POG ND phat eT ehh eee vata ae te ti hey a ote wretaE ote rare ———- linet ge ee Saal ecw ea: ee oi i ave Ren i Nahin Rit } My i hohe 1 Fei ne A TA He ity eras t nie Weis Weal STEN) \ Ph vie Oy ese ce) My 9 Mot Hl 7 an : i J Te ye Mie ive Coa 4 Br SAV aa ere eae pi i = ee heh fF ae , : wy ) f Rete ee y eee j ' j : Mei e ik : ie f } k ay peat” wT i eh ) ; ik en (cate ie Ao i ty i ; AL j % b sh [ } 7 i Pe E ii i & : ok LPN MRR Y Rtg Cat ian ey it MI y : h i eo if les efi Ay ANE? iM Af aR TW “a i) Ph ; J \ ayy i i ? p Rea nih; Mh Ui y i, i ia} ne : Whi Reithy : 5 : Mute ey ] Name | : hay eae Oia Ny Ve Ay H ; hi i i) i i EE i Pe nel we . es har av a ; - PAN ati tt Sane Hy To : ahs ue . i | pe ' Ta! Way, fe Hoenn ne HA I TAUNA Na Hei: \ a, i paki s) y Aya i mA a RK } Ret a fe a Oe THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY New SoutH WALES FOR THE YEAR 1964 VOL. LXXXIX. WITH EIGHT PLATES. 180 Text-figures. SYDNEY: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD., Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney, and SOLD BY THE SOCIETY. 1965 CONTENTS. CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1964 PART 1 (No. 404). (Issued 14th October, 1964.) Pages Arthur Bache Walkom, D.Sc.—An Appreciation .. .. .. .. .. .. Frontispiece Presidential Address, delivered at the Highty-ninth Annual General Meeting 25th March, 1964, by Mr. G. P. Whitley: Summary of Year’s Activities Shinn Mae Pde tee ink aac Ty. 5%, 1 4 A Survey of Australian Ichthyology Coe a OMS) | otal ces mea 11-127 NC CRO TS es che. Mal ae See pte © etc eee ee iy pe mee nn 2 Ic COR) ee 4 Obituary: NOtIGES sie. Gee ea Boao ea enc Lene bere been alee emma fA s 1 Balance Sheets for the Year ending 29th February, 1964 .. .. .. .. .. 8— 10 Description of Two New Species of Australian Buprestidae of the Genus Stigmodera. By C. M. Deuquet. (Two Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. 128-130 Notes on the Subgenus Chaetocruiomyia Theobald (Diptera: Culicidae). By Elizabeth N. Marks. (Four Text-figures.) SB iewt) css | ee RO Leos EA, Observations on some Australian Forest Insects. 17. Two New Species of Glycaspis (Homoptera: Psyllidae) and a Note on Glycaspis occidentalis (Solomon). By K. M. Moore. (Five Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. 148-151 Contributions on Palaeozoic Floras. 1. On the identification of Glossopteris COrOCiG WEE, IBY di, 10% laws, (PINE i) oo 66 566 656 oo oo oo co Iz =ilby! The ulysses Species-group, Genus Haemolaelaps (Acarina: Laelapidae). By Robert Domrow. (Mifteen) Mextsicunes)) 44) 55 fa ee edo DD 162 Observations on some Australian Forest Insects. 18. Four New Species of Glycaspis (Homoptera: Psyllidae) from Queensland. By K. M. Moore. (Bight "Dext=euress yy oc! me seh, ees nar, GEG pe ceeloce 1. eee LOO GG Contributions on Palaeozoic Floras. 2. An Unusual Fossil Tree from Wollar, New South Wales. By J. F. Rigby. (Five Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. 167-170 CONTENTS. PART 2 (No. 405). (Issued 15th January, 1965.) Edaphic Control of Vegetational Pattern in Hast Coast Forests. By R. G. Florence. (Five Text-figures.) Chromosome Numbers and Relationships in Chara leptopitys A.Br. By A. T. Hotchkiss. (Plate ii; three Text-figures.) Australian Fossil Crinoids. II. Tribrachiocrinus clarkei McCoy. By G. M. Philip. (Plate iii; one Text-figure.) The Stratigraphy and Structure of the Upper Palaeozoic Sediments of the Somerton-Attunga District, N.S.W. By Andrew H. White. (Three Text- figures.) A New Genus and Species of Pallopteridae (Diptera, Schizophora) from Papua. By David K. McAlpine. (Three Text-figures.) Observations on some Australian Forest Insects. 19. Additional Information en the Genus Glycaspis (Homoptera: Psyllidae); Hrection of a New Subgenus and Descriptions of Six New Species. By K. M. Moore. (Twenty-seven Text-figures.) Taxonomic and Nomenclatural Notes on the Genus Wahlenbergia in Australia. By R. C. Carolin .. A New Genus of Australian Clavicorn Coleoptera, probably of a New Family. By R. A. Crowson. (Communicated by Dr. P. B. Carne.) (Seventeen Text- figures.) == : aL Scale Three New Species of Scolytidae from Australia, and some Introduced Coleoptera. 224. Contribution to the Morphology and Taxonomy of the Scolytoidea. By Karl E. Schedl. (Communicated by Mr. K. M. Moore.) A Note on Creiis periculosa (Olliff) (Homoptera: Psyllidae). By K. L. Taylor (Seven Text-figures.) On the Adult and Juvenile Stages of Vanbenedenia chimaerae (Heegaard, 1962) (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae) from Australian Waters. By Z. Kabata. (Communicated by Dr. J. C. Yaldwyn.) (Forty Text-figures.) Classification of the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. By B. A. Barlow . Nitrogen Economy in Arid and Semi-arid Plant Communities. Part III. The Symbiotic Nitrogen-fixing Organisms. By N. C. W. Beadle. . Sir William Macleay Memorial Lecture, 1964. How Animals can live in Dry Places. By H. G. Andrewartha. (Three Text-figures.) Pages 171-190 191-198 199-202 203-217 218-220 221-234 235-240 241-245 246-249 250-253 254-267 268-272 273-286 287-294 CONTENTS. PART 3 (No. 406). (Issued Friday, May 7, 1965.) Observations on some Australian Forest Insects. 20. Insects attacking Hakea spp. in New South Wales. By K. M. Moore. (Plate iv.) A Review of the Marsupial Genus Sminthopsis (Phascogalinae) and Diagnoses of New Forms. By Ellis Troughton. (Seven Text-figures. ) Grey Billy and the Age of Tor Topography in Monaro, N.S.W. By W. R. Browne. (Plate v.) The Genus Geranium L. in the South-Western Pacific Area. By R. C. Carolin. (Plates vi-vii; ten Text-figures.) Note on Stigmodera viridicauda Carter. By C. M. Deuquet. (Two text-figures.) The Comparative Osteology and Systematic Status of the Gekkonid Genera Afroedura Loveridge and Oedura Gray. By H. G. Cogger. (Plate viii; eleven Text-figures.) The Rhaphidophoridae (Orthoptera) of Australia. Part 2. A New Genus. By Aola M. Richards. (Two Text-figures.) .. Abstract of Proceedings List of Members List of Plates .. List of New Genera, New Species, New Subspecies, New Varieties and New Names Index Pages 295-306 307-321 322-325 326-261 362-363 364-372 373-379 380-387 388-394 395 395 396-398 ARTHUR BACHE WALKOM, D.Sc. Dr. Walkom became a member of this Society in 1909 while still an undergraduate of the University of Sydney. He was Linnean Macleay Fellow in Geology in 1912 and resigned the following year to become a Lecturer in the University of Queensland. On the retirement of Mr. J. J. Fletcher in 1919 he was appointed Secretary of this Society, and he held this office until 1940, when he resigned to become Director of the Australian Museum. He was elected President in 1941 and Vice-President in 1942. Since 1943 he has been Honorary Treasurer and since 1952 Joint Honorary Secretary, with the special duty of editing the Society’s Proceedings. To mark the completion of his 45 years of continuous service in administering the affairs of the Society, and the 75th anniversary of his birth, Council resolved that a photographic portrait of Dr. Walkom, with a biographical note, be published in Part 1 of the Proceedings for 1964, and that a framed enlarged copy of it be hung on the wall of the Meeting Room. This enlargement was unveiled by the retiring President, Mr. G. P. Whitley, at the Annual General Meeting, March 25, 1964. Dr. Walkom’s services in the cause of Science include Honorary Secretaryship and Presidency of the Royal Society of Queensland and Honorary General Secretaryship of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science for 21 years (1926-1947). He also served as President of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and as President and Vice-President of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, and was Honorary Secretary of the Australian National Research Council and first editor of the Australian Journal of Science. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Society or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 1. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SoutTH WALES, 1964, Vol. 1xxxix, Part 1. Tre seed) ut Ton) i ap Tiga “uae ye 1A i t = ah j rah [ et r ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 25th Marcu, 1964. The Highty-ninth Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Sydney, on Wednesday, 25th March, 1964. Mr. G. P. Whitley, President, occupied the chair. The minutes of the Highty-eighth Annual General Meeting (27th March, 1963) were read and confirmed. Before reporting on the affairs of the Linnean Society of New South Wales for the year, I wish to thank the Society for the privilege of serving as its President. To members of Council and Committees my thanks are due for their support during the year. The Society is grateful to the Honorary Treasurer and Editor (Dr. A. B. Walkom) and to Dr. W. R. Browne, who shares with Dr. Walkom the important duties of the Honorary Secretaries. Any inclination to take for granted their services, freely afforded for so many years, should be resisted: these gentlemen are assured that we appreciate our deep and cumulative obligation to them. In the business and library sides of the Society’s activities, the careful work of the Assistant Secretary, Miss G. L. Allpress, should not pass unnoticed, nor the auditorial services of Mr. S. J. Rayment, F.C.A., to both of whom our thanks are merited. — REPORT ON THE AFFAIRS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR. : The Society’s Proceedings for 1963, Vol. 88, Parts 1 and 2, were published in 1963 and Part 3 in 1964. Vol. 88 consists of 417 pages, 24 plates and 207 text-figures. During the year thirteen new members were added to the list, five died, one resigned and two were removed from the list of members. The numerical strength of; the Society at 1st March, 1964, was: Ordinary Members, 253; Life Members, 31; Corresponding Member, 1; total 285. It is with regret that the following deaths during the year are recorded: W. A. Boardman, L. A. Cotton, R. L. Crocker, G. A. M. Heydon, and BH. H. Zeck. (See pages 5-7 for obituary notices.) bevit Lecturettes were given at the following meetings: April, A Recent Expedition to the Subantarctic Auckland Islands, by Dr. J. C. Yaldwyn; June, The Earliest Vertebrates, by Mr. R. Strahan;.July, Bio-electricity in Plants, by Mr. G. P. Findlay; October, Account of the Recent (1962) Australian Museum Expedition to Swain Reefs off the Queensland Coast, by Dr. D. F. McMichael. Our appreciation and thanks to the lecturers are expressed. At the September Ordinary Monthly Meeting a symposium on the Myall Lakes, by members of the University of Sydney Biological Society and others, was held. The speakers and subjects were: (1),.The proposed Faunal Reserve, by Mr. A. Strom; (2) The Quaternary History, by Dr. A. R. H. Martin; (3) The Soils; and (4) The Vegetation, by fourth year students of the School of Biological Sciences, University, of Sydney...The discussions which followed both the lecturettes and. the symposium added greatly to, the interest of the meetings. Library accessions, from scientific institutions and societies on the exchange list amounted to 2,174, compared with 1,997 and 1,962 in the years 1962 and 1961 respectively. Members and institutions continued to borrow books and periodicals from the library, the, total borrowings, for the year being 260, members and others also consulting the periodicals in the Jibrary. Arrangements have been made with the Fisher Library, University of Sydney, for the copying of articles from old and rare publications desired by organizations and universities. The Australian Medical Association (N.S.W. Branch) presented to the .Society’s library copies of the British, Medical Journal, 1931-1962 A 2 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. (imperfect), to help complete the Society’s set of that Journal. The following requests for exchange of publications were acceded to during the year: Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm; and Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, Peking. The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India, and Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, Buenos Aires, Argentina, notified their decisions to discontinue the exchange of their Journal and Revista for’ the Proceedings and Entomological Reprints respectively, as their publications are now only available by subscription. A complimentary copy of the Society’s Proceedings as issued, commencing 1963, is now presented to the Adolf Basser Library of the Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, INCOSE. Hite In October, 1963, it was decided that no free reprints be given to non-member authors of papers in the Proceedings. On 24th July, 1963, the Council fixed the prices for Volumes and Parts of the Society’s Proceedings as follows: (1) The price of Vols. 1-20 (1875/76-1895) be £5 each volume; (2) the price of Vols. 21-87 (1896-1962) be £4 10s. each volume; (3) the price of each part of a volume from Vol. 1 to Vol. 87 be £2, except that for volumes consisting of 5 or 6 parts the price of the first and last parts be 10s. each; (4) the price of current and future parts of each volume from Vol. 88 (1968) onwards be £1 15s. ,. Dr. A. K. O’Gower was elected a member of Council during the year in place of Dr. A. R. Woodhill, who had resigned. Miss Elizabeth C. Pope was appointed the Society’s representative at the 16th International Congress of Zoology. A Conversazione was held from 2 to 5.30 p.m. on Saturday, 28th September, 1963, in the Botany Laboratories, Carslaw Building, University of Sydney, when about 130 members and visitors were present. There were displays of research into various branches of Natural Science being conducted by members of the Society. — The total net return from the Society’s one-third’ ownership of Science House for the year ended 31st August, 1963, was £1,174 2s. 8d. The Society’s representatives on the Science House Management Committee are Dr. W. R. Browne and Mr. S. J. Copland and’ Drs. A. B. Walkom and D. T. Anderson, deputies. As a gesture of goodwill ‘about 100 of each of the Society’s five coloured: wildflower postcards were offered to the “Muogamarra”’ Sanctuary Trust for sale to visitors to the Sanctuary and accepted with thanks and much appreciation. A meeting, at the instance of the Council of the Society, was held in Canberra during the meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advance- ment of Science in January, 1964, of representatives of Australian scientific: societies to discuss the promotion of Nature Conservation in the Commonwealth. Professor H. G. Andrewartha, Department of Zoology,’ University of Adelaide, has accepted Council’s invitation to deliver The Sir William Macleay Memorial Lecture for 1964 on Friday, 21st August, 1964, in the Main Hall of Science House, Sydney. The title of the lecture is ““How Animals can live in Dry Plates’. inci hoa ‘ yo i ea SCI e Linnean Macleay Fellowships. «: Hime Mi oe In November, 1962, Mr. P. J. Dart, B.Sc.Agr., was appointed to a Linnean Macleay Fellowship of the Society in Plant Physiology tenable for'‘one year from 1st January, 1963. ; ae i Hruo! yd tt ' During the year Mr. Dart followed two main lines of’ research. A study of the fine structure in molybdenum deficient root nodules ‘was begun!(in conjunction with Miss R. Mullens) and a survey of fine structural differenéési between the nodules of the various host legume-Rhizobium cross inoculation groups undertaken. if Molybdenum deficient Medicago’ tribuloides’ nodules are’ characterized by an apparently normal meristem with an abnormal development as the host ‘¢élls become infected. In the young, first-formed nodules, Wwhich''develop before the déficiency symptoms become acute, a small number of the invadeéd!host cells develop as in’ normal nodules with the characteristic bacteroid and meinbrane envelope formation: Fewer cells are invaded in the defitient nodule (cf. normal’ nodules) resulting in ‘a large \ PRESIDENTIAL: ABDRESS. © number of parenchyma-like ‘cells: in the Mo-deficient nodule. Thé bacteroid-filled host cells are short lived and breakdown of bacteroid and host fine structure ‘occurs as in the degenerate ‘zone of the base’ of a normal nodule. Treatment of ‘a M6:deficient plant with molybdenum results in a “recovery” of the nodules. Already degenerate cells remain as such, but many more differentiating cells adjacent to the meristem are invaded and bacteroid development proceeds as in normal nodules with the mature pacteroid-filled host cells persisting without breakdown, as they do in normal +Mo nodules. Preliminary studies with Trifolium fragiferum and Lotus corniculatus indicate that a similar pattern prevails in these nodules. A study of Mo-deficient Stylosanthes gracilis and Vigna sinensis nodules is also in progress. — The other research programme involved a survey of fine structure in the legume- Rhizobium cross inoculation groups. Considerable differences exist between the groups. In the cowpea group, Acacia longifolia, Viminaria juncea and Vigna sinensis have several bacteroids enclosed by a single membrane envelope in the red zone of the nodule. The Rhizobium cells expand very little during nodule development, retaining the gram- negative rod appearance, and there is no apparent loss of nucleoid fibrillar material. This contrasts with the development in M. tribuloides, Trifolium subterraneum and Vicia atropurpurea where the bacteria expand greatly during development, losing the gram-negative rod appearance. The nucleoid region in these bacteroids is only sparsely filled with fibrillar material and each bacteroid is enclosed by a single membrane envelope. The fine structure of Lupinus angustifolius nodules has similarities to both the types mentioned previously. The bacteroids are usually enclosed singly by a membrane envelope and expand noticeably during development, losing the typical gram- negative rod appearance. Occasionally, however, more than one bacteroid appears to be enclosed by a single membrane envelope giving the blue lupin nodule a resemblance to the cowpea type. Further studies of several other species are in progress including detailed study of soybean and peanut nodule fine structure. A study of the fine structure of Casuarina glauca root nodules has also been started. In November, 1963, Mr. Dart was reappointed to a Fellowship for the year com- mencing Ist January, 1964. We wish him every success in his work. Linnean Macleay Lectureship in Microbiology. Dr. Y. T. Tchan, Linnean Macleay Lecturer in Microbiology, University of Sydney, reported on his work for the year ending 3lst December, 1963, as follows: During 1963 progress has been made on the physiology of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. A paper on this subject has been published in the Proceedings of the Society. Other aspects of research on the nitrogen-fixing bacteria have made some progress, particularly on the requirement of Ca by Azotobacter. The study of seed inoculation with Azotobacter is near its completion. A research programme on the study of pesticides by the algal method has been initiated and should proceed during the coming year. Dr. Tehan has been appointed by the Senate of the University of Sydney to a Readership in Agricultural Microbiology. His full title is now Reader in Agricultural Microbiology and Linnean Macleay Lecturer in Microbiology. The Honorary Treasurer (Dr. A. B. Walkom) presented the balance sheets for the year ending 29th February, 1964, duly signed by the Auditor, Mr. S. J. Rayment, ¥.C.S., and his motion that they be received and adopted was carried unanimously. Dr. A. B. Walkom. The President said that Dr. A. B. Walkom, who had recently celebrated his 75th birthday, had completed forty-five years of continuous service to the Society. The Council had resolved to mark the occasion by having a photograph of Dr. Walkom printed in the Proceedings and by having a framed enlargement hung in the meeting room. The President concluded: “As a token of our appreciation, I now have pleasure in unveiling this photograph of Dr. A. B. Walkom which deservedly takes its place of 4 PRESIDENTIAL: ADDRESS: honour with the portraits around our walls of other men distinguished for their association with the Linnean Society.” Dr. Walkom: thanked the President and Huei ees of the Gougeil and expressed his appreciation of the honour conferred on him. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. A Survey of Australian Ichthyology. The Address briefly traces the history and development of the study of Australian Fishes from early historical times to the present. Some indication is given as to how various aspects of the subject have been treated. A modern list of species is appended, with a bibliography. (For full text see pp. 11 et seq.) No nominations of other candidates having been received, the President declared the following elections:for the ensuing year to be duly made: SiN President: Miss Hlizabeth C. Pope, M.Se., C.M.Z:S. Members of Council: W. R. Browne, D.Se., F.A.A.; S. J. Copland, M.Se.; F. V. Mercer, B.Sc., Ph.D.;: A. K. O’Gower, M.Sc., Ph.D.; S: Smith-White, D.Sc.Agr., F.A.A.: H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.1. ea Auditor: S. J. Rayment, F.C.A. The President: then installed Miss Elizabeth C. Pope as President. A cordial vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried by acclamation. OBITUARY NOTICES. WILLIAM BOARDMAN. WILLIAM BoAarRDMAN, M.Sc., who had been a member of the Society since 1929, died in Victoria on 28th November, 1968. His scientific career began at the Australian Museum, Sydney, as a Cadet in 1922, when he worked in the Department of Lower Invertebrates, specializing in earthworms, about which he wrote several papers. He collected marine life when with the British Great Barrier Reef expedition at Low Isles in 1928. He resigned from the Australian Museum in 1939 to take up a position at the Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra. He obtained his M.Sc. degree in 1941, and in 1944 became part-time lecturer at Canberra University College. After a term as Senior Lecturer at the University of Queensland (1945-47), he transferred to Melbourne University, spending 1948-49 at Mildura. He visited England in 1951-52, working at Birmingham, in the Strangeways Laboratory, Cambridge, and at the British Museum. The anatomy of marsupials and the hair tracts of various mammals were the subjects of his researches in the last twenty years. He contributed nine papers to the PRocEEDINGS between 1941 and 1950, most of them dealing with the hair tracts in marsupials. Lro ARTHUR Corton. Emeritus Professor Lro ArrHurR Corron, M.A., D.Sc., a member of this Society since 1908, died on 12th July, 1963, in his 80th year. Born in the far-west mining township of Nymagee, he received his early education at the old Fort Street Model School, and while employed as a draughtsman in the N.S.W. Department of Lands took an evening course in Arts at the University of Sydney, gaining the B.A. degree with ist Class Honours in Mathematics. In 1905 he entered the Faculty of Science and graduated with ist Class Honours in Geology, having also distinguished himself in Physics. At the end of 1908 he accompanied the Shackleton Expedition to the Antarctic, returning early next year. Elected to a Linnean Macleay Fellowship in 1909, he studied the mode of occurrence and genesis of the tin and diamond deposits of western New England, and after two years as Fellow was appointed to a University Lectureship in Geology. During World War I, while Professor David was on service abroad, and later when he was on leave prior to retirement, Cotton acted as head of the Geology Department, but still contrived to interest himself in research. He was awarded the degree of M.A. in 1916 and in 1920 that of D.Sc.; in the same year he was given the title of Assistant Professor. On David’s resignation at the end of 1924, he was appointed to the Chair of Geology, which he occupied until his retirement at the end of 1948. Cotton’s chief geological interests lay in problems involving the application of mathe- matical and physical principles, such as polar wanderings, isostasy, orogenesis and the strength of the earth’s crust; much of his published work dealt with such topics. During the filling of Burrinjuck Reservoir he examined by means of recording pendulums the crustal response to loading, and for his D.Sc. thesis investigated the relations between earthquakes and tidal stresses. He made a practice of lecturing to students of all years and of leading their field-excursions, and they came into personal contact with him. His department staff recognized in him a just and capable administrator, a sympathetic counsellor and a warm personal friend. The needs of a growing department absorbed most of his attention, but under his supervision research was carried on by members of his staff and by graduates, some of whom afterwards became Linnean Macleay Fellows; indeed, at one time three out of four Fellowships were being held by graduates of the Geology School. 6 OBITUARY NOTICES. Cotton was for some years Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University, and served as councillor and president of the Royal Society of New South Wales, as chairman of the Australian National Research Council and as a member of the Editorial Committee of The Australian Journal of Science. He presided over Section C of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science in 1932 and was Clarke Lecturer of the Royal Society of New South Wales and Macrossan Lecturer of the University of Queensland. His name is perpetuated in the L. A. Cotton School of Geology in the University of New England. ROBE RT Y LANGDON “Crocker. Professor “ROBERT LANGDON Crocker, -D.Sce., Professor, of Biology, ‘of the Botany Department, University of Sydney, died suddenly on 20th June, 1963. He had been elected to membership of the Society in, May,. 1955, was elected to Council in June, 1956, and resigned as a Councillor on 29th August, 1962. Professor Crocker was born at Peterborough, South Australia, in July, 1914. His, secondary education was received at Scotch College, Adelaide, where, in. addition to, his scholastic achievements, he became the College’s leading athlete. On coming up to the University of Adelaide, his original inclinations were towards Agricultural Science, OF Forestry, possibly being influenced by. his. home background, for he was the son, of a farmer in the marginal farming land of South Australia. He became interested, in Geology and Botany, and at graduation in 1935 seemed likely to make his career in Geology. His close friendship with the late Professor J. G. Wood, then Professor of Botany at Adelaide, swung ene balance in favour of plants. He joined the staff of the Division of Soils, C.S.1.R., 1936, but later transferred to the Agronomy Department of the Waite Institute. was a member of the first expedition to cross the Simpson Desert in 1939. During the war years 1940-1943, he was an explosives chemist attached to the Ministry of munitions. In 1947, he was awarded a .D.Se. by the University of Adelaide for his contributions to. ecology and soils. He then spent two years in Cambridge and travelled as a Fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation. Upon return to Australia, he was appointed Reader in. Grassland Hcology with the University. of, Adelaide. In 1950 he joined the staff of the University of California at Berkeley as Associate Professor of Soil Morphology, and was made a Full Professor in 1951. He was invited by the University of Sydney to the Chair of Botany in 1954. Professor Crocker, published over thirty papers. His work is a major development of the philosophy of the science of soils and. plant. ecology, especially in their conjuncture. In his chosen field, his achievements made him the spokesman of the times. An account of Professor Crocker’s work appears in The Union Recorder (published by | the Sydney University Union), Vol. XLIII, No. 17, p. 185, August iL, 1963. “a GrEoRGE ALOYSIUS. MAKINSoN. HEYDON, GEORGE ALOYSIUS MaAakINSON Herypon, M.C., B.A., M.B., Ch.M., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., F.R.A.C.P., who :died in Sydney on 27th April, 1963, at the age,of 81, had been a member of the Society since 1930. He was born at Gladesville; New South Wales, in 1881, the son of Mr. Justice Charles Heydon, a judge of the Arbitration Court of New South Wales, who had succeeded Sir Edmund Barton as Attorney-General of New South Wales. He was educated in Sydney and England, returning to Sydney to commence his medical studies. He took his degrees of M.B., Ch.M., in 1908 and was Resident Medical Officer of a number of hospitals in Sydney, later serving in World War I at Gallipoli and in France with the Australian Medical Corps (Australian Imperial Force). He served again in World War II as Consultant Parasitologist to Australian Army Headquarters. He then joined the laboratory service of the Common- wealth Health Department, being appointed to Rabaul, New Guinea, and serving from 1921 to 1925. In 1925 he transferred from New Guinea to the Australian Institute of . Tropical Medicine at Townsville. His work was now particularly centred on parasitology, in which he specialized henceforth.. In 1930, when the Institute was OBITUARY NOTICES. 1 incorporated in the newly established School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at the University of Sydney, Dr. Heydon became Parasitologist to the School and University Lecturer in Medical Parasitology, holding these appointments until his retirement in 1946. (For a full biography see The Medical Journal of Australia, 1963, Vol. 2, p. 465, September 14, 1963.) HmMin HERMAN ZECK. Emit HerMAN Zeck, F.R.Z.S., who died in Sydney on 3rd September, 1963, had been a member of the Society since 1936. He contributed, with the late H. J. Carter, two papers to the Society’s Proceedings, one in 1937—“A Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae’—and the second in 1941. Mr. Zeck was born in Sydney on 16th November, 1891, and, except for a period of six months spent in Mexico in 1926, lived there until his death. He entered the N.S.W. Public Service in 1908 as a cadet entomological and biological artist, but transferred to the Department of Agriculture in 1923 as an entomologist, from which position he retired in 1956. Mr. Zeck’s work in entomology covered a very broad field and a bibliography of his publications exceeds three hundred titles in many journals. He had experience in teaching entomology at Hawkesbury Agricultural College and Sydney Technical College and, during the second World War, lectured to army personnel on the control of insect pests of foodstuffs. He was awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion for 1961 in recognition of his outstanding entomological work which included taxonomic studies. He rendered good service to scientific societies and, apart from filling the position of President of the Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales, was also editor of the Australian Naturalist for many years. His work as an artist in illustrating articles on insects was outstanding. For more detailed biographical notes see The Australian Journal of Science, Vol. 25 (1), p. 432 (1963), and Victorian Naturalist, Vol. 80 (5), p. 128 (1963). 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[Delivered 25th March, 1964.] The word Ichthyology is generally taken to mean the science or study of fishes. A more engaging interpretation, at least to my mind, was supplied as long ago as 1836, when The British Cyclopaedia of Natural History Cepy authors eminent in their particular departments’? and therefore anonymous) stated that Ichthyology “means ‘the voice of the fishes’ or the account’ they can give of themselves, not in words, of course, for fishes are remarkable for their silence, but in such facts and relations as human observation can collect concerning them”’. Nowadays we know, as our eminent nineteenth-century authors did not, that fishes can make enough noise to confuse the hydrophones of submarine listeners, but our ears do not normally hear them. So, deaf to their protests, I presume to act as their spokesman and shall try briefly to survey the “facts and relations’ which have accumulated concerning Australian fishes over the last three and a half centuries. The earliest documents about Australian fishes are the paintings and rock- engravings of the aborigines whose message now is silent as their subjects. Fish paintings dating back to the third millennium sB.c. have been recorded from Baluchistan (Hora, 1956, Wem. Indian Mus., 14 (2): 73, figs), but Australian aboriginal art is much younger, some of it extending into historical and. even modern times. Written records by white men refer back to a.p. 1606, when Prado in Torres Strait mentioned albacore and the floating eggs of fishes. The Dutch sailor, Carstenzoon, noted “sharks, swordfishes and the like unnatural monsters” in the same area and was delighted to find “plenty of delicious fish’ in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1623, but Tasman left no record we can trace of any Australian fish, even though he was the first white man to remark upon the humpback whale migration and he noted mussels in Tasmania. The Dutch seamen, aren Willem de Vlamingh on his visit of 1696-7 to Western Australia, observed a remarkable fish, about two. feet long, with a round head and sort of arms and legs, and even something like hands. Perhaps this was an Angler fish. When Dampier paid his second visit to Australia, in the “Roebuck” 1699, he had aboard an artist who drew fishes and other animals. The engravings from these drawings, published in Dampier’s Voyage to New Holland in 1703, are the first known published pictures of Australian fishes. Bougainville noted a flying fish from a locality well eastward of the Great Barrier Reef in June, 1768. Lieutenant James Cook, in the “Endeavour” 1770, noticed various fishes in eastern Australia, and the manuscripts and drawings then made by Banks, Solander and Parkinson are in the British Museum. roloy Marion du Fresne and Francois de Saint Allouarn aie some fishes, from Tasmania and Western Australia respectively in 1772, the latter observing from Dirk Hartog’s Bay, Western Australia, the poisonous toadfishes there. Captain Cook was poisoned by similar toadfishes in New Caledonia in 1774, but happily survived so that on his third voyage, William Anderson and William Ellis were able to describe Tasmanian fishes in a manuscript which is in the British Museum. The earliest description of an Australian flathead dates from this period. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Socinty or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. lxxxix, Part 1. 12 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, The First Fleet naturalists made paintings, some still in existence, of Sydney fishes, and made known such interesting species as the Port Jackson Shark, the Five- fingers (now Morwong), Watts’s Shark (Wobbegong) and Light horsemen (Snapper) and La Perouse’s men caught nearly 2,000 ‘Light horsemen” in one day. The first published pictures of New South Welsh fish appeared in Phillip’s Voyage to Botany Bay, 1789, soon followed by White’s Journal and a host of other natural history publications. The first printed list of Australian fishes was C. P. Thunberg’s Fauna Novae Hollandiae (Upsala, 1822), but that only specified. two sharks. Actually quite a few Australian species were known to science by the end of the 18th century. In Collins’ Account of the English Colony in New South Wales we can read of the first fisheries enactments for the new settlement. Any modern visitor to Botany Bay can still see the identical species of fishes mentioned in the journals of Cook, Banks, Phillip and the early French naturalists. Linnaeus’ Systema Naturae, the foundation for animal classification, was found insufficient to classify and name the new Australian animals, so Broussonet in 1780, and later Bonnaterre and Gmelin, Meyer, Forster and Latham, each added a few new species. Shaw and Nodder from 1790 to 1810 published their Naturalists’ Miscellany with over a thousand plates; in this work a number of fishes from the “Southern” or “Antarctic” seas, “New Holland” or the “Southern Ocean” are clearly recognizable as Queensland or Botany Bay species, evidently from Cook, White and other 18th century Australian collectors. In 1791 Archibald Menzies described in manuscript new fishes from King George Sound, and George Tobin in 1792 painted and noted Tasmanian animals on Bligh’s. voyage. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Baudin’s expedition with the ships “Geographe” and “Naturaliste’ thoroughly explored much of our coastlines. The chief zoologist, Réné Maugé de Cely, was very ill and died in Tasmania in 1802, so the natural history was attended to by Francois Péron. He noticed that shells, fishes and other marine animals differed in such localities as, for example, Sydney, Tasmania, Kangaroo Island and Sharks Bay, and sought their limits of distribution. He collected and described many hundreds of specimens, many of which were painted by his friend and colleague Charles Alexandre Le Sueur. Their manuscripts and drawings have never been published in full and, having survived the ravages of war, are stored in Le Havre, France. So exquisite was Le Sueur’s draughtsmanship that he would hand. a visitor a lens so that he might examine the brush-strokes in his paintings in which every hair, feather or scale was truly delineated. He lived from 1778 to 1846. Other phenomenally gifted painters of Australian fishes were Ferdinand Bauer (1760-1826) whose work I have admired in the British Museum (fishes painted during the Flinders. Expedition) and James Stuart (1802-1842), a quarantine official whose paintings are a valued possession of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. Lacépeéede included in his Histoire Naturelle des Poissons from 1798 onwards such Australian fishes as were known to him and in 1804 he described specimens from. Baudin’s voyages. After the French Revolution, the popular demand for knowledge was so great, that encyclopaedias and dictionaries of natural history were issued in many volumes and, in these, from Bosc (1804) onwards, were incorporated numerous accounts of strange Australian fishes. Fréminville, Cuvier and others in France also published papers on them. In England, Shaw’s General Zoology, Turton, Perry’s Arcana and Bullock’s various synopses of the contents of his Museum all contained Australian fishes, as also did Donovan (1823). In Australia, Thomas Skottowe had compiled by 1817 his manuscript and drawings. illustrating the natural history of Newcastle, New South Wales. BY G. P. WHITLEY. bide) Gk 1133 Other batches of explorers and naturalists visited our shores: Quoy and Gaimard (1824), P. P. King, R. P. Lesson, Hydoux and Souleyet, until the 1820s culminated in the researches of Cuvier who had published his Régne Animal and was producing, with Valenciennes, their classic Histoire Naturelle. des Poissons in 22 volumes with 650 coloured plates. As the 1830s passed, the infant Australian Museum in Sydney was being directed by George Bennett. The overland explorers made istlowii our freshwater fishes. When G. W. Evans erossed the Blue Mountains in 1813, he named the Fish: River in which he mentioned the presence of “trout”. This is the first reference to the famous Murray Cod, so Evans blazed the trail which led to the discovery of the unique fish-fauna of the vast :_Murray River system, stretching from South Australia to Queensland. Oxley gave the first detailed account of the Murray Cod:; TT. L. Mitchell inserted excellent drawings of catfish, cod and silver perch in his journals; and Sturt, Cunningham and even Eyre mentioned the fish they gratefully ate. In Germany, Miiller and Henle were pioneering anatomical and taxonomic work on such primitive creatures as the hagfishes, sharks and rays. Swainson produced his volumes on fishes, amphibians and reptiles, and sought to justify his quinary. scheme, one of the systems destined to fall by the wayside when Darwin (who was in Australia in 1836) later promulgated his more acceptable theories. The fishes of Darwin’s voyage of the “Beagle” were described by Jenyns.. HExplorers:and collectors of the 1840s were Stokes, Dring, and Emery; Neill, Miles, Gilbert, Gould and Leichhardt. Perhaps the first native-born: Australian ichthyologist was Dr. Edmund ..Charles Hobson (1814-1848), author of»a-:.paper on the Elephant Shark in the first. number of the Tasmanian Journal, 1842. Next John Richardson towers over the scene. He wrote Icones Piscium, describing the novelties from north-western Australia; he received fishes and drawings. (even some from convicts) in Tasmania and. compiled for the British Association for the Advancement of Science lists of the fishes of Australia and New Zealand; his account of the fishes in the Voyage of the “Erebus and Terror” (1844-1848) is still in constant use in Australian ichthyology. The Dutch ichthyologist, Peter Bleeker, perhaps of all ichthyologists facile princeps, wrote 500 detailed papers apart from his massive Atlas Ichthyologique, but only: about one per cent of them, unfortunately, were of Australian fishes. Hombron and Jacquinot (1853) were about the last: of the French naturalists who seemed to come to Australia in pairs (Peron and Lesueur, Quoy and Gaimard, Lesson and Garnot come to mind). The 1860s was the age of Acclimatization Societies, so that many forces fishes were introduced into our waters, often with dire results in due course. The Zoological Record had started its noble task’ which is still proceeding after a hundred years. Several scientific societies had sprung up in Australian capital cities. Rev. G. J. Bostock was collecting in Western Australia. Another giant to follow Cuvier, Richardson and Bleeker was. Albert: Gunther of the British Museum who, in his many papers, but particularly in his eight volume Catalogue of the Fishes in The British Museum, made it possible for zoologists all over the world to name their fishes. The appearance of this work between 1859 and 1870 enabled a school of Australian zoologists to emerge. However, at the same time or soon, afterwards, continental: ichthyologists were describing fishes sent. overseas. Peters in Berlin, Klunzinger in Stuttgart, Steindachner in Vienna and the workers in Paris were all contributing to Australian ichthyology independently so there was some confusion, which I tried to a small extent to disentangle .when I visited all those places. in 1937 and examined as many of their actual specimens as time allowed. Kaup and Kner also published descriptions of new species. ' Johann Ludwig Gerard Krefft (1830-1880) was born. in Brunswick, Germany, and came from America to Victoria in 1852 to try for gold. In 1857 he accompanied 14 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Blandowski’s now almost forgotten expedition* to the Murray River as naturalist and draughtsman. In 1860 he joined the staff of the Australian Museum and was curator from 1861 to 1874 with residence in the Museum building. ‘Krefft sent a collection of Australian fishes to: the International Exhibition in 1862: and helped Gunther, who was writing his monumental Catalogue, by sending him Sydney specimens. Krefft himself wrote several papers on Australian freshwater fishes, but his most dramatic discovery was first revealed in a letter he sent on 17th January, 1870, to the Sydney Morning Herald announcing the finding of an “amphibious creature inhabiting northern streams and lagoons. ... I have named this strange creature Ceratodus Forsteri’; this was the now world-famous Queensland Lungfish. Teeth of similar animals had been found fossil in various parts of the world, but there was the “living fossil’, so much unlike anything that had been imagined that Louis Agassiz wrote to Krefft: “My fossil sharks are sharks no longer.” Krefft died. at Woolloomooloo,. Sydney, just after his fiftieth birthday, on 19th February, 1880. Another German, Schomburgk, collected in South Australias Some new Australian fishes resulted from the German “Gazelle” Expedition of 1875 and the British H.M.S. “Alert” in 1881. Hollard, Duméril, Guérin-Méneville. Thiolliére, Guichenot pursued their individual lines in France and the Italian, Canestrini, described and figured an Australian Boarfish. In the United States, Theodore Gill brought the light of his accuracy and industry to bear on taxonomic and bibliographical problems, and wrote masterly papers setting the classification of fishes in order and correcting the errors or slipshod work of earlier authors. Cope named some presumably Australian fishes in Philadelphia. Count Castelnau forsook insects to study fishes when he became French Consul at Melbourne, and McCoy produced his excellent Prodromus with many illustrations of Victorian fishes unexcelled to this day. Allport was interested in what we should now call bionomics of Tasmanian fishes. Then Sir William Macleay came on the scene: first with a paper as. joint author with Dr. Haynes. Gibbes Alleyne on the fishes of the “‘Chevert” expedition to New Guinea; later, as an independent author, he contributed papers and his Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes to the pages of our Linnean Society’s Proceedings, the Catalogue being a definitive work based not only on literature but on his extensive private. collections. : But ichthyology never stands still. In the 1880s:the results of the great “Challenger” expedition were being made known by Gunther. In Australia, De Vis,. Haacke, Zietz, R. M. Johnston, Morton and Ramsay were building up on the foundations laid by Gunther and Macleay. Interest in the fishing industry was aroused in 1880 by the Royal Commission on the Fisheries of New South Wales which for the first time assembled reliable informa- tion from scattered sources.. The Rev. J. Tenison-Woods wrote his Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales, published in 1882, in readiness for the London International Fisheries Exhibition which called attention to fishes as a world economic proposition. Ramsay was in charge of the Australian exhibit which included a giant sunfish from Sydney named in honour of Ramsay by the Italian zoologist, Giglioli. In Paris, Thominot and Sauvage in the 1880s were producing descriptions of new Australian species. James Douglas Ogilby began in the 1890s his fine series of careful descriptions of Australian fishes: a bibliography of his work appeared in Records of the Australian Museum, 15 (2); 1926: 149, with portrait. BUG IE Lucas named some Victorian rock-pool fishes encountered during his studies of algae. Regan, of the British Museum, began a series of papers on classification and osteology, and France was penreecnted by Vaillant who descend new species. In * William Blantioweki wrote an account of fishes of the Maas River which has — een published because it was held to contain unflattering references to Melbourne notabilities of the time. ; BY G: P. WHITLEY. 15 passing, we are struck by the world-wide flavour, through the decades of “Australian” ichthyology. Our fishes engage the interest of people in faraway lands as much as of local students. A Russian publication dealing with South Australian fishes now unexpectedly appears, in which Herzenstein (1896) describes new species collected by Schneider. The trawling activities of the ‘Thetis’ were the subject of Australian Museum Memoir 4, 1899-1914. Edgar Ravenswood Waite, in his introduction thereto, gave a valuable history of marine investigations in New South Wales.* The twentieth century was gently ushered in by the publication in 1900 of Anderson’s Guide to Fishing in Tasmania. David G. Stead became Naturalist to the Fisheries Department in Sydney and recorded many field notes from all over New South Wales. His voluminous writings included Fishes of Australia (1906), The Edible Fishes of New South Wales (1908), and the posthumously published Sharks and Rays of Australian Seas (1963). An account of his work is given in the Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales for 1956-57 (1958: 8, with portrait). He was manager of the State trawling industry which, while not an outstanding business success, at least produced very many interesting marine specimens. The work of the Fisheries Inspectors in various States should not be forgotten; they have always been helpful to science. In Queensland, James Tosh studied the eggs and young as well as the adult fishes of Moreton Bay. He later became Professor of Biology at St. Andrews University and was killed in Mesopotamia. Thomas Welsby, also in southern Queensland, left us a good deal of fish lore in his writings, notably his book Schnappering. Garman in the United States compiled his great memoirs on Sharks and Rays. Jordan and Seale ‘issued their Fishes of Samoa and H. W. Fowler was producing numerous taxonomic papers. All these American works were of immense value to Australian ichthyologists. Parker and Haswell used Australasian sharks and fishes as anatomical examples in their now classic Texzt-Book of Zoology. The Federal Government commissioned the trawler “Endeavour” to explore the continental shelf under the direction of the Norwegian, Harald Dannevig, from 1909 until the tragic loss of the vessel in 1914. Great collections of fishes were made and some groups were reported on by McCulloch, Norman and Raff, but there is still a good deal of material to be identified. Another Scandinavian was Knut Dahl sola exillened north- western Australia and the Northern Territory; his fishes were recorded by Rendahl in 1922. Praise must be given to Edgar R. Waite whose descriptions of our fishes were not only accurate but illustrated by good wash drawings from his own brush. A bibliography of his papers has been furnished by Hale (1928, Rec. S. Aust, Mus., 3 (4): 345, with portrait). ; It was Waite who. fraied aN R. McCulloch and the pupil improved on the master. McCulloch read and card-indexed everything that had, been written about Australian fishes, he discovered new species which he described and illustrated so accurately and beautifully that there is little that can be added to his work. | Theodore Roughley, subject of: a memorial notice by ‘this Society (Proc. Lryn. Soc. N.S. WatLkEs, 86, 1962: 265 and portrait), when Economic Zoologist at the Techno- logical Museum, Sydney, published in: 1916 his Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales. beautifully illustrated in colour as well as black and white. He wrote and lectured extensively about the excellent. edible qualities of Australian fish. Interstate, in the 1910s, W. B. Alexander studied Western Australian species, and Bancroft experimented with: the rearing of Queensland Lungfish. Albert Gale championed Australian freshwater fishes as aquarium subjects and recorded the breeding habits of some of the smaller eastern Australian ones. * Complementary to this is Tredale’s list of pcos from New South W valese to Tasmania in Rec. Austr. Mus., 14, 1925: 243, and map. 16 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Abroad, Weber and de Beaufort in Holland continued their Fishes of the Indo- Australian Archipelago; Duncker in Germany brought order into the classification of pipefishes (Syngnathidae) and Cockerell studied scales. In 1916 appeared the first part of Bashford Dean’s monumental Bibliography of Fishes which was completed with part three in 1923 and has laid the world of ichthyology under obligation since. An even more colossal undertaking of this period was Sherborn’s Index Animalium, recording all the scientific names in the animal kingdom proposed between 1758 and 1850. With Dean, Sherborn and the Zoological Record, a good deal of ichthyological work was indexed, but there remained a “no man’s land” between 1850 and the early 1860s and a good deal of detailed analysis of literature to be done before even a list of Australian fishes could be prepared. McCulloch had his thousands of card-index slips and a name-list in manuscript, so the latter was elaborated upon and published in 1929-30 as a Check-list of the fishes recorded from Australia in Austr. Mus. Mem. 5. The 1920s had. been marked by steady work in the PORCH years: Norman mono- graphed the flatfishes though he was fated to produce only volume 1. Rendahl wrote on remote north-western Australian freshwater fishes obtained by Dahl; Nichols and Raven on those of the then almost as remote streams of Queensland. Hale was studying pipefishes with Waite; Longman was interested in Queensland fishes, Glauert in those of Western Australia, while Lord and Scott wrote a book about Tasmanian vertebrates. Johannes Schmidt arrived from Denmark to study freshwater eels (Anguilla) and to arrange for the visit of the “Dana” expedition, which made notable discoveries in the Tasman Sea. In 1927 Taronga Zoological Park opened its Aquarium to Sabie view and studies there over the years have yielded information on growth, longevity and variation amongst fish, and thrown light on the reproduction of sharks. Professor C. Yonge was in charge of the Great Barrier Reef eanedition to the Low Isles, Queensland. A naval surgeon, Lieutenant Commander W. E. J. Paradice, made large collections of fishes in the Northern Territory. McCulloch had died, but one may perhaps be pardoned for mentioning that his work was continued and built upon at the Australian. Museum, whose collections were expanding, so that many new records of fishes and taxonomic adjustments had to be made over the years. A milestone in our knowledge was the publication. of the “Map of Fisheries” prepared by the Development and Migration Commission for the information of the members of the Australian Fisheries: Conference, 1929. . Later the work of the Com- mission was taken over by the Fisheries Division of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in its laboratory at the old Fisheries Department hatchery at Cronulla, New South Wales. In the 1930s sharks were being sought commercially ie Nomen: (Galiwetly and others and it was noticed that large ones could be quickly diminished in numbers by meshing a particular region. Because of the danger of shark attacks, a Shark Menace Advisory Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Judge (now Sir) Adrian Curlewis. Big-game fishing, practised for some time by a few erthiieiaets, received an impetus from the visit of Zane Grey who wrote books on his angling experiences as well as the novels for which he was famous; fishes of unwieldy size were becoming accessible for study and inevitably it was found that their classification needed revision. Fraser-Brunner: revised the Plectognathi, Chabanaud the soles, Regan and Trewavas the deep-sea fishes from the “Dana”, Bertin the leptocephalus larvae of eels and the type-specimens of. fishes in the Paris Museum, Tortonese catalogued the fishes of the “Magenta” expedition of the 1860s, Miss Erna Mohr reviewed the “Dana” Centriscidae, and Carl Hubbs listed blind: fishes. Dakin and Colefax investigated at first hand the plankton of. the Ragman Sea amd, the flatheads (Platycephalidae) caught by the trawlers. Dr. H. Leighton Kesteven proposed some new interpretations of the bones of fishes, based on the skulls, of local BY G. P. WHITLEY. 17 species. In New Zealand, Phillipps’ papers had an Australian bearing. Mack in Victoria, E. O. G. Scott in Tasmania, T. C. Marshall in Queensland, Moorhouse in South Australia were investigating fishes, Walford in the Blue Mountains found that Galazias coxii bred in fresh water; it was generally held before this that Galaxias was obliged to descend to the sea to breed. Evans investigated the food of fishes in Tasmania. Material was collected on the Great Barrier Reef by Iredale, McNeill, and Melbourne Ward. Japanese vessels visited our tropical waters in the 1930s, but, apart from some exquisite coloured postcards illustrating Nemipterus and other genera, I have not traced any ichthyological results from their surveys. The original scientists associated with the C.S.I.R. Marine Biological Laboratory, Cronulla, New South Wales, were Dr. Harold Thompson, Chief; and Research Officers Stanley Fowler, Serventy, Blackburn, Tubb and others, later joined by Geoffrey Kesteven. The “Warreen” was the first of a number of research vessels employed in field work. World War II delayed research to some extent, but opened other avenues. Fisheries activities were organized to supply fish for consumption in the Commonwealth, sharks were studied not only as enemies of man, but as sources of vitamin-rich oil; anti- submarine patrols by aeroplanes were sometimes used for fish-spotting as well; poisonous and harmful fishes were studied from the serviceman’s point of view. A case of fatal stabbing by a stingray was reported by Wright-Smith. In 1947, chiefs of interstate Fisheries Departments conferred in Sydney and reached general agreement on the vernacular names (hitherto very confused) to be used for commercial fishes in all States of the Commonwealth. In the 1940s, Dunbavin Butcher studied the food of freshwater fishes of Victoria; Ian Munro worked on eggs and larvae as well as revising the breams and Spanish mackerels, Geoffrey Kesteven examined the mullet in great detail, Elizabeth Pope demonstrated the anatomy of the Port Jackson Shark, that interesting “living fossil’ whose hatching and growth were recorded by Jacups; and Shipway made field observa- tions on freshwater fishes in Queensland and Western Australia. Cleland studied the biology of whiting (Sillago) and Stokell, from New Zealand, threw light on our Galaxias. Tom Iredale’s bibliographical researches may be mentioned here; although primarily dealing with ornithological and conchological subjects, his work is of great value in other branches of zoology and his inspiration to workers in many different branches of natural history should never be overlooked. In 1940, a book on Sharks and Rays was published by the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales; it was intended as the first of a series of volumes on Australian fishes, but financial stringency prevented further publications. Overseas, Chabanaud continued on the soles, Hge revised Chauliodus (his work was later (1952) elaborated by Haffner) and J. T. Nichols wrote the results of the Archbold Expedition to Cape York. A joint American and Australian expedition to the Northern Territory spent some time there in 1948, but the results of the fish collecting have not yet come to hand, though a few new records therefrom have strayed into American reviews of various families of fishes. By the 1950s ichthyologists were becoming more specialized and generally were revising smaller groups of genera and species. In a museum, one has to work on a huge shark one day, a small blenny the next, or sort a collection from some tropic reefs which may contain a hundred species of almost as many genera. C.S.I.R. had been established as C.S.I.R.O. in 1949 and now produced a handbook Australian Fisheries reviewing that subject; this is now a very rare book. In that organization, Blackburn worked on anchovies, pilchards, Tasmanian whitebait, barracouta and fisheries generally. J. P. Robins was making observations at sea on the occurrence of tuna in relation to surface-temperatures. The main taxonomic work on tunas was continued by Serventy. Cowper found a new gadoid from the rich fish- fauna being opened up by line-fishing, in greater depths than before, to the south-east B 18 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, of Tasmania. Munro studied various families and the eggs and larvae of flying fishes, and in 1956 commenced his Handbook of Australian Fishes in Fisheries Newsletter, but this enterprise unfortunately lapsed (at least temporarily) when about one thousand species had been dealt with. J. M. Thompson and G. Kesteven worked on mullets and Kurth on flatfishes. The death of W. S. Fairbridge deprived science of a promising young man who had studied flathead, snapper, “salmon” (Arripis) and the effects of over-fishing on the trawling industry. Dr. (now Sir Victor) Coppleson reviewed cases of shark attacks since 1919 and formulated theories as to times when attacks might be expected, dependent on locality and water-temperatures. Colefax’s Presidential Address to the Linnean Society of New South Wales discussed scale structure in fishes. George Coates, a naturalist and angler who painted accurate representations of tropical fishes, brought out the second edition of his Fishing on the Barrier Reef. E. O. G. Scott continued his Tasmanian ichthyological studies and T. D. Scott commenced some contributions on Western and South Australian fishes. A fatal case of poisoning through eating toadfish in Tasmania revived interest in ciguatera or ichthyotoxismus (C. Duncan, 1951; Whitley, 1953). Dr. Flecker of Cairns studied Stonefishes. The Australian Museum produced a list of type-specimens of all the recent fishes in its collections. In 1957, Australian Science Abstracts ceased publication; for some twenty-five years these had afforded a detailed, annotated list of zoological papers as they appeared, and so are of value to the future historian of that period. The new Australian Encyclopaedia in 1958 contained articles and illustrations of fishes and fisheries. The Danish “Galathea” expedition, directed by Anton Bruun, worked in Australian waters, but full results of the important catches made have not yet been published. Japanese research ships were again busy and fishermen from Japan exploited the tunas, swordfishes and other species off Australian shores. The lesser fishing activities in our waters by Indonesians were discussed by Serventy (1952). A voice from the past was heard as H. W. Fowler (1953) catalogued for publication the Australian fishes from the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 to 1842. Overseas workers in the 1950s continued: Fraser-Brunner turned his attention to Hammerhead Sharks, mackerels and Chandidae. Koumans’s studies on gobies and gudgeons were incorporated in his volume on the order Gobioidei in Weber and Beaufort’s Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, 10 (1953), mentioning many Australian types. Other overseas workers of the 1950s who touched Australian ichthyology were: J. C. Briggs (clingfishes), Kahsbauer (pipefishes), Randall (surgeon-fishes), Thines (blindfishes), Arnold (Carapidae) and the brilliant Denys Tucker (Trichiuridae) ; Barton described a new Siganus and Meinken figured aquarium fishes. Bertelsen’s classic papers on deep-sea (bathypelagic) angler fishes mentioned inter alia a number of New South Wales forms newly discovered in Australian waters by the Danish “Dana” Expedition of 1929. Game-fishermen were becoming interested for purposes of record in the exact identity of their catches, so Lamonte (1955) reviewed the Marlins, a very difficult group, whose final classification has still not been decided on. The appearance in 1953 of the first of the volumes on fishes from the American “Operations Crossroads’, by Schultz and others, was in its way another milestone in the study of our coral reef fishes, for whilst these Bulletins of the U.S. National Museum describe and figure fishes primarily from the Marshall and Marianas Islands, numerous Australian species are keyed or their data tabulated, sometimes from fresh sources of information. The 1960s are still too close for contemplation. This is a period of rapid travel when ichthyologists can come from all over the world to collect or compare specimens. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 19 The use of underwater breathing devices has opened up new vistas in field work and the study of fish behaviour. Modern photographic techniques show us a new, more natural world of fishes, often in colour,* and one is tempted to regret that the technical advantages of today had not been available years ago so that greater progress in this fascinating subject could have been made. The impression one receives (if anything as clear as an impression emerges) from this review of work on Australian ichthyology is that slowly, perhaps painfully, a great deal of worth-while information has been gathered together, often by devoted, poorly paid souls working in many countries and often under conditions of stress. We have progressed from the observations of early explorers and natural history collectors, who were astonished by the novelty and strangeness of some of the fishes they found, to the more or less routine description of species by overseas and local zoologists. No definite limits can be set to the periods in which such work was carried out, indeed some is still continuing. The purely systematic approach prevails and ichthyological literature is still cluttered with synonyms and scatteralia rather than résumés of information concerning particular fishes. Catalogues and check-lists slowly appeared. Fresh fishing techniques resulted in new captures, especially in the depths of the sea. Anatomical, physiological and skeletal work on Australian fishes is almost an untouched field. As in all branches of science it is important to know where to find the data which are already published. In an attempt to help in this regard, a subject-index, following the lines of that in Dean’s Bibliography of Fishes, but adapted for modern Australian requirements, is appended to this address. Australian ichthyological literature is marked by a series of fallen monuments, of many a part 1, or volume 1—never to be followed by subsequent numbers. Not counting Macleay’s Descriptive Catalogue, which was complete for its time, valiant efforts by Ogilby, Waite, McCulloch, Munro and others to prepare accounts of all our fishes have lapsed. Nonetheless good accounts of fishes of South Australia (Waite, 1923; T. D. Scott, 1962) and New South Wales (McCulloch, 1922) have appeared, and some success has been achieved by authors attacking piecemeal certain aspects of the whole. A new trend is to compile a dossier or synopsis on one particular fish: J. M. Thompson (1963) on mullet and J. P. Robins (1962) on tuna are examples. But work in the future will probably be planned by international committees and at the colloquium or symposium rather than by the individual worker. There are probably well over 40,000 different species of fishes in the fresh and salt waters of this globe, referable to more than 600 families. At the end of 1883, Sir William Macleay noted the total number of Australian fishes as amounting to 1,291 species. More than eighty years later it is now nearer 2,450. Only 7:-5% of the species of Australian fishes inhabit freshwater. Many Australian freshwater fishes are as worthy of conservation as koalas and gumtrees, kangaroos and waratahs, and should be preserved because of their unique interest. Probably when all the deep-sea fishes are known and when we have identified and catalogued the planktonic larvae, we may find we have up to three or four thousand different kinds of Australian fishes. Even in New South Wales, where some seven hundred different fishes are well classified, it has been found that larvae, apparently plentiful in the plankton off-shore, belong to genera and families so far unrecorded from Australia. Well may we agree with the poet Spenser: “Oh! what an endlesse work has he in hand Who’d count the sea’s abundant progeny.” We have advanced a little in our knowledge since the eminent authors of the British Cyclopaedia whose quotation began this address, in which such “facts and relations” as human beings have collected concerning Australian fishes have been but * A beautiful example is Gillett and McNeill’s the Great Barrier. Reef. 20 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, sketchily and imperfectly indicated by their spokesman who has been talking long enough; it is now time for him to join the fishes in being remarkable for their silence. Submitted herewith as appendices* are: (A) An alphabetical subject-index on topics associated with Australian fishes; some ninety main headings lead the student to references on these. (B) A name-list of some 2,450 species; and (C) a bibliography. Acknowledgements. The author is particularly grateful to his employers over the last forty years or so: The Australian Museum and, for a period, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (now C.S.I.R.O.), for facilities in the laboratory and the field. The cheerful co-operation of his colleagues also made his work easier. Most of the books and papers consulted in the preparation of this address are in the Australian Museum or the author’s own library, but others have been perused in the Mitchell Library and Public Library, Sydney, the Public Library, Melbourne, and in many overseas and interstate reading rooms. To the librarians of these institutions, the writer gives his warmest thanks. For typing and the arrangement of this address he is appreciative of the efforts of his assistants at the Australian Museum (Misses L. Carter, K. Pope and H. Ashton) and Mrs. G. Frewer. APPENDIX A: SUBJECT INDEX. As the result of about forty years spent answering questions about fishes as ichthyologist to the Australian Museum, I found it useful to have a Subject Index, on cards, giving notes and references to literature on many different topics associated with fishes. Thousands of cards were accumulated, from which a selection of principal references cogent to Australian ichthyology has been extracted, as below, in the hope that this will be of use to future students. The main source-books are, from the earliest times to at least the year 1920, Bashford Dean’s “A Bibliography of Fishes’, the third and final volume of which was published in 1923, and the ‘Zoological Record’ down to recent years. The alphabetical arrangement of Bashford Dean’s “Subject Index (Morphological and General Section)’”’ is followed hereunder. ABORIGINES. [The association between aborigines and fishes is a very broad subject, at present being studied by F. D. McCarthy. I have scattered references to fishing implements: fish traps, nets, spears, hooks and the things used in their manufacture, sinkers, kierlies, and other devices. The aborigines not only ate fish but used their oil, bones, etc. Remains of fishes (often groper, snapper and even porcupine fishes) are found in middens and rock shelters. The fish-bones were occasionally used as ornaments. The aborigines depicted fishes in rock engravings, wood carvings, and bark paintings, many of which are reproduced in artistic and anthropological monographs. Vocabularies of native names for fishes appear in books of voyages and travels. Old illustrations of aboriginal fishing methods are scattered in historical literature or in unpublished photographs. Then there are countless legends about fishes, rites to increase fish, charms, dances and songs. Aborigines have been attacked by sharks and injured by other types of fishes. All this material has yet to be collated.] ACCLIMATIZATION. Fish-farming: Lake, 1962, The Fisherman (State Fisheries N.S.W.), Summer 1962: 1-7, figs. Kesteven, 1960, Austr. J. Sci. 238 (4): 125. Thomson, J. M., 1955, Fisheries Newsletter 14 (5): 17, illustr. Introduced Fishes: Whitley, 1958, Austr. Encycl. Whitley, Austr. Mus. Mag. 10 (6), July 1951: 198. Whitley, Austr. Mus. Mag. 10 (7), Sept. 1951: 234. Whitley, Austr. Mus. Mag. 11 (11), Sept. 1955: 360. Shipway, 1953, W.A. Nat. 3 (8): 173. Stephenson, 1953, Ic. Notes 2: 37. Seager, 1941, N.S.W. Rod Fish. Soc. Gazette 11 (5) and 11 (6): 1 & 5. AERIAL OBSERVATIONS. Anon., 1943, Fisheries Newsletter 2 (3): 13 and later issues. Ralph, 1942, Vict. Nat. 59: 131. Serventy, V., 1952, Walkabout, Aug. 1952: 16. Whitley, 1946, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W. 1945/6, p. 17, figs. Julius a.o., 1937, Eleventh Ann. Rept. C.S.I.R.: 63 and later C.S.LR. publications. Fowler, S., 1942, Pacific Fisherman 40 (10): 35, figs, and 42 (4), 1944: 39. * A substantial anonymous donation made it possible to print these appendices.—Ep. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 21 AESTIVATION. Whitley, 1959, Monogr. Biol. 8: 138. Taylor, R., 1855, Te Ika a Maui: 652. AGE. Dakin, 1939, Rec. Austr. Mus. 20: 282 (flathead). Fairbridge, 1951, Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2 (2): 156 (flathead). Hinton, 1962, Zoologica 47 (2): 105 (longevity of fishes). Jacups, 1943, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales 1942/3, p. 11 (Port Jackson Shark). Parrott, 1932, N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. 14: 101 (trout in Victoria). Smith & Thomson, 1957, Fisher. Dept. W. Austr. Monthly Service Bull. 6 (11): 148. Walford (1941), Austr. Mus. Mag. 7: 236 (Galaxias). Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: 52 (sharks). Anon., 1959, Eleventh Ann. Rept. C.S.1.R.O., 1958-59: 73 (school shark, 233 years old). AIR-BLADDER. Kesteven, H., 1931, Rec. Austr. Mus. 18 (4): 167. Parker & Haswell, Text-book of Zoology: 229, fig. 905. Phillipps, 1928, N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. 10 (4): 220, fig. ANATOMY. Parker & Haswell, 1962, Text-book of Zoology ed. 7, 2: passim, figs. BACTERIA and fishes. Ferguson-Wood, 1939, C.S.I.R. Pamph. 93. Ferguson-Wood, 1953, Austr. J. Sci., Dec. 1953: 87, fig. 1. BEHAVIOUR. (See also Commensalism, Locomotion, Migration, Reproduction, etc.) Goadby (1959), Sharks, passim, photos. (sharks). Graham (1953), Treasury of N. Zeal. Fishes, passim. Kesteven, G., 1960, F.A.O. Indo Pacif. Fisher. Symposium on fish behaviour. Kondo, 1955, Copeia 1955 (38): 236 (bronsonian knot of eel). There is also much general information in various books about the Great Barrier Reef. BLIND FISHES. [There may be blind fishes yet unnamed in Australian caves—certainly there are reports of them and specimens are required. One proved to be a pale Salmo gairdneri, however. These should not, of course, be confused with fishes whose eyes are affected by bore water after aestivation. See also aestivation and deep-sea fishes. ] Hubbs, 1938, Carneg. Inst. Wash. Publ. 491: 261, figs. Whitley, 1945, Austr. Zool. 11: 35, fig. 15 (Wilyeringa). Whitley, 1959, Monogr. Biol. 8: 147. Thines, 1955, Les Poissons Aveugles. Ann. Soc. Roy. Belg. 86 (1): 1-128, figs 1-36 (includes Australian ones). See his later papers too. Wolf, 1934 onwards, Animalium Cavernarum Catalogus. Whitley, 1935, Rec. Austr. Mus. 19 (4): 244. Gianferrari, 1932, Atti Soc. Ital. Milano 71: 217. Norman, 1926, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 18: 324. BLoop. Buchanan, 1916, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. (n.s.) 28 (2): 188, Pl. 18. Dakin, 1931, Austr. Zoot. 7: 22. Dakin & Edmonds, 1931, Austr. J. Exper. Biol. Med. Sci. 8: 169. Molineux, 1885, Trans. Rk. Soc. 8. Austr. 7: 82 (exuding of blood by sharks). CAvE FISHES (see Blind fishes). CENSUS. Depletion and population studies: Blackburn, 1953, Austr. J. Sci. 15 (5): 151. Kesteven, G., 1947, Nature, Jan. 4: 10. Numbers of species: McCulloch, 1914, Biol. Res. Endeavour 2 (3): 77. “Whitley, 1927, Austr. Mus. Mag. 3 (3): 108. Whitley, 1941, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W. 1940/1: 9. [The present number of Australian species is about 2,450. The Australian Museum houses very approximately 50,000 specimens of fishes from all parts of the world.] Correlations in rates of diversification: Small, 1952, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh (Biol.) 64 (3): 277. CLASSIFICATION. Berg, 1940, Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 5 (2): 346-517, and later editions. See also W. Gosline’s 1952 “Unofficial Addendum” to Berg (roneo’d). Jordan, 1923, Classif. Fishes. Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: 67-69. Whitley, 1952, Austr. Mus. Mag. 10 (12): 402. COLORATION. Albinism: Anon., 1961, N. Qld. Nat. 29, June, 1961: 4. Ambicolorate flatfishes: Norman, 1934, Monogr. Flatfishes 1: 22, figs. Benham, 1921; Ann. Rept. Otago Mus. 1920: 4. Archey, 1924, N.Z. Journ. 6: 342. Cott, 1940, Adaptive Coloration in Animals. General: Whitley, 1958, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W. 1956-7: 36, fig. 7 (conspic. colours of juvenile fishes). Prince, 1949, Visual Development 1: 217. Griffiths, 1936, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WALES 61: 319, pl. 16 (colour-changes in batoids). Markings on fishes simulating objects: Whitley, 1941, Austr. Mus. Mag. 7 (10): 339; figs. [Melanism: A melanistic Morwong fuscus is in the Australian Museum.] 22 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Xanthism: Haysom, 1960, Qld. Fisher. Inform. Bull. 17: 2. Whitley, 1952, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales 1950/1: 29. Anon., 1956, Anglers’ Digest & Shooters’ Monthly Oct. 1956: 121 (yellow eel, Victoria). Scott, 1942, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. 1941: 47 (eel). Kershaw, 1904, Vict. Nat. 20: 140 (eel). [Xanthic Girella tricuspidata and Segutilum sydneyanum are in the Australian Museum. ] CoMMENSALISM. Anemone fishes: Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1960, Zeitschr. Tierpsych. 17 (1): 1-10, figs. 1-5. Gudger, 1947, J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 12 (2), 1946: 53 illustr. Carangids and medusae: Masters, 1879, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WALES 3: 413. Macleay, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WALES 7: 533. Whitley, 1931, Rec. Austr. Mus. 18: 110. Semon, 1899, In Austr. Bush: 485. Cleaning symbiosis: Limbaugh, 1961, Scient. American, Aug. 1961: 4, 27 & 42-49, illustr. Hibl-Eibesfeldt, 1959, Zeitschr. Tierpsych. 16: 19-25, illustr. Grobe, 1960, Natur wu. Volk 90 (5): 152, illustr. Randall, 1958, Pac. Sci. 12 (4): 327-347, illustr. Fishes, sea-urchins and corals: Slack-Smith, 1962, Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne 25: 9. Bayer & Harry-Rofen, 1957, Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst. 1956: 495, illustr. Abel, 1960, Natur uw. Volk 90: 38, fig. 3. Hibl-Hibesfeldt, 1961, Zeitschr. Tierpsych. 18: 56-59. eee: 1959, Proc. Roy, Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales 1957-8: 16-17. Lachner, 1955, Copeia 1955 (1): Clingfishes and echinoderms: Bayer & Rofen, 1957, Ann. Rept. Smithson. That 1956: pl. 8, g. 2. Pfaff, 1942, Vidensk. Medd. fra Dansk. nat. Foren. 105: 418. Portuguese man-o’-war (Physalia) and fishes: Beaglehole, 1962, Endeavour Journ. Jos. Banks 1: 174. Pilot-fish and sharks: Whitley, 1951, Austr. Mus. Mag. 10 (5): 151, illustr. Hydroids on fishes: Hand, 1961, Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal. Zool. 1 (5), 91, fig. Gudger, 1928, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 1: 17-48, illustr. Zirpolo, 1939, Ann. Mus. Zool. R. Univ. Napoli (n.s.) 7 (8): 1, figs. Association with tunicates: Rathjen, 1960, Copeia 1960 (4): 354. Giglioli, 1912, Ann. Agric. (Roma) Stud. Talass: 29. Giglioli, 1887, Nature 34: 313. Firth, 1933, Bull. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 69: 3. Carapus and echinoderms: Strasburg, 1961, Copeia 1961 (4): 479, fig. Schultz a.o., 1960, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 202: 394. Fishes and molluscs, eggs in shells, etc.: Munro, 1955, Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 6 (1): 30, figs 1-2. Barnacles on fishes: Bouxin & Legendre, 1952, Bull. Soc. Zool. France 77: 119. Nilsson- Cantell, 1939, Discov. Rept. 18: 236, and fig. Worms and lancelets: Whitley, 1927, Rec. Austr. Mus. 16: 3. CONSERVATION. Allen, 1962, N. Zeal. Ecol. Soc. Proc. 9: 39-43, fig. 1. Whitley, 1955, Austr. Mus. Mag. 11: 359-364. Myers, 1953, Proc. 7th Pacif. Sci. Congr. Auckland 4, Zool.: 691. Symposium on dams and migratory fishes, 1940, Stanford Ichth. Bull. 1 (6). [As early as 1824, Lesson predicted diminution of numbers of aborigines and indigenous Australian animals—Whittell, 1954, Lit. Aust. Birds: 81.] DEEP-SEA FISHES. Bruun, 1953, Geogr. Mag (London) 26 (5): 247, and reports of “Galathea’”’ Exped. Bruun, 1953, Galatheas Jordomsejling: 306, pp., illustr. Grey, 1956, Fieldiana, Zool. 36 (2): 73-337. Hargraves, 1923, Austr. Mus. Mag. 1 (7): 213. Nybelin, 1957, Rept. Swedish Deep-Sea Exped. 2, Zool. 20: 250-345, pls 1-7. Roughley & Whitley, 1930, Austr. Mus. Mag. 4: 1. Wolff, 1961, Nature, April 15: 283 (deepest recorded fishes). [Live animals were trawled from 400 faths. as early as the “Erebus” and ‘Terror’ Voyage in the Tasman Sea, well east of Australia.—L. Huxley, 1918, Life and ett Hooker 1: 122.] DENTITION. Colefax, 1952, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WALES 77: pp. viii et seq., figs 1-28. Gudger, 1937, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 73 (2): 249-280, figs (sharks). Kerr, 1960, Proce. Zool. Soc. London 133 (3): 401, illustr. Moy-Thomas, 1934, Q. J. Micros. Soc. 76: 481, illustr. Nicholls, 1909, Teeth of Australian Animals (Austr. J. Dentistry). Whitley, 1930, Awstr. Mus. Mag. 4 (3): 92, illustr. Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: passim. Anon., 1928, Otago Univ. Mus. Ann. Rept. 1927: 4. DIGESTION-RATE in sharks. Coppleson, 1951, Med. J. Awstr. 1951 (1): 633-635. Coppleson, 1958, Shark Attack: 20 et seq. and 107. Whitley, 1951, W. Austr. Nat. 2 (8): 190. Beauvalet, 1933, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris 196 (19): 1437-9. Cook, 1941, Nature, March 29: 388, fig. DISEASES in man caused by fishes. Cleland, 1925, Med. J. Awustr., Oct. 4, 1924. Wheeler, 1931, Calif. Fish. Bull. 36: 110 (sardines). Brazier, 1880, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WALES 5: 629 (Filaria from herrings). BY G. P. WHITLEY. 23 DISTRIBUTION. Freshwater: Gill, 1875, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 15: 251, and Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash. 6: 108. Iredale and Whitley, 1938, South Austr. Nat. 18: 64-68, map. Myers, 1953, Proc. 7th Pac. Sci. Congr. 1949, iv, Zool.: 38-48. Whitley, 1959, Monogr. Biol. 8, passim. Whitley, 1960, Freshwater Fishes (Brisbane: Jacaranda Press). Marine: Bartholomew, 1911, Physical Atlas, vol. 5, zoogeography. Endean, 1957, Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 8 (3): 233, maps, etc. Endean, 1961, Univ. Qld. Pap. Dept. Zool. 1 (13): 297 (Dampierian-Banksian). Hubbs, 1952, Proc. 7th Pacif. Sci. Congr. (N. Zeal.) 3: 324-329 (bipolarity). Iredale & Hull, 1929, Austr. Zool. 5 (4): 311. Iredale, 1938, Aust. J. Sci. 1 (3): 102-103. Kloss, 1929, Bull. Raffles Mus. 2: 1, maps. Kott, 1952, Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 3 (3): 205-333 (Baudinian region). Tortonese, 1938, Boll. Mus. Torino 46: 279-311. Whitley, 1932, Aust. Nat. 8 (8): 166 and map. Whitley, 1937, Aust. Zool. 8 (4): 199, 268, and Iredale, ibid.: 287, 289 and maps. HICOLOGY. Beadle & Costin, 1952, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 77: 61. Bennett & Pope, 1953, Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 4 (1): 105-159, pls 1-6, figs 1-5. QGuiler, 1950, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. 1949: 135-201, illustr.; ibid. 1952-3: 86, passim & 87-93. Hedley, 1915, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 49: 1-77, pls 1-7 and 38 text-figures. Knox, 1960, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (B) 949, Biol. Sci. 152: 577, illustr. Tenison-Woods, 1880, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. WaAueEes 5: 106-131. HILECTRIC FISHES. Berrill, 1953, Natural History (N.Y.), Dec. 1953: 450, illustr. Keynes, 1956, Hndeavour 15 (60): 215, figs 1-7. Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: 160-166. ELECTRICITY used in Fishing. Burnet, 1952, Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 3 (2): 111-125, illustr. Burnet, 1961, N.Z. J. Sci. 4: 151, figs. Meyer-Waarden, 1958, BHlectrical Fishing (F.A.O.)—reviewed in Fisheries Newsletter, Oct. 1958: 11. Whitley, 1940, Fish. Aust. 1: 26. ENEMIES OF FISHES. Mammals: Anon., 1960, Fisheries Newsletter, Dec. 1960: 15 (seals). Barrett, 1941, Austr J. Sci. 4 (2): 59-60 (seals). Coonan, 1950, Fisheries Newsletter 9 (11): 7, fig. (whale). Goadby, 1959, Sharks: 93, 97 (cetacea). Harney, 1951, Walkabout, July 1: 37 (dingo). Hull, 1927, Aust. Zool. 4 (6): 338 (seals). Le Souef, 1925, Austr. Zool. 4 (2): 112 (seals). Ride, 1957, Fisher. Dept. W. Austr. Monthly Service Bull. 6 (11): 156 (sperm whale). Troughton, 1941, Furred Anim. Aust.: 43 (mative cat); 247 (seals); 264 (water rat) & 399 (bats). Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: 26, 59 & 199 (seals). Birds (other than cormorants) eating fishes: Barrett, 1941, Nature, 22 Nov.: 630. Cleland, 1937, Hmu 36: 297. Gudger, 1927, Nat. Hist. (New York), Sept.-Oct., 1927, 27 (5): 485, figs. Harvey, 1943, Mankind 3 (4): 108, map. Lea & Gray, 1936, Emu 35: 342, nos. 97, 117 & 188. Le Souef, 1926, Hmu 26: 79. Ramsay, 1883, Cat. Exhib. N.S.W. Court: 48. Rau, 1938, S. Austr. Ornith., April 1: 174. Salter, 1954, Vict. Nat. 71 (6): 99. Selby, 1952, Hmwu 52: 146, pl. xv. Serventy, D. L., 1939, Hmw 38: 363 and 510. Serventy, D. L., & Whittell, 1948, Birds W. Austr., passim. Serventy, V. N., 1957, W.A. Nat. 5 (8): 233. Sutton, 1933, S. Austr. Ornith. 12, pl. opp. p. 19. Whitley, 1940, Fish. Austr. 1: 62 & 127. Whittell, 1954, Lit. Austr. Birds: 451. Cormorants and fishes. [There is much discussion in newspapers, angling and other journals as to whether cormorants are damaging to fisheries. Examination of their stomach-contents by scientists discloses that they are not as destructive as fishermen think. Shags occasionally eat valuable fishes, but most often their stomachs contain small fish of no importance. See Ann. Repts. Fisheries N.S.W. 1906 onwards. ] Anon., 1909, Fisheries Inquiry Board. Rept. & Minutes of Evidence, Victoria. Anon., 1962, The Fisherman, Autumn 1962: 8, figs. Barrett, 1941, Awstr. J. Sci. 4: 59. Bryant, 1958, Hmu 58: 156. Dickison, 1951, Hmu 51: 224. Everitt, 1938, Hmw Index to vols. 1-37: 16. Kesteven, 1941, Austr. J. Sci., Aug. 1941: 18, and Oct. 1941: 59. Lea & Grey, 1935, Hmu, 35: 275. McKeown, 1944, Emu 43, 259. McNally, 1957, Vic. Fish & Game Dept. Fauna Contrib. 6: 1-36, plates and figures. McNally, 1958, Wildlife Circular 8, Fisher. Game Victoria: 12 pp., graphs. Mack, 1941, Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb. 12: 95, figs 1-15. Mattingley, 1931, Hmu 31: 148. Morris, 1942, Vict. Nat. 59: 23. Report Roy. Comm. Vict. Fisheries 1919: 13-14, 26 & 47. Serventy, 1938, Hmu 38: 293 and 362, diagrams. Serventy, 1958, Austr. Encycl. 3: 63 and 4: 87. Serventy & Whittell, 1948, Birds W. Austr.: iii. Stead, 1954, Aust. Wild Life 2 (4): 40, figs. White, 1917, S.A. Ornith. July 1917: 75. Whittell, 1954, Lit. Austr. Birds (refs. to Buckland, Cole, Forster, Gregory, Morris, Prendergast, Ross, Rudall a.o.). Snakes: Whitley, 1939, Austr. Mus. Mag. 6 (12); 482 and 7, 1940: 89. Worrell, 1954, Outdoors & Fishing, Oct. 1954: 30, fig. Hels as enemies of trout: Cairns, 1942, N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech. (B) 23: 132B. Spiders: McKeown, 1935, Austr. Mus. Mag. 5 (12): 431, figs. McKeown, 1936, Spider Wonders of Australia, figs. McKeown, 1943, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W. 1942-3: 26, figs. McKeown, 1952, Austr. Spiders: 166. Wadey, 1935, S. Austr. Nat. 16 (3): 32, pl. i. 24 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Insects: Anon., 1887, Town & Country Journal (Sydney), 29 Oct.: 916, fig. Campbell, 1927, Austr. Mus. Mag. 3 (3): 98. McKeown, 1933, Austr. Mus. Mag. 5: 14, figs. Roughley, 1933, Cult of the Goldfish, chap. ix. Tillyard, 1917, Biol. Dragonflies: 329. Echinoderms: Serventy, 1958, W.A. Nat. 6 (5): 128 (seastars). Frey, 1951, Copeia, 1951: 175 (sea-cucumbers poisoning fish). Molluscs: Lane, 1957, Kingdom of the Octopus: 36-38, 47, 76 & 148, illustr. Norris, 1931, Austr. Nat. 8 (5): 93 (snails). Wright, 1963, Austr. Newsletter Malac. Soc. Austr. 11 (40): 8 (cone-shell). FISHERIES. Annual Reports of various State Fisheries Departments and the Sea Fisheries Board of Tasmania. C.S.I.R.O. Annual Reports. Commonwealth of Australia Official Year Books, 1927 onwards. Official Year-Book of New South Wales, 1906 onwards. Fisheries Newsletter 1, 1941, to date. Development and Migration Commission, 1st Ann. Rept., 1927. MRivett, 1939, Nature Aug. 19: 312, 2 figs. Roughley, 1935, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W. 1934-5: 9-20. Roughley, 1939, Proc. Linn. Soc N.S.W. 64: vi. Griffith Taylor, 1947, Australia: 367. [Some of the first Australian fisheries were mostly concerned with whaling and sealing. Commerce in edible fish commenced about 1827 (Shaw, 1952, J. Roy. Austr. Histor. Soc. 35: 314; Hartwell. 1956, J. Roy. Austr. Histor. Soc. 42 (2): 57). Early fisheries conditions were noted in Collins’s Account of the English Colony of N.S.W. The works of Tenison-Woods, Stead, G. Kesteven, H. Thompson, Dakin, Dannevig, Colefax, R. M. Johnston, Saville-Kent, the Australian Encyclopaedia, and the Reports of Royal Commissions (1880, 1883 & 1896) should be consulted. The manuscript Returns of the Colony of New South Wales are important. Much of the early literature is of archival interest only. See also Haydn’s 1910 Dictionary of Dates: 530. 187. Dampierosa cere Whitley, 1932. 2236. Neoplatycephalus richardsoni (Castel- 2188. Hrosa fratrum Ogilby, 1910. nau, 1872) 2189. Peristrominous dolosus Whitley, 1952. 2937. ena arenarius (Ramsay & Ogilby 2190. Synanceja trachynis (Richardson, 1886). 1842). 2238. Trudis bassensis (Cuvier & Valen- 2191. Synanceichthys verrucosus (Bloch & ciennes, 1829). Schneider, 1801). 2239. Trudis bassensis westraliae Whitley, 2192. Pterygotrigla polyommata (Richard- 1938. son, 1839). : : 2240. Trudis caeruleopunctatus (McCul- 2193. Pterygotrigla andertoni Waite, 1910. loch, 1922). 2194. Dixiphichthys ferculum Whitley, 1952. 2241. Laeviprora proxima (Castelnau, 1872). 2195. Currupiscis volucer Whitley, 1931. 2242. Laeviprora inops (Jenyns, 1840). 2196. Lepidotrigla phalaena (Cuvier & 2243. Laeviprora laevigata (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829). Valenciennes, 1829). 2197. Lepidotrigla sphinx (Cuvier & Valen- 2244. Longitrudis longispinis (Macleay. ciennes, 1829). 1884). 2198. Lepidotrigla modesta Waite, 1899. 2245. Thysanophrys cirronasus (Richard- 2199. Lepidotrigla alata (Houttuyn, 1782). son, 1848). 2200. Lepidotrigla argus Ogilby, 1910. 2246. Suggrundus bosschei (Bleeker, 1860). 2201. Lepidotrigla spiloptera Gunther, 1880. 2247. Suggrundus malayanus (Bleeker, 2202. Lepidotrigla calodactyla Ogilby, 1910. 1853) 2203. Hatha muthalli (Macleay, 1884). 2248. Suggrundus tuberculatus suggrundus 2204. Paratrigla papilio (Cuvier & Valen- Whitley, 1933 ciennes, 1829). 29 , ae 2249. 8 d 2205. Paratrigla umbrosa (Ogilby, 1910). ie Mseiteils 0 OSU Spnyn SMe ulloch, 2206. Paratrigla (Aoyagichthys) vanessa 2250. Suggrundus harrisii (McCulloch (Richardson, 1839). 1914) ; 2207. Panichthys picturatus (McCulloch, 2251. Snare staigeri (Castelnau 1926). 1875) y 2208. Panichthys lingi Whitley, 1933. BS 2 eta wat Ly pay xe 2209. Ebisinus procne Ogilby, 1910. we ae UAGUS OU ET SITES al Mcp ulloch, 2210. Daaigiomeen® ORGS CO eine: 2253. Cymbacephalus nematophthalmus Valenciennes, 1829). 2211. Dactyloptena papilio Ogilby, 1910. 2212. Kanekonia queenslandica Whitley, 1952. 2213. Adventor elongatus (Whitley, 1952). 