to free themselves from the despotism of the ancient philosophers, which even after the seventeenth century claimed its victims, and sacrifices. The pioneer army of modern science included many illustrious names, but no single leader can be said to have earned greater credit than Galileo. He lived and worked in the most critical period, saw most clearly the inade- quacy of the old methods, ani gave the most striking illus- trations of the new processes. The importance of his experiments and discoveries and the principles he estab- lished and formulated were great enough to entitle him fairly to the name of the father of modern science. Though his brilliant astronomical discoveries made him immedi- ately famous, it is what he did for physics that constitutes his chief claim to greatness and fame. The experimental method, of which Galileo was the first conspicuous exponent, was the agency that gave new life to science progress. By it nature was made to allow the secrets of her processes to be laid bare, by being compelled to repeat them under restrictions and simplified conditions imposed by man. When the unequal weights, dropped from the Leaning Tower, were seen to strike the ground together, the old theory of gravitation was disproved, not because men saw the action of the experiment, but because the conditions were such that they were bound to trust the evidence of their own eyes. The experimental method 28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. aided by matliematics rapidly extended the domain of physics ; and physical methods were adopted in other lines of research. Tlie apparatus and appliances of physics were borrowed and adopted in natural history, astronomy, and chemistry to their great advantage. The knowledge gained of natural laws through laboratory methods led to inventions of new working devices, which in turn further extended man's power of research. Applica- tion of this knowledge to practical affairs followed closely. New branches of science have been created by the ex- tension and application of the new methods of research. Speaking of methods, we must not forget that they are in their general features identical for all the sciences; yet it is to be expected that the individual lines of scientific in- vestigation must to a considerable extent differ among themselves in the minutia? of their modes of work. Indeed, no line of research deserves the name of science until it has worked out methods somewhat distinct and character- istic, and its material aids and implements have begun to assume special and individual modifications. By reason of its catholic and general character, and be- cause it deals particularly with the mon; elementary and salient phenomena and natural laws, physics has necessarily developed methods of the most direct and simple t3^pe; and the devices and appliances of its invention are characterized by the same directness and simplicity; and in general the whole universe of science is indebted to physics for the invention and production of the elementary and essential- mechanisms from which has been constructed its instru- mental equipment. It is certainly true of the early days of modern physics, that the problems attacked and solved, while difficult and formidable enough, were of a peculiarly simple and explicit character. And the genius with which great masters from Galileo to Franklin separated from the essential part of any research all that had none but an apparent connection with the principle to be sought out, fills us with wonder and compels our admiration. Doubtless the tasks of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 20 physicist have gradually assumed greater complexity, and his mechanical aids have become more and more intricate. But the same elementary directness of method, and the same ingenuit}^ in discerning exactly what must be in- cluded in a line of inquiry, and what may be safely left out, have also distinguished the later physicists from Davy to Rowland. The simple and elementary nature of physical research has no doubt also given character to the mental habits of the phj^sicist. Concentration on such simple, definite problems as he deals with has tended to make him pene- trating and critical in judging of the value of the evidence brought to light in research. He has set up for himself standards and adopted criteria as exacting and vigorous as those of the mathematician. If I have been just and fair in drawing this outline sketch of the physicist, his field of work, his habits, meth- ods and standards, it should represent the scientist in whatever department we look for him. It is indeed of the highest importance in any scientific inquiry that the inves- tigator knows the exact scope of his problem, and is dis- criminating and unsparing in weighing the evidence that his search has found, in just the way here made out to be necessary for the physicist. It seems to have been inevitable, however, that physics should have been the first of the material sciences to develop the modern methods of research and to provide modern aids. It was in the search for truth in regard to physical laws especially that men first broke away from the time honored servitude to the authority of the old philosophers, and added experiment to observation and mathematics, as the means of this search, and thus pointed the way for modern scientihc progress in all lines of men- tal activity. From prehistoric antiquity astronomers had patiently observed and handed down their data. Mathematics aided in the solution of the difficult problems that arose and the greatest intellects had formulated theories of the con- struction and mechanism of *the universe. Yet little of 30 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. the truth was actually known. When, however, the meth- ods of the new physics were adopted and the new appli- ances came into use, then the wonderful plan and vastness of material creation began to unfold itself to man. The alliance between astronomy and physics has grown closer, and striking and brilliant discoveries have resulted from it. Out of the physical laboratory have come the instru- mental aids by which the astronomer reaches out into the confines of the infinite heavens. Another study of physical laws and the results of their action on a grand scale and in almost hopeless intricacy and complication, is the physics of the earth, as geology now ha.s come to be named. Eminently a science of very patient "and discriminating observation, comparisons and classification, it was at a late day in the eighteenth cen- tury that it assumed a place as a respectable science. Geology draws with great freedom upon all other sciences for its aid. Physical laboratory methods find no great application, but familiarity with the principles and laws of physics are so much the more necessary here. The great length of time required for the processes he investi- gates, and the complex character of the evidence presented to him, demands of the geologist not only a clear knowl- edge of all forms of force and energy but an especially critical and discerning mental quality. And to attain or heighten this characteristic he needs thorough training in physics. Chemistry is perhaps the nearest of kin to physics, both in respect to subject matter of investigation and in the minute accuracy of its processes. The boundary between their provinces is indefinite, and where physics ends and chemistry begins, it is often impossible to tell. The latter has become the more special and restricted both in methods and in the extent of its field. Chemistry, however, attained to the mental majority of a modern science much later than physics, and did so through the aids furnished by the physicists, and by assimilating their methods and adopting their standards of testing evidence. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31 The material equipment of the chemist is not only exten- sive but very special, yet most of his aids of the more general application were first employed by the physicist or came from his laboratory. Chemistry recognizes its rela- tion to physics with characteristic clearness, and a large department of the science is given the name of chemical physics or physical chemistry. The biological sciences form a group by themselves, and stand prominently contrasted with those so far passed in rapid review. There are, no doubt, great and organic dif- ferences between the biological and the physical sciences. But their general differences are often more purely apparent than real. Classification is generally a distinguishing fea- ture of these, and this is their oldest inheritance, except perhaps, observation, that fundamental and most ancient process in all science study. Classification, which, of course, rests upon well-nigh endless comparison, is a feature more strongly in evidence in some of these branches than others; but it appears to the physicist that this is their distinguish- ing characteristic, as measurement is that of the physical branches. This does not imply that the one group does not employ measurement nor the other classification. It is simply intended to convey the idea of the general feature which is most accentuated in each group. When this is said, the essential difference has perhaps been stated. But these sciences employ more and more of experimentation and measurement, and their great discoveries are worked out in the laboratory; and of some of them this is as true as it is of physics and chemistry. Bacteriology is a laboratory product; and morphological inquiry is prosecuted by the most delicate and searching laboratory means. But without the appliances which the chemist and especi- ally the physicist have developed and elaborated for their own use, the biologists would practically lack the imple- ments of their occupation. Their methods are largely identical with those of the former, but are more restricted and special in any given case. The criteria of evidence are the same as in the physical sciences; but in many cases, 6Z IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. probably because of the nature of the problems involved, the validity of a conclusion is established with greater difficulty and less certainty as to its correctness than in many a physical research, for instance. This is no doubt owing to the greater difficulty in arranging experiments that shall exclude all but a certain number or group of forces and agencies from the action to be observed. This condition calls for ingenuity of the highest order, and demands patience without limit. But this peculiarity of biological research emphasizes the need of frequently recur- ring to the consideration of physical methods of excluding from an experiment all but certain known and definite influences, and of the relentless rigor with which the physicist has been compelled to learn to cast out all evi- dence which can be at all called into question. As the biologist has advanced in the manner and direction here indicated he has penetrated deeper into those elusive unknowns which are of so much interest and concern to us, and which obscure the ever interesting problems in regard to the processes of life and the mechanism of vital actions. The debt which physics owes to the other sciences is un- questionably great, whether regard is had to the material aids in research that have been borrowed by physicists, or whether one considers the problems furnished, or the sug- gestions of methods of work that have come from the discoveries, or even the failures of other investigators. But physics stands in the relation of an elder sister to the other branches. This department of science has enjoyed the privilege of first establishing and defending the methods and criteria which must surely prevail until science shall undergo some radical and now unsuspected change in its essentials. Until such a time arrives, physics will continue to be at once the most severely exact of the sciences and the one among them whose privilege it is to lend and to give in the most unstinted measure both methods and means for their growth and perfection. The object of all devotees of science is the same; truth — the truth in regard to nature, that nature and natural IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 33 system of which we are a small and humble part. A recent writer considers science not as a body of exact knowledge, but a "devotion to truth," the truth that is the object of search, and which is still unknown and undis- covered. The scientist is not a defender or guardian of truth; the truth that has been found and made known needs no defense nor does it require champions. The twentieth century scientist will indeed be devoted to the truth that is, but which he has not yet been able to search out, and which with the strength of his whole soul he strives to reach. Such then is science, a vocation, a devotion of one's self to that which alone is worth while. And the scientist has consecrated himself to this unknown truth. In this con- ception of science, and scientists, there can scarcely be degrees of merit, nor can the searchers after any form or manifestation of truth claim greater merit, than those seeking some other form of it. All are equally noble, and all departments of science must be equally free and generous with their aid to any other branch, to further its object and to cheer its devotees. 34 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. SOME IMPROVED LABORATORY DEVICES AND APPARATUS. VEBLEN. A MODEL TO SHOW THE TRANSMISSION OF A WAVE BY TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS. The base of the model is a plain board 26 by 9 inches. At the rear edge of this is another board 5 inches wide, set on edge, A, Fig. 1. To the upper edge of the latter are hinged 27 metal rods A D, 8 inches long. The front ends of the rods are free to move up and down in vertical slots C, and each carries a white disc D half an inch in diameter, which is soldered at its center to the end of the rod, and at right angles with it. Approximately simple harmonic motion is imparted to these discs, so that they represent the vibrations of the particles of an elastic medium trans- mitting a simple transverse wave motion. The mechan- ism for producing the motions of the discs is the following: A round half-inch steel shaft is mounted in bearings at the ends. Upon this shaft are 27 eccentrics, one of which is shown in Fig. 2. These are loose upon the shaft, except the first one, which is fastened to it. On one side of each eccentric are two short pins, or brads P P, 40 degrees apart, reckon- ing the angle about the axis of the shaft as a center. On the opposite face of the eccentric is a single stop T, bisect- ing the 40 degi'ee angle between the brads, and consisting of a small wire staple driven in so as to protrude the same distance as the brads just mentioned. The eccentrics were made by sawing a two-inch curtain pole into three quarter-inch lengths, and boring half-inch holes for the shaft, S, Fig. 2. Besides the eccentrics the shaft also has upon it a loose wheel with a groove in its periphery, Fig. 3. Fig. 4 gives a side view. Over the wheel and in the groove, passes a string, one end of which is fastened to a IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plat .• ' Figure 1. Model to show tlic transmission of a wave by transverse vibrations. Figure 2. M(Klel illustrating,' the lonnitndinal or sound wave, IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 35 hook in the base of the model. The other end is tied to an elastic band, and this in turn is fastened to another hook in the base. The string being short enough to be under considerable tension from the stretching of the elastic, acts as a brake upon the grooved wheel and allows it to turn only against more or less friction. The eccentrics are separated by washers or rings W, of sufficient thickness to prevent the brads and staples from touching the faces of the eccentrics opposite. On turning the shaft by the crank at one end, the first eccentric, being fast on the shaft, will after turning 20 degrees, or until one of its pins P, engages the stop T, on the second eccentric, cause this to turn with it until it in its turn carries with it the third. Finally the last eccentric will be set revolving, and will carry with it the grooved wheel, against the friction of the string. This brake prevents irregularity in the motion of the last eccentrics on the shaft. The eccentrics now revolve together, but each one is 20 degrees earlier in phase than the one just ahead. As there are 27 of them they assume an arrangement like a screw of long pitch whose thread makes a turn and a half from one end to the other. The rods which carry the 27 discs D, are so spaced that each rests on a corresponding eccentric, and transversely to the shaft. As these revolve, the free ends of the rods, with the discs, describe vertical simple harmonic motions differing in phase by successive intervals of 20 degrees. The effect of these motions is to produce a sinusoidal wave motion of the discs, which may be taken to represent individual, equidistant particles of a medium transmitting a wave by transverse oscillations. The motion may be stopped and started at any instant or made as rapid or as slow as may be washed. The particles may be brought into a straight line, representing the medium at rest, by revers- ing the motion a turn and a half. The model is especially useful in elementary instruction, and represents in a plain way the mechanism of this class of wave motion, without departing seriously from theoretical exactness. Its novelty consists chiefly in the application of the loose eccentrics on a shaft. Any phase difference, and any amplitude, may 36 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. be provided for by varyinj^ the proportions of the parts. It is desirable in practice to include somewhat more than one wave length. This model includes one and a half. The front of the model is painted black so as to set off, with sufficient contrast, the discs, which are white. A MODEL ILLUSTRATING THE LONGITUDINAL OR SOUND WAVE This model is about 13 inches wide by 36 inches long. At its back is a five inch board E, Fig. 5, set on edge and extending nearly the whole length of the model. Driven into the upper edge of this board at intervals of one inch are 27 straight, smooth wires, or small rods, R, two inches long, inclined to the left, say, at about 45 degrees from the vertical. Another 5 inch board M stands on edge about the middle line of the model. To the edge of this board are fastened thin strips, inclined, so as to form 27 slots leaning to the right about 45 degrees. In a third board F standing on edge at the front of the model is a horizontal slot 30 inches long, 5 inches from the base. A small rod or stout wire E I, Fig. 5, bent so as to have an eye or loop E at one end and carrying a half inch disc at the other end I, passes through the horizontal slot in F, and through an inclined slot B, while the loop E encircles an inclined rod K. A light spiral spring G fastened to the side of the board so as to have the same angle of inclination as R, produces gentle tension on the rod against or toward the upper edge of the board. There are 27 rods like EI. It will be seen that if a rod be grasped between E and B and raised, the loop E will swing toward the left as it rises along R while its middle point will move to the right in moving up in the slot B, which leans to the right. I will therefore move toward the right, as viewed from the front. On letting the rod drop, motions in the opposite direction will take place at E and B; and I will move back toward the left. If now a point on the rod between E and B describe simple harmonic motion up and down, I will describe the same kind of motion horizontally. The up and down motion of the 27 rods is produced by a shaft H with 27 eccentrics K under the rods and between the upright boards E and M. The IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plato ii. J^-J- ^-vv J^-^' X s -- =T^ .^= B A L Hai'iiionic inotinii mod IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37 shaft, eccentrics, washers, brake, etc. are exactly like the driving mechanism detailed in the description of the model for the transvers wave motion. The length of the eccen- trics K upon the shaft H is greater in this model than in the other, chiefly because it is desirable to separate the discs I farther than the discs in the former model described. The limit of motion of each eccentric being 20 degrees with respect to the one next to it, the harmonic motions of the discs I will differ by intervals of 20 degrees difference of phase. The model therefore represents a longitudinal or sound wave, and includes a wave length and a half. But the phase differences could be made different by choosing different angles between the pins in the eccen- trics. The degree of compression and rarefaction in the wave will depend on the "throw" of the eccentrics and other proportions of the model. The chief usefulness of this model, as of the other, consists in the simplicity of the mechanism, and the perfect control which the operator has over the motions. The models can be made with very meager shop facilities. Anyone who sets about making them will easily apply improvements in the devices. The contrivance of the loose eccentrics on a shaft is probably susceptible of being adapted to other illustrations of wave motion. A MODEL FOR COMPOUNDING SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTIONS. In teaching the properties of simple harmonic motion it is desirable to show in an elementary manner how two such motions, when compounded, will produce the beauti- ful figures shown by the method of Lissajous. But when the tuning forks are used the actual tracing of curves can- not be watched. The resultant is all that can be shown. In addition to the tuning forks of Lissajous and various contrivances, employing pendulums, the stereopticon, and the like, a contrivance is useful which will trace the figures so slowly that their production may be watched by a whole class, and which may be stopped, and started again at any point to take up the tracing where it was stopped, without spoiling the continuity or regularity of the curve. 88 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A simple and satisfactory model of this kind is here described. On one side of a board KL, Figs. 6 and 7, about 40 by 7 inches, and standing on edge upon a second board which serves as a base, are two pulley cones with four (grooved) steps on each ; and these are so proportioned that when a belt or endless cord 0 passes over correspond- ing pulleys in the two cones their relative angular veloci- ties will be in the ratios 1:1, 3:1, 2:3, or 1:2. Upon the axes of these cones, and revolving with them, but on the other, or front, side of the board KL, are two cranks AC and BD. A connecting rod BEC actuated by one crank, AC, slides horizontally upon the shaft B of the other crank, being slotted at the end B for this purpose. Another rod DC actuated by the crank BD has at one end, G, a sleeve which slides in the long slot EG of the other rod. A pen- cil, at right angles to the upright board, and carried in this sleeve, G, traces the curve upon a sheet held or pinned against the front of the board. To press the pencil against the paper a rubber band may be passed around the outer end of the pencil and the end of the rod at G. With the belt thrown off the pulleys, it may be shown that the crank AC alone produces harmonic motion in a vertical line ; and that the crank DB produces horizontal harmonic motion. And it is plain that the curve traced when both cranks revolve is the resultant of both these motions. If the radii of the pulleys are not exactly in the simple ratios 1 :1, etc., the model is the more instructive as it shows the mechanism of the progressive motion or revolution of the curves produced by tuning forks in the similar case • The fact that the curves are slightly distorted because the right and left motion of G departs from a strictly horizon- tal direction in the upper and lower positions of C does not detract from the usefulness of the model. Tlie longei' the model is in proportion to the lengths of the cranks, the smaller will this distortion become. In Fig. 7, the belt is on the two equal pulleys, or the two motions are in unison. If the belt be in the position shown by the dotted line the model produces the curve of the two IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate iii- Cable switchboard. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate iv. Cable switchboard View of one jack moiintcl in tin s\vjtc'.J,iiar(l, with a i)Ii..u- iiisci-tcd. Ihc front panel is partly cut away. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39 motions differing in frequency by an octave. One variety of this curve is shown in Fig. G. A SIMPLE AND EFFICIENT CABLE SWITCH BOARD. A serviceable, cheap, and easily constructed switch board, which has been in use for several years, has a jack of novel design. These jacks are, in the switch board in question, mounted on a wooden frame. This is proper enough where the circuits terminating in the board are subjected to pressures of only a few volts, as in connecting batteries and apparatus for the ordinary purposes of a physical laboratory. Bat where an indestructible board is required, the jacks in question can readily be mounted on slate or marble. To make the jack, take a common heavy brass hinge three inches wide, and cut it in two like halves along the line AKLB, Fig. 1. Now fold the leaves of one-half together until they are parallel, clamp it in a hand-vise, with a plate of proper'thickness between the edges of the leaves. With a drill three-sixteenths inch in diameter bore the hinge out near the joint, so as to make the channels HK and IL, to receive the round plug of the cable, which is to be used in connecting different jacks in the switch board. Bore the extra hole Gr. The jacks may be mounted upon horizontal bars forming the frame-work of the board. A scre.w is driven through the hole A so as to fasten the jack down to the bar, with the end I nearly flush with its front edge. A round headed screw in G will serve to keep the leaf AH from closing down too closely upon BI, but leave room for the easy insertion of the plug. Another screw through E will also serve to fasten the jack to the bar. The terminal of the circuit coming to this jack may be clamped to the hinge by the same screw. The hinge is now closed by folding the opposite leaf over. A spiral spring of a few turns of spring brass wire is slipped on a rather long screw, which is then driven through the holes F and D, into the wood, until the spiral spring presses the upper leaf of the hinge down firmly. See Fig. 8. The jack is now complete. 40 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. To make the plug, take a brass rod about 3.5 inches long and, say, f inch in diameter. Turn one-half of it down to the size of the drill used in boring out the chan- nels in the jack; point the end neatly. See Fig. 4, 0. Thread the otlier half with a rather coarse screw thread. Also with a drill about one-eighth inch thick bore a hole a half or three-quarters of an inch deep in this end; P, Fig. 4. The end of the cable R is stripped and soldered into the hole P. To make the handle for the cable take a piece of thick walled, hard rubber tubing about two inches long, tap it out to fit the thread upon the plug, finish it neatly, and screw it on the plug into the position Q, Q. The other end of the cable is finished in the same way. It is advantageous to slip the handle Q on the cable before the latter is soldered in to the plug. The cables must, of course, be long enough to reach between the jacks farthest apart in the board. In the board constructed, 100 jacks are arranged in ten rows, and occupy a space about 30 by 40 inches. The front of the board is protected by thin panels, with holes corresponding to the channels in the jacks, and admitting the plugs. When this style of jack is to be used in a fire-proof switch board, the back of the board may be a slate slab to which may be bolted small brackets or right angle pieces of brass, upon which the jacks may be fastened in almost identically the same manner as when wood is used. The bolt, or bolts, by which the brackets are fastened to the slate may serve also to connect the terminals of the cir- cuits to the jacks. The front of such a board may be pro- tected by panels of marble or slate, with holes properly located for the admission of tlie plugs to the jacks. A CAMERA TABLE. By a camera table is here meant a device by which an ordinary camera is conveniently mounted for photography for scientific purposes, such as enlarging or reducing cuts, charts, etc., for lantern slides or for illustrations to be used in the class room, in note books, and the like; or for IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41 photographing small objects, such as pieces of apparatus, and botanical, zoological, and geological specimens. The table proper is 7 feet long by 24 inches wide, and 27 inches high, and is mounted on substantial two-wheeled casters. The framework consists of two pieces, S, Fig. 1, 1 by 5 inches, and 7 feet long, for the sides; four cross pieces, Q, 2 by 5 by 17 inches; and the four legs L, 2 by 3 inches, bolted on near the ends of S, and spreading some- what so as to give greater stability. The top consists of two thin boards of such width as to leave an opening or slot, three-quarters of an inch wide, in the middle and run- ning the whole length of the table. On the outside of the side pieces are two rails, R, one (on the left) being flat, the other having a ridge above. Upon these rails slide the movable parts to be described. The ridged rail at the right serves as a guide. The other rail, being flat, allows the sliding parts to adjust themselves without binding, from unequal expansion of the parts. The cross pieces of the frame are partly cut away under the central slot, as shown at E, so as to allow the clamps attached to the movable parts to move freely in the slot. The stand or pillar, on which the camera K is mounted is fastened to the base U, which can slide sidewise between guides at the front and back as a sub- base V, about 20 by 23 inches. It lies on the cleats W, which rest on the rails R, upon which the whole may slide along the table. The pillar may be firmly clamped to the table by tightening the nut C, which raises the clamping screw that passes through a transverse slot in U, a hole in V and the open- ing in the table top. The screw is attached, below, to the clamp which consists of a piece of wood about 6 inches long and having the cross section shown above E. The pillar itself is adjustable in height. It consists of two parts. The inner part I, being raised or lowered by the large screw D, which passes through the nut N attached to the movable portion I, I. To promote rigidity in this structure it is made triangular in section, and when adjusted to the proper height it may be clamped firmly by the three-way clamping device shown in cross section 4 I AS 42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. through A. See Fig. 2. M, M are the sides of the fixed portion of the pillar. I, I are the sides of the movable parts. The bolts X, X are screwed into a hexagonal ring or collar, and pass through holes in M and vertical slots in I. The clamping screw A is attached to the same collar. Tightening the thumb-nut A clamps I, I firmly against M, M. On the top of this triangular pillar is a device for further adjusting the camera by revolving it about the axis of the lens. This is effected by placing the camera K (see Fig. 1) on a base CB whose curved supports Y (one at each end of the camera base) slide upon a sub-base, fixed on top of the pillar and having end pieces Z curved to receive Y. Cleats on Z prevent Y from displacement forward and backward. The center of curvature of Z and Y is in the axis of the lens. When tlit adjustment of the camera about its axis has been made, the base CB is clamped by the screw H, which engages a slotted plate of metal of the same curvature as Y. The object to be photographed is mounted on the rack or holder shown in Fig. 3. It consists of two uprights F standing on a base 20 by 33 inches which rests upon the rails R, and slides on them the same way as the camera stand already described. If a drawing is to be copied, it is pinned on a board 22 by 20 inches which rests in grooves in the uprights F and is held up by the support P which can be clamped at any height by the clamping device BO. The construction of this clamp is shown in cross section in Fig. 4. The rod BO, by pressure of the thumb nut B causes the hinged plates at the ends to grasp the uprights FF on the outside. The top of the support forms a shelf OJJ on which small objects may be placed while being photographed. The board P, which forms part of the adjustable support, slides up and down in the grooves J of the uprights. This whole rack or holder may be clamped to the table by the clamp G, which slides with it in the longitudinal slot. Besides being a clamp this contrivance, when the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate V. Oam»Ta table. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate vi. Camera tabic 1 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. J /'^•'^ Plate vL T'^lt V, F O Camera. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43 nut G is released, serves to enable the operator to move the object holder along the table, by means of a rod E lying under the slot. This clamp, like the one at C, Fig. 1, consists of a piece of wood about six or eight inches long. It has a cross section somewhat resembling an inverted capital T, as shown just above E, Fig. 3. The tongue projecting up into the slot keeps the clamp in alignment. The screw or bolt G passes through the body of the clamp and up through a hole in the base of the object holder. And when the latter is to be clamped fast the nut is simply tightened down. During the process of adjustment the nut is kept loosened so that the clamp may slide freely in and under the slot. The rod E by which the operator moves the clamp, and with it the object holder, is oblong in cross section. It lies under the slot in the table top and reaches the whole length of the table. Screwed to the under side of the body of the clamp is a loop of plate brass; and in Fig. 3 the rod E lies, thrust loosely through this loop. If it be now twisted some 40 degrees it will bind in the brass loop and so engage the clamp. The latter, with the object holder, can then be drawn back or thrust forward at the will of the operator. The rod may be disengaged from the clamp by a turn of the hand, and may be left, pushed in under the table, out of the way, when the adjustments are finished. By the arrangements here described all adjustments of the camera and object may be made without removing one's head from under the focusing cloth. Any one who has used a camera for the purposes mentioned here knows that all the adjustments of this apparatus are desirable. First, the object to be photographea is placed approxi- mately in the right position on the object holder. The exact vertical and horizontal adjustments are next made; and finall}^ any fault in the orientation of the image on the ground glass is corrected by revolving the camera about the axis of the lens. When the image is of the right magnitude and in proper position the movable parts are fastened in their positions by the clamping screws or nuts. 44 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A STUDY IN THE HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION OF FINGER PATTERNS. BY A. A. VEBLEN. By finger patterns is meant figures formed by the minute papillary ridges upon the inside surface of the last joint of the thumb and fingers. They are most conveniently studied by inking the fingers with printer's ink and making impressions on paper or any smooth light surface to which the ink w411 adhere. Sir Francis Galton in his work "Finger Prints" and other publications, treats the subject of these patterns exhaustively and scientifically. The patterns are of practically infinite variety. They are also persistent and unchanging through the life of the individ- ual, and are destroyed or obliterated only by violent and deep injuries to the fingers. Finger prints therefore con- stitute a certain and convenient means of personal identi- fication. Though the patterns differ so much on different fingers, they may be classified under three general types, called the arch, the loop, and whorl. In the arch the lines or ridges run in a more or less regular transverse arrange- ment across the finger tip. In the loop the characteristic portion of the pattern is enclosed in a gulf-like or bay-like arrangement of ridges. The bay may open toward the thumb or the little finger side of the hand, or to the radial or the ulnar side. In the present discussion we shall use the terms as Galton uses them, calling these loops ulnar or radial according to the side toward which they open. When the ridges in the characteristic portion of the pattern assume a spiral or circular, or twisted arrangement, they are said to form a whorl. In a very few patterns the arrangement of lines is so irregular or anomalous as to make it difficult to decide as to their classification; but such cases are much rarer than might be expected. Arch. Loop. Figure I. Finger patterns. Whor 4 i IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45 It is found that 6.5 per cent of all patterns are arches; 26 per cent are whorls; and 67.5 ^per cent are loops. A combination of symbols or letters denoting the class of pattern on each of the digits of an individual is called the formula of his prints. The letters used are a, 1, w, for arch, loop, and whorl; and u and r are used to indicate ulnar and radial loops, particularly on the index fingers. A very large number of such formulas is possible. Some of them are much more frequent than others. Galton devotes a chapter to the question of heredity in finger prints. He finds a "decided tendency to hereditary transmission"; and his investigations point to a preponder- ance of maternal over paternal influence. One method pursued by him is to note the frequency of the occurence of patterns of the same class upon the same finger of the hands of parents and their children. By a process diifering somewhat from Galton's method, I have found what seems a clear case of hereditary in- fluence on finger patterns. The case is thal^ of the family of Mr. and Mrs. A, as we will call them here. I have their finger prints and those of their eight living children and thirty of their grandchildren, as well as of the husbands and wives of the children, and of a few other relatives. Mr. A has loops on all ten digits, all opening to the ulnar side. His formula would be nil nil 11 11; which by the way is one of the most common formulas to be found. The patterns are small and very regular. Mrs. A has seven whorls and three loops, all large patterns. One son has nine loops and one whorl. The three other sons and the four daughters all have the same formulas as the father; or ihey have nothing but loops. Their patterns are very regular, but generally larger than those of the father. One of the daughters, I, whose husband has 7 whorls and 3 loops, has five children who have altogether 12 whorls and 38 loops; or 76 per cent of all their prints are loops. One son, N, whose wife has 6 w^horls and four loops, has eight children whose prints show 3 arches, 16 whorls and 61 loops, 76.25 per cent of their patterns are therefore 46 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. loops. A daughter, M, has six children with 2, 11 and 47 arches, whorls and loops respectively; or 78.3 per cent of loops. The father of these children has 1 arch, 3 whorls and 6 loops. He is the brother of^N's wife; and I have the prints of the fingers of two of their sisters. These four members of that family have 62.5 per cent of loops, which is slightly less than the average number of loops among all prints. These four have 2 arches, 13 whorls and 25 loops. They do not show any decided family tendency to depart from the normal distribution of prints. Another daughter, B, of Mr. and Mrs. A, has eight children who have 11 arches, 2 whorls and 67 loops. 83.75 percent of their patterns are loops. B's husband also has 10 loops. H, the fourth daughter of the A's has three children, two of whom have 2 whorls and 8 loops each; but the third has 9 whorls and only 1 loop. The percentage of loops among these children is therefore only 57 which is lower than that of any of the other groups of grandchildren. The father of these three children has 2 whorls and 8 loops. The thirty grandchildren have 16 arches, 54 w^horls and 230 loops; 76.7 per cent of their prints are loops; which is an excess of 9.2 per cent over the normal. They are quite deficient in arches, except in the cases of two individuals, and they are somewhat deficient in whorls. Arches occur but rarely in most of the families into which the children of the A's have married. Mr. A has a brother who has 9 loops and 1 pattern wdiich may be called a loop with a very small whorl within it. A half brother of Mrs. A had 10 loops. He was married to a sister of the wife of N and of the husband of M, she having 1 arch, 1 whorl and 8 loops. Prints from five of their children reveal 1 arch, 1 whorl and 48 loops, or 96 per cent of loops. The number of radial loops is noticeably small in the children and grandchildren of the A's; except the children of B, whose husband has radial loops on his index fingers. Among their eight children are 4 radial loops on index fingers. i IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47 There is information at hand which points to an excess of loops in the families of both Mr. and Mrs. A. But rely- ing simply on the records contained in the prints from the persons here mentioned, there seems to be good reason to conclude that there is a decided tendency to hereditary transmission of the type or general class of patterns. This is further supported by resemblances in the lesser char- acteristics of the patterns studied, such as their general regularity, the fineness of lines, slope and size of the loops, the sub-class of whorls where they occur, and the general symmetry of the prints. When these are considered it appears fairly certain that a decided family likeness in finger patterns is transmitted to the children and the grandchildren. FACTORS OF EXTINCTION. BY HEEBERT OSBORN. While w^e have come to recognize clearly the fact of extinction of animal types and their replacement by other forms of life there appears to have been less attention to the special factors concerned in such extinction, or, to put it differently we have been devoting our attention espe- cially to the factors concerned in the production of new types, the variation and evolution of animals, rather than the factors of extinction. It is true that these may bear a close relationship and present mutual dependencies and pos- sibly we might take them as necessary corollaries or consider factors of extinction as merely negative factors of evolu- tion, but it seems to me worth while to attempt a distinct formulation of those factors especially concerned in the elimination of life forms even if for no other purpose than to emphasize those factors of progressive evolution against which they contrast. In the first place there is a certain kind of elimiuation which can hardly be called extinction in the proper sense. I refer to the progressive evolution by which a particular 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. form is evolved into a more highly organized or special- ized one. In the course of time the species, possibly the genus, has become entirely replaced by the more modern type, but to say that the earlier forms have become extinct is merely to recognize their gradual transmutation into the later form. If representatives of the older type persist and are finally pushed to the wall by the newer one we must still recognize that there is a chain in the direct line of descent for the newer type in which extinction is not the proper or at least the most significant term. Eohippus, Orohippus, Mesohippus, Protohippus must be looked upon as links in an ancestral chain individually extinct but represented in the modern horse; that is, a persistent type. The Ammonites on the other hand furnish an example of an extinct type. "Extinction" in the one case is certainly a very different thing from what it is in the other. The former is evolution not extermination or elimination of the type. Direct evolution is perhaps the prime factor in the dropping behind of particular forms of animal life, extinc- ion as we have been accustomed to call it. Of factors causing total elimination of a form or type of life we may note first; changes in the physical environ- ment as these are perhaps the more certain and wide- spread in effect. It should be noted of course that certain forms may respond to such changes and by rapid evolu- tion adapt themselves to the change when they would fall into the preceding category, but there have been un- doubted cases where over an extensive area the changes have been so radical and rapid as to obliterate a certain kind of fauna. For example the obliteration of cretaceous seas of cen- tral North America, the present plains region of the west, was accompanied by the extinction of a host of marine forms which seem neither to have escaped to other parts of the ocean or to have evolved into any other form fitted for terrestrial or fresh water existence. Striking among these are the Baculites, Ammonites and other Tetrabranch Cephalopods; also a large contingent of marine saurians. