< <.< ^■i c cc- c < ,< ' ^^ <. 4 IT ^<5: « C c i ^x <■ < << c-£?C « < . < . <^^ ^*^^,^:r ^ cc _ c r <^ re ^c cc c < < c cc c re .ccc r«? cc c: cc -?: c c rr^cc ,c cc: ^ ;/CC C vC ' CC C u<' flcC C<' &. lU.^^ PROCEEDINGS OF THi: LIVERPOOL LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, DURIXO THE THIRTY-EIGHTH AND THIRTY-NINTH SESSIONS, 184 9 TO 1851. No. VI, LIVERPOOL : DEIGHTON AND LAUGHTON. MDCCCLI. NOTE. The Council beg it to be understood that the Authors are alone respon- sible for the sentiments expressed in these pages. Only such papers as have been read during the Session reported can be printed. Back papers may be refen-ed to in illustration, the Council deciding whether any part shall be printed. Extract from the Laws. 43. Papers by Corresponding Members may be read by the Ordinary Member presenting them, or by the Secretary. 44. A Member may lay before the Society, with the sanction of the Council, an unpublished paper or essay by any person not a member of the Society. 45. Party politics, and controversial Divinity, are expressly excluded. [entered at stationer's hall.] Ill CONTENTS. Papers read before the Society, in Italia ; those marked thus * are given abridged or entire ; those uarked thus -f hare been printed elsewhere. PAOE. Statement of Accounts, 1848-49 and 1849-50. .vi, vii Office-bearers during Sessions xxxviii and xxxix. 1 Members of the Society — Ordinary 2 Corresponding 8 Report of Jletiring Council, Session xxxvii 11 *Booth, Rev. Dr. — Valedictory Address 12 Harvey, Mr. J. — on Monetary Science 18 ■^Beechey, Rev. St. Vincent — on the Sabaan Origin of the WiTiged Lion and Wi7iged Bull of Nineveh 19 *Hume, Rev. Dr. — on the Philosophy of Geographical Names 40 *Inman, Dr.— on the Punishment of Death in cases of Murder 72 Lowndes, Mr. — on the Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria*. 78 *Huggins, Mr. S. — on the Nature and Influence of the Beautiful ^. 80 Laker, Mr. — on the Philosophy of Heraldry, and its Sawon Analogies 84 [ tHiggin, Mr. E. — on the UisUyry of Door Fastenings ... 84 *Faram, Mr. — on the Nature and Essence of Body 85 f rhomson. Dr. D. P.— on the Law of Storms 87, lOS *Picton, Mr. — on Traces of the Settleinents of the Saxous in England 89 Ross, Mr. C. J. — on the Ecanmntcs of Education .. . 106, 149 IV I'AGB. *Sansom, Mr. — ou tlie Characters employed by Botanists in the Determination of Species 107 *Inman, Dr. — on the Distinction between Animal and Vegetable Life 113 Yates, Mr. J. B. — on the Construction of a curious Astronomical Clock, by Dr. Henderson 115 * Yates, Mr. J. B.— on "Books of Emblems" part ii 116 Resignations since printing List of Members ... 150 E/cport of Retiring Council, Session xxxviii 151 ■^Ihne, Dr. — Historical Parallel between the British Parliament and Bmnan Senate 156 Yates, Mr. J. B.— on Mummy Wheat, and Vitality of the Seed 176,237 Moss, Mr. J. J. — on the Wonders of the Microscope ... 178 *Robberds, Rev. J. — on the Character and Moral Influ- ence of Socrates 180 Thomson,. Dr. D. P. — on the Astronomical uses of the Pyramids 190 Bentley, Mr., the late — Medallion and Memoir 191 Lassell, Mr. — Communication on the New Ring of Saturn 195 tHume, Rev. Dr. — Suggestions for the Advancement of Literature and Learning in Liverpool 197 tHuggins, Mr. — on the Unity of the Fine Arts 197 *Hartnup, Mr. — Meteorological Observations made at the Liverpool Observatory 199, Appendix 11. *Inman, Dr.— on the Feet of Insects 179, 199, 209 Sansom, Mr. — on the Arrangement and. Classification of the Musciy as proposed by C. Miiller 201 Behrend, Mr. Henry — on the Light Literature of Spain 201 ■^Dickinson, Dr. — Flora of Liverpool 201, Appendix I. ^Edwards, Mr. J. B. — on Induced Voltaic Currents, and their Therapeutic Application 202 Yates, Mr. J. B. — Presentation of a model of the cone of the Encephalartus Caffer and its description ... 207 V I'AOE. Padley, Mr.— Utility of ¥jarh/ Scientific Education 209 Thomson, Dr. D. P. — Communication on Eoucault's Pendulum Experiment — resolution of the So- ciety— result of the experiments 228, 232, 238 Smith, Mr. J. P. G. — on Temperatures taken below the Surface of the Ground 228 ■'^'Howson, Rev. J. S. — on the Study of Ancient Art as an Instrument of Education 229 "*^Ihne, Dr. — on the Legislat^tre of the Roman Republic. . . 232 ■'^Behrend, Mr. H. — on the Persiac Odes 234 *Hartnup, Mr. — Comparative Observatiotis of an Aneroid Barometer with the Standard at the Liverpool Ob- servatory 235 ERRATA. Page 8, line 7 from top, /or 1821 read 1812. „ 197, « 5 I. bottom, /or HiG GINS read HuGGiNS. n 200, 1/ 5 " » for instrument read Electric-telegraph. m J 02, w 4 /. n /or were read was. Appendix, page 5, line 6, /or 23' read 24'; and /or 54' read dO". m f 167, „ 3 from bottom, /or Guage read Gauge. VI CD TO o o c © «o Oi tH OS 00 CD ^ s o'-^S 00 1-* <0 O O rH r-t O i-l I II a ® 18 o 5h| •2 - •C o • bi ® 0) « o o 08 cc m'2 « ^■^^ J^ fl H ) OJ >H fH < ±J o o ^ j3 e»H C(H O 3 o g.t^iz; ^l ^ H^ PQc/2 •'• s fl •'i-l ^5 s-s 0) O *8 05 om fi s 5?" g « ;z; » M P« < ft S i 'S o H Vll 73 O O ^ «o » 6 2 o> Mooo t- pH M pH ^ ^ t « fH s i 1 Eh W H < H a g i || 1 g 1 1 'S u a ' '^ •S >> >> M pq o 1 TJOOOOOCOOOO 00 o •»* • >-^ .'^(MCOOCSOSOOO O 1> 'S* * i-H pH iH C^jOOrHpHOCOfHiq l> rH 3* : ^ CO ,^ Q ; rCi & ® J s* rfS Q R< m PM 1 1 .1 ill B :|g :i.i 1 1 a S 5^ o !S « 3 S c m»^Hpq(»6;r 4 : i j ^»»»asai o f H ■ ^'*0 00 00 I Ht MOO o oa o a o 2«^1 1 ^^ 5 3 rH •H 1 «♦! ^3 1 qj*" «4J B H -< H » I > 1 "^ 2 "^ i. a 1 r1 « » .15 ^ ® -s .Spc 1 -5 1 -Is :9 i ' 2 4 -a OhsC o « ^ oi c5 o ^ H t^ 00 00 00 ^ i-H iH rH *(^ § ^ 00 « g s o C5 S ^J H t) H ^« "^ o ca a ^ CO CO O} w g rH s 5j «♦» s « f u Sa CO 00 ^ B Bs 1 "1 'C' t o 1 JO 2 '^ o •• 0) o 1 '3 u M 1 ! 1 i-H Q **: •« o 5 2 4 VUl EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS. MEMBERSHIP. 1. Every Ordinary Member shall contribute to the funds of the Society an annual subscription of half-a-guinea, payable on the first day of the session. 2. No member whose subscription is in arrear for any but the current session, shall be entitled to take part in the Pro- ceedings of the Society ; and if any member omit to pay his subscription for three successive years, his connexion witli tlie Society shall cease. 6. Application for admission into the Society shall be made by a form, which may be had from the Secretary. 7. Such application for admission must be signed by the Applicant, and countersigned by two Members, previously to its presentation; and at the next ordinary meeting but one of the Society, it shall be determined. The consent of four- fifths of the Members voting at such meeting, shall be neces- sary for admission. 9. Every candidate who is elected, must pay to the Trea- surer, at or before the third meeting after his election, or his election will be void, the sum of one guinea, which will include his subscription for the current session. 10. Any gentleman not residing within five miles of Liver- pool may be proposed as a Corresponding Member. 12. Corresponding Members shall not be subject to any of the expenses of the Society, nor have any right or share in its property, nor voice in* its deliberations. OFFICE BEARERS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL. SESSION XXXVni.— 1849-50. ¥rrB(limt. JOSEPH BROOKS YATES, Esq., F.S.A., M.R.G.S., F.P.S. Vitt»l^ttfiititnt», W. H. DUNCAN, Esq., M.D. | R. M'ANDREW, Esq., F.L.S. FRANCIS ARCHER, Esq., M.R.C.S.E. ^xtMuxtv, Hion. JSefretarj. EDWARD HEATH, Esq. ] T. INMAN, Esq., M.D., F.B.S.E. <9ti)rr ffHtmhtxn of (Hountil Joseph Dickinson, Esq., M.A., T. Sansom, Esq., A.L.S., F.B.S.E. M.D., F.L.S., F.B.S.E. W. Lassell, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. W. Stewabt Tbench, M.D. H. C. Pidgeon, Esq. J. P. G. Smith, Esq. J. A. PicTON, Esq., F.S.A. Rev. H. H. HiGGiNS, M.A. J. Byeeley, M.R.C.S.E. SESSION XXXIX.— 1850-51. JOSEPH BROOKS YATES, Esq., F.S.A., M.R.G.S., F.P.S. Vitt'JS^xtiilitnti. W. H. DUNCAN, Esq. M.D. | 11. M'ANDREW, Esq., F.L.S. JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., M.A., M.D., F.L.S., F.B.S.E. Ext&nuxtv. Iton. JSrcretars. EDWARD HEATH, Esq. | D. P. THOMSON, M.D. ^V^tx fAtmhtxa of ^ounrfl. T. Inman, Esq., M.D., F.B.S.E., •H. C. Pidgeon, Esq. T. Sansom, Esq., A.L.S., F.B.S.E. J. P. G. Smith, Esq. Rev. H. H. HiooiNS, M.A. Edwabd Higgin, Esq. Rev. J. RoBBERDS, B.A. J. Mayer, Esq., F.S.A. R. Bkett, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S. +W. Lassell, Esq., F.R.S., F.B.A.S. * Retired, on leaving Liverpool, Jan. 27, 1851. -f Elected Miu'di :t4,18Al. B MEMBERS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHTCAL SOCIETY or LIVERPOOL. ORDINARY MEMBERiS. Elected. 1833 Aikin, James, Goree-piazzas and 1, Alfred-street. 1 841 Anderson, Thomas Francis, Cable-street and Holly -lodge , Fairfield. 1844 Archer, Francis, M.R.C.S.E., Corresp. Memb. Nat. Hist., SS. Boston and Belfast, 49, Rodney -si/reet. 1834 Baines, Thomas, Castle-street j and Barton-grange, Irlam. 1845 Balman, Thomas, M.R.C.S.E., 4, Oxford-street. 1837 Banner, J. M., Hon. E.R.C.S.E., 42, Rodney -street. 1816 Barber, Charles, Royal Institution, and Olive-mount, Wavertree. 1850 Behrend, Henry, M.R,C.S.E., 15, Canning-street. 1812 Bickersteth, Robert, Hon. E.R.C.S.E., 2, Rodney-street. 1848 Bishop, Rev. E., 7, ParJc-road. 1847 Bloxham, E. W., Cow-lane, Wavertree. 1834 Boult, Francis, Jun., 6, Rumford-place, and Clifton-park, Birkenhead. 1846 Boult, Joseph, 3a, Colquitt-street, and Grove-park, Lodge-lane. 1835 Boult, Swinton, 8, Water-street, and Heswell, Cheshire. 1847 Brent, Francis, Revenue-buildings. 1838 Brett, R. H., Ph.D., F.L.S., Medical-school, and 9, EUzaheth-street. 3 Elected. • 1844 Bright, Samuel, 1, North John^treet, and Sandheys, Mill-lane^ West Berhy. 1848 Brooks, John, 55, Qreat Otorge-sireet, 1851 Brougham, James Rigg, 19, Percy -street, 1847 Burgess, William, L.R.C.P., 3, Oxford-street. 1849 Burke, William, Revenue-buildings, and 36, Percy -street. 1848 Byerley, Isaac, M.R.C.S.E., Uptm, CJmhvre. 1849 Campbell, John, Buhlm, 1848 Casey, George, 8, Earle-street. 1850 Chambres, Charles, 7, Castle-street. 1839 Chapman, Henry, 60, Oxford-place. 1844 Clay, Robert, 38, Saint Anne-street. 1844 Clark, Thomas, 30, Strand-street. 1848 Conway, John, 9, Union-court, Castle-street, and 18, Ivy- street, Birkenhead. 1860 Cox, Henry, 24, Exchange-alley North, and Sprittg-bank, Walton-brech. 1849 Curry, Henry, 22, Femoich-street, and Victoria-place, Birkenhead. 1844 Dale, R. N., 12, Exchmge-street East, and Eill-house, Higher Tranmere. 1845 Davis, George Millett, M.R.C.S.E., 71, Great George-st. 1848 Pe Finance, H. 89, North Bedford-street. 1840 Dickinson, Joseph, M.A., M.D. Tr. Coll. Dub. and Cant., E.L.S., E.B.S.E., 5, Nelson-street. 1848 Dove, Percy M., 1, North John-street, and 49, Hamilton- square, Birkenhead. 1847 Driffield, W. W., Tmn-hall, and Prescot. 1842 Drysdale, J., M.D. Edin., 44, Rodney -street. 1836 Duncan, W. H., M.D. Edin., Medical Officer of Health, Cornwallis-street, and Falkner-terrace, 1833 Eden, Thomas, M.R.C.S.E., 105, Pa^rk-road. Elected. • 1848 Edwards, John Baker, 1\C.S., Hon. Sec. Liverpool Che- mists' Association, 42, Berri/street. 1844 Ellison, King, M.R.C.S.E., 30, Rodney -street. 1850 Evans, Henry Sugden, F.C.S., Seel-street. 1848 Falcon, W. B., 11, Shaw-street. 1846 Earam, John, 29, Seel-street, and 6, Craven-terrace. 1849 Eisher, WiUiam M'Naught, Ph.D., E.R.A.S., 39, Great George-street. 1837 Eletcher, Edward, 122, Chatham-street. 1838 Eocke, Julius, Rumford-place, and Aigburth. 1849 Eorshaw, John, 2, Mount-street. 1844 Gray, Thomas, North John- street, and Trarimere. 1833 Grimaldi, Joseph, 3, North Bedford-street. 1850 Hamilton, George, Wellington-road, North Egremont. 1847 Hampton, Rev. H., M.A., 18, Upper Parliament-street. 1837 Hartley, J. B., Coburg-dock, and Mount-pleasant, Linacre. 1850 Hartnup, John, E.R.A.S., Liverpool Observatory. 1850 Harvey, Enoch, 12, Castle-street, and 5, Prince' s-park- t err ace. 1844 Harvey, James, 5, Falkner-square. 1841 Heath, E., Orange-court, Castle-street, and St. Domingo- grove, Brechfield-road. 1850 Hibbert, Thomas D., 39, SacJcville-street. 1849 Higgin, Edward, 89, Bedford-street South. 1846 Higgins, Rev. H. H., M.A., 144, Grove-street. 1836 Higginson, Alfred, M.R.G.S.E., Mornington-terrace. 1850 Hodson, T. L., M.R.C.S.E., Great Nelson-street North. 1849 Holt, George, Jun., 6, India-buildings, and 2, Rake-lane, Edge-hill. 1847 Horner, H. P., Basnett-street, and 1, Clarence-street, Evertcm. 1850 Howson, Rev. J. S., M.A., Principal of the Collegiate Institution. 0 Elected. 1847 Huggins, Samuel, 85, South John-street, and Brunsjcick^ road. 1841 Hume, Rev. A., D.C.L., L.L.IX, F.S.A., Corresp. T.S.A. Scot., M.P.S., 9, Clarence-street, Everton. 1851 Hutchinson, Richard, M.R.C.S.E., 77, Great George- street. 1850 Ihne, William, Ph.D., Head Master Mechanics' Institu- tion, 2, Hope-place. 1844 Inman, Thomas, M.D. Lond., F.B.S.E., 16, Eodney-st. 1851 Jones, Roger Lyon, Great George-square. 1844 Kemp, Edward, 50, Hamilton-square , Birkenhead. 1846 King, Joseph, Jun., 59, Shaw-street. 1851 Lafone, Alfred, Bevington-hush, and Almond' s-green, West Derby. 1848 Lamport, W. J., Fenwick-chambers, and Rock-ferry. 1839 Lassell, William, r.R.S., r.R.A.S., ^/J«r/^^, WestBerhy- road. 1844 Lear, John, 13, Rurnford-street, and 50, Pembroke-place. J 844 Lord, William, Lieut., R.N., Revenue-buildings, and 16, Sandon-street. 1849 Lowndes, Richard, 3, High-street, and 29, West Berhy-st. 1844 M'Ahdrew, Robert, F.L.S., 84, Upper Parliament-street. 1836 Macauley, C. A., 63, Falkner-street. 1846 M'Conliey, Rev. A., M.A., Wobum-hill, Green-lane, West Derby. 1844 Macnaught, John, M.D. Edin., E.R.C.P.E., 28, Bed- ford-street North. 1822 Macrorie, David, M.D. Edin., 126, Duke-street. 1848 Marshall, Buchanan, M.D. Glasg., 29, Islington. 1839 Martin, Studley, Exchange-chambers, and ^, Chcst^field- street. 6 Elected. 1844 Mayer, Joseph, F.S.A., 68, Lord-street, 1838 Moffat, John, M.D. Edin., North Bedford-Street. 1849 Morley, Henry, 2, Marine- terr ace ^ Liscard. 1849 Moss, Jolin James, Otterspool. 1850 Mott, Albert, 21, Sov,th Castle-street, and Grove-fiark, Lodge-lane. 1834 Neill, Hugh, L.R.C.S.E., Mount-pleasant. 1847 Nisbet, William, M.R.C.S.E., Egremont. 1846 Padley, George, M.R.C.S.E., 53, North Bedford street. 1846 Parr, Alfred, M.D., St. George" s-mounty New Brighton. 1849 Perkes, Samuel, 8, Cathcart-street, Birkenhead. 1846 Picton, J. A., E.S.A., 19, Clayton-square, and 8andy- knowe, Wavertree. 1850 Ramsay, Rev. A., M.A., Mill-lane, Vest Berhy. 1844 Ramsay, Peter, M.D. St. And., F.R.C.P.E,, 69, Chat- ham-street. 1812 Rathbone, Richard, 24, Water-street, and Woodcote, Aighurth-road. 1812 Rathbone, William, 24, Water-street, and Green-bank, Wavertree. 1844 Reay, Thomas, 87, Church-Street. 1840 Reid, R.B., M.R.C.S.E., Berhy -road. Booth. 1822 Reynolds, William, M.D., Coed-du, Benhighshire. 1840 Rob herds. Rev. John, B.A,, High-^ark-street, Toxteth-pk. 1821 Rockliff, Robert, 50, Castle-street, and 1, Clare-terrace, Edge-hill. 1848 Ross, Charles T., 30, Sun-street. 1850 Ryder, J. O,, 1, Fenvnck-street, and 39, Falkner -square. 1836 Salt, Charles P., Hon. Sec. Liverpool Polytech. Society, 90, Calming-street. 1845 Sansom, Thomas, A.L.S., P.B.S.E., 7, Boerton-road>. 7 Elected. 1846 Scholtield, H.D., M.D. Oxon., ffamilfori'Square, Bi/rkm- head. 1887 Scott, Roger W., M.D. Edin., 64, Rodney^treet, 1844 Shute, Robert, 28, BedfmUtreet North. 1812 Smith, James H., 28, Bjodney-streety and Green-hilly Allerton. 1848 Smith, J. P. G., 6, OldhalUtreet, and Spring -bank, Breck-road, 1850 Smith, R. C, 10, Everton-village. 1850 Smith, R. Ormerod, Buhe-street* 1849 South, Samuel Mauckley, 44, Hanover-streetf Priory- place, Birkenhead. 1845 Spence, Benjamin E., Brownlow-hill. 1840 Spencer, Thomas, 49, Great George-street. 1846 Sutton, Hugh Gaskell, 28, Exchange-street East, and Wood-end, Aighurth. 1844 Sweetlove, John, Walton Brech-road, Everton. 1840 Taylor, John, M.R.C.S.E., 41, Hope-street. 1842 Taylor, R. Hibbert, M.D. Edin., F.B.S.E., Bercy-street. 1849 Thomson, David P., M.D. Edin., 30, HusUsson-street. 1844 Thompson, George, Church-street, and Everton-hrcm. 1812 Thoruely, Thomas, M.P., 8, Mount-st/reet. 1844 Thornely, Francis, 9, Exchange-alley, and 1 6, Hope-street- 1849 Thorp, H., 8, North John-street, atid St. Catherine's terrace. • 1841 Trench, W. S., M.D. Edin., 56, Rodney -street. 1844 Turn bull, James, M.D. Edin., 4, Momingtoti-terrace. 1844 Vose, James, M.D. Edin., 5, Gambier-terrace. 1844 Walmsley, Joshua, Lord-street. 1849 Watling, William J., M.R.C.S.E., Wav&rtree. 1844 Watson, George Churchill, M.D. Edin., 5, Albert-^yUlan, St. John's, Fulham. 8 Ei«flted. 1844 Wilson, William, 14, South Castle-street, and Beech-lane, Aigburth, 1844 Winstanley, Samuel, Church-st,, and 68, Mount-pleasant, 1846 Wybergh, John, Jun., Sessions-house, and Poole-cottage, Poulton-cum-Seacombe. 1836 Yaniewicz, Pelix, 60, Mount-pleasant, 1821 Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A., M.R.G.S., M.P.S., 25, King-street, and West Dingle, Toxteth-park, 1834 Yates, Richard Vaughan, 31, Brunswick-street, and The Shruhhery, Toxteth-park, CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Elected. 1812 Rev. Erancis Parkman, Boston, U.S. 1812 Peter Mark Roget, M.D. Edin., E.R.C.P., F.R.S., E.G.S., &c., London. 1813 William Bucklaiid, D.D.,r.R.S., E.L.S., E.G.S.,&c.,&c., Dean of Westminster, Deanery, Westminster, 1814 Alexander Blair, L.L.D., London. 1815 Benjamin Smith Barton, M.D., Philadelphia. 1816 Thomas Stackhouse. 1816 George Gumming, M.D. Edin., L.R.C.P., Denbigh. 1816 John Wakefield Erancis, M.D., New York. 1817 John Bradbury, New York. 1817 George Cantrell, Eton. 1818 WiUis Earle, Jun., Calcutta. 1819 John Stanley, M.D. Edin., Whitehaven. 1819 & 1825 Rev.W. Scoresby,D.D., E.R.SS.L. & E., &c.,&c. 1820 Joseph Carne, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S., &c., &c., Penzance, Cornwall. 9 KlectcJ. 1823 John Keynolda. 1824 Rev. H. Jones. James Thomson, Mexico. 1827 Rev. William Hincks, P.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.B.S.E., Queen's CoUegey Cork. 1828 Rev. Brook Aspland, DucIcinfieMy Cheshire. 1831 Charles Pope, Bristol. John Ashton Yates, M.R.G.S., Bryansfmi-squarey London. 1833 Professor Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., &c., &c., Fxlinburgh. 1 833 Earl of Harrowby,P.C., D.C.L., SandonHall, Staffordshire. 1833 James Yates, M.A., E.R.S , E.L.S., F.G.S., &c., High- gate , London. 1834 William M. Tartt. 1835 George Patten, A.R.A., London. 1835 Wm. Ewart, M.P., Cambridge-square, Hyd^-parh, London. 1835 Edward, Earl of Derby, K.G., D.C.L., E.L.S., E.Z.S., &c., K7iowslei/. 1835 Henry,Lord Brougham &Vaux, M. A., F.R.S.,&c.,&c.,&c. 1835 Earl of EUesmere, D.C.L., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A., &c., London. 1835 Samuel Angell, Gower-street, Bedford-square, Londmi. 1836 H. B. Robinson, London. 1836 Chevalier de Kirkhoff, Antwerp. 1837 Earl of Burlington, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I. A., F.G.S., F.Z.S,, &c., &c., London. 1888 Professor Airey, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E. and M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., &c.. Astronomer Royal, Grreenwich. 1840 James Nasmyth, Patricrqft. 1840 R. D. Macintosh, M.D., Devonshire. 1841 Charles Bryce, M.P. Glasg., Socio dell' Acad, de Lin. Roma., Ludlow. 1842 T. H. lUidge, Bniton-street, Grost^enor-square, London, 1842 J. W. Dixon, Cape of Good Hope. 1844 George Chater, Nonoich. c 10 Sleel«d. 1844 J, B. Jukes, Wolverhampton. 1844 Professor Edw. Forbes, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., &c., King's College j London, 1844 T. B. Hall, Coggeshall, Essex. 1844 Peter Ry lands, Warmigton, 1844 Professor Scouler, M.D., Royal Society y Dublin. 1844 Professor T. Rymer Jones, F.R.S., F.Z.S,, F.L.S., M.R.C.S.E., &c., King'^s College, Jjondnl!ir Khyiiips of Scotlaiul 49 It often happens that when the language of a people is completely lost, or when no trace of it can be found in the speech or writing of any particular district, the geographical terms afford an independent and satisfactory evidence of cer- tain historical facts. Thus, though the Sanskrit is a dead language, many names in India and the neighbouring coun- tries are expressed in it ; the existence of the Jews may be seen in the Hebrew words and their modifications found in and near Palestine ; and in like manner we see proofs of the former existence of Greeks in Egypt, Moors in Spain, and Latins in all the countries of the Roman empire. It is a fact scarcely questioned by philologists, that the Celts, who are now an inconsiderable people in the west of Europe, can be traced in their migrations from their original settlements in Asia, by the names of the places through which they passed.* But even in the British islands, the commercial relations with the Spaniard may be inferred from such names as Valertxyia in the south west of Ireland ; the numerous Erench words in Kent, Sussex, and Hants, tell not only of proximity, but of a former frequent intercourse ; the Danish names in the Isle of Man, Orkney, the Hebrides, and the north Highlands, refer us to the time when the kings of the isles, the maormars, and the Pictish reguli exercised a jurisdiction separate from that of the Scots ;t the ancient British names in England proper were current before the days of Hengist and Horsa; and the numerous Celtic words in the north of Ireland, among a people thoroughly Saxon, point to a date long anterior to the " plantation of Ulster.'' Hence it appears that we have upon the surface of a well- constructed map the elements of the history of the country ; and that we only require a person sufficiently skilful, to read the lesson which it is calculated to teach. Some facts of * The Gael and the Cvmri. + Skene's Highlanders; Ritnon's Annals of the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots; Pinlierton's Hintory "f Scotland. H 50 great interest in the history of man have been elicited from a comparison of languages, written and spoken. An important point in such an investigation is the relationship observable in geographical terms, connecting tribes and peoples now widely apart or totally extinct. Since the names of places in every language are applied upon the same great principles, one would not expect to find many terms entering into the composition of them ; nor indeed are there many. In every language, the most prominent Natural Objects (such as mountain, river, plain, wood, island, lake, spring,) and the most necessary Artificia^l ones, (church, fort, house, bridge, town, enclosure,) are interwoven with those of Common Qualities, (age, number, height, colour, size, position, direction,) and the whole effect is pro- duced. Now the number of such words, multiplied by the number of existing languages would give a result quite start- ling : or even if multiplied by the number of languages which it is desirable to know, the product would be a very large one. "We are to bear in mind, however, that many languages are cognate y or of the same origin ;^s the Italian, Spanish, Portu- guese, and French, which are all directly derived from the Latin. Hence, the geographical terms in several languages are coincident or very nearly so ; and accordingly, instead of being confounded with a multitude of details, we easily grasp a few simple general principles. Prom the simplicity of the classification, a curious result follows. When we examine the words under any general head, as mountains or lakes, towns or churches, colours or numbers, we find that several sets of words exist, of identical or nearly identical meaning. TheSe are occasionally only different names for the same place, translated from one lan- guage to another by the different classes of people who have visited it. In general, however, they are the names of places that have no local connexion ; and are found in parts of the 61 world widely separated in space^ as well as by the circum- stances of language, laws/ and manners. We have thus two classes of synonymes, each of which is interesting in its own way. 1. Namtn Identical in meaning ^ for the same place. Dor- Chester or Hydropolis (the town at the water) ; Mesopotamia or Algesira (the country between the rivers) ; Baalbek or Heli- opolis ; Alba Julia or Weissenberg (the white town) ; Kenbaan or Whitehead ; Schwartz Wald or the Black Forest ; Helveticae Aquae, Thermae, or Baden (the place of warm water or baths); Hermanopolis or Hermannstadt (the town of Herman); Kara Su or the Black Sea; Pons Episcopi or Pont VEveque (the bishop's bridge); Insula Dei or Isle Dieu; Treffynon or Holywell; Claromontium, Clarus Mons, Claromons or Cler- mont; Intervalles, Intervallium, Entrevaux ; Sylva Herts- genbosch, Sylva Ducis, Boscum Ducis, Bolduc, or Bois-le-Duc (the Duke's wood); Album Monasterium, Blanc Minster, Candida Ecclesia, Whiteminster, or Blondeville (the modern Oswestry'^) ; Groes Oswallt (the cross of Oswald), Oswald's Tree, or Oswestry."*^ 2. Names identical in meanifig, for differe^^t places. Oxford, Bosphorus. Snowdon, Sneafel, Snafield, Sneeveld, Himmalaya, Sierra Nevada, Toldo de la Nieve, Snow Hill, Niphates. Kesseldorf, Castletown, Trecastle. The White Mountain, Mont Blanc, Dwalaghiri, Slievebawn, Penwin, Sierra Blanca, Leukos, Monte Albauo. New Town, Villa Nova, Villeneuve, Citta Nuova, Neapolis, Nyborg, Newton. Entre Rios, Mesopotamia (or Algesira), Doab, the Fork, Delta, Dwipa. Promontorium Album, Ras el Abiad, Kenbaan, White Cape, Capo Bianco. Albe Kirk, Whitchurch, Eglwys- wen, Albuquerque. The number of places possessing the same name or some slight moditication of it, is often so great, that when an ex- • PcDQHutV NorUi Wale-s. 52 plauation of the particular term is given, its application is perhaps ten or twelve times as extensive as the learner sup- posed. Tims, there may be half a dozen places which are called simply Newport, the distinction between them being the name of the county in which each is situated, or the river which flows past it, or the name of its founder. In the parishes, townships, and villages of England, there are 16 simple words which occur 445 times, or at an average of 28 times each. These arc, Easton 13, Weston 32, Norton 36, Sutton 39, Middleton 20, Astoii 24, Barton 21, Bucklaud 20, Burton 29, Newton 45, Preston 23, Stoke 60, Thorpe 23, Upton 25, Woolton 20, Winterborne 20.-^ A similar remark applies to terminations, several of which occur hundreds of times. From a minute examination of a portion of an English Gazetteer, a calculation was made re- specting the frequency with which some of the commonest terminations occur. From this it appears that there are 24 which occur at an average of about 250 times each. They are the following : — Bridge 48, Burn 48, Bury 420, By 273, Caster 48, Dale 48, Field 156, Fleet 48, Ford 324, Hall 60, Ham 672, Hill 60, Hurst 60, Kirk 48, Leigh 612, Minster 48, Stoke 48, Stead 68, Thorpe 180, Ton 2,784, Well 84, Wick 204, Worth 192. The distribution of languages over the face of the earth, affords us a guide at once, to the countries in which similarity of names may be expected. Without entering upon the gen- eral question of " 2,000 languages and 5,000 dialects," it is sufficient to say that there are ten or twelve languages of the Old Continent, the influence of which is felt in every part of the world. The people who speak them or who have spoken them, have left permanent records of themselves at almost every point : so that it is almost as easy to trace their pro- gress as to follow in the footsteps of an intelligent traveller. * Population Returns for 1841. 53 Tlie Arabic language, which is one of the Shemitic group, was carried far and wide by the followers of Mahomet in the middle ages ; eastward iu Asia, and westward over Africa and Europe. Accordingly, it is not in Arabia only that Arabic names of places are found ; but over Persia, in parts of India, on the coast of Syria, in Egypt, along the whole north of Africa, in Malta, and in the south of Spain and Portugal. The ancient Greek and Latin languages are of kindred origin, but for the present they may be considered apart. The former may still be recognised, not only iu the kingdom of Greece, but also in the whole of European Turkey, and in the republic of the Ionian Isles, the inhabitants of which are of Hellenic origin. We find Greek names too, wherever their enterprising colonists were found, in Asia Minor, the whole of the islands of the Archipelago, and in the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. The conquests of Alexander gave Grecian names to other portions of Asia, eastward to the Indus ; and also as far as the south of Egypt. In after times, the poets and his- torians produced the same effects by Grecian literature; as their writings familiarised mankind with the interesting places of antiquity. The extent of the Latin language was hardly restricted by the limits of the Roman empire; for conjecture was often substituted for examination, and Roman names were given to places that had never been visited by their own people. In the various countries of Europe and Asia, thousands of such names are still recognisable ; but in general they have become greatly modified, according to the fixed law? which regulate all languages. The principal branches of the Latin, are the Italian, the French, the Spanish, and the Portuguese. Each of these has been extended by modern navigation, but from local causes the Italian least of all. We find its geographical names all round the Mediterranean, and occasionally in other parts of the world. French names are found in the West India 54 islands, and in the Southern States of Nortli America. They occur also in Canada, in Algeria, in a few other places of Africa, in Asia and the South Seas. The most prevalent, however, of this group of languages is the Spanish or Portuguese, the distinctions between which do not require to be considered at present. A few places in the Mediterranean bear names of this kind, and a large number along the west coast of Africa, w^here the industry and enter- prise of their navigators were known, before the discovery of America. To the various places in the New Continent, Span- ish names were first given ; and Mexico, in the northern division, was denominated New Spain. In Florida, and some of the West India Islands, in Colombia, and along the western side of the Andes, the names are almost all Spanish ; in the other parts of South America, except in Guiana, they are Portuguese. The same names are found in various parts of the Pacific Ocean, in the Philippine Islands, and a few parts of India. The German language has spread very little, except under the kindred form of the Dutch. The colonies from Holland, at the Cape of Good Hope, in the Eastern Archipelago, the West Indies, and North America generally, imparted Dutch names to a vast number of places : but as these have become, in some instances, the property of other nations, the names have not always remained. Thus New Amsterdam has become New York ; and Cape Hoam, which was named from the na- tive village of its discoverer, is Anglicised to Cape Horn, as if named from its shape. The language of England, or as it is sometimes called, the AuGLO Saxon tongue, is at this moment more extended than any other in geographical names, and is destined to be more extensively used in practice than any other that has ever existed. Its numerous relations, — to the ancient British and Scandinavian tongues, on the one hand, and to the languages of Latin origin on tlie other, — enable us to understand and to 55 claim kindred with the words of many other countries. But independent of this, it is extended throughout our immense colonies and possessions ; as well as in various other parts of the world, which English navigators discovered and named. In Africa, English names prevail at the Cape of Good Hope, in some of the Islands, along certain points of the west coast, and in the more extensive settlements, American as well as British. In Asia, numerous points all over the Indian con- tinent have assumed English names ; and in the colonial settlements of Australasia, thousands of places are named like our own. In South America, we find only a few English names, towards the extreme south, and in British Guiana. In North America, from the Polar regions to the Gulf of Mexico, the terms are Anglo Saxon ; a large proportion of those which still remain from other languages, giving place to English. Throughout the whole extent of the Pacific, and beyond the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the coasts have been surveyed, the seas traversed and the lands explored by British enterprise; u^til one is tempted to forget his distance from home in read- ing the names of their localities. The great principles of " Pre-existing Names'' and "Personal Names" already noticed, receive an interesting confirmation in the researches of our own countrymen. Not only is almost every spot of interest within the circuit of our own seas reproduced elsewhere, but there is hardly a celebrated name in any department of literature or science, that is not some- where apparent on our maps. This is an allowable species of "hero worship," and deserves a little illustration.* 1, Royal Personages. Such names as Alexandr-\&, Coti- stantin-o^h, Adrian-o^le, Peters-huvg, Materin-oshY, Caroline Islands, ik?M>-iana, Bayazidy Timor , and Ahmed-^^i^y belong to other countries ; and in general explain themselves. But in ♦ Collected from various Histories, Books of Travels, and Trerttises on Maritime and Inlnnd Discovery. 56 relation to our own royal family, we have PAilips-town in the King's county, and Jfary-borough in the Qtieen's ; the Eliza- befh-\diiis named by Drake, and Firgin-io. by Raleigh ; James's Town in New England (James I) ; C/iarles-ton and Mafy-hnS. from Charles I and his queen Henrietta Maria; and while many places, both in the old and new continents, bear the name of George III, in 1769 Cook referred to his queen in the name Queen Charlotte^ s Sound. In 1776 Cook introduced three sons of the king, thus. Cape Prince of Wales (the late George lY), Prince William's Sound (the late William IV), and Prince Edward's Island (the late Duke of Kent). The name of our present queen is connected with Victoria Town, Fort, River, and Land ; and a part of her name not officially used, is recorded in lake Alexandrina, of New Holland. 2. Illustrious Men. Astoria was named from Astor ; and Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin, from those persons re- spectively. The Sandwich Islands were so named by Cook in 1774, in compliment to the Earl of Sandwich; Spe7icer's Gulf, by Elinders in 1790, from the Eirst Lord of the Admi- ralty ; and in the colonies, the Governor or some other colo- nial official, generally has his name attached to new places. Thus the Darling River was so named by Sturt from Governor Darling in 1829; and Brisbane plains, 6^J9^5\9 land, Macquaire harbour, are on the same principle. Golfe Bonaparte and Golfe Josephine in New Holland, were so named by the French, after they had received English names. 3. Friends of the Discoverers. Parmentier was so named by De Fonte in 1640 ; Puerto de Monterey by Viscayno in 1602 ; and Fort Franklin by Franklin's officers in 1824. In the recent voyage of discovery by Sir John Ross, to the Southern and Antarctic regions, very many of the names were of this class. For example. Mount Sahine (from Lt. Col. S.) ; Cape Downshire (the late Marquis of D.) ; Cape Adare (Visct. A.) ; Coulman Island (Thomas Coulman, Esq.) ; Franklin Island (Sir John F.) ; and Beaufort Island (Admiral B.) One is frequently surprised at the rapidity with which the deserted waste becomes converted into the populous village or town. First it is covered with scattered habitations, which occasionally exist in pairs, and the most prominent of them receive individual names, from some leading inhabitant, or from some peculiarity in his dwelling. Any circumstance tending to increase population, or even time alone, will do the rest. One place acquires distinction, and becomes a centre to which several of the others tend, while the latter, allowing their increase of population to be poured into it, advance slowly or remain stationary. The following humorous sketch is almost a historic record of the progress of some of our towns. "There is a church; that is the ordinary foundation. Where there is a church, there must be a parson, a clerk, and a sexton, — thus we account for three houses. An inn is re- quired on the road; this produces a smith, a saddler, a butcher, and a brewer. The parson, the clerk, the sexton, the butcher, the smith, the saddler, and the brewer, require a baker, a tailor, a shoemaker, and a carpenter. They soon learn to eat plum pudding, and a grocer follows. The grocer's wife and the parson's wife contend for superiority in dress, whence flow a milliner and a mantua maker. A barber is introduced to curl the parson's wig, and to shave the smith on Saturday nights, and a stationer to furnish the ladies with paper for their sentimental correspondence ; an exciseman is sent to guage the casks, and a schoolmaster discovers that the ladies require to be taught to spell. A hatter, a hosier, and a linen draper follow by degrees ; and as children are born they begin to cry out for rattles and gingerbread. In the mean- time, a neighbouring apothecary, hearing with indignation that there is a community living without physic, places three blue bottles in the window. The butcher having called the tailor " prick louse," over a pot of ale, snip knocks him down with his goose ; upon this plea, an action for assault is brought at the next sessions. The attorney sends his clerk over to collect evidence ; the clerk, judging it a good opening, sets all the people by the ears, becomes a pettifogging attorney, and peace flies the village for ever. But the village becomes a town and acquires a bank ; and should it have existed in happier days, might have gained a corporation, a mayor, a 58 mace, a quarter sessions of its own, a county assembly, the assizes, and tlic gallows."^ From circumstances of locality, names of a certain class exist in groups, wherever they are found. Thus heck 9xAfell, if not peculiar to Cumberland and Westmoreland, are found most frequently there ; and in several of the hilly districts, dale is a common termination. In the south-west of Scotland, wald is common, and the limits of ancient forests may be traced by the word lyne. In Berwickshire and other parts of Scotland, a former condition of the country is indicated by the frequent occurrence of mire^ bog, moss, &c. where nothing of the kind is visible now ; and in England almost all the fields, — Sheffield, Macclesfield, Huddersfield, Wakefield, &c., — are found within a fixed area. In Essex, many of the places are Halls ; and in Cornwall a very large number take their names from Irish saints. Where particular languages prevail or have prevailed, of course we must expect to find the words of the language or dialect ; as ballt/, kil, leg, more, in Ireland ; coed, cader, llan, ffynon, in Wales ; cairn, law, hum, kirk, in Scotland. In Ireland, a large number embody the names of ancient proprietors, or the possessors in the seventeenth century; as Hill-ioYin, Hill-hdW., and Hills -hovovL^', Stewarts- town, Vort- Stewart, 'Newton-stewart j Parsons-town; Manor- hamilton, Hamiltons-hawn ; Hume-wood, CsLstle- Hume ; Bally- gilhert. Bally- w«^ow, 'B^Wy-jam.es-duff ! In general, when the names oi places have existed for seven centuries, the names of persons, if identical with them, are derived from them ;t and in the ancient official documents of Scotland, Dunbar of Dunhar, or Wemyss of Weynyss, would be described as " of that IW^ (i.e. '* of that same" — sc. name.) But when names have been given to places in more recent times they are usually derived from those of persons; as in the instances quoted from Ireland. ♦ McCuUoch. + A very large nutnber of the townships in England, and many of the parishes, districts, and farms, in Scotland, have given rise to family surnames. 59 Names are sometimes grouped in sets, and mutually related to one common centre or head. Thus, the early population of a country settle near the bank of a river ; and the name of their town is identical with the name of the river^ or at least combines the latter in its own. Other people establish them- selves nearer the sea, but being still upon the river, the name of their village ends in mouth. At the lowest point where it can be passed without artificial aid, there is a collection of houses the name of which ends mford. It is sometimes deep, however, in conseqi^ence of rains and floods, so that a perma- nent means of passage is necessary. The houses which accumulate at its extremities, have for their name that of the river with the termination bridge ; and lower down where it is only possible to cross in a boat, are two villages distin- guished by their size or the points of the compass, each of which adds to the name of the river the word ferry. Thus, any important river may have all or several of five or six towns upon its banks; founded at different periods and of very different degrees of importance, but all embodying its name. In some of the counties of England, where there are several rivers, there are from twenty to thirty such towns. Suppose, for illustration, that the river is called Ab (an Indian name for water), and that the settlements are named by Englishmen. We shall then have hh-ton Upper, Kb-tan Lower, Ah-moutk, Kh-ford, kh-bridge, Kh-ferry Little, and kh'ferry Great. It often happens that the circumstances which gave name to a town become altered, and thus that the name seems to be absurd. The village called little by way of contrast, may out- grow the great one ; the bog, wood, cross, stone, cairn, wall, or enclosure, may disappear ; the inn whose sign board gave name to the village, may be pulled down ; the family of the squire who once owned the territory may become extinct ; the white church may become blackened by age or may he re- placed by a red one ; the town which gave name to the parish. r>o liundreri, or county may decline ; the legend of saints, wizards, or robbers may be totally forgotten. The rock may be covered by a castle ; the castle surrounded by a town ; the spring en- circled with houses ; or the name of an individual place may be extended to the whole district. In addition to this, the names are given loosely, not with scientific accuracy, so that it is some- times impossible to translate them otherwise than in general terras. Thus the choice of the words houses, home, village or hamlet, town or city, depends greatly upon the taste or accu- racy of the speaker ; or upon the particular period at which they are applied. When we recollect that a perfectly satis- factory definition of the term ''city" has never yet been given in English, it must be evident that any attempt at a minute instead of a general translation of the terms of other languages would be absurd. It must be borne in mind, too, that the names do not express the present characteristics but former ones ; that the terms do not represent our ideas of the places, but those of the original inhabitants. The practices of our voyagers and travellers are sometimes very objectionable. They pass over portions of land or water previously well known and accurately named, and apply to the j)laces English names, which are as little known to the natives as theirs are to us. This is a fruitful source of confusion in geography ; different places being regarded as the same, and one locality being taken for several. The native names are appropriated in all countries precisely on the same principle as our own ; but in general the meaning is utterly unknown to us.* It is true that they are sometimes but ill-adapted to English organs of speech ; but it is hardly possible for them to be worse, than many names in our own islands. Dean Swift, speaking of some " town lands " in Ireland, declared that he wotdd not ujidertake to pronounce the names to be the * Popocatepetl, smoke mountain; TUucala, the land or bread; Andes, tlie metal hills; Jerran, the frightful (mounlain); Barda Narang, the littlo water; Oneida, upright stone, (their deity). 61 owner of the lauds, unless he were permitted to humanise the syllables for twenty miles round.* At all events, the native names possess the great advantage of being new words for new ideas. In several countries they have found warm advo- cates ; and some one in America exclaims " how can the red men be forgotten, while so many of our States and territories, rivers and lakes, are designated by their names?" The following poems refer to the United States and to New South Wales :— " Ye say they all have passed away, that noble race and brave, That their light canoes have vanished from off the crested wave ; That 'mid the forest where they roamed, there rings no hunter's shout ; But their name is on your waters, — ye may not wash it out. Yes, where Ontario't billow like ocean's surge is curled. Whore strong Niagaras thunders wake the echo of the world ; Where red Missouri bringeth rich tribute from the west. And Rappahannock sweetly sleeps on green Virginia's breast. Ye say their cone-like cabins, that clustered o'er the vale, Have disappeared like withered leaves before the autumn gale ; But their memory livoth on your hills, their baptism on your shore, Your everlasting rivers speak their dialect of yore. Old Massachxuelt wears it, within her lordly crown, And broad Ohio bears it amid his young renown. Connecticut hath wreathed it where her quiet foliage waves. And bold Kentucky breathed it hoarse through all her ancient caves. Wachusett hides their lingering voice, within his rocky heart, And Alleghany graves its tone throughout his lofty chart. Monadnock on his forehead hoar, doth seal the sacred trust ; — Your mountains build their monument, though ye give the winds iheir dust ' > " I like the native names; as Parramatta, And niawarra, and Woolloomooloo ; Nandowra, Woogarora, Bulkomatta, Tomah, Toongabbee, Mittagong, Murroo, Buckobhle, Cumleroy, and Coolingalta, The Warragumby, Bargo, Monaroo ; Cookbundoon, Carrabaigo, Wingycarribee, The Wollondilly, Yarumbon, Bungarriblcf . * Essay on Barbarous Denominations in Ireland, •f From Specimens of American roetrj-. 62 I UaUi ) uur Guulburn Dotvtu, iiiul Uoulburn PUiinr, And Goxilburn River, and the Goulburn Range, And Mount Guulburn and Goulburn Vale. One's brain.o Are turned with Goulbiirns ! Pitiful — this mange For immortality ! Had I the reins Of government a fortnight, I would change These common-place appellatives, and give The country names that should deserve to live."'