2214. Aploactisoma milesii (Richardson, (Gunther, 1860). 2254. Repotrudis macracanthus (Bleeker, 1869). 2255. Rogadius pristiger (Cuvier & Valen- ciennes, 1829). 2256. Levanaora isacanthus (Cuvier & 1850). ; 2215. Aploactisoma milesii horrenda Whitley, Wellencemnes, Ub28)). 1933. 2257. Wakiyus SpinosuUs (Temminck & 2216. Paraploactis trachyderma Bleeker, Schlegel, 1843). 1865. 2258. Elates thompsoni (Jordan & Seale, 2217. Bathyaploactis curtisensis Whitley, 1907). 1933. 2259. Rhinhoplichthys haswelli (McCulloch, 2218. Bathyaploactis curtisensis ornatis- 1907). simus Whitley, 1933. 2260. Oplichthys ogilbyi McCulloch, 1914. 2219. Gnathanacanthus goetzeei Bleeker, 2261. Congiopodus leucopaecilus (Richard- 1855. son, 1846). 2220. Pataecus fronto Richardson, 1844. 2262. Perryena leucometopon (Waite, 1922). 2221. Aetapcus armatus (Johnston, 1891). 2263. Lophiomus laticeps (Ogilby, 1910). 2222. Aetapcus vincenti (Steindachner, 2264. Tathicarpus subrotundatus (Castel- 1883). nau, 1875). 2223. Aetapcus maculatus (Gunther, 1861). 2265. Tetrabrachium ocellatum Gunther, 2224. Neopataecus waterhousii (Castelnau, 1880. 1872). 2266. Rhycherus filamentosus (Castelnau, 2225. Neophrynichthys marcidus McCulloch, 1872). 1926. 2267. Pterophrynoides histrio (Linné, 1758). bo hw wb be 2299. A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Phrynelox striatus (Shaw & Nodder, 1794). Phrynelox pinniceps (Cuvier & Valen- ciennes, 1837). Batrachopus insidiator Whitley, 1934. Lophiocharon broomensis Whitley, 1933, Lophiocharon goramensis (Bleeker, 1864). Antennarius wurophthalmus Bleeker, 1851. Antennarius trisignatus (Richardson, 1844). Antennarius nummifer (Cuvier, 1817). Antennarius stigmaticus Ogilby, 1912. Antennarius tuberosus Cuvier, 1817. Antennarius pictus (Shaw & Nodder, 1794). Antennarius glauerti Whitley, 1957. Antennarius phymatodes Bleeker, 1857. Plumantennatus asper (Macleay, 1881). Echinophryne glauerti Whitley, 1944. Echinophryne crassipina McCulloch & Waite, 1918. Trichophryne 1897). Histiophryne bougainvilli Valenciennes, 1837). mitchelli (Morton, (Cuvier & Histiophryne scortea McCulloch & Waite, 1918. Histiophryne scortea imconstans McCulloch & Waite, 1918. Caulophryne jordani Goode & Bean, 1896. Melanocetus murrayi Gunther, 1887. Melanocetus johnsoni Gunther, 1864. Himantolophus groenlandicus Rein- hardt, 1838. Ceratias holboelli Kroyer, 1844. Cryptopsaras pennifer Regan & Trewavas, 1932. Gigantactis sp. Bertelsen, 1951). Edriolychnus schmidti Regan, 1925. Linophryne arborifera Regan, 1925. Aceratias indicus Brauer, 1902. (larva, type A. of Brachionichthys hirsutus (Uacepede, 1804). Brachionichthys politus (Richardson, 1849). Sympterichthys unipennis (Cuvier, 1817). Sympterichthys verrucosus McCulloch & Waite, 1918. Chaunax endeavouri Whitley, 1929. Chaunax penicillatus McCulloch, 1915. Malthopsis luteus provocator Whitley, 1961. Halieutaea brevicauda Ogilby, 1910. Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786). Triacanthus brevirostris Temminck & Schlegel, 1850. Triacanthus falcanalis Ogilby, 1910. Melichthys vidua (Richardson, 1845). Sufflamen fraenatus (Latreille, 1804). Hemibalistes chrysopterus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). 2. Pseudobalistes fuscus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Canthidermes rotundatus (Proce, 1822). Abalistes stellatus (Anonymous, 1798). Rhinecanthus echarpe (Anonymous, 1798). Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linné, 1758). Balistapus brevissimus (Hollard, 1854). Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797). Balistoides conspicillum (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). i Balistoides viridescens (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Monacanthus geographicus (Cuvier, 1817). Monacanthus macrolepis Fraser- Brunner, 1941. Arotrolepis (Scurrilichthys) barbarae Fraser-Brunner, 1941. Arotrolepis filicauda (Gunther, 1880). Arotrolepis notonectianus (Whitley, 1931). Acreichthys tomentosus (Linné, 1758). Pervagor alternans (Ogilby, 1899). Pervagor melanocephalus (Bleeker, 1853). Choetoderma penicilligera (Cuvier, 1816). Choetoderma maccullochi Waite, 1905. Meuschenia trachylepis (Gunther, 1870). Meuschenia brownii (Richardson, 1846). Meuschenia edelensis (Castelnau, 1875). Meuschenia castelnawi (Macleay, 1881). Meuschenia multiradiata (Gunther, 1870). Meuschenia platifrons (Hollard, 1854). Meuschenia lemniscata (Lacepede, 1804). Meuschenia skottowei Whitley, 1934. Allomonacanthus convexirostris (Gunther, 1870). Tobinia maculosa (Richardson, 1840). Tobina spilomelanura (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824). Amanses howensis (Ogilby, 1889). Amanses sandwichiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824). Amanses scopas (Cuvier, 1816). Amanses freycineti (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824). Amanses melas (Gunther, 1876). Amanses brunneus (Castelnau, 1873). Amanses gunnii (Gunther, 1870). Cantherhines homopterus (Cope, 1871). Scobinichthys vittiger (Castelnau, 1873). Scobinichthys granulatus (White, 1790). Penicipelta guntheri (Macleay, 1881). Navodon australis (Donovan, 1824). Navodon setosus (Waite, 1899). Nelusetta galii (Waite, 1905). Eye Gave Nelusetta hypargyrea (Cope, 1871). Nelusetta degeni (Regan, 1903). Nelusetta ayraud (Quoy & Gaimard. 1824). Nelusetta vittata (Richardson, 1846). Eubalichthys mosaicus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886). Eubalichthys brunneri (Norman, 1937). Weerutta ovalis T. D. Seott, 1961. Paraluteres prionurus (Bleeker, 1851). Acanthaluteres peroni (Hollard, 1854). Tantalisor pauciradiatus Whitley, 1947. Paramonacanthus oblongus (Tem- minek & Schlegel, 1850). Paramonacanthus oblongus otisensis Whitley, 1931. Paramonacanthus whitleyi Frraser- Brunner, 1941. Pseudomonacanthus (Ogilby, 1908). Pseudomonacanthus maynardi (Ogilby, melanoides 1916). Pseudomonacanthus MaACTUTWS (Bleeker, 1857). Psendomonacanthus elongatus Fraser- Brunner, 1940. Oxymonacanthus longirostris & Schneider, 1801). Brachaluteres jacksonianus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824). (Bloch Brachaluteres trossulus (Richardson, 1846). Brachaluteres baueri (Richardson, 1846). Blandowskius bucephalus Whitley, 1931. Pseudalutarius nasicornis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1850). Aleuterus monoceros (Uinné, 1758). Osbeckia scripta (Forster, 1771). Anacanthus barbatus Gray, 1831. Triorus reipublicae Whitley, 1930. Triorus pyxis Whitley, 1930. Paracanthostracion pentacanthus (Bleeker, 1857). Ostracion meleagris Shaw & Nodder, 1796. Ostracion tuberculatus Linné, 1758. Rhinesomus gibbosus (lLinné, 1758). Rhynchostracion nasus (Bloch, 1785). Rhynchostracion rhinorhynchus (Bleeker, 1852). Lactoria cornuta (ULinné, 1758). Lactoria diaphana (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Capropygia unistriata (Kaup, 1855). Strophiurichthys inermis Fraser- Brunner, 1935. Strophiurichthys robustus F'raser- Brunner, 1941. Anoplocapros lenticularis (Richard- son, 1841). Anoplocapros grayi (Kaup, 1855). Anoplocapros amygdaloides Fraser- Brunner, 1941. Acarana aurita (Shaw & Nodder, LEDS Acarana ornata (Gray, 1838). Caprichthys gymnura McCulloch & Waite. 1915. WHITLEY. 2401. 2402. 59 Cyprichthys mappa (Lesson, 1831). Omegophora armilla (McCulloch & Waite, 1915). Boesemanichthys firmamentum (Tem- minck & Schlegel, 1850). Catophorhynchus scaber (Eydoux & Souleyet, 1842). Ovoides manillensis (Proce, 1822). Ovoides implutus (Jenyns, 1842). Ovoides stellatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Ovoides aerostaticus otteri Whitley, UO RR. Ovoides amabilis (Castelnau, 1879). Ovoides (Arothron) reticularis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Ovoides nigropunctatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Sphaeroides multistriatus (Richard- son, 1854). Sphaeroides halsteadi Whitley, 1957. Sphaeroides pleurogramma (Regan, 1903). Sphaeroides whitleyi Paradice, 1927. Sphaeroides squamicauda Ogilby, 1910. Lagocephalus inermis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1850). Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801). Pleuranacanthus spadiceus (Richard- son, 1845). Pleuranacanthus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1788). Aphanacanthus hamiltoni (Gray & Richardson, 1843). Gastrophysus glaber 1813). Gastrophysus perlevis (Ogilby, 1908). (Freminvill¢, Gastrophysus plewrostictus (Gunther, 1872). Takifugu oblongus (Bloch, 1786). Contusus richei (Freminville, 1813). Torquigener tuberculiferus (Ogilby, 19 Ve Torquigener tuberculifens vicinus Whitley, 1930. Torquigener piosae Whitley, 1955. Chelonodon dapsilis Whitley, 1943. Liosaccus aerobaticus Whitley, 1928. Canthigaster valentini (Bleeker, 1853). Canthigaster bennetti (Bleeker, 1854). Canthigaster callisternus (Ogilby, 1889). Canthigaster axiologus Whitley, 1931. Canthigaster janthinopterus (Bleeker, 1855). Dicotylichthys myersi Ogilby, 1910. Atopomycterus nicthemerus (Cuvier, 1818). Allomycterus pilatus Whitley, 1931. Tragulichthys jaculiferus (Cuvier, 1818). Diodon hystrix Linné, 1758. Diodon armillatus Whitley, 1933. Diodon holocanthus Linné, 1758. Diodon bleekeri Gunther, 1910. Mola ramsayi (Giglioli, 1883). Triurus laevis (Pennant, 1776). Masturus lanceolatus (Lienard, 1840). 60 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, NEW SYNONYMS. When certain generic groups are better understood, a number of nominal species in the Australian list will no doubt prove to be synonyms of others. There is still a “hard core” of unrecognized “Hleotris” spp. and “Gobius” spp., still to be rediscovered in Australia and placed in their correct genera, and the family Aleuteridae is badly in need of revision. Meanwhile, the new synonyms listed below are noteworthy. References to literature will mostly be found in McCulloch (1929) at the page-numbers listed on the left. The final name in each equation is regarded as being the correct modern one. 112. Rhombosoma trifasciata Rendahl, 1922 = Melanotaenia nigrans Richardson, 1848. 291. Amphiprion xcanthurus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830 = Sparus milii Bory, 1831 = Amphiprion melanostolus Richardson, 1842 = Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830). 324. Neoodax waterhousii Castelnau, 1875 = Odax obscurus Castelnau, 1872 = Neoodax balteatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1839). 326. Heteroscarus macleayi McCoy, 1888 = Heteroscarus acroptilus (Richardson, 1846). 347. Vauclusella calvua Whitley, 1944 = Helcogramma decurrens McCulloch & Waite, 1918. 364. Hleotris nudiceps Castelnau, 1872 = Philypnodon grandiceps (Krefft, 1864). 365. Hleotris simplex Castelnau, 1878, and EH. modesta Castelnau, 1873 = Carassiops compressus (Krefft, 1864). 405 & 407. Tathicarpus muscosus and T. butleri Ogilby, 1907, and T. appeli Ogilby, 1922 = Tathicarpus subrotundatus (Castelnau, 1875). 407. Phrynelox (Triantennatus) zebrinus Schultz, 1957 = Phrynelox striatus (Shaw & Nodder, 1794). 407. Phrynelox atra Schultz, 1957 = Batrachopus insidiator Whitley, 1934. 434. Dicotylichthys myersi still stands. Le Danois (1959) made the specific name a synonym of “diversispinis Verreaux, 1847”, but Verreaux’s name was only in unpublished manuscript, so cannot be dated back to 1847. Other species are ascribed by Le Danois to much “earlier’’ names, some pre-Linnean and others seventeenth-century, but such synonymizing is not permissible nowadays. APPENDIX C: BIBLIOGRAPHY. ABE, T., 1949.—Taxonomic Studies on the Puffers (Tetraodontidae, Teleostei) from Japan and Adjacent Regions. V. Synopsis of the Puffers from Japan and Adjacent Regions. Bull. Biogeograph. Soc. Japan, 14 (18): 89-140, Pls i-ii. , 1950-51.—Taxonomic Studies on the Puffers (Tetraodontidae, Teleostei) from Japan and Adjacent Regions. VI. Variation of pectoral fin. Jap. J. Ichth., 1: 198-206 et ibid., 1951: 272-283. , 1952.—Notes on Boesemanichthys firmamentum (Temminck et Schlegel), Tetra- odontidae, Teleostei. Annot. Zool. Japon., 25: 304-306. ————., 1955.—Preliminary Notes on the ‘Indo-maguro’ (a Kind of Bluefin Tuna) Taken Commercially from the Eastern Part of the Indian Ocean. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisher., 21 (1): 20-23, figs 1-3. , 1957.—Notes on Fishes from the Stomachs of Whales taken in the Antarctic. Sci. Rept. Whales Res. Inst., 12: 225-233, Pls i-ii. ABEL, F., 1960a.—Fische zwischen Seeigel-Stacheln. Natur wu. Volk, 90: 33-87, figs 1-3. ————, 1960b.—Zur Kenntnis des Verhaltens und der Okologie von Fischen an Korallenriffen bei Ghardaqa (Rotes Meer). Zeitschr. Morph. Okol. Tiere, 49: 430-503, figs 1-22. ABJORNSSON, A., 1910.—Reports of Excursions. Carnac Island, 10th September, 1909. J. Nat. Hist. Sci. Soc. W. Austr., 3: 38-39. AFLALO, F. G., 1896.—Sketch of the Natural History of Australia. (London: Macmillan) : i-xxv + 1-307, illustr. —————.,, 1900.— Australian Fisheries. Australasia: 196-200. AHL, E., 1923.—Zur Kenntnis der Knochenfischfamilie Chaetodontidae insbesondere der Unterfamilie Chaetodontinae. Arch. Naturg., 89, A (5): 1-205, Pls i-ii. ALEXANDER, HE. A., 1961.—A Contribution to the Life-History, Biology and Geographical Distribution of the Bonefish, Albula vulpes (Linnaeus). Dana Rept., 53: 1-51, figs 1-16. ALEXANDER, W. B., 1914.—A specimen of Regalecus glesne from Western Australia. Rec. W. Austr. Mus., 1 (3): 236-238. , 1915.—The History of Zoology in Western Australia. Part 1. Discoveries in the 17th Century. J. Nat. Hist. Sci. Soc. W. Austr., 5: 49-64. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 61 ALEXANDER, W. B., 1916.—History of Zoology in Western Australia. Part II. 1791-1829. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 1: 83-149, Pl. xv. , 1917a.—Exhibition of Fishes. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 2: Xi. , 1917b.—Description of new species of fish of the genus Hvoxymetopon Poey. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 2: 104-105, Pl. vii. , 1918.—History of Zoology in Western Australia. Part 3. 1829-1840. J. Roy. Soe. W. Austr., 3: 37-69. , 1920.—Notes on Western Australian Lampreys. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 6 (1): 21-22. —, 1922.—The Vertebrate Fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos, Western Australia. Pisces. J. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., 34: 479-484. ALFRED, E. R., 1961.—The Javanese Fishes described by Kuhl and van Hasselt. Bull. Nat. Mus. Singapore, 30: 80-88, Pls iii-viii. ALLAN, J.—See Whitley & Allan. ALLEYNE, H. G., and MAcLEAY, W., 1877.—The Ichthyology of the Chevert Expedition. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1: 261-281 and 321-359, Pls iii-iv and x-xvii. ALLPORT, M., 1872.—The Salmon Trout. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., Aug., 1871: 43. Also various papers in Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. dealing with the introduction of Salmo into Tasmania, for a list of which, see Morton, 1887, Register of Pap. Roy. Soc. Tas. (Hobart: Govt. Printer): 42. , 1873.—Irregularity in the Growth of the Salmon. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1872: 55. ANDERSON, H. H., 1900.—Guide to Fishing in Tasmania (Hobart: Govt. Printer): 1-54, illustr. ANDERSON, H. K., 1918.—Rescue Operations on the Murrumbidgee River. Austr. Zool., 1 (6): 157-160, figs. ANDERTON, T.—See Thomson, G. M., and Anderton. ANGEL, F., BERTIN, L., and GuiIBE, J., 1946.—Note relative 4 la Nomenclature d’un Amphibien et d’un Poisson. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. (Paris), (2) 18 (6): 473-474. ANGELESCU, V.—See Popovici & Angelescu. ANONYMOUS, 1771.—Journ. Voy. ‘Endeavour’. ANONYMOUS, 1798.—Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung, Band III, Numero 287, Sept. 24, 1798: 674- 685. [Consulted in British Museum, Bloomsbury, London, 1937. Reviews Lacepede’s Hist. Nat. Poiss. and provides latinizations for many of Lacepede’s genera and species which were at first given only vernacular names, amongst them the Port Jackson Shark, Squalus Philipp. ] ANONYMOUS, 1833.—The following Notice may be serviceable to those Mariners who visit Australasia as a caution against eating the fish described: Nautical Magazine, 2: 545-546. ANONYMOUS, 1959.—Pond Culture of Fish in Queensland (Brisbane Dept. of Harbours & Marine): 1-11, 183 figs. ANONYMOUS, 1962a.—How to identify European Carp. Fisher. Cire. 7, Fisher. Wildlife Victoria: 3 pp., 3 figs. ANONYMOUS, 1962b.—Pot Pourri. WN. Queensl. Nat., 30 (132): 8. ARNOLD, D. C., 1956.—A Systematic Revision of the Fishes of the Teleost Family Carapidae (Percomorphi, Blennioidea), with Descriptions of two new species. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool., 4 (6): 247-307, figs 1-20. AtTz, J. W., 1957.—How to confuse an Ichthyologist. Animal Kingdom (New York), 60 (4): 114-116, 3 figs. , 1960.—Shark Attack. Animal Kingdom, 63: 19-24, 4 figs. AUSTRALIAN HINCYCLOPAEDIA, 1925-26.—(Sydney: Angus & Robertson), 2 vols. , 1958.—Revised edition (Sydney: Angus & Robertson), 10 vols. AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM MAGAZINE, 1921-61.—(Various articles on fishes, illustrated), 13 vols. Succeeded by Australian Natural History, 14, March, 1962, to date. BAKER, W. J., 1933.—Goldfish in Australia (Sydney: Graham Publ. Co.): 1-64, coloured plate and text-figs. BAncroFT, T. L., 1912.—On a weak point in the life-history of Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 23 (2): 251-256, fig. , 1914.—On an easy and certain method of hatching Ceratodus ova. Proc. Roy. Soe. Qld., 25: 1-3, 5 figs. , 1916.—Some preliminary notes on the habits of the Dawson River Barramundi, Scleropages leichhardtii. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 28: 93. , 1918.—Some further notes on the life-history of Ceratodus (Neoceratodus) forsteri. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 30 (6): 91-94. , 1928.—On the life-history of Ceratodus. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 53 (3): 315-317. , 1933.—Some further observations on the rearing of Ceratodus. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 58: 467-469, figs 1-2. . See Johnston, T. H., & Bancroft. BANFIELD, EK. J., 1908.—The Confessions of a Beachcomber. (London: Fisher Unwin): 1-336, illustr. , 1911.—My Tropic Isle. (London: Fisher Unwin): 1-316, illustr. , 1918.—Tropic Days. (London: Fisher Unwin): 1-314, illustr. Banks, J., 1962.—Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, Beaglehole edition, 2 vols., illustr. 62 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, BARNARD, K. H., 1925.—A Monograph of the Marine Fishes of South Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 21: 1-418, Pls i-xvii. , 1927.—A Monograph of the Marine Fishes of South Africa. Part ii. Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 21 (2): 419-1065, Pls xviii-xxxvii. —————, 1951.—A Marine Curiosity. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (8): 265, fig. BARRETT, Charles, 1933.—Water Life. Sun Natwre Book 4 (Melbourne), February, 1933: 1-44, illustr. BarTLETT, Norman, 1954.—The Pearl Seekers, (London: Melrose): 1-312, illustr. BARTON, O., 1950.—A New Siganus from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Amer. Mus. Novit.. 1464: 1-2, fig. 1. Barton, O., and NicHous, J. T., 1946.—Green New Guinea Parrotfishes. Marine Life Occasional Papers (New York) 1 (4): 11-138, coloured plate. BartscH, P.—See Nichols & Bartsch. Baucuot, M. L., 1959.—Etude des larves leptocephales du groupe Leptocephalus lanceolatus Strémann et identification 4 la famille des Serrivomeridae. Dana Report, 48: 1-148, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-105. BaucHot, M. L., and Buanc, M., 1961.—Catalogue des types de Scombroidei (Poissons. Téléostéens Perciformes) des Collections du Muséum national d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 33 (4): 369-379. Baucuor, M. L., and Guiskt, J., 1961.—Addendum au Catalogue des types de poissons du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Famille des Scaridae. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. (Paris) (2) 33 (38): 259. . See Blanc & Bauchot. BAYER, FREDERICK M., and HARRY-ROFEN, R. R., 1957.—Project Coral Fishes Looks at Palau. Ann. Rept. Smithson Inst., 1956: 481-508, Pls i-xx, text-figs 1-4. BEAGLEHOLE, J. C., 1961.—The Journals of Captain James Cook. 2. The Voyage of the. Resolution and Adventure, 1772-1775. Hakluyt Soc. Extra Series 35. , 1962.—Endeayv. J. J. Banks. 2 vols. Bran, B. A.—See Fowler & Bean. BEAN, F. H., 1889.—Introduction of a Supposed Carp Sucker into New South Wales. Forest- and Stream, 32: 10. BEAUFORT, L. F. DE, 1932.—Ambassidae from the Philippines. Phil. J. Sci., 49: 91-95. 1939a.—On some Indo-Pacific Genera of Labroid Fishes, with the Description of a ? new Genus and Species. Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde ... Natura Artis Magistra, 27: 14-18, figs 1-2. , 1939b.—On a new species of Chilomycterus from New Guinea. Tvreubia, 17 (1): 33-34. , 19389¢e.—Xenojulis, a new genus of Labroid Fishes. Philip. J. Sci., 69 (4): 415-421, figs 1-3. , 1940.—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. VIII. Percomorphi (con- tinued), Cirrhitoidea, Labriformes, Pomacentriformes. Fish. Austr. Archip., 8: i-xv + 1-508, figs 1-56 & front. , 1949.—Two New Genera of Scorpaenoid Fishes. Copeia, 1949, 1: 68. , 1951.—Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago IX, Percomorphi (concluded), Blennoidea .. .: i-xi + 1-484, figs 1-89 (in collab. with W. M. CHapman). , 1952.—A New Generic Name for the Scleropareid Fish Cocotropus de zwaani from the Indian Ocean. Copeia, 1952, 1: 44-45. , 1955.—On a new and interesting Globe-fish from New Guinea. Beaufortia, 5, (48): 53-54. , 1957.,-On a New Species of Platycephalus. Proc. National Institute of Sciences of India, 22, B (2), 1956: 838-85, fig. 1. , 1962.—Fish. Indo-Austr. Archip., 11: 482 pp., figs 1-100. ————, 1964.—Notes on the Distribution of Freshwater Fishes. Copeia, 1964 (1): 60-65, figs 1-3. ———. See also Weber and Beaufort, and Briggs, J. C. BrEcKE, L., 1947.—The Black Bream of Australia: 1-9. BEHRNDT, A. C.—See Mitchell & Behrnadt. BENHAM, W. B., 1922.—On the Occurrence of the Opah, or Moonfish, in New Zealand waters. N. Zeal. J. Sci. &€ Techn., 4: 316-318. BENNETT, A. E.—See Thomson, J. M., & Bennett. BENNETT, F. D., 1840.—Narrative of a whaling voyage round the Globe. (London: Bentley ) 2 vols, i-xv + 1-402 and i-vii + 1-395, 2 Pls. BENNETT, G., 1834.—Wanderings in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore and China... . (London: Richard Bentley) 2 vols, 8vo. , 1837.—A Catalogue of the Specimens of Natural History and miscellaneous curiosities deposited in the Australian Museum, Sydney. (Sydney: Tegg) 8vo: 1-71. 1859a.—On the fish called Glyphisodon biocellatus. Proc. Zool. Soe. Lond., 1859-: 222-223. — BY G. P. WHITLEY. 63 BENNETT, G., 1859b.—Notes on Sharks, more particularly on two enormous specimens of Carcharias leucas. captured in Port Jackson, Sydney, New South Wales. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 27: 225-226. ————. 1860.—Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia; being observations principally upon the animal and vegetable productions of New South Wales, New Zealand and some of the Austral Islands. (London: J. van Voorst) 8vo.: i-xii + 1-456, Pls i-vii. , 1862.—Observations on two large kinds of fish Therapon pitti Krefft, and Megalops setipinnis. Rept. Acclim. Soc. N.S.W. for 1861 (1862): 104. , 1864.—On the River Cod (Gristes peelii) and Perch of the Colonists. N.S.W. Acclim. Soc. Rept., 3: 81-82. , 1865.—On the “Gouramy”’ Osphromenus olfax of Comerson, Trichopus gowramy of Shaw. N.S.W. Acctim. Soc. Rept., 4: 59-63. , 1867.—[Remarks on Cyprinus auratus. ] 6th Ann. Rept. Acclim. Soc. N.S. Wales: 49-50. , 1871.—On the Toad Fish, Tetraodon hamiltoni, of New South Wales. N.S. Wales Medical Gazette, 1: 176-181. BENNETT, I.—See Stephenson, W., Endean & Bennett. Bere, L. S., 1940.—Classification of Fishes, both recent and fossil. Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., 5 (2): 86-517, figs 1-190. Berry, F. H., 1959.—Boarfishes of the Genus Antigonia of the Western Atlantic. Bull. Florida State Mus. Biol. Sci., 4 (7): 205-250, figs 1-11. BERTELSEN, E., 1943.—Notes on the Deep-Sea Angler-Fish Ceratias holbolli Kr. based on specimens in the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. nat. Foren, 107: 185-206, figs. , 1951.—The Ceratioid Fishes. Dana Report, 39: 1-276, frontisp. & 141 text-figs. BERTIN, L., 1934a.—Les poissons apodes appartenant au sous-order des Lyoméres. Dana Rept..,. 3: 1-56, 2 Pls, 47 figs. , 1934b.—Mise au point de la systématique des poissons abyssaux appartenant aux genres Saccopharynx et Hurypharyns. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris (21) 6 (1): 26-31. ——_——, 1934¢——Une nouvelle espéece de poissons abyssaux: Saccopharynx schmidti. Cakes Acad. Sci. Paris, 198 (18): 1633-1635. —, 1935.—Les types de Kaup dans la collection des Leptocephales du Muséum. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. (2) 7: 99-106, 4 figs. , 1936a.—Nouvelle contribution 4 l’étude des larves de Poissons Apodes (Les types de Kaup et de Regan au British Museum). Bull. Inst. Oceanogr., 706: 1-14, figs 1-6. , 19366.—Titres et Travaux Scientifiques (Paris): 1-87, figs 1-46. , 1938.—Formes nouvelles et formes larvaires de Poissons Apodes appartenant au: sous-ordre des Lyoméres. Dana Report, 15: 1-26, Pls i-ii & text-figs 1-17. ————, 1939.—Catalogue des types de Poissons du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle... Bull. Mus. Nat. d@’Hist. Nat (Paris) (2) 11 (1): 51-98. , 1940.—Catalogue des Types de Poissons du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. ze Partie. Dipneustes, Chondrostéens, Holostéens, Isospondyles. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat.. (Paris) (2) 12, 1940: 244-322. ‘ , 1941.—Mise au point sur quelques espéces de Clupéides. Bull. Soc. Zool. France,. 66: 18-25. —_— , 1943.—Revue critique des Dussumieriidés actuels et fossiles. Bull. Inst. Oceangr. (Monaco), 853: 1-32. , 1944.—La distribution mésogéene des Elops. Comptes Rendus Soc. Biogeograph. (Paris), 21: 17-23. . See also Angel, Bertin & Guibé. BICHENO, J. E., 1851.—On a Specimen of Pristis cirrhatus. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. V. Diem. Land, 1: 223-235. BicELow, H. B., and FARFANTE, I. P., 1948.—Lancelets. Mem. Sears Foundation Mar. Ser... 1 (1): 1-28. BicgELOoOwW, H. B., and SCHROEDER, W. C., 1948a.—Cyclostomes. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Ser... 1 (1): 29-58. , 19486.—Sharks. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Ser., 1 (1): 59-546, figs 1-106. , 1948¢—New Genera and Species of Batoid Fishes. Sears Foundation: Journal of Marine Research, 7 (3): 543-566, figs 1-9. —— , 1950.—New and Little Known Cartilaginous Fishes from the Atlantic. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 103 (7): 385-408, Pls i-vii. , 1952—A New Species of the Cyclostome Genus Paramyxine from the Gulf of Mexico. Breviora (Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard), 8: 1-10, figs 1-6. , 1953.—Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. Part 2. Sawfishes, Guitarfishes, Skates and Rays. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Res., 1 (2): i-xv + 1-588, figs 1-127. —— , 1957—A Study of the Sharks of the Suborder Squaloidea. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 117: 1-150, Pls i-iv, text-figs 1-16. , 1958.—Four New Rajids from the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 119 (2): 201-238, figs 1-11. 64 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, BicELow, H. B., SCHROEDER, W. C., and SPRINGER, S., 1953.—New and little known Sharks from the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 109 (3): 213-276, figs 1-10. BLACKBURN, M., 1941.—The Economic Biology of Some Australian Clupeoid Fish. (Division of Fisheries Report No. 6.) C.S.J.R. Bull., 188: 5-135, one plate and figs 1-29. , 1949.—Age, Rate of Growth, and General Life-history of the Australian Pilchard (Sardinops neopilchardus) in New South Wales Waters. Bull. 242 C.S.I.R.O. (Melbourne) : 1-86, Pls i-viii, text-figs 1-8. ————, 1950a.—A Biological Study of the Anchovy, Hngraulis australis (White), in Australian Waters. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 1 (1): 3-84, Pls i-v, text-figs 1-11. , 1950b.—The Condition of the Fishery for Barracouta, Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen), in Australian Waters. Auwstr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 1 (1): 110-128, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-4. , 1950e—The Tasmanian Whitebait, Lovettia seali (Johnston), and the Whitebait Fishery. Awstr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 1 (2): 155-198, Pls i-vi, text-figs 1-5. , 1950d.—Studies on the Age, Growth, and Life History of the Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner), in southern and western Australia. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 1 (2): 221-258, Pls i-v, text-figs 1-4. —————,, 1951.—Races and Populations of the Australian Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner). Auwstr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 2 (2): 179-192, fig. 1 (map) & table 1-5. , 1953.—Problems and Fallacies in the Management of Fish Stocks in Australia. Austr. J. Sci., 15 (5): 151-154. —————., 1957.—The Relation between the food of the Australian Barracouta, Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen), and recent fluctuations in the fisheries. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 8: 29-54, figs 1-5. ————, 1960.—A Study of Condition (weight for length) of Australian Barracouta, Thyrsites atun (EHuphrasen). Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 2 (1): 14-41, Pl. i, text-figs 1-4. , 1961.—Aggregation, Migration, and Dispersal of Large Scombriform Fishes in Relation to Their Food Supply. Abstr. Sympos. Pap. Tenth Pacif. Sci. Congress (Hawaii) : 174. BLACKBURN, M., and DowniE, R., 1955.—The Occurrence of Oily Pilchards in New South Wales Waters. Tech. Pap. 3, Divn. Fisher. C.S.I.R.O.: 3-11, figs 1-4. BLACKBURN, M., and GaArTNER, P. E., 1954.—Populations of Barracouta, Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen), in Australian Waters. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 5 (3): 411-468, figs 1-18. BLACKBURN, M., and OLSEN, A. M., 1947.—Recent Progress with Pelagic Fishing in Tasmanian Waters. J. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res., 20 (4): 434-444, figs 1-3. BLACKBURN, M., and RAYNER, G. W., 1951.—Pelagic Fishing Experiments in Australian Waters. C.S.1I.R.O. Div. Fisher. Tech. Pap., 1: 1-8. BLACKBURN, M., and Tups, J. A., 1950.—Measures of Abundance of Certain Pelagic Fish in Some South-Eastern Australian Waters. Bull. 251 C.S.I.R.O.: 1-74, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-3 & tables. BLANC, M.—See Bauchot & Blanc. BLANC, M., and BAaucHot, M. L., 1964.—Les Scombrodei (poissons teleosteens perciformes) du museum national d’histoire naturelle de Paris. Proc. Sympos. Scombr. Fish., 1: 443-458, Pls i-viii. BLANCO, G. J., and VILLADOLID, D. V., 1951.—The Young of Some Fishes of Luzon. Philippine Journal of Fisheries (Manila), 1 (1): 67-98, figs 1-35. BLEAKLY, M. C., and GRANT, E. M., 1954.—Key to the Common Fresh Water Fishes of Southern Queensland. Qld. Nat., 15: 21-26 & fig. BLEEKER, P., 1844-80.—[An indexed bibliography of the voluminous writings of this author, 500 in number, has been provided by Weber and Beaufort (1971, Fishes Indo-Austr. Archip., 1), which is essential to students of Indo-Australian fishes. The only work not embraced in that index was the great nine-volume ‘“‘Atlas Ichthyologique’” of Bleeker, who was probably the world’s greatest ichthyologist. The following papers are of purely Australian import. ] — , 1855.—Over eenige vischen van Van Diemensland. Verh. Kon. Akad wu. Wetensch. Amsterdam, 2: 1-3, Plate. ———_—, 1859.—Enumeratio specierum piscium hucusque in Archipelago indico observatarum, . . . nee non _ speciebus Musei Bleekeriani Bengalensibus, Japonicis, Capensibus Tasmanicisque. Act. Soc. Sci. Indo-Neerl., 6: i-xxxvi + 1-276. , 1862.—Sur une nouvelle espéce de Pseudolabre (Gtintheri) de la Nouvelle Hollande. Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, 14: 123-141; Notices ichthyologiques no. 5: 130-133. ——_——., 1862-78.—-Atlas Ichthyologique. 9 vols. (Amsterdam: F. Muller). —_———., 1863.—Notices sur une collection de poissons de la Nouvelle Hollande faite a Port Jackson. Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, 15: 442-451; Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., 2, 1865: 68-73. , 1865.—Notice sur le genre Paraploactis et description de son espéce type. Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., 2: 168-170. , 1877.—Mémoire sur les Chromides marins ou Pomacentroides de l’Inde Archipélagique. Nat. Verh. Holl. Maatsch. Wetensch. (3) 2 (6): 1-166. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 65 BLEEKER, P., 1878.—Quatriéme Mémoire sur la Faune Ichthyologique de la Nouvelle-Guinée. Arch. Neerl. Sci. Nat. Harlem, 13: 35-66, Pls ii-iii. BLEWETT, C. F., 1929.—Habits of some Australian freshwater fishes. S. Austr. Nat., 10 (2): 21-29. BiocuH, M. E., and SCHNEIDER, J. G., 1801.—Systema Ichthyologiae, 2 vols (Berlin: Sanderiano), i-lx + 1-584, 110 Plates. BopDAERT, P., 1772.—Hpistola ... de Chaetodonte diacantho descriptio. Amsterdam 4to., col’d. pl. [Copy in my library.—G.P.W.] , 1781.—Beschreibung zweier merkwurdiger Fische. Neue Nord. Beitr. (Pallas), AR BDA, ies BoDENHEIMER, F. S., 1959.—Biogeography and Ecology in Australia. (Monogr. Biolog. 8.) BoESEMAN, M., 1954.—On the Rediscovery of the Type Specimen of Opisthognathus papuensis Bleeker, 1868. Koningl. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam Proc. (C.) 57 (38): 271-272, & Pi. , 1956.—Fresh-water Sawfishes and Sharks in Netherlands New Guinea. Science, Feb. 10, vol. 123: 222-223. , 1959.—De Vissen uit het zoete water van Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea. Nederlands- Nieuw-Guinea, Sept.: 1-7, 4 figs. , 1960.—A Tragedy of Errors: The Status of Carcharhinus Blainville, 1816; Galeolamna Owen, 1853; Hulamia Gill, 1861; and the identity of Carcharhinus commersonii Blainville, 1825. Zool. Meded., 37 (6): 81-100, Pls VII-VIII, text-fig. 1. , 1962.—Triodon macropterus versus Triodon bursarius; an attempt to establish the correct name and authorship. Zool. Meded., 38 (4): 77-85. BOHLKE, J. H., 1953.—A Catalogue of the Type Specimens of the Recent Fishes in the Natural History Museum of Stanford University. Stanford Ichthyological Bull., 5: 1-168. , 1960.—Comments on Serranoid Fishes with disjunct lateral lines with a description of a new one from the Bahamas. Notulae Naturae, 330: 1-11, fig. 1. Bouin, Rour L., 1946.—Lantern Fishes from “Investigator” Station 670, Indian Ocean. Stanf. Ichth. Bull., 3 (2): 137-152, figs 1-5. , 1952.—Description of a New Genus and Species of Cottid Fish from the Tasman Sea, with a Discussion of its Derivation, from the Danish Galathea Expedition 1950-52. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturh. Foren., 114: 431-441, figs 1-2. BonpbsE, C. von., and Swart, D. B., 1923.—The Platosomia (Skates and Rays) collected by the S.S. Pickle. Rept. S. Afr. Fish. Mar. Biol. Surv. 3 (5) 1922: 1-22. Bone, Q., 1957.—The Problem of the “Amphioxides’ Larva’. Natwre, 4600, Dec. 28, 1957: 1462- 1464, fig. 1. BONNATERRE, J. P., 1788.—Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique . . . Ichthyologie. Paris, 4to., pp. i-vi, 1-215, 102 Pls. Boropin, N. A., 1932.—Scientific Results of the Yacht “Alva’’ World Cruise, July 1931 to March 1932, in command of William K. Vanderbilt. Bull. Vanderbilt Marine Mus., 1 (3): 65-101, Pls i-ii. , 1933.—A New Australian Fish. Copeia, 1933, 3: 141-143. Bory DE ST. VINCENT, J. B., 1822-1831.—[Articles on Fishes.] Dict. classique Hist. Nat. BoswELu, R., 1963.—A Modern method of casting fish. Mus. Assoc. Austr. News Bulletin, 12: 8-11, figs 1-3. BouLENGER, G. A., 1889.—Second account of the fishes obtained by Surgeon Major A. S. G. Jayakar at Muscat. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1889 (2): 236-246. , 1895.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum. Second Edition. 1: i-xx + 1- 394, Pls i-xv, text-figs 1-27. , 1897,—On a Specimen of Acanthocybium solandri from the Arabian Sea. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897: 272-273. , 1904.—Fishes. Cambr. Natural History: 421-727. BoweEN, B. K., 1958.—Record of a Sailfish in Western Australian Waters. W. Austr. Nat., @ (6) 8 sex , 1961.—The Shark Bay Fishery on Snapper Chrysophrys wunicolor (Quoy and Gaimard). W. Austr. Fisher. Dept. Rept., 1: 1-15, Plate and figs 1-2. , 1963.—The Angler-fish Ceratias holboelli from Western Australian Waters. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 46 (3): 2 and 91-92, figs 1-3. Braver, A., 1902.—Diagnosen von neuen Tiefseefischen, welche von der Valdivia-Expedition gesammelt sind. Zool. Anzeiger, 25 (668): 277-298. 1904.—Die Gattung Myctophum. Zool. Anzeiger, 28 (10): 877-404, figs 1-9. , 1908.—Die Tiefseefische. In Chun, Wiss. Ergebnisse Deutsch. Tiefsee-Exped. “Valdivia”, 1898-99, 15: 1-420, 18 Pls. BREDER, C. M., 1946.—An Analysis of the Deceptive Resemblances of Fishes to Plant Parts, with Critical Remarks on Protective Coloration, Mimicry, and Adaptation. Bull. Bingh. Oc. Coll., 10 (2): 1-49, Pls i-ii, figs 1-3. . See also Nichols & Breder. BrepErR, C. M., and CuarKk, E., 1947.—A Contribution to the Visceral Anatomy, Development and Relationships of the Plectognathi. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 88 (5): 287-320, Pls xi-xiv, text-figs 1-2, tables 1-2. ’ B 66 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Brices, E. A., 1940.—Anatomy of Animal Types for Students of Zoology (2nd edition}. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson.) Briees, J. C., 1951.—A Review of the Clingfishes (Gobiesocidae) of the Hastern Pacific with descriptions of new species. Proc. Calif. Zool. Club, 1 (11): 57-108, figs 1-23. , 1955.—A Monograph of the Clingfishes (Order Xenopterygii). Stanf. Ichth. Buill.,. 6: 1-224, figs 1-114, maps, &c. ——__——.,, 196la.—Emendated Generic Names in Berg’s Classification of Fishes. Copeia, 1961 (2): 161-166. ————., 1961b.—The East Pacific Barrier and the Distribution of Marine Shore Fishes. Evolution, 15: 545-554. —_———, 1962a.—A New Clingfish of the Genus Lepadichthys from the New Hebrides. Copeia,. 1962, 2: 424-425, fig. 1. ——_——, 1962b.—Order Xenopterygii. In Weber & Beaufort’s Fish. Indo-Austr. Archip... 11: 444-453, figs 97-100. BRONGERSMA, L. D., 1958.—The Animal World of Netherlands New Guinea (Groningen: J. B. Wolters): 1-70, figs 1-35. BROUSSONET, P. M. A., 1780.—Mémoire sur les différentes Espéces de Chiens de Mer. [Type- script copy in Australian Museum Library. ] ————., 1782.—Ichthyologia sistens Piscium descriptiones et icones. (London: Elmsly) i-vi & [1-42, unpaged], 11 Plates. Bruun, A. F., 1936.—Sur la distribution de quelques Poissons océaniques d’aprés les Expéditions: Danoises. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr., 700: 1-16, figs 1-6. , 1937a.—Contributions to the life histories of the deep sea eels: Synaphobranchidae. Dana Rept., 9: 1-31, Pl. i, figs 1-17. —__—_———.,, 1937b.—Notes sur les Types des Exocets décrits par Cuvier & Valenciennes. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. (2) 9: 180-187. , 1940.—A Study of a Collection of the Fish Schindleria from the South Pacific. Dana Rept., 21: 1-12, figs 1-8. Bruun, A. F., and Nievsen, J., 1958.—The Freshwater Fishes of Rennell Island. Nat. Hist. Rennell Island, 1: 221-226, fig. 1. BULLOCK, W., 1809.—A Companion to the Liverpool Museum [and later editions as Companion to Bullock’s Museum or to the London Museum and Pantherion. See Iredale, 1948, Austr. Zool., 11: 234, illustr.]. BURLINSON, R. O., 1947.—Fishing for Yellowtail in Spencer Gulf, South Australia. S. Ausér. Nat., 24 (3): 5-6, 2 figs. ButcHsER, A. DUNBAVIN, 1941.—Outbreaks of White Spot or Ichthyophthirius (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis Fouquet, 1876) at the Hatcheries of the Ballarat Fish Acclimatization Society with notes on Laboratory Experiments. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 53: 126-144, figs 1-4. , 1944.—Preliminary Observations on the Storage of the Milt of Trout. Austr. J. S¢ci.,. 7 (1): 23-25. , 1945a.—Conservation of the Bream Fishery. Victoria Fish &€ Game Dept., Fisheries: Pamphlet, 1: 1-6, figs 1-4. , 1945b.—The Food of Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Freshwater Fish in Victoria,. with Special Reference to Trout. Victoria Fisheries Pamph., 2: 1-48 & suppl.: 1-4. , 1946.—The Freshwater Fish of Victoria and Their Food. (Melbourne: Govt. Printer) : 1-64, Pls i-vi, figs. 1-7. , 1947.—Quinnat Salmon in Victorian Inland Waters. Victoria Fisheries € Game Dept. Fisheries Pamphlet, 4: 5-27, figs 1-18. , 1957.—Poisonous and Harmful Fishes of Victoria. Fish. Cire. Fish. Game Dept... Victoria, 2, 1-7, 7 figs. , 1959.—A Review of the Victorian Fishing Industry. Fisher. Contrib., 10, roneo’d, unpaged. : , 1962.—Why destroy the European Carp? Fisher. Cire. 6, Fisher. Wildlife Victoria: 1-6, Pls 1-4 & text-fig. , 1963.—Report of the Subcommittee on Fisheries, Australia. Proc. Tenth Pacif. Sci. Congr., Honolulu, 1961: 282-288. Burcuer, A. D., and Line, John K., 1962.—Bream Tagging Experiments in Hast Gippsland during April and May 1944. Vict. Nat., 78 (9): 256-264, figs 1-4. ButrcHer, A. D., and THomMpsSsON, G. T., 1947.—Fish Farming Management of Water for Fish Production. Victoria Fisheries and Game Dept. Fisheries Pamphlet, 3: 1-36, figs 1-18. BuTLER, W. H., 1950.—Lamprey Attacking Australian Salmon. W. Austr. Nat., 2 (4): 91. Byers, R. D.—See Godsil & Byers. Cairns, D., 1941.—Life-History of the Two Species of New Zealand Fresh-water Hel. Part i— Taxonomy, Age and Growth, Migration, and Distribution. N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. (B), 23: 53B-72B, figs 1-10. , 1950.—New Zealand Fresh Water Hels. Tuatara, 3 (2): 48-52, figs 1-3. CALDWELL, N., and Huuison, N., 1939.—Fangs of the Sea. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson) : 1-310, illustr. CAMERON, J., 1888.—The Fisherman: A Guide to the Inexperienced. How, When and Where- to Catch Fish. (Brisbane: Gordon & Gotch.) BY G. P. WHITLEY. 67 CAMPBELL, A. J., 1889.—A Basket of Fish. Vict. Nat., 6 (7): 111-116. CAMPBELL, C., 1960.—The Townsville Blue Eye (Pseudomugil signatus). Finchat, Sept., 1960: 4-6, 3 figs. CANESTRINI, G., 1869.—Sopra alcuni pesci dell’ Australia. Arch. Zool. Anat. PFisiol. (2) 1: 151- ja, JBL CARMICHAEL, B. A., 1963.—Black Marlin at Albany. Fisher. Dept. W. Austr. Month. Serv. Bull., 12 (8): 55-56. Carr, T., 1947.—Barringtonia acutangula as Fish Poison, a Practical Application. WN. Qld. Nat., 15 (84): 3-4. Cassiz, R. M., 1956a.—Early Development of the Snapper Chrysophrys auratus Forster. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 838 (4): 705-713, Pls. 23-26. , 1956b.—Spawning of the Snapper, Chrysophrys auratus Forster in the Hauraki Gulf. Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z., 84 (2): 309-328, figs 1-11. , 1956e.—Age and Growth of the Snapper Chrysophrys auratus Forster in the Hauraki Gulf. Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z., 84 (2): 329-339, Pl. xxviii & text-figs 1-4. , 1957a.—Shallow-water Diving in Marine Ecology. Proc. N.Z. Ecol. Soc., 5: 4-5, fig. 1. , 1957b.—Condition factor of Snapper, Chrysophrys auratus Forster in Hauraki Gulf. N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. (B) 38 (4): 375-388, figs 1-3. CASTELNAU, F. L., 1872a.—Contribution to the Ichthyology of Australia. No. i—The Melbourne Fish Market. Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Vict., 1: 29-242 and Plate. , 1872b.—Contribution to the Ichthyology of Australia. No. ii—Note on some south Australian Fishes. Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Vict., 1: 243-248. , 1873a.—Notes on the edible fishes of Victoria. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Victorian Exhibition, 1872-73, no. 5: 1-17; Journal de Zoologie (Gervais), 3, 1874: 144-157 (résumé in French). , 1873b.—Contribution to the Ichthyology of Australia. No. iii—Supplement to the Fishes of Victoria. iv—Fishes of South Australia. v—Notes on Fishes from North Australia. vi— Notes on Fishes from Knob Island. vii—-Fishes of New Caledonia. vili—- Fishes of Western Australia. ix—New Sorts for the Victorian Fauna, and List of Australian Fishes. Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Victoria, 2: 37-158. , 1875a.—Fishes. Philad. Centen. Hxahib., 1876 (Melbourne, 1875): Official Record (Melbourne, McCarron, Bird & Co.), 105-108. , 1875b.—Researches on the Fishes of Australia. Phil. Centen. Exhib., 1876 (Melbourne, 1875): Official Record. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays no 2: 1-52. , 1876a.—Mémoire sur les poissons appelés barramundi par les Aborigénes du nord-est de l’Australie. J. Zool. (Gervais), 5: 129-136. , 1876b.—Remarques au sujet du genre Neoceratodus. J. Zool. (Gervais), 5: 342-343; Comptes Rendus, May 1, 1876: 1034, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 17, 1876: 486. , 1878a.—Australian Fishes. New or little known species. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 2: 225-248, Pls i-ii. , 1878b.—Notes on the Fishes of the Norman River. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 41-51. , 1878c.—On some new Australian (chiefly) Freshwater Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 140-144. — , 1878d.—On a new Ganoid Fish from Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 164, Pl. xix, A. , 1879.—Essay on the Ichthyology of Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 347- 402. CASTLE, P. H. J., 1959.—A Large Leptocephalid (Teleostei, Apodes) from off South Westland, New Zealand. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 87: 179-184, figs 1-2. , 1960.—Two Eels of the Genus Pseudoxenomystax from New Zealand Waters. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 88: 463-472, figs 1-2. , 1961.—Deep-Water Hels from Cook Strait, New Zealand. Zool. Publ. Vict. Univ. Wellington, 27: 1-30, figs 1-6. , 1968a.—Anguillid Leptocephali in the Southwest Pacific. Zool. Publ. Vict. Univ. Wellington, 33: 1-14, figs 1-3. , 1963b.—The Systematics, Development and Distribution of Two Eels of the Genus Gnathophis (Congridae) in Australasian Waters. Zool. Publ. Vict. Univ. Wellington, 34: 15-47, figs 1-10. , 1964.—Congrid Leptocephali in Australasian Waters with Descriptions of Conger wilsoni (Bl. and Schn.) and C. verreauxi Kaup. Zool. Publ. Vict. Univ. Wellington, 37: 1-45, figs 1-11. CATALA, R., 1949.—Sur un cas tératologique remarquable chez un Chaetodontidé du Genre Heniochus. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 74: 108-111, Pl. i. CAWTHORN, P., 1963.—Discovery of Subterranean Freshwater Fauna on the eastern side of North West Cape. W. Austr. Nat., 8 (6): 129-132, figs 1-3. CHABANAUD, P., 1925.—Remarques sur divers Percoides du Groupe des Caesio Cuvier. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 5: 151-159, figs 1-5. , 1927a.—Observations morphologiques et remarques sur la systématique des Poissons Hétérosomes Soléiformes. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr. Monaco, 500: 1-16. 68 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, CHABANAUD, P., 1927b.—Sur diverses espéces du Genre Taenioides Lacep. [Poissons Gobiformes. | Bull. Soe. Zool. France, 52: 404-415, figs 1-11. —, 1928.—Remarques sur quelques genres de la famille des Soleidae. Bull. Soe. Zool. France, 538: 272-279. , 1930a.—Description d’un nouvel Aseraggodes [Pisces, Soleidae] du Queensland. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 5: 241-243. —, 1930b.—Les Genres de Poissons Hétérosomates [Pisces Heterosomata] appartenant a la sous-famille des Soleinae. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr. Monaco, 555: 1-21. , 1931.—Beschreibung eines neuen Achirus Lac. (Pisces Soleidae, Soleinae) von Nordaustralien. Zool. Anz., 93: 95-105, figs 1-10. , 1934.—Les Soleides du Groupe Zebrias. Définition d’un sous-genre nouveau et déscription d’une sous-espéce nouvelle. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 59: 420-436. , 1935.—Les Soleidae de la sous-famille des Heteromycterinae. Bull. Soe. Zool. France, 60: 212-224, figs 1-6. , 1936.—Multiplication tératologique de la Papille urino-génitale chez un male de Brachirus Muelleri Steindachner (Teleostei Pleuronectoidea Soleidae). Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris) (2)) 8 @)2 394-397, fig: 1 , 1937.—Les Téléostéens dyssmétriques du Mokattam inferieur de Tourah. Mem. Inst. Egypte, 32: i-xii, 1-124, Pls. i-iv, text-figs 1-19. [Includes new subgenera and Australian species. ] —, 1938.—Contribution & la Morphologie et a la Systématique des Téléostéens dys- symétriques. Arch. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. (Paris) (6) 15: 59-139, Pls i-ix, text-figs 75. , 1939.—Catalogue systématique et chorologique des Téléostéens dyssymétriques du Globe. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr. (Monaco), 763: 1-31. —_————., 1941.—Notules Ichthyologiques ... XV. Présence possible de Solea ovata dans les eaux Australiennes. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 13: 421. , 1943.—Notules Ichthyologiques (Sixieme Série). Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 15: 289-298. —, 1948.—Description de quatres espéces inédites du genre Symphurus. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 20 (6): 508-511. , 1949.—Essai d’une Division Biogéographique du Domaine Oceanique. 13th Congr. Inter. Zool. Paris, 1948: 5385-538. , 1950.—Description d’un nouveau Soléidé originaire de la cdte orientale du Queensland. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 22 (5): 563-567. , 1951a.—Sur divers Cynoglossus de la région Indo-Pacifique. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (12) 4: 268-273. , 1951b.—Sur deux Cynoglossus de la collection ichthyologique du Zodologisch Museum, Amsterdam. Beaufortia, 5: 1-4, figs 1-3. , 1955.—Flatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Expedition to the Philippines. 1907-1910. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 45: 30-32. CHALLENGER, T. J., 1948.—Rare Fish Taken off Tasmania. Fisheries Newsletter, 7 (3): 14, fig. CHAPMAN, W. M., 1946.—Observations on Tuna-like Fishes in the Tropical Pacific. Calif. Fish é& Game, 32: 165-170. . See atso under Beaufort, 1951. CHAPMAN, W. M., and ScHuuTz, L. P., 1952.—Review of the Fishes of the Blennioid Genus Ecsenius, with descriptions of five new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 102: 507-528, figs 90- 96. CHEESEMAN, T. F., 1876.—Notes on the Sword Fish. Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., 8: 219-220. CuHiITwoop, M. J.—See Halstead, Chitwood & Modglin. CuuN, C., 1903.—Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres (Jena: Gustav Fischer): ed. 2: 1-592, Pls i-xlvi, figs 1-482. CLARK, A. C., 1955.—Devil on the Reef. Natural History (New York), Oct., 1955: 410-413, 3 figs. CLARK, E.—See Breder & Clark. CuARK, J. H., 1813.—Field Sports .. . of the Native Inhabitants of New South Wales. (London: Orme): 1-22, Pl. x. CLELAND, J. B., 1912-1942.—Injuries and Diseases in Men in Australia attributable to Animals (except Insects). Australasian Med. Gazette, 32: 269-274. [Continued, with slight varia- tions in title, in:] Rept. Direct. Gen. Public Health N.S.W., 1915 (1916): 266-276, and Med. J. Austr., 1924 (2): 339-345. Ibid. 1932 (1): 159-160. Ibid. 1942 (2): 313-320 and 490-491. , 1939.—Medical Names in Australian Zoological Nomenclature. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., Nov. 15: 343-348. , 1950.—The Naturalist in Medicine with particular reference to Australia. Med. J. Austr., 1950 (1): 549-568, figs i-v. CLELAND, K. W., 1947.—Studies on the Economic Biology of the Sand Whiting (Sillago ciliata Cc. & V.). Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 72: 215-228, 4 graphs. Citem, R. R., 1953.—A Stingaree Spine ... An Unusual Foreign Body in a Dog. Austr. Veterin. J., 29 (3): 88, fig. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 69 Coates, G., 1950.—Fishing on the Barrier Reef and Inshore (Townsville: T. Willmett & Sons): 1-72, col’d frontisp. & numerous text-figs. , 1952.—Fishing on the Barrier Reef and Inshore. Second (enlarged) edition, 100 pages, coloured plates, many text-figs. ————,, 1956.—Fishing on the Barrier Reef and Inshore. Third edition. COCKERELL, T. D. A., 1913.—The Scales of some Queensland Fishes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 2: 51-59. ————,, 1915.—The Scales of some Australian Fishes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 3: 35-46. , 1916.—Some Australian Fish-scales. Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 52-57. CoGHILL, E. H., 1957.—Salmon Trout, Whitebait, Gulls and Fishermen. Victorian Naturalist, 74 (7): 105. , 1958.—Salmon Trout, Whitebait, Gulls and Fishermen. Vict. Nat., 75 (7): 117-118. CoHEN, D. M., 1958a.—A Nomenclatural Discussion of the argentinid fish MWicrostoma micro- stoma (Risso) with new records from the eastern Pacific, and comments on the possible identity of the genus Halaphya Gtinther. Copeia, 1958, 2: 133-134. ————, 1958b.—A Revision of the Fishes of the Subfamily Argentinidae. Bull. Florida State Mus. Biol. Sci., 3 (3): 93-172, figs 1-9. , 1961.—On the identity of the species of the fish genus Argentina in the Indian Ocean. Galathea Report, 5: 19-21, fig. 1. CoHEN, P., 1892.—The Marine Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales, past and present. (Sydney: Govt. Printer): 1-30 & chart. CoLerax, A. N., 1934.—A preliminary investigation of the Natural History of the Tiger Flathead (Neoplatycephalus macrodon) on the south-eastern Australian Coast. I. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 59: 71-91, figs 1-9. ————, 1938.—A preliminary investigation of the Natural History of the Tiger Flathead (Neoplatycephalus macrodon) on the south-eastern Australian coast. II. Feeding Habits; Breeding Habits. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 68: 55-64, six text-figs. ————,, 1952.—-Variations on a Theme. Some Aspects of Scale Structure in Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 77: viii-xlvi, figs 1-28. . See also Dakin & Colefax, 1934-1940. CoLEMAN, EH., 1933.—Gleanings from Narlo. The Pipe-Fish. Vict. Nat., 50 (4): 86-88, fig. CoLENSO, W., 1879.—Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a description of an undescribed New Zealand species. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 11, 1878: 298-300, Pl. xvii. COLLINS, D., 1798-1802.—Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. Ed. 1, 4to., vol. i, 1798: 2, 1802, illustr. COMMONWEALTH SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ORGANIZATION, 1949 onwards.—Annual Reports. CONRAD, G. M.—See Gregory & Conrad. Coouine, L. E., 1913.—Mosquito-destroying fish. Ann. Rept. Commission of Public Health, Qld., 19138: 61-68. Cooper, H. M., 1948.—Records of Fish and Cephalopod. South Australian Naturalist, 25 (1): 15. Cort, EH. D., 1871.—Contribution to the ichthyology of the Lesser Antilles. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. (N.S.), 14: 445-483, figs 1-10. [Includes new species “supposed to be from Australia; from Wm. Wood”. ] ate “COPEIA”, 1913.—Vols i onwards to date. COPPLESON, V. M., 1933.—Shark Attacks in Australian Waters. Med. J. Austr., 1: 449-467, figs i-viii. , 1950.—A Review of Shark Attacks in Australian waters since 1919.—Med. J. Austr.: 680-687, figs i-vii. ————, 1951.—A Review of Shark Attacks in Australian Waters since 1919. Med. J. Austr. 1 (38) 17, April 28, 1951: 633-635. , 1955.—The Life and Times of Dr. George Bennett. Bull. Post-Graduate Committee in Medicine, Univ. Syd., 11 (9): 207-264, Pls I-VII. ————, 1958.—Shark Attack. (Angus & Robertson, Sydney): i-xvi, 1-266, Plates and text- figures. Second edition, enlarged and revised, Aug., 1962. ————, 1963a.—Distribution and Pattern of Shark Attacks. Intern. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 11-13. , 1963b6.—Biting and Attacking Mechanism of Sharks. Intern. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 109-110. —, 1963¢c.—Research on Sharks in Australia. Austr. Mar. Sci. Newsletter, April, 1963: 5-7. , 1963d.—Patterns of Shark Attack for the World. Sharks & Survival: 389-422, illustr. Cowper, T. 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L., 1938.—The Murray Cod (Maccullochella macquariensis (Cuv. & Val.)). State Fisher. N.S.W. Res. Bull., 1: 1-18, Pls i-xiv. DAMPIER, W., 1698-1703.—A New Voyage round the World... (London: Knapton), ed. 3, 3 vols, illustr. DANNEVIG, H. C., 1903a.—Murray Cod Fisheries. (Sydney: Govt. Printer): 1-47. , 1903b.—Development of Marine Fisheries and Fish Culture. (Sydney: Govt. Printer) : 1-14. , 1904a.—The Sea Mullet—Mugil dobula Gunther. Fisheries N.S.W. Ann. Rept. 1902 (2): 26-33, Pls iii and tables. —__——.,, 1904b.— Notes on the legal weight of food-fishes, and the lineal equivalents. Fisheries N.S.W. Ann. Rept. 1902 (2): 36, Pls iv-vii. , 1904¢e.—Fish Acclimatisation and Culture. Fisheries N.S.W. Ann. Rept. 1902 (2): 37-438, Pls viii-ix. , 1907.—On some peculiarities in our coastal winds and their influence upon the abundance of fish in inshore waters. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. 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DENDY, A.—1902.—On a pair of ciliated grooves in the brain of the Ammocoete, apparently serving to promote the Circulation of the Fluid in the Brain-cavity. Proc. Roy. Soe. London, 69: 487-494, figs 1-6. De Syuivéa, D. P.—See La Monte. Dr Vis, Charles W., 1882a.—Description of three new fishes of Queensland. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 318-320. BY G. P. WHITLEY. ah Der Vis, Charles W., 1882b.—Descriptions of some new Queensland Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 367-371. , 1882c.—Descriptions of two new Queensland Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 620-621. , 1883.—Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Australian Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 8: 283-289. , 1884a.—New Australian Fishes in the Queensland Museum. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 9: 389-400; Part II. Jbid.: 453-462; No. 3. JIbid.: 587-547; No. 4. Ibid.: 685-698; No. 5. Ibid. (1885): 869-887. , 1884b.—Ceratodus forsteri post-Pliocene. Proc. Roy. Soc. 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DUNCKER, G., and Mower, E., 1925.—Die Fische der Sitidsee-Expedition der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Stiftung 1908-1909. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Hamburg, 41: 93-112, Pl. ii, 13 text-figs. DuNSTAN, D. J., 1959a.—Barramundi fishing in New Guinea waters. Fisheries Newsletter, 18 (2) Feb., 1959: 15, 3 figs. , 1959b.—The Barramundi in Queensland waters. Divn. Fisher. & Oceanogr. Tech. Pap. 5, C.S.1.R.O., Melbourne: 1-22, figs 1-9. , 1961a.—Giant Perch in Papuan Waters. Fisheries Newsletter, 20 (3), March, 1961: 14 & 27, map. , 1961b.—Trolling Results of F.R.V. “Tagula”’ in Papuan Waters from August, 1957, to February, 1959. Papua N. Guin. Agric. J.. 13 (4), March: 148-156, fig. 1. , 1962.—The Barramundi in New Guinea Waters. Papua N. Gwin. Agric. J., 15: 28-31, maps, fig. 1. ——_—, 1963.—The Marking and Tagging of Fishes in Waters of New South Wales. The Fisherman, Dec., 1963: 9-15, 18 figs. Eauey, E. H. M., 1960.—A Record of the Ox-eye Herring, Megalops cyprinoides, in Fresh Water in the Pilbara. Western Austr. Nat., 7 (6): 166. U2) A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, EBELING, A. W., 1962.—Melamphaidae. I. Systematics and Zoogeography of the Species in the bathypelagic fish genus Melamphaes Gunther. Dana Rept., 58: 1-164, figs 1-73. EBELING, A. W., and WEED, W. H., 1963.—Melamphaidae. III. Systematics and Distribution of the Species in the Bathypelagic Fish Genus Scopelogadus Vaillant. Dana Report, 60: 1-58, figs 1-23. EpMOoONDS, S. J., 1948.—The Commoner Species of Animals and their Distribution on an inter- tidal platform at Pennington Bay, Kangaroo Island, South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 72: 167-177, Pls xvi-xvii & text-fig. 1. EcE, V., 1933.—On some new fishes of the families Sudidae and Stomiatidae. Vidensk. Medd. naturh. Foren. Kjob., 94: 223-236. —— , 1939.—A Revision of the Genus Anguilla Shaw. A Systematic, Phylogenetic and Geographical Study. Dana Rept., 16: 1-256, Pls i-vi, 53 figs. , 1948.—Chauliodus Schn., Bathypelagic Genus of Fishes. A Systematic, Phylogenetic and Geographical Study. Dana Rept., 31: 1-148, Pls i-ii & text-figs 1-9. , 1953.—Paralepididae. I. (Paralepis and Lestidium) Taxonomy, Ontogeny, Phylogeny and Distribution. Dana Rept., 40: 1-184, figs 1-33. , 1957.—Paralepididae. Il. (Macroparalepis) Taxonomy, Ontogeny, Phylogeny and Distribution. Dana Rept., 43: 1-101, figs 1-24. , 1958.—Omosudis Gunther, Bathypelagic genus of Fish. Dana Rept., 47: 1-20, figs 1-3. EG@certT, B., 1929a.—Bestimmungstabelle und Beschreibung der Arten der Familie Perioph- thalmus. Anhang zur vorstehenden Arbeit von Harms: “Die Realisation von Genen und die consecutive Adaption” [q.v.]. Zeit. Wiss. Zool., 133: 398-410, Pls viili-ix. , 1929b.—Die Gobiidenflosse und ihre Anpassung an das Landleben. Zeit. Wiss. 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Hist., 14: 21-23, 5 figures. , 1963.—Habits and Behaviour of the Venom Apparatus of the Stonefish. Intern. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 36-40. . See Stephenson, W., Endean & Bennett. ENGELHARDT, R., 1913.—Monographie der Selachier. Al. K. Ak. Wiss., 4, Suppl. Bd. 3. ENGEMANN, Joseph G., 1960.—The Effect of Coloration on Great Barrier Reef Animals. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Letters, 45: 9-15, figs 1-2. Esteve, R., 1947.—Révision des types de Myctophidés (Scopélidés) du Muséum. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 19: 67-69. EUPHRASEN, B. A., 1790.—Raja beskrifven. Handl. K. Vetensk. Akad., 11: 217-219. , 1791.—Scomber atun och Hecheneis tropica beskrisne. Handl. K. Vetensk. Akad., WAS Bala, EVANS, J. W., 1939.—Fish-Food Investigations, 1937-38, and for 1938-39. Parl. Tasmania Salmon & Fresh. Fisher. Commiss. Rept., 46, 1937-38, and 1938-39: 3-16, 17-37. EVERMANN, B. W.—See also Jordan & Hyvermann. Eypoux, J. F. T., and Souuryet, F. L. A., 1841-1866.—Voyage autour du Monde .. . sur la Corvette “a Bonite”’ ... Hist. Nat., Zoologie (Paris, Bertrand), 2 vols and Atlas, Pls 1-10. Eyre, BE. J., 1845.—Journals of expeditions of discovery into central Australia, ete. London, 8vo. FAIRBRIDGE, W. S., 1948.—The Effect of the War on the Hast Australian Trawl Fishery. J.C.S.1.R., 21 (2): 75-98, figs 1-4. ———_——, 1949.—Fisheries. Handbook for Tasmania. (A.N.Z. Ass. Adv. Sci., Hobart, Jan., 1949): 67-76. , 1951a.—The Overfishing of the Hast Australian Trawl Fishery. Indo-Pacific Fisher. Council Proc. (Bangkok): 73-79, Pl. i & text-figs 1-4. —— — .,, 1951b.— Some Populations of the Australian “Salmon”, Arripis trutta. Indo-Pacific Fisher. Council Proc. (Bangkok): 80-84, Pl. ii & text-fig. 1. ———, 1951¢.-—The New South Wales Tiger Flathead, Neoplatycephalus macrodon (Ogilby). Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 2 (2): 117-178, Pls. i-iv, figs 1-22. , 1952.—The New South Wales Tiger Flathead, Neoplatycephalus macrodon (Ogilby). ii. The Age Composition of the Commercial Catch, overfishing of the stocks, and suggested conservation. Aus. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 3 (1): 1-31, figs 1-5. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 73 FARFANTE, I. P.—See also Bigelow & Farfante. FELL, H. B., and others, 1953.—The First Century of New Zealand Zoology, 1769-1868. FERGUSON-Woop, E. J., 1941.—Results of Experiments in Fish Canning. J.C.S.I.R., 14 (1): 47-56. FISHERIES NEWSLETTER, 1941 to date.—Cronulla, N.S.W., Canberra, A.C.T., and Melbourne, Vic., vol. 1, onwards. Fitcu, J. E., 1951.—Notes on the Squaretail, Tetragonurus cuvieri. Calif. Fish & Game, 37: 55-60, figs 36-37. . See also Walters & Fitch. FLECKER, H., 1951.—A Review of Shark Attacks in Australian Waters since 1919. Med. J. Austr., 1 (38), 12, March 24: 458. , 1956.—Injuries from Stonefish. Med. J. Austr., 2, 43rd year, (10): 371-373. FLETCHER, J. J.,. 1893.—The Hon. Sir William Macleay, Kt., F.L.S., M.L.C. Macleay Mem. Vol. Linn. Soe. 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W., 1905.—New, Rare or Little Known Scombroids. No. 1. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1904: 757-771, Pl. li, text-figs 1-2. , 1908.—A Collection of Fishes from Victoria, Australia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907: 419-444, 10 figs. , 1911a.—Notes on Chimaeroid and Ganoid Fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.., 1910: 6038-612, Pl. 38. , 1911b.—Notes on Clupeoid Fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1911: 200-1. , 1912.—Descriptions of nine new eels, with notes on other species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 64: 8-33. , 19238.—Fishes from Madeira, Syria, Madagascar, and Victoria, Australia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 75: 43-45. , 1928.—The Fishes of Oceania. Mem. Bishop Mus., 10: 1-540, Pls i-xlix, text-figs 1-82. ———., 1931.—The Fishes of the Families Pseudochromidae, Lobotidae, Pempheridae, Priacanthidae, Lutjanidae, Pomadasyidae, and Teraponidae, collected by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer ‘‘Albatross”’, chiefly in Philippine Seas and Adjacent Waters. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100 (11): 1-388, figs 1-29. , 1933.—The Fishes of the Families Banjosidae, Lethrinidae, Sparidae, Girellidae, Kyphosidae, Oplegnathidae, Gerridae, Mullidae, Emmelichthyidae, Sciaenidae, Sillaginidae, Arripidae and Enoplosidae collected by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer “Albatross”, chiefly in Philippine Seas and Adjacent Waters. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100 (12): 1-465 & figs. ,1984a.—Descriptions of New Fishes Obtained 1907 to 1910, Chiefly in the Philippine Islands and Adjacent Seas. P. Acad. Phil., 85, 1933: 233-367, 117 figs. , 1934b.—The Fishes of Oceania—Supplement 2. Mem. Bish. Mus., 11: 383-466, text- figs 1-4. , 1938a.—Descriptions of new Fishes obtained by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer “Albatross”, chiefly in Philippine Seas and adjacent waters. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 85 (3032): 31-135, figs 6-61. , 1938b.—The Fishes of the George Vanderbilt South Pacific Expedition, 1937. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Monogr. 2: 1-349, Pls i-xii. , 1989.—New Subfamilies, Genera and Subgenera of Fishes. Notulae Naturae, 26: 1-2. , 1940a.—The Fishes obtained by the Wilkes Expedition, 1838-1842. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 82: 7338-800, figs 1-76. , 1940b.—Zoological Results of the Denison-Crockett South Pacific Expedition for the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1937-1938. Part IIIJ.—The Fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 91, 1939: 77-96, fig. 1. —— , 1940¢—The Fishes of the Groups Elasmobranchii, Holocephali, Isospondyli and Ostarophysi obtained by the United States Steamer ‘‘Albatross” in 1907 to 1910, chiefly in the Philippine Islands and Adjacent Seas. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100 (13): 1-879, figs. 1-30. 74 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Fowuer, H. W., 1941.—New Fishes of the Family Callionymidae, mostly Philippine, obtained by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer “‘Albatross”’. Proc. U.S. Nat. 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Novit., 234. , 1928.—Capture of an Ocean Sunfish. Scientific Monthly, 26, March, 1928: 257-261, 4 figs. , 1929.—More Rains of Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10) 3 (13): 1-26, Pl. i, & text-figures. —_———, 1940.—The Alleged Pugnacity of the Swordfish and the Spearfishes as shown by their attacks on Vessels. A Study of their behaviour and the structures which make possible these attacks. Mem. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 12 (2): 215-315, Pls iii-ix. , 1947a.—Sizes Attained by the Large Hammerhead Sharks. Copeia, 4: 228-236, figs 1-3. , 1947b.—Pomacentrid Fishes Symbiotic with giant Sea Anemones in Indo-Pacific Waters. J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 12 (2): 1946: 53-76, Pls i-ii, figs A-C. ———__—., 1948.—Stomach Contents of Tiger Sharks, Galeocerdo, reported from the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (8): 282-287, 5 figs. GUERIN-MENEVILLE, M. F. E., 1833-40.—Dictionnaire pittoresque d’histoire naturelle. (Paris: Bureau de Souscription), 9 vols, illustr. , 1844.—Icon. Regn. Anim. (Cuvier), Poiss.: 1-44, plates. GUuEsT, J. S., and ROBERTSON, D. B., 1939.—The Sir Joseph Banks Islands. 5. Pisces. Proc. Roy- Soc. Vic. (n.s.), 51 (1): 179-186. GuiBh, J.—See also Angel, Bertin & Guibé. See also Bauchot & Guibé. GUICHENOT, A., 1865.—Catalogue des Scaridés de la collection du Musée de Paris. Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, 11: 1-75. ~— , 1867.—Notice sur le néosebaste, nouveau genre de poissons de la famille des scorpénoides, et description d’une nouvelle espéce. Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, 13: 83-89. . See also Jacquinot & Guichenot. GUITEL, F., 1913.—L’Appareil fixateur de lVoeuf du Kurtus Gulliveri. Arch. Zool. Expérim., BA Gib) S weil, 1236 ai, GUNN, R., 1838.—Notices accompanying a Collection of Quadrupeds and Fish from Van Diemen’s Land, with Notes and Descriptions of the New Species by J. E. Gray. Ann. Nat. Hist., i: 101-111. GUNTHER, A., 1859-1870.—Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Fishes in the Collection of the British Museum. (London: Brit. 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Review, 11: 257-266, Pl. 1xxxvi. , 1872a.—Ueber die Acclimatisation des Lachses in Australien. Circul. Deutsch. Fischerei-Verein, 4: 100-102. ————., 1872b.—Description of two New Fishes from Tasmania. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (4) 10: 183-184. —_——, 1872e—_On Psammoperca and Cnidon. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (4) 10: 426-427. , 1873a.—Erster ichthyologischer Beitrag nach Exemplaren aus dem Museum Godeffroy. J. Mus. Godef., 1 (2): 169-175, figs. , 1873b.—Zweiter ichthyologischer Beitrag nach Exemplaren aus dem Museum Godeffroy. J. Mus. Godef., 1 (4): 265-268. , 1873c.—Reptiles and Fishes. In Brenchley, Cruise of H.M.S. “Curacoa”’: 395-430, Pls xxXvi-XxXXV. , 1873-1910.—Andrew Garrett’s Fische der Stidsee. J. Mus. 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Angz., 8: 507-508. ————, 1885b.—Diagnosen zweier bemerkenswerthes' siidaustralischer Fische. Zool. Anzeiger, 8: 508-509. HAFFNER, R. E., 1952.—Zoogeography of the Bathypelagic Fish, Chauliodus. Systematic Zoology, 1 (3): 113-133, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-14. Hacan, N. G., 1947.—A Mullet Rearing Hxperiment. W.A. Naturalist, 1 (2): 46-47, fig. Haut, H. M., 1920a.—The Australian Congolly. Aquatic Life, 5 (3): 25-26, figs. , 1920b.—An Australian Catfish. Aquatic Life, 5 (12): 128-129. , 1928.—Aquarists in Camp. 8S. Austr. Nat., 9: 25-26. , 1935.—The Egeg-case of a Cat Shark, Scyliorhinus vincenti (Zietz). Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 5 (3): 367, fig. 1. , 1939.—Some Fishes Hitherto Unknown from South Australian Waters. 98. Austr. Nat., 19 (4): 1-4, coloured plate & 5 text-figs. , 1941a.—The Smooth Pipe-Fish. 8S. Austr. Nat., 21 (1): 5 & fig. , 1941b.—A New South Australian Pipe Fish. S. Austr. Nat., 22: 10, fig. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 81 Hate, H. M., 1944.—Record of the Oblong Sunfish (Triurus laevis, Pennant) from South Australia. S. Austr. Nat., 22 (4): 1-2, cover & text-fig. , 1947a.—The Tasmanian or Real Trumpeter in South Australia. S. Austr. Nat., 24 (2), inside front cover & fig. , 1947b.—Evidence of the Habit of Oral Gestation in a South Australian Marine Fish (Apogon conspersus Klunzinger). S. Austr. Nat., 24 (3): 1-3, frontispiece & cover design. , 1957.—Der Fetzenfisch, ein seltsames studaustralisches Seepferden. Natur wu. Volk, 87: 382-385, figs 1-2. HALL, E. S., 1865.—On a probably new species of Lamprey found in Tasmania. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., July, 1865: 77. HALL, R., 1911.—Note on Trachinops taeniatus. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1911: 32. , 1913.—Notes on Derwent Estuary Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1912: 1-6. HALL, T. S., 1896.—The tupong or marble fish. Geelong Naturalist, 5 (4): 5-6. , 1901a.—A burrowing fish. Vict. Nat., 18: 65-66. , 1901b.—The tupong in salt water. Vict. 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INTERNATIONAL GAME FISH ASSOCIATION, 1950.—[Folding table of] World Record Marine Game Fishes. Revised annually. a IREDALE, T., 1938.—Raja whitleyi, the Great Skate. Austr. Zool., 9 (2), Nov. 30, 1938: 169. . See Mathews & Iredale. IREDALE, T., and WHITLEY, G. P., 1929.—Captain Cook’s Leatherjacket. Austr. Mus. Mag.. 3 (12): 421-425, 4 figs. , 1932.—Blandowski. Vict. Nat., 49: 90-96. , 1938.—The Fluvifaunulae of Australia. S. Austr. Nat., 18: 64-68, map. Ivey, Liny, 1951—Aquarium Notes. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W., 1949/50: 55-57. , 1954.—Supplementary Notes on Gobies. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S8.W., 1952/3: 30. JACQUINOT, H.—See also Hombron & Jacquinot. JACQUINOT, H., and GUICHENOT, A., 1853.—Poissons. In Dumont d’Urville, Voyage au Poie Sud... “Astrolabe” et “Zélée”’, 1837-40 .. . Zool., 3 (2): 31-56, Pls i-v. JAcupPS, A., 1943——A Young Crested Port Jackson Shark. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W.. 1942-43: 11. JENKINS, C. F., 1945.—Entomological Problems of the Ord River Irrigation Area. J. Agric. Dept. W. Austr., (2) 22 (2): 131-145, 4 figs. , 1952.—The Food of Trout in Western Australia. W. Austr. Nat., 3 (6): 139-141. JENYNS, L., 1840-42.—Fish. “Beagle” ... Voyage . . . 1832-6 . . ., Zoology, part 4: 1-172, Pls i-xxix. JESPERSEN, P., 1942.—Indo-Pacific Leptocephalids of the Genus Anguilla. Dana Report, 22: 1-127, Pls i-iv, text-figs 1-83. JESPERSON, P., and TANING, A. V., 1926.—Mediterranean Sternoptychidae. Rept. Danish Oceanogr. Eauped., 2, A, 12: 1-59, figs 1-30. JOHNSTON, R. M., 1881.—Description of two species of fishes (Trachichthys macleayi and ee i allporti) caught in the estuary of the Derwent. Proc. Roy. Soe. Tas., 1880: -57. 84 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, JoHNSTON, R. M., 1882.—Description of a Species of Sea Bream (Girella tricuspidata) from Southport, Tasmania. Proc. Roy. Soc. 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S., 1917-20.—The Genera of Fishes, 4 vols. (Stanford: University Press.) , 1917.—Notes on Glossamia and related Genera of Cardinal Fishes. Copeia, 44: 46-47. ——_—, 1919a.—Note on Gistel’s Genera of Fishes. Proc. Acad. Philad., 1918: 335-340. ——————, 1919b.— New genera of Fishes. Proc. Acad. Philad., 1918: 341-344. , 1919¢.—On certain genera of Atherine Fishes. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 55: 309-311. , 1921.—Selar, a genus of Carangoid Fishes. Copeia, 100: 77-79. , 1923.—A Classification of Fishes. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Ser., 3 (2): 79-244 + i-x. , 1924.—Concerning the genus Exocoetus Linnaeus. Copeia, 135: 89-91. JORDAN, D. S., and EVERMANN, B. W., 1926.—A Review of the Giant Mackerel-like Fishes, Tunnies, Spearfishes and Swordfishes. Occas. Pap. Calif. Acad. Sei., 12: 1-72 & 113, Pls i-xx. JORDAN, D. S., and Hupss, C. L., 1919.—A Monographie Review of the Family of Atherinidae or Siiversides. Stanford Univ. Ser., Stud. Ichth.: 1-87, Pls i-xii. JORDAN, D. 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Cherbourg, 18; fide J. de Zool., 3, 1874: 230. , 1877.—Quelques mots sur la faune ichthyologique de cdte nord-est d’Australie et du Détroit de Torres, comparée a celle de la Nouvelle Caledonie. Mem. Soc. Imp. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, 21: 328-335. JOWETT, W. G., and Davies, W., 1938.——A Chemical Study of Some Australian Fish. C.S.J.R. Pamphlet, 85: 1-40. JUNGERSEN, H. F., 1910.—Ichthyotomical Contributions. II The Structure of the Aulostomidae, Syngnathidae and Solenostomidae. D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 7 Raekke, nat. math., 8 (5): 269-364, Pls i-vii & text-fig. 1. , 1915.—Some Facts regarding the Anatomy of the genus Pegasus. Rept. Brit. Assn. Adv. Sci., 1914: 420-422. KAHSBAUER, P., 1950.—Beitrag zur Systematik der Syngnathiden (Pisces). Ann. naturhist. Mus. Wien, 57: 263-272. KANAZAWA, R. H., 1958.—A Revision of the Eels of the Genus Conger with descriptions of four new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 108: 219-267, Pls i-iv, text-figs 1-7. Kaup, J. J., 1853—Uebersicht der Lophobranchier. Arch. Naturg. (Wiegmann), 19 (1): 226- 234. , 1855.—Uebersicht tiber die Species einiger Familien der Sclerodermen. Arch. Natury., 21 (1): 215-233. 1856a.—Uebersicht der Aale. Arch. Naturg., 22 (1): 41-77. , 1856b.—Hiniges tiber die Unterfamilie Ophidinae. Arch. Naturg., 22 (1): 93-100. —, 18§6¢.—Catalogue of Lophobranchiate Fish in the Collection of the British Museum: 1-80, Pls i-iv. , 1857.—Catalogue of Apodal Fish in the Collection of the British Museum: i-viii + 1- 164, Pls i-xix. 1858a.—Uebersicht der Familie Gadidae. Arch. Naturges., 24 (1): 85-93. , 1858b.—WHiniges tiber die Acanthopterygiens 4 joue cuirassée Cuv. Arch. Naturges., 24 (1): 329-343. , 1861.—Hine neue Art des Genus Pegasus Linn. Arch. Naturges., 27 (1): 116-117. KENT, W. SAVILLE, 1884.—Fisheries of Tasmania: Report. (Hobart: Govt. Printer): Parl. Tas. Rept., 78: 1-6, figs 1-3. , 1885a.—Acclimatisation of the Lobster, Crab, and other European Food Fishes in Tasmania. 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J., 1950.—A Review of Shark Attacks in Australian Waters since 1919. Med. J. Austr., 1950, 2 (Dec. 9): 876. KISHINOUYE, K., 1923.—Contributions to the Comparative Study of the So-called Scombroid Fishes. J. Coll. Agric. Univ. Tokyo, 8 (3): 295-475, & plates. KLAUSEWITZ, W., 1957.—Die Stellung der Systematik in der modernen Ichthyologie. JZeitschr. fir ‘Vivaristik’, Heft 12 [unpaged reprint of 7 pages]. ———.,, 1960a.—Die Typen und Typoide des Naturmuseums Senckenberg, 23: Pisces, Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii. Senckenb. Biol., 41: 289-296, Pls 42-43, text-figs 1-6. , 1960b.—Fische aus dem Roten Meer. V. Uber einige Fische der Gattung Hcsenius (Pisces; Salariidae). Senckenb. Biol., 41: 297-299, Pl. 44. KLUNZINGER, C. B., 1872.—Zur Fischfauna von Stid-Australien. Arch. fiir Naturg. (Wiegmann), 38 (1): 17-47, Pl. IL. ————, 1879.—Die v. Muller’sche Sammlung australischer Fische in Stuttgart. Sitewngsb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 80: 325-340, Pls i-ix. KNER, R., 1855.—Ichthyologische Beitrage. 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In the Collection of the Australian Museum, Sydney: T-13. , 1863a.—The Fauna of the Lower Murray and Darling. Sydney Morning Herald, Sept. 21, 1863: 13. 1863b6.—Australian Fresh-Water Fishes. Sydney Morning Herald., Sept. 29, 1863: 5. , 1863c.—The Snapper or Bream of Port Jackson. Sydney Morning Herald, Sept. 29, 1863: 5. , 1864.—Notes on Australian Freshwater Fishes and Descriptions of Four New Species. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., July 7, 1864: 182-184; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (3) 15, Jan. 1, 1865: 68-71. a , 1865.—Two papers on the vertebrata of the Lower Murray and Darling; and on the snakes of Sydney. (Issued separately 1865, published 1866): 1-60. , 1866a.—On the Vertebrated Animals of the Lower Murray and Darling, their Habits, Economy, and Geographical distribution. Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1862-1865 (issued separately 1865, published 1866): 1-33. —, 1866b.—On the Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling. Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1862-1865 (published 1865-1866): 357-374. , 1867.—Australian Vertebrata. Cat. Nat. Industr. Prod. N.S. Wales, Paris Exposition Universelle Cat. (prefaced Jan. 1), 1867, appendix: 91-110. Reprinted by T. Richards, Govt. Printer, Sydney, 1867, 8vo, 20 pp.; Second edition, 1871: 96. Also in Offic. Ree. Intercol. Exhib. (Melbourne, 1866-1867) published 1867, appendix: 64-65, the titles differing in minor details. , 1868a.—Notes on the Fauna of Tasmania. Fishes: 12. Printed by F. White, William Street, Sydney. —, 1868b.—The Vertebrata of Tasmania, recent and fossil. Trans. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1, 1867 (1868): 30-41. —, 1868c.—Notes on the Fauna of Tasmania. Sydney, 4to.; one page, Preface and Addenda et Errata + 3-14. , 1868d.—Descriptions of some New Australian Freshwater Fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1867: 942-944. , 1868e.—Prince Alfred’s Ray. Illustr. Sydney News, 5, July 11, 1868: 3 & 9, fig. , 1869.—Letter . . . relating to a large skate of the genus Cephaloptera. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1868: 531. —, 1870a.—[Letter announcing discovery of an amphibious creature.] Sydney Morning Herald, Jan. 18, 1870: 5, col. 5; Jan. 28, 1870: 8, cols. 1-2. [First announcement of Queensland Lungfish, here named Ceratodus forsteri.] , 1870b.—Description of a gigantic Amphibian allied to the genus Lepidosiren, from the Wide-Bay district, Queensland. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., Nov. 11, 1870: 221-224, figs 1-3 [Ceratodus forsteri]. , 1870c.—Hin neuer Ganoidfisch aus Australien (Hast-Queensland). Das Ausland, 1870: 792 (fide Dean, Bibliogr. Fishes). ————, 1870d.—The Ceratodus forsteri. Letter dated Sept. 7 [1870], Sydney. Nature, 3, Dee. 8, 1870: 107-108. —, 187la.—Beschreibung eines gigantischen Amphibiums aus der Verwandtschaft der Gattung Lepidosiren, aus dem Wide-Bay-District in Queensland. Archiv. Naturg., 37 (1), 1871: 321-324, Pl. viii, fig. 1. , 1871b.—Australian Vertebrata—Fossil and Recent. 96. Second edition of the 1867 paper. 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Fisheries € Game Dept. Victoria Fisheries Contrib., 8: 1-18, figs 1-4. . See also Butcher & Ling. LINNE, C. von, 1758.—Systema Naturae ed. 10, Holmiae. LINNEAN Society oF NEw SOUTH WALES, 1875 onwards.—PROCEEDINGS: 1 to date. LLANO, G. A., 1957.—Sharks v. Men. Scientific American, 196 (6): 54-61, 19 figs. LoneHurRsST, A. R., 1958.—Racial Differences in Size and Growth in the New Zealand Snapper. N.Z. J. Sci., 1 (4): 487-499, figs 1-5. LONGMAN, H. A., 1928.—Discovery of juvenile Lung-fishes, with notes on HEpiceratodus. Mem. Qld. Mus., 9 (2): 160-1738, Pl. xix. Lorp, C. E., 1923a.—A List of the Fishes of Tasmania. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1922: 60-78. , 19238b6.—Vinculum sexfasciatum Richardson, an addition to the Fish Fauna of Tasmania. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1923: 43-44, fig. , 1925.—Additions to the Fish Fauna of Tasmania. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tiasm. (1924) 1925: 51-52, figs. , 1927.—A List of the Fishes of Tasmania. J. Pan-Pacific Res. Inst., 2 (4): 11-16. Lorp, C. E., and Scorr, H. 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Cire. 9 ex Victoria’s Resources, 4 (3): 1-2, 8 figs. , 1964.—First Australian Record, Hexanchus griseus (Bonaterre) 1780. The Six-gilled Shark. Mem. Nat. Mus. Vict., 26: 259-260, Pl. i. McCann, C., 1953.—Ichthyological Notes, With Special Reference to Sexual Dimorphism in some New Zealand Fishes. Rec. Domin. Mus. [Wellington, N.Z.], 2 (1): 1-17, figs 1-18. , 1961.—The Sunfish, Mola mola (1l.), in New Zealand Waters. Rec. Domin. Mus., 4 (2): 7-20, 6 figs. McCoy, F., 1865.—Remarks on the Australian fish of the Genus Arripis. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 6: 158-159. , 1867.—On the Recent Zoology and Palaeontology of Victoria. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays no. 7: 1-24. , 1874.—Note of Thyrsites micropus (McCoy). Monthly Notice Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., Sept., 1873: 50. , 1878-1890.—Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria. (Melbourne: Govt. Printer), 20 decades in 2 vols: 1-375, Pls 1-200. 90 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, McCutitocH, A. R., 1907.—The Results of Deep-Sea Investigation in the Tasman Sea. ii. The Expedition of the “Woy Woy’. 1. Fishes and Crustaceans from Hight Hundred Fathoms. Rec. Austr. Mus., 6 (5): 345-355, Pls Ixiii-lxv and text-figure 55. ———___—., 1908.—-Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 1. Rec. Austr. Mus., 7 (1): 36-43, Pls x-xi. , 1909.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 2. Rec. Awstr. Mus., 7 (4): 315-321, Pls xe-xci, text-fig. 18. , 1910a.—Exhibition of Ranzania makua and Cyttus novae-zelandiae. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 35 (2): 307. ————.,, 1910b.—Exhibition of Fishes new to Australia, and note on Percalates colonorum. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 35 (2): 4381. , 1910¢.—Exhibition of Scyliorhinus marmoratus Bennett and Echidna zebra Shaw. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 35 (3): 688. —_————, 191la.—Report on the Fishes obtained by the F.1.8. ‘““Endeavour’”’ on the Coasts of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. Part i. Zool. Res. Endeavour, 1 (1): 1-87, Pls i-xvi. ————, 1911b.—Exhibition of Gadopsis marmoratus. Proc. LINN. Soc N.S.W., 36: 82-83, 305 and 347. —, 1912a.—Exhibition of six more fishes, new to the Australian Fauna, from Murray Island. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 36 (3): 428. —, 1912b.—Exhibition of six Queensland fishes, new to the Australian fauna. Proc. LInnN. Soc. N.S.W., 36 (3): 606. ———_—, 1912¢—Notes on some Western Australian Fishes. Rec. W. Austr. Mus., 1 (2): 78-97, Pls ix-xiii, text-figs 1-2. , 1912d.—Notes on some Australian Atherinidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 24: 47-53, Pl. i, text-fig. 1. ————, 1913.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 3. Rec. Austr. Mus., 9 (3): 355-389, Pls xii-xx, text-figures 54-55. ———_—,, 1914a.—Notes on some Western Australian Fishes [No. 2]. Rec. W.A. Mus., 1 (3): 211-227, Pls xxix-xxxi, text-fig. 1. , 1914b.—Report on some Fishes obtained by the F.1.S. ““Endeavour” on the coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South and South Western Australia. 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Zoologist, 1 (2): 47-49, 2 text-figs. — —, 1916a.—Report on some Fishes obtained by the F.I.S. ‘‘Endeavour”’ on the Coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South and South Western Australia. Part iv. Biol. Res. Endeavour, 4 (4): 169-199, Pls xliv-lviii, text-figs 1-2. , 1916b6.—Ichthyological Items. Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 58-69, Pls 7-9. ————, 1917a.—Ichthyological Notes. Austr. Zool., 1 (4): 89-93, Pl. x. ——, 1917b.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 4. Rec. Austr. Mus., 11 (7): 163-188, Pls 29-31, text-figs 1-2. —, 1918a—Fishes and Crustaceans from King Sound, North-West Australia. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. (S. Austr. Branch), 18: 289-290. , 1918b.—Four Queuensland Fishes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 6: 91-96, Pls 27-30. —_—— , 1919a.—Studies in Australian Fishes, No. 5. Rec. Austr. Mus., 12 (8): 171-177, Pls 25-26. , 1919b.—Check-list of the Fish and Fish-like Animals of New South Wales. Part i. Austr. Zool., 1 (7): 217-227, Pls 16-18. , 1920a.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 6. With a description of a new Girellops from the Kermadec Islands. Rec. Austr. Mus., 13 (2): 41-71, Pls x-xiv, text-figs 1-3. ————, 1920b.—Exhibition of Fishes from 150 fathoms, east of Sydney. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 45 (2): 208. , 1921a.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 7. Rec. Austr. Mus., 13 (4): 1238-142, Pls 21-24. —, 1921b6.—Check-list of the Fishes and Fish-like Animals of New South Wales. Part 2. Austr. Zoologist, 2 (2): 14-58, Pls 4-24. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 91 McCuutitocH, A. R., 1921¢e.—Notes and illustrations of Queensland Fishes, No. 2. Mem. Qld. Mus., 7 (3): 164-178, Pls viii-xi. , 1921d.—Notes on, and descriptions of Australian Fishes, No. 2. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 46 (1): 458-472, Pls 387-41, text-figs 1-3. , 1921e.— Electric Rays. Austr. Mus. Mag., 1 (3): 89-90. , 1922a.—Check-list of the Fish and Fish-like Animals of New South Wales. Part iii. Austr. Zool., 2 (3): 86-130, Pls 25-43. Also as Austr. Zool. Handbook, 1, 1922: i-xxvi and 1-104, Pls i-xliii, 1 text fig. Second ed., 1927. Third ed., 1934. , 1922b.—Notes and Illustrations of Queensland Fishes. No. 3. Mem. Qld. Mus., 7 (4): 241-245, Pl. xiv. , 1922c.—Ribbon Fish (Trachipterus jacksonensis). Austr. Mus. Mag., 1 (5): 146. , 1923a.—Sea Dragons (Phyllopteryx). Austr. Mus. Mag., 1 (8): 231-232, 2 figs. —, 1923b.—Notes on Fishes from Australia and Lord Howe Island. Rec. Austr. Mus., 14 (1): 1-17, Pls i-iii. 1923¢c.—Fishes from Australia and Lord Howe Island. No. 2. Rec. Austr. Mus.. 14 (2): 113-125, Pls 14-16. ——_—, 1924a.—Ichthyological Items. No. 2. Mem. Qld. Mus., 8 (1): 61-76, Pls 11-14, text- figures 1-6. , 1924b.—Fishes and the Movies. Australian Musewm Magazine, 2 (3): 74, 103-108, figs. , 1925a.—Fishes of Australia. Austr. Illustr. Encycl., 1 & 2, passim, illustr. , 1925b.—Stone Fishes and the Art of Camouflage. Austr. Mus. Mag., 2 (5): 159-162, 3 figs. ———, 1925¢—Raining Fishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 2 (6): 217-218. ————, 1926a.—Studies in Australian Fishes. No. 8. Rec. Austr. Mus., 15 (1): 28-39, Pl. i, figs 1-2. , 1926b.—Report on some Fishes obtained by the F.I.S. “Endeavour” on the Coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South and South-Western Australia. Part v. Biol. Res. Endeavour, 5 (4): 157-216, Pls xliii-lvi, figs 1-4. , 1929-30.—A Check-list of the Fishes Recorded from Australia. Awstr. Mus. Mem., 5 (1-4): i-x and 1-534. . See also Ogilby & McCulloch; see also Waite & McCulloch. McCuiiocnH, A. R., and McNEILL, F. A., 1918.—Some Australian Blennioid Fishes. Rec. Austr. Mus., 12 (2): 9-25, Pls iii-iv, text-fig. 1. McCuuitocH, A. R., and O«giupy, J. D., 1919.—Some Australian Fishes of the Family Gobiidae. Rec. Austr. Mus., 12 (10): 193-291, Pls 31-37, text-figures 4-5. McCuLiocH, A. R., and WaAITE, EH. R., 1915a.—The Fishes of the South Australian Government Trawling Cruise, 1914. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 39: 455-476, Pls xii-xv, text-fig. 1. , 1915b.—A Revision of the genus Aracana and its allies. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 39: 477-493, Pls xvi-xxv. , 1916.—Additions to the Fish fauna of Lord Howe Island. No. 5. Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 40: 437-451. a= , 1917.—Results of the South Australian Museum Expedition to Strzelecki & Cooper Creeks, Pisces. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 41: 472-475, figs 1-2. , 1918a.—Some new and little-known Fishes from South Australia. Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 1 (1): 39-78, Pls 2-7, text-figs 26-31. , 1918b6.—Descriptions of two new Australian Gobies. Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 1 (1): 79-82. Pl. viii. McCuutocH, A. R., and WHITLEY, G. P., 1925a.—Some Little Known Australian Flat-fishes. Rec. Austr. Mus., 14 (4): 342-354, Pl. xlix, 4 text-figs. , 1925b.—A List of the Fishes recorded from Queensland waters. Mem. Qld. Mus., 8 (2): 125-182. MACGILLIvRAY, J., 185l1a.—Sketch of the Natural History of such portions of the Louisiade Archipelago and New Guinea, as were visited by H.M.S. ‘Rattlesnake’, June to September, 1849. J. Roy. Geogr. Soc. London, 21: 13-18. , 1851b.—Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake. 2 vols (London: T. & W. Boone), “1852”, published Dec., 1851. McILwRAITtH, —. (no initials, author referred to as Mr. Mcllwraith, Editor, Rockhampton Bulletin), 1898.—The Giant Perch. Q’ld. Agric. J., 2 (2), Feb., 1898: 153. MacInnss, I. J., 1950.—Australian Fisheries. (Sydney: Halstead Press): 1-104, Pls 1-6, text- figs 1-6, map. Mackay, R. D., 1957.—Casting a Fish in Plaster. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (5): 153-155, figs 1-4. McKay, R. J., 1963—Second Record of the Little Pineapple Fish (Sorosichthys ananassa Whitley). W. Austr. Nat., 8 (7): 171-172. , 1964.—Description of a new Stonefish of the family Synanceidae from Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 47 (1): 8-12, fig. 1. McKzown, K. C., 1934.—Notes on the food of Trout and Macquarie Perch in Australia. Rec. Austr. Mus., 19 (2): 141-152, Pl. xvii & table. 92 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, McKeown. Kk. C.. 1937.—The Food of Trout in New South Wales, 1935-36. Rec. Austr. Mus., 20 (1): 38-66. ——_—, 1955.—The Food of Trout in New South Wales, 1938-40. Rec. Austr. Mus., 23 (5): 273-279. MACLEAY, WILLIAM.—[For a list of his exhibits before the Linnean Society of New South Wales, see Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Index to vols. i-l, 1929: 88-89.] ——_——., 1877a.—Notes on Specimens of Entozoa and Ejpizoa taken from Sunfish. Proc. LINN. Soc: N-SIW:, 22 12-13. —, 1877b.—Notes on the Zoological Collections made in Torres Straits and New Guinea during the cruise of the ‘‘Chevert’”. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1: 36-40. —, 1878a.—Note on Monacanthus cheverti, Alleyne and Macleay. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 2: 69-70. , 1878b.—The Fishes of Port Darwin. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 2: 344-367, Pls vii-x. , 1879a.—Note on a Species of Therapon found in a dam near Warialda. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 15-17. ———_—, 1879b.—Descriptions of some new Fishes from Port Jackson and King George’s Sound. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 33-37, Pls ii-v. ——_——, 1879¢.—On Heterodontus galeatus. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 4: 311-312. , 1879d.—On the Clupeidae of Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 4: 363-385. ——_—, 1880a.—On the Mugilidae of Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 4: 410-427. ————, 1880b.—On three rare Sharks found in Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 4: 458-459. , 1880e.—Note on Scomber antarcticus. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 4: 468. , 1880d.—Description of a new species of Galaxias, with remarks on the distribution of the genus. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 45-47. ——-—_—,, 1880e.—On two hitherto undescribed fishes well-known in the Sydney market. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 48-49. —, 1881a.—Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 302-444 and 510-629, Pls xiii-xiv et ibid., 6, 1882: 1-138, Pls i-ii and 202-387. , 1881b.—Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes. (Sydney: F. W. White), 1: 1- 264; 2: 1-324; supplement, 1884: 1-64. , 1882a.—Notes on the Pleuronectidae of Port Jackson, with descriptions of two hitherto unobserved species. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 11-15. , 1882b.—The Fishes of the Palmer River. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 69-71. , 1882¢.—On a species of Galawvias found in the Australian Alps. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 106-109. —, 1882d.—Description of two fishes lately taken in or near Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 366-367. , 1883.—On some newly observed habits of Ceratodus forsteri. Zoologist, (7) 3: 506- 507. , 1884a.—Notes on a collection of fishes from the Burdekin and Mary Rivers, Queens- land. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 8: 199-213. , 1884b.—On a new genus of fishes from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 8: 439-441, Pl. xxii. , 1884¢.—Some results of Trawl fishing outside Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 8: 457-462. , 1884d.-—Supplement to the Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 9: 2-64. , ——_——, 1884e.—Notices of New Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 9: 170-172. , 1884f.—Omissions in... Catalogue of Australian Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 9: 448. , 1885.—New Fishes from the Upper Murrumbidgee. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10: 267-269. ——_—_—.. 1886a.—Note on Ctenodax wilkinsoni, Mel. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1: 511-512. , 1886b.—Zoology of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1885: 285-308. . See also Alleyne & Macleay; see also Miklouho-Maclay & Macleay. McMicHaAgL, D. F., and WuHitTibBy, G. P., 1956.—The Published Writings of Tom Iredale with an Index of his New Scientific Names. Austr. Zool., 12 (3): 211-250. McNALLY, J., 1957.—The Feeding Habits of Cormorants in Victoria. Vic. Fisher. € Game Dept. Fauna Contrib., 6: 1-36, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-4. McNEILL, F. A., See Gillett & McNeill; see McCulloch & McNeill. MAckK, G., 19384a.—New Records of Fishes from Victoria. No. 1. Vict. Nat., 51 (8): 179-180. , 1934b.—On the Occurrence of the Ribbon Fish, Trachipterus trachypterus (Gmel.), in Victoria. Vict. Nat., 51 (8): 181-182, 1 fig. , 1935.—New Records of Fishes from Victoria. No. 2. Vict. Nat., 52: 8-11. —, 1936.—Victorian Species of the genus Galaxias, with descriptions of two new species. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb., 9: 98-101, figs 1-2. , 1941.—Cormorants and the Gippsland Lakes Fishery. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, 12: 95-117, figs 1-15. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 93 MAHADEVAN, S., 1962.—The Pearl Fish Carapus margaritiferae (Rendahl), a new record for the Indian waters. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 3: 204-207, Pl. i, text-fig. 1. Main, A. R., 1954.—Reports of Excursions. Helena Gorge. Western Australian Naturalist, 4 (7): 169-170. MaAtcoum, W. B., 1959.—The Populations of Australian “Salmon”, Arripis trutta (Bloch & Schneider), in Australian waters. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 10 (1): 22-29, figs 1-4. —, 1960.—Area of distribution, and movement of the western subspecies of the Australian “Salmon”, Arripis trutta esper Whitley. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 2 (3): 282-325, Pls i-iii, text-figs 1-3. , 1961.—The Australian Salmon. Fisheries Newsletter, 20 (7), July, 1961: 19-22, figs 1-8. Main, M. H.—See Schulz & Malin. Marcy, D. E.—See La Monte & Marcy. MARSHALL, A. J., 1962.—A Text-Book of Zoology (Parker & Haswell), ed. 7, 2: 47-380 and most of figs 40-262. MARSHALL, N. B., 1954.—Australian Lung Fish. Zoo Life (Zool. Soc. Lond.), Summer, 1954: 63-65, 2 figs. ————,, 1955.—-Alepisauroid Fishes. Discovery Reports, 27: 303-336, Pl. xix, text-figs 1-9. . See also Schultz & Marshall. MARSHALL, T. C., 1925.—New Fish Records for Queensland. Mem. Qld. Mus., 8 (2): 123-124. , 1927.—Ichthyological Notes. No. 2. Mem. Qld. Mus., 9 (1): 107-108. ————.,, 1928.—Ichthyological Notes. No. 3. Mem. Qld. Mus., 9 (2): 189-193, Pl. 24. , 1941.—New Ichthyological Records. Mem. Qld. Mus., 12: 53-64. , 1951.—Ichthyological Notes. No. 1. (Dept. Harbours and Marine, Brisbane, Queens- land): 1-9, Pls i-iii. , 1953.—Ichthyological Notes. No. 2. Ichthyological Notes, No. 2: 48-63, Pls ii-iii. , 1957.—Ichthyological Notes. IJchthyological Notes (and other papers), 1 (3): 117- 138, Pl. ii. , 1959.—Pond Culture of Fish in Queensland. (Brisbane: Govt. Printer): 1-11, 13 text-figures. 4 MARSHALL, T. C., GRANT, E. M., and Haysom, N. M., 1959.—Know your Fishes. (Brisbane: Govt. Printer): i-x, 1-138, many text-figures. MaArTIN, M., and WINKs, B., 1956.—A Note on the Algal Food of three marine fish from Southern Queensland. Qld. Nat., 15: 79. MASKELL, F. G., 1929.—On the New Zealand Lamprey, Geotria australis Gray. Part i.—Biology and Life History. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 60: 167-201, 23 text-figs. , 1930.—On the New Zealand Lamprey, Geotria australis, Gray. Part 2.—On the Mid-gut Diverticula, the Bile-duct, and the Problem of the Pancreas in the Ammocoetes Stage. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 61: 478-497, Pl. 74 & text-figs 1-14. , 1931.—On the New Zealand Lamprey, Geotria australis, Gray. Part iiii—The Loss of the Mid-gut Diverticula of the Ammocoetes Stage at Metamorphosis. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 62: 120-128, figs 1-9. z , 1932—A Note on the Ammocoetes Stage in Petromyzon, Geotria, and Mordacia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1932: 87-91, figs 1-3. MATHEWS, G., and IRepALE, T., 1912.—Perry’s Arcana—An overlooked work. Vict. Nat., 29 (al))3 Ws MATHEWS, R. H., 1903.—The Aboriginal Fisheries at Brewarrina. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 37: 146-156, 2 figs. MATSUBARA, K., and Ocutar, A., 1955.—A Revision of the Japanese Fishes of the Family Platycephalidae (The Flatheads). Mem. Coll. Agric. Kyoto Univ., 68: 1-109, Pls i-iii, text-figs 1-33. Matsumoto, W. M., 1958.—Description and Distribution of larvae of four species of Tuna in Central Pacific Waters. Fishery Bull.: 128; U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 53: 31-72, figs 1-37. , 1959.—Descriptions of Huthynnus and Awais larvae from the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and adjacent seas. Dana Rept., 50: 1-34, figs 1-31. , 1962.—Identification of larvae of four species of Tuna from the Indo-Pacific Region. I. Dana Rept., 55: 1-16, figs 1-5. MAuu, G. H.—See Miles & Maul. MAwWSsoN, PAtTricia.—See also Johnston, T. H., & Mawson. MAXWELL, G., 1952.—Harpoon at a Venture (London: Hart-Davis) : 1-272, figs 1-82 and text- figs. Mayer, F., 1935.—Melanotaenia maccullochi J. D. Ogilby, ein neuer Regenbogenfisch aus Australien. Wochenschrift fiir Aquarien und Terrarienkunde (Brunswig), 32 Jahr., Nr. 21: 321-322 & fig. Megs, G. F., 1959.—Additions to the Fish Fauna of Western Australia. 1. W.A. Fisher. Bull., 9 (1): 1-12. 94 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Mess, G. F., 1960a.—Additions to the Fish Fauna of Western Australia. 2. W.A. Fisher. Bull., 9 (2): 13-21. ——_-—_, 1960b.—The Uranoscopidae of Western Australia (Pisces, Perciformes). J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 43: 46-58, figs 1-9. , 1961.—Description of a New Fish of the Family Galaxiidae from Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 44: 33-38, Pls i-ii, text-fig. 1. , 1962a.—The Subterranean Freshwater Fauna of Yardie Creek Station, North West Cape, Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 45: 24-32, figs 1-2. — , 1962b.—Occurrence of Internal Nares in the Genus IJchthyscopus (Pisces; Uranoscopidae). Copeia, 1962, 2: 462. ————., 1962c.—A Preliminary Revision of the Belonidae. Zool. Verhand., 54: 1-96, Pl. i, text-figs 1-11. , 1962d.—Additions to the Fish Fauna of Western Australia. 3. W. Austr. Fisher. Bul., 9 (3) =: 238-30. ————., 1963a.—Description of a new Freshwater Fish of the Family Theraponidae from Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 46 (1): 1-4, fig. 1. , 1963b.—The Callionymidae of Western Australia (Pisces). J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 43 (3) 8 QB-9O, ties. i. MEINKEN, H., 1938.—Uber einige in letzer Zeit eingeftihrte Neuheiten. Bldtter fiir Aquarien 1. Terrarienkunde, 1938 (2): 18-20, 1 fig. MELLEN, I. M., 1919.—Prehensile-tailed Pipefishes. Zool. Soc. Bull. (New York), 22 (6): 133- 135, 3 figs. MerepitH, L. A., 1880.—Tasmanian Friends and Foes. Feathered, Furred and Finned (Hobart Town: J. Walch). Also 2nd ed., 1881. MeEssMe|Er, C. A., 1924.—Notes on a rare Atherine, Rhadinocentrus ornatus, found upon Moreton Island. Qld. Nat., 4 (5): 95. MrEuUSsCcHEN, F. C., 1791.—Index. Zoophylac. Gronovianum, 3, Pisces, 4 pages without numbers. Meyer, F. A., 1793.—Systematisch-summarische Uebersicht der neuesten zoologischen HMntdeckungen in Neuholland und Afrika ... (Leipzig: Dykirchen): i-vi + 1-178. MiIKkLouHO-MaAcLAY, N. DE, and MACLEAY, W., 1879-86.—Plagiostomata of the Pacific. Parts i-iii. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 3: 306-334, Pls 22-26; et ibid., 8, 1884; 426-431, Pl.; et ibid., 10, 1886: 673-678, 2 plates. Mites, G. W., 1957.—On the Bramid Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico. Zoologica, 42 (2): 51-61, Pls. 1-iii. Mies, G. W., and MAuL, G. E., 1958.—Taractes asper and the systematic relationships of the Steinegeriidae and Trachyberycidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 119 (6): 393-418, one plate & text-figs 1-7. MiIuuer, R. R., 1945.—Hyporhamphus patris, a new species of Hemiramphid fish from Sinaloa, Mexico, with an analysis of the generic characters of Hyporhamphus and Hemiramphus. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 96: 185-193, Pl. xi, & text-fig. 9. , 1954.—The Scientific Name of the Australian Lungfish. Turtox News, 32 (3): 69. Mitwarp, N. E., 1958.—A Cling-fish New for Western Australia. W.A. Nat., 6 (4): 106. , 1960.—A New Species of Weed-fish of the Genus Petraites from Western Australia. W.A. Nat., 7 (5): July, 1960: 134-135, & fig. Mimura, K., 1958—Fishing condition of the so-called Indo-maguro (Thunnuws maccoyi?) in the eastern seas of the Indian Ocean. Nankai Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. Rept., 7: 49-58. MITCHELL, F. J.. and BeHRNDT, A. C., 1949.—Fauna and Flora of the Greenly Islands. Part i. Rec. S. Austr. Mus. Adelaide, 9 (2): 167-179. ; MITCHELL, L. R.—See Halstead & Mitchell. MITCHELL, T. L., 1838.—Three Expeditions into the interior of Eastern Australia ... (London: Boone), 2 vols, illustr. Also 2nd edition, 1839. , 1848.—Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Australia, in search of a route from Sydney to the Gulf of Carpentaria. (London: Longman) : i-xvi + 1-438, illustr. MopGéuin, F. R.—See Halstead, Chitwood & Modglin. Mour, H., 1937.—Revision der Centriscidae (Acanthopterygii Centrisciformes). Dana Rept., 13: 1-70, Pls i-ii & text-figs 1-33. ———. See also Duncker & Mohr; see also Ladiges, Wahlert & Mohr. MonracuE, P. D., 1914.—Pisces. Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1914, 3: 650, ew Regan MS. In Montague’s “A Report on the Fauna of the Monte Bello Islands’. Jbid.: 625-652, Pls i-iv. MONTALBAN, H. R., 1928—Pomacentridae of the Philippine Islands. Phil. Bur. Science Monogr., 24: 1-117, Pls i-xix. MONTROUZIER, X., 1857.—Essai sur la Faune de l’ile de Woodlark ou Moiou. Ann. Soc. imp. Agric. Hist. Nat. Lyon, 8, 1856: 417-504; reprinted (Lyon: Dumoulin): 139-226. MoorHousst, F. W., 1939.—Sharks. S. Austr. Nat., 19 (3): 1-12, figs 1-26 & 6 unnumbered figures. , 1957.—New Species taken in S. Australia. Fisheries Newsletter, 16 (3), March, 1957: 29. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 95 MoRELAND, J. M., 1956.—Notes on Four Fishes New to the New Zealand Fauna. Rec. Dom. Mus., 3: 9-11, figs 1-2. — , 1958.—The Composition, Distribution and Origin of the New Zealand Fish Fauna. Proc. N.Z. Ecol. Soc., 6: 28-30. , 1960.—The occurrence of the Pacific Blue Marlin (Makaira ampla mazara) in New Zealand Waters. Rec. Domin. Mus., 3 (3): 247-250, PI. i. —____—, 1961.—Game Fishes of New Zealand. (Wellington, N.Z.: A. H. & A. W. Reed Ltd.) (in) Fighting Fins. Big Game Fishing in New Zealand Waters by Neil Illingworth. . See also Doogue & Moreland. Moreans, J. F. C., 1959.—Three confusing species of Serranid fish, one described as new, from Fast Africa. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (13) 1, October, 1958: 642-656, Pls xvii-xix. Morris, E. R., and RArr, J., 1909.—Notes on the Structure of Asymmetron bassanum, Gunther. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. (n.s.), 22: 85-90, Pls Xviii-xx. Morrow, J. E., 1951.—A Striped Marlin (Makaira mitsukurii) without a spear. Copeia, 1951 (4): 303-304, fig. 1. , 1952a.—Allometric Growth in the Striped Marlin, Makaira mitsukurii, from New Zealand. Pacific Science, 6 (1): 53-58. == —, 1952b.—Food of the Striped Marlin, Makaira mitsukurti, from New Zealand. Copeia, 1952 (3): 143-145. , 1957a.—Races of the Striped Marlin, Makaira mitsukurii, in the Pacific. Bull. Bingham Oc. Coll., 16 (2): 72-87. , 1957b.—On the Morphology of the pectoral girdle in the genus Makaira. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll., 26 (2): 88-105, figs 1-4. _—_, 1958 —Names of the Blue Marlin and Black Marlin. Bull. Marine Science Gulf & Caribbean, 8 (4): 356-359, fig. 1. —__—_, 1959a —On Makaira nigricans of Lacépéde. Postilla Yale Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. (New Haven, Conn.), 39: 1-12, figs 1-2. , 1959b.—Distribution of the Blue Marlin and Black Marlin in the Indo-Pacific. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf € Carib., 9: 321-3238. —, 1959¢c.—Istiompaxz indicus (Cuvier) 1831, a prior name for the Black Marlin. Copeia, 1959 (4): 347-349, fig. 1. Morton, A., 1878.—On the present stage of the Salmon experiment. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1878: 109-114. , 1893.—Description of a new species of shark. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1893: 211-213. ————_., 1896.—Antennarius mitchelii, sp. nov. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1896: 98. —— , 1897.—Lampris. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1896: 99. Moss, S. A., 1962.—Melamphaidae. II. A New Melamphaid Genus, Sio, with a redescription of Sio nordenskjéldii (LOnnberg). Dana Rept., 56: 1-10, figs 1-4. Moyne (LorpD), 1936.—A Journey in Lands Between the Pacific & Indian Ocean. Walkabout, 366 pp., Pls i-xcvii & figs. MUuLuer, J., 1834-45.—Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden, der Cyclostomen mit durch- bohrtem Gaumen (Berlin). ————.. 1839.— Ueber die Plagiostomen-Gattungen ; Syrrhina, Trigonoptera. Mitt. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1839, fide Dean, 1917, Bibl. Fishes, 2: 168. MUuuer, J., and HENLE, F. G., 1837a—Gattungen der Haifische und Rochen ... Ber. K. pr. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1836: 111-118. , 1837b.—Ueber die Gattungen der Plagiostomen. Arch. Naturg. (Wiegmann), 3 (1): 394-401, 434; ibid., 4: 83-85. , 1838.—On the generic characters of cartilaginous fishes, with descriptions of new genera. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Charlesworth) (n.s.), 2: 88-91. —_—— , 1838-41.—Systematische Beschreibung der FPlagiostomen (Berlin; folio): i-xxii 1-200, Pls 1-60. MULLER, J., and TroscHEL, F. H., 1845-49.—Horae ichthyologicae. 3 parts in 2 vols, Berlin, 16 plates. MULLER, S.—See Schlegel & Muller. Munro, I. S., 1942.—The Eggs and Early Larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus commersoni (Lacépéde) with preliminary notes on the Spawning of that species. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 54 (4): 33-48, Pls ii-iv. , 1943.—Revision of Australian Species of Scomberomorus. Mem. Qld. Mus., 12 (2): 65-95, Pls vi-viii, text-figs. , 1945a.—Australian Bream (Acanthopagrus australis). Fisheries Newsletter, 4 (5): 2, fig. , 1945b6.—Postlarval Stages of Australian Fishes. No. 1. Mem. Qld. Mus., 12 (3): 136-153, figs 1-8. , 1948.—Sparidentex hasta (Valenciennes), a New Name for Chrysophrys cuvieri Day. Copeia, 1948 (4): 275-280, fig. 1. , 1949a.—Revision of Australian Silver Breams Mylio and Rhabdosargus. Mem. Qld. Mus., 12: 182-223, Pls xvi-xxiii, text-figs 1-5. an 96 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Munro, I. S., 1949b.—A New Genus and Species of Transparent Gobioid Fish from Australia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (12) 2: 229-240, figs 1-11. , 1949¢.—The Rare Gempylid Fish, Lepidocybium flavo-brunneum (Smith). Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 60 (3): 31-41, Pl. i & text-figs 1-3. —_____ 1950.— Revision of Bregmaceros with Descriptions of larval stages from Australasia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 61: 37-53, figs 1-10. , 1952.—An Application of Visible Indexing to Systematic Zoology. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 3 (1): 92-100, figs 1-4. , 1954.—Eggs and Larvae of the Four-Winged Flying Fish, Hirundichthys speculiger (Valenciennes). Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 5: 64-69, Pl. I. , 1955.—Egegs and Larvae of the Sabre-toothed Oyster Blenny, Dasson steadi (Whitley) (Blenniidae). Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 6 (1): 30-34, figs 1-2. , 1956.—Handbook of Australian Fishes, No. 1, pages 1-8. Fisheries Newsletter, 1d (7), July, 1956: 13-20, figs 1-56, onwards. , 1957.—Occurrence of the Big-eyed tuna, Parathunnus mebachi (Kishinouye), in Queensland. Ich. Notes (Brisbane), 1 (3): 145-148, fig. 1. , 1958a.—Fishes nobody could identify. Fisheries Newsletter, 17 (6), June, 1958; 5, 2 figs. , 1958b.—The Fishes of the New Guinea Region. Papua N. Guin. Agr. J.,10 (4) = Fish. Bull., 1: 97-369, fig. 1, 3 maps. —_———.,, 1960.—New fish. Finchat, Dec., 1960: 13 and cover. Munro, I. S., and KurtH, D., 1960.—Trawl Fishes of Bight. Misheries Newsletter, 19 (7), July, 1960: 16-21, figs 1-17. Munro, I. S. (and others), 1950.—Australian Fisheries (ed. I. J. MacInnes), April, 1950: 1-103, Pls i-vi, text-figs 1-6. Murray, A., 1856.—Description of a new species of Hcheneis . .. Hdinburgh New Phil. J. (nm.s.), 4: 287-301. MusEuM GODEFFROY.—See Gunther, 1873a-b and 1873-1910; Kner, 1865; Pohl, 1884; Schmeltz, 1869-1879; and Steindachner & Kner, 1867. Musecrave, A., 19387-57.—Zoology. Australian Science Abstracts (suppl. to Austr. J. Sci.), passim. Myers, G. S., 1936.—On the Indo-Australian Fishes of the genus Scatophagus, with description of a new genus, Selenotoca. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 49: 83-86. , 1939.—Notes on the Labrid Genus Lienardella. Stanf. Ichth. Bull., 1 (3): 87-88. , 1960.—Phylax telescopus. Copeia, 1960 (1): 75-78. Nant, Alberto, and GNeErRI, Francisco S., 1951.—Introduccion al Estudio de los Mixinoidews Sudamericanos. I. Un nuevo Genero de “Babosa de Mar’, Notomyxine (Clase Myxini, Familia Myxinidae). Revista del Instituto Nacional Invest. Ciencias Nat. (Zool. ii, 4), Buenos Aires: 183-224, Pls I-III & text-figs 1-6. NANKAI REGIONAL FISHERIES RESEARCH [LABORATORY, 1958.—Average Year’s Fishing Condition of Tuna Long Line Fisheries: Appendix, Atlas. NATURAL History (New York), 1928.—Vol. 28 (1) (Fish number). NEAvVE, S. A., 1939-50.—Nomenclator Zoologicus. (London, Zool. Soc.), 5 vols. NETTELBECK, N., 1926.—Fishes of the Finniss River. S. Aus. Nat., 7 (3): 64-65. NEWMAN, H., 1872.—The barramunda, a new ganoid fish from Queensland. JZoologist, (2) ‘: 3188-3189. NEw SoutH WALES, 1884.—Department of Fisheries. Fisheries of the Colony: Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries for New South Wales on the State of the Fisheries of the Colony, to the 31st December, 1883. Sydney, 1884. New SoutH WALES, 1889.—Fisheries Act. Report from the Select Committee on Working of the Fisheries Act, together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendices. Sydney, 1889. NEw SoutH WALES FISHERMEN’S ASSOCIATION, 1891.—The Fisheries Question in New South Wales. Sydney, 1891. NicHouis, A. G., 1957.—The Tasmanian Trout Fishery. I. Sources of Information and Treat- ment of Data. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 8 (4): 451-475, Pl. i. , 1958a.—The Tasmanian Trout Fishery. II. The Fishery of the North-west Region. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 9 (1): 19-59, Pl. i. , 1958b.—The Tasmanian Trout Fishery. III. The Rivers of the North and East. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 9 (2): 167-190, figs 1-9. —, 1958c.—The Population of a Trout Stream and the Survival of Released Fish. Avwstr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 9 (3): 319-350. , 1958d.—The egg yield from brown and rainbow trout in Tasmania. Austr. J. Mur. Freshw. Res., 9 (4): 526-536. , 1963.—Freshwater Life as Fish Food. Victoria’s Resources, 5 (1): 9, 11. NicHo.s, A., 1882.—The Acclimatisation of the Salmonidae at the Antipodes: its history and results. (London: Sampson Low): 1-238. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 97 NicHous, J. T., 1920a.—On the genus Citula. Copeia, 79: 11-14. , 1920b.—A Key to the Species of Trachurus. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 42: 477-481. , 1949.—Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No. 62. Freshwater Fishes from Cape York, Australia. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1433: 1-8. , 1951.—Notes on Carangin Fishes. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1527: 1-6. , 1952.—Four New Gobies from the Eastern and Western Pacific. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1594: 1-5, figs 1-2. , 1954.—A New Blenny from Bali and a New Threadfin from New Guinea. - Amer. Mus. Novit., 1680: 1-5, figs 1-3. , 1955.—Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No. 71. Two New Fresh-Water Fishes from New Guinea. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1735: 1-6, figs 1-2. , 1957.—A New Melanotaeniid Fish from New Guinea. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1802: 1-2, fig. 1. . See also Barton & Nichols. NicHoLts, J. T., and BartscH, P., 1945.—Fishes and Shells of the Pacific World. (Washington: Infantry Journal): 1-192, figs 1-83. NicHo.us, J. T., and Breper, C. M., 1928.—An annotated list of the Synentognathi with remarks on their development and relationships. Collected by the Arcturus. Zoologica, 8 (7): 423-448, figs 156-176. NicHous, J. T., and LA Monts, F., 1941.—Yellowfin, Allison’s and Related Tunas. Ichth. Contrib. Inter. Game Fish. Assoc., 1 (3): 27-32, figs 1-3. NicHots, J. T., and RAVEN, H. C., 1928.—A New Melanotaeniin Fish from Queensland. Amer. Novit. Mus., 296: 1-2, fig. 1. , 1932.—Australian freshwater fishes. Amer. Nat., 66: 189-192, figs 1-3. , 1934.-—Two new Fresh-water Fishes (Percesoces) from New Guinea. Amer. Mus. Novit., 755: 1-4, figs 1-3. NicHOLsoNn, H. A., 1955.—Observations on an Hel-Goby, Leme purpurascens De Vis. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S.W., 1953/54: 58. NIELSEN, J., 1961.—Heterosomata (Pisces). Galathea Report, 4: 219-226, Pl. xiv, text-figs 1-3. . See also Bruun & Nielsen. Nopprer, FE. P.—See Shaw, G., & Nodder. NorMAN, J. R., 1926.—A Report on the Flatfishes (Heterosomata) collected by the F.1.S. “Hndeavour’, with a Synopsis of the Flatfishes of Australia and a Revision of the Sub- family Rhombosoleinae. Biol. Res. Hndeavour, 5 (5): 219-308, figs 1-15. , 1927.—The Flatfishes (Heterosomata) of India, with a list of the specimens in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus., 29 (1): 7-47, Pls ii-vii, text-figs 1-12. , 1928.—The Flatfishes (Heterosomata) of India, with a list of the specimens in the Indian Museum. Part ii. Rec. Ind. Mus., 30 (2): 1738-215, Pls iv-vii & text-figs 1-30. , 1930.—Oceanic Fishes and Flatfishes collected 1925-1927. Discovery Reports, 2: 261- 370, Pl. ii, text-figs 1-47. , 1931.—A History of Fishes. (London: Benn): 1-462, illustrated. And later editions. , 1935a.—A Revision of the Lizard-fishes of the Genera Synodus, Trachinocephalus, and Saurida. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1935: 99-185, 18 figs. , 1935b.—A New Percoid Fish from Papua. Copeia, 1935 (2): 61-63, fig. 1. , 1935¢e.—Coast Fishes. Part i. The South Atlantic. Discovery Report, 12: 1-58, figs 1-15. , 1937a.—Coast Fishes. Part ii. The Patagonia Region. Discovery Report, 16: 1-150, Pls i-v, & text-figs 1-76. ————, 1937b.—Fishes. Banzare Rept., (B) 1 (2): 49-88, text-figs 1-11. , 1938.—Coast Fishes. Part III. The Antarctic Zone. Discovery Reports, 18: 1-105, Pl. i and text-figs 1-62. , 1939.—Fishes. British Museum (Natural History). 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Gotesborgs Mus. Zool. Avdelning 124. Gdotesb. Kungl. Vetensk. Hand. Sjatte Foljden, (B) 6 (7): 1-13, 4 maps. 98 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, NYBELIN, O., 1957.—Deep-sea bottom-fishes. Rept. Swedish Deep Sea Exped. II, Zool. 20: 250-345, Pls i-vii. Ocutar, A.—See Matsubara & Ochiai. O’Connor, D., 1897.—Fish Culture and Acclimatisation. Q’ld. Agric. J., 1 (4): 339-341. ——__—,, 1898a.—Pisciculture. Qld. Agric. J., 2 (1), Jan., 1898: 65, plate. [See also comments by Mellwraith, 1898, and Pilcher, 1898.] , 1898b.—The Ceratodus. Qld. Agric. J., 3 (2), Aug., 1898: 172; et ibid., 3 (3), Sept., 1898: 238. OaiLtBy, J. D., 1885a.—Notes and Descriptions of some rare Port Jackson fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (1): 119-123. , 1885b.—Descriptions of new fishes from Port Jackson. Proc. LInN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (2): 225-230. , 1885¢e.—Note on Neoanthias guentheri Casteln. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (2): 231-232. , 1885d.—Description of a new Diplocrepis from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (2): 270-272. ———_—, 1885e.— Descriptions of three new fishes from Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.\W., 10 (3): 445-447. , 1885f.—Notes on the Distribution of some Australian Sharks and Rays, with a Description of Rhinobatus bougainvillei Mull. & Henle. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (3): 463-466. , 1886a.—Remarks on the Trachichthys of Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (4): 580-582. , 1886b.—Catalogue of the Fishes of New South Wales with their principal Synonyms. Rept. Commis. Fisher. N.S. Wales, appendix A: 1-67. , 1887a.—Exhibition of Apogon (Apogonichthys) roseigaster, sp. nov. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (4): 1061. , 1887b.—On an undescribed Pimelepterus from Port Jackson. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1886: 539-540. , 1887¢ce.—Catalogue of Fishes and other Exhibits at The Royal Aquarium, Bondi. (Sydney: Maclardy): 1-32, interleaved with advertisements. , 1887d.—Description of a little-known Australian Fish of the Genus Girella. Proce. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1887: 393-394. , 1887e.—On an undescribed Fish of the genus Prionurus from Australia. Proc. Zool. Soe. London, 1887: 395-396. , 1888a.—On a new Genus and Species of Australian Mugilidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1887: 614-616. , 1888b.—On a new Genus of Percidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1887: 616-618, fig. 1. , 1888c.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the Collection of the Australian Museum. Part i— Recent Palaeichthyan Fishes. Austr. Mus. Cat., 14: i-v + 1-26. , 1888d.—Note on the Cause of Death in Fishes in the National Park, N.S. Wales. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 3 (2): 890-891. , 1889a.—List of the Australian Palaeichthyes, with Notes on their Synonmy and Distribution. Parts i and ii. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 3 (4): 1765-1772, and (2) 4 (1) : 178-186. , 1889b.—The Reptiles and Fishes of Lord Howe Island. Austr. Mus. Mem., 2 (3): —, 1889c.—Notes on some Fishes new to the Australian fauna. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1889: 151-158. , 1890a.—Report on the Umaralla River as a suitable locality for Trout and Salmon Hatchery. Rept. Comm. Fisheries N.S.W., 1889, appendix: 22. , 1890b.—Report on the suitability of the Wingecarribee River, at Berrima, as a Piscicultural Station. Rept. Comm. Fisheries N.S.W., 1889, appendix: 22-23. , 1890¢e.—Descriptions of two new species of Australian Lophobranchiate Fishes. Rec. Austr. Mus., 1 (3): 55-56. , 1890d.—Redescription of Pseudaphritis bassi, Casteln. Rec. Austr. Mus., 1 (3): 67-69. , 1890e.—Description of a new Tetrodon from New South Wales. Rec. Austr. Mus., 1 (4): 81-82 & 101. —, 1891.—Description of a new Fish from Lord Howe Island. Rec. Austr. Mus., 1 (6): 110. , 1892.—On some Undescribed Reptiles and Fishes from Australia. Rec. Austr. Mus., 2 (2): 23-26. , 18938a.—Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales. (Sydney: Govt. Printer) : 1-212, Pls i-li. , 1893b.—Description of a new Shark from the Tasmanian coast. Rec. Austr. Mus., 2 (5): 62-63. , 1898c.—Description of a new pelagic fish from New Zealand. Rec. Austr. Mus., 2 (5): 64-65. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 99 Ocitsy, J. D., 18938d.—Review of the Genus Schedophilus, Cocco, and its Allies. Rec. Austr. Mus., 2 (5): 65-73. —-———,, 1894.—Description of five new fishes from the Australasian Region. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 9 (2): 367-374. , 1895a.—Description of a new Australian Eel. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 9 (4): 720-721. , 1895b.—Fresh-Water Fishes of New South Wales. Natural Science, 6 (35): 71-72. , 1895e.—On two new Genera and Species of Fishes from Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 10 (2): 320-324. , 1896a.—On a new Genus and Species of Fishes from Maroubra Bay. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (1): 23-25. , 1896b.—On a Galaxias from Mount Kosciusko. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (1): 62-78. ————,, 1896c.—A new Family of Australian Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (2): 118- 135. , 1896d.—Descriptions of two new Genera and Species of Australian Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (2): 136-142. , 1896e.—A Monograph of the Australian Marsipobranchii. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (3): 388-426. , 1897a.—Some Tasmanian Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1896: 69-85. , 18976.—On some Australian Hleotrinae. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 21 (4): 725-757; et ibid., 22 (4), 1898: 783-798. , 1897¢e.—New Genera and Species of Australian Fishes. Proc. LInN. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (1): 62-65. , 1897d.—On a larval Teleost from New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (1): 158-160, fig. 1. , 1897e—Some new Genera and Species of Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (2): 245-251. ————, 1898a.—Note on the genus Aphritis C.V. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (3): 554-560. , 1898b.—On a Trachypterus from New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (3): 646-659. , 1898¢.—New Species of Australian Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 22 (4): 759-761. , 1898d.—New Genera and Species of Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23 @) = 32-41 et ibid., 23 (3): 280-299. ————, 1899.—Contribution to Australian Ichthyology. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 24 (1): 154-186. , 1903.—Studies in the Ichthyology of Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 18: 7-27. , 1906.—Honorary Curator’s Report. Amat. Fisherm. Assoc. Qld. Ann. Rept., 1905, onwards. , 1907a.—Symbranchiate and Apodal Fishes new to Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qid., 20: 1-15. , 1907b.—Some new Pediculate Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 20: 17-25. , 1907¢c.—On a new Terapon from the Stanthorpe district, Southern Queensland. Proe. Roy. Soc. Qld., 20: 37-40. , 1908a.—On new Genera and Species of Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 21: 1-26. , 1908b6.—Descriptions of new Queensland Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 21: 87-98. ——_——,, 1908e.—New or little known Fishes in the Queensland Museum. Ann. Qld. Mus., 9: 3-41. ————, 1908d.—Revision of the Batrachoididae of Queensland. Ann. Qld. Mus., 9: 43-57. , 1908e.—Excursion to Bulwer, Moreton Island .. . (b). Ichthyology. Qld. Naturalist, 1 (3): 66-67. , 1909a.—On the Generic Name Choerops Ruppell. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 3: 315- 316. , 19096.—Report on a large fish destructive to Oysters. Rept. Mar. Dept. Qld. (1908- 9), Appendix 5: 19-21. , 1910.—On some new fishes from the Queensland Coast. (Brisbane: Endeavour Series No. 1): 85-139. , 1911¢.—On new or insufficiently described Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qid., 23 (1): 1-55. , 19116.—On the Genus “Gonorrhynchus” (Gronovius). Ann. Qld. Mus., 10: 30-35. , 1911¢.—Descriptions of new or insufficiently described Fishes from Queensland Waters. Ann. Qld. Mus., 10: 36-58, Pls v-vi. , 1911d.—List of the Edible Fishes of Moreton Bay and its Affluents. Qld., 1910-11, Appendix A: 15-16. , 1911e.—Cheilio inermis (Forskal). Ann. Qld. Mus., 10: 183. , 1912a.—On some Queensland Fishes. Mer. Qld. Mus., 1: 26-65, Pls xii-xiv. , 1912b.—Note on Blanchardia maculata, Castelnau. Mem. Qld. Mus., 1: 216. , 1913a.—EHdible Fishes of Queensland. Part i—Family Pempheridae. Part ii—The Gadopseiform Percoids. Mem. Qld. Mus., 2: 60-80, Pls xviii-xx. Rept. Mar. Dept. 100 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Ocirpy, J. D., 1913b.—On six new or rare Queensland Fishes. Mem. Qid. Mus., 2: 81-89, Pls xxXi-xxiii. , 1913¢.—Ichthyological Notes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 2: 90-93. , 1915a.—Ichthyological Notes. Qld. Naturalist, 2 (1): 29-30. , 1915b.—The Commercial Fishes and Fisheries of Queensland. An Hssay. (Brisbane: Govt. Printer): 1-61. A new, posthumous, edition, 1954. , 1915c.—Edible Fishes of Queensland. Part iii—Carangidae (No. 1). Mem. Qld. Mus., 3: 57-98, Pls xix-xxviii. , 1915d.—Review of the Queensland Pomacanthinae. Mem. Qld. Mus., 3: 99-116. , 1915e.—On some new or little-known Australian Fishes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 3: 117-129, Pls xxix-xxXx. — , 1915f.—Ichthyological Notes (No. 2). Mem. Qld. Mus., 3: 130-136. Continuation of 19138¢c, above. , 1916a.—Three undescribed Queensland Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 28: 112-115. , 1916b.—Note on Amia nigripes, Ogilby. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 28: 116. , 1916¢e—Check-list of the Cephalochordates, Selachians, and Fishes of Queensland. Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 70-98, fig. 1. ————.,, 1916d.—Edible Fishes of Queensland. Part iv— Synentognathi (No. 1). Part v— Heterosomata (No. 1). Part vi [misprinted iii]—Carangidae (No. 2). Part vii— Lethrinidae (No. 1). Part viii—Sparidae (No. 1). Part ix—Teuthidoidea (No. 1). Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 127-177, Pls xiv-xxili. , 1916e.—Review of the Queensland Pomacanthinae. Supplement No. 1. Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 178-180. , 1916f.—Ichthyological Notes (No. 3). Mem. Qld. Mus., 5: 181-185. , 1918a.—EHdible Fishes of Queensland. Part x—Plesiopidae (No. 1). Part xi— Lutianidae (No. 1). Part xii—Nemipteridae (No. 1). Part xiii—Sciaenidae (No. 1). Part xiv—Balistidae (No. 1). Mem. Qld. Mus., 6: 45-90, Pls xvi-xxvi. , 1918b.—Ichthyological Notes (No. 4). Mem. Qld. Mus., 6: 97-105. , 1919.—Alteration of generic name. Proc. Roy. Soe. Qid., 31 (5): 45. , 1920.—Edible Fishes of Queensland. Part xv—Serranidae (No. 1). Mem. Qld. Mus., (1) all=30) Plsmi-tie —__—_—., 1922.—Three New Queensland Fishes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 7 (4): 301-304, Pl. xix. , 1954.—The Commercial Fishes and Fisheries of Queensland. (Brisbane: Dept. Harbours & Marine): 1-122, figs 1-122, & 2 plates. ———. See also McCulloch & Ogilby; see also Ramsay & Ogilby. OcitBy, J. D., and McCuntocH, A. R., 1908.—A Revision of the Australian Orectolobidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 42: 264-299, Pls xlii-xliii, text-fig. 1. —__——,, 1916.—A Revision of the Australian Therapons with notes on some Papuan species. Mem. Qld. Mus.: 99-126, Pls 10-13, text-fig. 1. OKADA, Y., and SuzuxKi, K., 1956.—Taxonomic Considerations of the Lantern Fish Polyipnus spinosus Gunther and Related Species. 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E., 1924a.—A Report on the Sir Edward Pellew Group, with Special Reference to Biology and Physical Features. Parl. Comm. Aust. Rept. (Melbourne: Govt. Printer). Folio: 1-20, of which 9-20 are plates, 6 maps and 2 figs. , 1924b.—Injuries and Lesions caused by the bites of Animals and Insects. Med. J. Austr., 2 (25): 650-652, fig. 1. ————, 1926.—Fish and other Marine Animals of Australia, of special interest. Quart. Rew. Health Insp. Assoc. Austr., 4 (8): 43-48. ————,, 1927.—Northern Territory Fishes. An annotated list of fishes collected from the waters of the Northern Territory of Australia during the cruises of H.M.A.S., “Geranium”, 1923-25. Mem. Qld. Mus., 9 (1): 76-106, Pls xi-xv. ParK, Mungo, 1797.—Descriptions of eight new fishes from Sumatra. Trans. Linn. Soe. London, 3: 33-38, pl. PARKER, T. J., 1893.—Preliminary Note on the Vesicula Seminalis and the Spermatophores of Callorhynchus antarcticus. Trans. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 4, 1892: 401-402 & plate. PARKER, T. 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(London), September, 1936. , 19538.—The Perlon Shark (Heptranchias perlo). First Record from New Zealand Waters. N.Z. Sci. Review, 11: 113, fig. , 1957.—Sea Anglers’ Fishes of New Zealand. (London: Hodder and Stoughton): 1-176, coloured frontispiece, Pls i-xii, text-figs 1-56 & diagrams. , 1958a.—Fishes from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Rec. Domin. Mus., 3: 109- 19: , 1958b.—-Big Game Fishes and Sharks of New Zealand. (London: Hodder & Stoughton. ) 102 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Parrotr, A. W., 1959.—Sea Anglers’ Fishes of Australia: 1-208, plates & figs. , 1960.—The Queer and the Rare Fishes of New Zealand. (London: Hodder & Stoughton. ) PATERSON, J. E., 1915.—Trout Fishing in New South Wales. (Sydney: Immigration and Tourist Bureau): 1-44, illustr. PATTISON, G. J., 1872.—Toad Fish. N.S.W. Med. Gazette, 2: 138. PAYNE, G. H.—See Whitley & Payne. PEARSE, A. S., and others, 1938.—Fauna of the Caves of Yucatan. Carneg. Inst. Publ., 491: 1-304, illustr. PELLEGRIN, J. (trans. F. H. Stoye), 1939.—The “Scats”’. Aquariwm (Innes), 8 (2): 24-26, 2 figs. Perron, F., and FREYCINET, L. C., 1807-1816.—Voyage de découvertes aux Terres Australes... 1800-02. (Paris: Impr. Royale) 2 vols & Atlas. Various editions and translations; English ea. (London: Phillips), 1809. Perry, G., 1810-1811.—Arcana; or the Museum of Natural History ... (London: Smeeton), 21 parts; collated by Mathews & Iredale, 1912, Vict. Nat., 29: 7-16. PERUGIA, A., 1894.—Viaggio di Lamberto Loria nella Papuasia orientale. Pesci d’acqua dolce. Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia Nat., Genova, (2) 14: 546-553. Prescott, R. T., 1954.—Collections of a Century (Melbourne: Nat. Mus.): 1-186, illustr. PETERS, W. C., 1865.—Ueber eine neue Percoiden-Gattung ... und eine neue Art von Haifischen, Crossorhinus tentaculatus aus Neu Holland. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1864: 121-126. , 1866a.—Ueber neue Amphibien und Fische des K6niglichen Zoologischen Museums. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1866: 89-96. ————, 1866b.—Mittheilung Uber Fische. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1866: 509-526, plate. , 1868-69.—Ueber . .. einige neue oder weniger bekannte Amphibien und Fische. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1868: 145-148, 448-460; et ibid., 1869: 703-711. , 1871.—Ueber Ceratodus forsteri Krefft aus Australien. Sitzber. Ges. Naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1871: 29. ————,, 1876.—-Sur l’Epigonichthys cultellus du groupe des Leptocardés. J. Zool. (Gervais), 5: 348-352, fig. , 1877a.—Uebersicht der . . . Reise S.M.S. “Gazelle” gesammelten und. . . Ubersandten Fische. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1876: 831-854. , 1877b.—Ueber Epigonichthys cultellus, eine neue Gattung und Art der Leptocardii. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1876: 322-327, figs 1-5; and Kosmos, 1877-78: 165-166 (fide Dean). PFAFF, J. R., 1942.—Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition 1914-16. LXXI. On a new genus and species of the family Gobiesocidae from the Indian Ocean, with observa- tions on sexual dimorphism in the Gobiesocidae, and on the connection of certain Gobiesocids with Hchinids. Vidensk. Medd. fra Dansk. nat. Foren, 105: 413-422, Pl. III & text-figs 1-3. ————, and others, 1956.—Galathea Deep Sea Exped., 1950-52: passim. PHILLIPPS, W. J., 1919.—Life History of the Fish, Galaxias attenuatus. Austr. Zool., 1 (7): 211-218. , 1921.—Notes on the edible fishes of New Zealand. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 4 (3): 114- UM. ——_——,, 1922a.—Further Notes on the Edible Fishes of New Zealand. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Teci., 5H (2B) 3 OileOr, , 1922b.—Hybridism of Salmo iridews and Salmo fario in Australasia. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 5 (2): 98-100. ————,, 1924a.—The New Zealand Minnow, .. . Galaxias attenuwatus. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., @ (4) 8 walla, ————, 1924b.—Agrostichthys, a new genus of Ribbon fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1924 (2): 539-540, figs 1-2. —— , 1924¢.—Occurrence of Brama raii in New Zealand. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 7 (4): 246-247, fig. ————.,, 1924d.—A Review of the Elasmobranch Fishes of New Zealand. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 6 (5-6): 257-269. ——_——, 1924e.—-Sardines or Pilchards in Wellington Harbour. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 7 (3): 191, fig. , 1925.—Scales of Fishes as an index to their life-history. NN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., ri (Ga) 3 Blea, ike los, : , 1926a.—New or Rare Fishes of New Zealand. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 56, 1926: 529-537, Pls 87-92. —— , 1926b.—Origin of the Fresh-water Fishes of New Zealand. Nature, April 3, 1926: 485. , 1926c.—The Sunfish (Mola mola) in New Zealand waters. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 8 (8): 169-172, figs 1-3. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 103 PHILLIPPS, W. J., 1926d.—Hybridism of Brown and Rainbow Trout. No. 2. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech,,. 8 (4): 255-256. —___—_—., 1926e.— Distribution of Freshwater Eels... WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 8 (4): 256. ? , 1928.—Sharks of New Zealand: No. 2. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 10 (4): 221-226, figs 1-8. —___—., 1929.—Elasmobranch Fishes of New Zealand: No. 3. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 11 (2): 98-107, figs 1-8. ————, 1930a.—New Suggestion for the study of geographical distribution with a comparison of certain elasmobranch fishes from Europe, Japan and New Zealand. Arch. f. Hydro- biologie, 21: 497-501. ————,, 1930b.— Use of Fishes for the Control of Mosquitoes. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 12: 19-20, fig. ——_—, 1931.— New Species of Picked Dogfish. N. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 12 (6): 360-361. —_———_, 1932.—Notes on New Fishes from New Zealand. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 13 (4): 226-234, figs 1-5. ———_-—, 1935.—Sharks of New Zealand: No. 4. WN. Zeal. J. Sci. Tech., 16: 236-241, figs 1-3. —————., 1944.-An Immature Trachipterus from French Pass. Rec. Dom. Mus., 1: 120-122 Ply 52: ————.,, 1946.—_Sharks of New Zealand. Dom. Mus. Rec. Zool., 1 (2): 5-20, figs 1-7. . See also Whitley & Phillipps. PHILLIPPS, W. J., and Grice, F. J., 1925.—The Salinity of inshore oceanic waters of Australasia in relations to Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 50: 432-437. PHISALIx, M., 1922.—Animaux venimeux et Venins (Paris: Masson): i-xxv + 1-656, Pls iii-iv, figs 1-232. PHLEPS, R., 1963.—Experiences with Stonefish Stingings in New Guinea. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Techn., 1960 (B): 107-109. PIETSCHMANN, V., 1925.—Bandfische und “Grosse Seeschlange”’. Veroff. Nat. Mus. Wien, 5: 1-22 & figs. PILcHER, G. L., 1898.—The Barramundi. Qld. Agric. J., 2 (3): 222-223. Pout, C. A., 1884.—Museum Godeffroy Catalog ix (Hamburg: Friederichsen): 1-46. Pope, EH. C., 1938—The Anatomy of Heterodontus portusjacksoni (Meyer, 1793). Part i. The Nervous System. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 63: 412-430, text-figs 1-12. —————,, 1945.—A Fishy Monstrosity. Austr. Mus. Mag., 8: 383-384, 2 figs. Porivici, Z., and ANGELESCU, V., 1954.—La Economia del Mar i-ii, 1954. (Buenos Aires: Inst. nac. Inv. Ciencias Nat.): 1-1056, Pls i-xii, text-figs 1-57. POWELL, Lu., 1879.—Notes on the Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus. Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., 11: 269-270. PRADHAN, M. J., 1959.—A Preliminary Note on the food and feeding habits of Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 56: 141-144. PRINCE, J. H., 1949.—Visual Development, 1: i-xii, 1-418, figs 1-190. (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, Ltd.) Prior, M. L., and MArRPLES, B. J., 1945.—A Comparative Account of the Vascular System of Certain Rajiform Fishes. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 74 (4): 343-358, 5 text-figs. PROCE, MARION DE, 1822.—Sur plusiers espéces nouvelles de poissons et de crustacés. Bull. Soc. Sci. Philom. (Paris), Sept., 1822: 129-134; J. de Phys., 95: 235-240. Quoy, J. R. C., and GAIMARD, P., 1824.—Zoologie. Voy. autour Monde (Freycinet), Paris, 2 vols, 4° and folio, illustr. RAFF, J. W., 1912.—A new species of Asymmetron from the Great Australian Bight, South Australia. Biol. Res. Endeavour, 1 (3): 301-308, Pl. 37. . See Morris, E. R., & Raff. Ramsay, E. P., 1871.—[Remarks on Ceratodus forsteri.] Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1871: 7-8. , 1876.—Notes on the habits of some living Ceratodi in the Australian Museum, Sydney. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1876: 698-699. ———, 1880.—Notes on Galeocerdo rayneri, with a list of other sharks taken in Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 95-97. , 188la.—On a rare species of Perch from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 294-295. , 1881b.—Notes on Histiophorus gladiws. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 295-297, Pl. 8. —, 1881c¢.—Description of two new species of Australian fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 462-463. , 1881d.—On a new species of Regalecus, from Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 5: 631-633, Pl. 20. , 1881e.—Description of a new Labroid Fish of the genus Novacula, from Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 6: 198-199. ——, 1881f.—Description of a new species of Hemerocoetes from Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 6: 575. , 18838a.—Catalogue of the exhibits in the New South Wales Court. (London: Inter- national Fisheries Exhibition.) 8vo: 1-56. 104 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Ramsay, E. P., 1888b.—Catalogue of the Exhibits in the Tasmanian Court. (London: Inter- national Fisheries Exhibition.) 8vo: 1-14. , 1883c.—Notes on the Food Fishes and Edible Mollusca of New South Wales. Inter. Fisher. Exhib. Lit. (London): Conferences, 5 (8): 1-54. , 18838d.—Notes on Apogon guntheri of Castelnau, and descriptions of two new fishes from New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 7: 110-112. , 1884.—Description of some new Australian Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 8: 177- De Ramsay, E. P., and Ocitpy, J. D., 1886a.—Descriptions of new or rare Australian Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (4): 575-579. , 1886b.—Descriptions of two new fishes from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (4): 757-758. ———_—.,, 1886c.—Description of a new Coris. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 10 (4): 851-852. —, 1886d.—Descriptions of some new Australian Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) i (alyyeg) chore , 1886e—Descriptions of two new fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (2): 474- 475. , 1886f.—On specimens of the genus Xiphasia, Swainson, from Port Jackson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (3): 582-584. ————,, 1886g.—On an undescribed species of Chilodactylus from Port Jackson. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (38): 879-880. , 18862.—On an undescribed Sciaena from the New South Wales Coast. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (3): 941-942. , 1887a.—Description of a new Australian fish (Apogon roseigaster). Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 1 (4): 1101-1102. , 18876.—On an undescribed Shark from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 2 (1): 163-164. , 1887¢e.—Notes on the Genera of Australian Fishes. Part i. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (QQ) 2 (2) = 1sAl=184e : , 1887d.—Descriptions of new Australian Fishes. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 2 (2): 241-243; et ibid., (2) 2 (8): 561-564. , 1888a.—On a new Genus and Species of Labroid Fish from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 2 (4): 631-634. 1888b.—Descriptions of two new Fishes from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 2 (4): 1021-1028. , 1888¢.—Note in correction of certain Errors in previous Papers. Proc. LInn. Soc. INES SVVienin G2) meri (49) ee) , 1888d.—On the Genus Tetragonurus of Risso. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 8 (1): 9-16. , 1888e.—Description of a new Tripterygium from Port Jackson. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 3 (2): 419-420. , 1888f.—Descriptions of two new Australian Fishes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2) 8) (83) 3 Well sly, RANDALL, HELEN A.—See Randall, John H., & Helen A. RANDALL, JOHN E., 1955a.—An Analysis of the Genera of Surgeon Fishes (Family Acanthuridae). Pacific Science, 9 (3): 359-367. : , 1955b.—A Revision of the Surgeon Fish Genus Ctenochaetus, Family Acanthuridae, with Descriptions of Five New Species. Zoologica, 40: 149-166, Pls i-ii, text-figs 1-3. , 1956.—A Revision of the Surgeon Fish Genus Acanthurus. Pacific Science, 10 (2): 159-235, coloured Pls 1-3, text-figs 1-23. , 1958a—Two new species of Anampses from the Hawaiian Islands, with notes on other labrid fishes of this genus. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 48 (3): 100-107, figs 1-4. , 1958b.—A Review of the Labrid Fish Genus Labroides, with Descriptions of Two New Species and Notes on Ecology. Pacific Science, 12 (4), Oct., 1958: 327-347, Pl. 1 (coloured) and text-figs 1-6. , 1961a.—Two New Butterflyfishes (Family Chaetodontidae) of the Indo-Pacific Genus Forcipiger. Copeia, 1961 (1): 538-62, figs 1-6. , 1961b.—A Contribution to the Biology of the Convict Surgeonfish of the Hawaiian Islands, Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis. Pacific Science, 15 (2): 215-2738, figs 1-25. , 1963.—Review of the Hawkfishes (Family Cirrhitidae). Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 114: 389-452, Pls 1-16. RANDALL, JOHN E., and RANDALL, HELEN A., 1960.—Examples of mimicry and protective resemblance in tropical marine fishes. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Caribbean, 10: 444-480, figs 1-15. Rapson, A. M., 1940.—The Reproduction, Growth, and Distribution of the Lemon Soles (Pelotretis flavilatus Waite) of Tasman Bay and Marlborough Sounds. WN.Z. Mar. Dept Fish. Bull., 7: 1-56, figs 1-16. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 105 Rapson, A. M., 1958a.—Marine Products. Resources of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, WS gle%o , 1953b.—Pilchard Shoals in South-West Australia. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 4 (2): 234-250, Pls i-iii, text-figs 1-3. , 1955.—Survey of Fishing Potentialities of the Coral Sea and Southern and Eastern Papua in 1955. Papua New Guinea Agric. J., 10 (2): 31-42. , 1958.—Coastal and highland freshwater fishery problems of Papua and New Guinea. F.A.O. Indo-Pac. Fisher. Counc. Proc., 7th Sess., Bandung: 47. , 1959.—Description of four types of feeding by shoaling fish and the protein values of some fish foods. Papua and New Gwinea Agric. J., 11 (8), “1956”: 57-66. , 1961.—Food of Some Tropical Predaceous Fish, Including Sharks from Net and Line Fishing Records. Abstr. Sympos. Pap. Tenth Pacific Sci. Congress (Hawaii) : 178-180. —_—. 1962.—-Shark Attacks in New Guinea Waters. Papua N. Gwin. Agric. J., 14 (4): 141-150. RAVEN, H. C., 1939.—Notes on the Anatomy of Ranzania truncata, a Plectognath Fish. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1038: 1-7, figs 1-3. . see Nichols & Raven. RAYNER, G. W.—See Blackburn & Rayner. REGAN, C. T., 1902.—Revision of the Stromateidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 10: 115-131 & 194-207. —, 1903a.—On the Skeleton and Systematic Position of Luvarus imperialis. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 11: 372-374 & fig. , 1903b.—Description of a New Fish of the Genus Genypterus, with notes on the allied species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 11: 599-600. , 1903e.—Revision of the genus Triacanthus. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1903: 180-185. , 1905.—A Revision of the Fishes of the Family Galaxiidae. Proc. Zool. Soe. Lond., 1905: 363-384, Pls x-xiii. , 1906a.—A Classification of the Selachian Fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1906: 722- 758, figs 1-10. , 1906b6.—A Collection of Fishes from the King River, Western Australia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 18: 450-458. , 1907a.—Description of Velifer hypselopterus and a new species of Velifer. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907 (2): 633-634. ———, 1907b.—On the Anatomy, Classification and Systematic Position of the Teleostean Fishes of the Suborder Allotriognathi. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907 (2): 634-6438, 6 figs. , 1908a.—A Synopsis of the Sharks of the Family Scylliorhinidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 1: 4538-465. , 1908b.—A Synopsis of the Sharks of the Family Cestraciontidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 1: 494-497. ———.,, 1908¢.—A Synopsis of the Sharks of the Family Squalidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 2: 39-57. , 1908d.—A new Generic Name for an Orectolobid Shark. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 2: 454-455. - , 1908e.—A Revision of the Sharks of the Family Orectolobidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1908: 247-364, Pls xi-xiii. , 1908f.—Exhibition of and Remarks upon an Australian Catfish, Cnidoglanis megastoma. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1908: 345-346. , 1909a.—A Revision of Fishes of the Genus Elops. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 3: 37-40. , 1909b.—On the Anatomy and Classification of the Scombroid Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 3: 66-75, 4 figs. ———, 1909¢.—The Classification of Teleostean Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 3: 75-86. , 1909d.—A new Specific Name for an Orectolobid Shark. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 3: BAG). , 1909e.—Descriptions of new Marine Fishes from Australia and the Pacific. An. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 4: 438-440. ————., 1910a.—The Anatomy and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Zeomorphi. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 6: 481-484. , 19106.—The Origin and Evolution of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Heterosomata. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 6: 484-496, figs 1-3. , 191la.—The Anatomy and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Orders Berycomorphi and Xenoberyces. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 7: 1-9, Pl. i, text-figs 1-2. , 1911b.—The Anatomy and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Iniomi. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 7: 120-133, figs 1-7. , 1911¢e.—A Synopsis of the Marsipobranchs of the Order Hyperoartii. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 7: 193-204. , L911d.—On the Cirrhitiform Percoids. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 7: 259-262. ————., 19lle.—The Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Synentognathi. Anz. 2 Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 7: 327-335, Pl. ix, text-figs 1-4. 106 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, REGAN, C. T., 1911f.—The Osteology and Classification of the Gobioid Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 8: 729-733, figs 1-2. , 1912a.—The Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Pediculati. Aynn. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 9: 277-289, figs 1-6. ——_—_—, 1912b.—The Anatomy and Classification of the Symbranchoid Hels. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 9: 387-390, Pl. ix. , 1912¢.—The Classification of the Blennioid Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 10: 265-280, figs 1-4. — , 1912d.—The Osteology and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Apodes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 10: 377-387, figs 1-2. —_—_——, 1912e——The Anatomy and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Discocephali. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 10: 634-637, figs 1-2. —————, 1913a.—The Osteology and Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order Scleroparei. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 11: 169-184, figs 1-5. ——————,, 1913b.—Antarctic Fishes of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 49 (2): 229-291, Pls i-xi. —, 19138c.—A Revision of the Fishes of the Genus Kuhlia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1913: 374-381, figs 68-69. , 1913d.—The Classification of the Percoid Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 12: 111-145. , 1914a.—Diagnoses of new Marine Fishes collected by the British Antarctic (‘‘Terra Nova’) Expedition. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 13: 11-17. ————,, 1914b.—A Synopsis of the Fishes of the Family Macrorhamphosidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 13: 17-21. , 1914¢.—Report on freshwater fishes of Dutch New Guinea. Trans. Zool. Soc., 2 (20): 275-284, Pl. xxxi. , 1914d.—British Antarctic (“Terra Nova’’) Expedition, 1910. Fishes. Brit. Antarct. Eaped. Nat. Hist. Rept. Zool., 1 (1): 1-54, Pls i-xili, figs 1-8. ————, 1914e.—The Systematic Arrangement of the Fishes of the Family Salmonidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 13: 405-408. , 1914f.—Note on Aristeus goldiei, Macleay, and some other fishes from New Guinea. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1914, 2: 339-40, 2 figs. , 19149.—List of fishes from Monte Bello Islands, Western Australia. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1914, 3: 650. , 1916a.—Larval and post-larval fishes. Brit. Antarct. Exped. Nat. Hist. Rept. Zool., 1 (4): 125-156, Pls i-x. —__—_—, 1916b.—The British Fishes of the Subfamily Clupeinae and Related Species in other Seas. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 18: 1-19, Pls i-iii. ————, 1916¢c.—Bibliographical Notices. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 18: 377-379. , 1917a.—A Revision of the Clupeoid Fishes of the genera Pomolobus, Brevoortia and Dorosoma and their Allies. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 19: 297-316. , 1917b.—A Revision of Clupeid Fishes of the genera Sardinella, Harengula, etc. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 19: 377-395. , 1922.—Fishes of the Clupeid Genera Clupeoides and Potamalosa and allied Genera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 10: 587-590. , 1923.—The Classification of the Stomatioid Fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 11: 612-614. , 1924.—A Young Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) with a Note on Clupeolabrus. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 13: 224-225 & fig. ————, 1925.—-Dwarfed Males Parasitic on the Females in Oceanic Angler-Fishes (Pediculati Ceratioidei). Proc. Roy. Soc., (B) 97: 386-400, Pl. xx & text-figs. , 1940a.—The Perciform Genera Gymnapogon and Nannatherina. Copeia, 1940 (3): 173-175. ——_——.,, 1940b.—The Perciform Genera Gymnapogon and Nannatherina. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (11) 6: 527-530 (same title but different text from Regan, 1940a). REGAN, C. T., and TrEwAvVAS, E., 1929—The Fishes of the Families Astronesthidae and Chauliodontidae. Dana Rept., 5: 1-40, Pls i-vii and text-figs 1-25. —_———.,, 1930.—The Fishes of the Families Stomiatidae and Malacosteidae. Dana Rept., 6: 1-144, Pls i-xiv, text-figs 1-138. , 1932.—Deep-sea Angler-Fishes (Ceratioidea). Dana Rept., (2) 1: 1-113, Pls i-x, text-figs 1-172. RENDAHL, H., 1921.—Results of Dr. E. Mjébergs Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia, 1910-1913, xxviii, Fische. Kungl. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl., 61 (9): 1-24, figs 1-7. ————, 1922.—A Contribution to the Ichthyology of North-West Australia. Medd. Zool. Mus. Kristiania, 5: 163-197, text-figs. , 1925.—Fishes from New Zealand and the Auckland-Campbell Islands. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Foren., 81: 1-14, figs 1-6. , 1930.—Pegasiden-Studien. Ark. f. Zool., 21, A, (27): 1-56, figs 1-15. RENNIE, E. H., 1903.—The Fisheries of Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 27: 319-329. fed BY G. P. WHITLEY. 107 RICHARDSON, J., 1839.—Description of Fishes collected at Port Arthur in Van Diemen’s Land. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 7: 95-100; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 4, 1840: 450-457. , 1840.—On some new species of fishes from Australia. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 8: 25-30; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 6, 1841: 306-310. —____—, 1841a—Descriptions of Australian Fish. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 3: 133-184, 8 plates. , 1841b.—On some new or little known fishes from the Australian seas. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 9: 21-22; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 8: 464-466. , 1842a.—Description of a Collection of Fish formed at Port Arthur, Tasmania. Tas. J. Nat. Sci., 1 (1): 59-65; et ibid., 1 (2): 99-108. —____—1842b.—Notices and Drawings of three new Genera of Marine Fishes from Van Diemen’s Land. Rept. 11th meet. Brit. Assn. Adv. Sci., 1841: 71. —— , 1842¢.—Contributions to the Ichthyology of Australia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 9: 15-31, 120-131, 207-218, 384-393; et ibid., 10: 25-34; et ibid., 11, 1843: 22-28, 169-182, 352- 359, 422-428, and 489-497. . 1842d.—Description of Australian Fishes. 2 vols. London. 8 plates. 4°—fide Dean, Bibl. Fishes: 345. , 1843a.—Report on the Present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand. 12th Rept. Brit. Assn., 1842: 12-30. , 1843b.—On a specimen of Machaeriwm subducens from Port Essington, New Holland. Rept. Brit. Assn. Adv. Sci., 12th meet., 1842: 69-70. , 1843¢e—Icones Piscium or Plates of Rare Fishes. (London: R. & J. Taylor): 1-8, Pls i-v. , 1843d.—Description of the Lurking Machete from the northern coast of New Holland. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 12: 175-178, plate. , 1843e.—Sopra alcuni pesci nuovi o poco conosciuti dei mari Australi. Nuov. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bologna, 9: 180-182—fide Dean, Bibl. Fishes: 345. , 1844a.—Beschreibung australischer Fische. Isis (Oken): 770-773—fide Dean, Bibl. Fish.: 345. , 1844b.—Generic characters of an undescribed Australian Fish. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 14: 280-281. , 1845.—Generic characters of Gasterochisma melampus, a fish which inhabits Port Nicholson, New Zealand. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 15: 346. , 1844-48 —Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. “Erebus’’ and “Terror”, . . . Fishes. , 1849.—Description of Australian Fish. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 3: 69-131 and 133- 185, 8 pls. —————.. 1850.—Notices of Australian fish. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 18: 58-77, 3 pls; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (2) 7: 273-292. ————,, 1856.—Ichthyology. Encycl. Britannica, 137 illustr. 4°. , 1857.—On Siphonognathus, a new Genus of Fistulariidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 1857: 237-240, plate. RICHARDSON, J.—See Gray, J. E., & Richardson. RICHARDSON, L. R.—See also Garrick & Richardson. RICHARDSON, L. R., DAavipson, M. M., and WuHuits, A. E., 1944.—A Case of Tortuous Orbital Arteries in Galeorhinus australis Macleay. Copeia, 1944 (1): 47-50, fig. 1. RICHARDSON, L. R., and Garrick, J. A. F., 1952.—A Guide to the Lesser Chordates and the Cartilaginous Fishes. Tuatara, 5: 22-37, Pls i-iili and 1 text-fig. , 1953a.—Dasyatis thetidis Waite, a second Species of Giant Stingray in New Zealand Waters. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 81: 319-320. — , 1953b.—A Specimen of Nemichthys (Pisces, Apodes) from New Zealand Waters. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 81: 467-468, figs A-C. Rive, W. D. L., 1957—A Rare Angler Fish. Fisher. Dept. W.A. Monthly Service Bull., 6 (11): 156. RIDEWOOD, W. G., 1905.—On the Skull of Gonorhynchus greyi. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7) 15: 361, Pl. xvi. Rivas, L. R., 1956.—The Occurrence and Taxonomic Relationships of the Blue Marlin (Makaira ampla Poey) in the Pacific Ocean. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf &€ Caribbean, 6 (1): 59-73, figs 1-2. , 1961.—A Review of the Tuna Fishes of the Subgenera Parathunnus and Neothunnus (Genus Thunnus). Ann. Mus. Civico Stor. Nat. Giac. Doria Genova, 72: 126-148. RIverRO, L. H., 1936.—A new shark from Tasmania. Occas. Pap. Boston Soc. N.H., 8: 267-268, IPI xs ROBERTSON, D. B.—See Guest & Robertson. Rosins, C. R., and pe Sytva, D. P., 1960.—-Description and Relationships of the Longbill Spear- fish, Tetrapturus belone, based on Western North Atlantic specimens. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, 10 (4): 383-413, figs 1-5. ROBINS, J. P., 1952.—Further Observations on the Distribution of Striped Tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis L., in Eastern Australian Waters, and its Relation to surface Temperature. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 3 (2): 101-110, figs 1-5. 108 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, Ropins, J. P., 1962—Synopsis for F.A.O. species and stocks thesaurus of data on Thunnus thynnus maccoyii (Castelnau). C.S.1.R.0O. Divn. Fisher. Oc.: 1-24, figs 1-9. Rogpson, C. H., 1876.—Notes on the Habits of the Frost Fish (Lepidopus caudatus). Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., 8: 218-219. ROFEN, RopertT R. [formerly Robert Rees Harry], 1963.—Diagnoses of New Genera and Species of Alepisauroid Fishes of the Family Paralepididae. Aquatica, 2: 1-6, fig. 1. Rosa, H., 1950.—Scientific and Common Names—Tunas, Mackerels and Spearfishes: i-xi + 1-235. ROUGHLEY, T. C., 1913.—Fishes of Australia. Their utilization in Applied Art. Tech. Gazette N.S.W., 3 (1): 9-12; 3 (2): 10-20; and 3 (3): 12-20, illustr. include coloured plates. — , 1916.—Fishes of Australia and their Technology. TJVech. Hduc. Ser. 21. (Sydney: Govt. Printer): i-xvi + 1-296, frontispiece, coloured Plates i-Ixx and figs 1-60. —_——, 1926.—Morwong, Tailor, Trawling and... General Fisheries, and Trumpeter. , 1945a.—Regalecus Regenerate: The Oar Fish Again. Austr. Mus. Mag., 8: 425-427, 2 figs. , 19456.—The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939 Scientific Reports: No. 5. Biology— Fishes. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 69 (1): 10-13. , 1945¢.—New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia. Part 2. Austr. Zool., 11 (1): 1-42, Pl. i & figs 1-15. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 123 WHitTLey, G. P., 1945d.—Leichhardt’s Sawfish. Awstr. Zool., 11 (1): 438-45, fig. 1. , 1945e.—The School Shark, Notogaleus rhinophanes (Peron). Fisheries Newsletter, 4 (4); 2 & 12, 2 figs. , 1946a.—Australian Marine Hels. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (2): 60-65, 11 figs. , 19466.—Aerial Observations on Fish Schools. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1945/6: 17-27, 4 figs. , 1947a.—Rhina, The Shark Ray. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (4): 111-115, frontispiece & 5 figs. , 1947b.—A Raft of Fish Eggs. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (4): 115-116 & fig. , 1947¢c.—New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia. Part 3. Awstr. Zool., 11: 129-150, Pl. xi & text-figs 1-3. —————., 1947d.— Long Toms. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (5): 169-173, 7 figs. , 1947e.—The Fluvifaunulae of Australia with particular reference to Freshwater Fishes in Western Australia. W. Austr. Nat., 1 (3): 49-53, figs 1-2. , 1948a.—The Shepherd Fish and Its Flock. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (6): 194-200, 7 figs. ————,, 1948b.—New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia. Part 4. Austr. Zool., 11: 259-276, Pls xxiv-xxv and text-figs 1-7. , 1948c.—A New Aquarium Fish from North Queensland. Austr. Zool., 11: 279-280. , 1948d.—Studies in Ichthyology, No. 13. Rec. Austr. Mus., 22 (1): 70-94, figs 1-11. , 1948e.—The Oil Fish in Australia. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (8): 256-258, & 4 figs. , 1948f—A List of the Fishes of Western Australia. W.A. Fisheries Dept. Bull., 2: 1-35 & map. , 1949a.—Island Scenes from Western Australia. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1947/8: 38-41, 3 pls. ————,, 1949b.—Solvol Fish Book: 20 pp., Pls i-xiii. , 1949¢e——Flounders and Soles. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (11): 378-384 & 7 text-figs. , 1949d.—The Handfish. Austr. Mus. Mag., 9 (12): 398-403, 10 figs. , 1950a.—Studies in Ichthyology. No. 14. Rec. Austr. Mus., 22 (3): 234-245, Pl. xvii & figs 1-5. , 1950b.—Sucking Fishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10: 17-23 & 9 figs. , 1950¢e.—Development of a Port Jackson Shark. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1948/9: 28. , 1950d.—Some Rare Australian Fishes. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1948/9: 32-34, figs 1-5. , 1950e.—New Fish Names. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1948/9: 44. , 1950f.—Butterfly Cod. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10: 41-46, frontisp. & 7 text-figs. , 1950g.—A New Shark from North-Western Australia. W. Austr. Nat., 2 (5): 100- 105, figs 1-2. , 1950h.—The Opah or Moonfish in Australasia. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (3): 176-78, frontispiece & 1 figure. , 1950i.—Clingfishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (4): 124-128, 4 figs. , 19507.—A Large Stargazer. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10: 135 & fig. , 195l1a.—New Fish Names and Records. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1949/50: 61-68, figs 8-10. ————.,, 1951b.—-The Satellite of Sharks. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (5): 151-154, 7 figs. ————, 1951¢e.—-Shark Attacks in Western Australia. W.A. Nat., 2 (8): 185-194, figs 1-3. ——__—., 1951d.—Introduced Fishes—I. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (6): 198-200. ————., 195le.— The Sprat (Stolephorus gracilis) in Australia. Awstr. Zool., 11 (4): 332. ————., 1951f.—Studies in Ichthyology. No. 15. Rec. Austr. Mus., 22 (4): 389-408, figs 1-14. , 1951g.—The Fishes of Australia. Austr. Junior Encycl., 2: 908-917, col’d. pl. opp. p. 924 and 15 text-figs. ————., 1951h.—Sharks and Rays. Austr. Junior Encycl., 2: 918-919, 2 figs. , 1951i.—Introduced Fishes—II. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (7): 234-238, 3 figs. , 1951j7.—Flatheads. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (8): 244-248, frontisp. & 4 figs. ——. —.,, 1952a.—Some Noteworthy Fishes from Hastern Australia. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soe. N.S. Wales, 1950/51: 27-32, figs 1-5. ————,, 1952b.—Gobbledeguts. John o’ London’s Weekly, 61, April 4: 342. —, 1952e—Two New Scorpion Fishes from Queensland. Rec. Austr. Mus., 23 (1): 25-28, figs 1-2. , 1952d.—The Common Names of Fishes. Awstr. Mus. Mag., 10 (10): 310-315, 5 figs. ————.,, 1952e.—Porcupine Fishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 10 (11): 353-360, 8 figs. , 1952f.— Figures of Some Australian Fish Types. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1951-2: 23-31, figs 1-8. , 19529.—An Outline Classification of Australian Fishes. Awstr. Mus. Mag., 10 (12): 402-408, 2 charts & 4 figs. , 1953a.—Gurnards. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (1): 24-29, 7 figs. , 1953b.—Toadfish Poisoning. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (2): 60-65, 6 figs. 124 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, WHuuitTLey, G. P., 1953¢.—A Filefish New to Queensland, Balistoides viridescens (Bl. Schn.). North Queensland Nat., 21 (105): 1 & pl. ———s , 19538d.—Fishes collected by the Australian Museum Expedition, 1952. Rec. Austr. Mus., 23 (3): 123-132, figs 1-4. , 1958e.—Studies in Ichthyology. No. 16. Rec. Austr. Mus., 23 (3): 1338-138, figs 1-4. , 1954a.—New Shark Exhibits. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (4): 104-105, 2 figs. ————.,, 1954b.—The Mysterious Hairtail. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (4): 124-127, 6 figs. ————,, 1954ec More New Fish Names and Records. Austr. Zool., 12 (1): 57-62, Pl. iii. , 1954d.—Some Freshwater Gudgeons Mainly from Tropical Australia. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (5): 150-155, 12 figs. —— , 1954e.—New Locality Records for Some Australian Fishes. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soe. N.S. Wales, 1952/3: 23-30, figs 1-5. ———— 1954f.—Goggle-eyed Mangrove Fish. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (6): 187-188, 2 figs. ————, 19549.—Are Hussars Edible? Auwstr. Mus. Mag., 11 (6): 194-199, 5 figs. ————.,, 1954h.— Fishes from the Gulf of Carpentaria. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (8): 257-260, 5 figs. , 1955a.—Taxonomic Notes on Fishes. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1953/4: 44-57, figs 1-8. ———.,, 1955b.—The Australian Museum’s Marlins. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (9): 292-297, 4 figs. ——_——, 1955c.—The Largest (and the smallest) Australasian Fishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (10): 329-332, 5 figs. , 1955d.—Sidelights on New Zealand Ichthyology. Austr. Zool., 12 (2): 110-119, Pl. vi. , 1955e.—James Stuart—Ichthyologist. Austr. Zool., 12: 129-131, Pls xii-xviii. ———,, 1955f.— Opus CCC. Austr. Zool., 12: 154-159, figs 1-7. ————,, 1955g.—Conservation of Freshwater Fishes and Shoreline Fauna. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (11): 359-364, 10 figs. , 1955h.—Freshwater Atherines from Western Australia (Pisces: Atherinidae). W. Austr. Nat., 5 (2): 25-31, figs 1-5. , 1955i1.—Sailfish Ahoy. Austr. Mus. Mag., 11 (12) Dec. 15, 1955: 377-383, frontispiece & 4 text-figs. ————, 1956a.—The Story of Galaxias. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (1): 30-34, 10 figs. , 1956b.—Archibald Menzies and the Fishes of King George’s Sound. W. Austr. Nat., 5 (8): 57-59. , 1956c.—New Fishes from Australia and New Zealand. Proce. Roy. Zool. Soe. N.S. Wales, 1954/5: 34-38, figs 1-2. , 1956d.—List of the Native Freshwater Fishes of Australia. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1954/5: 39-47, figs 1-16. —, 1956e.—Our Front Cover. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (2): iii & front cover. , 1956f.—Remarkable Fishes from New South Wales. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (2): 68. , 1956g.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. Australasian AquaLife, 1 (9): 9-12 & ———_—.,, 1956h.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 2—-Lampreys. Australasian AquaLije, 1 (10): 9-12, 2 figs. , 19561.—Ichthyological Notes. Austr. Zool., 12 (8): 251-261, figs 1-7. , 19567.—An Interesting Leatherjacket. Austr. Zool., 12 (3): 293-294. , 1956k.—Sharks. Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 19: 1-7, figs 1-2. ————., 19561.—Life History of the Freshwater Hel. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (3): 89-94, 5 figs. , 1956m.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 3. (a) Sharks and Rays, (b) Leichhardt’s Sawfish. Australasian AquaLife, 1 (11): 9-12, 4 figs. —— , 1956n.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 4. The Queensland Lungfish [& Ompaxz]. Australasian AquaLife, 1 (12), October, 1956: 9-12, 3 figs. , 19560.—Weedy Sea Dragon. Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 13, 2 pp. & fig. , 1957a.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 4 [should be 5]. Burramundi. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (1): 9-12, 8 figs. , 1957b.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 5. Classification. Australasian Aqua- Life, 2 (2): 6-10, figs 1-3. ————.,, 1957c.—A New Angler Fish. W. Auwstr. Nat., 5 (7): 207-209, & fig. , 1957d.—A Kennel of Frogfishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (5): 139-142, 3 figs. , 1957e.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 6. Herrings and Smelt. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (3): 7-10, figs 1-4. , 1957f.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 7. Herrings and Smelt (contd.) [i.e. Graylings]; Galaxias. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (4): 7-10, 3 figs. , 1957g.—Ichthyological Illustrations. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1955/6: 56-71, figs 1-12. , 1957h.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 8. Galaxias (contd.). Awstralasian AquaLife, 2 (5), May, 1957: 6-8, 7 figs. —, 1957i.—Freshwater Sunfish from Western New South Wales. Austr. Nat., 11 (8): 230-231, & fig. BY G. P. WHITLEY. 125 Wuruittey, G. P., 1957j.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 9. Catfishes. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (6): 6-10, 5 figs. ——— 1957k.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 10. Hels. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (7) (July-August): 6-10, 6 figs. ——_ 1957/.—List of Type-Specimens of Recent Fishes in The Australian Museum, Sydney. Roneo’d, foolscap: i-iili & 1-40. , 1957m.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 11. Pipefishes, Garfish, Long Tom and Soles. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (8): 17-26, 6 figs. ————.,, 1958a.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 12. Hardyheads. Australasian Aqua- Life, 2 (9): 12-18, 8 figs. ——____—, 1958b.—The Ghost Pipefish. Awstr. Mus. Mag., 12 (9): 275-278, 3 figs. ————., 1958c.—The Moonfish or Opah in New South Wales. Austr. Mus. Mag., 12 (9): 278. —, 1958d.—Fishes, ete. Australian Encyclopaedia, 10 vols, passim, coloured plates & b. & w. text-figures. == , 1958e.—Descriptions and Records of Fishes. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1956/7: 28-51, figs 1-12. , 1958f.—The Queensland Lungfish. Auwstr. Mus. Leaflet, 1, 4 pages, 3 figs. ————, 1958g.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. 13. Blue Eyes. Australasian AquaLife, 2 (10): 138-19, 3 figs. ——__—., 1959a.—Ichthyological Snippets. Awstr. Zool., 12 (4): 310-323, figs 1-3. ————., 1959b.—Shark Ray. Austr. Mus. Mag., 13 (2): 49. ————., 1959c.—The Barramundi, North Australia’s Finest Food Fish. Austr. Mus. Mag., 13 (2): 55-58, 3 figs. —— , 1959d.—The Freshwater Fishes of Australia. Biogeogr. & Ecol. Austr. (Monogr. Biol. 8): 136-149, figs 1-3. ————. 1959e.—More Ichthyological Snippets. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1959/8: 11-26, figs 1-9. ————,, 1959f.—Fresh Water Fishes of Australia. The Blackmast or Strawman—Carter’s Sunfish. Finchat (Melbourne), Nov., 1959: 8-11, fig. , 19599.—Fresh Water Fishes of Australia. Finchat (Melbourne), Dec., 1959: 11-13, 3 figs. , 1959h.—Fresh Water Fishes of Australia. Finchat (Melbourne), Jan., 1960: 13-15, 3 figs. , 1960a.—Fresh Water Fishes of Australia. 18. Blue Byes. Finchat (Melbourne), March, 1960: 4-8, and 11, 4 figs. ——_——.,, 1960b.—-Stonefishes (Family Synancejidae). Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 32, 6 pages, 4 figs. , 1960ce.—The Mud-skipper. Hducation Gazette, 54 (4): 142-143, fig. ————., 1960d.—Native Freshwater Fishes of Australia. Freshw. Fishes: 1-128, illustr. (Brisbane: Jacaranda Press): November, 1960. —— , 1961a.—The Life and Work of Gerard Krefft (1830-1881). Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1958-9: 21-34. , 1961b6.—New Records of Fishes from HPastern Australia. Proc. Roy. Zool. Soe. N.S. Wales, 1958-9: 66-68. ————, 1961lce.—Freak Fishes. Austr. Mus. Mag., 13 (9): 298-301, 4 figs. —__—_—.,, 1961d.—A new Scorpion Fish from Queensland. N.Q. Nat., 29 (127): 9-10, fig. 1. , 1961e.—The Crested Weedfish. Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 58, 2 pp. and figure. , 1961f.—The Freshwater Gudgeons of Temperate Australia. Austr. Mus. Mag., 13 (10): 332-337, 9 figs. , 19619.—A Larval Eel from Sydney. Austr. Nat., 12 (2): 10-11, figs 1-6. , 1962a.—Scombroid Fishes of Australia and New Zealand. Symposium Scombroid Fishes Mandapam Abstr. Pap.: 3. ——_——, 1962b.—Theodore Cleveland Roughley, 1888-1961. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 86, 1961: 295-298, Pl. xi. , 1962c.—The Slippery or Freshwater Blackfish. Hducation Gazette, 56 (2): 95-96, fig. ————,, 1962d.—The Mud-skipper. Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 17, 5 pages, fig. ————, 1962e.—Exhibition of Chaetodon aphrodite. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 87 (3): 412. ————,, 1962f.—A New Wish from the Coral Sea (Pisces: Anthiidae). North Queens. Nat., 30 (181): 3-4, fig. 1. , 19629.—Marine Fishes. Nat. Hist. of Sydney: 44-52, 5 figs. ————, 1962h.—Marine Fishes of Australia. (Brisbane: Jacaranda Press): Vol. 1: 1-144; 2: 145-288, illustr. , 19621—A New Goby from Sydney. Austr. Nat., 12 (3): 9-10, fig. 1. , 1963a.—The Identity of Man-Killing Sharks. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech.. 1960 B: 8-11. ——_——,, 1963b.—Stonefish. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 27-28. ——— , 19638¢.—Dangerous Australian Fishes. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 41-63, pls A-B. 126 A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN ICHTHYOLOGY, WHITLEY, G. P., 1963d.—Plenary Session: Report of “B”’ Group. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 121-124. , 1968e.—Shark Attacks in Australia. Sharks & Survival: 329-338, figs 1-2. —__-_—, 1964a.—Sharks. Austr. Nat. Hist., 14: 287-290, 3 figs. , 1964b.—Fishes from the Coral Sea and the Swain Reefs. Rec. Austr. Mus., 26 (5): 145-195, Pls VIII-X, text-figs 1-15. , 1964c.—Scombroid Fishes of Australia and New Zealand. Proc. Sympos. Scomobr. Fishes, 1: 221-254, Pls i-iv, text-figs 1-6. , 1964d.—New Records of Fishes from Australia. Austr. Naturalist, 12 (4): 7-9, TI, th , 1964e.—A New Queensland Blenny (Pisces: Clinidae). Awstr. Naturalist, 12 (4): 15. , 1964f.—A large Sawtail Surgeonfish. Austr. Nat. Hist., 14 (10): 330, 2 figs. , 19649.—Mud-skippers. Austr. Mus. Leaflet, 17: 1-5, fig. See also Fraser-Brunner & Whitley; Iredale & Whitley; McCulloch & Whitley ; McMichael & Whitley; Paradice & Whitley; Roughley & Whitley. WHITLEY, G. P., and ALLAN, J., 1958.—The Sea-horse and its Relatives. (Melbourne: Georgian House) : i-x, 1-84, coloured plate (frontispiece) & figs 1-24. WHITLEY, G. P., and HausteaD, B. W., 1955.—An Annotated Bibliography of the Poisonous and Venomous Fishes of Australia. Rec. Austr. Mus., 23 (5): 211-227. WHITLEY, G. P., and Payne, G. H., 1947.—Testing a Shark Repellant. Austr. Zool., 11: 151- 157, Pls 12-13, & text-fig. 1. WHITLEY, G. P., and PHILLIPPS, W. J., 1939.—Descriptive Notes on Some New Zealand Fishes. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 69: 228-236, Pls xxi-xxii. WIENER, S., 1958.—Stone-fish Sting and Its Treatment. Med. J. Austr., 2 (7), Aug. 16: 218- 222, figs 1-2; Ampoule, 1 (2), 1959: 21-27, 2 figs. , 1959a.—Observations on the venom of the Stone fish (Synanceja trachynis), Med. J. Austr., May 9: 620-627, figs i-vi. , 1959b.—The production and assay of Stone-fish Antivenene. Med. J. Austr., Nov. 14: 715-719, figs i-ii. ————_—.,, 1963a.—Stonefish Venom. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 28-36. : —, 1963b.—Stonefish Stingings, Venom and Treatment. Internat. Convent. Life Saving Tech., 1960 B: 106-107. WILLEY, A., 1896.—Zoological Observations in the South Pacific. Quart. J. Micros. Soc., 39: 219-231, pl. , 1908.—Fisheries of New South Wales. Spolia Zeylanica, 5 (20): 188-190. WILSON, E., 1857.—On the Murray River cod, with particulars of experiments instituted for introducing this fish in the river Yarra-Yarra. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 2 (1): 28-24. WiLson, J. S., 1858a.—Notes on the Physical Geography of North-West Australia. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. London, 2, 1857/8, (4): 210-217. , 1858b.—Notes on the Physical Geography of North-West Australia. Roy. Geog. Soc. London, 28: 1387-158. WINKS, B. B.—See Martin & Winks. WISNER, R. L., 1963.—A New Genus and Species of Myctophid Fish from the South-Central Pacific Ocean, with Notes on Related Genera and the Designation of a New Tribe, Blectronini. Copeia, 1963 (1): 24-28, fig. 1. WOODLAND, D. J., 1960.—Some Notes on the Commercial Aspects of Arrow-Head Trap Fishing in Tropical Queensland. Univ. Qld. Pap. Dept. Zool., 1 (10): 241-248, figs 1-6. , 1961.—Description of a New Species of Pranesus (Atherinidae: Pisces) from the Capricorn Group, Great Barrier Reef. Pacif. Sci., 15 (4): 540-541, fig. 1. WOODLAND, D. J., and SLACK-SMmITH, R., 1963.—Fishes of Heron Island, Capricorn Group, Great Barrier Reef. Univ. Qld. Pap. Dept. Zool., 2 (2): 15-70, Pls i-ii. Woops, J. EH. T.—See Tenison-Woods. Woops, L. P., 1955.—Western Atlantic Species of the genus Holocentrus. Fieldiana: Zoology, 37: 91-119, figs 14-18. Woops, L. P.—See also Schultz & Woods. Woopwarb, B. H., 1906.—Fauna, Fish, &c. W. Austr. Year Book, 13, 1902-1904: 128-129. WRIGHT, A. E., 1963.—A Cone Gorges. Austr. Newsletter Malacol. Soc. Austr., 11 (40): 8. , 1964.—Strange but True. Keppel Bay Shell Club Tidings, 2 (4): 83, fig. WRIGHT-SMITH, R. J., 1945.—A Case of Fatal Stabbing by a Stingray. Med. J. Austr., Dec. 22: 466-467, figs i-ii. YONGE, C. M., 1930.—A Year on the Great Barrier Reef (London: Putnam): 1-246, illustr. Youne, W. H., 19— (no date).—Shark! Shark! (London: Hurst & Blackett) : 1-288, illustr. ZAHL, P. A., 1957.—On Australia’s Coral Ramparts. Nat. Geogr. Mag., 111 (1): 1-48, 58 figs, some coloured. Ziptz, A. H., 1888.