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49 It is perhaps unsafe to assert that other factors may not have come in as the immediate agents in extermination when the animals had reached a state of decadence due to unfavorable environment, but so far as we can see the con- tinuance of cretaceous conditions would have permitted the survival of some at least of its characteristic fauna. While the change in this instance was one of elevation of land surface and obliteration of ocean we can suppose similar destruction of land fauna by the submergence of land areas. In fact we have pretty strong evidence for particular cases of extinction during quaternary times as a result of extensive submergences. Even in marine life depression if taking place more rapidly than adaptation can follow must result in extermination. Corals limited to certain depths are killed by submergences to lower depths and for species limited to certain areas extinction of the species would result. Encroachments of seas upon the land or land upon the seas may each result in destruction of life, possibly the extinction of species though usually such changes are too slow to result in complete extermination. They result rather in migration or variation. Advance of polar ice cap and its subsequent retreat has very probably resulted in some extinctions particularly among animals of fixed habit. Changes of climate from humid to desert or hot to cold in any area if occuring rapidly would certainly influence the fauna and possibly result in extinction. Competition among related forms or among forms requir- ing similar conditions has perhaps been most commonly recognized as a factor in extinction. The "survival of the fittest" is here most strikingly illustrated and observation on existing forms leads to more ready appreciation of its force. Closely related species struggle for mastery in a limited area and one of them is crowded out, or, species in widely separated groups may be thrown into competition in a particular region and one or the other must give way. The Indian gives way to his white competitor, the wild 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. animals inimical to man are driven out and operations of similar nature doubtless occurred among lower forms before man appeared upon the earth. Such com petition may have arisen between forms indigen- ous to a particular region but is evidently most striking when species of different faunae are brought into contact as when from migration a species is introduced to a new locality. European butterflies, sparrows, and other forms including man brought to America by design or accident, are prone to supplant the native species. Such migrations and consequent competitions we can safely assume to have occurred in prehistoric as well as in historic times and that species have been exterminated thereby we can scarcely doubt. The opening of some barrier permitting the projection of one fauna upon another would intensify such action producing for a number of forms the conditions that ordinarily occur accidentally. Thus the establishment of land connection between Europe and America permitting migrations of whole faunas and their intermingling has resulted in intense competition. Asiatic and African faunas have probabl}?^ been projected upon European and rapid evolution of European types is thus explained. Lack of such connection and competition may account in part for the conservatism of the Australian fauna. Quite different from these it appears to me is the extinc- tion which follows some extreme specialization which has fitted the animal to some very limited sphere of existence. For example, parasitic animals have acquired such a dependence upon a host form that extinction without this host is inevitable. Extermination of the Great Auk doubtless carried with it extermination of the parasites peculiar to that species. Further, the parasites dependent on two or more hosts must be exterminated by the destruction of one of such hosts. The liver fluke is doomed to extinction whenever one of its necessary hosts is wanting or even whenever the nec- essary association on common ground of its essential hosts becomes impossible. What occurs locally would be gen- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51 eral and the species would be totally exterminated if such separation could be made to cover all points where the species occurs. Other cases of extreme specialization are to be found among those forms that have adapted themselves to desert conditions and which can hardly be conceived as having the possibility of survival if forced back into humid con- ditions with competition with forms of life of more gen- eral character. The cave animals cannot survive under ordinary conditions of light and outer air. Subterranean animals must have their peculiar environment or perish and deep sea animals are totally inadequate to the more general conditions prevailing at shore line or in the shal- low reaches of the sea. Some of our domestic animals are practically dependent on man, some species of flies depend solely on their resemblance to certain bees to get entrance to nests and stores of food, while certain ants which have adopted slaveholding are said to be entirely unable to carry on the ordinary duties of the colony but are dependent upon their slaves for their very existence. So, too, some species of insects are dependent on a particular food plant and will perish without it. Specialization in such cases means a kind of limitation and total unfitness for existence outside of certain condi- tions and hence extinction if those conditions fail. Pos- sibly we might call this a form of change in environment but it must certainly rank as a special form of environ- mental change. This differs essentially in the fact that such forms have in a certain way selected the route along which they have traveled and thus foredoomed themselves to extinction. In every case we must assume that such extremely special- ized forms have been derived from more normal or gener- alized forms; parasitic from free forms; desert forms from those occurring in more humid regions; cave forms from those occurring above ground; deep sea from surface or shallow water species, and so on, and that the occupation of the particular niche in nature has been one of selection 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. on the part of the animal or rather of some members of its ancestral line. Finally there is the form of elimination which occurs apparently as the termination of a long course of gradual decadence or senility and in which distinct elements of destruction are difficult to discover. A process which we may designate as exhaustion. It may be compared perhaps to that running out or deterioration which cultivators recognize in a variety or race that has been kept through a long course of generations. Such exhaustion appears to occur in certain protozoans as paramoecium after a period of fission and which seems to be counteracted by the process of conjugation. Upon such a basis as this we may account for the disappearance of certain types of animal life which so far as we can see have not been forced out by the other factors. Or it might be looked upon as a protoplasmic exhaustion which rendered the type suscep- tible to the action of other factors or a combination of factors no one of which could be counted as predominant. To summarize these factors then we may recognize: First. — That extinction which comes from modification or progressive evolution; a relegation to the past as a result of the transmutation into more advanced forms. tiecond. — Extinction from changes of physical environ- ment which outrun the powers of adaptation. Tkird. — The extinction which results from competition. Fourth.- — The extinction from extreme specialization and limitation to special conditions the loss of which means extinction. Fifth. — ^Extinction as a result of exhaustion. I realize that these groups do not represent a classifica- tion based on hard and fast lines and such groups are seldom found in nature but it seems to me that they indi- cate in a tentative way what may be recognized as a number of quite different processes by which organic groups may suffer disappearance. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53 FORESTRY IN IOWA. BY B. SHIMEK. A paper on forestry in Iowa might be condensed in the form of a paraphrase of the schoolboy's essay on "Snakes in Ireland," — "there is no forestry in Iowa," — at least none in practice, though the need of the practical application of its principles may be seen in every township of land in the state. Fifteen or twenty years ago the total forest area of low^a probably exceeded the area covered by the original native groves which sheltered the first settlers who saw in them the only hope of future happy homes. The restriction of prairie fires, the removal of the larger trees and the general artificial improvement of the conditions under which plants grow, all tended to extend the native groves beyond their original bounds, and it appeared for a time as if a large part of the state might ultimately be clothed with forest growth. But the population of the state, and the value of its lands, increased at a remarkable rate, for the experi- ment of the settlers who first ventured out upon the prairies and who reaped rich harvests in return, proved eminently successful. Iowa lands were rapidly taken up, and there was a revul- sion of sentiment against the timber and in favor of the prairie. Even the hilliest, poorest land was regarded as more valuable for agricultural purposes and pasture than for timber, and the groves rapidly disappeared, and are still disappearing, in many sections, to be replaced by poor pastures or still poorer farms, wdiile comparatively less effort has been made to extend the artificial groves on the prairies. The temptation to destroy the original groves was increased by the fact that, while the legislature made 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. provision for encouraging the planting of trees on the prairies, nothing was done to tempt land owners to pre- serve the native groves upon their lands. To add to the destruction a succession of dry seasons drained the wet lowlands which had formerly been used for pastures, and they became the richest farming lands. The cattle w^ere turned into the groves, to which their presence proved fatal even where the owners did not assist in the process of clearing. The original groves were for the most part upon the slopes adjacent to streams. When they were cleared away the leaf mould and fine soil, and even much of the harder subsoil, were washed from the exposed sur- faces into the streams. The trees no longer conserved moisture and the springs disappeared; the rains swept the bare hillsides, the waters rapidly descending into the flooded streams during every rain storm or thaw", and the streams were choked up with the materials carried from the storm-swept barren slopes. Splendid groves have thus been replaced by worthless farms from which even the mortgage cannot be raised. That this is not the creation of idle fancy is known to every one who has lived and observed in the eastern and southern portions of the state during the past twenty -five or thirty years. Abundant examples may be found along the Iowa river above Iowa City, and along every larger stream in the state. In the meantime the settlers on the prairies realized to some extent that that which had been regarded as an obstacle was in reality a blessing. They missed the shade, the companionship and the protection of the trees which in their eastern homes they had regarded as obstructions. They planted groves for windbreaks, gave some attention to improved methods of tree culture and persuaded the legislature to enact laws encouraging the planting of trees. Everywhere in the prairie portions of the state more or less interest was manifested in the cultivation of forest trees. Many of the first efforts were wholly or in part unsuccessful. It soon became apparent that many of the methods of tree culture practiced in the east failed in IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55 Iowa, and evil prophets declared that these failures were sufficient evidence that the causes which left the original prairies treeless would operate to keep them so notwith- standing the efforts of man to the contrary. Experience has since shown that trees may be successfully grown in any part of our state, but this is sometimes accomplished at such great comparative cost, and the results are some- times so uncertain, that there are still those who think that tree planting, excepting on a very small scale, cannot be successfully undertaken in this state. This raises again a question of profound interest to our people. Not only the material interests of the state, but in a large measure the health and happiness of its citizens, are at stake. If it is true that it is not worth while to try to grow trees in Iowa, then some of our citizens are wasting money, time and energy in the attempt, and the effort to build up pleasant, well-protected, healthful homes in a large part of the state must result in disappoint- ment and disaster. If, on the other hand, trees may be successfully grow^n in our state, — if it can be shown that the obstacles to success in that direction can be overcome, — then, as citizens of the state, we are not doing our duty if we fail to attempt to awaken public conscience to a reali- zation of the fact that we are guilty of a crime against posterity when we permit the splendid opportunities which are now within easy reach to slip by unnoticed and unused. Forests are not made in a day. Whatsoever we do in this direction is largely for posterity's sake, though we our- selves may reap some of the fruits of our labor. There is, however, no warrant, either in the results of scientific research or in the practical experience of tree- growers, for the statement that trees cannot be successfully grown in this state. We are on the border-line between the comparatively moist east and the dry west. The con- ditions favorable to the growth of forests are not at their best here, it is true, — neither are they at their worst. The treeless condition of a large part of the state was no doubt due to a combination of causes.* ♦See writer's discussion of this subject in Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. , Vol. VII, pp. 47 ct scq. 56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Not one of these causes was of itself sufficient to produce our treeles prairies, and not one of them is entirely proof against the influence of man. Prairie fires have long since ceased to be a serious menace ; the evil effects of lack of moisture are in part overcome by modern methods of sur- face cultivation, and will grow less as the forest area is in- creased; extremes of temperature lose much of their terror if mulching is practiced; the force of winds is broken by groves and tree-borders, and by judicious attention to topography; and soils may be improved by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers. If the tree-grower gives heed to all this, and if he takes further precautions by selecting hardy native or acclimated stock, preferably very small or grown from the seed in order that the roots may not be disturbed, and pro- tects his trees against cattle and other domestic and native animals, he will have success. However, all this requires intelligent care, time and patience, and naturally suggests the question: "Does it pay?" It is safe to say that as a money making investment which will bring early returns it is not a success.* The writer believes that as an investment for one's children it does pay, but few people think far enough in advance, or can afford to let a part of their capital lie idle during their own lives for that purpose. There are, how- ever, immediate returns which the tree planter himself lives to enjoy. Trees add to the beauty of our surround- ings. Nothing can equal the charm of those native groves which formed, and in limited areas still form, natural parks, and nothing has so overcome the appalling monotony of our prairies as the groves set out by men yet living. But other immediate benefits result from growing trees whether in artificial or native groves. They act as wind- breaks against both the cold blasts of winter and the leveling storms of summer, and thousands of homes in Iowa are made habitable only by their presence. They serve to equalize temperature, as groves and their imme- *For illustration sec paper by Elmer Reeves, read before the Iowa Park and Forestry association in December, 1901, and published in its first proceedings. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57 diate vicinities are uniformly cooler in summer and warmer in winter.* They conserve the moisture of the soil. The fine leaf- mould which naturally accumulates in groves forms a sponge which greedily takes up the water which falls as rain or snow, and this is later given off by springs. Rapid evaporation is prevented, but instead the trees pump up water from the more thoroughly saturated soil and throw it off gradually into the air through the leaves, thus sup- plying moisture for the local summer showers which are the salvation of our crops. Forests cannot be classed with the general causes which determine the precipitation of abundant rains in the spring and fall, but their effect upon local showers is consistent with scientific observa- tions upon the physiological activity of trees and green plants in general, and cannot be successfully questioned. It is absurd to state that growing crops replace groves in all the good work accomplished in the direction of conserving moisture. Crops are left upon the ground during only a portion of the season. Moreover, they appear so late in the season that they cannot aid in the retention of that moisture which results from melting snow, or which is precipitated in the early rains. Crops canoot therefore, conserve moisture to the same extent, though in kind their work is like that of aW green plants. Forests prevent erosion. In the roughest timbered country even the lightest leaf-mould on the steepest slopes is practically undisturbed by torrents of rain, and the waters which are drained from such surfaces are clear, since they carry but little eroded material. As quickly as the forest is cleared the spongy surface soil is washed away, and even the harder sub-soils are washed out. The result is noticeable along all of our larger streams which have been deprived in large part of- their bordering native groves. The material which is being washed from the exposed slopes is choking up our streams, and sandbars and mudbars are rapidly increasing. •For results and data of observations on effect of forests on temperature and moisture, see Forest Influences, Bulletin No. 7, Forestry Div. , U S. Dept. of Agr. , 1893; and 11th Ann. Rep. Agr. Ex. Sta., Univ. of Wis. , pp. 292-326, 1895. 5IAS 58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The beneficent iniluence of groves upon winds, tempera- ture, moisture and erosion are felt not alone by him who plants or protects trees — they are shared by the entire community. In view of this fact, and in view of the fact that as an immediate money-making investment tree- planting does not pay, some encouragement ought to be given by the state to those who use their lands and money for the preservation and propagation of trees. Laws, of course, will not make trees grow, neither will they teach men how to give intelligent care to them. But laws can be so framed that men will be encouraged to undertake the work of increasing our forest areas without being fined by a tax for efforts which are bringing benefits to the entire community without corresponding adequate material returns to those who are making them. Our state is at present wholly without forestry laws. The old law, which has been on the statute books for about a quarter of a century, was omitted by the last code commission, one of the commissioners objecting to it because of the frauds which were practiced under it. Amendment and not repeal should have been the remedy. Experience proved that this old law was weak in many respects. No restrictions were placed on the kinds of trees to be planted, with the result that perhaps 90 per cent of the trees planted in the prairie sections of the state were undesirable cottonwoods, box elders, soft maples and willows. The law did not sufficiently define the care that should be taken of the trees, and the result was a widespread neglect of the groves. It provided an exemption of $100 per acre for ten years for forest trees, and $50 per acre for five years for fruit trees. No encouragement was offered for the protection of the forest trees after the ten years had passed, with the result that in many places the old groves were cut away and new ones were set out. The law should have provided not only for the planting of new groves, but for the care and pro- tection of old artificial and native groves. The exemption was sufficiently large to tempt some men owning unim- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59 proved prairie lands to perpetrate fraud. This could have been avoided by proper restrictions. Notwithstanding its defects, however, the law was a blessing to the prairie sections of the state. Thousands of acres of artificial groves which owe their existence to this law, have com- pletely changed the prairie landscapes of Iowa, and the results amply justified the existence of the law notwith- standing the occasional frauds. It is, however, high time that the comparatively worthless trees of most of these groves be replaced by trees whose ultimate value is much greater, and that steps be also taken to restore at least in part the original forests of the state. It cannot be expected that very much of the land whose value reaches $100 per acre will be used for forestry purposes, but there is much land, probably 15 per cent of the total area, in this state which is worthless for agricultural purposes but will grow trees, and this should be used for that purpose, It is not, however, to be expected, for the reasons herein enumerated, that much of this poorer land will be so used unless some substantial recognition is given to the owners, — such as release from the burdens of taxation. The Iowa Park and Forestry Association has recently approved a bi.l which will be submitted to the Twenty- ninth General Assembly which seems to meet the objec- tions made to the old law, and it is here presented for approval. It is believed that this is at least a step in the right direction, and should be encouraged. For an act to encourage the planting of forest and fruit trees in the state of Iowa . Section 1 . Be it enacted by the Twenty-niuth General Assembly of the State of Iowa: That on any tract of land in the state of Iowa the owner or owners may select a permanent forest reservation not less than two acres in continuous area, or a fruit tree reservation not less than one nor more than five acres in area, or both, and that upon compliance with the provisions of this act such owner or owners shall be eniitled to the benefits hereinafter set forth. Sec. 2. A forest reservation shall contain i:ot less than two hundred growing forest trees on each acre. If the area selected is an original forest containing the required number of growing forest trees, it shall be accepted 60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. as a forest reservation under the provisions of this act. If the area selected is an original forest containing less than two hundred forest trees to the acre, or if it is an artificial grove the owner or owners thereof shall have planted, cultivated and otherwise properly cared for the number of forest trees necessary to bring the total number of growing trees 'o not less than two hundred on each acre, during a period of not less than two ^ears, before it can be accepted as a forest reservation within the meaning of this act. Sec. 3. Not more than one-fifth of the total number of trees in any forest reservation maj^ be removed in any one year, excepting in cases wh.re the trees die naturally. Sec. 4. The ash, black cherry, black walnut, butternut, catalpa, coffee tree, the elms, hackberry, the hickories, honey locust, locust, mul- berry, the oaks, sugar maple, European larch and other coniferous trees, and all other forest trees introduced into the state for experimental purposes, shall be considered forest trees within the meaning of this act. In forest reservations which are artificial groves, the willows, box elder, soft maple, Cottonwood and other poplars, shall be included among forest trees for the purpose of this act when they are used as protecting bordeis not exceeding two rows in width around a forest reservation, or when they are used as nurse trees for forest trees in such forest reservation , the number of such nurse trees not to exceed one hundred on each acre. Sec. 5. The trees of a forest reservation shall be in groves not less than four rods wide. Sec. 6. A fruit tree reservation shall contain not less than ninety fruit trees on each acre, growing under proper care, and may be claimed as such for a period of five years after planting. Sec. 7. The cultivated varieties of apples, crabs, plums, cherries, peaches and pears shall be considered fruit trees within the meaning of this act Sec. 8. Whenever any tree or trees on a fruit tree or forest reservation shall be removed or die, the owner or owners of such reservation shall, within one year, plant and care for other fruit or forest trees, in order that the number of such trees may not fall below that required by this ac*-. Sec. 9. Cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats and hogs shall not be per- mitted to pasture upon a fruit tree or forest reservation. Sec. 10. Forest reservations fulfilling the conditions of this act shall be assessed on a taxable va uation of one dollar per acre. Fruit tree reservations shall bt assessed on a taxable valuation of one dollar per acre for a period of five years from the time of planting • In all other cases where trees are planted upon any tract of land, without regard to area, for shade or ornamental purposes, or for windbreaks, the assessor shall not increase the valuation of such property because of such improvements. Sec. II. If the owner or owners of a fruit or "orest reservation violate a y provision of this act within the two years preceding he making of an assess- ment, the assessor shall not list any tract belonging to sucn owner or owners as such reservation for the ensuing two years. Sec 12. It shall be the duty of the assessor to secure the facts relative to fruit and forest reservations by taking the swora.'Jitatement, or affirmation, of the owner or owners making application under this act. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 61 Sec. 13. It shall be the duty of the county auditor in every county to keep a record of all forest and fruit tree reservations within his county. Sec. 14. The secretary of the Iowa State Horticultural Society shall be state forestry commissioner, without salary. It shall be his duty to promote the objects of this act, and he shall have power to appoint deputies without salary for each county, or group of counties, who shall assist him, and who shall make an annual report to him of forestry matters and of the operations of this act, within their respective territories. (Note. — This bill was subsequently passed by the House, and was favorably reported by the Senate commiltee on horticulture, but did not receive a constitutional majority in the Senate. ) ANALYSES OF CERTAIN CLAYS USED FOR MAKING PAVING BRICK FOR CEDAR RAPIDS. BY C. 0. BATES. The following analyses were made several years ago for Mr. E. P. Boynton, the city engineer of Cedar Rapids. The clays were taken from four companies in Des Moines; each having their plant in a different part of that city. CO '2 16. &3 8.64 27.38 6.60 20.04 7.80 25. 65 5.88 10.25 3.24 88.45 5.28 24. 27 11.28 20. 28 3.24 20. 25 6.72 21.00 5.76 22.50 7.92 25. 92 8.76 15.18 7.32 21.63 9.00 19.20 7.68 20.43 .5.88 24. 52 5.28 11.94 5.40 14.46 8.52 21.33 10. 56 15.68 7.44 17.68 5 64 21. 45 8.40 27. 25 11. ,54 21. 32 .5.88 17.64 7.68 20.73 6.72 ^ d ^ a tc 5 d S "^ w PO tn ys feW C -^s "^ sp 03 1^0 t^.^i S H a s o C-0 .. C— 1 .. C-2... C— 3... C-4 . C— 5 .. C— 6... I— 1.... 1-2 . 1-3.... 1-4.... 1-5.... 1—6.... I-6J^. I — I . . 1-8. .., D— 1... D— 2... D-3 .. D— 4... D— 5... D-6 .. D-7.., D-8... F-1... F— 2... F— 3... F— 4 . F-5 .. F— 6... F— 7... .55. 25 53. 08 61.18 (j8.60 65. 62 51. 35 .58. 42 55.98 81.79 (58.50 52. 88 66.73 64.60 64.82 57.25 .53. 05 70.29 .59. 18 64.60 64.41 63 23 76.01 67.76 .55. 56 70.23 69.89 58.92 -50.38 62. 70 64.31 64.03 1.75 .94 .51 .25 .42 1.45 1.68 .74 ..52 1.19 .,52 .70 1.20 .42 .90 1.00 .80 1.06 1.02 .34 .32 1.57 1.16 1.59 .47 1.05 .16 1.12 1.49 1.79 8 27 1.84 1.19 3.29 1.92 1.96 1.27 .(58 .74 1.80 2.00 1.66 .60 2.62 2.34 2.81 2.67 1.56 2. 39 1.8-! 1.95 3.72 .57 1.75 .58 1.42 1 27 .88 2.03 1.92 3.46 .90 1.4(5 1.70 1. 02 1.33 1.14 2.48 2 11 .a'i 2.28 1.41 3. 88 2.73 1.29 2.70 1.72 1.49 1.02 1.85 1.52 1. 95 1.37 1.25 .92 1.71 1.90 1 27 .9i) 1.16 1.75 1.04 1.80 .65 2. 36 1.24 .67 2.94 2.38 .97 1.50 1.26 1..50 1.68 1.15 .85 2.90 2.49 .57 2.93 1.65 1.45 1.77 1.15 2. 12 2.40 1.15 .42 2.57 1.30 .42 5.07 5.73 5.01 2.80 4.10 5.42 5.40 3.73 1.27 2.82 3.28 4.92 3.74 3.10 3.02 4.40 2.18 3.80 3.95 3. 93 2.55 1.41 3. .53 4.65 1.82 1.97 4.13 3.62 4.90 5.47 3.50 99.74 100.00 9t). 42 99. 92 99.87 99.97 99.96 i>9. 53 99. 97 99. 81 99. 64 9i).93 100.00 100. 02 99.76 99.85 100.00 99. 99 100.01 99.77 99.80 99.82 99.70 99.98 Oft. 90 99.91 99. 84 99. 78 100.09 99.93 99.60 62 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, (1.) Capital City Brick and Tile Works. This plant is located south of the city. Seven samples were taken which were representative of the principal layers. The following is a description of each, beginning at the top: Thickness in fi'et. C — 0. Clear, medium light drab with slight seams of rust, mastic, very slightly gritty 7 C — 1. Shale, mottled and streaked maroon to sea green, greenish and purplish brown, rust in seams.... 4J^ C — 2. Shale, medium dark bluish drab, clean 7 C — 3. Bastard fire clay, mottled purplish blue, dark gray, slight rust in seams 4 C — 4. Shale, soapy, but containing some grit, clear grayish drab ] 5 C — 5. Shale, very dark greenish gray with slight seams of rust 1>^ C — 6. Shale , clear blue sandy 10 (2.) lowA Brick Company. The works of this company are located in the northwestern part of the city on the opposite side of the river from the Flint Brick Company. Nine samples were taken from this ])it. The following is a description of each of the different strata, beginning at the top : Tliiekness in Feet. 1 — 1. Shale, variegated, reddish brown, mahogany reds, yellowish, bluish drab, dark gray, almost black; the colors mottled parallel to bed 6 I — 2. Sandy, light yellowish white, solid color 6 I — 3. Slightly sandy at top to clear shale below, pale blue streaked with chocolate brown 5 I — 4. Shale, clear chocolate brown 4 1 — 5. Shale, granular, dark solid drab with reddish pur- ple nodules 3 1—6. Shale, bluish drab 6 I—6i Same as No. 6. exposed at western end of cut, weathered ? I — 7. Shale, streaks of brownish drab and greenish, to chocolate brown. Stratification well defined... . 6 I — 8 . Clear dark drab , with orange green tinge 2 (3.) The Des Moines Brick Manufacturing Company is located in West Des Moines, between the tracks of the C, R. I. & P. R'y and the Des Moines & Northern U'y. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 63 The following is the description of each of the eight strata in this pit, beginning with the top : Tliickness in Feet. D —1 . Clay , variegated 5 D — 2 . Shale , streaked in color 4 D — 3. Shale, solid chocolate brown color, clear definition. 5 D — 4. Shale, solid color, clear to poor definicion 5 D — 5 . Shale , variegated , clear to poor definition 3 D — 6. Shale, sandy, solid color 10 D — 7. Shale, sandy, clear definition, solid color, granu- lated texture, pulverizes in the hand: thickness. 5 D — 8. Shale, gray, clear definition. This clay forms 38 to 40 per cent of the bank and runs to underly- ing coal 23 (4.) The Flint Brick Company is located in Oak Park upon the Des Moines river. Seven samples were analyzed from this pit. A complete description of the strata was not obtainable at the time the samj)les were taken. THE SANITARY ANALYSES OF SOME IOWA DEEP WELL WATERS. RY J. B. WEEMS. In the investigation of deep well waters the interest in many cases has been limited to the mineral substances, and little attention given to the sanitary analysis. This is a natural result when it is realized that these waters con tain large amounts of solids and the possibility of contam- ination by sewage or other products is very slight indeed. In connection with the work of the Department of Agri- cultural Chemistry of the Agricultural College, analyses of a number of samples of water from the deep wells of the state have been made and the results brought together in hope that they may be of interest. The methods used do not require any explanation as they are those which have been generally used for analyzing water. The oxygen 64 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. absorption may, however, be given some attention, as this part of the analytical work has not reached a satisfactory position. The method of oxygen absorption used is what may be called the " English method " and was first pro- posed by the Association of Public Analysts of England and is outlined in connection with another investigation published recently.* In the analyses of the deep well waters the amount of free ammonia at once attracts attention. This is not a new observation but has been recognized for some time as quoted by Mason. f THE SANITARY ANALYSIS OF WATERS FROM SOME OF THE DEEP WELLS OF IOWA. LOCATION. .2 a 2 '3 ■5 o > a a o o i g"5 . o CM O 0 42 'o o O r' III iaa P. fe < o OQ "A "■A O o Q 1.00.3 .18 T .024 18. 42 51.00 1088. 57 1226. 00 0 .4 0 T .24 .32 .264 .48 1,640 Ames 2, 215 1.4 .86 .015 .016 1.52. 90 .43 2047. 14 5V12. 90 0 .8 0 .16 .74 .80 .74 1.00 3, 010 Cedar Rapids 1, 450 .978 1.10 .02 .005 388. 60 273.00 4132. 14 1192.86 4.8 0 0 0 1.68 .96 2.48 .99 1,540 Davenport .02 .62 T .036 T 21. 70 288. 57 1527.00 0 T 0 T .10 .45 Holstein . Homestead . .95 .00 33. 14 1088. 57 0 0 .43 .64 2,2:4 lowaFalls .79 .(m 12.00 446.00 0 0 6.10 9.10 Keokuk (Pickle Co.) 1.22 .03 6a3.00 3637. 14 .42 0 1.38 2.42 710 Keokuk (Poultry Co. ) 1.50 .015 674.00 3727. 14 0 0 .43 .75 700 .05 .03 .012 .0(1 9.00 80.00 304.00 499. 00 0 0 .9 .25 (1)1,870 (2)1,870 Manehester No. 2 MeGre^or well No. 1 1. 25 .0175 967. SK) 2795.00 0 0 .68 2.49 1,006 McGregor well No. 2 .02 .01 36.00 372.86 0 0 .29 .50 502 Monticello .013 .015 5.9 371.43 0 0 .46 .98 1,198 2.27 .08 L25 .49 .15 .186 .00*5 .015 .01 T 183.00 T 84.1 6.00 10.3 4716. 00 295. 71 1617. 14 544.00 1051. 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.56 .16 .06 2 !3 26.88 .02 1.85 1.4 .9 1,400 973 Webster City 1,250 West Bend 1.45 .01 5.71 681. 43 0 0 .99 1.43 381 (1) (2) 980 feet of casing. 1, 300 feet of casing. "The 'free ammonia' in artesian wells is often excessive, under circumstances that make animal contamination an impossibility, and even rain water, freshly collected after periods of long drought, will often exhibit properties calcu- lated to mislead the analyst." •Weems & Brown. Influence of Chlorine as Chlorides in the Determination of Oxygen Consumed in the Analysis of Water. Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, 8. p. 87. +Water Supply, p. 392. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65 The excessive amount of free ammonia in deep well water is accounted for by Fox* as follows. 1. To entrance of rain water into well. 2. To the beneficial transformation of harmful organic matter into the harmless ammonia, through the agency of sand, clay, and other substances, which act on the water in a manner similar to the action on it of a good filter. 3. To some salt of ammonia existing in the strata through which the water rises; or, 4. To the decomposition of nitrates in the pipes of the well. Mr. H. Slater suggests that the agent concerned in this reduction may, in the case of the deep well waters, be the sulphide of iron which is found in the clay. Ammonia may be converted into nitrates and nitrites by a process of oxidation, or be obtained from these salts by one of reduction. We conclude, then, that the presence of free ammonia in such comparatively large quantities in these deep well waters is due to the reduction of nitrates and nitrites by sulphide of iron, or some kinds of organic matter, or some other agent, such oxidized nitrogen salts having been produced in past ages by the oxidation of organic matter." The State board of health standard limits the free ammonia to .08 parts per million while the Michigan Standard is .05 parts per million and if we attempt to apply these standards we find that of the wells investigated only Dubuque, McGregor No. 2, and the two Manchester will meet the requirement of the two standards and Sabula will meet, in addition to those named, the state limit for free ammonia. The amount of albuminoid ammonia in the waters will however meet the most exacting requirements. The only exception is that of the Newton sample and this should be investigated again before any definite conclusions are drawn regarding the amount of albuminoid ammonia. If we ex- cept this sample it is seen that the results vary from .068 parts per million to a trace. •Sanitary examinatious of water, air and food. Second Ed. p. 92. 66 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. Wanklyii classifies waters according to the amount of albuminoid ammonia present as follows: .05 parts per million. Great purity. .10 parts per million. Organically safe. Greater than 10 parts per million. More or less impure. The small amount of albuminoid ammonia present in the deep well waters places them in the class which is regarded by Wanklyn as characterized as being of great purity. This fact that as far as organic contamination is concerned, the deep well waters are pure waters and this consideration aids in the interpretation of the results obtained for free ammonia as Wankyln considers the presence ot free ammonia as follows: "If a water yield .000 parts of albuminoid ammonia per million, it may be passed as organically pure, despite of much free ammonia and chlorides; and if indeed the amount of albuminoid ammonia amount to .02, or to less than .05 parts per million, the water belongs to the class of very pure water." The State Standard is .15 parts of albuminoid ammonia per million which is larger than the amount of albuminoid ammonia in all of the samples except that of Newton. The Michigan standard being the same as that of Iowa. The presence of chlorine in the form of chlorides natur- ally does not indicate contamination and the standard of the state board of health of 8 parts per million is of no value for the deep well waters, where the sodium chloride is very high in many samples of water. In the sample of water from McGregor well No. 1 it is seen that chlorine is present to the extent of 967.9 parts per million, and this substance varies from this large amount to a trace in the water from the Dubuque well. When it is considered that the deep well waters contain large quantities of dissolved salts they naturally are associated with the water from mineral springs,* as for example the spring Ems contains 487 parts, Spa 35.5 parts, Carlsbad 630, and Wiesbaden 4687 parts of chlorine per million. ♦Smith. Foods, p. 310. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 67 The standards as given by Masonf for chlorine are as follows: Rain 8.22 Upland surface 11.3 Deep well 51.1 Spring 24.9 Wanklyn considers 140 as possibly suspicious. Frankland considers the permissible limit as 50. Leed's standard for American rivers, 3 to 10. Ordinary sewage, about 110 to 160. Human urine (average of 24 samples), 5872. It will be noticed that the standard for deep wells, 51.1 parts per million cannot be applied to the deep well waters of this section, and any standard is of little value as far as it relates to the chlorine that is present in the water, how- ever useful the standard for this substance may be for shallow wells. The solids on evaporation in the examination of shallow wells is a determination of ^reat value, although the loss on ignition has lost much of its supposed value. In con- nection with the examination of deep well water, how- ever, its chief value may be said to serve simply as a guide to the total substances present in the water, the nature of which can only be determined by a mineral analysis. The various standards which have been proposed for the solids on evaporation cannot be applied to the deep well water or to the mineral waters. For example the standards which have been selected by Mason,* are as follows. Rain water 29 . 5 Upland surface 96.7 Deep well 432 . 8 Spring 282.0 To be condemned 1000. American rivers 150. to 200. Wanklyn regards as permissible 575 . Many of the deep well waters will come within the limits for solids as a few of the solids contained less than 600 parts per million. On the other hand many of the results show that the solids are in excess of 1,000 parts per i-Wator Supply, p. 374. •Water Supply, p. 363. 68 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. million. The solids are composed largely of common sub- stances such as sodium chloride, sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. The mineral analyses of many of the samples have been published recently and it is unnec- essary to give consideration to this matter here.f The amount of solids in the deep well waters has had a tendency to cause them to be looked upon with suspicion. When the solids on evaporation in the deep well waters are compared with those of some of the noted mineral springs * as for example. Solids on evaporation in parts per million. PfaEfers 252 Toplitz 295 Spa 563 Teplitz 626 Ems 2,781 Carlsbad 5,455 Wiesbaden 8 , 262 Seidlitz 16,406 Saidschutz 23,285 Pullna 32,771 It is readily seen that while none of the samples have solids as high as the springs having large amounts of min- eral substances yet they will compare favorably with many given in the above table. Many of the samples of water have been tested for lithium with the spectroscope and the results obtained showed that this substance was present in all of the samples that have been tested. The deep well waters may be said to be characterized by the fact that they contain only traces of nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates. In the Centerville sample the nitro- gen as nitrates was caused by the sample standing for some time and as a result the free ammonia was oxidized by the nitrousfying process to nitrous acid. This feature of the deep well waters in which the free ammonia is changed to nitrites and nitrates has been observed in many samples of water and it is hoped that the changes can be investi- gated in the near future. The oxygen consumed as has +Iowa Geological Survey. Vol. 6. Artesian Well Waters. •Smith. Foods, p. 310. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69 been previously stated is a process which is in a very unsatisfactory state at present. In England we find the modification of the Miller-Tidy method used at present. This method as modified by the Society of Public Analysts we have designated as the English process. The Kubel process and its modifications we find used in this country and in Europe under its proper name and with slight changes under other terms, such as "boiling method." The time of boiling may vary from five to thirty minutes while the time recommended by the American Association is ten minutes. The objection which has been made against the Kubel method is that at the boiling temperature the per- manganate acts upon the chlorides present in the water and for this reason many prefer the English method where the temperature of the reaction is 80 degrees Fahrenheit. The object in making the tests at fifteen miuates and four hours is that the fifteen minute test indicates the amount of organic matter readily putrefying and rapidly decom- posing permanganate with acid. Angus Smith classed this as organic matter readily decomposed and probably ready to become putrid. The fifteen minute test also includes in the result the action of any nitrites, ferrous iron or hydrogen sulphide which may be presont. The object of the four hour test is supposed to indicate the organic matter capable of putrefying although slow to be decomposed. The total result includes the readily decomposed matter in the fifteen minute test which must be subtracted from the total if the amount of oxygen necessary for the organic matter which is slow to be decomposed is desired. The three minute test is also of value in many determinations as well as the association method. The association method giving results which indicate the total organic matter present is much better than the four hour test in many investigations, although care must be taken regarding the presence of large quan- tities of chlorine. Tidy's classification of waters based upon the oxygen absorption is as follows : 70 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Class I. Waters of Great Organic Purity. All waters in which the oxy- gen absorbed does not exceed .5 parts per million ClaFS II. Waters of Medium Purity. Waters in wh'ch the oxygen absorbed ranges from .5 to 1.5 parts per million. Class III. Waters of Doubtful Purity. Waters in which the oxygen absorbed ranges from 1.5 to 2.2 parts per million. Class IV. Impure Waters. Waters in which the oxygen absorbed exceeds 2.2 parts per million. The Michigan standard is that water should not require over 2.2 parts of oxygen per million. It is of interest to note that some of the deep well waters come within the first class of waters according to Tidy's classification and the larger number within the Michigan standard. The application of any standard to the sanitary analysis of the deep well waters is unsatisfactory and mis- leading in many ways. The most important results, that of albuminoid aaimonia and nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates show conclusively that the waters are not contam- inated in any manner. The oxygen absorption is valuable in many respects, but the other results vary to such a degree that no standard can be selected which could be applied to the deep well waters as can be done for the waters from shallow wells. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE OF THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE SEWAGE PLANT. BY J. B. WEEMS, J. C. BROWN AND E. C. MYERS. The sewage plant of the college was constructed in 1S9S from the designs and under the supervision of Prof. A. Marston, the co lege engineer. The plans and a short description of the work of the plant have been recently published* and only the chemical investigations will be considered in this paper. ♦The Iowa State College Sewage Disposal Plant and Investigations. Marston, Wcems and Pammel. Proceedings Iowa Engineering Society, 1900. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 71 The chemical work began in 1898 and continued from the seventh to twenty-sixth of October of that year. Com- mencing in 1899 samples were taken from January 10 to October 1, 1901. During this period samples of the manhole or raw sewage, tank and effluent were taken weekly and analyzed as soon as possible on reaching the laboratory. After October 1, 1901, samples were taken each month only. OXYGEN AMMONIA. SOLID? NITROGEN AS CONSUMED. Date. '6 o 03 0 '3 X j3 ORIGIN. 1 3 > a i S o 1 0 ^ < 3 O*' < O s g S 1 1898 Oct. 7 2.5.1 4.3 1941 1857 0 0 Manliolo. Oct. 7 26.4 7.5 1804 1696 T Tank. Oct. 7 2.9 43. 30!2 'iio." 1692 3302 1629 3000 2055 10. T Effluent. Oct. 13 "o"" Manhole. Oct. 13 16.0 3.95 80. 2616 2330 2278 0 T Tank. Oct. 13 13 32 80 5 2407 2150 2036 .3 10. Effluent. Oct. 21 26.8 26.05 5.95 10.45 99. 77. 2438 1086 2310 928 1994 822 .1 T .15 .15 Manhole. Oct. 21 Tank. Oct. 21 .1 .24 92. 2596 2462 2.384 .5 .4 Effluent. Oct. 26 49.3 27.8 33.5 7.35 99. 77. 3402 2660 3042 2476 2440 2296 0 0 T T Manhole. Oct. 26 Tank. Oct. 26 .46 1.69 61. 2418 2244 2174 .6 .75 Effluent. 1899. May 10 36.7 22.8 88 1182 1147 1040 0 T 81.6 129.6 Manhole. May 10 12.3 14.6 107 1628 1510 1409 0 T 78.4 177.6 Tank. May 10 .20 22 112 1709 1675 1554 ,16 10 6.4 44.8 Effluent. May 17 31.7 20.0 80 1232 1179 1001 .1 .4 1(-. fl9.2 Manllole. May 17 10.7 7.4 113 1590 1522 1215 0 T 48. 153.6 Tank. May 17 .24 .7 96 1670 16.58 1528 .3 6.0 -'.8 24.0 Effluent. May 24 46.6 15.7 83 1223 983 789 .6 1.6 64. 252. 8 Manliole. May 24 13.1 12.2 119 1612 1526 1217 .4 T 142.4 .344. 0 Tank. May 24 .52 .36 168 1361 1351 1162 .16 8.0 9.6 100.8 Effluent. May 31 27 4 6.7 62 1384 1330 1141 0 0 88. 129.6 Manliole. May 31 14." 3 14.7 125 1927 1857 1425 .16 0 152.0 425. 6 Tank. May 31 2.9 0.25 111 1.597 1461 1272 T 4.0 3.2 24.0 Effluent. Jiine 7 56.6 42.7 91 1676 1673 1392 0 0 85.6 22.2 Manhole. June 7 17.3 30.1 150 2008 1941 1555 0 0 121.6 352! Tank. June 7 8.16 6.9 140 1740 1735 1468 0 0 33. 6 116.8 Effluent. June 14 55.6 20.3 94 1569 1505 1305 0 0 56. 204.8 Manhole. June 14 16.8 14.1 70 1498 1420 1265 0 0 38.4 219. 2 Tank. June 14 .72 5.36 62 1489 1460 1307 . 2 6.0 17.6 43.2 Effluent. June 21 24.8 14.5 39 1275 1212 1096 .6 4.0 8. 97.6 Manhole. June 21 9.1- 4.0 40 1230 1175 1031 .8 1.0 8. 129. 6 Tank. Effluent not br ought in. Tune 28 2.02 2.58 43 1175 1120 981 .8 2.0 6.4 48. Manhole. Tune 28 5.62 16.58 112 1534 1395 1096 0 T 102.4 219.2 Tank. June 28 .13 .43 86 1340 1322 1146 0 2.0 4.8 36. 8 Effluent. July 6 15.8 9.8 51 1095 998 914 .96 2.0 148.8 379. 2 Manhole. July 6 3.0 16.8 144 1520 1332 1007 8 1.0 2;©. 6 860.8 Tank. July 6 2.2 5.0 .56 1223 1178 931 16 6.0 41.6 336. Effluent. July 12 !6.0 78.5 63 1239 1117 899 1 .4 123. 2 304.0 Manhole. July 12 o 38.0 168 1800 1356 962 T 0 3»i.8 .387.2 Tank. July 12 1.4 1.8 hOl 1474 1052 16 26. 14.4 23,-. 2 Effluent. July 19 10.4 2.1.6 ' "412 1269 1189 970 3 .8 22.4 94.4 Manhole. July 19 5.8 18.2 141 1682 1383 972 0 0 177.6 371.2 Tank. July 19 .3.4 6.0 120 i4a3 1400 1188 08 6.0 1.6 48.0 Effluent. July 26 10.7 15.8 24 865 793 475 8 2.0 54.4 14. 8 Manhole. July 26 9.2 17.3 22 ( 1534 1444 1030 0 0 81.6 232.0 Tank. July 26 .32 1.54 110 1527 1448 1190 2 10. 10.4 40. Effluent. A.ug. 2 47.9 28. 2 50 1100 Vt95 815 6 2.0 75.2 20!t. 6 Manhole. A.ug. 2 12.8 1 13.8 32 808 780 496 0 0 43.2 1 150.4 Tank. 72 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. E. AMMONIA. SOLIDS. NITROGEN AS OXYGEN CONSUMED. DAT 0 (3 .2 a 'a 2 ORIGIN. a5 o a o 0. 05 . (V 0 O < 0 1 a 0 0 It 1 Aug. 2 .16 1.24 39 983 921 786 T 6.0 4.8 32. Effluent. Aiig. 9 57.7 48.4 88 1454 1132 864 .8 .4 126. 4 198.4 Manhole. Aug. 9 17.9 16.9 35 971 870 705 .04 T 3:3.6 140.8 Tank. Aug. 9 .34 1.74 62 1181 1022 903 .16 10. 8.0 12.8 Effluent. Aug. 17 49.7 30 6 107 879 776 604 0 0 105. 6 206.4 Manhole. Aug. 17 18.4 19.9 49 10S6 951 794 0 0 8:3.2 192. 0 Tank. Aug. 17 .3 .66 100 13S3 1302 1221 .4 10.0 9.6 62.4 Effluent. Aug. 25 86.0 76 1425 1:345 T 0 Manhole. Aug. 25 72. 122 "i79tV 16(i4 145(5 T 0 Tank. Aug. 25 14.2 115 1618 1.568 1441 .12 (5.0 Effluent. Aug. 29 '27.' 7" 31.2 92 1730 1532 140(5 0 0 'w.'fs' 2:38. 4 Manhole. Aug. 29 32.3 21.3 23 1917 1608 1.500 0 0 9(5. 0 248. Tank. Aug. 29 .7 .72 78 1651 1595 1.540 .24 6.0 11.2 46.4 Effluent. Sept. 5 3.4 3.8 79 141S l:69 1140 0 0 14.4 60.8 Manhole. Sept. 5 14.5 1.3.1 89 1.524 1381 122 .4 0 27 2 140.8 Tank. Sept. 5 1.08 1.58 96 1610 1571 1.350 .4 .5.0 ~3! 2 48 Effluent. Sept. 12 48.5 37.1 175 1624 1.5.35 1191 0 0 7:3.6 193. 6 Manhole. Sept. 12 28.8 38.6 85 1692 K03 1:306 0 0 8:3.2 220. 8 Tank. Sept. 12 .48 .66 94 1515 1415 1195 .8 6.0 9.6 38.4 Effluent. Sept. 19 56.5 22.7 67 1141 1024 950 1.0 •> 136.0 :307 2 Manhole. Sept. IVJ 36.5 20.9 67 1260 11(55 1026 1.0 T 78.4 172.8 Tank. Sept. 19 .9 .62 104 1730 16.35 1606 .12 8.0 9.6 .56.0 Effluent. Sept. 25 65.9 29.2 231 1318 12.30 830 0 0 164.8 438.4 Manhole. Sept. 25 27.4 26.1 67 1063 812 681 0 0 124.8 .304.0 Tank. Sept. Oct. 25 .7 1 34 45 903 843 611 .6 7.0 9.6 .59.2 Effluent. 2 84.3 34.8 142 1693 1620 1221 0 T 118.4 422. 4 Manhole. Oct. 3 52.5 19.5 147 1814 1547 1295 0 0 120.0 326.4 Tank. Oct. 3 1.02 1.68 87 1(561 1580 1243 .24 9.0 (3.4 48 0 Effluent. Oct. 10 42.8 23.2 84 1768 1720 1.374 0 T 107 2 251. 2 Manhole. Oct. 10 23.8 12.8 95 1719 1523 1289 0 0 94.4 228.8 Tank. Oct. 10 .24 .12 91 1701 1697 14.30 .3 10.0 11.2 64.0 Effluent. Oct. 17 16.6 9.6 70 1421 1347 1212 .4 0 16.0 145. 6 Manhole. Oct. 17 19.2 6.0 71 1545 1532 1275 0 0 40.0 174.4 Tank. Oct. 17 .94 .96 75 1670 IbSS 1385 .1 8.0 4.8 51.2 Effluent. Oct. 24 39.8 17.2 105 1620 1443 1276 0 0 240.0 332 8 Manhole. Oct. 24 44. 28.2 100 1651 1.592 i:34(5 0 0 259.2 531. 2 Tank. Oct. 24 .32 .34 90 ltU2 1510 1282 .24 T 3.2 35.2 Effluent. Oct. 31 25.9 20.8 99 1803 1.520 1316 0 0 131. 2 .329. 6 Manhole. Oct. 31 24.9 9.7 119 1820 1757 1437 0 0 83.2 2:30.4 Tank. Oct. 81 .16 .18 87 1.580 1564 13.36 .1 10. 4.8 4(5.4 Effluent. Nov. 7 40.3 16 2 151 1747 1(577 1407 .04 0 9(5.0 244.8 Manhole. Nov. 7 18.2 8.5 103 1769 lft86 1489 0 0 43.2 217. 6 Tank. Nov. 7 .68 .58 76 1800 1712 1623 . 7 9.0 6.4 36.8 Effluent. Nov. 14 16.3 7.4 71 1867 1752 1419 .4 0 .35.2 251. 6 Manhole. Nov. 14 28.7 9.7 LS'.t 1,562 1443 13.56 0 1:34. 4 198. 4 Tank. Nov. 14 1.08 .58 90 1743 1702 1441 .4 "s.'o" 4.8 12.8 Effluent. Nov. 21 34.7 164.7 1877 98; iO 8356 4157 0 T 13.56. 8 2656.0 Manhole. Nov. 21 12.7 9.9 77 IfiliO i:ii;s 1205 0 0 153.6 249.6 Tank. Nov. 21 1.78 .58 94 169() 1(>S.5 1455 .6 4. 6.4 8.0 Effluent. Dec. 1 94.7 54.7 213 900 7(50 525 0 0 187.2 2. 208 Manhole. Dec. 1 10.4 6.9 98 1416 13S4 813 7 0 40.0 103. 6 Tank. Dec. 1 .12 .38 141 1588 1.545 1260 .'O8 2.0 32. 219! 2 Effluent. Dec. 20 8.02 19.77 30 16.58 1326 1043 0 0 134.4 Manhole, Dec. 20 9.55 3.78 69 IKiO 1()S6 782 1.5 0 25.6 100.8 Tank. Dec. 20 2 39 1.97 96 KXil 100(5 812 .5 2.0 9.6 54.4 Effluent. 1900 Jan. 10 15 4 9.0 172 1.548 1476 11.51 . 7 9 65.6 168.0 Manhole. Jan. 10 34.0 26.2 i;e 1408 1237 9.53 T 0 1:32. 8 219.2 Tank. Jan. 10 5.28 2.0 73 1194 1016 851 . 7 T 48.0 7:3.6 Effluent. Jan. 19 20.7 30.4 1345 3772 3719 2908 0 T 1.58.4 412.8 Manhole. Jan. 19 24.1 54.7 116 ;}.3S5 2986 1870 0 0 412.8 627. 2 Tank. Jan. 19 6.14 1.84 100 1407 1361 1218 .4 .8 25 6 99.2 Effluent. Jan. 24 7.0 17.3 755 .3:570 2770 201 - .0 T 209. H 472.4 Manhole. Jan. 24 21.4 20.3 397 2495 22:35 1746 .0 0 187. 2 419.2 Tank. Jan. 24 5.38 1.38 155 1895 1731 1421 1.0 .8 8(5.4 1.52. 0 Effluent. April 12 5.2 2.9 42 1426 1392 1178 .12 T 8. 29.2 Manhole. April 12 12.7 4.7 48 1498 14.50 1170 .08 T 27. 2 41.6 Tank. April 12 7.84 1.98 85 1()46 1.594 1.346 .08 T 12! 8 19.2 Effluent. April 17 26.9 11.8 58 1464 1298 1124 .12 0 1(5. ;30. Manhole. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 73 OXYGEN AMMONIA. SOLIDS NITROGEN AS CONSTJMED. DAT! o a 1 i. 0 ORIGIN. £ _0 > s ~ 0 1 1 Hi 1 0) 0 u ^ 3 a'^ ^ fl s S 1 0 fe < o O < o ^ 13 fe April 17 17.4 3.9 47 1460 1314 1160 0 T 10.8 13.2 Tank. April 17 .84 .48 49 1378 122S !>74 L2 T 2.8 4.4 Effluent. April 24 3S.2 17.4 75 1520 1446 1152 0 0 16.4 42. Manhole. April 24 18.9 13.4 100 1980 1920 1.528 0 0 28. 50.4 Tank. April 24 8.08 .4 43 1480 1460 1246 .4 6.0 3.2 (5.0 Effluent. May 1 3S.9 18.5 71 1720 um 1326 0 T 21.2 40.8 Manhole. May 1 17.4 2.9 46 1406 1356 1240 0 T 5.6 8.8 Tank. May 1 .6 .3 70 1546 1532 1332 o 16. 2.8 3.6 Effluent. May 8 50.6 23.2 81 1734 1(586 1246 0~ T 28.8 44. 16 Manhole. Mas- 8 9.7 4.2 48 1466 1406 1146 .2 T 11.84 12.8 Tank. May 8 .44 .48 58 1.T40 14 6 1180 !24 20. 2.56 3.2 Effluent. May 15 65.7 22.7 25 13S4 830 456 .8 12. 16.0 31.04 Manhole. May 15 44.0 "a 4 50 lias 728 414 .9 4. 10.88 13. 76 Tank. May 15 S.44 .48 20 1070 836 5.56 .3 20. .96 1.28 Effluent. May 22 37.(5 12.0 59 1088 988 (568 1.2 8. 15.68 23. 04 Manhole. MaV 22 9.7 4.2 15 886 814 500 1.2 4. 9.92 12.48 Tank. May 22 2.08 .68 28 1040 960 (!72 .2 20. 3.2 3.84 Effluent. May 29 12.7 9.8 32 1144 1056 584 Ji 4. 14.08 24. 96 Manhole. Ma'y 29 8.0 9.7 50 1036 996 510 .8 J. 15.04 33. 28 Tank. May 29 .84 .28 28 948 888 518 .16 30. . 96 1.28 Effluent. June 5 8.0 19.3 118 1760 1540 066 0 T 80.96 101.44 Manhole. Jviiie 5 23. 5 10.3 38 1176 1108 480 0 T 18.88 41.28 Tank. June 5 1.2 .24 37 1012 968 778 4.0 20. 1.28 l.i.2 Effluent. June 15 2.7 12.3 36 4090 3950 3540 1.0 10. 23.04 41.(50 Manhole. June 15 7.0 5.7 95 3882 3730 3392 .6 4. 16.32 29.44 Tank. June 15 .14 .1 32 3344 3296 3094 .04 20. 1.60 2. .56 Effliient. June 19 1.7 2.0 63 42.36 4054 3802 .8 0 17.6 18.88 Manhole. June 19 2.5 1.7 30 3246 3106 2880 .6 4.0 8.96 12.16 Tank. June 19 .7 .54 12 29 4 2704 2510 .04 24. .64 1.28 Effluent. June 26 3.2 28.3 84 73(J0 7038 6404 .4 T 70.40 101. 12 Manhole. June 26 5.7 6.7 45 4230 4180 moo .6 T 8.64 19. 52 Tank. June 26 .04 .04 10 3424 3362 3102 .24 15. 1.28 1.60 Effluent. July 5 6.3 9.5 297 1111 nil nil 1.0 T 11.84 14.40 Manhole. July 5 5 12 12 12 4.2 .7 7.5 3.2 .44 1.7 .26 2.1 17. .24 28 43 20 25 35 .8 T .8 .4 T 1. 8. .8 1.4 8. 3.2 .64 9.92 4.48 .64 5.42 .90 13. 12 4.80 1.92 Tank. July Effluent. July July Manhole. Tank. JulV Effluent. July 17 5.2 2.7 19 .6 .8 4.48 5.44 Manhole. July 17 17 23 8.2 .5 3.5 6.2 .1 5.0 155 15 30 6 T o 1. 8. 0 22.72 .32 8.32 39.68 1.92 12.48 Tank. JulV Effluent. July Manhole. July July 23 23 4.0 .2 3.1 .48 57 66 i.~ T 0 16. 6.72 .64 8.00 2. 56 Tank. Effluent. Aug. Aug. 1 1 1 1.0 2.3 0 3.5 1.7 .24 16 14 23 . 5 .6 T T 4. 16. 10.24 30.40 (5.40 3.20 Manhole. Tank. Aug. Effluent. Aug. 7 4.4 5.7 20 "796' 684 554 6. 3.2 '32.' "■ 41.6 Manhole. Aug. 7 1.2 4.0 17 820 780 568 .12 T 26. 24 32. 32 Tank. Aug. 7 .4 .8 36 910 810 640 T 4. 4.48 11.20 Effluent. Aug. 21 6.2 23.5 258 1574 1442 982 .84 0 5.44 28. 80 Manhole. Aug. 21 5.5 9.0 44 1288 1220 1054 .62 T 3.52 22. OS Tank. Aug. 21 0 .24 41 812 766 516 .12 16. .96 2.88 Effluent. Sept. 5 2.1 6.1 43 1992 1.592 1206 .40 0 14.40 24. 00 Manhole. Sept. 5 21.5 5.9 50 1814 1488 1140 .12 0 12.8 17. 3S Tank. Sept. 5 .1 .46 86 1720 14(56 1194 .04 12. .96 1.6 Effluent. Sept. 12 6.2 5.7 43 1660 1600 ms .4 0 4.16 6. as Manhole. Sept. 12 15.7 5.7 58 14(50 1434 1180 0 T 8.32 9.28 Tank. Sept. 12 .2 .26 54 1346 1280 1060 .04 16. 1.28 1.92 Effluent. Sept. 17 16! 0 16.0 96 2a30 1852 1280 0 0 11. 52 38.72 Manhole. Sept. 17 10.3 12.6 95 1730 1524 1172 0 0 6.72 16. 64 Tank. Sept. 17 .16 .88 63 1384 1360 1048 .8 12. .96 2.24 Effluent. Oct. 2 9.0 12.6 63 205)2 1952 1.592 .4 0 9. 20 31.04 Manhole. Oct. 2 11.2 10.1 50 1940 1774 1580 .4 0 4.80 15.68 Tank. Oct. 2 1.54 7. 54 1756 1476 12;50 .4 10. 1.92 2.5(5 Effluent. Oct. 8 29.6 12.8 58 1514 1460 1194 .4 0 6.40 9.28 Manhole. Oct. 8 7.4 3.2 54 1292 12(50 1006 .6 T 2.56 4.16 Tank. Oct. 8 1.76 .44 55 1.360 1340 1226 .8 8. .96 1.28 Effluent. Oct. 15 11.0 8.0 50 1468 1374 1194 .4 0 7.68 Manliole. I A S 74 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. OXYGEN AMMONIA. SOLIDS NITROGEN AS CONSUMED. DATE o a o S '3 ORIGIN. -ti G o fe < o H < o '^ ^ E ^ 189a Oct. 1.5 14.8 8.2 42 14.38 hm 1224 0 0 11. 52 Tank. Oct. 15 2.70 6' 2338 2238 1978 0 l(i. 1.28 Effluent. Oct. 22 42.1 20.0 ' 106 1714 1546 12 4 .6 0 'i8.\50' 35. 52 Manhole. Oct. 22 8.1 2.9 57 1300 1248 1068 .6 0 8.32 15. 04 Tank. Oct. 22 .26 .40 61 1446 1414 1200 .6 10. 1.92 2.50 Effliient. Nov. 5 4.9 4.5 57 1294 1268 1068 .8 4.6 5.12 8.64 Manhole. Nov. 5 5.5 9.3 55 119.! 1152 900 1.2 4.8 8.90 15.36 Tank. Nov. 5 1.64 .42 55 1080 1074 860 .2 12. .64 1.28 Effluent. Nov. 12 6.3 4.0 55 1274 1194 1074 'a 4.0 5.76 11.52 Manhole. Nov. 12 8.2 7 5 58 1428 1274 1180 .4 .8 10.56 21.12 Tank. Nov. 12 .32 .26 55 1186 1126 1000 .24 16. .96 1.28 Effluent. Nov. 19 23.0 18.3 65 1474 1294 1074 0 .8 13.76 24.0 Manhole. Nov. 19 11.4 3.3 43 11.52 1066 90t) .6 .8 2.24 3.84 Tank. Nov. 19 .82 .62 50 1128 1088 920 .08 16. .96 1.28 Effluent. Nov. 26 13.6 8.7 58 1634 1500 1246 . 2 1.2 10.88 19.^4 Manhole. Nov. 2« 20.3 15.7 67 1048 1428 1174 2 3. 16. 23. 36 Tank. Nov. 2(5 .68 .56 58 1414 1374 1114 !08 16 .96 1.28 Effluent. Dec. 3 8.3 8.3 52 1.300 1280 946 9 T 6.72 12.48 Manhole. Dec. 3 11.6 7.3 48 1.360 1320 1046 '.2 T 11. 52 23.04 Tank. Dec. 3 1.98 .46 50 1414 1.374 1180 .10 12. .64 .96 Effluent. Dec. 17 27.7 19.1 62 1408 1394 1068 2 0 29.76 52. 16 Manhole. Dec. 17 23. 4 12.8 40 1488 1.394 1020 T 0 25. 92 49.92 Tank. Dec. 17 5.84 1.36 50 1200 1120 980 .10 10. 1.60 5.76 Effluent. 1901. Jan. 8 6.7 21.6 62 1480 1422 1030 1.5 0 8.90 15.08 Manhole. Jan. 8 3.2 8.3 55 1220 1208 1016 1.5 0 7 04 15.68 Tank. Jan. 8 1.81 1.36 45 1214 1164 1020 .24 12 2.56 4.80 Effluent. •Jan. 14 13.5 110.8 95 3800 3420 1772 .6 0 78.44 339.2 Manhole. Jan. 14 10.7 13.0 52 1200 1168 972 .04 0 1.5.0 38. 0 Tank. Jan. 14 .94 1.92 55 1268 1218 1144 0 0 1.28 2.80 Effluent. .Tan. 21 7.9 1.3.8 62 1670 1576 1162 .5 0 18.88 60.80 Manhole Jan. 21 5.2 20.1 62 1478 1414 1008 0 0 15.04 59.68 Tank. Jan. 21 .44 1.36 50 1258 1242 10.36 T 10. 1.28 1.00 Effluent. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75 NITRO- AMMONIA. a3 c 'u o 3 SOLIDS. GEN OXYGEN CONSUMED. DATI 6 CO "3 a •f-H a M .»3 0 03 . > C 0 o G+3 i d 0 1 'a i 1 'a a u a 0 0 3 : 11 §ga ORIGIN. fe < o O ^ O < < Fh s ^ < Jan. 28 16.4 15.1 91 2548 2486 2088 .04 T 19.84 42.88 Manhole. Jan. 28 17.9 15.6 60 1270 1252 1026 .1 .8 29.12 44 48 Tank. Jan. 28 2.5 1.32 54 1358 1346 1142 T 10. .96 2.88 Effluent. Feb. 5 19.7 25.3 40 1156 1044 5') 102. 00 Manhole. April 19 12.0 13.6 44 1244 1240 1234 .12 T 1.97 7.41 18! 2 47. 27 Tank. April 19 5.56 1.96 45 1112 1110 1022 .08 6.0 0 1.77 3.58 3. 2(; Effluent. April 26 14.6 9.6 55 1.348 1328 984 .4 0 5.12 54.4 63.16 178. 80 Manhole. April 26 13.8 10.4 46 1162 1124 924 .6 0 1.77 8.89 18.33 53. 36 Tank. April 26 7.32 .96 45 1228 1206 994 .30 14. 0 .59 1..57 .5.45 Effluent. May 9 4.8 12.6 55 2988 2922 2250 .2 0 1.81 6.11 5(5. 77 89.6 Manhole. May 2 10.2 10.0 f9 1684 1678 1224 0 0 1.51 2.36 42.67 87.4 Tank. May •) 4.42 .5 49 1310 1292 1098 .12 14. .03 .72 2. 16 4.27 Effluent. Mar 9 15.8 11.6 62 1792 1546 960 0 0 2.75 16.6 22. 392 91.9 Manhole. May 9 17.0 7.0 51 1260 1236 960 .15 05 1.57 7.84 10.54 26. 49 Tank. May 9 1.8 .6 61 1372 1358 1038 .04 12. .79 .168 1 9 6.1 Effluent. May 16 22. 32.5 67 1930 1890 1.530 T 0 3.94 14.7 .34. 89 90.7 Manhole. May 16 2i!o 32.5 94 1910 1904 1380 .02 0 3.15 16.24 44.52 132. 1 Tank. May 16 1.38 1.06 65 1570 1570 1282 .16 14. .79 .906 1.96 4.3 Effluent May 23 38. 28. 68 1890 1868 1234 0 0 5.51 25.8 83.20 170. (•) Manhole. May 2.3 39.5 24. 84 1278 1248 1066 .3 0 .19 9.8 18. 45.7 Tank. May 23 1.38 .55 59 1232 1226 1082 .12 12. 1.18 1.34 8.3 Effluent. May 30 32.0 17.0 88 1886 ia32 1246 .04 0 2 36 12.81 31.3 ' 95.1 Manliole. May 30 24. 14. 68 1230 1204 10.34 .m 0 1.57 5.54 22.5 Tank. Maj- 80 1.44 .58 66 1440 1436 1310 .30 20. ..53 3. ,58' 6. ,53 Effluent. June 6 17.5 17. 60 17.i6 .644 1162 .1 0 1.77 15.8 38.39 132. 85 Manhole. Jiuic 6 31. 18. 66 ia36 1220 1068 .15 T 1.57 7.1 13. 26 19. 60 Tank. June 6 1.04 .66 73 1536 1512 1268 .04 18. .26 1.76 3.99 Effluent. June 13 55.5 2.5. 63 20!»6 2096 13.30 0 0 'a94 41.90 124.91 :362. 27 Manliole. June 13 10. 43 1224 1224 1080 0 0 .15 .5.16 7.25 27. .59 Tank. June 13 "i."98' 1.4 70 1612 mm i:«2 .1 24. .78 3.64 6.40 18.10 Effluent. June 20 16.5 11.5 59 1236 1226 1068 .2 0 .39 1.67 7.4 23.6 Manhole. Jiine 20 1.0 6.5 67 160(1 14.32 127 '.I 0 .58 2.28 30.8 Tank. June 20 .7 .42 44 IKJO 1114 9(56 .06 12. .39 ■■■.'40' ,5.6 12. Effluent. June 28 56. 257. 136 .5094 440ti 19,52 0 0 9.6 127.63 272.6 483.6 Manhole. June 28 10.5 5.5 44 1302 1274 IKX) 0 0 1.41 5.64 10.63 2.5.2 Tank. June 28 1.14 .2 60 1540 1514 i;«o 0 24. .19 1.27 2.40 5.2 Effluent. July 5 15.5 26.5 22 161.S 1.T.S0 1212 .04 0 1.41 6.77 20.60 48.4 Manhole. July 5 10.5 8. 52 1242 12LS 1112 2 0 1.55 2.88 5.09 13.2 Tank. July 0 .28 2.15 27 1510 14l)() 1396 T 20. 1.14 1.14 1.71 6.0 Effluent. July 11 8.5 8.5 94 5824 .57S.S .-)498 .04 0 1.13 15. 69 41.77 122.8 Manhole. July ■ 11 23. 28.5 54 184S 1S(I4 1290 0 0 2.09 17.92 75. 73 156. Tank. Juy 11 .1 .32 70 1.524 1496 1334 2 12. ..56 .97 2.97 7.6 Effluent. July 18 14. 7.50 93 2120 2080 1820 o"~ T 1.83 8.4 16.68 48. Manhole. July 18 12.50 7.50 69 1114 960 782 0 0 2.97 10.80 18.6 44.0 Tank. July 18 1.36 1.44 48 1472 1420 1332 .2 16. 1.13 2.3 4.26 5.0 Effluent. 76 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NITRO- AMMONIA. SOLIDS. GEN OXYGEN CONSUMED. S OS C 7- c c DATE 0) 2 1 u o J 0 o' o '3 a 1 1 '2 'i a s 0 0 11 11 ORIGIN. fc < o O < O < ^ ^ fa < July 25 26. 5 .32. 50 l(i.50 1,590 1206 0 0 2. 25 25. 16 49.78 127.6 Manhole. July 2.5 27. .50 11.50 74 161 S 1.588 1280 0 0 20 99 28.55 46. .54 72.0 Tank. July 2.5 .66 . 7 87 1472 14C.S 1322 0 8. 1.42 1.50 1.63 4.0 Effluent. Aug. 1 20. 31.5 71 1408 1360 IKK) .04 0 10. ,586 24. 13 57.20 Manhole. Aug. 1 16. 5 17.5 98 1714 1676 1370 0 0 29.26 59. 31 9.5.60 Tank. Aug. 1 .64 5.5 i>7 1342 1326 1234 0 8. 2.117 6.00 Effluent. Aug. 9 10.5 47. 37 876 870 7.52 .4 .8 1.35 ".5." 62" 10.80 Manhole. Aug. 9 12. 5 17.5 51 660 652 552 0 0 1.809 4.87 12. 71 44.00 Tank. Aug. 9 .96 1.8 .50 1318 1314 1194 0 4. 2.27 4.00 Effluent. Aug. 1.5 2,5. 24. .50 57 9.52 924 772 .04 0 'i'.i)? 8. 59" 11.24 a5.60 Manhole. Aug. 15 29. 00 24. (Ki (15 1392 1372 1184 0 0 4.52 11. .54 23. .55 35. 20 Tank Aug. 15 .64 1.04 48 1420 1404 1332 0 20 .72 .6, 2.56 3 20 Effluent. Aiig. 22 36. 81.5 21 2686 2276 0 0 1.26 33.31 178.00 a57. 60 Manhole. Aug. 22 25.5 66. 25 13.56 1320 '1180 T 0 2.53 6.396 14.02 26.80 Tank. Aug. 22 .76 .36 15 1398 1370 1240 0 16. .72 .72 1.93 4 40 Effluent. Aug. 29 34. 16. 48 1648 1,546 1270 0 0 .3! 79 10.07 29.40 65.20 Manhole. Aug. 29 17. 0 72 1310 1270 1126 0 0 l.i)9 3.94 11.02 43. 60 Tank. Aug. 29 .5 .5 64 1442 1408 1088 0 24. .72 .72 1. 26 2.40 Effluent. Sept. 4 51. 42.5 62 1584 1522 1228 .4 0 ,5! 06 36.40 47. 52 102. 80 Manhole. St'pt. 4 18. 30. 26 1124 1074 920 0 0 1.80 8.70 8.74 13. 20 Tank. Sept. 4 . 55 .08 38 1054 844 0 12. .60 .60 2.04 2.40 Effluent. Sept. 13 51.5 7 5 68 1.504 1464 "1226 T 0 1.80 11 44 19.18 12.00 Manhole. Sept. 13 54.5 17.5 54 1428 1366 1112 0 0 2.60 8.06 15. 15 25. 20 Tank. Sept. 13 .136 .5 47 2020 2014 1608 0 12. .40 2.30 4.78 12.40 Effluent. Sept. 20 3.5.0 32.0 70 17.58 ItiSS 1478 .04 0 1,3.40 37.40 52.96 144.80 Manhole. Sept. 20 40. 5 1.5.0 55 1266 1238 1120 0 0 2.20 8.96 15.4-S 35.60 Tank. Sept. 20 .46 1.16 54 1448 1432 1.304 .04 12. .90 .90 1.38 2.00 Effluent. Sept. 25 28. 5 19.0 1414 1,382 urn .08 .^0 4.52 13. 22 24.80 Manhole. Sept. 25 43.5 17. . i420 1378 I '90 0 6.00 11.52 21.12 29. 20 Tank. Sept. Oct. 25 .08 .70 1.582 1446 13.30 T 0 .63 2.12 4.40 Effluent. 2 2 21.0 20.5 9.5 22.0 1266 1.32(i 1262 12S4 1166 11.5s .08 .06 .80 5.40 3.34 7.80 8.40 17.60 Manhole. Oct. Tank. Oct. 2 44 .48 1486 1412 1322 T .80 1.40 1.60 Effluent. Nov. 4 21.0 25.5 80 1792 J. 582 1360 .04 3. 20 16.64 19.68 109. 20 Manhole. Nov. 4 4.3.5 32. 5 64 1816 1808 1298 .02 1.60 15. r>8 45.76 103. 30 Tank. Nov. 4 1.6 .18 54 1294 1292 1194 T .00 .36 .,57 4.40 Effluent. Dec. 11 39. 14.5 94 1522 1464 1304 .12 T 1..57 .3.41 27. 75 .38.40 Manliole. Dec. 11 41. 42. 68 IM) 1436 1262 .12 0 3. 93 7.4(3 28. 29 31.46 Tank. Dec. 11 2. 36 4.5 50 1528 1.51)0 1432 T 8. .39 1.02 1.75 3.80 Effluent. It is a well known fact that the simplest and best methoi of destroying organic matter, that is liable to provide favorable conditions for the growth of disease germs, is to destroy it by burning or oxidation. If the matter is in a solid condition and dry naturally, burning is the most suit- able. If in solution and a large quantity of water is pres- ent other means must be used. The modern process of bacterial purification of sewage is therefore simply using the nitrification process to oxidize the organic matter and ultimately changing the nitrogenous matter to nitric acid. The raw sewage or that which is designated as the man- hole sample contains the organic matter in its most stable form. The raw sewage on passing into the septic tank undergoes a process which is complicated from a chemical IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77 point of view and by many it has been called a digestion process. The organic matter in the sewage after it has remained in the tank for some time, undergoes a change which prepares it so that it can be oxidized much more readily in the nitrification process. As an illustration to show the changes which the sewage has undergone, the results of the determination of free ammonia may be taken. The results taken are for the cubic centimeters of the standard ammonia as determined by each tube. NUMBER OF TUBE. MANHOLE. TANK. EFFLUENT. 1 31.5 7.5 3. 2.2 1.0 1.2 1.0 .7 .7 .8 1.0 .8 .5 .8 1.0 1.2 .8 .8 11. 3. 1.2 .8 .5 .5 .3 .2 .2 .0 3.3 .8 .2 .2 .0 2 3 .■...; 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 It will be noticed that after the distillation of 18 tubes in the manhole sample the free ammonia showed no signs of decreasing or is there any period in the analysis where the distillation of the free ammonia may be said to be complete. In the tank sample ten tubes were only required for the complete distillation of free ammonia while the effluent was complete with five tubes. Another interesting change which takes place as the result of the decomposition in the septic tank is in the determination of solids. In the solids at 180^^ C. it is noticed that the residue in the manhole sample is quite black and shows very strongly that organic matter is present. The sample from the tank in contrast gives very readily a grayish or nearly white residue. The chemical changes which take place in the septic tank are very complicated and offer a field for special research. 78 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The sewage of the college is generally very concentrated when compared with the sewage of other places. The sewage analyzed by the Massachusetts state board of health gave the following interesting results: PARTS PER MILLION. 6 a be •g a u ) 212.2 Silica (SiOo) 12.2 Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 19.4 Alumina (AI2O3) 7.75 Ferric oxide ( FseOa) 45 Manganous oxide (MnO) Trace SANITARY ANALYSIS. Total solids 388, Loss on ignition 131 . Nitrogen as free ammonia 034 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia 030 Nitrogen as nitrates 8 . 100 Nitrogen as nitrites None Chlorine 4 . 000 Oxygen consuming power 625 Considering the conditions which surround this well, the water is very much better than one would expect. The analysis shows that it comes within the prescribed limits of a safe potable water, indeed quite as good as the city water. Mr. Culbeiison's Well is located a few rods north of the preceding well and is surrounded with practically the same conditions. The results of the analysis are not quite so favorable, however. The analysis was made in the latter part of April, 1901. Total solids 569. Loss on ignition 203 . Nitrogen as free ammonia . 016 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia .046 Nitrogen as nitrates 39.4 Nitrogen as nitrites Trace Chlorine 5.5 Oxygen consuming power 1.12 /. N. Stone's Well, Morningside, is situated on high ground and surrounded by a lawn. It is eighty feet deep and con- tains about two feet of water. When this analysis was made there was a water closet within thirty-five feet and a barn about one hundred feet distant. They have since 96 iowa" academy of sciences. been removed. The water had a sparkling appearance and a slight odor. When allowed to stand in a closed vessel for some time it possessed a slight odor of urea. The anal- ysis was made in September, 1901. Total solids 461. Loss on ignition 124 . Nitrogen as free ammonia . 066 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia . 027 Nitrogen as nitrates 6 . 666 Nitrogen as nitrites .22 Chlorine 2.7 Oxygen consuming power 6 . 09 The amount of nitrites found would, alone, condemn its use as a potable water. Armour & Company obtain the water for their large packing plant from two wells, 347 and 400 feet deep respec- tively. The analysis was made in the latter part of Novem- ber, 1901. Total solids 556. Loss on ignition 148. Nitrogen as free ammonia . 262 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia .025 Nitrogen as nitrates Trace Nitrogen as nitrites None Chlorine 8.3 Oxygen consuming power 1 .568 The Consumer^ s Ice Company obtain their water for man- ufacturing ice from a well 122 feet deep and which is said to pass through a stratum of rock into a gravel bed. It is first distilled and then frozen in cans by means of salt brine. The specimen was taken from a clear block of ice weighing 300 pounds. The analyses were made in the lat- ter part of November, 1901. If the ice is manufactured entirely from the distilled water, we have no theory to account for the fact that both the free and albuminoid ammonia are higher in case of the ice water than from the well water from which the ice was manufactured. The presence of the chlorine may be explained by the careless- ness of the operator in allowing brine to get into the water before being frozen. 1 1 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 97 ANALYSIS OF THE WATER. Total solids 278. Loss on ignition . 48 . Nitrogen as free ammonia .092 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia .C47 Nitrogen as nitrates None Nitrogen as nitrites None Chlorine 37.85 Oxygen consuming power 1.47 ANALYSIS OF THE ICE WATER. Total solids 34. Loss on ignition 19. Nitrogen as free ammonia . 194 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia . 170 Nitrogen as nitrates Trace Nitrogen as nitrites None Chlorine 3.86 Oxygen consuming power 1.32 The Artesian Well is located at 311 Bluff street, and is 2,011 feet deep. It was originally drilled by D. A. Magee & Company. It is now owned by Christerman & Company, who use the water in their mineral water plant. Two analyses are given below. The one by Juan H. Wright. M. I)., an analytical chemist of St. Louis, Missouri, was made in May, 1883. The one by Prof. Thomas E. Pope of the Iowa Agricultural College was made in 1884. The reports of these two analyses have kindly been furnished by Mr. D. A. Magee. It will be observed that there is a marked difference between the two analyses. It may be said, however, that Mr. Pope's analysis is in fair accord with that made by J. B. Weems and reported as the "official analysis" in Vol. VI, page 225, of the Report of the Iowa Geological Survey. The results are given in U. S. grams per gallon. ANALYSIS BY POPE. Sodium chloride (NaCl) 4.328 Sodium sulphate (NaeS04) 14.763 Potassium sulphate (KsSOi) 5.045 Calcium sulphate (CaSo4) 44.248 Calcium bicarbonate (CaCOs, H2CO3) 4.305 Magnesium bicarbonate (MgCOs.HeCos) 15.265 Iron bicarbonate (FeC03,H2C03). 484 Silica (SiO^) 175 Alumina ( AhOa) Trace 98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ANALYSIS BY WRIGHT. Carbonate of lime (CaCOa) 6.654 Magnesium carbonate (MgCOa) 5.527 Iron carbonate ( FeCoa) 3 . 797 Aluminum sulphate (Al2(S03) 22.073 Magnesium sulphate (MgS04) 10.037 Nickel sulphate (NiS04) 1 . 141 Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 6.839 Sodium sulphate (Na2SOj) 3.751 Potassium sulphate (K2S04) 2.115 Iron sulphate (FeS04) 13.402 Sodium Phosphate (Na2HP04) 1.667 Silica (SiOs) 1.882 Organic matter .864 The City Water Supply comes from 104 driven wells ninety feet deep. The source is beneath an impervious stratum of clay. The water is stored in a reservoir 150 feet in diameter, located on an eminence north of the city, from whence it is distributed to consumers. The reservoir is surrounded by an iron fence and carefully guarded. In the summer there is to be seen occasionally a green growth on the water which is so common to bodies of standing water in the summer months, but the tank is emptied and cleaned every three weeks. The specimen for Analysis I was taken from the hydrant at Morningside college, which is located six miles from the reservoir, in May, 1901. The specimen for Analysis II was taken at pumping station No. 1, in May. It will be observed that the results of the two analyses are practically the same. The specimen for the technical analysis was taken at Morningside college in February, 1901. ANALYSIS I. Total solids 415 . Loss on ignition 167 . Nitrogen as free ammonia . 022 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia 0232 Nitrogen as nitrates 12.4 Nitrogen as nitrites Trace Chlorine 8.9 Oxygen consuming power .6 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99 ANALYSIS II. Total solids 406. Loss on ignition 159. Nitrogen as free ammonia .024 Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia .061 Nitrogen as nitrates 9.1 Nitrogen as nitrites Trace Chlorine 8.2 Oxygen consuming power .685 The following analysis was made by Prof. Floyd Davis, chemist of the Iowa State Board of Health in April, 1891. The specimen was obtained from pumping station No. 1. Total solids 393. Loss on ignition 61.2 Chlorine 4.634 Free ammonia .021 Albuminoid ammonia .024 Nitrogen as nitrates .735 ' Nitrogen as nitrites None The following analysis of a specimen from pumping station No. 2 was also made by Dr. Floyd Davis at the same time as the specimen mentioned above. He states that "This sample of water contained a large amount of suspended matter in it and the analysis was made of the filtered water." The water from the station is now only occasionally used for the city supply. It will be observed that the results of the two analyses are practically the same. Total solids 415.2 Loss on ignition. .. 69.6 Chlorine 3.6 Free ammonia .021 Albuminoid ammonia .045 Nitrogen as nitrates Trace Nitrogen as nitrites None The two following technical analyses were made by Mr. Davis at the same time as the sanitary analyses: PUMPING STATION No. 1. Silica (SiOc.) 32.43 Sodium oxide (Na^O) 14.53 Potasssium oxide (KaO) 5.91 Sulphur trioxide (SOs) 9.55 100 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Phosphoric anhydride (PjOc) Trace Aluminia (Al-^Os) 3.97 Ferric oxide (FeoOa) Trace Calcium oxide (CaO) 120.05 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 47.96 Carbon dioxide (C:0^) 153.96 PUMPING STATION No. 2. Sodium oxide (Na^O) 15.94 Silica (SiOa) ... 32.19 Potassium oxide ( K2O) 4.37 Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 7.25 Phosphoric anhydride (PaOs Trace Alumina (AbOs 3.805 Ferric oxide (Fe Oa) Trace Calcium oxide (CaO) 130.42 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 48.96 Carbon dioxide (CO:) 170 . 55 The following technical analysis of the water, taken from the hydrant at Morningside college, was made in January 1901. Silica (SiOO 14.4 Sodium oxide (NaaO 27.5 Sulphur trioxide (SO') 12.5 Alumina (AI2O3) 1.00 Ferrric oxide CFe203) 30 Manganous oxide (MnO) Trace Calcium oxide (CaO) 120.6 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 53.9 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 236.2 A comparison of the results of the technical analyses given above will reveal the fact that the mineral character of the water has not greatly changed in ten years. Ferric oxide was found in the last analysis, but this may have come from the iron pipes, through which the water flows for several miles. There is an increase in the amount of sodium, silica, alumina, and magnesium but the general character of the w^ater remains practically the same. A comparison of the sanitary analyses shows that there has been some change in ten years. The free and albumi- noid ammoniaremainabout the same, but the chlorides have increased over two and one-half fold, the nitrates fifteen IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101 fold, and the loss on ij^nition is very much greater. A comparison of the water supplies of several cities shows that the Sioux City supply is better than those of Brooklyn, Boston, and Cincinnati and quite as good as those of several other cities. IGNEOUS ROCKS OP THE CENTRAL CAUCASUS, AND THE WORK OF LOEWINSON-LESSING. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. (Abstract.) In view of the widespread interest that the subject of the differentiation of rock-magmas is exciting among geolo- gists generally I am led at this time to call your attention to one of the most recent, and at the same time one of the most important contributions which has yet been made. My notice will be brief, and will consist chiefly of an exhibition of specimens of many of the most notable rock- types. An explanation of some of the most significant features will be given. Photographs of some of the most characteristic rock-masses as they appear in the field will be shown. These were obtained during a recent trip through the Caucasus region in company with the Russian investigator himself, guiding one of the excursions of the Seventh International Geological Congress. Although the great work of the Russian petrographer, F. Loewinson-Lessing, on the Eruptive Rocks of the Cen- tral Caucasus, was issued more than two years ago, the views advanced are only beginning to get into form accessible to the majority of English students. The gen- eral interest lies in the discussions of the subjects of rock- classification and the differentiation of rock magmas. The classification proposed for the igneous rocks is chemical. It is based primarily upon the degree of acidity of the silicate minerals. Four great groups are thus 102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. established: (1) The ultra-basic rocks, derived from a monosilicate magma; (2) basic rocks, which had a bisili- cate magma; (8) neutral rocks, with a magma which was bisilicate or normal, and (4) acid rocks, in which the magma was polysilicate. These groups are subdivided into four- teen sub-groups and thirty-four families. In order to find the proper systematic position of an eruptive rock from the fundamental viewpoint of the pro- posed classification, four factors are considered: (1) The relation of the oxygen in the silica and that in all the other oxides taken together, giving what is termed the coefficient of acidity; (2) the chemical composition, which gives for each type a distinct formula; (3) the relations between the two groups of oxides according to their molecular propor- tions, and (4) the relations of the soda and potash in the alkaline rocks. This consideration of the principles of classification leads to the proofs of the distinct phases of fundamental magmas. Discussion of the differentiation of rock magmas has an unusual interest. The Russian author calls special atten- tion to the principle of Soret, the action of super-saturated solutions, the effect of gravity, the principle of maximum work as proposed by Berthelot, and the reactions of mixed liquids, as operating in the separation of magmas. Three distinct kinds of magmatic differentiation are recognized. They are: Static differentiation, taking place in the depths of the earth; differentiation by cooling dur- ing ascent to the surface; and crystalline differentiation. Specific gravity, pressure, and temperature are the chief factors governing the course of the static kind; while chemical affinities come into play in large measure only in crystalline separation. The role of inclusions of foreign rocks, which has so long been such an unsatisfactory subject to petrographers, is explained on the idea that it is only that portion of the magma yet undifferentiated which affects the introduced rocks. After thorough assimilation of limestone for example, a separation of the modified magma takes place. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 103 One part contains very little lime and the other nearly all of it. Rock formed from the first mentioned might be a granite, while from the second would come perhaps a gabbro. EVIDENCES OF RECENT UPRISINGS OF THE SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. (Abstract.) The photographs which I have to show you are to illus- trate some remarkably clear examples of very recent changes in elevation of the earth's crust. Most of the pictures were taken in the neighborhood of Sudak, in the Crimea. The southern coast of this peninsula is very rugged. It rises abruptly out of the water to a height of 3,000 to 5,000 feet. The waves are constantly eating back so that in many places the coast land is almost a sheer precipice hundreds of feet high. But the point to which attention is pavticularly called is the sharply cut benches and narrow beaches which occur at various levels, from fifty to four hundred feet and more above the present sea-level. These show, in an excep- tionally fine manner, the action of the waves when the land stood at a much lower level than now. Farther to the westward near Cape Violence, not far from Sebastopol, the country is less rugged than at Sudak; and often broad plains are found stretching down to the sea-level. These plains gradually rise to the eastward and where cut by the waves display sections that show a num- ber of unconformities between the various terranes. Some of these unconformity-planes appear to extend inland and to become continuous with well-marked peneplains now being rapidly dissected. 104 IOWA ACADEMY OB^ SCIENCES As further evidence of this rapid change in the land position with reference to the sea- level in very recent times, Prof. (1. F. Wright, who has lately returned from the same region, informs me that during his ti'ip he found on the south shore of the Euxine, near Trebizone, espe- cially, gravel beach-deposits at an elevation of nearly 700 feet. Now the great interest in these observations lies in the fact that the region occupied by the Black sea is a part of that wonderful belt of depressed crust which bisects the Eurasian continent and which extends the whole length of the Mediterranean sea, through the Black and Caspian seas, the Sea of Aral, to beyond Lake Balkash. The sur- face of the Caspian is nearly 100 feet below general sea- level. The country on the north side of the Caucasus, between this body of water and the Black sea, is scarcely 200 feet above sea-level at its highest point. Altogether, this region is perhaps the best we know of for studying through the means of exact data, problems of differential elevation of the earth's crust. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105 A DEVONIAN HIATUS IN THE CONTINENTAL IN- TERIOR ITS CHARACTER AND DEPOSITIONAL EQUIVALENTS. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. In Iowa, with our nearly 500 feet of Devonian sediments, we are not apt to think very much about a possibility of the lack of this great system soon after the boundaries of our state are passed. Yet the possibility is an actuality. In west-central Missouri it has been lately found that no rocks of Devonian a^e are represented. The lower Carbon- iferous strata rests directly upon Ordovician dolomites. The general section east of Clinton, Missouri, on Grand river, a tributary of the Osage, is as follows: FEET. Henrietta limestones 60 Cherokee shales (Dos Moines series) 100 Augusta limestone ; 175 Chouteau limestone (Mississippian series) 15 Ordovician dolomite (exposed) 20 This gap in sedimentation in west-central Missouri in- cludes, as is shown, more than the Devonian alone. The whole of the Silurian is absent. But only the Devonian portion is considered at this time for the reason that im- portant correlations have been recently made, and these bear directly upon the nature of the hiatus. Southward, in southwest Missouri, the Devonian strata again put in their appearance. In northern Arkansas Wil- liams has also lately demonstrated that both Devonian and Silurian sediments were laid down in this part of the region. On the east side of the Ozark plateau, along the Mississippi river, both Silurian and Devonian sequences are unbroken. 81 A S 106 IOWA ADADEMY OF SCIENCES. It has been thus assumed that the Devonian beds form one of the originally deposited concentric zones around the older rock-mass of the Ozark dome. On this account chiefly it has been urged that the Devonian sediments were laid down around what is termed the Ozark Isle. The necessary inference is that during Devonian times sub- aerial erosion took place over all the present Ozark region. Attention to a few facts quickly dispels this hypothesis. The Devonian sediments themselves show nowhere a coarse littoral character. The "concentric ring" is not an unbroken one; it is sundered on the southeast and on the northwest parts of the great dome. Devonian deposits, highly fossiliferous, occur on the highest portions of the uplift; showing unmistakably that, in the absence of other evidence to the contrary, they once extended unbroken over the entire uplift. It is clearly manifest from geographic inquiry that the present Ozark dome is a very recent upris- ing— probably post-Tertiary. In the face of these facts the hiatus in central Missouri has a special significance. It points at once to the sug- gestion that the area in which there was no Devonian depo- sition was not a sub-circular one, coincident with the Ozark dome of today, but a narrow ridge-like elevation. The structure of the Ordovician beds of the region also indicates that this is the true explanation. Ten years ago I called attention to the location of this old ridge. Today its importance appears much greater than was at that time supposed. Now, we have through the Mississippi valley, at least west of the great river, two horizons which are exception- ally clearly defined. One is the top of the Silurian. The other is the base of the Chouteau-Burlington limestones. Between these two stratigraphic horizons the beds are here assumed to be Devonian in age. The formations repre- sented in typical localities are as follows: GENEHAI. DEVONIAN SECTION OF IOWA. FEET. Lime Creek shales 100 Cedar Valley limestone J 50 Wapsipinicon lime.stone 16) Independence shales 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. I07 GENERAL NORTH MISSOURI StTCCEfiSION. FEET. Hannibal shales 75 Louisiana limostone JO Grassy Creek shales 3) Callaway limestone 30 SECTION OF SOUTHWEST MISSOURI. FEET. Hannibal shales 90 Ijouisiana limestone 10 Phelps sandstone 15 Sac limestone 15 King limestone 15 Eureka shales 10 NORTH ARKANSAS SECTION. FEET. , St. Joe marble ( Carboniferous) 50 Eurtka shales (typical) 30 Sylamore sandstone 40 Eureka shales (in part ) and Green shales 50 St. Clair limestone (Silurian) 150 It will be noted that two of the formations which were included in the original Kinderhook division of the Lower Carboniferous, are here classified with the Devonian. On account of lying on the border of the Devonian and Carboniferous the original Kinderhook has a special interest at this time. In the last half century there has been so much controversy in regard to the age and distri- bution of the Kinderhook that we must now look into original meanings before attempting to arrive at conclusive interpretations. At the outset three separate and distinct lines of con- sideration arise. They have to do, first, with the strati- graphy, second with the faunal features, and, third, with the geological age according to the most approved methods of determination. Each of these phases has an individual- ity of its own and requires a perfect independence of treatment. Usually no distinction is made; and therein is the source of much of the confusion which has arisen regarding the real nature and relations of the Kinderhook. A summary of the history of the opinion is not without interest. The first important notice of the beds in question is that of Owen. As one passes in review the published data relating to the beds which have given rise to the Kin- derhook controversy he cannot help looking upon many of . 