* The change which frequently occurs in the names of places is often explained by the fact of two contemporary names. Eor several years, the two are used indiscriminately, like two equally respectable pronunciations of the same word, or like any similar fact in language. In the course of time, however, one form becomes current and popular, to the neglect of the other, until the latter becomes a mere matter of history. When a place has two names, therefore, it is liable to change its name ; but it sometimes happens that the original retains its supremacy and the assumed one is forgotten. Examples of double and triple names are common, not as mere untranslated synonymes, but as given on separate and independent grounds. Thus Byzantium, Constantinople, Stamboul; Jebus, Salem, Jerusalem, El Khuds ; St. Domingo, Hayti, Hispaniola ; Whitetown (in five different forms). Cross of Oswald (in three), Maes-hir (the long field) corrupted to Maserfield, aJl mean During the last and previous centuries, navigators some- times tried to celebrate themselves or their friends, at the ex- pense of others who had gone before them, by endeavouring to substitute new names. No doubt this was occasionally done in ignorance or mistake, but the confusion to learners is not the less on that account. The following is a curious case. A group of islands near the southern extremity of America, was discovered by Sir John Davis, and called J)avis's SonlA Land; ♦ I discovered this about fifteen years ago, in a Sydney newspaper. Dr. Lang has printed it without acknowledgment, in his New South Wales (1837), vol. ii., p. fW; a fact which suggests the inferruce that it was wrilton by himself. 63 it was also discovered by Hawkins, wlio called it Hawkins* a Maiden Land; by Sebald de Wert, «vho named the islands the Sebaldinea ; by a native of St. Malo who called them the Malouines ; by a navigator from the Low Countries, who gave the name Belffic Austral; and by another Englishman who gave the permanent name, the Falkland Isles. The following examples show sufficiently that discoverers do not forget themselves. The Bermudas islands were discovered by Juan Bermudas in 1527 ; they are also called Somers's islands, as Sir George Somers was cast on them in 1609. B^ron island was dis- covered by Byron in 1765; Baffin^ s bay by Baffin in 1616; and the Mackenzie river by Mackenzie in 1789. Henry Hudson discovered the Hudson river (N, York) in 1607 ; and Hamilton Hume the Hume river (N. S. Wales) in 1824. Bass entered Bass's strait in 1 798 ; and Brown ascended mount Brown in 1799. Bhering discovered Bhering's strait in 1741 ; and Pitcairn (an officer of Dampier's) Pitcaim's island in 1768. Orellana sailed down the Orellana in 1539 ; it was also called the Amazon, as the women on the banks were armour-bearers to the men. Abel Tasman discovered Tasmania in 1642, (the name is still preserved in a colonial bishopric) ; but Van JDieman subsequently gave his name to the whole island. Jua7i Fernandez discovered and gave his name to an island in 1567 ; the retreat of Alexander Selkirk for four years and a half, and the scene of De Toe's fiction of "Eobinson Crusoe," published in 1719. Cortes discovered the gulf of California, Mar de Cortez (the sea of Cortes) in 1536; Henry Hudson was turned adrift in an open boat in Hudson's bay in 1608 ; Cortereal discovered Corterealis (Labrador) in 1500 ; and Basil bay at Japan was named a few years ago, by Captain Basil Hall.* • In thisaud iu similar cases, it is impossible to refer to the sources of iufonnation; M it has been gleaneil from many, some of priusary and some of a secondary character. G4 The most curious fact connected with personal designation is that we can actually lead the biography of a saint, from his cradle to his grave, in the foot prints which he has left behind him on his travels."^ Thus, he was born at Zij^-patrick (the church of P.) in Dumbarton, and at twelve years of age was carried away by Niall of the Nine Hostages, and being sold was a swineherd in the county Antrim. Miraculously released, he was educated in Gaul, and thence returned to Britain, He resided at i)a/-patrick (the division of P,) in Lanark ; visited Oai^-phadrig (the rock of P.), Inverness ; founded the three churches of ZeVy^-patrick at Durham and Irongray in Kirkcud- bright, and at Fleming in Dumfries ; and sailed from Port- patrick, leaving such an impression of his sanctity that Patrick has ever since been a favourite family name, among the most distinguished peerage families of Scotland. Beaching South Britain, he baptised at a fountain iii Patterdale (properly V^ixicV^ -dale) Westmoreland ;t and visiting the Welsh, he walked near Harlech Castle on the i&mj-badrig (St. P.'s causeway), now covered by the sea. Departing for Rome, he sailed from Zfa-badrig, (the church of P.) in Anglesea; and returned on his mission to Ireland, colloquially known as " Paddy's-faf/.^' He reposed for a short time on the coast of Dublin, giving name to /?i^^5-patrick§ (the isle of P.) where he landed, as well as to ^o/«2-patrick, the opposite district on the mainland. Sailing northward, he landed on the coast of * The traditional accounts, are preserved and sometimes coufirmeii, by numerous biographies. This list has been compiled from the Annals of the Four Masters, the Monasticon Hibernicon, Chronicles of Ireland, the Statistical Account of Scotland, and various books on Topography. + Guide to the Lakes. ♦ Pennant's North Wales; and Edwards on the Inundation of the Cantre 'r Gwaelod. §" F. Colgan observes that the Isle of Man anciently depended upon Ireland, and that it was converted by St. Patrick, for which reason it has been called Tnh Patrick, that is, Patrick's Island but I am apt to believe that the Isle of Man F. Wadiug speaks of, is no other than the isle of Inis Patrick, which lies on the coast of Ire- land, betweea Dublin and Drogheda " — Monas. Hibrrn. 65 Down, and his first convert was the chieftain Dicho, near his own threshing floor. The parish of Saul,* from Sabbal- patrick (tlie barn of P.) perpetuates the name. It was pro- bably on his voyage down the channel that he touched at the Isle of Man, sometimes called /www-patrick, and founded the church of ^eV^-patrick, near Peel, not far from Port Erin. Passing from Saul, he made converts at Temple-'p&tnck, near the modern Belfast; and passing southwards, destroyed the two principal idols, at the modern Fenagh, in Leitrim. He was seven years on the Connaught mission, and during that time preached from CroaffA-Vairick (the mountain of P.) in Mayo, where tradition says, " he drove the frogst into the bogs,'' &c.; in an island of Lough Dearg, is St. Patrick P«r^a- tory, Donegal; in East Meath he founded the Abbey called Bom- nack-Vudraig (P.'s house) ; and on the site of the present St. Patrick's catkedral, Dublin, he built a church, " and on it placed a steeple." In Leinster there is the 2)ozV^-Phadraic (P.'s wood) ; at Cashel, St. Patrick's Rock ; at Limerick, Ard- patrick (the hill of P.) ; St. Patrick's paruh on the Shannon ; and the town of Patrick's-w?^//, where he produced a miracu- lous spring. Dying at Saul, on the 17th of March, 493, in the 121st year of his age, he was interred at i> ; De quibus eximias, posita sed veste — puellas, Exempla ad clariim stare coegit opus. Nee male — vcstitam Venerem at nunc si quis amabit Praxiteles recta ducere posse manu, Matrouffi artifici studio expriinat ora Britanuse — Cernere quee est, voti el credite victor erit." Y. 2 The character here given of female beauty in England at that time is sustained in the Habiii antichi e moderni di Cesare Vecellio. Venetia, lfi90. 8vo. "Sono le " donzelle Inglese pro ordinario belle, gratiose, attrattive, et nel pratticare affabilo c " modeste." In this very curious work, the wood cuts by Cesare Vecellio were de- signed by his brother the " great Titian," and are accompanied with explanations in Latin and Italian prose. A set of exquisite etchings of English female dresses, 26 in number, were produced by Hollar, in 1640, sm. 4to.; and this was followed by the publication, three years ofter, of his Theatrum mulierum, comprehending the dresses of European females gf-neraTIy. 119 whicli are attached explanatory Jjatiii verses by Hartman Schopper. In a long and laboured dedication of the work to his friend and patron Oswald Ab Eck, the editor expatiates upon the cares and sufferings to which human nature is subject, amongst which he enumerates the various trades which men are constrained to exercise. " Of all these ills/' says he, " the apostacy and transgression of our first parents " has been the cause. For if Adam had not fallen, we should ** have had no trading or mechanic arts, no shoe makers, tailors, "dyers, carvers, weavers, furriers, painters, &c., no discomforts "arising from bad weather, no bad crops, or noxious beasts — "all of which were introduced through the disobedience of " our first parents. It is however a great consolation to re- " fleet that this earth is not our lasting abode, so that we may " by patience rise superior to these evils. And moreover man " has within him, as it were, a noble workshop abounding in " wonderful and innumerable supplies of immense value from " God himself. From him therefore all these mechanical arts "are unquestionably derived." The author then sets forth the necessity of diligence, humility, and mutual good- will in the exercise of our respective callings. Many curious descrip- tions are given. At pages M 7. and Q 8. the double occupation of the barber is plainly notified to be shaving and curing of wounds. Another page exhibits the trade of a purse maker — of great importance at that period, when the nature of the currency was such as to require very large bags made of the skins of animals or other strong materials. They bore some resemblance, in size and shape, to the reticules carried by females at the present day, but were suspended from the body by a strong girdle. They may be seen in the paintings and engravings of portraits taken in the sixteenth century, and are worn by the Scotch Highlanders to this day. Hence the origin of the term cut-purse, as applied to a tluef by Shake- spear and other old writers. In the present engraving a number of purses are hung up in the shop, some of which are 120 as large as a man's head. This is accompanied by the follow- ing lines, supposed to be spoken by the man who appears behind the counter : — " If — as you tell me — ' money is your friend* — From loss that money you should well defend. Couie then to me, Good Sir, and you will find Great store of well-made purses to your mind — Purses of every colour, shape, and size. If you don't purchase, you may feast your eyes. Beasts of all sorts their beauteous furs have lent, To serve at once for use and ornament. So come and buy — and with a plenteous hoard Of gold and silver may your purse be stored."* Although the merit of the Latin verses is considerable, the vanity of their author is still greater. In a peroratio which closes the descriptions of the trades, and which is a parody upon the celebrated self-laudation of Ovid, he announces him- self as the first who had accomplished a work of this kind, and prophecies that his fame would survive all the arts and the envy of this world, and even the world itself. As for the engraver, he has presented to posterity a portrait of himself seated before a table in the exercise of his profession. — • Vide c. 2. Although not strictly coming within the class of Emble- matic works by reason of its size, the following well deserves to be mentioned, in connexion with Books of Trades, IH Bologna V Arti pervia, or the Cries of Bologna, printed at Rome, fol., 1660. The work consists of highly spirited engravings on copper by Giuseppe M- Mittelli, after the de- * " CRUMENARIUS. " Imperiosa jugo quemcunque pecunia subdit Et custos auri vis bonus esse tui, Hue properes, gressuque petas fora nostra citato Hie oculos etiam quod tibi pascat, erit. Ecce tibi vario Lociilos e pelle ferarum Distinctos habitu multicolore damus. Millibus e mullis nunc, emptor amice, crumenis Elege marsupium quod tibi cuuque placet. Mille quod impletura fulvis tamen opto monetis Splendeat, et fidiis sit comes usque tibi." K 2. 121 signs of Annibal Caracci, each figure being accompanied with a descriptive quatrain in Italian verse. It is whimsically dedi- cated to the god Neptune, or rather to the statue of the god which crowns the fountain in the great square of that city. At the period under review, several collections of Engraved Portraits made their appearance, among which the first that can be said to have given faithful likenesses was the collection edited by Theodore Beza.* By whom the wood engravings were executed does not appear. In the dedication to the youthful King of Scotland (afterwards King James I of England), the author declares that, while reading the works of eminent men accompanied by their portraits, he always felt as though he stood in their august presence, listening to their instruc- tions and receiving their admonitions. He adds tliat, having written short memoirs of many distinguished personages, and procured portraits of a considerable number, he had deter- mined upon publishing the same, leaving however blank spaces for the remainder, whose likenesses he entreats his friends and readers to send him, whenever they have the opportunity. The following lines are appended to a portrait of the Pro- testant Reformer, Henry BuUinger, the pupil and friend of Melancthon and Zuingle, and the venerated pastor of Zurich : " If Learning, Candour, Piety can die, Within the tomb of Bullinger they lie. But bow can qualities like these depart From life, while Life to others they impart? Religion, Truth, and ' things of good report' Have in his writings found their firm support. Then weep not for him — In his works he lives. While Truth from him ritality receives." + * In small 4to. Geneva, 1580. + " Doctrina si interire, si pietas mori, Occidere si candor potest, Doctrina, pietas, candor hoc tumulo jacet, Heurice, tecum condita. Mori ]22 One other Hand-book of Portraits must be mentioned, namely, that which was edited by Theo. De Bry, at Frankfort, in the years 1597 and 1598, the portraits being drawn (many from the life) by his learned friend Boissard, who also fur- nished for each of them a biographical memoir in Latin, with a couple of verses in the same language. In a preface this excellent engraver acquaints his readers that he was born to high expectations, but had been stripped by ill fortune and roguery of all his property, except the skill which he had acquired in the art of engraving. He lived to complete only two parts, containing together ninety-seven portraits finely en- graven on copper; and after his death, his two sons, John Theodore and John Israel, who had assisted their father, pub- lished two more parts in 1598 and 1631 — the Latin biogra- phies and distiches being composed by their young friend John Annseus Lonicerus, an advocate. A fifth part was added in 1632, consisting of twenty portraits, chiefly of English protestant divines; but in the two last parts a considerable falling off in the execution is observable. Indeed those given in the fifth part are hard and brassy. From this valuable collection we may take the following " PORTRAIT OF ERASMUS. " Enthroned on Helicon thy glories shine ! Who knows not thee — knows not the sacred Nine."* Mori sed absit ilia posse dixerira Quse vivere jubent mortiios. Immo iuterire Ibrsan ilia si queant Subireque tumuli specum, Tu-tu ilia doctis, tu piis, tu caiulidis Et non mori certissimis Tenaci ab ipsa raorte chartis asseras # Ipso approbante Nuniine. Foedns be'atum ! mortuum ilia te excitant ; Et tu mori ilia non sinis. At hunc, amici, cur fleamus mortuum Qui vixit aliis et sibi ? " * " Qui non te norit, Musas quoque nesciat esse In summo sedem namque Helicone tenes." Although the Moria Encomium of Erasmus is frequently classed by booksellers amongst Books of Emblems (as having been illustrated by the engravings of Holbein and others), it cannot strictly be included within the definition, nor is it so named by its celebrated author, whose varied and arduous labours allowed him little leisure for works of 123 Although the work now under consideration is certainly one of much labour, and has been held in just estimation, some remarkable errors occur in it. For example. No. XII presents the portrait of Giovanni Francesco Poggio, under which are these lines : — ** Thy pen U dipped in gall. While Humour guides Its prurient sallies, Laughter shakes his sides."* In the biographical sketch moreover, which follows, such gross mistakes occur as one would conceive it impossible for a great scholar like Boissard to have fallen into. The subject of his memoir is altogether confounded with his celebrated father. To the son he assigns not only the wit and bitter rancour attributed to him in the lines above quoted, but like- wise most of the literary works which had been really produced by Poggio Bracciolini. Such are the Hutory of Florence j the treatise Be varietate fortuna, the Latin translation of Xeno- phones Cyropediay and of Biodorus (called Dioni/sms !J Siculus. He also gives to Giovanni Francisco the merit of the impor- tant discovery, made by his father, of the writings of Quin- of fancy. In the year 1530 however a curious Emblematical exhibition or Tableau Vivant was enacted, in the getting up of which it is more than probable that Erasmus (though not actually preseut) took a prominent part. It is thus related by J. L. Fabricius, iu his treatise De ludis Senecit lib. v. " During the Diet of Augsburg, at which the Lutlieraus presented their lumous Confession of Faith, a grand repast was held, at which the Emperor Charles the Fifth, his brother Ferdinand, and many other dis- tinguished personages were seated. A small company of actors iu masks made their aj>pearance, and offered to entertain the assembly. This offer being accepted, a man entered in the costume of a Doctor. He carried a bundle of sticks, some of which were straight and some bent. A label upon his back was inscribed Reuchlin (Cap- nion). He threw down the bundle in the middle of the hall and walked away. Another, apparalled also like a Doctor, then came forward, with a label on his back containing the word Erasmus. He endeavoured for a time to put the twigs in order, and to straiten tho^e which were bent. Not succeeding, he shook his head, appa- rently much concerned, and departed. A person in the habit of a Monk then entered. On his back was inscribed the name of Luther. He put some coals under the twigs, set fire to them, and walked away. Next a man in the guise of an Emperor ad- vanced. He drew his sword — stirred the fire with it — increased the flame, uud went off in a passion. Lastly, a person in poutilical garments made his appearance. On a label upon his back was written the word Leo. Looking round to find wherewith to quench the fire, he observed two vessels, one filled with oil, the other with water. Agitated and frightened, ho seizeil the oil in a hurry, and poured it upon the flames. They suddenly rose to a great height, and he walked away. The actors in this scene asked for no reward, and they were never identified." * " Fello armata tibi manus est, multondon, 1686. 8vo. The author, in his dedication to the Princess Anne of Denmark, stiles her father (James the Second) •• the best no less than the greatest of Christian monarchs." 136 Aud Uie remotest solitude enjoys. The blessing of more quiet and less noise. Come then, my I.ove. and let's retire from hence And leave this busy — fond impertinence. See ! e'en the City's t-ldcst son aud heir, Who gets his Gold — his dear-lov'd Idol— there, Yet in the Country spends his City-gains, And makes its pleasures recompense his pains. And though the City has his public voice, The Countrj' ever has his private choice. Here still the Rich, the Noble, and the Great Unbend their minds in a secure Retreat, And Heaven's free Canopy yields more delight Thau gilded roofs and fret-work to the sight ; Nor can fenc'd cities keep the mind in peace So well as open guardless Villages. Come then, my Love — let 's from the city haste, Each minute we speud there, is so much waste. I have a Country farm, whose fertile ground Soft murmuring brooks and chrystal streams surround ; A better air or soil were never known. Nor more convenient distance from the Town. Hither, my Love — if thou wilt take thy flight, The City will no more thy sense delight — Driven from thy thoiiglits as quickly as thy siglit. Here in the shades I will my Dear caress At leisure to receive my kind address. Here from the City and its tumults free I shall enjoy more than myself in thee. No business shall invade our pleasure here, No rude disturber of our sports appear. Here thou thy secret passion shalt reveal And whisper in my ear the pleasing tale ; While in requital I disclose my flame, And in the fav'ring shades conceal my shame. Here, like kind Turtles — we will bill and coo, For here to love is all we have to do. Oh ! could I see that happy, happy day ! I know no bliss beyond, for which to pray. Then to the Country let us — Dear ! repair ; For Love thrives best in the clear open air." To the tenth Emblem in the second Book is prefixed an engraving of a young female standing by the side of a bed, and pointing out by the aid of a lamp that it is unoccupied, while on the other side a youthful figure invested with 187 wings, but nailed to a Cross, lies prostrate on the ground. The Motto is again taken from Canticles iii: — "By night on my bed T sought him whom my soul loveth. I sought him, but I found him not." " I treat not of inferior mortal fires — But chastest sighs, and most sublime desires. As Bodies — so the Minds their flames receive, But still the grosser for the Bodies leave. The gen'rous fire that's kindled in the mind, That does alone Love's secret pleasures find. WTiat nobler flames the lofty Souls inspire ! How are they raised to more refined desire ! In what divine embraces do they join ! What pious hands their mutual contracts sign ! How ravishing's the pleasure of the Bed ! With what unspeakable delights 'tis spread, Where the chaste soul in her beloved's arms. And he in her's improve their mutual charms I The bed on which such happy lovers rest Is downy peace in its own quiet blest. Here I was wont, when care drove sleep away. Pregnant with thought, to watch the dawning day. Here the dear He, that stole my virgin heart. Did oft to me his bosom-cares impart. Then, then a sacred flame my soul posse^t ; And no less heat reigned in his amorous breast. In silence then we made our mute complaint. And our dumb grief was prevalently quaint. But now — nor know I why — my Love *s estranged ; I fear some fault of mine his mind has changed. For a whole day he has not blest my sight. Nor — which he never used— returned at night. Does this imply a fickle change of mind, Or that he does some better mistress find ? • • * * * Alas ! my Love — I sought thee in our bed. Who on the Crost had'st laid thy weary head. Peace was my bed, while the curst Cross was thine — I should have sought thee by that fatal sign. Much time I lost in seeking thee around, But sought thee where thou wert not to be found.*' Let us now turn to the other side of the picture, wherein the Author shadows forth the Divine wrath* 11$ The fourth emblem of the first book exhibits the young female yoked in harness, and dragging round a couple of heavy millstones, while the male figure, invested with wings, and with the nimbus or glory encircling his head, follows close behind, and with uplifted whip, goads the other forward. She exclaims — * * * « " Like Captive Samson, I am driven about. The drudge and scorn of an insulting rout. Around I draw the heavy restless wheel, And find my endless task beginning still ; Within this circle, by strange magic bound, I'm still in motion, yet I gain no ground. ******* Oh, cast an eye of pity on my grief, And use some gentler methods of relief." The most singular delineation however appears in the eighth emblem of the third book. Here the female figure appears with folded hands, encased within the ribs of a skeleton, the Lemma or Motto being taken from the Epistle to the Romans. " 0, wretched man that I am ! Who shall deliver me from the hody of this Death ? '* She thus concludes a long expos- tulation : — " Why am I to this noisom carcase tied. Whose stench is death in all its ghastly pride? Then speak the word, and I shall soon be free : Thou form'dst me thus — O ! thus unbody me!"* We have dwelt upon this very original production at some length, not only because of its scholarship and classical Latinity, and of the poetical spirit which animates its pages, but as having been taken as a model for several succeeding works, either in the poetry or in the accompanying en- gravings. Hugo's work itself speedily passed through many editions ; and, besides the English version or paraphrase abeady mentioned, was translated into various other lan- * Want of room renders it necessary to omit the original Latin verses of Hugo. 180 guages. Several interesting imitations followed, among which was one by William Hesius or Esius, a Jesuit of some poetical talent, who published, at Antwerp, in 1636, his Emhlematay containing copious prolusions on tha three great virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity. The designs for the cuts (which are indifferently executed on wood) have not much resemblance to those of the Tia JDesideria. In the verses however there is evidently an imitation; but one third part of them, namely, that which treats Be Fide, is made up in great measure by playing upon the word Fides, which in the Latin tongue signifies either a Lute or the Christian Virtue called Faith. In our own country there arose an imitator of more note in the person of Francis Quarles, a voluminous author of much celebrity in his time, and whose volume of emblems has been many times reprinted down to the present day."*^ Respecting the merit of these emblems much diversity of opinion has been expressed. Pope in his Dunciad says of them — " Id these the pictares for the page atone ; And Quarles is saved by beauties not his own " Southe/s judgement on the other hand is, that very fine poetry has been marred by being accompanied with engrav- ings "the most ridiculous that ever excited merriment."t Between these conflicting opinions the public have only decided by calling for many editions of the poems accom- panied always with the engravings. Although the two first books are in a great degree original, the Author has taken his three last from the Fia Desideria of Hugo, giving exact copies of the engravings and paraphrasing the poetry. To a certain extent he has fallen into the errors of his Prototype, by mixing the waters of Jordan with those Emblems uf Francis Quarles, first edition, London 1635, 8to. ♦ Souths)' apud Critical Review, Sep. 1, 1801. 140 of Helicon, and the pleasures of divine with those of human Love, It cannot however be denied that a general spirit of fervent piety pervades his writings, and that in them much original imagery may be found, combined with fertility and harmony of expression. In illustration we may take a portion of the ninth emblem of the third book, wherein the snares of the World are enumerated — " Poor Soul ! how art thou hurried to and fro ! Where canst thou safely stay, where safely go? If stay — these hot-mouthed hounds are apt to tear thee, If go — the snares enclose, the nets ensnare thee. The close pursuers* busy hands do plant Snares in thy substance — snares attend thy want ; Snares in thj' credit — snares in thy disgrace ; Snares in thy high Estate — snares in thy base ; Snares tuck thy bed — and snares surround thy board ; Snares watch thy thoughts — and snares attach thy word ; Snares in thy quiet — snares in thy commotion ; Snares in thy diet — snares in thy devotion ; Snares lurk in thy resolves — snares in thy doubt ; Snares lie within thy heart — and snares without; Snares are above thy head — and snares beneath ; Snares in thy sickness — snares are in thy death. Oh ! if these purlieus be so full of danger. Great God of hearts,* the world's sole sovereign ranger ! Preserve thy Deer — and let my soul be blest In thy safe forest, where I seek for rest. Then let the hell-hounds roar — I fear no ill. Rouse me they may — but have no power to kill." To the early editions of the Emblems a few Poems are found appended, which are called by the author THerogly- pTiicha of the Life of Man. From the sixth of these the following lines are selected : — * The reader will not fail to observe the curious pun here introduced. Among the writers of this period punning was much in vogue. Perhaps it would be difficult to find a more curious string of inveterate puns or play upon words than the follow- ing. It is met with in a volume of Sacred Emblems published at Cologne, AD. 1655, by Henry Engelgrave, a learned Jesuit. " Quid facies, fucies veneris cum veneris ante ? Ne sedeas — sed eas — ne per eas pereas." Page 257. 141 Engraving represents Death putting an Extinguisher upon a candle. Time coming behind, stays the hand of Death. • • • • ♦ STANZA III. Time loquitur. " Great Prince of Darkness, hold thy needless hand, Thy captive 's fast, aud cannot flee. What arm can rescue ? who can countermand 7 What power can set thy prisoner free ? Or if they could, what closs, what foreign land Can hide that head that flees from thee? But if her harmless light Ofl"end thy sight. What need'st thou snatch at noon, what will be thine at night?' 3. Dtaih loquitur. " I have outstayed my patience ; my quick trade Grows dull and makes too slow return. This long-liv'd debt is due, and should been paid. When first her flame began to bum. But I have staid too long — I have delay *d To store my vast — my craving urn. My patent gives me power Each day, each hour, Tu strike the peasant's thatch and shake the princely tower." 4. Time loq. — " Thou count'st too fast — thy patent gives no power Till time shall please to say — *Amenl Dealh — Canst thou appoint my shaft? Time — Or thou my hour? Deaths' Tis I bid— Z>o .' Time— Tis I hid—WTien f " From the imitations of Hugo we may also select the two following little volumes in which very good verses are accom- panied with exquisite engravings on copper • plate. 1st. "Typus Mundi/' etc. Type of the World — being a series of emblems in Latin, French and Dutch, wherein are set forth the Calamities and Dangers of the World together with the Contrasts (A.ntipathia) of Divine and Human Love, published at Antwerp 16^7, 12mo."^ These poems are the production of the Rhetoricians of the Jesuit College of that City, and are dedicated to the great founder of their Order, * This 18 the date of the copy in possession of the Author, which is called however edilio altera. 142 who had been canonized some few years before. The engravings are by Philip de Mallery. In the sixth emblem a winged Cupid is represented as playing with a Globe placed on a table. A Cross inserted in the Globe prevents it from rolling. The motto is "In cmce quies," After some good Latin lines follows this Trench quatrain : — " Tu travailles en vain, voulant que cette boule Sur le pave uny de la table ne roule. Si tu veux, Cupidon, veoir ce globe rassis, Que le poids de la Croix ordonne son pourpris." 2nd. " Elammulse Amoris/' etc., Antwerp, 1629. Elames of Love, etc., taken from the writings of St. Augustine. In this work the engravings are from the hand of William Collaert, whose family boasted a succession of eminent artists. The Latin Poetry is written by Michael Hoyer, an Augustine monk. To this class may be referred such Works as the following, wherein both the Writers and the Engravers have exercised much talent as well as ingenuity in showing forth the good and evil qualities of the human heart : — 1st. Schola Cordis J sive aversi a Deo Cordis ad eundem reductio et instructio ; auctore Benedido Ilaefteno, etc, — Antwerp, 1663, small 8w. (Engravings by Bolswert.) 2nd. Ojoenhertigheherten. Al vint gJiy in dit Boechken- deyn Wstrerts gent gentheden Reyn Leuct Ilet is waermaer- 'hoort dit woort Lackt daerom en vuiet en stroot. Anth. V. Velde comp. Bruss. Bous C. B. P. In these Works the Heart is depicted in all its real and imaginary phases. Here it is weighed in the scales against a feather and kicks the beam — there squeezed flat in the screw-press of pain, humility, and contrition. Here it is imbedded in a heap of Gold^ — and there safe behind the * In the Church of St. Anthony, at Padua, is a series of fine Bas Keliefs, repre- senting the Miracles performed by that Saint, one of which was as follows. A wealthy citizen of Padua fell sick unto death. At this crisis his family sent for the saint 143 Cross of Christ, against which the shafts of ambition and other worldly Lusts fall broken and hurtless. In one plate we find the Saviour (still accoutered as before) planting in the human heart the pure lilies so emblematic of his truth, while in another we perceive the same figure holding with tongs, in a fiery furnace, the heart taken from the breast of the humble Christian who stands complacently looking on. We have already seen that some very important works of an Emblematic nature proceeded from the pen of the Jesuits. That religious Order, which for two Centuries exercised such an extensive influence over the civil and ecclesiastical destinies of Nations, soon perceived the advantages and delights of a liberal education, (always however within the pale of Orthodoxy) and sedulously applied themselves to the cultivation of Learning. If the followers of Loyola are not able to boast of many names which stand in the very foremost rank, they certainly may lay claim to several writers who greatly distinguished themselves in the walks of classical learning and general science. From these we might present a rather -extended list of Emblematic Works, forming a distinctive class remarkable for originality as well as for scholastic research. The following may serve as specimens: — Erom the pen of John David, a Jesuit of Ghent, proceeded the three works mentioned below, all being of a religious and didactic nature, and illustrated with highly-finished copperplates, in which the extravagant and enthusiastic notions of the Author are presented to the eye by the graphic skill of Theodore Galle. The whole are from the Plantinian press at Antwerp. saint, who soon made his appearance. They informed hiro that every sort of medical appliance had been resorted to in vain, and solicited that he would render his aid and coansel. " My friends" — said the saint — " he will soon leave this world — Hia " disorder is past all remedy. His heart is gone out of him, and then," pointing to a large chest on the floor, " there it lies enclosed." The man soon after diej9oy). Acting promptly himself, according to the dictates of his own judgment, he did not perhaps sufficiently recognise the possibility of knowing the better course and yet following the worse. The funda- mental idea of his reasoning was the analogy of each man's social life and duty to a special profession or trade. An arith- metician, he argued, may cast up figures incorrectly hy design, but he can do it correctly if he chooses, while one ignorant of arithmetic cannot do it correctly, however desirous. So, if a man knows what is just, honourable, and good, yet commits acts of a contrary character, he comes nearer to being a just man than one who cannot distinguish just acts from unjust. Morally speaking, we should be tempted to reverse this posi- tion, and to maintain that he who desires and means to do justly, however ignorant and blundering, has a more essential and important characteristic of a just man, than he who knows what is right and does it not. Like most moral philosophers, however, Socrates did not keep within the limits of his theory of morals, in his practical precepts. The chief political charge brought against Socrates at his 188 trial was, that he inveighed against the Athenian practice of appointing men to public offices by lot, alleging that the fittest man ought in every case to be chosen, and asking how such a mode of election would answer if applied to a pilot or a sur- geon. Here, however, Socrates was joined by Aristophanes, who ridiculed the same practice on the stage, and the reason- ableness of the opinion is self-evident. We do not know what provision Socrates would have made for securing the election of the fittest men, and for superseding those who showed themselves unfit. The effect of the teaching of Socrates, however excellent and stimulating to the intellect could not fail, as Mr. Grote remarks, to create towards him much personal dislike, espe- cially among the worldly and narrow-minded. It is natural to suppose that the young men, who took the greatest delight in conversation with him, would carry home ideas and reason- ing by no means palatable to the prejudices of their parents. Thus, for instance, Anytus, the principal accuser, was incensed against Socrates because he had endeavoured to dissuade him from bringing up his son to his own trade, having observed in him intellectual promise. Hence, too, was manufactured the charge that he corrupted youth, which touched upon the weak side of his theory of morals, in making too little account of habits, dispositions and affections. Another cause of unpopu- larity was the past connexion of Socrates to some extent with Critias and Alcibiades, who had rendered themselves odious by their insolence, ambition and treason to the state. Meletus, the primary accuser, was a poet ; Lycon, who supported him, was a rhetor, each belonging to a class of men who would naturally be alienated by the unsparing dialectics of Socrates, to which many of them had been exposed. The old calumnies of the comic poets were revived, and their effects were still enduring. After admitting that the charges brought against Socrates at his trial were partly frivolous and mainly false, Mr. Grote proceeds to prove that his condemnation, and still more 189 his sentence, was attributable chiefly to the tone and manner of Socrates himself. Instead of flattering the Judges or im- ploring their favour, he addressed them with the boldness and dignity of manly innocence. As Cicero says [De Orat. i, 54,] "Socrates ita in judicio capitis pro se ipse dixit, ut non supplex aut reus, sed magister aut dominus videretur esse judicum." Nay, he scarcely wished for a sentence of acquittal. The divine sign had interposed to prohibit him from preparing an elaborate defence. Already advanced in years he did not desire that life should be further prolonged to the feebleness and infirmities of decrcpid old age. His condemnation might be a disgrace to his judges, but none to him, and would procure for him afterwards increased sympathy and a more willing acknowledgment of his merits. After his noble Apo- logy, which no one can now wish to have been diflFerent from what it was, the Athenian Dicasts, who had never been so addressed before, could not forgive the sting of " affront to the court." Yet even then he was condemned by a bare majority out of the five hundred and sixty-four judges. Still less did he consult the dictates of a timid prudence when called upon (according to the usual forms of procedure) to propose the sentence to be passed upon him, which was the subject of a separate vote. He declared that what he deserved was to be maintained at the public expence in the Prytaneium (the highest honorary distinction ever conferred). He pro- ceeded, however, to comply with the legal form by proposing a nominal fine. This Mr. Grote thinks could be felt by the Dicasts as nothing less than an insult to the authority of the court, which had just pronounced him guilty. The conse- quence was that he was sentenced to death by a much larger majority than that by which he had been condemned, so that actually seventy-seven of those who had voted for his acquittal must afterwards have voted for his execution. Though every- thing that Mr. Grote says greatly exalts Socrates in the mind of the candid reader, vet he endeavours to extenuate the con- 190 duct of his Athenian judges in a manner which we cannot so readily admit. It is one thing to account for their conduct by the principles of human nature and the prejudices of the age, but quite another tiling to vindicate it as rational, dignified or just. He remarks that all the Grecian states held the principle of interference against the dissenting teacher, and that in the republic of Plato a dissenting, free-spoken teacher, such as Socrates at Athens, would not have been tolerated for a week. But this is begging the question, since it is by no means clear, to say the least, that even by the existing laws of Athens there was a fair pretext for the condemnation of Socrates. Hegel goes much further than this, maintaining that Socrates was justly punished for his refractory spirit, disdaining to do homage to the majesty of the people, an opinion which Dr. Thirlwall comments upon as it deserves. Dr. Forchhammer goes further still, calling the Athenians " the men of the laws," and Socrates " the man of the revolution," and maintaining even that he was legally and justly condemned. Dr. Thirlwall clearly shows, we think, in reply, that Socrates, at all events, had been guilty of no breach of the laws, for that the laws of every Greek state allowed the utmost freedom of religious opinion ; because there was no authentic standard of religious truth. He shows also that Socrates was tried for one offence and condemned to death for another, and concludes by saying, in direct contra- diction to Dr. Forchhammer, that there never was a case in which murder was more clearly committed under the forms of legal procedure than in the trial of Socrates. Dr. D. P. Thomson afterwards read an exposition of the views of Mr. Wild, respecting the Astroncmiical uses of the Pyramids of Egypt. 191 Fifth Meeting — December 16, 1850. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. Mr. John Hartnup, F.R.A.S., and Mr. George Hamilton, were elected Members of the Society. The Annual Report of the Royal Institution, Cornwall, was received. Mr. Yates, on the part of Mr. Boardman, presented a Medallion of the late Mr. Bentley, executed in porcelain, and read the following letter : — "Aighurth, Dec, 9, 1850. " Dear Sir, — I beg to present to the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, of which you are the worthy President, a medallion portrait of Mr. Bentley, executed in the material called jasper, by Wedgwood, from a model in wax by Tlaxman. " So many years have elapsed since the death of Mr. Bentley, that few of our townsmen are aware that he was once a distin- guished resident of Liverpool, a few particulars respecting him may, therefore, be interesting. " Mr. Bentley settled in Liverpool about the middle of the last century, and his name appears in conjunction with that of my respected father, in Gore's first Directory, published in the year 1766, as Manchester warehousemen. The former a widower, the latter a bachelor, lived together in Paradise- street, nearly opposite the mansion of your late venerable relative, Mr. Ashton, since the Star and Garter Hotel, and now, alas, further degraded. Paradise-street was then a fasliionable quarter, and received its name from the charms of its situation. " The illustrious Priestley, who then held a professorship in the Warrington Academy, an institution rescued from oblivion 192 by the pen of Mrs. Barbauld, was often their visitor. Tlie Doctor alluded to the circumstance in his memoirs, bestowing a high compliment on the talents and taste of Mr. Bentley. Brindley, the civil engineer, was anothor of Mr. B.'s visitors, and the only particulars of the life of that distinguished man are from Mr. Bentley's pen. They are given in Knight's Gallery of Portraits, a work of great interest, but in which, strange to say, the name of Wedgwood does not appear, as it ought certainly to have done, along with those other 'makers of countries,' Arkwright and Watt. In a future edition of the work the omission may be supplied, materials being available, including a fine portrait by Reynolds. " Doctor Turner, an eminent chemist, and a great wit, with Mr. Chubbard, a painter of considerable merit, were of Mr. Bentle/s circle. These gentlemen designed and executed the stained glass window in St. Anne's Church, in Jjiverpool : and it was the former who caused much merriment at the time, on remarking that George the Third might console himself on the loss of his American colonies, as Herschel had just discovered a world in nubibus, alluding to the planet which he had named Georgium Sidus. Mr. Bentley was one of the most active of the projectors of the ' Liverpool Library,' and his name ap- pears in the list prefixed to the valuable catalogue lately pub- . lished. Some of the books now in the library were gifts from him. Mr. B. was also one of the founders of the congregation of Dissenters who erected the handsome chapel, afterwards St. Catherine's Church, situated in Temple-court, but taken down to give place to the Tire police Station. " The intention of the founders was, to unite those who pro- fessed a liturgy, and yet had scruples with regard to the Athanasian Creed, with its damnatory clauses, and other parts of the Common Prayer which either savoured of Catholicism or did not allow a sufficient latitude of opinion. Although the services of a learned and eloquent minister (a Dr Clayton, of London) were engaged, and who numbered among his 193 congregation several of the leading families of the town, the scheme failed, and the building was sold to the Cor- poration. "At the time of Mr. Bentle/s residence in Liverpool the slave trade was in its zenith ; and so identified were the inhabitants generally with that accursed traffic, that it has been forcibly remarked by one who knew Liverpool well at that period of her history, that it was safer for a man there to deny the being of a God than question the lawfulness of slavery and the slave trade. Mr. B. was then the decided enemy to the trade in human beings, and was indefatigable in his endeavours to persuade the merchants and masters of vessels trading to Africa, to promote a trade in ivory, palm oil, woods, and other produce of the country; but all his exertions were fruitless, ' Sinews bought and sold' afforded a better profit, and the bells of St. Nicholas' Church rang their merry peals on the periodical returns of the ships from their diabolical voyages. Mr. Bentley's philanthrophic schemes were ridiculed, and his pursuits and habits being of too refined a nature for the people of Liverpool of that day, he did not, although highly respected, become a popular man. " Mr. B., as might be expected, took a lively interest in the struggle of the American colonies with the mother country, sympathising with the former, and deprecating the unwise course pursued by the latter. He became intimately acquainted with Franklin, and at an after period enjoyed the society of that great philosopher and diplomatist at his own residence, on several occasions. " A visit of the celebrated Mr. Wedgwood to Liverpool, was the cause of that gentleman's introduction to Mr. Bentley, and an offer of partnership in his manufactory. Mr. Marryat, in his interesting volume on 'Pottery and Porcelain,' says, speaking of this event, 'Li his partner Mr. Bentley, who managed the honse in London, he (Mr. Wedgwood) found a 194 valuable coadjutor, whose extensive knowledge in many depart- ments of literature and science, as well as his acquaintance with many eminent patrons of art, greatly assisted him in the higher branches of his manufacture, and especially in his obtaining the loan of valuable specimens of antique sculpture, vases, cameos, intaglios, medallions and seals, suitable for imitation by some of the processes he had introduced. Some persons entrusted to him vahiable sets of oriental porcelain for the like purpose; and Sir William Hamilton lent specimens from Herculaneum, of which Wedgwood produced the most accurate and beautiful copies/ Their Majesties George the Third and Queen Charlotte paid Mr. Bentley great respect, commanding his attendance on the production of any new and beautiful article, and receiving his remarks or suggestions with great pleasure. Previous to Mr. B.'s departure from Liver- pool, an excellent portrait of him was painted by Caddick, a Liverpool artist, which is in my possession, and is one of the best specimens from the easel of the painter. " Mr. Bentley died at his residence, at Turnham-green, near London, November 26, 1780; and the following tribute to his memory appeared in the St. James's Chronicle: — 'Died, on Sunday, at his house on Turnham-green, Mr. Bentley, in partnership with Mr. Wedgwood. For his uncommon ingenuity, his fine taste in the arts, his amiable character in private life, and his ardent zeal for the prosperity of his country, he was justly admired, and will long be most sin- cerely regretted by all who had the pleasure of knowing so excellent a character.' " In Chiswick Church (where he was buried) there is a large and handsome mural monument to his memory, the joint production of Stuart, who published the well-known splendid work on Athens, and Scheemakers, the artist, who executed the monument to Shakspeare, in Westminster Abbey. It exhibits a beautiful sarcophagus, on which is a very fine medallion of the subject of the cenotaph, in bold relief. At each extremity 195 of the sarcophagus are boys leaning on inverted torches. On the tablet underneath is the following inscription, which from the character of the individual, as described to me by those who knew him best, is the truth and nothing but the truth. "THOMAS BENTLEY, Born nt Scrapton, in Derbyshire, January 1, 1730, He married Hannah Oates, of Sheffield, in the year 1764 : Mary Stamford, of Derby, in the year 1772, Who survived to mourn his loss. He died Nov. 26, 1780. Blessed with an elevated and comprehensive understanding. Informed in variety of science ; He possessed A warm and brilliant imagination, A pure and elegant taste. His extensive abilities Guided by the most expanded philanthropy, Were employed In forming and executing plans for the public good. He thought With the freedom of a philosopher ; He acted With the integrity of a virtuous citizen.