—Note on Carcharias hemiodon as an Australian Species. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 10: 308. BY G. P. WHITLEY. UPA Zintz, A. H., 1896a.—Pisces. Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia Rept., 2, Zool.: 176-180, Pl. xvi. , 1896b.—Description of an Additional New Species of Fish from the Finke and Barcoo Rivers. Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia Rept., 2, Zool.: 410-411, Pl. xvi. , 1902.—List of the Edible Fish of the Lower Murray. Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., 26: 265-267. , 1908a.—Description of a Hitherto Undescribed Species of Shark from Investigator Strait. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 32: 287. , 1908b.—A Synopsis of the Fishes of South Australia: Part I. Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 32: 288-293. , 1908¢—A Synopsis of the Fishes of South Australia: Part II. Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 32: 294-299. , 1909.—A Synopsis of the Fishes of South Australia: Part III. Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 33: 263-269. ZOOLOGICAL REcoRD, 1864 to date.—Vol. i, 1864, onwards. Zuiew, B., 1793.—Bigarum Muraenarum, novae species. Nova Acta Acad. Petropol., 7: 296- 301, pls & figs. Postscript to Bibliography. The following works came to hand as these pages went to press or were inadvertently omitted by the author. Mess, G. F., 1964a.—Further Revisional Notes on the Belonidae. Zool. Meded., 39: 311-326, fig. 1. ———— , 1964b.—A Note on the Genus Liocranium Ogilby (Pisces, Scorpaenidae). Zool. Meded., 40 (2): 5-7. [Herein, Mees quotes a part of Fisheries Bulletin 9 of the Fisheries Department of Western Australia as if it had been published, but the Superintendent of Fisheries, Perth, informs me (in lit., 31st July, 1964) that this part “has not yet come off the press’’.] NicHoutits, A. G., 1961.—The Tasmanian trout fishery. IV. The rivers of the South and South-east. Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 12: 17-53, figs 1-9. RANDALL, JOHN E., 1964.—A Revision of the Filefish Genera Amanses and Cantherhines. Copeia, 1964 (2): 331-361, figs 1-18. SEMON, R., 1893-1913.—Ceratodus. Zool. Forschungsr. Austr., i, passim, 80 pls & 600 text-figs. , 1899.—In the Australian Bush (London: Macmillan): 1-552, 86 figs. WALL, W. S., 1853-54.—A Rare Fish. Illustr. Sydney News, Nov. 5, 1853: 38, fig. Tetrapturus australis. Ibid., March 11, 1854: 179, fig. The Angler. Jbid., Apr. 8, 1854: 2 & 4, fig. The Australian Globe Fish. TIbid., May 6, 1854: 39, fig. Cirrated Saw-fish. Tbid., Aug. 19, 1854: 204, fig. Sword of Tetrapturus from “Governor-General”. TIbid., Sept. 2, 1854: 220, fig. 128 DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN BUPRESTIDAE OF THE GENUS STIGMODHERA. By C. M. DEUQUET. (Two Text-figures. ) [Read 25th March, 1964. ] Synopsis. The following are described as new: Stigmodera (Castiarina) vallisii, Stigmodera (Themognatha) macqueeni. STIGMODERA (CASTIARINA) VALLISII, Nn. sp. (Text-fig. 1.) Oblong, ovate. Head and prothorax: bright bronzy-green. Antennae, scutellum and legs dark-green. Elytra yellow with bluish-green markings as follows: a narrow sutural stem surrounding the scutellum, two fasciae, neither of them reaching the external margins, and an apical mark narrowly connected along the suture with the second fascia; the first fascia connected with the base by a narrow sutural stem branching at basal fourth on each side of the elytra into two semi-triangular roundish spots suggesting the upper wings of a butterfly, the second, postmedian, nearly twice the size of the first one, branching similarly into two pear-shaped parts, one on each elytron, the pear stalk directed more or less obliquely upwards. Head fairly deeply excavated with an impressed line between the eyes and regularly punctate. Thorax: sides rounded, anterior margin nearly straight, posterior angles acute, the base only slightly sinuate, with a shallow medial fovea, surface covered with close deep punctures, deeper at sides, smaller in the basal part of the medial dorsal line which is terminated in a small fovea, the sides much widened near the base and obliquely narrowed to apex. Near each posterior angle is a small angular impression. Elytra little widened behind shoulders and middle, punctate-striate, the punctation being very close and the intervals much impressed. Sides sinuate above the middle, apical border minutely serrated, apices largely rounded, not spinose. Underside dull green, abdomen minutely punctate, the sternum covered with a cinereous pubescence. Dimensions: 15 X 7 mm. Habitat: Mt. Speck, Northern Queensland (Close Vallis). Two examples, both 9, of this pretty and very distinct species discovered by Mr. C. Vallis, a prominent Queensland naturalist to whom it is dedicated. It is superficially, although a much smaller insect, somewhat of the S. secularis type, but its size and pattern alone are sufficient to distinguish it from other previously described species. Type in Mr. Vallis’s collection. Paratype in the author’s collection. STIGMODERA (THEMOGNATHA) MACQUEENI, nN. sp. (Text-fig. 2.) Ovate, subcylindric. Head and antennae bronzy-green, the former with bright- green reflections on apex and coppery hue on base. Pronotum bronzy-green with bright- PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Society or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 1. BY C. M. DEUQUET. 129 green tinge on the side margins. Legs green, scutellum bright-coppery. Elytra yellow with the arcuate apical mark and the narrow post-median suture green. Head only slightly excavated, densely and finely rugose, punctate. Pronotum strongly convex, smooth, finely and evenly punctate, apex almost straight, base slightly sinuate, anterior side margins strongly raised and channelled, the latter especially much widened and rounded behind middle. Surface smooth and moderately punctured except at sides where punctation is deeper, with a smooth medial dorsal line faintly indicated on basal half met at the base with a small faint impression. Scutellum small, subeordate, concave. Hlytra much rounded, strongly attenuated behind, each elytron rather widely subtruncate and rounded, not spinose, the sutural points feebly produced and divergent, with a wide oblique excision at extremity. Striate-punctate; intervals flat or nearly so throughout, distinctly but sparsely punctate. Underside finely punctate, covered with short white pubescence. Dimensions: 9,17 x 8 mm.; Jg, 148 x 7 mm. Habitat: Southern Queensland: Milmerran (J. Macqueen). Three specimens examined, 1 2, 2 ¢. All are identical in colour and markings. This new species is undoubtedly fairly closely related to 8S. saundersi Waterh., their morphological charac- Fig. 1. Stigmodera (Castiarina) vallisii, n. sp. (x 4.) Fig. 2. Stigmodera (Themognatha) macqueeni, n. sp. (x 4.) teristics being somewhat similar, and it could possibly be regarded as a subspecies of S. saundersi. The differences between the two are, however, numerous and important: 1, S. saundersi is a consistently larger, broader and more globular insect; 2, The elytral patterns of the two species are entirely different: all elytral markings of S. saundersi with the exception of the arcuate apical mark are absent in the new species; 3, The vivid red colour so conspicuous in S. saundersi is not to be seen in the new species, while yellow, the dominant elytral colour of the new species, is quite absent in saundersi; 4, The apical forms of the two differ, the margins being more raised and channelled in the new species and the arcuate excision being wider and more obliquely pronounced. Mr. Macqueen informs me that he has two examples showing traces of a median fascia, one in the form of a very thin line, the second only slightly indicated by a tiny round dot on each elytron, not reaching sides or suture in either case. I 130 TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN BUPRESTIDAE. I feel a real pleasure in haming this new species after its captor, Mr. J. Macqueen, who has been for years a most experienced student and lover of the insect fauna of Australia. Type in Coll. Macqueen: 1 paratype each in the Australian Museum, Sydney, and the author’s collection. NOTES ON THE SUBGENUS CHAETOCRUIOMYIA THEOBALD (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE). By EvizaAserH N. Marks, National Mosquito Control Committee, Department of Entomology, University of Queensland. (Four Text-figures. ) [Read 25th March, 1964.] Synopsis. This paper supplements a previous revision of the subgenus Chaetocruiomyia Theobald (Marks, 1963). Descriptions and figures are given of both sexes of Aédes macmillani, n. sp., male, larva and pupa of Aédes elchoensis Taylor, males of Aédes calabyi Marks and Aédes wattensis Taylor, and egg of Aédes spinosipes Edwards. Taxonomy, biology, and distribution of species of the subgenus are discussed and a distribution map is provided. Mosquitoes of the subgenus Chaetocruiomyia Theobald of genus Aédes Meigen are known only from Australia. The subgenus was revised by Marks (1963) who recognized 2 species groups, with 7 named species and 2 unnamed forms, viz.: Group A (Spinosipes-group: Chaetocruiomyia s. str.). A. calabyi Marks, A. humeralis Edwards, A. moloiensis Taylor, A. spinosipes Edwards, A. tulliae Taylor, A. wattensis Taylor, “species A’’, “species B”’. Group B (EHlchoensis-group). 7? Bp b aN = P j N\Mb.. wo" ( 7 Fig. 1.— Vegetational Pattern. * Blake (Proc. Roy. Soc. Qlid., 69: 86) synonymized #. umbra R. T. Bak. and H. carnea R. T. Bak. in 1958, and in this and the previous paper relating to vegetational pattern in east coast forests (Florence, 1963), the terminology H. uwmbra has been used in Blake’s sense. However, Johnson (Contrib. N.S.W. Nat. Herbarium, 3: 103) has subsequently recognized two Subspecies, H. wmbra ssp. umbra and H. umbra ssp. carnea. Along the vegetational gradient from rainforest to the more depauperate dry sclerophyll, H. uwmbra ssp. carnea might be regarded as ecologically intermediate between H. acmenioides and H. wmbra ssp. umbra. For the most part, #. wmbra referred to in this and the preceding paper is H. umbra ssp. carnea, although much intermediacy between the two ssp. was observed. 174 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, very high levels of ecological ‘importance’, and may in fact be the only dominant present. From this situation blackbutt’s vegetational gradient may be regarded as moving in two directions, towards dry sclerophyll forest and towards rainforest. Along the latter gradient a characteristic assemblage of rainforest element species may form a secondary stratum to the dominants—blackbutt, Sydney blue gum (HZ. saligna Sm.), tallowwood (H. microcorys F.v.M.), turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera Sm.—Niedenzu), brush box (Tristania conferta R.Br.), and others. Nevertheless along this vegetational gradient towards rainforest, the upper limit of blackbutt’s environmental tolerance is apparently well short of that necessary for rainforest! formation, so that a mixed sclerophyll-rainforest element community without blackbutt is frequently interposed between blackbutt forest and rainforest. White mahogany occupies a total vegetational gradient largely parallel to that of blackbutt, but in contrast to blackbutt, H. acmenioides will occur in situations directly marginal to rainforest. Along the white mahogany gradient from rainforest to dry sclerophyll forest, H. wmbra is considered to replace H. acmenioides in the more open sclerophyllous situations and the gradient continue to quite depauperate dry sclerophyll. Il. THe CLimatTic ENVIRONMENT. Vegetational and environmental studies were carried out within the coastal region extending from Batemans Bay to Fraser Island (Fig. 2). In this zone the climate is characterized by a predominantly summer rainfall, a mean monthly rainfall less than 200 points for no more than one month of the year and the Australian maxima for rainfall “effectiveness” and “reliability” (Leeper, 1949). An adaptation from Swain’s Climatic Index for Australia (de Beuzeville, 1943) illustrates the essential climatic data for this zone (Fig. 3). In view of the probable influence of more or less annual and sometimes extended spring and summer droughts on the Australian vegetation, Swain’s Index is based on the continuity or otherwise of rainfall throughout the year, and has mean annual rainfall (MAR) as a subordinate factor. Other factors included in the Index are the mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM) and the temperature range as expressed by the mean temperature of the hottest month (MTHM) in relation to (MTCM). The index defines with some precision the geographic limits of the vegetation studied. For example, the blackbutt range is entirely associated with the coastal zone demarcated by the numeral “1”. North of Fraser Island the zone with initial numeral ‘3” has increasing duration of drought, and just beyond the southern extremity of the coastline illustrated, zone “1” is replaced by zone “2”, indicating the change from summer to winter dominant rainfall. Within the coastal zone of optimum rainfall and rainfall uniformity in Australia, variation in MAR from as low as 40” and up to 100” per annum is related largely to elevation and distance from the coast of the sinuous mountain system that extends along the whole of Australia’s east coast. For example, the increasing drought in zone “3” north of Gympie (Qld.) is related in part to the westward swing of this mountain system. Although elevation, through its effect on rainfall and temperature, has an apparent influence on vegetation, it is nevertheless clear that macroclimatic factors cannot explain the often sharp discontinuities in blackbutt, white mahogany and rainforest distribution that characterize much of their common range. III. Tur GronogicaL FACTOR IN THE VEGETATION PATTERN. While the geological mosaic along the east coast of New South Wales and southern Queensland is clearly responsible for some major features of the vegetational pattern, the parent material-vegetation relationship is by no means a simple one, particularly in respect to the nature and distribution of rainforests. 1In this paper, the term “rainforest” refers specifically to a closed community forming a deep densely interlacing canopy, and from which a sclerophyllous overstorey is absent; species occurring in mixture with sclerophyll dominants are referred to as a “rainforest element”. BY R. G. FLORENCE. 175 Delineation of Blackbutt and White Mahogany. Although blackbutt extends from the New South Wales/Victorian border to Fraser Island in Queensland its most continuous and extensive occurrences are in the middle of its range and associated with (1) the Lorne Triassic Basin (north of Taree) and (2) Silurian schists and shales (Coffs Harbour District). Sedimentary depositions within the Lorne Basin include basal beds of massive conglomerate, ferruginous grits, sandstones, shales and soft clay shales. The vegeta- tional structure of the blackbutt forest may be correlated with gradation in depositions; conglomerates and coarse sandstone-derived soils support blackbutt communities FRASER IS GYMPIE® 4 \COOLOOLABIN QUEENSLAND PS 7 NA \ BATEMANS BAY Fig. 2. Part of the east coast of southern Australia showing place names referred to in text. Blackbutt (Hucalyptus pilularis) has a distribution from the Victoria-New South Wales border to Fraser Island, and the common range of blackbutt and white mahogany (#. acmenioides, H. wmbra) extends from about Sydney to Fraser Is. characteristic of its vegetational gradient towards dry sclerophyll forest, red-brown finer sandstones support near optimum blackbutt stands, and fine sandstones and shales support stands characteristic of the vegetational gradient towards rainforest. Within the Lorne Basin discontinuity in blackbutt distribution is correlated with outcrops of the underlying Carboniferous formation, with “alkaline intrusives’’ (Voisey, 1939), and with fine felspathic sandstone and siltstone. On the mid-north coast of New South Wales blackbutt has a relatively continuous distribution on the extensive schist and shale soils. On the schist soil of Pine Creek and Newry State Forests, discontinuity of blackbutt and white mahogany forest is associated with variation in the bedding of the rock and in the consequent nature of the rock-soil relationship. Apart from this differentiation, the alignment of blackbutt forest on ridges, rainforest in gullies, and with white mahogany forest interposed, is 176 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, common through a large part of this formation. This pattern has presented one of the most complex problems in understanding the environmental relationships involved (Section VII). Together, the Permian and Carboniferous formations provide one of the major barriers to a more widespread occurrence of blackbutt forest. A great diversity of CLIMATOLOGICAL _MAP ( After de Beuzeville, 1943 ) Yiee INDEX TO CLIMATES BASED ON SWAIN. 1938 GRAFTON KEY TO SYMBOLS: MTHM = Mean Temp. Hottest Month MTCM = Mean Temp. Coldest Month MMR = Mean Monthly Rainfall MAR = Mean Annual Rainfall ZONE FACTORS SUB-ZONE : FACTORS No-of months MMR ‘alls eles 200 points. 2-4 MTCMIMTHM MAR|INDE IMARINDEX MARIINDEX|MAR INDE x 34 <40]1-30/< 35/334 25 < 68 | 40-60} | 35 ]35-50/3 3 » P5-40 >60| 1 3c |>50/3 3¢ |>40 nun WwW WW Po 8 @ Vit uv Ww@ N NIN WwW Ww eo to ; <40/ 1-40 /< 35/3.4 a 25/5 4a] 8 |74a 46 > 68 | 49~9 © 135-50 b&b 125-40 b 18-15 cS) >60 <}|>50 « |>40 on ea e <40| |.5a |< 38/3.5a 25|/56al60 e|>50 «|>40 e{>15 e <40/ loa l< 35/36 al72 | 40-60 e 135-50 bp |25-40 >18-15 b >60 « |>50 «.|>40 <> 15 ¢ 55 <40/'17al< 35/37 ale 25|/57al09 ¢1>50 e1>49 ¢ [> 15 oT» aA nn @ copier oo <40] 18 a/< 35) 3 8al< 25/58 78 ag) |) 22 7/5 beso t |35-50 b 125-40 2 60400 Cc {$C0-85 < 140-60 SiS Fig. 8. Illustration of principal climatological data in south-eastern Australia. White mahogany, blackbutt and rainforest communities have a common distribution restricted to zones indicated by the initial numeral ‘“‘1’’ in the climatic index. aA uw he UV vegetation is associated with these formations and includes woodland, dry sclerophyll, “mixed forest” (Hucalyptus, Syncarpia, Tristania, dominating a rainforest element stratum) and rainforest. West of Port Macquarie the Carboniferous formation rises to over 4000’. On a part of this area blackbutt forest is developed on greywacke, as is BY R. G. FLORENCE. ILA white mahogany forest, Sydney blue gum-brush box forest, and rainforest including Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei) around 4000’ elevation. It will be demonstrated that variation in greywacke mineralogy may be primarily responsible for some of the vegetation pattern in this area. Blackbutt has extensive occurrence on coastal deposits of Recent origin, for example Fraser Island, and the Myall Lakes area (Osborn and Robertson, 1939). The association of blackbutt with Recent deposits is restricted to coastal sands; the species rarely occurs on Recent alluvium associated with coastal streams, which frequently carried rainforest. Rocks of volcanic origin are widespread along the Australian east coast. These range from basic fine-grained basalts to highly acid granites. They vary in occurrence from extensive flows occupying thousands of square miles to localized outcrops of granite interbedded with other strata. Within the Lorne Basin intrusions of both granite and “alkaline intrusive” (dolerite) have uplifted part of the Basin; white mahogany forest occupies the dolerite and blackbutt the granite. In northern New South Wales on Whian Whian State Forest, Baur (1957) has recorded a belt of blackbutt forest on acid rock (rhyolite) “sandwiched” between upper and lower rain- forest on basalt, and in southern Queensland the mosaic of blackbutt and white mahogany forest is largely related to the mosaic of rhyolite and trachyte respectively, forming the acid phase of the Triassic “North Arm Volcanics”. Delineation of Rainforest and EHucalypt Sclerophyll. The most extensive and continuous occurrences of rainforest in New South Wales and southern Queensland are associated with basic volcanic rocks, notably basalts, but only where red loams rather than black earths have developed on them. In a detailed study of lithology in relation to rainforest in southern Queensland, Webb (1956) coneluded that subtropical rainforests are not generally supported by sedentary soils from acid rocks, i.e. with silica much in excess of 50%. Where rainforests appeared to be developed on such soils some form of basic enrichment could usually be evidenced. For example, Webb has suggested that polygenetic soils are responsible for rainforest on highly siliceous phyllite. Recent exposure of phyllites by partial erosion of a basalt capping has occurred, but the closed nutrient cycle in rainforest has retarded soil impoverishment even under intense leaching conditions. The existence of numerous patches of rainforest developed as a function of topography within eucalypt-sclerophyll suggests the possibility that soils formed from some parent materiais, though limiting in certain properties for rainforest formation, may be capable of supporting rainforest with colluvial concentration of nutrients or with higher levels of soil moisture. Because of the superimposition of a complexity of such factors on the parent material-vegetation relationship, precise determination of vegetation in relation to lithology will probably not be possible. Vegetational Delineation in Relation to Parent Rock Mineralogy. The distribution of blackbutt and white mahogany in relation to the mosaic of geological strata suggested that an examination of the mineralogy of a range of parent materials might reveal some features that would characterize the presence of the respective communities. Micro-sectioning of some 20 rocks was carried out in the Department of Geology, and the results are examined for a number of localities. 1. Lorne Triassic Basin. All soils associated with these depositions carry blackbutt, and all have a high quartz content. Conglomerates and coarse-textured sandstones are associated with blackbutt’s vegetational gradient towards dry sclerophyll, and depositions with a more complex mineralogical composition with the gradient towards rainforest. For example, a blackbutt-Sydney blue gum-tallowwood forest with some rainforest element is developed on a fine sandstone, with 50% detrital quartz grains, 10% felspar and a considerable amount of epidote. Within an area of apparently homogeneous rock, contrasts in mineralogical composition may have a considerable influence on the vegetational composition. For 178 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, example, on a section of the Lorne Basin, the occurrence of a community with blackbutt, flooded gum, brush box and a rich rainforest element stratum might have been assumed to result from topographic influences on the soil derived from the epidote-rich sandstone just described, were it not for puzzling inconsistencies in this pattern. Mineralogical analysis of the apparently similar underlying rock showed that it had no epidote, but had a large amount of clay minerals, particularly chlorite; this parent material difference may well be the primary cause of the vegetational pattern. Discontinuity of blackbutt within the limits of the Lorne Basin is associated with various exposed Carboniferous strata, and with intrusions of basic plutonic rock. All carry white mahogany. A Carboniferous shale had a small component of very fine quartz (15%), felspar, white mica and abundant muscovite; a fine felspathic sandstone had 10-15% quartz with potash felspar as small grains with a matrix of mica and indeterminate material, and the basic plutonic rock (dolerite) was low in quartz but contained lime-rich felspar, augite, hornblende and magnetite. 2. Bellangry Forest. (Carboniferous strata.) Four rocks from contrasted com- munities were examined. All were greywacke and were indistinguishable on ocular inspection. However, they varied as follows: (a) Blackbutt forest, little rainforest element: angular quartz grains 30%, fine grained biotite 30%, remainder fine grained and possibly weathered to kaolin. (0) Blackbutt, Sydney blue gum and rainforest element understorey: quartz 10%, biotite 40-50%, small quantity of muscovite, and remainder potash felspar. (c) Sydney blue gum, brush box, with Argyrodendron rainforest in gully: biotite 50-60%, and quartz as occasional larger grains forming 5-10% of the total. (ad) White mahogany: mineralogically distinct from above, particularly low quartz content, and a high component of fine-grained chlorite minerals. With respect to the first three communities (a-c), a vegetational gradient from blackbutt-sclerophyll forest to rainforest is associated with a gradient in the quartz- biotite relationship; a rock relatively high in quartz content supports almost “pure” blackbutt forest, and on the other extreme, a rock relatively high in biotite and low in quartz supports Argyrodendron rainforest. It is possible that this quartz-biotite relationship reflects a gradient from acid to basic rock, in which case the vegetational expression would be in agreement with Webb’s (1956) conclusions concerning rain- forest distribution and the nature of the parent material. 3. Cooloolabin Forest. (Acid and intermediate volcanic rocks.) Several rock specimens from each of blackbutt and white mahogany forest respectively were examined. (a) Blackbutt forest: (i) some turpentine component, no brush box; rhyolite, phenocrysts of quartz in a ground mass of fine potash felspar, and a small percentage of chlorite. (ii) as (i); acid rhyolitic lava, large phenocrysts quartz forming a high percentage of total, in fine ground mass felspar and plagioclase. (iii) high brush box and turpentine component; altered trachyte, microcrystalline, felspar about 95% of rock, extremely altered, secondary minerals, zeolite and chlorite; quartz veins 5% of rock. (b) White mahogany forest: (i) trachyte, quartz nil, dominant minerals potash- felspar and plagioclase. (ii) trachyte, no quartz, texturally different from (i). Within the acid phase of the North Arm Voleanics of Cooloolabin Forest, there is apparently a gradient in rock mineralogy from the acid rhyolites to the intermediate trachytes. Blackbutt forest that is characteristic of the vegetational gradient towards dry sclerophyll forest is associated with the rhyolites, and all white mahogany forest examined has been developed on trachytes. However, apart from these extremes, there is apparently no precise definition of the forest community in terms of the rock mineralogy; for example, in a more detailed study of the vegetation pattern of Cooloolabin Forest to be presented elsewhere it will be shown that blackbutt and white mahogany forest may occur mosaically on the one parent material. BY R. G. FLORENCE. 179 In summary it is apparent that in many areas the distribution of blackbutt is primarily related to the mineralogy of the parent material. While the mineralogical examinations have been too limited to characterize with any certainty a type of parent material on which blackbutt forest is developed, if indeed this is at all possible, it is clear that in many cases blackbutt is associated with a rock high in quartz content, and absent from fine grained rocks low in quartz, and with high percentages of such minerals as chlorite, mica and magnetite. In what way the parent material may be primarily responsible for vegetational differentiation is examined in succeeding sections. IV. THE PHYSICAL SOIL FACTOR IN THE VEGETATIONAL PATTERN. The role of mineralogical composition of the parent rock in the soil-forming process cannot be defined directly. Under one climatic environment identical soils are commonly derived from contrasted rock types. Nevertheless the mineralogical com- position, texture, and hardness of the underlying rock, and its general habit and direction of cleavage are properties which have an important bearing on pedogenesis. Physical Properties of Blackbutt and White Mahogany Soils. 1. Rock-Soil Relations: Through the region studied it is evident that the mineralogy of the parent rock has been a principal controlling factor in the nature of the soil profile formed. Weathering of many rocks with a high or moderate quartz content has been rapid and relatively deep mature soils have formed on them, or alternatively the rock has fractured to depth and an undulating soil/rock boundary formed. In contrast, many of the rocks that have a low quartz content, particularly those with a fine-grained ground-mass of chlorite and mica minerals, have weathered more slowly, producing in many cases immature soils over massive parent rock. On the other hand, deep soils formed on rocks with nil er low quartz carry blackbutt forest, or blackbutt may be developed on parts of the one parent material where formation of deeper soils has occurred, for example, as a function of topography. It is apparent that the nature of the soil profile formed rather than the mineralogy of the rock per se is the determining factor in blackbutt—white mahogany differentiation, and that many examples of the correlation between forest community and rock mineralogy can be extended to a correlation between forest community and the nature of the rock-soil relationship. Some examples are given (Table 1). Generally a striking variation in the rock-soil relationship is associated with a lithological change. However, in a number of instances blackbutt and white mahogany are sharply delineated on the same rock type, and in similar topographic situations, as a result of variation in the structural characteristics of the rock. For example, in Pine Creek State Forest (Table 1) blackbutt occurs where the schist has been tilted to 45° and fractured, facilitating much deeper weathering through moisture infiltration of the laminated rock structure; where the rock is undisturbed and horizontally bedded, and the soil is relatively shallow, white mahogany forest is developed. Again, in Myall River Forest, white mahogany forest occurs on a shallow immature soil overlying massive and very hard dacite. On one part of the forest, blackbutt is found on a deeply weathered soil derived from the same parent material; in this latter case it is possible that the part of the magma had shattered during cooling and deep weathering was facilitated. 2. Texture and Structure of the Soil: Although discontinuity of blackbutt and white mahogany can be correlated with the nature of the rock/soil relationship in a large number of cases, there are, alternatively, many examples where variation in the physical properties of the soil itself appears to be a causal factor in the differentiation. For all profiles examined, texture, the nature of soil aggregates and bulk density were recorded. Texture and structure of the soil may affect plant distribution and growth indirectly by their influence on aeration, water movement, water retention and root ramification. For comparable soil textures, bulk density may be regarded as a useful comparative measure of soil aeration and root penetration potential. For example, 180 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1948) suggest that compacted soil layers whose bulk density exceeds 1:75 for sand and from 1:46 to 1:63 for clays may prevent the penetra- tion of roots. In Table 2 a number of examples are given of contrast in the physical properties of profiles carrying sharply delimited blackbutt and white mahogany forest respectively. From this set of data it seems that blackbutt discontinuity might also be correlated with soils of heavy texture, ramification might be restricted. where soil structure is such that aeration and root Blackbutt is certainly not restricted on heavy textured soil, but may occur only where the soil is well aggregated and bulk densities are moderate. TABLE 1, The Rock-Soil Relationship in Adjacent Blackbutt and White Mahogany Forests. Blackbutt. White Mahogany. (i) Parent Rock. (ii) Soil Group. Profile. (i) Parent Rock. (ii) Soil Group. Profile. Bateman’s Bay. (i) Chert. (ii) Podzol. To 40’ light clay with pieces of quartz and angular chert. Below 40”, chert fragments in- creasingly compact. (i) Schist. (ii) Prairie soil. 12” of light clay with copious parent material fragments over decomposing but compact schist in original laminations. Manning River (Lorne Basin). (i) Fine sandstone. Very deep porous soil. (ii) Krasnozem. (i) Shale. (ii) Immature. Angular shale fragments through- out profile becoming dense and compact at about 15”. At 30” mainly shale. Bellangry. (i) Greywacke (30% quartz) (ii) Krasnozem. Angular rock fragments and soil of light texture to 15”, below 15” rock increasingly massive. Deep porous profile ; some bands of weathered rock present, but no barrier to moisture on roots. (i) Greywacke (low quartz— high chlorite). (ii) Immature. Pine Creek. (i) Schist. Loam and clay loam over shattered (i) Schist. Variable shallow soil to 24” over (ii) Yellow podzolic. schist in parts deeply weathered. (ii) Immature. massive horizontally bedded schist. Cooloolabin. (i) Trachyte. (i i) Yellow podzolic. Grey brown loam to 15”, yellow brown clay to 30’, over a massive parent rock. Grey brown clay loam over a yellow brown clay and heavy clay ; deep profile. (i) Trachyte. (ii) Brown podzolic. The evidence presented this far would suggest that the distribution of blackbutt is limited by any physical properties of the soil profile which restrict aeration, moisture permeability or penetration of roots to depth, such soil properties varying with the mineralogy of the parent material, its geological history and the landscape pattern. Blackbutt, however, does not occur on all soils which are apparently adequate in physical properties, and the plant-soil relationships involved in representative cases are discussed later in this paper. Physical Properties of Rainforest Soils. Webb (1956) has shown that a suitable range of available moisture and macro- porosity are apparently necessary for rainforest formation, but he has stressed that structure in rainforest soils could not be dissociated from the effects of rainforest themselves and so claimed to be causative. Soils which are permeable and well aerated in virgin rainforest may become compacted and waterlogged after removal of the forest, and cultivation. A possible example of the critical nature of soil structure for rainforest formation is seen on soils developed from Carboniferous shale in Coopernook Forest. Normally the moist gully habitats support a typical mixed sclerophyll and rainforest element. The soils are heavy textured and notably subject to waterlogging. However, an isolated patch of rainforest has formed in a small alluvial fan at the BY R. G. FLORENCE. 181 base of a gully formed along the junction of the shale and a relatively sterile Triassic sandstone. The presence of the rainforest might be attributed to the simultaneous build up of clay colluvium and sandstone fragments, resulting in the formation of a clay loam with well-developed structure and a particular low bulk density: at 3”, 0-96; at 15”, 0:90; and at 33”, 0-86. In the absence of the ameliorating sandstone influence, the mixed forest may represent an ‘‘edaphic climax’, restricted by deficiencies in the soil structure. TABLE 2. Physical Properties of Soils Associated with adjacent Blackbutt and White Mahogany Forests. (i) Parent Rock. ©) Sail Geom. Profile. Depth. Density Notes. Manning River State Forest. (a) Blackbutt. (i) Sandstone. Clay loam over light clay; coarse ou 0-80 - Deep, permeable with good aeration (ii) Krasnozem. granular structure. 18” 1-24 characteristics. Som 1:34 (b) White Mahogany. (i) Felspar- Fine granular sandy loam to 6” over 3 1:27 Even at the surface B.D. is high, sandstone. red and yellow mottled stiff sandy 11554 1-44 and at 33” root penetration (ii) Yellow-red clay, fine blocky structure. 33” 1-56 aeration may be impeded. podzolic. Manning River State Forest. (a) Blackbutt. (i) Sandstone. Loan to 10” where sharp transition om 0:93 Both of these communities are part (ii) Podzol. to red brown stiff clay, and 1S 1-30 of a mosaic on what is a marginal gradual change to pale grey sandy oom 1-50 blackbutt site. The white clay streaked with yellow, red, mahogany (Z£. wmbra) is present brown; in B horizon coarse throughout the blackbutt forest blocky structure. but also occurs in depapuerate (6) White Mahogany. patches; the very compact clay (i) Sandstone. Sandy loam to 8” where sharp on 1:27 horizon in these latter situations (ii) Podzol. transition to yellow brown sandy Uy 1-44 may be limiting for blackbutt. clay changing to heavy clay at iliah 1:77 27”, the latter granular and exceptionally compacted. Queens Lake State Forest. (a) Blackbutt. (i) Sandstone. 0-5” sandy loam, 5-15” yellow brown By 1:19 In spite of heavy textured subsoil, (ii) Yellow-red light clay. 15-36” red brown bo 1085) the good structural characteristics podzolic. heavy clay, coarse blocky structure 33” 1-33 and moderate bulk density breaking to fine blocky. indicate reasonable aeration, moisture and root penetration potential. (b) White Mahogany. (i) Basic con- Variable depth over rock, but where om 1:07 Combination of rock habit, texture, glomerate. relatively deep, a granular sandy 15 1-45 lack of particle aggregation, and (ii) Podzolic. clay. 33” 1-62 high bulk density would restrict aeration and permeability. V. Sor MoIstuRE AND THE VEGETATION PATTERN. Although the many difficulties inherent in an adequate examination of the soil moisture factor in community differentiation were well appreciated, it was felt that a comparative study of soil moisture availability patterns would provide some initial information on forest community—soil moisture relationships that could lead to a later, more critical evaluation of the soil moisture factor in the vegetational mosaic. During the period April, 1959, to August, 1960, soils were sampled for moisture determination at six-week intervals in three blackbutt, three white mahogany and three rainforest and marginal rainforest communities. In each community samples from three borings were taken at 4” and 40”; these were dried at 105° C for 48 hours and moisture content expressed as a percentage of oven-dry weight. For each soil and depth, determinations in triplicate were made of Wilting Point and Field Capacity, 182 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, using pressure Membrane apparatus under a tension of 15 atmospheres for five days and 4 atmosphere for two days respectively. Unfortunately for a study of this nature, most of the experimental period was characterized by atypically high rainfall. Normally the months of greatest potential moisture stress are August to November, but in 1959 more than double the mean rainfall was recorded for this period. However, dry conditions prevailed from July, 1960, to October, 1960, with less than one-third normal rainfall, and the pattern of drying for the various soils has been demonstrated. The pattern of change in soil moisture in relation to Wilting Point and Wield Capacity is shown for each of four adjacent communities in Bellangry State Forest (Fig. 4). Three communities are developed on krasnozemic profiles, namely (i) black- butt with little rainforest element; (ii) Sydney blue gum-brush box-tallowwood, grading downslope into (iii); subsequently referred to as “marginal rainforest’; (iii) rainforest characterized by presence of Argyrodendron trifoliatum. The fourth community, white mahogany, is on a brown podzolic. The blackbutt forest had clearly the most favourable soil moisture characteristics, a wide range of available moisture, and a soil moisture level consistently approaching Field Capacity. In both the rainforest and marginal rainforest soils, ranges of available moisture were comparatively restricted, and at 4” the soil moisture had fallen below Wilting Point before the final sampling in October, 1960. At 40” the blackbutt soil was consistently above the Wilting Point until the August, 1960, sampling. In contrast, the marginal rainforest soil was particularly droughty, being above Wilting Point in only three samplings at 40”; inside the rainforest itself, at the base of the slope, soil moisture was more readily available at this depth. At Coopernook the position was much the same. At 4” a blackbutt forest soil (a krasnozem) had a wide range of available moisture and a moisture content generally in the upper part of that range. The rainforest soil developed on the alluvial fan (Section IV) was surprisingly droughty, mainly because of the high Wilting Point. At 40” the rainforest soil fluctuated close to Wilting Point, but the blackbutt soil was consistently above that level. Two white mahogany soils at Coopernook showed rapid soil moisture fluctuation at 4”, but at 40” soil moisture was much more stable. One of the striking features of the data obtained is that unless rainforest species which draw their moisture supply principally from the 0-40” depth range are able to obtain moisture at levels below the permanent wilting percentage, then these species must be subject to moisture stress in most years and severe moisture stress in periodic drought years. The comparative status of soil moisture availability in the eucalypt-sclerophyll and gully rainforest is surprising. Undoubtedly it may be related in part to the greater moisture usage under rainforest, but in addition the question arises as to whether rainforest, by virtue of its own effect on soil pore characteristics (through the nature of its litter and organic matter), effectively limits the availability of soil moisture to itself. This is suggested by the range in available moisture for four krasnozem profiles, as follows. Permanent Wilting Range of Field Capacity. Percentage. Available (% Soil (% Soil Moisture. Moisture.) Moisture.) Blackbutt Forest, Coopernook .. ead 54 PA 27 Blackbutt Forest, Bellangry ae Me 50 24 26 Marginal Rainforest, Bellangry .. a 49 32 17 Rainforest, Bellangry sys ee ee 57 41 16 Webb (1956) has also commented on the narrow range of available moisture found in many rainforest soils; he found there was a high percentage of small pores in the soil and Wilting Points were typically high. For this reason, he stated, rainforest required climates which were relatively moist during the year. It seems, therefore, BY R. G. FLORENCE. 183 MOISTURE CONTENT AT 4 MARGINAL RAINFOREST —--PWP_ -32- - —-:-FC-— -57- — . — . + Qe se — > — - — - —-- RAINFOREST WHITE MAHOGANY __ pwp--22. -— MOISTURE CONTENT AT 40” IG QO - 2) oo So oS Se ee one MARGINAL RAINFOREST a | era Gell ys sp ty al 1A ley lute auolnniovad. yer ga MO g2ng , 3h) RAINFOREST --Pwp_-28- *—S-Ts- fire st ott fh —-FOG—.34—-—.—.— .— Og SS Se et SS Se St SS = WH. MAHOGONY —-PWP- -2/- - Soe Sas n= 21-559 (17869 =—7-1F50 I-20 288-60 178-60 TIME OF SAMPLING Fig. 4. Patterns of change in soil moisture at 4” and 40” in four forest communities at Bellangry. Soil moisture content was expressed as a percentage of oven-dry weight, and for each community has been plotted between the soil’s Field Capacity (FC) and the Permanent Wilting Percentage (PWP). Vertically hatched and darkened sections illustrate available moisture and possible soil drought respectively. 184 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, that under conditions where other soil properties are not limiting for rainforest, soil moisture availability would be a critical factor in its distribution. At lower elevation, or in steep topography, rainforest might be restricted to gully habitats, but if the same soil were at higher elevations, or in more gently underlying relief, rainforest could be the dominant vegetation. VI. THe Nutrient FACTOR IN THE VEGETATION PATTERN. The total amount of nutrient available to a plant in a given soil is primarily a function of the lithology of the parent material and the weathering to which it has been subjected. It is also a function of the vegetation present through its effect on (i) differential use or accumulation of various elements, (ii) distribution of total nutrients through the soil-plant ecosystem, (iii) rate of nutrient mineralization from the organic matter, and (iv) the nature of plant-microbiological interactions. It is apparent then that in ecological studies the use of the pot-nutrient technique for determination of the soil-nutrient factor in plant distribution may have certain limitations. This was well illustrated in this study. It had been planned to examine the possibility that a soil-nutrient factor might be responsible for the ecological differentiation of blackbutt and white mahogany by nutrient studies with blackbutt seedlings in a number of white mahogany soils, and with white mahogany seedlings. TABLE 3. Yield of Blackbutt in White Mahogany Soils. Mean Leaf Area Production per Pot—Sq. Inches. No Minus! Minus Minus Minus Minus Complete Addition. P. N. K. Ca. Ae Nutrient. E. acmenioides Soil (1). 64-2** 99 -2* 75: 1F* 118-4 118-8 117°5 117°5 #. acmenioides Soil (11). 78° 7** 86 -9** 115-7** 140-0 141-1 —_ 143-1 £. umbra Soil (111). 9-3** 14-3** 46-4** 80-1** 82-4** 91-7 89:7 E. umbra Soil (IV). 39 -8** 79-1 52-9** 91:6 88-9 —_ 90:0 1Complete nutrient addition minus P.. . (etc.). 2 Trace elements. For each soil, differences from ‘‘ complete nutrient ’’. * Significant at 5% level; ** significant at 1% level. in a number of blackbutt soils. Following the demonstration of the severe inhibition of blackbutt and other plants in a blackbutt soil (Florence and Crocker, 1962) this approach seemed hardly justified. However, blackbutt seedlings did not develop symptoms of inhibition in H. acmenioides soil, and the use of the pot-nutrient technique has made possible some conclusions concerning (i) the nutrient status of white mahogany soils for growth of blackbutt and (ii) relative fertility status of #H. acmenioides and H. umobra soils. Soils were sampled from the surface 6” in two H. acmenioides forests and two #H. umbra forests; they were coarse-sieved, and for each soil equal amounts by weight were placed in 8” diameter pots. The “omission method” for exploratory examination of nutrient deficiencies was used in each case, and the “complete nutrient addition” consisted of NaH,PO, at 4 cwt/acre, NH,NO, at 1 cwt/ acre, KCl at 1 cwt/acre, CaCO at 2 cwt/acre, MgSO, at 1 cwt/acre, and a mixed trace element solution containing Fe, Bo, Mn, Zn, Cu and Mo. All nutrients except Ca were added in solution. Summarized yields (leaf area production per pot) are presented in Table 3. Although lower yields were obtained in the absence of either N or P in EL. acmenioides soils, blockbutt seedlings developed well without nutrient addition. In H. acmenioides soil No. I, the main response was to N with a smaller response to P. In this same soil under field conditions excellent growth of cotyledonary transplants was obtained, though seedlings were a pale green throughout. In H. acmenioides soil BY R. G. FLORENCE. 185 No. II all seedlings were a dark healthy green including those without nutrient addition, but nevertheless a response to both N and P was obtained. In view of blackbutt’s response to N and P on a high site quality blackbutt soil, especially after air-dry storage or mild heat treatment (Florence and Crocker, 1962), there seems little basis for suggesting that responses to these nutrients in this case indicate a critical deficiency in the soil limiting blackbutt’s occurrence on the soil. The yield pattern on #H. uwmbra soils suggests the possibility that N and P deficiencies could be limiting for blackbutt. The failure of seedlings on the unaltered EH. umbra soil No. III might not be attributed to microbiological inhibition, as the seedlings exhibited neither leaf purpling nor severely restricted root development. #H. umbra soil No. IV was obtained from a depauperate community marginal to black- butt forest on sandstone (Table 2). The soil was a pale sand, and in view of the nature of the vegetation, some marked deficiencies were expected. However, absence of added P had no, or possibly a very slight effect on yield, but absence of added N had a depressive effect. Even with complete nutrient leaves were slightly chlorotic, and it appears that level of N added was inadequate, particularly in the presence of added P. From the lithological, soil profile and nutrient study, some tentative conclusions concerning differentiation of blackbutt and white mahogany are now possible. (i) Blackbutt is not necessarily restricted by a soil nutrient deficiency from H. acmenioides sites, a conclusion supported both by glasshouse and field studies. (ii) The relationship between blackbutt nutrient requirement and H. uwmbra soils is not clear. Their frequent co-occurrence indicates a considerable overlap in their physiological tolerances. The adequate soil P in the depauperate H. umbra community (Soil No. IV) suggests a blackbutt tolerance of soils of particularly low fertility status. (iii) By and large, therefore, it seems that the delimitation of these interbreeding species is related to the physical characteristics of the soil rather than to its nutritional status. TABLE 4, Exchangeable Cations and Phosphorus in Soils from a Range of Vegetational Types. (From Baur, 1957.) Exch. Cations. 2 Total PO, (m.eq/100 er.) Exch Ca. Exch. K. spate Rainforests with Argyrodendron .. 15 -8-62-0 10-5-47-2 0-8-2°8 2940-7620 Rainforests with Ceratopetalum 2-3-11-3 1-1- 3-5 0-6-1-0 520-1090 Wet sclerophyll ae Dy she 6-8-10-2 2-3- 5-9 0-5-0:7 480-1710 Dry sclerophyll 0-9- 4-5 0:4- 3-2 0-1-0:9 110- 226 The Nutrient Factor in the Vegetational Gradient to Rainforest. Within both blackbutt and white mahogany communities, the largely parallel gradients from xeromorphic to mesomorphic vegetation (Florence, 1963) are undoubtedly associated with gradients in soil fertility status. In agricultural develop- ment in eastern Australia, the rainforest areas of reasonable relief were the first to be settled, although subsequent deterioration in nutrient status of many of these soils has been rapid. The association of rainforest with basic parent materials, or with soils enriched with basic materials, points to a high fertility requirement, and in fact Beadle (1954, 1962) has shown that an increase in phosphorus content of parent materials and soils in the Sydney district is associated with vegetational gradient from dry sclerophyll to rainforest. Data presented by Baur (1957) show that soils of the most highly developed rainforest type in New South Wales (characterized by the presence of Argyrodendron sp.) are particularly high in exchangeable cations and phosphorus (Table 4). On the other hand Baur’s data show that certain ‘wet- sclerophyll” communities, and rainforest communities characterized by the presence of Ceratopetalum, are associated with much the same range of values for soil phosphorus 186 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, and exchangeable cations. While this suggests that Ceratopetalum and Argyrodendron rainforests may be delineated by soil fertility status, studies of the total nutrient content within the “wet sclerophyll” and Ceratopetalum rainforest ecosystems would be necessary to determine their nutrient relationships. Rainforests may have much greater amounts of nutrients immobilized in the dense crown layers, and these are probably circulated through the plant-root system at a much faster rate than in eucalypt forests. It may be that “wet-sclerophyll” forests with soil nutrients at the upper limit of the given range may be limiting in soil moisture for Ceratopetalum rainforest development and, alternatively, Ceratopetalum rainforest soils with nutrients at the lower limit of the given range may have a very favourable and compensating soil moisture regime. Alternatively some superimposed factor such as the fire history of the forest could tip the balance between sclerophyll forest near the upper limit of the vegetation gradient towards rainforest, and Ceratopetalum rainforest. VII. THe CoMMUNITY-SITE INTERACTION AS A FACTOR IN THE VEGETATION PATTERN. Florence and Crocker (1962) have suggested that the nature of the interaction of a plant community with its environment can be a critical factor in determination of vegetational relationships. This was based on their investigations into the severe inhibition of blackbutt seedling growth in blackbutt forest soil, and the finding that some component of the soil microflora was directly antagonistic to blackbutt seedling roots. A tentative hypothesis suggested that the development of a blackbutt forest might depend on a considerable degree of fluctuation in the microbiological environ- ment and that, along gradients of decreasing potential for that fluctuation, the inter- action of blackbutt with its site would be increasingly adverse, resulting in modification to the blackbutt community, and eventually to its complete replacement. The possible application of such an hypothesis to explain some otherwise puzzling aspects of blackbutt’s vegetational relationships is examined for two typical situations. (i) Possible Mechanism Restricting Blackbutt along a Gradient of Increasing Permanence in Soil Moisture Status. A widespread vegetational pattern on Silurian schists and shales of the Coffs Harbour area is the occurrence of blackbutt forest on ridges, with rainforest in gullies and with a variable strip of white mahogany forest interposed between the two. Soil profiles were examined along several road cuttings in Newry and Orara Forests, but no marked differences in physical properties were found. It was noted, however, that the soil exposed in cuttings on lower slopes (carrying white mahogany forest) was apparently moister than on upper sections of the slopes (carrying blackbutt forest). This probably resulted from the tilt and low permeability of the schist rock with consequent movement of moisture downslope rather than to depth. If the development of a blackbutt forest, on some soils at least, is partly dependent on fluctuation in the microbiological environment as hypothesized, then this may be achieved to a large degree through fluctuation in soil moisture and through the resultant cumulative effect of the drying and wetting cycles on stimulation of microbiological activity and organic carbon and nutrient mineralization (Birch, 1958). Under conditions where level of soil moisture may be relatively stabilized by slow moisture infiltration, the micro- biological condition created through incorporation of blackbutt litter could well interact adversely against this species, and an alternative species so enabled to gain dominance. In this respect it is possibly significant that the properties of H. acmenioides litter are such that no apparent inhibition was found in several EL. acmenioides soils. (ii) Possible Mechanism Restricting Blackbutt along a Gradient of Increasing Soil Fertility. On part of Bellangry Forest a quite striking vegetational pattern consists of an alternating occurrence of sharply delimited blackbutt and marginal rainforest com- munities (Sydney blue gum, brush box, tallowwood). Both extend from ridge to gully habitats, the former having little rainforest element and the latter a low rainforest element on slopes and Argyrodendron rainforest in a broad fan at the base of the slope. BY R. G. FLORENCE. 187 These contrasted communities are both developed on krasnozem profiles similar in general appearance; both have clearly had a history of fairly severe fires before protection. What then is the reason for their sharp delimitation? The blackbutt forest soil is associated with a parent material with a higher quartz and lower biotite content than the marginal rainforest soil (Section III). Both the blackbutt parent material and soil are more weathered, the blackbutt soil being a clay and the marginal rainforest soil a loam. In view of the variation in rock mineralogy, the weathering status of rock and soil, and the lower slope occurrence of Argyrodendron rainforest on the marginal rainforest soil, it can be indirectly inferred that this latter soil has a considerably higher fertility status. The question becomes one of suggesting how a soil that is probably not limiting in other directions can, by virtue of a high fertility status, sharply restrict the presence of blackbutt. Both of these soils were shown to inhibit severely blackbutt seedling development (Florence and Crocker, 1962), but seedlings in the marginal rainforest soil were strikingly chlorotic in contrast to the typical purpling of inhibited seedlings in a blackbutt forest soil. Although blackbutt seedling growth is restricted in an undisturbed black- butt forest soil, it is possible that blackbutt seedlings could be even more sensitive to the various influences of certain other species on soils of high fertility status, and in this way there could be an effective barrier to blackbutt seedling establishment and survival on those soils. In the example described, the blackbutt forest was sharply delimited from the marginal rainforest along an edaphic boundary. But frequently the same accumulation of dominants (Sydney blue gum, tallowwood, brush box) dominating a rainforest element stratum is interposed between blackbutt forest and rainforest along a uniform environmental gradient. In such cases an increasing fertility status through colluvial enrichment, or increasing permanence in soil moisture status, or both, may well create conditions with which blackbutt would interact unfavourably, and so result in a gradual displacement of blackbutt from the community. DISCUSSION. The main conclusions from the study of edaphic relationships in east coast vegetation can be summarized as follows: (i) The interbreeding species blackbutt and white mahogany occupy largely distinctive habitats, characterized by differences in physical properties of soils and expressed through variation in potential for soil aeration and root penetration to depth. - (ii) Blackbutt and white mahogany communities occupy largely parallel gradients from open sclerophyllous conditions to mixed sclerophyll-rainforest, and rainforest, respectively. Vegetation gradients may be correlated with gradients of increasing soil fertility status, or to some extent with gradients of increasing soil moisture. Where soil nutrients are particularly limiting, improvement in soil moisture may have little or no effect on the vegetation, and alternatively, where soil nutrient status is high the vegetational gradient may be restricted through soil moisture deficiencies. Irrespective of nutrient or moisture status, vegetation gradients to rainforest may be restricted by limiting physical soil conditions. (iii) The upper limit of blackbutt’s environmental tolerance along gradients of increasing soil fertility, soil moisture, or both, may be determined in part by the nature of its own interaction with its environment. On the other hand, white mahogany may extend along environmental gradients and be marginal to rainforest. The relationship between the broader edaphic criteria and vegetation can be expressed diagrammatically by illustrating the alignment of vegetation along gradients in physical and chemical soil properties (Fig. 5). The model assumes a geographic location in the centre of the common blackbutt-white mahogany-rainforest range, a low elevation with rainfall around 60” per annum and a flat topography. The influence of slope on vegetation would vary from psint to point on the model, and a key is included showing slope effects for a number of representative situations. B 188 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS, In the foregoing an attempt has been made to show how the complexities of the vegetational pattern in east coast forests composed of blackbutt, white mahogany and rainforest communities may be closely related to variation in physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. This, however, is probably not a static relationship, even over the geographic range common to all three species; it has been suggested, for example, that brush box and turpentine may have a wider edaphic tolerance in southern Queensland than along the central coast of New South Wales (Florence, 1963). That the relationship between the nature of the vegetation and the parent E. GRANDIS E. UMBRA E. ACMENIOI DES T. CONFERTA RESTRICTED ae Te RAINFOREST ELEMENT HITE |MAHOGANY ge ee Ww oa TOWARDS GRADIENT TOWARDS: ORY SCLEROPHYLL RAINFOREST T5 T/ IN ROOTING DEPTH & PERMEABILITY E. MICROCORYS GRADIENT T. CONFERTA BLACKBUTT GRADIENT TOWARDS GRADIENT TOWARDS DRY SCLEROPHYLL RAINFOREST ARGYRODENDRON RAINFOREST SI © E.SALIGNA , CERATOPETALUM RAINFOREST ] | | | | | | | I | = >) z = a (eo) LOW <———-GRADIENT IN SOIL FERTILI T Y—————_>_ HIGH Fig. 5. Diagrammatic illustration of the relationships between vegetation and the broader edaphic criteria. "The model assumes low elevation with rainfall around 60” per annum and a flat topography. Key to the influence of slope on vegetation at a number of points (Ty, T.... 7.) follows: , No changes in dominant strata, slight changes in understorey. 2 some H. grandis in broader colluvial situations with a limited shrubby mesophytic element understorey. , Mixed forest (with T. conferta) or Ceratopetalum type rainforest. 4 Where colluvial material is of good structure—rainforest, but otherwise mixed forest—i.e. H. grandis, and T. conferta emergent over rainforest. T, Through increasing TL. conferta to highly developed Argyrodendron rainforest. T, On gentler slopes H. pilularis decreases and EH. resinifera and E. wmbra increase, with some development of mesophytic shrubs. In deeper alluvial situations, a 7. conferta-E. grandis mixed forest. T, Steep topography is unlikely on this soil. On moderate slopes, scattered mesophytic shrubs develop with some #. grandis and Acmena and Eugenia species along watercourses. T, On slopes, H. pilularis decreases and E. microcorys and E. saligna increase; composition of understorey becomes richer in rainforest element species. On long slopes, H. pilularis may cut out, and a EH. saligna-EH. microcorys -T. conferta community may be interposed between the blackbutt and pure rainforest. T, Argyrodendron or Ceratopetalum rainforest. AA material and soil does alter is evident from the occurrence of rainforests in North Queensland on soils derived from some types of parent material from which they would certainly be absent in the south. Although the actual pattern in Nature may be very complex (Fig. 1), particularly where there is variability in the parent material and where the topography is steep and uneven, it is apparent that the total plant community in a given ecological niche can be regarded as a Single unit that is the resultant expression of a number of environmental pressures; and, further, the total community changes sensitively and predictably with changes in edaphic environment. In an earlier paper (Florence, BY R. G. FLORENCE. 189 1963) the concept was advanced that the eucalypt-rainforest relationship can be characterized as a continuum; in terms of environment this concept envisages a gradual change in the composition of both the dominants and the associated rainforest element species along gradients of increasing soil fertility and/or permanence in soil moisture status. In the virgin forests before the advent of man, the expression of the continuum may have been restricted, possibly because of the nature of the eucalypt influence on its own site, and certainly by the superimposed influence of periodic wildfires, resulting in sharp discontinuities in the eucalypt-sclerophyll relationship. Consequent to the advent of man, widespread habitat disturbance followed by complete protection may have led to the so-called rainforest “advance”, but this may represent a more complete expression of the continuum through less restricted development of species according to their respective amplitudes. The concept that the vegetation in a given ecological niche is the sensitive expression of largely the edaphic environment, conflicts with the widely held view that fire incidence is the major factor determining the vegetation pattern, a view summarized. by Cremer (1960) in these terms: “. . . From the point of view of the rainforest the eucalypts are but a transient fire weed . . . the mixed forest is then a fire sere in the succession towards the rainforest climax.’ While it is well recognized that eucalypts, and such other species as turpentine and brush box, will not regenerate within a well- developed rainforest element understorey, it is, on the other hand, open to serious doubt whether the factors of the environment would be adequate to enable a rapid and widespread development of a self-perpetuating rainforest following senescence and death of the dominant stratum in much of the “mixed” forest in eastern Australia. Perhaps at an advanced stage along the environmental and vegetational gradient towards rainforest, the rainforest element stratum could maintain itself as such (e.g., a coachwood community understorey to tallowwood and brush box), but it seems inconceivable that even the most highly developed rainforest element stratum under blackbutt, for example, could maintain itself indefinitely if, as postulated, that element is by necessity composed of species with less demanding edaphic requirements. Although it is accepted that perpetuation of most ‘‘mixed”’ forests may in fact have resulted directly from periodic wildfires or other major disturbances (e.g., cyclones), it is nevertheless suggested that a rainforest-element stratum which is not capable of self- perpetuation following senescence of the dominants would itself decline in time, leading directly to regeneration of the dominants, or creating the vegetational condition conducive to its own destruction by fire. Ultimately, a real understanding of the complexities of the eucalypt-rainforest relationship must depend on a much more intimate understanding of the various ecosystems, e.g., the total nutrient store, its distribution and re-circulation, the moisture balance, the influence of species and species mixtures on the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, and their contribution to the overall biological system. Again, it seems necessary that ecological thought must be directed to the principles contained within Watt's (1947) classic perspective on the dynamics of the plant community. Watt demonstrated, for a wide range of communities, that many dynamic Situations may be cyclic, and not, as would appear at a point in time, seral; a species or group of species in a community may undergo a regular series of upgrade and down- grade phases in which there is a continual change in ecological structure. If, in east coast forests, a community of sclerophyllous dominants and rainforest element species form a vegetational unit sensitively in equilibrium with the environment, then in terms of Watt’s concept, a downgrade phase (or senescence) of overmature sclerophyll dominants could be associated with an upgrade phase of the rainforest element and, in time, the downgrade phase of the rainforest element with an upgrade phase of the sclerophyll. Long-term analysis of vegetational dynamics in these mixed com- munities would be necessary to substantiate or reject such an hypothesis, an analysis that would be complicated by the impact of broader (e.g., macroclimatic) changes on the habit-sensitive communities. 190 EDAPHIC CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAL PATTERN IN EAST COAST FORESTS. Acknowledgements. These studies were carried out while the author held a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Post-Graduate Studentship in the Botany Depart- ment, University of Sydney. They form part of a thesis submitted in 1961 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The approval of the Forestry Commission to carry out these studies in New South Wales State Forests is acknowledged. I am indebted to Dr. G. Packham, Geology Department, University of Sydney, for description of the mineralogical composition of rock specimens, and to Professor N. Collis George for approving the use of pressure Membrane apparatus in the Department of Soils. My Supervisor in this work, the late Professor R. L. Crocker, assisted in the description of soils through New South Wales. The assistance of Professor Crocker at all stages of the project is most gratefully acknowledged. References. Baur, G. N., 1957.—Nature and distribution of rainforest in New South Wales. Aust. Jour. Bot., 5: 190-233. BEADLE, N. C. W., 1954.—Soil phosphate and the delimitation of plant communities in Eastern Australia. Hcology, 35: 370-75. ———.,, 1962.—-Soil phosphate and the delimitation of plant communities in Eastern Australia. II. Hcology, 43: 281-88. DE BEUZEVILLE, W. A. W., 1943.—The Climatological Basis of Forestry. Forest Commission of New South Wales pamphlet, 63 p. BircH, H. F., 1958.—The effect of soil drying on humus decomposition and nitrogen availability. Plant and Soil, 10: 9-31. Burces, A., and R. D. JOHNSTON, 1953.—The structure of a New South Wales subtropical rainforest. J. Hcology, 41: 72-88. FLORENCE, R. G., 1963.—Vegetational pattern in east coast forests. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 88: 164-179. FLORENCE, R. G., and R. L. Crocker, 1962.—Analysis of blackbutt seedling growth in a blackbutt forest soil. Hcology, 43: 670-79. FRASER, LILIAN, and JOYCE W. VICKERY, 1937.—The ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops District. I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 62: 269-88. , 1938.—The ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops District. II. The Rainforest formation. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 63: 139-184. , 1939.—The ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops District. III. The eucalypt forests—general discussion. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., 64: 1-33. LEEPER, G. W., 1949.—The Australian Environment, Chapter II. C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. OsBorRN, T. G., and R. N. ROBERTSON, 1939.—A reconnaissance survey of the vegetation of the Myall Lakes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 64: 279-96. PmmGeEoN, I. M., 1942.—Ecological studies in New South Wales. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney. Pryor, L. D., 1953.—Genetic control in eucalypt distribution. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 78: 8-18. , 1959.—Evolution in Eucalyptus. Aust. Jour. Science, 22: 45-49. Wart, A. S., 1947.—Pattern and process in the plant community. J. Hool., 35: 1-22. WEBB, L. D., 1956.—Environmental Studies in Australian Rain Forests. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Queensland. , 1959.—A physiognomic classification of Australian Rainforests. J. Hcol., 47: 551-70. VEIHMEYER, FE. J., and A. H. HENDRICKSON, 1948.—Soil density and root penetration. Soil Science, 65: 487-938. VoisEy, A. H., 1939.—The Lorne Triassic Basin and associated rocks. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 64: 255-65. 191 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND RELATIONSHIPS IN CHARA LEPTOPITYS A. BR. By A. T. Horcuxkiss, Department of Biology, University of Louisville. (Plate ii; three Text-figures.) [Read 27th May, 1964.] Synopsis. Chara leptopitys A. Br. First chromosome counts in this species from Western Australia and South Australia show 14 chromosomes, an expected number in the haplostephanae. The numbers 21 and 42 were also found in dividing antheridial filament cells in certain enlarged antheridia produced by otherwise normal plants with 14 chromosomes. The possible significance of this endopolyploid condition is discussed in relation to the initiation of polyploidy by means of a multiplication of genomes in gametes in the charophytes. In a collection of Chara leptopitys A. Br. from Western Australia there were found within single individuals two or three distinct chromosome numbers revealing a striking instance of endopolyploidy in these plants. A multiplication of genomes in dividing or extra large nuclei has been observed in occasional antheridial filament cells of naturally occurring, untreated Chara contraria (Hotchkiss, 1958), and Nitella furcata (Imahori and Kato, 1961). Endopolyploidy in Chara leptopitys, however, involves the cells of entire antheridial filaments and entire antheridia dividing in synchronous mitoses. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Material of Chara leptopitys used in this study was from the extensive collections of charophytes made by Prof. R. D. Wood as reported by Wood (19626, 1963, and in press) and Hotchkiss (1963, and in press). Among these collections from the Australasian area was a series of specimens fixed in the field for cytological examination and sent to the present author for study. The data recorded by Wood for the two collections used here are as follows: 1. R. D. Wood 60-10-11-1-B. In 2-4” of water, muck bottom. Pool, W side of road 12 miles N of Katanning, Western Australia. Abundant; cold water. 2. R. D. Wood and von der Borsch 60—9—22-3. Sept. 22, 1960. In 3-5” of water; fresh water pool on W Side of road. C. 10 mi. SE of Salt Creek, Coorong Region, South Australia. For fixation, fertile young stem tips, or “heads”, were selected in the field and placed in freshly prepared acetic-alcohol in the usual manner. These were later trans- ferred to 70% alcohol and after shipping were stored under refrigeration until examined in aceto-orcein squash preparations. OBSERVATIONS. Macroscopic Features. The material of Chara leptopitys from Western Australia consisted of seven separate heads or stem tips (Heads 1, 2, etc.) each containing 3-5 whorls of branchlets. It is not known whether these heads were from the same or different plants. In the process of study much of the material was utilized and reduced to small fragments, but the following general description, which agrees well with the description provided by Nordstedt (1891), was made before dissection. Stem cortication diplostichous; stipulodes haplostephanous, apparently alternating with the branchlets (opposite according to Nordstedt, 1891), long, slender, with acute tips, stipulodes well developed at nodes bearing few basal gametangia but few or lacking at nodes with many 1Contribution No. 76 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University of Louisville. This study was supported in part by the National Science Foundation, Washington. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocreTy or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. 192 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND RELATIONSHIPS IN CHARA LEPTOPITYS, basal gametangia which appear to replace them; branchlets 5-7 per whorl, with 3-4 branchlet nodes including the terminal one, the lower two branchlet nodes fertile; gametangia dioecious (only male plants seen), antheridia aggregate at the base of the branchlets where they extend outside and below the branchlets, geminate or up to four per node at the two branchlet nodes (above the base) or occasionally solitary at the uppermost fertile node, antheridia 9504 in diameter, often with the plates as outwardly bulging protuberances. The heads were examined in detail and their structures noted separately as follows. Head 1 appeared abnormal in that there were many antheridia of different sizes clustered together at the base of the older whorls of branchlets. Besides a considerable range in antheridial size from small to large, surface protuberances were conspicuous on the larger antheridia. Head 2 contained more antheridia, but the range in antheridial size was not much greater than normally seen within and between whorls of branchlets on the same plant. There were no extremely large, bulbous-looking antheridia. Heads 3-7 bore normal appearing antheridia and generally resembled head 2. The material of Chara leptopitys from South Australia was still more limited and consisted of but three heads with 4-5 whorls of branchlets bearing antheridia all of normal appearance. The stipulodes were longer, but in other respects this material resembled the Western Australian plants; the gametangia were in the same arrange- ment. TABLE 1. Dimensions of Antheridial Filament Cells of Chara leptopitys, Western Australia. Length and Breadth in Microns. Chromosome Number. Last Telophase Resting Dividing Before Presperm Cell. Cell. Presperm. Cell. 14 27-21 27-23 8-27 7-22 21 27-27 32-27 12-27 — 42 34-27 40-27 16-27 8-22 Chromosome Numbers and Cytological Observations. Because of the unusual appearance of the antheridia in one of the heads from Western Australia, this was examined first. All of the extraordinary chromosome numbers were observed in heads 1 and 2. The first preparation from head 1 was made with a selection of antheridia from the youngest apical whorl down through the third and oldest whorl of branchlets in order to sample the various stages of antheridial development. Antheridia in the first whorl appeared normal, were small, contained short, immature antheridial filaments with cells of a small diameter of 21u (Table 1). Cells in mitotic division showed counts of 14 chromosomes only (Text-fig. 1; Plate ii, A). Antheridia from the second and third whorls ranged in size from small to large, the smaller antheridia had dividing filaments with 14 chromosome counts, and presperm cells and sperm of normal size. Some very large, bulbous, protuberant antheridia were entirely polyploid with all the dividing cells in all filaments with 42 chromosomes (Text-fig. 3; Plate ii, C). These cells were about 27u broad by 384 long when in division and somewhat shorter in interphase. The presperm and nearly mature sperm cells were all correspondingly large (Table 1). From the large number of adjacent synchronous stages of mitosis (up to 30-40 cells at metaphase and anaphase), the cells in 42-chromosome filaments appeared to be quite stable. At the same time, there were instances of irregularity in mitosis as seen in a tripolar spindle shown in Text-figure 3, d, which was bounded on either side by dividing cells in regular anaphase, and in other antheridial filament cells with either lobulate nuclei or with a multinucleate condition (Text-fig. 3, ¢-f). BY A. T. HOTCHKISS. 193 Alerted to the variability in the material, and with more antheridia available than in the first head, a second head was studied whorl by whorl in a series of five prepara- tions. The first, from eight minute antheridia all from the youngest whorl, contained short, immature filaments in which all dividing cells displayed 14 chromosomes; no presperm or sperm cells were yet present. A second preparation from the second whorl of branchlets contained nine antheridia all normal in size and appearance. All but two of these showed normal presperm cells only; the remaining two antheridia had filament cells in division showing 14-chromosome counts only. | Te My Tele Wy, a) Ye) ee) ey Text-figure 1.—Mitosis in Chara leptopitys, n = 14. a-c, Metaphase, showing somatic pairing in a. d, Last telophase preceding presperm stage. e, Telophase in presperm cells. f-j, Metaphase, showing knob-like projections in j. k, Paired arrangement of karyotype from Text-figure 1, a. a-e, Western Australia. f-j, South Australia. a-j, x 650. k, x 1300. A third preparation from the third whorl of branchlets contained six antheridia, five of which were of the size normal for mature antheridia; the sixth one was slightly larger but not conspicuously bulbous. Four of the five antheridia showed normal presperm cells, the fifth one contained several filaments of normal size and with 14 chromosomes, but most filaments were made up of larger cells with 21 chromosomes in the dividing cells (Text-fig. 2; Plate ii, B). As many as 10 cells in synchronous, adjacent metaphase were seen, but usually only two adjacent cells were in metaphase. Presperm of both normal size and a larger size corresponding to the larger cells with 194 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND RELATIONSHIPS IN CHARA LEPTOPITYS, 21 chromosomes were present, but no mature sperm were found in this antheridium. The sixth antheridium had all cells either as larger presperm or with 21-chromosome divisions. Antheridia in other preparations from whorl three were all of normal appearance and without divisions. Text-figure 2.—Mitosis in Chara leptopitys, Western Australia, n = 21. a, Metaphase. b-d, Aberrant mitoses in terminal divisions, somatic reduction. All x 650. e Text-figure 3.—Mitosis in Chara leptopitys, Western Australia, n = 42. a, Prophase. b, Metaphase. c, Normal anaphase and telophase. d, Anaphase with tripolar spindle between normal anaphase figures. e-f, Telophase figures following aberrant mitoses, somatic reduction. All x 650. In heads 3-7 from Western Australia and in the three heads of material from South Australia no unusual chromosome numbers were found. All heads were normal in both external and internal appearance and samplings of all revealed antheridial filaments with 14 chromosomes only. BY A. T. HOTCHKISS. 195 The complement of 14 chromosomes (Text-fig. 1), found exclusively in the plants from South Australia and in the great majority of cases in the Western Australian plants, had no great range in size and under this treatment all chromosomes appeared to be relatively short and thick at metaphase. There was seen here, as reported in other species (Hotchkiss, in press), a notable degree of pairing between chromosomes of similar size and form (Text-fig. 1, a). Other pairs of similar chromosomes can be found in the metaphase grouping and the entire 14-chromosome complement can be arranged in pairs of at least approximately congruent chromosomes. The paired and unpaired chromosomes from Text-fig. 1, a, are thus arranged in seven pairs of similar chromosomes in Text-fig. 1, k. The occasional fine strands connecting chromosomes at metaphase were not confined to connections between chromosomes of the same size and form. The morphology of the chromosomes in Chara leptopitys from South Australia was somewhat different (Text-fig. 1, f-7) from those from Western Australia. In the former the overall diameter was smaller and there were present knob-like projections which may represent early anaphase separation of chromatids in the region of the centromere (Text-fig. 1, 7). There was no evident ploidy, but in one of the heads some mature antheridia contained filaments with persistently dividing cells where only sperm or presperm cells would be expected. Individual chromosomes in the 21- and 42-chromosome complements appeared to be equivalent to those in the 14-chromosome nuclei. These numbers suggest a multiplication of the genomes found in the 14-chromosome nucleus. DISCUSSION. Chromosome Numbers. The haplontic life cycle in the Characeae consists of gametophyte plants comparable with the gametophyte phase of the bryophytes but, as in many of the algae, alternating with a one-celled sporophyte phase consisting of only the zygote. After a period of dormancy the first divisions of the zygote are meiotic and result in the growth of a new gametophyte phase, green and bearing gametangia at maturity. Following a series of mitotic divisions, the cells of the antheridial filaments are transformed directly into male gametes. Any chromosomal aberrations or variations developing and persisting in the maturation of the antheridial filaments are thus potentially carried by the gametes into the next generation. An alteration in chromosome number at this point in the life cycle may be the basis of one of the possible methods for the development of polyploidy. Extensive polyploidy is now known to occur in the charophytes as a whole and has been reported by Telezynski (1929), Hotchkiss (1958, 1963, in press), Gillet (1959), Guerlesquin (1961), Imahori and Kato (1961), Tindall and Sawa (in press) and others. In addition, our unpublished data show an even greater importance of ploidy in the Chara zeylanica complex and in other species of Chara and Nitella than has been reported thus far. A degree of polyploidy induced by radiation and radiomimetic chemicals has been reported by Moutschen and Dahmen (1956) and Moutschen, Dahmen and Gillet (1956) in a series of experiments which we have repeated in part with the use of X-radiation. In the genus Chara the series of polyploid gametic numbers 14, 28, 56 is found in some diplostephanous species groups and appears to be a sequence resulting from simple doubling of chromosome numbers. The number 14, probably derived from an aneestral 7, is the lowest number found in the extant species of Chara; no 7-chromosome species has been reported in this genus and probably none now exists. In the absence of detailed studies of meiosis, the best evidence for regarding the 7-chromosome genome as basic is found in studies revealing the common multiples of 7 in the polyploid species of Chara. Additional evidence may be found in several 14- chromosome forms in which there is a considerable degree of somatic pairing between chromosomes from two closely similar and presumably sometime homologous genomes of 7. A similar degree of somatic pairing can be seen in other species of Chara with higher chromosome number and in other genera as well. The denoting of 7 as ancestrally basic in Chara thus seems justified and to be useful in the interpretation 196 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND RELATIONSHIPS IN CHARA LEPTOPITYS, of speciation and evolutionary development in the genus. A theoretical basic 7 in Chara is comparable to the well-known low chromosome number of 6 in Nitella. At the same time it would appear that a diploidized 14 (2n = 28) may be the presently effective number in Chara. Polyploid numbers which are not multiples of 14 are extremely rare in species of Chara enumerated thus far. Species with 21 chromosomes have not been reported in Chara, but the number 42 is found rather frequently in such groups as the Chara zeylanica complex. The theoretical number series 21 and 42 can be based on 7, and these numbers would represent triploid and hexaploid levels in the gametophyte respectively. One explanation of the origin of a 42-chromosome complement in Chara follows the pattern often suggested for triploids in higher plants, that is, resulting from a cross between two polyploid parents. In Chara this process would require parents at the 28 and 56 chromosome levels for a direct production of the hexaploid gametophyte with 42 chromosomes. Such parents do exist in some species groups and this possibility has been suggested (V. Proctor, personal communication) for certain forms in the Chara zeylanica complex. It may be possible also that the 42-chromosome level could be attained by a cross between parents with 14 and 28 chromosomes followed by a chronio- some doubling or failure of reduction at germination of the zygote. From chromosome number relationships, such a possibility was suggested by Tindall and Sawa (in press) for Chara aspera, Chara globularis and Chara delicatula with 14, 28 and 42 chromosomes respectively. Since no 21-chromosome species is known to occur, the 21 is probably unbalanced genetically, whereas the 42-chromosome forms are stable and able to reproduce. In Chara leptopitys the presence of 14 chromosomes in the great majority of antheridial filaments, and particularly in the younger antheridia of plants showing a partial polyploid condition in older stages, indicates that 14 is the present normal number for this species as it is for related species. The polyploid condition appears to be limited to certain antheridia; there is no reason to suppose that the apical portion of the plant as a whole, its meristem, or its separate vegetative parts are involved in the development of polyploid cells which appear in older regions only. Although the normal chromosome complement in Chara leptopitys is not at a high poly- ploid level, interest here lies in the suggestion of another possible site for the initiation of polyploidy. In the charophytes there thus seem to be two principal locations where multiplication of genomes may most readily occur. At meiosis a failure in reduction resulting in a simple doubling of chromosomes is probably much the more common method and directly produces the polyploid condition. More indirectly, polyploidy originating in a multiplication of genomes in mitoses leading to the maturation of gametes depends upon the union of a polyploid gamete with another ploided or unploided gamete. The resulting possibilities would include triploidy, tetraploidy and hexaploidy. In either case there is an opportunity for hybridization and the results may be alloploid or autoploid. A potential for the initiation of polyploidy through the multiplication of genomes in antheridial filament development thus appears to be present in Chara leptopitys. This assumption is supported by the production of gametes in apparently polyploid filaments. It may be presumed that some of these gametes, especially those with 42 chromosomes, are viable and capable of fertilization and that here, as in the other species with occasional polyploid antheridial cells, mentioned earlier, there is seen a mechanism for the effective multiplication of genomes in gametes. A puzzling feature of the process in Chara leptopitys, however, is the apparent lack of a simple doubling of chromosomes and the consequent lack of any 28-chromosome complements in the antheridial filaments examined. Furthermore, the direct production within an originally diploid gametophyte of the triploid-hexaploid levels in a chromosome number series of 14-21-42 involves something other than a simple doubling. For this phenomenon an explanation based on observations of the entire mechanism involved would be desirable but unfortunately is not available at present. BY A. T. HOTCHKISS. 