108 . IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. the points in a very different light from that in which they were originally presented. Standing now after a lapse of sixty years, one cannot bnt marvel at the wonderful dis- cernment with which the first efforts to differentiate the Carboniferous formations were made. Time has notdimmed the work of that indefatigable pioneer in American geology, David Dale Owen, in his discriminations concerning the Carboniferous limestones of the Mississippi valley. The arrangement of the geological formations as proposed by Owen rests primarily upon lithologic grounds; but fossils receive their full consideration. So far as it goes, Owen's scheme is essentially the ])lan now accepted. New titles have been proposed, but the actual divisional lines remain unaltered. To the shales underlying the Encrinital (Bur- lington) limestone at Burlington and Hannibal Owen gave the name Argillo-calcareous group. Although the nether limit was not specific the group is known to be practi- cally co-extensive with what was later termed the Hannibal formation. When fresh from the rich paleontologic fields of New York, where a standard Paleozoic section for America had been recently established, James Hall was easily led to discern in the rocks of the Mississippi valley the faunal horizons which he knew so well in his native state. In the Argillo-calcareous group of Burlington and Hannibal he fancied that he recognized the Chemung of the East. He had already traced the Devonian formation westward to the Mississippi river. The determination of the Devonian age of the shales at the base of the section at Burlington and at Hannibal did ^not rest upon observations at these points alone. There was a correlation of these beds w^ith lithologically similar beds farther to the northward at Muscatine and in northern Iowa where there was an obvious association with un- doubted Devonian limestones. Singularly enough, after forty years of uncertainty Hall's correlation and assignment of Devonian age to these strata, are again beginning to be demonstrated to be correct. At no time during all the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109 prolix discussions did Hall abandon his early views on the Devonian age of these shales which have so long been called the median member of the Kinderhook, G. C. Swallow, the first state geologist of Missouri, with the aid of the paleontologists Meek and Shumard, recog- nized in his state, immediately beneath the great Encrini- tal limestone a three-fold division which h-e referred to the Chemung section of the Devonian . This author introduced a new member into the succession by defining the Chou- teau limestone. In central Missouri this limestone attains a thickness of 100 feet. No one would suspect from exami- nation along the Mississippi river that such an important formation existed at the base of the Burlington limestone. Hence, it is not strange that the geologists who had only seen the river sections gave the dozen feet of earthy lime- stone at the bottom of the Burlington so little consider- ation. Meek found the Chouteau limestone in the original locality to contain many forms of fossils. Their great re- semblance to those in the limestone above had a tendency from the first to somewhat shake his faith in the Devonian age of the beds. In his later report, on Saline county, Missouri, the next year (though not published until seven years afterwards) he was fully convinced that the Chouteau limestone should be associated with the Carboniferous rather than the Devonian. It is a noteworthy fact in this connection that, in central Missouri, the lower two mem- bers of Swallow's Chemung appear to be wanting. Meek and Worthen's Kinderhook formation has a singu- lar nominal history. The proposal of the term Kinder- hook as a geological title was unfortunately shrouded by personal animosities. When, in 1860, Worthen and Meek began their labors on the geological survey of Illinois both had recently become very bitter against Hall, and could scarcely restrain themselves in attempts to overthrow some of the latter's work. Worthen had fancied an unpardonable grievance because, while connected with the Iowa survey under Hall, the latter had verified some of the former's 110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. observations, but had used names of his own instead of those previously suggested in manuscript. Meek had just left Hall's laboratory in Albany as the result of a quarrel about the proper draughting of some of the fossils for the latter's New York report. Intense rivalry had also now arisen between Hall and Meek and Worthen as to who should first describe the new fossils which were, about 1860, being discovered in the rich fields along the Mississippi river in Hlinois and the neighboring states. Thus in considering the beginnings of the Kinderhook controversy there is a certain element of biased judgment which has to be eliminated. Many misstatements of fact, many misquotations of contemporaneous opinion, and many misinterpretations of published work appeared in the first paper by Meek and Worthen on the Kinderhook. No doubt the intention of the Illinois authors was to pre- sent the facts as they thought they really were, but with glasses somewhat colored, enthusiasm born of new dis- coveries, and jealous rivalry, they evidenced a haste that was not customary with these usually very careful workers. But aside from the shortcomings just mentioned there appears to be far more important factors that were over- looked in the proposal of the group Kinderhook and the assigning of it all to the Carboniferous. Meek and Worthen's conclusions were far too sweeping. The triple membered Chemung of Swallow had not all been examined by the authors mentioned. To them practically only the upper member had yielded fossils. The Vermicular (Hannibal) shales and the Lithographic (Louisiana) limestone was admittedly barren of organic forms, except half a dozen or more species and almost as few individuals, which had been found at the very base of the formation. Meek had already studied in Missouri only the fossils from the typical Chouteau; and had come to regard them as Carboniferous forms. At Burlington fossils had been collected from the Kinderhook only near the base of the Burlington limestone. At the type locality of Kinderhook IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ill tlie fossils are found chiefly in the upper layers of the formation. Meek and W'orthen's collections are now known to have been all made from layers within a few feet of the bottom of the Burlington limestone. The fauna of Meek and Worthen's Kinderhook group is, therefore, not the fauna of the whole of the three-fold ter- rane which has long been known to geologists as the Kinderhook, but it is the fauna only of the upper limestone member — the Chouteau limestone. By them the fossils of the lower two members of their Kinderhook were not con- sidered in the least degree. To them, the lower faunas were unknown. They delimited one geological sequence lithologically. For the whole they defined faunally only a very small part of the same sequence. They assigned a definite geological age to the whole; when they were actu- ally justified only in ascribing an age to a single member. The Kinderhook fauna as we today know it is in reality only the fauna of the Chouteau limestone. We know now that other and very different faunas occur in the shales and limestones immediately underneath. This brings us to the question as to what is the Chouteau stage. The biological geologists are inclined to apply the term (Ihouteau to the earliest of the three categories into which they subdivide the Eo-Carboniferous of the Mis- sissippi valley. The title thus refers to the Kinderhook terrane of Meek and Worthen. Before the application of the term in this sense the name had already been formally given to the upper member of the Kinderhook. Broad- head's subsequent extension of the title making it synony- mous with Kinderhook does net appear to render it in any way valid. Chouteau, if it is to be retained as a faunal term in geology, can only be made to apply to the stage of the Chouteau limestone. In this sense it satisfies all the requirements of dual classification in geology. Moreover, it may refer to a fauna that is a compact unit. It applies to a fauna which is believed to be Carboniferous. It eliminates the incongruous elements which are not Carboniferous in 112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. character. Referring to terranes, the name would apply to the lowermost member of the Mississippiaii series. The fauna which is generally thought to be the fauna from the original Chouteau limestone is at best a fancied medley of shadowy definition. Practically no detailed work has yet been published. Careful determination of the exact horizons of the various forms has not even been attempted. Of the species described from the original Chouteau of central Missouri many are now known to be from formations other than the terrane under considera- tion. It is small wonder, therefore, that the Chouteau or Kinderhook fauna as we have so long known it is apparently ill-defined, anomalous and puzzling. In the critical study of the lowest Carboniferous faunas of the Mississippi valley there is need, before all else, of exact determination of the various organic forms that occur in the original Chouteau limestone of central Missouri. It is only with this type fauna that the faunas of the Kinder- hook from other localities and other horizons can be com- pared with profit. Until the fossils from the original Chouteau are carefully collected and studied anew in their entirety the "Choteau fauna" must be regarded as a quantity unknown. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. llo^ PAROXYMETAMETHYLACETOPHENONE AND SOME. OF ITS DERIVATIVES. BY J. G. GOODWIN. Work leading toward the preparation of this and if pos- sible toward one of its isomers, was commenced with work on phenol. First the phenyl acetate was made as follows: forty-one grams of phenol were taken in a distilling flask, and to this were added gradually, through a reflax conden- ser (in hood) twenty-eight to thirty grams (excess) of acetyl chloride. The flask was heated in a water-bath until the HCl ceased to come off. The contents of the flask were then washed with a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide, brought into a separating funnel with water, and the oil separated, dried over calcium chloride and distilled. B. p. = 195'-^. Yield forty grams. The phenyl acetate then made was converted into p. acetjlphenol as follows* forty grams of the acetate were treated with twenty-eight grams of acetyl chloride and fifty grams of dry, powdered aluminum chloride added, with reflux condenser. Ligroin was added for a solvent, and the whole heated on a water- bath for one hour. The contents of the flask were poured into water, and the oil dried and distilled in fractions as high as 200*^. The part below 132'-' was counted ligroin. The part undistilled was small and caused bumping on further heating. The fraction 132^^ — 200'-' was treated with strong sodium hydroxide in a flask to hydralize it, the un- hydrallized portion being kept for subsequent treatment. The alkaline liquid was acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid, and the oil separating out extracted twice with ether. The portion above 200^ was treated in a similar 114 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. manner. When the hydrolysis would })roceed no further, the ether was distilled off over a waterbath, and set aside for evaporation. The portion from the 132^ — 200^ fraction crystallized in long needles, that of higher boiling point remained an oil even at -17*^. The crystals melted at 107^ and were soluble in warm water and in the usual organic solvents. The product is p. acetylphenol. This shows that the first acetyl group going on was split off and the hydroxyl restored by hydrolysis, the acetyl group para to it remain- ing. In putting on the second group the halogen acid was split off from the acetyl group. This cleavage was next tried with anhydrous zinc chloride as an agent, instead of aluminum chloride. This is said^ to be of advantage, especially where organic radicals are to be introduced into the nucleus of phenol, amines, and acids. It is specially used, therefore, for making ketone acids, oxy-ketones, etc., whereby naturally the acid group reacts also with the amido or hydroxyl group, unless, as is better, this has been done first. The ordinary rules for position hold. To apply this method three grams of phenol are taken in a large test-tube and to it 4.5 grams of benzoyl chloride added slowly, the whole heated in a water-bath to drive of excess of HCl. Again the same quantity of benzoyl chlo- ride is added and a small quantity of freshly prepared anhydrous zinc chloride added until no further action is caused by it. While this is being added the tube is kept at 180^ by means of an oil-bath. Crystals appear. The mass is brought into alcohol, heated to dissolve, filtered, cooled slowly, when crystals form and are freed from the ' mother liquor by means of a filter pump. They are washed with a small quantity of cold alcohol and warmed to drive of the alcohol. The crystals are in the form of leaves and are pressed on a porous plate to dry, and the melting point found to be IIP. The product is p. oxybenzophenonben- zoate. Yield 2.2 grams. •Elbs. Vol. II, p. 177. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 115 It may be in order here to speak of some of the different 'methods that have been used for forminf? these compounds. We find, for example, that o. oxyacetophenone was made by Y. Tahara from methyl salicylate through o. methoxy- benzoylaceticester and o. methoxyacetophenone.* The last step, that of splitting off the methyl group, was accom- plished by digesting for six hours the o. methoxyacetophe none with concentrated HCl at 150 in a sealed tube. Methyl chloride was evolved and also a brown oil which was extracted from its ethereal solution by means of sodium hydroxide and subsequent acidification, extracting with ether and evaporating, when the o. oxyacetophenone appeared in the form of a brown oil which was purified by distillation and crystallization. The sodium salt of this •compound has the form of colorless leaves. The yield is ;small. The acetyl derivative was made by the action of acetyl chloride upon the sodium salt. P. Freidlander and J.Neudorfer prepared the o. oxyaceto- phenone from o. nitrophenylpropiolic acid, con verting this into nitro-phenyl acetylene, amidophenyl acetylene, and finally amidoacetophenone. This last named is diazotized to o. oxyacetophenone. The yield is better than that of Tahara. For the acetyl compound these experimenters heated the oxyacetophenone witli acetic anhydride and sodium acetate to 150'. The acetyl compound crystallized out of alcohol in hexagonical plates. M. p. 89^. Nencki and Stoeber studied the action of acetyl chloride on bezene and mono-basic phenols in the presence of ferric chloride. f Acetophenone was prepared. Yield not stated. P. oxyacetophenone was prepared from acetyl chloride and phenol, melting point 108^. 150 g. of phenol gave 30 g. of ketone. These men found also that the isomeric cresols acted like the phenols. From o. cresol, p. oxym. methylacetophenone was prepared, m.p. 104 '. Also p. oxy o. methylacetophenone from m. cresol, m. p. 126". Benzoyl chloride yielded no oxybenzoylphenone but only •cresol beuzoate. The method was to take molecular ♦Berichte 25, pp. 1306-1310. fBeriehte, 3,', p. 1768. 116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. equivalents of the cresol and acetyl chloride, or a slight excess of the latter, and add anhydrous sublimed ferric chloride in c(uantities equal to the chloride. After the action the dark, syrup-like li((uid is poured into water and the insoluble residue distilled with steam. The ketone passes over as an oil and solidifies. It is recrystallized from dilute alcohol. The solvent used in the first of these operations is carbon disulphide. The product out of o. cresol is colored brown by ferric chloride. We shall speak of this test again. Nearly all these methods were tried in the laboratory. The method of Verly with large quantities of the phenol, aluminum chloride, low temperature and vacuum did not give a good yield of anything except the ester instead of the oxyketone. This was tried with phenyl benzoate and benzoyl chloride. The method was also tried with acetyl chloride and phenyl acetate, but the esters remained practically unchanged. I next I tried p. acetyl phenyl acetate, from phenyl acetate and acetyl chloride by means of zinc chloride and heat to 100° in oil bath. The temperature was kept at 100"^ as long as HCl was evolved. The yield was very small. The phenyl acetate for these latter reactions was made* as follows: To 60 g. of phenol 80 g. of powdered anhydrous sodium acetate was added in a flask and shaken, then 85 g: of acetic anhydride added gradually through a reflux air- condenser. The temperature of the oil bath was gradually raised to 150 and kept up until the liquid ceased to appear in the condenser. After cooling, water was added and the oil washed in a separating funnel, dried over calcium chloride and distilled at 195 ; tlie yield was 69 g., or 63 per cent of the theory. Repeated trials of zinc chloiide and aluminum chloride failed to give any satisfactory product. Resort was then had to anhydrous ferric chloride. 5 g. of phenol dissolved' in 5 g. carbon disulphide were taken in a small flask and. 6 g. of acetyl chloride added. To them, by means of a rubber IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES. 117 tube to exclude moisture, anhydrous ferric chloride was slowly added — -7 g. The flask was kept cool with a water- bath. Tiie contents were poured out into water, the oil distilled with steam to drive off the carbon disulphide and ])henol, the residue filtered hot. Yield 1.3 g. of p. oxyacetophenone. This method was then tried with p. cresol but even after repeated trials refused absolutely to work. Out of o. cresol, j). oxy m. methylacetophenone was prepared. Carbon disulphide was used for a solveiit, with ferric chloride. The yield was 14.8 per cent, of the theory. The flask was kept cool to avoid loss of the solvent. The product was poured out on snow, so that the heat of reaction would not decompose it, and the oil distilled with steam, and purified as above, by crystallization. M. p. 104^ It appears from the foregoing paragraphs that the place para to the hydroxyl group must be free in order that the cleavage and condensation may take place. Then the fact is, that the acetyl chloride acts on the para hydrogen, even when the hydroxyl group has not been changed or replaced, giving the oxyketone without any hydrolysis. It appeared that the yield might be larger if the temperature w^ere higher than that which the German ex- perimenters had used — the boiling point of carbon disul- phide. A higher temperature then was made possible by means of carbon tetrachloride as a solvent, which was used at 65^. The first trial gave a yield of 25 per cent, and this was subsequently raised to 28 per cent, while the best method that had been used by these Germans, Nencki and Stoeber, who used carbon disulphide and low temperature, gave a yield of 14.8 per cent. Repeated experiments showed that the temperature of G5 gave the largest product. A higher temperature gave more tar; at a lower temperature the reaction did not take place to any practical extent. After a considerable quantity of this product, the p. oxy m. methylacetophenone had been prepared, I studied to find whether the product described by these chemists, Nencki and Stoeber, was pure. For this purpose the prod- 118 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. uct was purified by twice recrystallizin^ from hot water,, when the crystals, heretofore slightly brownish in color were quite colorless. The test given by the former makers was a brown coloration with the ferric chloride solution- While the crude product of first crystallization gave a strong brown coloration with ferric chloride and red with sodium hydroxide (a very delicate test) the pure crystals, gave no coloration at all. Further, the melting point was- given as 104\ This was the melting point of the crude crystals, but the purified product showed a melting point of 106 . The crystals gathered on the surface of the liquid and on the bottom in long needles grouped about a nucleus:, on either side of the dish, at the bottom. It then remained to determine the solubility ,taste,etc. of the compound, no record of which was given in the account. Since the crystals go to an oil when heated in water to 78^, the solubility was determined at two points below this- temperature. At 22 the solubility was found to be 0.035- per cent. At 70' it was found to be 2.76 per cent. The crystals gave no immediate taste even when; powdered and placed on the tongue, but after about twenty seconds gave a strong, peppery taste. Derivatives of p. oxy m. methylacetophenone. (New.) Methyl ester.- -The quantities taken were in the propor- tion of one gram molecule of the ketone, one of sodium* hydroxide, one of methyl iodide and enough alcohol to dis- solve the whole. The mixture was heated to boiling in a flask till the alkaline reaction disappeared. Most of the- alcohol was then evaporated off and the residue poured into water. The product appeared as an oil which was- extracted with ether, washed with very dilute sodium hydroxide, separated, dried over calcium carbonate and the- ether filtered off in vacuo. The remaining oil was distilled under reduced pressure, in a stream of carbon dioxide. It boils at 230 , gives a colorless oil without much odor. It solidifies in a freezing mixture and remains a white, crystal line solid at room temperature, but melts at the tempera- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 110 ture of the hand. The melting point was found to be 25°. P. oxy m. methylacetophenonemethylester. 6.47 g. of ketone gave 3.82 g. of the ester. P. oxym. methylacetophenonethylester. This was pre- pared in a manner similar to that of the methyl ester. The product however appeared as a white solid after dis- tillation. It was purified as before, and dried on a porous plate. The yield was better, being 77.6 per cent of the theory. This compound is redistilled at 220°-2B0'^ under 74 mm. pressure. M. p. 34.5*-'. The manufacture of the cetyl ester was attempted in the same manner that the methyl and ethyl esters had been made, but no product could be obtained which would solid- ify, and it had to be abandoned. The experimental work ended here owing to lack of time. 120 • IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ON THP] OCCURRENCE OF RHIZOPODS TN THE PELLA BEDS IN IOWA. BY J. A. UDDEN. In Jefferson county the Pella beds of the Saint Louis formation have a thickness of about twenty feet. They consist of heavy ledges of calcareous limestones, inter- bedded with seams of marly shales, the latter being best developed in the upper part of the section. The several seams and ledges appear quite persistent and some have been identified at different points a few miles apart. They have evidently been laid down at some considerable distance from the shore. Occasionally there are ledges of limestone which are very fine-grained, almost litho- graphic in texture. Here as elsewhere in the south part of the state, the fauna of the formation is meager in ■species but quite prolific in individuals. Pugnax ottunnva, Spirifer keohd-, Zaphrentis pallaensis, Anisotrypa fistulosa, und stems of crinoids appear everywhere, especially in the marls. This has long been known. A closer examination of these rocks shows that some rhizopods also are almost invariably present. By crushing, washing and sifting, these may be found in the marls and sometimes also in the limestone. The most common form has been identified by Schuchert as Endothyni haileyi Hall, which is known from Indiana and Illinois. But there are at least two or three other forms not yet identified. Associated with these are two ostracods: CythercUina glamlulosa and Leperditia carhonaria, and also some minute spines and plates of an Archaeocidaris [very rare]. The presence of the rhizopods corroborates the view that the Pella beds were laid down some distance out in the open sea. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 121 PLEUROPTYX IN THE IOWA COAL MEASURES. BY J. A. UDDEN. At a horizon of some hundred feet above the base of the Coal Measures in Fairfield township in Jefferson county is a seam of a concretionary limestone varying from two to five feet in thickness. It crops out on the hillside in a creek that follows the south side of the abandoned embank- ment of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railroad, where this leaves the new line, about a mile and a half west of the city of Fairfield. The ledge has been quarried in several places close to the line of the old road, where some pits are still seen. On this limestone lies a black, fissile bituminons shale, lumps of which are seen in the old pits. Last summer the writer found in one of these lumps a bone which he thought might be a phalanx of some early batrachian. This was submitted to Prof. C. R. East- man of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, who identified it as belonging to Pleuroptyx clavatiis Cope, discovered in the Coal Measures of Ohio. In the lump of shale which contained this bone some small enamelled rhomboidal scales and a few small conical teeth were also observed, and associated with these were some slender and polished bony spines and impressions of numerous small ostracods. The abundance of vertebrate remains was confined to a single lump of the shale, but it suggests that the locality might deserve a more thorough exploration. 9 I A s 122 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA BIOLOGICAL STATION. BY MAURICE RICKER. Noticeable among recent movements tending to promote the interests of biological science is the development of the inland biological station. Any arrangement whereby stu- dents and teachers may work under proper guidance out of doors, in nature's own laboratory, should be encouraged. Our own state made a beginning last summer at Lake Okoboji. I sincerely hope it may become permanent and that many teachers in Iowa will avail themselves of the opportunity to combine a pleasurable outing with profit- able field and laboratory work in Natural Science. Indiana, at Winona lake, and Illinois at Havana, have opened permanent stations and drawn many earnest stu- dents. To be entirely successful the location must be such as to provide a variety of plant and animal life, but hardly less important is it that the place chosen have many of the attractions of a summer resort. It must furnish rea- sonable accommodations, be easy of access, and be favored with pleasant and healthy summer weather. All these requirements can hardly be fully met. It is my purpose to give a brief description of the Mon- tana Biological Station because it seems to me to be, in every way, the ideal. The Flathead lake, in Northwestern Montana, is the largest body of fresh water west of the great lakes. It lies between the Mission and Cabinet ranges of the llocky mountains. Its elevation is 2,800 feet. It is nearly thirty- five miles long and from eight to fifteen wide. It is drained by the Peud d' Oreille river which has rapidly cut IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123 its canyon through the moraine, lowering what was formerly a much larger lake to its present level. The main feeder of the lake is the Flathead river which now is a tortuous, sluggish stream through the ancient lake bed for seventy-five miles. It is from 300 to 600 feet in width and from twenty to seventy-five in depth. The last few miles have formed a typical delta, filled with swamps and ancient river beds. The Big Fork or Swan river is the only other large stream emptying into the lake. It is the very opposite in character, coming plunging out of the mountains with a fall of over 100 feet to the last mile into a rocky bay. This forms a splendid harbor about four miles from the mouth of the Flathead river. On the bank, overlooking this harbor stands the laboratory building in a beautiful little park, leased to the state. The boats and launch give access to the lake, the delta, and lake shores. I need not explain to this body what this means to the naturalist. The mountains, forests, and meadows back of the lake, with occasional marshes and ponds give a wonderful variety to the plant and animal life. Swan lake, six miles east by road, is twelve miles long by a few hundred yards wide. It is a drained river valley with mountains on either side. Host lake about eight miles by road north is a much different body of water, being the shallow remnant of a much larger lake formerly occupying the valley. Echo lake two miles further is probably the ancient bed of a river. It has no visible outlet. It stood for some years at a much lower level. Trees and vegetation show that its level was suddenly raised about lifteen feet five years ago. This sudden change in environment seems to have been quickly responded to and it offers a rich field for biological inves- tigation. From the camp on Echo lake an expedition up the Black- feet trail gives easy access to the pass, permanent snow field, an alpine flora and some of the most magnificent mountain scenery in the world. This one day is worth 124 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. the cost of the summer, is the unanimous opinion of all visiting students. Out of a party of thirty last season all but seven or eight reached the summit with ease. If I have given you any conception of the region in this brief description I need not enlarge upon the character and variety of the plant and animal life. You will not be surprised to know that Dr. McDougal gathered 500 species of plants in thirty days, a total of over 900 in ten weeks in the field. The laboratory building will accommodate about twenty students. It has a small store room and a convenient dark room. The work tables are well lighted and conveniently arranged. The equipment is ample and of the best. All needed instruments, glassware, re-agents and preservatives are furnished. The grounds are commodious and most of the students live in tents, some camping out in regulation style and others taking their meals at a nearby ranch which- is a really good summer hotel. Those who prefer can have rooms as well as board as about twenty can be so accom- modated. The rates are very reasonable. A general store and postoffice with daily mails will bring the station in closer touch with civilization this year. The weather during July and August is delightful. There are no rains to hinder work, the temperature is just right day and night, the air is dry and the elevation not noticeable. Our thermostat registered between 70 ' and 80° for a maximum and from 46° to 55° for a minimum during the two months. Every evening was spent around the camp fire and the night between woolen blankets. I understand that those of you who spent the summer in the Mississippi valley were able to economize on camp fires and saved a good deal of wear and tear on sleeping bags. Fishing, bathing, boating, and other sports furnish amusement for those who wish to combine work with recreation. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125 No tuition fees are charged. The expense of getting there is not so great as might he expected, owing to reduced rates to western points. The station is reached over the Burlington and Northern Pacific by stage from Selish to Poison on the lower end of the lake and thence by steamer tri-weekly, or over the Great Northern to Kalispell, by stage four miles to Dlemersville on the Flat- head river and thence by steamer. The station work has so far been eminently successful, due very largely to the untiring energy of the director, Prof. M. J. Elrod. I believe he has started what will finally become the most famous fresh water station in this country. A LARGE RED HYDRA. BY MAURICE RICKER. During the summer session of the University of Montana Biological Station, we found what is believed to be a new hydra. It was taken in large numbers from Echo lake, Flathead county, Montana. It has never been found in any of the other numerous streams or lakes in this vicinity, and so far as is known no other hydra has ever been col- lected in the state. The following are some of its most noticeable character- istics: The animals are conspicuous on account of their bright coral red color and large size. In fact, one can recognize them as hydra while standing on logs. A fair sample of the larger ones measured, when feeding, five- eighths inch from the mouth to the proximal end. None of the tentacles of this hydra were less than two and one- half inches long, measured from the mouth to the end, and the longest was two and eleven-sixteenths inches, making a total length from tip to tip of three and five- sixteenths inches. 126 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. When feeding, the tentacles are capable of unusual extension until they seem a mere thread bearing notice- ably large nematocysts, like beads strung on a string. The color is a deep bright coral red. most intense near the distal end and seems to be distributed in chloroplast like granules, as in H. viridis. It is apparently constant and may be due to symbiotic algae. Since the waters of Echo lake contain large numbers of a reddish Daphnia, and, thinking the question of their effect on the color of the hydra would arise, a number of the latter were taken alive, and fed for five weeks upon color- less entomostraca, from Flathead lake, at the station laboratory. While they did not seem to thrive, no notice- able dimming of the color bodies was observed. A careful study of the literature and of hydra from various localities will be made. Some eight species have been described but only two are at present allowed. This one seems to possess as much difference as is found between the H. fusca and H. viridis and careful study should either reduce them all to varieties or establish at least three species. The striking color; the large size; the isolation of the animals from related forms; the apparent division of the body into a stalk and an enlarged gastric cavity, of about equal length; the removal of gonads and buds beyond this apparent division altogether seemed to make it worthy of notice. Histological examination will be made and it is believed the characters enumerated will prove constant and new. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 127 SOME NEW DOUBLE BROMIDES AND THEIR DIS- SOCIATION IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION. BY NICHOLAS KNIGHT. The purpose of this investigation is to study the condi- tion of double bromides in the presence of varying amounts of water. The substances herein described are well defined compounds, having a composition as definite and a crystalline form as characteristic as any group of chem- ical substances. The question as to the way these substances break down in aqueous solution is an interesting one. Are they first decomposed into their constituent molecules, and then these molecules dissociated electrolytically by the water, as a mixture of the two substances would be, or do the molecules of the double salts exist as such in aqueous solu- tion ? No satisfactory answer has yet been received. The application of the conductivity method to the problem of the existence of double salts in solution has been made by a number of investigators. The conductivity of solutions of the double salts, and also the conductivity of solutions of the constituent were determined. On com- paring the sum of the conductivities of the constituents with the conductivity of the double salt at the same dilu- tion, it is usually found that the conductivity of the double salt is very much less than the sum of the constituents in concentrated solution. Hence it is concluded that in such solutions the double salt is only partially broken down into the constituent substances. As the dilution increases the differences become smaller and hnally disappear, or nearly so, indicating that in very dilute solutions the double salt entirely decomposes into its constituents. 128 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A NEW DOUBLE BROMIDE OF SODIUM AND CADMIUM. 2 Na Br, 3 Cd Br„ 6 H,0. The constituent bromides were brought together in proper proportion to form the double salt 2 Na Br, 3 Cd Br^, 5 HoO which is described in the literature. A beautifully crys- tallized salt separated out, and it was supposed to be the one described. The cadmium in the double salt was determined. FOUND FOUND I. II. Cd 30.0 29.6 The water was determined by drying a weighed portion of the salt to constant weight at 160°. FOUND FOUND I. II. H«0 10.5 10.3 The bromine was then determined. FOUND FOUND I. II. Br 56.47 56.63 The cadmium, water and bromine correspond to a salt having the composition expressed by the formula: 2 Na Br, 8 Cd Br„ 6 H,0. CALCU- LATED. Cd 29.8 H„.0 9.55 Br 56.59 The salt has the unusually high molecular weight of 1130.63. A solution of the double salt was prepared and standard- ized by determining the amount of cadmium in a known volume of the solution. From this standardized solution, all the remaining dilutions were prepared thus: Solutions 2 to 6, and in some cases 2 to 7 were each prepared directly from the standardized solution by measuring off the desired volume of this solution into a measuring flask, and then diluting to the required volume. Solutions 7 to 11 were prepared from 6 directly in the same manner. Then No. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 129 11 was taken as the mother solution, and the remaining solutions prepared in a similar manner from it. Dupli- cates of every solution were made and their conductivities determined. All pipettes and measuring flasks used were carefully calibrated by the method of Morse and Blalock.* In measuring the conductivity of the solutions two cells were used; one with the electrodes removed some distance from one another for the more concentrated solutions, and the other with the plates close together for the more dilute solutions. In this way greater accuracy was possible. The Ostwald modification of the Kohlrausch method was used. The cells were carefully standardized with -g- potas- sium chloride (Mu V=129.7 at 25°) at the beginning of each seres of measurements. The water used in the solutions was prepared by the method of purifying devised by Jones and MacKayf . Solutions of the constituents were prepared and meas- ured in the same way as the double salts. In tables V is the volume of the solution in litres which contain a gram molecular weight of the electrolyte. Mu V is the molecular conductivity at volume M . All the con- ductivity measurements were made at a temperature of 25 . A solution of the double salts, sodium cadmium bromide, was prepared and standardized by determining the amount of cadmium in a known volume of the solution. From the standarized solution all the remaining dilutions were prepared. * The American Chemical Journal, xvi, 479. + The American Chemical Journal, xix, 91. 130 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Molecular Conductivity of 2NaBr,3CdBr« (7022.63), FIRST SERIE.S. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME. Mu V25°. Mu V 25". 2.443 132.8 132.4 132.6 4.886 187.4 187.6 187.5 9.772 248.0 248.2 248.1 19.544 315.9 316.0 315.9 39.088 387.0 387.0 387 0 78.176 457.7 457.8 457.7 97.72 478 3 478.3 478.3 195.44 548.3 .548.3 548.3 390.88 625.1 625.5 625.3 781.76 701.6 701.6 701.6 1563.52 780.0 781.6 780.8 3908.80 856.0 857.5 856 8 7817.6 910.7 910.7 910.7 15635.2 958.5 962.4 960.4 Molecular Conductivity of NaBr {103 .0) FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME. Mu V 25°. Mu V25''. MEAN. 1 80.6 80.0 80.3 2 88.0 88.0 88.0 4 94.4 94.4 94.4 8 100.6 101 0 100.8 16 105.3 105.3 105.3 40 110.6 111.1 110.8 80 113.1 113.1 113.1 160 116 6 116.6 116.6 320 119.0 119.4 119.2 640 120.9 1 0.9 120.9 1600 121.1 121.2 121.1 A solution of purified cadmium bromide was standard- ized by determining the amount of cadmium oxide in a measured volume. From this the remaining dilutions were made in the manner already described. Molecular Conductivity of CdBr^ {272.21). FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME. Mu V 25^. Mu V 25°. MEAN . 2 60 41.3 41.3 41.3 5.20 57.4 57.4 57.4 10.40 75 7 75.7 75.7 20.80 95.0 95 2 95.1 41.60 115.3 115.4 115.3 104.0 144.1 144.3 144.2 208.0 166.1 166.0 166.0 416 0 188.9 188.7 188.8 832.0 209.3 209.3 209.3 1664.0 228 3 228.2 228.2 3328.0 242.5 242.3 242.4 6656.0 256.3 256.0 256.1 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 131 In comparing the conductivity of the double salt with the sum of the conductivities of the constituents twice the molecular conductivity of sodium bromide at one-half the dilution of the double salt is taken To this is added three times the molecular conductivity of cadmium bromide at one-third the dilution of the double salt. The reason for this is apparent from the composition of the double salt. Comparison for 2NaBr, 3CdBr^. Volume. NaBr, CdBro Mu V 25°. Vijlume MuV25'^. Sum. 179.5 1.63 90.9 270.4 189.6 3.26 135.9 325 5 203 6 6.51 185.7 389.3 212 0 13.03 241.1 453.1 220.8 26.06 300.0 520.8 222.6 32.6 318.1 540.7 227.8 65.1 383.1 610 9 234.6 130.3 448.1 682 7 239.6 260.6 515.4 755.0 242.0 521 2 591 . 7 833.7 242 4 1302.9 657.9 900.3 242.5 2605.9 705.0 947.5 242.5 5211.7 750.9 993.4 2NaBr. Volume. 3CdBr„. MuV25". 4.88 187.5 9.77 248.1 19 54 315.9 39.09 387.0 78.18 457.7 97.72 478 3 195.44 548.3 390.88 625.3 781.76 701.6 1563.52 780 8 3908.8 856 8 7817.6 910 7 15635.2 960.4 Differ- ence. 2.443 4.886 9.772 19.544 39.088 4S.86 97.72 195.44 390.88 781.76 1563.53 3908.8 7817.6 82 9 77.4 73 4 66.1 63 1 62.4 62.6 57.4 53.4 52.9 43 5 37.8 33.0 A NEW DOUBLE BROMIDE OF AMMONIUM AND ZINC. 3 NH, Br, Zn Biv The constituent bromides were brought together in the proportion to form the double bromide 2 NH4 Br. ZnBr., H„o as described in the literature. After about two mouths 100 grams of a well crystallized salt were obtained, and this was analyzed. One anaysis showed the salt to contain 12.8 per cent, of zinc, and a second analysis gave 12.6 per cent. The per centage of zinc in the salt 2NH4Br, ZnBr^ H„o is 14.9. It was concluded that either there was present a second double salt containing more than two molecules of ammonium bromide to one of zinc bromide, or that ammonium bromide had crystallized out along with the double salt. A careful examination of the crystals showed that some were apparenty of different habit from the 132 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. remainder, being relatively much longer. It therefore seemed probable that a mixture was present. The attempt was then made to recrystallize the salt. It was not possi- ble to obtain it a second time until a large quantity of a solution of the mixture 2NH4Br, Zn Br, was added. The salt readily crystallized out of this mixture, but again in both the longer and shorter crystals. The longer crystals were now separated mechanically from the shorter and analyzed. Calculated for Found Found 3NH4Br, ZnBra- Longer Crystals. Shorter Crystals. Zn. 12.6 12.8 12.5 To determine whether the salt contained water of crys- tallization 3.4428 grams were heated for four hours in an air bath at 130". The loss was 0.9 per cent. The salt was then further heated for four hours at 160^ when a slight decomposition took place. The total loss in weight amounted to only 1 per cent. It was therefore concluded that the salt contained no water of crystallization, the slight loss of weight observed being due to water which could not be removed by drying paper on account of the hygroscopic nature of the salt. The bromine in the salt was then determined by two analyses and found to be 77.24 per cejit. The bromine cal- culated for 3NH4Br, ZnBr^ is 77.01 per cent. A standard solution of the salt was prepared by determin- ing the zinc in a measured volume of the mother solution. Conductivity of 3NH^Br, ZnBr„ {519.37). FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME. Mu V25''. Mu V25''. MEAN. 1.623 280.1 280.5 280.3 3.246 367.2 367.2 367.2 6.492 417.0 418.1 417.5 12. 984 458.9 459.0 458.9 25.968 496.1 496.2 496.1 51.93 518.6 518.6 518.6 64.92 524.9 524 9 524.9 129.84 552.0 553.0 552.5 259.68 570.8 570.9 570.8 519.36 596.4 596.8 596. 6 1038.72 621.7- 621.8 621.7 2077.4 641.9 641.9 641.9 2596.8 651.0 651.1 651.0 5193.6 675.9 675.9 675.9 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 133 The molecular conductivity of ammonium bromide was determined with a specimen which had been repeatedly crystallized, starting with a large quantity of fairly pure salt. Molecular Conductivity of NH^Br (98.02) . FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME. Mu V 25° . Mu V 25^. MEAN . 