* " I am, dear sir, with great respect, your obedient servant, "James Boardman.^' " Joseph B. Yates, Esq., " President of the Literary and Philosophical Society" The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Boardman for the medallion and memoir of Mr. Bentley. Mr. Archer exhibited a full-grown specimen of the Whistle Fish — the Motella vulgaris (Cuv.) — which was caught in the Mersey, above Hale. Mr. Lassell, P.R.S., gave some account of a novel and most remarkable phenomenon recently observed in relation to the ring of Saturn. Being on a visit to a friend, the Rev, W. R. Dawes, of Wateringbury, Kent, and scrutinizing the planet with his achromatic telescope of 6 J inches aperture and 8 J feet focus, m power 800 — he was struck by the uncommon precision and beauty of the image, and therefore led to examine it with all possible attention. Mr. Dawes had drawn his attention to a dark line bounding the southern as well as the northern portion of that part of the ring (illustrated by a diagram) crossing the face of the planet : but the phenomenon which most forcibly struck Mr. Lassell and rivetted his attention, was a shaded appearance as if some- thing like a crape veil covered a part of the sky within the inner ring and extending about half way towards the ball; while there was a darker, ill-defined boundary line separating the crape-like appearance from the solid body of the inner ring. By one of those curious coincidences which have of late so repeatedly attended astronomical discovery — on receipt of the Times newspaper at breakfast the following morning, Mr. Lassell first learnt the intelligence that Mr. Bond of Cambridge, U.S., had on the 15th November "discovered a third ring of Saturn.'' Certainly, what Mr. Lassell saw on the 3rd December, for the first time, did not suggest to him the notion of another ring ; but it is very possible that Mr. Bond, possessing the advantages of a much finer climate and lower latitude, as well as an instrument of undoubted excellence, may have been enabled to ascertain the precise nature of a phenomenon of which the first view only revealed to Mr. Lassell the existence. Mr. Lassell also mentioned that while observing Saturn, with his twenty-feet equatorial, on the 21st of last month, when the atmosphere was unusually fine, he was favoured with a sight of the eight SatelKtes presented at one view ; and also then observed for the first time the dark Hue along the southern edge of the ring before referred to; but, being then absorbed by watching the Satellites, he did not rumi- nate upon the explanation of this appearance until Mr. Dawes drew his attention to it again. Since the above communication was made Mr. Dawes has 197 given an extremely interesting and more detailed account of his observations relative to this phenomenon, made on the 3rd December, and on some previous nights — in the monthly notices of the Astronomical Society for December and January last. The first part of a paper was then read, entitled Suggestions for the Advancement of Literature and Learning in Liverpool, by the E^v. A. Hume, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., etc., etc. Sixth Meeting — January 13, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. Mr. Richard Hutchinson, M.R.C.S.E., was elected a Member of the Society. The following donations were laid upon the table : — The Boctnne of an Immaterial Vital Agent considered, by A. Dalziel : presented by Mr. Bloxham. Proceedings of the Historic Society/ of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1850 : from the Society. Mr. HiGGiNS then read a paper on the Unity of the Fine Art's. [This has been poblished elsewhere. — Kd.] The Rev. Dr. Hume concluded his paper, part of which was read on the preceding night. [This has been printed by the author, and presented to tlie members. — Eo.l 198 Skventh Meeting — January 27, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. James SMiTH,Esq., of Jordan-hill, F.R.SS. L. and E., E.G.S., was elected a Corresponding Member, The resignation of Mr. Pidgeon was received with deep regret, his removal from Liverpool rendering it impossible for the Society to benefit as formerly from direct intercourse with him. The following donations were announced : — The Ilelleniady an Epic Poem, by George McHenry : from the author. On an improved Chronometer Balance, by John Hartnup, Esq., P.E.A.S. : from the Author. Reports (1, 2, and 3) of the Liverpool Observatory, by John Hartnup, Esq. : from the Author. TJie Sanitary Amendment Bill-, and Report of the Town-Clerk as to payment in respect of Churches: from Mr. Shuttleworth. Journal of the Architectural, Archceological and Historic Society of Chester, part 1 : from the Society. Mr. James Harvey read an account of the difficulty of travelling in India, arising from the want of roads, illustrated by the fact that seven thousand two hundred palanquin bearers were required to convey one hundred officers to the scene of action on the Sutlej ; but owing to the delay incident to such a mode of conveyance, they arrived too late for the engagement. He suggested a railway paper currency, to be recognised by the government of India as payment for taxes, and finally, when offered for carriage of goods and fares of passengers, to be cancelled. In vindication of the plan, he 109 referred to the market at Guernsey, which was built by an issue of market notes. An animated discussion ensued, and doubts were expressed whether the notes would obtain the public confidence. The Rev, Mr. Higgins exhibited a triptic of considerable antiquity, bearing a number of figures illustrative of some of the leading characters connected with the Greek church. The reverend gentleman also exhibited a coin of 1735, made by the Earl of Derby's family when they held the royalty of the Isle of Man. On the one side appeared the three-legs-of-man, and on the reverse the eagle and child, with the motto of the Derby family. Mr. Hartnup called attention to Faye's periodical comet now visible. It had been discovered in this country a month before it was seen in America. Dr. Thomson read an historical account of the bipartite division of the outer ring of Saturn, showing that it certainly existed though it was a trying object for the telescope. Mr. Hartnup then presented a series of Meteorological Observations made at the Liverpool Observatory, during the last five years ; and read an explanation of the method adopted by him for freeing the observations from errors. (See Appen- dix, No. 2.) Dr. Inman then read a paper on the Feet of Insects, but as he continued the subject on the evening of the 24th of March, it is withheld till then. 200 Eighth Meeting — February 10, 1^51, J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. The resignation of Mr. R. Sharp was read and accepted. The following donations were received : — Suf/gestions for the Advancement of Literature and Learning in Liverpool, by the Rev. Dr. Hume : from the Author. [Read before the Society on Dec. 16th, 1850, and Jan, 13, 1851.] The Law of Storms, by Dr. D. P. Thomson : from the Author. [Read before the Society on Feb. 18th, and March 4th, 1850.] The President exhibited Henley's Electro -magnetic tele- graph, in action. It was fully described by Mr. Rigby, one of the agents for this town. This machine, which, to the man of science is a perfect study, is by far the most simple and beautiful of any yet contrived. The principle upon which it operates is that of Saxton's electro-magnetic apparatus, now much in use in the arts, the electric force being obtained from the coil round the magnets, not from the electricity in the magnets : no battery is needed in this apparatus. As the dial plate contains two needles, few symbols are required, and the process of reading off being simple, boys can communicate the messages. An interesting conversation followed, in which reference was made to a recent application of the instrument in warning ships in port of coming danger from the approaches of circular tempests. Dr. Thomson exhibited a specimen of sand from the shores of Lake Ontario, containing nineteen per cent, of magnetic iron. 201 Mr. Sansom then read a paper on the Arrangement and Classification of the Musci, as recently proposed by Carl. Miiller. Dr. Dickinson, while he gave due praise to this botanist for the labour indicated by such a classification, doubted if it would really be serviceable; for any arrangement depending upon cellular structure in the cellular tissue of the leaves was liable to the objection of uncertainty, from the fact that the cellular tissue was very apt to change. Ninth Meeting — February 24, 1851. ROBERT McANDREW, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. Mr. H. C. PiDGEON, London, and the Rev. Robert BiCKEBSTETH Mayor, M.A., Eellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, Rugby, were elected Corresponding Members. The following donation was laid before the Society : — Transactio7is of the Berwickshire Club : from Dr. Johnston. Mr. Sansom exhibited a specimen of the Hypnum Kneif- fianum, and read a communication upon the leaves of mosses, showing the analogy between the musci and the ferns in this respect, illustrated by specimens from this country and South America. Dr. Dickinson remarked upon the incorrectness of a recent speculation that mosses have not leaves. Mr. Henry Behrend then read a paper On the Light Literature of Spain. The second paper for the night was — The Flora of Liverpool, by Joseph Dickinson, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. (Tide Appendix.) 3D M Tenth Meeting — March 10, 1851. JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., M.D., V.P., in the Chair. Mr. Edward Higgin exhibited three skulls of the feline tribe : one of them that of a full-grown Bengal tiger ; another that of an aged tigress ; and the third, which was much larger than either of the others, was probably that of a lion. So similar are the head bones of the lion and the tiger, that it was doubtful, in the absence of positive evidence, to which animal it had belonged. Of the death of the first of these animals, he read an account and exhibited the skin. The second showed marks of having been wounded in the lower jaw, the bone being diseased there and considerably thickened. The Society received, with deep regret, the communication of the death of Mr. Melly, from the Rev. Mr. Higgins. The loss sustained by the scientific world, and especially by natu- ralists, was very great. Dr. Dickinson remarked upon his private worth and the valuable aid furnished by him to the Museum of the Royal Institution. Perhaps no private indi- vidual possessed a more valuable cabinet of coleopterous insects, and his collection of other objects of natural history was extensive. The death of this gentleman took place at Gegee, near Abar Hamed, on the Nile, on the 19th of January. With Mrs. Melly and his family, he had proceeded to the con- fluence of the Blue and White Nile, as far as the province of Khartoun, and were returning when he catched fever and died. Mr. J. B. Edwa-RDS, F.C.S., then read, and illustrated by drawings and apparatus, a paper on the subject of Induced £03 Voltaic currents and their Therapeutic application, of which the following is an abstract. To render the subject thoroughly intelligible, he began by describing the requisites of action iu the electro-motor or voltaic battery : 1st, a liquid capable of decomposition by electricity; 2nd, a metal, the oxide of which is soluble in the same liquid ; and 3rd, another metal incapable of being acted upon by the liquid, but a con- ductor of the electricity presented to it. In proportion as these (the electrolyte, the active and the conducting plates, which form the battery) perform their respective office more or less perfectly, do we obtain powerful or feeble currents when contact between the two plates is established and the circuit completed by the decomposing fluid. He then considered the effects of extending, by means of coils of copper wire, the distance required to be traversed by the electric current. When short connecting wires unite the plates of an electro- motor, no spark is visible at the moment contact is made, and but a feeble one when contact is broken ; but when the wire is considerably extended a bright spark is visible, and if the human body is made part of the circuit a shock is sustained, proving that a current is thus established, independent of that produced by the battery itself. Again, when a current is established in a wire, and a second wire with closed ends is placed near the first, when the contact with the battery is broken an induced current is established in the second wire. Upon renewal of contact another current is in- duced in the seco:jd wire, passing in the opposite direction to the former current and to that of the battery. Upon the principles laid down, instruments are constructed for the therapeutic application of voltaic electricity. These are either primary or secondary coil machines, alike in appearance but different in the arrangement of the insulated wire. The former represents the single wire referred to as connecting the active and decomposing metallic plates, having in its axis a 204 bundle of iron wire, and furnished with a mechanical contri- vance for rapidly breaking and restoring contact. In this primary coil machine the same phenomena are presented as appeared with the long coil of wire, — when contact with the battery is perfect the current passes through it from the zinc to the copper, silver, or platinum plate ; at the instant of con- tact, however, a flash in the opposite direction passes through it, and, when broken, an induced current rushes along the wire, from the demagnetised iron in the helix, in the same direction as the battery current. The action of the bundle of iron wires in the helix of copper wire depends upon the fact that they become a temporary magnet while the electricity is flowing. On breaking contact the poles are suddenly reversed^ the reflex wave flows along the coil, and the magnetism is de- stroyed. The secondary coil machine represents two contiguous, but isolated, wires, the first receiving the battery current, and rapidly making and breaking contact by the same means as the primary coil ; the second wire, which is much thinner and longer, reflects or carries off the induced currents, when the ends are brought in contact, so that it conveys alternately one current in one direction, and two in the other. Argu- ments for and against the use of primary and secondary coils in therapeutics were then examined. This led to a preliminary inquiry into the difference between quantity and intensity of electricity ; the former represented by the work done in any one cell of a series of cells, not in the aggregate amount done in the whole number ; the latter, by the number of cells. To quantity belongs the power of heating and magnetizing; to intensity, that of overcoming resistance to the passage of electricity. To the latter shocks and sparks belong, for the skin and air are bad conductors ; and to it also belongs chemical decomposition, by presenting a force more powerful than the affinity which binds the 205 compound. In the last case, however, while intensity is needed to overcome chemical attraction, quantity is required to regulate the amount decomposed. In using the primary coil machine, it is supposed that when the human body is made a part of the circuit, the current from the battery, together with the induced current obtained on breaking contact, passes through the body, and that the cross current on making contact is cut off; likewise, that as the number of batteries is increased the quantity of electricity passed is augmented. To both of these opinions he dissented. That this apparatus is advantageous he admitted, but he de- nied its effecting the passage of the battery current through the body. Its advantage solely consisted in the fact that the cross current arising on making contact, is conveyed across the spring back to the battery, the two collateral currents passing through the patient in one direction whenever con- tact is broken, the shocks depending upon the induced in- tensity current. When, for example, the handles of a simple primary coil are grasped, and contact made with the continua- tion of the wire, an induced current is felt in breaking con- tact ; but if the body be included in the circuit, between the battery and the coil, by holding one hand attached to the coil, and with the other making contact, no secondary current is induced, because the battery circuit is not completed by the body so as to allow the current to pass and produce its induc- tive effects. Neither does decomposition of Iodide of Potas- sium— a salt very easily decomposed — take place if the body is included in the circuit, the quantity of electricity being too small to effect electrolysis ; nevertheless the intensity is suffi- cient to effect decomposition were quantity present, for power- ful shocks are felt on making and breaking contact in the usual way. Besides these proofs, he had failed to detect any indication of the passage of the current by the galvanometer, excepting when he employed a very large coil and batteries, exposing an active surface of about one hundred and twelve 206 square inches. In this case the shocks received were so severe as to render it impossible to bear a succession of them with impunity. Respecting the origin of the current in this case there was some doubt if it was not the induced current, for Faraday had found the needle deflected by the latter separated from the battery. He therefore believed that in all medico- galvanic machines the current was an induced one of intensity and not a quantity current from the battery. Were it the latter, he supposed it might be at the risk of the patient's life, for decomposition of the fluids of the body would take place ; seeing that in the cells of a battery in series, quantity cannot pass through a saline solution without overcoming its chemical attraction. The skin being a feeble conductor of electricity was enabled to reject quantity electricity, while an intensity current overcame the resistance and effected a passage. The experiments of Smee establish this opinion. He farther observed, that if the possibility of a small quantity current passing is granted, it does not follow that it is the battery current, for a quantity current may be as easily induced as one of intensity, and the one from the other ; he referred to the experiments of Henry. He concluded this part of the subject by describing an improved form of apparatus. It consists of a single pair of plates, with a double cell, one of which is charged with the acid mixture, and the other empty; the object of the latter being to receive the plates when not in use. The coil is a compromise between the primary and secondary apparatus ; two wires are employed, one larger than the other, but not disunited, and means adopted for regulating the shock, by diminishing at pleasure the length of the wire to be traversed by the electricity. In this case as in the primary coil, the current obtained in breaking contact was uniformly in one direction, the cross current being cut off by the spring, while the difference in the size of the wires contributed great additional power to the apparatus. He then described the usual forms of magneto-electric 207 apparatus, which usually pass the current in alternate direc- tions, but may be made to act in the same manner as the above. On the whole, the galvanic apparatus above described, possessed many advantages, and was perfectly efficient as a therapeutic agent. Eleventh Meeting — March 24, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. Mr. Alpeed Lafone, was elected an Ordinary Member, and Dr. Johnston, Berwick-upon-Tweed, was chosen a Cor- responding Member of the Society. Mr. Jacob forwarded for exhibition several beautiful casts of Natural History objects in " fictile ivory," — a composition of plaster-of-Paris, silica, and stearine, — and an electrotype copy of a bust in the British Museum. The models from the living animals are taken under the anaesthetic influence of chloroform; the plaster hardens before consciousness is re- stored, and the animal suffers no injury by the process; copper is then deposited within the mould, and this serves as the permanent pattern to cast from. An elastic mould is then prepared, and from it the "fictile ivor/' forms are produced. The President exhibited, and presented to the Society, in the name of his brother, James Yates, Esq., E^S/.S., etc., etc., a superb plaster model of the cone of the EncephalartM Caffer, which plant recently flowered at Chatsworth, under the name Zamia Caffra. The model, though large, was not half the size of the cone 208 when fully grown; it then measured twenty-four inches in length and thirty-six in girth. It grows on the summit of a cylindrical trunk the thickness of a man's body, and about seven feet high. Around it spring about thirty dark green rigid pinnate leaves, some of whicli are above three feet long, expanding on every side, and each assuming the form of a beautiful curve. The pinnae or leaflets are set obliquely on the mid rib of the leaf, and with a degree of obliquity corres- ponding to their inbricate vernation. They amount in some instances to as many as thirty-four pairs, and are about five times as long as they are broad. Rhomboidal scales are arranged round the axis of the cone in eight spirals, each consisting of forty scales, and each scale containing two nuts. The plant therefore being a female, would produce about five hundred nuts, supposing some to be barren. This plant, which is a native of South Africa exclusively, belongs to Cycadece, a natural order holding an intermediate place between the Coniferse and Palms; and abounds in a mucilaginous and nutritious juice. Having cut down the tree, the Hottentots remove the pith, which nearly fills the trunk, and place it underground for a time, in the skin of an animal ; they then reduce it to powder, and knead the amylaceous fluid into cakes, which they bake in hot ashes. The generic name Enc,ephalartus is obtained from Greek derivatives, which may be rendered pith-bread. It has been known to botanists under different synonyms, i.g., Cijcas Caffra, Zamia Caffra, and Zanda Oy cadis, under which name Linnseus gave it a place in his work. Since then, however, botanists have divided the Zamise into several distinct genera, of which the Encephalartus is one. In this genus the extremities of the peltate scales forming the external surface of the cone are rhomboidal ; and in the present species this rhomboid is elevated into the form of a truncated pyramid, each of th^ four sides of wliich is covered with pointed tubercles, destitute of hairs, down, or spines; it is shining like wax, and the colour is green. • 209 excepting that the tubercles are tinged with yellow at their extremities, and the summits of the pyramids are brown. Dr. Dickinson remarked upon the interest attached to this class of plants, linking, as they do, the fossil and living floras of our globe, and the two grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the Endogens and Exogens ; besides, they furnish in the sliape of sago a large quantity of food. Dr. Thomson exhibited a fine model, in very transparent rock crystal, of the great Indian diamond the Koh-i-noor, or Mountain of Light. Mr. Padley then read a paper on the Utility of Early Scientific Education. The paper begun on the 27th January was now concluded, entitled — ON THE EEET OE INSECTS, By Thomas Inman, Esq., M.D. This paper was originally intended to refute the generally received opinion that the insect tribes were enabled to walk against gravity, and up smooth perpendicular surfaces, by means of a suctorial apparatus. As the subject grew under my consideration, the first intention was altered, and I resolved to give as full an account of the anatomical structure of the feet as possible, and leave my views as to their character to develop themselves naturally. I propose, in the first place, to give a description of the principal varieties of feet I have met with, and the purposes for which certain modifications are adopted. "We can then trace the history of the suctorial theory, detail the experiments and observations by which it has been overthrown, and con- clude by showing that the new theory (or, as it is in fact, the oldest one revived) receives full corroboration from the powers and habits of larger creatures, whose motions we can readily notice with the naked eye. ^JC 210 It will be seen at once by a reference to the diagrams that the feet of insects may be divided into two distinct classes. Those with claws only, and those with claws and an addi- tional adhesive apparatus. The first division consists of many varieties, commencing at the simple hair passing through the simple hook, the double hook, the double and serrated hook, to the more complex foot of the second order. Beginning with the most simple forms, we find that the foot of the Acarus scahiei, fig. 18, or itch insect, consists of two simple hairs — one short and one long. Its habitat is in the foUicles of the skin, where there is no necessity for pro- gression j a complicated foot would be of no advantage, and hooks would })robably prevent its moving readily in its con- tracted domicile. The harvest bug — an animal whose habitat is beneath the human skin, through which it has an instinctive propensity to burrow — is equally without claws, but the hairs which supply their place may be said to form a connecting link be- tween hairs and claws. They are fine and small, but decidedly curved in shape. Pig. 1. A further connecting link may be seen in the Entomostraca. These possess many pairs of feet. Each pair seems to have a definite object : the first and second pair are used for convey- ing food to the mouth, others for swimming, and others for progression when they are creeping. Figs. 38, 34, 35, 36, 37. The hairs with which each pair are furnished differ mate- rially from each other, but are in no case specially strength- ened so as to become claws. Few things can be better adapted for swimming than the feathery hairs of the swimming legs. We find the simple claw appearing in the ordinary louse. Fig. 3. This creature, it is well known, infests the surface of the skin, and crawls about amongst the hairs with which the body is every where more or less covered. 211 If its feet consisted of yielding substances it would have great difficulty in progression. They are, therefore, furnished with a horny .claw incapable of being injured by a slight acci- dent, and strong enough to be a lever on which the leg can act. As it may be required occasionally to grasp a hair, there is a provision made for this in a small dilatation at the ex- tremity of the tarsus on which the hook may press. I may mention here that the motions of these hooks is confined to a simple approximation to the under surface of the leg, and the reverse — they do not give any lateral power. This is no more than from their attachments might be expected. There is another form of louse (Pediculus pubis), whose habitat is not on the surface amongst the hair but on the hair itself. It fixes itself to it very tenaciously by means of its feet, and is with difficulty detached. Its ova are found agglutinated to its habitation, and its sole locomotion is from hair to hair. We shall not be surprised to find in it a modification of the simple claw to suit the altered circumstances. In it the foot consists of a vastly enlarged claw, furnished with strong ser- rations, and possessing a large and horny surface on which the claw can be pressed down without injury. By this appa- ratus each hair can be firmly and completely grasped — with- out it the foot would be crushed or otherwise injured. Fig. 4. The ephemera has a foot consisting of a single claw, but armed with two rows of spines. Pig. 12. The intention of these is probably to give it greater power in seeking and re- taining prey, or moving along fibrous substances in the water when its gravity would avail it nothing. The foot of the Gyrinus natatory or whirligig, consists of a pair of claws, and a rudimentary boss which is perfectly free from hairs of any kind. The last joints of the tarsus are developed in such a manner that they may almost be said to be webbed like the foot of the swimming birds. A number of hairs exist also, which assist it greatly when paddling through the water. 212 We next come upon an interesting variety of claw, the most beautiful as a microscopic object, of all I am acquainted with. This is to be found in the foot of the spider. Fig. 5. It con- sists of three hooks, two large and one small. The two former are serrated like combs, with regular teeth of equal length, till we come near the attached extremity, where they are much shorter than at the free end. The teeth are ten or twelve in number. The small hook differs in shape and size from the larger ; it is much shorter, has a much more abrupt curve, and is furnished with one or two teeth only. The intention of this foot is obviously to enable the crea- ture to walk readily upon and amongst its slender threads, which would easily elude the grasp of coarser claws like those of the fly. It will readily be supposed that these insects possess no power of walking upon perpendicular plane surfaces. They seem to have no special organ to enable them to do so. Though, however, it is true that the majority of these animals do not possess the necessary adhesive quality, some varieties are capable of doing so. In them we naturally search for some peculiar formation. We search in vain. The feet of all spiders are essentially alike, and the only difference which can be detected is an increased number of hairs upon the leg in those which possess the power of walking against gravity. The hairs on this part of the body are not of the hard and bristly kind. They are all soft, elastic, and branched so as to form a tolerably broad cushion when the leg is placed on a flat surface. They are more numerous on the under surface of the tarsus than the upper, and are evidently covered with a glutinous secretion, as may be judged by the quantity of dust usually attached to them. A very interesting variety of this form of foot exists in the Ht/drachnuj Pig. 39, a small aquatic insect allied to the spider tribe. Its foot consists of two hooks moving readily by a hinge joint. These the animal can protrude or retract at will. 213 When withdrawn they are received into a snug box, where they are so entirely out of the way that they might readily escape notice. We now come to the most extraordinarily complex form of the simple hook which it is possible to conceive. It belongs to all caterpillars, with few exceptions. In these the foot consists of a complete circlet of hooks, all having their sharp extremity pointed outwards. The other end is attached to a fibrous band running round the bottom of the leg and connected everywhere by a strong membrane. Fig. 8. Few things can look more formidable than such an apparatus. It is difficult to say what particular purpose this peculiar modi- fication is intended to fulfil. There can be no doubt that it is well adapted for locomotion over irregular surfaces. Besides the danger which would constantly accrue to the creature itself from these hooks, they would also be greatly in its way when moving along its confined dwelling, were it not for a provision of nature by which these dangers are obviated. Two muscles arise from the end of the joint farthest from the foot, and are inserted together into the central membrane connecting the hooks. Fig. 8. The integument at the termination of the tarsus is soft, flexible, and elastic to a sufficient distance to enable it to move readily upon itself. Whenever the animal wishes to sheath its weapons, the muscles are contracted forcibly to one half of their original length. The hooks are all drawn inwards, each fitting beauti- fully together in their central aspects, and the contraction does not cease until not a vestige of a claw can be seen projecting beyond the leg. Figs. 9 and 10. As soon as the necessity has passed away the natural elas- ticity of the skin, kept in abeyance by muscular action for a time, begins to operate and the hooks slowly resume their 214 original appearance. It is interesting to notice that nioditica- tions take place in this variety of foot as well as in others, whenever the peculiar habitat of the animal may require it.' A medical friend brought me some time ago a minute larva, which had been passed from the bowels by one of his patients. I am informed that it is the larva of the " Anthomyia Canicu- laris" a well known fly, and that it has been occasionally passed in enormous quantities, at distant intervals, by many individuals. Though it is found in river water, it does not appear to attain its full growth except in the intestines of man, and probably other animals. As far as I have been able to ascertain its habits, it appears to stick the two formidable hooks with which its head is furnished into the mucous membrane. It then forms around itself a tolerably strong tube of agglutinated mucus. This tube is constantly lengthened, either by the passage downwards of the contents of the bowel, or voluntarily by the efforts of the insect. Whichever supposition be correct, it is plain that unless the usual claws of the larva foot were kept sheathed or else modi- fied greatly, this elongation could not well take place, as the hooks would constantly arrest its progress. We find that in reality the hooks are entirely wanting, and that their place is taken by a few soft paddles of sufficient strength to be used either to propel the tube backwards or the insect forward, or to take their part in the fashioning of the habitation in its particular way. Fig. 11. These paddles are retracted by muscles in the same way as the hooks of other larvae. I have only recently been able to procure the fore feet of the bot which attaches itself to the mucous membrane of the stomach of the horse {oestnts equi). This larva, like that I have just described, has its head furnished by powerful hooks, by which it can attach itself firmly to the mucous membrane. Its feet are not required for locomotion and are found to be 215 modified in the same way as those of the Anthoinyia. The only difference being in the number of the divisions of the toes, so to speak. We now come to the simplest form of the most extensive genus met with in the insect world — the double hook. In this variety, the foot consists of two simple hooks of great hardness, which are articulated to the last joint of the tarsus by a simple joint. Figs. 13, 14, IG. This, as far as I have been able to discover, is of the ball and socket kind, so as to give a power of motion in every direction. Fig, 16. The motion is regulated by powerful muscles, which may be shown in recent specimens by tearing them from their attachments in the forcible removal of the claw. They cannot be shown well when the foot is preserved in Canada Balsam as a microscopic preparation. It would be difficult to say whether the claws are more commonly used as claspers with each other, or whether they are used as hooks principally, and only form claspers when brought dow^n upon the tarsus. Examples of both occur, and may be readily noticed with the naked eye in the large beetles, dragon flies, etc. The use of them as hooks seems perhaps the most constant. There is, however, an interesting exception. Many of you will be doubtless familiar with the Ilydrometra stagnorum, an elegant little fly, which may be seen sporting in great numbers upon the surface of still water during warm and sunny weather. These move about with great velocity, and if they are closely examined, they will be found to be resting upon the under surface of the greater part of the leg, and not upoft the last joint of the tarsus only. The integument is covered with an immense number of fine hairs, to which the atmospheric air strongly adheres ; they are probably also coated with a secretion not readily miscible with water. Fig. 38. 216 The point to which I wish to direct your attention is, that in this particular instance there would be no use whatever in a claw or claws which moved merely up and down in reference to the position of the body, or which approached each other laterally. The habits of the insects are to creep upon the surface of clear water, and to shun all those parts covered with weeds or floating leaves — below the surface it is probable they cannot immerse their claws. To be of any service, therefore, the last joint must be as it were half twisted round, so that the claws may be serviceable in removing any floating substance out of their way. This we find to be actually the case ; the foot consists of two hooks faintly curved, arranged perpendicularly to the water. A small brush of hairs is below them — nearest the surface of the water — which would effectually remove any small body, leaving the larger ones and those which rose higher from the water to be removed by the hooks. Both the hooks and brushes are, as we might imagine, di- rected backwards, so as to act in the most advantageous way for the insect's progression. The simple pair of hooks exists chiefly in the tribes of in- sects of the Coleopterous order. They may be found in many others, but it is unnecessary to particularize them. I have not thought it necessary to make a separate diagram of them, as they do not essentially differ from those associated with membranous flaps. I may just remark, en passant, that all the larger claws are found to be hollow in their interior, and that all, with few exceptions, are covered with hairs of variable size. The intention of the hoUowness of the claw is evidently to give it as much lightness as is compatible with strength. We may well suppose that the weight would be, compara- tively speaking, enormous, were the whole of the sohdity and consistency of the tip. 217 The surface at the summit often appears to be imbricated or covered with scales, indicating its formation originally by cells. We have now reached, by gradual ascent, our second class of feet, which we shall describe under two heads : those with one central hairy membraniform disc, or other appurtenances, and those having more than one, attached either to the foot or to the joints of the tarsus. It is I think highly probable that there are no double hooks without a central disc ; but as this is certainly rudimentary in those we have described before, I prefer beginning with those in whom it is largely and decidedly developed. We will notice first a fly called Ophion. In its foot we find two large and beautiful hooks armed with deep serratures like the claws of the spider ; between them is a strong pillar to which the hooks are laterally attached. This carries at its free extremity a soft cushion, covered over with nu- merous hairs, and a naked membrane perfectly clear and transparent. These are usually found covered with pollen or dust and the foot requires to be well cleansed before it can be thoroughly examined. Tig. 6. The deep serratures of the claws, and their close resemblance to those of the spider, will at once suggest the idea that they must have a common use. In the Panorpa communis a similar appearance is found. These insects spin webs, and the foot is evidently modified to enable them to walk with ease over and about them. In the last named species the central organ of the foot re- ceives a very remarkable development. It resembles most closely an inverted cone, slightly flattened from side to side, and divided on the upper flat surface. A broad double headed bar strengthens it at this part, and prevents the cone from opening too far. The interior seems to be hollow, and fur- nished as is the exterior, with many minute hairs. Fig. 15. It is evident that considerable use is made of the cone, as there is a special process adapted for its insertion. 2 F ei8 We find in the humble bee another variety of this very re- markable organ. Fig. 16. In it the plantar surface of the foot is covered largely with imbricated scales and a few short hairs ; between the hooks there is a large central boss densely covered with long hairs ; behind this, as we examine it from below, is what appears to be a hollow cap of a triangular shape, its apex being directed forwards. It is evidently hollow and appears puckered in- wardsj where the pillar by which it is connected with the foot is inserted. In the honey bee this peculiar structure is replaced by a membraniform expansion, in which I can see a faint re- semblance to the organ on the foot of the scorpion fly. Tliere is a division into two parts and a connecting link between them ; but in this instance the two sides appear to be united into one thickness, or at least to be very near to each other. Fig. 17. This expansion is covered with minute hairs and may be used as a sort of plastering trowel in the formation of the honey comb, as well as for purposes of locomotion. It possesses another expansion densely covered with large hairs, by which it is enabled to attach itself to smooth surfaces. We find, as we continue our enquiries, that this central organ has an office very similar to that of the ordinary discs attached to the feet of the musccs. and other insects. That they are in fact nothing more than sticking or adhesive flaps, strengthened each in its own particular way, and which are packed up when not in use. This is well shown, by the examination of the foot of the wasp and hornet y in which this central expansion is developed to the utmost. In the foot of the former, this peculiar organ of which we have been speaking, receives a greater and a far more striking development than in any other. It is situated on the dorsal surface of the foot, and is quite different from the adhesive boss. 219 It seems to consist of a distinct cavity, having a triangular opening on its upper surface. On each side of this appear two conical or harp-shaped bodies, which are united together at the inner angle of their base, but are distinct at their apices. They are marked by distinct lines running across them, which dip into the interior, where we must at present leave them. rig. 7. The lower wall is marked by a curious band which runs across it in a triangular shape, the apex being towards the leg, where it terminates apparently in or near the apex of the cones. There are few things which puzzled me more than this par- ticular form, and I had quite given up all hope of explaining it, when I accidentally stumbled on the solution of the diffi- culty. In the hind legs of a dried specimen I found this organ expanded to its full extent, and by a fortunate coincidence was enabled to get an inkling of the way in which the expansion took place. I have now ascertained that this organ consists of nothing more than a pair of enormous membranous flaps attached to a common pillar projecting beyond the claws : that they are strengthened by means of the strong band we have mentioned, and that its surface is kept in shape and strengthened by smaller bands parallel to each other, and more or less united to the large one. Fig. 19. These flaps are evidently adhesive to a certain extent, and are covered with minute hairs or scales. They are probably intended to be used in enabling the insect to walk up smooth surfaces where the claws would be of no avail. But it is clear that the claws could rarely be used with ad- vantage if this mass of membrane were always to be projecting between and beyond them. There is therefore a special pro- vision by which the flap can be packed up and remain out of danger and out of the way. How this is effected I am unable to say, whether it be by some direct muscular power, or by the intervention of the other feet or the parts about the mouth. 