197 Of the two higher numbers it may be assumed that the 42 results from a doubling of the 21. This is the simplest explanation and is in accord with the positioning of the 42-chromosome cells in the older antheridia. Thus in a series leading from 14 through 21 to 42 chromosomes, only the origin of the 21 would require a special explanation. Assuming a basic genome of Seven chromosomes, one might speculate on a mechanism whereby in a 14-chromosome complement the two closely similar but not necessarily identical genomes are capable of a differential response resulting in a division of one but not the other. It is tempting to recall here the work of Hughes- Schrader (1948) on the males of two probably polyploid species of coccids in which single genomes act independently and aberrantly through meiosis I and II and finally disintegrate. Although in each case there is no resultant increase in chromosome number in the coccids, such as seems to be found in Chara leptopitys, this may be an interesting parallel in differential genome reaction. Of the various numbers seen in antheridial filaments of Chara leptopitys the 14 and 42 appear to be most stable. The 21 was seen in but a few filaments each with only a few cells at metaphase in which the number could be determined. The scanty 21-chromosome filaments were scattered in antheridia otherwise made up of 14- chromosome filaments. The low incidence of 21s seems to indicate a low rate of initiation for this number. Once established, the 21 may rather quickly double into the more stable 42-chromosome level or disintegrate after a short series of progressively more aberrant nuclear divisions. The great stability of the 42-chromosome nuclei is attested by the presence in the larger antheridia of numerous filaments of regularly dividing cells at all stages of mitosis. Although rare, there was a degree of irregularity in cell division in the antheridia with 42 chromosomes. The lobulate nuclei, the tripolar spindle and multinucleate cells bespeak a type of somatic reduction which may be able to proceed through several successive divisions but which will not produce functional sperm. The lobulate nuclei seen here somewhat resemble internodal nuclei (Gillet, 1961), but their form appears to be related more to the polyploid nature of these cells than to the physiological requirements of internodal cells described by Gillet. Whatever the immediate results of the unusual cytological behaviour seen in this limited sampling of Chara leptopitys, it is concluded to be of considerable theoretical importance in the general survey of the cytotaxonomy of the charophytes. Relationships. Chara leptopitys Braun, 1882, was reported by Nordstedt (1891) as being found in Victoria and Tasmania and also, as C. leptopitys subsp. ebracteata Nords., in Western Australia and Victoria. Wood and Imahori (1959) listed this species as occasional in Australia. This species was placed by Nordstedt (1891) between Chara braunii and Chara scoparia, and in the revision of Wood (1962a) much the same position was accorded it in Subgenus Charopsis, Section Agardhia, Subsection Agardhia along with Chara fibrosa, C. pseudohydropitys, C. ecklonii and C. submollusca. It is clear that Chara leptopitys occupies an important position in the systematics of the group of species with basal gametangia. If these species can be considered a group, and this group is interpreted as a reductional series (based on considerations not elaborated here) leading to a gradual elimination of the cortex on branchlets and stems, Chara leptopitys remains as the member of the group primitively possessing cortication in any degree, and pointing to origins for the group among the corticated forms. Chromosome numbers greater than 14 are unusual among the haplostephanae and none has yet been reported among those species with basal gametangia. Despite the extraordinary polyploidy described in this study, the normal chromosome complement in Chara leptopitys is 14. Such a low number might be expected in this dioecious (heterothallic) species in accord with the observations (Hotchkiss, 1958) that in the Characeae dioecious species tend to have lower chromosome numbers while corresponding monoecious (homothallic) species have higher numbers. An assessment of the significance of the monoecious-dioecious states and their relationship to degree of polyploidy will be developed in future studies in the cytotaxonomy of the corticate and ecorticate haplostephanae, and will be based in part on the hypothesis of the derived nature of the dioecious state in the charophytes. 198 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND RELATIONSHIPS IN CHARA LEPTOPITYS. Acknowledgements. I am grateful to Dr. R. D. Wood, University of Rhode Island, for the collections of Chara leptopitys from Australia. Acknowledgements are due to my wife, Dr. Doreen Hotchkiss, for continuing aid in counting chromosomes, and to Mr. T. Sawa for aid in making the illustrations, Plate ii. References. GILLET, C., 1959.—Nombres chromosomiques de plusieurs espéces de Charophycées (genres Nitella et Chara). Rev. Cyt. et Biol. vég., 20: 229-234. , 1961.—Caractéres cytologiques des phénoménes nucléaires dans les. cellules internodales de Chara vulgaris L. Rev. Cyt. et Biol. vég., 23: 369-384. GUERLESQUIN, M., 1961.—Contribution 4a létude chromosomique des Charophycées d’Europe occidentale et d’Afrique du nord. Revue Générale de Botanique, 68: 360-372. Horcnuiss, A. T., 1958.—Some chromosome numbers in Kentucky Characeae. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Science, 19: 14-18. , 1963.—A first report of chromosome number in the Genus Lychnothamnus (Rupr.) Leonh., and comparisons with the other charophyte genera. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 88: 368-372. , 1964.—Chromosome numbers in Characeae from the South Pacific. Pacific Science (in press). HUGHES-SCHRADER, S., 1948.—Cytology of coccids (Coccoidae, Homoptera). Adv. Genetics, 2: 127-203. ImMAHORI, K., and Kato, T., 1961.—Notes on chromosome numbers of charophytes in Fukui Prefecture, Japan (I). College of Gen. Ed., Osaka Univer., Science Reports, No. 10: 39-48. MOUTSCHEN, J., and DAHMEN, M., 1956.—Sur les modifications de la spermiogenése de la Chara vulgaris L. induites par les rayons X. Rev. Cyt. et Biol. vég., 17: 433-450. MOUTSCHEN, J.. DAHMEN, M., and GILLET, C., 1956.—Sur les modifications induites par les hydrazides maléique et isonicotinique dans les anthéridies de Chara vulgaris L. La Cellule, 58: 65-78. NORDSTEDT, O., 1891.—Australasian Characeae. Lund. TELEZYNSKI, H., 1929.—Garnitures des chromosomes et synchronisme des divisions dans les filaments d’anthérozoides chez certaines espéces du genre Chara Vaill. Acta Soc. Bot. Polon., 6: 230-247. TINDALL, D. R., and Sawa, T.—Chromosomes of the Characeae of the Woods Hole Region. Amer. Jour. Bot., 51 (in press). Woop, R. D., 1962a.—New combinations and taxa in the revision of the Characeae. Taxon, “41: 1-24. , 1962b.—Preliminary report on Characeae of Australia and the South Pacific. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 89: 250-2538. , 1963.—Characeae in Samoa. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 90: 225-229. , 1964.—The Characeae of Fiji. Pacific Science (in press). , and ImMAHORI, K., 1959.—Geographic distribution of Characeae. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 86: 172-183. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. Mitosis in Chara leptopitys A. Br. from Western Australia. A. Metaphase, n = 14. B, focal levels b-1 and b-2, Metaphase, n = 21. CC, focal levels ec-1, c-2, c-3, Metaphase, n = 42. 199 AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL CRINOIDS. II. TRIBRACHIOCRINUS CLARKEI McCoy. By G. M. Puirie, Geology Department, University of New England. (Plate iii; one Text-figure. ) [Read 24th June, 1964.] Synopsis. The holotype of the Permian crinoid Tribrachiocrinus clarkei McCoy, type species of Tribrachiocrinus McCoy 1847, is re-described and figured. The morphology and affinities of Tribrachiocrinus are discussed and it is concluded that the genus is best included in the inadunate crinoid family Sundacrinidae Moore and Laudon 1943. The first Australian fossil crinoid to be named was Tribrachiocrinus clarkei McCoy, type species of Tribrachiocrinus McCoy 1847. Subsequently four other species of Tribrachiocrinus have been diagnosed from the Permian of eastern Australia. However, no little confusion exists as to the nature of the genus. Although McCoy originally gave what prove to be reasonably accurate figures of the type species, different interpretations were subsequently given by de Koninck (1877), Wachsmuth and Springer (1886), Bather (1890, 1900) and Etheridge (1892). Wachsmuth and Springer inferred that seven rami arose from the calyx, whereas Bather depicted three of the radials as compound. Perhaps because of this confusion Wright (1936) included a Scottish Carboniferous species in Tribrachiocrinus, although later (1952) he proposed a new genus for this form. Not only have details of the morphology of Tribrachiocrinus long remained obscure, but also doubts have been raised recently as to the broader affinities of the genus. Tribrachiocrinus was regarded as a dicyclic inadunate crinoid by the authorities of the last century. Strimple (1951, p. 200), however, has observed that “In the study of an entirely different problem, Dr. R. C. Moore and the author concluded that Tribrachiocrinus probably belongs to the Flexibilia rather than the Inadunata”. Wright (1952, p. 138) comments that “There is justification for this view... chiefly on account of the tripartite IB circlet and possibly also on the character of the R facets”. In order to establish the nature of Tribrachiocrinus it was necessary to study the holotype of J. clarkei. 'The specimen was included in the material sent to Adam Sedgwick by W. B. Clarke in 1844, and is now lodged in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, where it is catalogued as E10564. Opportunity to study the specimen was found during the tenure of a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Overseas Studentship at the Sedgwick Museum. I am most obliged to Mr. A. G. Brighton, Curator of the Sedgwick Museum, for his assistance. An account of other species of Tribrachiocrinus will be given at a later date. TRIBRACHIOCRINUS CLARKEI McCoy. (Text-figure 1; Pl. iii.) Tribrachyocrinus Olarkii McCoy, 1847, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 20, p. 288, Pl. 12, fig. 2; McCoy, 1851, Proc. roy Soc. V.D. Land 1, p. 315, Pl. 12, fig. 2. Tribrachyocrinus Clarkei McCoy, de Koninck, 1877, Mém. Soc. Sci. Liége 6, p. 161, Pl. 6, figs 5, ba-d. Tribrachiocrinus Clarkei McCoy, Wachsmuth and Springer, Revision of the Palaeocrinoidea III, p. 175; Htheridge, 1892, Pal. Mem. geol. Surv. N.S.W. 5 (2), p. 90, Pl. 18, figs 2-4, Pl. 14, fig. 3, Pl. 17, figs 2-4. Description: Holotype large, hemispherical and somewhat flattened so that X and rt (= right proximal tube plate) have slipped over the 1. post. R, and the RA under the PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocrETY or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. 200 AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL CRINOIDS. II, post. B. Plates thick (post. B c. 3 mm. thick) and sutures deeply incised. Surface generally smooth (? worn), but RA and post. B are dimpled with the ridges between the depressions arrayed roughly at right angles to the sutures. Stem cicatrix sunken and small, with portion of a rounded columnal 3 mm. in diameter adhering to the calyx. IB eirclet tripartite with IBB extending well up the side of the calyx. Lateral IBB approximately twice the size of the ant. IB, apparently consisting respectively of fused r. ant. and r. post. IBB, and 1. ant. and 1. post. IBB. BB large and generally irregularly hexagonal, except the post. which is heptagonal and the 1. post. which is pentagonal. C Text-fig. 1. Tribrachiocrinus clarkei McCoy. (a) Anterior, (b) Posterior views of holotype, (¢c) Plating analysis of holotype. x 4/5. RR smaller and incurved, so that the dorsal margin of the cup is constricted; r. and 1]. post. and ant. RR possessing wide and shallow brachial facets with elongate dorsal ligament pits and obscure fulcral ridges. Brachial facets lacking on r. and 1. ant. RR, which, together with rt, possess rounded protuberant rims which rise above the level of the cup as defined by the other RR. Three anal plates present within the cup, comprising a large pentagonal RA surmounted to the left by a pentagonal X and to the right by a small quadrangular rt. Whether or not anal X contributes in the rim of the cup, or rt. and the 1. post. R actually meet, cannot be decided due to displacement of plates. Measurements: Maximum height: 42-5 mm.; maximum width: 53 mm.; minimum width: 34 mm. Dimensions of individual plates may be obtained from Text-figure Ic. Locality: McCoy gives his specimen as derived from “the soft gray shale of Darlington, N.S. Wales’. BY G. M. PHILIP. 201 Remarks: The holotype establishes beyond doubt that in Tribrachiocrinus the r. and |. ant. RR did not bear brachials. The flattened inner surfaces of the peculiar protuberances of the dorsal margins of these RR, together with that of the rt., probably supported plates of the tegmen. Affinities: From the above description it can be seen that, in all aspects of its morphology, Tribrachiocrinus is manifestly inadunate. Concerning Strimple’s (1951) suggestion that it is a flexible crinoid the following points should be noted: 1. Although the IB circlet is tripartite, this cannot be taken as indicating any affinity with the Flexibilia. In this group the small IB is that of the r. post., whereas in Tribrachiocrinus it is in the ant. Moreover, in the Upper Palaeozoic Flexibilia the IB circlet is greatly diminished in size, so that it is often concealed entirely by the stem. 2. The arrangement of large anal plates (RA, X, rt) within the cup is fully typical of many inadunate crinoid groups, but I know of no similar arrangements within the Flexibilia, even in the family Lecanocrinidae. 3. Although the distal articulating faces of the radials are neither well preserved nor wide, the deep transverse ligament pit is suggestive of inadunate rather than flexible crinoid affinities. Indeed, Wachsmuth and Springer (1886, p. 200) have observed that “the mode of articulation is similar to that of all late Poteriocrinidae”. Among dicyclic inadunate crinoids Tribrachiocrinus finds its closest relative in Sundacrinus, a fact originally pointed to by Wanner (1916, p. 220; 1923, p. 193). In common with Tribrachiocrinus, Sundacrinus lacks arms in the r. and 1. ant. radii, although it differs in possessing five IBB. Indocrinus Wanner 1916, also from the Permian of Timor, has plating more similar to that of Tribrachiocrinus, although the form of the calyx is markedly different. Other genera which appear to be related to this group are Parindocrinus Wanner 1937, Hemiindocrinus Jakovlev 1926 and Tetrabrachiocrinus Jakovley 1934. These forms may be conveniently placed together in the family Sundacrinidae Moore and Laudon 1943, which is therefore confined to the Permian of Australia, Timor and Russia. Among other features, the group is characterized by high IBB, and a marked inequality of the size of the RR which leads to atrophy of one or more rays. The Scottish Lower Carboniferous species Hosiecrinus caledonicus (Wright), originally referred to Tribrachiocrinus, lacks these two features which suggests that it represents an earlier independent development of atrophied rays in dicyclic inadunate crinoids. The suppression of rays is seen in other Inadunata, e.g., late members of the Codiacrinidae_and the Hrisocrinidae. Concerning the general asymmetry of the Sundacrinidae, A. H. Clark (1914) has shown that outside an optimum temperature range (12-7-18-3°C.) living comulatids tend to become malformed during growth. Radials may be atrophied, and the number of arms increased or reduced. This has led Wanner (1949) to suggest that the great number of irregular types of crinoids present in the Permian of Timor may have been caused by sea temperatures above the optimum. References. BatuHer, F. A., 1890.—British fossil crinoids. II. The classification of the Inadunata Fistulata. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 55: 373-88. , 1900.—The Crinoidea in E. R. Lankester, A Treatise on Zoology. III. The Echino- derma. Adam & Charles Black, London. CLARK, A. H., 1914.—The relation between recent crinoids and the temperature of their habitat. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4 (20): 579-838. ETHERIDGE, R., 1892.—A monograph of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous invertebrata of New South Wales. Pt. II. Echinodermata, ete. Pal. Mem. geol. Surv. N.S.W., 5: 65-119. KONINCK, L. DE, 1887.—Recherches sur les fossiles Paléozoiques de la Nouvelle Galles du Sud (Australie). Mém. Soc. Sci. Liége, 6: 158-68. McCoy, F., 1847.—On the fossil botany and zoology of the rocks associated with the coal of Australia. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 20: 226-36. Moors, R. C., and L. R. Laupon, 1943.—Evolution and classification of Paleozoic crinoids. Spec. Pap. geol. Soc. Amer., 46. 202 AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL CRINOIDS. II. STRIMPLE, H. L., 1951.—Pennsylvanian crinoids from Lake Bridgeport, Texas. Journ. Paleont., 25: 200-7. WACHSMUTH, C., and F. SPRINGER, 1886.—Revision of the Palaeocrinoidea. III (2). Proce. Philadelph. Acad. nat. Sci. 1886: 64-226. WANNER, J., 1916.—Die permischen Krinoiden von Timor. I. Paldont. Timor, 6: 1-329. , 1923.—Die permischen Krinoiden von Timor. Verhand. Jahrb. Mijn. nederl. Oost-Indié 1921: 1-348. , 1949.—Ungleiche Primaxillaria und andere Abweichungen von der normalen Symmetrie bei palf’ozoischen Crinoiden. N. Jahrb. Min. Geol. Paldont., B91: 81-100. WRIGHT, J., 1936.—New Scottish Carboniferous crinoids. Geol. Mag., 73: 385-412. , 1952.—The British Carboniferous Crinoidea. I (IV). Palaeontogr. Soc. Monograph, 103-48. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Tribrachiocrinus clarkei McCoy. Figs 1, 2, 3, 4. Posterior, ventral, dorsal and anterior views of holotype. x1:5. Fig. 5. Oblique dorsal view of calyx, showing radial facets. x 2. 203 THE STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE OF THE UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, N.S.W. By Anprew H. Wuiter, L. A. Cotton School of Geology, University of New England, Armidale. (Three Text-figures. ) [Read 27th May, 1964.] Synopsis. Revision of the stratigraphy of the Upper Palaeozoic marine succession in the Somerton- Attunga district, west of Tamworth, N.S.W., has been necessitated by the recognition of two angular unconformities and two regionally persistent marker beds. These are the Bective and Onus Creek unconformities, the Keepit Conglomerate and the Tulcumba Sandstone. Because of the presence of the unconformities in the sequence in the Somerton-Attunga district, use of the Parry Group and the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone (Crook, 1961) and the Manilla Group (Voisey, 1958) as units has been discontinued. Two new lithological units, the Keepit Conglomerate and the Tangaratta Formation, have been described. An attempt has been made to deduce the sedimentation of the lithologies in the succession, and it is concluded that there is a transition from turbidite and slump deposits in the lower part of the sequence to traction current deposits at the top. New structural elements, the Appleby Syncline, the Appleby Fault and the Clay Gully Fault, are described. The Devonian-Carboniferous boundary, which occurs in the Tangaratta Formation, remains to be accurately positioned. INTRODUCTION. The area with which this paper is concerned lies to the south of Manilla and to the west of Tamworth in New South Wales, and adjoins those mapped by Carey (1937), Crook (1961), Chappell (1961), and Voisey and Williams (in press). The rocks are Upper Palaeozoic sediments which lie in the Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts (Voisey, 1959). W. N. Benson was first to map the much larger region which includes the Somerton— Attunga district, and described it under the heading of the Great Serpentine Belt of N.S.W. (See Benson, 1913). Since then problems have arisen regarding the detailed division of the stratigraphical sequence as explained by Carey and Browne (1938), Crook (1961) and Chappell (1961). In 1912 Cotton and Walkom noted the apparent Devonian—Carboniferous boundary at Carroll Gap, and on their map marked an approxi- mate position of this boundary from Carroll Gap towards Tamworth. This boundary has never been properly defined. More recently differences of opinion have arisen regarding the actual stratigraphical division. Considerable thicknesses of mudstone, besides other rock units, are contained in the Baldwin, Barraba and Burindi portions of Benson’s sequence and in some successions difficulty has been experienced in separating them. Crook (1961), because of apparent similarities in the mudstones, even included all the Barraba and Burindi in the formation which he called the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone which, with the Baldwin Formation, was included in a new unit, the Parry Group. Working in the Keepit Dam area, Voisey and Williams (in press) found a distinct break at the base of the Tulcumba Sandstone which they took to be the base of the Carboniferous sequence and which marked a change in the character of the sedimentation from turbidite to traction current type. Hence, they retained the Baldwin Formation and Barraba Mudstone in the Manilla Group (Voisey, 1958). However, the difficulties of reconciling the sequence below the Tulcumba with that observed elsewhere (Voisey, 1958; Crook, 1961) led to the view that there was an unconformity below the Tulcumba Sandstone, and this view was expressed by T. B. H. Jenkins (pers. comm.) and Campbell and Engel (1963, p. 57). It was realized that PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocieETY or NEw SoutTH WALES, 1964, Vol. lxxxix, Part 2. C UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, 204 UOT zBMLIOY UFMPTeg AyymIozuoouy eat oOeg e,BleWwoTFU0D 4}deey mo--=--" 48T-WeTY------- euoyspngK BAO PUB 9 7B1EeM0[Su0g oorey i 4 iS) + ad & uot yeMIog euoyspuEg OTIMOD £4}mIOJUOOUn yeerg snug euojyspueg equmotny, uot }BUIOY youRN UOT BWIOY poome sey dedeg stu *sioujyne snotaeid £q uumpoo ojyqderdtye148 e494 03 pet{dde eanqyetouemog yo Aremmes y UOT 4BULIOY uo FP BBO’ UOT ZBUIOT UuyApTeg UyAPTEG UTAPT RT uo yspny euoyspny --° 48T-Gety-— w=" 48 T-depy--— BAO PUBH ©7e1eMOTZU0D “3M qnz0g eu04s pny @48.1EN0 [2u00 oorey uot z0eg Ao pueK eqeiieg BTYy UT Sutestn Sees @TIAOD euoyspues eu0jspuesg ‘equmot{n usog SUTTTO qamo TnL seers dq SUTT IO" dnozy Feuyang HORS Sato’ Fpuyang Ien07y youey dnoiy dnory Bun44ny reso7 Fpuying teddy €96T T96T gS61-2S6t BUSTILIM 7 Sesyon Treddeqo Kosyon euocorv Ss pny UO TF BULIOY poomeTieq seytes Fpuying IeMoT seTieg Junyyny 1eM07 seyieg tputang reddy gtét eumoig » serB9 *T STqeL UOT PBWIOY UsAPTET euo4zspny eqeiceg sejtseg Fouyang OZ6T = 2T6T uosueg eqeiaeg BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 205 the Somerton—Attunga district was critical as it adjoined the other areas where the various workers had obtained conflicting results, so work was commenced here on the suggestion of Professor A. H. Voisey, early in 1962. R. Leslie recently conducted geological work in the area from Gravesend to Murrurundi and was able to recognize certain stratigraphic units and marker horizons throughout. The writer is indebted to him for certain useful suggestions, particularly relating to the unconformities which have become apparent in the area which he too was mapping during this period. As different rock units were used in the areas adjoining the one mapped and Mr. Leslie’s interpretation was not available, it was difficult to determine which nomen- clature should be followed in this publication. An attempt has been niade to retain as many older names as possible, so only the new terms Tangaratta Formation and Keepit Conglomerate, which are necessary in the revised interpretation, have been introduced. The use of the Parry Group and Goonoo Goonoo Formation (Crook, 1961) and the Manilla Group (Voisey, 1958) has been discontinued because unconformities are present in these units in the Somerton—Attunga district. The Mandowa Mudstone (Chappell, 1961) has been kept as a useful name to cover the Barraba Mudstone, much reduced from the original sequence described by Benson. The nomenclature has been summarized in Table 1. A definite transition from turbidites to traction current deposits is present in this part of the sequence. The naming of the unconformities is thought to be a useful procedure, as reference is now being frequently made to one or other of them by those at present working in north-eastern New South Wales. The classification of sediments used herein is that of Pettijohn (1957), supplemented by the descriptive classification of interbeds of laminated sediments proposed by Lombard (1963). An attempt has been made to deduce the conditions of sedimentation through the sequence, on the basis of sedimentary structures and associations of sediments. New structural elements described herein are the Appleby Syncline, the Appleby Fault and the Clay Gully Fault. STRATIGRAPHY. The stratigraphic rock units employed here are: Namoi Formation. Tulcumba Sandstone. Onus Creek Unconformity. Tangaratta Formation. Gowrie Sandstone Member. Garoo Conglomerate Member. Mandowa Mudstone. Kiah Limestone Member. Keepit Conglomerate. Bective Unconformity. Baldwin Formation. Fock Units. The Baldwin Formation: The Baldwin Formation (Voisey, 1958) consists of greywackes, conglomerates, breccias and argillites. It conformably overlies the Tamworth Group and is unconformably overlain by the Keepit Conglomerate. The sediments below the Hyde Greywacke and above the Tamworth Group, as described by Crook (1961), are equivalent to the Baldwin Formation here defined. The Baldwin Formation contains two main lithologies. These are: (i) Fine silts and argillites interbedded with fine laminae of feldspathic arenite—Laminites II (Lombard, 1963); (ii) Coarse-grained labile greywackes which are green when fresh, buff to brown when weathered. Minor developments of calcilutites may be associated with the greywackes. In the Somerton—Attunga district argillites constitute the bulk of the Baldwin Formation. 206 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, (i) Laminites II: The argillites are medium to dark grey in colour, and occur in laminae 0-5 mm. to 1 cm. thick. The laminae are usually graded, and the grading is distinct because the silt sized particles tend to be lighter in colour than the finer clays. The argillite laminae may also show fine current ripple laminations and current bedding on a minute scale. Convolute bedding of closed cast type is common in the argillites. The fine non-graded feldspathic arenite laminae, interbedded with the argillites, have scoured and filled them on a small scale. The arenites are well sorted, lack graded bedding, and sometimes show small scale boudinage, full-aparts, and small load casts. The argillites may contain small chips of argillite and arenite of Baldwin lithology. They usually occur in structureless bands of argillite 2-5 cm. thick. The feldspathic arenite laminae vary in thickness from the finest visible partings (which still remain prominent because of their pale colour) to 2 em. thick. (ii) Greywackes: The greywackes of the Baldwin Formation are poorly sorted sediments largely composed of andesitic detritus. When fresh they form outcrops of very hard grey-green rock. Argillite fragments oriented parallel to the bedding planes are a common feature of the coarser greywackes. A thick breccia bed, with a coarse greywacke matrix containing contorted slabs of banded argillite, is present in the formation (Map ref. 107H., 322N.). In the same locality a coarse feldspatholithic arenite, containing polymictic conglomerate lenses and large scale current bed foresets, is present beneath the breccia bed. Typical banded argillites occur above and below these sediments. Individual greywacke beds vary in thickness from a few inches to 30 feet. The Baldwin sediments have been described petrographically in detail by Chappell (1961) and Crook (1960). Leptophloeum australe is present in the upper parts of the Baldwin Formation, and at Map ref. 095 H., 251 N. poorly preserved goniatites have been found. The Keepit Conglomerate: The Keepit Conglomerate unconformably overlies the Baldwin Formation, and underlies the Mandowa Mudstone. Because of its competency, the Keepit Conglomerate outcrops more prominently than most sediments in this district, particularly at “Klori’” trig. station. The type section of the Keepit Con- glomerate is exposed on the southern flank of Klori hill (Map ref. 084E., 267-N.) where the unit attains a total thickness of 345 feet. Table 2 describes the type section in detail. Leslie (pers. comm.) has correlated this unit with the Keepit Conglomerate which occupies a similar stratigraphic position at Keepit (Voisey and Williams, in press). The base of the Keepit Conglomerate is variable. Where there is angular uncon- formity between the conglomerate and the Baldwin Formation, a coarse polymictic conglomerate with a discontinuous framework forms the basal phase. However, north of the Somerton—Manilla road (Map ref. 067 E., 262 N.), where the conglomerate overlies the Baldwin Formation with apparent conformity, the basal lithology is a coarse- grained greywacke containing large disoriented slabs of Baldwin argillite. The Mandowa Mudstone: The Mandowa Mudstone (Chappell, 1961) conformably overlies the Keepit Conglomerate. It is overlain by the basal conglomerate of the Tangaratta Formation where this formation is present, and where the Tangaratta Formation is not present the top of the Mandowa Mudstone is marked by the base of the Tulcumba Sandstone. The Mandowa Mudstone is a sequence of laminites II with thin sparse laminites I. The mudstones in the unit are less indurated and contain less silty material and noticeably more plant debris than the Baldwin argillites. They are often without sedimentary structures, but are sometimes finely laminated with oriented fine macerated carbonaceous plant debris. Small scale current bedding foresets and current ripple laminations are common in the mudstone, while graded bedding is rare. Interbedded with the mudstone laminae are feldspathic arenite laminae. Prominent in these are small scale current bedding foresets and, at the tops of beds, current ripple laminations. They contain abundant fine plant debris and lack graded bedding. The BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 207 mudstone and feldspathic arenite laminites II (0-2 mm. to 2 cm. thick) show minute vertical displacements, boudinage, and load casts. Contacts between the argillite and arenite bands are sharply defined. Single beds of coarse sediment thicker than 6 cm. (laminites I) have not been observed in the Mandowa Mudstone. Towards the top of the unit the arenite bands become thinner and less frequent and the argillite bands may comprise 85% of the sediment. Leptophloeum australe is common in the Mandowa Mudstone. The Kiah Limestone Member: The Kiah Limestone member (Crook, 1961) is a very fine grained lithographic limestone that is sometimes present in the Mandowa Mudstone, a short distance (20-100 feet) above the top of the Keepit Conglomerate. The top and base of the unit are marked by the sharp change in lithology from lithographic lime- TABLE 2. Type Section of the Keepit Conglomerate, 400 Yards East of Klori Trig. Station. Lithology. Thickness. Laminites I of the Mandowa Mudstone, containing Leptophloeum. Top Polymictic orthoconglomerate, with a notably discontinuous framework. Contains 25% pebbles, 75% tuffaceous coarse greywacke matrix. Pebbles are of greywacke and andesite lithology, are sub- 230 ft. rounded to subangular, very rarely rounded. Angular mudstone chips are common. Average pebble size, #’—2” in diameter. Buff-coloured coarse feldspathic arenite. 15 ft. Coarse polymictic conglomerate, pebbles and boulders comprise 40% of the rock. Pebbles and boulders are rounded to subrounded, largest boulder 9” in diameter, average pebble size 4” diameter, grey- 10 ft. wacke pebbles most common. Very coarse greywacke with flat mudstone chips and isolated pebbles. 16 ft. Polymictic conglomerate with greywacke and rare andesite pebbles occurring in two size-ranges, 2’-}’ and 4”-10”. Largest boulder 12” in diameter. Pebbles and boulders comprise 60% of rock. 3 ft. Fine conglomerate with rounded chert pebbles and continuous framework, largest boulder 4” in diameter, average pebble diameter 3’—14”. 4 ft. Fine gravelly conglomerate with rounded pebbles, some siliceous mudstone chips and gravel matrix. 15 ft. Coarse boulder bed with granite, acid volcanic and coarse and fine greywacke boulders 2’—5’ in diameter, with a discontinuous framework. Matrix of many smaller pebbles and greywacke bands. 30 ft. Fine conglomerate with rounded pebbles of chert and greywacke composition. 6 ft. Coarse conglomerate with rounded greywacke boulders up to 2’ in diameter. 3 ft. Fine pebbly and gritty conglomerate with some small rounded boulders and some mudstone chips. 20 ft. Total thickness fi a fn we 3 ae Ae =e a “fs an 352 ft. Laminites of Baldwin Formation. Bottom stone to mudstone laminae of the Mandowa Mudstone. In the Somerton—Attunga district it often lacks the pseudomorphous calcite crystals that are characteristic of the limestone elsewhere. Weathered specimens exhibit beds 3?” to 1” thick. The beds are finely laminated and show low angle current bedding foresets and current ripple marks. This is the limestone noted by Cotton and Walkom (1912) at a number of points on the Tamworth—Attunga road (see Fig. 1). Pelagic fossils have not been found in the Kiah Limestone in this district, although Pickett (1960) found Cymaclimenia borahensis, a high Devonian ammonite, in the Kiah Limestone near Manilla. Crook (1961) found petioles of Kalymma Unger 1856 in Leptophloeum australe preserved in the Kiah Limestone. Crook found that the Kalymma Unger 1856 was a new species, but it showed affinities to those species found at the Devonian—Carboniferous boundary in the New Albany Shale of central Kentucky (Read, 1937). Crook placed the Devonian—Carboniferous boundary at the level of the Kiah Limestone horizon, which 208 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, T T T T MANILLA |10 leo 150° 55" AERA GEOLOGICAL MAP Oe Wcle p SOMERTON — ATTUNGA DISTRICT SCALE 2 3 4 '5miles AKLORI—_ aN Piste [oe poser ttt OA A AA AS XA BAADKADAXBNAADA I TONS LA AA DAAAKAAAAAX wz, \ AN L\ A WA MAIDA U/L A Of LEGEND RECENT RIVER_foo! GRAVELS. B22 VOLCANIC PLUGS WINTON CALCAREOUS NAMOI a SANDSTONE MEMBER FORMATION TULCUMBA SANDSTONE. RANGARI LIMESTONE MEMBER ONUS CREEK UNCONFORMITY LOWER CARBONIFEROUS TANGARATTA _§C95:!| GowRIE SANDSTONE MEMBER FORMATION (Ages| GAROO CONGLOMERATE ? ee MEMBER MANDOWA MUDSTONE ~fpewd KIAH LIMESTONE MEMBER KEEPIT = _[zzz CONGLOMERATE it 22 ~_ UPPER DEVONIAN BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY BALDWIN pa so FORMATION __ GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARIES — Estobished FAULTS — Established inferred SYNCLINAL AXIAL TREND ANTICLINAL AXIAL TREND STRIKE AND DIP RIVER AND CREEK ROAD TRIG, STATION (Cede eee rod ud b oo uu Figure 1. BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 209 he stated marked the upper limit of Leptophloeum australe, but the author has since found Leptophloeum australe in the Mandowa Mudstone just below the base of the Tangaratta Formation in a road section (Map ref. 155H., 103N.). The author feels that until palaeontological work is done on the Tangaratta Formation there is insufficient evidence to place the Devonian—Carboniferous boundary accurately in this part of the sequence. The Tangaratta Formation: The Tangaratta Formation overlies the Mandowa Mud- stone and is unconformably overlain by the Tulcumba Sandstone. The formation has not previously been recognized as a separate entity. The name derives from Tangaratta Creek where the unit is best exposed in the Somerton—Attunga district. The thickness of the Tangaratta Formation varies from 0 to 2,000 feet, and it thickens towards the south-east. The base of the unit in the Somerton—Attunga district is the base of the Garoo Conglomerate member, and the top of the unit is marked by the base of the Tulcumba Sandstone. The Tangaratta Formation is correlated with the central and part of the upper Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone described by Crook (1961). The Garoo Conglomerate and Gowrie Sandstone members (Crook, 1961) have been traced from the district mapped by Crook through the western part of the Somerton—Attunga district. The Tangaratta formation is composed largely of interbeds of mudstone and arenite (laminites I and II). The laminites I and II are most distinct in the lower part of the Tangaratta Formation, where the three lithologies present are medium- grained and fine-grained feldspatholithic arenites and fine grey mudstone. Beds of medium-grained feldspathic arenite 2”-15” thick (laminites I) are separated by similar thicknesses of laminites II—thin interbeds of fine feldspatholithic arenite and grey mudstone. Laminations present in each lithology are fine bedding laminations, current bedding foresets and current ripple laminations. Scour and fill is usually preserved at the top of the laminites II by the medium-coarse grained arenite beds, and truncated ripple marks are often present in these. Some groove casts and load casts have been observed at the top of mudstone beds. The ripple marks and current bed foresets indicate currents flowing most commonly from the south, but also sometimes from the opposite direction. Minute macerated plant remains are present in each lithology in great abundance, and long axes of the plant shreds show a preferred orientation about 350°-10°. Plant remains define fine bedding laminations in each lithology. The laminites I contain thin beds 4’—3” thick that are graded, although grading is not a feature of the whole bed. Grading is usually rare in the formation. The laminites I and II become less distinct towards the top of the Tangaratta Formation where the characteristic lithology changes to buff-coloured mudstone. Beds of mudstone 3-10 feet thick are interbedded with 3” thick bands of separate feldspar crystals interspersed in a mudstone matrix, and beds of tuffaceous feldspathic arenite 2”-18” thick. The tuffaceous arenites are distinctly graded and they have scoured and filled the underlying mudstone beds. Scour and fill is also present within the mudstone beds which are laminated, the laminations being defined by fine carbonaceous plant debris. Graded bedding has also been observed in these mudstones. There is not, however, the distinct fine bedding that is common in the mudstones lower in the sequence. The Garoo Conglomerate Member: The Garoo Conglomerate member (Crook, 1961) occurs at the base of the Tangaratta Formation in the Somerton—Attunga district. The unit conformably overlies the Mandowa Mudstone and is overlain by laminites I and II of the Tangaratta Formation. The base and top of the member are marked by the change in lithology from conglomerate and greywacke to mudstone and arenite laminites. In the Somerton—Attunga district the unit outcrops poorly. The typical lithologies of the member are basal coarse polymictic conglomerates overlain by fine greywacke and conglomerate lenses. The pebbles in the conglomerate are dominantly of andesitic, intermediate volcanic and greywacke lithology. Crook states that the Garoo Conglomerate reaches a thickness of 250 feet in the type section. 210 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, The Gowrie Sandstone Member: The Gowrie Sandstone member (Crook, 1961) is a coarse-grained arenite and conglomerate unit present in the upper part of the Tangaratta Formation. It is underlain and overlain by laminites I and II of the formation. Coarse-grained feldspatholithic arenite, and polymictic conglomerate lenses, in which the pebbles are usually no more than 6” in diameter, are the typical lithologies of the unit. Large scale current bedding foresets have been observed in the thin arenite beds near the top of the member. Interbeds of laminites I and II mark the top of the member. The Tulcumba Sandstone: The Tulcumba Sandstone (Voisey and Williams, in press) unconformably overlies the Tangaratta Formation, or the Mandowa Mudstone where the former unit is not present, and is overlain by the Namoi Formation. The top of the Tulcumba Sandstone is the top of the highest arenite bed in the unit. It has been found that the Boiling Down Sandstone (Crook, 1961) is the southern extension of the Tulcumba Sandstone. Leslie (pers. comm.) has demonstrated the regional persistence of the unit above the Onus Creek Unconformity. Merlewood Formation f Fossiliferous olive green mudstone Massive unfossiliferous olive green mudstone. Fossiliferous feldspathic arenite alnlel= CTL-LTE Winton Calcarenite Member FORMATION Pyroxene andesite ®o loo,e 51 Conglomerate 20 4 Conglomerate & coarse orenite NAMOI Feldspathic arenite \\a Boiling-Down Sandstone oO 500 1000 feet |__| ONUS CREEK UNCONF ORMITY Fig. 2. Correlation of sections A-B, C-D, E-F, and G-H through the Namoi Formation and the Boiling-down Sandstone. | The Tulcumba Sandstone is a coarse to fine grained feldspatholithic arenite with some development of polymictic conglomerate, usually at the base of the unit, and some quartzo-feldspathic arenite. Marine and plant fossils are present in the unit. It is well bedded and large scale cross bedding foresets are common in the beds. A maximum thickness of approximately 150 feet has been observed in the Somerton— Attunga district. Large scale current bedding and calcareous feldspathic arenites at the top of the unit serve to distinguish it from underlying arenites. The Rangari Limestone (Voisey and Williams, in press) is present in the Tulcumba Sandstone in the north-west part of the Somerton—Attunga district. This limestone member is one of the distinguishing features of the Tulcumba Sandstone. It is an oolitic limestone containing detrital fragments of brachiopods and crinoid stems. The Namoi Formation: The Namoi Formation (Voisey and Williams, in press) is a sequence of mudstones containing minor calcarenites that lies conformably on the Tuleumba Sandstone and is overlain by the Merlewood Formation. The top of the Namoi Formation is marked by the base of the first conglomerate or arenite of the Merlewood Formation. The Namoi Formation is the only unit in the district that outcrops well, and Figure 2 shows the representation of columnar sections measured in several places BY ANDREW H. WHITE. Pail through the formation. The unit is correlated with the lower Burindi Series described by Carey and Browne (1938) and the uppermost part of the Goonoo Goonoo Mudstone (Crook, 1961). The lower part of the unit is laminated mudstone containing discontinuous calcareous concretions and some interbeds of thin feldspathic arenite. Above this laminated mudstone is a thickness of fine-grained massive olive-green mudstone that breaks into small elongate fragments and is barren of fossils. There is a great abundance of brachiopods, crinoid stems and solitary horn corals in the mudstone in the uppér part of the formation. A notable feature of the middle Namoi Formation in the Somerton—Attunga district is the very local development of conglomerate and arenite lenses. The conglomerates are coarse and polymictic with boulders varying in diameter from coarse gravel size to 2 feet. Acid plutonics, intermediate and basic volcanics and greywacke boulders are present in the conglomerates which have a matrix of coarse sand. The arenites are coarse, cross bedded and fossiliferous. The Winton Limestone Member: The Winton Limestone member, within the upper part of the fossiliferous mudstone of the Namoi Formation, is a persistent, cross bedded, sometimes fossiliferous calearenite varying in thickness from 20 feet to 80 feet. The type section of this member is in Mountain Creek east of Winton Trig. (whence it derives its name) at map ref. 100 E., 093N. The unit is oolitic in places, and crinoid stems are an abundant constituent of the rock. Above the Winton Limestone member is a thickness of mudstone that is unfossiliferous and characteristically very pale green or yellow and contains in places “red bed” lenses. The top of the mudstone marks the top of the Namoi Formation. UNCONFORMITIES. Two angular unconformities have been noted in the sequence in the Somerton— Attunga district. Their regional persistence, as demonstrated by Leslie, has an important bearing on the interpretation of the tectonic history and stratigraphy of these sediments. It is proposed to name these unconformities the Bective Unconformity and the Onus Creek Unconformity. The Bective Unconformity: The Bective Unconformity is the angular unconformity between the Baldwin Formation and the Keepit Conglomerate. The angle of uncon- formity between the two units is variable and may be as much as 90°. Evidence for the unconformity: (1) The structural trends of the Baldwin and overlying sediments in places differ markedly. ‘The Baldwin Formation is distinctly cross folded, while cross folding is only expressed by the formation of large scale domes and basins in the overlying sediments; (2) Strong angular unconformity between the two units has been observed at widely separated localities in the Somerton—Attunga district (e.g., at Map ref. 118 E., 263 N.; Map ref. 153 E., 169 N.; Map ref. 106 E., 250 N.); (3) Angular unconformities between the Baldwin Formation and the Keepit Con- glomerate have been observed in exposures of the contact of the two units in the southern, central and northern parts of this belt of sediments by the writer and by R. Leslie (Leslie, pers. comm.). The Baldwin Formation and the Keepit Conglomerate appear to be turbidite deposits. Crook (1959) suggested that paraconformities (Dunbar and Rogers, 1957) could be formed in turbidite sequences when turbidites were scoured by turbidity currents. There is no evidence, such as weathering, to suggest that the upper layers of the Baldwin Formation were subaerially eroded. Thus the erosion may have been accomplished by a mechanism such as postulated by Crook (1959), that is, scouring of the sediments by turbidity currents, or by deep sea traction currents, such as reported by Heezen (1959a, b). An unconformity, in places as much as 90°, and a marked difference in structural trends between the two units, indicate that the Baldwin Formation was folded during or prior to the erosion of the upper part of the unit. A time break of some length is thus inferred. 212 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, The Onus Creek Unconformity: The Onus Creek unconformity is the angular unconformity at the base of the Tulcumba Sandstone. Evidence for the unconformity: (1) The Tangaratta Formation is missing north- west of Somerton, where the Tulcumba Sandstone changes strike suddenly to form the eastern limb of the Belvue Basin (Voisey and Williams, in press) and directly overlies the Mandowa Mudstone. The Tangaratta Formation is a widespread unit elsewhere in this belt of sediments (Leslie, pers. comm.) and is therefore not merely a local sedimentary unit. The total absence of the unit indicates that at least 1,500 feet of sediment has been removed; (2) The strikes of the Gowrie Sandstone and the Garoo Conglomerate converge with the strike of the Tulcumba Sandstone (see fig. 1); (3) The Tangaratta Formation is folded into a series of gentle north-west trending folds, whereas the Tulcumba Sandstone and the Namoi Formation dip uniformly west, under the Werrie Basin—indicating that the Tangaratta Formation was folded prior to deposition of the Tulcumba Sandstone. The sudden change in facies also indicates that there was a time break following the folding; (4) Angular unconformity has been observed between the Tulcumba Sandstone and the Tangaratta Formation, for example, in Onus Creek (Map ref. 062 EH., 193 N.) and at Keepit where an angular unconformity has been found between the basal Tulcumba Sandstone and the Mondowo Mudstone (Jenkins, pers. comm.). Here apparently all the Tangaratta Formation and part of the Mandowa Mudstone have been removed. SEDIMENTATION. In recent studies of some sediments and reviews of the literature dealing with marine sedimentation, Murphy and Schlanger (1962) and Dott (1963) have concluded that the single valid criterion distinguishing turbidites is the repeated occurrence of graded bedding. The presence of large scale current bedding foresets is the most widely accepted criterion for identifying a traction current deposit. Using these criteria, turbidites and traction current deposits have been identified in the Somerton— Attunga district. Subaqueous slide breccias, mudstones lacking in current structures, and tuffs are also present in the sequence. However, the mode of deposition of much of the sediment of the Mandowa Mudstone and the lower part of the Tangaratta Formation is not immediately apparent. These sediments contain abundant sedimentary structures which are listed in two groups, viz.: (i) those that have been found associated with well documented turbidites, and (ii) those that are normally believed to have been formed by the movement of sediment by traction. (i) From Kuenen and Migliorini (1950), Kuenen (1953), Kuenen and Sanders (1956), and Dott (1963), the attributes of turbidites that are also features of the above-mentioned sediments include graded bedding; abruptly alternating coarse and fine beds; absence of wave ripple marks; channel scour; frequent “slump” structures; scarcity of benthonic life; load casting, convolute bedding; conglomerate interbedded with greywacke and lacking cross bedding; angular mudstone chips in greywacke or siltstone matrix; slumped boulder beds; worm trails preserved; flute and groove casts; shallow water organisms in a reworked condition when present. (ii) Structures indicating the movement of sediment by traction are small scale current bed foresets; current ripple marks; oriented plant debris. The structures listed under (i) may be found in sediments other than turbidites, as pointed out by Dott (1963), but when all or most of them occur in a sediment it is reasonable to conclude that it is a turbidite. In the Mandowa Mudstone and the lower part of the Tangaratta Formation, when these features are common in the sediment, repeated graded bedding does not occur, but there are occasional graded beds. This suggests that these sediments have been deposited by turbidity currents. When the structures listed under (ii) are common, traction of sediment is evident. However, the structures may have been formed by the action of traction currents or by the winnowing of fine material at the tops of beds by turbidity currents. When BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 23 they are common in sediments inter-bedded with sandstones that contain large scale current bed foresets, and the structures listed under (i) are minor, such sediments are probably traction current deposits. The Baldwin Formation is a sequence of greywackes and repeatedly graded argillite units which alternate abruptly. Load casts, convolute bedding, conglomerate lacking current bedding foresets and interbedded with greywackes, angular mudstone chips in siltstone beds, scarcity of benthonic life and absence of wave ripple marks characterize the sediment of the Baldwin Formation and indicate that the greywackes and argillites are turbidites. An exception is the thick feldspathic arenite which occurs towards the middle of the formation. This contains large scale current bedding foresets and orthoconglomerate lenses, and so indicates a distinct change in the sedimentation of the Baldwin Forma- tion, for it suggests traction current deposition. The rock overlying this arenite may be subaqueous slide deposit, as it consists of large angular disoriented blocks of argillite in a greywacke matrix. The overlying rocks represent a return to the normal condition of sedimentation of the formation. The rare current ripple laminations in the argillites of the Baldwin Formation may be explained as the result of winnowing of fine material at the top of beds by turbidity currents. ‘ The Keepit Conglomerate: This unit is mostly polymictic paraconglomerate and coarse gravel. These lithologies contain angular and sub-rounded as well as rounded boulders and pebbles, sparse reworked shallow water fossil remains, and large angular mudstone blocks. There is an excess of matrix over boulders in the conglomerate. These features are strongly suggestive of a turbidite deposit (Pettijohn, 1957). Minor lithologies which are sometimes present are a basal greywacke containing large slabs of argillite, and a very coarse boulder bed (present in the type section). These probably represent subaqueous slide deposits. The Mandowa Mudstone and the Tangaratta Formation: These units are discussed together because they contain features indicating similar modes of sedimentation. Current ripple marks, fine laminations and abundant plant debris are common in the mudstones, and silty layers and graded beds are rare. These latter contain load casts, convolute bedding and groove casts. They thus contain sedimentary structures associated with turbidites and it is possible that they do in fact represent turbidites. The remaining mudstone beds are thin, laminated, and lacking in any current structures and seemingly have been deposited as a result of slow settling of mud. The thin arenites of these units contain abundant current ripple laminations, small scale current bed foresets, groove casts, load casts and truncated ripple marks, and are well sorted, of wide lateral extent, and constant thickness. Thus the sedimentary structures are definitive neither of turbidity current nor of traction current deposition. Grading could be absent because of pre-sorting of the sediment and its absence is therefore not a criterion for traction current deposition. Because of the lack of any large scale current bedding and because of the presence of some thin fine-grained sediments which do show grading, it is possible that these arenites are also turbidites and that the current structures are due to reworking by turbidity currents. Gorsline and Emery (1959) found that similar laminites I were formed when turbidity currents moved sediments, already sorted by wave action in shallow water, down through submarine canyons into basins where they spread out and deposited thin beds of non-graded arenite. The upper Tangaratta Formation consists of thick mudstone beds interbedded with thin tuffaceous feldspathic arenites of a different character from the arenites discussed above. The distinct grading in these arenites may have been produced by subaerial grading of tuffaceous material, as the tuffs show little reworking and do not contain current structures of any kind. Moreover they contain unbroken shards. The mud- stones are similar to the thin nongraded mudstone beds lower in the sequence, except the beds are much thicker. They probably represent long periods of quiet sedimentation. 214 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, The coarse-grained members of the Tangaratta Formation, the Garoo Conglomerate and the Gowrie Sandstone were deposited under different conditions of sedimentation. The Garoo Conglomerate is a greywacke with coarse conglomerate lenses, current bedding, angular mudstone chips and broken shallow water fossil remains. On the other hand, the Gowrie Sandstone is a fairly well sorted feldspathic arenite containing large scale current bedding foresets, and so represents a traction current deposit. The Garoo Conglomerate is the youngest coarse turbidite of the sequence in the Somerton— Attunga district. The Tulcumba Sandstone: This unit has a basal orthoconglomerate overlain by a feldspathic and quartzo-feldspathic arenite which contains abundant calcite cement. Large scale current bedding foresets and ripple marks are the most common sedimentary structures in the sandstone, and hence the unit appears to be a traction current deposit. The appearance of abundant neritic fossils and the presence of a cross-bedded oolitic limestone within the formation, the Rangari Limestone (Voisey and Williams, in press), indicate a shallow water environment for the deposition of the Tulcumba Sandstone. The Namoi Formation: In general the mudstones of this unit are massive, although some are laminated near its base. The sandstone lenses in the unit contain large scale current bed foresets and ripple marks and are well sorted. The absence of sedimentary structures in the mudstones suggests that they were deposited in a quiet environment as slowly settling muds. The arenites clearly are traction current deposits. The presence of abundant neritic fossils in the mudstones of the upper part of the formation indicates shallow water deposition. A local influx of coarse sediment has resulted in sandstone and conglomerate lenses which are present in the Namoi Formation, south of Somerton (see Fig. 2). Such local, coarse, round-stone conglomerates and arenites could have been deposited at the mouth of a river. Thus, from the Baldwin Formation to the top of the Namoi Formation there is a transition from turbidites to traction current deposits. The Baldwin Formation is a sequence of turbidites in which coarse greywackes are abundant. The Mandowa Mudstone and the Tangaratta Formation contain much less frequent fine and coarse grained turbidites and more sediments reworked after deposition. The laminites I in these units were possibly presorted before being transported to their present position. Going up the sequence, muds deposited in a quiet, gradually shallowing environment become more and more abundant and turbidites give way to traction deposits. The Namoi Formation contains only muds and traction current deposits laid down in shallow water. STRUCTURE. The Somerton—Attunga district lies in the structural division called the “Western Belt of Folds and Thrusts” (Voisey, 1959). Structures defined by Voisey (1958), Chappell (1961) and Crook (1961) have been recognized and extended to this district. Folding of the sediments has been followed by the development of normal and trans- current faults, low angle thrusts, and wrench faults. The structures are illustrated in the cross sections in Figure 3. Folding: Folding commenced at or before the end of the deposition of the Baldwin sediments, which were eroded and overlain unconformably by the Keepit Conglomerate. The folding continued (or commenced again) before the deposition of the Tulcumba Sandstone, as indicated by the unconformity at the top of the Tangaratta Formation, and the final folding included the remaining sediments in the sequence. The folding was never intense and the regional axial trend of the major folds is north-north-west. Axial traces of gentle cross folds on the limbs of the major fold in the Baldwin Formation trend north eastwards, at about 80° to the major fold trend. The Major Folds: The Goonoo Goonoo Anticline (Crook, 1961) is correlated with the Klori Anticline (Chappell, 1961), in the northern part of the district. The Marsden Park Syncline (Crook, 1961), the Appleby Syncline and the Mandowa Syncline (Chappell, 1961) lie along an axis of depression, east of the Goonoo Goonoo Anticline. BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 215 The northern continuation of this axis of depression is the Manilla Syncline (Voisey, 1958). Low amplitude north-north-west trending folds occur in the Tangaratta Forma- tion north of Duri. The upper Tangaratta Formation and overlying sediments form the eastern limb of the Werrie Basin (Carey, 1937). The Goonoo Goonoo Anticline is the major structural feature of the district and is flanked in most places by low hills of the Keepit Conglomerate. Cross-folded Baldwin sediments in the anticline may dip as much as 80°, but the Keepit Conglomerate and younger sediments do not dip more than 25° on the limbs of the anticline. The Mandowa Syncline (Chappell, 1961) is a very gentle north-plunging structure that has been disrupted by the Baldwin Fault (Benson, 1917; Voisey, 1958) and the Appleby Fault. The Appleby Syncline, to the south of the Mandowa Syncline and on the same axis of depression, is an asymmetrical structure with dips of 55° on the SNIMDILNY OONOOD 3NINDNAS VMOONVW. 4qnw4 — Aga dav 4anv4 VONNLIV oa 23 3 z2 2 5 co = z 2 Legend: asin fig | —— Bedding in Baldwin Formation SNIDLNY [D\ oonoo5 ° FIG 3. CRoss-SECTIONS TO ACCOMPANY THE GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE SOMERTON -ATTUNGA DISTRICT SCALE Figure 3. eastern limb and 5° on the western limb. It is disrupted by the Appleby Fault and there is some complex small-scale folding near the south-east closure of the syncline, where the Appleby Fault bifurcates. Still further south along this axis of depression is the Marsden Park Syncline which is flanked by the gently dipping Keepit Conglomerate. To the west of the Goonoo Goonoo Anticline the Tangaratta Formation shows ill-defined low amplitude folds which do not appear in the overlying sediments. The upper part of the Tangaratta Formation and the overlying units dip at about 25° south- west and form the lower sediments of the eastern limb of the Werrie Basin (Carey, 1937). The folds with axes trending north-east are subordinate to the regional north-west folds. The genetic relationships of the two axial trends have not been established, but the “cross folds’ are most conspicuous in the Baldwin sediments. The younger rocks are not noticably “cross folded’, but the common fold style developed in the sediments in this region is open non-cyclindroidal folding, i.e., domes and basins. Faulting: Three types of faults occur in the district. These are, in order of formation, the Manilla Fault (Voisey, 1958), the Appleby Fault, the Attunga Fault (Chappell, 1961), the Baldwin Fault, and the Clay Gully Fault and similar minor wrench faults. The Appleby and Manilla Faults are normal faults with a strike component along the axial trend of the Appleby and Mandowa Synclines. The eastern blocks of sediment have moved up along the faults. These faults are offset by the Baldwin and the Attunga Faults which are low angle thrust planes on which the sediment has been thrust towards the west. The Baldwin Fault appears to die out on meeting the Attunga Fault. The Appleby Fault bifurcates near Appleby and has not been traced further 216 UPPER PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OCF THE SOMERTON-ATTUNGA DISTRICT, south than the Clay Gully Fault. This fault, together with the minor wrench fault that offsets the Goonoo Goonoo Anticline north-west of Klori Trig. station, represents the last major fault movement in the district, and they are not affected by the other faults. CONCLUSIONS. 1. Interpretation of the stratigraphy in the Somerton—Attunga district has been greatly influenced by the recognition of (a) Persistent marker beds in the sequence, of which the Tulcumba Sandstone and the Keepit Conglomerate are the most important because of their regional continuity; (0) The presence of two angular unconformities in the sequence; (c) The change in sedimentation, from turbidite deposition at the base to traction current deposition at the top of the sequence. 2. New light has been thrown on the tectonic history of the district by the recognition of the Bective and Onus Creek unconformities. 3. Carey (1937) and Voisey and Williams (in press) studied the western outcrops of this belt of sediments. Here, because the Tulcumba Sandstone unconformably overlies the Mandowa Mudstone (and the Tangaratta Formation is absent), they had no difficulty in establishing that the Tulcumba Sandstone was the lowest Carboniferous unit in the sequence and the top of the Mandowa Mudstone present here was the upper- most Devonian unit. However, in the east, the junction between the Carboniferous rocks and the Devonian rocks is not so well defined. Here the Tangaratta Formation has been recognized as a unit which thickens towards the east, overlies the Leptophloeum- bearing Mandowa Mudstones and is unconformably overlain by the Tuleumba Sand- stone. The unit itself contains marine shelly fossils and does not appear to contain Leptophloeum australe remains even though it has been mapped as a rock unit. The problem is then posed of where in this unit, in which the actual transition from turbidite to traction current deposit can be most closely pinpointed, does the Carboniferous-Devonian boundary occur? This problem can now only be solved by palaeontological investigations. Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Professor A. H. Voisey, Dr. G. M. Philip and Dr. K. L. Burns of the University of New England Geology Department for many helpful suggestions regarding this work and for helpful criticism of the manuscript. The author also gratefully acknowledges the suggestions made by Mr. R. Leslie regarding aspects of the field mapping. References. AUSTRALIAN CODE OF STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE (third edition), 1959.—J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 6: 63-70. BENSON, W. N., 1913.—The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of N.S.W. Part I. Introduction. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., 38: 490-517. , 1917.—Ibid. Part 6. Western Slopes. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., 42: 698. CAMPBELL, K. S. W., and ENGEL, B. A., 1963.—The Faunas of the Tournasian Tulcumba Sand- stone and its members in the Werrie and Belvue Synclines, N.S.W. Jour. Geol. Soc. Australia, 10: 55. CarEY, S. W., 1937.—The Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 62: 341-376. CarREY, S. W., and Browne, W. R., 1938.—Review of the Carboniferous Stratigraphy, Tectonics and Palaeogeography of New South Wales and Queensland. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 72: 199-208. CHAPPELL, B. W., 1961.—Stratigraphy and Structural Geology of the Manilla-Moore Creek District, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 95: 63-75. Corton, L. A., and Watkom, A. B., 1912.—Note on the relation of the Devonian and Carboniferous formations west of Tamworth, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 37: 703-708. Crook, K. A. W., 1959.—Unconformities in Turbidite Sequences. Jour. Geol., 67: 710-7138. , 1960.—Petrology of Parry Group, Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous, Tamworth- Nundle district, N.S.W. J. Sed. Pet., 30: 538-552. , 1961.—Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous), Tamworth Nundle district, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94: 189-208. BY ANDREW H. WHITE. 217 Dorr, R. H., 1963.—Dynamics of Subaqueous Gravity Depositional Processes. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 47: 104-128. DUNBAR, C. O., and Ropesrs, J., 1957.—Principles of Stratigraphy. John Wiley & Sons, New York. GORSLINE, D. S., and Emery, K. O., 1959.—Turbidity Currents Deposition in San Pedro and Santa Monica Basins off Southern California. Geol. Soc. America Bull., 70: 279-290. HEEZEN, B. C., 1959.—Dynamic Processes of Abyssal Sedimentation: Erosion Transportation and Redeposition on the Deep-Sea Floor. Geophys. Jour. Roy. Astron. Soc., 2: 142-163. , 1959.—Deep Sea Erosion and Unconformities. Jour. Geol., 67: 713-715. KUENEN, PH. H., 1953.—Significant Features of Graded Bedding. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 37: 1054-1066. KUENEN, PH. H., and MiIGLiIoRINI, C. I., 1950.—Turbidity Currents as a Cause of Graded Bedding. Jour. Geol., 58: 91-127. KUENEN, PH. H., and SANDERS, J. E., 1956.—Sedimentation Phenomena in Kulm and Fildézleeres Greywackes, Sauerland and Oberharz, Germany. Am. J. Sci., 254: 649-671. LOMBARD, A., 1963.—Laminites: A Structure of Flysch-Type Sediments. J. Sed. Pet., 33: 14-22. MurpHy, M. A., and ScHLANGER, S. O., 1962.—Sedimentary Structures in Ilhas and Sao Sebastiao Formations (Cretaceous), Reconcavo Basin, Brazil. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 42: 2701-2719. PETTIJOHN, F. J., 1957.—Sedimentary Rocks. 2nd Edition. Harper and Brothers, New York. PICKETT, J. W., 1960.—A Clymeniid from the Wocklumeria zone of New South Wales. Palaeont., 3: 237-241. READ, C. B., 1937.—The Flora of the New Albany Shale. Part 2. The Calamopityeae and their Relationships. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Ppr., 186E: 81-104. Votsey, A. H., 1952.—The Gondwana System in N.S.W. Symposium sur Gondwanaland, 19th International Geol. Congress. Alger., pp. 50-55. , 1958.—Further Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales., J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 91: 165-188. , 1958.—The Manilla Syncline and Associated Faults. Ibid., 91: 209-214. , 1959.—Tectonic Evolution of North-Eastern New South Wales. TIbid., 92: 191-203. Voisrty, A. H., and WILLIAMS, K. L. (in press).—The Geology of the Carroll-Keepit-Wean District. (J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1964, 97: 65-72.) 218 A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF PALLOPTERIDAE (DIPTHRA, SCHIZOPHORA) FROM PAPUA. By Davip K. McAtpine, The Australian Museum, Sydney. (Three Text-figures.) [Read 27th May, 1964.] Synopsis. Hypsomyia goilala, a new species representing a new genus of the family Pallopteridae, is described from the mountains of Papua. The genus is remote geographically and morpho- logically from any previously known pallopterid genus. Some notes on its habitat are given. Genus HYPsoMyYIA nov. Occiput convex; face with a prominent median carina for its full length; fronto- orbitals present; outer vertical not distinguished from post-ocular setulae. Thorax with one pair of dorsocentrals, prescutellar acrostichals, mesopleural, and one sterno- pleural; no presutural; scutellum not haired. Legs with preapical dorsal bristle on middle tibia only. Wing with Sc and vein 1 strongly diverging distally; vein 1 setulose above distally from level of end of Sc; vein 6 reaching to margin but weak distally. Type species: Hypsomyia goilala nov. HYPSOMYIA GOILALA, Sp. NOV. 3o?. Head deep reddish-brown; upper half of occiput black; face, anterior part of cheeks and parafacials whitish-pruinescent, the pruinescence extending narrowly up the anterior lateral margins of frons; upper part of third antennal segment and arista blackish; hairs and bristles black. Thorax brown-black; pleura largely grey pruinescent; mesoscutum with a complete grey-dusted median band and a pair of irregular lateral bands interrupted at suture and just behind humeral callus. Legs brown-black; the coxae reddish-brown. Wings brownish-hyaline with blackish markings as follows: a small spot on base of M;,, (vein separating discal and second basal cells); a larger spot just beyond fork of veins 2 and 3; a spot at end of vein 1, extending to vein 2; a more diffuse spot at end of vein 2, extending over vein 3; a mark surrounding anterior crossvein and another surrounding posterior crossvein. Halteres brown-black. Abdomen black. Cheek nearly half as high as eye; a distinct but shallow antennal groove on each side of the facial carina; two fronto-orbitals, rather short, especially the anterior one, sloping outwards, the posterior one also reclinate; ocellars as long as posterior fronto- orbital; postverticals shorter, curved forwards; frons with numerous scattered setulae; a series of fine anterior cheek setulae, extending round vibrissal angle and a number of longer posterior cheek setulae. Third antennal segment about one and a half times as long as wide, broadly rounded distally; arista but slightly longer than rest of antennae, finely pubescent, somewhat thickened basally. Palpi rather slender, setulose. Mesoscutum setulose, the intradorsocentral setulae in about four irregular series; mesopleuron with rather numerous long setulae, one or two often approaching meso- pleural bristle in size; sternopleuron with few, scattered fine setulae; prosternum broad, setulose laterally, without precoxal bridges; the following thoracic bristles present: one pair of posterior dorsocentrals, prescutellar acrostichals, humeral, two notopleurals, two supra-alars, posterior intra-alar, a rather fine propleural, long meso- pleural, one sternopleural, two subequal scutellars. Front femur with numerous long PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocrrTy or NEw SouTH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. BY DAVID K. MCALPINE. 219 bristles on posterior surface including about four posteroventral bristles; hind femur with a weak preapical dorsal bristle. Costa without bristles or major spines on any part, a series of minute black spinules on anterior surface terminating just beyond end of vein 2; costal index 3-3—3-8; fourth vein index 1-5-—1-6. Abdomen broad; preabdomen of five segments, the first two tergites fused; spiracles situated at junction of tergites with pleural membrane. Male postabdomen with sixth tergite obsolete; sixth sternite ventral, asymmetrical, joined to seventh and eighth sternites on left side; ninth sternite smaller than eighth; surstyli broad basally, narrowed into an obtuse finger-like process distally, with three or four black spines posteriorly at base of process; ninth sternite produced into a Ss) 2 SALA oh eet Figures 1-3. Hypsomyia goilala, sp. nov. 1, wing of holotype. 2, head of holotype. 3, postabdomen of paratype oc, ventral aspect (hypopygium twisted to right through reversal of circumversion during clearing). ae, aedeagus. b, bacilliform sclerite. c, cercus. s6-s9, sternites 6-9. ss, surstylus. t9, tergite 9. short, broad process on each side of base of aedeagus; aedeagus strap-like, coiled, with a pigmented strip along each margin and with two series of spines which become coarser distally; cerci short, haired. Female postabdomen of the usual lonchaeid type, with sheath-like seventh segment and fused cerci. Dimensions: Total length, ¢ 3:2-4-1 mm.; 2 3-4-3-5 mm.; length of thorax, ¢ 1:4— 1-7 mm; 2 1-5-1:8 mm.; length of wing, ¢ 4:0-4-6 mm.; 2 4-1-4-:8 mm. Distribution: Highlands of the Central District, Papua. Material Hxamined: Sidibamul, Murray Pass, Wharton Range, 10,000 ft., Oct. 14, 1963 (holotype 3g, paratypes 2 g, 1 ¢), Oct. 15, 1963 (paratypes 4 ¢, 2 9), coll. D. K. McAlpine. Location of Types: Australian Museum. Through the courtesy of the Trustees of the Australian Museum a paratype will be lodged in the British Museum (Natural History), one in the United States National Museum, and one in the Entomology collection, Department of Agriculture, Stock, and Fisheries, Konedobu, T.P.N.G. D 220 A NEW GENUS OF PALLOPTERIDAE FROM PAPUA, RELATIONSHIPS AND ORIGIN. Though there are few characters that are unique among the Pallopteridae, the combination of characters in Hypsomyia suggests that it is not closely related to any other known genus. The absence of the outer vertical bristles and the presence of setulae on vein 1 do appear to differentiate it from all other pallopterid genera. It further differs from all other genera except the EHuropean Hurygnathomyia in the presence of preapical bristles on the middle tibia, and from all except the Nearctic Omomyia in possessing a prominent median facial carina. It is distinguished from Eurygnathomyia further by the non-spinose costa and possession of only one dorso- central, and from Omomyia by the short scutellum and distinct fronto-orbitals. Geographically the nearest genus is Neomaorina from New Zealand, but this differs in having two dorsocentrals, a presutural, three sternopleurals, no mesopleural, narrow subcostal cell, vein 6 incomplete, and in other details. Clearly Neomaorina is very distantly related to Hypsomyia. Hypsomyia is the first pallopterid to be recorded from the tropics.* The absence of any records of Pallopteridae from Australia or the Oriental Region further prevents any deduction as to its geographical origin. As fairly extensive collecting of Diptera in alpine country in Australia has been carried out, it is probable that Pallopteridae are absent there. On the other hand they may well be present on high mountains of Indonesia and South Hast Asia, and it is here that one may expect forms related to Hypsomyia to be found in the future. NOTES ON HABITAT. Sidibamul is not an actual settlement, but consists only of a mission-owned rest house used by travelling missionaries for overnight shelter. The vegetation consists of low alpine shrubs and herbs with scattered tree-ferns, and patches of sphagnum. Nearby are areas of high moss forest. The open country has been produced, or at least increased, by the natives’ habit of setting fire to the vegetation whenever visiting the locality. All the specimens of Hypsomyia were taken in the open country by sweeping the vegetation. At this altitude (about 10,000 ft.) the sky is usually overcast; light rain and mists at ground level are frequent. ‘Temperatures are never high, but no frost was experienced during the author’s visit. Acknowledgements. Thanks are due to the Trustees and Director of the Australian Museum for making possible the author’s field work in Papua—New Guinea. The C.S.1.R.O. Science and Industry Endowment Fund contributed generously towards the financing of this trip. Dr. J. J. H. Szent-Ivany and Mr. Ian Pendergast, both of the Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries, arranged the visit to Murray Pass. Reference. HENNIG, W., 1952.—Die Laryvenformen der Dipteren, 3: VII + 628 pp. * Dr. Hennig has kindly informed the author in correspondence that his reference to certain pallopterid genera as ‘“chilenisch-papuanisch’ (Hennig, 1952) is an error for “chilenisch-patagonisch”’. j 221 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE GENUS GLYCASPIS (HOMOPTERA: PSYLLIDAE) ; ERECTION oF A NEw SUBGENUS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SIX NEW SPECIES. By K. M. Moorg, Forestry Commission of New South Wales. (Twenty-seven Text-figures.) [Read 24th June, 1964.] Synopsis. The subgenus Boreioglycaspis nov. is erected within the genus Glycaspis Taylor 1960 to receive those species with morphological characteristics indicative of a more _ recent evolutionary sequence than that of specimens in the subgenera Glycaspis and Alloglycaspis. Six new species from New South Wales, Queensland, Penang Id. and North Borneo are described, and their apparent evolutionary sequence within the genus is discussed. EHpipsylia forcipata Crawford 1917 from the Philippine Is. is placed in the new subgenus, and a male specimen of the type series is designated as lectotype. The genus Glycaspis apparently originated in Australia with the leaf-gall formers of the subgenus Glycaspis occurring on those Hucalyptus spp. placed in the Renantherae by Blakely (1955), and the specimens examined and described in this paper are considered to represent a northern evolutionary extension of the genus. The species of Boreioglycaspis apparently diverged from the subgenus Alloglycaspis (species of which occur on Hucalyptus spp. other than Renantherae) to a Melaleuca sp. host-association. No lerp-forming habits are recorded for any of the species in the new subgenus. INTRODUCTION. The genus Glycaspis was discussed in a previous paper (Moore, 1961a) and, sequential to the publication of that paper, several psyllid specimens which were in the collections of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii, and the United States National Museum, Washington, and which appeared similar to species of Glycaspis, were made available for examination. Among the specimens received from the B. P. Bishop Museum was one which bore label data corresponding to data on labels of specimens in the type series of Epipsylla forcipata in the U.S. National Museum and yet agreeing in certain morphological characteristics with those previously given for species of the genus Glycaspis. Specimens of the type series of H. forcipata were then examined and compared with specimens received from the B. P. Bishop Museum. The Genus Gtycaspis Taylor 1960. Subgenus ALLOGLYcAsPis Moore 1961. Synonymy: Psylla Dobson 1851; Spondyliaspis Schwarz 1898; Spondyliaspis Froggatt 1900; Hpipsylla Crawford 1917; Spondyliaspis Tuthill & Taylor 1955. Subgenus BoREIOGLYCASPIS, Nov. (Greek: voreia = northern.) Type species: Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) melaleucae, sp. nov. (here designated). Type locality: 12% miles along the Gwydir Highway west of Grafton, N.S.W. Species within the subgenus Boreioglycaspis may be separated from species in the subgenera Glycaspis and Alloglycaspis by the following morphological characteristics: 1. Proximal angle of cell M of forewing commencing beyond the projected termina- tion of Cu, at the posterior border of the wing* (Text-figs 7, 15-20, 23). * The commencement of the proximal angle of cell M in relation to the termination of Cu, at the posterior wing border has been determined by the short axis of the wing projected through the terminal point of Cu, and described at 90° to the long axis, the latter passing through the proximal point of the combined basal venation and the distal terminal point of vein Rs at apex of wing (Text-figs 1, 3, 7). PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocieETy or New SouTH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. 222 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19, 2. Points of origin of veins M and Rs of hindwing close together (Text-figs 8, 21, 24). 3. Meta-tarsal pad usually smaller, approx. 4 to 3 the length of tibia (Text-fig. 10). 4, Tibia approx. % of, to equal in length with, femur; (Text-fig. 10). Figs 1-8. Wings typical of (1, 2) Glycaspis (Glycaspis) spp., (3-6) Glycaspis (Allo- glycaspis) spp., and (7, 8) Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) spp. } Taylor (1960), when defining the principal morphological characters for the genus Glycaspis, stated “metatibia shorter than femur” although Tuthill & Taylor (1955) stated “metatibia shorter than or about equal to femur’. Considering the species now placed in Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis), the definition of this particular characteristic by Tuthill & Taylor is therefore the interpretation which should be followed. BY K. M. MOORE. 223 5. Metatibia slightly enlarged apically, the black distal spurs not emanating from a lateral protuberance as in the other subgenera (Text-figs 9, 10). 6. Male aedeagus two-jointed (Text-figs 25, 26). 7. Distal segment of male proctiger about equal in length to proximal segment (Text-figs 13, 14). 8. Claspers with dark strong prominent pegs on the internal faces (Text-figs 25, 26). 9. The pointed upper and lower plates of the female genitalia each terminating in a small distal prominence bearing numerous setae (Text-fig. 11). Getial processes may be longer or shorter than width of the vertex, and ocular sclerites may be reduced or very prominent. O-I1mm. Ie, Y)- Meta-femur, tibia and tarsus typical of Glycaspis and Alloglycaspis spp. Fig. 10. Meta-femur, tibia and tarsus of Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) australiensis, sp. nov. Fig. 11. Apical tip of female upper genital plate of G. (B.) australiensis, sp. nov. (setae to scale). Fig. 12. Male proctiger typical of species in subgenera Glycaspis and Alloglycaspis. Figs 13, 14. Male proctiger of (13) lectotype, (G. (B.) forcipata (Crawford); (14) G. (B.) melaleucae, sp. nov. DESCRIPTIONS. GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) MELALEUCAE, Sp. nov. General colour (in alcohol): Pale yellow sometimes suffused red, with grey and black markings. Male: Head: width 0-61 mm.; vertex: along suture 0:22 mm., width 0:29 mm., yellow, with posterior and anterior border black, palest on anterior edge; genal processes: length 0:24 mm., cream, with small lateral area near tips suffused pale grey; ventral border of antennal foveae black; antennae: length 0:85 mm., segs. 1 to 3 suffused pale grey, segs. 4 to 9 with distal one-quarter grey and darkest on seg. 9, seg. 10 black. Pronotum: width 0-46 mm., pale yellow, lateral prominences narrowly bordered black posteriorly. Prescutum: pale yellow, antero-lateral edges below pronotum and median and lateral portions of posterior edge, pale grey. Scutum: pale yellow, with posterior edge narrowly marked pale grey. Scutellum and metascutellum: pale yellow. Metanotum: pale yellow, with pale grey suffusion each side of meta- 224 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19, scutellum. Post-metanotum: pale yellow, with small dark grey lateral wedge-shaped area produced posteriorly. Abdomen: pale yellow, suffused grey laterally, with a dark grey spot surrounding each spiracle, segs. 2 to 5 with a wide anterior transverse pale grey stripe; claspers and aedeagus as in Text-figure 25, pale yellow, distal segment of proctiger slightly longer than proximal seg. (Text-fig. 14). Length of 2-jointed aedeagus (16 specimens): extremes of distal portion 0-050 mm. to 0-063 mm.; of proximal portion 0:182 mm. to 0:209 mm.; of total length 0:232 mm. to 0:270 mm. Forewing: length 2:15 mm., width 0-63 mm., venation pale yellow brown (Text-fig. 15). Hindwings: venation similar to Text-figure 21. Legs: anterior femora marked with black along inner surface near distal joint, anterior and median tibiae with dark grey spot near proximal joint, metatibia shorter than femur, proximal seg. of metatarsus approx. 4 length of tibia. The black pegs on the internal face of each clasper are variable in number in G. melaleucae. Female: General colour as for the male, but dark markings more intense. Anal aperture bordered black anteriorly and postero-laterally, upper and lower plates of genital seg. pointed, and upper plate projecting beyond lower plate. Host-plant: Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S. T. Blake. Type locality: Grafton, N.S.W., 12% miles west along Gwydir Highway. Types: Holotype ¢ and allotype ? on slides labelled “Grafton, N.S.W., 11 i 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia’, in the collection of The Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales. Paratypes: (on slides) 3 gg labelled as above, to The Australian Museum; 1 ¢ and 1 ¢ labelled as above to the United States National Museum, Washington, D.C., and 1 ¢ to the B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. 1 ¢ labelled ‘Forster, N.S.W., 15 i 1964, K. M. Moore. (1 to 2 miles south of town). On M. quinquenervia”’; 6 g¢¢ labelled “Palm Beach, Queensland, 12 i 1964, K. M. Moore. (100 yards west of Pacific Highway). On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; 3 gg and 1 9 labelled “Budgewoi, N.S.W., 27 xii 1963, K. M. Moore. (4 mile east of town). On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; all to The Australian Museum. (In alcohol) 7 ¢¢ and 20 99 and nymphs labelled “Grafton, N.S.W., 11 i 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; 1 fg, 1 @ labelled “Budgewoi, N.S.W., 27 xii 1968, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia”’; 1 2 labelled “Tacoma, N.S.W., 14 ii 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; 1 2 labelled “Woodburn, N.S.W., 11 i 1964, K. M. Moore. (4 miles south along Pacific Highway). On Melaleuca quinquenervia”’; 3 92 labelled “Budgewoi, N.S.W., 15 i 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; 11 99 labelled “Palm Beach, Queensland, 12 i 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia” ; all to The Australian Museum. Notes: Nymphs and adults of this species feed among the foliage of young tips of the host plant, and there was no evidence of lerp formation by nymphs. Known distribution of this species is from Tacoma (Tuggerah Lakes), N.S.W., to Palm Beach, Queensland. GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) PALUDIS, Sp. DOV. (L. paludis = of a marsh. Referring to the collection locality.) General colour (in alcohol): Yellow with grey and black markings. Dark markings between venation at posterior edge of forewings. Female: Head: width 0:63 mm.; vertex: along suture 0:24 mm., width 0-34 mm., yellow suffused red, with posterior border black continuing to behind eyes, lateral borders lightly marked black, and a small grey spot in each discal depression; .genal processes: length 0:24 mm., suffused dark grey to black, ventral border of antennal foveae and adjoining area black; antennae: length 0-76 mm., segs. 1 to 8 pale cream, seg. 9 suffused dark grey, seg. 10 black, segs. 4, 6 and 8 suffused grey distally. Pronotum: width 0:57 mm., yellow suffused red, prominences pale cream, a pale grey longitudinal mark each side at half the distance from median area to lateral edges. Prescutum: yellow suffused red with lateral edges suffused grey. Scutum: yellow with postero-lateral edges suffused dark grey, two orange longitudinal stripes each side for the length of scutum. Scutellum and meta-scutellum: pale yellow. Metanotum: BY K. M. MOORE. 225 yellow with edges suffused grey, a grey area at each postero-lateral angle of scutellum, and a larger grey area on each postero-lateral edge. Post-metanotum: yellow with smai] dark grey lateral wedge-shaped area produced posteriorly. Abdomen: yellow, seg. 1 with yellow suffused red central rectangular area surrounded with grey which is produced at posterior angles on to the anterior edge of seg. 2; seg. 2 with anterior edge pale grey and segs. 2 to 5 each with a broad dorsal transverse grey stripe; a dark grey spot surrounding each spiracle. Anal aperture bordered black except posteriorly. Upper plate of genital seg. yellow and projecting beyond lower plate which is black. A prominent black lateral stripe extends from below the lateral prominence of pronotum to the antero-lateral edge of post-metanotum. Forewing (Text-fig. 16): length 2°56 mm., width 0:73 mm., a narrow area between venation along posterior edge suffused grey, venation pale yellow suffused brown. Hindwings: venation similar to Text-figure 8. Ventral. Legs: anterior femora marked grey along inner surface, anterior and median femora pale grey near proximal joint, meta-coxae with a grey area near each postero-lateral angle. Abdomen: seg. 1 with a dark grey area each side on the anterior edge, segs. 2 to 4 each with a dark grey spot near anterior edge and diffused laterally toward spiracle. Host-plant: Melaleuca quinquenervia. Type locality: Palm Beach, Queensland, 100 yards west of Pacific Highway. Types: Holotype 2 on slide labelled “Palm Beach, Queensland, 12 i 1964, K. M. Moore. On Melaleuca quinquenervia’; paratype: 1 9 in alcohol, labelled as above; both to The Australian Museum. GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) AUSTRALIENSIS, Sp. NOV. General colour (dried specimen): pale brown suffused red. Female. Head: width 0:73 mm.; vertex: along suture 0°34 mm., width 0-39 mm., red-brown; discal depressions pronounced; genal processes: length 0-39 mm., red, slightly divergent from i of their length from base; antennae: length 1:63 mm., segs. 1 and 2 red, seg. 3 pale brown suffused pink, segs. 4 to 8 pale brown darkening distally to seg. 8 which is dark brown, segs. 9 and 10 black. Pronotum: width 0-57 mm., median area pale brown, lateral areas red. Prescutum: pale brown, median area palest, and lateral ridges suffused black; two anterior median darker brown marks produced to below pronotum. Scutum: wide median longitudinal area creamy brown, lateral areas brown suffused red. Scutellum and meta-scutellum: pale brown with area between brown; a black area each side of meta-scutellum, remainder brown suffused red. Post- metanotum: red-brown marked laterally with black. Abdomen: red, with a wide black transverse band on segs. 1 to 3 and black lateral areas on seg. 4; anal aperture surrounded with black, but narrowest posteriorly; upper genital plate brown. Legs: metatibia and femur equal in length; proximal seg. of meta-tarsus approx. % length of tibia. Forewing (Text-fig. 17) with brown areas, length 3-41 mm., width 1:00 mm. Hindwing: venation as in Text-figure 8. Ventral: pale brown. Host-plant: Not known. Type locality: Coolangatta, on the New South Wales—Queensland border. Types: Holotype female (dried specimen) labelled ‘“Coolongata, Queensland, Coll. F. Muir, viii 1919”, deposited in the collection of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii. Paratypes: 1 2 on slide, with same label data, in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum; 1 @ (dried specimen) with same label data, in the collection of The Australian Museum. GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) POLYMELASMA, Sp. Nov. (Gr. poly- = many; melasma = a black spot. Referring to the coloration of the species. ) General colour (dried specimen): Yellow with black areas. Female. Head: width 0-73 mm., eyes black; vertex: along suture 0-32 mm., width 0-39 mm., shiny black, discal depressions moderately pronounced, ocular sclerites Narrow and very pronounced, yellow; genal processes: length 0-51 mm., dark brown, 226 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19, paler distally and with a yellow dorsal area from bases to half their length; antennae: length 1:54 mm., segs. 1 and 2 yellow, segs. 3 to 8 pale brown, segs. 9 and 10 black. Pronotum: width 0-61 mm., yellow. Prescutum: yellow with mesopleura black. Scutum: bordered yellow, widest on the anterior border; remainder dark brown, to almost black laterally. Meta-pleura black. Scutellum, meta-scutellum and meta-notum yellow. Post- metanotum: yellow with a large dark brown dorso-lateral spot each side. Abdomen: segs. 1 and 2 yellow, seg. 3 with a small dark brown lateral spot each side, segs. 4 and 5 Figs 15-19. Forewing of (15) G. (B.) melaleucae, sp. nov.; (16) G. (B.) paludis, sp. nov. ; (17) G. (B.) australiensis, sp. nov.; (18) G. (B.) polymelasma, sp. nov.; (19) G. (B.) borneensis, sp. nov. dark brown, anal aperture bordered black anteriorly and extending laterally, genital segs. yellow, suffused brown dorsally, lower plate tipped black; legs yellow. Forewing: length 3-39 mm., width 0:90 mm., venation pale yellow, black areas as in Text-figure 18. Hindwing: venation similar to that in Text-figure 8. Host-plant: Not known. Type locality: Tenompok, 1460m. Jesselton, 30 mi. H., British North Borneo. Type: Holotype ¢ on slide labelled “British N. Borneo, Tenompok, 1460m. Jesselton, 30 mi. E., ii 10-19 1959, T. C. Maa, Collector, BISHOP”; in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii. BY K. M. MOORE. 