0.92 100.0 100.0 100.0 1.84 106,0 106.1 106.0 3.68 111.4 111.2 111 3 7.36 117.3 117.3 117.3 14.72 121.8 122.0 121 9 3i.8 327.9 127.7 127.8 73.6 130.9 131.0 130.9 147 2 133.9 133.9 133.9 294.5 137.0 137.3 137.1 588.8 139.7 139.6 139.6 1472.0 141 3 141.1 141.2 The conductivity of zinc bromide in water could not be determined directly, since the bromide is so readily decom- posed by water. By comparing a number of chlorides and bromides we find the conductivity of the latter to be about two units greater than the former for equal concentrations. To obtain the conductivity of zinc bromide at any dilution, we have taken the conductivity of zinc chloride at that dilution and added two units. This is, of course, only approximate, but it seems the best that can be done under the conditions. Comparison for SNH^Br. ZnBr^, NH4Br. ZnBra 3NH4Br Diflfer- V. 3 Mu V 25=^. V. MuV250. Sum. V. ZnBr.. MuV25^. ence. 0.541 285.0 1.623 80.0 365.0 1.623 280,3 84.7 1.08 303.0 3 246 132.5 435.5 3.246 367.2 68.3 2.164 321.3 6 492 148 4 469.7 6.492 417.5 52.2 4.328 337.2 12 984 164.2 501 4 12.984 458.9 42.5 8.656 354.3 25.968 183.9 538 2 25,968 496.1 42.1 21.64 371.4 6492 193.7 564.1 64.92 524.9 39.2 43.28 385.5 129.84 206.6 592.1 r9.84 552.5 3^.6 86.56 393.9 259 68 26. 6 610.5 259.68 570.8 39.7 173.13 399.0 519 36 222.6 621.6 519.36 596,6 25.0 346.24 411.0 1038.72 226.1 637.1 1038.72 621.7 15.4 865.6 420.0 2596.8 234.5 654.5 2596.8 651,0 3.5 1731.1 423.9 5193.6 237.0 670.9 5193.6 675.9 5.0 134 TOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Examining' tlie results of the forej]^oiii^' measurements, the chief point of interest is the ma<^nitn(h' of the "differ- ences" found. These are quite large in the concentrated solutions, and in the case of the double bromide of sodium and cadmium diminish rather slowly with increase of dilu- tion. Indeed at a dilution of 7000 litres, the difference is still 33 conductivity units. The differences for the double bromide of ammonium and zinc are large in the more con- centrated solutions, but not so large, for equal dilution, as for the double bromide of sodium and cadmium. These differences decrease much more rapidly with increase in dilution, entirely disappearing at dbout 1,000 litres. From the above results the conclusion seems justified, viz.: that the two double bromides exist, to a considerable extent, in the more concentrated solutions, and are com- pletely broken down by water only at very great dilutions. In conclusion, I desire to thank Dr. H. C. Jones for valu- able suggestions and aid in the ])rosecution of this work. THE VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS OF IOWA AND THE ADJOINING PARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN MINNESOTA AND WESTERN WISCONSIN. BY L. H. PAMMEL AND CHARLOTTE M. KING. During the past year an excellent paper on Iowa Pteri- dophyta, by Prof. Shimek, has appeared. This paper gives the distribution of the Iowa Pterido^ phytes as they are represented in the Herbarium of the State University of Iowa. The ferns as represented in our collection somewhat extend the limits and give addi- tional localities of others. It is highly desirable that precise localities of our ferns be given, as it is a group of 1 Iowa Pteridophyta in till' Hcrliariuni of tlic State University of Iowa. Bull. Lab. of . Hist, of tlie State University of Iowa. 5: 14;V170. 213-21.5. VM. Nat Figure (i. Bluffs aloiiK tlic Mississijjpi River, showing tlie liills spar.st'ly covered with timlx'r above and tlie d(>ns(>ly wooded slopes below; these trees are mostly Acer nigrum, Quercus rubra, Ulnivx/nlva. PhotographtHi by C. M. King. IOWA AOADEMY OF SCIENCES. 135 plants but sparsely represented in our Iowa flora. With few exceptions they are found only in favored localities. It will surely add to the value of our knowledge of distri- bution by giving the ferns found in western Wisconsin and sutheastern Minnesota, a region that has many of the peculiarities of northeastern Iowa. One of us has collected in the region of La Crosse and southeastern Minnesota, since 1883. This collection, pre- vious to the fire, was almost a complete one. While some specimens were saved, most were lost. The general ecolog- ical phases of the regioii for southeastern Minnesota have been given by Prof. W. A. Wheeler*. Pammelfand Greene:^: have referred to the general character of the region in two short notes. In a general way the numerous small streams. La Crosse, Mormon Coule, Bad Axe, and Black River intersect the hills and How into the Mississippi from the east. The Iloot River and Pine Creek How into the Mississippi from the west, while the Kickapoo flows into the Wisconsin. On the banks of the thickly wooded blufi:'s of the Mississ- ippi, bold rocky ledges arise quite abruptly, in many places, from the flood-plain. The lower portions of these ledges are made up of sandstone, the upper being capped with the magnesium limestone. A few lichens, Arabis lijrata,P(}(> roNiprcssa and some sedges, are found on the limestone, but this region is poor in ferns; the only species occurring is Pel /(tea afropnrpHrca. However,in the shady gullies and thick timbered groves reaching the escarpments, a luxuriant growth of Aspteniuiii FeJir-foem'uia, C jistopter is frag ills, Os- munda Claijfonia, Adifoifiun pedafiu}!, Oiioclea Struthiopteris and Pieris aquilina occur. In the moist gullies, especially in the vicinity of springs, and small, running brooks, Cystojjteris hulbifera is common. The ridges beyond and above the limestone outcrops are thickly wooded with Quercus alba, Quercus rubra, Popidus treniuloides and Prutms Americana. Here the common brake {Pteris aquilina) is * A contribution to the knowledge of the flora of Southeastern Minnesota. Minn. Bot. Studies. 2: 353-416. pi. 2I-J7. 1900. T Botanizing in Western Wisconsin. Plant World. 1 : 1.54. 1898. 1 Wisconsin Field Notes. Plant World. 2: : 7. 1885). 136 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. an abundant fern, forming great masses, and with it, in the small draws, Osmunda Claytoniana, and Adiantum pedaturn. The richest field for ferns is to be found in the lower sandstone outcrops. These are low, rounded greatly eroded hills, and here and there, as along Pine creek in Minnesota and the Tamarack swamp, contain the white pine {Pinus Strobus). On these benches, richly laden with moisture from the region beyond, the greatest number of Pteridophytes occur. In the Pine creek region, such species as Phegopteris polypodioides, Phegopteria Drt/opteris PdUea gracilis, Woodsia ohttisa, Pohjpodiuni vulgare, Aspid- ium spinulosum, var intermedium and Lijcopodiiim lucidulum occur. In the Tamarack region, similar in all respects, an additional species occurs on the exposed sandstone rocks, namely, Woodsia Hvensis. The basis of the sandstone rocks, close to the rivers and marshes have such species as Osmunda cinnamoniea, Osmunda regalis, -diid Osmunda, i latj- tonia. The marshes contain Aspidium Thelypteris and Onoclea sensihilis. The Selaginella rupestris is an inhab- itant of sandy barrens and dry sandstone rocks. The Camptosorus rhizophgllus along the Mississippi occurs on detached limestone rocks, close to the flood-phiin. It is only necessary, in this connection, to make a brief reference to the general features of ferns in central Iowa. The Cij stopfer is frag His is the most widely distributed fern, found in rich woods. The Adiantum pedaturn also occurs in rich woods, but they are more moist; the Asplenium Felix-fcemina in upland, moist, rich woods, or in small gullies; the Onoclea in similar places, but rare. The Poly- podium vulgare, Woodsia ohtusa and Camptosorus rhizophyllus are found on sandstone ledges; Onoclea sensibilis in wet meadows, near springs. It is found in the vicinity of Steam- boat Rock, in moist ground, with Juniperus communis and Cypripedium spectahile. The Carboniferous sandstone along the Iowa river, in the vicinity of Steamboat Rock, contains such a remark- able instance of northern plants, that a few w^ords regard- ing them will not be amiss. The white pine {Pinus Strobus), IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1 37 Bettila papi/rlfera, Betiila lenta, Populiis grandidentata, Dicr- villa trifida and Coniiis circinafa. In a small grove of the cherry-birch, and places thickly covered with the two birches, may be found an abundance of the Aspidiuvi mar- ginale, the only locality, until recently, in the state; also Phegopteris Drgoptcris, Phegopteris polgpodioides, AspidiiDn spinuJosum var infennediuni, AspJeniuui FUix-fannina, Polg- podiiim ruJgare, Cystopteris fnigilis and the Lgcopodium luciduhon. The Osmioida Clayfouiana is found a few miles further north, along Pine creek, on the damp slope thickly covered with Carpinus, Corniis circinafa, and Cgpripcdium spectabiJe. A little more drying of the woods and pas- turing will exterminate these localities. NOMENCLATUHE. The question of nomenclature of our ferns is discussed by several recent writers, and there is no unanimity among them. The confusion in names has in part resulted from the subdivisions of genera and the disagreement as to the code of nomenclature to be applied. Dr. Charles Mohr' in his excellent monograph on the Plant Life of Alabama, though agreeing in most points with Underwood," uses different names for some of our common ferns, e. g., Bernhard's generic name Cgstopferis — C. frag His (L.) Bernh. is retained as in Gray's Manual, for which Under- wood' substitutes the Fcli.r of Adanson — F. frag His (L.) Underw. Shimek also uses the Bernhard name as the correct one. Another student of ferns, Mr. Maxon, as regards this genus, uses the Adanson name for this genus. It is useless for us to go into the validity of this name, or the many other changes which are proposed by some, because in the absence of the literature, the citations can- not be verified. It does seem, however, that before the new names are adopted, that there should be unanimity among those who 1 Plant Life of Alabama. Contr. U. S. Nat. Mus. 6: 310-1901. 2 Our Native Forns and their Allie=!, with Synoptical Descriptions of the North Amer- ican Pteridophyta North of Mexico, 1900. [6th Ed. ] 3 A U.st of the ferns and fern allies of North America, North of Mexico, with the prin- cipal synonyms and distribution. Proc. U. S. Nat. Miis. 23: 619, 1901. 10 I AS 138 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. propose the chan^^es. We have, therefore, used the nomenclature of Gray's Manual,' as it fixes the species for purposes of study. DISTRIBUTION. In the distribution of ferns, the paper by Prof. Shimek has been used as well as the papers by Reppert, Miller, Barnes and Witter, and the records given by Prof. Wheeler. A list of the Vascular Cryptogams of Iowa, as repre- sented in the Herbarium of the Iowa State College, with maps showing distribution according to this list, the list included in the paper Iowa Pteridophyta by Prof. B. Shimek, and the list in the paper, "A contribution to the knowledge of the flora of southeastern Minnesota, by Prof. W. A. Wheeler. ORDER EQUISETACEJ*:. Equisetiim arcense L. Sp. PI. 1061. 1753. This, the most common of the Horsetails, is found every- where in Iowa on sandy banks and in black soils. Iowa: Ames— 7io//>, Stewart Ball, Bessei/. Ilodson, Carver; Clermont— Walker; ^u^c?iimQ—Ueppcrt; Keokuk— Rolfs; Marshalltown— .SVe/rv/r^; Hamilton County— /?o//"s; Grinnell —Miss Williauis; Dubuque- Pa niniel; Boone— Pa)n met; Emmet County— C rati i/. Equisetum sylvaticiDn L. Sp. PI. 1061, 1753. This has only been reported from one locality. The fact of its occurrence along Skunk river is unusual. It ought to be found in northeastern and eastern Iowa, where the conditions for its occurrence are suitable. It w^as found in damp, moist banks in a small piece of hemlock woods near Bloomingdale, Wis., and in a tamarack marsh near LaCrosse, Wis. Iowa: Jasper Qounty— Nor r is. 4 Watson and Coulter Gray's Manual. 67 ^ 1890. [eth Ed. ] i IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate X. Distribution of F.quisetuyn arvense'L. Eistribution of 7':/';//e/; La Crosse, sandstone rock, tamarack marsh — Fammel; Clalesville — Pamniel; Bloomingdale — Miss Fammel and Miss King; Devil's hdikQ— Fammel. Southeast Minnesota: Pine Creek— Fammel. TRIBE PTERIDiE. Adiantum pedatum L. Sp. PI. 1095. 175B. The Maiden-hair Fern has a wider distribution than most of our ferns. It is common to both the Mississippi and Missouri basins and tributaries; but the reported localities from western Iowa are not nearly so numerous as one might expect. It occurs in deep, rich woods, being associated with C ystopteris fragilis, but less frequent than that fern. Iowa: Wildcat Den- -Reppert, Ball; Keokuk — Rolfs; Estherville Crafty ; Indianola — Carver ; Monticello — Bessey; Lansing — Miss King; Myron -Miss King; Sedan — Famtnel; Eldora — Frazier; Ames — Hitchcock; Steamboat Rock — Fammel, Miss King; Boone — Fammel; Fifteen Mile— Paddock. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloomingdale— ^il//ss Fam- mel and Miss KiJig; La Crosse — Fammel. Fteris aqnilina h. Sp. PI. 1075. 1753. The common brake is distributed much the same as Polypodium vulgare, but is far less frequent. It is confined IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE^TCES. Pliitc xiii. Distl-ihution of J'oIj/jkkHii m rttlfiurr L. Distril)uti()n of .Ulitnitii m /)i(liiltnii L. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Distribution of Pterin uti;>:i of Vfiriltnit/irx liiini(ii iiasd Nutt. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Distribution (jf PcUa'a gracilis Hook. Distribution of I'tllrra (itrdjiiirjiiirrd Unk. Figure 2. The Cliff Brake {PclUtea (jraciJii Hook) from West Union, Iowa, on sandy rocks. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 141 to the Mississippi basin, reaching its greatest development in northeastern Iowa, where it is a common inhabitant of oak woods, either in sandy or clay soil. The associated plants are Adiantum pcdatmn, Pedicularis canadensis, Anemonella thalictroides and Cypripedluni pubescens. At Steamboat Eock it is more common than at Ames. At Ames it is about extinct. It is more frequent at Muscatine and at Lebanon in southeastern Iowa. Iowa: Muscatine — Beppcrt; Ames, "one mile north- west of Iowa State College, in rich woods" — Hitchcock; Wildcat Den — Ikill ; Myron — Miss King; Lansing — Miss King; Postville — "common in Allamakee county" — Orr; Lebanon — Sample; Ames — Carver; Monticello — " woods," Bessey ; New Albin — Panunel; Steamboat Rock — Pantmel. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — Pammel; Bloom- ingdale — Miss Pauiniel and 3Iiss King. Southeastern Minnesota: Pine Creek — Pammel. Cheilanthes tomentosa Link. There is one specimen in the College collection taken from a cultivated specimen, collected by Mr. Carver, and presumably from southeastern Iowa; but the specimen contains no further data. If this came from Iowa it is north of its range. Cheilanthes lanuginosa Nutt.; Hooker. Sp. Fil. 2: 99. 1858. This small fern occurs on limestone rocks, generally along the Mississippi river and tributaries, but it is not common. It is associated with Pellaea atropurpurea. Iowa: Allamakee County "Oneota limestone — bluffs" — E. Orr; Winneshiek County~L(^?/'?.S'; North McGregor — Pammel. Pelhea gracilis Rook. Sp. Fil. 2: 138. 1858. The distribution of this fern is rather limited, and so far as we know, it is always found on sandstone ledges. The shady sandstone ledges that underlie the magnesian lime- 142 IOWi^ ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. stone in southwestern Wisconsin and southeastern Minne- sota contain this fern, but never in large areas. There is a great deal of this fern along the Kickapoo river, in the vicinity of Bloomingdale, growing with SuUirdntia Ohionsis, Mitella diphylla, Diervilla trifida, Vaccinium Fennsylvani- cum, Pherjopteris Dryopteris and Lpcopodum lucidubim. Iowa: Allamakee County, "seven miles northeast of Postville, on Balsam Fir bluff, Yellow river" — Orr; Winne- shiek County — Lewis; Delaware County — MftcBride. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — Famniel; Rock- ton — Pamuiel. Southeastern Minnesota: Pine Creek "not represented by a specimen" — Pammel. Pellcea atro purpurea Link. Fil. Hort. Berol. 59. 1841. This fern is found on limestone rocks, confined to the Mississippi river and its tributaries. Iowa: Allamakee County, Yellow River, "common on limestone bluffs" — Orr; Lansing— /I/ /^s Kiufj; Ackley — Hunt; Dubuque — Pammel; Monticello — P)esseij ; Muscatine County, Wyoming Hills, "in clefts of a lime-bearing sand- stone"— Reppert; Winneshiek County — Lewis; Fort Dodge, "limestone cliffs" — Besseij; Iowa City— Hiichcock; Clin- ton— Pammel; Cedar R^^id^— Pammel. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloomingdale — Miss Pam- mel and Miss Kiiuj. tribe ASPLENIE.f:. AsplenitoiunKjusfifoliumMichx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 265. 1803. Its distribution in northeastern Iowa indicates an inva- sion from Wisconsin. It does not occur in southeastern Minnesota (Houston county) so far as known. Iowa: Waukon Junction, "heavy woods at base of Mis- sissippi river bluff"— 0>-r; Lansing, "similar situation" — Miss King. Figure 8. Aspleniit m /•'(■?/./■ -/ur*;H;/f/ under caleareoiis rooks, Indian Creek, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Pliotograijhed by L. H. Paramel. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES Plate xvi. DistriL'Ution of A.sjilehiitiii ((iKjiiMiioliu iii Mit-hx. %LaCros,e XI7V Distriliiition (if .\s/,/ri,iii m l/ii>li!iU us Link. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 143 Asplemiiim theli/pteroides Michx. Though a common fern eastward, it is not common in this state. It occurs in rich woods. It extends further westward than A. angustifoJium. Iowa: Waukon "not common" — E. Orr; Muscatine County — MacIJride, lieppert ; Lansing — Miss Kiiif/. SouHE astern Wisconsin: La Crosi^e— F amine l. AspleniioH Felix- foon'mn Bernh. Schrad. Neues Jou)"n Bot. 12: 2o. 180(5. This is another of the widely distributed ferns of Iowa, occurring in the Missouri and Mississippi river flood-plains; most common in the eastern portion of the state. It is found in deep, rich woods; specimens three feet high are not uncommon. From Iowa it has extended into Missouri. Iowa: Wild Cat Den — Ball, Paminel and Reppert ; Ames — Hitchcock, Besseij; Marshalltown -^Vi^'/^v/r/'; Monticello — Besseij ; Wilton — Hitchcock; K\dova- Fr((zier; Armstrong— Crattji; Keokuk — Rolfs; Winneshiek Oouwiy —Lewis; Polk County — Besset/; three miles east of Waukon — E. Orr; Steamboat Rock — Fawniel; Lansing —i//.s5 King. Wiscnsin: LaCross, Bloomingdale — Fenninel. Minnesota: Pine Cveek— Fa nnnel. Camptosonts rhizophi/llns Link. Hort. Berol. 3: 69. 1833. This fern is confined chiefly to the Mississippi basin. In northeastern Iowa and in Wisconsin this fern is found on detached limestone rocks, at the base of bluffs. But at Steamboat Rock and in Boone County, it occurs on the Car- boniferous sandstone. Iowa: Allamakee County, "on detached fragments from bluffs"— £". Orr; Des Moines River—f^esseg ; Wild Cat Den — Pamnu'l and Reppert; Missouri Valley — Miss Crairford; Monticello— /)o.r.se6'; Ledges, Boone Coimty 'Bessey, Miss F. Church; Eldora — Frazier ; Wild Cat Den — Reppert; Lansing — Miss King; Cedar U^,^^\d^— Buchanan. SouTSwESTERN WISCONSIN: Bloomiugdale — Miss Pam- mel and Miss King ; Coon N?i\\Qy—Pammel; La Crosse "limestone rocks" — Panunel. Minnesota: Pine Creek — Panunel. 144 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. TRIBE ASPIDIEJ5. Fhe()o])teyis jioh/podioides Fee. (jen. Fil. 243. 250-252. 1850-52. Iowa: Myron — Miss Ki7u/. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse— Pa mniel. Southeastern Minnesota: Pine Creek — Fanimel. PJiegojtfen's hexagonoptera Fee. Gen. Fil. 243. 1850-1852. This southern fern is most frequent in southern and southeastern Iowa. Several specimens from Allamakee county and one from Steamboat Rock, though not typical, we have referred to this species. The Steamboat Rock specimens may not be unusual, as Melica diffusa, another southern plant, has found its way as far north as this point. In Muscatine county the species occur in somewhat damp clay, sandy woods, while at Steamboat Rock it is found in black, rich, sandy woods. Iowa: Waukon Junction, "Mississippi river bluffs" — E. Orr; Wild Cat Den — Ball; Steamboat Rock — Pammel; Lansing — Miss King; Muscatine, "in rich woods, fre- quent " — Beppert. Phegopteris Dnjopteris Fee. Gen. Fil. 243. 1850-1852. Usually in moist, shady, sandy banks w4th white pine, Woods i a i I reus is, Lgcopodiuiii hicidiilum. At Steamboat Rock, in sandy banks, it is very abundant locally with Aspidium marginale, Aspdeniuui Felix-foeniina, Diervilla trifida and Bcfiila tenia. Iowa: Allamakee County, "seven miles north of Post- ville, on Yellow river. Balsam Fir bluff" — E. Orr; Steam- boat Rock — Miss King; Eldora — Frazier. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — FamnieL Southeastern Minnesota: Houston county, Pine Creek, near La Crescent — Patntnel. row A Af'ADEMV OF SCIENCES Distri])ution of I'lu'nn pterin i):ij n imiliniil -^ Fee Distribution of I'liriioptrrin hrjcujoiioplrni Fee. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Distribiitio'i of Plieiiopl ris Drjicliti'rin Ft^c, Di-;tributi<) i of I'lici/ojitrris calcarfa Fi>i IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Distrilnition of AxpUUuin Thclyptcri.s S\v. Sehrar!. Distribution of Axjiidiiim spinuldsiim S\v. Schrad. IOWA ACADHMY OF SC'TKNCVIS Plate XXi. Cistrihution of Axjiiilunn .s/iiiiiil(isii)ii var iiil< rtnid. iini Miii.l. Eistribution of Axpiilii. m crisldtinii S\v. Figure J. Asjiiiliidii i-rista/inii and Osiiiiindu rcgulis on the burdei' of Tamarack Marsh, with a larjjc '7/7»///«f//i/ //( .s/(rp?«ti/7('. La Crosse, Wisconsin, Town of Campbell. Pho- tographed ))y L. H. Pammel. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 145 Phegopteris calcarea Fee. Gen. Fil. 243. 1850-52. This interesting species was first reported by Mr. Hoi way. It is one of the rarest ferns in Iowa. Iowa: Decorah, "in moss, north side of bluff" — llolway. Aspidinin Thelii/jteris S\y.SchYn:d. Journ. liot. 2: 40. 1800. This fern is abundant in swamps and low ground, espe- cially in western Wisconsin and southeastern Minnesota — so abundant in places as to be a common ingredient of hay. Iowa: Muscatine, "in wet and swampy places, fre- quent"— Beppert ; Winneshiek County — Lewis. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse, "sedge swamp" — Miss King; La Crosse — Panimel. Aspidiumsj)i)iuIosinn Sw. ^chYad. Journ. Bot. 2: 38. 1800. This is another rare fern; at Muscatine it occurs under the sandstone carboniferous ledge. Iowa: Wild Cat Den — Beppert. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloomingdale — Miss Pammel and Miss King. Aspidiutn spinuIosKui var iiitei-iiicdiiini D. C. Eaton in A. Cray, Man. Ed. 5, 665. 1S67. Another rare fern for the state. It occurs in a number of situations, and has evidently a wider distribution than the species. Its associates at Steamboat Rock are the same as for A. marginale. It is not, however, as abundant. It is not common at La Crosse, but more abundant in the Kickapoo valley. Iowa: Steamboat Hock — F((uniiel, il//.§s /v/«//; Lansing — Miss King. Aspidiion cristaf urn Sw. Schra,d. Journ. Bot. 2: 37. 1800. This fern is not infrequent in tamarack swamps in the vicinity of La Crosse and Galesville, occurring with Viola canina and Cgpripeditun spectahile. 146 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Iowa: Muscatine County, "hillside bogs near Cedar river, Lake Township, and damp ravines in various places — infre- quent"— Reppi'rt. AspidiuiH Goldiecnunii Hook. Edinb. Philos. Journal. 6: 333. 1822. Locally this is abundant, the Carboniferous sandstone, growing with P/7iks Sfrobns. Iowa: Waukon Junction, "not common — found in deep woods at foot of bluffs" — E. Orr; ^\&OY?i—Frazier; Wild Oat Den — Pamniel and Repperf; Muscatine County— 7?e/;- pert; Lansing — Miss King. Aspidium iiiayyinalc. Sw\ Syn. Fil. 50. 1S06. The occurrence of this fern ii> Iowa has not been reported before. There are but three recorded localities in the state; two in Ilardm County, and one in northeastern Iowa, near Postville, some one hundred and seventy-five miles apart. Though one of us diligently searched the country in La Crosse, Trempleau and Vernon Counties, in Wisconsin, and Houston County, in Minnesota, for this fern, it has not been found. It is, however, abundant at Devil's Lake, Wiscon- sin, where it occurs on granite rocks. It is certainly not common except northward and eastward, and again in the Ozark region in Missouri, where granite rock occurs. At Steamboat Rock it is locally very abundant at the base of sandstone ledges along the Iowa river. For Iowa, this is an extremely rare fern. P/ie(/opter/s Drijopteris, Dierviila trifida and lietala hnta are its associates. Iowa: Steamboat Rock — Fanuue/, Miss King; Eldora — Frazicr; Postville, "woods" — Miss King. Aspidium acrostichoides Sw. Syn. Fil. 44. 1806. This northern fern is locally abundant in Muscatine, growing with the Vitis cinerea in deep, rich woods. Iowa: Wild Cat Den — Shimel-, Ball; Muscatine— 7?^/;- pert; Keokuk — Ehinger. iD Iowa, Axjiidiiiiii iiiar'(liuiii acrnstirhuidcif, S\v. Distribution of Ci/s/ojileris hiilbi/eia Bornh. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 147 Aspidii(77i Lonchitis Sw.^chrsid. Jourii. Bot. 2: 30. 1800 Iowa: Des Moines River, collector unknown. It is iiiore than probable that this specimen is not from Iowa. It bears an old label and was placed in the collection by Dr. Besse5^ Its occurrence in Iowa would be remarkable. It is a northern fern, of the Lake Superior region. It is not mentioned by Prof. Shimek, who has been a close observer and student of ferns. Cystopteris hulhifera Bernh. Schrad. Neues. Journ. Bot. 12; 26. 1806.' This fern is confined to the Mississippi River basin, occurring in deep, shaded ravines in the vicinity of streams and small brooks, on sandstone rocks, sandy soil or in loamy moist soil. It is most abundant in northeastern Iowa. Iowa: Allamakee County, "common" — E. Orr; Iowa 'City — Shimek; Myron — Miss Kim/; Lansing — Miss King; G\mtoi\—Fammel ; Lebanon — Sample; Eldora — Frazier; Muscatine County — Reppert; Monticello — Bessey ; Ackley — Canaron; Winneshiek County, "from limestone bluffs at ■Cold water Cave" — Lewis; Charles City — Arthur; Iowa City —Hitchcock. Southwestern^ Wisconsin: Bloomingdale — Miss Pam- mel and Miss King; La Crosse — Pammel; Rockton — Fam- mel. d/stopteris frag it is. Bernh. Schrad. Neues Journ. Bot. 12; 27. 1806. This is the most widely distributed of all our ferns, -occurring in the Mississippi and Missouri river basins. It is common in all our rich woods, less frequent, however, in the Missouri. Iowa: Ames — Bessey, Hitchcock; Mason City, "under limestone cliffs" — Arthur; Monticello, i^essey; Winneshiek County— Lewis; Muscatine County — Reppert; Eldora — Frazier; Steamboat Rock — Miss King; Cedar Rapids— Fanimel; Grundy Center — Miss Faddock; Ledges, Boone County — Pammel; Moingona — Fammel; Allamakee County, 148 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Yellow River, "abundant"— E". Orr; Lansing — Miss King;: Iowa City — Hitchcock; Des Moines — Mrs. Steavens. Southwestern Wisconsin: Galesville — Fammel ; Bloom- iny:dale — Piuumel ; Rockton — PannncI ; La Crosse — ranimel. Onoclea sensibiiis L. Sp. PI. 1062. 1753. Common in moist, springy pla('es in southeastern Minne- sota, and in La Crosse, Trempleau and Vernon counties, Wisconsin. It forms solid masses in places.. It is confined to the Mississippi river basin. Iowa: Moulton—Paniniel ; Cedar Falls — Carver; Ames,, "three miles north of Ames" — Ilifclicock; "northeastern Iowa"^i/e/i/7/; Muscatine, "moist woods, boggy meadows,, and on Islands in the Mississippi river-common" — Reppert; Iowa City — HitcJicock. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloom ingdale^ — Miss Pam- mel and Miss King. Onoclea Strutliiopteris. Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 2: 11. 1795. Widely distributed, but never abundant, in deep, rich,, moist woods; frequently reaches a height of five feet. It is more frequent in northeastern Iowa than the localities- indicate. It is abundant in Houston county,. Minnesota, and in La Crosse and Vernon counties, Wisconsin. Iowa: Waukon Junction, "banks of the Mississippi River"- .E. Orr; Wild Cat Den—lleppert; Winneshiek County — Lewis; Ames — Panimel. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloomingdale — Miss Pani- mel and Miss King; ^toddBjYd— Pan/ uiel (not represented by specimen). tribe woodsie^. Woodsia Ilcensis R. Br. Trans. Linn. Soc. 11 : 1 78. 1812. This fern has not been reported for Iowa, nor is it com- mon in Houston county, Minnesota. It is local in La Crosse- and Trempleau counties, but abundant on the sandstone- IOWA ACADKMT OF SCTENCES. Pla'f xxiv. Distribution of Ci/ntojiterifi fra7CES. Plate xxxi. Distribution of ]yoodsfa scoimltna D. C. /^(^n Distribution of <)s)nun(la reyalin L- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKKCES. Distribution of Osihk /kJk ( 'la>//o„i(iii(f L. Distribution of OKiiiiitukt cmnatnomca h. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 149 'rocks of the Wisconsin river, in the vicinity of Kilbourn City, where it is found on the more exposed rocks. Southwestern Wisconsin. La Crosse, "sandstone rock. Tamarack swamp" — Pdiiuiicl. Southeastern Minnesota: Pine Creek — Pammel. ]Voo(hi(i obtusa Torr. Cat PL in Geol. Ptep. N. Y. 195. LS40. Quite widely distributed in eastern Iowa, with Pohjpo- iUiDH rulf/rnr, never abundant. It is more abundant in southeastern Minnesota, La Crosse, Vernon, Trempleau and Vernon counties, Wisconsin. Here it is always found on sandstone rocks. Iow^a: Allamakee County, Yellow River, one mile below Ion— £". Orr; Lebanon — Sample; Eldora — Frazier; Ledges, Boone County — Faiiuncl, Combs and Miss F. Church; Dubuque — Pammel; Iowa City — Hitchcock; Winneshiek €ounty — Leu- is; Muscatine County — Beppert. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse, "on sandstone rock, tamarack swamp" — Pammel; La Crosse — Pammel. Woodsia scopulina D. C. Eaton, Can. Nat. 2: 90. 1865. Iowa: Lyon County — Shimek. SUBORDER OSMUNDACE.E. Osmunda regalis L. Sp. PI. 1065. 1753. • This is rare in Iowa, though frequent in Houston county, Minnesota, and La Crosse County, Wisconsin; found in moist meadows, along streams and in tamarack swamps. Iowa: Muscatine County — Reppert. Southeastern Minnesota: Houston County — Pammel. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — Pammel. Osmunda CUujtoniana L. Sp. PI. 1066. 1753. This species is more widely distributed than any of the other species, occurring in deep, rich woods, frequently attaining a height of four feet. 150 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Iowa: North of Postville, ''common in heavy woods throughout the county" - /(/'. Orr; Iowa City— Herb, S. U. I.; Lansing~J//.s'.s Kiiuf ; North of Ames — Pamniel; Moul- ton — Pawnicl; Sedan — Pauiutcl; Steamboat liock — Pam- mel; Wayland— ('«rrer; Ames — IPifcJicocI: ; Marshalltown — Stewart; Muscatine -Pcppert; Winneshiek County —Lrnv is; Iowa City — Hitchcock; Ames, "dry woods" — TJwnias ; El- dora — Frazier; Des Moines, Osceola County and Monroe- County observed — Pamniel ; Des Moines — Mrs. Steavens. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — raiu)iiel ;^\oom- ingdale — Ji/.s\s' Pauiiiiel and Miss King. Ositiunda ciunamomca L. Sp. PI. 1066. 1753. Rich, damp woods, not abundant. Near Steamboat Rock on side hills; but in southeastern Minnesota on shady ^ sandy banks of streams; in La Crosse and Trempleau counties, Wisconsin, on sandy banks, and in Tamarack swamps. Iowa: Muscatine County, "seems to be rare, as yet found only in Lake township, in a wooded ravine on 'Chicken Creek' " — Repperi ; Steamboat Rock — Pammel. Southeastern Minnesota: Pine Creek — Pamniel. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse — Pammel; Trem- pleau county — Pammel. ORDER OPHIOGLOSSACEAE. Botrychium virginanum. Sw. Schrad, Journ. Bot. 2: 111.. 1800. Iowa: North of Postville, "heavy woods" — E. Orr; Lansing — Miss King; North of Ames — Miss Paddock; Ledges, Boone Co. — Pammel and Combs', Muscatine Co. — Beppert; Eldora — Frazier; Ames — Hitchcock, Bessey, Pam- mel; Des Moines — Mrs. Steavens. Southwestern Wisconsin: Bloomingdale — Miss Pammel and Miss King. rOWA AOADEMY OP SCIENCBS. T'latc xx!x, Dlstribiitioii of Botri/cfiiinn Virginanmn Sw. Distrilmtion of Li/cajxidiu ,ii Inciddhnii Miclix. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENOEKi. Plate XXX. Distribullo.. of Lycopodimn fiuiijildiialuiit L. Distribution of Lycupodiuin claratiiin L. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate xxxi. Distribution of Selaginclla ruprestrix Spring. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 151 ORDER LYCOPODIACE^. Liicopodium hickhibim Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 284. 1803. This plant is rare in Iowa. The only reported localities are Muscatine and Steamboat Rock. This ouj^ht to be more frequent than L. coniplanatKH/. It was found on sandstone ledges near Steamboat Rock, the only Iowa specimen in our collection, though also reported by Shimek from Pine Creek, Muscatine county. Iowa: Steamboat Rock — Miss King. Li/copodiunt coNiphDUffiiiH L. Sp. PI. 1104. 1753. There are only two reported in the state, Muscatine and Johnson counties. The Wisconsin specimen we found in hemlock woods with Epigcea repens. Southwestern Wisconsin: Rockton — Panimel. Prof. Shimek also reports L. clavatum from Johnson county, two localities. ORDER SELAGINELLACEiE. Selaqinella riipesfris. Spring, Mart. Fl. Bras, l^; 118. 1845. There are no specimens in the collection from this state,, but Prof. Shimek reports it from Muscatine, Dubuque and Lyon counties. It is not infrequent in pine woods and sandy barrens in Wisconsin. Southwestern Wisconsin: La Crosse, "sandy barrens"^ — Fauniiel. order SALVINIACEyE. Azolla Carol iuiana WiJId Sp. PI. 5: 541. 1810. Iowa: Muscatine — lieppcii; Lansing— J//.s\<^ Ki}ig. 152 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE FLORA OF WEST- ERN IOWA, ESPECIALLY FROM THE PHYSIO- GRAPHICAL ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT. BY L. H. PAMMEL. In this preliminary paper I shall consider briefly only the ecological conditions of the flora, chiefly in the coun- ties of Harrison and Pottawattamie, with brief references also to the flora of the adjoining counties. The writer has spent some time in a study of the flora of western Iowa, but much more work needs to be done before the subject is entirely completed. The region is of great interest from the botanical standpoint because this flora has many plants which are common to the western flora. Much work has been done along ecological lines, especi- ally that portion dealing wdth the different plant forma- tions, but we are only at the beginning of this important line of w^ork. This work w^as started by Warming, whose general treatise is classical. His work has given greater impetus to this study than any other investigator, but we are also indebted to numerous other writers especially American. On this side of the Atlantic we are especially indebted to Prof. Conway MacMillan,* who, in several admirable papers and his paper on the "Distribution of Plants" along the shore at Lake of the Woods has shown what may be done.f A contribution to the knowledge of the flora of south- eastern Minnesota. Likewise the paper by Wheeler on a small district of southeastern Minnesota.:}: •Minnesota Plant Life. Rept. of the Survey. Botanical Series. 3: 568. pi. /,. 2k0 f. +Minn. Bot. Studies. 1: 949-1023. pi. 1897. X Minn. Bot. Studies. 4: 353. PI, :.'1-J7. 1901. separate. IOWA ACADEMY OP SOIKNCES. 153 The work of Clements and Pounds views the subject fmm a broad standpoint, giving also minute details of the plant formations.* In a more recent paper thev have extended their work to more local conditions.f The chief center of this line of work in this country has been at the Univeisity of Chicngo, where Cowles:|: "iind students of Prof. Coulter have devoted themselves assiduously to a study of the many intricate problems, problems "by no means easy as shown by Cowles. During the summer and fall two important papers on this subject have appealed, one by Dr. Brav: on tlie ecolog- ical relations of the vegetation of western Texas, a regio"ii well worked by botanists and a choice field for botai"ical investigation. The richness of the flora became known through Wright, Lindheimer, Fmidler, culminating in the large Flora of Western Texas by Coulter.i,< While these men discussed the generartioristic features of so interesting a region but little was known of the bio- logical relations of these j^Iants. The paper takes up (1) the climatic and edaphic factors, (2) physiographv and geology, (3) plant formations. The main divisions of plant formations are grouped under (I. Grass formations. h. Woody formations. c. Succulent formations. d. Halophytic formations. It is unnecessary in this connection to enter into details of the subdivisions of each, though important in inter- preting the character of the plants and their relation to the general features of the flora. Dr.Charles Mohr,** the well known botanist of Alabama left as a monument to his many years of labor in Alabama Pl. l^^TlTf ""'^ ^°""'^''^- ^^^ Pl^ytogeography of Nebraska Gen. Sur. Ntbr. .14Z .tJ^^k^^. "1^ ^tev.^'of N?,?rB*orSnrv^T"* C°"-"°-- studios in the V.g- igan.^ "B^l'^Gaz^^^'Ef • "'FS 1'^ 36? V^"" "^^'S^^^^^oi^ in the Sand-dunes of Lnke Mich- 105, 'S"24T^?fKJr' Con^riJi^ fe ^fb^^^" '' --*-° Texas. Bot. Gazette 32: 9D. "^PlanTnf.^nT^A'l",'^''^^-- **^°"*'"- U- S.' Nat. Herb. 2: 18f»l-4 adaptSl of ho'fltrfriiabtmrtSher wrt>f'''"'".^"«";-'"^^^^^^«f a.ssociatioM and growing in «.e state. C^^t^'S^a-^^^fe ^S. D^'^ Agrr^^^ l./fi. ""^^ 156 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. on the loess by Prof. B. Shimek,"' "Is the Loess of Aqueous Origin T'. he discusses the (juestioii of the loess, in which he comes to the conclusion. "It seems evident that the loess materials originated largely or wholly in drift, and as the comparatively recent investigations by members of the Iowa geological survey have demonstrated the presence of several drift sheets in this state, and as Nebraska has at least two such sheets, an interesting problem is suggested to geologists, namely: the determination of the relation which the various depos- its of loess bear to those drift sheets which during the deposition of the loess were found at the surface of adja- cent regions. This would involve a careful comparison of the finer materials in the drift with loess, and the consid- eration of the probable or possible direction and means of transportation to the present location of the loess." In another paper on the same subject Prof. B. Shimekt says: "The loess-fauna, of Council Bluffs, is thus not wholly terrestrial, but with the exceptions noted,is almost identical with the modern upland fauna of the same regions. Surely no conditions of excessive moisture prevail in that region today. "The amount of material carried by the winds need not have been so great as is sometimes assumed. The estimate made by the writer for the rate of deposition for eastern loess (1 mm. per year), and that made by Keyes for west- ern loess (one-tenth to one-fourth of an inch) would be sufficient to form most of these deposits respectively in the 8,000 years, usually computed, since the recession of the glaziers. "The objection made by Dr. Chamberlain that 'the eolian deposits are measured, not by the quantity of silt borne by the winds and lodged on the surface, but by the difference between such lodgment and the erosion of the surface,' is met, at least in part, by the theory offered, for it is a well- known fact that timbered areas, even when very rough and •Proc. lo. Acad. Sci. 5 : 32. t The distribution of loess fossils. Proc, lo. Acad. Sci. 6 : 98. Figurt- 7. Astrai/alus lot ijl urns ■ss liliiff^. Missouri Valley. C. M. King. Photographed hy Fifiurc S The loess Mutt's in tlic distance: the Missc.uri River flood ])I;iin is a Lrn-at jirairie except liere and there small uillow Krcjves consistint; of the small ,SV///./- iidf rim- and ,S'. aiiii/uddloides. the latter a tree from a foot to ten feet in diameter: on the borders Voniotiia /(ixcieiilata, BoUonia asferoidea; in the shallow water &' January t" ebruary March April May June July August September October November December Annual mean, 51.9 degrees 22 11 12 26 11 6 6 17 5 4 3 17 63 47 77 81 91 98 101 96 96 89 77 60 -11 -4 26 32 50 55 60 38 29 10 0 25 8 16 10 2 i 16 25 16 16 20 31 STJNSHINE AND WIND. Temperature is influenced to a considerable extent by the condition of the atmosphere. The following table kindly prepared by Mr. J. R. Sage of the Iowa State Weather and Crop Service shows the number of cloudy, partly cloudy, and clear days for year 1898, also recording the totals for the year 1900 for the same places. 160 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. January . . . January. . . January . . . . I'ebruary. . . Februaiy . . . February. . . March March March April April . ... April May Mav JViay .. June June June July Julv July Au.,u.st Aujj^upr. . . . Auj. LJ ■T^ -r y n*^ ^ o C X r 'J 13 15 13 4 4 3 14 12 IS 12 10 8 4 11 11 Yl • 7 1) 1 11 10 .S 10 12 IS 10 9 11 12 3 10 8 18 0 10 y 7 H 4 14 8 21 10 17 6 l.S 13 0 7 7 24 8 10 6 20 '6 * 6 8 ^ 5 7 * 17 16 16 4 12 12 10 3 .3 10 18 17 13 2 6 7 10 7 8 12 15 8 5 3 15 14 13 12 14 15 12 6 6 6 10 9 16 13 19 6 10 3 9 8 156 9 152 120 93 91 129 120 118 95 N.W. N W. S. 242 169 200 31 86 74 92 110 91 Heat is an important factor in the development of plants. Tlie plant zones of Humboldt were established by connecting the points having the same mean annual tem- perature. He called these isothermal lines. On this basis there were established the Boreal, Austral and the Tropical • Not reported. Figure 9. Mississippi River bottom aliovc Clinton showing the heavily timbered woods and the wide flood i)lain. The timber coTisists mostly of Acer saccharinum, Ulmus Ameri- cana. Frajiniis liridis, Brtiilri niy L. H. Pammel. Figur*' 10. A densely wcxkIc*! liaiik in one of the canyons along the Missouri River near Missouri Valley, Iowa. lUhi \ (//•((<•//< in the forevtroiind, Pninus Virginiana and other shrubs farther back; underneatli these bushes Dii'cntra c.ucuUaria and Viola cuciiUala grow in abundance. Photograplii'd by L. H. Pammel. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 161 zones. It was found, however, that zones established on isothermiil lines did not express the true conditions, since two points of the same mean annual temperature may show wide differences in the extremes of annual, monthly or (^aily temperatures. It was found that life processes depend on these more than on the mean, hence some other basis must be established for the life zones. Merriam established his life zones on another principle, namely, that it requires a deiinite amount of heat to accomplish the life* cycle of the plant from the time of germination to maturity. That for a given species this is the same, being the sum of the mean daily temperatures during the cycle of vegetation. This is the physiological constant. Dr. Merriam recognizes the following classification: r Arctic or arctic alpine. \1) Boreal Region. -- Hudsonian zone. ( Canadian zone. I Alleghanian. Transition zone. . . ■. Arid transition. ( Pacific coast transition. /•o\ A k 1 r> • TT .1 ( Carolinian area. (2) Austral Region. Up oer austral Z3ne - tt o ^ ^' ( Upper Sonoran. J L 1 { Austroripari.in. Lower austral zone ■ j ^ / Lower Sonor .n. (3) Tropical Region. All('(j]in)iian area. This area reaches its greatest devel- opment in this state along the Mississippi and reaches over to the Missouri river extending further eastward in south- western Iowa, thence further north along the river. The the representative plants are: Juniperus Virginiana (northward). Tilia Americana. Quercus macrocarpa. Sanguinaria Canadensis. Cory /us Americana . Negundo aceroides . Rhus glabra. Ulmus Americana. Prunus America7ia. Acer saccharin um. Dicenta cucullaria. Acer nigrutn (Des Moines basin.) Solidago serotina (northward) . Aster Novce Anglice (northward). Carolinian. This area reaches its greatest extension in southeastern Iowa, spreading northward to Dakota, with a few representatives. The representative plants are: * Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States. Div. Biol. Surv. U. S. Dept. Agrl. 10. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agrl. 1897: 115. 1894: 203-214. 