220 "lu the two fore feet of the common mole cricket we have a very remarkable modification of the claw, which cannot be brought under any of the preceding varieties. The habits of this animal lead it to burrow under ground very extensively, and to effect this the claws of the first pair of legs are fixed into a large strong serrated hand-like structure. With this it can readily remove substances which would destroy the smaller claws with which the hind feet are furnished. " In respect of strength it approaches nearest to the mandi- bles of the Mason Wasp, which are formed of more than bony hardness, to enable them to chip off minute particles of sand and remove them in sufiicient numbers to eftect an aperture large enough to admit the body." I am not in possession of a specimen of the hand as it is termed, and have therefore copied the description and diagram from the Pictorial Museum of Animated Nature. Fig. 20. We now come to speak of those feet in which we find hairy bosses, or flaps in addition to hooks. Tliese bosses, for the most part, are situated on the under surface of the foot, directly beneath the insertion of the claw. They are acted upon directly by minute muscles, and are brought into operation whenever the insect is walking. They are entirely covered with long hairs on their lower surface, and are frequently more or less convex. These bosses are occasionally situated on the joints of the tarsus, and when there, undergo some interesting modifications. The most common number observed is two, but in some cases there are as many as eight. It is scarcely necessary to describe many ; we will therefore confine ourselves principally to the feet of our common fly — Musca Bomedica. The same applies to most of the Dipterous family. If we examine the foot of the smaller Jiouse fiy, we find that it consists of two elegantly shaped hooks of a brown colour and great hardness, covered like the integument with 221 large hairs. Close to the origin of each claw there is a thin brown plate of similar material to it, which carries a large rounded boss of considerable size. Figs. 21 and 22. This boss or flap forms the segment of a small circle, the convexity being downwards and forwards. Its dorsal surface is smooth, but the convexity is covered with an immense number of long hairs which impart to it the appearance of a brush when seen in profile. Each of these hairs terminates by forming a right angle with itself; thus exposing as large a surface as possible to any plane body. In many cases they have an ad- ditional terminal enlargement. These hairs are evidently covered with a viscid secretion, and are usually coated with adherent particles of dust and dirt. In plain words they are sticky. The feet have therefore to be cleaned before we can see these hairs to perfection. As we shall have to refer to this viscidity hereafter, I will merely stop here to explain the cause of a phenomenon of which the commonest observer is cognizant. These little creatures — the house flies — may be frequently seen rubbing their fore legs together as we would wring our hands, their middle pair is as frequently rubbed against the wings or the hinder pair, and the hinder pair are rubbed against the back or each other. At first sight this might be taken for a cleansing of the limbs alone ; an appeal however to facts shows us that it is intended to remove from the bosses all adherent particles of dust, which, by choking them up, pre- vents them from using their feet to perfection. A portion of the viscid secretion may be found on the surface of polished glass immediately after a fly has walked over it, provided the foot is clean, or in case the foot is much clogged with dirt it may be traced by the particles left behind. In addition to the particular secretion of these hairs, they possess, in common with many other minute linear structures, the power of attracting air very strongly. Whenever then the 222 number of these hairs is very great, as on the legs of the water gnat (Hydrometra stagnorum), the whole limb becomes coated as it were with a layer of atmospheric air, which prevents it from sinking below the surface of water. From the same cause a fly is enabled for a short time to creep upon fluids : that it cannot do so as well as the other insect, depends upon the different conformation of the limb ; in one case the foot alone is brought into operation, in the other more than half the leg. It has been remarked by some observers, that, by dipping the feet in alcohol, the power of walking on water is lost. This is readily explained by a reference to cotton wool and a variety of other substances, which have a strong affinity for gaseous elements. They cannot be moistened with water without much pres- sure or trituration, but are saturated at once by spirit of wine, and will then take up water without any difficulty. Some observers have explained the phenomenon by supposing the secretion of the foot was insoluble in water, and had a re- pulsive power towards that fluid; that this secretion was dissolved away by the alcohol^ and that the water consequently could come into immediate contact with all parts of the leg, and the power of walking on the water would be destroyed by the limbs sinking into it. It is really immaterial which explanation is correct — there is probably truth in both. In the large blue bottle fiy, the blow fly (musca vomitoriaj, the dung fly, and the chequered blow fly, the same apparatus exists as in the smaller variety, but we find an important and interesting addition. We can readily imagine, that as the hairy flap has no internal framework for its support, the larger its size the less its use- fulness would be — there would be a constant tendency for the free end to fall down, like a sheet of paper held horizontally by one corner only. This would doubtless be the case were it . 2£3 not for a special system of ribs running the whole length of the flap, of sufficient strength to keep it in its proper shape. These ribs are situated on the dorsal surface of the membrane, and their arrangement differs so much in each of the varieties we have mentioned, that any one of them may be identified by the examination of the foot alone. I have represented three in the accompanying diagrams, Figs. 23, 24, 25. In one specimen (Tabanus lovimisj the support assumes the form of double ridges parallel to each other, and going the length of the boss. Fig. 27. In another (the Asilns communis) it consists of two strong pillars in each flap, passing in a straight line from the leg to nearly the termination of the hairy flap. Fig. 26. In the Tabanus bovinus, in the Zylophagus atety and in the fever fly, the number of bosses is increased by a central one inserted between the two. Fig. 27. There is no difference however in the hairy character of their under surface, or in the curve at the end of each individual hair. In some insects, the Cymbex lutea, and others, the bosses are situated on the under surface of the four or five last joints of the leg. Fig 28. They are, like those on the foot, covered with hairs emi- nently adhesive. In one or two instances, I have found them smooth. The motion in these bosses is very limited, and is confined to a pressure downwards, so as to fix them firmly on any plane surface, or to a simple retraction to the leg when they are not in use. In the Curculio and others, these bosses are placed in pairs, on each side of the leg, and are comparatively numerous. On some we find the usual adhesive hairs, which in the Curculio are remarkably developed, there being a terminal enlargement at the end of each hair. Kg. 31. On others the hairs are large and coarse, and easily seen by the naked eye. Figs. 13, 14. There are one or two specimens occasionally met with in 224 which we have both the central organ and the lateral flaps. The first I have met with has been in the Phri/ganea or case fly, which possesses two well-marked hairy flaps, similar to those of the house fly, and a central palm similar to that of the honey bee. Pig. 29. The intention of the two it is difficult to define. The fly has the power of walking for a time upon water, but this does not entirely explain the cause of the complicity of its foot. The second I have met with is in a butterfly (name un- known), in which there are the usual hooks and flaps common to the genus, and in addition a central dark pillar, evidently a rudimentary form of the more enlarged organ of the wasp. Fig. 30. This account would scarcely be complete without a reference to the fore and middle pair of legs of the male Bytiscus — a large aquatic beetle. It is unnecessary to describe both : we will therefore select the former, as more elaborate. In it the upper joints of the tarsus are developed into a circular disc of considerable size. This is furnished with a number of suckers whose construction is very beautiful. The larger ones, rarely exceeding three in number, consist of a circular funnel-shaped membrane, which is capable of being pressed flatly upon any surface, protected externally, by a ring of hairs, and strengthened internally by bands which radiate from the central chimney, and subdividing so frequently as to be almost membraniform at the circum- ference. These bands terminate at the top of the funnel, when they are acted upon by muscles. Whenever these are brought into operation they have a tendency to raise the centre of the disc. The smoothness of the circumference prevents the access of fluid, and atmospheric pressure is consequently brought into play. In addition to these large suckers, there are others covering the leg in far greater numbers. 225 Each consist of a cylindrical and slightly -conical tube, which is filled with muscular tissue. The fibres terminate in a central tendon : to this is attached a large membranous disc, by many radiating lines. As soon as this disc is placed on any substance the central tendon is drawn inwards, and the suction power is complete. Fig. 32. The same muscles will draw these organs within the sheaths whenever they are not in operation. These undoubtedly act as suckers. It is to be remarked that they have nothing to do with the locomotion of the creature, and are entirely distinct from the feet, which resemble those of the beetles. Experiment has shown that these are inadequate to the sup- port of the creatures in air. Observation seems to have con- firmed the usually received opinion that they are intended merely to enable the insect to hold inseparable connection with its mate during the spring time. I now propose to examine the question how far any of the feet we have named can act as suckers. It will be evident I think, at once, that the very formation of the feet disproves it. No one would ever be able to make a vacuum in the receiver of an air pump, if the glass itself, or the plate on which it was placed, were bristling with hairs like a clothes brush. It would be equally impossible to fix a hat brush, by atmospheric pressure, to our hats. Yet the bosses, if possible, are more densely covered with hairs than either of these two. But as the force of prejudice is very strong, and persons may doubt the strength of a simple proof like this, it will be advis- able to add a few observations and experiments upon this parti- cular point. I will commence with the most simple, and finish with the most conclusive. Though I now speak from my own experience, I should be unfair if I did not state, that the experiments are merely repe- titions of those made by Mr, Blackwall six yeais ago, and 2 o 226 })nblished by him in the Annals of Natural History and Science (1845). Firstly — Insects capable of walking up glass, lose that power after their feet have been subjected to finely pulverised nitrate of silver. This destroys the hairs, and deprives the bosses of their viscid secretion. It would not do so were the hairs per- fectly dry. Secondly — An insect cannot walk on glass against gravity when its feet are choked by finely powdered starch or any other substance. When they have cleaned their feet they are able to walk on smooth surfaces as usual. Thirdly — ^When they are unable to walk up a perfectly clean glass jar, they can do so when it is breathed upon or slightly soiled. Fourthly — The visible tracks of the insects may be detected on glass. Lastly — These creatures have been found to walk up plane perpendicular surfaces with as great ease in the vacuum of an air pump as in the open air ; as atmospheric pressure cannot exist there, we must designate this as the experimentum crucis. How singularly correct must now seem the first account of the foot of the fly written by Dr. Power two hundred years ago (and quoted by the author of the Episodes of Insect Life), compared with the more elaborate explanations of Sir Everard Home and others. Dr, P. says, " Speaking of Musca domes- tica, her other four feet are cloven, and armed with little claws by which she fastens on rugosities and asperities of all bodies like a catamount. She is also furnished with a kind of fuzzy substance like little sponges, with which nature has lined the soles of her feet, which substance is also repleated with a white viscous liquid, squeezed out at pleasure to glew herself to the surface." We must now examine how far we have other analogies cor- roborative to the assertion, that it is by viscosity alone that insects, etc., adhere to plane perpendicular surfaces. We shall 227 find the number considerable. I shall only mention a few. The leech creeps up glass, etc., with great facility, attaching itself merely by the viscid mucus its skin secretes. The common water newt or ascard will emerge from water, and without assistance ascend the perpendicular sides of a glass jar, or remain in contact with it for days together. These creatures adhere only by their external secretion. The limpet adheres to the rock by the tenacity of its secre- tion. Whenever it wishes to remove from its place it dimin.- ishes the density of this by an injection of water amongst it. We have a still more familiar example in the ease with which a snail will crawl over the smoothest surface. It has been asked, how can these various creatures ever separate themselves if they attach themselves so closely by a sort of fluid glue ? The answer is obvious — that the glue is never allowed time to become solid, and that as long as it is fluid the insect can as readily remove its feet from the glass as we can take off a newly pasted paper from a wall. Since writing the above, my friend Mr. Byerley has drawn my attention to the foot of the Acarus scarabcei, a parasite in- festing the large black beetle in great numbers. In it the foot consists of a large circular disc, strengthened diametrically by two strong processes or hooks, and divided into compartments by a few lines which seem to be thickenings of the membrane. These and the hooks are attached to a central substance at the bottom of the last joint of the tarsus. This is acted on by two muscles which are able to retract it powerfully within the joint. When in action the disc is fully expanded (Fig. 40), and when the foot is raised, the two hooks may be seen approximating until the whole assumes the ap- pearance in Fig. 41. The membrane is probably dry, being alwavs free from dust or dirt. 2^BS There can be little doubt that this foot is a true sucker, and that the animal sustains its position by means of atmospheric pressure. When the foot is raised the same appearance is pre- sented as when raising a moist sheet of paper from the table by a string running across its centre. This is the only real suctorial foot I yet have met with. In conclusion, I may be allowed to express a hope that, when the disappointment necessarily resulting from the break- ing up of a long established notion has been overcome, the new theory will be found equally beautiful with the old. Twelfth Meeting — April 7, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. The Society confirmed the resolution of Council, that the President should re-invite the British Association to hold their meeting here in 1852, or as early thereafter as possible. Dr. D. P. Thomson called the attention of the Society to the Pendulum experiment of M. Eoucault, and explained its nature. He then exhibited a Mineral from Carrock Pell, which Mr. P. P. Marrat had ascertained by qualitative analysis to contain cerium, a metal hitherto unknown in this country. He submitted a series of specimens containing cerium in diffe- rent combinations, as allanite, cerite, cerine, yttrocerite, and fluocerite. Mr. J. P. G. Smith then read a Memoir On Temperatures taken helow the Surface of the Ground. These observations were begun in 1848, and are being continued with thermome- ters sunk in his garden. Mr. Smith has been asked to con- 229 tinue his observations, and at a future time present the results for publication by the Society. The Eev. Mr. Howson, M.A., then addressed the meeting On the Study of Ancient Art considered as an instrument of Education, The following is an abstract of the paper : — He took the term "education" in its widest sense, not as limited to the training of boyhood or girlhood, but as includ- ing all that process of extending the knowledge, improving the taste, directing the imagination and strengthening the judgment, for which none of us are too old, and every instru- ment in promoting which is valuable. The word "art" he took in a narrow sense, including music, for instance, and poetry, and addressed himself to that which may be called representation art, which appeals directly to the eye. The principle he wished to illustrate, was that expressed in the well-kuown maxim of Horace, which was so justly proverbial that it never can be obsolete : that the mind receives a weaker stimulus towards knowledge from listening (and it might be added, from reading) than from seeing. Not that the princi- ple had ever been entirely neglected; but, since the invention of printing, there had been a temptation to disregard the olden method of teaching by means of direct representations of the eye. Art was first considered as conducive to our knowledge of the physical universe. After an allusion to its importance as an auxiliary to scientific inquiry, as in the engravings necessary to the naturalist and anatomist, — the important functions of the landscape painter and the engraver in making us acquainted with the picturesque physiogonomy of various countries, was next pointed out. Thus, the writer said, he would have every place of education supplied, not only with a hbrary well stocked with wisely chosen books, but with port- folios well stocked with engravings of scenery. Engravings, however, are never satisfactory, because both of their diminu- tive size and wanting colour. Hence the value of the larger exhibition of scenes in dioramas and panoramas. They exem- 280 plify on a great scale the function of art as an instrument of education. After quoting a passage from Humboldt on land- scape painting, considered as an incitement to the study of nature, he proceeded to advocate the decoration of the walls of school-rooms, not only with maps on a large scale, but with fresco paintings of the characteristic scenery and vegetation of different lands. But there was a higher world, the knowledge of which was more important both to the young and the old. Man was more noble than the earth he inhabited; and art might be made directly subservient to the work of educating man in the past history and present development of his race. The character of a people was revealed, not only by its litera- ture but by its art. Some nations, as the Egyptians, the Etrurians, the Assyrians, and the Mexicans, had left no record of themselves except in their art. But even of the Greeks and Romans, it was true, that their art revealed to us that which their literature would have left obscure. It was pointed out, in the case of the Greeks more especially, how a symbolical language was to be read, not only in their sculpture, but even in their domestic implements. The monuments of the Romans were rather of the construction than the representa- tion kind : yet even they were surrounded in their daily life by sculpture and statuary; and, therefore, they might be studied, like the Greeks, through the medium of art. Exam- ples were given from ^schylus and Aristophanes of the illus- trations which the Athenian poets receive from an accurate knowledge of the statues in the Acropolis, Of all poets, perhaps Horace is the most statuesque. It is impossible for any one, who has realised to himself the aspect of Roman cities and Roman houses, not to feel continually that this image and that phrase must have been consciously or uncon- sciously suggested by groups of statuary, or single figures, or paintings with which he was familiar. Thus the best commen- tary on Horace was to be found in Mr. Scharf's drawings in Milman's edition. Nor was it poetry alone which was illumi- 231 nated iu this way. History receives a light from the same source, as might be instanced in the allegorical statue of Antioch, in the sculptures on the arch of Titus, and the spiral procession on the column of Trajan. Thus we are led to see the educational value of casts from the antique, whether statues or bas-reliefs, in schools and museums. We appreci- ated the treasure we had in the Elgin room at the British Museum, and we saw reason to congratulate ourselves here on the possession of the casts at the Royal Institution. The difficulties, as regards both space and expense, which preclud- ed the accumulation of the larger works of art in schools, did not apply to coins, which were portable and easily preserved ; while sulphur casts or electro-type facsimiles were as effective for the purpose in question as the originals themselves. They were a history of art in miniature, and were full of instruction, presenting facts under the form of beautiful allegories illus- trating the progress of national life, furnishing portraits of eminent men, and even corroborating the evidence of Christi- anity. An allusion was made to the educational value of architecture, which belongs rather to construction than to representation art ; and the writer concluded with a notice of the use of allegory, whether exhibited by painting on walls, as in the Stoa Poicile at Athens, or in Eaffaelle's great work in the Stanza della Segnatura, or by sculptured groups, the highest examples that the world had seen being in the pedi- ments of the Parthenon; while one of the most interesting things, and one well worthy of mention among modern works of art, was the composition of the pediment of St. George's- hall, where the imports of the four quarters of the world were meeting the industrial energy of England on the banks of the Mersey. ^32 Thirteenth Meeting — May 5, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. It was communicated from the Ck)uncil that they recom- mended the Society to carry out the Pendulum experiment, whereby the earth's rotation may be made visible, the Sailors' Home having been obtained for that purpose. It was moved by Dr. Inman, seconded by Mr. Barber, and carried unani- mously that this suggestion be confirmed. A Sub -Committee, consisting of the President, Mr. J. P. G. Smith, Mr. Ha.rt- NUP, and Dr. Thomson, was appointed by the Council for this purpose. The following donation was laid upon the table : — Report of the Calcutta Public Library for 1850. Dr. Ihnb read a paper On the Legislature of the Roman Republic^ of which the following is an abstract : — The author introduced the subject by paying a high and deserved, though, in some things, qualified compliment to Niebuhr, the historian, from whom, he said, we have to date the fruitful investigation into the organization of the Roman constitution, which engages scholars now, and which derives its value and interest, not from a mere antiquarian curiosity, but from the light thrown by Roman history thus pursued upon the nicest questions of the philosophy of history, and upon the political and social problems which engage the at- tention of the present day. He referred to the traditions whence sprung the early history of that mighty empire, and to the happy circumstance that the origin, nature, and develop- ment of laws and institutions can be traced back with much greater certainty than can the events of the same era. Thus 238 the constitutional history of Rome begins where the oldest annals present little more than mere names of public functionaries. The fundamental principle of the Eoman republic was the sovereignty of the people : this, however, was peculiarly consti- tuted, for there coexisted three popular assemblies, differing from one another in many essential points. These were the comitia curiata, comitia centuriata, and the comitia tributa, the characteristics of which he described. The first was patrician, no plebeian ever obtaining admission ; the second was military, in which patricians and plebians were ranged according to wealth; and the third represented the democracy. He then entered upon the consideration of the working of these bodies, giving his own views upon doubtful points. In course of this inquiry he was led to determine the time of the discontinuance of the formal assemblies of the curies during the second Punic war, and brought forward the curious criticism of Rubino upon the fragmentary work of Festus. The process of forming and passing laws was then discussed, and the meaning of the patrum audoritas learnedly examined. He then observed, that from the comitia centuriata, which represented and exer- cised the sovereignty, there was no appeal. No other assembly had a right to revise, amend, reject, or approve the vote of these comitia. But they were intimately connected with the Senate, which formed an executive board for the previous dis- cussion of all measures, for the drawing up of bills, and for their execution when passed into laws. He then noticed the influence of the liberal party exercised through the Consul, and the violent concussion which took place in the year 339 B.C., when certain privileges were granted under the dread of a dissolution of the state. Before then, the Consul was dependant upon the Senate for the measures he brought forward in the comitia ; now he might appeal to the people at once, and the Senate was bound to sanction beforehand what- ever the people might decide. 2U 234 Fourteenth Meeting — May 19, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., in the Chair. The following donations were announced : — Philosojah^ of Geographical Barnes, by the llev. Dr. Hunie : from the Author. [Read before the Society, November 26, 1849.] Annual Report (V&o\) of the Liverpool Architectural Society. Mr. Heniiy Behrend read a paper, entitled. Specimens of the Persiac Odes, illustrated with metrical translations. The author commenced by an allusion to the high claims oriental literature has on our attention from the religious associations of the east, and its connexion with the birth and progress of civilization. Its literature embraces every subject, from the deepest philosophy to the most trivial songs. The Persiac metres present some curious features, admitting of almost every variety, especially in the odes, in which the same rhyme not unfrequently extends through four syllables, or even more, and this is sustained throughout the entire poem — the accent falling on the penultimate or antipenultimate : the heroic poems usually consist of the Trochaic verse of eleven syllables, the lyrics of one short syllable, followed by three long ones. The power of imagery is carried to its greatest extent in Persiac poetry, and is as admirably sustained as it is boldly conceived. Of this several specimens were given. The gems of Persiac poetry are the love songs, or ghazuls, in which Hafiz chiefly excelled. Some of the German orien- talists have noticed the extraordinary similarity they bear to the fragments of the Greek odes of 'Anacreon, Sappho, and 235 Alcseus that have been handed down to us. The peculiarities of the style of Hafiz were then detailed, and mention made of the existing English translations of his poems. The author read several of his odes, now for the first time^ translated into English, and the paper concluded with a refutation of the charge of mysticism that Von Hamner and other German critics have attributed to Hafiz. Dr. Thomson presented the following — Comparison of an Aneroid Barometer with the Standard Barometer of the Liver- pool Observaiory, by John Habtnup, F.R.A.S. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 Reading of the Stundurd barometer Borrected and reduced to 32° of Reading of the Aneroid at the same time. Algebraical Excess of the Aneroid above the Temper- ature to which the Aneroid was Correction to Aneroid for Change of Correction to Aneroid for Error of Algebraic Exc«;ss of Aneroid when corrected for Temperature Fahmnhi-it Standard. exposed. Temperature Scale. and Error of Scale. m. in. in. Fah. in. in. in. 29-88 30-06 + 0-18 73° — 0-16 — 0-01 + 0-01 29-90 30-15 + 0-19 72 — 0-16 — 0-02 + 001 29-71 29-77 + 0-06 55 — 0-09 + 0-04 + 001 29-70 29-75 -1- 0-05 60 — 007 + 0-04 + 002 29-24 29-22 — 0-02 46 — 0-06 + q-12 + &\2 + 004 29-24 29-19 — 0-05 42 — 0-04 + 003 29-24 29-18 — 006 40 — 0-03 + 0-12 + 0-03 29-;J0 29-26 — 0-04 40 — 0-03 + 0-11 + 0-04 29-88 29-91 + 0-03 87 — 0-02 + 001 + 0-02 29-96 30-03 + ()-07 50 — 0-07 0-00 0-00 30-00 30-18 + 0-17 C9 — 0-15 — 0-03 0-00 3005 30-23 H- 0-18 70 — 015 — 0-03 0-00 80-09 30-17 + 0-08 30 — 002 — 003 1 + 0-03 30-25 80-39 + 004 49 — 0-07 — 0-06 i + 0-01 30-82 3011 + 0-29 55 — 0-09 — 0-17 : + 0-03 30-82 31-08 + 0-26 45 — 005 — 0-10 1 + 0-05 3081 31-13 + 0-32 67 - 0-14 — 0-17 + 0-01 30-81 31-18 + 0-37 75 — 0-17 — 0-18 ' + 0-02 30-81 31-19 + 0-38 78 — 0-19 — 0-18 i + 0-01 30-81 31-21 + 0-40 83 — 0-20 — 018 i + 0-02 30-80 31-21 + 0-41 85 — 0-21 — 0-18 1 + 0-02 30-80 31-22 + 0-42 87 — 0-22 — 0-18 ' + 002 30-80 31-10 + 0 30 54 — 0-09 — 0-17 i + 0-04 30-70 30-90 + 0-26 49 — 0-07 — 0-14 1 + 0-05 30-71 30-92 + 0-21 38 — 002 — 0-14 ' + 0-05 30-59 30-83 + 0-24 51 — 0-08 — 0-12 ! + 0 04 30-34 30-56 + 0-22 55 — 009 — 008 + 0-05 29-92 30-05 + 013 52 — 0-08 — 0-01 ' + 004 29-79 29-80 + 0-10 55 — 009 + 002 + 0-03 29-60 29-60 4- 0-07 50 — 0-07 + 0-05 + 004 ^36 Explanations — Column 5 contains corrections for change of temperature obtained by multiplying 0*004 by the number which the degrees in column 4 exceed 32. From an inspec- tion of columns 2, 3, and 4 it appears, that the readings of the Aneroid compared, are more in excess of the Standard in an elevated than in a low temperature, and that the variation from this cause equals about 0'004 inch for one degree of Fahrenheit. It also appears that the readings of the Aneroid are more in excess of the Standard with a high Barometer than they are with a low Barometer, and that the variation for one inch arising from this cause is equal to about 0*15 inch. Column 6 contains corrections for change in the height of the Barometer, obtained by multiplying 0*16 by the number which the readings of the Aneroid in column 2 are above or below 30'00 inches. It will be seen that the change of temperature to which the Aneroid was exposed during the trial was 50°, and that the range of the Barometer was 1'58 inch. The extreme error of the Aneroid produced by these changes was about half an inch, when uncorrected for change of temperature and error of scale. When corrected for change of temperature and error of scale, as above described, the extreme error in the readings of the Aneroid did not exceed a twentieth of an inch, an amount scarcely exceeding the probable error from the reading of the scale. The smallest division on the scale was one-twentieth of an inch, but I read to the nearest hundredth of an inch by estimation. J. H. Thus closed the public meetings of the Society. 237 NOTE to the communication on the subject of Mummy Wheat, page 176. Just as the last sheet was sent to press, our attention was obligingly drawn by Mr. Cox to the following interesting extract from an old Italian work by Andrea Navagero (or Naugerius), entitled " Viaggio in Ispagna/' published in 1563, and reprinted in his Ojpera Omnia in 1718. It must be borne in mind that Granada was a stronghold of the Moors, and that before their banishment from Spain the mountains became their retreat. They doubtlessly cultivated the medicinal herbs referred to, and probably sowed the seeds of " corn with many ears" — frumento di tante spighe — brought originally, it may be, from the East. After describing the rivers, the Darro and the Xenil, the author says — " Vicino a Granata a leghe cinque o sei, ha una gran montagna, e molto alta, che, per esser sempre con nevi, si chiama La Sierra Nevada. Questa non fa rinverno fteddo in Granata, per esser dalla parte di mezzo- giorno alia citth, ; e la state vi fa fresco per la continua neve che ha, la quale usano anche assai a here in Granata ne' gran caldi. E' la detta montagna abbondante di molte erbe medicinali ; ed in questa trovarono il frumento di tante spigJm" He then goes on to mention a small lake upon the summit, so deep that its waters look black. Mr. Cox, who is intimately acquainted with Egypt from residence in the country, has failed to find that corn grows there like that described. It were singular did the Arabs possess seeds so curious, only to introduce them into mummies and then to dispose of them to travellers as genuine. As it is, the note contains evidence in favour of the antiquity claimed for " mummy wheat," Navagero was bom in the year 1483, of an ancient Venetian family, and travelled into Spain " partie du recaeil de documents historique intitule — Relations des Ambassadeurs Fenetiens sur les affaires de Francey au xvi« Steele:" Brunet, Manuel du Libraire, 184-3. — Editoe. 238 NOTE upon the Pendulum Experiment fvide page 232). The Committee appointed to carry out the wishes of the Society in the performance of Eoucault's experiment, after several meetings, at last succeeded in devising an apparatus and mode of suspension which has proved most satisfactory. A cast-iron ball, weighing twenty-nine pounds avoirdupoise, turned and bored through its axis, was suspended by an iron wire, l-20th of an inch in diameter, from delicately construct- ed jimbals fixed to a beam of wood so strong as to resist any vibration arising from the motion of the pendulum. The jimbals consisted of two brass cradles and two cross-bars of steel at right angles. These bars were most carefully formed at the extremities into knife edges, working in the same horizontal plane within steel bushes inserted into the cradles. To the under cradle the suspending wire was attached, and the upper cradle was firmly fixed to the beam. A universal motion was thus obtained, with exceedingly little fnction and great strength. On the latter ground, this mode of suspen- sion is superior to that at Paris ; and the result of the experi- ments, which have been very numerous, goes to shew that pe^^fect confidence may be imposed in the apparatus. Below the ball a circular and concave table was placed, the centre of which coincided with the vertical, when the pendulum was at rest. This table, formed of cement upon a wooden frame, was ten feet in diameter and carefully divided into degrees, so that the motion might be readily and accurately noted; and a mechanical contrivance enabled the observer to drop the ball without its receiving at the first an elliptical motion. The pendulum when made to vibrate, invariably conformed with the theory, not only in respect to the direction of its apparent motion, but in point of time, supposing the motion to be unity at the pole and infinity at the equator. Each degree was passed over in five minutes, and this equally at every angle ; thus giving to a complete revolution a period of thirty hours, which for this latitude is slightly more than the time 239 required, but not more than may arise from friction and atmos- pheric resistance. The observations have not yet been reduced, but they have always conformed to the theory. It was found that the Magnetic Meridian exerted no in- fluence whatever upon the motion of the pendulum. Upon the 26th of May the Council unanimously passed the following resolution : — " Moved by the Rev. Mr. Higgins, seconded by the Rev. Mr. Robberds, That the Council report themselves satisfied with the present proceedings of the sub- committee appointed to carry out the Pendulum Experiment, and beg them to continue their services." — Editor. The following presentations have been made since the last meeting of the Society : — Proceedings of the Ttoyal Astronomical Society, volume xi, from part 1 — (Monthly) : from the Society. Monthly Rej^ort (No, 2) on the Burials, Causes of Death, and Climate of Glasgow, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, — from the commencement to December 1850, 13 volumes : from the Society. The Flora of Liverpool, by Dr. Dickinson : 36 copies from the Author. Suggestions for the advancement of Literature and Learning in lAverpool, by the Eev. Dr. Hume : several copies from the Author for distribution to those members who may not yet have been supplied. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Warwickshire Natural History Society : from the Society. APPENDIX. THE FLOEA OF LIYEEPOOL. BT JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., FELLOW OF THE BOTANIC ALSt)CIE TIES OF LONDON AND EDINBUKOH, LECTURER ON THe/pRACTICE OF PHYSIC IN THE LXVERPOOT. SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. [KBAD BEFORE THE SOCIETY IN THE SESSION 1840—51.] NOTE. The following Flora has been printed as an Appendix to tlie Proceedings, for the advantage of the pupils of the present session in the School of Medicine. Had it been delayed till it came in order, the practical botanist would have been de- prived its use till too late in the present season. This departure from the ordinary custom has not, however, delayed the issue of the volume. — Editor. PREFACE. Having been engaged daring the last twelve or thirteen years in collecting materials for the better elucidation of the Botany of the hundred of Wirral, and the neighbourhood of Liverpool, I now lay the result before the mem- bers of the Literary and Philosophical Society. In doing so, it is with much pleasure that I acknowledge the deep debt of gratitude I owe to the nimierous friends, — many of them members of this Society, — who have so Hberally and promptly aided me in the undertaking, both by their advice and their contributions. My especial thanks are due in the first place to Mr. T. B. Hall, who permitted me unlimitedly to use the valuable stores contained in his Flora of Liverpool, published in 1839, and which serves as the basis of the present work ; and then to Messrs. Wm. Harrison and Wm. Skdhome of the Liverpool Botanic Garden, without whose assistance this work would probably have been delayed for some time — if not altogether laid aside. To them the list of mosses is almost exclusively due ; although very efficient aid has been rendered in this, as in the other departments, by Mr. Thomas Sansom, and by Mr. R. Tudor, of BooUe, whose extensive and accurate acquaintance with the natural history of this locaUty has been of tlie greatest service. Dr. D. P. Thomson has given me the benefit of his superior knowledge of physical geography, and to him I am indebted for much of the informa- tion which is given under this head. The names of many other contribu- tors, viz., Messrs. H. Shepherd, Brent, W. Bean, Byerley, Maughan, Pr. Womls, John Harrison, (Miner, St. Helens,) Professor Nuttall, «fec., will appeal* in the course of the paper; and I have endeavoiu-ed, in every instance, to assign to its proper source cvciy discovery of a new species or linbitat. PREFACE. % siccus. " Nature never did belray The heart that loved her ; ' lis her privilege Through all the years of this our life, to lead From joy to joy : for she can so inform The mind that is within us, so impress With quietness and beauty, and so feed With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, Rash judgments, nor the sneers of sel68h men. Nor greetings where no kindness is, nor all The dreary intercourse of daily life, Shall e'er prevail against us, or disturb Our cheerful faith, that all which we behold Is full of blessings." ft WoEDSWOKTH. 13 ARRANGEMENT ADOPTED IN THE LIVERPOOL FLORA I.— DICOTYLEDONOUS, OR EXOGENOUS PLANTS. 1. THALAMiFLOEiE, petals scvcral, distinct, and the stamens hypogynous. 2. Calyciflor^, corolla and stamens perigynous, or inserted into the calyx. A. PolypetalotiSy petals distinct. B. Monopetalous, petals united, and forming as it were a monopetalous corolla. 3. CoROLLiPLOR^, corolla of one piece, hypogynous, stamens epipetalous or hypogynous. A. Hypogynous, stamens free from the corolla. B. Epipetalous, stamens inserted upon the corolla. 4. MoNOCHLAMYDEiE, perianth single or wanting. IL— MONOCOTYLEDONOUS, OR ENDOGENOUS PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS. 1. PfiTALOiDEiE, flowers having a single perianth, or if desti- tute of one, nal W.S. Southport. 11. CAKILE. Gsertn. Sea Rocket. Tetradyn. Siliculosa. L. 1. C. MARITIMA. WiUd. (Purple S.) July, August. 0 Sea shore, New Brighton, Bootle, Formby, &c., abundant. Southport. 24 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. SUB-ORD. II. NOTOBHIZEyK. 12. HESPERIS. Linn. Dame's Violet Tetradyn. Siliquosa. L. 1. H. MATR0NALI9. L. (Common D.) May — July. % Plentiful about Clegg's pits, Allerton; though probably outcasts from gardens. These pits are rich in mosues, ferns, and other interesting plants, — ^W.H. IS. SISYMBRIUM. Liun. Hedge-Mustard. Tetradyn. Siliquosa. L. 1. S. OFFICINALE. L. (Common H.) June, July. 0 Waste places and road sides, very abundant. 2. S. SOPHIA. L. (Five-leaved H. or Flax-weed.) June — August. O Abundant in various places in Wirral, near the sea. Bidston, New Brighton, Hoylake, Leasowe Castle, &c. Sand hills, Crosby and Formby, common, — ^W.S. Bootle, — R. Tudor. Southport. 3. S. THALIANUM. Hook. (Common Thale Cress.) Spring and Autumn. 0 Walls, dry banks, gravelly soils, (fee, common. 14. ALLIARIA. Adans. Garlic Mustard. Tetradyn. Siliquosa. L. 1. A. OFFICINALIS. D.C. (Erysimum alliaria. L.) (Com. G., Jack-by-the-Hedge, or Sauce Alone.) June, July. ^ Hedge banks and waste places, common. The larva of Curculio Jlliaria feeds apon this plant. 15. ERYSIMUM. Linn. Treacle Mustard. Tetradyn. Siliquosa. L. 1. E. CHEiRANTHoiDEs. L. (Worm-seed T.) June — August. 0 Soirthport,— (G.S.) In a lane near Sefton,— W. Bean. D 25 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. 16. SUBULARIA. Linn. Awl Wort Tetradyn, Siliculosa, L. 1. S. AQUATiCA. L. (Awl Wort.) August. 2; Near Allerton. ? (Specimen from H.S. 1812.) 17. CAPSELLA. De Cand. Shepherd's Purse. Tetrad/yn, Siliculosa. L. 1. C. BURSA-PASTORis. D.C. (Common S.) The whole Summer. 0 Com fields, waste places, (fee, very abundant. A small white parasitic fungus, Uredo Thlaspi, is frequently found on this plant. 18. LEPIDIUM, Linn. Pepper Wort, in. Siliculosa. L. 1. L. LATiFOLiUM. L. (Bioad-leaved P.) July, August. U Hoylake, plentiful. 2. L. DRABA. L. (Whitlow p.) June, July. U Banks of the Dee, near Queen's Ferry, — Dr. Wood. 3. L. RUDERALE. L. (NaTTow-leaved P.) May, June. 0 Banks of the Dee, near Queen's Ferry, — Dr. Wood. 4. L. CAMPESTRE. Bi. (Commou Mithridate P.) May — August. 0 Com fields, waste places, road sides, &c., abundant. 5. L. SMiTHii. Hook. (Smooth field P.) April — Sept. 4 Borders of hedges and fields at Eastham and Rock Ferry. 19. SENEBIERA. De Cand. Wart-cress. 1. S. CORONOPUS. D.C. (CJommon W., Swine's Cress.) Waste ground, road sides, (fee, common. %. S. DiDYMA. D.C. (Lesser W.) July — Sept. 0 Plentiful in sandy lanes near Hoylake,— W.S,, F. P. Marrat. 26 THE FLOEA OF LIVERPOOL. SUB-ORD. ni. ORTHOPLOCE^. 20. BRASSICA. Linn. Cabbage, Tv/mep, Navew. Tetrad/yn, Siliquosa. L. 1. B. OLERACEA. L. Southport,— " Guide to SouUiport,"— but not confirmed,— J.D. 2. B. NAPUS. L. (Bape or Cole Seed.) May, June. ^ Com fields and waste ground, frequent. 3. B. RAPA. L. (Common T.) April — July. S Com fields and waste places, frequent. 4. B. CAMPESTRis. L. (Common Wild N.) June, July. 0 or ^ Com fields and waste grounds, frequent. Formby sand hills, abundant, but apparently sown as food for the rabbits,— W.S., W.H. 6. B. MONENSis. Br. (Isle of Man C.) June — August. 2^ Sand hills at New Brighton, (BooUe,— R. Tudor,) Crosby, Formby, &c., abundant. 21. SmAPIS. Linn. Mustard. Tetradyn. Siliquosa, L. 1. S. NIGRA. L. (Common Black M.) July — Sept. 0 Waste places, hedges, and borders of fields, abundant. 2. S. ALBA. L. (White M.) June, July. 0 Waste places, hedges, &c., abundant. 3. S. ARVENSis. L. (Wild M. Charlock.) May — August. 0 Com fields, &c., veiy common. 4. S. TENUiFOLLA.. Br. (Diplotaxis tenui/olia. D.C.) (Wall Rocket.) June — Sept. 2f A specimen was sent to me, in 1850, by Mr. J. Harrison, said to be gathered at Neston. 22. BAPHANUS. Linn. RadisL Tetradyn. Siliquosa. L. R. RAPHANISTRUM. L. (Wild R. or Jointed Charlock.) Summer and Autumn. 0 Common in corn fields in Win-al, and the neighbourhooil of Liverpool. 27 THE FLORA 0¥ LIVERPOOL. Ord. VII. Resedacete. De Cand. The Mignonette Family. 1. RESEDA. Linn. D^e/s Rocket, Mignmette. Dodecand. Trigyn. L. 1. R. LUTEOLA. L. (Common D., Yellow Weed or Weld.) June, July. 0 Common in hedges about Leasowe, — W.H. Abundant at Bidston, and on Hoyloke, Crosby, and Formby sand hills. %. R. FRUTicuLOSA. L. (Shrubby Base D.) June. $ qy il On the sand hUls near Bootle Land Marks, — R. Tudor. Sparingly on sand hills beyond New Brighton. Said to grow at Southport, — "Guide to Southport," by Glaze- brook. Bootle, near the " Rimrose," — B. Tudor. Ord. VIII. VioLACE^. De Cand. The Violet Family, 1. VIOLA. Linn. Violet. Pentand. Monogyn. L. 1. V. HiRTA. L. (Hairy V.) April, May. 2| Near Eastham, on the road to Chester, — H. Shepherd. 2. V. ODORATA. L. (Sweet V.) March, April, is, In a wood by the road side opposite Roby Hall, — W.S., W.H. Lane near West Derby. Wavertree road, near the Quarrf^ Speke, — A. Stewart. Birkenhead Church Yard (introduced by a lady), — H. C. Watson. TriphoBtia Fimbria (broad bordered yellow underwing) and Actehia Precox (the Portland Moth) feeds on this species. 3. V. PALusTRis. L. (Marsh Y.) May — July. U Bickerstaffe Moss, near the "Level Crossings" station, — W.S. Rainford Moss. Crosby Marsh. 4. V. CANiNA. L. (Gerard's or Dog V.) May — Sept. U Woods, banks, and diy pastures, very frequent. Argynnis Papkia (Silver-washed Fritillary) and A. Aglaia (Dark Green Fritillary) feed on this plant. 5. V. PUMILA. Vill. (T. Flavicornis. Sm.) (Dillenius' V.) April — Sept. U On a bank near Crosby rabbit warren, 1821, — J.S. in Herb. On New Brighton and Crosby sand hills, frequent. (See Watson's Cybele, pp. 178—180.) 28 THE FLOUA OK LIVERPOOL. 6. V. TEicoLOtt. L. (Pansy V. or Heart Ease.) The whole summer. 0, (•range and dorp brown, may be observed on the b'avrs.'— With. 45 THE FLORA OK LIVERPOOL. 