227 GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) BORNEENSIS, Sp. nov. General colour (dried specimen): yellow. Female. Head: width 0:68 mm.; vertex: along suture 0:29 mm., width 0:34 mm., yellow; genal processes: length 0-44 mm., yellow; ocular sclerites pronounced; antennae: length 1:20 mm., segs. 1 to 6 yellow, segs. 7 and 8 suffused pale brown, seg. 9 dark brown, seg. 10 black. Pronotum: width 0:59 mm., yellow. Prescutum and scutum: yellow. Scutellum: yellow, with anterior edge slightly convex anteriorly. Meta- scutellum, metanotum and post-metanotum: yellow. Abdomen: yellow; genital seg. yellow. Forewing: length 3:17 mm., width 0:88 mm. (Text-fig. 19), venation pale yellow, wing with yellow suffusion posterior to vein M. Hindwing: venation similar to that in Text-figure 8. Host-plant: Not known. Type locality: Tenompok, 1460m. Jesselton, 30 mi. E., British North Borneo. Type: Holotype female on slide labelled “British N. Borneo, Tenompok, 1460m. Jesselton, 30 mi. H., ii 2-4, 1959, T. C. Maa, Collector, BISHOP”; in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii. GLYCASPIS (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) PENANGENSIS, Sp. NOV. General colour (dried specimen): Yellow, with abdomen brown and blue. Female. Head: width 0:88 mm.; vertex: along suture 0:37 mm., width 0:49 mm., yellow; ocular sclerites not pronounced; genal processes: length 0-44 mm., yellow, slightly paler than vertex; antennae: length 2:10 mm., segs. 1 and 2 yellow, segs. 3 to 6 suffused pale brown with each seg. darker distally, segs. 7 to 9 slightly darker with seg. 9 brown, seg. 10 almost black. Pronotum: width 0:68 mm., yellow. Prescutum and scutum: yellow. Scutellum: yellow, with anterior edge prominently convex anteriorly (Text-fig. 22). Meta-scutellum: yellow. Metanotum: yellow suffused pale blue. Post-metanotum: pale yellow. Abdomen: seg. 1 yellow, remainder brown dorsally with posterior edge of each seg. suffused pale blue; anterior edge of anal aperture black, genital seg. yellow. Forewing: length 3:20 mm., width 1:17 mm. (Text-fig. 20), suffused honey-colour, darker toward posterior edge; venation yellow. Hindwing: venation as in Text-figure 21. Host-plant: Not known. Type locality: Island of Penang. Type: Holotype ? on slide labelled “Island of Penang, Baker”; in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum, Hawaii. This species is distinguishable from G. (B.) forcipata by the distinctively convex edge of the scutellum. GLYCASPIS, (BOREIOGLYCASPIS) FORCIPATA (Crawford), comb. nov. (= Epipsylla forcipata Crawford 1917, p. 167, fig. 2.) The type series of this species was placed in the collection of the United States National Museum during the 1940s (personal communication, D. L. Crawford, 1963). In the original description of the species, Crawford gives the data: “Palawan, Puerto Princesa (Baker) 3 males & 5 females’. The 1 9 and 2 g¢ from this series of eight specimens, forwarded on loan, are apparently of the eight that were before Crawford when he wrote the description, and of that eight, three are males and five females as Crawford indicated. These specimens are apparently the co-type series, and each bears an additional label with the data “1943 Colln., D. L. Crawford”. There are 30 additional specimens with the same collection data as the co-types of forcipata, but with a “C. F. Baker collection, 1927” label instead of the “1943 Colln., D. L. Crawford” label. Of this series of specimens, 2 J/g and 2 9? were forwarded for study. From an examination of the aedeagus and claspers of each male specimen from each of the above label-data series, it has been determined that both groups are -Glycaspis forcipata. 228 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTs. 19, From the original description (in German) of the genus Epipsylla Kuwayama 1908 in which it is stated “pterostigma fehlt”’ (i.e., pterostigma absent) it is clear that this species does not belong in that genus, and it is here placed in the genus Glycaspis. A description is given to include morphological features of the species not given in the original description by Crawford, and because of the poor condition of the type series specimens, this must necessarily be a composite description based on the lectotype ¢, the paralectotype ¢ and the paralectotype @ which were forwarded for study, and which were stated to be the better specimens. Figs 20, 21. Wings of G. (B.) penangensis, sp. nov. Fig. 22. Scutellum of G. (B.) penangensis, sp. nov. Fig. 23. Forewing of female, G. forcipata. Fig. 24. Hindwing of male, G. forcipata. Lectotype male (here designated). Head: pale orange; width 0-81 mm.; vertex: along suture 0:29 mm., width 0-42 mm.; genal processes: length 0-46 mm., slightly divergent for more than half their length; ocular sclerites not pronounced; antennae: length 2:04 mm. Pronotum: width 0:57 mm., pale orange. Prescutum and scutum: pale orange. Scutellum: pale orange, anterior edge almost straight. Meta-scutellum, metanotum and post-metanotum: pale orange. Abdomen: pale orange, segs. 2 and 3 with a small dark brown medio-dorsal mark; claspers and aedeagus (Text-fig. 26) pale orange with a variable number of black pegs on internal face of each clasper. Length of 2-jointed aedeagus: (lectotype) distal portion 0-110 mm., proximal portion 0-205 mm., total length 0-315 mm., (paralectotype) distal portion 0-119 mm., proximal portion 0-212 mm., total length 0-331 mm.; distal segment of proctiger as long as proximal seg. (Text-fig. 13). Forewing: venation as in Text-figure 23. Hindwing: venation as in Text-figure 24. st BY K. M. MOORE. 229 The black pegs on the internal faces of the claspers are variable in number (8 to 12) in G. forcipata. Paralectotype female. Head: width 0-85 mm., pale orange; vertex: along suture 0-34 mm., width 0-49 mm.; genal processes: length 0-49 mm., contiguous except at distal tips; antennae: length 2:07 mm., segs. 1 to 9 yellow, with distal tips of segs. 5 to 9 pale brown, seg. 10 black. Pronotum: width 0-71 mm., pale orange. Prescutum and scutum: pale orange. Scutellum, meta-scutellum and area between: pale orange; anterior edge of scutellum almost straight. Metanotum and post-metanotum: pale orange. Abdomen: pale orange, segs. 2 and 3 with a small pale brown medio-dorsal mark; genital segment pale orange. Forewing: length 3°37 mm., width 1-20 mm. (Text-fig. 23). Host-plant: Not known. Type locality: Puerto Princesa, Palawan Id., Philippine Is. Fig. 25. Male aedeagus and claspers of G. (B.) melaleucae, sp. nov. Inner surface (left) and outer surface (right) of claspers. Fig. 26. Aedeagus and claspers of lectotype male, G. forcipata. Types: (a) Lectotype ¢ on slide labelled “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker, 1943 Collin. D. L. Crawford”, in the collection of the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. (0) Paralectotype ¢ on slide labelled “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker, 1943 Collin. D. L. Crawford’, in the U.S.N.M. (c) Paralectotype ? on slide labelled “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker, 4009, 1943 Colln., D. L. Crawford”, in the U.S.N.M. (d) There are an additional five paralectotypes (1 ¢, 4 99), all presumably of the original type series, 1 g and 3 99, with the label data “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker, 1943 Colln. D. L. Crawford”, and 1 2 with label data “C. F. Baker collection 1927, 4009, Epipsylla forcipata Crawf.” in the U.S. National Museum, but which were not examined by the writer. . The lectotype ¢, 1 paralectotype ¢ and 1 paralectotype 9 examined have been labelled as such by the writer, and Miss L. Russell, who is in charge of the psyllids 230 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19, in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., has labelled as paralectotypes the remaining type-series dried specimens (i.e., 1 ¢, 4 99). Other specimens examined: A female (dried specimen) labelled “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker’, in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum, appears to be G. forcipata. Coloration of specimens in the other subgenera of Glycaspis is not a reliable characteristic on which the species may be differentiated. This specimen, with considerable brown coloration, bears a brown area on the anterior edge of the prescutum each side of the median area, the marks being continued anteriorly to beneath the pronotum; the scutum bears a narrow brown medio-dorsal longitudinal stripe, and a diffused narrow brown stripe each side diverging posteriorly. These three stripes continue for the total length of the scutum. Lateral to these stripes and separated from them by a narrow golden-yellow area is a paler, more diffused and broader brown longitudinal stripe for the length of the scutum. The scutellum, meta- scutellum and area between are suffused pale brown. From the specimens examined, coloration of this species appears to be variable. Two dod on slides and 3 99 (dried specimens) labelled “Philippines, Pasig, Balabac Id., Mar. 4, 1957, Yoshio Kondo, Collector’ have been examined, and 1 ¢ on slide and 3 92 (dried spec.) are in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum. One ¢ on slide, labelled as above, has been placed in The Australian Museum, Sydney. From the U.S.N.M. collection, 1 ¢ on slide, and 1 ¢, 2 99 (dried specimens) all labelled “P. Princesa, Palawan, Baker, C. F. Baker 1927 collection” have been examined, and 1 ¢ mounted on a slide and 1 ? (dried specimen) are deposited with The Australian Museum. The remaining dried specimens (5 gg, 23 9?) are in the U.S. National Museum. One @ dried specimen of similar colour and characteristics to G. forcipata and labelled ‘British N. Borneo, Tawau Residency, Tawau, xi 19, 1958, T. C. Maa, Collector, BISHOP” has been examined, but at present it is undecided as to which species this specimen represents. In his “Key to Genera’, Crawford (1919) mentions under £. forcipata that the species occurs also in the Malay Archipelago, but it is presumed that he examined the specimen now known as G. penangensis and that he regarded the specimen to be conspecific with G. forcipata. DISCUSSION. (a) Species-groups in Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis). There appear to be two groups of species within the subgenus. Group (i). Species with proximal angle of cell M of forewing commencing just beyond the projection of termination of vein Cu, in the posterior border of the wing; forewing wide in proportion to length; apex of wing rounded; tarsal pad approx. % the length of tibia; rhinaria on antennal segs. 4 to 6, 8 and 9, with that on seg. 5 atrophied. Species in this Group are G. penangensis and G. forcipata. Group (ii). Species with proximal angle of cell M of forewing commencing well beyond the projection of termination of Cu, in the posterior border of the wing; wing narrow in proportion to length; apex acutely angular; tarsal pad approx. 4 the length of tibia; rhinaria on antennal segs. 4, 6, 8 and 9 (those on seg. 9 of G. polymelasma appear to be atrophied). Species in this Group are G. melaleucae, G. paludis, G. australiensis, G. polymelasma and G. borneensis, and are considered to be the most recent and specialized in the genus Glycaspis. The ocular sclerites on G. polymelasma and G. borneensis are narrow and protrude considerably, while those on the other species in the subgenus may be normal or reduced. (0) Host-plant Associations and Lerps. It was considered previously (Moore, 1961a, 1961b) that species of the genus Glycaspis were confined to Eucalyptus spp. hosts. BY K. M. MOORE. 231 From extensive preliminary enquiries concerning the possible occurrence of Hucalyptus spp. in Borneo, no species of that plant genus are known to be indigenous to that area (Browne, 1955; publications of the British Information Services, Sydney; and personal communication, L. A. S. Johnson of the National Herbarium, Sydney), so that species of Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) occurring on that island apparently do TABLE 1 RHINARIA ON SUBGENUS Glycaspis ANTENNAL SEGS. :- On Eucalyptus spp. RENANTHERAE GALL - FORMERS FLAT LERPS SUBGENUS Alloglycaspis On Eucalyptus spp NOT RENANTHERAE ROUND LERPS 4to6,8,9 ROUND LERPS (on foliage ) OVAL LERPS ROUND LERPS GROUP (1) G. penangensis (PENANG Id ) G. forcipata (PHILIPPINE Is.) RECTANGULAR LERPS GROUP (11) . melaleucae (AUSTRALIA ) . paludis (AUSTRALIA ) . australiensis (AUSTRALIA ) . borneensis (BORNEO ) G. Hh ( BORNEO y 4,6,8,9 (9 atrophied ? ) (on foliage & stems ) G. occidentalis Group SUBGENUS Boreioglycaspis i 4to6, 8, 9 on Melaleuca sp. (5 atrophied ) not require a host association with Hucalyptus spp. Two of the Australian species of the subgenus Boreioglycaspis were subsequently determined by the writer to breed on Melaleuca quinquenervia, but whether all species in this subgenus utilize Melaleuca spp. as their host-plant is still in doubt. Melaleuca spp. also occur in New Caledonia, New Guinea, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and possibly many other islands to the north of Australia. 232 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19, There has been no indication that species of Boreioglycaspis possess gall-forming or lerp-forming habits as do the species in the other subgenera. (c) Distribution and Evolutionary Sequence. No Glycaspis spp. were previously known to occur beyond the Australian mainland and Tasmania. Three species of Boreioglycaspis are now known from the eastern coastal region of Australia, one from Penang Island, two from Borneo and one from the Philippine Islands, so that a comparatively recent dispersal of species of the genus northwards from Australia is indicated. No specimens of Glycaspis are known from New Guinea (personal communications, 1963, K. L. Taylor of the C.S.I.R.O., and Y. Miyatake of Kyushu University, Japan) although considerable collecting of psyllids has been carried out in that area. 20° © Palawan SINT 100 P.Princesa UO Q Balabac—r@ Passig 4 Penang Id GS 5) 2 0° 10° LEGEND Glycaspis melaleucae Glycaspis. australiensis Glycaspis penangensis Glycaspis borneensis Glycaspis polymelasma Glycaspis forcipata Glycaspis paludis Palm Beach 00 Coolangatta @ 9) BEI ORS IIS OOOO 30° e/ Forster © Budgewoi © 150° 160° Fig. 27. Distribution of Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) spp. The number of rhinaria occurring on the antennal segments is regarded as an indication of the comparative evolutionary age of groups of the species concerned (Moore, 1961a). Glycaspis spp. constructing foliage galls, and regarded as the most primitive group within the genus, bear a single rhinarium at the apex of each antennal segment 4 to 9 inclusive; those constructing flat, round or oval lerps bear a rhinarium on segs. 4 to 6, 8 and 9, except those species in the occidentalis group in which the rhinaria on seg. 5 are atrophied; those constructing rectangular lerps, and regarded as the most recent and specialized group prior to the erection of the new subgenus, bear a rhinarium on segs. 4, 6, 8 and 9; those species in Glycaspis (Boreioglycaspis) Group (i) bear a rhinarium on segs. 4, 5 (atrophied), 6, 8 and 9, while those species in Group (ii) bear a rhinarium on segs. 4, 6, 8 and 9. The number of rhinaria occurring on the antennal segments of species in Group (i) thus corresponds with the number occurring on species in the occidentalis group of Glycaspis (Alloglycaspis) (Moore, 1964a). This characteristic, together with the BY K. M. MOORE. 233 general shape of the forewing, suggests affinity with them. The number of rhinaria oceurring on species in Group (ii) corresponds to the number occurring on specimens constructing rectangular lerps, and they also are of comparatively recent origin. On examination of further specimens of G. polymelasma, if the rhinaria on antennal segs. 9 are shown to be consistently atrophied, it would suggest that this species is of the most recent origin of all the known Glycaspis spp. From the host associations of, and the number of antennal rhinaria on, the various species of Glycaspis, this psyllid genus is regarded as having originated in Australia with the gall-forming species in G. (Glycaspis) which occur on Eucalyptus host species contained in the group Renantherae of Blakely (1955), as the basic genetic stock, diverging through G. (Alloglycaspis) species which occur on Hucalyptus host species not contained in the Renantherae, to G. (Boreioglycaspis) occurring on Melaleuca spp. (Table 1), and dispersing northwards at least to the Philippine Islands of Palawan and Balabac (Text-fig. 27). TABLE 2. Length of Genal Processes Compared with Vertex Width. Range in mm. Subgenus. — —_— ———__ Longer. Equal. Shorter. Genal Vertex Processes. Width. Glycaspis .. Galls aS se ys 0-27-0-34 0:42-0:59 — _ 5 Flat lerps .. se oe 0-29-0-32 0:34-0:39 —_— —_— 2 Round lerps ae as 0:27-0:32 0-32-0-46 —_— — 8 Total .. Be x Ae ee Be 3 aie or % a — — 15 Alloglycaspis .. Round lerps as ais 0-20-0-34 0-34-0-39 —_ — 11 Oval lerps A di 0-29-0-37 0-32-0-39 — il 6 Rectangular lerps = 0:34-0:39 0-34-0-39 il 2 = rr Totaly s. aa a ss se ex oe as Ss 5s sa 1 3 17 Boreioglycaspis .. No lerps (Australia) .. As ee 0-24-0-39 0:29-0:39 _— il 2 (Penang) .. Ei ees 0-44 0-49 — — 1 (Borneo) .. sty is 0-44-0-51 0-34-0-39 2 — _— (Philippines) Ss ds 0-46 0-42 il —_— = Total .. 23 a a oe i%, a Bi af aE ve 3 1 3 Such a dispersal of these insect species northwards from Australia is in contra- distinction to the suggested direction of migration of man and other mammals, from the north, southwards into Australia. The morphological characters of species in the subgenus (Boreioglycaspis) which suggest a divergence from Alloglycaspis rather than from Glycaspis are: (a) The number of antennal rhinaria. (0b) Absence of a small spine on each metacoxa (present in Glycaspis (Glycaspis) only). (c) Cell Cu of forewing smallest of the three sub- genera, with that in G. (Glycaspis) the largest. (d) Stem of M+Cu of forewing in Alloglycaspis and Boreioglycaspis about equal in length in proportion to M and Cu. (€) General wing venation, and particularly the shape of Cu, of hindwings. (f) Proportional length of genal processes to vertex width (see Table 2). CONCLUSION. It is often impossible to assign the correct female to a male of the same species of Glycaspis unless detailed biological observations are made, and then often only on a visual correlation of males and females in copulation. Such observations were Particularly important during the initial taxonomic investigations on these species, 234 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 19. for it was not uncommon to find that two species of very similar, if not identical, habits and/or coloration occurred on the one host plant, and males of certain species were separable only on a study of the male claspers and aedeagus mounted on slides. Morphological characters of females, of sufficient reliability to separate the various species, often are not readily recognizable. One male specimen of G. (Alloglycaspis) received on loan from the B. P. Bishop Museum is dealt with in another paper (Moore, 1964b). Acknowledgements. The writer gratefully acknowledges the loan of specimens by the following: Dr. J. L. Gressitt, Director, and Miss S. Nakata, Administrative Assistant to the Chairman, Entomology Department, both of the B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu; Mr. Y. Miyatake, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan, who also initially brought the specimens in the collection of the B. P. Bishop Museum to my attention; Dr. R. C. Froeschner, Associate Curator in Charge, Division of Hemiptera, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Washington, D.C.; Miss Louise M. Russell of the Entomology Research Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., who also contributed information on the type series of G. forcipata and other specimens of that species in the U.S.N.M., for this investigation. The Department of Entomology, University of Hokkaido, Sapporo City, Hokkaido, Japan, kindly provided a photocopy of the original description of the genus Hpipsylla Kuwayama, and much time and assistance was given in the translation of that paper by Mr. W. Stahl, of the Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra, A.C.T., for which the writer is most grateful. Mr. D. L. Crawford, Virginia, U.S.A., and Professor W. A. Hilton of The Pomona College, Claremont, California, kindly assisted with the location of the type material of G. forcipata. The writer is grateful to Dr. L. D. Tuthill, University of Hawaii, who kindly made available a specimen of Epipsylla albolineata Kuwayama for examination and com- parison with G. forcipata. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Barbara Briggs of the National Herbarium, Sydney, N.S.W., who kindly identified the Melaleuca sp.; and to Miss M. Conwell, of the Forestry Commission of N.S.W., for the preparation of Text-figure 27 and Table 1. References. BLAKELY, W. F., 1955.—A Key to the Eucalypts. For. & Timber Bureau, Canberra, A.C.T. Browne, F. G., 1955.—Forest Trees of Sarawak and Brunei and Their Products. Conserv. of Forests, Sarawak. CRAWFORD, D. L., 1917.—Philipp. J. Sci., 12, Seen. D, (3): 163-174 (Jan.). , 1919.—Tbid., 15 (2): 168. Dogson, T., 1851.—Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. van Diemen’s Land, 1: 235. FrRoGGATT, W. W., 1900.—Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 25 (2): 288. KUWAYAMA, S., 1908.—Sapporo Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc., 2: 178-179. Moore, K. M., 1961a.—Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 86 (1): 128-167. , 1961b.—Tbid., 86 (2): 185-200. —. , 1964a.—ITbid., 89 (1): 148-151. , 1964b.—ITbid., 89 (1): 163-166. SCHWARZ, H. A., 1898.—Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 4: 66-73. TAYLOR, K. L., 1960.—Auwst. J. Zool., 8 (3): 383-391. TUTHILL, L. D., and Tayuor, K. L., 1955.—Ibid., 3 (2): 227-257. TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON THE GENUS WAHLENBERGIA IN AUSTRALIA. By R. C. Carorin, University of Sydney. [Read 24th June, 1964.] Synopsis. A statement of nomenclatural changes made necessary by the provisions of the Inter- national Code of Botanical Nomenclature and typification of some other species. W. stricta Sweet must replace W. trichogyna Stearn and W. consimilis Lothian. A new name (W. communis, sp. nov.) is provided to replace the misapplied or invalid name W. bicolor Lothian, and one species (W. graniticola) is described as new. The genus Wahlenbergia is a critical one in Australia from both the biological and nomenclatural aspects. The author has been examining the variation within it for some time, but these researches will take some years to complete. There are, however, some nomenclatural changes which are necessary and at least one, clearly marked, new species. These are reported below. References to Articles of the International Botanical Code of Nomenclature are to the 1961 edition. 1. W. stricta Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 2, 593 (1830). Absolute Synonyms: Campanula gracilis (var.) B stricta R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810); Roem. et Schult., Syst. Nat., 5: 97 (1819); W. gracilis (var.) 6 stricta (R.Br.) A.DC., Monogr. Camp., 142 (1830) et Prodr., 7: 432 (1839); Campanula erecta Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 2, 326 (1830); W. bicolor Lothian in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 230 (1947). Taxonomic Synonyms (but see discussion): W. consimilis Lothian in Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 223 (1947); Melville in Bot. Mag., 172 t. 343 (1959); W. vinciflora (Vent.) Decne. f. eriocalyx Domin in Bibl. Bot., 89: 638 (1929); W. trichogyna W. T. Stearn in Gard. Chron., 130: 169 (1951); Robertson in Black, Fl. S. Austr., ed 2, 4: 810 (1957); W. marginata var. grandiflora Tuyn in FI. Males., Ser. I, 6: 118 (1960) nom. invalid., pro parte; W. marginata var. grandiflora sub-var. trichogyna (Stearn) Tuyn, loc. cit. Misapplied illegitimate names: Campanula vinciflora Vent., Jard. Malm. t. 12 (1803) (as “vincaeflora’) = W. vinciflora (Vent.) Dene., Rev. Hort., 3: 41 (1849); Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., 58: 183 (1934); Domin in Bibl. Bot., 89: 638 (1929); N. BE. Brown in Gard. Chron., 54: 355 (1913) pro parte (as “vincaeflora’) ; Lothian in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 220 (1947) (as “vincaefiora’) = Campanula gracilis (var.) a vinciflora (Vent.) R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810) pro parte (as ‘“‘vincaeflora’ ) = W. gracilis var. vinciflora (Vent.) Hook. 7., Fl. Tasm., 1: 239 (1856) pro parte (as “vincaeflora’’). Typification: W. stricta Sweet—holotype—an illustration with dissections, Smith, Exotic Botany, t. 45 (1805); this is also the holotype of Campanula erecta Sweet. Smith’s plate and description are labelled “C. gracilis Forst.’, not “‘C. stricta’ as Sweet says; the specific epithet ‘stricta’ was not used at any time, in a published form, by Smith in this connection; it thus dates from Sweet. There is no doubt from Smith’s plate and description that he was dealing with the species at present under discussion, despite his equating it with W. gracilis. It has not been possible to trace the original specimen used for the plate, but material in Smith’s herbarium (LINN) collected by White and labelled by Smith as W. gracilis shows that his conception of W. gracilis Was erroneous; this material also belongs to the species at present under discussion. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SociETy or NEw SoutH WALEs, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. 5 236 TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON WAHLENBERGIA, It is clear that Sweet recognized Smith’s identification to be wrong and that he was supplying a name for this new species when he named it C. erecta, which therefore cannot be regarded as a superfluous name; the citation of ‘“‘C. stricta Sm. non L.’” is either a mistake or the citation of a name conveyed to him personally; the citation of Smith’s plate is quite clear. In the addendum Sweet transfers this species to Wahlenbergia as W. stricta with full citation; the addendum runs on continuously from the main part of the book, there is no difference in date and it was issued at the same time; therefore neither specific epithet has priority over the other. W. stricta is the earliest legitimate name available. The epithet “erecta” is not now available in Wahlenbergia as it is preoccupied by W. erecta (Roth ex Roem. et Schult.) Tuyn in Fl. Males., Ser. I, 6: 113 (1960). Campanula vincifiora Vent. As Stearn (loc. cit.) has pointed out this name was superfluous when first published as it included, as a synonym, C. gracilis Forst. f., Art. 63. Under Art. 7, note 4, its type is that of (. gracilis. It is therefore illegitimate, but has frequently been misapplied to this species. The spelling ‘“vinciflora’” should be adopted under Rec. 73G (d) and Art. 73, note 2. W. consimilis Lothian—lectotype—Warby Ranges, N.E. Victoria, N. Lothian, 20th Sept. 1942 (MEL). The punctuation in the original citation makes it impossible to decide whether this or “Aust. Felix, F. Muell., Dec. 1848” was intended as the type. The former specimen is actually marked ‘Type’ (although not in Lothian’s hand- writing) and it agrees fairly well with the description. It is therefore taken as the lectotype. The description seems to indicate that elements of W. graniticola may have been included, notably the type has no collar on the style at all, still less “two prominent collars... .” W. bicolor Lothian. There seems little doubt that Lothian intended this to replace C. gracilis B stricta R.Br. He writes “Although originally described as Campanula gracilis var. stricta R.Br. .. .” indicating this, as does his inclusion of this variety, without further comment under synonymy. Therefore, it must be based upon the same type. Lothian’s ‘“lectotype” of his new species has little bearing here, since it should have been chosen from material referred to by Brown, Art. 7, note 3, i.e., material from Port Jackson, not from Port Phillip, the locality of the so-called “lectotype’. On the other hand, it could be accepted that Lothian is providing a new name for R. Brown’s specimens, which are not conspecific with the plate cited by Brown and not in complete agreement with his description. Lothian’s “lectotype’ might then be taken as a type of a newly described taxon. This would leave the epithet invalid, since there is no Latin description accompanying it and no reference to a previous valid Latin description (Art. 36). The most satisfactory type for C. gracilis B stricta R.Br. seems to be the holotype of W. stricta Sweet. W. bicolor Lothian can be interpreted as a synonym of C. gracilis stricta R.Br. and therefore of W. stricta Sweet or, rather less plausibly, as an invalid name based on Brown’s misidentifications. The former argument is accepted here (see also the typification of C. gracilis 8 stricta R.Br. and under W. communis, n. sp.). W. trichogyna W. T. Stearn—holotype—New South Wales, Ingleburn, F. M. Hilton, No. 448 (MEL). C. gracilis (var.) 8 stricta R.Br.—lectotype—the plate Smith, Hxotic Botany, t. 45 (1805). It is clear that Brown intended to base his variety primarily on Smith’s plate, misidentified as W. gracilis; the citation of the unpublished epithet “C. stricta” for this plate indicates that this was so. The short description agrees better with the plate than with the Port Jackson specimens also cited by Brown. The plate then is the type. The specimens referred by Brown to this variety, moreover, are not conspecific with the plate; they are misidentifications of specimens of W. communis. Brown referred some of these specimens to the manuscript name ‘‘W. bicolor’. This bears no relationship whatsoever to W. bicolor Lothian (see above), the “lectotype” of which latter was labelled ‘“W. gracilis a” (i.e., a vinciflora R.Br.) by Brown. BY R. C. CAROLIN. 237 W. vinciflora f. eriocalyx Domin—holotype—In silvis permixtis apud flumen Logan River in arenosis, III, 1910, Domin no. 8739 (PR): isotype 87388 (PR). These appear to be the same collection. No number is cited by Domin. W. marginata var. grandiflora Tuyn. The author of this variety includes both W. consimilis Lothian and W. gloriosa Lothian as synonyms. No specimens are cited and neither of the synonyms is clearly indicated as the type of the new variety, which must therefore be rejected as invalid (Arts. 33, 37). The two species in question are quite distinct. Discussion: This species has had a very chequered nomenclatural history. It is fairly widespread in open forest communities throughout the south and eastern temperate areas of Australia, but not in very dry conditions, probably also in Western Australia in similar communities, extending into Tasmania and New Zealand. Lothian separated the specimens with hirsute capsules as “W. vincaeflora” and those with glabrous capsules as W. consimilis. No other character difference is consistently correlated with the glabrous capsule and both capsule forms have frequently been found growing side by side. There seems no justification for separating them at the specific level. The type of W. stricta shows a hirsute capsule. 2. W. BILLARDIERI Lothian in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 226 (1947). Absolute Synonyms: Campanula littoralis Labill., Nov. Holl. Pl. Sp., 49, t. 70 (1805); Poir., Hncycl. Meth., Suppl. 2: 56 (1811) = C. gracilis (var.) y littoralis (Labill.) R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810) = W. gracilis (var.) y littoralis (Labill.), A.DC., Monogr. Camp., 142 (1830) et Prodr., 7: 4383 (1839) = W. vinciflora (Vent.) Decne. var. littoralis (Labill.) N. E. Brown in Gard. Chron., 54: 355 (1913) = W. marginata (Thunb.) A.DG. var. littoralis (Labill.) Hochr. in Candollea, 5: 29 (1934) (non W. littoralis Schlechter et Brehmer in Bot. Jahrb., 53: 127 (1915)). Typification: Campanula littoralis Labill. —lectotype — Nouvelle Hollande, Herb. Labillardi¢re ex Herb. M. E. Moricand (GEN). There is little doubt that Labillardiére’s original collection contained two distinct elements, both of which appear to have been used in drawing up his diagnosis. Thus the description states that a thickened style is present, whilst the plate shows no such character. Moreover, the majority of Labillardiére’s specimens examined have scattered leaves whilst the plate and descrip- tion show them as being opposite. Both elements are represented on sheets at Geneva. Two of these sheets have “Hb. Delessert” labels and are apparently specimens of the W. multicaulis Benth. group of species which have a distinct stylar swelling. This element is also represented at BM, P, & FI. A third, donated by the executor of Herb. M. E. Moricand in 1908, and clearly labelled “Herb. Labillardiére’, corresponds very well with the original plate. W. billardieri Lothian was intended as a transfer of C. littoralis to Wahlenbergia- The specific epithet “littoralis’ was not available and a new one was provided. It is quite clear that Lothian intended W. billardieri as nomenclatorially equivalent to C. littoralis Labill. Despite this, nowhere does he consider authentic type material. Instead, he considers a Gaudichaud collection at Geneva, which is irrelevant to the typification. As this is inadequate he selects a neotype from amongst Robert Brown’s material. This neotype must be rejected as Labillardiére’s material is extant. Discussion: This species, in fact, may prove not to be distinct from W. stricta. The typification was so involved, however, that this discussion has been included here. 3. W. COMMUNIS, Sp. Nov. Plantae multicaules erectae plerumque ad basin ramosissimae. Folia alterna vel opposita, plerumque linearia, non undulata. Sepala linearia vel lineari-deltoidea, acuta. Corolla coerulea externe interdum plus minusve aurea, campanulata vel fere cylindrica. Staminum filamenta trapezi-formia, humeris acutis. Stylus haud vel obscure con- strictus, glandulas 6-9 ferens, 3-fidus. Fructus elongato-obconicus vel subglobularis, glabratus. 238 TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON WAHLENBERGIA, Taxonomic Synonyms: Campanula gracilis (var.) 6 capillaris R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810) = W. gracilis (var.) 6 capillaris (R.Br.) A.DC., Monogr. Camp., 142 (1830) et Prodr., 7: 433 (1839); Hook. f., Fl. N. Zeal., 1: 159 (1852) et Handbook N. Zeal. F1., 170 (1864); W. multicaulis var. dispar N. EH. Brown in Gard. Chron., 14: 338 (1913). Misapplied Names: C. gracilis Forst. f. (var.) B stricta (non R.Br.) R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810); W. gracilis (Forst. f.) DC. (var.) B stricta (non (R.Br.) A.DC.) A.DC., Monogr. Camp., 142 (1830) et Prodr., 7: 4383 (1839); W. gracilis (var.) a vinciflora (non (Vent.) R.Br.) R.Br., Prodr., 561 (1810) nom. illegit., pro parte; W. multicaulis (non Benth.) N. EH. Brown in Gard. Chron., 14: 337 (1913) pro parte; W. bicolor (non Lothian) Lothian in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 230 (1947); Robertson in Black, Fl. 8. Austr., 4: 810 (1957). Perennial herbs with thick fleshy tap-roots and frequently erect white rhizomes. Stems numerous, erect, usually much branching at or near the base, glabrous or with seattered stiff scabrous white hairs, basally terete or ridged by the decurrent leaf margins 20-40 cm. tall, 2 mm. wide (or less) at the base. JLeaves scattered, or opposite, linear or rarely narrow-lanceolate, 10-35 mm. long, 2-3 (4) mm. wide, acute or + obtuse, scarcely tapering towards the base and usually quite sessile, glabrous or with stiff scattered white hairs: margins often thickened and cartilaginous, remotely callous-dentate, not usually undulate, flat or = recurved. Flowers arranged in irregular loose cymes on elongated glabrous naked pedicels, the lower ones subtended by linear bracts c. 10 mm. long or shorter. Sepals 5, rarely more, linear to linear-deltoid, 4-6 mm. long, c. 0-5 mm. wide, acute, glabrous. Corolla blue, sometimes += golden-yellow outside, narrow-campanulate to almost cylindrical; tube 5-8 mm. long, 4-6 mm. wide in the throat; lobes 5 (very rarely more) narrow to broad-elliptic or ovate, 6-8 mm. long, 38-5 mm. wide, generally acute, as long as or longer than the tube, + ascending. Stamens 5: filaments trapezial with acute shoulders, ciliate on upper margins, c. 1-5 mm. long with an awn about equally as long: anthers oblong, 3-4 mm. long: pollen white or pale yellow. Ovary 3-locular; style unconstricted or with an indistinct constriction low down, pubescent in the upper two-thirds with 6 or 9 glands, 9 mm. long: stigmatic branches 3, + flat, 2-3 mm. long. Fruit elongate-obconic, 3-10 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, glabrous, prominently ribbed and crowned by the persistent sepals with a valvular cone c. 1 mm. high: valves 3, suborbicular, obtuse, + exserted. Seeds oblong to ellipsoidal, c. 1 mm. long, pale-brown or yellow, shining, smooth. Typification: W. communis sp. nov.—holotype—Glen Innes N.S.W., On roadsides— disturbed soils in pastoral country. R. Carolin No. 2095, 1.1961. (NSW). C. gracilis (var.) 6 capillaris R.Br.—lectotype—‘New South Wales; Botany Bay, Bustard- Bay, Bay of Inlets’—Banks and Solander (BM). R. Brown does not indicate by ‘v.v.’ or ‘v.s.’ whether he observed this taxon alive or preserved. There are no specimens of R. Brown’s at BM labelled as ‘var. 6’ or ‘capillaris’ except this lectotype which is labelled “Campanula juncea’” and “C. gracilis Forst. capillaris’ in a hand which is not Brown’s. This specimen also bears a “TYPE” label, probably affixed by N. E. Brown. It seems likely that R. Brown drew upon this specimen for his description, with which it more or less agrees. It is a specimen of W. communis with = globular fruits. Campanula capillaris Lodd., Bot. Cab., 15: 1406 (1828), was published in a nurseryman’s catalogue and neither the illustration nor inadequate description is such that the original plant can be identified. There is no reference to any previously published epithet, specific or varietal. It has not been possible to trace any material appertaining to this description. Indeed, the description is scarcely one at all, but was intended as a guide to gardeners who wanted to grow the particular plants supplied by Loddiges’ nursery, not as a diagnosis. The illustration is at variance with the description. The binomial is herewith treated as a nomen nudum and therefore invalid. W. multicaulis var. dispar N. HE. Brown—lectotype—Fraser Range, W.A., R. Helms, Hider Hxploring Expedition, 29.10.1891. No specimens are cited in the original description, but there are three specimens at Kew labelled “TYPE” by N. E. Brown. BY R. C. CAROLIN. 239 One, Guildford and Claremont near Perth (W.A.) Hx. Herb. Cecil Andrews, ist Coll. No. 591, does not agree with the type description and is, in fact, a specimen of the W. multicaulis group. The other two agree very well. W. multicaulis is distinct from the species at present under discussion in having a more open campanulate to sub-rotate corolla and a style which is definitely constricted just below the stigmatic lobes; in fact, it is closely related to, if not conspecific with, W. tadgellii Lothian. Discussion: Apparently a very widespread species in open forest and grass land communities which is extremely variable. It may be possible to recognize intra- specific taxa eventually. Specimens of it have usually been referred to W. bicolor Lothian, but this name is a synonym of W. stricta Sweet, q.v. 4. W. GRANITICOLA, Sp. Nov. Caules pauci stricti vel ascendentes ad basin hirsuti pilis albis. Folia alterna sessilia ad basin plus minusve attenuata. Flores solitarii vel pauci. Sepala anguste deltoidea, 2-5-5 mm. longa. Corolla campanulata late 6 mm. lata in fauci, lobis obovatis vel ellipticus 9-12 mm. longis. Stamina filamentis acuminatim trapezi-formibus. Stylus tumidus ad medium glandulas 6 vel 9 ferens. Lobi stigmatis 3. Fructus obconicus vel subglobularis glaber vel hispidus, conum valvularem brevissimum ferens. Perennial herbs with thick fleshy roots. Stems usually few, erect or ascending, hirsute at least towards the base with stiff white hairs, ridged with the decurrent leaf margins, 20-50 cm. tall, 1-1-5 mm. wide at the base. Leaves alternate, linear to lanceolate, usually with scattered white hairs especially on the mid-rib, + acute; margin thickened, subcartilaginous, slightly recurved, remotely callous-dentate, often + undulate; lower leaves 1:5-5-:0 em. iong, 3-9 mm. wide, + tapering towards the base but scarcely petiolate. Flowers solitary or few on each stem. Sepals 5, usually narrow-deltoid, 2-5-5 mm. long, up to 1 mm. wide, glabrous. Corolla blue, paler in the tube, spreading campanulate: tube 2-4 mm. long, c. 6 mm. wide in the throat, usually as long as or slightly longer than the sepals: lobes 5, obovate to elliptic, 9-12 mm. long, 5-8 mm. wide, + obtuse or with a short awn, c. 2 mm. wide and 2 mm. long and with short acute shoulders, ciliate: anthers oblong, c. 3 mm. long; pollen white. Ovary 3-locular: style 5-7 mm. long with a constriction about midway, pubescent from this point upwards, with 6 or 9 glands; stigmatic lobes 3, c. 1:5 mm. long. Fruit shortly obconic to subglobular, 4-7 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, glabrous or hispid, prominently ribbed and crowned by persistent sepals and with a very short valvular cone: valves 3, broad-deltoid, scarcely exserted. Seeds oblong, brown, smooth, shining. Typification: Holotype—Lithgow to Mt. Victoria 6 miles, open forest on granite, R. Carolin No. W 106, 11.1956 (NSW). Discussion: The description which Lothian gives for V. consimilis, and specimens cited under that species, indicate that he included the present species within it. It differs, however, from W. consimilis (i.e., W. stricta Sweet, q.v.) in the wide- campanulate corolla, the broader corolla lobes, the swollen style and alternate leaves. It also resembles W. tadgellii Lothian, differing from it in the less rotate corolla, the much lower swelling of the style, and the filament shape. Its distribution, as known at present for certain, is the central and southern tablelands and western slopes of New South Wales from the Blue Mountains southwards to the Australian Capital Territory. 5. W. FLUMINALIS (J. M. Black) Wimmer ex Hj. Hichler in Tawon, 12: 297 (1963). Absolute Synonym: Cephalostigma fluminale J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 58: 184 (1934); Robertson in Black, Fl. §. Austr., ed. 2, 4: 809 (1957). Typification: Holotype—Murray River, Capt. S. A. White, Dec. 1913 (AD). Discussion: Recently Tuyn (Fl. Males., Ser. 1, 6 (1961)) has reduced the genera Lightfootia and Cephalostigma to Wahlenbergia. The first is not concerned in the present discussion. De Candolle first described Cephalostigma (1830) as having “La corolle divisée profondement en 5 laniéres étroites commes dans Lightfootia. .. . 240 TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON WAHLENBERGIA. Le stigmate est en téte.” It has been indicated by most subsequent authors that the latter statement is incorrect due to De Candolle having examined the style, which is swollen at the top, before the stigmatic lobes had separated. The species at present under discussion shows little in common with Cephalostigma as defined by De Candolle and subsequent South African authors. In particular the corolla-lobes do not widen towards the base, the filaments are not deltoid or 2-lobed, there is no strongly developed valvular-cone, and the habit is much less branched. The only character held in common is the swollen upper part of the style. Other species (e.g., W. graniticola and some forms of W. communis) show intermediate conditions between that of W. fluminalis and the unswollen style (e.g., W. stricta) both in position of the constriction and its prominence. Brehmer indicates that the same gradations exist in the South African species (Bot. Janhrb., 53). It seems clear, then, that the Australian species showing the ‘“cephalostigmatous” stylar form belong to Wahlenbergia. It also seems clear that they are not closely related to Cephalostigma in De Candolle’s sense. Thus, whereas Tuyn may have been a little precipitate in combining these genera, his action has no relevance to the Australian species. 6. W. GyMNOCLADA Lothian in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 227 (1947). Typification: Holotype—Gorae West, near Portland, Victoria, C. Beaglehole. (MEL). Discussion: There is no doubt about the holotype, but the description supplied by Lothian is at variance with it in the particularly important character of stylar shape. He writes: “. .. style simple, napiform’”, which can only be interpreted as meaning a swelling high on a style with unopened lobes (‘‘cephalostigmatous’’) similar to the W. multicaulis group and W. fluminalis. The type shows an unswollen style. The description may have been constructed using elements of W. tadgellii Lothian. Lothian includes four varieties as synonyms. They are, in fact, misapplications of the names involved. 7. W. GRAcILIS (Forst. f.) Schrad. W. marginata (Thunb.) A.DC. var. neocaledonica Lothian in Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 71: 214 (1947) (as “neo-caledonica”’’). Typification: Lectotype—C. gracilis—Forster GOTT). Discussion: The type, at Kew, which Lothian cites, is derived from J. R. Forster's herbarium (Carolin, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 88). There is, in fact, no real evidence that this specimen was collected in New Caledonia. There appears to be no difference between this specimen and all the other Forster specimens of W. gracilis scattered throughout Europe (BM. K. GOTT. KIEL) and they may all be part of the same gathering. It seems that Lothian based var. neocaledonica on an isotype of W. gracilis (Forst. f.) Schrad. The G6ttingen specimen has usually been accepted as the type without having any real claim to first consideration (see Carolin, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 88); it is herewith taken as the lectotype. Lothian’s confusion seems to have been complete as he cites the collection of W. Anderson, made in New Caledonia and housed in the British Museum, under both the “typical W. gracilis” (which he con- siders to be part of W. marginata) and W. marginata var. neocaledonica. The present author does not consider that W. gracilis (Forst. f.) DC. and W. marginata (Thunb.) are conspecific. Acknowledgements. I should like to thank the Director and the Keeper of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Keeper of the Herbarium at the British Museum for placing the facilities of their institutes at my disposal, and to Mr. A. A. Bullock, Mr. H. K. Airy-Shaw, Dr. R. Melville, Dr. W. T. Stearn and Mr. L. A. 8. Johnson for many helpful discussions. A grant from Science and Industry Fund of C.S.I.R.O. made possible the completion of this work. 241 A NEW GENUS OF AUSTRALIAN CLAVICORN COLEOPTERA, PROBABLY OF A NEW FAMILY. By R. A. Crowson, University of Glasgow. (Communicated by Dr. P. B. Carne.) (Seventeen Text-figures. ) [Read 29th July, 1964.] Synopsis. A new genus, Cavognatha, is described for a new species, C. pullivora, both larva and adults being described. The beetles probably represent a hitherto undefined family of Cucujoidea ; possible adaptive significances of some of their characters are briefly mentioned. A year or two ago Dr. P. B. Carne of the Division of Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, sent me for identification a series of coleopterous larvae together with three adults reared from similar larvae, all the larvae collected from nestlings of a native bird at Gungahlin, A.C.T., on October 28, 1958, by Dr. R. Carrick; subsequently I received a fairly long series of adults of the same species, also from Gungahlin, collected by W. J. M. Vestjens. The characters of both adults and larvae proved to be unusual and interesting, the species apparently representing a hitherto undescribed genus. Both larval and adult characters are unmistakably of Cucujoidea-Clavicornia, but in neither stage are the Gungahlin insects satisfactorily assignable to any Clavicorn family hitherto described. In the circumstances it seemed best to me to postpone serious study of the species until I began a projected major revisional study of Cucujoidea. However, as it is now desired to refer to this species in ecological publications, the opportunity is taken to publish generic and specific diagnoses of it. By adult characters, the Gungahlin insects would trace to couplet 12 in my previously published key to families of Clavicornia (Crowson, 1955, pp. 91-98), but they cannot be attributed to either of the two families (Cucujidae and Silvanidae) in that couplet. At least three other clavicorn genera from Australia appear to belong to the same family as the Gungahlin species; before the family can be characterized it will, however, be necessary to study these genera more fully than I have yet been able to. CAVOGNATHA, gen. Nov. Type species: Cavognatha pullivora, sp. nov. (The Latin-Greek generic name refers to the adult mandibles.) With the general characters of Polyphaga-Cucujoidea-Clavicornia. Adult: General form (Fig. 1) elongate and sub-parallel sided, only slightly depressed. Tarsal formula 5-5-5 in both sexes, segments 1-4 of nearly equal length but progressively narrower, none of them lobed below, segment 5 about as long as 2-4 together; claws simple, empodium inconspicuous. Antennae (Fig. 2) relatively short and thick, 1l-segmented with 3-segmented club, segment 11 polygonal and longer than 9 and 10 together. Front coxae transverse, their cavities (Fig. 8) with narrow angular external prolongations in which the trochantins are partly exposed, coxal cavities partly closed behind by hypomeral processes; prosternal intercoxal process unusually broad, apically prolonged and received in the slightly hollowed median part of the mesosternum. Middle coxal cavities (Fig. 9) rather widely separated, the Mesepimera broadly reaching them, trochantins partially exposed, meso- and meta- Sterna meeting in a rather long nearly straight line. Hind coxae not quite as widely Separated as middle ones, extending laterally a little beyond outer edges of metasternum PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Society or NEw SoutH WALEs, 1964, Vol. lxxxix, Part 2. 242 A NEW GENUS OF AUSTRALIAN CLAVICORN COLEOPTERA, but not meeting elytral epipleura. Metasternum with strong median impressed line in posterior #, the hind margin rather deeply, broadly and angularly excavate between the coxae, receiving the angular process of the first ventrite; metepisterna exposed, narrow posteriorly and much broadened in front, their inner apical angles prolonged. Ventrites 5 in both sexes, the first longest, 2 slightly shorter, 3-5 of equal length and shorter than 2, all of them with distinct raised lateral margins. Text-figs 1-9. Cavognatha pullivora, n. sp. 1, whole insect, ventrally, antennae and parts of legs removed; 2, antenna; 3, head capsule, mouth-parts removed, tentorium dotted ; 4, head, dorsal view; 5, right mandible, dorsal view; 6, right maxilla (without cardo), dorsal view; 7, labium, ventral view; 8, prothorax, ventral view, right coxa removed; 9, meso- and meta-thorax, ventrally, middle coxae removed. Head (Fig. 3) markedly constricted just behind the entire moderately convex eyes, antennal insertions lateral, just in front of eyes; fronto-clypeal suture not distinct; labrum very short, transverse, its front margin arcuately emarginate; genae, between eyes and maxillae, channelled so as to receive retracted bases of antennae; gular sutures short, widely separated, labium borne on a short peduncle under the sides of BY R. A. CROWSON. 243 which the cardines are partly hidden. Mandibles (Fig. 5) with a sharp apical tooth, a blunt pre-apical one, a prosthecal tuft of long stiff setae, and a less sclerotized setose tract between it and the molar area, the latter only slightly protuberant, oblique, finely asperate, and basally prolonged; basal part of outer face of mandible deeply channelled and opening by a narrow passage into a large ovate internal cavity. Maxillae (Fig. 6) with 4-segmented palpi, segment 4 about as long as 2 and 3 together, slightly narrowed to its apex, its dorsal face with a number of parallel longitudinal impressed lines; galea short, 1-segmented, with a dense apical tuft of slightly curved setae; lacinia narrower, with a strong apical hook and a tract of slightly curved setae behind it. Labium (Fig. 7) with trapezoidal mentum whose sides are strongly convergent and distal edge is strongly emarginate; prementum slightly transverse, its front margin corneous and nearly straight; palpi 3-segmented, apical segment strongly curved, much widened in its basal part and strongly narrowed to apex. Tentorium (Fig. 3) of normal clavicorn type. Pronotum more or less uniformly convex, without marked impressions, its side Margins complete, running into front and hind margins without marked angles; sternopleural sutures of prothorax rather deeply recessed along outer edges posteriorly. Elytra unusually elongate, side margins slightly curved, upper surface fairly evenly convex, entire and fully covering the abdomen; epipleura oblique, more or less distinct almost to apex, their outer edges obtuse as in Cryptophagidae. Scutellum very trans- verse. Wings (Fig. 10) with five Anal veins in main group, no distinct Anal cell, Radial cell open, r-m cross-vein indistinct and without a spur. Metendosternite (Fig. 11) resembling those of other primitive Clavicornia (e.g., Sphindus). Legs with trochanters neither elongate nor heteromeroid, femora moderately thickened in middle, tibiae with rounded outer edges, without keels or denticles, apical margins with a circle of spines, two normal spurs on all legs. Abdominal tergite 8 normally hidden in both sexes, tergites 1-7 all dark coloured and more or less sclerotized, 2-6 each with a well-marked paratergite on each side, 5-7 with progressively larger paired posterior rubbing areas, spiracles of 7 in edge of tergite, those of 2-6 just outside paratergites. Male with tergite 8 not at all hooded, sternite 8 small and weakly sclerotized, sternite in female nearly as large as tergite, in both sexes with long spiculum gastrale. Aedeagus (Fig. 12) of inverted cucujoid type with short articulated parameres, resembling those of some Cucujidae. Ovipositor short, baculi less than 1% times as long as 8th tergite, valvifers large, rectangular, slightly transverse, coxites slightly elongate, styli about as long as and half as wide as coxites. Larva: Form elongate, slightly depressed, of practically even width from pro- thorax to abdominal segment 7, head very slightly narrower than prothorax, abdominal segment 8 slightly narrower than 7, 9 about % as wide as 8, pygopod (segment 10) situated ventrally, about half as wide as 9. Thoracic and abdominal segments all with dark sclerotized tergites, those of thorax each with a pale median line. Protergite about three times as wide as its median length, tergites of next 10 segments each about five times as wide as long, separated from each other by relatively wide pale areas. Pigmented area of protergite with a long seta at each anterior angle, and a few small scattered setae, succeeding tergites each with an anterior and a posterior transverse line of various sized setae. Abdominal tergite 9 as figured (Fig. 16) with a pair of stout, nearly straight, slightly divergent pointed urogomphi, pygopod with well sclerotized tergite. No evident sclerotizations in sternal region of abdomen. Head capsule (Fig. 13) short and broad, rounded at sides, frentai sutures of typical cucujoid form, no median epicranial suture or endocarina, fronto-ciypeal suture indistinct. Labrum free, short and transverse with eventy rounded front margin, the middle of its under surface (epipharynx) with six short seta-like processes in an irregular transverse row. Distinct short hypostomal rods diverging backwards from outer basal angles of maxillae. Six ocelli on each side, an anterior vertical row of 4, posterior row of 2 parallel to top 2 of front row. Antennae 3-segmented, segment 1 244 A NEW GENUS OF AUSTRALIAN CLAVICORN COLEOPTERA, short and transverse, 2 elongate and tapered to its base, its broad apical surface bearing posteriorly the small elongate 3rd segment and anteriorly a pale conical sensory appendage. Mandibles (Fig. 14) as figured, with a sharp apical and blunt pre-apical tooth, no distinct prostheca, the molar area represented by a weakly sclerotized pointed process and a setose lobe. Maxillae (Fig. 15) with short 3-segmented palpi, Is 14 Text-figs 10-17. Cavognatha pullivora, n sp. 10, wing; 11, metendosternite, dorsal view ; 12, aedeagus, ventral view; 13, head capsule of larva, dorsal view; 14, left mandible of larva, dorsal view; 15, left maxilla of larva, dorsal view; 16, end of abdomen of larva, dorsal view ; 17, larval spiracle. mala with outer apical margin strongly rounded, a pair of stout teeth at inner apical angles, dorsal surface with a row of fairly stout setae. Stipes very long, cardo rather small, articulating area of moderate size. Labium with short 2-segmented palpi, hypopharyngeal sclerome simple and rather weakly sclerotized, supported by a well- marked hypopharyngeal bracon. BY R. A. CROWSON. 245 Spiracles (Fig. 17) small and biforous, situated on short tubular projections, the anterior pair between prothorax and mesothorax, the eight abdominal ones situated somewhat dorsally and near the middle of the segments. Front coxae separated by about their own width, middle and hind coxae by about twice their own width; prosternum with four long setae, meso- and meta-sterna each with six. Legs relatively short, femora and tibiae each about twice as long as its width and bearing a small number of setae but no specialized spines; tarsungulus claw-like, strongly sclerotized, its two ventral setae in longitudinal succession. CAVOGNATHA PULLIVERA, Sp. nov. (Figs 1-17.) General body surface more or less uniformly brownish and with recumbent pubescence. Dorsal surface of head (Fig. 4) with a rather deep characteristic impression between bases of antennae, moderately closely punctured, the pubescence directed backwards and in posterior part somewhat medially. Pronotum about 23% times as wide as its median length, front 2 of side margins gently curved and convergent, hind 4 rather more sharply contracted to base (Fig. 8); dorsal surface moderately strongly, closely and uniformly punctured, the long recumbent pubescence directed posteriorly along the median tract, postero-medially along front 2 of lateral parts, antero-medially in hind 4 of them. Hlytral punctures rather smaller than, and not quite as close as, those of pronotum, with no tendency to be arranged in rows, pubescence nearly as long as that of pronotum and directed posteriorly; suture slightly raised and marked off by a groove in posterior 4; elytral surface with faint traces of striae in some specimens. Puncturation and pubescence of under surface distinctly less conspicuous than those of upper side. Male with segments 1-3 of front tarsi wider, and with denser setal brushes, than in female. Holotype and paratypes from Gungahlin, A.C.T., 13 Dec. 1959; paratypes from nestlings of Gymnorhina tibicen, Gungahlin, 28 Oct. 1958. All type material in Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Cavognatha is the mandibular cavities which have suggested the generic name. The mouth-parts of CC. pullivora show similarities to those of various carrion-eating Coleoptera, for example, the maxillae are much like those of Dermestes spp. and, except for the cavities, the mandibles resemble those of such Nitidulidae as Nitidula and Omosita. Cavities opening on the dorsal (mot the lateral) face of the mandibles are present in Sphindidae—in a specimen of Sphindus grandis these cavities contain evident spores, their function in Sphindids may well be the transport of spores of the Mycetozoa on which the insects feed. Possibly Cavognatha adults may transport bacterial spores or cultures in the cavities of their mandibles. Reference. Crowson, R. A., 1955.—‘‘The Natural Classification of the Families of Coleoptera.” Nathaniel Lloyd, London. THREE NEW SPECIES OF SCOLYTIDAE FROM AUSTRALIA, AND SOME INTRODUCED COLEOPTERA. 224. CONTRIBUTION TO THE MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF THE SCOLYTOIDBA. By Kart EH. Scuepi, Lienz, Osttirol, Austria. (Communicated by K. M. Moore.) [Read 29th July, 1964.] Synopsis. The Forestry Commission of New South Wales submitted for identification a number of Coleoptera introduced from various countries, and two from New South Wales. There were about an equal number of specimens of the Scolytidae and Platypodidae and two specimens of the Bostrychidae. Scolytid adults represented in the collection, like the platypodids, are ambrosia beetles which drill entrance holes into wood, make galleries of various designs, deposit eggs freely in the tunnels, and the larvae live on the ambrosia fungus cultivated within the galleries by the parent beetles. While some of the species concerned were introduced from countries with quite different climatic conditions, other species like Platypus hintzi Schauf. may find the climate of New South Wales quite suitable for reproduction so that their possible establishment should be considered. Therefore it seems advisable to record the species introduced, noting at the same time the range of their natural distribution. Descriptions of two new species of the Scolytidae originating from other sources, and one new species submitted by the Forestry Commission of New South Wales, are also given. DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. XYLEBORUS EXACTUS, Nl. Sp. Female. Ferruginous, 2-4 mm. long, 2:9 times as long as wide. Closely allied to Xyleborus tereticollis Schedl but somewhat larger, the striae on the truncate elytral declivity more strongly impressed, the strial punctures much coarser and the circular margin more elevated. Front subopaque, broadly convex, minutely punctulate, with a few scattered small punctures and with some longer hairs along the epistomal margin. Pronotum longer than wide (32: 25), cylindrical, postero-lateral angles rounded, sides parallel on the basal three-fifths, apex broadly rounded, a subapical constriction difficult to recognize, apical margin with some very low asperities; summit well before the centre, feebly depressed behind, apical area densely and finely asperate, posterior area subshining, somewhat finely shagreened, with rather remotely placed fine punctures and the median line elevated, pubescence very short, inconspicuous. Scutellum of moderate size, shining. Hlytra as wide as, and 1:25 times as long as the pronotum, of the same general shape as in X. tereticollis, cylindrical, steeply truncate, declivital face shining, striate-punctate, the striae impressed, the strial punctures large and densely placed, the interstices flat, each one with a median row of very small punctures bearing minute inclined hairs, suture elevated toward the apex, the punctures replaced by minute granules. Holotype: In the collection of Schedl. Locality: Cairns, Queensland. CARCHESIOPYGUS DENTIPENNIS, Nl. Sp. Male. Fusco-rufous, 3:6 mm. long, four times as long as wide. A rather peculiar species of doubtful position provisionally placed in the genus Carchesiopygus Schedl. Front flat, subopaque, shallowly areolate-punctate, the punctures bearing fine erect PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Socrery or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. 1xxxix, Part 2. BY KARL E. SCHEDL. 247 hairs, not separated from the vertex by an acute angle. Pronotwm longer than wide (31 : 26), widest at the posterior angles of the rather shallow femoral emarginations, surface subshining, extremely densely covered with punctures of varying size, median suleus long and fine, pubescence absent except for a few hairs along the anterior margin. Hlytra feebly wider (27:26) and twice as long as the pronotum, widest shortly before the declivity, the sides nearly straight, surface opaque, the interstices indicated by raised lines being more distinct toward the declivity and on the alternate interstices, the sulci situated between these ridge-like structures shallow and minutely reticulate-punctulate, the elytra but feebly thickened behind so that the _ sub- perpendicular declivity is rather low; at the apex of the horizontal elytra the interstices 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 dentate, interstices 2, 4 and 6 feebly elevated and ceasing before the apical margin, the short triangular teeth of interstices 1 and 6 of equal length, the teeth of interstices 3 and 5 much longer and of the same slender shape, beneath tooth of interstice 5 another still longer slender tooth originating on the apical margin of the elytra, the tooth on the extreme side in prolongation of the 9th interstices about as long as the lower tooth on continuation of interstice 5 bifid. Last abdominal sternite large and concave. Holotype: In the collection of Schedl. Locality: New South Wales, Australia. HyYPOCRYPHALUS MOOREI, 0. Sp. Male. Pitchy black, 1:3 mm. long, 2:3 times as long as wide. A very distinct species of a general appearance similar to many species of the genus Trypophloeus Fairm.; moreover, with a rather rare sexual dimorphism. Front plano-convex on a wide area, limited above by a fine raised and curved carina, frontal face minutely punctulate, fine and densely punctured, sometimes with slight indications of a median longitudinal carina, pubescence dark and very short. Pronotum much wider than long (16-5 : 10-0), widest shortly before the base, postero-lateral angles of more than 90°, feebly rounded, sides distinctly divergent on the basal fifth, thence strongly and obliquely narrowed, a subapical constriction indicated, apical margin rather narrowly rounded, armed with four pointed asperities, the two median ones distinctly larger; summit very high, situated somewhat behind the middle, apical area steeply declivous, With medium-sized asperities on a rather narrow space, basal area short, shining, densely and finely punctured, a dark very short pubescence all over. Scutellum large, triangular, finely punctured. Elytra very feebly wider and more than twice as long as the pronotum, sides parallel on the basal half, gradually incurved behind, apical margin moderately broadly rounded, declivity commencing in the middle, gradually and obliquely convex; disc finely, densely punctured and more or less transversely wrinkled near the base and on the sides, the puncturation of the main rows difficult to separate from that of the interstices, the punctures on the suture replaced by a row of minute pointed granules toward the declivity, but nearly disappearing on the lower part of it, declivital face with the suture not the second interstice distinctly raised, the latter armed with larger and setose granules, the same type of granules on interstices 3 and 4; pubescence extremely short on the disc, distinctly larger on the declivity. Female. Similar to the male but without granules on the declivity, finely and very densely punctured, the interstices indicated by rows of somewhat larger feebly spatulated hairs. Types: Holotype and paratypes are in the collection of The Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales; paratypes also in the collection of Schedl and the Forestry Commission of New South Wales. Locality: Somersby, N.S.W., 6 vi 1963, K. M. Moore. Host-plant: Hakea sericea Schrad. Notes: Larvae were collected in stems of the host-plant which had been fire- damaged several months previously. Adults emerged during October, 1963. 248 THREE NEW SPECIES OF SCOLYTIDAE FROM AUSTRALIA, SPECIMENS FROM THE FORESTRY COMMISSION OF N.S.W. Family Bostrychidae. Dinoderus minutus Fab. Widespread in all tropical regions. Sydney, 15 May 1962, from India. Family Scolytidae. Hypothenemus eruditus Westw. Somersby, N.S.W., 6 vi 1963, K. M. Moore. This species was reared from the same stems of Hakea sericea as was Hypocryphalus moore. Ozopemon fijianus Schedl. Described from Fiji Islands. Sydney, 8 ii 1963, from Fiji; Sydney, 4 iii 1963, taken 26 iii 1963. Xyleborus bidentatus Motsch. Sydney, N.S.W., 9 i 1964, from New Guinea; live beetles cut from timber, H. Jaffe. Xyleborus cognatus Blandf. Distribution: Ceylon to the Philippines, east to New Guinea and Bougainville Is.; also reported from the Fiji Is. Sydney, 4 ii 1963, from Malaya, ex Shorea sp., 19 ii 1963, R. Hrskine; Sydney, 10 xi 1962, from North Borneo, live beetle from Parashorea sp., 4 ii 1963, H. Jaffe. (For earlier importations into Australia see Schedl, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 83: 215, 1958. The species also was found in Adelaide in 1957 (Schedl, Hnt. Arb. Mus. Frey,., 13: 74, 1962.) Xyleborus mascarensis Hichh. Widely distributed over tropical countries, less common in the Indomalayan and Polynesian Regions. Sydney, 15 xi 1962, from Africa, dead insect from Bombax sp. with < 40% moisture content, H. Jaffe. This species has previously been reported from Australia (Schedl, Rev. Ent. Moc., 5: 345, 1962), the localities being Queensland: Dalby, 1963, Hmu Creek, 1941, and Yarraman, 1934, all specimens collected by A. R. Brimblecombe. The question whether X. mascarensis was endemic to Australia before white settlers arrived or if it has been introduced by human agencies, probably never will be solved with any degree of certainty. Xyleborus perforans Woll. Widely distributed over tropical countries, more common in the Indomalayan and Pacific Regions. Sydney, 2 xi 1962, from North Borneo, taken from timber 30 i 1963, Mr. Penfold; Sydney, 21 i 1963, from N. Borneo, ex ‘meranti’, 6 iii 1963, Mr. Penfold; Sydney, 12 iii 1963, from Borneo, ex Shorea sp., 3 iv 1963, Mr. Penfold. Apparently an endemic and rather common species in Australia. A detailed account can be found by Schedl, Rev. Ent. Moc., 5: 374-402, 1962. Xyleborus saxeseni Ratz. An endemic and widely distributed species in the holarctic region; also reported from northern India. Yarras, N.S.W., 6 vii 1962, ex Sloanea woollsii at D.W.T., 10 viii 1962, M. Thompson. X. saxeseni certainly was introduced into Australia a long time ago and has established itself in Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia. For references, see Schedl, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 60: 28, 1949 (under the synonym X. pseudoangustatus Schedl); Brimblecombe, Divn. Plant Ind. Bull., 71: 338-85, 1953 (X. pseudoangustatus); Schedl, Ent. Arb. Mus. Frey., 13: 74, 1962, and Schedl, Rev. Ent. Moc., 5: 498-508, 1962. Xyleborus torquatus Hichh. Distribution circumtropical, a very common species on a great many species of forest trees. Sydney, 15 ii 1962, from Africa, ex timber with 34% M.C., H. Jaffe. BY KARL E. SCHEDL. 249 The first record of X. torquatus in Australia might be regarded as the specimens taken during 1963 at Yarraman, Queensland, by A. R. Brimblecombe. The species was also found by him in imported logs of Borneo cedar in Brisbane during 1948. It is still doubtful whether X. torquatus has become established in Australia. Family Platypodidae. Platypus curtus Chap. Distribution: India, Malaya, Sumatra, Fukien, Philippine Is. and Sarawak. Sydney, 6 xii 1962, from Borneo, ex “meranti’” with M.C. > 40%, 16 i 1963, R. Erskine; Sydney, 4 iii 1963, from N. Borneo, live beetle taken 28 v 1963, dead beetle taken 11 vi 1963, H. Jaffe; Sydney, 12 iii 1963, from Philippine Is., live beetle taken 19 iii 1963, Mr. Penfold; also live beetle taken from timber 20 iii 1963, H. Jaffe; Sydney, 14 iii 1963, from N. Borneo, live beetle ex Shorea sp., 20 iii 1963, Mr. Penfold; Sydney, 27 iii 1963, from Borneo, live beetle ex Shorea sp., 1 iv 1963, H. Jaffe. An earlier introduction into Australia: Brisbane, August 1947, in logs from Borneo, A. R. Brimblecombe (Schedl, Mem. Queensland Mus., 13: 83, 1953). Platypus hintzi Schauf. Distribution: Africa, south of the Sahara; very common. Sydney, 15 xi 1962, from Africa, ex timber with > 40% M.C., H. Jaffe. Platypus shoreanus subsp. bifurcus Schedl. Described from the Philippines and also known from N. Borneo, Burma and Malaya. Sydney, 12 iii 1963, from Philippines, live beetle ex Pentacme sp., 19 iii 1963, H. Jaffe. Platypus shoreanus subsp. mutilatus Schedl. Described from Malaya; also known from N. Borneo (Sandakan). Sydney, 10 vi 1962, from Malaya, live beetle ex Shorea sp. (red meranti), 26 vii 1962, H. Jaffe; Sydney, 6 xii 1962, from Borneo, beetle emerged ex timber with > 40% M.C., 16 1 1963, R. Erskine; Sydney, 14 iii 1963, from N. Borneo, live beetle ex Parashorea sp., 27 iii 1963, R. Penfold; Sydney, 6 iii 1963, from N. Borneo, dead beetle ex timber, 18 iii 1963, H. Jaffe; adult ex Shorea sp., 15 v 1963, Mr. Penfold; Sydney, 6 iv 1963, from Borneo, live beetle ex Parashorea sp., 18 iv 1963, Mr. Penfold; Sydney, 22 iv 1963, from N. Borneo, live beetle ex Parashorea sp., 30 v 1963, Mr. Penfold; live beetle ex Parashorea sp., 31 v 1963, H. Jaffe. 250 A NOTE ON CREIIS PERICULOSA (OLLIFF) (HOMOPTERA: PSYLLIDAE). By K. L. TAyior. (Seven Text-figures. ) [Read 29th July, 1964.] Synopsis. The taxonomic status of Psylla periculosa Olliff (1894) has been examined. This species is now placed in the genus Creiis Scott, and a description based on specimens collected from Eucalyptus rudis at several localities in Western Australia is given. In recent years a psyllid species in Western Australia has attracted increasing attention because of the damage it is causing to Hucalyptus rudis Endl., and an examination of the taxonomic status of this species has become necessary. Mr. A. Sidney Olliff (1894) sent for exhibition at a meeting of the Linnean Society of New South Wales a number of specimens of a psyllid from Jarrahdale, W.A., which he proposed to call Psylla periculosa. The only description given was that it “makes elongate, semi-transparent, horny larval coverings, or tests, on the foliage of the Flooded Gum (KFucalyptus rudis Endl.)”. However, this is sufficient to identify it as the same species (or as one of a complex) which is still “causing serious injury to its food-plant’”, and Olliff’s name is valid on the basis of an “indication”, according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. The species clearly belongs to the genus Creiis Scott, as defined by Tuthill and Taylor (1955). The following description of the species is based on specimens collected from a number of localities in Western Australia, the host plant in each case being Eucalyptus rudais. Some variation in the characters is evident; thus specimens from some localities are larger than those from others. Series of specimens collected from #H. loxophleba Benth. at Round Hill, W.A., and from #. wandoo Blakely at Wandering, W.A., appear to be conspecific. However, until studies can be made of the ecology and host relationships of this group of insects I prefer not to include the series from eucalypts other than H. rudis in OC. periculosa. There is a possibility that more than one species is represented on H. rudis, but this also can best be resolved by ecological studies. There is a complex of species closely related to Creiis corniculata (Froggatt) on Hucalyptus spp. in Hastern and Western Australia. Most of them are still undescribed, but my present knowledge of them leaves no doubt that their classification must be closely linked to their host relationships, as in the genera Cardiaspina Crawford (Taylor, 1962) and Glycaspis Taylor (Moore, 1961). Genus CreEtis Scott. Creiis Scott, 1882, Trans. Hnt. Soc..Lond., 1882: 462; Tuthill and Taylor, 1955, p. 233. CREIIS PERICULOSA (Olliff). (Figs 1-7.) Psylla periculosa Olliff, 1894, p. 740. Length (to tip of folded wings): 2? c. 4:0 mm; ¢ c. 3-7 mm. Colour: General colour light brown; patches of green in some specimens; forewings transparent with reddish brown veins; hindwings transparent. Structure: Body surface finely punctate, shining; head (Fig. 1): width about equal to or slightly narrower than mesoscutum, at 90° to plane of body; vertex length about PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocieTy or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. BY K. L. TAYLOR. 251 = width, ocular sclerite with prominent lobe anteriorly between eye and antenna, narrow posteriorly but completely separating eye from vertex; genal processes about 2 length of vertex, broad and almost square apically, slightly separated at bases, one aaa a CaS K 1 cm 7 Figs 1-7. Creiis periculosa (Olliff). 1, head; 2, forewing; 3, male genitalia, lateral aspect; 4, male genitalia, posterior aspect; 5, female genitalia, lateral aspect; 6, lerp, from above; 7, section of lerp (diagrammatic). stout faleate seta towards outer side on each, and numerous small setae; antennal length about 2% times width of head; pronotum flat, length about % vertex, wider than vertex; forewings (Fig. 2): ratio of length to width about 3:1, transparent with humerous small points, veins prominent, raised, pterostigma large, weak, open; medial F 252 NOTE ON CREIIS PERICULOSA (OLLIFF), and cubital cells about equal in area, medial elongate (less so in @), cubital triangular; hindwings large, length about 2 that of forewings, with numerous small points, more so than forewings; metatibiae flaring apically with 1-3 stout blunt spurs on outer margin, 3-4 on inner margin; claws on proximal segment of metatarsus lacking or very small. Male genitalia (Figs 3, 4): Proctiger long, pyriform in lateral aspect, slender in posterior aspect, bipartite, apical segment cylindrical, length about 13 times thickness; forceps falcate in lateral aspect, long and broad, curving strongly inwards to meet at apex, inner margin with a row of strong black setae, inwardly and downwardly directed, spaced more closely towards apex, posterior margin with a row of short pale setae. Female genitalia (Fig. 5): Short, stout; dorsal plate pyriform in dorsal aspect, broad at base, with large orifice dorsally, tapering sharply to blunt, rounded apex, apical half with numerous long fine setae; ventral plate short, broad, deep, apical margin with a V-shaped depression, apical half with numerous long fine setae. Lerp (Figs 6, 7): Corniculate, length approximately 1 cm., width from about 0-5 mm. at base to about 4 mm. at open end when adult emerges; narrow basal portion almost white, remainder pale yellow to pale brown, constructed by immature stages, width and height about leaf surface being increased as size of insect increases, hence a series of fine curved striations visible across the lerp; sides close to leaf surface for full length, not curved under. Host plant: Hucalyptus rudis Endl. Neotype g (here designated): (Waterloo, W.A. 24.xi.1960, M. M. H. Wallace) in Australian National Insect Collection, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, and labelled ‘“Creiis periculosa (Olliff), K. L. Taylor 21.v.1964, NEOTYPE”. Enquiries have been made at the Western Australian Museum, Perth; the Australian Museum, Sydney; the Macleay Museum, University of Sydney; and the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Olliff's specimens are not in any of these institutions, and no information can be obtained as to whether they have been deposited elsewhere. The above description is consistent with Olliff’s brief description, the host tree is the same, and the locality, though not identical, is reasonably close and very similar. Specimens examined: Waterloo, W.A., 24.xi.1960, M.M.H.W. (10 99, 9 2); Noble Falls, W.A., 8.xi.1960, M.M.H.W. (10 99, 10 go); Wannamal, nr. Gin Gin, W.A., 26.x.1960, M.M.H.W. (8 go, 4 lerps); Mt. Barker, W.A., 20.x.1960, C. F. H. Jenkins (numerous nymphs and lerps); nr. Toodyay, W.A., 9.ix.1960, M.M.H.W. (2 99, 2 gd@, 1 lerp); Wongamine, W.A., 9.ix.1960, M.M.H.W. (1 9, 1 @). Specimens from the series collected at Waterloo, W.A., will be deposited in the Western Australian Museum, Perth; South Australian Museum, Adelaide; Australian Museum, Sydney; National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne; British Museum (Natural History), London; United States National Museum, Washington. All other specimens in the Australian National Insect Collection. The specimens from nr. Toodyay, Wongamine, and Wandering are larger than those from the other localities, and the relative proportions of different parts of the body are not quite the same in the limited number of specimens available. These differences may be due to variations in the host tree, and it would be unwise to describe them as a distinct species without further material and more detailed knowledge of their ecology. It is possibly significant that their date of emergence is much earlier in spring than that of the others listed. Specimens examined from other host trees in Western Australia (Round Hill, W.A., 15.ix.1960, M.M.H.W.—£#. loxophleba (2 99, 1 #), and Wandering, W.A., 27.ix.1951, I. F. B. Common—Z. wandoo (9 99, 1 2, 6 lerps), appear to be identical with this larger form. This species is distinguished from Creiis corniculata (Frogg.) (the only species of this complex so far described) by the paler colour and smaller size of the lerp, the weaker pterostigma, and the host relationships. BY) Ke Lo DAYLOR: 253 Acknowledgements: I am grateful to Mr. M. M. H. Wallace and Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins for collecting material for study, and to Mrs. H. M. Quick for assistance in preparing the figures. References. Moore, K. M., 1961.—Observations on some Australian Forest Insects. 7. The Significance of the Glycaspis spp. (Hemiptera: Homoptera, Psyllidae) Associations with their Eucalyptus spp. Hosts; Hrection of a New Subgenus and Descriptions of Thirty-eight New Species of Glycaspis. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 86: 128-167. OLLIFF, A. SIDNEY, 1894.—Notes and Exhibits. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2 Ser.) 9: 740. Taytor, K. L., 1962.—The Australian genera Cardiaspina Crawford and Hyalinaspis Taylor (Homoptera: Psyllidae). Aust. J. Zool., 10: 307-348. TUTHILL, L. D., and TaAytor, K. L., 1955.—Australian Genera of the Family Psyllidae (Hemiptera, Homoptera). Aust. J. Zool., 3: 227-257. 254 ON THE ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE (HEEGAARD, 1962) (COPEPODA: LERNAEKOPODIDAE) FROM AUSTRALIAN WATERS. By Z. KApata, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen. (Communicated by Dr. J. C. Yaldwyn.) (Forty Text-figures. ) [Read 29th July, 1964.] INTRODUCTION. In his interesting paper on the parasitic Copepoda from Australian waters, Heegaard (1962) described a lernaeopodid species, which he assigned to the genus Tracheliastes Nordmann, 1832, and to which he gave the name TJ. chimaerae. Heegaard’s generic diagnosis was influenced by Wilson’s (1915) description of JT. grandis. It had been suspected, however (Monod and Vladykoyv, 1931), and eventually proved (Kabata and Bowman, 1961) that Wilson was at fault in this instance and that this species should have been placed in the genus Vanbenedenia Malmgren, 1860. The same is true of Heegaard’s Australian species. The present author, with the knowledge and consent of the discoverer, proposes, therefore, to re-name it Vanbenedenia chimaerae (Heegaard, 1962). Tracheliastes and Vanbenedenia differ from each other in several important respects. Thus, to mention only two, the position of the cephalothorax in Tracheliastes (as suggested by the name) is dorsal to the main axis of the trunk, while the opposite obtains in Vanbenedenia; Tracheliastes parasitizes freshwater fishes of the Palaearctic Region, while the only known host of the genus Vanbenedenia is Chimaera, a deep-sea holocephalan genus with world-wide distribution. The author’s earlier work on the genus Vanbenedenia (cf. Kabata, 1958, 1959) suggested that the biology of this genus, as well as some of its morphological features, are of considerable interest to the student of Lernaeopodidae. To explore these features further, the author studied, as a loan from the Australian Museum, the specimens of V. chimaerae which constituted a part of Heegaard’s original material. The specimens included adult females, juvenile females and larval individuals at the stage of develop- ment which is variously referred to as “pupa” or ‘‘chalimus”. They were examined, both entire and dissected for the better study of the appendages, under magnifications up to x900, with the aid of the phase-contrast illumination. The dissections were carried out in Berlese’s fluid, which was also used as the mounting medium. No stains were employed. Each appendage was observed from as many aspects as possible, before final drawings were made. ‘The illustrations shown below are all free-hand drawings, made with the aid of an eyepiece graticule. DESCRIPTION OF THE ADULT FEMALE. General appearance (Figs 1-3, 6). The body of the adult female is easily divided into the cephalothorax and the trunk. The cephalothorax is cylindrical and fairly short, forming with the “arms” (the first maxillipeds) a broad shoulder region, separated from the trunk by a distinct waist-like groove (Fig. 1). It is ventrally inclined to the main axis of the trunk, the arms fusing above it and preventing its dorsal movements (Figs 2-3). The trunk is longer than broad (length : width ratio about 1:5: 1) in the adult ovigerous females. The greatest width of the trunk is usually about 2 from the anterior end of the trunk. The trunk is flattened dorso-ventrally, the outer margins in the preserved specimens being more swollen than the area PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocirETy or NEw SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. BY Z. KABATA. 255 immediately adjacent to them. At some distance from the lateral margins of the trunk a row of depressions extends almost along the entire length. These depressions (Fig. 1), which are about 10 in each row, are made by heavily sclerotized plaques and serve as the points of insertion for the dorso-ventral musculature of the trunk. The posterior end of the trunk is truncated, its exact shape and structure depending on the age of the female. In the youngest adult specimen available for examination (Fig. 7) and already attached to the host by means of the bulla, the end of the trunk appeared as 2mm Figs 1-8.—1. Adult female, ventral. 2. Adult female, cephalothorax, dorsal. 3. Adult female, cephalothorax, lateral. 4. Young female, posterior end of the trunk, ventral. 5. Young female, older than in Fig. 4; posterior end of the trunk, ventral. 6. Adult female, posterior end of the trunk, ventral. 7. Young female, entire, lateral. 8. Posterior processes of specimen shown in Fig. 7, lateral. Lettering on figures. b, bulla; ch, central canal of manubrium; eg, point of attachment of egg-strings (oviduct opening) ; en, endopod; ex, exopod; go, genital orifice; m, manubrium; pp, posterior processes (caudal furca); t, ventral tubercle of 2nd mxp; 4, y, 2, elements of cephalic armature. 256 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, shown in Figure 4. The trunk of this specimen was 2:17 mm. long. The posterior processes (derived from the caudal furca of the juvenile stages), the genital orifice and the future points of attachment for the egg-strings can be seen in this specimen. Posterior processes are shown enlarged in Figure 8. ‘With increasing age, the latero- posterior margins begin to swell out laterally and in a specimen with the trunk 3:13 mm. long the end of the trunk appears as shown in Figure 5. The swelling begins at the level of the oviduct openings (points of attachment of the egg-strings). The definitive shape of the extremity of the trunk, as seen in an ovigerous female with the trunk 6-44 mm. long, is shown in Figure 6. The lateral swelling has now progressed to the point at which the appearance of the end of the trunk becomes greatly modified. The relative sizes of the posterior processes in Figures 4, 5 and 6 give a good illustration to the changes, with age, of this part of the trunk. Some idea of the dimensions of the adult females is given by the figures below. It must be remembered that the measurements (in mm.) were taken from specimens preserved for many years in alcohol and with cephalothoraces at different degrees of contraction. The data concerning this part of the body must, therefore, be taken as very general in character. The measurements are based on 12 female specimens. Range Mean Cephalothorax length Diebe> Napier he Raves Scaenn UAE WS GA a aN Mr An 2:4 ss 5 width Rtas HS Leen eth POG Oa 0-7 Slaowilolese meson, Wah oo sa o5 50 od 66 do Mag 2-4 Trunk length Bg Re lpr, Sk aaa Goan Dt nent cee ramey Aas 2, 6:4 se width oe GEE ON ooh Baro RSE) ato) Sta, WOON aS 4-0 Arms, length et TEATS Ch Cale tt aR Meets) ASO EIN 2 Ae He RD, 1:8 » » diameter at the base 4: ABM, ee ee 0 =029 0:8 Hee-strings Wenethe len eae ee ere en eee 22—O24 78 5 diameter GOT ES, CAE LT ARa elie, bh Se Lar amen () rf () 28 0-8 Hggs, diameter (approximate) .. .. .. .. .. 