162 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Gymmocladus Canadensis . Juglans nigra. Morus rubra. Rharnnus lanceolata . Neluntbo lutea. Vernonia Noveboracensis . Polygonum Pennsylvanicuni. Polygonum dumetorum var. scandens. Martynia proboscidea. Eupatorium, serotinum . Arid transition. This area reaches its greatest develop- ment along the immediate border of the Missouri river on the loess bluffs but extends eastward to the divide between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in Carroll and Dickinson counties. Representative plants are as follows: Cnicus canescens . Shepherdia argentca (N). Symphoricarpos occidentalis . Helianthus annuus. Yucca augustif alia . Helianthus Maximiliani. Petalostemon rnultiflorus. Gaura coccinea. Aplopappus spinulosus . Gaura parviflora . Grindelia squarrosa . Liatris punctata. Euphorbia marginata. Euphorbia heterophylla. Hosackia Purshiana. Lactiica pulchella. Erysimum asperum,. Dalea laxiflora. Psoralea esculenta. l\Ientzelia ornata. Lygodesmia juncea. St)orobolus cuspidaius . Bouteloua oligostachya. Buchloe dactyloides (N. W.). Schedonnardus Texanus [^ W .) ■ Oxytropis Lambertii. Astragalus lotiflorus var. brachypus . It should be observed that the zonal boundaries of plants are not sharply marked, but that the different areas con- tain marked types of each of the areas. The main features of the flora is essentially prairie. The intermingling of western and eastern prairie types is most marked on the loess bluff's. RAINFALL. That moisture is an important factor in the development of plants cannot be questioned. The occurrence of strictly western plants within the border of Iowa must in part be attributed to the smaller amount of precipitation. The precipitation is given for the same points as the temper- ature. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 163 SIOUX CITY. Precipitation in Inches. Year. < a W 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 Average 3.56 3.17 1.63 2.79 1.91 2.74 3.20 2.15 4.95 6.16 6.39 2.94 4.03 1.24 2.13 1.37 . 4.69 6 61 3.52 3.26 3.50 2.29 1.81 2.63 5.54 2.26 2.78 2.88 5.85 1.68 1.54 0.86 2.51 3.10 2.59 1.11 0.73 3.91 2.09 0.51 0 95 1.55 23.83 18.79 20.29 30.77 20.38 22.91 22.83 CLARINDA. 1893 3.11 2.06 2.82 3.72 6.00 3.70 3.57 3.17 1.37 2 99 7.48 2.01 5.15 4.12 4.02 8.33 2.12 4.04 2.99 8.84 0.41 6.44 6.63 2.63 4.49 6.22 0.23 4.64 2.86 2.53 1.16 2.38 2.53 0.95 2.56 1.55 5.74 33.27 1894 17.96 1895 30.79 1896 33.73 1897 26.32 1898 33.49 Average . 3.70 4.27 4.91 2.94 2.62 29.26 1893 ... 1894 5.41 2.75 3.38 2.35 3.34 4.80 4. 36 3 06 3.45 4.40 1.86 6.70 2.37 2.95 2.61 2.18 5.43 4 77 2.60 0.37 5.46 8.01 6.75 3.06 1.16 0.51 2.28 3.90 0.65 6.92 3.18 4.86 2.67 9.44 0.64 8.07 27.94 25.20 1895 29.42 1896 1897 36.77 33.14 1898 52.48 Average 3.67 3.97 3.38 4.38 2.57 4.81 34.16 COUNCIL BLUFFS. The precipitation for Council Bluffs for 1900 was 31.87 inches. It will be seen from the above tables that the average rainfall for a period of six years in the northern section along the Missouri river at Sioux City was 22.8 inches, at Clarinda in Page county, 29.26 inches. Compare this with the precipitation in Keokuk in the southeastern part of the state the precipitation for the same period was 34.16 inches. Now compare this with the mean annual temperature for the same regions: Keokuk, 52.2'^F., Sioux City, 46.4^F., Clarinda, 49.9'-' F. The greater number 64 IOWA ACADEMY OF 80IENCES. of clear clays or partly cloudy days in western Iowa is shown in the table prepared for the year 1898 by Mr. J. R. Sage and which has been given under the heading sun- shine and wind. It is not as marked as one would expect. PHENOLOGICAL DATA FOR WESTERN IOWA. Crescent. May 3, 1901. Sisyrinchiinn angiistifolia. EUi%ia nycfelea . Staphylea trifolia. April 27. Pruiius Americana, l^iola palmata var. cucullata. Viola pedatifida . April 28 Lithospennurn canesccns. Lithospermuni angustifoliiiin . Cratcrgus mollis. Frag aria Virgijiiana. Sisymbrium cajiescens. May 4. Castillea sessifolia . Astragalus caryocarpus . Pyrus malus. May 5. Prunus Virginiana. Mr. John J. Thornber* prepared a phenological record of some plants found in Nebraska City, Nebraska, which is south of Council Bluffs, but typical of the loess region. Missouri Valley, May 19, 1901, Ceaiwlhus ovaliis. Anemone Pennsylvanica. Senecio aureus May 20. Erigeron atinuus. Phlox pilosa . Utricularia vulgaris. June 18. Echinacea angiistifolia . Asclepias tuberosa. Asclepias syriaca. June 20. Cacalia tuberosa. Liliuni Philadelphicum. Cotivolvulus septum. April 27, 1900. Viola pedatifida Lithospertnum canescens May 4, 1900. Carex festucacecs May 7, 1899. Comafidra umbellata May 10, 1900. Ceanothus ovatus May 20, 1900. Eleocharis palustris Juncus tenuis May 28, 1900. Chenopodiufn album Eatonia obtusata June 7, 1901. Coreopsis palmata Cornus asperifolia June 21, 1900. Helianthus annuus June 22, 1900. Lilium Canadense Desmodium Illinoense July 15, 1900. Scutellaria lateriflora August 4, 1900. Solidago Canadensis August 30, 1900. Centiana puberula September 17, 1900. Aster azureiim. * The prairie grass formation in Region I . Bot. Survey Nebraska. 5 : 137. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 165 These records may be compared with the phenological notes for Ames and Armstrong. The former in central Iowa and the hitter in north central Iowa. AMES. ARMSTRONG. Ma}^ . June 18. Crataegus mollis SaLsola Kali var 7 ragiis May 7. Acerates viridiflora Aquilegia CanadeJisis Asclepias tubeyosa Primus Virginiana Linwn ustliatissitmnn Fragaria Virginiana Svinphoricarpos occidentaitis Lnthyrus venosus Ructbeckia hirta Unfortunately there are but few representatives of the same species from these different localities. The Crata'cjus mollis, Aquilegia Canadensis, Pniiius Virginiana and Fragaria Virginiana^ are nearly a week later in Ames than in Mis- souri Valley and Crescent. These points are slightly south of Ames, but not enough to materially influence the period of flowering. The loess region along the Missouri river is distinctly "warmer than central Iowa, w^iich is distinctly influenced by the cold and impervious soil. The imper- vious nature of the soil is shown by the many small lakes and ponds in central Iowa, but nearly wanting in western Iowa. While plants are called into activity sooner in Keokuk than in Sioux City, they mature in a relatively shorter period of time in the latter place owing to clearness of the sky, and the drier weather. WIND. The wind is another most important factor in the devel- opment of the plant life in that region. The tendency of the wind is to increase transpiration so that plants with tender foliage are wanting or occur in the canons or wooded ravines. The wind has such an erosive action that stones may become polished as in the boulder here shown resting on the drift. The writer has seen clouds of dust, carried high in the air, last for several days. Such dust settling on plants cannot but be injurious in checking the 166 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. life processes of the plant. A smooth leaf soon has its stoniat.i filled with dust. On the other hand the hairs on leaves serve to hold this dust. Protected plants. Sucli plants as Ap pi o pappus spinuloses, Oxj/tropis Lamhertii, Lithospermiun cancscens, L. angusti- folium, Psoralea argophylla, Gaura coccinea, Dalea alopecur- oides are v^ell protected from the driving winds of summer and fall. Of the plants needing much moisture and commonly growing in open woods of the eastern section of the state but rare or wanting in western Iowa, mention may be made of the following: Podophyulluni peltatum. Fragaria vesca. Heracleum lanatuni (rare) . Mertensia Virginica. Caulophyllum thalictroides (rare) . Lobelia cardinalis. Solidago laii folia. Lobelia in f lata. Dodtcatheon media. Hydrophyllurn appe7idiculatum. Beep rooted plants. An equally instructive list of plants may be added to show how some plants have protected themselves from the injurious influences of wind and drouth by producing deep roots. These roots are some- times several feet long. Dalea laxi flora. Oxyttropis Lainbertii. Psoralea esculentu . Astragalus loti floras var. brachypus. Lygodesmia juncea . Cnicus canescens . Lactuca ptilchella. Gaura coccinea Aplopappus spitiulosus . Sporobolus cuspidatus. Yucca angustifolia . Asclepias tuberosa. Transpiration reduced. As a protection against transpira- tion the leaves of many plants are hairy or reduced in size. Of the hairy leaved plants we may mention the following: Convolvulus sepiufn. Oxyttropis Lanibertii. Asclepias verticillata . Castilleia sessi flora. Cnicus canescens . Gaura parvi flora . Cnicus lowensis . Salvia lanceolata. Aplopappus spinulosus. Plantago Patagonia var. gnapalioides Euphorbia niarginata . Asclepias speciosa. Achillea millet olium. Xerophytic grasses. The Xerophytic grasses of the loess mounds are especially characterized by their reduction of IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCP:S. 167 leaf surface or the leaves roll in when the transpiration is too great. Of these we may enumerate: Sporobolus cuspidatus . Stipa spartea. Calantovitfa longifolia. Poa compressa. And> opogon scoparius. Poa pratensis . Bouteloua racetnosa . Agropyron occidenlale . Bouteloiia oLigoslachya. E/ymas Canadensis. It must not be assumed that hydrophytic and mesophytic plants are wanting, they are numerous as the writer's list* indicates. Such species as Leersia otyzoides,, and Leersia Yirgiuicaj Ultricularia vulgaris, Potamorjeton, Sag'dtaria, Ranuneulu!^ viulfifidiis are well known representatives of stagnant pools and slow running streams. Cijstopteris fragilis, Festucu nutans, Bromus purgans, Eupatorium ager- atoides are well known mesophytic representatives of woods. PLANT FORMATIONS. In this paper I have adopted the excellent classification of Cowdesf as well as some valuable suggestions from the paper by Pound and Clements.:]: In the paj)er by Cowles two general groups are made. I. Inland group: 1. River. 2. Swamp. 3. Upland. II. Coastal: 1. Lake bluff. 2. Dune. The Pounds and Clements Classification for Nebraska is as follows: I. Wooded— bluff and meadow land region. II. Prairie region. III. Sandhill region. IV. Foothill region. The region considered in this paper would be embraced in the wooded bluff and meadow land region. *L. H. Pammel. Notes on the Flora of Western Iowa. Proc. lo. Acad, of Sci. 3: 106-135. Contr. Bot. Dept. lo. Coll. Agrl. and Mech. Arts. 1. + Bot. Gazette 31: 73, 145. X The Phytogeography of Nebraska. Cxeneral Survey. Univ. Neb. Bot. Survey of Neb. 1. 168 IOWA ACAUEMV OF SCIENCES. INLAND GROUP. 1. RIVER SERIES. 1, The Missoui-i Flood pi a in. -At is not necessary in this connection to discuss the early liistory of the formation of this flood plain* as this follows the same general laws so well set forth by Cowles. This is the youngest of the series, and near the shore of the river is subject to frequent changes. The broad level plain is from eight to twelve miles wide, varying but little in the consistency of the soil or the vegetation from Council Bluffs to Sioux City. Sparsely timbered except near the shore lines of older streams, the bayous of more recent formation or near the basis of the bluffs. In the earlier stages of the development of this flood plain as it exists today. The plants are mainly hydrophytic. Among the lower plants, AS'/'/ror////7/ and Z/jfjueu/a. Of the flowering plants: Potamos:;eto7i natavs. Xi^vitia major. Ranunculus intiUihctus . Utticulaf ia vuls^aris. Scirpus lacustris. Sciipus palustris. Rumex verticillatus. SWAMPS. Owing to the wide flood plain the waters of the Missouri have never had a very rapid current. It has frequently shifted its course. When sufficient age has been obtained mesophytic plants appear. One of the most conspicuous of these is the PJwlaris arnndinacea, one of the vernal grasses, which blooms and produces ripe fruit before the dry season. During its early growth it is of hydrophytic habit. It is thus semi-mesophytic. Banunciihis multifidus is also a frequent inhabitant of these slow running streams, and during its early existence only produces finely dis- sected leaves freely floating in the water, but as the stream dries up the plants at once develop smaller round, reni- form, coarsely dissected leaves. These plants root in the mud. ♦ 1. C. 98. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 169 Other plants of like character also appear under such conditions. Sagittaria variabilis . Alismago Plantago var. Iris versicolor . Americana . Typha lati folia . Carex Sps . At least the Jr/s, Tijplin, and Scirpus laciistris may occur in places that during later summer are entirely dry. These plants on the one hand are deep rooted as in Scirpus or have thick root-stocks as in Iris. When not covered by plants the ground often becomes very hard. On the disap- pearance of the early vernal plants, the ground soon becomes covered with a thick growth of late summer and autumn plants. The ground is thickly covered towards the center and margins of the bayous. Of spring and early summer plants under the shade of Salix anu/gdaloides, Polij- r/onitni r/fre is a dominant plant. The Boltonia asteroides isone of the most conspicuous of later plants, and along with it Venioniafasciculata which, however,is more mesophy tic than Baldivinia. Conspicuous later vernal plants here are Veron- ica peregrina, and En'r/eron annuKS. The bayous with the continual deposit of alluvium sand and dirt and the decay of the hydrophytic and mesophytic plants or other mate- rial washed in gradually becomes filled up, so that a change in the character of plants occurs. The Salix amyg- daloides is the only tree found in these situations. When these slow-running streams are filled up with vegetable detritus and inorganic material they die and the alluvial prairie appears. In this alluvial flood plain many plants are common to those of the upland prairies. The alluvial prairie is rich in grasses although there are but few species. Fresh water cord grass, Spartina cijnosuroides is conspicu- ous. The rhizomes of the grass are often two feet long. This is essential for the plant as it prevents washing the plant away. There are times when a good part of this flood plain has been under water for several days at a time. Here, too, Rumex altissimus is a dominant type. Vernonia fasciculata. Helianthus maximiliani. • . Of the annuals. Helianthus annuus . Panicuin crus-galli . Euphorbia maculata . Euphorbia serpens . 12 I AS 170 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The Missouri carries large amounts of finely suspended matter and the tbrovvinCT up of this along the shore lines causes the formation of the higher places in the flood plain. The most prominent of the grasses here is Andropogoti provincialis. Panicum virgatiim is also common. Helianthiis maximiliani also occurs on the borders of the meadows. Species of the alluvial region of the Missouri and their origin. Ranunculus septenirtonalis (E.). Ranunculus abortivus (E.)- Nasturtium terrestre (E. ) . Viola pahnala war . cucullata (E.)- Crotalaria saffittalis (E. ) • Clycyrrhiza lepidota (W. ) . Strophostyles angulosa (E. &• S.). Potentilla Noivegica var. mille- gtana ( W.) . CrypototcEnia Canadensis (E.) . Cicuta fnaculata (E. & N.). Vernonia fasciculata (E. & S.). Solidago serotina (E.) Boltonia aete roides ( E . & S . ) . Aster et coides (E . & S . ) . Erigeron Philadelphicus (E.) Iva xatithiifolia (W.) . Ambrosia trifida (E ). Xanthium Canadense (E. & S.)- Helianthus annuus (W.). Helianthus grosse-serratus ( W . ) • Helianthus ntaxifniliani (W.)- Bidens chrysanthetnoides (E. ) Scirpus lacustris (Cos.). Panicum virgatuin (W. & E.). Mivtulus ringens (E. & §.)■ Verbena hastatata (E. & S.). Teucrium canadense (E. ) . Acnida tuberculata (S.) . Amarantus alba (W.) . Rumex verticil latus (E. ) . Polygonum ramosissimu'm (Sr. ). Polygonum Virginiatium (E,). Polygonum lapathtfolium var. incar- natum (S . ) . Polygonwm Muhlenbergii (E. &: S.). Polygonum PennsylvanicumiY,. &S ). Shepherdia argentea ( W. ) . Euphorbia marginata (W.) . Euphorbia serpens ( W . & S . ) . Euphorbia glyptospenna ( S . & W . ) . Euphorbia Geye'i (W.) Juncus tenuis (Cos. ) . Typha lati folia (Cos.). Spa'ganiutn eurycarpum (E & W.). Alisma Plantago war. Ainericana (E ) Echinodorus lostratus (S. & W.). Cy penis diandrus (E. & W.). Andropogon hcrcatus (E. & W.). Sparti?ta cynosuroides E. & W.). OLDER FLOOD PLAINS. During glacial times the Missouri carried large volumes of water and much of the present flood plain was a huge stream of water, being augmented by several streams of considerale size like the Boyer, Floyd, and Big Sioux, wath inland lakes some of which like Lake Manawah near Coun- cil Bluffs still exist, these lakes being formed by the washing of sediment at the mouth of the streams, by the deposition of fine silt. The water of the streams flowing through these flood plains is so slow that the backwater IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 171 from the Missouri fills up tiie nearly level plain forming the lakes in which an abundant hyclrophytic vegetation occurs. As these ancient lakes became gradually filled with organic Qiatter, herbaceous plants similar to those of the Missouri flood plain appeared. The continued increase of organic matter made a soil more suitable for prairie plants of a different character. Of the vernal plants we may note the Banunculus septetitrionalls, Senecio aureus var. Balsamite, the latter forming distinctive features of these meadows, frequently producing masses of yellow flowers. The Anenio)ie Fennsi/lra)ilea also forms solid masses. Thalidriim jjurpurasceiis, Tleiichera villosa, Asclepias syriaca, Silphium laciniatuni. These form great masses in the moister places. Phlox pilosa grows abundantly in the prairie meadows and is distinctively a prairie mesophytic plant, like Poa praten- sis. HeliantJius grosse-se'rratus. Of the younger formation distinctly hydrophytic we may mention Rumex vcticillatus . Glvceria fluitans. Phalaris arundinacea . Typha latifolia. The Boyer valley is marked by its prairie-like meadows intersected by very small ravines. The deposition of humus and considerable moisture in the soil prevents the rapid desintegration of organic matter, hence uusuited for the growth of trees and shrubs, but well adapted for species of Care.r, E/j/ums robusfns, Phlox pilosa, Anemone Pennsyl- vanica and Senecio aureus. Towards the approach of the bluff formation on either side of the valley the drainage is more perfect, and tree and shrub life begins. Unlike the younger flood plain of :he Missouri a narrow zone of forest growth skirts the Boyer. This forest area is not making much encroachment upon the prairie flood plain. The soil along the stream is of much more recent for- mation than the prairie flood plains. To the gradual sloping banks there is added from year to year more black alluvial deposit. At first such plants as Erar/rostis reptans, Mimulus ringens, Pohjgonu)n acre. Of the later autumn plants to appear here are Helianthiis grosse-serratus and 172 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ambrosia trifida. The Ambrosia trifida being the immediate foreunner of small shrubs and trees. The drainage along the stream is naturally more perfect than the soil away from the flood plain, the soil is better areated, hence trees can grow here. One of the first woody plants to appear is Sallx nif/ra which overhangs the streams, Salix ami/r/daloides is also an early tree replaced later by Negundo aceroides, Ulmns americanas, Populus mo)iiIifera and Fraxiuus riridis. Of the woody climbers the following may be mentioned. Viiis riparia. Ampelopsis quinquefolia . Menispermum canadense . Rhus toxicodendron. of the herbaceous climbers the following appear in these young forests Echinocystis lobata. Huntiihis hipulus. and shade loving plants like Itnpatiens pallida. Coreopsis connatus. Bidens frondosa. Urtica gracilis . UPLAND. THE RAVINE. Owing to the peculiar loess formation in the Missouri valley region very few ravines in their younger stages cai] be seen, at least not in the west slope of the hills. It is only through the removal of loess material for manufac- turing or grading that these embryonic ravines occur. Where such are found very little vegetation occurs. The vertical faces of the bluffs are in many cases one hundred feet high. On the bare faces one sometimes finds Rosa blanda vdiX. Arkansana and Li/fjodesmla jtincea deeply rooted in the soil. Very few land slides occur except where there is a considerable growth of herbaceous plants and the formation is underlaid by a sheet of water. At the base of these hills plants like Gaura coccinea, Sporobolns citspi- datiis, Laduca piilchella occur. The characteristic plants of the ravine beginning at the base are as follows: IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 173 Populus monilifera, Rhus glabra, Salixhumulis, Rosa blanda yar. Arkansana, Tilt a Americana, Uhnus fulva, Ulinus A^nericana , Querctis macrocarpa, Fraxinus pubescens, Crataegus mollis, Celtis Occident alis , Populus monilifera, Prunus Virginiaita, Ostrya Virginica, Ribes gracile , Vitis riparia, Celastrus scandens, Ampelopsis quinquefolia . Near the edges towards the top of the ravine, Salix humilis, Salix atnygdaloides, Amorpha canescens, Symphoricarpos occidentalis . The Sijniplioricarpos occidentalis is the most abundant shrub in clearings, and on the hills is one of the most important plants in preparing the soil for a mesophytic forest. It remains as an undergrowth in the forest till the trees have attained an age of ten to fifteen years. It is abundant in all open clearings in the woods. This plant takes the place of Cor/jlus Americana to a large extent in preparing the soil for a forest growth. Corylus Americana is rather a rare shrub. The Rhus glabra is nearly as important as Symphoricarpos. From the ravine the meso- phytic flora extends to the slopes of hills, especially on the east and north slopes. The more important mesophytic herbaceous plants in the ravines are — Dicentra cucullaria, Parietaria Pennsvlvanica, Eupatorium ageratoides, Teucriutn Canadense, Lophanthus scrophularicefoHas Viola pubescens , Viola palmata var. cucullata. As the ravines become older with a good covered humus and sufficient shade, the following plants are abundant: Stnilacina stellata, Viola pubescens, Viola pahnata var. cucullata, Vicia Americana, Aquilegia Canadensis , Arabis hirsuta Mosses like Hypnutn and Bryum. Eupatorium ageratoides . Sanicula Marylandica Ranunculus abortivus , Hydtophyllum Virginicutn, Phlox divaricata, Cystopte-is fragilis, Stnilax herbacea, Bromus purgans , Laportea Canadensis, Aster sa^ittifolius . The older ravines with a truly mesophytic flora contains a curious assemblage of southern plants that in the Missis- 174 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. sippi basin occur in the second or older alluvial flood plain, namely, Morus rubra, Gytnnocladus Canadensis, Juglans nigra, Celtis occidentalis, Ultnus Americana. These plants occur at an altitude of nearl}^ one hundred feet above the flood plain of the Missouri. The same species also occur on the western slope of the hills where sufficient a^e has been attained. Their occurrence under these conditions is due to lines of least tension. In the Mississippi basin and its tributaries such places would be occupied by — Acer nigrum. Querctis rubra Juglans cinerea. Quercus tinctoria. Querciis alba. Cratcsgus species . When we compare the trees we find but few prominent species of western Iowa that occupy the uplands of east- ern Iowa, namely, Crataegus mollis Quercus macrocarpa Q. rubra, Ulmus fulva and a few others It seems to be a general law that closely related species orenerally have different habitats. Juglans cinerea along the Mississippi occupies the higher stony hills and this is more and more evident as the region of its greatest prominence is reached. It is easy therefore for Juglans nigra and its other south ern types to become important ravine and bluff plants along the Missouri. Towards the east the xerophytic area becomes increas- ingly less, the ravines being filled to a considerable extent. These older ravines contain larger amounts of humus. These soils being well aerated permit decomposition and nitrification much more readily than in older soils, hence the appearance here of such mesophytic plants as Cystopceris fragilis . Viola puhescens . Dicentra cucuUaria. Uviilaria ^randiflora. Stnilacina racernosa. Aniphicarpcea monoica. These basins filled with humus also are more subject to washing owing to changes brought about by cultivation at the base of a ravine or the making of roads. These banks contain no plants though there is enough moisture present. Figure 11. Loess resting on drift; northwestern Iowa. Herljaceous plants, like A lulroju/yuii scuparius, Lygodesuria juncea, &v. (From Vol. X, Iowa Geol. Surv. ) Figure 12. Loess slopes of the iipland region, Plymoutli county. The borders of the slopes are covered with Andropiiijoii /troi-hicialis, Ilrlhinth iix innximilinni (From Vol. VIII, Iowa Geol. Surv. ) Figure 13. Loess over drift in Plymouth county. Clcone iiiteli(t, Grendelia .sqiKiiiioxa and other composite with grasses like Sporoboliis ciixpidata cover the loess soil. (From Vol. VIII, Iowa Geol. Surv. ) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 175 Plants cannot anchor themselves because the soil is sub- ject to washing. It is only when the washing has proceeded far enough to cause a considerable fill and a young alluvium forms that plants like the following appear: Salix nigra . Salix amygdaloides . Coreopsis palrnata. Bidejis fro7idosa. We have in this region an excellent illustration of a mesophytic flora well established on the crest of hills. Nearly all of the eastern slopes of the hills and the very tops, east of the main line of bluffs, or those facing the principal streams are covered with a mesophytic vegeta- tion which does not differ essentially from those of the older ravines. GRASSY HILLS. The loess mounds though made of a tenacious clay show no springs or running water anywhere except in the wooded canons at the base of the hills. The vegeta- tion from early spring to fall is a succession of bloom, beginning with such plants as Anemone patens var. Nuttalliana , Oxvtropis Lambertii , CastiUeia s^ssiliflora, Lithospermum canescens. Lithospertnum angustifoliuni. Another common plant over the hillside is Comamlra nmheJlata. Three weeks later the most conspicuous plant over the loess mound is Si/mphoriatrpos occideufalis, which is most abundant near the timber line, encroaching upon the mounds. The Sijuiphoricarpos is a forerunner of shrubs and trees at the edge of the loess mounds. Along with it, frequently in great abundance, is the Verbena stricta and the Fsoralea argophiilla, the latter with long roots. The Lygodesmia jtincea, a typical xerophytic plant, is extremely common, occurring not only in the vertical clay banks but over the entire mound. Near the tops of the mounds Aplopappus spinulosus forms broad masses. Quite widely distributed over these loess mounds we have the Dalea laxijiora and the D. alopecuroides, the former, with roots several feet long, 176 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. is particularly well adapted to xerophytic conditions, the small teretish leaves make it admirably fitted for the con- ditions existing upon the mounds. Along with it we find the Pctalostono)! ntN/tifion/s, both belonging to the typical plants of the plains of Nebraska and Colorado. Of the early composite flowering plants upon the loess mounds the Echinacea anguf^fifolia and Rudbeckia hirta are more or less common over the entire loess mounds. The Hcliopsh scahra is common on the borders along with the Sijiiijj/ioricarpus, Ceanothus and Verhcna. Solidago Missouriensis , Dysoides chtysaiithemoides , Achillea inilletohutn, Helianthus iMaxiiniLiani , Solidago rupestris , Grindclia squarrosa , Aster sericeus. Aster inuliiflorus , Antennaria planlagifiifolia, Ambrosia psilostachya , Stlene antirrhina, Helianthus rigidus, Asclepias verticillaia, Oxybaphus hirsutus, Oxybaphus angustifolius , Salvia lattceolata, Gerardia aspera, Gerardia tenuiflora, are some of the common types found over the entire loess mounds. The Liatris punctata with its deep, straight roots enables the plant to be adapted to the drouthy conditions which frequently prevail in that region. The Yucca angus- tifolia, common in sections of Nebraska, the Dakotas and Kansas, is a rare plant in this region, although becoming more common northward in the vicinity of Sioux City. It is confined to the steep banks, well up near the summits of the mounds. The mesophytic flora is gradually encroaching upon the xerophytic, and as important forerunners for the meso- phytic vegetation several of the shrubs like Syniphori- catpos play a conspicuous part. Eastward in north- eastern and central Iowa the Conjlns Americana is the chief forerunner for the mesophytic flora. In the Missouri valley the Si/rnphoricarpos is the chief factor in changing the char- acter of the vegetation. The amount of precipitation collected for a series of years indicates that this region is much drier than in the drainage area east of the Missouri river basin. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 177 PARTIAL LIST OF THE PLANTS OF THE LOESS BLUFFS AND THEIR ORIGIN. Aplopappus spinulosus (W). Lygodesntia jimcea (W). Vernonia Noveboracensis (S). Eupatoriuni serotinum (SJ. Kuhnia eupatoroides (E). Liatris punctata (WJ. Liatris scariosa (E) . Grindelia squarrosa (W). Solidago speciosa (E). Solidago rupesiris (W). So /id ago rigid a (E). Aster oblongifolius (S). Aster sericeus (E). Aster multHlorus (EJ . Antetmaria plantaginifolia (E). Siiphium laciniatmn (E & S) . Iva xa7ithiifolia (W). Ambrosia psilostachya . Echinacea angustifolia {E & S). Rudbeckia hirta (W). Lepachys pinnaia (VV). Helianthus petiolaris (W). Helianthus 3Iaximiliani (W). Coreopsis pahnata . Dysodia chrysanthemoides (W). Cnicus canescens (W) Cleotne integrifolia (W). Callirhoe involncrata (W). Linurn rigiduni (W). Triioliuin stoloniferujn (W). Dale a laxiflora (W). Solidago Missouriensis (W). Asclepias tiiberosa. Monarda fistulosa . Psoralea argopliylla (W). 6'w v;«i^ >'z ?^ ?Ai ^a nescens. Oxalis corniculata (E). Petalostenion violaceus (W). Oxytropis Lambertii (VV). Cassia Chamcecrista (W & S). Symphoricarpos occidentalis (W). Erigeron strigosus (E & W). Helianthus rigid us (VV). Troximon cuspidatum (W). Taraxicuni officinale (Cos). Oxybaphus hirsutus (W). Euphorbia maculata. Lactuca pulchella (W) . Lobelia spicata (E) . Asclepias verticillata (western form). Acerates viridi flora. Phlox pilosa (E) . Lithosperinum canescens (E) . Lithosperrnuni angustifoliuvi (E) . Penlsleinon gra^idiflorus (E) . Castilleia sessiliflora . Verbcfia stricla (W). Hedeonia hispida (W) . Salvia lanceolata (VV). Scutellaria parvula ["W) . Oxvbaphtis angustifolius (W). Polygonum r amosissimum i(S). Euphorbia marginata (W). Euphorbia corollata (E). Salix humilis (E). Yucca angustifolia (W). Zys^adenus elegans (VV). Sporobolus cuspidatus (VV). Elvmus robusttis (W) . Delphinium azureutn (W). Corydalis aurea var. occidentalis (W). Ervsiuium asperuni (W). Fi'tiAj pedata (VV). Linurn sulcatum (VV). Ceanothus ovatus (W). Hosackia Purshiana (W). Petalosteum inultiflorus (W). Siipa spar tea (W). Amorpha canescens (W). Anemone cvlindrica (W & E). Oxalis violaca (E). Rhus glabra (E). Aslra^ahis carycocarpos (W). Glycyrrhizi lepidota (VV). Potentilla arguta (E & W). Houstonia angustifolia (E). Helianthus a?inuus (VV). Achillea millefoliunt (Cos). Convolvulus sepium, hairy form (VV). Rumex acetosella (Cos). Euphorbia dictvosperma. Euphorbia Geyeri (W). Poa pratensis (Cos). 178 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Euphorbia hexagona. Panicum capillare (E & W) . Euphorbia heterophylla. Bouteloua racemosa (E & W). Foa conipressa (Eu). Panicum virgatuni (W). Panicutn Wilcoxianuni (W). Sporobolus cryptandrous (E & W) . Andropogon scoparius (W). Ca/ainovilfu lotigifolia. WOODBINE BLUFF FLORA. It is interesting in this connection to compare the flora •of the loess bluffs with that occurring at Woodbine, The region here is essentially the same as that at Woodbine excepting that the loess is somewhat diminished and the bluffs immediately encroaching upon the broad valley of the Boyer are more or less wooded. It is a noticeable fact here that of the strictly western species comparatively few •of them are represented at Woodbine. On the grass cov- ered bluff's the following are some of the more important •of the plants. Of the early grasses we may mention — Stipa spartea, Poa compressa , Poa pratensis, Panicutn Scribnerianunt. Of the early vernal plants — Sisyrinchiutn angusiifolium , Hypoxis erecta, l^iola palmata var. cucullata, Viola ptda^ifida, Oxalis violacea, Corydalis aurea var. occidentalis , Sisymbrium canescens , Antenttaria plantaginifolia, Achillea millefolium, Lithospermum canescens , Lilhosperviunt angusiifolium, Caslillea sessiliflora. Astragalus carycocai pus . Of the later blooming plants we may mention as espe- •cially prominent Delphinium azureum , Echinacea angustifolia , Polyhcnia Nutlallii, Phlox pilosa, Silene antirrhina , Erigeron anjiuus , Lobelia spicala . Putnex acetosella , Erigeron strigosus. especially the latter, which is extremely common. Of the late June and July plants we may mention espe- gatum, Andropogon protincialis, Andropogon nutans. Panicu>n virgatum, Sporobolus cuspidatus . Sporohulus cuspidatus forms thick interlacing rootstocks that firmly bind the soil. Where it grows it forms a most ■conspicuous feature of the vegetation. It usually grows in newer made soil being much younger than the formation occupied by Androporjon provincialis and A. scoparius. Few shrubs occur upon the open grassy meadows. A few however should be listed here. Ceanothus ovatus , Rhus glabra , Rosa blanda vax . Arkansana. Aniorpha canescens . Symphoricarpos occidentalis . It should be stated here that the other shrubs like Corylus Americana and Prunus Virginiana are found in close proximity to the woods. The Rhus glabra also spreads from the borders of woods reaching out into the meadows and is a forerunner of a forest growth. AMES. Early flowering plants of Ames during April and May are as follows: Anetnone patens var. Nuttalti- ana (rare), Sisymbrium canescens, Viola pedata, Viola palmata va.T . cucullata, Oxalis violacea, Oxalis corniculata. Astragalus carycocarpus , Taraxacum officinale, ISO IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Lithospermuni canescens , Castilleia sessiliflora . Lithosperfftuni avgustifolium . Of the later blooming plants- Anetnone cylindrica , Lepidiuvi apeialum, Verbefta bracteosa, Rutnex acetosella, Poa cornpressa, Achillea millefolium. Lobelia spicata, Antennaria plantagi7iifolia . Delphinium, azureum, Phlox pilosa, Hedeoma hispida, Poa tratensis. Echinacea anf;ustifolia , Troxinion cuspidatum (rare) Erigeron stngosus. Of the June and July plaiits- Asclepias verticillata, Petalosleuwn violaceus , Erigeron divaricatus, Potentilla arguta, Solidago Rlissouriensis, Verbena stricta, Panicton pubescens. Psoralea argophylla , Petalostemon candidtis ^ Cassia Chamtrcrista , Liatris cylindrica , Coreopsis palmata, Euphorbia corollala. Of the shrubs we may mention- Ceanothus ovatus, Rosa blanda var. Arkansana . Rhus glabra , Amorpha canescens . The shrubs in the drift hills are not much more con- spicuous than near Woodbine and Missouri Valley. August and September list. Solidago rigida. Aster sericeus , Ambrosia psilostachya , Cnicus discolor^ Panicum capillare, Andropogon scoparius , Sporobolus asper. Solidago nemoralis , Aster tnulti f torus , Heliopsis scabra , Artemisia caudata. Euphorbia tnaculata , Bouteloua hirsuta , B. racemosa , Panicum I'irgatum , Aristida basiramea. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 181 A RULING ENGINE FOR MAKING ZONE PLATES. BY W. M. BOEHM. About a century ago the corpuscular theory of light was falling into disfavor among scientific men in general and the wave theory was taking its place. Among the many contributions to the subject we find the writings of Fresnel. It was he especially who struck the decisive blow at the dying hypothesis. That part of his work which is of par- ticular interest to us is his application of Huyghen's prin- ciple to phenomena of diffraction. According to this principle, every particle on the wave- front, IB, figure 19, may be regarded as the source and center of a new wave. Suppose our figure were a section through a wave. A is the center of the disturbance; IB part of the wave-front, and F some particle on the straight line passing through A B, and farther from A than the wave- front. We know that, in a homogeneous medium, IB, the section through the wave-front, will be an arc of a circle. If there is no opaque obstacle on the line between A and F, the wave will in time reach F, for light travels in straight lines in such a medium. But, suppose we had an obstacle between A and F. Why is it that we will not receive light from the other particles on the wave-front if, as we have said, each particle there acts as the center of a new wave? In other words, why will light not travel in a crooked or curved path in a homogeneous medium? Fresnel's expla- nation is not the most satisfactory but is sufficient for the present purpose. He divides the wave-front into a number of zones. In the figure these are shown as arcs of a circle. The line IF is equal to B F plus one half a wave-length. The next 182 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. line is half a wave-length longer than I F, etc., every line- is half a wave-length longer than the preceding. We will not go farther into these details since they are now too well known. Suffice it to say that, by simple mathematical means we can show that the motions given to F by any half zone are exactly balanced by the motions from the succeeding half zone as a result of destructive interference. There is one exception to this, i. e., the motion transmitted by the particles in the immediate vicinity of B. The motion from these particles is what causes the motion of F. It is evident that when we interpose some obstacle,, like the dark film of a photographic negative, so that the motions from each alternate zone cannot arrive at F, we will have the motions from the remaining alternate zones arriving a F, practically, at the same time and in the same- phase. Anegativeof this kind will have a series of concentric circles whose i^adii are proportional to the square roots of the respective numbers of the circles. Soret, in 1875, pro- duced a plate of ninety-eight dark circles and obtained some very satisfactory results. In 1898 Prof. Wood, then of the University of Wisconsin now of Johns Hopkins,, made a plate of 115 dark circles. He also produced phase- reversal plates, /. e., plates which were entirely transparent but in which the alternate zones would retard the motion by one half a wave length. His results, in addition to a plate, were published in the Fhilosophical Magazine for that year. His plates were made by first producing a drawing and photographing it afterwards. He used an ordinary beam-compass. Now, anyone who has had the fortune to manipulate one of these instruments can appre- ciate the value of a steady hand, when he obtains good results. It was with the intention of producing these plates with greater ease and accuracy that an engine, or rather machine, was built at the University of Iowa this year. Mechanical details are always tiresome but, if you will draw on your liberal supply of patience, we will consider the engine which has enabled us to make plates of, not 230 » ffi cd Q I'iijurr ;r IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 183^ circles, but of 900 circles, in the short time of eighteen hours. First of all, the pen was not made to move about a center and describe a circle as in the ordinary process, but the drawing-board was made to revolve and the pen held sta- tionar3^ In its general outline the machine may be seen in figure 20. AC is a long gas-pipe, selected on account of its smooth surface and cylindrical form. At B the draw- ing pen is attached. The operator governs it by means of a long brass rod between A and B. This enables him tO' lift the pen from the paper and lower it at will. Parallel to this rod there runs a long capillary tube through which ink is forced into the pen. The gas-pipe is fastened tO' the bed of the dividing-engine DE. The drawing-board is supported by a heavy steel shaft which rests in a conical bearing at H. Figure 21 shows the method of attaching the pen to the gas-pipe, A. Two brass bars, D B and B F, form a hinge. The pen is fastened at B by an arrangement which permits- its removal. Here may also be seen the glass capillary tube through which the ink is forced into the pen. This tube is fastened to the hinge in such a manner that the pen can be filled at any position of the hinge. A rubber tube, not shown in the drawing, connects this glass tube with the capillary tube running to the operator's table. At F there is a spring which tends to keep the pen pressed mildly against the surface of the paper. When the oper- ator desires to lower the pen he turns the eccentric at D' so as to draw F against the pipe and the pen at B descends. In order to lift the pen he reverses the process and the spring, which is attached to a screw at D, is drawn in the opposite direction. Thus one spring is made to do the work of two. At one time there was a second spring employed to raise the pen but it was found obnoxious and was soon discarded. The screw which you see above the pipe at A is not used when a drawing is made. Its pur- pose is to hold the point of the pen in a constant position so that depressions in the drawing table may be detected. 184 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. While the work is proceeding the pen becomes empty. The operator must have some means of watching the pen and the paper just below it. For this purpose a mirror, E, is attached at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the plane of the drawing-board. This reflects the image of the pen toward the operator's telescope. Occasionally, the pen must be cleaned. This can be done without dis- turbing its position. The width of the line can also be regulated. The hinge is made to fit closely in order to prevent a motion of the pen from side to side. To provide an additional safeguard against this possibility, a strong wire spring, not shown in the drawing, is attached to F so as to keep the end of the hinge drawn always to one side. The pen can be moved up or down by gentle pressure but not from side to side. It follows any slight elevation or •depression in the surface of the drawing-board. One of the most perplexing of the problems that had to be solved was that concerning the drawing-board. Sup- pose we had a board seven feet square. In a damp atmos- phere it would swell more in one direction than in the other, which is a very undesirable property in this case. Suppose you made your board in two sections, an upper and a lower, having the long fiber at right angles. You would be adopting the method of the man who made the wooden saddle. The surface of the board would not be a plane. After some deliberation the following method was adopted: several pieces of broad pine flooring were taken and a line drawn down the middle of the broad side. Fifteen of these pieces were laid side by side so as to leave about three millimeters between each board and the adjoining one. Over these was placed a second layer of boards with their medial lines also marked. Wherever two of these medial lines intersected a screw was driven. In all about 230 screws. This gives a board which will hold its shape sufficiently for the present purpose. The expansion in the direction of the long fiber is very small. At right angles to this direction let the wood shrink or swell for we have given it sufficient room to do so in the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 185 interspaces. The board is revolved at the rate of about one revolution in twenty seconds, by means of a small electric motor and a system of pulleys. Both motor and the pulleys have separate structures. The motor is placed on a pier which is free from mechanical contact with the building. The vibrations produced otherwise do not reach the pen or board so that the machine is practically free from all ordinary vibrations. The diameter of this drawing-board is about 2.10 meters. The sheet of paper used was seventy-two inches wide. [Since drawing-paper is a commercial article, the ancient system is, of course, used.] The dividing-engine DE, figure 22, is only 45 cm. long. Now we should have a screw of more than 100 cm. in length. In order to get around this obstacle the following method was adopted: the gas-pipe, A B, was passed through two supports, K B, one at each end of the drawing-table. They were provided with screws, K, so that the pipe could be firmly fastened and not moved backward or forward. To H G, the movable bed of the engine, a solid iron bar, G, having the same width as the gas-pipe, is fastened. To this, in turn, are fastened three flat brass bars seen at F. A visitor once remarked that they reminded him of the inclined stacks of an ocean steamer, but you may rest assured that the artistic effect was not thought of during the construction of the appa- ratus. When mechanical perfection is impossible it is well to provide for the imperfections that are detrimental. No attempt was made to drill a hole through which the bolts would exactly fit. When the operator desires to fasten the pipe to the engine he first forces the bars back as far as possible and fastens the two lower bolts. Then the upper bolt is fastened and thus the pipe is firmly clamped to the bed of the engine. In order that the operator ma> make measurements and watch the actions of the pen there is mounted, at I, a Frauenhofer telescope, CF. It is shown a little higher than the gas-pipe but when in operation it is much nearer the same elevation. From A to K are shown in part, the lever which raises the pen and parallel to it the capillary tube for conveying the 13 I A S 186 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ink. An injector or, what is more to the point, a force- pump forces ink through the tube and into the pen. It is operated by hand. Alouf^ the side of the dividing-engine you may see a scale. A pointer from H shows the number of complete turns of the screw. Figure 28 shows the engine as seen from the operator's end; the mounting of the telescope between F and I; the attachment of the gas-pipe between A and F; and at D the pointer to the side of the engine. There are two other pointers to be seen here. They are flexible pointers for the divided head which is of a peculiar construction. Instead of having one divided circle it has three. This was invented after half of the first zone plate was com- pleted and its value is quite apparent from the striking difference in the results obtained. In order to set the engine the figures were taken from a table of square roots, but these could not be used directly since the factor used in this case was thirty. It was simple enough to multiply by ten but to multiply by three involved the manipulation of some thirty thousand figures. It was an immense task but was cheerfully begun. The use of the new scale at the side of the engine, combined with the new form of the divided head, now^ makes it possible to set the engine directly from the tables without the use of another figure. It may be well to state here that the method of this divided head may be applied in a general manner. The head may be divided into any number of circles, not necessarily three, but the complementary scale, H, figure 24, should be divided into the same number of parts for direct reading. If you will look at this scale, H, you will see that each divisions represents a complete turn of the screw and every third division is numbered in succession. Suppose, for instance, you were! to set the engine at 11. 