3. P. Cerasus. L. (Wild C.) May. U Seacombe, by pits, — H. C. Watson. Bebbington and Bromboro' Pool, common, — W.S. Plentiful in pits in Edge Lane, Hall Park,— W.H. " Livia Cerati raay be detected on this tree." — With. SUB-ORD. II. ROSE^. " Carpels not adhering to the calyx-tube. Stipules united to the petiole." Tribe 1. SPIR^EIDJE. Petals several. Fruit, a ring of follicles not inclosed within the calyx-tube. 2. SPIRJiiA. Linu. Spinea, T}ropwGrt, or Meadow-sweet, Icosand. Pentagon. L. 1 . S. ULMARiA. L. (Queen of the Meadows.) July. U Very common by the side of ponds a moist meadows. " Sphinx ocellata and FilipenduUe feed on this plant." — With Very common by the side of ponds and ditches and in moist meadows. Tribe 2. POTENTILLID^. "Calyx-tube short and nearly flat, not enclosing the fruit. Petals several. Achenes or drupes five or more upon a common flat or convex receptacle." 3. GEUM. Linn. Avens. Icosand. Poh/gi/n. L 1. G. URBANUM. L. (Common A.) June. U Woods and hedges, frequent. 2. G. rivale. L. (Water A.) May — July. U Meadows below Childwell Abbey. 3. G. intermedium. Ehrh. June, July. U In a ditch between the Horns Smithies and the entrance to Knowsley Park, — J.S. It is probably a hybrid and not a distinct species. 46 THE PLOKA OF LIVEEPOOL. 4. RUBUS. Linn. Brarnhhy Raspberry. Icosand, Polygon. L. 1. R. ID.EUS. L. (Common R.) May, June. 71 Wirral,— H. C. Watson, in Hall's Flora. Rainford Moss, abundant; and east side of Formby Moss, — ^W.S. Sim- mons-wood Moss, and in a large boggy wood between Wavertree and Gateacre, plentiful, — W.H. The folinge suffers from the attacks of a little beetle, Melolantha horticola ; when in flower the footstalks are sometimes eaten through bj the minute DermtiUt tomen- Hedges at Weston, near the Soap-works, 1850, — Harrison. Ord. XXIX. PORTULACEiE. Juss. The Purslane Family. 1. MONTI A. Linn. Blinks. Triand. Ti I. M. FONTANA. L. (Water B, or Chickweed.) April- July. 0 In wet boggy places and ditch sides, frequent. Ord. XXX. PARONYCHIACE^. St. HiU. The Knot-wort Family. 1. HERNIARIA. Linn. Rupture-wort. Pentand. Bigyn. L. 1. H. GLABRA. L. (Glabrous R.) July, August, 2; Mr. John Harrison, of St. Helen's, brought me, on two occasions in 1850, fresh specimens "gathered near St. Helens Old Railway, at a distance from any house," yet I cannot but consider it as an outcast from some garden. In Glazebrook's Guide to Southport, and in Aughton's List of Southport Plants, it is stated to grow there, but assuredly only as an outcast from a garden, — J.D. 2 & 8. Spergularia. Pers., and Spergula. Linn. See Caryophyllace^. 4. Scleranthus. Linn. See Scleranthac/E. 54 THE FLOKA. OP LIVEEPOOL. Ord. XXXI. CRASSULACEiE. The HouseUek Family. 1. COTYLEDON. Linn. PennyworL Becand. Pentagon, L. 1. C. Umbilicus. Huds. (Wall P., Navelwort.) June — August. H. Not uncommon, especially in Wirral, on rocks, walls, and occasionally bank sides. Plentiful near Wallasey Church Yard. In lanes about Poulton, and between Egremont and New Brighton. About Upper Tranmere, Oxton, . XLI. Dipsacace^.. Juss. The Teasel Family. 1. DIPSACUS. Linn. Teasel. Tetrand. Monogyn. L. 1. D. sYLVESTRis. L. (Wild T.) July. n. Abundant on the banks of the Mersey, between the Dingle and Garston. Also about Bidston, Upton, Morton, and other places in Wirral. Southport,— H. Aughton. 2. SCABIOSA. Linn. Scabious. Tetrand. Monogyn. L. 1. 8. succiSA. L. (Devirs-bit S.) July — October. 2^ Damp pastures and meadows, common. " The larm of Melitaa Artemis (the Greasy Fritillary), Fidonia atomaria (the Heath Moth), Se$ia fuciformit (the Broad-bordered Bee-Hawk Moth), and Euthe- tnonia rtutula (the Clouded Buff Moth), feed on this species." 3. KNAUTIA. Linn. Knautia. Tetrand. Monogyn. L. 1. K. ARVENSis. Coult, (Scabiosa. L.) (Field K.) June — August. 11 Crosby, — J.S. in Herb. Wirral, — H. C. Watson, in Hall's Flora. Frequent in fields to the north of Childwall Church, — ^W.H. Frequent in com fields near Neston, — J. Sk. Com fields near Aigburth ; Southport, &c. Ord. XLIL CoMPOSiTiE. Juss. The Composite Family. Tribe 1. CICHORACE^. Juss. CAicory or Lettuce IHbe. " Florets all ligulate and perfect. Style not swollen beneath its branches." (Gen. 1 — 12.) Syngenesia jEqualis. ]jinn. 1. TRAGOPOGON. Linn. Goafs Beard. 1. T. PRATENsis. L. (Yellow G.) June, July. ^ Common on tlie sand hills along the coast, from Hoylake to Southport. Also in meadows and pastures inland, as on the sandy parts of GiU moss, (W.H.), clay banks of the Mersey at Aigburth, (W.S.), pastures near Hale, ed on this plant" 73 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. 3. A. MARiTiMA. L. (Sea W.) August— September. U Muddy inlets of the Mersey, at Garston, and Wallasey and Bromboro' Pools, common. Aigburth. 23. EUPATORIUM. Linn. Hemp-agrimoni/. Syngenes, Mqualis. Linn. 1. E. CANNABiNUM. L. (Common H.) July — Sept. 4 In wet places and by the side of ditches, frequent Wirral and Lancashire. •' Tluiia orichalcea (the Scarce Burnished Brass), feeds on this plant." 24. GNAPHALIUM. Linn. Oidweed. Syngenes. Superjiua. Linn. 1. G. SYLVATICUM. L. (Highland C.) August. % Var. a. Hook. & Arnott. (G. rectum. E.B.) (Upright C.) Woods and pastui'es, not uncommon. Sandy lanes about Simmons-wood, frequent. Hills about West Kirby. Fre- quent in some fir woods at Bidston, — W.S. Frequent about the stone quarry at Knowsley, — J. Sk. Bromboro', — T. Sansora. Southport. 2. G. ULiGiNOSUM. L. (Marsh. C.) Aug., Sept. O Sandy and gravelly wet places, very common. 25. EILAGO. Linn. Filago. Syngenes. Superflua. Linn. 1. F. MINIMA. Pers. (Gnojohalium minimum, L.) (Least F,) June — August. 0 Dry heathy and gravelly places, frequent. New Brighton Stone Quarry, abundant. Allerton, J.S. in Herb. By the road side, Simmons-wood Moss, — W.H. Sandy Fields at Crosby, Formby and Southport. 2. F. Germanica. L. (Gnaphalium Germanicum. Sm.) (Common F.) June — August. 0 Dry gravelly and sandy pastures, not uncommon. Allerton, — J.S. in Herb. About Oxton Moor, Bidston Hill, &c. Fields at Formby and Ainsdale, — W.S. Southport 74 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. 26. PETASITES. Desf. Butter-Bur. Syngenes. Superflua. Linn.) 1. P. VULGARIS. Desf. (Common B.) Wet meadows and road sides, not uncommon. Plentiful by the Mersey side opposite Speke Hall,— W.S. PlentiAU about one hundred yards beyond Bidston, on the Hoylake road. Sub-tribe 2. RADiATiE. " Heads with a ligulate ray." Syngenes, &uperflua. Linn. (Gen. 27 — 37.) 27. TUSSILAGO. Linn. Ck>Ws-foot. 1. S. Farfara. L. (Colt's foot.) March, April— before the leaves. 14. Wet clayey soils, far too abundant 28. ERIGERON. Linn. Flea-bane. 1. E. ACRis. (Blue F.) July, August. ^ Plentiful on the sand hills at New Brighton, Crosby, Formby, and Southport. Occasionally also it is found inland. 29. ASTER. Linn. Star wort. Michaelmas Daisy. 1. A. Tripolium. L. (Sea S. or M.) Aug., Sept. U Shores of the Mersey, very common. Wallasey and Bromboro' Pools, Garston, Bootle, Formby, Southport, &c. 30. SOLIDAGO. Linn, Golden-rod, 1. S. ViRGAUREA. L. (Common G.) July — Sept. 4. Common in dry sandy, heathy, and shady situations. Very abundant on Tranmere Heath, and similar situations in Wirral. " CucuUia Asteris (the Starwort Moth) and Lycmna Virgaurtm (the Scarce Copper) feed upon this plant." 75 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. 31. SENECIO. Linn. Groundsel, Ragwort , Fleawort, 1. S. VULGARIS. L. (Common G.) All the year. 0 Waste ground, road sides, fields, &c., very common. " The larvoB of Agrotis exclamationU (the Heart and Dart), Hadcena conligua (the Beautiful Brocade), Arctia villica (the Cream-Spot Tiger), Triphcena pronuba (the Great Yellow Underwing), feed on this species." 2. S. SYLVATicus. L. (Mountain G.) July, Aug. 0 Dry old hedge-banks, heaths, and gravelly pastures, very common. 3. S. TENUiFOLius. Jacq. (Hoary R.) July, Aug. U Woods, hedges, and road sides, very common. 4. S. JacobjEA. L. (Common R.) July — September. U In old pastures, road sides, and especially on the sand hills, very abundant. " The larvae of Callimorpha Jacoboea (the Pink Underwing) and Phragmatobia fuliginosa (the Ruby Tiger) feed on it. The perfect moth of the former is found abundantly on the sand hills in May." 5. S. AQUATicus. Huds. (Marsh R.) July, August. H- Wet places, ditch sides, &c., very common. 6. S. PALUSTRis. D.C. (Cineraria palustris. L.) (Marsh F.) June, July. 4. Stated (but I believe erroneously) by H. Aughton, to grow near Southport. 32. PULICARIA. Gaertn, Flea-bane. 1. P. DYSENTERICA. Cass. (Inula dysenterlca. L.) (Com- mon F.) July — September. IX Moist places and ditch sides, common. 83. BELLIS. Linn. Daisy, 1. B. PERENNis. L. (Common D.) March — October. li Pastures, SA. L. (Common 8.) June, July. U Meadows and pastures, common. "The lanra of the Ino Statiee$ (the Green Forester) feeds on this pUnt." 8. R. AoETOSBLLA. (Sheep's S.) May — August. 2| Dry pastures and waste j^round, common. Very abundant about Bidston, Ox ton, (i'c. Ord. LXVI. ThymelacevE. Juss. The Daphne Family. 1. DAPHNE. Linn. Mezereon and Spurge-Laurel. Octand. Monogyn. L. 1. D. Laureola. L. (Common S.) January — April. ^ Banks of the Mersey near the Decoy, Hale, — J.H. An outcast from some garden. Ord. LXVII. Euphorbiace^. Juss. The Spurge Family. 1. MEBCURIALIS. Linn. Mer Moist woods and hedges, but inti'oduced. The following insects, amongst many others, may be found on the different species of Poplar: — " Smerinthus Populi (the Poplar Hawk), Cerura erminea, C. bifida, Leiocampa dicltevtdes (the Small Swallow Prominent), L. dictoea (the Swallow Prominent), P/tTOs/oma palpina {the Pale Prominent), Sphecia Apiformis (the Hornet), Cosiu* ligniperda (the Goat Moth)." Ord. LXXV. CupuLiFERiE. Rich. The Beech Family. 1. PAGUS. Linn. Beeck. Monoec. Tolyand. L. 1. P. SYLVATiCA. L, (Common B.) April, i? Woods, but introduced ; frequent about Liverpool and in Wirral. 2. CASTANEA. Tourn. Chestnut. Moncec. Poh/and,. L. 1. C. VESCA. L. (Spanish C.) May — July. ^ Woods, frequent, but not indigenous. 3. QUERCUS. Linn. Oak. Moncec. Folyand. L. 1, Q. RoBUR. L. (Common British 0.) April, May. T^ Var. a. Hook. & Arnott. Q. pedunculata. W. " Pruits 2 — 6 in a long-stalked spike." Var. b. Hook. & Arnott. Q. Eobur. W. Q. in- termedia. D. Don. " Pruits aggregated, or on a rather shortly stalked spike." The three species (or rather varieties) of authors — Q. Robur, Q, intermedia, and Q. sessiliflora — are common. Woods and hedges, frequent. " The Apatura Iris (the Purple Emperor), Thecla Quercus (the Purple Hair-Streak), Lasiocampa Roboris (the Oak Egger), L. Quercus, Peridea trepeda (the Great Pro- minent)," &c. 4. CORYLUS. Linn. Easel-Nut. Moncec. Tolyand. L. 1. C. AvELLANA, L. (Common H.) Pebruary, March. I7 Woods and hedges, frequent. On the Hasel are found the larvee of the following insects : — " Vanessa C. album (the White Comma), Stauropus Fagi (the Lobster), Notodonia dromedarius (the Rusty Prominent), Endromis versicolora (the Kentish Glory), Clisocampa Neuslra (the (the Lackey), and Demos Coryli (the Nut-tree Tussock)." 112 THE PLOBA OP UVEEPOOL. 5. CARPINUS. Linn. Homheam, M? Woods, but not very frequent. C " Barren flowers in catkins. Fruit in cones, or the seed surrounded by a fleshy involucre. Ovules and seeds not contained vnthin a closed pericarp. Style and Stigma 0." (Ord. Ixxvi.) Ord. LXXVI. Conifers. Juss. The Cone-hearing Family. SUB-ORD. I. ** Ovules inverted ; foramen inferior. Pollen-grains oval, with darkly granu- lar extremities and an intermediate transparent band ; outer coat not ruptured readily by moisture." Abietine^. Br. (Qen. 1.) 1. PENUS. Linu. Fir. Mmoec. Monadelph. L. J. P. SYLVBSTBJS. L. (Scotch Fir.) April, May. T^ Woods, hedges, &c., but probably introduced. SUB-ORD. II. " Ovules erect ; foramen superior. Pollen- grains globose; the outer coat easily ruptured by moisture, and cast off." Cupressine^. (Qen. 2.) 2. TAXUS. Linn. Ym. Dicec. Monadelph. L. 1. T. BACCATA. L. (Common Y.) March. Tp Near old mansions and in church yards, occasionally, but planted. na CLASS II. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS, OR ENDOGENOUS FLOWERING PLANTS. Sub-Class L PETALOIDE^. (Ord. Lxxvii— xci.) " Flowers never glumaceous, sometimes naked or nearly so, (as in Arace^, Pistiace^, Naiadace^, and JuNCAGiNACE^), generally with a more or less coloured perianth, the pieces of which are in a single or double whorl y Div. L " Ovary inferior, adnate with the tube of the perianth^ (Ord, lxxvii — Ixxxi.) Ord. LXXVIL HYDROCHARIDACEiE. Juss. The Frog-bit Family. 1. HYDROCHARIS. Linn. Frog-bit. Monmc. Folyand. L. 1. H. MoRSUS Ran^. L. (Common F.) July. ii Ditches and ponds, not uncommon. Plentiful on Bidston Marsh, and near Hoylake. Also at Crosby, Formby, and Southport. 114 THB FLOEA OF LIVBEPOOL. 2. STRATIOTES. Linn. Water-Soldier. Dioec. Poly and, L. 1. S. ALOiDES. L. (Water Soldier.) July. U Formerly in a pond between Booile and Walton. Not un- common in the higher parts of Wirral. In a pond near Sutton-Incline, — J. Harrison. Okd. LXXVIII. Orchidace^. The Orchis Family. Gynandria Monand. Linn. 1. EPIPACTIS. Br. Helleborine. 1. E. LATiPOLiA. Sw. (Broad-leaved H.) July, August. U Eastham woods, frequent, — W.S. Croxteth woods, about a quarter of a mile from the Hall, abundant, — W.H. ; Hale Dam wood, and similar situations. Also not rare in moist grassy spots on the sand hills at Crosby, Formby, and Southport. 2. E. PALusTEis. Sw. (Marsh H.) July. U Moist and marshy places among the sand hills at Crosby, Formby, and Southport, and at New Brighton, frequent. 2. LISTERA. Br. Bird^a Nest or Twayblade. J . L. OVATA. Br. (Ophrys ovata. L. & Sm.) (Common T.) June. 1^ Woods and moist places, not unfrequent. Moist grassy places amongst the sand hills, from Hoylake to Southport. Also inland ; Parr,— J. Harrison ; Sutton,— F. P. Marrat ; Croxteth woods,— W. H. ; Bebbington, Hale, &c. 2. L. Nidus-Avis. Hook. (Neoitia. L.) (Common Bird's Nest.) May, June. V, Hale woods ? (1850),— J. Harrison. This requires con- firmation. 3. NEOTTLA. Jacq. Lady's Tresses. 1. N. spuLALis. Rich. (Fragrant L.) Aug., Sept. n Among the sand hills at New Brighton, abundant. Sand hUls between Bidston and New Brighton,— H. C. Watson, in Halts Flora. Southport,— H. Aughton, and Mr. Glazebrook. Also in pastures at Hale, Allerton, &c. 115 THE FLORA. OP LIVERPOOL. 4. ORCHIS. Linn. OrcAis. 1. O. MoRio. L. (Green-winged Meadow 0.) May, June. If In meadows and pastures, frequent. 2. 0. MAscuLA. L. (Early purple O.) April — June. U In woods and pastures, frequent. 3. O. LATiFOLiA. L. (Marsh 0.) June, July. U Moist meadows, not uncommon. New Brighton, Wallasey, Morton, Crosby, Formby, Southport, &c. Abundant on the borders of Simmons-wood Moss, — W.H. 4. 0. MACULATA. L. (Spotted palmate 0.) June, July. U In meadows and pastures, frequent. 5. 0. PYRAMiDALis. L. (Pyramidal 0.) June — August. U Among the sand hills beyond New Brighton, — Wm. Pitman. Sand hills at Hoylake, scarce, — J. Shillitoe. 5. GYMNADENIA. Br. Gi/mnadenia, 1. G. CONOPSEA. Br. (Orchis L. & E.B.) (Fragrant G.) June — August. 2; Southport, — H. Aughton. 6. HABENARIA. Br. Habenaria. Butterfly -Orchis, 1. H. viRiDis. Br. (Satyriumviride, L. & E.B.) (Green H.) June — August. % Formby sand hills, rare, — W.S. On Grange Hill, in a field where a stone column is erected, rare, — W.S. 2. H. BiFOLiA. Br. (Orchis bifolia. L.) (Lesser B.) June — August. U Meadows and moist places, not uncommon. Eastham, Bromboro', Bebbington, Sutton, &c. Also near Ince, Formby, Southport, &c. Common en a reclaimed part of Simmons-wood Moss, — W.H. 116 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. Ord. LXXIX. Iridace^. Juss. The Lis Family, 1. lEIS. Linn. Iris or Flower de Luce, Triand. Monogyn, L. 1. I. PsEUD-ACOEUS. L. (Ycllow Water I. or Corn-flag.) May — August. 2^ In watery places, frequent. The larva of Apamea fibrosa (the Crescent), feeds on this plant Ord. LXXX. Amaryllidace^. Br. The Amaryllis Family, Hexand. Monogyn. Linn. 1. NAKCISSUS. Linn. Narcissus, Daffodil, 1. N. Pseudo-Narctssus. L. (Common D.) March, April. 2^ Near Bank Hall, Bootle, — R. Tudor. Hale wood, plentifuL Hedges near Tranmere, rare, — T. Sansom. Hedge banks, Fazakerley, plentiful, — W.H. Gill Moss, rare, — ^W.S. The larva of Medoron clavipea feeds on the hulbs of this plant. 2. GALANTHUS. Linn. Snow-drop. 1. G. NIVALIS. L. (Common S.) February, March. U In a large wood by the side of the road, about a quarter of a mile west of Roby village, abundant " If introduced by man, it evidently must have been a very considerable time ago," — W.H. Ord. LXXXL Dioscoreace^. Br. The Tarn Family. 1. TAMUS. Linn. Black Bryony, Dicec. Hexand. L. 1. T. COMMUNIS. L. (Common B.) May — ^August. 4 Hedges and shady places, very frequent about Liverpool, and in Wirral. 117 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. Div. II. " Ovary superior^ free^ not adnate with the tube of the perianth,^* (Ord. Ixxxii — ^xci.) Ord. LXXXII. TRiLLiACEiE. De Cand. The Trillium Family, 1. PARIS. Linn. Herb-Paris, Octand. Tetragyn, L. 1. P. QUADRiFOLiA. L. (Common H.) May, June. 4 Woods near Billinge, — J. Harrison. Ord. LXXXIII. Liliace^. Juss. The Lily Family, Hexand. Monogyn. Linn. Tribe 1. ASPARAGE^E. " Roots never bulbous. Fruit fleshy .'' (Gen. \ 2.) 1. ASPARAGUS. Linn. Asparagus, L A. OFFICINALIS. L. (Common A.) August. 2^ Sand hills near Bootle Land Mark, scarce, and probably introduced. ^ 2. CONYALLARIA. L. Lily of the Valley, 1. C. MAJALis. L. (Sweet-scented L.) May. % Near Bidston Stone Quarry, where it is most probably indigenous. Old woods at Knowsley, abundant (J.S.), but probably introduced. Tribe 2. SCILLE^. " Roots bulbous. Emit dry, capsular." (Gen, 3, 4.) 3. AGRAPHIS. Link. Blue Bell, 1. A. NUTANS. Link. (Scilla. E.B. Hyacinthus non- scriptus, L.) (Wild Hyacinth or Blue Bell.) March — June. 11 In woods and hedge banks, very common. 118 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL, 4. ALLIUM. Linn. Onion. Leek, Oarlic. 1. A. URSiNUM. L. (Broad leaved G.) June. 2| Moist woods and hedge banks. West Derby, Town Row, — R. Tudor. Club Moor, in a plantation, plentiful, — W.S. Croxteth woods, near the Hall, and Childwall. 2. A. ScoRODOPRASUM. L. (A. arenarium. L.) (Sand G.) July, n Banks of the Mersey, atSpeke (July, 1850),— J. Harrison. 3. A. viNEALE. L. (Crow G.) June. 2^ Neai* Speke, banks of the river, — J. Harrison. Fresh specimens of the two last species were brought to me in August, 1850, by J. H., but I know of no one else who has seen them growing in this locality. 5. ORNITHOGALUM. ]jinn. Star of Bethlehem. 1. O. UMBELLATUM. L. (Common S.) June, July. U Near Southport, — H. Aughton, and Mr. Glazebrook. Doubtless introduced. Gagea lutea, Ker., is mentioned in Mr. Glazebrook's " Guide to Southport," as growing there, but doubtless it was an outcast from some garden, and is not now found there. Ord. LXXXIV. Juncace^. Juss. The Rush Family. Hexand. Monogyn. Linn. 1. JUNCUS. Linn. Ru^h, 1. J. KFPusus. L. (Soft R.) July. V, In ditches and watery places, very common. 2. J, CONGLOMERATUS. L. (Commou R.) July. 2^ In ditches and watery places, very common. 3. J. GLAUCUs. Ehrh. (Hard R.) July. Tp In watery places and road sides, very frequent. 4. J. MARiTiMus. Sm. (Lesser sharp Sea R.) July, Aug. 4 Wallasey Pool, very abundant. Also near the Dee, at West Kirby, and Hoylake. Southport,— H. Aughton. 119 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. 5. J. ACUTIFLORUS. Ehrh. (Sharp-flowered jointed R.) June — August. ^ In moist pastures, woods, &c., frequent. 6. J. LAMPOCARPUS. Ehrh. (Shining-fruited jointed R.) July, August. U Ditches and watery places, frequent. 7. J. OBTTJSiFLORus. Ehrh. (Blunt-flowered jointed E.) Wet pastures and roadsides, frequent. 8. J. DLTGINOSUS. Sibth. fl. hulhoms. Linn. /. mh- vertidllatus. Wulf.) In wet places and ditches, frequent. The var. (J. suhverticillatus), which has its stem spreading or procumbent, is abundant on Bidston Marsh, and near Crosby and Formby, &c. 9. J. coMPRESsus. Jacq. (Round-fruited R.) June — Aug. U Var. a. Hook. & Arnott, J. bulbosus. E.B. "Panicle usually shorter than the bractea, perianth shorter than the roundish-ovate, shortly mucronate capsule." "Wet marshy places, frequent. Var. b. Hook & Arnott. J. C(en©sus. Bich. " Panicle usually longer than the bractea, peri- anth as long as the oval-oblong, strongly mu- cronate capsule." Muddy places along the north shore, near Bootle Land Marks, Waterloo, the mouth of the Alt, Southport, (fee. Abundant at Wallasey Pool, and the muddy shores of the Mersey and Dee. 10. J. BUFONius. L. (Toad R.) August. O In moist situations, and where water has stood during the winter, very common. 11. J. SQUARROsus. L. (Heath R.) June, July. 14. Heathy and moory ground, frequent. Seaforth Common, Waterloo, Formby, Southport, Bidston Heath, &c. 2. LUZULA. De Cand. Wood-rush. 1. L. SYLVATICA. Bich. (Jiincus s^haticii^. Huds. & E.B.) (Great hairy W.) May, June, if In woods and shady places, frequent. 120 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. 2. L. PILOSA. Willd. fJuncus piloaus. L.) March — May. 2^ In woods and shady places, frequent. The larra of Mythimna Turca (. E. LiMOsuM. L. (Smooth, naked H.) June, July. U Marshy, watery places and ditches, abundant. 5. E. PALTJSTRE. L. (Marsh H.) June, July. U Common in marshy, wet places. Crosby, Formby, South- port, Wirral, &c. Var. c. polystachion. Hook. Branches terminating in catkins. Crosby Marsh, — J.S., in Herb. And at Formby, — T. Sansom. Var. E. nudum. Newman. Common on both sides of the Mersey, but more especially about Crosby, — T. Sansom. 6. E. HYEMALE. L. (Bough H.) July, August. U Frequent on the river Dee shore near Gayton. Parkgate and Thurstaston. 7. E. VARIEGATUM. Sclilcich. (Variegated rough H.) June, July, u Plentiful on the sand hills at New Brighton, Leasowe, Waterloo, and Crosby. 146 THE FLORA OF LIVBUFOOL. Ord. C. Musci. The Moss Family. Sect. I. ACROCARPI. "Seta (or fruitstalk) terminal. (Dicranum alone offers a few exceptions.)" Hook. Sub-Sect. I. Astomi. " Lid adhering to the mouth of the capsule which is destitute of peristome." (Gen. 1 .) 1. PHASCUM. Linn. Earth Moss. 1. P. ALTERNiFOLiUM. Dicks. (Altemate-leaved E.) January, February. " Near Liverpool, — Rev. Mr. Taylor." Hook, in Br. Flora. 2. P. CBisFUM. Hedw. (Curly-leaved E.) Spring. Near the old abbey at Windle,— W.S. 8. P. suBULATUM. Linn. (Awl-leaved E.) Spring. Abundant on Clay banks below Egremont, — ^W.S. Abun- dant on the railway banks at Roby, — ^W.H. 4, P. Muwouif. Schreb. (Common Dwarf E.) Spring. Cornfields about Maghull and Kirby, frequent, — W.S. 5. P. cuspiDATUM. Schreb. (Cuspidate E.) Spring. Not unfrequent on moist hedge banks. Sub-Sect. II. Gymnostomi. "Lid deciduous. Mouth of the capsule naked.*' Hook. (Gen. 2 — 3.) 2. SPHAGNUM. Bog-Moss. 1. S. OBTusiFOLiUM. Ehrh. (Blunt-leaved B.) Summer. Var. a. Vulgaris. Hook. " Stem loosely tufted, seven or eight inches long, leaves closely imbricated." Extremely abundant in bogs and moist heaths. Vab. b. Minus. Hook. " Stems densely tufted, two or three inches long, leaves closely im- bricated." Abundant on Rainford Moss, — W.S. Abundant on the west vide of Simmons-wood Moss, — W.H. 147 TtTB FLOKA OF LIVERPOOL. Var. c. Pluitans. Hook. " Stems much length- ened out, two or three feet long, slender, leaves scattered remote." Swampy places on Bidston Hill, — W.S. 2. S. SQUARROSUM. Web. & Mohr. (Spreading-leaved B.) Summer. Boggy places. Not unfrequent either in Wirral or Lan- cashire. Abundant on Simmons-wood and Kainford Mosses,— W.H. and W.S. 3. S. ACUTiFOLiUM. Ehrh. (Slender B.) Summer. Boggy places, frequent. Simmons-wood Moss, plentiful, — V^.H. . 4. S. cusPiDATUM. Ehrh. (Long-leaved floating B.) Summer. In ditches on Simmons-wood and Kainford Mosses, very abundant. " Except in dry seasons, is wholly immersed in water,"— W.H. & W. S. Crosby,— R. Tudor. 3. GYMNOSTOMUM. Hedw. Beardless Moss. 1. G. ovATUM. Hedw. (Hairy-leaved B.) Spring. Railway bank between Broad Green and Roby, plentiful, —W.H. Wet places on Bidston Hill,— W.S. 2. G. TRUNCATULUM. Hoffm. (Little blunt-fruited B.) Yar. a. Hook. G. truncatulum. Hoffm., Turner, and E.B. " Capsule turbinate.'' Common on banks and in moist places. Var. b. Hook. G. intermedium. Turn. & E.B. " Capsule ovate or oblong." Common in Cheshire, — W.S. 3. G. FASCicuLARE. Hcdw. (Bluut pear-shaped B.) Spring. Not unfrequent on moist banks. On the tops of pots in green-houses, — W.S. 4. G. PYRIFORME. Hedw. (Sharp pear-shaped B.) Spring. Sandy lanes near Crosby. Brick fields north of Liverpool, — W.S. Fazakerley. Wallasey, — T. Sansom. 148 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. Sub-Sect. III. Peristomi. " Lid deciduous ; mouth of the capsule furnished with a peristome." Div. I. Aploperistomi. " Peristome single." (Gen, 4—13.) 4. TETRAPHIS. Hedw. Tetraphis. 1. T. pellucida. Hedw. (Pellucid T.) Spring. Flaybrick Hill,— T. Sansom. 5. SPLACHNUM. Linn. fil. Splachnum. 1. S. minoides. Linn. fil. (Brown tapering S.) Summer. On Rainford Moss, rare, — W.S. 6. ENCALYPTA. Hedw. Extinguisher-Moss, 1. E. streptocarpa. Hedw. (Spiral-fruited E.) Not unfrequent on the sand hills at New Brighton, in a barren state, — W.S. 7. WEISSIA. Hedw. Weissia. 1. W. cirrata. Hedw. (Grimmia Bicksoni. E.B.) (Curi- leaved W.) Spring. On rocks on Bidston Hill, frequent. On walls about West Derby, frequent,— W.S. 2. W. curvirostra. HookMTayL (Grimmia recurvirostra. E.B.) (Curve-beaked W.) Winter. t)n the sand hills at Crosby and New Brighton, frequent. On walls about West Derby, frequent, — W.S. On walls about Gateacre, not unfrequent, — W.H. 8. W. crispula. Hedw. (Grimmia ciispula^ Turn. & E.B.) (Curied W.) Spring. On an old stone bank on the road to Gateacre, a little beyond Childwall church, not unfrequent, — W.H. Sefton. Near New Ferry. Tranmere. Between AUerton and Garston, — T. Sansom. 4. W. controversa. Hedw. (Grimmia controversa. Turn, and E.B.) (Green-cushioned W.) Spring. On shady banks, very frequent. 149 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. 8. GBJMMIA. Ehrh. Grimmia. 1. G. APOCARPA. Hedw. (Sessile G.) Spring. On a wall near Aitow, rare, — W.S. 2. G. PULVINATA. Sm. (Bryum pulvinatvm. L.) (Grey- cushioned G.) Spring. On the tops of old stone walls and outhouses, frequent. 9. DIDYMODON. Hedw. IMymodon. 1. D. PURPUREUS. Hook. & Tay. (Bicranum purpureum. Hedw., Turn,, and E.B.) (Purple Didymodon.) Spring. On moist banks and rocks, very frequent. 2. D. FLEXiCAULis. (Wavy-stemmed D.) Spring. Sand hills at Crosby and New Brighton, — ^W.S. 3. D. CAPiLLACEUS. Schrad. (Trichostomum cap. E.B.) (Fine-leaved D.) Spring. On Rainford Moss,— W.S. 10. TRICHOSTOMUM. Hedw. Frmge-Moss, 1. T. LANUGiNosuM. Hedw. (Wooly E.) Jan. — Dec. In some swampy ground near Thurstaston, — W.S. 2. T. HETEROSTiCHUM. Hedw. (Serrated Hoary E.) Spring. On a wall near West Derby village, — W.S. 3. T. FASCicuLARE. Sclirad. (Beardless hoary E.) Spring. Wet rocky places on Bidston Hill, plentiful, W.H. On walls about West Derby, — ^W.S. Between Allerton and Garston, — T. Sansom. 4. T. POLYPHYLLUM. Schwacgr. (Bicranum poly phyllum, E.B.) (Many-leaved E.) Spring. On walls at Bidston, and near the Preston-road Station beyond Walton, — W.S. Between Allerton and Garston, T. Sansom. 5. T. CANESCENS. Hedw. (Hoary E.) Winter and Spring. Gateacre, — T. Sansom. Var. b. Hook. T. ericoides. Sclirad. & E.B. Bidston Hill, — W.S. Between Allerton and Garston, — T. Sansom. 160 THE FLORA OF LIVBllPOOL. 11. DICRANUM. Hedw. ForJk-Moss, A, ^^ Leaves hifanous'' (Fissidens. Hedw.) 1. D. BRY0IDE8. Sw. (LesscF pinnated-leaved F.) Winter. Var. a. Hook. Fissidens bryoides. Hedw. " Stem short simple, capsule erect." Veiy common in shaded wet banks. Var. b. Hook. Fissidens osmundioides. Hedw. fP. asplenioides. Schwaeg.) '' Stem elongated, somewhat branched, capsule erect." Var. c. Hook. F. tamarindipolius. Brid. " Stem short simple, capsule inclined." About Gillbrook,— W.S. 2. D. ADIANTOIDES. Sw. (Fissideus adiantoides. Hedw.) (Adiantum-like F.) Spring. Frequent on the sand hills at New Brighton. Also in a swampy place near Thurstaston ; fruit rare, — ^W.S. 3. D. TAXiFOUUM. Sw. (Fissidens tcucifolitis. Hedw.) (Yew-leaved F.) Winter. Common in moist woods on the Cheshire side of the Mersey, — W.S. ; and not uncommon on the Lancashire side, in similar situations, — W.H. Sefton. Bromboro', — T. Sansom. B, " Leaves inserted on all sides of the Stem.^^ 4. D. GLAUCUM. Hedw. (White F.) Spring. Common on wet heaths and in woods. Plentiful on Bid ston and Heswall hills, — W.S. Abundant on Simmons- wood Moss. About Stourton, — T. Sansom. Perhaps never found in fruit about Liverpool, — W.H. 5. D. CERVicuLATUM. Hcdw. (Red-uccked F.) Spring. Railway-bank beyond Broad-Green, rare, — ^w!h. 6. D. PLEXuosuM. Hedw. (Zig-zag F.) Winter. On Simmons-wood Moss, frequent, — W.H. and W.S. In a fir wood at Bidston, — W.S. 161 THE PLOUA OP LIVERPOOL. Var. b. NiGRO-viRiDE. Hook. (Sphagnum Alpin- um. L.) " Stems elongated blackish-green, leaves often piliferous." On Simmons-wood Moss, — Yf.S. 7. D. UNDULATUM. Ehrh. (Wave-leaved P.) Autumn. Woods near Simmons-wood Moss, — W.H. 8. B. scoPARiuM. Hedw. (Broom F.) Autumn. On bogs and heaths, and the sand hills, frequent. 9. D. HETEROMALLUM. Hedw. (Silkj-leaved F.) Winter. On shady dry banks and rocky places, frequent. 10. D. VARiUM. Hedw. (Variable F.) Winter. Var. a. ViRiDE, Hook. '' Leaves generally point- ing in all directions lanceolate green, capsules subcernuous." On clayey and moist banks, very frequent. Var. b. Eufescens. Hook. fD. rufescens. Turn, and E.B.) " Leaves subsecund lanceolato- subulate reddish, capsules erect." Moist sandy banks, not unfrequent, — ^W.H. 12. TORTULA. Hedw. Screw-Moss. 1. T. ENERVis. Hook. & Grev. (T, rigida. E.B.) (Nerve- less rigid S.) Winter. Clay banks, frequent, — W.H. 2. T. MURALis. Hedw. (Wall S.) Spring. On rocks, old walls, &c., very frequent. 3. T. RURALis. Ehrh. (Great hairy S.) Spring. On the sand hills on the shores of the Mersey, frequent ; and on old walls inland, occasionally. 4. T. SUBULATA. Hedw. (Awl-shaped S.) Winter. On shady banks, not unfrequent. On the sand hills on the shores of the Mersey, frequent. 5. T. UNGUicuLATA. Hook. & Tay. (Bird's-claw S.) Winter. Common in brick fields, — W.S. On the Railway bank beyond Broad Green, plentiful, — W.H. 152 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. Var. Humilis. Hook. (T. mucronulata. E.B.) Frequent in the same situations as the last. 6. T. TORTUOSA. Hedw. (Prizzled Mountain S.) Summer. Sand hills near New Brighton, — W.S. 7. T. PALLAX. Sw. (Fallacious S.) Summer. " A highly variable plant." Clay banks and gravelly places, frequent 13. POLYTRICHUM. Linn. Hair-Moss. 1. P. UNDULATUM. Hcdw. (Wave-lcaved H.) Winter. Moist shady places, frequent. 2. P. PiLiFERUM. Schreb. (Brittle-pointed H.) Spring. Upton, Cheshire, — T. Sansora. 3. P. JTJNiPERiKUM. Willd. (Juniper-leaved H.) Winter. Heaths and moors, frequent in Wirral and Lancashire. On Simmons-wood Moss, abimdant, — W.S. Flay brick Hill. Knowsley. Rainford Moss, — T. Sansom. 4. P. COMMUNE. L. (Common H.) Summer. Boggy and heathy situations, very frequent. 5. P. GRACiLE. Menz. & E.B. Muller, vol. 1., p. 225. (P. commune var. attenuatum. Hook.) Rainford and Wallasey Mosses, — T. Sansom. 6. P. URNIGERUM. Menz. (Urn-bearing H.) Summer. Quarry at Knowsley, — ^W.H. Storeton, — T. Sansom. 7. P. ALOLDES. Hedw. (Aloe-like H.) Winter. Heathy and boggy places, not unfrequent. 8. P. NANUM. Hedw. (Dwarf round-headed H.) Winter. On bogs and heaths, not unfrequent On some gravel banks near Wavertree church on thfe Woolton road, — W.H. 163 THE FLORA OP LIVERPOOL. Div. II. DipiiOPERiSTOMi. " Peristome double/' A. '' Internal peristome composed of distinct teeth or cilia.'* 14. FUN ARIA. Schreb. Cord Moss. 1. F. HYGROMETRICA. Hedw. (Hygrometric C.) Spring. Old walls, hedge banks, heaths, &c., very frequent. JB. *^ Inner peristoma formed of a membrane more or less divided into lacinia or segments" 15. BRYUM. Linn. Thread-Moss. 1. B. ANDROGYNUM. Hcdw. (Mnium andr. Linn. & E.B.) (Narrow-leaved T.) Spring. Sandy hedge-bank near Bootle village, rare, — W.S. %. B. PALUSTRE. Sw. (Marsh T.) Summer. Bogs, frequent both in Wiiral and Lancashire, On Bid- ston and Formby Marshes, and on Simmons-wood Moss, abundant,— W.H. 8. B. DEALBATUM. Dicks. (Pale-leaved T.) Summer. On a damp rock near Bidston Hall, — W.S. 4. B. CARNEUM. L. (Soft-leaved T.) Spring, On the south bank of the railway between Broad Green and Eoby, plentiful, — W.H. Brickfields north of Liver- peol,— W.S. 5. B. ARGENTEUM. L. (Silverj T.) Spring. Very abundant on poor uncultivated land, and on stone walla. 6. B. PALLENS. Sw. (Pale T.) Spring. On the wall supporting the north side of the railway, about half-way between Broad Green and Koby, — ^W.H. 7. B. PYRiFORME. Sw. (Pear-fruited T.) Spring. Not uncommon on pots in Greenhouses, — W.S. 8. B. CAPiLLARE. L. (B, stellare. E.B.) (Matted T.) Spring. Common on rocks, walls and gravelly places. 154 THE FLORA OP LIVEEPOOL. 9. B. CyBSFiTiTiuM. L. (Tufted T.) Spring. On rocks, walls and gravelly places, very frequent. Vae. Minus. Hook. B. bicolok. Turn. & E.B. (Small tufted T.) Spring. In similar situations to the last, but not so frequent. 10. B. NOTANs. Schr. (Nodding T.) Spring. Rainford Moss, — W.S. Plentiful on the south side of Simmons-wood Moss whence turf has been cut, — W.H. 11. B. VENTRicosuM. Dicks. (Swelling-fruited T.) Spring. Abundant in Bebbington woods and on Bidston Marth, — W.S. Plentiful in woods in Croxteth Park,— W.H. 12. B. ROSEUM. Schreb. (Rose-like T.) Autumn. On the sand hills at New Brighton and Bootle, frequent, —W.S. 13. B. LiQULATUM. Schr. (Strap-leaved T.) Spring. In moist shady woods and banks, frequent. 14. B. PUNCTATUM. Schreb. (Dotted-leaved T.) Spring. Bebbington woods, rare, — W.S. In the old quarry at Fir Grove, West Derby, rai-e, — W.H. 15. B. AFFiNE, Brid. (Creeping T.) Spring. Plentiful on the sand hills at New Brighton, — W.S. Plentiful amongst other moss and grass on the top of a stone-built bank by the side of a lane leading to Gateacre from Childwall church, from one hundred to three hun- dred yards from the latter place. Plentiful in the old quarry at Fir Grove, West Derby, — W.H. 16. B. HOENUM. Schreb. (Swan's-ueck Thyme T.) Spring. Woods and old trees, frequent 17. B. JULACEUM. Schr. (Slender- branched T.) Winter. Bidston Hill,— W.S. 16. BAETRAMIA. Hedw. Apple Moss. 1 . B. POMiFORMis. Hedw. (Common A.) Spring. Dry banks near Aintree race-course, — R. Tudor and T. Sansom. Lane near Broad Green, — T. Sansom. Rocky walls about one hundred and fifty yards from Childwall on the road to Gateacre, — W.H. 2. B. ITHYPHYLLA. Brid. (Straight-leaved A.) Spring. On a bank in a i-ocky lane near Lark Hill, West Derby, plentiful,— W.S. 3. B. PONTANA. Sw. (Fountain A.) Summer. Frequent on Bidston Marsh,— T. Sanwoin and W.S. Simmons-wood Moss, — W.S.. 155 THE FLOKA OF LIVERPOOL. Sect. TI. PLEUROCARPI. '' Seta or fruit-stalk lateral." Div. DiPLOPERiSTOMi. " Peristome double.'* " Inner peristome composed of cilia united below into a membrane, ar connected by transverse bars.^'' Hooker. 17. PONTINALIS. Linn. Water-Moss. 1. F. ANTiPYRETiCA. L. (Greater W.) Summer. Streams, ditches, &c., frequent, in Wirral and Lancashire. Fazakerley,— W, H. Bebbington. Club Moor,— T. San- som. Canal at Bo.otle, &c. 18. HOOKERIA. Sm. Hookena. 1. H. LUCENS. Sm. (Shining H.) Spring. Woods about Bebbington, plentiful, — W.S. 19. LESKEA, Ehrh. Leskea, 1. L. DENDROIDES. Hedw. (Eypnum dendroides, L.) (Tree- like Feather-Moss or L.) Autumn. On the sand hills and sandy hedge-banks on both sides of the Mersey, frequent. 20. HYPNUM. Linn. Featker-Moss. 1 . H. coMPLANATUM. L. (Flat F.) Spring. By the side of a lane near Storeton, abundant, — W.S. Eastham wood, — T. Sansom. 2. H. EiPARiUM. L. (Short-beaked Water F.) Summer. Amongst the aquatic plants in the pond in the Botanic Garden, abundant, — W.H. 3. H. UNDULATUM. L. (Waved F.) Spring. By the side of a sandy lane near Simmons-wood Moss, abundant, — ^W.S. In a large boggy wood by the side of the Liverpool road, about half a mile on this side of Gateacre, abundant, — W.H. Eastham wood, — T. Sansom. 4. H. DENTICT7LATUM. L. (Fem-Hke F.) Spring. • Moist shady places, frequent. 166 THE FLOKA OF LIVEEPOOL. Vak. obtusifolium. Hook. "Leaves ovate more or less obtuse, slightly concave." By the side of a rocky lane near Lark Hill, West Derby, W.S. Plentiful on a hedge bank near the " New Hut," Hale,— W.H. 5. H. MEDIUM. Dicks. (Long-headed F.) Spring. On trees in woods about Bebbington, rare, — W.S. 6. H. SERPENS. L. & E.B. (H. subtile. E.B.) (White- veiled P.) Spring. On a damp rock by the road side in Storeton village, abundant, — W.S. Abundant on some willows in an osiery near the south side of Croxteth Park, — ^W.H. 7. H. POPULEUM. Hedw. (H. imjplexum, Sw. & E.B.) (Matted E.) Spring. On walls, stones, and the trunks of trees, very frequent 8. H. MURALE. Hedw. (Wall E.) Autumn. Common on walls and rocky places. 9. H. PURUM. L. (Neat Meadow E.) Winter. In woods and damp shady places, frequent. 10. H. ScHREBERT. WiUd. (Schrcber's E.) Autumn. On the sand hills at Crosby, not unfrequent, — W.H. and W.S. 11. H. FLUITANS. L. (Floating E.) Summer. Rainford Moss. Plentiful in wet places amongst the sand hills at Crosby,— W.S. 12. H. PLUMOSUM. L. (Rusty E.) Autumn. On moist rocks and walls, occasionally. 13. H. LUTESCENs. Huds. (Yellow E.) Spring. On the sand hills at New Brighton and Crosby, frequent, —W.S. 14. H. ALBICANS. Neck. (Whitish E.) Winter. On New Brighton, Crosby, and Formby sand hills, frequent. 15. H. ALOPECURUM. L. (Fox -tail E.) Spring. By the side of a well at Lower Bebbington. By the side of a lane at Storeton, plentiful, — W.S. 16. H. cuRVATUM. Sw. (Curved E.) Spring. On a bank by the side of the lane between New Brighton and Leasowe,— W.S. Eastham. Litherland, — T.Sansom. 157 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. 17. H. MYosuROiDES. L. (Mousc-tail F.) Autumn. Some trees in Bebbington woods, abundant, — W.S. Abun- dant on the trunks of some large trees in the *' Little Wood," Croxteth Park,--W.H. 18. H. SPLENDENS, Hcdw. (Glittering E.) Spring. On the sand hills at New Brighton and Crosby, abundant. 19. H. PROLIPERUM. L. &E.B. (H.recognitum. Hedw. &E.B.) In woods and shady places where the soil is inclined to be l>oggy» very frequent. It is rarely found bearing fruit. 20. H. PRJSLONGUM. L. (Long F,) Winter. Wet shady places, growing on banks on the trunks of trees, frequent. 21. H. RUTABULUM. L. (Rough-stalked F.) Winter. On walls, banks, and the trunks of trees, very frequent. 22. H. VELUTiNiTM. L. (Velvet F.) Spring. On the north bank of the Kailway, a little beyond Broad Green, plentiful, — W.H. About Litherland, frequent, — R. Tudor. 23. H. RUsciPOLiUM. Neck. (Long-beaked Water F.) Spring. In streams in Bebbington woods, abundant, — W.S. 24. H. coNFERTUM. Dicks & E.B. (H. serrulatum. Hedw. and E.B.) (Clustered F.) Spring. Bank of Railway near Roby, — ^W.H. 25. H. MEGAPOLiTANUM. Wilsou. (MegapoUtan F.) Spring. Crosby sand hills, near the Warren House, — W.H. 26. H. cuspiDATUM. L. (Pointed F.) Spring. Wet grassy places, frequent. 27. H. STELLATUM. Schreb. (Yellow starry F.) Spring. Var. minus. Hook. (H. squarrulomm. E.B.) On Rainford Moss,— W.S. 28. H. cordipolium. Hedw. (Heart-leaved F.) Spring. On Formby Marsh, plentiful. In a pit by the side of the road between Great Crosby and Sefton, — W.S. 29. H. TRiQUETRUM. L. (Three-comered F.) Winter. In woods inland, and on the sand hills on the shores of the Mei-sey, frequent. 30. H. SQUARROSUM. L. (Brooping-leaved F.) Winter. In woods, on heaths and uncultivated ground, frequent. 158 THE FLOIIA OK LIVERPOOL. 31. H. piLiciNUM. L. (Fern-leaved F.) Spring. In a stream of water at the bottom of the Railway cutting, Olive Mount, rare, — W.H. 32. H. Kneifpianum. Schiinp. (Kneiff's F.) Summer. In a wet part of the old quarry at Fir Grove, West Derbv, —W.H. 33. H. COMMUTATUM. Hcdw. (Curled Fern F.) Spring. On Bidston Marsh, and on a clny hank near the Railway at Bebbington, plentiful, — W.S. 34. H. CUPRESSIPORMB. L. ((Dypress-leaved F.) Winter. Var. a. VuLGARE. Hook. H. nigro-viridb. Dicks and E.B. " Stem broad subcylindrical, leaves falcato-secund.'' Woods and shady places, and on Crosby sand hills, frequent. VaB. b. COMPRESSUM. Hook. H. COMPRESSUM. L. Woods, not unfrequent. 35. H. MOLLUSCUM. Hedw. (Plumy-crested F.) Winter. On a clay bank near Bromboro' Pool, abundant, — W.S. Sub-Class II. THALLOGEN^, OR CELLULARES. Ord. CI. Charace^. Rich. The Chara Family. 1. CHARA. Vaill. Chara. Monand. Monogyn. L. 1. C. TRANSLUCENS. Pcrs. (Nitella tramlucens. Agard.) (Translucent C.) June, July. 0 In some large ponds on the way to Allerton, — S.S.inHerb. In pits on Mr. Clegg's grounds at Allerton, — Mr. H. Shepherd, in Halls Flora. 2. C. FLBXiLis. L. f Nitella flexilis. Agard.) (Flaccid C.) April — August. 0 In ponds in Wirral, and near Bootle and Crosby, not un- firequent. 8. C. VULGARIS. L. (Common C.) July. 0 In ponds and wet places, frequent. Very abundant in wet places on Crosby sand hills. 159 THE FLORA OF LIVERPOOL. 4. C. Hedgwigii. Ag. (Hedgwigian C.) June. 0 In ponds in Wirral, not unfreqiient. 5. C. HisPiDA. L. (Hispid C.) July, August. 0 Var. a. Major. Hook. " Larger, stems spinulose." Mock-beggar (Leasowe), J.S. in Herb. Fazakerley, — E. Tudor. Var. b. Gracilis. Hook. " Smaller, spinules obsolete." Southport, — Mr. W. Wilson, in Hooker's Eng. Flora. Occasionally in Wirral. ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA. P*sre. .M. Preface. — line 12 from top, and at page 16 last line, for " Wra. Skel- home," read " W. Skellon." 3. „ line 4 from bottom, after " Nuttall," add " Messrs. T. C. Archer, F. P. Marrat, Dr. Nevins." 20. Last line but one, and in all similar cases, add after " H. C. Watson," — " in Hall's Flora." .38. After line 3 from top, add, " G. lucidum. L. (Shining C.) May — Aug. 0 In a lane between Walton and Clubmoor, plentiful,— F. P. Marrat." 39. Line 6 from top, for "xliv" read "xlii," and in the following line, for " xxxvii" read " xxxv." 40. Line 12 from bottom, for " Sabothanmus " read " Sarothamnus." 44. Line 4 from bottom, insert " July, Aug. H •' 45. Line 6 from top, for " XXIV" read " XXII." N.B. In all subsequent orders, subtract two from the number, to correct an error. 72. Line IC from top, after " C. vulgaris" add "June. ^ " 75. After " P. vulgaris, &c.," add " Ap., May, before the leaves. H " 98. After " S. spath.," &c., add " Aug. U " 140. After places, in line 4 from bottom, add " Plentiful on an old wall about a quarter of a mile north of Billinge Quarry,— W.S." 160 INDEX NATURAL FAMILIES Order. Page. 1 Ranunculacece 17 2 BerberidaceflB 20 3 Nyphseaceee 20 4 Papaveraceai 21 5 Famariaceee 21 6 Cruciferaj 22 7 Resedacese 28 8 ViolacetB 28 9 DroseraceaB 29 10 Polygalaceee ... : 30 11 Carjophyllaceee 31 12 Linaceee 34 13 Malvaceui 35 14 Tiliaceee 35 15 Hypericaceee 36 16 Aceraceee 37 17 Geraniacece 37 18 Oxalidacese 38 19 Cela-stracese 39 20 RhamnacefiB 39 21 Leguminosee 21 24 Rosaceee 45 25 OnagracesB 52 26 HaloragaceflB 53 27 Lythraceae 53 28 CucurbitacesB 54 29 PortulacesB 54 30 Paronychiacese 54 31 Crassulacese 55 32 Grossulariaceee 56 33 Saxifrfigacese 56 34 Umbelliferse 57 35 Araliaceffi 63 36 Cornaceae 63 37 Loranthacese 63 38 Capritbliacese 64 39 Rubiaceee 65 40 YEderianacese 66 41 Dipsaceee 67 42 Compositffi 67 43 CampanulacesB 78 44 VacciniacesB 78 45 EricacesB 79 46 PyrolacesB 80 47 Monotxopacese 80 48 Aquifoliacece 80 49 OleacesB 80 50 ApocynacesB 81 51 GentianacecB 61 52 Convolvulaceff 83 W Order. Pag«. 53 Boraginacese 83 54 SolanaceflB 85 55 Orobanchaceee 86 56 Scrophulariaceffi 86 57 Labiatce 90 68 Verbenaceffi 95 59 Lentibulariace«e 96 60 PrimulacecB 96 61 Plumbaginacese 98 62 Plantaginaceffi 99 63 Chenopodiaceffi 100 64 Scleranthaceee 102 65 Polygonaceee 103 66 Thymelacese 105 67 Euphorbiaceee 105 68 Callitrichacese 106 69 Ceratophyllacefle 106 70 Urticaceee 107 71 Ulmacese 108 72 MyricaceeB 109 73 Betulaceee 109 74 SalicacesB 110 75 Cupuliferse 112 76 Coniferee 118 77 Hydrocharidaceee 114 78 Orchidacese 116 79 Iridacese 117 80 Amaryllidaceee 117 81 Dioscoreaceee 117 82 Trilliacese 118 83 Liliaceee 118 84 Juncaceee 119 85 ButomaceflB 121 86 Alismace«e 121 87 JiincaginaceflB 182 88 Typhacese 122 89 Araceee 123 90 Pistiacese .., 123 91 Naiadaceee 124 92 Cyperaceee 126 93 Graminaceffi 131 94 PolypodiaceeB 140 95 OsmundaceeB 143 96 OphioglossacefiB 144 97 LycopodiacecB 144 98 Marsileacese 146 99 Equisetaceae 145 100 Musci 147 101 Characeie 160 161 ALPHABETICAL INDEX FAMILIES AND GENERA Page, i ACERACEiE 37 Acer 37 Achilleea 77 ACOTYLEDON.^ 140 ACROGENiE 140 Adonis 18 Adoxa 63 iEgopodium 58 ^thusa 60 Agraphis 118 Agrimonia 40 Agrostemma 31 Agrostis 133 Aira 133 Ajuga 92 Ajuooide^e .. 92 Alchemilla 48 Alisma 121 ALISMACEiE 121 Alliaria 25 Allium 119 Alnus 109 Alopecurus 131 Alsine^ 32 Althaea 35 AMARYLLIDACE^ 117 AMENTACEiE 107—112 Ammophila 133 AMYGDALE.E 45 Anagallis 97 Anagat.t.tdeje 97 Anchusa 84 Andromeda 79 Anemone 18 Angelica 60 Antherais 77 Anthoxanthum 131 Anthriscus 62 Anthyllis • 41 Antin-hinum 88 Apargia 68 Apium 57 APOCYNACE^ 81 AQUIFOLIACEiE 80 AquUegia 20 Arabis 23 ARACEiE 123 ARALIACEiE 63 162 Arctium 71 Arenaria 33 Armeria 98 Armoracia 23 An'henatherum 134 Artemisia 73 Arum 123 ASPARAGEJE 118 Arundo 138 Asparagus 118 Asperula 66 Aspidium 141 Asplenium 142 Aster 75 Atriplex lOt ATRiPLicE^ai; 101 Avena 138 BaUota 92 Barbarea 22 Bartramia 155 Baitsia 87 Bellis 70 BERBERIDACE^ 20 Berberis 21 Betonica 93 BETULACE.^ 109 Betula 109 Bidens 73 Blechnum 143 BIysmus 126 BORAGINACEJi 83 Botrychium 144 Brachypodium ..139 Brassica 27 Briza 135 Bromus 137 Bryonia 54 Biyum 154 Bunium 58 Bupleurum. 59 BUTOMACEiE 121 Butomus 121 Cakile 24 Calamagrostis 132 Calamintha 94 CALLITRICHACE^ 106 Callitriche 106 Calluna 79 INDEX. Caltha 19 Calystegia 83 CALYCIFLOKiE 89 Campanula 78 CAMPANULACEiE 78 CANNABINEiE 107 CAPRTFOLIACEiE 64 Capsella 26 Cardamine 23 Carduus 71 Carex 128 Carlina 72 Carpinus 113 Carum 58 CARYOPHYLLACE^ 30 Castanea 112 Catabrosa 133 CELASTRACE^ 39 CELLULARES 140, 160 Centaurea 72 Centxanthus 66 Cerastium 34 CERATOPHYLLACEiE 106 Ceratophyllum 106 Ceterach 140 Chcerophyllum 62 Chara 160 CHARACE^ 160 Chelidonium 21 CHENOPODIACE^ 100 Chenopodeje 100 Chenopodium 100 Chlora 82 Chrysanthemum 76 Chrysosplenium 57 ClCHORACEJE 67 Cichorium 70 Circflea 52 Clematis 17 Clinopodium 94 Cnicus 71 Cochlearia ; 24 Comarum 48 COMPOSITE 67 CONIFERS 113 Conium 61 Convallaria 118 CONVOLVULACEiE 83 Convolvulus 83 CORMOGEN.E 140 CORNACEJ?: 63 Comus 63 COROLLIFLOKE 79 Coronopus 26 Corydalis 22 Corylus 112 CORYMBIFER* 73 Cotyledon 55 CRASSULACEiE 55 Page. CratflBgufi 50 Crepis 69 Crithmum 60 CRUCIFERiE 22 CUCURBITACEiE 64 CUPULIFERiE 112 Cuscuta 83 Cyclolobe* 100 Cynarocephal« 71 Cynoglossum 85 Cynosurus 135 CYPERACEJE 126 Cytisug 40 Dactylis 185 Daphne 106 Datura 86 Daucus 62 Dianthus 30 DICOTYLEDONiE 17 Dicranum 151 Didymodon 150 Digitalis 89 DIOSCOREACE.E 117 DIPSACE.E 67 Dipsacus 67 Draba 24 Drosera 29 DROSERACE^ 29 Dbosere^ 29 Echinophora 62 Echium 83 Eleocharis 126 Elymus 138 Encalypta 149 ENDOGENiE 114 Epilobium 25 Epipactis 115 EQUISETACEiE 145 Equisetum 145 Erica 79 ERICACE^ 79 Erigeron 75 Eriophorum 127 Erodium 38 BJrvum 44 Eryngium 57 Erysimum 26 Erythrtea , 81 Euonymus 39 Eupatorium 74 Euphorbia 106 EUPHORBIACEiE 108 Euphrasia 87 EXOGENiE 17 Fagus 112 Fedia 66 Festuca 135 Filago 74 FILICES 140 163 INDEX. Fissidens 161 Foeniculum 60 Fontinalis 150 Frajraria 47 Fraxinus HI Fiimaria 21 FUMARIACEiE 21 -Funaria 154 Galanthus 117 Galeopsis 92 Galium 65 Genista 40 GENISTEiE 40 Gentiana 82 Gentiane;e 81 GENTIANACE^ 81 GERANIACEvE 37 Geranium 37 Geum 46 Glaucium 21 Glaux 96 Glechoma 94 GLUMACE^ 126 Gnaphalium 74 GRAMINACE^ 131 Grimmia 150 GROSSULARIACE^ 56 Gymnostomum 148 Gymnadenia 116 Habenaria 116 HALORAGACEJE 53 Hedera 63 HedysarejE 43 Helminthia 68 Helosciadium 57 Heracleum 61 Hemiaria 54 Hesperis 25 Hieracium 70 Hippuris 53 Holcus 134 Honckenya 32 Hookeria 156 Hordeum 138 Hottonia 96 HOTTONIE^ 96 Humulus 107 Hvacinthus 118 HYDROCHARIDACEiE 114 Hydrocharis 114 Hydrocotyle 57 Hyoscyamus 85 HYPERICACEiE : 36 Hypericum 36 Hypnum 156 Hypocheeris 68 Eex 80 IRlDACEiE 117 Iris 117 164 Isolepis 127 Jasione 78 JUNCACE.E 119 JUNCAGINACE.E 122 Juncus 119 Knautia 67 Koniga 24 LABIATiE 90 Lactuca 68 Lamium 93 Lapsana 70 Lathyrus 44 LEGUMINOSiE 40 Lemna 123 LENTIBULARIACEJi 95 Leontodon 69 Leonurus 92 Lepedium 26 Lepturus 130 Leskea 156 Ligustrum 80 LILIACEiE 118 Linaria 89 LINAGES 34 Linum 34 Listera 115 Lithosperraum 84 Littorella 99 Lolium 139 Lonicera 64 Lotus 43 Luzula 120 Lychnis 31 LYCOPODIACE^ 144 Lycopodium 144 Lycopsis 85 Lycopus 90 Lysimacliia 97 LYTHRACEiE 53 Lythrum 53 Malva 35 MALVACE^ 35 Marrubium 94 MARSILEACE^ 145 Matricaria 77 Medicago 41 Melampyrum 88 Melica 134 Melilotus 41 Mentha 90 Menthoide^ 90 MENYANTHACE.E 82 Menyanthes 82 Mercurialis 105 MUium 132 Moenchia 33 Molinia 132 MONOCHLAMYDE^ 100 MONOCOTYLEDON.