0-2-0-°3 0:3 Appendages. The first antenna (Figs 9-11). Even in the smallest specimens, already attached by the bulla and, therefore, considered as adult, no true segmentation of the first antenna has been observed by the author. In some specimens, however, transverse wrinkles in the cuticle resemble segmental divisions. The base of the appendage (Fig. 9) is somewhat inflated and bears on its dorso-median aspect the usual lernaeopodid spine. It is possible that the spine shown in Figure 9 has been broken and is shorter than it should be. The central part of the antenna is more slender. It also carries on its dorso-median aspect a short spine, found in this position in some other genera of Lernaeopodidae. Towards its apex, the antenna dilates again in the manner typical for the genus Vanbenedenia. The apical armament of the first antenna is shown in detail in Figures 10 and 11. Near to the centre of the apex is a prominent swelling, shown in Figure 11 as a dotted circle. It is tipped by three spines, one central, strong and with a blunt, finger-like end, and two others on its both sides. The inner aspect of the tip is occupied by a strong and also blunt-ending spine, which can be seen as the homologue of the similar spines in all the other lernaeopodid genera studied by the author (Kabata, 1963, 1964, 1964a, 1964b) and labelled (4). The dorso- lateral aspect carries a slender, whip-like spine labelled (6) and also homologous with similar spines in other Lernaeopodidae. A small spine (marked 1 in Figs 10 and 11) is present near the base of spine (4). The second antenna (Figs 12 and 13) resembles the corresponding appendages of most of the lower Lernaeopodidae. An indistinctly segmented sympod (consisting of either one or two segments) carries distally a two-segmented endopod and a one- segmented exopod. The proximal] segment of the endopod (Fig. 12, en) has a spinulated pad on its ventral margin. Its distal segment is armed with a hook and several accessory spines, shown diagrammatically in Figure 13. Ome slender spine is located on BY Z. KABATA. 257 the ventro-median aspect of the base of the central hook and points obliquely upwards. Ventral to the base of the hook and at some distance from it are two structures, situated side by side. The lateral one is a sharp-pointed spine with slightly inflated base, while the medial one is relatively broader at the base and shorter, also ending in a sharp point. An indistinct swelling is present on the ventro-lateral aspect of the base of the central hook. In all its essential aspects, this armature resembles that of the second antenna of V. kroyeri (cf. Kabata and Bowman, 1961). The exopod (Fig. 12, ex) is not dorsal to the endopod, as in most lernaeopodid genera, but rather dorso- 200 Figs 9-18.—9. Adult female; 1st antenna, dorsal. 10. Adult female, tip of 1st antenna, lateral. 11. Diagram of the apical armature of ist antenna. 12. Adult female, 2nd antenna, lateral. 13. Diagram of the armament of endopod, 2nd antenna. 14. Adult female, distal part of mandible, lateral. 15. Adult female, maxilla, lateral. 16. Young female, distal part of 1st maxilliped and base of manubrium. 17. Young female, 2nd maxilliped, lateral. 18. Adult female, 2nd maxilliped, lateral. 258 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, lateral. The study of the position of this segment is made difficult by the great mobility of the tip of the endopod. The dorso-ventral axis of the second antenna is usually considered as being parallel with the long axis of the endopod’s central hook. Since the twisting of the endopod changes the position of the hook, the relative positions of the two rami are also apparently altered. It can be accepted, however, that the exopod is not directly dorsal to the endopod. Since this position is one of the diagnostic features of the genus Vanbenedenia, it is rather important to know it. The tip of the exopod is armed with three powerful claws, pointing outwards. Between the bases of these claws are two spines, much more slender than the claws themselves and rather shorter. The mandible (Fig. 14) is a long, blade-like structure, its dentiferous margin armed with a series of nine teeth. The teeth are not uniform in size (mandibular formula H2, Z1, H1, N5). The first two teeth are primary and are followed by a small secondary tooth. This, in turn, is followed by another primary tooth and a series of “Nebenzahne” consisting of five teeth, progressively smaller. The usual cutting blade follows the last tooth of the proximal series. The maxilla (Fig. 15) is also a typical lernaeopodid limb, with stout sympod and the endopod ending in three papillae, arranged dorso-ventrally and ending in stout setae. The ventral of these is the shortest. The exopod is lateral in position and vestigial, consisting of two short, subequal spines, the smaller one being difficult to observe. The first maxillipeds (Figs 1-3, 16) are the appendages which form the charac- teristic “arms”. They arise from the cephalothorax near the point where it expands into the shoulder region. In the young adult females, with bulla recently formed, the tips of the arms are close together and fused by means of the manubrium (Figs 1 and 16, m), to the formation of which both arms have contributed. The bulla at this stage is still colourless and soft and the anchoring apical swelling (Fig. 1, 0) is still missing. The manubrium appears like an empty sheath (Fig. 16, m) or rather two sheaths fused together, but readily pulled apart. Hach half of the double central channel (Fig. 16, ch) can be clearly observed. In older specimens (Fig. 1) the bulla becomes sclerotized; it is hard and dark-brown. The two halves can no longer be separated. The manubrium now ends in a roughly lenticular or spherical swelling, formed by the secretion drained through the central channel. The length of the manubrium in the young females is about 1:75 mm., reaching up to 2:5 mm. in the fully mature specimens. The long diameter of the apical swelling of the bulla varies from 1:7 to 1:8 mm. The host which carried the specimens examined was infested by some 50 parasites and, since all of them were found on the claspers, the animals were crowded together. Their bullae were often fused in groups of three, or four, with some degree of distortion. The second maxilliped (Figs 17 and 18) differs with the age of the female. In the young, recently attached females which carried no egg-strings, the shape of the second maxilliped was as shown in Figure 17. The main body of the limb appears to consist of two segments, though the subdivision is not clear. The apical segment forms a subchela which closes against a prominent tubercle on the ventral margin of the penultimate segment. The tubercle is tipped with a short but fairly strong spine. The tip of the subchela carries a slightly curving claw, with a short auxiliary spine near its basé. There is also another short spine on the outer aspect of the subchela, near z of its length from the base. All these features are also recognizable in the mature female (Fig. 18), though their relative sizes are much different. The subchela is much smaller, with claw and the other two spines much weaker. The ventral tubercle of the penultimate segment is also relatively smaller, its spine observable only with difficulty. DESCRIPTION OF THE JUVENILE STAGES. Of the 14 adult specimens examined by the author, nine had frontal filaments, or parts of filaments, of the juvenile stages attached to their cephalothoraces, mainly arms or second maxillipeds. Six of these specimens had the juveniles still suspended from BY Z. KABATA. 259 the proximal ends of the filaments. Among these developmental forms four stages could be distinguished. The developing parasites were attached to their frontal filaments by means of their first maxillipeds. The terminal claws of these limbs were firmly embedded in the enlarged bases of the filaments. With each succeeding moult another flow of secretion followed, gluing the next stage of the parasite to the end of Figs 19-24.—19. Chalimus III, lateral. 20. Chalimus II, lateral. 21. Chalimus I, lateral. 22. Chalimus IV, tips of first maxillipeds and base of frontal filaments, showing claws of the preceding moults (numbered). 238. Chalimus I, thoracic legs. 24. Chalimus I, caudal furca, dorsal. the filament. The cuticle of the preceding stage disintegrated, leaving the tips of the first maxillipeds hanging like empty gloves from the base of the filament (Fig. 22). The largest number of the discarded pairs of cuticular claws was three. The presence of these remains allows one to determine in each case the exact developmental stage of the specimen. Those which have no such empty claw belong obviously to the first 260 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, chalimus stage, those with one pair to the second chalimus stage, ete. The oldest specimen examined by the author belonged, therefore, to the chalimus stage IV. The external examination of these stages of development showed no differences between the future male and female individuals until chalimus stage III, when the female specimens could be distinguished by more elongate “arms’’. General appearance (Figs 19-21). The youngest stage examined (i.e., chalimus I) is shown in Figure 21. At this stage of development, the body of the parasite consists of the cephalothorax, free thorax and abdomen, with caudal furca. With the exception of the thoracopods, the appendages already present at this stage persist in the mature parasite. The number of the free thoracic segments is not easy to distinguish. The anterior two can be recognized by the presence of thoracopods, with which they are associated. Only one specimen at this stage was examined by the author. Its total length was 0:68 mm., the cephalothorax length being 0-51 mm. (from the anterior margin of the head to the level of the first pair of thoracopods). The cephalothorax is roughly oval and devoid of dorsal carapace. No great change takes place in the appearance of the parasite between the chalimus I and chalimus II stages (Fig. 20). Two specimens at the latter stage measured 0:69 and 0-73 mm. respectively, the increase in size being due to the growth of the posterior part of the body (cephalothoraces of both specimens were 0:50 mm. long). There is some elongation of the “arms” and the thoracopods begin to atrophy. This trend in development continues on change to the chalimus III stage (Fig. 19), although the change is accompanied by a more pronounced increase in size. The only specimen of this stage was 1:37 mm. long. The relative increase in the sizes of the cephalothorax and the posterior (trunk) part of the body cannot be determined easily, since only one pair of thoracopods was found by the author in this specimen and the exact limits of the two parts could not be determined. There is little change between the general shape of chalimus III and chalimus IV stages. Two specimens of chalimus IV examined by the author were damaged and could not be measured, but the overall appearance of these specimens differed only little from chalimus III. The only possible difference was the now definitely pronounced elongation of the “arms”, already noticeable in chalimus III. The first antenna (Fig. 25) of the chalimus I shows all the features described for the adult appendage. The state of the specimens made the examination difficult, but it was possible to see that both the general shape of the limb and all the apical armament spines are quite like those of the adult. The main difference between the first antenna of chalimus I and that of the adult is the length of the apical armament spines, which can be seen by referring to Figures 9 and 25. Two unusual features are noticeable in the first antenna of chalimus I. The long spine present on the dorso- median aspect of the basal part of the limb appears to have another small spinule at its base. The two small spines present at the central prominence of the apex (marked ? in Fig. 25) appear to be fused at the bases. These two features, however, were observed in only one antenna, its companion from the opposite side having neither of them. It is, therefore, difficult to say whether the fusion of the two spines was an aberration of structure, or whether the additional spine on the dorso-median aspect of the base is a regular feature. Neither of these features was found in the following stages of development. Beginning with chalimus II, the first antenna differed from that of the adult in size only. The second antenna (Figs 26-28). At the chalimus stage I, this appendage is already fully formed, showing most of the features present in the adult. Its sympod appears to consist of two segments, the distal one of which bears the endopod and the exopod (Fig. 26, en, ex). The endopod is two-segmented. The proximal segment is unarmed, the distal segment carries apical armament described for the adult and figured in Figures 12, 13, 26 and 27. Figure 26 shows the hook of the distal segment turning away from the observer, but its true shape can be seen in Figure 27, which shows the distal segment of the endopod of chalimus II in lateral view. The only BY Z. KABATA. 261 difference between the endopod of chalimus I and the succeeding stages is the appearance of the spinulated pad on the proximal segment, beginning with chalimus II. The central hook, which is long and slender in the early stages, becomes progressively shorter and more robust, to assume the adult shape shown in Figure 12. The exopod of the second antenna undergoes more extensive changes with age. In chalimus I, as shown in Figure 26, it is one-segmented and armed with two long setae. In chalimus II three small tubercles appear on the tip of the exopod, one between the bases of the setae and two on both sides of these structures. In chalimus III the tubercles increase in size and acquire sharp points (Fig. 28), while the setae between them become relatively shorter. This trend is further accentuated in chalimus IV. By the time the parasite becomes adult, the three tubercles will have developed into three powerful claws (Fig. 12), completely dwarfing the setae between them. The mandible (Fig. 29) also undergoes only small changes from chalimus I to the adult parasite. At the earliest stage examined, it already has its definitive shape, differing from the adult only in size and in the absence of the third tooth, the only secondary tooth of the mandible. That tooth first appears at the chalimus III stage. The distal tooth of the mandible is somewhat smaller in chalimus I than in the succeeding developmental stages. The maxilla (Fig. 30) also shows few changes in the course of its development. The difference between chalimus I and the adult (Fig. 15) is in the larger size of the exopod, which in chalimus I is a definite segment with a bifid tip. It appears to be gradually reduced and survives in the adult only as the two spines, vestiges of the tip. The first maxilliped (Fig. 31) changes little in the four chalimus stages examined. Figure 31 shows the formation of the appendage of chalimus II within the cuticle of chalimus I. It can be seen that these appendages are quite similar. In both stages they end in curving claws, whose tips are provided with anchor-like extensions used to secure the limb in the base of the frontal filament. Under the cuticle of the preceding stage, the appendage of the next is usually profusely wrinkled, foreshadowing the expansion which is to occur at the moult. This expansion and elongation is the most marked feature of the development of the first maxilliped. By the time the animal reaches the adult stage, the limb is quite long and fused to its neighbour by the manubrium of the bulla. By then the terminal claw disappears, but it is still present in chalimus IV, the oldest pre-adult stage examined by the author (Fig. 22). The second maxilliped (Figs 32-34, 40) is the appendage which shows most extensive changes in the course of its development, observed in chalimus specimens. The earliest stage is shown in Figure 32, illustrating both second maxillipeds of a chalimus I which is ready to moult. The right member of the pair shows the limb of the next stage, formed within the cuticle of chalimus I. In the course of dissection, this cuticle was pulled off the left member of the pair, showing the limb of the next stage. In chalimus I, then, the second maxilliped is apparently one-segmented, almost cylindrical and ending in an anteriorly-pointing, straight claw, with an auxiliary spine at its base. In chalimus II, the subchela, the second segment of the appendage begins to form and its lateral spine makes its appearance. Figure 33 shows the maxilliped of chalimus III, recently removed from the cuticle of the preceding stage. The subchela is now more distinguishable and the ventral tubercle of the penultimate segment begins to form (Fig. 33, t). A fully developed limb of chalimus III is shown in Figure 34. The subchela is now at an angle with the rest of the limb. Both its auxiliary spines and its terminal claw are easily observable. An apical spine has also appeared on the tip of the ventral tubercle. A great change appears to take place between chalimus III and IV, although the author could not determine with absolute certainty the course of development at this point of the parasite’s life history. In one of the chalimus IV specimens examined, the second maxilliped did not greatly differ from the corresponding limb in chalimus III, while in the other specimen it seemed to have gone through extensive changes. The latter specimen, however, was badly preserved and it is possible that parts of its cuticle had been sloughed off, exposing structures properly belonging 262 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, to the next developmental stage. This more advanced stage is shown in Figure 40. It has all the features of the adult appendage, but differs from it by the enormous elongation of the terminal claw of the subchela and the large size of the spine tipping the ventrai tubercle. The thoracopods (Figs 19-21, 23) could not be studied in detail, because of the shortage of material and poor stage of preservation. The only chalimus I available was, aS mentioned above, ready to moult and the thoracopods of this specimen were no more than limp and empty cuticle with partly damaged setae hanging from the Figs 25-34.—25. Chalimus I, 1st antenna, dorsal. 26. Chalimus I, 2nd antenna, medial. 27. Chalimus II, 2nd antenna, tip of endopod, medial. 28. Chalimus III, 2nd antenna, exopod, lateral. 29. Chalimus I, mandible, lateral. 30. Chalimus I, maxilla, exopod, ventro-lateral. 31. Chalimus I, 1st maxilliped and base of frontal filament. 32. Chalimus I, 2nd maxillipeds. (The cuticle of chalimus I pulled off the left appendage, showing that of next stage.) 33. Chalimus II, 2nd maxilliped liberated from the cuticle, to show the next stage. 34. Chalimus Ill, 2nd maxilliped, fully developed, lateral. BY Z. KABATA. 263 body of the animal. It could be seen (Fig. 23), however, that both pairs consisted of one-segmented sympods, each carrying also one-segmented endopods and exopods, provided with at least four setae. In chalimus II (Fig. 20), the legs become simple, one-segmented structures provided with a single seta each. In chalimus III the author Figs 35-40.—35. Chalimus II, lateral view of anterior part (semi-diagrammatic). Arrow points to cephalic armature, enlarged in rectangular frame. 36. Chalimus III, cephalic armature, dorsal. 37. Chalimus IV, cephalic armature, dorsal. 38. Chalimus II, caudal furca, ventro-lateral. 39. Chalimus III, caudal furca, ventral. 40. Chalimus IV (or a later stage), 2nd maxilliped, lateral. could find only one pair of thoracopods, which were no more than single setae with slightly inflated bases. No trace of the legs was found in the two specimens of chalimus IV examined. The changes undergone by the caudal furca (Figs 24, 7, 4, 5, 6, 38, 39) are of considerable interest. Although the difficulties of study were here as great as with 264 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, the thoracopods, it could be seen that in chalimus I (Fig. 24) the anal furca consist of two blade-like segments, each equipped with six short though fairly robust setae. In chalimus II the blades are rather smaller and the number of setae decreases to four (Fig. 38), perhaps five. In chalimus III they become mere wart-like protuberances, tipped with a single seta each (Fig. 39). By the time the development has reached chalimus IV stage, the caudal furca have the appearance which persists until the adult stage. The changes, which occur then, are mentioned above. Several noteworthy features were observed at the anterior end of the cephalothorax (Figs 35-37). As can be seen from Figure 35, the front end of the cephalothorax forms a bulbous “forehead”, anterior to the mouth-cone. The apex of this forehead (with an arrow pointing to it in Fig. 35) is enlarged in the rectangular frame to show that it is equipped with five peculiar structures. Four of them are arranged in a transverse line (Fig. 35, x, y) and the fifth (2), a small denticle, is dorsal to them in the centre of the head. The line consists of two smaller, peg-like structures in the centre (y) and two larger, broad-based ones on the ends of the line and at some distance from the central pair. Figure 35 shows them in chalimus II. The author was unable to see similar structures in chalimus I. Figure 36 shows the same structures in chalimus III. At this stage the spines are larger and have sharper points than in the preceding stage. The central members (one of which has a broken tip in Fig. 36) are still slender, while the lateral members are broad-based and end in sharp points. In the examined specimen one of the lateral spines appears to have been broken, a part of it appearing as a small independent spine. In chalimus IV (Fig. 37) the cephalic armament persists without any changes. DISCUSSION. The first point made clear by the study of Vanbenedenia chimaerae is the similarity between its finer structural details and those of V. kroyeri (cf. Kabata and Bowman, 1961). These details are particularly evident in the structure of the antennae. As mentioned above, V. chimaerae has an inflated tip in its first antenna, which is unique to the genus. In discussing the first antenna of V. kroyeri, Kabata and Bowman stated that its apical armament included a powerful spine, which divided into two some way from its base. In the light of the present study, it seems certain that the structure should have been interpreted as the “central swelling’, with two spines arising from its tip. Spines (4) and (6) were also present in V. kroyeri, though they were labelled (bo) and (d) respectively. The second antennae of V. chimaerae also bear great resemblance to those of the other known species of the genus, particularly in the position of the rami and the armament of the endopod. Yet another similarity is provided by the mandible, which has characteristically small third tooth. In view of the diagnostic importance of the mandible (Kabata, 1963a), this point should not be overlooked when placing the present species in the genus Vanbenedenia. The biological details, which can be inferred from the study of the specimens, also resemble those described for V. kroyeri (cf. Kabata, 1958, 1959) and are, apparently, unique among Lernaeopodidae. The author refers here to the fact that the young individuals of Vanbenedenia settle on the parent individuals and become attached to them by means of their frontal filaments, which in all other known genera are used for the attachment to the host directly. Of the 14 females examined, nine had either filaments or juvenile individuals attached to their cephalothoraces. The filaments ranged from 1 to 6 on one female, which suggests that this method of attachment is not an exception, but a normal occurrence in the genus. Three facts can account for this unusual method of settling of the free-swimming larvae; the host fish is not very common and normally does not occur in large schools; sometimes, therefore, it might be imperative for the newly-hatched parasite to gain hold of the host individual infested by the parasite’s parent. Secondly, the area of the suitable attachment site appears to be limited. V. kroyeri has never been found attached to any other part of its host, except the dorsal fin or dorsal spine. The author (Kabata, 1959) recorded as many as seven parasites on one single spine. V. chimaerae appears to be limited to BY Z. KABATA. 265 the claspers of its host, the only known record showing as many as 50 parasites on one host fish. The parasites are rather large, which again means that they must be crowded and that the only way in which they can remain in contact with the host is by getting hold of the individuals of the parent generation, densely covering the available site. The specimens, which the author examined in the course of this work, disclose the presence of at least four chalimus stages, with intervening moults, in the life history of Vanbenedenia. This fact provides a valuable addition to our imperfect knowledge of the life histories of Lernaeopodidae. Those members of the family whose life cycles have been studied so far show a tendency to the suppression of the chalimus stages, only the more primitive of them still retaining more than one chalimus stage in their development cycle. The tendency appears early in the family’s history, with the primitive genera Achtheres and Salmincola. Wilson (1911) described the development of Achtheres ambloplitis Kellicott, 1880, which had a single chalimus stage. On the other hand, Zandt (1935) found as many as five chalimus stages in the development of A. coregonorum (Kessler, 1868). He presented evidence of the primitive character of this species. (It is of interest in this context that A. ambloplitis is among those more Specialized species of its genus, which abandoned their original salmonid hosts to parasitize the more advanced percomorph fishes.) In the genus Salmincola, Friend (1941) described the one-chalimus cycle of Salmincola salmonea (Gissler, 1751). In contrast, S. mattheyi Dedie, 1940, has as many as five chalimus stages. The caligid copepods, which are presumed to be close to the ancestral line of Lernaeopodidae, include sometimes even six chalimus stages (Lewis, 1963). Lernaeoceridae also have more than one (usually four) chalimus stages (Sproston, 1941; Kabata, 1958a). It appears, therefore, that Zandt’s opinion on the primitive character of the multi-stage chalimus development in Lernaeopodidae was correct. Vanbenedenia, therefore, must be consigned among the more primitive members of the family. In describing the male of V. chimaerae, Heegaard (1961) makes no mention of its mode of attachment. Apart from the definitely segmented trunk, his male shows no differences from the chalimus specimens examined by the author. The early investigators (Olsson, 1869) depicted the male of Vanbenedenia kroyeri as being attached by its frontal filament. Wilson (1915) did not question those descriptions; neither did the author himself in his earlier work (Kabata, 1958). In view of the present work, however, this opinion must be revised. As stated above, up to chalimus II no external differences between the sexes are observable. In chalimus III female the only distinguishing feature is the elongation of the first maxillipeds, which becomes very distinct in chalimus IV. MHeegaard’s description shows no such elongation. It is, therefore, possible that his description is the first record of the male of Vanbenedenia. It is certain that neither Olsson nor the author himself described an undoubtedly male specimen in their work. The description of the development of the second maxilliped, shown in this paper, provides an excellent illustration of adaptive changes in the ontogeny of Vanbenedenia. This prehensile appendage develops progressively through the attached chalimus stages (Figs 32-34) to reach the peak at the time when the parasite is ready to relinquish the frontal filament and seek its permanent attachment to the host. At this stage, shown in Figure 40, the subchela of the second maxilliped is at its strongest, with the powerful claw, and the ventral tubercle is also strongly armed. It is obvious that the period transitional between the attachment by the frontal filament and that by the bulla requires this organ of prehension. Once the parasite becomes attached again, however, the need for prehension disappears and the second maxilliped undergoes regression, evident from Figures 17 and 18, illustrating this appendage in a young and a mature adult respectively. The changes undergone by the caudal furca in the course of development of VY. chimaerae throw some light on the fate of similar structures in other genera of 266 ADULT AND JUVENILE STAGES OF VANBENEDENIA CHIMAERAE, Lernaeopodidae. Kurz (1877) and Kabata (1964c) recorded the presence of small vestigial appendages near the centre of the posterior margin of the trunk in Clavellisa emarginata (Kréyer, 1837), while Gnanamuthu (1948) found them in his C. dussumieriae. Kurz suggested that these appendages represent the vestiges of thoracopods, a view opposed by Wilson (1915). It now seems probable that these structures, so similar in shape and position to the dwarfed caudal furca of the female V. chimaerae, are also homologous with them. Describing the alleged male of V. kroyeri, the author (Kabata, 1958) noted the peculiar cephalic armament, never previously commented on, and suggested that this must be a juvenile feature. It is now clear that these structures are, indeed, juvenile, and that the sharp, spine-lamellae must be used in preparing the host tissues for the penetration of the parasite’s bulla. SUMMARY. This paper gives a detailed description of the shape and appendages of Vanbenedenia chimaerae (Heegaard, 1962), originally described as a member of the genus Tracheliastes. The description includes the adult female and four developmental stages, referred to as chalimus I-IV. The concluding discussion asserts that morpho- logical evidence places this parasite in the genus Vanbenedenia and that the genus should be considered as a primitive member of Lernaeopodidae. On the same basis inferences are made concerning the changing role of the maxillipeds and the fate of the caudal furca in the course of development of Vanbenedenia. Acknowledgements. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Yaldwyn, Australian Museum, Sydney, in placing at the author’s disposal specimens on which this work is based and in helping with the arrangements for its publication. The author is also grateful to Dr. Heegaard, the discoverer of Vanbenedenia chimaerae, for his comments and his very helpful attitude. References. Depis, O., 1940.—£tude de Salmincola mattheyi, n. sp., copépode parasite de l’omblie-chevalier (Salmo salvelinus, L.). Rev. suisse Zool., 47: 1-63. FRIEND, G. F., 1941.—The life history and ecology of the salmon gill-maggot, Salmincola salmonea (L.). Trans. roy. Soc. Edinb., 60: 503-541. GNANAMUTHU, C. P., 1948.—A new copepod parasite, Clavellisa dussumieriae, belonging to the subfamily Clavellinae, from the gills of a Madras fish. Proc. zgool. Soc. Lond., 117: 748-755. HEEGAARD, P., 1947.—Contribution to the phylogeny of the arthropods. Copepoda. Spolia zool. Mus. Hauniensis, 8: 1-280. , 1962.—Parasitic Copepoda from Australian waters. Rec. Aust. Mus., 25 (9): 149-234. KABATA, Z., 1958.—Vanbenedenia kroyeri Malm., 1860: a rare parasitic copepod. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13), 1: 331-335. , 1958a.—Lernaeocera obtusa, n. sp.; its biology and its effects on the haddock. Mar. Res. Scot., 1958 (3): 1-26. , 1959 (1960).—Vanbenedenia kroyeri (Copepoda parasitica) : Taxonomic review and other notes. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13), 2: 731-735. ————, 1963.—Clavella (Copepoda) parasitic on British Gadidae: one species or several? Crustaceana, 5 (1): 64-74. , 1963a.—The second antenna in the taxonomy of Clavellinae (Copepoda, Lernaeopodidae). Crustaceana, 6 (1): 5-14. , 1964.—The morphology and the taxonomy of Clavellodes pagelli (Krgyer, 1863) (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae). COrustaceana, 7 (2): 103-112. , 1964a.—Revision of the genus Charopinus Krgyer, 1863 (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae). Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh. (in press). , 1964b.—Redescription of Lernaeopoda centroscylli Hansen, 1923 (Copepoda: Lernaeopopidae). J. Fish. Res. Bd Can., 21 (4): 681-689. , 1964c.—Clavellisa emarginata (Kr@gyer, 1837): Morphological study of a parasitic copepod. Crustaceana, 7 (1): 1-10. KapaTtTa, Z., and Bowman, T. E., 1961.—Revision of Tracheliastes grandis Wilson, 1915 (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae). Crustaceana, 3 (2): 120-126. Kurz, W., 1877.—Studien uber die Familie der Lernaeopodiden. JZ. wiss. Zool., 29: 380-423. BY Z. KABATA. 267 Lewis, A. G., 1963.—lLife history of the caligid copepod Lepeophtheirus dissimulatus Wilson, 1905 (Crustacea: Caligoida). Pacif. Sci., 17 (2): 195-242. Monop, T., and VLADYKov, V., 1931.—Sur quelques copépodes parasites provenant de la Russie Sous-Carpathique (Tchécoslovaquie). Ann. Parasit. hwm. comp., 9: 202-224. OLSSON, P., 1869.—Prodromus faunae copepodorum parasitantium Scandinaviae. Acta Uni. Lund., 1868: 1-49. WILson, C. B., 1911.—North American parasitic copepods, Part 9: The Lernaeopodidae. Develop- ment of Achtheres ambloplitis Kellicott. Proc. U.S. nat. Mus., 39: 189-226. ———, 1915.—North American parasitic copepods belonging to the Lernaeopodidae, with a revision of the entire family. Proc. U.S. nat. Mus., 47: 565-729. ZANDT, F., 1935.—Achtheres pseudobasanistes n. syn. Basanistes coregoni (Neresheimer), die postembryonale Entwicklung und geographische Verbreitung eines Lernaeopodiden. Zool. Jb. Anat., 60: 289-344. 268 CLASSIFICATION OF THE LORANTHACHAE AND VISCACEAE. By B. A. Bartow. Department of Botany, University of Queensland. [Read 29th July, 1964.] Synopsis. The commonly recognized subfamilies Loranthoideae and Viscoideae of the Loranthaceae sens. lat. are accepted as distinct families Loranthaceae and Viscaceae respectively. The two families differ in many features of floral morphology, floral anatomy and embryology. The features which the two families have in common are features occurring elsewhere in the order Santalales and especially in the family Santalaceae, and the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae are the result of independent, convergent evolution towards aerial parasitism. INTRODUCTION. The Loranthaceae (sens. lat.) are a group with several very distinctive features, including considerable reduction and modification in ovary structure and a specialized hemiparasitic habit. The group consequently has been the subject of several mono- graphic treatments, and most authors have regarded the common features of floral structure and life form as evidence that it constitutes a single family. Several authors have suggested, however, that the two widely accepted subfamilies Loranthoideae and Viscoideae are independent groups and recent studies, particularly in ovary development and embryology, support this view. Two families, Loranthaceae and Viscaceae, have thus been recognized. The recent authors who have accepted this treatment have not been concerned with taxonomic revision and have not provided formal diagnoses of the two families. The present author recognizes the independence of the two groups and considers it desirable to redescribe the families so as to incorporate the additional information which has become available since the first description of the Viscaceae more than a century ago. The following classification of the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae is proposed and has been adopted in taxonomic revisions which are in preparation. Further discussion of the proposed system is presented below. Classification of the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. A. Viscous layer of the fruit within the vascular bundles. Embryo sac single, of the allium type. Suspensor of the embryo absent or very short .............. Family VISCACEAE. I. Anthers 4-celled. Placenta basal. Inflorescence a simple raceme or spike ............-.- spainey es syehelaich wuspe alia: aya leviatrecatcone se eiremen one Teed eteaty are ted oviase nieve nis ss caer ies Sas Eaton peeemeige Tribe EREMOLEPIDEAE Tiegh. a. Leaves alternate. Seeds with endosperm .............. Subtribe EREMOLEPIDINAE Engl. b. Leaves opposite. Seeds without endosperm .......... Subtribe LEPIDOCERATINAE Engl. II. Anthers 2-celled. Placenta central. Embryo sac U-shaped, growing into the ovary TUSSI re, lense ane eee aia eleven SES PAREL EAE Ee REA SAAC eM aN odio, tales eucuce eels Tribe PHORADENDREAE Tiegh. a. Inflorescence a spike of triads. Anthers not cohering ...... Subtribe GINALLOINAE Engl. b. Flowers in groups at the nodes. Anthers cohering .... Subtribe KORTHALSELLINAE Engl. ce. Flowers in groups on the internodes. Anthers not cohering ..............--.-+ee-e-+e+e> CATCHER MERITS ii aac cerry aunert rs ohio ioe Sachs sacha inetecn abo) Ok RONG, iGacich REG Subtribe PHORADENDRINAE Engl. III. Anthers 1-celled. Placenta central. Embryo sac straight, ascending within the placental o(O) VEU 00s rer arene acs CMR ROR CHce Rese case oioh ene Piel ateEBvcuare 3, cilchxs, aac carmen eS Tribe ARCEUTHOBIEAE Tiegh. IV. Anthers many-celled. Placenta basal. Inflorescence an axillary cyme or raceme of CYTES rk sie eis weiss eerie heii relate avtara c Crete enti fo eiereu tate de home etree Meees estes suctte erin eeu Tribe VISCEAE Tiegh. B. Viscous layer of the fruit outside the vascular bundles. Embryo sacs several, of the polygonum type. Suspensor of the embryo very long, multiseriate ....................---- nee RRO a mae meen ocd RE eae Ce PONT its Cateye oats ree ORE he ORE EG Gee Oa Family LORANTHACEAE. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocreTy oF NEW SouTH WALES, 1964, Vol. Ixxxix, Part 2. BY B. A. BARLOW. 269 I. Placental column (mamelon) with 3-6 basal lobes and the sporogenous cells in the lobes. Ovary often 38-6-celled in the lower part. Embryo sacs confined to the mamelon. Fruit drupaceous or baccate 22... 5. ne ne ew ee ee in le Tribe ELYTRANTHEAE Dans. a. Fruit drupaceous. Pollen spherical. Terrestrial root-parasitic trees or shrubs ..........- wo. B EO. OO OO TOD CIO OORT E CHIE ERC ROR MINT cle, Cloke coe DICRe tre en ROTOR Subtribe GAIADENDRINAE Engl. b. Fruit bacecate. Pollen trilobate. Aerial stem-parasitic shrubs .....................-.- Pacer e ete a cherer chai shede capa) cietiaveuwvsie: oo falioreraveteneis) snate ie Gye SueceVn is Subtribe ELYTRANTHINAE Eng}. II. Placental column (mamelon) with 4 basal lobes containing the sporogenous cells. Ovary 4-celled in the lower part. Embryo sacs ascending more than half-way up the style. Fruit dry, tripterous. Pollen trilobate. Terrestrial root parasitic trees ................ ee eet eee ers cE see jeri oret cane tev tenters Ptsica euch yorece in sere sists. slevoneuiests Tribe NUYTSIEAE Tiegh. Ill. Placental column (mamelon) simple or absent, with the sporogenous cells in a single central mass. Ovary always 1-celled. Embryo sacs ascending in the style. Fruit VCC AC Meee Nora iy rch cero e dep'n a silos) Bs Saay opal eps tore Pileuonerel eucbarel Peusrisiterssayd Gosheyens Tribe LORANTHEAE Engl. AME SCCAS) mIVIth! CRGOOSDERIMIN US <<. aise oc eats cle) eierelayeie ciel es svereue eiepaieve Subtribe LORANTHINAE Engl. beeseeds) without endosperm «224. ..6 0.6 ces oe we ete oes fe Subtribe PSITTACANTHINAE Eng. VISCACEAE Mig. Fil. Ind. Bat., 1, 1 (1856) 803; Miers, Contrib. Bot., (1851) 39 (nom. provisorium) ; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 8 (1851) 179 (nom. provisorium); Agardh, Theoria Syst. Plant.. (1858) 114; (-acées) Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 247, 544; Maheshwari, Johri & Dixit, J. Madras Univ., B, 27 (1957) 134; Johri & Bhatnagar, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 26, B (1961) 215; Johri, Recent Adv. Emb. Angio. (1963) 410; Loranthaceae subfam. Viscoideae Engl. Pflanzenfam., 3, 1 (1889) 177; (-oidées) Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 41 (1894) 138; Dans., Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz., 11 (1931) 236; Viscales Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 247; Arceuthobiacées, Ginalloacées Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 48 (1896) 543, 544; Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 124 (1897) 656; Lepidariacées, Razoumovyv- skiacées, Hremolepidacées Tiegh., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 150 (1910) 1717, 1718. Flowers minute (usually less than 2 mm. long), monochlamydeous, unisexual. Perianth segments 2 to 4, valvate. Stamens opposite the perianth segments, adnate to them or free; anthers 1- to many-celled, opening by pores; pollen spherical. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with a short placental column containing the sporogenous cells; ovules absent; embryo sac single, developing from one cell of a dyad (allium type). confined to the placental column or extending into the adjacent ovary tissue. Fruit baccate, the viscous layer within the vascular bundles; cleavage of the zygote usually transverse; suspensor absent or very short. Hemiparasitic shrubs on the branches of trees; haustorial attachment single, without runners. Leaves mostly opposite and curvineryous, occasionally alternate or absent. The Viscaceae include 11 genera and about 450 species, of which the largest genera are Phoradendron (about 250 spp. in America), Viscum (about 65 spp. in the Old World) and Dendrophthora (about 60 spp. in Central and South America). The family is widespread in all continents but has its richest development in tropical and sub- tropical areas. It is poorly represented in Australia, where Viscum (5 spp.), Notothizos (4 spp.) and Korthalsella (2 spp.) are largely confined to the northern and eastern coastal and subcoastal districts. Infrafamilial categories. The Viscaceae (as Loranthaceae Viscoideae) have had a relatively stable taxonomic history and there has been general agreement among authors on classification within the group. The treatment adopted here is that of Engler and Krause (1935), without any change in rank in the infrafamilial categories. In view of the incomplete knowledge of floral structures and reproductive processes. modification of the system would be premature at this stage. In any case the present data conform fairly closely with the current system and show reasonable uniformity within the family, and the recognition of subfamilies may not be justified. LORANTHACEAE D. Don. Prodr. fl. nepal., (1825) 142; Mig., Fl. Ind. Bat., 1, 1 (1856) 807; Agardh, Theoria Syst. Plant., (1858) 117; (-acées) Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 247; Loranthaceae subfam. Loranthoideae Engl., Pflanzenfam., 3, 1 (1889) 177; (-oidées) Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 41 (1894) 138; Dans., Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz., 11 (1931) 235: Loranthales 270 CLASSIFICATION OF THE LORANTHACEAE AND VISCACEAE, Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 247; Elytranthacées, Nuytsiacées Tiegh., Bull. Soc- bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 247; Dendrophthoacées, Treubellacées Tiegh., Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43 (1896) 543; Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 124 (1897) 656; Nuytsiales, Elytranthales Tiegh., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 150 (1910) 1716; Lepidariacées, Gaiadendracées, Treubaniacées Tiegh., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 150 (1910) 1717, 1718. Flowers mostly more than 5 mm. long, dichlamydeous, hermaphrodite or, when unisexual, mostly dioecious. Calyx reduced to a lobed or truncate limb at the apex of the ovary, without vascular bundles. Corolla polypetalous or gamopetalous, usually actinomorphiec, consisting of 4-12 segments, valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, opposite them and epipetalous; anthers primarly 2- or 4-celled (sometimes with transverse partitions), mostly basifixed and immobile but sometimes dorsifixed and then usually versatile, opening longitudinally; pollen mostly trilobate, rarely triangular or spherical. Ovary inferior, 1- to several-celled, with or without a central placental column (mamelon); ovules absent; sporogenous tissue massive, located in the mamelon or at the base of the ovarian cavity; embryo sacs several, developing from one cell of a tetrad (polygonum type), considerably elongated, confined to the mamelon or ascending in the style, and developing basal caeca which reach a collenchymatous pad at the base of the ovary. Fruit mostly baccate (rarely dry or drupaceous), the viscous layer, when present, outside the vascular bundles; cleavage of the zygote vertical; suspensor long, biseriate; endosperm compound. Hemiparasitic terrestrial root-parasitic shrubs or trees, or aerial stem-parasitic shrubs. Leaves mostly opposite. The Loranthaceae sens. str. include about 65 genera and 850 species, and are well represented in the tropics of both hemispheres, with a lesser number of species in temperate habitats. The Loranthaceous floras of Africa; Asia-Australasia and America are all rather different in character and the three areas represent major secondary centres of development. The family is represented in Australia by 12 genera (seven of them endemic) and about 65 species, and is distributed throughout the mainland. Infrafamilial categories. The taxonomic proposals of Danser (1933) for the family have been widely accepted. Further anatomical and embryological investigations may necessitate modification of the scheme, but it is proposed for convenience to follow Danser’s system, without change in rank, at this stage. On the basis of ovary structure (Narayana, 1958) tribe Nuytsieae probably should be reduced to a subtribe of Elytrantheae. .The distinction of subtribe Psittacanthinae on the absence of endosperm is probably not justified (MacBride, 1937), and the group is probably unnatural. DISCUSSION. Miers (1851a) drew attention to the differences distinguishing Viscum, which was then taken in a broad sense, including the present genus Phoradendron, from the remainder of the Loranthaceae. The differences included the minute flower size, the unisexual, monochlamydeous flowers, the almost sessile anthers opening by pores and the sessile, clustered flowers. Miers also noted that Viscwm had spherical pollen whereas that of the Loranthaceae available to him was trilobate. He considered Viscum to have a close affinity with the Santalaceae but regarded the remaining Loranthaceae as being more closely related to the Proteaceae. Miers proposed the raising of Viscum, together with Lepidoceras and Myzodendron, to family rank as the Viscaceae, but as an alternative suggested that they may be treated as a subfamily of the Santalaceae, thereby invalidating his description of the family Viscaceae. Miers’ views were repeated soon afterwards in a second article on the same topic (Miers, 1851b). Miquel (1856) accepted Miers’ first proposal and gave detailed descriptions of the Loranthaceae (sens. str.) and Viscaceae, attributing the latter name to Miers. A family Viscaceae was also recognized and described by Agardh (1858), who based his conclusions on floral characters but made no reference to the works of the earlier authors. The recognition of a family Viscaceae by Van Tieghem (1896a, b, 1897, 1910) was due to his use of new criteria for classification of the angiosperms and has little bearing on the present treatment. BY B. A. BARLOW. 271 Even though Miers’, Miquel’s and Agardh’s conclusions were based on a limited range of material, there are few exceptions known to the criteria on which they distinguished the families, and each appears to be a relatively uniform group within itself. In the Loranthaceae the few occurrences of unisexual flowers are in distantly related groups and are presumably of independent origins. Small flowers (less than 10 mm. long) are rare and in one American genus only are they of the minute size of the Viscaceae. Spherical pollen in the Loranthaceae is known only in Atkinsonia and Tupeia and in each case the grains have distinctive features and show little evidence of a closer affinity with the Viscaceae than with other groups in the Santalales. Only in the male flowers of Tupeia is a truly monochlamydeous condition known in the Loranthaceae. These differences between the two groups could thus be considered to justify their treatment as distinct families although the work of the earlier authors was largely overlooked. Most recent support for this approach, however, has arisen from embryological studies (Maheshwari, 1954, 1958; Maheshwari, Johri and Dixit, 1957; Johri and Bhatnagar, 1961), which have demonstrated several other differences in flower development and fruit structure, and Johri and his co-workers have adopted this treatment in several embryological reports (cf. Johri, Agrawal and Garg, 1957). In the Viscaceae the embryo sac is single, of the allium type (cf. Maheshwari, 1950), and is confined to the placental column or adjacent ovary tissue. The embryo sacs in the Loranthaceae are several, of the polygonum type; they elongate into the style and they develop caeca from the lower ends which reach a collenchymatous pad or tube at the base of the ovary. The first cleavage of the zygote in the Loranthaceae is vertical, and the embryo is pushed downwards by a long biseriate suspensor into a compound endosperm formed from several embryo sacs. In the Viscaceae the zygote commonly cleaves transversely, the suspensor is small or absent, and the endosperm is not composite. The two families are also distinguished constantly by the positions of the viscous layer in the fruit, being outside the vascular bundles in the Loranthaceae and within them in the Viscaceae, so that the mechanism for bird dispersal may have arisen independently in each group. | Most of the characters which the two families have in common are also features of the Santalaceae, where hemiparasitism is common (mostly root parasitism) and there are various degrees of reduction and suppression of ovules and elongation of embryo sacs (Johri and Bhatnagar, 1961). It is most likely that the two groups have had independent origins from ancestral stocks in the Santalaceae, so that by placing them in a single family they constitute a diphyletic and therefore unnatural group. The “new” characters which the groups share are the aerial habit, which in fact has been discovered in other families of Santalales and which therefore has probably originated several times, and the baccate fruits, which are a consequence of the aerial habit and of independent development. The basic chromosome number of the Loranthaceae (sens. str.) is n = 12 (Barlow, 1963). Polyploidy appears to be entirely absent and chromosome evolution has involved progressive aneuploid reduction to n = 8, the various basic numbers conforming with taxonomic grouping and degree of advancement. In the Viscaceae fewer numbers are known, but the basic number is apparently higher and chromosome evolution independent. A low frequency of polyploidy is known in the Viscaceae (Barlow, 1963, 1964). The few known numbers of the Santalaceae (Darlington and Wylie, 1955; Love and Love, 1961) indicate a greater range of basic numbers and a higher incidence of , polyploidy and secondary diploidy, which conforms with the suggestion that the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae have arisen from cytologically different stocks. The Loranthaceae and Viscaceae are thus relatively uniform groups characterized by a high degree of reduction in the ovary and by a hemiparasitic habit, these being features also of the Santalaceae, from which they have independently arisen. While it is possible that further investigations may demonstrate independent groups within these taxa, the present treatment is considered the most satisfactory reflection of their phyletic position. 272 CLASSIFICATION OF THE LORANTHACEAE AND VISCACEAE, Acknowledgements. The author is grateful to Dr. A. A. Bullock, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Mr. L. A. S. Johnson, National Herbarium of New South Wales, Sydney, and Dr. S. T. Blake, Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, for their advice and encouragement. References. AGARDH, J. G., 1858.—Theoria Systematis Plantarum. Bartow, B. A., 1963.—Studies in Australian Loranthaceae. IV. Chromosome numbers and their relationships. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 88: 151-160. , 1964.—A contribution to a knowledge of the Loranthaceae of New Guinea. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qd, 75: 13-18. DANSER, B. H., 1933.—A new system for the genera of Loranthaceae Loranthoideae, with a nomenclator for the Old World species of this subfamily. Verh. Akad. Wet. Amst. afd. Natuurk., 2, 29 (6): 128 pp. DARLINGTON, C. D., and Wyuin, A. P., 1955.—Chromosome Atlas of Flowering Plants. (Allen & Unwin: London.) ENGLER, A., and KRAUSE, K., 1935.—Loranthaceae. Nat. Pflanzenfam., 2, 16B: 98-203. JoHRI, B. M., AGRAWAL, J. S., and GarG, S., 1957.—Morphological and embryological studies in the family Loranthaceae. I. Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Dans. Phytomorphology, 7: 336-354. JOHRI, B. M., and BHATNAGAR, S. P., 1961.—Embryology and taxonomy of the Santalales. I. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. Ind., 26, B (suppl.) : 199-220. Lovs, A., and Lovg, D., 1961.—Chromosome numbers of central and northwest European plant species. Op. Bot. (und), 5: 1-581. MACBRIDE, J. F., 1937.—Loranthaceae. Flora of Peru, 2, 2: 375-416 (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.: New York). MAHESHWARI, P., 1950.—An Introduction to the Embryology of the Angiosperms (McGraw- Hill: New York). j ———,, 1954.—Proc. Int. Bot. Congr., Paris, Sects. 7 and 8: 254-255. , 1958.—Embryology and Taxonomy. Mem. Ind. Bot. Soc., 1: 1-9. MAHESHWARI, P., JoHRI, B. M., and Dixit, S. N., 1957.—The floral morphology and embryology of the Loranthoideae (Loranthaceae). J. Madras Univ., 27B: 121-136. Miers, J., 1851a.—Contrib. Bot., 1: 37-40. ————, 1851b.—Observations on the affinities of the Olacaceae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 8: 161-184. MIQUEL, F., 1856.—Viscaceae. Fl. Ind. Bat., 1, 1: 803-804. NARAYANA, R., 1958.—Morphological and embryological studies in the family Loranthaceae. Ill. Nuytsia floribunda (Labill.) R.Br. Phytomorphology, 8: 306-323. VAN TIEGHEM, P., 1896a.—Quelques conclusions d’un travail sur les Loranthinées. Bull. Soe. bot. Fr., 438: 241-256. ————, 1896b.—Sur les Phanérogames a ovule sans nucelle, formant le groupe des Innucellées ou Santalinées. Bull. Soc. bot. Fr., 43: 543-577. , 1897.—Sur les Inséminées sans ovules, formant la subdivision des Inovulées ou Loranthinées. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 124: 655-660. , 1910.—Classification nouvelle du groupe des Inovulées. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 150: 1715-1720. NITROGEN ECONOMY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID PLANT COMMUNITIES. Part III. THe Symsrotic NITROGEN-FIXING ORGANISMS. By N. C. W. BrapLeE, Department of Botany, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. {Read 29th July, 1964.] Synopsis. Of the 80 legumes investigated from the arid and semi-arid areas of eastern Australia, at least 68 produce effective rhizobial nodules (Mimosaceae and Papilionaceae) ; Caesalpiniaceae do not nodulate. Herbaceous species usually nodulate freely and many of them fix highly significant amounts of nitrogen. Some species of Acacia nodulate sporadically and tardily in the seedling condition and this is probably of significance with regard to regeneration, especially on eroded soils. Five species of Rhizobium occur and these are distributed discontinuously. Most soils contain at least one species of Rhizobium. Rhizobial populations are likely to be reduced or removed by soil movement under the action of wind. INTRODUCTION. In a previous publication (Beadle and Tchan, 1955) the widespread death of Acacia aneura (mulga), particularly in western New South Wales, and the consequent depletion of the sandy soils of their organic matter by the winnowing action of the wind were discussed as an introduction to the nitrogen economy of arid and semi-arid soils. Tchan and Beadle (1955) assessed quantitatively the possible accessions of soil nitrogen by non-symbiotic organisms. The present paper deals qualitatively with the native legume-rhizobia systems, the data including nodulation records chiefly from field observations, the approximate distribution of the rhizobia of certain of the common native legumes, and an assessment of the significance of the various species as nitrogen-fixers in the plant communities in which they occur. Data on the introduced legumes (chiefly Trifolieac) will be presented in another paper. The area covered in the field survey lies west of the 15-inch isohyet in western New South Wales and Queensland, between the Murray River and the highway linking Charleville and Windorah; isolated records come also from the Lake Eyre and Lake Amadeus Basins, and the Alice Springs and Oodnadatta districts. The plant com- munities in the main area of study are mentioned in Table 1; they have been described by Beadle (1948). Relatively little work has been done on the inland legumes; some data on a few of the species, or on other species of common inland genera found in more humid regions, have been investigated with regard to nodulation (listed by Bowen, 1956, and unpublished data of Allen and Allen in personal communications). NODULATION. The roots of about 80 legume species have been examined in the field for the occurrence of nodules and 68 of these are reported on (Table 1). The remaining twelve, on which a definite statement cannot yet be made, may nodulate. Included in these twelve and of particular significance with regard to nitrogen economy (because they are community-dominants or abundant species) are Acacia pendula A. Cunn. (Myall), A. harpophylla F. Muell. (Brigalow), A. cambagei R. T. Baker (Gidgee), A. loderi Maiden, and A. excelsa Benth. (Ironwood); on all of these five species what appear to be nodule-scars have been recorded. The remaining inland species, including those which have been examined and those not, are rare in the field so that, even if PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Socirty oF New SoutH WALES, 1964, Vol. lxxxix, Part 2. 274 NITROGEN ECONOMY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID PLANT COMMUNITIES. III, they nodulate abundantly, their contribution to the fixed nitrogen in their respective communities must be small. The data in Table 1 lead to the two generalizations: Firstly, with the exception of Trigonella, no genus is confined by a limited set of habitat conditions; this has some bearing on the distribution of specific rhizobia, which is discussed below. Secondly, members. of the Papilionaceae and Mimosaceae nodulate in the field (with a very few exceptions), whereas Caesalpiniaceae do not. Additional information from field observations, supplemented by pot tests made in the glasshouse, lead to the following comments and conclusions: 1. Failure to record nodules. This may be due to one or more of the following: (a) inability of the plant to nodulate; (0b) absence of suitable rhizobia; (c) dry conditions at the time of digging when the nodules become desiccated and fragment, or the breaking off of nodules during sampling, especially in soils which form hard clods. By growing plants from seed in soil collected from around the roots of the same species (referred to as “own soil’), additional information was collected which provided the explanation for the absence of nodules from certain species. For example, Cassia artemisioides plants failed to produce nodules when supplied with cultured Cassia rhizobia, which suggests inability to nodulate; Acacia oswaldii and A. colletioides failed to produce nodules when grown in their own soil (from the mallee) but nodulated when supplied with Acacia rhizobia from crushed nodules from A. rubida, which implies an absence of rhizobia from the soil; Glycyrrhiza anthocarpa plants grown in their own soil to the 14-leaf stage produced only one nodule per plant, which probably indicates low numbers of the appropriate rhizobium in the field. Such observations are recorded in Table 1, column 5; a more detailed discussion of some of these points is given below. 2. Nodulation and soil moisture. Nodules are formed after rain and the life of the nodule is determined by the duration of moisture in the soil. Probably nodules rarely reach their maximum potential size, even in the case of annuals; this is suggested by the sizes of nodules developed on plants grown in pots, which are invariably larger than those in the field for both annual and perennial species. The only possible exceptions are the short-lived annuals, notably Trigonella suavissima. After the soils have dried out and the nodules have fragmented, nodule-scars are sometimes discernible on the roots. Perennial nodules probably rarely occur. Since moisture plays a significant part in the abundance of nodules, the number of nodules per unit length of root usually increases (a) from arid to semi-arid (or wetter) for those species which have a wide climatic range and (0b) in the same stand of a single species which spreads over a varying microtopography. The second condition is exemplified by Psoralea eriantha and Swainsona burkittii, both of which occur on sand dunes; on the crests of dunes nodules are rare and small (1—2 mm.) and white in colour (ineffectiveness is assumed), whereas at the bases of the dunes or in depressions where water lodges, nodules are larger and apparently effective. Plants of Psoralea eriantha grown in their own soil (sand from dune crests) in pots produced large effective nodules suggesting that inadequate moisture supply in the field is responsible for the small size of the nodules. 3. Position of nodules on the roots. From field and glasshouse data, nodules for both annuals and perennials may develop on either the taproot or lateral roots. In the field, the clustering of nodules at the top of the taproot has been observed in some species, notably species of Psoralea, and Lotus coccineus; the phenomenon is possibly due to the moister condition of the upper soil layers as a result of light showers of rain which fall after the plants have become established as seedlings or recommenced growth. Such nodules are often on short laterals. 4. Depth of nodules in soil. The location of nodules is determined partly by the distribution of the root system and partly by the rate at which the soils dry out. In the case of woody perennials, nodules rarely occur in the surface 10 em.; they have been recorded in the case of Acacia aneura at a depth of 100 cm. In sandy soils (for annuals or perennials) nodules are rare in the surface 10 cm. of soil; in soils of heavy 275 N. ©. W. 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SEMI-ARID PLANT ANID IN ARID CONOMY vi I N NITROG 280 “830d Ul [IOs UAO Ul UMOIS syueld uo podojea -ep se[npou ON ‘ouo0U Alquqorg ‘sjueid poyjod uo uol -B[NpOU 9ONpUI 04 poTieyz eIqozTyI DISSVO paIny[NO *s4od UI]IOSs WMO UI UMOIS D)1YdoUlaLa * IO sapio “stay *“O JO syurjd uo pepr0o -o1 SamMpou ON ‘auou A[qeqoig ‘auou ATqeqoilg ‘qUBOBTUZIS “qUROpTIUDIG ‘queogiusis A[qeqolg “JUeOIUSISUT “‘queoylusisur A[qeqoig ‘s30d Ul [IOS UMO JI9Y} Ul UMOIS sjyUR;d UO pedojeaasp useq you savy soynpoN “‘JUVOPIUSISUT “stole Plie-Tues UL AT[eloedse “gueBOyIUsIC a “SqUSWIMOD [VUOT}Ippy *sind0Q 41 YOY UT soltunMOD Ul UOMNeXTY UWeso01zIN Ul oMINSaT ay} JO sdULOPIUSIC poyeMysT ag *popioder you soyNpoN *papioder you so_NnpoN “poeploser you samnpon “BuO, “WUE G Of dn ‘[eolIpulpAd 04 Ie~NqoyyH ‘uowWOD “ssoloe “WU 2 0} dn ‘IeMSIII OF Tejnqopy “wowTtIOD “ssoloe ‘Wd [ 0} “proyje1oo ‘su1yeomy “Iq ‘[eolIpuyAQ ‘arer Apysoy ‘WIP “WU Z ‘IeyNqoyTyH ‘oIey “WeIp “WU g§ ‘Te_ngo[y ‘areyzy *SSOIO¥ “UD [T “PlO[[eV10d 10 : “WeIp “WM ¢—Z ‘IeINQoTy ‘are “BUO, “WU 9 0} dn ‘TeopulyAg ‘uowu0g ‘ozIg pue edeyy seu) ‘plela ay} Ul Se—MpON jo souepunqy + “spueg “a1VY = *Y4IOU A[UIeW { ply ‘sqnios Ul sotuyoutos ‘sdo10jno AyooI Ayens~ ‘spueg ‘moUlUIOD AT[Vo0, = SOULeWIOS ‘oIeVI ATTenSp ‘yjIou :piuy ‘sounp pues jo soseg “AVHOVINIDTVSAVO “SYyanIB *NT SW ‘sfepo Ayyens— “UOTUMOD SOWMIIJOTIOG “YQIOU * ple “Tes ATUIVT ‘“svore ssofoery ‘spurt -pooM ‘sesIMooioyVM ‘AIQUNOD MOGIZAQ ‘s[ios Apues pue [eqopoys { ske[o *SOSINODTOZVM UT SOMIUNWWULOD OYTOeds -OUOW STUIOJ U9}IJOQ “YINOS pue yQIOU ‘py ‘sesmooryem Ivou ATensQ ‘spueg ‘Oley “MSN Tet}U9 = PHe-TWleg =“ 8aT BIL *S[IOS [eJoTOys pus Spuvg “WOWWOS setMeM0S ‘yjI07 ‘ple AjureyY ‘sounp ‘sespiz Ax00y “SARIQ ‘oley ‘YJnos pue yyJIOu ‘ ple-Tues pue ‘ply ‘sosImooreqe AA “‘spuvs 0} SAvIQ ‘ley ‘yynos pue you ‘ply ‘sounp uo AjeIvI ‘sosinodiejVM IvIu IO UT “s[los Apuvg “UOWUIOD AT[VOOT “YINOS ‘ pHv-TWes puv ply ‘ooyeu ATUIey, “panuyuoo— HV AOVSOWIN ‘SOS “PIOMT 04} ul couepunqy ‘souoZ PIV-lweg pue pHy Ur syeyqey ‘$ "ysIy “WZ 0} qniyg "ysTY “Weg 0} sqnayg ‘aa14 [[VWS 10 qniys Tey, ‘qniys Juaquinoorg ‘qniys yUequinoo1g ‘YsIy “WF OF qniyg "Yay “WZ 0} qniyg “Ysly “Weg OF qniys “qSIY “UL GT 0} 901, “Ysiy “AI OT 0} 9019 [BUS IO ‘qniyg "YSIy “UI gZ 0} sqniyg “‘qae[d JO qe “IG saprosyouqy) swAjsojnjag TEU Myings ‘O “TPN A vdivo01najd -p “IG YW vaurporiyd 9 “uuny vy DYydouasa *~Q “TaN A 0ivj0sap ‘O “YSIpNey saprorsvuaqun nissvp TPN A wuuo.wms numynog “(PN TL vusadsouow * Ay “‘ylueg syonsb viunjdan ‘AVGUGHINVNAGY OIL, “qyUeg anLlojora “7 ‘yyueg viajdiuy *P TOMA yprydouodnya - 7 ‘uunD' Vy vyjiydouas “py ‘[PULT vuroyos “¥ ‘UUND' VW suabu 7 ‘panuyuojg—'T ATAViL, BY N. C. W. BEADLE. 281 texture, especially when subject to flooding (when they remain moist for periods of weeks), nodules on annuals and herbaceous perennials may occur as little as 1 cm. below the surface. 5. Annual variation in abundance of nodules. Those species which nodulate in the field produce nodules after rain at any time of the year, or during the appropriate season in the case of seasonal annuals. However, for certain species at least, the number of nodules produced from year to year or from season to season is by no means constant, but appears to vary with the interval between rains—the longer the interval the larger the number of nodules. The phenomenon was first observed in Swainsona procumbens which, during one good season following a dry spell of about three years at Fowler’s Gap, north of Broken Hill, produced nodules at the rate of one per 2 cm. of root; one year later during a second good growing season for this species (which is an unusual occurrence) plants in the same area produced nodules at the rate of one per 50 cm. of root. A similar behaviour has been observed on two later occasions for this species in other parts of the State, and also for Trigonella suavissima. Likewise, similar variations in the nodulation pattern have been observed on marked plants of Acacia aneura. Suppression of nodulation of exotic herbaceous legumes through the accumulation of nitrate is a well-known phenomenon, and it is probable that the native legumes, both herbaceous and woody, are behaving in a similar fashion. This is of interest and of economic importance in so far as the suppression of nodulation must inevitably tend to limit the total nitrogen capital in the communities, especially the herbaceous ones. Unfortunately the problem is one that cannot be studied satisfactorily in the field since successive favourable years or seasons are the exception rather than the rule. TABLE 2. Time of Nodulation, Expressed in Terms of the Number of Leaves on the Seedling (excluding Cotyledons) when the First Nodule was Observed. Species. Number of Leaves. Lotus coccineus 3 Psoralea eriantha 4 P. patens BS a ot ae an 3 Swainsona procumbens £3 AE Pe AY 4 Trigonella suavissima ae ae es .. Cotyledon stage Acacia aneura .. os a me aye .. Usually 3 to 7 A. colletioides .. $y, Pe 1 ! 8 3 About 25 A. estrophiolata 5c Be ae Me ae 8 A. oswaldii Sg se ie id as or About 15 A. tetragonophylla i or ats ae ar 6 A. victoriae Be ae Esk af, a ee 4 A. rubida Be ot We oat ays ae 3 6. Age of plant and nodulation. In Table 2 the ages of plants, expressed in terms of leaf number, at which the first nodules have been observed, are given. Trigonella suavissima is noteworthy because of its early infection. Dry land acacias, on the other hand, nodulate sporadically and tardily, and warrant further discussion. It is probable that all species of Acacia are capable of nodulation if supplied with the appropriate rhizobia (Bowen, 1956). The difficulties in recording nodules on some of the inland species is due partly to lack of rhizobia in certain soils (discussed in the next section), partly to the generally dry conditions leading to infrequent nodula- tion, and partly also by what appears to be a paucity of suitable sites on the root for infection, which results in tardy or sporadic nodulation. This last condition has been recorded for four of the inland species that have been studied in pot culture (A. aneura, A. colletioides, A. estrophiolata and A. oswaldii). In contrast, A. tetragonophylla and A. victoriae nodulate fairly regularly at the stated stages (Table 2). 982 NITROGEN ECONOMY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID PLANT COMMUNITIES. III, Tardy or sporadic nodulation means that the species in question (particularly A. aneura) are unreliable as test plants for the recovery of rhizobia from soils, and the use of A. aneura for this purpose had to be abandoned. As a substitute, A. rwbida, a tableland species, was used in all tests, and in most cases both this species and A. aneura were sown in the same pot, thus enabling a comparison of the nodulation pattern of the two species to be made, with the following results: Firstly, when supplied with abundant rhizobia from crushed nodules, A. rubida nodulated at the three-leaf stage and nodules continued to form at the rate of two or three for each added leaf, up to the 12-leaf stage. A. aneura, on the other hand, grown in the same pot nodulated rarely at the 3-leaf stage but usually before the 7-leaf stage; the single nodule became very large (1-2 cm. across) and remained as the sole nodule on the plant up to the 12-leaf stage (in some cases a second or third much smaller nodule developed). Secondly, when the two species were grown together in soils from the A. aneura scrub, A. rubida nodulated as described above, but at the 12-leaf stage the number of nodules per plant was often fewer than 20, suggesting a lower rhizobial population in the soil than under the first condition. Acacia aneura rarely nodulated before the 7-leaf stage and rarely produced a second nodule before the 12-leaf stage. An examination of the root systems showed the following contrasting characters: A. rubida produced a much-branched root system, white in colour. The roots of A. aneura in contrast are branched but little, and are heavily pigmented with what are assumed to be tannin derivatives, so that they are brown. Seedlings of A. aneura at the 7-leaf stage usually had taproots 60 cm. long and a total root length of about 200 cm. (longest recorded 308 cm., with no nodules). These seedlings of A. aneura, grown in their own soil, were invariably stunted, with phyllodes 2—3 cm. long which frequently showed the yellowing indicative of N-deficiency. This yellowing disappeared in later- formed phyllodes, when nodulation had occurred. If these data are typical of A. aneura seedlings, they suggest that nodulation sites occur at the rate of one per 100 cm. of root. This figure, however, does not apply to mature plants in the field where nodules have been recovered from established plants at the rate of three or four per 10 cm. of root. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF RHIZOBIA. Some observations on the distribution of the rhizobia of five genera have been made, sufficient to provide a general picture on the presence or absence in most plant communities. The data have been accumulated from field records supplemented by testing soils from 140 sites for rhizobia by the growing of seedlings. Most of the soils selected for investigation did not support nodulated legumes in tne field (except assumed nodules on Acacia aneura); one or more species were grown in the soils (A. rubida, Psoralea patens, Lotus coccineus and Trigonella suavissima). Although controlled cross-inoculation tests were not carried out (except for Psoralea), there is every reason to believe, both from experiences of other workers (Norris, n.d.) and from the soil tests mentioned above, that cross-infection between the legumes tested does not occur, and consequently it is to be concluded that at least five specific populations of rhizobia are present in the arid and semi-arid regions. Table 3 presents the data on distribution. The following points are of interest. 1. With the exception of the Casuarina scrubs and most of the arid mallee, all soils contain at least one species of Rhizobium. The absence of rhizobia from these two communities is perhaps not unexpected, since they contain extremely few legumes, through which rhizobial populations could be built up. Or perhaps the converse is true: the absence of rhizobia prevents or retards invasion by legumes. Furthermore, some of the mallee areas are extremely low in soil phosphate (about 15-20 p.p.m. HCl-soluble P), which factor may contribute towards the exclusion of both legumes and rhizobia. 2. Widespread throughout the entire area are the rhizobia of Acacia, Lotus and Psoralea. The rhizobia of Acacia and Lotus were recorded in soils collected from the BY N. C. W. BEADLE. 283 mulga scrub on stable dunes in the Lake Amadeus Basin, and that of Psoralea from heavy saline soils (abundantly nodulated plants) from the Lake Hyre Basin. 3. Within any community the populations of all species of rhizobia vary in space, presumably since populations are built up by societies of legumes. However, rhizobia of the herbaceous legumes have been recovered from soils which do not support the legume in the field; this may be an illusion, partly since crops of herbaceous legumes appear sporadically after the infrequent rains and partly since grazing by domestic stock has removed legumes over large areas or decreased their abundance. The distribution of the 'Trigonella rhizobium is especially perplexing: Trigonella suavissima occurs almost entirely on soils of heavy texture, chiefly along the major watercourses, around the inland lakes, and on some of the treeless plains, for example the Hay plains where it was first recorded by Mitchell (1838) at Lake Waljeers. Before the studies on the distribution of Rhizobium meliloti were made by Hely and Brockwell (1960), it was thought that Trigonella was infected only by the rhizobia from Melilotus. These two writers, however, show that R. meliloti from arid and semi-arid soils can infect and in some cases fix nitrogen in association with some species of Medicago. These findings must be viewed with caution with regard to the Trigonella rhizobium, since species of Medicago (chiefly M. hispida, M. minima and WM. laciniata) now occur in TABLE 3. Approximate Distribution of the Rhizobia of Acacia, Psoralea, Lotus, Swainsona and Trigonella according to Plant Community and/or Topography. + indicates present, — probably absent, -- mostly present, + mostly absent. Acacia. Psoralea. Lotus. Swainsona. Trigonella. Moving dune-crests (arid) Dry sandy creek beds (arid) Acacia aneura scrubs on stable anes A. aneura scrubs on rocky ridges (tops) A. aneura scrubs on rocky ridges (bottoms and aie) Mallee (arid) Mallee (semi-arid) . Casuarina cristata serubs (Gaia) Atriplex vesicaria on stony downs A. vesicaria on plains Astrebla pectinata grassland se Eucalyptus populnea—Acacia shrub waetinag. River flats (Darling R.) River flats (semi-arid) ] | HHHH b+Ht+t++H+1 +H ] ++H+++ 1H I +1 +H HH + | +HH+t+ + as a= Be He HE the west-Darling country both along and remote from the main rivers and, in the case of M. hispida, the plants are nodulated with rhizobia which will not infect Trigonella (tested by the present writer), which suggests that strains of R. meliloti are introduced with the Medicago and that the medics are not necessarily infected by the Trigonella rhizobia that originally existed. The presence of nodulated medics on sandy soils where Trigonella does not exist and has probably never existed supports this view. The finding of Vincent and Waters (unpublished data, quoted in Vincent, 1962) are relevant, namely, that isolates from M. laciniata will infect Trigonella, whereas isolates from other species of Medicago will not; this seems to explain the distribution of the Trigonella rhizobium provided by the present writer’s observations from pot tests on 76 soil samples from the field. Of these samples, none are known to support Trigonella and about half were collected in the semi-arid zone where effectively nodulated medics are known to occur or are likely to occur. The Trigonella rhizobium was recovered from only five of these samples; one record, north of Tibooburra on the stony downs, can possibly be explained by the one-time presence of Trigonella in this area; the remaining four records from the Cobar and Bourke districts, on the grounds of Vincent and Waters’ data, seem likely to be recoveries from Medicago laciniata, which species, abundantly and effectively nodulated, has been recorded by the writer in the Cobar district. H 284 NITROGEN ECONOMY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID PLANT COMMUNITIES. III, 4. Rhizobia occur irrespective of soil texture. From the data available, populations of rhizobia are highest in sandy loams (except Trigonella). This is probably due to the abundance of legumes on such soils. This finding is in sharp contrast with the requirements of R. trifolii introduced into Western Australia where persistence of the rhizobia in sandy soils has proved difficult or impossible (Burvill, 1962; Parker, 1962). The ecological tolerances of the native rhizobia would thus appear to be different from those of R. trifolii. Furthermore, since different species of Acacia, Psoralea and Swainsona are in most cases confined to different kinds of soil, different strains of rhizobia may well exist. 5. Psoralea patens and Lotus coccineus occur on both saline and non-saline soils and nodulation may be abundant on both kinds of soil. A high salt tolerance of the rhizobia must be assumed from field evidence, a point which has been confirmed by Charley (unpublished data) in the laboratory, the rhizobia tolerating salt levels of 0:6 M. NaCl (in 2% agar), whereas germination of the seed and/or growth of seedlings of Psoralea patens were prevented by 0:2 to 0:3 M. NaCl. HFFICIENCY OF THE N—FIxIngc MECHANISMS. Some doubt has always existed as to whether the inland legumes are efficient nitrogen fixers, the doubt having arisen chiefly through the difficulty in recovering nodules in the field at any time when the legume happens to be dug. For reasons already discussed, absence of nodules at any one time does not imply that abundant fixation does not occur; conversely the presence of nodules on a plant cannot be used to indicate that the whole of the nitrogen in the plant has been derived from these nodules, since the plant may be absorbing free nitrate from the soil. It follows, there- fore, that precise quantitative estimates of nitrogen fixation cannot be made merely by weighing and analysing crops of plants or leaves as they appear. In order to test the efficiency of the nodules in fixing nitrogen and to compare growth by rhizobial fixation with that through absorption from nitrate solution, herbaceous plants and acacias were grown in the glasshouse, one set being fed with Hoagland’s solution, the other with a nitrate-free solution based on Hoagland’s solution and with the addition of specific rhizobia for each species. The herbaceous species used were Swainsona fissimontana, Trigonella suavissima, Lotus coccineus, Psoralea patens, P. eriantha. Nodulated plants in all cases grew as rapidly as the plants fed on Hoagland’s solution and produced the same amount of dry matter. The tardy nodulation of the acacias rendered the comparison between nodulated and nitrate-fed plants useless. That fixation occurs, however, was apparent by the sudden increase in growth rate of seedlings, which coincided with the incidence of nodulation. Furthermore, analyses of leaves of ten effectively nodulated herbaceous species from the field gave N-contents (dry weight) ranging between 3:1% and 55%. The presumably ineffectively nodulated Psoralea eriantha had a N-content of 2:9%. Nodulated acacias from the field had a much higher N-content (about 2:0%) than Hakea leucoptera (0:-5%), a sclero- phyllous species growing with A. aneura. These data suggest a significant N-fixing capacity in the field for those species which nodulate and a significant contribution to the N-capital of the community by those species which occur abundantly. The quantitative aspects will be dealt with in detail in a later publication. DISPERSAL AND SURVIVAL OF RHIZOBIA. Opportunities for dispersal of rhizobia are afforded by water movement along rivers and creeks and by the action of wind. Since the advent of white man and domestic stock in the inland, movement of soil by both water and wind has been greatly increased; exotic legumes and their rhizobia have been introduced, particularly in the wetter areas of eastern Australia, and from these areas and through the agency of the rivers which flow inland legumes, with or without their specific rhizobia, find appropriate migration paths to invade certain semi-arid and arid communities. Species of Medicago in particular and, locally, of Vicia and Melilotus have become naturalized BY N. C. W. BEADLE. 285 in certain habitats, chiefly on clayey soils but also, in some areas, on soils of light texture. The plants are effectively nodulated and the presence of both legume and rhizobia can be accounted for either by migration along a watercourse or by slow movement from the more humid east to the west as far as the 10-inch isohyet. Isolated records of nodulated medics and of Vicia are abundant from the west-Darling remote from rivers and these can be accounted for by the chance transportation of seed (burr) and rhizobia by man or animals, possibly during the cooler periods of the year. By analogy, the native rhizobia may follow or have followed similar migration paths. This, however, seems unlikely, since the migration of legumes and rhizobia. either native or exotic, from the clayey river-flats on to the adjacent sandy country does not occur in the arid zone, e.g., westward from the southern portion of the Darling River flats, though it is possible in the semi-arid zone. It appears that both the leguminous and rhizobial floras of the inland have developed quite independently of the eastern floras, having survived the extreme arid period through which the country passed before the present vegetation developed (Crocker, 1959). The restriction to the inland of several leguminous genera not endemic to Australia, such as Glycyrrhiza, Isotropis, Clianthus and Trigonella (the last with a specific rhizobium), favours this view. Within communities, local migration of both legumes and their rhizobia under the influence of water have been observed for Medicago hispida and Trigonella, and in recent years migration paths have been created by roads, which have accelerated the spread of some herbaceous species, e.g., Medicago and Psoralea, in tabledrains where water often flows for long distances and where soils are invariably moister than the adjacent country. It is improbable that winds play an important role in the migration of rhizobia in arid regions. The question must be left open until dust samples have been tested for the presence of living rhizobia. The action of wind in transporting soil, however, is likely to be destructive to rhizobia, as evidenced by tests made on soil samples collected from moving sand dune crests, moving soil surfaces, sandy accumulations along road- sides and fences, and recently colonized sandpatches (e.g., Broken Hill Regeneration Areas and the sandpatches at Fowler’s Gap) which formerly were covered by mulga and which, today, have been stabilized by species of Cassia. Tests made on such. samples showed that the Acacia rhizobium is usually lacking, while those of Lotus. Swainsona and Psoralea are sometimes present. The most tolerant to transportation: by the wind appears to be Psoralea. The absence of Acacia rhizobium in transported soils is significant with regard to the regeneration of A. aneura. Whereas regeneration of A. aneura in healthy stands of scrub is considerable, particularly in south-west Queensland and Central Australia. regeneration in the disturbed and degenerating scrubs, notably those in western New South Wales, is a rare occurrence. In addition to an ever decreasing seed supply and more extreme climatic conditions as a result of exposure of the soil surface and loss of organic matter, establishment of seedlings of A. aneura in these disturbed areas is made more difficult by the reduction in the rhizobial population, a factor which is accentuated by the tardy nodulation of this species. While a reduction in the rhizobial population may not be directly causal in the death of mature A. aneura plants, it is a factor which may contribute to the general weakening of the plant, and in this. respect it is significant that rhizobia cannot always be recovered from soils below dead A. aneura plants, even though the soils have not been eroded by wind to a significant depth. The data available suggest the Acacia rhizobia live a far more precarious existence in the arid zone than do the rhizobia of the other plants that have been investigated. Acknowledgements. Financial assistance for the project was provided by the Rural Credits Development Fund and the Department of Conservation of New South Wales, which is gratefully acknowledged. Much of the field work was done on or was centred around the Depart- AH 286 NITROGEN ECONOMY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID PLANT COMMUNITIES. ITI. ment of Conservation’s Research Station at Fowler’s Gap. Also, I am indebted to Professor and Mrs. O. N. Allen, University of Wisconsin, Madison, U.S.A., for helpful discussions during their visit to Armidale and later by correspondence, and for supplying me with cultures; to Professor J. M. Vincent, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney, for reading the manuscript; and to Mrs. Jean Wilkins and Mr. Gordon White for assistance in the laboratory. ; References. BEADLE, N. C. W., 1948.—The vegetation and pastures of western New South Wales. Govt. ' Printer, Sydney. BEADLE, N. C. W., and TcHAN, Y. T., 1955.—Nitrogen economy in semi-arid plant communities. Part I. The Environment and general considerations. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 80: 62-70. BoweENn, G. D., 1956.—Nodulation of legumes indigenous to Queensland. Q. J. Agric. Sci., 13: 47-60. Burvitu, G. H., 1962.—Light lands in Western Australia. 2. Their nature, distribution and “- elimate. W. Aust. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 3046. CROCKER, R. L., 1959.—Past climatic fluctuations and their influence upon Australian vegeta- tion. In ‘“‘Biogeography and Ecology in Australia’. Junk, den Haag, 283-289. HELY, F. W., and BROCKWELL, J., 1960.—Ecology of medic root-nodule bacteria (Rhizobium meliloti) in arid zone soils. Proc. Arid Zone Tech. Conf., 1: 11/1-11/5. MITCHELL, T. L., 1838.—Three expeditions into the interior of eastern Australia. London. Norris, D. O. (n.d.).—Strain specificity, with particular reference to tropical legumes. C.S.I.R.O. Cunningham Laboratories. (Mimeograpnh. ) ParKeErR, C. A., 1962.—Light lands in Western Australia. 3. Microbiological problems in the establishment of legumes on light lands. W. Aust. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 3046. TCHAN, Y. T., and BEADLE, N. C. W., 1955.—Nitrogen economy in semi-arid plant communities. Part II. The non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing organisms. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 80: 97-104. VINCENT, J. M., 1962.—Australian studies of the root-nodule bacteria. A Review. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 87: 3-38. 287 SIR WILLIAM MACLEAY MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1964. HOW ANIMALS CAN LIVE IN DRY PLACES. By H. G. ANDREWARTHA, Department of Zoology, University of Adelaide. (Three Text-figures. ) [Delivered 21st August, 1964.] INTRODUCTION. The larvae of Polypedilum vanderplanki, a small midge of the Family Chironomidae, live in temporary pools formed in shallow hollows in rocks in Uganda. In their normal active condition water makes up about two-thirds of their total weight. When the pool dries up the larvae dry up also, becoming virtually as dry as the dust in which they are living. They survive the drought in this desiccated condition; when the next lot of rain fills the pool again they replenish their tissues with water and resume development. Hinton (1960) showed that when larvae in this condition of cryptobiosis were stored in air of relative humidity 60% the water-content of their bodies was about 8%. Some larvae that had been stored in dry dust in the laboratory for 39 months revived when they were placed in water, and subsequently they completed their development, apparently normally. Cryptobiosis occurs in other invertebrates, not necessarily closely related to the Chironomidae, but it is nevertheless an unusual adaptation for life in the desert. By and large, the water-content of the bodies of desert-dwellers is not much different from that of related species living in moister places; about two-thirds of their body-weight is water. Many sorts of animals, camels, kangaroos, rodents, snails, spiders, ticks and insects, live in deserts by virtue of adaptations in physiology and behaviour which allow them to conserve a normal amount of water in their bodies despite the heat and dryness of the places where they live. THE DROUGHT-HARDINESS OF DESERT-DWELLERS. The trap-door spider, Blakistonea aurea, is abundant in grassland and savannah on the plains near Adelaide. During the winter the spider feeds on whatever small arthro- pods it can catch near the mouth of its burrow. On the approach of summer it seals the lid of its burrow with silk and retires to the bottom of the burrow where it remains inactive without food or drink throughout the summer. At first sight it seems odd that the spider should shut itself off from supplies of food during the hottest and driest part of the year when the need to replenish water lost by evaporation is greatest. It seems especially odd in the light of experiments which showed that the spider is not much good at resisting evaporation from its body: when several spiders were exposed to dry air (relative humidity close to zero) they died in three days, having lost 30% of their original weight. ; During the summer in Adelaide on hot days the maximum shade temperature may exceed 40° C. and the relative humidity may fall below 10%. Hot dry weather is the rule for the five months from November to March. Yet most of the spiders that enter the summer are still alive at the end of it. The explanation of this paradox is that 20 cm. below the surface the weather is very different from near the surface; at the bottom of the burrow the relative humidity usually remains above 90%. Apparently it is safer for the spider to remain without food in a place where the air is moist than to seek food at the mouth of the burrow where the air is likely to be dry. The magnitude of this risk is doubtless a reflection of the spider’s chancy way of seeking food—sitting at the top of the burrow waiting for an ant or beetle to blunder by. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN Socirty oF NEw SourH WaALEs, 1964, Vol. Ilxxxix, Part 2. SIR WILLIAM MACLEAY MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1964, bo oO oO By way of contrast the snail, Helicella virgata, seems to seek out places that are especially hot and dry when it is settling down for the summer; the top of a fencing post or the exposed northern face of a stone wall are characteristic places (Fig. 1). The snail, having settled in such a position, may spend the entire summer there without food or drink; or it may wake up briefly during a shower of rain only to resume its position when the rain dries up. During the five months that the snail sits in the exposed position it might evaporate about 120 mg. of water; a standard evaporimeter tank might evaporate 36 inches of water during the same time. Fig. 1. The snail, Helicella virgata, seeks hot dry places in which to aestivate. The kangaroo tick, Ornithodorus gurneyi, lives in the dust about half an inch below the surface in kangaroo ‘‘wallows” in country where the annual rainfall is about seven inches and annual evaporation about six feet. The ticks have no opportunity to eat or drink, except when a kangaroo happens to use the wallow. But the ticks can remain alive and conserve the water-content of their bodies for several months without food or drink. The flour moth, Hphestia kuhniella, can grow from an egg, weighing less than 1 mg. to a pupa weighing 16 mg. (of which 10 mg. is water) in flour that has been dried in an oven and kept in a closed container over concentrated sulphuric acid (i.e., in air virtually at zero relative humidity). Even though it is eating such dry food and respiring such dry air the caterpillar can retain sufficient of the water of metabolism to maintain a water content of 64% in its body (Table 1). The kangaroo rat, Dipodomys merriami, lives in the desert in Arizona, eating only dry grain and not drinking at all. It could (on occasion), if it would, gain water by eating succulent vegetation, but it seems never to do this. The kangaroo rat, like the trap-door spider, avoids the worst rigours of the desert by digging itself a burrow, but, unlike the trap-door spider, this is only part of the explanation of its success (see below). The camel, being too large to escape the heat by going underground, lives and works on the surface exposed to the full severity of the desert sun. There is an authentic record of a journey of 600 miles made by camels in the Empty Quarter of the Sahara where there is no drinking water (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). BY. H. G. ANDREWARTHA. 289 Finally, the brine shrimp, Artemia salina, lives in pools of sea-water and can thrive in sea-water which is drying up and from which the dissolved salts are crystallizing out of solution (Croghan, 1958). I mention the brine shrimp in this cavaleade of drought-hardy animals in order to make the point that it is sometimes convenient to measure an animal’s qualifications for living in a dry place in terms of the difference in the “activity” of water inside and outside its body. In this context “activity” is conveniently measured in units of osmotic pressure. For example, the body-fluids of the brine shrimp have an estimated osmotic pressure of eight atmospheres; the most concentrated brine in which it can live has an estimated osmotic pressure of 326 atmospheres. The brine shrimp loses a certain amount of water by osmosis and by excretion. To make good the loss it swallows brine, retains the water, and excretes the excess salts into the medium in which it is living, thereby doing work against a gradient in osmotic pressure of 318 atmospheres. TABLE 1. The Moisture Content of Pupae of the Flour Moth Reared in Food of Different Moisture-content. (After Fraenkel and Blewett, 1944.) Moisture in Relative Wet Weight Water-content Food. Humidity. of Pupa. of Pupa. % % mg. % 14-4 70 25-5 68 6-6 20 18-7 66 iloil 0 15-8 64 There is a law of physical chemistry which relates the osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution to the relative humidity of the air that is in equilibrium with the solution: 0-018P Log. H = 4:6052 — ———— 0-0821T where H = relative humidity in per cent; P = osmotic pressure in atmospheres; T = absolute temperature degrees centigrade. This equation enables us to compare the brine shrimp which lives in “dry” brine with the tick which lives in dry air. Lees’ (1947) experiments with Ornithodorus moubata (a close relative of the kangaroo tick) showed that ticks which had become desiccated after living for a while in air with relative humidity close to zero could replenish almost all the water that they had lost if they were kept for a while in air with relative humidity 85% (or moister); and Browning (1954) showed that the ticks could repeat this many times (see Figure 2). The design of these experiments left no room for doubt that the ticks were absorbing water from the water-vapour in the air. I have estimated that a relative humidity of 85% is equivalent to an osmotic pressure of 216 atmospheres. Assuming that the body-fluids of the tick have an osmotic pressure of eight atmospheres, the tick is able to build up the water-content of its body against an osmotic gradient of 208 atmospheres. The kangaroo rat makes a highly concentrated urine with an osmotic pressure of 123 atmospheres. The difference in osmotic pressure between its body-fluids and the urine into which it excretes salts and urea is about 115 atmospheres. In Table 2 I have brought together a number of animals that can be compared on the basis of the “activity” of the water against which they work to conserve the water-content of their bodies. In Table 2 these animals are judged only by the pressure against which they can maintain the water-content of their bodies. This is only one aspect of their capacity 290 SIR WILLIAM MACLEAY MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1964, for living in a dry place. Other equally important questions that might be asked about them include: (a) How much work is done to conserve water? i.e. how much energy is used in water-conservation? (bo) Power is the rate of doing work, and it would be pertinent to ask how much power can the animal devote to conserving water? (c) More can be achieved by a machine of efficient design than by one with less efficient design, so it is also interesting to inquire into the mechanisms whereby animals conserve water. 08 wn 2 oO 2 z | ead I 06 o Ww = O4 o2 fo) 40 60 120 160 DAYS Fig. 2. Two ticks, Ornithodorus moubata, lost weight (water) while they were suspended in air of 5% relative humidity (broken lines) and gained weight by absorbing water when they were suspended in air of 95% relative humidity. One was still alive after 180 days. (After Browning, 1954.) MECHANISMS OF WATER-CONSERVATION. The gull excretes salt from a specialized nasal gland (if you watch a gull for a few minutes you will probably see it shaking drops of concentrated salt solution from its nose); but it also uses its kidneys in the normal way for excreting nitrogenous waste. Because in the camel and the kangaroo rat the kidneys have to excrete both salt and urea, their kidneys have to work against greater gradients in pressure to achieve the same result—it is a matter of design, like the difference between two- wheel and four-wheel brakes on a car. Size is an important part of overall design and largely determines the mechanisms that can be used for conserving water. The temperature of the air in the Arizona desert where the kangaroo rat lives may go as high as 45° C. and the surface of the ground may exceed 70° C. in an exposed place. Because of its size (about 36 g.) the kangaroo rat can go underground during the day into a deep burrow where the temperature is not likely to exceed 31° C., and the humidity is also likely to be much BY H. G. ANDREWARTHA. 291 higher than at the surface. The kangaroo rat emerges from the burrow at night when the temperature at the surface is likely to have fallen well below the 36-38° C. which is its normal body temperature. Thus, because it is small, the kangaroo rat can contrive to spend all its time in a place that is cooler than itself, and, in these circumstances, because it has a large surface area relative to its weight (another consequence of small size), most of the heat of metabolism is dissipated by radiation. Some heat is also dissipated by evaporation of water from the lungs during the normal progress of respiration; and these two mechanisms suffice to keep the animal cool. The kangaroo rat does not need to expend water in sweat to keep cool. When one considers that during a hot day in Sydney a man working actively might sweat at the rate of a litre an hour, the economies that the kangaroo rat achieves by virtue of weighing only 36 g. and not requiring to sweat seem quite impressive. TABLE 2. The ** Activity’ of Water Against which Certain Animals Work to Conserve Water in Their Bodies. “ Activity ’’ is measured in atmospheres of osmotic pressure. Activity ” Species. Empirical Information. Author. Atmosphere. Rat flea .. Gains weight in air R.H. 50%. 910* Edney (1947). Brine shrimp Maintains body-fluid in saturated brine. 326F Croghan (1958). Camel tick .. Gains weight in air R.H. 85%. 216* Lees (1947). Kangaroo rat Contentrates urine to 5-5 osmoles/litre. 123+ Schmidt-Nielsen (1964) Camel .. Concentrates urine to 2-8 osmoles/litre. 63F 60 a 99 Man .. .. Concentrates urine to 1-4 osmoles/litre. 32T ap op 39 Gull .. .. Excretes concentrated solution of NaCl. 40+ Schmidt-Nielsen & Sladen (1958) Eel... .. Excretes salts into sea water. 26* Krogh (19389). * Converted from measurements of relative humidity. + Converted from measurements of depression of freezing point. The kangaroo rat is also highly economical in the use of water for excretion. It makes a urine that is about four times as concentrated as the best that man can do. The efficient kidney is not, of course, a direct outcome of small size, but efficient kidneys seem, nevertheless, to be characteristic of small desert-living rodents. It is almost as if natural selection, having achieved such great economies with evaporation, went on to improve the kidney so that the kangaroo rat might live without drinking water or eating any watery food. It is so economical with water for evaporation and excretion that it can get enough water for its needs by metabolizing dry seeds. The camel is too large to seek the shelter of an underground burrow. It often bas to live in places that are much hotter than itself, and where it is exposed to direct radiation from the sun. Even when it is in a place that is slightly cooler than itself the camel, because of its small surface area relative to its weight (a consequence of large size), cannot dissipate enough heat merely by radiation: it must supplement radiation by the evaporation of sweat. Thanks to a series of elegant studies by Schmidt- Nielsen and his colleagues, we now know how the camel can do so well in the desert despite these seeming difficulties. The full story is told in Schmidt-Nielsen’s book “Desert Animals”. The following summary is inadequate because of its brevity Compared to a man or a dog, a camel can lose proportionally more water from its body without dying. It a man loses more water than about 10% of his original weight he becomes incapable of looking after himself. As he loses still more water his ‘blood becomes viscous and no longer flows freely enough to transport heat from deep tissues to the surface where it can be dissipated. As the loss of water approaches 18% the temperature probably rises explosively and the man probably dies quickly. By contrast a camel can lose water at least equal to 20% of its weight and still have its blood non-viscous and circulating freely. This is because the water that the camel loses comes largely from its tissues, whereas the water that a man loses comes largely from his blood. 292 SIR WILLIAM MACLEAY MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1964, On a warm day a man will start to sweat as soon as his temperature begins to exceed 37°C.; nor will his temperature fall much below 37°C. even on a cold night. By contrast the temperature of a camel, especially one that is dehydrated, will fall, during the night, as low as 34°C., and rise during the day to about 40°C. Sweating does not begin until the body temperature exceeds 40°C. Schmidt-Nielsen has estimated that an average size camel would require about 2500 kilo-calories to raise its temperature through 6°C.; to dissipate this much heat by sweating would require the evaporation of five litres of water. By a carefully controlled departure from strict homoiothermy the camel saves five litres of sweat a day. The curly fur of a camel traps air which insulates the animal against the heat radiating from the sun and the hot ground. Also the fur ensures that when the camel is sweating the water will evaporate close to the skin where it can do most good. The adaptations for water-conservation in the camel are made possible by its large size just as the adaptations in the kangaroo rat are related to its small size. The invertebrate animals that I have included in Table 2 are much smaller than the kangaroo rat and they are poikilothermic. Because they are poikilothermic and because in such small animals metabolic heat is readily dissipated by radiation they do not need to expend any water for evaporative cooling. Ticks and insects have cuticles that incorporate wax which makes them highly impermeable to water; they use almost no water for excretion because nitrogen is excreted as uric acid and the faeces are dried out in the rectum before being excreted; in addition the tick can absorb water- vapour from air with a relative humidity of 85%, and the prepupa of the Xenopsylia can absorb water-vapour from air with a relative humidity of 50%. Browning (1954) showed that the tick could be dehydrated and then rehydrated in this way through about nine cycles before it eventually died (see Fig. 2). Lees (1947) showed that the tick could not absorb water-vapour in this way while the cells of the epidermis, lying immediately below the cuticle, were occupied repairing even a small area of cuticle which had been abraded with fine grit to remove the wax. From the results of these and other experiments Lees concluded that the site of water- absorption in the tick was in the cellular epidermis. On the other hand, Mr. S. S. Walters, in Adelaide, working with the larvae of the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, has shown that the power (i.e. rate of doing work) which the grubs devote to water-conservation is independent of humidity over a wide range of relative humidities; but it is closely dependent on temperature. ‘The results of these and other experiments suggest that in Tenebrio water-conservation may he regarded merely as a by-product of respiration. The corollary is that the grubs of Tenebrio expire air that has been dried to about 90% R.H., but this hypothesis has not been confirmed empirically. If this is true for Tenebrio then it is also likely that the camel tick expires air that has been dried to 85% R.H. and the prepupa of the flea expires air that has been dried to 50% R.H. If this hypothesis can be verified it would suggest a mechanism for water-conservation quite different from any that is known in vertebrates. The camel and the kangaroo rat both expire water that is saturated with water-vapour at the temperature of their lungs—or at least at that of their nasal passages. Water-conservation in the snail, Helicella virgata, is being studied in Adelaide by Mr. D. E. Pomeroy. Unlike the ticks and the insects, the snail seems not to be able to absorb water-vapour from humid air—its flair seems to lie in holding tenaciously to what it has already got. That this is an active process which goes on only whiie the snail remains alive is strongly suggested by Figure 3 which describes the changing weight of a snail that was kept continuously at 30°C. in air with a relative humidity of 5%. The sharp inflexion in the curve which occurred about the 190th day coincided with the death of the snail. Similar curves could be drawn for the other 39 snails in the experiment. The average for the whole experiment is shown in Table 3. At the beginning of the experiment a snail contained on the average 407 mg. of water; by the time of death this had fallen to 271 mg. BY H. G. ANDREWARTHA. 293 The figures in Table 3 allow us to speculate on the amount of work that a snail may have done (during the 234 days that it was living at 30°C. in air of relative humidity 5%) in order to conserve 271 mg. of the 407 mg. of water that it had in its body at the beginning of the experiment. If we assume that the abrupt change in the daily rate of water loss that occurred about the 234th day was caused by the death of the snail (Fig. 3) we can reasonably argue that the living snail was doing some sort WEIGHT IN MG. © 15 3 45 60 75 90 5 120 130 ISO KS 180 195 210 225 240 255 27% DAYS Fig. 3. The snail, Helicella virgata, suspended in air of 5% relative humidity at 30°C., lost weight (water) slowly until it died after 234 days. of work that resulted in it not losing 19-830—0-559 = 19-271 mg. of water a day. Ncw consider the analogy of a man who is pumping water into an overhead tank with a small hole in it from which the water is running away. If the hole is dripping at the rate of 19-830 gals. per hour and the amount of water in the tank, despite the man’s pumping, is decreasing at the rate of 0-559 gals. per hour, by analogy the snail may be considered to be doing the equivalent of pumping 19-271 mg. of water per day into its body. The work done by a pump is given by the equation: jo = IAy where — is energy, P is pressure, and v is volume of fluid pumped against the pressure P. The pressure can be calculated from the equation given above; the volume, taking the density of water as 1, is 0:0198 c.em. per day or 4:5 c.em. in 234 days. The amount TABLE 3. The Mean Daily Loss of Weight (Wate) by 40 Snails Kept at 30°C. in Air of 5% Relative Humidity. Mean Weight Mean Daily Loss Mean Daily Loss ies IDematien at Beginning of of Weight of Weight a? TER Aestivation. During Life. After Death. , mg. mg. mg. days 592 0-559 19-830 234 of energy required to “pump” water from a place where the relative humidity is 5% (equivalent to an osmotic pressure of about 4000 atmaspheres) to a place where the pressure is eight atmospheres (i.e. the body-fluids of the snail) is about 0:5 kilo- calories which would require the oxidation of at least 20 times as much dry matter as the snail actually uses during its period of aestivation. Whatever the mechanism the snail may have for conserving water during aestivation, clearly there is no point in comparing it with a pump. 294 SIR WILLIAM MACLEAY MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1964. Yet it would seem to be some sort of active process. In addition to the evidence of the shape of the curve in Figure 3 Pomeroy’s experiments have provided the following facts: (a) The conservation of water breaks down in the absence of oxygen. (ob) When experiments, like the one from which Figure 3 was constructed, were repeated at various combinations of temperature and humidity it turned out that the duration of life was nearly independent of humidity but closely related to temperature. (c) The rate of loss of water depended on humidity, but even at the lowest humidities the snail seemed to have more than ample power (rate of doing work) to retain a safe amount of water in its body. (ad) When it eventually died it seemed that death came from shortage of food rather than shortage of water. All these results, taken together, suggest an active (i.e. energetic) mechanism for water-conservation. It does not seem as if the energy is used in a process that has any resemblance to pumping; perhaps the work that the snail does is more like the process of mending holes in a ready-made wall. This is about as far as we can go at present; we still do not seem to be very close to having a plausible explanation for the way that the snail conserves water during aestivation. References. BROWNING, T. O., 1954.—Water balance in tick Ornithodorus moubata Murray, with special reference to the influence of carbon dioxide on the uptake and loss of water. J. Hap. Biol., 31: 331-40. CROGHAN, P. C., 1958.—The osmotic and ionic regulation in Artemia salina (L.). J. Hap. Biol., 35: 219-33. EpNEY, E. B., 1947.—lLaboratory studies on the bionomics of the rat fleas Xenopsylla brasiliensis Baker and X. cheopis Roths. II. Water relations during the cocoon period. Bull. Entom. Research, 38: 263-80. FRAENKEL, G., and BLEWeETT, M., 1944.—\The utilization of metabolic water in insects. Bull. Entom. Research, 35: 127-37. HINTON, H. E., 1960.—Cryptobiosis in the larva of Polypedilum vanderplanki Hint. (Chironomidae). J. Insect Physiol., 5: 286-300. KrocH, A., 1939.—Osmotic regulation in aquatic animals. Cambridge: University Press. Lees, A. D., 1947.—The transpiration and the structure of the epicuticle in ticks. J. Hap. Biol., 23: 379-410. SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K., 1964.—Desert Animals. Oxford University Press. AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY PLATE II. 1964. N.S.W., Proc. Linn. Soc. Mitosis in Chara leptopitys A. Br. IPE AGS: ILL, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1964. nus clarkei McCoy. VOCY’ Tribrach 295 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20. INSECTS ATTACKING HAKEA SPP. IN NEW SOUTH WALES. By K. M. Moors, Forestry Commission of New South Wales. (Plate iv.) [Read 30th September, 1964.] Synopsis. Two plant species, Hakea gibbosa and H. sericea, both of which occur in New South Wales, have become widely established on agricultural land in the Republic of South Africa. To assist with information of possible value in the biological control of these plant species in South Africa, a limited investigation of the insects attacking them on the Central Coast and adjacent highlands of New South Wales was made during 1962 and 1963. From the information obtained, it appears that some of the insect species may assume importance as agents for biological control. Some insects of H. teretifolia, H. dactyloides, H. salicifolia and H. leucoptera are also recorded. INTRODUCTION. In the Republic of South Africa, the encroachment on some thousands of acres of valuable pastoral and agricultural lands by the three plant species Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav., H. sericea Schrad., and H. suaveolens R.Br., which are indigenous to Australia, has caused concern to the Department of Agricultural Technical Services of the Republic. H. gibbosa and H. sericea are also established in the north island of New Zealand. When a request was received from the Republic of South Africa for information on insects associated with H. gibbosa and H. sericea occurring in New South Wales, with a view to the possible biological control of the Hakea spp. in South Africa, a limited investigation and survey to obtain relevant basic information was commenced during October, 1962. Very limited information concerning insects attacking Hakea spp. in New South Wales has been published, as these plant species have been of little economic importance, and in the area of investigation they generally occur most abundantly on the poorer type soils of Hawkesbury or Gosford sandstone origin, and on steep or poorly drained, or rocky sites, which are generally not suitable for agricultural or forestry purposes. These observations were made in the Central Coast Region and the adjacent high- lands, at an approximate latitude of 33° 25’ S., between the Hawkesbury River and Wyong. From records of the Department of Agriculture Citrus Experiment Station, Narara, over 47 years, the area has received an annual rainfall of from 24” to 86” with an average annual rainfall of about 50”, more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. The elevation of the land surface varies from sea-level on the coastal fringe to about 1,000 ft. altitude 6 to 10 miles westward of the coastline. The general climate of the area may be regarded as warm and moist, although some seasons may be comparatively dry, with occasional maximum daily temperatures over 100° during summer, while some severe frosts in certain localities during winter have been recorded. As observations on the following insect species and the assessment of certain species as possible agents of biological control were made during approximately 12 months only, they are essentially preliminary, and the details recorded would vary from year to year, and from one locality to another within the area. Any reliable assessment of the insect species considered for introduction to other environments must necessarily be based on more extensive and intensive observations on details of the insects’ biology, together with a study of ecological factors. Development of techniques for studying and excluding the numerous parasites and predators of the insect species selected would be essential. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LINNEAN SocIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1964, Vol. lxxxix, Part 3. A 296 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20, Some of the insect species studied are apparently host specific, but others occur on more than one Hakea sp. and on Banksia, Persoonia and Grevillea spp., so that the possibility of the introduced insect species attacking other than the plant species intended, in the area to which its introduction was to be considered, would need to be critically examined. It has recently been suggested (Pimentel, 1963) that allied species and genera of parasites, rather than the particular species apparently exerting a measure of biological control in the country of origin, sometimes offer more efficient biological control of a pest species in other countries, and that greater chances for success lie with the alien species. Also, the insects available for the control of a weed are not limited to those attacking it in its native habitat, but include species that attack closely allied or other plants in other areas (Wilson, 1964). Some of the insect species listed as occurring on Hakea teretifolia, H. dactyloides, H. salicifolia and H. leucoptera thus may be of value in the control of H. gibbosa and H. sericea in other countries. Immature and adult stages of most of the species listed are in the collection of the Forestry Commission of New South Wales. A. INSECTS OF HAKEA GIBBOSA. (During these investigations, flowering of H. gibbosa occurred from February to September, with the greatest number of flowers during May.) COLEOPTERA: CHRAMBYCIDAE. (i) Aphanasium australe (Boisd.). Damage by larvae of this species occurs from below ground level in the larger portions of roots, to 5 ft. above ground level in the stems. Near the attacked area, the stem becomes swollen and exudes a considerable quantity of a soft colourless gum. Larvae work in separate but contiguous galleries from which a powdery or granular material is usually extruded. As many as fourteen larvae may occur in the one area of damage on either H. gibbosa or H. sericea, and larvae of various instars may be found during most months of the year. One generation occurs each year, and adults may emerge during the period November to March. Coloration of adults is variable, some specimens being all dark brown and others having a wide median longitudinal cream-coloured area on the elytra. Throughout the area examined, only a few plants were attacked. Most of the plants observed did not appear greatly debilitated by the current attack, and many had survived previous heavy attack, so that at present it appears that this insect species is of doubtful value as an agent for biological control. Injured plants, or those growing in apparently unfavourable sites, are attacked more readily than healthy plants. A wasp parasite, Aulacostethus sp., Aulacidae, was reared from larvae. (ii) Uracanthus triangularis Hope. Damage by this species is confined to the smaller stems and branches, and larvae occur singly. The portion of the plant distal to the area of attack may be killed, so that the effect on the plant is subsequent branching below the attacked area. Damage may extend for more than 2 ft. in a single stem, with an accompanying extrusion of powdery or granular frass and a clear jelly-like gum from the attacked area. There appears to be a single generation each year, the adults emerging during January to May. Banksia spp. are also attacked by this longicorn. Damage by this species appears to be of little value for purposes of biological control. CURCULIONIDAH. (i) Cydmaea binotata Lea. Adults are often numerous on plants from August to September, and from February to April, feeding on and destroying unopened buds and tender young shoots. Oviposition sometimes occurs in the buds which may then be destroyed by the larvae. As this species, which appears to be host specific, causes extensive damage to the buds, it could be of potential value in biological control. BY K. M. MOORE. 297 (ii) Cydmaea major Blkb. This species appears to offer considerable possibilities for the biological control of H. gibbosa, and damage was widespread and severe in the area of investigation. The seeds are destroyed by larvae, and damage to buds by adults is similar to that by C. binotata adults. OC. major also appears to be host specific. After the adults have fed during the winter months on buds, young seed capsules, or either young or mature foliage, oviposition may occur during August and the warmer months in one or both of the distal horns of a seed capsule (Pl. iv). The young larva emerges from the horn and moves over the external surface of the capsule to commence boring at almost any location on its surface. Seed capsules may be attacked before they are about one-third developed, and attack is denoted by an exudation of a colourless gum at the point of entry by the larva. Some larvae leave the capsule which they originally entered and destroyed, to attack other capsules on the same plant. This habit, and that of moving over the surface of the capsule from the horn instead of boring directly into the capsule, would appear to expose larvae to considerable predation or parasitism, although this was rarely evident during these investigations. Most of the first or spring generation of larvae emerge from the capsules by December to pupate in the soil. Adults of the second generation commence emerging during November and December, so that there appear to be at least three generations during a year. Throughout the winter months adults may be active during warm, sunny days, or on bushes in sheltered situations, and during coid or wet days they shelter between capsules or in previously insect-damaged capsules which have partly opened. Coloration of male and female adults is similar. Larvae of a braconid parasite were collected during November, and adults emerged during the subsequent October and November. Damage to the horns of seed capsules by other insects appears to reduce greatly the number of oviposition sites, and thus the numbers of subsequent generation adults of C. major during the late summer and autumn, although the lengthy flowering period of H. gibbosa provides a sequence of oviposition sites for the adults of the various generations. (iii) C. major var. One adult specimen of a uniformly grey colour was collected on H. gibbosa. (iv) Enchymus punctatonotatus Pasc. (v) Perperus lateralis Boisd. (vi) P. melancholicus Boisd. (vii) Syarbis niger Roel. Adults of H. punctatonotatus were present in large numbers during spring, summer and autumn, damaging young shoots, seed capsules and the smaller stems of plants. Small numbers shelter in previously insect-damaged, and partly opened, seed capsules during winter. Adults of P. lateralis were very numerous, damaging and destroying young foliage and shoots during early spring; adults of P. melancholicus and S. niger caused least damage. P. lateralis and P. melancholicus have been recorded as attacking Pinus radiata (Moore, 1963). Damage by each of these species is regarded as insignificant for purposes of biological control, but it appears that damage to seed capsules by EH. punctatonotatus limits oviposition sites for C. major. EUMOLPIDAE. Geloptera porosa Lea. Damage by adults of this species is similar to that caused by E. punctatonotatus and is considered as insignificant for purposes of biological control, although such damage appears to limit oviposition sites for C. major. Adults occur in moderate numbers during the spring, summer and autumn, and a few specimens overwinter in sheltered situations. 298 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20, Egg capsules are dark brown, spherical, roughened, and are placed around the distal end of foliage about 4%” below the tip. Adults have been recorded as damaging foliage of P. radiata (Moore, 1963). Cleptor sp. One adult was taken during March. DIPTHRA: CECIDOMYTIIDAR. Gen. et sp. indet. Two species of this family from severely galled stems were associated with a complex of several species of Hymenoptera. Intensive investigations would be necessary to determine the part played by these species in the damage caused to the plant, and a revision of the taxonomy of the group appears necessary before accurate names can be applied to the species. The galled stems and branches of plants die above the area of attack. Damage is widespread, and may be extensive on a single plant. It appears that the gall-forming cecidomyiids could be of considerable importance in the biological control of younger plants, provided that their numerous parasites and hyperparasites were screened. The feeding site punctures caused by the adults of Sertorius australis Fairm. (Membracidae) may allow oviposition by the cecidomyiids to occur in the plant stems. HEMIPTHRA: CERCOPIDAH. Philagra parva Don. A single adult specimen only of this species was collected as it fed on a stem of H. gibbosa during September. CICADELLIDAE. Idiocerus sp. One adult specimen only, feeding on a stem, was collected during April. DERBIDAE. Lamenia ? kulia Kirk. One specimen only of this species was collected. DIASPIDIDAE. 2? Remotaspidiotus sp. nov. This small white scale occurred in large numbers on the fruit and stems, and in small numbers on the foliage. It appeared to be particularly numerous on plants affected by the two species of cecidomyiids, but most specimens examined were parasitized. Because of parasitism, its role as a possible biological control agent was not evaluated under the conditions prevailing in the area of investigation. FLATIDAH. Siphanta granulicollis Stal. A few specimens, feeding on stems and shoots, were collected during November and December. ISSIDAE Chlamydopteryx vulturnus Kirk. A single specimen only of this species was collected. MARGARODIDAH. Auloiceryia ? australis (Maskell). Small numbers of this species occurred on the stems and smaller branches during these investigations, and damage by them was not noticeable. MEMBRACIDAEHE. Sertorius australis Fairm. Adults were numerous during the warmer months and small numbers persisted throughout the remainder of the year. Damage by adults of this species ‘may allow Oviposition in the stem tissues of the plants by the gall-forming cecidomyiids. BY K. M. MOORE. 299 PSEUDOCOCCIDAE. ? Paracoccus sp. A single specimen of this species was found on a stem during July. TINGIDAE. Tingis sp. near hurdae Drake. A single specimen was taken during August. HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE (ASAPHINTI). Aphobetoideus sp. Species of this genus have not been recorded previously from Australia (personal communication, E. F. Riek, 1963), and this species was reared from galled stems associated with the two species of cecidomyiids. It is apparently a hyperparasite. A complex of chalcidoid hyperparasites occurred in the galled stems with the cecidomyiids and torymids, and predation by mites on larvae and pupae of all the species concerned was severe during spring. TORY MIDAHB. Megastigmus sp. A few adults were reared from buds of H. gibbosa. A hard rounded gall is formed by a larva in the centre of a bud, and this apparently kills the bud. LEPIDOPTERA: GHLECHIIDAE. Gen. et sp. indet. The narrow, serpentine mines of larvae occur in the foliage, and they appear dark red on the surface. Larvae mine toward the tip of the needle, and during the last instars destroy the entire parenchyma of the distal one-quarter. Larvae have been collected during March and April, and damage to the plant is slight. GEOMETRIDAB. (i) Oenochroma vinaria Guenée. Larvae destroy foliage during February to May; pupation occurs during April and the adults emerge during May. There appear to be two generations each year, and’ damage to a single plant is slight. Parasitism by ichneumonids is common. (ii) Sp. ? Larvae of this species severely damage the green immature seed capsules by eating in to the seed and destroying about three-parts of the capsule. A single larva only was found and it was not reared to the adult stage for identification, but damage was observed in three localities. Several seed capsules on the one bush may be severely damaged by a single larva, and should mortalities of the species from parasitism be absent from areas to which it may be introduced, it should offer some potential for biological control of H. gibbosa. NOTODONTIDAHE. Danima banksiae Lewin. In the area of investigations, the extent and intensity of damage by larvae were similar to that by O. vinaria. Larvae occur during spring, autumn and winter, and it appears that there are two main emergence periods for adults, with considerable overlap in each generation. XYLORYCTIDAE. Neodrepta luteotactella (Walk.). Damage by larvae is widespread, and relatively common during the autumn and spring, but parasitism by ichneumonids, entomophagous gordian-type worms and other factors greatly reduce their numbers. A wasp (Bracon sp.: Braconidae) emerged during August. During early instars larvae bore into the tender young shoots, later feeding on foliage, stems and the surface of seed capsules under cover of their silken webbing to 300 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20, which excreta are attached, on foliage or between contiguous seed capsules. Stems are often girdled by feeding larvae but are rarely killed by them. Larvae pupate during October to December, and adults emerge from November to January. Damage to a plant is considered as unimportant for purposes of biological control. SuMMARyY.—F rom these observations, the insect species at present appearing to offer the greatest potential importance in the biological control of H. gibbosa are C. major, C. binotata, the geometrid attacking the seeds, and the cecidomyiids which gall the stems. B. INSECTS OF HAKEA SERICEA. (During the period of observations, the plants flowered from early June to late October. ) COLEOPTERA: BUPRESTIDAE. Gen. et sp. indet. Larvae of this species mine below the thin outer bark of the stems, but damage does not appear to affect the plants adversely. CERAMBYCIDAE. Aphanasium australe. Damage to H. sericea is the same as that occurring on H. gibbosa. CURCULIONIDAE. (i) Cydmaea eucalypti Lea. Adults of this species feed on buds, shoots, foliage and probably seeds. They oviposit in some flower buds which may then be destroyed by the larvae. Adults were present in small numbers during April, and in large numbers during May, June and July. Numerous buds and young shoots were destroyed by larvae during July and August, and larvae were mining in foliage during November. Because of the extent of damage to flower buds by this species, and its ability to survive in foliage and shoots of the host plant, it appears to offer a considerable potential for biological control of Hakea sericea. (ii) Enchymus punctatonotatus. (iii) Syarbis niger. Damage by these two species is similar to that on H. gibbosa. EUMOLPIDAH. Geloptera porosa. Damage is similar to that on H. gibbosa. SCOLYTIDAE. (i) Hypocryphalus moorei Schedl. (ii) Hypothenemus eruditus Westw. Damaged or debilitated stems are attacked by large numbers of larvae of the former species working beneath the thin bark. The stems from which these two species were reared were previously fire-damaged. HEMIPTHRA: DIASPIDIDAH. ? Remotaspidiotus sp. nov. MEMBRACIDAR. Sertorius australis. PSHUDOCOCCIDAE. Paracoccus sp. Nov. Damage by these three species is similar to that which they cause on H. gibbosa. HYMENOPTHRA: TORYMIDAE. Megastigmus sp. Damage by gall formation in a few buds is similar to that which occurs in buds of H. gibbosa. BY K. M. MOORE. 301 LEPIDOPTERA: ANTHELIDAE. Anthela ? acuta (Walk.). A larva of this species was collected on foliage during May, and pupation occurred during July. Light damage only occurred. GELECHIIDAE. Gen. et sp. indet. GEOMETRIDAE. O. vinaria. Damage by these two species on H. sericea was similar to that by the same species on H. gibbosa. LIMACODIDAE. ? Anapaea sp. A single larva was collected from foliage during June, but little damage occurred. NOTODONTIDAE. Teara variegata Walk. A larva was collected on foliage during June, and damage was slight. Larvae attain a length of 22” during late instars, and damage to foliage may be severe if a large number occurs on the one plant. This species is also recorded as attacking P. radiata (Moore, 1963). OECOPHORIDAE. Arachnographa micrastrella Walk. Light damage to foliage and stems by larvae occurred during April, and it is considered that the species is of no value for biological control. It has also been recorded attacking Pinus spp. (Moore, 1963). XYLORYCTIDAE. (i) Gen. et sp. indet. Larvae of this species destroy the seed by boring into the larger capsules. The species was not plentiful during these observations, but should large numbers occur they could be of considerable importance as a biological controlling agent. (ii) N. luteotactelia. Damage is similar to that by the same species on H. gibbosa. ? (Family unknown.) Small lepidopterous larvae mine beneath the thin bark of stems, and damage is similar to that caused by larvae of the Family Buprestidae. SumMMmaArRY.—The insect species considered to be of greatest potential importance for the biological control of H. sericea are C. eucalypti, the xyloryctid attacking the seeds, and possibly T. variegata. / C. INSECTS OF HAKEA TERETIFOLIA (SALISB.) J. BRITTEN. (This plant species was in full flower from late December to late January, and was the Hakea sp. most plentiful and widespread occurring throughout the area of investiga- tion. Although establishment of this and the following Hakea spp. has not been reported beyond Australia, insects associated with them are recorded.) COLEOPTHRA: CURCULIONIDAHE. (i) Cydmaea diversa Lea. Larvae attack buds, foliage and flowers to such an extent that the setting of seed is greatly reduced. Adults occur in large numbers during January and February, and pupation occupies about 26 days. 302 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20, (ii) Cydmaea luctuosa Pase. Damage by larvae was severe in the foliage of some plants. A larva was reared to the adult stage, pupation occupying about three weeks, and the adult emerged during March. (iii) Cydmaea crassirostris Blkb. The young green seed capsules which form in the absence of attack on buds and flowers by C. diversa may be destroyed by larvae of this species. Pupation occupies about three weeks, the adults emerging during March. (iv) EL. punctatonotatus. Damage was more extensive than that on H. gibbosa and H. sericea, and many young green seed capsules were destroyed. Adults are numerous throughout the warmer months. (v) P. lateralis. Less damage occurred on H. teretifolia than on H. gibbosa. EHUMOLPIDAE. G. porosa. Damage was more severe than on H. gibbosa and H. sericea, and young green seed capsules were also attacked. HEMIPTHRA: COCCIDABR. ? Coccus sp. One specimen only occurred on a stem. DIASPIDIDAHE. (i) Phaulaspis hakeae (Maskell). These small rounded orange-red scales were numerous on some plants in certain localities, but damage was not evident. (ii) ? Remotaspidiotus sp. nov. Scales occurred on stems and seed capsules. FLATIDAE. Siphanta acuta Walk. A few specimens only occurred, and damage was not evident. The species has been reported as feeding on P. radiata (Moore, 1963). MARGARODIDAE. A. australis. Specimens were more numerous on this plant species than on H. gibbosa, but damage was not evident. MEMBRACIDAE. S. australis. Damage was similar to that on the other Hakea spp. PSEUDOCOCCIDAE. Paracoccus sp. nov. A few specimens only occurred, and damage was not evident. HYMENOPTHRA: TORYMIDAH. Megastigmus sp. Large numbers occurred in buds and carpels, so that very few buds on some plants remained unaffected after heavy attack. This species offers effective control of the plants’ ability to set seed. LEPIDOPTERA: GELECHIIDAH. Gen. et sp. indet. Damage to flowers was severe in some areas, and the distinctive larvae, bearing alternate rose-red and white transverse bands, sheltered in fine webbing spun among BY K. M. MOORE. 303: flowers near where they fed on the blossoms and opening shoot buds. Only small numbers occurred, and they were most numerous during early spring. Flowers of Grevillea linearifolia are also attacked by larvae of this species. NOTODONTIDAE. D. banksiae. Damage was limited, and similar to that on H. gibbosa. XYLORYCTIDAE. (i) Xylorycta strigata Lewin. Larvae bore in the small stems of H. teretifolia, Banksia integrifolia, B. spinulosa,. B. serrata and G. linearifolia, killing attacked stems. Moderate numbers occurred in Banksia spp. and small numbers in Hakea spp. (ii) N. luteotactella. Damage was similar to that on other Hakea spp. SUMMARY.—The insect species considered to be of greatest importance for the biological control of H. teretifolia are C. diversa, C. crassirostris and Megastigmus sp. D. INSECTS OF HAKEA DACTYLOIDES (GAERTN.) CAV. (Plants of this species were in full bloom during late November.) HEMIPTERA: DIASPIDIDAE. Phaulaspis hakeae (Maskell). Large numbers occurred in some localities, but damage was not evident. HYMENOPTERA: TORYMIDAE. Megastigmus sp. Numerous mortalities of buds occur from attack by this gall-forming wasp which appears to be the principal insect species limiting regeneration of H. dactyloides. LEPIDOPTERA: GELECHIIDAE. Gen. et sp. indet. This is the same species as that which damages flowers of H. teretifolia, and damage is similar. TORTRICIDAHR. Gen. et sp. indet. The pale green larvae of this species damage numerous flowers of H. dactyloides and G. linearifolia. Adults are uniformly grey. SumMMARY.—The insect species considered to be of greatest importance for the biological control of H. dactyloides is Megastigmus sp. BH. INSECTS OF HAKEA SALICIFOLIA (VENT.) B. L. BurRTT. HEMIPTHRA: DIASPIDIDAHE. Phaulaspis hakeae (Maskell). Larger populations than on H. teretifolia occurred on some plants, but damage was not evident. LEPIDOPTERA: GRACILARIIDAE. Acrocercops ur. argyrodesma (Meyr.). Larvae mine in the young leaves and construct mines which are at first linear and then blotch in form. Larvae were numerous during December, and adults emerged during the same month. The life cycle occupies about five weeks at that time of the year. SPHINGIDAE. Coequosa triangularis Don. Moderate damage occurred to foliage of H. salicifolia, Banksia serrata and B. integrifolia, and without the considerable control exerted by parasites damage may assume importance in the control of this Hakea sp. Larvae were reared on Persoonia sp. 304 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME AUSTRALIAN FOREST INSECTS. 20, SUMMARY.—The insect species considered to be of greatest importance in the biological control of H. salicifolia is C. triangularis, but its wide host range could detract from its importance. F. INSECTS OF HAKEA LEUCOPTERA R.Br. (This species was in full flower during early October. It occurs near the western extremities of the Central Western Slopes, where rainfall averages about 14” per annum, and temperatures are high, with restricted rainfall, during the summer months.) COLEOPTHRA: CURCULIONIDAE. Cydmaea ? diversa. Damage to flowers was severe during October and November, and from pupation to the adult stage occupied about three weeks. DIPTHRA: CECIDOMYIIDAH. Gen. et sp. indet. Damage by larvae causes foliage to become distorted, and may be severe on some branches. HEMIPTHRA: MEMBRACIDAEHE. Cornutipo scalpellum Evans. Adults occurred in large numbers during April, May, September and October, and adults and nymphs were attended by large numbers of ants. Punctures in stems by feeding adults may allow oviposition by the cecidomyiids mentioned above. PSYLLIDAE. Aconopsylla sp. nov. Large numbers of nymphs and a few adults occurred during April and May, and young shoots were severely affected by them. HYMENOPTERA: TORYMIDAE (MEGASTIGMINAE). Gen. et sp. indet. Larvae produce a “pineapple-top” formation in buds which are galled. Attack may be moderate to heavy during April, and adults emerge during May. LEPIDOPTHRA: XYLORYCTIDAE. Xylorycta sp. Larvae bore in stems, and sometimes girdle the stems externally. Those collected during early October pupated during November and adults emerged during November. Damage may be severe on small plants. SumMMARY.—The insect species considered to be of some potential importance in the control of H. leucoptera are C. ? diversa, the torymid forming bud-galls, and Xylorycta sp. CONCLUSION. From observations in the area of investigations on the Central Coast of New South Wales it is evident that fire contributes considerably to the spread of Hakea spp., and, should an area be kept free from fire, regeneration is very limited. Fire causes the thick woody fruits to open and shed the seeds which are undamaged by the fire. In areas where no fire had occurred, some plants had retained the unopened seed capsules for at least five years. Fire has often damaged the stands of Hakea spp. in the Republic of South Africa (personal communication, Mr. D. Webb, 1963), so that it has apparently been a con- tributing factor in the spread, and increase in density, of the Hakea spp. in that area. The insects recorded in this paper, and their plant associations, are summarized in Table 1. Acknowledgements. The writer is grateful to the following for the identifications of the insects studied in these investigations: Dr. A. R. Brimblecombe, Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane (Coccidae, Diaspididae); British Museum Staff (Aulacidae, Cercopidae, BY K. M. MOORE. 305 TABLE 1. Summary of Insect-Hakea spp. Associations. B.=Bud, F.=Flower, Fo.=Foliage, Fr.=Fruit, S.=Stem. H. 15, H. A. H. H. gibbosa. sericea. teretifolia. dactyloides. salicifolia. leucoptera. COLEOPTERA BUPRESTIDAE oe a: a5 —_— Ss. a = = = CERAMBYCIDAE Aphanasium australe .. ae Ss. S. — = = == Uracanthus triangularis Bae Ss. Ss. — — = _— CURCULIONIDAE Cydmaea binotata oe a6 1855 Joy LOS — —_— — = — . crasstrostris .. at ins — — Fr. — = _— . dwersa “e a Be — — F. Fo., Fr. — = — — . 2 diversa ae is ae — —_— — — = F. . eucalypti a Fis re — B., Fo. —_— — — —— . luctuosa ae ie = — — Fo. — = — major ts ae oo Joes Itoh The = = = = = . major var. .. Aas on ? — — — = = Enchymus punctatonotatus so 1th, 1h, Sb IO, Ue Se Me Je = — — Perperus lateralis Be ye Fo. — Fo. — = a P. melancholicus so a6 Fo. —_ = — = = Syarbis niger .. qe ave Fo. Yo. — = = = KUMOLPIDAE Geloptera porosa See .. Fo., Fr. S. Fo., Fr.,S. Fo., Fr. 8S. — — — SCOLYTIDAE Hypocryphalus mooret .. a — S. = = = = Hypothenemus eruditus eft — S. = = = = aaeeaaaa DIPTERA CECIDOMYIIDAE Gen. et sp. indet. | | | | | HEMIPTERA CERCOPIDAE Philagra parva at S4 Ss: — == = = = CICADELLIDAE Idiocerus sp. .. y: ax S: — — = = == COCCIDAE 2 Coccus sp. ie oy ae — — Ss. —_— = = DERBIDAE Lamenia kulia ? DIASPIDIDAE Phaulaspis hakeae 3 3. — : Remotaspidiotus sp... aa Lie, JESS Ish S. Ike, Se = = = FLATIDAE Siphanta acuta .. ES ahs — — S. = =— = S. granulicollis .. on oie S. — — = = = ISSIDAE Chlamydopteryx vulturnus ok Ss. — — = = = MARGARODIDAE Auloiceryia australis .. ata S. — S. —= = — MEMBRACIDAE Cornutipo scalpellum .. ae — — —— —= = S. Sertorius australis Ae A Ss. PSEUDOCOCCIDAE Paracoccus sp. Noy. .. a S. PSYLLIDAE Aconopsylla sp. nov. .. A — — = — — Fo. TINGIDAE Tingis nr. hurdae 36 & =) SOUTH-EAST AUSTRALIA Sear Miles oo =e Bo 7 Projection Bonnes Fig. 6. Distribution of G. homeanum (@), and G. antrorsum (X). do not seem to differ at all from those of eastern Australia. They have been referred to G. nepalense Sweet in the past, but differ from that species in the coarser alveolae of the seed-coat, obtuse leaf-lobes which are only toothed near the top, smaller flowers, more vigorous, decumbent stems. It is surprising that this species has so far not been collected in the montane forests of New Guinea, although it is just possible that it is not native in Java. Selected Specimens examined: New South Wales: Bungonia Caves, R. Carolin No. 842, 1.3.1959 (SYD); Nowra, F. A. Rodway No. 14720, 26.38.1948 (NSW 42673); Byrne’s Gap, Yerranderie-Kowmung River, L. A. S. Johnson 26.3.1948 (NSW 5017); Glenbrook Gorge, H. S. McKee No. 6770, 4.1.1959 (SYD); Garie Beach, Royal National Park, R. Carolin No. 940, March, 1959 (SYD); Port Jackson, R. Brown, No. 5224 (BM); Nova Cambria, Botany Bay, Banks and Solander (BM); Dee Why, Canon Michael No. 2061, 19.12.1960 (SYD); Curtis Creek nr. Grafton, R. Carolin No. 0767, 2.1.1959 (SYD); Queensland: Mt. Lindsay, R. Carolin No. 944, 31.5.1959 (SYD); Lamington National Park, R. Carolin No. 1046, 4.6.1959 (SYD); Ithaca Creek, C. T. White, Nov. 1913 (BRI 037048, NSW 42617); Ferny Grove nr. Brisbane, L. 8. Smith (BRI 037049). Jawa: Tengger, M. Buysman, 8.11.1908 (L.BO); Ngadiwana, C. A. Backer, No. 8403, 1913 (L.BO). New Zealand: Onehunga, North Island ex herb. Kirk No. 232 (K); Reef Point, N. Auckland, H. H. Allan, 9.1.19832 (CHR 4358): Whangarei, A. J. Healy, 28.5.1950 (CHR 84329B); Mount Smart, T. Kirk No. 642, Jan.6.1866 (WELT 30988); Mt. Wellington Lava field, Auckland, D. Petrie, Dec. 1914 (WELT 30984B); Kikurangi N. of Whangarei, D. Petrie, March 1898 (WELT 30983). 348 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC ARBA, GROUP IV. Perennials usually with napiform tap-roots. Flowers twinned (very rarely solitary and then only some on each plant). Pedicels geniculate, swollen above in the fruiting stages. Flowering stems long. Seeds black or sometimes very dark brown with coarse more or less isolateral alveolae. (=Sect. CHiLENSIA Knuth, but see in discussion.) 14. GERANIUM RETRORSUM L’Hér. ex DC., Prodr., 1: 644 (1824); Hanks et Small in Underwood-Britton, N. Amer. Fl., 25: 10 (1907); Munz, Calif. Fl, 141 (1959). pe 2000. 4060 Km Southern Pacific Oblique Azimuthal Equidistant centred on ec. long. 180° lat. 51°. Fig. 7. World distribution of G. homeanum. Nomenclatural Synonyms. G. patulum Sol., Prim. Fl. N. Zeal., mse. non Sol. in Forst. f., Prodr., 91 (1796) nom. nud.; G. dissectum var. patulum Hook. f., Handbk. FI. N. Zeal., 36 (1864); G. pilosum var. grandiflorum Knuth Pfirch.-Geran., 75 (1912) nom. superfl.; G. pilosum var. retrorsum (L’Hér. ex DC.) Jepson, Man. Calif. Pl., 588 (1926). Taxonomic Synonyms. G. australe Nees in Lehm., Pl. Preiss., 1: 162 (1844) non (Willd.): Poir., Hncycl. Supp., 2: 754 (1811) = G. pilosum var. australe (Nees in Lehm.) Ostenf. in Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Biol. Medd., 3: 71 (1921). Perennial herbs with swollen napiform tap-root and short thick caulorrhiza fre- quently covered with dead stipules and leat-bases. Stems decumbent or ascending, up to 40 cm. long, covered with short soft retrorse appressed hairs, glabrescent below. Basal leaves similar to cauline ones but larger and somewhat more deeply dissected. Cauline leaves opposite; petioles covered with short soft retrorse appressed hairs, 2—7 cm. long, laminae ovate to orbicular or reniform in outline, 1-2 cm. long, 1:5-3-0 cm. wide, deeply palmately (3)5-—7-dissected or lobed, each segment or lobe divided into three narrow more or less acute secondary lobes, covered with appressed hairs on both surfaces; stipules membranous, brown, lanceolate to narrow-deltoid, up to 3 mm. long, covered with soft appressed hairs. Flowers twinned or very rarely solitary; peduncles BY R. C. CAROLIN. 349 densely clothed with soft retrorse-appressed hairs, 6-20 (80) mm. long; bracteoles 4, linear to linear-deltoid, 2-3 mm. long, pubescent, ciliate at the margins; pedicels similar to peduncles, 18-35 mm. long, geniculate at the bracteoles and becoming swollen above in the fruiting stages. Sepals elliptic to oblong or ovate, 4-6 mm. long, 3-4:5 mm. wide, densely covered with more or less appressed hairs and with some scattered more or less divergent ones particularly towards the margins, mucronate. Petals obovate, 5-10 mm. long and 2—4 mm. wide, pink but paler towards the base with yellowish veins, almost quite entire at the apex or very slightly emarginate. Stamens 10; filaments lanceolate- acuminate, 3-4 mm. long, 0-5 mm. wide, ciliate at the margin with long hairs. Ovary hirsute; stigmata white or green, c. 1-5 mm. long. Fruit: mericarps 2 mm. long, 1:-5 mm. wide, covered with coarse often divergent hairs and minute glandular ones towards the top, dark grey, funicular hairs 20-35; awns covered with short antrorse simple hairs and some minute glandular ones on the outer surface; rostrum 8-15 mm. long. Seeds black or very dark brown with coarse, usually deep, more or less isolateral alveolae, sub- globular, 2-2 mm. long. Range. Temperate Australia, New Zealand. Introduced into Hawaiian Islands and California. Typification. G. retrorsum L’Hér. ex DC. Holotype—In Nova Zealandia, Banks and Solander (GEN photo SYD, isotype BM). This name was apparently meant to replace G. patulum Sol. which Solander had described in his unpublished flora of New Zealand, but which was unavailable owing to the existence of G. patulum Villars, Hist. Pl. Dauph., 1: 283 (1786) (see under G. solanderi). G. dissectum var. patulum Hook. f.—Lectotype— G. retrorsum L’Hér. ex DC. Hooker cited the same species in synonymy of this variety as he had previously under G. dissectum var. retrorsum, i.e. G. retrorsum and G. patulum “Forst”; it is therefore superfluous in effect if not strictly so according to the Code of Botanical Nomenclature; the lectotype is selected to conform to Hooker’s presumed intent, i.e., that he was describing the same variety under two different names. G. pilosum var. grandifiorum Knuth is superfluous as included in synonymy is G. dissectum var. patulwm Hook. f. which varietal epithet is legitimate and available in G. pilosum. G. australe Nees in Lehm. non (Willd.) Poir.—Lectotype—part of Preiss No. 1907. Material of this number has been traced to Leningrad; the sheet was kindly lent. There are at least two taxa present on this sheet under the same number. The description clearly applies to only one of these parts, particularly with regard to the indumentum. This specimen has been marked appropriately both on the original sheet (LEN) and on the photograph (SYD). Discussion. A fairly well-defined and widespread taxon. It is distinguished from G. solanderi by the closely appressed indumentum and usually by the much narrower leaf-segments. It grows in association with this latter species but does not appear to hybridize. Some of the South Australian specimens have solitary flowers and resemble G. potentilloides very closely; the napiform root, the seed coat alveolae and the presence of long hairs on the margins of the sepals, however, clearly differentiate G. retrorsum from G. potentilloides. The description supplied for G. australe Nees in Lehm. in Allan, Fl. N. Zeal., 1: 233 (1961), is quite clearly not applicable to any of the elements contained within the type pumber at Leningrad. It applies to G. homeanum, q.v. It should be noted that some specimens from Western Australia referred here have exceptionally large flowers, e.g., Benger, R. D. Royce, No. 4377, 19.Sept.1953 (K. WA); Bridgetown to Kojonup and Slab Hut Gully, A. A. Dorrien-Smith, 1910 (K). No root systems and no seeds of these specimens, or anything like them, have so far been collected. Selected Specimens examined: Western Australia: Porongerup Ranges, Twin Peaks, R. Carolin, No. 3450, 8.9.1961 (SYD); N.W. of Gnowangerup, B. G. Briggs, 8.10.1960 (NSW. SYD); near Claremont, ex herb. W. V. Fitzgerald, 9.1901 (NSW 42627); Smith’s Hill, J. Sheath, 9.1901 (NSW 43648). South Australia: Yardea Station, Minnipa, Northern Eyre Peninsular, D. J. BE. Whibley No. 405, 77.10.1958 (AD 95931007); Henley Beach 350 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC AREA, west of Adelaide, E. H. Ising, 13.11.1919 (AD 96117061); Encounter Bay, J. B. Cleland, 13.9.19381 (AD 96117077); Mt. Lofty Range, Max Koch, 9.1902 (NSW 42615). Victoria: Mt. Wycheproof, W. W. Watts, Oct. 1917, No. 714 (NSW 42625); Malden, Mrs. Nott (MEL); Ararat, Charl. Green (MEL); 2 miles N. of Kanya, J. H. Willis, 13.9.1960 (MEL). New South Wales: Armidale, R. Carolin, No. 0757, 1.1.1959 (SYD); Temora, J. W. Dwyer, 9.1915 (NSW 42697); Bega, F. A. Rodway, 12.1920 (NSW 42679); Bathurst, Peacock, 11.1901 (NSW 42606); Sunny Corner, J. L. Boorman, 11.1899 (NSW 42611). New Zealand: Harewood, Christchurch, G. Simpson, sine date (CHR 88013); Cockburn- - Hornby district, A. J. Healy, No. 56/185 29.10.1956 (CHR 92182A); Kaituna, Banks. Peninsula, A. J. Healy, 20.2.1945 (CHR 62928); Puponga, Manukau Harb. L. Cockayne, No. 833/4, sine date (WELT 31009). Stanue Miles =m soe 900 ejection: Comal mith two standard parallels = 126 Longitude East 130 of Greenmch 135 Fig. 8. Distribution of G. solanderi (@), and G. drummondii (). 15. GERANIUM SOLANDERI, NOM. nov. Nomenclatural Synonyms. G. pilosum Sol. in Forst. f., Prodr., 91 (1786) non Cav., Diss., 5: 273 (1788) nom. nud. et in Prim. Fl. N. Zeal., mse.; G. pilosum Sol. ex Willd., Sp. Pl., 3: 706 (1801) non Cav., loc. cit.; DC., Prodr., 1: 642 (1824); Sweet, Geran., 2:t.119 (1822-29); Moore et Betche, Handbk. Fl. N.S.W., 55 (1893); Knuth, Pfirch.- Geran., 75 (1912); Jepson, Man. Fl. Pl. Calif., 589 (1926); Ewart, Fl. Vict., 682 (1980); Black, Fl. S. Aust., 2nd ed., 2: 482 (1948); Curtis, Stud. Fl. Tasm., 1: 91 (1956); Munz, Calif. Fl., 141 (1959); Allan, Fl. N. Zeal., 1: 234 (1961); G. dissectum var. pilosum Hook. f., Fl. Tasm., 1: 57 (1860) et Handbk. N. Zeal. Fl., 36 (1864); G. dissectum var. australe Benth., Fl. Austr., 1: 296 (1863); Bailey, Queensland Fl., 1: 177 (1899); Rodway, Tasm. FIl., 19 (1903). Taxonomic Synonyms. G. patulum Sol. in Forst. f., Prodr., 91 (1786) nom. nud., non Sol. in Prim. Fl. N. Zeal., mse., nec Villars, Hist. Pl. Dawph., 1: 283 (1786). Misapplied names. G. dissectum var. carolinianum (non (l.) Hook. f.) Hook. f., Handbk. N. Zeal. Fl., 36 (1864). Perennial herbs with napiform or merely thickened tap-roots and short more or less erect caulorrhiza covered with dead stipules and leaf-bases. Flowering stems decumbent or more or less ascending, up to 50 cm. long, angular or compressed above but terete BY R. C. CAROLIN. 351 below, covered with coarse retrorse-divergent or patent more or less villous hairs. Basal leaves similar to cauline ones but larger and frequently more dissected. Cauline leaves opposite; petioles covered with reflexed or patent hairs, up to 5 cm. long; laminae deeply 5—7-lobed, semi-orbicular to reniform in outline, frequently cordate at the base, 1-2-5 cm. long, 1-5-4 cm. wide, with coarse sub-appressed hairs on both surfaces; lobes obovate, divided into 3-5 mucronate to acuminate secondary lobes near the top; stipules sub-herbaceous, lanceolate to narrow-deltoid, 3-9 mm. long, up to 1:5 mm. wide, acuminate, covered with short appressed hairs and ciliate at the margin, rarely almost glabrous. Flowers twinned; peduncles 1—4 cm. leng, hirsute or villous with reflexed or patent hairs; pedicels 2-5-5 cm. long, geniculate at the base and swollen above in fruiting stages, indumentum as peduncles; bracteoles lanceolate to linear-deltoid, up to 4 mm. long, membranous, villous, ciliate at the margins. Sepals elliptic to ovate, 5-9 mm. long, 2-5 mm. wide, acute to acuminate, covered with villous-patent hairs with longer ones at the margins and on the veins usually concave in the fruiting condition; margin membranous and ciliate. Petals obovate, 5-12 mm. long, 2-5 mm. wide, entire or emarginate, pink but paler towards the base and often with yellowish veins. Stamens 10; filaments lanceolate, narrow-acuminate, 4-10 mm. long, membranous, with long villous hairs at the margin and on the mid-rib near the base; anthers sub-globular, yellow. Ovary hirsute; stigmata white, green, or pale pink, 1-3 mm. long. Fruit: mericarps oblong or ovoid, 2-5-4 mm. wide, covered with stiff simple hairs and some minute glandular ones, funicular hairs c. 35; awns covered with stiff patent or antrorse simple hairs with some minute glandular ones on the outer surface; rostrum 9-20 mm. long. Seed black, sub-globular, 2-8 mm. long, with coarse more or less isolateral alveolae and a basal raphe. var. SOLANDERI. Tap-root almost always napiform. Stems decumbent, whole plant covered with reflexed or patent hairs. Sepals c.5 mm. long. Petals c. 6 mm. long. Stigmata 1 mm. long. Mericarps ovoid, c. 255 mm. long. Rostrum 9-12 mm. long. Stems sometimes rooting at the nodes. Range. Very widespread in temperate Australia including Tasmania and into New Zealand. Avyparently introduced into California. Habitat. Variable but usually in drier plant communities. Typification. All of the synonyms cited are synonyms of the type variety. G. solanderi Carolin—Holotype—Habitat in New Zealand, Forster, sub ‘“G. pilosum Forst” (K) see Carolin, 1963 for discussion of Forster’s types; in any case this is the only relevant specimen which has been located. The types of G. pilosum Sol., Prim. Fl. N. Zeal., mse (BM), are irrelevant as they refer to an unpublished name. G. pilosum Sol. ex Willd. Willdenow presumably based this description on J. R. Forster's material named by Solander for J. G. A. Forster’s “Prodromus”’ which reached him in 1799 via Sprengel (Carolin, 1963). In any case the name is not available as it is a later homonym of G. pilosum Cav. G. dissectum var. pilosum is based upon the material at Kew derived from J. R. Forster’s herbarium: it would, then, appear to be duplicate material of that used by Willdenow or it might even be identical. Hooker, however, refers only to the nomen nudum of Forster and the variety must therefore be attributed to him alone. G. dissectum var. australe Benth—Lectotype—G. pilosum Sol. ex Willd. When Bentham described this variety he included within it most of the species described before 1863. None of these synonyms was referred to as being more important than the others. As this combination has been used most frequently to cover the species at present under discussion the lectotype is selected so that it becomes a synonym. G. patulum Sol. is a nomen nudum. Named after Daniel Solander who first described the species under the name “G. pilosum” in msc. Prim. Fl. N. Zeal. Discussion. Both the nomenclature and the biology of this species are involved. Only one variety is recognized here, but there is considerably more variation than this. 352 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC AREA, implies. Other characters also vary, but the differences appear to grade into each other and there appears to be no obvious correlation of characters. Notable in this respect are sepal shape and indumentum, the latter varying from stiff reflexed to soft patent, or even puberulent, hairs, and the former from ovate to lanceolate-elliptic. The important differentiae which serve to separate this species from allied ones are the patent or reflexed hairs, napiform roots and the coarse alveolae of the black or very dark brown seeds. The species has been frequently compared and confused with G. carolinianum L. and G. dissectum lL. Fernald has dealt with these species in North America, see Rhodora, 37: 298 (1935), and the Australian species with which they have been confused can be distinguished from these two as follows: 1. Annual. Flowers twinned and frequently grouped into heads. Pedicel and rostrum with some long glandular hairs. Seeds brown with small, shallow, elongate alveolae, oblong with a more or less lateral raphe .... G. carolinianum. 2. Annual. Flowers twinned, not grouped into heads. Pedicels and rostrum with numerous long glandular hairs. Seeds pale brown with large isolateral deep alveolae, more or less globular with a basal raphe .............. G. dissectum. Perennial. Flowers twinned, not grouped into heads. Pedicels and rostrum with no long glandular hairs. Seeds black or very dark brown with large usually isolateral distinct alveolae, globular or sub-globular with a more or less basal TAPP LAR LOSER, Se Ry cUN Bets e.2 auk iastd ePIN aE yiin M Rae ese Ur pep estas ahh G. solandert. Co 4. Perennial. Flowers solitary. Pedicels and rostrum with no long glandular hairs. Seeds brown with small shallow elongate alveolae, oblong with a lateral raphe .. G. potentilloides. rPOoODOOoOONU GOO DOOOnMO OOOO OOo OO oO reo Ooo 00 6 00 Oo 5 015/000 D0 00 090.00 010-00 The differentiae are considered to be of specific significance and the action of earlier workers in including all these species under G. dissectum can no longer be justified. Selected Specimens examined: Western Australia: Mt. Mylup, A. Oldfield No. 496 (MEL); Gordon River, Oldfield No. 123 (MEL). South Australia: Mambray Creek, lower Flinder’s Range, Adel. Bot. Gard., Oct. 1960 (AD 96139066); Kinchina nr. Murray Bridge, M. C. R. Sharrard No. 712, 14.8.1960 (AD 96149261); Mount Lofty Ranges, J. B. Cleland, 12.12.1961 (AD 96104204); Flinders Range Wilpena, D. E. Symon No. 566, 13.9.1960 (ADW). Victoria: Narbethong nr. Healesville, R. Carolin No. 1107, 6.1.1960 (SYD); Mt. Buller, R. Carolin No. 1099, 5.1.1960 (SYD); Warrandyte, A. Meebold No. 21708, Nov.1986 (NSW 42619); Mt. Hecles, H. I. Aston, 21.10.1960 (MEL); Spring Creek, H. I. Aston No. 633, 12.10.1960 (MEL); Gattamurrah Gap, J. H. Willis, 25.2.1962 (MEL) ; St. Kilda, F. von Mueller, Sept. 1852 (MEL). King’s Island: Chas. Walters, 11.1887 (NSW 42638). Tasmania: c. 2 miles n. of Dee Lagoon nr. Lyell Highway, R. Carolin No. 1323, 16.1.1960 (SYD); Mt. Nelson, R. Carolin No. 1767, 6.2.1960 (SYD); Devonport, R. Carolin, No. 1113, 7.1.1960 (SYD); The Gardens, sth. end of Bay of Fires, R. Carolin No. 1903, 12.2.1960 (SYD); Recherche Bay, R. Carolin No. 1416, 22.1.1960 (SYD); Hobarton, J. Backhouse No. 92, 1834 (BM). New South Wales: The Creel nr. Jindabyne, R. Carolin, No. 773, 24.1.1959 (SYD); Burraga-Rockley, R. Carolin No. 938, March 1959 (SYD); Cox’s Gap, R. Carolin No. 2070 (SYD); 10 miles S.E. of Nowendoc, R. Carolin No. 2064, 19.12.1960 (SYD); Munyang near Guthega, R. Carolin No. 784, 25.1.1959 (SYD); Bungonia Caves, R. Carolin No. 841, 1.3.1959 (SYD); Oberon, R. Carolin No. 920, 23.3.1959 (SYD); The Oaks, Camden, S. M. McKay, 14.3.1958 (SYD); Ryde, O. D. Hvans, 1.9.1924 (SYD); Chandler’s Peak, J. L. Boorman, 3.1917 (NSW 42595); Bateman’s Bay, J. L. Boorman, 6.1906 (NSW 42678); Currarong near Shoalhaven River, F. A. Rodway, 2.1928 (NSW 42675); Gudgenby, R. H. Cambage No. 3380, 13.1.1912 (NSW 42574); Merrigoen via Mudgee, F. H. Brown, 6.1899 (NSW 42690); 3 miles n. of Wallabadah, R. H. Goode No. 107, 11.11.1954 (BM). A.O.7.: Canberra, O’Connor district, R. D. Hoogland No. 3107, 10.1.1953 (CANB. BM). Queensland: Cunningham’s Gap, R. Carolin No. 573, 15.5.1958 (SYD); Rathdowney, R. Carolin No. 1028, 1.6.1959 (SYD); BY R. C. CAROLIN. 353 Millmerran, C. EK. Hubbard No. 5848, 15.3.1931 (BRI 037028.K); Bunyah Mts., C. T. White, 10.19 (BRI 037031); 2 miles S. of Pittsworth, S. L. Everist and L. J. Webb No. 1234, 20.11.1946 (BRI 037032); Q.A.H.S. and College, Lawes, R. Roe, 8.10.1938 (CANB 5360). New Zealand: R. Lynd No. 77 (BM); Awamoko, Lower Waitaki Valley, D. Petrie, Oct. 1892 (WELT 30999); Coromandel, D. Petrie, Jan. 1899 (WELT 31004); Mount Eden, J. Kirk No. 644, Nov.19.1868 (WELT 31006); Napier, W. R. B. Oliver, 1913 (WELT 6058); Watchman’s Island, Ahuriri Lagoon Napier, A. J. Healy, 13.4.1945 (CHR 58526); Taranga Island, L. B. Moore and L. M. Cranwell, 15.11.33 (CHR 95133); Cockburn— Hornby District, A. J. Healy, No. 56/185, 29.10.1956 (CHR 92182B) pro parte; Weka Creek, N. Canterbury, A. J. Healy, 9.12.1941 (CHR 33655). var. GRANDIS, var. NOV. Radix princeps non napiformis. Caules adscendentes pilis patentibus mollibus obtecti. Pedunculi 3-4 mm. longi. Petala obovata, 12 mm. longa, 5 mm. lata. Stigmata 3 mm. longa. Tap-root thick, woody, branched and swollen but not napiform. Flowering stems ascending, up to 60 cm. tall. Whole plant covered with soft patent hairs. Basal leaves with petioles up to 20 cm. long; laminae 7—10-lobed, up to 4 cm. long and 6 cm. wide; stipules c. 9 mm. long. Peduncles 3-4 cm. long, pedicels 3-5 cm. long. Sepals 6-9 mm. long. Petals obovate, 12 mm. long, 5 mm. wide. Stigmata pale pink, c. 3 mm. long. Mericarps oblong, c. 4 mm. long. Stems apparently never rooting at the nodes. Range. New England Highlands. Habitat. Usually in open forest on basaltic soils. Typification. Holotype—Ebor Gorge, New England, R. Carolin No. 0766, 2.1.1959 (NSW), named after the flowers which are conspicuously larger than those of the type variety. Discussion. This variety has an apparently restricted range on basaltic soils in northern New South Wales, but may eventually be found to have a more extensive distribution. Specimens examined: New South Wales: Guy Fawkes Creek Gorge, R. Carolin No. 424, 17.11.1957 (SYD); Glen Innes, H. M. R. Rupp, 1.1914 (NSW 42580); Mt. Lindsay, H. M. R. Rupp, 1.1914 (NSW 42591); Clarence River, H. Beckler (MEL). 16. GERANIUM DRUMMONDI, sp. nov. Herba perennis radice principi napiformi et floribus geminis. Caules petioli pedunculi et pedicelli capillis longis patulis albis plerumque simplicibus vestiti. Folia profunde 7-9-lobata. Sepala hirsuta. Petala ad basin ciliis longis plurimis. Semina fulva (vel nigra?) subglobularia. Raphe basilari alveolis parvis transverse elongatis. Perennial herbs with a thickened napiform tap-root and short thick caulorrhiza eovered with dead stipules and leaf-bases. Flowering stems decumbent or ascending, usually only sparsely branched, up to 50 cm. long, covered with long stiff patent white simple hairs with a few glandular ones. Basal leaves similar to cauline ones but larger and somewhat more deeply dissected. Cauline leaves opposite; petioles up to 5 cm. long, hirsute with long more or less patent hairs; laminae orbicular to reniform in outline, up to 2 cm. long and 3-5 cm. wide, covered with more or less appressed white hairs on either surface, deeply dissected into 5-7 segments which are further divided into three mucronate secondary lobes towards the top; stipules membranous, pale brown, linear to lanceolate, c. 3 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, pubescent, ciliate, acute or even acuminate. Flowers twinned; peduncles hirsute with dense spreading white simple hairs sometimes more or less entangled, 2-4 em. long, bracteoles similar to stipules but smaller; pedicels ‘similar to peduncles, up to 2 cm. long, geniculate at the bracteoles and swollen above in the fruiting stages. Sepals ovate, 5 mm. long, 2:-5-3-5 mm. wide, densely covered with long white more or less spreading simple hairs; membranous and minutely ciliate at the Margin with a mucro c. 0-5 mm. long. Petals pink (?), obovate, somewhat longer than the sepals, with long marginal hairs towards the base. Stamens 10: filaments lanceolate, 354 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC AREA, c. 4 mm. long, yellow-brown, distinctly ciliate; anthers not seen. Ovary hirsute; stigmata red (?). Fruit: mericarps smooth, hirsute with long stiff white simple hairs and some minute glandular ones, funicular hairs more or less erect, often almost half as long as the mericarp itself, 20-30; awns densely covered with spreading stiff simple hairs; rostrum 10-13 mm. long. Seeds more or less globular, 1:5-2:0 mm. long, with a basal raphe, dark brown (or black) covered with small but fairly prominent alveolae more or less elongated at right angles to the vertical axis. Range. South-western Australia. Habitat. Unknown. Typification. Holotype—Drummond, Swan River No. 4 (K). There are two sheets bearing this number at Kew. Both bear specimens of this species. The sheet marked “4 pis” is the holotype. The type number collection of G. australe Nees in Lehm., i.e., AUSTRALIA Stanue Miles me 300 vee ee Projection Conta with wo standard parallels 1b Longitmade East 130 of Greenmch 155 op! Fig. 9. Distribution of G. retrorsum (@), and G. sessiliflorum ssp. brevicaule (X). Preiss No. 1907, contains elements of this species; the sheet at Leningrad bears: specimens. Nees’ description, however, disagrees in a number of respects, notably with respect to the indumentum. Named after the collector of the holotype. Discussion. The author has not seen this species in the field but the herbarium material is quite distinctive. The long, dense simple hairs on the stems etc., the long basal cilia on the petals, the characteristic alveolae of the seed-coat and the swollen napiform root distinguish it from all the other species. The indumentum, twinned flowers and root form indicate an affinity with G. solandervi. Specimens examined: Western Australia: Yallingup and Cape Naturaliste, A. A. Dorrien-Smith, 1910 (K); Drummond, Swan River No. 501 (K two sheets. MEL. BM). GROUP V. Perennials with thick but not napiform roots, and with much branched caulorrhiza, covered with very persistent dead petioles. Pedicels more or less erect, not swelling above or geniculate in the fruiting stages. Flowers solitary. Flowering stems short. Seeds black, smooth or with minute alveolae. 17. GERANIUM SESSILIFLORUM. Cav., Diss., 4: 198 (1787); Willd., Sp. Pl., 3: 696 (1800); DC., Prodr., 1: 639 (1824); Hook. f., Fl. Ant., 252 (1847); Benth., Fl. Austr... BY R. C. CAROLIN. 355 1: 297 (1863); Hook. f., Handbk. N. Zeal. Fl., 36 (1864); Moore et Betche, Handbk. FI. N.S.W., 55 (1893); Sprg. in Anal. Mus. Buenos Airos, 7: 254 (1902); Rodway, Fl. Tasm., 19 (1903); Cheeseman, Man. N. Zeal. Fl., 89 (1906); Knuth, Pfirch.-Geran., 83 (1912); Simpson et Thompson, Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 73: 157 (19438); Ewart, Fl. Vict., 682 (1930); Curtis, Stud. Fl. Tasm., 1: 91 (1956); Allan, Fl. N. Zeal., 1: 234 (1961). Compact perennial with thick usually much-branched tap-roots and much-branched woody caulorrhiza up to 7 mm. thick and covered with the very persistent stipules and petioles. Basal leaves crowded on the upper parts of the caulorrhiza: petioles 2-10 cm. woo z0d0 Kn Southern Pacific Oblique Azimuthal Equidistant centred on ec. long. 180° lat. 51°. Fig. 10. World distribution of G. sessiliflorum (incl. spp.). jong, covered with long patent villous hairs and short appressed ones; laminae semi- orbicular to reniform in outline, 5-7 palmately lobed or dissected, 10-20 mm. long, 15-30 mm. wide, covered thickly or thinly with coarse appressed hairs on both sides; lobes oblong-ovate in outline with three secondary lobes above each, each secondary lobe obtuse with a callous tip or the lateral ones tending to be acute; stipules pale to dark brown, oblong to lanceolate-acuminate, c. 6 mm. long and up to 2 mm. wide, covered with short appressed hairs, ciliate at the margin, united to the petiole with only the tips free. Flowers solitary, borne on the usually very short annual branches; bracteoles membranous, brown, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, c. 6 mm. long and 1 mm. wide, covered with short appressed hairs, ciliate at the margin and inserted on the lower third of the pedicel-peduncle; pedicel-peduncle 0-5-3:0 cm. long, more or less erect, densely covered with retrorse-appressed hairs, often with some long divergent ones, not swollen above in the fruiting stages. Sepals lanceolate to narrow-elliptic or narrow- oblong, 4-8 mm. long and up to 2-5 mm. wide, acuminate at the tip, covered with long spreading hairs and shorter antrorse-appressed ones, thinner but scarcely membranous towards the margin, ciliate, very slightly convex or flat in the fruiting stages. Petals oblong to narrow-elliptic or obovate, 4-8 mm. long, 1-8 mm. wide, deep pink to white -with translucent veins, paler towards the base, with minute hairs scattered over the 356 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC AREA, surface at the margin or rarely glabrous. Stamens 10; filaments broad-lanceolate, acuminate, divergent at the apex, c. 2-5 mm. long, ciliate; anthers yellow, more or less orbicular, c. 1 mm. long, with 2-3 bristles at the apex. Ovary hirsute; stigmata, deep pink or white, c. 1 mm. long. Fruit: mericarps brown, oblong to ellipsoid, 3 mm. long, 1:5 mm. wide, covered with stiff spreading hairs; funicular hairs mostly erect, c. 25; awnls covered with stiff short simple hairs and some minute glandular ones on the outer surface; rostrum 8-10 mm. long. Seeds black to very dark brown, ovoid to ellipsoid, c. 2-5 mm. long and 1 mm. wide, obscurely reticulate; raphe lateral. SSp. SESSILIFLORUM. Indumentum various; hairs of the calyx short and appressed with long + divergent villous ones towards the margin; mucro of the sepal c. 0-5 mm. long or obsolete. Petals oblong, scarcely clawed at all, 1-5-2 times as long as the sepals, red to white. Range. South American Highlands, coming down to sea-level in higher latitudes. Habitat. Grasslands and sand-dunes. Discussion. This subspecies does not come within the geographic limits of this treatment. It is included to point out the distinctions between it and the Australasian material. SSp. NOVAEZELANDIAE, SSp. OV. Pili calycis plerumque appressi patentiores longioresque versus marginem inserti. Petala obovata longiore sepalam. Indumentum various; hairs of the calyx appressed, with the long divergent ones tending to be inserted towards the margin; mucro of the sepal c. 1 mm. long, frequently divergent or even reflexed in the fruiting stage. Petals obovate, clawed, c. 1:5 times as long as the sepals, usually white. var. NOVAEZEALANDIAE. Leaves glabrescent to + hirsute, green. Taxonomic Synonyms. G. sessiliflorum var. maculatum Simpson et Thomson, loc. cit. Indumentum =+ thinly scattered. Leaves dark green, not glaucous. Range. New Zealand. Habitat. Grasslands to fairly high altitudes. Typification. G. sessiliflorum ssp. novaezealandiae. Holotype—Saddle between Shin & Hodder Rivers, Inland Kaikoura Mts., Marlborough, B. G. Hamlin No. 915, 4 Dec. 1960 (WELT 11508); G. sessilifiorum var. maculatum Simpson et Thomson—holotype—shores of Lake Lyndon, G. Simpson and J. S. Thomson (CHR 75697). Discussion. The diagnostic characters given in the main description separate this subspecies from the other two. It approaches closest to ssp. sessiliflorum in the sand- dune variety (below). It seems possible that it hybridizes with G. potentilloides. Selected Specimens examined: New Zealand: Makara Hills, Wellington, A. P. Druce, 21.11.1947 (CHR 82267); Red Rocks Point, A. J. Healy, 8.12.1940 (CHR 33222); Desert Road, L.B.M., April 1955 (CHR 91942); Hora Hora, Middle Waikato, D. Petrie 16.11.1912 (WELT 30924); Tarawera, Hawke’s Bay, D. Petrie, 2.2.1909 (WELT 30923); Upper Rangitikei Ford, D. Petrie, Jan.1915 (WELT 30939); Mt. Arthur, Nelson, J. A. Hay, 26.12.50 (CHR 89927); Summit Road, Banks Peninsula, T. W. Rawson, 28.12.1954 (CHR 94041); Eweburn Creek, C. Otago, sine coll. (CHR 95149); S. bank of L. Taylor, Upper Huranui, A. Lush, 8.11.1948 (WHLT 30946); Porter’s Pass, M.S., 6 Feb. (WELT 30944); Mingria valley, W. R. B. Oliver, 13.1.1928 (WELT 30907). var. ARENARIUM Simpson et Thomson in Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal., 73: 158 (1943). Leaves densely covered with greyish appressed hairs. Range. New Zealand, south part of the South Island. Habitat. Coastal sand-dunes. BY R. C. CAROLIN. 255 ~l Typification. Holotype—Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, G. Simpson (CHR) but not located. Discussion. A fairly distinct form occupying a rather specialized habitat. In some specimens it approaches ssp. sessiliflorum which also may occur on sand-dunes. Selected Specimens examined: New Zealand: Fisherman’s Bay, H. H. Allan, Jan. 1946 (CHR 76192); nr. Dunedin sine loc. et coll. (CHR 95148); Ramaru, H. H. Allan, 1.1929 (CHR 972); Dog Island, T. Kirk, Jan.18.1884 (WELT 30934); Sealer’s Bay, Codfish Island, R. K. Dell, 4.1.1948 (WELT 30945); Sandhills near Dunedin, G. M. Thomson, sine date (WELT 30930). SSP. BREVICAULE (Hook. f.), comb. et stat. nov. Nomenclatural Synonym. G. brevicaule Hook. in Hook. Journ. Bot., 1: 252 (1834); Hook. f., Fl. N. Zeal., 1: 40 (1852). Bastonym. Taxonomic Synonym. G. sessiliflorum var. glabrum Knuth in Bot. Jahrob., 37: 565 (1906) et Pfirch.-Geran., 85 (1912). Indumentum various. Hairs of the calyx: some short and appressed, with long stiff + divergent ones scattered amongst them; mucro of the sepal 1 mm. or longer. Petals oblong to oblanceolate or narrow-elliptic, scarcely clawed at all, pink, shorter than to slightly exceeding the sepals. Range. Tasmania and the S.H. highlands of continental Australia. Habitat. Grasslands and woodlands, usually at high elevations. Typification. G. brevicaule Hook.—Lectotype—Gunn No. 256; two collections are cited with the original description: “Van Diemen’s Land, Gunn 256 and 324”. There do not appear to be any specimens of the latter at Kew. Allan (loc. cit.) appeared to think that the type was “Chalky Bay, Lyall” at Kew: this is not so. G. sessiliflorum var. glabrum Knuth—Lectotype—Tasmania, Archer ex herb. Hooker (B, isolectotypes K.). Knuth included here both Tasmanian and New Zealand specimens. These syntypes were presumably destroyed during the war and I have been unable to locate any of the New Zealand material cited by Knuth. I have, therefore, chosen, as the lectotype, the specimen of which duplicates are available. It agrees fairly well with Knuth’s very brief description. Selected Specimens examined: Tasmania: 14 miles Wilmot-Waldheim, R. Carolin No. 1198, 10.1.1960 (SYD); 71 miles Hobart—Dee Lagoon, R. Carolin No. 1368, 16.1.1960 (SYD); 2 miles north of Dee Lagoon, Lyell Highway, R. Carolin No. 1326, 16.1.1960 (SYD). New South Wales: Daner’s Gap, Kosciusko, M. Woodward, 21.1.1958 (SYD); Kiandra Distr., E.B(etche), 2.1897 (NSW 42540); Bett’s Creek, Kosciusko, L. A. S. Johnson & EH. F. Constable, 25.1.1951 (NSW 15782). 18. GERANIUM ANTRORSUM, Sp. NOV. Herbae confertae vix expancentes. Folia lobis tenuibus. Flores solitares bracteolis. Partem in tertiam infimam pedicello-pedunculi insertis. Pediceli pilis albis antrorso- appressis. Petala obovata. Sepala lanceolato-acuminata circum fructum concava. Semina nigra obscure reticulata. Perennial herb with thick fleshy branched tap-roots and numerous much-branched eaulorrhiza (usually less than 3 mm. long), thick and covered with very persistent stipules and petioles. Flowering stems very short and bearing reduced leaves or reduced to a pedicel-peduncle. Basal leaves crowded towards the top of the caulorrhiza; petioles 8-16 em. long, densely covered with appressed hairs and some more or less spreading villous ones; laminae semi-orbicular to cuneate in outline, 5-7 palmately dissected or lobed, 1-4 cm. long, 1:5-3-0 cm. wide, covered with coarse appressed hairs on both surfaces; lobes obovate, further divided into three secondary lobes above, the central one obtuse, the two lateral ones tending to be acute, scarcely mucronate; stipules brownish, membranous, oblong to elliptic or lanceolate, 4-6 mm. long, up to 2 mm. wide, obtuse or slightly acuminate, ciliate at the margin and with a distinct ciliated mid-rib. Flowers solitary on erect peduncle-pedicels; pedicel-peduncle 1-4 cm. long, densely 358 THE GENUS GERANIUM IN THE SOUTH WESTERN PACIFIC AREA, covered with antrorse sub-appressed hairs, not swollen above in the fruiting stages; bracteoles lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, c. 6 mm. long, ciliate and pubescent, inserted about one-third distance from the base. Sepals lanceolate to narrow-elliptic, long acuminate, 5-11 mm. long, 2-3 mm. wide, covered with closely antrorse-appressed hairs and with spreading hairs on the veins and on the membranous margins, concave in the fruiting stages and with spreading tips. Petals obovate, 6-12 mm. long, deep-pink with translucent veins, and paler towards the base, entire. Stamens 10; filaments lanceolate- acuminate, 2-3-5 mm. long, ciliate; anthers globular, c. 1 mm. diam., yellow with purple dehiscence lines. Ovary hirsute-villous; stigmata pink, c. 2 mm. long. Fruit: mericarps dark brown, covered with spreading hairs, funicular hairs erect, c. 25; awns covered with short coarse simple hairs and some minute glandular ones on the outer surfaces; rostrum c. 11 mm. long. Seeds black, ovoid, c. 2-5 mm. long and 1-5 mm. wide, obscurely reticulate; raphe lateral. Range. Highlands of south-eastern Australia. Habitat. Alpine and sub-alpine grasslands. Typification. Holotype—Kosciusko Hotel dam, R. Carolin No. 778b, 24.1.1959 (NSW 66132), named after the antrorse hairs on the pedicel-peduncle. Selected Specimens examined: Victoria: Mt. Buller, J. H. Willis, 9.3.1953 (MEL) ; Quambat Plain, W. Hunter, Dec. 1938 (MEL); Mt. Tainter, Bogong High Plains, A. J. Tadgell, 28.2.1926 (MEL); Cobungra, H. B. Williamson, Dec. 1928 (MEL); N.W. of Cobungra, T. & J. Whaite No. 1959, 2.1.1960 (NSW 50174). New South Wales: east of Nimitybelle, R. H. Cambage No. 1850, 9.2.1908 (SYD); White’s River Hut nr. Guthega, R. Carolin No. B103, 12.2.1957 (SYD); Yarrangobilly Caves, R. Carolin No. 761, 21.1.1959 (SYD); Snowy Mountains, between Charlotte pass and Snowy River, Hj. Hichler No. 13652, 5.2.1957 (SYD AD 95748026). 2 a ants ny nt I ae 5 Fp Stine vy uf pal i fh Pa im 4% ry 6 Me Fs F Fs re) OR: « Yew Nitya a a | : t nA Rat rel 1) Sa i f i for) ha, wh et Aves Aut i m@@ ‘hai Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1964. PLATE Vv. Grey billy and Tor topography. PLATE vi. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1964. Seeds of Geranium species. ie Nae SM fe Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1964. PLATE vii. Fruiting pedicels of Geranium species. Viil. PLATE N.S.W., 1964. Soc. LINN. Proc. ‘e 1I9UIS PIUOYYs 4) JO Sotoeds jo sodAgy a ae t, ¥ » we oth, 7 “", a i MBL/WHOI LIBRARY AMINA WH DAEL 4 mae