85. You would turn until the pointer on tiie scale, H, stood at 11. 00. Now you would look at the divided head and use the outer circle, but you would not find .85 on this. It reads from 0 to .33|. Turn the screw one complete revolution and your pointer on H would be on the next division which is not marked. Look at the divided head once more and use FiKui-f 23. 1 1 1 1 1 T Figure ;:4. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 187 the middle circle. It reads from .33^ to .66§, not so far as .85. Turn the screw another complete revolution and look at the divided head; use the inner circle this time It reads from .GGf to 1. 00. The pointer on H is at the second unmarked scale, but if you turn till the divided head is set at 1. 00 you will find the pointer on H at 12. 00. Ever}^ third division on H is marked in succession. There are three spaces between 11. 00 and 12. 00. They corre- spond to three turns of the screw. The two unmarked divisions show which circle, on the divided head, to use. The two pointers are used to allow for the width of the pen. The one at the right was used for the odd-numbered circles. Suppose the position of one of these circles were the lower margin of E, figure 24. If we had only this one pointer your next line would be at I, say. But, this is too far in a light zone by just the width of the line drawn by the pen. The pointer at the left is set so that, turning the head from the one on the right in the direction indicated, will move the pen forward just the width of the line it draws. The operator then works by the following method: he draws the line E by setting the head on the right pointer. For the next line he again turns until the proper figure appears at this pointer but instead of drawing I he turn and sets by the left pointer. He then draws F. The process is quite simple and the operator becomes mechan- ical in his actions as the work proceeds. There is one more point to consider before closing: When the work is done with the beam compass, a small conical hole in a tack serves as the center for all the circles. We cannot do that with the present machine. In order to have the pen pass through the axis of the ^^raw- ing-table, or through the center of the circle it draws, the table is firmly clamped and the pen moved over the paper. It traces a long straight line. Now the board is revolved through 180 degrees, firmly clamped, and the pen moved over the surface as before. If the two lines coincide, the pen passes through the center; if not, it can hd adjusted until it does. 188 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. There are other details of more or less importance but they must be omitted. In its present condition the engine leaves room for improvement and improvements are con- tinually being made. If it were to be reconstructed now, it would probably be slightly different from its present form. Many suggestions have been made; some are good, others worthless. In the face of these it is well to remem- ber the words of Mueller: " VVer jeden Rath berathen will der kommt za keiuer that." Just what the final results of the investigations with the plates will be only a prophet can tell. This will form the subject-matter for other papers. It has not been the object to consider the plates themselves, but the engine with which we make them. We have been enabled to construct plates of 930 circles, more than four times the number drawn by Prof. Wood, but we can admire the patience with which he applied a beam compass to 230. The investigations with the plates will probably take two years of time at least and then the results may be nega- tive. But what is the spirit of the scientist if not to throw aside jears of labor and the most favored opinions, that the truth may be seen more clearly. The engine was first planned after January 1, 1901. In its present imperfect condition it stands as the interrupted work of the past year. Had it not been for Professor A. A. Veblen, president of this learned body, the work would have come to an abrupt close before this. For his encour- agement and many valuable suggestions I desire to express my gratitude. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 189 A LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN LEE COUNTY, FLORIDA. BY A. S. HITCHCOCK. The plants included in the following list were collected at several points in Lee county, Florida, in July and August, 1900. My headquarters were at Myers, on the Caloosa- hatchee river, at which place most of the numbers were collected. Collections were made also at Alva, about twenty-five miles up the river, at PuntaRassa and Sanibel, at the mouth of the river, and at Marco, an island a con- siderable distance down the coast. A few plants were col- lected at Everglade, at the southwest corner of the county. Of all the plants in proper condition and in sufficient abun- dance, ten sets were prepared. Full sets contain 500 forms, though the total numbers are 549. Several species were obtained which are not represented in the sets. In the vicinity of Myers the most extensive formation is the flatwoods. This is fiat, sandy land covered with forest of the long-leaved pine. Beneath is the saw palmetto with other low shrubs, such as scrub oak and Andromeda fruti- cosa. In the flatwoods are ponds which contain water the year around. Various water plants grow here and there is usually a growth of button bush {CephalantJuis) in the cen- tral part. Other depressions contain cypress trees and are called cypress swamps. Besides these there are shallow depressions which contain water only during the rainy sea- sons and which I have called wet-weather ponds. Such depressions are characterized by the absence of the pines and saw palmetto and the presence of certain herbs, which, in most cases, are also found around the ponds. Around the permanent ponds there is usually a broad open space 190 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. between the saw palmettos and the water, covered with a carpet of low herbs. Hammocks are small areas of richer soil and hence covered with a more dense forest vegetation. If cabbage palmettos predominate it is called a palmetto hammock. Bay-heads are rich, swampy areas covered with dense forests in which the bay tree is found. Along the river are marshy flats, in many cases devoid of forests, except what are called palmetto flats, where the cabbage palmettos are scattered over the surface. Along the seacoast there is the usual strand flora, back of which is generally a line of low dunes upon which grow thickets of tropical plants such as Pithecolohium TJngais- Cati and Forestiera porulosa. In places the strand will extend back into a sandy, flat prairie covered with bunch grasses and herbs. Where the soil is low enough to be under water at high tide, mangrove swamps flourish. The chief species here are Rhizophora, Avicennia and Lagun- cularia. Below is likely to be a carpet of Bafis maritima^ Sesuvium and Salicornia. In other places there are exten- sive salt marshes covered by grasses and sedges, such as S parti na juncea and Fiinhri/stilis castenea. These are the chief formations observed. Magnolia Glauca, L. Myers. Rather common in bay- heads. AsiMiNA Grandiflora, Dunal. Myers, Marco. Flatwoods. Frequent, but only three specimens found in flower. A small shrub about two feet high. Anona Laurifolia, Dunal. Myers (1). Aloug the banks of the Caloosahatchee river. A small tree about eight to ten feet high. In fruit. Fruits ovate, somewhat unsymmetrical, about four inches long; green, more or less distinctly facetted. Aroemone Leiocarpa, Greene. Myers. A weed along streets. Only a few specimens observed. Lepidium Virginicum, L. Marco, Myers (2). A weed along streets. Frequent but apparently common earlier in the season. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101 Cakile Maritima, Scop. Sanibel, Punta Rassa. Sandy seashore. Infrequent. A bushy branched herb, the divergent branches decumbent. PoiANisiA Tenuifolia, T. and (1. Marco. Cappaeis Cynophallophora, L. Marco, Everglade. Near a mangrove swamp. InfreGjuent. Helianthemum Corymbosum, Michx-. Marco, Myers (3). Flatwoods, especially in open places. Lechea Tenuifolia, Michx. Marco, Myers (4). Flatwoods. Common. Lechea Ma.jor, Michx. var. Diraricata. Myers. Flat- woods. Stipulicida Filiformis, Nash. Myers (5). In a cultivated field. Uncommon, MoLLOGO Verticellata, L. Myers (10). A weed in culti- vated soil. Trianthema Portulacastrum, L. Marco (9). Flat shell land near water on seacoast. Most abundant in muddy depressions w^iere it forms a carpet. Sesuvium Portulacastrum, L. Myers and Sanibel (11). Salt marshes especi illy among the mangroves. PoRTULACA Oleracea, L. Puuta Rassa, Myers (8). Cul- tivated fields. Apparently indigenous on the shell mounds at Marco and also in other localities. Plant usually lacks the red or purple color common in the north. Portulaca Halimoides, L. Marco (5). On shell mounds among cactuses in an exposed situation. Observed in but one locality, w^here it was in considerable quantity. Portulaca Pilosa, L. Myers (7). Flatwoods and also cul- tivated fields. Common. AscYRUM Hypericoides, L. Myers (17). Flatwood ponds, along the border among the palmettos. A shrub two to four feet high. AscYRUM Stans, Michx. Myers (16). Along the border of flatwood ponds. Frequent. AscYRUM Amplexicaule, Michx. Myers (15). Flatwoods, common. A low shrub. 192 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Hypericum Myrtifolium, Lam. Myers (14). Flatwoodwet weather ponds. Shrub one to three feet high. Fre- quent. Hypericum Aspalathoides, Willd. Myers (13). Borders of flatwood ponds. Common. Hypericum Opacum, T. and G. Myers (12). Marco. Flat- woods. Common. Malvastrum Rugellii, Wats. Everglade, Myers (22). A weed along the streets. Frequent. SiDA Cordifolia, L. Marco, Myers. Waste places. Not common. SiDA Rhombifolia, L. Marco (23), Punta Rassa. A weed along edge of field (No. 23) and in waste places. Com- mon at Marco. SiDA Acuta, Burm. Marco, Myers (24). A common street weed; shrubby at base; a foot or two high. Flowers yellow or orange, opening in sunshine in forenoon. SiDA Rubra-Marginata, Nash. Punta Rassa (25), Myers. At Punta Rassa it was abundant in the sandy flats or prairies near the coast. An erect shrub one to three feet high or in protected places as much as five feet high. Stem and margin of leaves purple. Urena Lobata, L. Myers (550). A weed along the streets and in waste places. Kosteletzkya Smilacifolia, Gray. Myers (18) (19), Marco. Along Caloosahatchee river (No. 18) and fresh water swamps (No. 19). No. 18 agrees with description and Simpson's specimen. No. 19 has narrow leaves, slen- der, wide spreading stems and flowers only about half as large. Kosteletzkya Altheaefolia, Gray. Sanibel (20), Marco (21). Salt or brackish marshes near coast. No. 20 leaves small and plant widely spreading. No. 21 leaves usual shape, but neither this nor 20 have the dense velvety pubescence of other specimens, e. g. Curtiss, 5696. GossYPiuM Herbaceum, L. Sanibel, Myers, Marco. More or less shrubby. Occasional plants have become es- tablished. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 193 Melochia Hirsuta, Cav. var. Glabrescens, Gray, Myers, (26). In grass along streets. Not observed in the flatwoods outside of town. Flowers light purple, opening in the morning. Plant diffusely spreading from the root. Waltheria Americana, L. Punta Rassa. LiNUM Floribanum, Trel. Myers (33) (34). Flatwoods. No. 33 is the usual tall form growing among the pal- mettos. No. 34 is a low form found in shallow water in ponds. OxALis FiLiPES, Small. Myers (35). A weed in waste places in town. Xanthoxylum Pterota, HBK. Marco, Myers (36). In a brackish swamp thicket at Myers. Common along the coast in the dunes. Bursera Gummifera, L. Myers, Marco (37), Sanibel, Ever- glade. No. 37 in swamp thicket. Frequent in scrub on dunes along coast. Rhus Toxicodendron, L. Marco, Myers, Alva (39). Mostly in hammocks and bayheads. Rhus Copallina, L. Marco, Myers (38). Forming thickets along streams. Ilex Cassine, L. Myers (48) (49). Bayheads. Fruit a bright scarlet. A tree twenty to thirty feet high. No. 48 is glabrous and No. 49 is puberulous. Ilex Glabra, Gray. Marco, Myers (47). Flatwoods near pond. XiMENiA Americana, L. Myers (40). Flatwoods and bor- der of swamps. Fruit edible, oval; about the size of an olive. Yellow, with one stone much the shape of the olive stone. Called hog plum. ViTis MuNSONiANA, Simpsou. Myers (43), Alva (42), Marco. Climbing on bushes along streams. ViTis CARiBiEA, DC. Myers (41). Climbing over small trees in open thickets near bayheads. Fruit ripen- ing August 8th. ViTis Candicans, Englm. var. Coriacea. Punta Rassa. A single vine near coast climbing over a small tree. 194 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Fruit edible, nearly as large as domesticated sorts, light purple. Cissus Stans, Pers. Myers (.45), Marco. On shrubs in open thickets along edge of permanent ponds. Cissus Scida, L. Marco. Cissus Sicyoides, var. F/oridaua, L. Marco, Myers (46) Climbing high over shrubs and small trees along edges of bayheads. Ampelopsis Quinquefolia, Michx. Myers (44), Everglade. Climbing over fences and over thickets along streams. Acer Kubrum, L. var. Drummondit, T and G. Myers. Bay- heads. Cardiospermum Microcarpum,«HBK. Marco, Punta Rassa (50). Sandy flats near coast. Sapindus Saponaria, L. Marco. PoLYGALA Grandiflora, Walt. Mycrs (27), Punta Rassa, Sanibel. Common in flatwoods and sand dunes along coast. The type and varieties canescens and anr/nsti- /o/i« intergrade. ISIo. 27 has lanceolate to linear leaves smoothish or canescent. The specimens from the coast are usually canescent. PoLYGALA BoYKiNi, Nutt. Mycrs. PoLYGALA Incarnata, L. Mycrs, Sanibel. Flatwoods, occa- sional. PoLYGALA Setacea, Michx. Myers(3l). Flatwoods. PoLYGALA Nana, DC. Marco. PoLYGALA LuTEA, L. Myers(82). Along border of flatwood ponds. PoLYGALA RuGELii, Shuttl. Mycrs (28). Flatwoods. PoLYGALA Ramosa, Ell. Mycrs (29). Flatwood ponds. PoLYGALA Baldwinii, Nutt. Mycrs (30). Flatwood ponds. Crotalaria Sagittalis, L. Myers (64) (65). Moist grassy places near streams. Crotalaria Ovalis, Pursh. Myers (63). Flatwoods. Crotalaria PuRSHii, DC. Marco, Punta Rassa (62*. Sandy seacoast. CoTALARiA Incana, L. Mycrs, Punta Rassa (61). Waste -- places; two' to four feet high. - -- e.-^" i. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 195 LupiNus DiFFUSus, Nutt. Punta Rassa, Marco. Sandy- fields near ocean. Petalostemon Carneus, Michx. Myers (75). Flatwoods near ponds. Amorpha Virgata, Small. Myers (52). Along streams. Tephrosia Spicata, T. and CI. Myers (82). Flatwoods; flowers white, fading to pink. Tephrosia Chrysophylla, Pursh. Myers (81). Flatwoods. Also a weed in fields; several prostrate stems, two to four feet long from a strong root. Tephrosia Leptostachya, DC. Myers (83). A weed in orange grove. Tndigofera Caroliniana, Walt. Myers (73), Alva. A weed in old fields. Occasionally in flatwoods. Tndigofera Tinotoria, L. Myers. A weed in waste places. Seshania Macrocarpa, Muhl. Marco. A weed in waste places. ViciA Acutifolia, Ell. Myers. Marco (84). Salt marshes, climbing on tall grasses and rushes. Aeschynomene Viscidula, Michx. Myers (51). Flatwoods. Rare. Desmodium Tortuosum, DC. Myers (66). In an old field. Desmodium Paniculatum, DC, var. Chapniani, Britt, Myers. Desmodium Rhombifolium, DC. Myers (67). Along ditches. Desmodium Triflorum, DC. Myers. Open ground, com- mon, Rhynchosia Menispermoides, DC, Sanibel. Myers, (79). Flatwoods. Also is a weed in fields. Rhynchosia Cinerea, Nash. Punta Rassa, Myers. Apios Tuberosa, Moench. Myers, Alva (86). Hammock along river. ViGNA LuTEOLA, Beuth. Myers (85). These are var. anrjast- ifolia. Mucky bank of Caloosahatchee. Also in brack- ish waters. Erythrina Herbacea, L. Marco, Myers. Flatwoods, at Marco is frequent on the shell mounds. Oentrosema Virginiana, Benth. Myers and Punta Rassa (60j. Flatwoods, var. a«^Sambucus Canadensis, L. Myers (172). Bayheads and flat- wood ponds. Viburnum Obovatum, Walt. Myers (171), Marco. Bayheads and swamp thickets. A shrub four to six feet. Houstonia Rotundifolia, Michx. Myers (183). Near flat- wood ponds and also a weed in cultivated soil. Often forming large mats. Houstonia Angustibolia, Michx. Sanibel. Sandy prairies. Oldenlandia Glomerata, Michx. Marco, Sanibel. Open sandy soil, in bunches. Oldenlandia Uniflora, L. Myers (175). Among the grasses and sedges along the edges of wet- weather ponds. This seems distinct from 0. Glomerata. Barnhart 2731 and Nash 1282 belong here. Randia Aculeata, L. Myers (182), Punta Rassa, Marco. Brackish swamps and dune thickets along the seashore. Cephalanthus Occidentalis, L. Myers (186). Flatwood ponds, usually in the central part, where the water remains throughout the year. Also along the river bank. A shrub as much as twelve to fifteen feet. €hiococa Racemosa, Jacq. Myers (185), Marco. Hammocks and rich thickets. Var. Parvifolia, Gray. Myers (184)^ Marco. Hammock near river (184. PsYCHOTRiA Undata, Jacq. Myers. Brackish swamp thicket. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 201 PsYCHOTRiA Tenuifolia, Sw. Alva (181). In a palmetto hammock near the river. A shrub about a foot high. Ernodea Littoralis, Sw. Punta Rassa. Along the sea- shore. Rare. RicHARDiA ScABRA, L. Mycrs. Along streets. vSpermacoce Tenuior, L. Myers (178). In ditches along the streets. Spermacoce Parviflora, Gray. Myers, Punta Rassa, Alva (179). Open sandy soil. DiODiA Teres, Walt. Myers (176), Punta Rassa. A weed in cultivated fields. DioDiA ViRGiNiANA, L. Myers (177). Along the margin of flatwood ponds in the open ground. Abundant. Galium Pilosum, A.it., var. Pundiculosum, Gray. Myers. Galium HispiDULUM, Michx. Myers (180). Among shrubs around flatwood ponds. Elephantopus Tomentosus, L. Myers (141). Flatwoods. MiKANiA ScANDENs, Willd. Marco, Myers, Sanibel (158). Salt marshes. A form from Marco (=Curtiss, 1213* from No-Name Key), has small somewhat fleshy leaves. Plant smooth. EuPATORiuM FoENicuLACEUM, Willd. Mycrs, Marco. A weed in waste places. EuPATORiuM MiKANioiDES, Chapm. Myers, Marco, Sanibel (148). Salt marshes. Leaves vertical and rather suc- culent. EuPATORiuM Serotinum, Michx. Marco, Myers (147). Marshes and river banks. EuPATORiuM Hyssopifolium, L. Marco, Myers (146), Flat- woods near ponds and depressions. Common. EuPATORiuM RoTUNDiFOLiuM, L. Myers (149). Around marshes and ponds. EuPATORiuM CcELESTiNUM, L, Mycrs, (150). In thickets around ponds. LiATRis Gracilis, Pursh. Myers (155). Around a flatwoods pond. LiATRis Tenuifolia, Nutt. Marco (154). Flatwoods. 14 I A s 202 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Carphephorus Corymbosus, T. & G. Myers (137). Flat- woods. Trilisia Odoratissima, Cass. Myers and Marco (1G9 . Flatwoods. Chrysopsis Argentea, Ell. Myers, Marco (138). Flat- woods. . Aplopappus Rubiginosus, T. & G. var. Plujllocephalus, Gray. Sanibel, Punta Rassa (174). Along the sea- shore, near the mangroves. Bigelovia Nudata, DC. Myers. Around ponds. Solidago Sempervirens, L. Myers (168). Near ponds in flatwoods. Solidago Chapmani, Gray. Marco, Myers (167\ Flatwoods, chiefly near ponds, among the rank palmettos. Sericocarpus ToRTiFOLius, Nees. Myers (165). Flatwoods. Aster Carolinianus, Walt. Myers. Along river, in thickets. Aster Adnatus, Nutt. Myers. Flatwoods. Aster Subulatus, Michx. Myers. Erigeron Nudicaulis, Michx. Myers (143). Wet- weather ponds in flatwoods. Erigeron Quercifolius, Lam. Myers, Sanibel (145). Old sandy fields. Erigeron Canadensis, L. Sanibel, Marco, Myers (144). A w^eed in waste places. Baccharis Glomeruliflora, Pers. Marco. Brackish marsh. Baccharis Angustifolia, Michx. Myers (131 ', Marco (132). Brackish or salt marshes. A shrub four to six feet. Pluchea Bifrons, DC. Marco, Myers (161). Flatwood ponds. Pluchea Imbricata, Nash. Myers (162). Along ditch, in flatwoods. In the fields this has so different an aspect that I think it is entitled to rank as a species. Pluchea Camphorata, DC. Marco, Myers (160). Margins of ponds and rivers. Pterocaulon Pycnostachyon, Ell. Marco, Myers (163). Flatwoods. Gnaphalium Purpureum, L. Alva. Open, sandy soil. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 208 SiLPHiuM AsTERiscus, L. Myors (1()6). Thickets in rich soil. This is the same as Simpson's specimen from Palma Sola and does not appear to be this species. Berlandiera SuBACAULis, Nutt. Myers(l84). Flatwoods. IvA Imbricata, Walt. Punta liassa (152). Seashore, in open ground. IvA Frutescens, L. Myers (153). Salt marshes. A tall shrub, as much as fifteen feet. IvA MiCROCEPHALA, Nutt. Mycrs. Ambrosia Artemisi^folia, L. Marco, Punta Rassa, Myers (180). A weed in waste places. Xanthium sp. (Presumably X. strumariuni, L. Myers. A street weed. EcLiPTA Alba, Hook. Myers (140). Ditches. Melanthera Hastata, Michx. Marco, Sanibel, Myers il57). In thickets around flatwood ponds, RuDBECKiA HiRTA, L. Myci's (164). Margins of flatwood ponds, in thickets. BoRRicHiA Frutescens, DC. Myers, Marco, Punta Rassa (13(5). Salt flats near mangroves. Helianthella (trandiflora, T. & G. Myers. Flatwoods. Verbesina Virginica, L. Sanibel, Marco, Punta Rassa (170*. Seashore, in openings in the thickets. Coreopsis Leavenworthii, T. & C Sanibel, Myers (189). Margins of flatwood ponds. BiDENS Leucantha, Willd. AJarco, Myers (135). A weed in waste places. Baldwinia Multiflora, Nutt. Myers (133),. Flatwoods. PoLYPTERis Integrifolia, Nutt. Mycrs. Palafoxia Feayi, Gray. Marco (159). Flatwoods. Flaveria Linearis, Lag. Sanibel. Pectis Ciliaris, L. Marco (173). Open ground, shell mounds. Plant prostrate, lemon scented. Erechtites Hieracifolia, Raf. Myers (142). A weed in waste places. Cnicus Horridulus, Pursh. Punta Rassa, Sanibel, Myers Open ground on seacoast. Cnicus Nuttallii, Gray. Myers. 204 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. HiERAciuM Gronovii, L. Mjers (151). Flatwoods. Scat- tered, but frequent. Lygodesmia Aphylla, DC. Myers (156). Flatwoods. Lactuca Canadensis, L. Alva, Marco. Hammock land. This does not seem to be that species but I cannot place it elsewhere. SoNCHus Oleracea, L. Myers, Marco. A weed along streets. Sc^voLA Plumieri. Vahl. Sanibel, Punta Rassa (1S7). Seashore, mostly between the dune thickets and the water, Dense round-topped shrubs about two feet high. Lobelia Gladulosa, Walt. Myers. Flatwoods in moist places. Lobelia Paludosa, Nutt. Myers (18S). Margin of flatwood ponds. Lobelia Cliffortiana, L. var. Xalapensis, Gray. Myers. Lobelia Feayj^na, Gray. Myers (189). Along flatwood ponds in the open ground inside of the palmettos. Vaccinittm Arborium, Michx. Alva (192). Palmetto ham- mock. Tall shrub. Vacinnium Nitidum, Andr. Myers, Marco. Flatwoods. Shrubs about a foot high. Vaccinium Cubense, Griseb. Myers. Andromeda Nitida, Bartr. Alva and Myers (191. Along streams. Shrub four to seven feet. Andromeda Fruticosa, Myers (190), Marco. Flatwoods Common. A shrub two to six feet high. Bejaria Racemosa, Vent. Myers (193). Flatwoods. Shrub three to four feet high, called "catch-fly" on account of the sticky glands around the calyx and pedicels. Statice Caroliniana, Walt. Myers (194). Salt marshes. Samolus Floribundus, HBK. Myers (196). Brackish marsh. Samolus Ebracteatus, HBK. Sanibel (195). Salt marshes. Myrsine Rapana, R. & S. Myers (198). Marco. Ham- mocks near marsh. Small tree, eight to ten feet. Ardisia Pickeringia, T. & G. Myers (197), Marco. Ham- mock near brackish marsh. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 205 Jacquinia Armillaris, L. Punta Rassa. Dune thickets. BuMELiA Lanuginosa, Pers. Marco. Thickets. BuivTELiA Reclinata, Gray. Myers (PJ9). Common in the vicinity of swamps. Forms little clumps or thickets two to six feet high, very prickly. BuMELiA CuNEATA, Sw. Puuta Rassa, Myers, Marco. A common shrub in the dune thickets along the seashore. SiDEROXYLON Mastichodendron, Jacq. Marco, Myers (200). Hammocks near seashore, a large tree. DiosPYROs ViRGiNiANA, L. Myers. Along river and in swamp thickets. Fraxinus Epiptera, Michx. Myers. Cypress swamps. Fraxinus Cubensis, Griseb. Alva (201). Along the bank of the Caloosahatchee. Simpson's No. IS from Man- atee is this. FoRESTiERA PoRULosA, Poir. Punta Rassa. Thickets along dunes. ViNCA Rosea, L. Myers (203). Streets and waste places. Escaped from cultivation. Flowers white or pink. EcHiTEs Pajatdosa, Vahl. Myers (202 >, Marco. Climbing OD shrubs and grasses in salt marshes. Philibertia Viminalis, Gray. Myers (207). Hammock near salt marshee. Climbing over shrubs and small trees. PoDOSTiGMA PuBESCENS, Ell. Myci's (206), Marco. Flat- woods. AscLEPiAS Paupercula, Michx. Myers (210). Around flat- wood ponds, in edge of palmettos. AscLEPiAs ToMENTOSA, L. Marco. AscLEPiAS Verticillata, L. Myers and Sanibel (208). Moist places in flatwoods. At Sanibel, on the sandy prairies. AscLEPiAS Feayi, Gray. Myers (209). Flatw^oods. AcERATES LoNGiFOLiA, Ell. Mycrs (211 . Flatwoods. Seutera Maritima, DC. Sanibel (205), Myers, Marco. Salt marshes. Vincetoxicum Scoparium, (iray. Marco (204). Near man- grove swamps, climbing on shrubs, forming a dense mass. 206 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. GoNOLOBus SuBEROSA, R. Br. Myers. MiTREOLA Petiolata, T. (fe G. Myers (212\ Open ground around flatwood ponds. MiTREOLA Sessilifloria, T. & G. Myers and Alva (213). A narrow-leaved form. Myers (214^. Around flatwood ponds, near the water. Mitreola Angustifolia, T. & G. Myers, Sanibel. Around flatwood ponds. Polypremum Procumbens, L. Myers (215). Flatwoods. Very common. Sabbatia Gracilis, Salisb. Myers (21SK Marco. Wet- weather ponds, in flatwoods. var. Grrnidi flora. Gray. Myers (217). Wet-weather ponds in flatwoods. Sabbatia Elliottii, Steud. Myers (216'. Marco. Flat- woods. Sabbatia Chloroides, Pursh. Myers. Limnanthemum Trachyspermum, Gray, Myers (219). Per- manent ponds. Hydrolea Corymbosa, Ell. Myers (220). Open ground around flatwood ponds. Heliotropium Polyphyllum, Lehm. Myers, Sanibel (221), Punta Rassa (222), Open ground or prairie along the coast. Flowers white but in dried specimens appearing yellow. Heliotropium Parviflorum, L. Myers (223), Marco (224), Sanibel. Along a ditch at Myers (223); shell mounds at Marco (224). Ipomoea Bona-Nox, L. Marco (225), Myers (226), Sanibel. Climbing on shrubs in moist thickets. Ipomoea Hederacea, Jacq. var. Lifegrinscxht, Gray. Marco (227). Along the edge of field. Seems quite distinct in aspect from /. Jlederacea. Climbing stems long and stout. Ipomoea Cathartica, Poir. Punta Rassa (228), Sanibel (229), Everglade, Marco. Sand dunes along the coast. Climbing on shrubs. Ipomoea Pes-Capr^e, Sweet. Myers (230), Marco. Mucky soil along Caloosahatchee at Myers (No. 230>. Is a trail- ing strand plant along the coast. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 207 Ipomoea Sagittata, Cav. Myers (231), Marco. Salt marshes. EvoLvuLUs Sericeus, Sw. Sanibel. vSaiidy prairies. Breweria Aquatic a, Gray. Puiita Uassa (233). Open ground along the coast. CuscuTA Obtusiflora, HBK. var. Glandulosa, Englm. Myers (232). Climbing on shruhs and tall herbs in permanent ponds. Mostly on Cppluddutluo^. Sloxanum Nigrum, L. Myers (239). A weed in cultivated ground and waste places. SoLAxuM Bahamense, L. Evcrgladc. SoLANUM AcuLEATissiMUM, L. Mycrs (240). A weed of waste ground and along streets. Physalis Angui.ata, L. Myers (238K A weed in fields. Annual. Physalis Elliotii, Kuntze. Marco (237), Sanibel, Punta Rassi. Along seacoast. Perennii,l. Physalis Barbadensis, Jacq. Marco (235), Myers (236 . A weed. Old field at Myers, on shell mounds at Marco. An annual. Phylalis Ciliosa, Ryd. Myers, 234. A weed in cultivated fields. Perennial. Physalis Macropbysa, Ryd. Everglade. A weed in culti- vated soil. Capsicum Frutescens, L. Myers, Punta Rassa, Marco (212). Along seacoast in thickets. Capsicum Frutescens, L. Myers (243). Escaped. Found two patches along roadside in town. Lycium Carolinianum, Michx. Myers (241), Marco, Punta Rassa, Sanibel. Salt marshes and mangrove swamps. A shrub eight to fifteen feet high. Pentstemon L.EVIGATUS, Sol. Alva I 247), Myers. Ditches and along edges of hammocks. Herpestis Nigrescens, Benth. Alva (250), Myers. Along ditches. Herpestis Amplexicaulis, HBK. Myers, (249). Margin of flatwood ponds. 208 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Herpestis Monniera, HBK. Myers (251), Marco. Muddy shores of ponds and streams. Gratiola PiLOSA, Michx. Myers (258K Wet-weather ponds in flatwoods. Flowers pale yellow. Stem smooth. Otherwise like the usual form. Gratiola Subulata, Baldw. Myers 246), Marco. Flat- woods. Ilysanthes Grandiflora, Benth. Myers (252). Wet- weather ponds in flatwoods. MicRANTHEMUM NuTTALLii, Gray. Myors '253). Wet sand in open ground, among grass, near river. ScoPARiA UuLcis, L. Myers (248). Along the streams and in waste places; two to three feet high; woody at the base. Capraria Biflora, L. Myers (255). Waste places. BucHNERA Elongata, Sw. One form has purple corolla- Myers (256), Marco, Sanibel. Another has nearly white corolla twice as broad. Myers (257). Seymeria Pectinata, Benth. Marco (254). Flatwoods. Gerardia Linifolia, Nutt. Myers. Gerardia Purpurea, L. var. Fasciculafa, Chapm. Sanibel. Gerardia Maritima, Uaf. Sanibel (245), Marco. Salt marshes. Gerardia Skinneriana, Wood. Marco, Myers (244). Flat- woods. Utricularia Oligosperma, St. Hil. Myers. Permanent ponds. Utricularia Resupinata, Greene. Myers (264). Ponds in flatwoods, growing in the water. Corolla purple. Utriculawa Subulata, L. Myers (263). Flatwood ponds, growing in the water. Utricularia Cornuta, Michx. Myers (262). Wet-weather ponds in flatwoods, growing in the watei'. Utricularia Striata, Leconte. Myers (265). In an aban- doned well, floating on the surface in a dense mat. Elytraria Virgata, Michx. Myers (260). Openings in thickets near ponds in flatwoods. Calophanes Oblongifolia, Don. Myers. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 209 RuELLiA CiLiosA, Pursli. Mjers ('261). Shady places in hammocks. Stenandrium Dulce, Nees, var. F/oruhoniii/, Gray. Myers (259). Openings in thickets near ponds. DicLEPTERA AssuRGENS, Juss. Evcrgladc, Myers. Stachytarpheta Jamaicensis, Vahl. Myers (278), Marco. A weed in waste places. Verbena Urtic^efolia, L. Myers (269). Moist ground along the river. LippiA NoDiPLORA, Michx. Myers (271), Sanibel. Margins of rivers and ponds. Lantana Involucrata, L. Marco, (267). Shell mounds. Shrub two to three feet high. Fh)wers white or greenish. Lantana Camara, L. Myers (266), Punta Rassa (26S). Es- caped along streets and in moist places at Myers (No. 266). Along seacoast at Punta Rassa, apparently in- digenous (No. 26S). Shrubs three to four feet high. Flowers pink, with yellow eye, Callicarpa Americana L. Myers (272). Thickets along hammocks and river banks. AviCENNiA NiTiDA, Jacq. Myers (270), Punta Rassa, San- ibel, Marco. Swamp forests along the coast, usually associated with mangroves. Trichostema Lineare, Nutt Myers (279), Punta Rassa. Moist sand among the saw palmettos. Teucrium Nashii, Kearney. Myers (2S1). Hammock near river. Hyptis Radiata, Willd. Myers (274). Margin of ponds. Hyptis Spicigeka, Lam. Myers. A weed in waste places Mentha Viridis, L. Myers. Along street. Satureia RiGiDA, Bartr. Alva (280), Myers. Flatwoods. Salvia Lyrata, L. Myers (276). Open shady places in hammocks. MoNARDA Punctata, L. var. Lcucauthd, Nash. Punta Rassa (275), Marco. Sand dunes along coast. A bushy branched plant about three feet high. The same as Nash 2456 from Palmetto, but I think it is distinct from M. jjUHctata. 210 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Scutellaria Arenicola, Small. Myers (274). Scutellaria Integrifolia, L. vsiv. Ifi/ssojiifo/iff. Myers and Alva (278). Flatwoods. Physostegia Denticulata, Britt. Myers (282). Along the border of ponds, in flatwoods amono^ the palmettos. Plantago Lanceolata, L. Myers. A weed in waste places. MiRABiLis Jalapa, L. Evei'glade. Probably escaped from cultivation. BoERHAAviA HiRSUTA, Willd. Sanibcl, Punta Kassa, Marco (283). Shell mounds (No. 283), and sandy piairies. Perennial from woody tap-root. BoERHAAviA Erecta, L. Puuta Rassa(284), Myers. Open, sandy ground along coast; at Myers a single plant as a weed in a cultivated field. Forms a spindle-shaped, fleshy tap-root, perennial. SiFHONYCHiA Americana. T. & G. Alva (285). In an old field. SuEDA Linearis, Moq. Myers and Punta Kassa (286 \ San- ibel, Marco. Salt marshes. Atriplex Cristata, HBK. Punta Rassa (287 \ Marco, San- ibel. Along seashore. Salicornia Ambigua, Punta Rassa (288), Marco. Mangrove swamps. Chenopodium Anthklminticum, L. Myers (289). A weed in fields and waste places. •Chenopodium sp. Marco (290), (291). Shell mounds and open ground near seashore, allied to ('. album. Prob- ably the same form. Sanibel, Myers. Amarantus Hybridus, L. Sanibel (292), Marco, Myers, Punta Rassa. A w^eed in fields. Amarantus Spinosus, L. Myers (293), Marco. A weed along streets and in waste places. EuxoLus LiviDus, Moq. Myers (298), Marco, Punta Rassa, A weed in waste places. AcNiDA Australis, (I ray. Myers (299). Brackish marsh. Plant five to ten feet high wdth an enlarged strong base the shape of cypress trunk, AcNiDA Tamarascina, Wood. var. prostrata, U. & B. San- ibel. Sandy prairie. Curtiss. No. 2373 belongs here. I IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 211 Tresine Vermicularis, Moq. Marco (300), Myers, Sanibel. Muddy seashore. I reside Celosioides, L. Myers (294), Sanibel (295\ Marco. Hammock (iSIo. 294); sandy prairies (No. 295 ; shell mounds at Marco. Telanthera Floridana, Moq. Marco (296), Sanibel (297). Margins of Mangrove swamp. UivixVA 11 L^MiLis, L. Myers (302), Sanibel. Hammocks. Phytolacca Decandra, L. Myers 301*, Marco, Punta Rassa. A weed in waste places. Batis Maritima, L. Punta Rassa (303), Sanibel. Mangrove swamps. RuMEx Crispus, L. Myers. A weed in yards. RuMEx Florioanus, Meisn. Alva (307), Myers. Along a ditch, growing in the water. PoLYGONELLA Parvifolia, Michx. Marco, Alva (308), Myers (309). Flatwoods. Polygonum Hydropiperoides, Michx. Myers (305 \ Margin of ponds. Polygonum Persicaria, L. Myers (306). A weed in a cul- tivated field. Seen in but one locality. CoccoLOBA UviFERA, Myers (304 , Marco. Thickets along the seashore. A shrub or small tree. Saururus Cernuus, L. Myers. Fresh water swamps. Persea Carolinensis, Nees. Marco, Myers (310K Margin of ponds. Cassytha Filiformis, Mill. Myers (31 1\ Marco. Climbing on shrubs in flatwoods. Euphorbia Polyphylla, Englem. Myers (323), Marco. Flat- woods. Euphorbia Heterophylla, L. Sanibel (322), Marco. A weed in waste places. Euphorbia Hypericifolia, L. Myers (324), Punta Rassa, Everglade. Along the streets and around habitations. Appears like an introduced plant. Euphorbia Buxifolia, Lam. Punta Rassa (325), Sanibel. Along strand. Euphorbia Pilulifera, L. Myers (326). Along streets. 212 IOWA ACADEM~X OF SCIENCES. Var.PROcuMBENS, Boiss. Marco (327). Shell mounds around dwellings, especially along paths. Euphorbia Ammannioides, HBK. Punta Rassa '320). Open- ings in thickets along the seashore. Euphorbia Prostrata, Ait. Marco (318). Shell mounds along paths and roads. Euphorbia Cordifolia, Myers (319 , Punta Rassa, Sanibel, Marco. A weed in sandy fields. Euphorbia Maculata. Alva (328). This is not this species as found in Kansas, but comes nearest to this of any in the collection. Euphorbia Innundata, Torr. Myers (321). Flatwoods. No. 321 was growing in the water in a wet- weather pond. Stillingia Sylvatica, L. Myers (330), Sanibel. Open ground around pond. Leaves linear or linear lan- ceolata. Acalypha Ctracilens, Gray. Myers (313\ Shady places along streets. Acalypha Carolinian a, Walt. Myers (312). Waste places in town. Tragia Linearifolia, Ell. Myers (331). A weed in culti- vated fields, also in flatwoods. Croton Ctlandulosus, L. Myers (316), Punta Rassa (317). Open sandy places. No. 317 along the coast. Var. Maritimus, Walt. Sanibel, Punta Rassa (315). Sea- coast on the strand. Cnidosculus Stimulosus, Gray. Myers (314\ Marco. Flat- woods. RiciNus Communis, L. Myers. Waste places. Phyllanthus Carolinianus, Walt. Punta Rassa (329), Sanibel. Along strand. Pilea Muscosa, Lindl. Marco (334'. Shell mounds under the piazza of the hotel. BoEHMERiA Cylindrica, Willd. Myers. Shady places. Var. ScABRA, Port. M3ers (333). Ditches. MoRUS Rubra, L. Myers. Hammocks. Ficus AuREA, Nutt. Myers. ^ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 213 Ficus Brevifolia, Nutt. Myers (332). Hammock near river, Myrica Cerifera, L. Myers (335), Marco. Bayheads and swamps. Carya Aquatica, Nutt. Alva (336). Along the river bank. Quercus Aquatica, Walt. Myers (339). Hammocks. (^UERcus Myrtifolia, Willd. Myers, Marco. Flatwood thickets. Quercus Parvifolia, Small. Marco, Myers (340). Flat- woods. A shrub two to three feet high. Quercus Virens, Ait. Alva (337), Marco. Thickets in flat- woods. A shrub two to five feet high. Var. Spicata. Myers. Quercus Maritima, Willd. Myers, Marco, Punta Rassa. Dune thickets along coast. Quercus Naxa, Willd. Myers (338^. Flatwoods. A shrub about one foot high. This seems to be Q. virens dentata of Chapman's flora. Salix Nigra Wardi, Bebb. Myers. Bayheads. Ceratiola Ericoides, Michx. Marco. White sand scrub forming a ridge in the flatwoods south of the town on Marco Island. The only place I observed the plant in Lee county. Ceratophyllum Demersum, L. Myers (339). Shallow water in the Caloosahatchee river. Valisneria Spiralis, L. Myers (376). Caloosahatchee. Aptera Setacea, Nutt. Myers. In a sphagnum bog. Epidendrum Tampense, Lindl. Marco, Sanibel, Myers (240). In salt marsh thickets growing on various shrubs or small trees. Cyrtopodium Woodfordii, Lindl. (?) Myers. Calopogox Parviflorus, Lindl. Myers. Ponds in the flat- woods. Habenaria Nivea, Spreng. Myers. Habenaria Michauxii, Nutt. Myers (341), Alva, Marco. Moist places in the flatwoods. Spiranthes Gracilis, Bigel. Myers, Sanibel. Stem is eighteen inches high, growing in the water. Lowest 214 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. leaf elliptical; first leaf of scape linear, six inches long, one-fourth inch wide. Thalia Divaricata, Chapm. Myers (377). In a permanent pond among Ccphalanthus. Flower stalk about ten feet high, with a dichotomously-branched panicle. Flowers purple. The Canna-like leaves with blade two feet long and petiole three to four feet. Canna Flaccida, Roscoe. Myers (355). Fresh- water swamps. SiSYRiNCHiTTM Graminoides, Biclvii. Sauibel (356), Myers. Sandy prairies. SisYRiNCHiuM Atlanticum, Bickn. Myers. Along a ditch. Pancratium Carib.eum, L. Marco, Salt marshes. Crinum Americanum, L. Myers (342*. Salt marshes. Agave Decipiens, Baker. Marco. Shell mounds. Hypoxis Juncea, Smith. Myers (343). Flatwoods. TiLLANDsiA Utriculata, L. Mycrs (344). Hammock near river. Panicle two to three feet. TiLLANDsiA Flexuosa, Sw. Myci's (346), Sanibel. Grow- ing on dead shrubs in salt marsh. TiLLANDsiA BuLBosA, Hook. Myci's (347), Marco, Sanibel. Swamp thickets; epiphytic on various small trees. TiLLANDSiA Setacea, Sw. Alva (349), Myers. On palmetto trunks in a palmetto hammock (349). TiLLANDSiA Recurvata, Pursh. Myers (345). Epiphytic on a large water oak along street. TiLLANDSiA UsNEOiDEs, L. Mycrs (348), Marco. Hanging from trees in hammocks and swamps. Lachnanthes Tinctoria, Ell. Myers (350). Swamps and ditches. Aletris Farinosa, L. Myers. Flatwoods. Smilax Tamnoides, L. Myers. Smilax Bona-nox, L. Myers (352). Hammocks. Smilax Auriculat.a, Walt. Punta Rassa and Alva (405). Climbing over dune thickets at Punta Rassa and in palmetto hammocks at Alva. Lilium Catesbaei, Walt. Myers. Yucca Aloifolia, L. Myers, Marco. Flatwoods; shell mounds at Marco. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 215 Amianthium Angustifolium, Gray. Myers. Ponds and depressions in tiatwoods. PoNTEDERA CoRDATA, L. Myers (354). Ponds and swamps. EicHORNiA Crassipes, Solms. Myers (804). Abundant in Caloosahatchee river and tributary streams. Water hyacinth. Xyris Brevifolia, Michx. Myers. Xyris Elata, Chapm. Marco. Xyris Ambigua, Beyr. Marco, Alva, Myers (360). Plat- wood ponds. Flowers yellow. Xyris Platylepis, Chapm. Myers (359). Ditches and swamps. Grows in bunches, Flowers yellow. Xyris Torta, Smith. Myers (358). Flatwoods. Flowers white, l^lants solitary. Xyris Baldwiniana, R. & S. Myers (357). Wet-weather ponds in tiatwoods. (jrrows in clumps. Flowers yel- low. CoMMELYNA NuDiFLORA, L. Myci's (3()4). Aloug rivcr bank. Commelyna Ereota, L Myers (363', Punta Rassa. A weed in tields. Forms large bunches. Tradescantia Floridana, Wats. Myers (361). On little hillocks in hammock, forming a mat over the ground. Tradescantia Rosea, Vent. Myers (362), Marco. Flat- woods. JuNcus Effusus, L. Marco. JuNcus SciRPOiDEs, Ijam. Myers (367 . Flatwood ponds JuNcus Elliottii, Chapm. Alva (365). Flatwoods. JuNcus Marginatus, Rostk. Myers (366). Flatwood ponds. Sagittaria Lancifolia, L. var. Falcata, Smith. Myers. Ponds. Sagittaria Graminea, Michx. Myers. Var. Cycloptera, Smith. Myers (371.) Flatwood ponds, in the water or along the margin. Sagittaria Subulata, Buch. var. Xatans, Smith. Myers (370). Permanent ponds. Leaves and fruit sub- merged. Flowers at surface. When the flowers are drawn beneath the surface a bubble of air remains inside the petals and the polen is not injured. Triglochin Triandra, Michx. Myers (372.) Salt marshes. 216 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. RuppiA Maritima, L, Myers, Caloosahatcbe river. Zannichella Palustris, L. Myers. Caloosahatchee river. Sabal Palmetto, R. & S. Myers (369). Along river and brackish salt marshes. Flat, marshy land covered with palmetto is called palmetto flat, or palmetto slough, if a bayou or inlet. Richer land along the river upon which palmettos are found forms a palm- etto hammock. Cabbage palmetto. Serenoa Serrut ATA, Hook. f. Myers (368), Marco, Punta Rassa. Common in flatwoods throughout this region. Along river banks, ponds, and swamps the growth is much more rank and the leaves may be as much as five feet high. vSaw palmetto. Typha Angustifolia, L. Myers. Swamps and river banks. Arisaema Triphylltjm, Torr. Myers. Marshes, and fre- quent in a sphagnum bog. PiSTiA Spathulata, Michx. Myers. Caloosahatchee river; called water lettuce. Lemna Minor, L. Myers (373). Floating in permanent ponds. Eriocaulon Decangulare, L. Myers (375). Ponds where the water is present for a considerable portion of the year. Paeplanthus Flavidulus, Kunth. Myers, Marco. Wet- weather ponds in flatwoods. Lachnocaulon Glabrum, Korn. Myers (374). Wet-weather ponds in flatwoods. (]yperus Leucolepis, Carey. Myers (398). New soil in open ground near river. Cyperus Nuttallii, Torr. Myers (392), (393), Marco. Around flatwood ponds (No. 392) and common in fields and moist places. Also brackish marshes (No. 393). Cyperus Microdontus, Torr. Alva, Myers. Cyperus Strigosus, L. Myers (391). Swamps and ditches. Cyperus Brunneus, Sw. Sanibel, Marco (395), (396). Shell mounds near the water at Marco. Cyperus Tetragonus, Ell. Myers (389), Marco (390). Hammock (No. 389.) Prairie near mangrove swamp No. (390). IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 217 Cyperus Ligularis, L. Marco, Punta Rassa (394). Along the coast. Cyperus Speciosus, Valil. Myers (388). Swamps and ditches. Cyperus Esculentus, L. Myers (387). A weed in fields. Cyperus Haspan, L. Myers (280). Around fiatwood ponds. Cyperus Calcaratus, Nees. Myers (385) Marshes and ditches. Cyperus Compressus, L. Myers ^397). A weed in fields. Cyperus Baldwinii, Torr. Alva (381), Myers (383), Marco. Sandy hammocks (No. 381), and also a weed in fields (No. 382). Cyperus Oylindricus, Britt. Myers (384). Around flat- wood ponds and in fields. Cyperus Cylindrostachys, Boeckl. Marco (383), Sanibel, Punta Rassa, Myers. Prairie near mangrove swamps. Kyllingia Pumila, Michx. Myers (414). Ditches, and moist places in flatwoods. Kyllingia Brevifolia, Rottb. Myers (413). Open, grassy land in flatwoods. Hemicarpha Subsquarrosa, Nees. Myers (436). Around flatwood ponds. Fuirena Scirpoidea, Vahl. Myers, Marco. Around ponds FuiRENA Squarrosa, Miclix. Myers (412). Bayheads and ponds. Eleocharis Cellulosa, Torr. Myers (403). Brackish marsh. Eleocharis Ochreata, Nees. Myers (402), Marco. Muddy soil near salt marshes (No. 402). Eleocharis Ch^taria, R. & S. Alva (401), Myers. Moist places in flatwoods. Eleocharis Microcarpa, Torr. Myers, Sanibel. Frimbristylis Castanea, Vahl. Myers (410), Marco (411), Punta Rassa, Sanibel. Around flatwood ponds. No. 411 in a prairie, near mangrove swamp. Frimbristylis Spadicea, Vahl. Sanibel (404), Myers, Marco, Salt marshes. 