^ 114 INDEX. Monotropa 80 MONOTROPACEiE 80 Montia ^4 MUSCI 147 Myosotis 84 MYRICACEiE 109 Myrica 109 Myriophyllum 53 NAL\1)ACE.*: 124 Narcissus 117 Nardus 131 Narthecium 121 Nasturtium 23 Neottia 115 Nepeta 93 Nepeteje 92 Nuphar 20 Nymphfea 20 NYMPH^ACEiE 20 (Enanthe , 59 (Enothera 52 OLEACEiE 80 ONOGRACE^ 52 Ononis 41 Onopordum 72 OPHIOGLOSSACE.E 144 Ophioglossura 144 ORCHIDACE.E 115 Orchis UC Origanum 91 Ornithogalum 119 Omithopus 43 OROBANCHACE.E 86 Orobanche 86 Orobus 45 OSMUNDACE.E 143 Osmunda s 143 OXALIDACE^ 38 Oxalis 38 PAPAVERACE^ 21 Papaver 21 Parietaria 107 Paris 118 Pamassia 30 PARNASSlEJli 30 PARONYCHIACE.E 54 Pastinaca 61 Pedicularis 88 Peplis 53 PETALOIDEiE 114 Petasites 75 Peucedanum 61 Phalaris 132 Phasciun 147 Phleum 132 Phragmites 138 Pilularia 146 Pimpinella 58 Pinguicula 95 Pam. IHnuH 113 PISTIACEiE 123 PLANTAGINACEJS 99 Plantago 99 PLUMBAGINACEiE 98 Poa 134 Polygala 30 POLYGALACE.E 30 POLYGONACEiE 103 Polygonum 103 POLYPODIACE^ 140 POIATODIE* 140 Polypodium 140 Polytrichum 153 Populus Ill PORTULACEiE 54 Potamogeton 124 Potentilla 48 PoTENTILLIDJi 46 Poterium 49 Prenanthes 68 Primula 96 PRIMULACE.E 96 PRIMULEiE 96 Prunella 94 Prunus 45 Pteris 142 Pulicaria 76 Pyrethrum 77 Pyrola 80 PYROLACEiE 80 Pyrus 51 Quercus 112 Radiola 35 RANUNCULACE^ 17 Ranunculus 17 Raphanus 27 Reseda 28 RESEDACE.E 28 RHAMNACE^ 89 Rhamnus 39 Rhinanthus 88 Rhynchospora 126 Ribes 56 Rosa 49 ROSACEA ^ 45 RosEJE 46 RosiD-E 49 Rotihoellia 139 RUBIACE.E 65 Rubus 47 Rumex 104 Ruppia 125 Sagina 32 Salicomid 101 SALICACE^ 110 Salex 110 Salvia 90 Sambucus 64 165 INDKX. Page. SAMOIiEJ^ UU Samolua 08 Sanguisorba 49 Sanguisorbidje 48 Sanicula 57 Saponaria 30 Sarothamnus 40 Satureine^ 91 Saxifraga 56 SAXIFllAGACE^ 56 Scabiosa 67 Scandix 61 Schoenus 126 Scilla 118 Scille;e 118 Scirpiis 127 SCLEKANTHACEiE 102 Scleranthus 102 Scolopendrium 142 Scrophularia 88 SCEOPHULAKIACEiE 86 Scutellaria 94 Sedum 55 Sempervivum 55 Senebiera 26 Senecio 76 Serratula 71 Sherardia 65 Silaus 60 SUene 31 SlLENE^ 30 Sinapis 27 Sison 58 Sisymbrium 25 Sium 59 Smymium 61 SODEJE 102 SOLANACE^ 85 Solanum 86 Solidago 75 Sonchus 69 Sparganium 123 Spartium 40 Spergula . . 32 Spergularia 32 Sphagnum 147 Spiraea '. 46 SpiRa:iDiE 46 SPIBOLOBEiE 102 Splachnum 149 Stachyg 93 Statice 98 Stellaria 33 Stratiotes 115 Subularia 26 Suoeda 102 Salsola 102 SUCEDE^- 102 PftgC. Symphytum 85 Tamus 117 Tanacetum 73 Taxus 113 Teesdalia 24 Tetraphis 149 Teucrium 92 THALAMTFLOR^ 17 Thalictrum 17 THALLOGENiE 160 Thlaspi 24 Thrincia 68 THYMELACE;E 105 Thymus 91 Tilia 35 TlLTACEiK 35 Torilis 62 Tormentilla 48 Tortula 152 Tragopogon 67 Trichostomum 150 TRirOLIEiE 41 TrifoUum 42 Triglochin 122 Trigonella 42 TRILLIACE^ 118 Triodia 135 Triticum 138 Turritis 22 Tussilago 75 Typha 122 TYPHACEiE 122 Ulex 40 ULMACE^ 108 Ulmus 108 UMBELLIFERiE 57 Urtica 107 URTICACE^ 107 Utricularia .95 VACCINIACE^. 78 Vaccinium » 78 Valeriana 66 VALERIANACE^ 66 Verbascum 89 Verbena 95 VERBENACE.E 95 Veronica 86 Viburnum 64 Vicia 44 ViciE^ 44 Vinca 81 Viola 28 VIOLACEiE 28 Viscum 63 Weissia 149 Zannichellia 125 Zostera 125 166 APPENDIX II METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS DEDUCED FROM OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT THE LIVERPOOL OBSERVATORY DU^G THE FTTE TEASS ENDING DECEMBER Sltr. 1860. BT JOHN HARTNUP, ESQ., T.R.A.S. (Rkad bkfokk the SociETr in the Session 1850-51.) Latitude of the Observatory, 53° 24' 48" N. ; Longitude, 3° 0' 1" W. Cistern of the Barometer elevated 87 feet above the mean level of the Sea. The Meteorological observations which have been taken at the Liverpool Observatory now extend over a period of five complete years, and the whole of these observations have been reduced on one uniform plan. The mean and extreme values have been deduced with great care, and the monthly and yearly changes which have taken place in our atmosphere, during the above named period, have I believe been traced with very great accuracy in the accompanying tables. The instruments with which the observations have been taken were all made by Mr. Adie, of Bold-street, Liverpool. They consist of a standard barometer of Neuman's con- struction, the tube of which is nearly an inch in diameter ; a maximum thermometer, and a minimum thermometer of Rutherford's construction; a rain guage of Howard's con- struction ; and a pair op wet- and dry-bulb thermometers having a scale of about one tenth of an inch to a degree. 167 rORllECTTOyS HOW OBTAINED. During the whole time over which the observations extend, the instruments have occupied the same situation. Up to the end of June, 1849, they were all read daily at two hours, Gottingen mean time, which corresponds with one hour twenty minutes Greenwich mean time. Since the end of June, 1849, they have all been read daily at 1 p.m., Greenwich mean time. This difference of twenty minutes in the times of reading has been taken into account in the application of the corrections to the instrumental readings for diurnal range. The index correction which has been applied to all the readings of the barometer, to make it read the same as the Royal Society's flint-glass standard, was obtained by the trans- mission of a portable barometer of Troughton's between the Greenwich and Liverpool Observatories. The index correc- tion which has been applied to each of the thermometers, was obtained by comparison with a pair of thermometers, which had been previously compared with the standard thermometer at the Eoyal Observatory. The index correction was found to be so near the same in different parts of the scale of each of the thermometers, that no alteration has been made for error of scale. The corrections for diurnal range have been derived in the following manner. During the five years ending December, 1845, meteorological observations were taken at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich at every even hour of Gottingen mean time. IVom these observations tables were formed by Mr. Glaisher, shewing the corrections to be applied to the monthly mean of the daily readings of each instrument at any hour, in order to deduce the true mean reading for the month from observations taken at that hour. These tables were published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, part 1, for 1848. For the Barometer the corrections for the different months in the year range from + 0*007 in. to — 0*006 in., for the hour at which these observations have been made, and 1G8 CORRECTIONS HOW OBTAINED. these corrections have been applied, as they are doubtless sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. For the Dry-Bulb Thermometer the table of corrections obtained from the Greenwich observations would not satisfy the observations made at Liverpool, but as this correction appeared to depend on the diurnal range of the thermometer, a table of factors was formed by dividing the corrections given in the table for each hour at Greenwich, by the diurnal range of the thermometer at Greenwich. These factors when multi- plied by the diurnal range of the thermometer at Liverpool, give corrections which satisfy the Liverpool observations. We can prove the truth of this in the following manner: — The mean of the readings of the dry-bulb thermometer taken daily at one o'clock should, when corrected for diurnal range as above described, give the true mean temperature. Again, the mean daily readings of the maximum and minimum ther- mometers, after the application of a correction found from the Greenwich observations and given in the above-named tables, should also give the true mean temperature. ' Now, for each of the five years over which our observations extend the mean temperature obtained by the last named method has been in excess of the former, but the difference has never exceeded 0*4°, and it has never been less than 0*1°. The correction for diurnal range found in this way may therefore be considered sensibly perfect, for the index cor- rections which have been applied to the thermometers, not- withstanding the care that has been taken to obtain them correctly, may possibly be in error sufficiently to cause a difference in the mean temperatures derived by the two methods, as large as that which has been found to exist. The corrections for diurnal range which have been applied to the Wet-Bulb Thermometer have been found in the foUowing manner: — Li the tables before named (Transactions Koyal Society, part 1, 1848), Table V. shews the mean depression of the temperature of evaporation below that of air at Green- X 169 ILLUSTEATED. wich, at each hour in the day for every month in the year. Now, I have assumed that the depression at one o'clock, given for Greenwich, bears the same proportion to tlie depression at one o'clock found from observation at Liver- pool, that the mean depression given for Greenwich, does to the mean depression required for Liverpool. The following example will explain how the corrections for diurnal range have been deduced. For instance, — For the Month of May, 1850, — The mean reading of the dry-bulb thermometer was 55*8°; of the wet-bulb thermometer, 49*4°; and the mean daily range of temperature was 10 '3°. By Glaisher's Table IV.,— 0.412 is the Factor for Oh. 48m. local time, and — 0-412 x 10-3° = — 4'24° = the cor- rection for diurnal range for the dry-bulb thermometer. From observation at Liverpool, 6*4° was the depression of the , wet below the dry-bulb thermometer at Oh. 48m. local time. From Glaisher''s Table Y., 5-88° is the depression for the same local time at Greenwich, and 3*01° is the mean of the twenty-four hourly depressions at Greenwich, therefore the difference is 2*87° for Greenwich. Now, — = 3*12,° therefore, the correction for diurnal range for the wet-bulb thermometer = — 4*24° (the correction for the dry-bulb), diminished by 3*12, or — 1*12°. I have been particular in describing how the mean tempera- ture of the air from the dry-bulb thermometer, and the mean temperature of evaporation from the wet-bulb thermometer have been derived ; because any error in these determinations must influence the whole of the hygrometrical deductions. In the accompanying tables, column 1 contains the month and year to which the various results in the horizontal line opposite 170 EXPLANATIONS. belong ; column 2, the mean reading of the barometer, corrected for index-error and reduced to 32° of Fahrenheit ; columns 3 and 5, the highest and lowest readings of the barometer for each month and year ; and 4 and 6, the days on which they occurred : these readings have been corrected for index-error, and reduced to 32° of Falurenheit ; column 7 contains the extreme range of the barometer during each month and year; column 8, the mean pressure of dry air at the level of the sea: this result is obtained from column 2, by adding the reduction to the sea level, and subtracting the numbers found in column 29, which represent that portion of atmospheric pressure due to water; column 9 shews the mean temperature of the air deduced from the dry-bulb thermometer, combined with that deduced from the maximum and minimum thermometers, after correcting the readings for index-error and diurnal range as before described; column 10 shews the mean daily range of the thermometer for each month and year; columns 11 and 13 contain the highest and lowest readings of the thermometer for each month and year ; and 12 and 14 the days on wliich they occurred; column 15 shews the extreme range of tem- perature during each month and year ; column 16, the amount of rain collected in a gauge 25 feet above the ground ; and 17, the number of days on wliich it fell; columns 18 to 25 shew the direction of the wind referred to eight points of the compass — the letters at the top of the columns represent the direction, and the figures shew the number of days in each month and year that the wind blew from that direction ; column 26 shews the estimated force of the wind, on the assumption that a calm is represented by 0, and the greatest gale by 6 : it has been found that the squares of the numbers thus estimated represent the pressure in pounds on the square foot very nearly;" column 27 shews the estimated amount of cloud, on the assumption that 0 represents a clear sky, and 10 a cloudy sky ; columns 28 to 34 have been calcu- lated by the aid of Mr. Glaisher's Hygrometrical Tables, 171 SUMMARY. published in 1847 ; columns 35 to 38 shew, for each result named, the difference between each month and the average of the same month for the five years, and between each year and the average of the five years. The sign + means that the result is greater than the average, and the sign — that the result is less than the average. The mean reading of the barometer for the five years was 29*860 in. ; the highest reading was 30.862 in., on February 11, 1849 ; the lowest 28*382 in., on December 6, 1847. The two latter results shew the state of the barometer on the days named at the ordinary time of reading, but at 1 Oh. p.m. on the last named day the reading was 28*154 in., making the extreme range for the five years 2*708 in. The barometer not being self-registering the true range is probably a little greater. The mean pressure of dry air, reduced to the level of the sea, was 29*580 in. The mean temperature of the air was 49 9°. The highest reading of the self-registering maxi- mum thermometer was 82*3°, on the 19th June, 1846; the lowest reading of the self-registering minimum thermometer was 20*8°, on the 29th January, 1848. The extreme range of temperature for the five years was 61*5°; the mean daily range was 8*8°; the least mean daily range appears to take place in January, when the average is 5*7°, and the greatest in May and June, when the average is 11*8°, The mean annual fall of rain was 28*05 in.; the average number of days in the year on which it fell, 178 ; the largest annual fall was 31*41 in., in 1847 ; and the smallest, 21*46 in., in 1850. The mean amount of cloud has been such as to cover 6*7 of the sky ; the largest mean amount in any one year, 7*2 in 1850 ; and the smallest mean amount 6*3, in 1849. The mean temperature of the dew point for the five years was 44*9°, just 5° below the mean temperature of the air. The mean elastic force of vapour, or the mean amount of water mixed with the air, was 0*324 in. The mean weight of 172 SUMMAUY. vapour in a cubic foot of air, was 3*69 grains, and the mean additional weight required to saturate a cubic foot of air, 0*67 grain. The mean degree of humidity (complete saturation = 1,) was 0-852. The mean amount of vapour mixed with the air would have produced water, if all had been -precipitated at the same time on the surface of the earth to the depth 4i'4>S in. The mean weight of a cubic foot of air, under the mean pressure, tempe- rature, and humidity, was 538*5 grains. The force and direction of the wind, being from esti- mation, can only be considered as rough approximations. The Anemometer now being constructed by Mr. Osier, wiU, I trust, in future years, furnish valuable and interesting information in this department. JOHN HARTNUP. LlYEBPOOL ObSEBVATORY, 1851, January 25th. 173 Number of days on which it feU. Amount collected in a gauge placed 26 feet above the ground. "^ -f fO Oi -^ Oi »Q O 05 QO OJ -rfi O O «?< "O •«r o « 00 ^ ._ — Extreme range of temperature for each mouth and year. qoqoO'pwOTfootpgs o ?5 « (M 0» O* oJ Day on which it occurred. 22g*«2S2^giS g ^ Lowest reading of the minimum thermometer. « t^ © O « CO -^ ■^ O --^ Tl< CO o«bdi(i)-^-Tti> Qi CO CO . o StT « CO CO TP Tf CO Oi CO C^ «N •§ CO -^ O (N rf Oi © 00 -^ CO t» a^z,^--©;-©-:.^ - Day on which it occurred. Lowest reading of the barometer. 0(N CO ■^ "^ Oi Oi *0 Oi CO •Tf t^ a> t^ CT> © CO «o CO CO .£:gico©©qDcp©c;3cpcp !;>■ Oi CO aocoicidiooosojcscido do do do Day on which it occurred. =^22ggj2 = S2S; S g §«^ Highest reading of the hurometer „• (N «0 © CO © £co o CO 00 r-^ ^_ ._ __^C0Oi©CO Oi O < -n" (7* T}< »0 •O a©©©©©©©©©6 © © hhCOCOCOCOOOCOCOCOSOCO CO CO True mean deduced from all the readings of the barometer reduced to 32 degrees of Fahrenheit. . t^ Oi Tf — »0 » $ Oi -^ 05 Oi t^ CO ^ CO CT> CO CO 00 05 00 © CO CO r^ oi CO -f t> J3 00 OS O 00 CN (?« (7* » CN CD (-6 fi< ( + + + + I + + + + + I I Temperature of the air. yffO ©6 O© 0> « 00«O »r>»xa6xxxx ©©©6©©©©©©®© Mean additional weight of vapour required to saturate a cubic foot of air. 2©«5C0X5>iN«Cr^3i»O«OQQ g'^Tf«0'^05«©xr>.'^Tfe< ^6©©©©-^ — ©6©©© Mean weight of vi^aour in cubic foot of air. •a T r v* r E CO CO . — CO I© CO r^ »0 i^ (N . t* r* X O'T'SCOC*— <;o»o Strength, 0 to 6. c^Oi(Nx«o©-^a> — 6 — 66-^-1^6 ^Tj«0»0»XOJO>OS-^-^Tf«M J5 :«o«oocooot*eoeo«o^«o ^©©♦•ow-^oot^w-- — ©w -CtO-^^D'OOCOW-^^OiXCO Kt^0O'*C<^«O00"^"*O>©»W ©©CO— ©«0 — ©:Tt CO 00 o> 00 a ?: S S 3:^ CO Mean daily range of temperature for each month and year. ■^ ao o> o-i t^ a> ^ 0 •bcbciOi — os^ op CO 00 CO •^ 03 do CO CO ci * CO > 00 Mean temperature deduced from the readings of all the dry thermometers. CO 0 0 «o 0 "O — 0 CO Tf r-Qt WW^TjilOO-sO «0 «0 »0 TfTl ) CO 6 1 1 Mean pressure of dry air reduced to the level of the sea. • Tt<»OC^OiOXCO 0 (N 0 WO- , 1 X Extreme range of the barometer readings for each month and year. £OT 00 t^ CO c^ -H — w Oi CO r». r- •S 2 5:: I? •^ '^ 2J :i zr '^ <^ t^<^ ucp 0 CO •0 Day on which it occurred. ^? ) " 2 gj g^ 2*^ Tt* 1^^^? Highest reading of the barometer. i-hWcocococococ; i CO 03 Tf — CO CO Tf « CO True mean deduced from all the readings of the barometer reduced to 32 degrees of Fahrenheit. .TfcOQOOO-^W SClQO CO rf -M — « i i i 11 1 1 i li (N Month and Year, OS 1 1 4 > "a 1 c a c I-- ^^ . 00 OH ■3 a- s '0 0 170 Amount of milt. u II Temperature of dew point. Temperature of the air. pMMure of the atmosphere. £— — ©coo^c — oxrtT"'"?' •goooooo*^© — 66w I I I I 1 1+ I+ + + I I I + I++I+ + + 99©©©© — 9©'-©'- ©©©©©©©©6©66 I+ + +I 4-+I++I ^ Mean weight of a cubic foot of air. •2 T* r^ 30 (?» ?J 6 -^ (T. o o •- o jt «^ «i «o «$ «5 if5 "O "ib »o «1'5 «o "O Mean whole amount of water in a vertical column ot atmosphere. Mean degree of humidity, (Complete saturation =^ i.) »>• X ©©6©©6©©©©©© ?? Mean additional weight of rapuur required to saturate a cubic foot of air. SC0»Q«50i©X©O^6'^©©6©6 o Mean weight of vapour in a cubic foot of air. Mean elastic force of vajiour, or mean amount of water mixed with the air. .ao — (««r5c0Tta(#3.r5TF©'O •-"©©©©©©©COOOO Mean temperature of dew point. r^xr^© — t^'^OT«ot^ — X Mean amount, 0 to 10. '-"qpOC5TfCi^oX w .cot^;o»o •o •O 00 O t>» .cboTt< Tt< ■«* O O Oi CO o^-^ ^ 6 — 6 -^ -^ -^ 6 -^ Day on which it occurred. ^ N ^ S5 ^ Lowest reading of the barometer. •TOCO CO 00 CO Ci O TO C5 05 C* 2 l>. CO — « C* O TO CO 05 O TO l^ .a(Nr* r* (N to -«(N©«o-'-«(Noo5 o (N©x^©(? strength, 0 to 6. Oi«o(NaiOio<©c^oxx-^ 6««©©'^'^»^©©©^ ^«0Tf05««005»C0«O WOi©©<«00'^©«'^«(?»0* :»©COW©'*© — '^«(N©< WC30^©© — --^ocow©© :-^e9'«f««W^-«C5«OTj»© gj 179 ® ^ Number of days on wliich it fell. CiC^">!fXr}»p-700'p © — «p C« ©5 (N ^ CO W (N C* C^ S ?« * Day on which it occurred. so®^r>»ao"'t'^r^co'^Qoai Lowest readinff of the minimum thermometer. — X«0 Oi X X — -- CO — X -H o-^^.i-(^»XTf<> X X — 05 -^ (N X 05 05 oOTpoticbwi^Oi©!^ X tboj TfTf^TfTf^O'O'OCOO -tt* TTCO Mean pressure of dry air reduced to the level of the sea. .a. CO 05 05 X © — _ -. o Day on which it occurred. So Lowest reading of the barometer. „-©CO'^CO©CCI^COTt< £< * W (N 'N CO 66©ooc6o666b 6 Mean temperature of dew point. ;p c^ 05 (N X 9 '.p Oi "p OS Mean amount, 0 to 10. X f^ ciC5 — ot^ajcox«o?< t^ CO t^ 1^ O T* »0 O to O 6 w w — (N (N — Extreme range of temperature for each month and year. »o©e-«?^ac2^«;o Highest reading of the maximum thermometer. Mean daily range of temperature for each month and year. OiQO'^»OCCOOOCOO«pcO Mean temperature deduced IVora the readings ol all the dry thermometers. 05(?co«OTj»r^«o»oOicof*»ooN ^CiX'-^COOOO^OiOOOOOOOO) § a cj^s chj^ §9 s ® o o ® ►^ Pn g «p X Mean whole amount of water in a vertical column of ^ atmosphere. 5 Mean degree of humidity. (Complete 8atui-ation= 1.) ©©66©©6©©6©© 1 © Mean additional weight of vapour required to saturate a cubic fool of air. e©©©©©-^©©©©6 o © Mean weight of vapour in a cubic foot of air. CO Mean elastic force of vapour, or mean amount of water mixed with the air. .'«*Qp(ri?p© CO S Direction referred to eight pmuto of the Compass. S5 ^ « -, ^ o S ^- ^ 05 © «0 Tt« <0 -«*« «5 CO Oi O O s ^ ^«i^'?»(?»«co©«o(r»©co©» s S5 ^«0Tt<^Tj«' eff jfem^is ScaraZf€gty. PROCEEDINGS or THE LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL, DURING THE FORTY-EIRST AND PORTY-SECOND SESSIONS, 1851 TO 1853. No. YII. LIVERPOOL : DEIGHTON AND LAUGH TON MDCCCLIV. The Council beg to state that the Authors of Papers are alone responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective communications. Note. — In No. 3, containing the Society's Proceedings for the Session 1840-7, an error appears on the title page : that Session being called the 35th instead of the 36th. The error has been continued in the last four volumes. It is now corrected. [entered at stationers' hall.] CONTENTS Pa«e. 1 Council, Report of, Session xli., 1851-2 Williams, George, " On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851" Hartnup, John, " On Bond s Ring of Saturn" Thomson, Dr., •' On the Pendulum Experiment" Horner, H. P., '* On Architectural Criticism" Lassell, William, " On Two New Satellites of Uranus" HxjME, Rev. Dr., " Notes on English Popular Literature" Ihne, Dr., " On the Tenure of Land amongst the Romans" United States of America : Instructions to Col. James Munroe, Minister Plenipotentiary to the RepubHc of France, in 1794 Hibbert, T. D., " Biographical Sketch of President Bradshaw" HuGGiNS, S., '* On Fine Art : its Nature, Relations, and Tendencies Yates, J. B., President, Presentation of his Portrait ■ ... . " On Antient Manuscripts, and the Method of Preparing them" ... Inman, Dr. T., "On the Natural History and Microscopic Character of Hair" 83,219 BouLT, Joseph, ** Standards of Taste, Suppositious, and Arbitrary" 109 Faram, John, " On the Power that Organizes and Animates" ... 115 Evans, H. S., *' The Teas of Commerce, their Manufacture and Sophistication" ... ... ... ... ... ... 119 Hamilton, G., " The Law of Gravitation" 124 Byerley, Isaac, "On Fauna of Liverpool" 127 Council, Report of. Session xlii., 1852-3 129 Hartnup, John, " On Time-balls and Sympathetic Clocks" ... 132 Yates, J. B., "An Account of two Greek Sepulchral Inscriptions atlnceBlundell" 134 Smith, J. P. G., " On the Earthquake of 9th November, 1852" 137 Evans, H. S., " On the Coffees of Commerce" 140 4 7 8 8 20 22 28 43 49 50 57 59 Page. Ihne, Dr. W., ♦* On the True Mythological Conception of Janus" 143 Yates, James, •* On the Rheno-Danubian Barrier of the Roman Empire" 152 RoscoE Centenary, Account of the Celebration 154 Moss, Rev. J. J., •* On an Explosion of Gunpowder at Fm-nace, N.B 155 Ihne, Dr. W., "On the Trustworthiness of the Accounts respecting the Regal Period of the Roman History" ... 156 Hume, Rev. Dr., "Who was Macbeth?" 166 Ferguson, William, *' On Bombycilla Carolinensis, B. garrula and Merops Apiaster" ... ... ... ... ... 173 Ramsay, Rev. A., " On the Practical Applications of Comparative Philology" 174 TowsoN, J. T., " On the Deviation of the Compass on board Iron Steamers proceeding to the Southern Hemisphere" ... 192 HuGGiNs, Samuel, " Architecture and Nature" ... ... 199 HowsoN, Rev. J. S., " On the History of Nautical Terms" ... 204 Symonds, H. E., " On the Fall of an Aerolite in Corrientes" ... 207 Hume, Rev. Dr., " On the History, Present Position, and Future Prospects of the Literary and Philosophical Society" ... 208 Stevenson, Wm., " On the General Character of the Storms which pass over the British Isles" ... ... ... 209 Appendix. Hahtnup, John, " Meteorological Results deduced from Observa- tions taken at the Liverpool Observatory during the two years ending December 31st, 1852" ... ... ... , iii Treasurers' Accounts, Session xl. ... ... ... ... xv Session xli. ... ... ... ... xvi Donations to the Library, from October, 1851, to June, 1853 ... xvii Members, List of. Session xlii., 1852-53 ... ... ... xix Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxv PROCEEDINGS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL. SESSION FORTY-ONE, 1851-2. FIRST MEETING. Royal Institution. — October 20, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. The Secretary read the following Report of the retiring Council : — The Council, in meeting the members of the Literary and Philo- sophical Society, in accordance with custom, and in obedience to the lawb, on another anniversary, have to offer their hearty greetings. The Society has now assembled at the opening of the Forty-first Session, (not the fortieth, as has been explained in the circular,) and if the last was one of its best, it is hoped that this will prove equally felicitous, full of matter, fresh in thought, and genei-ally interesting. At the beginning of last Session the Society consisted of 144 ordinary, and 65 corresponding members; it now enrols 137 in the former, and 65 in the latter class; 9 new members were elected, 5 ceased to be connected with the Society by the operation of the laws, and 1 1 others by resignations and deaths. To the list of corresponding members 4 were added, and 4 have been removed by death, amongst whom was the distinguished Audubon, and Edward, Earl of Derby, whose zoological collection has given to Knowsley a wide celebrity. Of this class it is feared that some have been taken away whose death has not been recorded by us, and that the abodes of others are unknown. Any information which will enable the Council to make a perfect list, ^vill be gladly received. 2 The Council congratulate the members on the publication of the biennial volume of the Society's Proceedings. The volume is the largest yet issued, and will not yield to any of the preceding volumes in the importance or originality of matter. It will tend to support the character of the Society. The publication of such a volume has trenched largely on the treasury ; but it must be borne in mind that the Proceedings of two yeai's are therein recorded, and it may be shown that by an arrangement which has thrown much of the labour upon the Secretary, a considerable saving has been effected. Of the former volume (No. 5) only 300 copies were printed ; and this is to be regretted, as it may be considered out of print. It cost the Society, including illustrations, 3s. S^d. each copy. That volume con- sisted of eleven sheets, the present one of twenty-seven ; in other words, the volume now placed in the hands of the members is twice and a half the size of the former one, and its cost to the Society is 4s. 6d. a copy ; and this, with more numerous illustrations, expensive tables, and a " Flora," the printing of which exceeded the estimate considerably, in consequence of the diversity of type and greater care required in composing. During the past session several publications have been presented to the Society, and it is hoped that other Societies will reciprocate the gift of our Proceedings. iThe Council, as on other occasions, have endeavoured to provide papers for the session upon which we have entered ; but the number of favourable replies to the invitations sent out, is a very small proportion. The Council earnestly appeal to the members to come forward, and that early. By so doing, many difficulties will be avoided, and a better selection of papers obtained. The Treasurer's accounts will be submitted to the Society ; and, in conclusion, the Council beg to recommend the following five gentlemen to serve upon the new Council, to be presently chosen, viz. : — Rev. J. S. HowsoN, Mr. Hartnup, Mr. Picton, Dr. Ihne, Mr. Bterley. The Treasurer's accounts were then read and passed. — (Vide Appendix, No. II. J The Society then proceeded to ballot for the election of the new mem- bers of Council, three Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and a Secretary. At the conclusion, the Officers of the Society were announced as follows : — President. Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq., F.S.A., M.R.G.S., M.P.S. Vice-Presidents. Joseph Dickinson, M.A., M.D., M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.B.S.E. Robert M'An rew, F.L.S. William H. Duncan, M.D. Treasurer. Edward Heath. Hon. Secretary. David Purdie Thomson, M.D. Other Members of the Council. THOMAS INMAN, M.D., F.B.S.E. WILLIAM LASSELL, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. JOHN P. GEORGE SMITH. THOMAS SANSOM, A.L.8., F.B.S.E. JAMES A. PICTON, F.S.A. WILLIAM IHNE, PH.D. REV. JOHN 8. H0W80N, M.A. JOHN HARTNUP, F.R.A.S. ISAAC BYERLEY, M.R.C.S.E. The President briefly explained the Proceedings of the Committee appointed to investigate the Pendulum experiment, ^:^ when It was moved by Mr. J. P. G. Smith, and seconded by Joseph Dickenson, M.D. — "That the thanks of the Literary and Philosophical Society are eminently due, and be conveyed, to John Thomas Towson, Esq., for the kindness with which he explained the theory of the Azimuthal Motion of the Pendulum, to the persons who visited the Sailors' Home during the performance of the experiment, for which purpose he gave up, gratuitously, a large portion of his valuable time." — Carried unanimously. Moved by Mr. Heath, seconded by the Rev. H. H. Higgins — "That the thanks of the Society be given to David Purdie Thomson, M.D., for his valuable services as Secretary during the past year, and especially for the able manner in which he has edited the Transactions of the Society for the two last sessions." — Carried unani- mously. Vol. 6, page 238. SECOND MEETING. RoYAi. Institution. — November 3, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. Edward Hebson was elected an Ordinary Member. The President read the following Letter from George Wilxiams, Esq., ON THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JULY 28, 1851. On the 19th of July, 1851, I sailed from Hull in the company of Mr. Lassell and Mr. Stanistreet, and touching at Christiania, we arrived at Gothenborg, in Sweden, on the 24th, from whence we proceeded to Trollhatten, the place from which we had decided to view the eclipse. The time prior to the day of the eclipse was occupied in preparing our instruments; selecting a neighbouring eminence for the observa- tions, taking altitudes for time, and inspecting the magnificent water- fell. The sky for many days had been overcast, and much rain had fallen. On the morning of the 28th (the day of the eclipse) the heavens appeared covered with one impenetrable stratum of clouds, and the wind became so high, that we at once abandoned the idea of setting up the instruments in the open air, and determined to make our observa- tions from the windows of our rooms, which fortunately commanded a considerable extent of view, ranging from about N.E. by S. to N. As the day advanced we watched the aspect of the sky with intense anxiety. A little before noon the clouds began to break, occasional gleams of sunshine appeared, these increased in duration, until at length the sun shone forth in full splendour. On Plate I., Fig. 1, are sketched the maculae, a. b., then visible on the sun's disc. The heat of the sun now became intense, the two dark glasses which I had been in the habit of using for the last five years, gave way and cracked. My friends also lost several sun glasses, we were therefore deprived of the use of these when they were most needed. The intensity of the calorific rays may possibly be due to the clear and highly transparent atmosphere of Sweden, rather than to a variation in the component parts of the spectrum, but of this I am unable to give a further opinion. ;My telescope had an aperture of 2| inches, with a 42-inch focus, and pii^ria. FIG. I. FIG. 2 FIG 3. a micrometer in the eye-piece for taking rapid approximate measure- ments. At about 2h. 46m. p.m. local mean time, the telescopes were placed in position, and at 2h, 53m. 488. local mean time, I observed the first contact, its situation is sketched on Fig. 1. A thin film of clouds now covered the sun, but without materially interfering with distinct vision. The moon made rapid progress over the sun's disc. Day-light began perceptibly to wane, when about 9-lOths of the sun's diameter was eclipsed, the landscape then assumed a sombre appearance, which rapidly darkened into an awfully black hue. Under a power of 110 the mountains in the moon were visibly defined against the sun's bright disc. The position of these, as I observed them, is sketched on Fig. 2 ; they were situated chiefly on the southern cusp. As totality approached, the sun's uueclipsed limb presented the appearance of a most brilliant golden thread of a segmental form, this instantaneously broke up into beads and strings of light, presenting the phenomenon known by the name of " Baily's Beads." These I observed on the southern cusp only, and in positions corresponding with those of the mountains in the moon; I have sketched them in Fig. 3. This phenomenon appears to me to be clearly accounted for by the sun's rays shining through the spaces or valleys between the moun- tains in the moon. On the disappearance of the beads, the duration of which was very brief, (perhaps four or five seconds,) the corona and red prominences became visible. Fig. 4 is a representation of the sun during its total obscuration, it shews the corona and the red prominences. Of the latter, the two drawn on the following limb were the first seen, their form was conical, the bases being towards the sun, the base of each was about two-thirds of its height, they subtended an angle of about 38", making their height 17,780 miles. As the moon advanced, these soon disappeared. On directing the telescope to the preceding limb, three more pro- minences came into view. The lowest of these, as shewn on the sketch, appeared like an inverted cone, the apex being towards the sun; it resembled fire violently shot forth from an orifice, diverging and decreas- ing in intensity as it ascended, until it was lost in the light of the corona. The appearance of the prominence next in succession was wonderful beyond description; after ascending vertically to a vast height, it bent ofif nearly at right angles in a southerly direction, extending itself nearly to an equal distance southwai'ds ; as the moon progi*essed in her orbit, it increased in size and brilliancy ; it resembled fire ; the edges were not well defined, especially towards tbe extremity, and it appeared to me to be surrounded by vapour, which was more perceptible towards the extremity. It occupied r33 intervals of my micrometer; the vdue of the intervals being Im. ISCQs., gives to this an angle Im. 1509s. x 1-33 = Im. 40-92s., or the enormous height of upwards of 47,200 miles, equal to more than 5*9 times the earth's diameter. The last prominence I observed, was situated a little above the one just described, and on the same limb : it also resembled fire, its edges were better defined, but in size it was inferior to the two last. The corona which was formed at the moment of total obscuration, shone with a feeble light, equal perhaps to about one-third that of the full moon ; Fig. 4 gives a representation of it. The light was divided by radial lines, and presented the appearance of brushes of luminous rays shot from behind the moon, it was brightest next to the edge, and decreased in intensity as it diverged, until it was lost-in the surrounding darkness at a distance of about one-third of the moon's diameter from its edge. I was unable to observe whether it was concentric with the sun or moon. On withdrawing my eye from the telescope, the scene around was awful in the extreme, the opposite pine-covered hill had assumed a black colour ; the whole face of the country appeai'ed supernaturally altered ; words would fail to describe it or my ovm feelings on the occasion — it was a moment of intense excitement. Venus was distinctly visible ; I saw no other planets or stars, in consequence of the thin film of clouds I have before alluded to. The northern horizon, to an altitude of about ten degrees, was clear, and resembled the eastern sky about half-an-hour before day-break. The largest of the red prominences was distinctly visible to the naked eye ; it was likewise seen by a fiiend at Gothenborg. I also observed indications of the others with the unassisted eye. The corona was likewise visible, but owing to the state of the sky, it was not so clearly defined as when seen through a telescope. Having taken a rapid survey of the general phenomena, I applied my eye again to the telescope a few seconds before the re-appearance of the light. The first rays extinguished the corona and red prominences, and rendered the immediate protection of the eye with a dark glass necessary. The computed duration of the total obsciu:ation, on the central line opposite to Trollhatten, was 3m. 2ls. ; its actual duration at TroUhatten, as observed by Mr. Lassell, was 3m. 19-2s. ; it was a period so fraught with interest, and so much had to be seen in this brief interval, that it appeared to pass away in a few seconds, giving time for a general survey only, a minute inspection of each of the phenomena being out of the question. Very shortly after the termination of the totality, the clouds again collected, and the last contact was completely hidden from view. We had however witnessed all the principal phenomena much more favourably than might have been expected from the previous and sub- sequent state of the weather, and I felt grateful at having been thus permitted to witness a spectacle so striking, and one so calculated to impress the mind with wonder and admiration of the All-wise Creator of the universe and His marvellous works. The day after, I obtained a view of the sun for a short time, and observed a second spot had made its appearance on the following limb, not fai' distant from the one seen on the 28th ; the position of these two maculae are shewn for this date by the dotted circles marked c. and d.. Fig. 1. The coincidence of these two spots with the two red prominences seen on the same side during the total obscuration deserves attention. A slight discrepancy in the figures Is probably owing to the errors of sketching. It appears to me very probable that a connection exists between the maculae on the sun's disc and the red prominences seen during the totality ; the appearance of the second one on the following limb on the day after the eclipse, and agreeing with the position of the second prominence, favours this supposition. The large spot on the preceding side. Fig. 1, corresponds also very nearly with the position of the largest of the prominences. The effect produced on individuals by the eclipse differed much. I have heard that in many parts of Sweden it occasioned much terror amongst the inhabitants, and that in one place the clergyman of the district participated in no small degree in the alarm. At TroUhatten it was treated with levity, and the disappearance of daylight was hailed with a loud laugh by those seated under our windows. GEORGE WILLIAMS. Prince a Park, Liverpool. Mr. Hartnup communicated his observations upon Bond s Ring of Saturn. He stated that, previous to the 15th of September, all that he had been able to see confirmatory of the discovery, was a dark band crossing the ball of the planet, just above the bright ring, and an apparent want of sharpness in the definition of the inner sides of the inner bright ring ; the same appearance that puzzled Professor Bond, till he was favoured with a night of unusually good definition. The evening of the 15th September last was a superb night for astronomical 8 observation. On turning the telescope to Saturn, Mr. Hartnup was struck with the exquisite beauty of the image. The new ring was instantly detected, and the planet was cai'efuUy examined with powers from 170 to 1100, with all of which the new ring w£is distinctly seen. The bright ring, where it crosses the ball of the planet, was beautifully defined, and the primary division was seen as a fine black line projected on the face of the planet. The new ring, in colour and brightness, resembled the dark limb of the moon. It was certainly much broader than represented by Professor Bond and Mr. Dawes at the time of the discovery, occupying full half, or from half to two-thirds of the space between the inner edge of the inner bright ring and the ball of the planet. Dr. Thomson called the attention of the Society to a series of observations on the Pendulum Experiment, within 7° of the Equator, lately published, which, together with the observations made at the Sailors' Home, fully demonstrated the truth of Foucault's proposition. Dr. Lamprey and Lieut. Schaw, officers in the army, had erected a pendulum, very similar in its proportions to that erected at the Sailors' Home by the Society. Its length was 66^ feet, the ball was of lead, turned in a lathe, and weighed 30^ lbs., the suspending wire was l-12th of an inch in thickness, and the mode of suspension was by fibres of raw silk passing through an iron plate screwed to a beam. The place was a Presbyterian church, at Colombo, in N. lat. 6" 56'. The motion of the pendulum was from N. by E. to the opposite points, or in the direction of the sun, as it ought to be in the northern hemi- sphere. The mean angular variation per hour amounted to 1*87*', while the calculated variation was 1-81*, giving an excess of 6-lOOths of a degree per hour, an exceedingly trifling error. The following Paper was read, by H. P. Horner, Esq. — ON ARCHITECTUEAL CRITICISM. The choice of a subject so immediately connected as Architectural Criticism with my own avocations, for discussion before a Society such as I now address, may seem to call for some apology, both on that ground and on that of its somewhat exclusive interest ; and my excuse must be, that I prefer, for many reasons, to appear before you as an humble essayist in that path in which has hitherto lain my chief study ; and that my subject, notwithstanding its professional bearing, has, I think, certain phases of general interest which must appeal, more or less, to every informed mind. It is not my purpose to attempt, in a sketch like the present, a detailed inquiry into the distinctive qualities and characteristics of the various national or local styles extant throughout the world, nor even of those more familiar ones in common use among ourselves, but briefly to examine what is the real position of the art as practised at the present day, and to consider the principles on which its productions should be judged of, — this is a sufficiently ample scope for an hour's investigar tion ; the wider field would afford matter for a volume. While Architecture has always, by a refined people, been ranked among what are called pre-eminently the " fine arts," there are conditions inseparable from the necessities of its uses, which ally it very closely with the arts mechanical ; and, in consequence of this its ambiguous position, there have always existed difficulties in applying to it those rules of criticism or judgment wliich have been, for the most part, recognised as applicable to the fine arts generally. The result has been, that widely different methods of criticism have been adopted in writing on the subject; one large class of critics over- looking entirely the practical considerations involved in the construction of buildings, while others have almost as completely lost sight of the intellectual, or what it is the fashion of the day to miscal the " (esthetic " qualities of architecture. The true treatment of the sub- ject, I think, consists in a due appreciation and intelligent scrutiny of both these sources of architectural character, independently and rela- tively, but more particularly in the latter point of view ; as it is by the manner in which the architect meets the difficulties of design occasioned by some necessity of construction, site, or material, and his solution of the converse problem of preserving his construction sound while adapting it to the demands of his style, that we can best form an estimate of his attainments in the arduous pursuit which he professes. While I fully admit that an amateur's being such by no means necessarily unfits him for the task I have defined, and that in some respects his independence of professional conventionalism may on the contrary rather be in his favour, still so many are the practical points which interfere with full freedom of design, and so difficult is it for any but those on whom the knowledge of their existence is forced by actual experience, to feel the full weight of their influence, that I confess I cannot but think that members of the architectural profession, if only free from vain egotism and the petty jealousy disgraceful to a liberal art, are, by their practical knowledge, generally best fitted to act as censors on the merits of architectural works. Among those who claim to practise architecture, there are to be found, as in the sister arts, some who, from a sense of their own iuconi- 3 10 petence, or impatience of the least debate of their skill, evince unmiti- gated dislike to anything like free criticism upon architectural works, and assume to ridicule the idea of the taste for architecture extend- ing much beyond the limits of the profession ; but, to the architect who loves his art, and aspires to growing excellence in its practice, no encouragement can be equal to the presence of a public acknowledging its value, and informed as to its legitimate aims, and capable of dis- criminating between what is and what is not worthy of rank among its productions. Such a tribunal of public opinion stimulated the exercise and tempered the exuberance of the artistic faculties in classic Greece ; such a one awaits the compositions of the musician in modem Germany ; and, while perhaps in our own country alone is it expressed with equal freedom on the acts of the politician, even here, despite the mechanical tendencies of our national and necessarily commercial spirit, we may trace the gradual development of the power and will to apply it also to the productions of the liberal arts. It is in the hope of aiding, in some minute degree, what I consider so desirable a direction of the public attention, that I have attempted the present essay, and the more willingly, as addressing many who by education and position are fitted both to estimate the importance, and in a measure control the tendency of such a spirit of criticism ; on the former of wliich points I look confidently for their concurrence, and as regards the latter, shall hope to secure at least some share of their sympathy. The position of architecture, as practised at the present day, and par- ticularly amidst relations so extended, and social . arrangements so com- plicated, so varied, and often so refined as our own, is, I think, unlike what it can ever have occupied, so far as we can see, in any past age or state of society. For though refinement of art in Greece, and of luxury in Rome, stamped with their respective characters the architecture of either state, and that deeply, in proportion to the perhaps unparalleled national development of their characteristic tendencies, still, in neither was the practice of the art so extended and varied in its apphcation and requirements as among ourselves — the public buildings, properly so called, of each, almost engrossing its powers — a fact sufficiently proved by what remains of any importance have been preserved to us. In this I do not overlook the fact of domestic arrangements being carried to a high degree of luxury in ancient dwellings, but their character of privacy, and method of internal lighting, precluded the use of architecture in its higher forms externally, while the theatres, baths, temples, bridges, aqueducts, regal palaces, and mausoleums, afforded full scope for its application. 11 With ourselves, how greatly must such a list be extended, and how varied are the purposes to which architecture must be adapted. To our commerce in exchanges, newsrooms, and the like ; to science and literature, in museums and libraries ; to education in every grade, from the richly endowed college to the village school; while in hospitals, infirmaries, alms-houses, and every variety of charitable institution, it finds a field, I may say, unknown to the architects of the times referred to. The requirements of Christian worship again demand a style of buildings to which the ancient temple bore little analogy, though their most usual arrangements may be traced to the model afforded by the ancient basilicse, transformed as they often were from heathen courts to Christian temples. Another material difference in the position of the modem architect is his intimate acquaintance with the great variety of styles which have existed throughout the civilized world for many ages ; a knowledge likely to encumber and perplex the unphilosophical and empirical practitioner, but, as truly argued by Sir Joshua Reynolds with respect to a sister art, the best foundation to ensure originality in the practice of the man who studies his art with leading reference to its principles of development and association. It is a misfortune that comparatively few modern architects take the latter course to the extent of which the art admits, and the consequence has been a general spirit of copyism, rather than of adaptation, which has done much to rob architecture of the claims to geneml estimation, which, if rightly pursued, it would assert. No such field of knowledge was enjoyed by the architects of the classic ages, or those of the first gothic periods, who, taking the simplest form in which construction in each peculiar case presented itself, worked out and refined upon it till it became a system, the results of which we are in a great measure familiar with, but the more subtle principles of which we are still endeavouring to discover. Of course, I do not deny the influence of traditional knowledge, and the transmission of the arts of life through successive generations ; but as regards the Greeks especially, the growth of style in architecture, from the simplest elements, is so obvious as to warrant fully the dis- belief in its dependence, to any material extent, on external influence. Such being the difference between their position in regard to pre- ceding art and our own, their example affords no ground, as also it is inconsistent with the known course of human thought and habits of action, to propose, as some have done, the limitation of modern practice to some one style of architecture ; and it is equally futile to speculate on the possibility of inventing some entirely new style, adapted in some yet unknown manner to all modern requirements. No style was ever invented. Each has been the growth, by slow degrees, from some simple and often very crude materials, the ultimate fonn under which it may have appeared depending on circumstances of climate, material, mechanical skill, and comparative refinement, in which no two nations will be ever found entirely to coincide. The wholesome course for modern architects is a plain, but I do not say an easy one ; it is pursued more or less by several, both in this country and on the continent, particularly in Germany, and with greater or less results, in proportion to the amount of independence of mind and purity of taste possessed in each particular instance. Taking the most complete view in our power of the styles with which we are acquainted, let us inquire studiously under what aspects of art and of society they were developed ; let us compare those aspects with the present, and let us endeavour to avoid the adoption, for mere fashion, (an influence no- where more powerful than in the path of architecture,) of any styles or features of a style which have originated in causes evidently without influence among ourselves ; let us examine the points of connexion between seemingly difl'erent and distinct schools of architecture, and regardless of the common outcry against innovation, let us adapt freely, but feelingly, whatever we find suited to our present need, distinguish- ing always between those styles in which the original character, generally sufficiently distinct, remains pure, (however it may have been dilated,) and those corrupt modes in which that fashion, of which we are to beware, has led to the inharmonious union of the characteristics of entirely distinct styles. As regards construction, let no bigoted ad- herence to ancient example lead us to neglect the invaluable resources of modem science, but gratefully adopting them wherever they may avail us, let us work with them as the authors of our original or deduced styles might have done, and in the spirit of true art let us seek to dis- cover in what manner such appliances may enhance the special character at which we are aiming, and how the influence of that character may give new forms and new interests to the novel materials at our com- mand. In all this I suppose no deviation from those general laws which apply alike to all fine art ; nor is such departure ever really needed ; and should we find ourselves falling into such a course, we may rely upon it that the fault lies in our own imperfect perception of the true direction for our efforts. Having said thus much generally on what I conceive to be the true position of modem architecture and architects, I would enter more par- 13 ticularly upon the consideration of the leading principles on which their works are to be judged of ; and here I would observe, that while in its highest sense the term arcliitecture must be understood in its applica- tion to structures included in the general name of buildings, it should not, in my opinion, be limited to that sense ; and I would, notwith- standing Burke's general decision against definitions, and the numer- ous forms in which they have already been applied to architecture, venture to add one more to the number, and define architecture as ** the art of the beautiful in construction," thus extending its sphere to all subordinate departments of decorative structure, and including, by the wider term •' beautiful," aU other excellencies, tlie merely excellent in construction not necessarily implying the intellectual quahty — beauty. I mention this because I may make allusions, in illustrating my sub- ject, to objects which may seem beyond the pale of what is generally considered as architectural design. Architectural art, like its sisters, appeals to the understanding and feelings, through the eye, by three principal means, viz. : — form, grada- tion of light and shadow, (technically, chiar-oscuro,) and colour. Of these, in this art, as in the others kindred to it, form takes the first place, because, while alone the other two qualities can convey but indefinite though it may be pleasing impressions, form, when expressed only by the simplest outline, may, to the educated eye, afford very strong and distinct ones, and without undervaluing the qualities of colour and chiar-oscuro, they must always, I think, be held secondarj' to form. Form in architecture may be considered under two leading views, general form or composition, and contour, or form of distinct parts ; the former having its chief weight, I do not say its only one, in regard to large structures, the latter alike always to large and small. In judging of the forms used in architecture, several considerations must have place, as, unlike the sculptor and pauiter, the architect labours under the disadvantage of being frequently dictated to, not only by his patrons or employers, but by the materials, site, and purpose of his building ; and he alone also is unavoidably obliged to have his work criticised while in progress, a fruitful source of prejudices and false opinions, which the finished building, however excellent, can scarcely, with the contemporary generation, ever entirely bear down. The critic then should have the best information he can obtain as to the degree in which the architect has been bound by such restrictions, and supposing he find him to have acted freely, he should first consider in what way the form and arrangements of his work have been influenced by its 8it« : as, whether it be open or confined, in the former of which 14 cases he may be supposed to have adopted a horizontal sytem of com- position, in the latter a vertical one ; points again involving the choice of a style : as, if the site be in all respects best suited to horizontal composition, favouring extension of lines parrallel to the horizon, he would be ill-judging, unless strongly influenced by other weighty reasons, to adopt a style whose leading characteristics were opposed to that kind of composition ; and circumstances may occur, as I shall have occasion to show, in which no considerations of site or necessary arrangement as to composition will be sufficient to balance the weight of reasons on the other side. Conversely, should his site be best suited to a vertical com- position, he would be equally injudicious if he adopted one of horizontal character ; and indeed much more so, because — while a horizontal com- position in a style the leading character of which is vertical, is capable, by judicious grouping of parts, of attaining much of that vertical character — a vertical composition in a style characterised by horizontal lines can rarely be given a character in harmony with such lines. As examples of the latter case, I would instance most of Wren's church towers; and, as a noble instance of the former, the new Houses of Parliament. Another point which must greatly influence the choice of a style, and consequently the form which a structure will assume, is the nature of the associations connected with the class to which it may be- long. Such influences should give a preference, in my opinion, for a national style, (if not in itself bad,) for nationl purposes, more especially where religious and social feelings are aff'ected by the long use of any such style for religious or other purposes of great interest, as is the case with our own pointed styles as applied to churches and institutions for purposes of education. Where, however, the uses to which the building is to be applied, are not so associated historically, there can be no ground for strong objection to the adoption of any style harmonizing with those purposes ; and this point I would illustrate by the case of museums of antiquities, which, as institutions of modem origin, and often interesting in great part on account of their exhibiting what we have not much national association with, can scarcely be held of unsuitable architectural style, if that used be simply adapted to the physical necessities of the case. "The last point I shall notice under this head is the influence which use so powerfully exerts in the choice of a style, to which is mainly to be traced our general adoption for civil purposes, of styles which are certainly not national. The Italian architecture of the 16th century is that of a people much, in social position, resembling our own at present, and while at the time of the greatest splendour of our churches and abbeys, our towns and cities consisted, in great 15 part, of wooden framed houses, the wealthy commercial communities of Italy were adorning their streets and canals with some of the finest specimens of general town architecture which have ever existed; and in Rome and Florence the palaces of the great families of the period carried the style to the highest pitch of grandeur, as exemplified in the building generally admitted as best typifying its finest cliaracteristics — the Famese palace. The successful adaptation of this style to modem uses, especially on the great scale adopted in the club-houses of London, and lately in the town mansion of one of our own nobility, conveys the best idea I can afford of the perfect adaptation of an exotic style. I will exemplify this further, by such illustrations as I have been able to bring together, three of which are from our own locality. The buildings erected for the purpose of offices in Brunswick-street, afford a good instance among others here of the successful use of a purely Italian style for general purposes; ajid a beautiful house front from Hull, of refined Venetian character, is, I think, the very best example I have seen in England of adapting a rather inti*actable style to a very confined and difficult site ; the architect is Mr. Brodrick, of Hull, to whose kind- ness I am indebted for the use of his design, A villa, at New Brighton, by the same architect as Brunswick-buildings, Mr. G. Williams, is another very happy instance of successful adaptation ; and, in situations unlike those wooded seclusions in which our forefathers delighted, and with which the use of gothic architecture for domestic purposes is principally associated, this Italian character of house, much like many scattered through the valley of the Arno, is admirably suited, both as regards pleasing effect and fitness, to modem comfort. As regards choice of material, influencing as it must the general character of a building, both in its masses and its decoration, there are plain considerations which should not be lost sight of either by architect or critic. In almost every position those materials are most suitable which are indigenous, as best suiting its climate and harmonising best with its natural features. The neglect of this point has defaced many a charming scene by exotic and inharmonious architecture; striking examples of which are exhibited in our own lake district, in which, in many instances, a suburban villa of most cockney spruceness, may be seen intruding its plastered face, where an honest, mgged, thick-walled rubble front of native undisguised stone, would have rather added to than detracted from the character of the natural scenery. This was strongly insisted on by the poet Wordsworth, and where his advice has been followed, the gain to the beauty of the country and the relief to the lover of the picturesque is indescribable. Material, again, should be tme and real, a point also pressed again and agaui on unheeding ears ; 16 for when a man can have ornament almost endless in stucco and putty, when the painter can imitate for him the rarest and most costly woods, why should he be content with plainly-wrought stone or moulded brick, and why should he believe that plain unvarnished (or varnished) deal is better than sham oak ? Because it is honest and true, and the sham when discovered, as it always is, becomes, to the beholder, of less value than a much inferior reality. To architects this is a point of constant trial, at least I know it is to many, and the man of good architectural taste would, I believe, far rather go down to posterity as the author of one honest, sterling, well-executed, characteristic, though plain unoniate building, than of a score of such elaborate specimens of laborious plaster-work, the constant object of whose existence is to support a deception. Material should not be costly beyond the proper character of the work it is used for ; if it is, the idea is conveyed that other portions have been neglected to make it prominent ; but it should not be mean, as whether such be the fact or not, it will appear as if to save cost the work had not been carried through in a manner of equality of excellence. The subject of material leads me to speak of a defect in its applica- tion to exotic architecture, which strongly, in my opinion, calls for con- demnation. In Greek architecture the parts of the order were propor- tioned with the nicest care, and their weights and strengths, to the fine cohesive marbles in which their builders wrought. We adopt the style, but not the material, and because our English sandstone will not bear weight in the same degree as Grecian marble, we suffer our buildings to shame us with their broken architraves and gaping joints, sad evidences of following fashion rather than principle. Either let us work in material suited to the proportions we want, or seeking out the principles of our original, re-construct our orders on proportions suited to our materials ; or let us abandon the style at once. Mr. Ruskin, — in his work " The Stones of Venice," which I am glad to be able, in some cases, to refer to, because from its general tenor I entirely dissent, — has some good observations, expressed however in somewhat of his often over-wrought manner, on our modern use of the Greek style and its lack of meaning and vitality in our hands ;* and there are besides reasons which Mr. Ruskin does not allude to, why we can scarcely practise this style with much success, a chief one being that as implied by ♦ " The Greek system pre-supposes tlie possession of a Phidias: it is ridiculous to talk of building in the Greek manner; you may build a Greek sliell or bo.\, such as the Greek intended to contain sculpture, but you have not the sculpture to put in it. Find your Phidias first," &c., &c. Chap, xxi., § viii. 17 Vitruvius, but long doubted, and now proved by modern investigation, the Greek architects adopted a system of rounding their lines, (on some principle the foundation of which is still obscure,) to remedy the appearance of hollowness assumed by straight lines when viewed in perspective ; the reason for this being similar to that for making large columns of a convexly curved outline, known as their entasis, and much exaggerated in corrupt styles ; but a knowledge of the angle of vision, under which the Greek lines were to be viewed, would afford a key to their system yet wanting. I have prepared a diagram which explains the optical necessity for this *' entasis, " which I believe is not generally familiar. I have digressed somewhat from my immediate topic, but hasten to resume my subject. In construction, that is always preferable which commends itself at once to the eye, and, when based upon geometrical arrangement, doubly so. The factitious architecture of the last two centuries (except- ing always that of Wren, as exemplified by St. Pauls,) has led to a neglect of this beautiful foundation for all architectural structures; but half the charms of the best works are owing to its presence, even when not clearly perceived ; and if symmetry be aimed at, as it ever will be by a constructor of artist-like feeling, this is almost the only means of ensuring it. In the best days of pointed architecture this was well known, and a plan of the polygonal or circular nave of the Temple church, which I have brought, exemplifies (though an early specimen) the system much more fully developed in the succeeding phases of the style. A ^vindow from Old St. Chad s Church, Shrewsbury, exhibits the principle as applied to details, and investigation proves its existence throughout most of the mediaeval structures. In the vaulting of St. Paul's the same principle is carried out with still greater precision, as the gothic architects were less careful of exactness in the finish than in the skeleton of their work ; but throughout Wren's stone' roofing the most exquisite precision of intersections, and perfect geometrical truth of subdivision in the decorative panelling, makes it an almost unparalleled example of constructive architecture. I say nothing of the concealment of his flying buttresses, which a gothic designer would have made sources of external beauty. Wren's faults were those of his school — his beauties were all his own. Before leaving this part of my subject, I would institute a comparison, in respect of form, between the three great cupolas of Europe — ^those of St. Peter's at Rome, the Duomo of Florence, and our own St. Paul's, of which I have supplied drawings ; such a comparison aflfords me occa- sion to point out the pre-eminent value of form as a source of archi- tectuml value. 4 18 Of these three celebrated structures, that of Florence is, in construc- tion, incomparably the boldest; that of St. Peter's the richest and grandest in material ; and St. Paul's, though inferior in both respects to its competitors, is in point of form so superior, as to rank, as a source of pleasure to the mind, far above either. That of Florence is of simple but excellent brick, in the form of a double vault, with one chain of timber bond near its base, and it stands without fracture or injury as first built. St. Peter's is of massive stone, elaborately wrought, but so far from well balanced as to be frac- tured in all directions, and held together by iron inserted from time to time in a variety of shapes, all urgently needed for its conservation. St. Paul's is a mere lead roof over a cone of brick work, admirably suited for dumbility, but not strictly a cupola save in appearance; yet who can look on it, as it rears its head above the smoke of London, and not confess that it is unequalled as a study of beautiful and harmonious form. As regards construction, a point of importance in my opinion is to convey, as far as possible, the impression of complete stability from the mere forces of gi'avitation ; and I have found that disturbance of pleasureable contemplation is often occasioned by the appearance of parts acting as ties rather than supports, and this applies specially to iron structures, and tends in my opinion seriously to unfit them for conveying the impression of satisfactory architecture ; though when used on the principle of gravitating force, as in the Southwark bridge, and that proposed by Mr. Stephenson for the Menai Straits, but set aside by the Admiralty authorities, I see no reason why fine results should not be obtained from it. I would generally observe, that composition and structure are good in proportion as they mutually, aid each other, and that architecture is ' most perfect where no concealment of construction is needed to heighten the effect of the composition or details. My remarks are perforce very much generalized, and in touching upon ornament I must confine myself to narrow limits. I would say that all ornament is bad which in any way interferes with a composition, which on its part, as to general form, should be indepen- dent also of oniament ; and further, that ornament, which does not aid in carrying out the general character aimed at in the composition, is superfluous and better away. To how much ornament this will apply, especially in a day of stucco and paint, I need hardly say ; but if solidity and dignity of character, rather than elaboration and richness, were aimed at, the cost expended on many modern buildings would be better bestowed, while fully engrossed. Ornament should be wrought with more regard than is generally shewn to the fact, that it is to harmonize with, while it softens, the severe lines of architectural features. The Oreeks knew this, and therefore they generalized their forms from natural types ; and I was lately much struck, amid the overflowings of retiaissatice ornament in the French, and of Elizabethan in the English department of the Exhibition in Hyde Park, by the rest and refreshment to the eye afforded by the exquisitely designed decorations of an ebony table by Hancock, which, inlaid in silver with an ornament of chaste Etruscan character, formed one of the gems of that wonderful assemblage, and to my mind the best example and lesson on ornamentation any where to be found there. The gothic architects felt this necessity of generalizing ornament in their best days, and exquisitely life-like as is much of their foliage enrich- ment, there never appears to have been a point in which the character to be preserved was forgotten, but a crisp conventional contoiu: was ever preserved, which adapted it to its office, and kept it to its work. Lastly, with respect to ornament, I would observe, that in whatever style, it should be derived in all its leading characters from nature, and, however ingeniously adapted to the necessities of its position and asso- ciations, its natural origin should still appear; while, as professedly ornament, it should never aspire to the character which belongs to sculpture and painting as fine arts ; and for this reason, that these being kindred arts with architecture, and their place ever most appropriate when associated with her, an injurious and false effect would certainly arise by a competition in value between their productions and the mere accessories of their architectural accompaniments. It is remarkable, that among the numerous and elaborate works on fine art criticism which have in late years been produced, none has been so just in treating on its higher principles as the concise but profound treatise of Burke ; and I never take up that book without feeling how much more of truth there is in his direct appeals to human emotions, and the manner in which art affects them, than in the fine- spun though ingenious speculations of later writers ; and I confess that even Allison, with all his refinement and acuteness, has never enlisted my sympathies in his views of the metaphysics of art, in the manner in which I find them engrossed by Burke. One reason of this, I think, is, that Burke s knowledge of human nature, and great power of reason- ing on its tendencies, prevented his enlarging upon those minor details of feeling into which men generally never enquire, and into which, if they make research, they find themselves, I believe, little the wiser ; and I believe that more will be done by inculcating broad principles, generally applicable to the arts, than by any attempt to lay down dogmatically a code of laws, I should rather say rules, for the practice of any one. ^0 The importance of art to human happiness, I mean of course as a secondary source, I am fully convinced of; and I lately met with a striking passage incidentally occurring in a well-known periodical, the " Builder," in wliich the writer earnestly and most truly dwelt upon the difference of feeling experienced by men living in a confined, ill-built, and irregular town, and those who, each day as they traversed the streets in pursuit of their avocations, should perceive themselves surrounded with the produc- tions of minds regulated by the study of system and order, and practised to convey to their fellow-men, through the aspect of even humble edifices, impressions of that beauty which they have themselves learned to delight in. I wish I could have quoted the passage, but I failed to re-discover it, and I can only adopt its sentiment, which I know to be real and true ; and in the hope that its truth, and the entire possibility of what it pictures, may by degrees be appreciated, and in a measure realized. In bringing this brief sketch to a somewhat abrupt conclusion, I cannot but confess that I am conscious of having most imperfectly fulfilled the promise of my title, but the subject is so copious, and its condensation so diflficult, that T must rely on your sense of those facts for indulgence towards the mere outline of its features which I have been able to present. THIRD MEETING. RoYAT. Institution. — November 17, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c.. President, in the chair. Mr. Edward Banner, Mr. Robert Worrall Anderson, Mr. Joseph Carter Redish, Mr. George Hunt, and Mr. William Bean, were elected Ordinary Members. The President read the following communication from Mr. William Lassell, F.R.S., &c., upon his discovery of TWO NEW SATELLITES OF URANUS. I first saw the new satellites on the 24th of last month, and had then a strong impression that they would prove to be attendants of the planet. I obtained further observations of them on the 28th and 80th 21 of October, and on the 2nd instant ; and I found tliat all the observa- tions were well satisfied, for so short an interval, by a period of revolu- tion of four days for the outermost and two days and five-tenths for the innermost. They are most minute objects, having probably much less than lialf the brightness of the second and fourth, (the two conspicuous ones,) though on the 2nd instant the whole four appeared at once in my telescope, charged with a power of 778 times. I enclose diagrams of the configuration of the satellites as they appeared on each of the four nights above mentioned. For the infonuation of those not conversant with these minute objects, I may state that Sir William Herschel attributed to this planet six satelUtes, of which the two first were discovered on or about the 9th of February, 1787, (Vide Phil. Tmns. for that year); and in the Phil. Trans, for 1798 he gave an account of the discovery of four additional satellites. Sir William Herschel has also a further paper on the same subject in the vol. for 1815. Of these six, only the first two have ever been certamly recognised by any other observer, so far as I am informed. On the 12th instant I again saw these two new satellites, along with the old bright ones, though in such an unfavorable state of the sky that I was only able to obtain a single measure of the one marked III., and estimations of positions of the others. With these data I calculated the positions for the 12th of November to be severally: IV.= 2°, III.= 115°, II.= 99°. and I.= 330° (II. and I. being the newly discovered satellites.) Their observed positions were: 1V.= 5°, III.= 112°, II.= 131°, and I.= 332°, which gives a period of 4,150 days for II., and 2,506 for I. These seem to me to be as satisfactory as could possibly be anticipated, and sufficiently establish their elements for future recognition at the very least. Opportunities have not yet been afforded me of obtaining accurate measures of the distances of these satellites from Uranus, but such estimations as I have been able to make agree sufficiently well with the theoretical distance which the observed periods give. It is evident that these newly discovered satellites are closer to the planet than any of Sir William Herschels six, the nearest of which had a period assigned to it by him of 5 days and about 21 hours. I have to apologize for the hasty manner in which this account is drawn up. It is, I fear, deficient in clearness, having deferred almost to the last moment to prepare it ; and, moreover, being unable personally to attend, to afford any required explanation. It is at least essential to add, that the degrees are reckoned from the north point, round by the eastern side, to the north again. A Paper was read by the Rev. A. Hume, D.C.L., LL.D., of which the following is an abstract : — NOTES ON ENGLISH POPULAR LITERATURE. In the days of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, and subsequently in the Norman times of England, there was a literature, but it could not be called popular. To the masses of the people it was known only by report ; and some even of the *' learned clerks" had but a small amount of knowledge, and scanty materials on which to operate. Before the art of printing was made known to the world, it was a natural and almost a necessaiy consequence that knowledge should be wanting in the common people. One of the most marked effects of the printing press was, that it created a literature for the people. It furnished reading for the learned, and reading for the unlearned ; and thus it divided the literary stream into two distinct channels. For the higher orders there were books, for the lower there were '* broadsides " — the latter being somewhat like our common ballads, but printed in black letter. The books again differed according to the parties addressed, as they do now ; some delighting in the Scriptures, others in breviaries and lives of the saints, and some no doubt preferring to these the " royal game of chess." But the stout yeomanr}' and artisans, the worthy guilds and corporations, the villagers at ale-house or market-place, and the good wives all over the country, were contented with a smaller amount of intellectual food. They sang the traditional songs of jolly Robin Hood, and they rejoiced that such could now be more perfectly preserved than when they passed from mouth to mouth. They could sympathise, too, with the outlaw ; for young and old were familiar with the green wood, and almost every grown man was practised in the broad-sword exercise, the quarter-staff, and the long-bow. They refreshed their minds respecting the history of their country by scraps from the ancient chronicles, or by legends of former kings and queens ; and they increased the glow of their patriotism by ballads like " Chevy Chase," which contrasted them with the Scotch, or the " Tribute Money," written against the French. Many of these are still in existence ; and they constitute a storehouse for the antiquary, furnishing, as they do, curious pictures of society in the days of those who used them. Between that period and the present occurred a sort of mediaeval sera in our popular literature. The proportion of uneducated was gradually diminishing, and the learned were becoming less exclusive. In the days of Shakspeare, the principal facts of ancient history were made current through the means of small cheap tracts; and the lessons which he 23 learned from these, — respecting Julius Caesar, Timon of Athens, Corio- lanus, Cleopatra, Hamlet the Dane, and others, — he re-modelled, so as to fit them for those who were auditors only, not readers. Dramatic entertainments were, therefore, a great means of popular advancement at that period; just as, some centuries before, the curious "miracle plays" had been at Chester, Coventry, and other cities. They were got up by the clergy, and acted by the trades'-people, in order to familiarize the populace with the facts in Scripture history. In the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth century, the varieties differed little from those of the present day ; but the supply was different, and the grade less advanced. Broadsides were still numerous, but a higher class was fast supplanting them. Every trifling event gave rise to a pamphlet or tract ; and these were so numerous that it was sometimes impossible, then as now, to collect all that were issued on one particular subject. Their multiplicity was owing to the fact tliat the modem newspaper was unknown. Each of fifty articles which now appear in the Times would have formed the subject of a tract. One recorded "a most cruell shipwreck," that had happened on some part of our coasts, the title-page serving for a table of contents. Another told of the burning of a house, with dubious stories of the number of persons consumed in their beds ; and a third kept crowds of listeners in mute astonishment, as it recorded feats of witchcraft, and the punishment of some one whose want of youth and good looks had left her a prey to vulgar superstition. Another recorded the siege of a foreign town by an eye witness, and was headed by a glaring woodcut, perhaps quite as correct as some of those in our own illustrated periodicals. There were popular songs in great numbers, with and without music, records of monsters, wonderful cures, extm- ordinary lives and deaths, and narratives of the discoveries of strange lands. We may smile at these productions, as we do at the wigs buckles and ponderous canes of our grandfathers : but let us not forget that they have all in turn and time served their purpose. The term " Literature" is sometimes used in an extended sense, our English literature including works on mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry ; and " Science," in like manner, is made to refer to the systematic treatment of almost any subject, as the science of history, geography, or music. Speaking more strictly, science proceeds from simpler prmciples to more complicated, and each step requires an acquaintance with the previous ones ; literature, on the contrary, consists of portions which are in a great degree independent of each other. Even before this distinction existed, and when both were classed under the common head of knowledge, that which was possessed by the more learned differed from that which was possessed by the less, not only in degree or quantity, but in kind. 24 But the general tendency has always been to popularise both ; to make them accessible to the masses, and thus to increase the number of their votaries. Literature, therefore, resembles a valuable article of commerce, or product of manufactures. In one age, its rarity makes it a fit decoration for the hall of a prince ; in another, it imparts a lustre to the poor man's cottage. The progress of certain branches of litera- ture is curious. Geography was at first merely " the wonders of the world ;" English Grammar, as a subject of general education, originated with Lindley Murray ; Pronunciation cannot be said to be older than the time of Sheridan ; nor a settled Orthography than the days of Johnson. Philology and Ethnography belong to the present genera- tion ; and Elocution, in both its departments, is still unknown to the public, though Spalding has systematized action, and Rush utterance. The progress of literature, as compared with science, is another point of interest. Not many years ago, a startling treatise was written respecting •' the decline of science" in England ; and so exclusive was the devotion of the public at that time to fiction, that there was danger of science being practically banished from the land. The most common- place novel was sure to meet with a certain amount of success, while some exalted triumph of the human intellect, from finding few readers, might never repay the cost of publication. A great change for the better has however been brought about, partly no doubt by represen- tations such as these, and partly by the establishing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1831. It summons the ablest men, in their respective departments, from every point in the British Islands, and invites the concurrence and assistance of foreigners ; it divides the general subject into its piincipal branches, under the superintendence of men well qualified, and it visits the principal towns of the kingdom, publishing its results annually. After all the meetings which it has held, and the signal benefits which it has conferred upon science and the countiy, it may be said of it, that " its eye is not dim, nor its natural force abated." The pendulum, however, must oscillate both ways. The British Association was the result of a reaction from literature to science ; and, after it had existed for twelve years, similar congresses were suggested on behalf of literature. Why should not the architect, the historian, the theologian, the poet and the antiquary, unite to uphold their common cause, as well as the mere men of science ; and to light up many tapers with their own torch from point to point over the kingdom ? The result was the establishment of three such societies, instead of one, which itinerate annually through England and Wales. Let it not be said that these subjects are above populair literature or 26 unconnected with it ; they are in reality the springs which influence and direct its movements. The gulf which was fixed between the knowledge of the learned and that of more simple men is diminishing yearly, each party approaching nearer to the other. Many of our popular series of works are the recognized text books of the learned ; and men of Euro- pean reputation do not ^hesitate to become occasional contributors to works of general circulation. The proceedings of the British Associa- tion, too, have influenced the mechanic at his bench, the manufacturer in his warehouse, the miner in the bowels of the earth, the traveller in unknown lands, and the mariner under every star, *• who goes down to the sea in ships." In like manner, the proceedings of the Archseolo- gical Societies have influenced the possessors of property and the custo- dians of it in every parish of the country ; and have shown that property, especially where it is of ancient date, "has duties as well as rights." The hand of ignorance which, like a destroying angel, was sweeping over the monuments in every part of the kingdom, is stayed. The devasta- tions of time and accident are repaired. The eyes of Argus peer into every excavation and cutting, and objects apparently of no importance are carefully classed and described, and invested with historic interest. When such subjects as heraldry, antiquity, genealogy, church architec- ture, mediaeval literature, and obsolete customs, are made familiar to the least initiated, it surely must be acknowledged that our popular literature is greatly enriched. In consequence of the multitude of books which issue from the press in our days, a guide to some general selection becomes indispensable. Hence the system of reviewing, which originated in France in 1655, and in England in 1688, though it was not till comparatively modern times that it assumed its present form. Unfortunately, most of our Reviews are the property of publishers ; and though this fact need not influence their criticisms, it is found in practice that it does. Others are the pro- perty of private individuals, and this objection is removed ; but it is said that there axe other influencing causes, such as the number of advertise- ments given. On the whole, however, the guidance is good and useful, and the cases in which the race is withheld from the swift or the battle from the strong, are few and exceptional. The system of advertising, co-ordinately with that of reviewing, has become a sort of necessity ; and some who understand it much better than others, keep their names con- tinually before the public. Hence, as in other cases, it is not always the most meritorious who succeed, but often the most importunate. One evil of the advertising system is, that when an author has become a known favourite mth the public, he sometimes takes gi*eat liberties with his subject and his readers, presuming generally on a favourable 5 ^6 reception. Or, perhaps he indulges in frequent violations of estahlished principles, which, though they may "make the unthinking laugh," cannot but "make the judicious grieve." Thus, a writer whom we shall call X, professes to be a describer of Irish manners, yet he can only be regarded as such by those to whom Irish manners are totally unknown. His battle scenes can be recognised as taken in almost every instance from "Napier's History of the Peninsular War;" the events in the life of a hero are such as could not be crowded into any one brief existence ; the lovers are such as would find small favour with any lady of spirit or intelligence; and the facts contain the most obvious anachronisms, the manners of a period seventy years past being inter- woven with the occurrences of yesterday. Another, whom we may denominate Y, is the author of a book that may be called " the novel of the moment," for it was written without previous intention or plan, or almost without effort. A single paper which appeared in the pages of a montlily magazine, stating the blunders and mistakes of an Irish gossoon, was so relished by newspaper and other readers, that several remarked, " We are quite impatient to see the continuation." Now, far from the paper requiring a continuation, it was complete in itself ; but such flattering invitations were not to be resisted, and a second part appeared. It was a continuation, but on the whole an injurious one ; it was humorous, however, and that was enough for the multitude who desire to " laugh to be fat." The writer was tempted too by a new system of publication in shilling numbers, at irregular intervals ; new characters were introduced to form new and intermediate chapters ; yet nearly six chapters were written, before the two sets of characters came to be related to each other, or before the mechanical combination exhibited fusion into one homogeneous mass. Even then, the writer seemed to continue the narrative, as his countrymen say, " from hand to mouth ;" and at almost any point, the termination of the story might have been three volumes distant, or only three pages. Another writer, deservedly popular, is Z ; yet he, too, sometimes takes liberties with his subject and his readers, which we are scarcely prepared to admit. His errors are of two kinds, some arising from the piecemeal system of publication which he was the first to introduce, and some that are specially his own. An example of the former occurred in his first great work, the style of which was changed, and its whole tone and character altered, after the first few numbers were published. Yet so long was it in the course of publication that his readers had forgot the point at which they commenced, and few would have noticed the transi- tion had the writer not pointed it out in the preface. In one of his ablest productions, the Homeric distinctness of character is carried to 27 an extent that almost amounts to caricature. Thus, the principal character is a sort of mild angelic being, of whom virtue and harm- lessness are the most prominent features ; a