15 I A s 218 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Frimbristylis Puberula, Vahl. Myers (408), (409). Flat- woods; No. 409 was a weed in an orange grove. Grows in bunches; no rhizomes. Frimbristylis Laxa, Vahl. Alva. Frimbristylis Autumnalis, R. & S. Myers (406), (407), Marco. Around flat wood ponds. Stenophyllus Capillaris, Britt. Myers (405), (411). Punta Rassa. Flatwoods. Stenophyllus Warei, Britt. Myers (434). Flatwoods. Stenophyllus Stenophyllus, Britt. Myers (485). Flat- woods. Rhynchospora Cyperoides, Mart. Myers (418). Flatwood ponds, growing in water. Rhynchospora Patula, Gray. Myers (426). Margin of cypress swamp. Rhynchospora Divergens, Chapm. Myers. Rhynchospora Intermedia, Britt. Myers, Marco, Alva (427). Flatwoods. Rhynchospora Filifolia, Gray. Myers. Rhynchospora Fascicularis, Vahl. Myers (423), (424), (549). Ponds and ditches, in flatwoods. Rhynchospora Dodecandra, Baldw. Marco, Alva (417). Flatwoods. Rhynchospora Cymosa, Nutt. Myers (425). Around ponds and flatwoods. Rhynchospora Microcarpa, Baldw. Myers (421), Marco. Ponds in flatwoods. Rhynchospora Caduca, Ell. Alva, Myers (422). Swamps and ditches. Rhynchospora Milacea, Gray. Myers (420). Sphagnum bog. Rhynchospora Stipata, Chapm. Myers (419). Flatwood ponds. Ch^tospora Nigricans, Kunth. Myers (379). Flatwoods, near pond. PsiLOCARYA NiTENs, Ward. Myers (415), (416). Bogs and wet places in flatwoods. Dichromena Leucocephala, Michx. Myers (400), Marco. Around flatwood ponds. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 219 DiCHROMENA Latifolia, Baldw. Myers (399). Flatwood ponds, in water. Cladium Efiusum, Torr. Myers and Sanibel (380), Marco. Ponds and marshes. Saw-grass. ScLERiA Sp. Myers (433). Along a ditch. Culms filiform, a foot or two high. Rootstock knotty, creeping. Leaves narrow, almost filiform. Flowers one or two. Nutlets reticulated. ScLERiA Verticellata, Muhl. Myers. ScLERiA Triglomerata, Michx. Alva (431). In an old field. Scleria Olioantha, Ell. Myers (432). Wet places in flatwoods. Scleria Laxa, Torr. Myers (428). Along a ditch. ScLEEiA Baldwinii, Torr. Myers (430). Growing in water in flatwood pond. Scleria Filiformis, Sw. Myers (429). (Irowing in water in flatwood pond. Carex Albolutescens, Schwein. Myers. Carex Gigantea, Rudge. Alva (378). Along river bank,, growing in the water. Reimaria Oligostachya, Munro. Myers, Sanibel. Paspalum Platycaulon, Poir. Myers (-302), (503). Alva. Swamps and ditches. Also in mud along streets (No. 503). Forms long runners. Paspalum Paspaloides, Scrib. Alva, Myers (504). Flat- wood ponds. Grows in or near the water. Forms long runners. Paspalum Distichum, L. Myers (506). Sanibel. A com- mon weed in fields, where it is exceedingly trouble- some on account of the rooting runners which may extend several feet. Called there "Thompson grass" or "Fort Thompson grass." It is a valuable forage grass. Panicum Vaginatum, Sw. Myers (505). Meadows near salt marshes. Paspalum Ciliatifolium, Michx. Sanibel, Marco, Punta Rassa, Myers (507). A weed in fields. This and the two preceding are also found in the flatwoods, but 220 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. usually small plants with only one to a few flowering culms. Paspalam Setaceum, Michx. Myers (509). A weed in fields, growing in large bunches. Paspalum Longipedunculatum, LeConte. Marco, Myers (508). A weed in fields. Grows in large bunches. Paspalum Racemulosum, Nutt. Myers. Paspalum Precox, Walt. Myers (499), (500), (501). Swamps and along ponds and bayheads. Paspalum Giganteum, Baldw. Myers. Paspalum Fluitans, Kunth. Myers. Ponds, floating on the surface. Eriochloa Mollis, Kunth. Sanibel (464). Sandy prai- ries. Eriochloa Longifolia, Vasey. Myers (462). Marco (463). Around ponds. No. 463 along sandy seashore. Oplismenus Setarius, R. & S. Myers (467). Hammocks in rich soil. Amphicarpum Floridanum, Chapm. Myers. Panicum Sanguinale, L. Myers. Glumes very hairy or ciliate at the margins. Panicum Filiforme, L. Sanibel, Myers (495), Alva (496), Marco (497). A weed in fields. No. 497 grew in large clumps about a yard in diameter. Panicum Setigerum, Roth. Marco, Myers (498). A weed in fields, rooting at the nodes. Panicum Serotinum, Trin. Myers (493), (494). Common. Along streets. (No. 493), and a weed in fields (No. 494). Panicum Chapmanii, Vasey. Marco (487). Shell mounds at edge of thicket. Panicum Fuscum, Sw. Marco (484). Everglade. A weed in fields. Panicum Fasciculatum, Sw. Marco (485). Sanibel. A weed in fields. Panicum Leucophaeum, HBK. Everglade. Panicum Proliferum, Lam. Myers (4S3). Sanibel. A weed in a wet orange grove. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 221 Panicum Hians, Ell. Myers (488, 489). Around ponds in flatwoods. Panicum Agrostoides, Spreng. Myers (520). Swamps, ditches, and also flatwood ponds among the shrubs. Some are large with smooth sheaths, others (529) are small pubescent sheaths. Panicum Anceps, Michx. Myers (490). Alva. Swamps and ditches. Panicum Stenodes, Griseb. Myers (492). Wet-weather flatwood ponds, in the water, Panicum Virgatum, L. (491), Marco. Around ponds and along streams. Panicum Jumentorum, Pers. Myers. Panicum Commutatum, Schultes. Alva (477). In palmetto hammocks near river. Panicum Equilaterale, Scribn. Myers (471). In a small hammock. Panicum Webberianum, Nash. Myers (470), Marco. A weed in fields. Panicum Erectifolium, Nash. Myers (469). Wet-weather flatwood ponds, growing in the water. Panicum Ciliiferum, Nash. Myers (474). In an. old field. Panicum Ciliatum, Ell. Marco, Myers (482). Flatwoods. Panicum Baldwinii, Nutt. Myers (472), Marco. Flat- woods. Panicum Neuranthum, Griseb. Myers. Panicum Albo-marginatum, Nash. Meyers. Panicum Leucothrix, Nash. Myers (473). Along the banks of a shady ditch, just above the water. Panicum Barbulatum, Michx. Myers (478) (479). Around ponds and ditches. Panicum Laxiflorum, Lam. Alva (480). Palmetto ham- mock, near river. Panicum Sphagnicolum, Nash. Myers (487). In a sphag- num bog; observed in no other locality. Panicum Divarictum, L. Marco. Thickets, clambering over shrubs. Panicum Crus-galli, L. Myers. A weed in fields. 222 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Panioum Hispidum, Forst. Myers (470), Sanibel. Swamps. No. 37C in an inundated cultivated field. Panicum Colonum, L. Marco (475). A weed in the shell- mound fields. Panicum Gibbum, Ell. Myers (486). Swamps and ditches. Panicum Sp. Myers. This is the same as Nash No. 778. Setaria Imberbis, R. & S. Myers (511, 512, 513), Punta Rassa, Marco. A common seed. This is a large form with hair on the leaves. Myers (514), Sanibel (515), A small slender form, growing in clumps. No hairs on leaves, near the ligules. Setaria Corrugata, Schult. Myers (516), Alva (517). A weed in fields. No. 517 along sandy river bank. Setaria Macrosperma, Scrib. & Merr. Myers (518). A weed in fields. Annual. Often from large bunches. Setaria Setosa, Beauv. Marco (519). Shell mounds near Water. Crrows in large clumps. Cenchrus Kchinatus, L. Myers (448). Marco. A weed in fields. Cenchrus Tribuloides, L. Myers (447). Flatwoods and fields. Cenchrus Incertus, Curtiss. Punta Rassa (446). Sanibel. Along the coast. Stenotaphrum AMERiCANUM,Schrank. Myers (531). Marco, Punta Rassa. Along the streets of Myers and on mucky river bank. Cultivated as a lawn grass. Called St Augustine Grass. Leersia Hexandra, Sw. Myers (468). Swamps. Rottboellia Rugosa, Nutt. Myers (510). Swampy flat, near pond. Tripsacum Dactyloides, L. Myers (534), Alva. Large clumps in ponds and bayheads. Elionurus Tripsacoides, HBK. Myers (456). Around flatwood ponds. Andropogon Elliottii, Chapm. Punta Rassa (440), Myers. Open ground near coast. Andropogon Longiberbis, Hack. Forma niacra, Nash, 1194. Myers (441). Swamps and ditches. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 223 Andropogon Virginicus, L. Alva (489). Old fields. Andropogon Flexilis, Bosc. Marco, Puiita Uassa, Sanibel (438). Sandy prairies. Andropogon Macrourus, Michx. Marco, Myers (437). Swamps and ditches. Heteropogon Acuminatus, Trill. Alva (465). A weed in an orange grove. Sorghum Halapense, Fers. Marco (521). Along edge of fields, in shell mounds. Sporobolus Domingensis, Kunth. Sanibel (528), Marco (529), (530). Everglade. Along seabeach. Sporobolus Junceus, Kunth. Sanibel (525), Myers. Old sandy field (No. 525); also in flatwoods. Sporobolus Indicus, Brown. Myers (524). A weed along streets. Called smut grass. Sporobolus Virginicus, Kunth. Marco (526). A robust form two to three feet high, growing on sandy sea- coast. Salt marshes. No. 526 is the same as Curtiss 5554. Myers (527), Sanibel. Aristida Payula, Chapm. Sanibel, Myers (445), Marco. Around ponds and swamps. ^RiSTiDA Purpurascens, Poii". Nasli 2424. Sanibel, Punta Rassa (443). Open ground near coast. Aristida P^^lustris, Vasey. Myers. Flatwoods. Aristida Stricta, Michx. Myers (444). Flatwoods. The same occurs in fields, where the clumps are much larger. Aristida Spiciformis, Ell. Myers (442), Marco. Flat- woods. Muhlenbergia Capillaris, Kunth. Sanibel (466). Sandy prairies. Phleum Pratense, L. Myers. Probably escaped from cul- tivation. Spartina Juncea, Willd. Marco (523), feanibel. Salt marshes. Spartina Stricta, Roth. Maritima, Scribn. Marco (522). Seabeach. 224 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Chloris Glauca, Vasey. Alva, Myers (449). Swamps and ditches. Chloris Neglecta, Nash. Punta iiassa, Alva, and Sanibel (450), Myers, Marco (455). Swamps and streams. Cynodon Dactylon, Pers. Marco, Myers (451). Common along streets and around dwellings. Var. Martimus, Nees. Marco (452). Along seacoast. Stems two to three feet high. Seems very different in aspect from the ordinary form. BouTELOUA Hirsuta, Lag. Sanibel. Sandy prairies. This is the only locality in Florida that I have observed this grass. It is abundant and seemingly indigenous. Eleusine Indica, Gaertn. Myers (454), Marco. Along streets and around dwellings. Leptochloa Mucronata, Kunth. Everglade. DiPLACHNE Fascicularis, Gray. Marco, Myers. Around swamps. Triodia Cuprea, Jacq. Alva (532). Sandy open ham- mock along river. Triplasis Purpurea, Hack. Punta Rassa (533). Sandy prairie along beach. Eragrostis Brownei, Nees. Myers (461). A weed in fields. Eragrostis Ciliaris, Link. Myers (460). Marco. Along streets and a weed in fields. Eragrostis Plumosa, Link. Alva (459). Sandy bank of river. Eragrostis Pilosa, Beauv. Sanibel. Eragrostis Elliottii, Wats. Myers (458), Sanibel, Marco. Along flatwood ponds. Eragrostis Refracta, Scrib. Myers (457), Alva, Punta Rassa. Flatwoods and a weed in fields. The speci- men from Alva is proliferous, small plantlets appear- ing in the place of spikelets. Uniola Paniculata, L. Punta Rassa (535), Sanibel. Along seabeach. A characteristic dune plant. Distichlis Maritima, Raf. Marco (453). Salt marshes. PiNus Palustris, Ell. Myers (536). The common pine of the flatwoods. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 225 Taxodium Distichum, Rich. In swamps forming charac- teristic areas known as cypress swamps. Scattered here and there through the tiatwoods. AcROSTicHUM AuREUM, L. Mycrs (543). Salt marshes. Forms large bunches four to eight feet high. PoLYPODiuM Incanum, Sw. Mjci's (537). On trunks of trees in sphagnum bay head. PoLYPODiuM Phyllitides, L. Mycrs (538). On trunks of trees in sphagnum bayhead. PoLYPODiuM AuREUM, L. Myers and Alva (539), Marco. Epiphytic. No. 589 on cabbage palmetto in palmetto hammock. Called Rabbit's foot fern on account of its densely villous rhizomes. ViTTARiA Line ATA, R. Br. Alva (544), Myers. Epiphytic upon trunks of cabbage palmettos in palmetto ham- mocks (No. 544). Pteris Aquilina, L. Myers (546), Marco. Around ponds and swamps. Blechnum Serrulatum, Michx. Myers (545), Marco. Around ponds, among the palmettos. WooDWARDiA ViRGiNicA, Willd. Myci's (540). Around ponds among the palmettos. AspiDiuM Thelypteris, Sw. Myers (047). Along river bank and around ponds and bayheads. Nephrolepis Exaltata, Schott. Myers (542), Marco. Bay- heads. OsMUNDA Regalis, L. Mycrs. Ditches and swamps. OsMUNDA Cinnamomea, L. Mycrs (541). Ditches and swamps. Lycopodium Caroline anum, L. Myers. Sphagnum swamps. AzoLLA Carolineanum, Willd. Myers (548). Floating on rivers and ponds. 226 IOWA ACADEMY OV SCIENCES USTlLAGINiE OF IOWA. BY H. H. HUME. tV/%0, Persooii Syn. Fung. 224. ]SOl. Mycelium located in the tissues of the host, annual or perennial, spores produced from the mycelium at definite points on lines, stems or flowers, gelatinous at first, later pulverulent, in one species a hard, dark mass, smooth, echinulate or reticulated. Spore masses in the inflorescence hard, irregular, vari- able in size, spores minutely spiny. U. Austro-americana. Spore masses iii the ovaries of Arena satica, glumes destroyed, spores minutely spiny. U. a venae. Spore masses blackish, in the ovaries of Bromos hrevi- (trisiatus, spores tuberculate with blunt projections. U. bromivora. Spore masses in the ovaries of Setaria Italica, glumes not affected; spores subglobose or irregular, contents gran- ulated. U. Crameri. Spore masses in the inflorescence of Ilonleiim viilgare, glumes not totally destroyed, spores smooth. U. Hordei. Spore masses in unexpauded inflorescence of Stipa tipartea, spores small, 3-5u, smooth. U. hypodytes. Spore masses in the ovaries of Arena sativa, glumes not destroyed, spores smooth. U. levis. Spore masses between the nerves on the leaves, amphig- enous spores smooth. U. longissima. Spore masses in the inflorescence of Honleum culgare, glumes early destroyed, spores echinulate. U. nuda. Spore masses light brown, spores golden brown, echinu- late, when mature escaping through the upturned walls of the capsule. U. oxalidis. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 227 Spore masses in the ovaries of Setaria (jlaiica; spores 'brown tinged with yellow; spores minutely and sparsely echinulate. U. panici-glauci. Mycelium perennial ; spore masses in the ovaries, brownish black spores smooth. U. perennans. Spore masses in the ovaries, distended, swollen, spores minutely spiny. U. pustulata. Spore masses in the unopened inflorescence of Panicuin sa/if/iiiiKiic and P. (jlaucion ; spores 8-15 u; minutely echin- ulate. [T. Rabenhorstiana. Spore masses in the ovaries of Erdyrosfis iiKfJor, spores densely echinulate. U. spermophora. Spore masses in the unopened inflorescence of Panicnm eaalllare, P. [iroliferuDi and r'. frihuloides; blackish, spores minutely echinulate. U. syntherismae. Spore masses in the ovaries, of Triticmn vuhjare; spores echinulate. U. tritici. Spore masses in the ovaries brownish violet, spores violet, widely and deeply reticulated. U. utriculosa. Spore masses on leaves, flowers, stems, or roots; spores very variable in shape, echinulate. U. zese. Spore masses completely destroying the panicle; spores 12-18u, densely and coarsely tuberculate. U. Arthurii. Ustilago Austro-americana, Speg. Usfilago Austro-a}iieriai)i(( Speg. Fungi argentini 4: 19. Exsiccati.— Ell. and Ev. N. A. F., 2262. Sey. and Ear. Ec. F. 372. Spore masses in the inflorescence, brownish black, hard, irregular in size and shape; spores globose or slightly ellip- tical; light brown; 10-15x8 9u; epispore distinct, bearing minute spines. Host. — Pohjqonum incaniatiiDi Ell. Specimens from Iowa. — Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1787), Ames; C. E. Bessey; Herb. Hume (14) Ames, H. Harold Hume, Thesporesare bound together in hard, compact, irregular, 228 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. dark colored masses, usually surrounded by a reddish brown membranous covering. Usfilctf/o A rend' (Pers.) Jens. Uredo segetum. g. Uredo, Pers. Syn. Meth. Fung. 224. 1801. Uredo carbo, g. avenge, Wallroth. Fl. Crypt. Germ. 217. 1833. Ustilago carbo. a vulgaris C. avenacea. Tul. Mem. Sur. Ust. Ust. comp. aux. CJred. 80. 1847. Ustilago segetum var. avenge, Jens. Om. Korn. Brand. 61. 1888. Ustilago a vena? Jens. L. Char, des Cer. 4. 1889. Exsiccati Ell. & Ev. F. Col. 539. Sey. & Ear. Ec. F. 81. Spore masses filling and destroying the ovaries, brownish black; spores, subglobose, oval or elliptical smoky brown; 5-6 X 6-10 u; epispore minutely echinulate. Host. — Avena sativa. Specimen's from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College. (1), (5,) (6), (7), Ames, L. H. Pammel. (2), (3), (4), F. C. Stewart; Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College A. M. A. (11) Ames, C. W. Carver; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1696) Emmet Co. R. I. Cratty, Ex. Herb. Hume (1) Ames, A. F. Sample. Ustilago aveme was for many years included with tritici and hordei under the name segetum until it was determined by Jensen that it would not develop either on barle} or wheat. Upon the strength of this knowledge he separated it as U. avence. Kellerman and Swingle straight- ened out the synonymy and found the name should be Ustilago avenai (Pers.) Jens. This species is quite prevalent throughout the state but has doabtldss been confounded with U. levis. Great dam- age is wrought annually to the oat crop and the seed grain should be much more generally treated than it now is. At threshing time in Iowa, the smut spores are often present in such quantities as to give rise to a stifling dust. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 229 Ustilayo Bistortarum (DC) Koern. This species was listed b}^ J. C. Arthur in his memoran- dum of Iowa Ustila^inese, Bull. Iowa Agrl. Col., Dept. Bot. 172. 1884. No specimens could, however, be found and it entered here on the authority of Dr. Arthur. Host. — Polygonum incdDiatum. Locality. — Ames. Ustilayo hrouiivora (Tul.) Fisch, de Waldh. Host. — BroiHKs niaryinatiis. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (11) (12) Ames, F. A. Sirrine. The spores from the Iowa specimens are darker in color than those of N. A. F. 3052, and average smaller in size and are more regular in shape than those of Ec. F. 584. The markings of the epispore are the same in all cases. Ustilayo car ids (Pers. ) Fuck. Symb. Myc. 39. Listed by Arthur, Memorandum Iowa Ustilagineae, Bui. Iowa Agrl. Col., Bot. Dept. 1884: 172. Ustilayo Crameri Koern. Host. — Setaria Italica. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. C. II. Ball, Ames; L. H. Fammel and C. R. Ball. The glumes are apparenly little affected. Ustilayo hordei (Pers.) K. & S. Host. — Hordeum ndyare. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (23) Ames, G. W. Carver; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1676b) Ames, J. C. Arthur. Crypt. Dist., Iowa State College (,7) Ames, G. W. Carver. No specimens are at present found in the herbarium of the Iowa State College. The only material of the species from the state thus far was collected on the experimental plots on the college farm, June 11, 1900, by Mr. E. L. R. Walker and myself. In three plots it was quite common. Ustilayo hypodytes (Schlecht) Fr. Host. — Stipa spartea, Trin. Ustilayo lonyissima (Sow) Tul. Host. — Glyceria sp. 230 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Specimens from Iowa. — Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1(>87); J)ecorah, E. W. D. Holway. UafUac/o nuda (Jens) K. k S. Host. — llordeuni vulyare. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (22) Ames, G. W. Carver; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1676) Decorah, E. W. D. Holwaj'. Cr3qDt. Dist. Iowa State College (1) Ames, C W. Carver. Ustilago o.validis Ell. and Tracy. Jour. Myc. 6:77. 1890. Exsiccati.— Ell. & Ev. N. A. F. 2424. Spore masses in the ovaries, light brown; spores globose or subglobose, yellowish or golden brown; 10-1 6u: epispore thickly and sharply echinnlate. Host. — Oxalis strida. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (128) Ames, G. W. Carver. This species has been searched for diligently by many collectors from the I. S. C. Botanical Department, but not until July 3, 1900, was it collected by Mr. G. W. Carver. Ustllago Panlci-ylaari (Wallr. ). Niessl. Host. —Sefaria glauca. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (86) (37) (38) (39) Ames, L H. Pammel; (40) Ames, C. B. Weaver;, (35) Sioux City, L. H. Pauimel; (47) Ames, L. H. Pammel; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur, (1722) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway; Charles City, J. C. Arthur; Herb. C. II. Ball, Ames, C. R. Ball; Herb. Hume (63) Boone, L. H. Pammel. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (2) Ames, G. W. Carver. This Ustilago is very common in the state, usually appearing on the host in August and September, though the author has collected it as early as July 9th. JJsfilago perenudns Rostr. Host. — ArrJii'iKdlwrKin (ivendceHm. Specimens from Iowa. Sey. & Ear. Ec. F. (83). Ames, F. A. Sirrine, and L. H. Pammel; Herb. Iowa Stat3 College (65) Ames, L. H. Pammel; (68) Ames, E. R. Hodson; (69) Ames, J. C. Arthur; (70) Ames, L . H. Pammel; (71,72) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 231 Ames, (i. W. Carver. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State Callege (19), Ames, G. W. Carver. Udilayo pnsfulata Tracy and Earle. Host. — Fanicum proliferum. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (53) Ames, L. H. Pammel and Jared G. Smith. Herb. C. R. Ball, Ames, L. H. Pammel. The Ames specimens show only the ovaries of the host affected. They are distended and roundish, the enveloping membrane being grayish in color. Ustiluyo Tiahe}i.h<)rstiana Kuhn. Host — Pauicmn (/Idbnini and Fduiciim sarifjuinalc. Ustilayo spennopliora B. & C. Host. — Erofjrosiis major. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (73) Ames, L. H. Pammel; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1693); Decorah, E. W. D. Hoi way; Charles City, J. C. Arthur. This species is doubtless common in the state, but it is generally overlooked as it produces no conspicuous distor- tion or discoloration of the affected parts of the host. Usfila(/o syntherismce (Schw.) Fiscli. de Waldh. Hosts. — Faniruin capi/lare, F. iiro/ifmn)!, and Ceuchrus trihuloides Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (13) Wilton Junction, L. H. Pammel; (17) (IS) Ames, C. E. Bessey; (76) Ames, E. C. Stewart; (77) Ames, P. H. Rolfs; (78) Ames, L, H. Pammel; (79) Ames, P. H. Rolfs; (SO) E. C. Stewart; (87) Ames, L. H. Pammel; (88) Ames, P. H. Rolfs; Herb. C. R. Ball, Ames, C. R. Ball, Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (14), Ames, H. H. Hume. Herb. Hume (65) Des Moines, L. H. Pammel; (66) Boone, L. H. Pammel. The forms of FanicniH ccipillare and panicu))! proliU'i-uiii are identical, while between these two and the one on CeiicJn-Hs trihnloides there is no appreciable morphological distinction. The diiferent hosts are often found asso- ciated, and when in proximity the one is aft'ected if the 232 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. other is. Still there may be biological differences, or the two may be distinct, though the writer does not think so. Ustilago Trifici, (Persoon) Jensen. Host. — Ty'dicum iidgare. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (91 Ames, F. C. Stewart; (92) Ames, C. B. Weaver; (144) Coun- cil Bluffs, L. H. Pammel. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (0), Ames, CI. W. Carver. Herb. C. K. Ball, Ames, F. C. Stewart. Ustilago ufricalosa (Nees) Fries (Nees) Tul. WoBt.-— Polygonum lapafhifoliuui, var. incarnatum. Wats., P. FennsglvaniciiHi, L., P. hgdropiper. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (93) Greenfield, F. C. Stewart. (95 and 96) Ames, C. E. Bessey. Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur 3 (1737) Charles City, J. C. Arthur; Decorah, E. W. D. Hoi way. Herb. C. R. Ball, Ames, C. K. Ball. Herb. Hume, (18 & 8) Ames, H. Harold Hume. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (30) Ames, A. F. Sample. Every flower in the head is usually destroyed and much swollen. One specimen in Professor Arthur's herbarium, on P. hydropiper, collected at Charles City, showed spores lighter in color and with somewhat smaller reticulations than usual. It is altogether probable that the species now know as Sphacelofheca Htjdropiperis (Schum.) DeBary was at one time confused with this species. The figure given by Nees, both in Das. Syst. der Pilze and Schw. does not resemble the cut given by Corda, nor does it look like utriculosa as we know it. Corda's illustration is good for this species but not of those given by Nees, (1817 and 1834) are quite like Sphacelotheca hydropoperis (Schum.) DeBary. Ustilago Zece (Beckm.) Ung. Host. — Zea Mays. Euchlena luxurians. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (25) Ames, F. C. Stewart; (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) L. H. Pammel; (83) G. P. Miller; (34) C. E. Bessey, Emmet Co.; Ex. Herb. Hume (13) Ames, H. Harold Hume; (67) Boone, L. H. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 233 Pammel; Herb. C. R. Ball, Ames, F. C. Stewart; Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (16) Ames, A. F. Sample; (15) Ames, A. F. Sample. The spores are at first enclosed in a whitish gelatinous membrane. This is eventually ruptured and the spores escape. It is found in Iowa wherever corn is grown and annually occasions losses amounting to thousands of dollars. At first I thought that the fungus on Enchlena might be different but on careful examination concluded that so far as morphological differences were concerned, that it was Ustilago zece. The synonymy as given above has been adopted directly from Magnus, though most of it has been personally verified. Ustilago Arthurii N. Sp. Host. — Panicularia americana, (Torr.) MacM. Specimens from lowa.^-Types in Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur were collected at Spirit Lake, Iowa, July 5, 1899, by Dr. J. C. Arthur. Dr. Arthur's note made presumably at the time of col- lection was, "Affected plants have the heads totally destroyed." Cinfractia Cornu. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. 6:15. 277-279., 1883. Cintradia sorghi (Sorok.) De Toni. Host. — AndropogoH Sorghum. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (74) Ames, H. Harold Hume and Otto Evers. All the ovaries of the affected plants were filled with spores and a sharp, central columella was present. The flowers were too old to make out the spore masses in the stamens. Cintractia Jiinci (Schw.) Trel. Host. — Juncus tetitiis. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (131) & (132) Ames, C. E. Bessey; (183) Ames, Hitchcock. Cintractia sphceroqena (Burrill.) Host. — Panicuni crus-galli. 16 I AS 234 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State Colle ge (180 Cliuton, L. H. Pammel. The spore masses are quite hard and so compact as to be easily sectioned. A cross section reveals the presence of a portion of the plant tissues among which may be seen, upon microscopical examination, the remains of the mycelium. From this the spores are arranged basipetally. Consequently it appears that this species belongs more properly to the genus Cintractia. In 1896 Dr. P. Mangus described Cintractia Seymouriana occuring on Panicum crus-galli but his fungus affected only the culms and leaves, and for this reason it appears to be different. So far as known the species under consideration affects only the ovaries. Hence this fungus occuring in the ovaries of P. crus-galli has been provisionally transferred to the genus Cintractia, as Cintractia sphan'ogena (Burrill.) Cintractia Reiliana (Kuehn.) Clinton. Host. — Sorghum sp. probably vulgare. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (55,) Monticello, E. E. Reed. The fibro-vascular bundles of the affected portion remain intact, serving as a sort of network in which the spores are held. The specimen from which the above description was drawn was collected in 1894 and is so far as known the only one ever taken in the state. It is probably more common than the number of specimens would indicate. Tilletia Tul. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. 7:112. 1847. Tilletia foetens Trelease. Host. — Triticiim vulgare L. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (123) Ames, (124) (125) Ames, L. H. Pammel; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1776) Central Iowa, I. P. Roberts and A. N. Pren- tiss; Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Herb. C. E. Ball, Ames, F. C. Stewart. Though no description of this species was published by Berkeley and Curtiss until 1874, still specimen No. 100 in Rav. Fung. Carol. 1 860 bears the name, Ustilago foetens B. &C. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 235 Tilletea rotundata (Arth.) Massee. Host. — Panicum virgatum L. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College, New Albin, L. H. Pammel. Herb. J. C. Arthur (type). Herb. Hume— (84) New Albin, L. H. Pammel. Affected ovaries scarcely differ from unaffected, there is no swelling or other external mark which would indicate that they are affected. Tilletia strkeformis (West.) Fisch. de Waldh. Host. — Poa pratensis L. ; Phlem pratense L. ; Agrostis alba. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (120) (101) (102), Ames, L. H. Pammel; (121) (122), Ames, F. C. Stewart. Herb. Hume (50) Ames, G. W. Carver. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (3) (4) (5) Ames, G. W. Carver. Tilletia suhfiisca N. Sp. Host. — Sporoholus neglectus Nash. Specimen from Iowa. — Type in the Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur, collected at Spirit Lake by Dr. J. C. Arthur. This species is altogether different from the two species described by Ellis (1) on Sporobolus, namely T. asperifoUa and T. montana. Specimen No. 1895 Ell. & Ev. N. A. F. collected at Boise City, Mont, by Gustave Smith, was made by Massee, the type of a new species, Tilletia mixta. My species somewhat resembles Massee's, but differs from it in having smaller and lighter colored spores. Most of those examined and measured in Dr. Arthur's specimens were 14u and none were above 16u. The spores nearly always appear to be smooth and on a few only were small scattered spines found. On these differences it has been provisionally described as a new species.' Neovossia Korn, Oestr. liot. Zeitschr. 29:217. 1879. (1) Journal of Mycology 3 :55. Aii. 1887. 286 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Neovossia lowensis Hume and Hodson. Spore masses filling the ovaries, black; spores globose, subglobose or ovate, brownish black, opaque; 16x20-24x 28u; enclosed in a hyline capsule; appendage hyaline, slender, two or three times the length of the spore; epispore apparently pitted. A careful comparison with the specimen in De Thue- men's Mycotheca Universalis leads to the belief that the Iowa specimens are specifically distinct. The spores differ from those of Neovossia molinue (Thum.) Korn being darker in color, broader, and blunter, and proportionally shorter at the end opposite the appendage. The markings of the epispore are somewhat coarser. Several attempts were made to germinate the spores in order to throw some light upon the vexed question of the ti'ue status of the genus Neovossia, but thus far unfortunately all trials have resulted in failure. However, based entirely upon the morphological distinctions it is the author's belief that the genus has sufficient reasons for its existence. Host. — Phragmitis communis Trin. Specimens from Iowa. — Material collected at Colo, Iowa, by E. R. Hodson, Sept. 23, 1899. Enfyloma DeBary, Bot. Zeit. 1874: 101. Entyloma compositarum Farl. Host. — Lepachijs jjinnafa Torr. & Gray., and Ambrosia artemisicefolia, L. Specimens from Iowa.— Herb. Iowa State College (143) Ames, A. S. Hitchcock; (136) Jewell Jc, G. W. Carver. Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1813) Decorah, E. W. D. Hol- way; Ex. Herb. Hume Ames, Iowa,H. Harold Hume; Ames, G. W. Carver. Entyloma crastphiliun., Sacc. Host.— Fhleum jjratense, h. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (136 Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ?87 .1 have carefully compared No. 1301, Kriiger's Fungi Saxonici, on Rolens lanatus and the two are apparently- identical. Etityloma Linarice, Schroet Host. — Veronica peregrina^ L. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (144) Ames, A. S. Hitchcock. Entyloma Meiiispermi, Farl & Trel. Host. — MenispermumCanadense,h. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College 134) Ames, L. H. Pammel; (131) Ames, P. H. Rolfs and L. H. Pammel, (132) Ames, G.W. Carver; (133) Ames, Zrount. Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1814) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Entyloma microsponim, (Ung.) DeBary. ' Host. — Ranimculus septentriojialis, Poir. ; Specimens from Iowa. — Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1810) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Entyloma physalidis (Kalch & Cke) Farl. Host. — Phy sails Virginiana, P. kmceolata, P. Philadel-^^ phica, P. heterophylla. .'.v :;= v ::.■ :; i Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowsl State College (138): Ames, P. H. Rolfs; (141) Boone, L. H. Pammel; (142) Ames, G. W. Carver; (143) Council Bluffs, L. H. Pammel. Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur, (1815) Charles City, J. C. Arthur;' Decorah, E. W. D. Holway; Ames, C. E. Bessey. Ex.: Herb. Hume. On some species of Physalis the affected spots are quite eleva,ted on one side while on the opposite side there is a corresponding depression. Entyloma polysporum (Pk.) Farl. Host.- — Ambrosia trifida, L. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Mo. Bot. Garden. Herb. Hume, (88) Ames, G. W. Carver. It is my belief that this species is distinct from Entyloma compositarmn, Farl. The appearance of the spots is char- acteristically different, darker and more angular, a differ- ence which is apparently independent of the degree of maturity of the disease. Entyloma compositarum, Farl. on 238 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ambrosia artemisicpfolia, L. is very common in the region of Ames and though Ambrosia trifida and Ambrosia a rte- misiwfolia are equally common, I have never collected the Entijloma on the former host though I have frequently col- lected Eni. compositarum on plants of Ambrosia arfemisice- folia growing side by side with Ambrosia trifida. Entyloma saniculce, Pk. Host. — Sanicula Canadensis, Torr. Specimens from Iowa. — Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1823) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Entyloma leuto-maculans, N. Sp. Host. — Mertensia Virginica, DC. Specimens from Iowa. — Type specimen in Ex. Herb. J^ C. Arthur, collected at Decorah, Iowa, by E. W. D. Hol- way, May 31, 1885. I have compared this with the two European species occurring on Boraginaceae and it appears to be different. The character of the spots is quite unlike either, being lighter in color and surrounded (in a dried specimen) by a slightly elevated ring. The spores are thick walled and average larger in size, than either Entyloma canescens, Schroet., or Entyloma serotinum, Schroet. (Specimen 213 Kunze Fungi selecte, on Myosotodis intermedia, and 354 Krtiger's Fungi Saxonici on Symphytum tuberosum exam- ined.) Entyloma Pammelii, N. Sp. Host. — Zizania aquatica. Specimens from Iowa. — Type specimen in Ex. Herb. J, C. Arthur (1806) collected at Decorah, Iowa, Oct. 11, 1885, by E. W. D. Holway. This differs from Entyloma crastophilum, Sacc. and from Entyloma irregulare, Johans, in the color and size of the spots and the lighter color and more angular shape of the spores. Entyloma crastophilum, Sacc. on Holcus mollis, L. No. 1301. Kriiger's Fungi Saxonici and Entyloma irregu- lare, Johans on Poa annua. No. 1402. Kriiger's Fungi Saxonici 1301 was used for comparison. To this species is also referred the specimens collected by Dr. Pammel at IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 239 Madison, listed as Entyloma crasfophilum, Sacc. by Dr. Tre- lease. Specimens in Herbaria of Iowa State College and Mo. Bot. Garden examined. Host. — Polygonum saf/ittatum, L. Locality. — Charles City. Schizonella, Schroet. Pilze. Schles. 275. 1887. Schizotiella melanogramnia (DC.) Schroet. Host. — Carex Pennsylvanica, Lam. Carex sp. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (114) Steamboat Rock, L. H. Pammel; (115) Boone, Miss Zimble- man; (116), (117) Ames, L. H. Pammel. Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (17), Ames, G. W. Carver. Tolyposporium, Woron. Schroet. Pilze. Schles. 276. 1882. Tolyposporimn hullatum Schroet. Host. — Paniciim crus-galli, L. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (130) Ames, C. E. Bessey. This specimen was collected by Dr. C. E. Bessey on Sep- tember 29, 1874 and is certainly well worthy of note. The ovaries are swollen and congested and protrude from the glumes, otherwise the flower is uninjured; the glumes remain intact and apparently develop normally. In microscopic appearance it resembles Ustilago piisttilata Under a magnification of about 20 diameters the spore balls appear as rounded granules. Doassansia Cornu. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VI: 15: 285. 1883. Affecting acquatic plants. Spore masses consisting of a large number of fertile spores surrounded and enclosed by a covering of sterile spores, imbedded in the plant tissues. Doas.sania, Sp. Specimen on Sagittaria variabilis, Ex. Herb. J.C.Arthur (1843) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. This specimen was very small and since Dr. J. J. Davis had said it was too imature for identification, no attempt was made to name it. The sori, however, appeared to be quite different from those of Doassansia sagiftariae West) Fisch. 240 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. Doassansia Alismatis (Nees Cornu. ' Host.— Alismu sp. Specimens from Iowa. — Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1842 Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Thecaphora Fingerh. Linn. 230. 1835. ThecapJiora aterrhna Tul. Host. — Carex adusta, Boott. Locality. — Ames. Urocysiis Rabenh. in Klotzsch Herb. Myc. cd. II n. 393. Urocystis Agropyrl, (Preuss) Schroet. Host. — Elymus rohustus, S. & 8., E. canadensis, and Bromus ciliattis, L. ? Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (100) Ames, C. E. Bessey; (103) (106) Ames, Miss A. Beach; (104) (109) Ames, F. C. Stewart; (107) Ames, C. E. Bessey. Sey.. & Earl Ec. Fung. (97) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1891) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway; Crypt. Dist. Iowa State College (115) Moingona, G. W. Car- ver; (12) Ames, G. W. Carver. Herb. C. R. Ball, Ames, C. R- BalL Urocystis aneynones (Fers.) Schroet. ]lo'&t. — Ayiemone Virginiana, L. Hepafica acutiloha, DC. Specimens from Iowa. — Herb. Iowa State College (105a) (105b) Ames, A. S. Hitchcock; (108) Ames, C. E. Bessey; (112) Steamboat Rock, L. H. Pammel; Ex. Herb. J. C. Arthur (1096) Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Urocystis colchici (Schlecht.) Rabenh. Host. — Polygonatum giganteimi. Diet. Specimens from Iowa.— Herb. M. Bot. Garden, Decorah, E. W. D. Holway. Mr. Holway's note at the time of collection was, "Very rare here." INDEX. PAGK. Adiantum pedatutn 140 Alcohol, dehydrating agent for 86 Methyl , 86 Ethyl .... = « 88 Butyl , 89 Amyl 89 Ames , early flowering plants of , . o ., 179 Amyl alcohol , 89 Analyses of clays for paving brick . „ 6J. Deep well waters , 63 Shallow well waters 81 Sioux City waters 93-100 Aspidium acrostichoides . 146 cristatutn , 14.5 Goldieanunt , „ 146 lonchitis , . , 147 marg inale , , 146 spinulosum , , 145 tkelypteris 145 Asplenhim angustifolium c . = 142 Ftlix-foetnina 143 thelvpter»ides 1 43 Associate members , 10 Azolla Carolhiianum , ...o. 151 Bates, CO., analyses of certain clays ., . , 61 Bay-heads „ = . 190 Black Sea, recent uprisings of shores of , . „ ,•,,,...,... 103 Boehm, W. M., a ruling engine for making zone plates, , 181 Botrvchiutn virginanum „ 150 Biological sciences... .,....., ....-^,. 3i station. University of Montana ....„....,,.,..,... 122 Bromides, double ....... 127 Brown , J . C . , chemical composition of sewage c .,. .^ ..... . 70 Butyl alcohol ....,.,. 89 Cable switch board .,.,..,.,..,..,,... 39 Calcium carbide , as dehydrating agent , . . 86 Camptosorus rhizophyllus , .„..,. 143 Camera table ,. ,..<,.. . 40 Capital City Brick and Tile Works , , . 62 Carboniferous, Lower ...,..- ». .... .. 107 Cheilanthcs lanuginosa , , , , . . , ,,.... 141 lomentosa , , 141 17TAS (241) 242 INDEX. PAGE. Chemical composition of sewage 70 Chouteau limestone 109, 111, 112 Clays for paving brick , analyses of 61 Coal Measures, pleuroptyx in 121 Compounding simple harmonic motions, model for 37 Cook, A, N. , calcium carbide as dehydrating agent 86 Menke's method of preparing hyponitrites 82 Sioux City water supply . - 90 Corresponding members 11 Crimea . 103 Cystopteris bulbifera 147 fragilis 147 Des Moines Brick Manufacturing Company ... 62 Devonian hiatus in contmental interior 105 Section of Iowa 106 , North Arkansas 107 North Missouri 107 Southwest Missouri 107 Diver's hyponitrite 84 Eberley, C. F. , Sioux City water supply* 90 Ecological conditions of flora 152 Equisettmt arvevse .... 138 fluviaiile 139 hyemale 139 Inevigati m 139 robustufn 139 syivaticum 138 Ethyl alcohol 88 Experimental method 27 Extinction, factors of 47 Factors of extinction ... 47 Flathead lake 122 Flatvvoods 189 Fello »ws ot Academy 9 Ferns of central Iowa : 136 Flint Brick Company 63 Flora of we^^tern Iowa 152 Finger patterns, hereditary transmission of 44 Forestry in Iowa 53 Laws 58,59 Forest reserves 17 Goodwin, J. G , Paroxymetamethylacetophenone and some of its de- rivatives 113 G innell sewage , analysis of 79 Haines, A. L. , calcium carbide as dehydrating agent 86 H 11, James 108 Hammocks 190 Hiatus, Devonian in continental interior 105 Hitchcock, A. S., list of plants collected in Lee county, Florida 189 HuTie, H, H. , Ustiloginae of Iowa 226 INDEX. 243 PAGE. Hydra, red 125 Hyponitrites , method of preparing , 82 Igneous rocks of central Caucasus 101 Iowa Brick Company 62 Park and Forestry Association 59 Bill approved by 59 State College sewage plant 70 Keyes, C. R. , Devonian hiatus in continental interior 105 Igneous rocks of central Caucasus 101 Recent uprisings of shores of Black Sea 103 Kinderhook formation 107, 109, 111, 112 King, Charlotte, vascular cryptogams of Iowa 134 Knight, Nicholas, some new double bromides 127 Lee county, Florida, plants collected in 189 L,oess 155 , 156 Loess bluflfs , plants of 177 Loewinson-Lessing, work of 101 Longitudinal or sound wave, model illustrating 36 Lycopodium coynplanatum 151 lucidiilurn 15 1 Meek and Worthen, work of 109, 110 Menke's hypouitrite 84 Menke's method 82 Methyl alcohol 86 Mt. Pleasant sewage, analysis of 79 Myers, E. C. , chemical composition of sewage 70 Onoclea sevsibilis 148 Strulhiopieris 148 Osborn, Herbert, factors of extinction 47 Osmtmdia cinnaniomea 150 Clavtoniana 149 regalts 149 Owen, D. D 108 Pammel, L. H. , preliminary notes on flora of western Iowa 152 Vascular cryptogams of Iowa 134 Paroxymetamethylacetophenone 113 Pella beds, Rhizopods in 120 Pelkva atropurpurea 142 i^rarilis 141 Phegopteris calcarea 145 dryopleris 144 hexagonopiera 144 polypodioides 144 Plants collected in Lee county, Florida 189 Plant formations 167 Pleuroptyx, in Coal Measures 121 Pohpodium vulgare 139 Presidential address , 21 Pteris aquilina .... 140 Pure food laws 18 244 INDEX. PAGE. Relation of physics to the other material sciences 21 Report of Secretary 13 Report of Treasurer „ IS Resolutions 17 Rhizopods in Pella beds 120 R.icker, Maurice, large red hydra , . 125 University of Montana Biological Station 122 Ruling engine, for making zone plates , 181 Saint Louis formation 120 Sanitary analyses of deep well water = . . , 63 Science, earliest development of , . . 24 Scudder, Frank, cited ,.. .. 80 Selaginella rupestris 151 Sewage, chemical composition of , , , 70 Shimek, B. , forestry in Iowa 53 Simple harmonic motions, model for compounding ....>. 37 Sioux City water supply 90 Sodium carbonate 85 hyponitrite 82 , 83 Steamboat Rock, plants of . 136 Swallow, G. C „..,.. .. ..... 109 Transverse vibrations , model illustrating , 34 Udden , J . A . , Pleuroptyx in Iowa Coal Measures 121 Rhizopods in the Pella beds. . , , 120 University of Montana biological station c . . - 122 Uprisings of shores of Black Sea 103 Ustiloginse of Iowa 226 Vascular cryptogams of Iowa. , . . 134 Veblen, A. A., Hereditary transmission of finger patterns »., 44 Improved laboratory apparatus ... 34 Presidential address of , , . 21 Waters of deep wells, analyses of „.. c ... o ..... . 63 Water supply of Sioux City . , .......... 90 Analyses of , 93, 100 Weems , J . B. , chemical composition of sewage ..... 70 Sanitary analyses of deep well waters „ 63 Western Iowa, flora of 152 Wocdsia Ilvensis , . , e ......... ^ , 148 obtusa , . ..... 149 scopulina -^_ ... .c, .......,,,... 149 Zone plates, ruling engine for making, ,*»,., c = .,., 181 3 2044 106 262 465