second is all brutality ; a third is all fun ; a fourth vulgar sensuality ; a fifth selfishness ; and a sixth low cunning. With this last writer, we have a more serious difference still. In his fictitious narratives, he is not merely the witness recording facts, the pub- lic he'ing quasi jurors and auditors, but he is also an advocate giving the facts a peculiar colouring. He seems in general to write down the men, and up the women ; and though we smile at the tendency, it is sometimes a matter of serious import. On the principle of pride, for example, in the husband and father it is highly objectionable and amounts to an unpar- donable crime ; in the wife it is a fact without comment, or rather an additional jewel in her coronet. The father, too, loves one child more than another ; and though it is seen incidentally that no wrong is done to to either, this is a second crime of immense magnitude. The writer seems forget a great fact in human nature, that it is scarcely possible to estimate two persons equally, either from some difference in their intrinsic value, or from the imperfection of our judgment. The child values his parents differently ; the brother his brothers and sisters ; the friend his friends ; the teacher his pupils ; and the pupil his teachers. In addition to this, the nations of the world give precedence to sons who continue the name and family, not to daughters; and even among sons, precedence is given to the eldest. If the much-abused father were really in error, there is a very large number who must be put into the indictment, not excepting, we suspect, the writer himself. A patriarch regarded with peculiar affec- tion the children of one mother, and even one of her two sons ; nor is a higher example wanting, where among twelve there was a beloved disciple. Yet, with all this apparent sensitiveness on the subject of right and wrong, the book contains some instances of remarkable laxity. There is no condemnation of the lady who was utterly careless as to the comfort or enjoyment of the guests within her husband s threshold. And the last fatal step which a wife can take, is recorded simply as a fact ; without the disapprobation which the writer had so freely expressed on trifling matters before, though it almost entailed suicide on her dis- tracted husband. There is an opening left, too, for the obvious inference which many would not fail to dmw, that when a father is worked up to madness by the greatest wrong which human nature can sustain, when he has strong reason to believe that his daughter is privy to his degra- dation, when his life and fortune are to him but as a drop in the bucket, yet if he should dare to give that daughter a hasty stroke with the hand, she is wan-anted in leaving the shelter of the paternal roof, and seeking Q8 the companionsliip of strangers. The favourable termiuatiou of the tale is no apology for the introduction of such fatal principles ; and they come home to the bosom of every man, when he supposes that his own wife or sister is the person for whom such a defence is offered. With every kindly feeling, therefore, for a writer who has deserved well of the public, one may be excused for saying, in the language of one of his Clitics — " Brother, no more of this." In general, however, the tendency of our popular literature is upward ; so that the mass of useful knowledge is at once extended and elevated. This is as it should be, and gives us hope that in future years the thousands of our people will as far surpass those of our own days, as those of our times, in their general characteristics, surpass the brute-force men of the olden time. FOURTH MEETING. KoYAL Institution. — December 1, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Peesident, in the chair. Mr. John Leigh Clare, Mr. James Dowie, and Mr. John Thomas TowsoN, were elected Ordinary Members. The following Paper was read by Willlam Ihne, Esq., Ph.D., ON THE TENURE OF LAND AMONGST THE ROMANS. As far back as the light of history can penetrate into the darkness of the primeval ages of our race, it shows, in every country and in every nation, traces of violence and war ; nor is there at the present day any race of savages, however low in the scale of humanity, however unac- quainted with the sentiments, habits, arts, and practices of civilized nations, whose skill and industry has not reached to the manufacture of weapons as instruments for aggression or defence. It may therefore be laid down as a general law, that every state of which history has to treat owes its origin to conquest. The Assyrians, the Medes, the Persians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Macedonians, the trading Phoenicians, their descendants the Carthagenians, and finally, the Romans, were in succession conquerors; and upon the ruins of that Q9 mighty aggregate of conquests, the Roman empire, the various states of modern Europe were founded by invasion and aggression. Nor was force employed only in the formation of states. It was and is still needed, even among peaceably disposed nations, among other pur- poses, for the protection of the national boundaries. Thus it is natural that the state at all times should have regarded the land upon which it had established itself as its own property, and that, whilst granting the possession and use of it to the individuals of which the nation was com- posed, it should have reserved to itself a sovereign right of property. Individual property in land is therefore essentially different in its origin from individual property in moveables. Landed property is always directly or indirectly a grant from the state, and held by the consent of society, subject to such restrictions and burdens as the welfare of the state may seem to dictate. The right to the exclusive possession and enjoyment of the products of skill or ingenuity rests, by a natural law, with the producer ; but land is not the product of human industry, and it was appropriated by society before it was brought into cultivation, before skill and labour had enhanced its value; or, it was forcibly wrested by those who had done nothing to improve it, from those who had spent time and labour in making it productive. It is upon these historical and speculative grounds that the legal notions concerning property in land have been based at all times. The state, whilst granting or recognising full private property in moveables, has always claimed for itself an original property in the land, overruling the rights of individuals as necessity, expediency, or policy might dic- tate. In the despotic monarchies of Asia, in China, India, Persia, the great landowner is the state, embodied and represented in the monarch. As the despotism of the East does not admit of an hereditary aristocracy to fill the space between the monarch and the tiller of the land, the latter is brought into immediate contact with the sovereign as his land- lord, and his political subjection is aggravated and perpetuated by his social dependence. In his case it is a matter of doubt, whether what he pays to his sovereign landlord should be called taxes or rent, for in truth it is both the one and the other. There is every reason to believe that the arrangement just alluded to has existed in Asia under every successive line of rulers, from time immemorial. The Moguls and Arabs established it at their respective conquests, and the Turks did the same ; but it must not be supposed that they became acquainted with it only in the conquered districts, and that they would not have introduced it if they had not found it established among the people they conquered. The same system must have been familiar to them in their native steppes and deserts ; for what individual 'M) property in land could any one member of a nomadic community have had, who depended entirely upon the movements of the tribe, drove his cattle and pitched his tents where he was protected by the number of his fellows ? We need not therefore confine ourselves to Asia for evidences of the phenomenon in question. " The whole soil of the Society Islands belongs to the sovereign ; he portions out among the nobles, and makes and resumes grants at his pleasure. "^S' No absolute individual property in land was recognized among the Mexicans and Peruvians during the period of their independence. All the land belonged to the state, and in Peru was periodically resumed by the state, and parcelled out again among the people. The Germans, in the time of Caesar and Tacitus, had no piivate property in land. Every cultivator had land assigned to him by the community, and was shifted annually to another loca- tion. These constant changes were much facilitated by the vast tracts of unoccupied land, as might be expected in a thinly peopled country. Moreover, as agriculture was little practised, the wealth of the ancient Germans consisting chiefly in cattle, we may presume that little skill or capital was expended on the small portions of land actually under tillage, and that the length and breadth of the country resembled a vast common, which in reality it was. Among the Germanic con- querors of Western and Southern Europe, all the conquered land was claimed by the sovereign ; but the aristocratic institutions of our northern ancestors did not allow the mass of the people to be subjected to the will of one : they broke the monotony of general servi- tude by establishing a powerful nobility between the monarch and the people. The barons, the peers of the king, shared to a great extent in the privilege which the state conferred upon its representatives. For in an aristocracy, it is the body of nobles which makes up the legal person of the state. Hence in mediaeval Europe, though the state was still, in theory, the owner of all the land, and the king the lord suserain of all his vassals, yet, practically, a limited ownership was conferred upon the freemen, of w^hich the nation consisted. In England the crown is still, in legal language, the owner of the soil, and the highest title a subject can claim is that of tenant of the fee, and the terms of his tenancy made originally the only difference in the extent of interests in estates. Nor is this right of the crown theo- retical only. The crown claims and sells all the waste lands in the colonies ; and the same is done by the republican government of the United States, which is the acknowledged owner of the vast extent of unsettled territory between the Mississippi and the Pacific. At the colonization of Canada by the French, in the 17th century, the land of • Narrative of a Visit to Brazils, &c , by C. F. Mathison. the whole colony was claimed by the crown, and granted in portions of from 9 to 36 square leagues, called seignories, i.e. manors, to certain nobles or leading men, who were bound to grant (or " concede," as it was called,) certain portions to actual cultivators, and received from them certain fixed rents of small amount, services, and other dues. The lands comprised in the seignorial districts amount to 9,000,000 acres. Enough has been said to show how old and general is the principle which invests the state with the property of the soil. Let us now inquire what are the different modes in which this right is practically used. The nations of Asia, ancient and modem, as already mentioned, lodged the right of the state in a single individual, the sovereign, to be exercised by him in the name of the state. This has led throughout Asia to the system of ryot tenancy. The ryot is the hereditary occu- pier and cultivator of the soil, subject to pay to his landlord, i. e. to the sovereign, a fixed proportion of the produce as rent or taxes ; his tenure has been more or less secure, according to the caprice of his rulers or the political circumstances of the country. New conquerors would naturally assert their right as owners of the soil, by a new division of it, so far as their interest demanded, and by a new arrangement of the conditions of tenure; but in peaceful times, and under mild rulers, (not a very common case, unfortunately, in the history of Asia,) the ryot would have a prescriptive right of possession so long as he per- formed the obligations imposed upon him. It is well known, that the British Government in Bengal has divested itself of the character of landlord, and has conferred the property in the soil upon the Zemindars, who, up to that time, had been merely agents of the government — a sort of hereditary tax-gatherers. The government receives now no rent, but a real tax, a land tax from the newly created landlords. The conditon of the ryot in India, Persia, and the other Asiatic countries, has been at all times most deplorable. Exposed to the rapacity of the agents of a tyrannical government, they have never been able to rise above the mere necessaries of bare existence; and though reduced to live upon what would barely support life, they have yet been depressed still lower by the necessity of bon'owing seed-corn, food, or stock, from the Zemindars. Different has been the lot of the tillers of the land in the north-east of Europe. In Russia, Poland, and Hungary, the serf takes the place of the ryot. When the conquered lands were portioned out and granted to the nobility in those countries, the ancient cultivators of the soil were given away with the land. Their services to the state were made to consist in labour on such portions of land as were farmed by the 3Q nobles directly, whilst they depended for their support on small allot- ments, to which they geneniUy acquired an hereditary title. It is unnecessary to say tliat this arrangement is far from securing even a moderate degree of happiness among the great mass of the people. It places a power in the hands of the nobility too apt to be abused, and it tends to reduce the serf more and more to the level of a slave. Into western Europe this system, was only partially introduced by the Genuan invadei*s. Here a system of tenure has prevailed for ages, and still prevails, differing essentially from the ryot tenure of Asia, and the serf tenure of eastern Europe — it is the metayer system of France, Italy, and Spain. The cultivator has a more precarious tenure, being a tenant at will ; but his personal liberty is not exposed to encroachments on the part of his landlord, and his rent is fixed. It is a produce rent, generally consisting of one-half, the landlord contributing a greater or less proportion of the necessary stock, according to the variations of local custom or private arrangement. The majority of the metayers, however, are in anything but a thriving condition ; they are constantly in debt to their landlords for advances in times of distress. The margin of profit left to them after deducting the rent is so very small, that the commonest misfortune — a short crop, an illness, a public calamity — reduces it to nothing, and throws them upon their landlords for support. This constant indebtedness thus seems quite an essential feature in all peasant tenures among the ryots, the serfs, and the metayers, so much so, that where it is mentioned as a notorious fact (as of the Gaulish peasants by Caesar,-) we may safely conclude that those peasants are in a state of subjection similar to that of ryots, serfs, or metayers. After this short survey of the chief forms of tenure of land, let us now turn our attention to classical antiquity, and inquire into the laws or customs that regulate these matters among the Greeks and Romans. The first proposition, which will hardly need any proof, is this, that both in Italy and Greece the soil was looked upon as the pro- perty of the state. The Spartan constitution emphatically declared the state the owner of all the soil in Laconia, and the freedom with which the Greek republics generally were able to re-arrange the conditions of landed property, shows that the same law prevailed everywhere. Among the Romans it was a maxim of law, that the newly conquered land fell to the state ; and in the provinces the only proprietor of the soil was the Roman people, and afterwards the Emperor.j The next question • CsBS bell. gall. I. 4. Orgetorix ad indicium omnera suam faniiliam undique coegit et omtie* clientes obaeratosque suos eodem comluxit- + Gaiu8 II, § 7 and 28. 3d now is, whether the cultivators of the land held it of the state directly or indirectly. The decision is not very difficult. Where we can discern such strongly marked differences of rank and political privileges in the members of a community — as in the Athenian Eupatridae and Thetes, in the Spartan freemen and their helots, in the ThessaHan knights and the Penestae, in the Roman Patricians and the suffering Plebeians — we shall be a priori inclined to find in the ruling class a body of landlords, and in the other a body of tenants. With respect to the Athenian Thetes, this is proved to be correct, by a state- ment of Plutarch, who tells us that they paid one-sixth of the produce to the nobles, whence arose their name of tjer»;;i6ptoi. The Spartan helots were not only domestic slaves, but, for the most part, predial bondmen, more in the position of Sclavonic or Teutonic serfs than the Thetes of Attica. As for the Roman Plebeians, their condition is the chief subject of our inquiry, and we must therefore enter into this matter a little more fully. Of the origin of the Roman state and nation, indeed, we cannot say that we know anything for certain ; but so much may be affirmed confi- dently, that the Roman empire formed no exception to the general rule, but was founded on conquest. Traces of this truth have been preserved in the ancient traditions of the Roman people, though it is easily per- ceived that national pride has been at work to obliterate them ; for that the invincible and eternal Roma should have been subdued by a hostile army, even in her infancy, would have been considered too humbling an acknowledgment in a patriotic Roman annalist. Nevertheless we hear of a war of the aboriginal Romans, under Romulus, with their powerful neighbours, the Sabines ; in which war the latter take possession not only of the Quirinal hill,»but even of the Capitol and the citadel. The possession of this place implies not only the independence but the superiority of the Sabine immigrants or invaders, and we consequently hear of a Sabine king, Tatius, sharing the government with Romulus ; of an equal number of Sabines added to the old Roman senate ; of the state, in short, being divided between the two nations ; and after the death of the mythical founder of Rome, we hear of kings of Sabine extraction introducing Sabine institutions, civil and religious. Nor is this advance of the Sabine race upon Rome an isolated fact. Several traditions, in perfect unison with one another, concur in making it almost certain, that at an early period of history the population of the mountain tracts in the centre of the Italian peninsula extended them- selves as conquerors in every direction, and occupied successively the more level and fertile districts between the Apennines and the sea, expelling or subduing the less warlike inhabitants of the plains. One of 6 34 these Sabine hordes beyond doubt conquered the district of the Seven Hills, already thinly peopled and imperfectly cultivated by some inde- pendent community. But another flood of conquerors was to sweep over Rome and Latium before the seeds of that organic development could take root, by which the country has remained characterised for many ages. The Etruscans — a race that has walked over the stage of history under a disguise, show- ing the exterior of a Greek form of life, of Greek art, Greek religion, and even Greek characters in their writing, without possessing any of the essential qualities of the Hellenic nation, their vivacity, pliability, versatility, and genius, and without the least perceiveable affinity of language — this race, mysterious in its origin and in its monuments, was at one time during the infancy of Rome a nation of conquerors, colonisers, and civilisers. The fertile valley of the Po, and all Etruria, were subject to the Etruscans ; and that their conquests were not bounded on the south by the Tiber, is evident from traces which, though not very distinct, are sufficient to establish the fact. Rome was really subdued and conquered by Porsena, as admitted by Tacitus and Pliny, who state, that the Etruscan king prohibited the use of iron for any other purpose but agriculture. The popular account of Livy, flat- tering the national pride of the Romans, passes over this humiliating confession by the well-known story of Porsena's generosity, the result of his admiration of Roman courage and patriotism. The tradition, nevertheless, contradicts itself ; for Porsena's object in attacking Rome being represented to be the restoration of the Tarquinii, it is quite absiurd to suppose that out of love and admiration for his enemies, whom he had forced to submit, he should have sacrificed his ally, for whose benefit the war was undertaken. But according to the common account, Tarquinius was left to attempt his restoration by other means, and the Romans retained their freedom. Now, whatever may be the genuine truth of all these accounts, so much seems certain, that Rome was at one time conquered by Etruscans. It is also clear, that the chronology of that period is worth nothing. There is no measure for spaces of time, without contemporary historical documents. We are therefore justified in supposing it possible, that the Etruscan conquest of Rome took place a long time before the alleged year of the war of Porsena. It is not likely that this conquest should have taken place at a later period, for henceforth Roman history becomes more authentic, and there is no room for the insertion of such an important event as a national conquest ; but the period of the monarchy can hardly be called historical, and gives us greater liberty for conjecture. Now is it quite evident, and admitted by everybody but Niebuhr, that the Roman 86 kings called Tarquinii were of Etruscan origin ; a great variety of Etrus- can peculiarities in worship, religion, and government, and other marks of a long continued and powerful influence of Etruscan nationality on the Roman people, are most naturally supposed to date from the period of these Etruscan rulers ; and it is therefore most probable, in my opinion, that the Etruscan conquest of Rome, which cannot be denied, took place at an earlier period than that generally assigned to Porsena, and, in fact, established the rule of the Tarquinii. It is only in keeping with the general character of his Roman annals that a peaceful establishment of Etruscan supremacy should have been foisted upon the willing credulity of those who believed themselves by nature invincible, and conld there- fore not brook the idea, that they or their ancestors had ever been conquered. Taking it for granted, then, that the Roman state was founded on conquest, we must expect to see the result and consequences of this origin in the organization of society and the political institutions gene- rally. War and conquest among ancient nations meant something very different from what we are accustomed to associate with these words. Civilization, gentler manners, and a religion of love, have taught modem nations to look upon war as a great evil, and upon their enemies as still their brothers, or at any rate as men and fellow-creatures. Conquests in modem history have not been made for the purpose of reducing the conquered into tax -paying serfs ; and even the Lombards, who groan, as it is termed, under the Austrian dominion, and the Poles, who have been subjected to their three powerful neighbours, are governed by their respective rulers on the same principles as their fellow-subjects in Russia, Austria proper, and Pmssia. There is no right or privilege enjoyed by any Prussian subject from which a native of Posen is excluded on account of his nationality. But it was very different in antiquity. The laws of war made the conquered and all he possessed the property of the conqueror ; slavery of the person, and confiscation of the property of the defeated enemy, were the consequence. No difference was made between private and public property.* However, the absolute right of the victor to destroy his enemy was generally waived for considerations of advantage rather than of mercy. It would have been impoHtic to slay a man who might be useful as a slave, or serf, or subject; and from this consideration arose all the various degrees of inequality among the social ranks of the ancient nations. • Modern warfare only seizes upon the latter as a legitimate prey, but it respects the former, with one single exception unfortunately, and one which reflects no honour od England, the establisher of maritime law, — I mean the practice of capturing and con- fiscating private ships in time of war. The relation of the subject to the ruling population is the result partly of exterior conditions — as climate, fertility of soil, geographical position, contiguity of hostile nations, and similar causes, more or less beyond the control of man, and exercising by their nature a similar influence on very dissimilar peoples. But, apart from these causes, the fate of a conquered population depends chiefly upon the character, religion, and political ability of the conquerors. The stem hard-heart«d Spartan fixed an impassable gulph between himself and the helot ; he disdained to put to the plough a hand dignified by wielding only the spear and sword ; the Spartans degraded into slaves those whom they might have trained to become by degrees their fellow-citizens ; they forfeited the honour of becoming a powerful nation, by oppressing and enslaving the brave men by whose assistance they might have asserted their supremacy in Greece and the world. The true Spartans watched jealously over the purity of their blood. The genuine Heraclidan race was not to be defiled by an admixture of aliens and subjects ; and thus, by preserving their purity of blood, they dwindled down in numbers and power, while their natural antagonists increased in both. Similar has been the disposition of the Turks ; only, that among them natural ferocity and domineering spirit have been increased in their tendency by religious fanaticism. The true believer thought and thinks himself entitled to rule over the infidel ; there is no connexion between him and the rayah, but that of lord and servant, of governor and subject. By no successive steps can the rayah rise to an equality with an Osmanli, unless he abjure his faith. The Turks, like the Spartans, have founded an empire by conquest, but neither of them have ever coalesced with the conquered — they have maintained themselves as isolated portions of the community, and they have secured their domi- nion by the sword. Very difl'erent has been the policy of the Germanic conquerers of Western Europe. They certainly established themselves as masters of the lands they had subdued, and they reduced the old inhabitants to the lower level of subjects, but they were neither actuated by an over- weening opinion of the sacred purity of their blood to doom difl'erent nations to eternal slavery, nor did religious fanaticism draw an impas- sable line of distinction between them and their subjects. Their social arrangements admitted of a great vaiiety of ranks and gradations, and opened to the very lowest the way of gradual elevation in the scale ; it prepared an amalgamation of all the national elements ; it recognized the primeval equality of man ; its tendency was to establish, not the democracy of Athens, which rested upon a substratum of slavery, but the true Christian democracy, which recognizes equality in the eyes of m the law in every human being. This principle of gradual equalization between the conquerors and the conquered has infused that vital strength and durability into modern Europe which could never be imparted to the despotic and slaveholding states of the East and of antiquity. Let us now see what position the Romans hold in this respect. We find among them the inequality arising from conquest at the very com- mencement of their history. The institution of slavery was common to the Romans, with all the other nations of antiquity, though in the earlier periods of their history it was less general than it afterwards became. The Roman freemen were divided into two classes : they were either Patricians or Plebeians ; both of these were citizens, but at first of very unequal rank. The fulness of citizenship was contained in four rights : that of honours, i. e. the right of filling the high ofi&ces of state ; that of suffrage, i. e. of voting in the popular assembly ; that of intermarriage, i. e. the right of contracting a marriage under the strict Roman law, involving the consequences of patria potestas ; and lastly, the right called commerdum, i. e. the right of acquiring property in the strictly binding forms of the Roman law. These rights, at fii-st but very partially enjoyed by the Plebeians, were the objects of their aspirations for many ages, and the constitutional history of Rome is altogether contained in a detail of long but successful struggles for their possession, carried on by the inferior citizens. At the outset, the full rights of Roman citizenship were so entirely engrossed by the Patricians that they alone formed legally the Roman people. The name, populus Romanus, applied strictly to the body of the Patricians alone. That the kings necessarily belonged to their body need not be said, as even the republican magistrates were for a long time taken from their ranks alone ; the senate was a deUberative and executive committee of their body ; the only existing popular assemblies, the comitia curiata, were entirely Patrician; in fact, the whole state, in its organization and administration, ignored the Plebeians completely. There was as little concurrence between the two classes for the common administration of their affairs, as between the Lacedsemonian Perioeci, and the Spartan nation. To this political superiority of the ruling body of citizens over their subjects, we must subjoin a social and economical superiority of equal importance. It is not likely that the Patricians, having in their hands the disposal of all the good things that could make life enjoyable to them, should have dealt them out with too bountiful a hand to their inferiors. And why should the conqueror endow with comfort and 38 tlie man whose life he had spared? Accordingly we find that the Plebeians were an oppressed and suffering race in the very commence- ment of Roman history. Indeed the younger Tarquin seems to have treated them no better than slaves, if the tradition is true, that many of these unfortunate creatures threw themselves into the Tiber to escape a life of wretchedness and toil. Nor did the establishment of the republic materially improve their con- dition. The poor Plebeian continued to be a beast of burden, and one unmercifully treated. The most characteristic feature of his miseries is this, that he is invariably described as a debtor, and his creditor is as invariably a Patrician. The severe Roman law of debt grinds him down, morally and physically ; he is dragged in chains from his family and his home, to the private dungeon of his Patrician creditor, there to await the terrible fate of being sold as a slave into a foreign country, or the hardly credible, because absurd cruelty, of being killed, and having his body literally hacked to pieces and parcelled out among his creditors. We ask justly, what is the cause of this constant indebtedness ? Rome was a purely agricultural community; trade and manufactures were hardly known among her citizens ; their coin w^as copper, and so unwieldy in its original plenty, that it required carts to carry the tax of individual citizens to the treasury. These debtors, then, were agriculturists; and how could they sink down to such an abject condition ? Is it likely that they were freeholders ? Does their condition remind us most of Norway or of Ireland ? And how is it that they are always in debt to Patricians? Were the Patricians the money-dealers at that time? They were not; in the later republic they were actually pro- hibited from such pursuits, and the plebeian knights were the regular money-lenders ; but in these ancient times we never hear of plebeian creditors. It appears that these two words were contradictory terms. Again : how is it that we hear clamours for agrarian laws repeated almost annually since the consulship of Sp. Cassius? Why do loud complaints disturb the peace of the city, that the Patricians unjustly possess the public lands, and that they eject the poor Plebeians ? Such questions as these will hardly, I think, be considered satisfactorily answered by the theory of Niebuhr, and all those that have followed him, that the Plebeians were a race of freeholders, obtaining as their share, on entering the communion of the Roman citizenship, a farm of seven iugera, unshackled by any burdens but those of equal taxation. Nor will this theory gain probability by the additional hypothesis, that the Patricians held only two iugera of equal freehold apiece. It will hardly seem likely that those who had the disposal of the land would have given it away, and kept almost nothing to themselves as full property. 39 especially when we read that these same men endeavoured to amass large tracts of land by ejectments and all sorts of unfair and cruel dealings. Looking, then, at the peculiar circumstances of the Roman Plebeians, and bearing in mind what has been said in the first portion of this paper respecting the tenure of land in other countries, the most pro- bable and the simplest solution of the difficulty that presents itself in the case of the Plebeians is this, to suppose that they were not free- holders, but tenants of the Patricians, enjoying indeed an hereditary right of possession of their respective holdings, but no full ownership, and bound to certain annual payments, which being exacted rigorously and arbitrarily, plunged them into debt, rendered their social position most precarious, and placed them constantly more or less at the mercy of their creditors. If there were no historical proofs to establish the truth of this theory, it might nevertheless be deemed sufficiently probable by the facility with which it explains the extraordinary and otherwise unintelligible pheno- mena to which it refers, provided always that there is no decided evidence against it ; but fortunately there are many traces scattered over a variety of documents which, collected, placed side by side, and correctly explained, establish most satisfactorily the theory which I have advanced ; as satisfactorily at least as the antiquarian can expect to prove an his- torical fact and social arrangements of an age of which he has only second or third hand accounts, and none that enter systematically into an exposition of internal political organisation. The limits of the pre- sent paper do not allow an enumeration and examination of this scat- tered evidence, which I must therefore reserve for another opportunity ; but I cannot, with satisfaction to myself, conclude without at least cur- sorily glancing at one subject too intimately connected with the question we have in hand to be entirely omitted : I mean, the nature and con- dition of the Roman clients. We found that the Roman citizens consisted of Patricians on the one hand, and plebeians on the other ; but there existed another divi- sion, concurrently with the former, that into Patrons and Clients. These two names have had very different meanings attached to them at different times. In the later periods of the republic, Patroniis signified the former master of a manumitted slave, the correlative term being Libertus ; or it was used to designate a man who conducted a legal ca.se for another, the correlative term in this instance being Cliens. It im- plied however always the idea of superiority and protection on the one side, and that of dependence on the other. Of the relation between patron and client, such as it existed in the regal period of Roman history, 40 or the early ages of the republic, our chief informants, Cicero, Livj, Dionysius and others, had but a very confused notion, derived, not from personal acquaintance (for the old clientship had long vanished), but from fragmentary traditions, and from an imperfect study of their own antiquities. No wonder then that the notions of modern writers should have been still more confused, vague, and arbitrary. It is on this subject that Niebuhr has established one of his most successful theories (successful in point of popularity), differing from the general notion of our antient authors, intended to throw a new and brilliant light upon the antient history of Rome, but in my opinion, neither jus- tified by evidence and general probability, nor reconcileable with authenticated facts; nor lastly, clear, consistent, and intelligible in itself. The clients of antient Rome are by all classical writers identified with the Plebeians, without however including them all. A client, accordingly, must be a Plebeian, but not every Plebeian a client. The clientship connects a man personally with an individual Patrician, who thereby is constituted his patron, but it does not alter his rights or duties, his social or political station as a Plebeian. The clientela there- fore is a personal connection, involving certain rights between client and patron as two individuals, but not constituting the whole body of clients, a distinct class of citizens in the state ; it gives them collectively no rights, no duties ; the constitutional law ignores them as clients, as well as it ignores the Patricians as patrons. There is no legal distinction between a Patrician who has a client or clients, and one who has none ; no more is there a line of separation in all purely constitutional matters between a client and an independent Plebeian. Yet the union between patron and client was not voluntary ; it was at first introduced by law, and our informants tell us that all the Plebeians were at first distributed by Romulus to the several Patricians as their clients ; more- over, the connection was hereditary, and imposed certain burthensome duties on the client, some of them very similar to the duties of medi- aeval vassals to their lords. We may safely take it for granted that the clientship was established by the conquering tribe, and that it was intended chiefly to benefit the ruling body. To the patronus indeed it enjoined the legal protection of his client ; it obliged him to watch over his client's rights, to guard him from oppression, and to represent him in the courts of law. This sounds very well, but in truth it amounts to this, that the client was entitled to as much protection by the law as the patron saw fit to grant him. He was not allowed to appear personally in court, and to conduct his own case ; redress of grievances against his own patron of course was quite out of the question ; •' he 41 was bound to contribute to the marriage portion of his patron's daughter, if the patron was poor, and to his ransom, or that of his children, if they were taken prisoners ; he paid the costs and damages of a suit which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned ; he bore a part of the patron's expenses incurred by his discliarging public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state." * All this is distinctly stated by Dionysius and others, but we want to know more. We want to know by what material tie this moral con- nection between patrons and clients was maintained — what was the economical substratum of the political right. We are acquainted with similar institutions in the middle ages ; we know what were the duties of serfs and villains towards their lords ; but we know also that there was a material substratum for these duties ; we know that the serf paid his dues and services, not merely in consideration of the protection of the lord, but in consideration of the land, of which he was the lord's tenant ; we know that, wherever serfdom has not degenerated into per- sonal slavery, the obligation to pay and serve, the subjection of the serf, the whole connection between him and the lord, ceases as soon as the tenure of land forms no longer the connecting link between the two parties. To the present day the Cumberland " statesmen," as they are called, who hold small farms on a tenure which, besides an annual quit rent, involves personal service on the lord's land during a specified number of days in the year, are free from all obligations as soon as they quit their farms. Wus there, then, we may ask, no similar arrangement in Rome? So much indeed we may conjecture from a general probability, that in such a purely agricultural state as Rome, the majority of the clients, if not all, were agriculturists; and in confirmation of this supposition, we learn from Festus,f that the Patricians assigned patches of land to the poorer class (tenuioribus) as to their own children, and that from this practice they were called " patres." There can be no doubt that these poorer people were clients, and the patres, patroni ; and we may consider it therefore as established, that, as a rule, the clients were the tenants of their patrons, an arrangement in itself so natural as hardly to require any proof. Now we can understand how the client- ship should be hereditary ; for there certainly existed an hereditary right of possession in the cultivator to his farm. We can also understand how, by degrees, an independent plebs could be formed, for every cause that separated a man from his plot of land created an independent Ple- beian, whether it was prosperity or misfortune that drafted him from the country into the growing town, there to subsist on his handiwork, trade, • Dion. II. 9. + S. V. patres ed. Muller. 7 42 chance employment, or charity. Thus it was, that by degrees a consoli- dated mass of Plebeians was collected together, no longer overawed by their individual lords, but made bold by honest independence, or desperate by poverty and the feeling of revenge. This body of Plebeians might often be reinforced by many clients, who sympathised with them as fellow-plebeians, and were anxious to shake off their predial subjection. Nothing in relation to the clients is dark or unintelligible on this supposition. A great many clients indeed, nay the majority perhaps, would for a long time side with the Patricians, influenced by their social dependence, just as we see tenants and tradesmen vote on the side of their landlords or employers ; and thus it might appear, at fii-st sight, that the clients formed a body of men entirely distinct from the Plebeians, opposed to them, and intimately connected in their interests with the Patricians ; but a closer attention soon dispells this illusion. Niebuhr unfortunately was misled by the familiar narratives of Livy and Dionysius, who thus represent in the civil commotions the clients as opposed to the plebs ; he thought there must be a radical difference between them, and he built up his theory accordingly. He supposes that the Roman state consisted originally of Patricians and Clients only, and that the plebs, as a third element, was afterwards added ; but he has neither estabUshed a difference in political rights between the two, nor has he shown why a plebs was superadded to the clients, nor can he satisfactorily assign an epoch for the introduction of the plebs, nor one for the abolition of the clientship ; and yet he sets aside the unanimous testimony of all our authorities which testify to the identity of Clients and Plebeians. 43 FIFTH MEETING. RoTAL Institution. — December 15, 1851. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. James Newlands was elected an Ordinary Member. Mr. Nisbett exliibited some seeds called Coracco Nuts, from the Calabar coast, where, from the stimulating quality of an essential aromatic oil, which enters lai'gely into their composition, they are used in the cure of sore throats. Mr. John Leigh Clare exhibited, and the President read from the Chair, the following interesting original document, entitled, " Instruc- tions to Col. James Monroe, Minister Plenipotentiary to the Republic of France:" — "Philadelphia, June 10, 1794. " Sir, •' You have been nominated as the successor of Mr. Gouvemeur Morris, in the office of Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States of America to the Republic of France, from a confidence, that, while you keep steadily in view the necessity of rendering yourself acceptable to that government, you will maintain the self-respect due to our own. In doing the one and the other of these things, your own prudence and understanding must be the guides, after first possessing yourself of the real sentiments of the Executive relative to the French nation. •* The President has been an eaiiy and decided friend of the French Revolution, and whatever reason there may have been, under our ignorance of facts and policy, to suspend an opinion upon some of its important transactions, yet is he immutable in his wishes for its accom- plishment, incapable of assenting to the right of any foreign prince to meddle with its interior arrangements, and persuaded that success will attend their efforts, and particularly that union among themselves is an impregnable barrier against external assaults. " How the French Government, when it shall be no longer attacked by foreign arms, \\ill ultimately settle, is a point not yet reduced to any absolutely certain expectation. The gradation of pubHc opinion fh)m 44 the beginning of the new order of tilings to this day, and the fluctuation and mutual destruction of parties, forbid a minister of a foreign country to attach himself to any as such, and dictate to him not to incline to any set of men, farther than they appear to go with the sense of the nation. "2. When the Executive Provisory Coimcil recalled Mr. Genet, they expressed a determination to render it a matter of eclat, as you have seen, and at the same time disavowed all his offensive acts. Nothing having been forwarded to us relative to Mr. Morris which requires a disavo^val, you will, if you should be interrogated as to any particular feeling prevailing with the President upon the occasion, refer to the letter from the Secretary of State to Mr. Fauchet, as explanatory of the President's promptness to comply with their demand. "3. From Mr. Genet and Mr. Fauchet we have uniformly learned, that France did not desire us to depai*t from neutrality, and it would have been unwise to have asked us to do otherwise. For our ports are open to her prizes, while they are shut to those of Great Britain ; and supplies of grain could not be forwarded to France with so much certainty, were we at war, as they can even now, notwithstanding the British instructions, — and as they may be, if the demands to be made upon Great Britain should succeed. We have therefore pursued neu- ti^ality with faithfulness ; we have paid more of our debt to France than was absolutely due, as the Secretary of the Treasury asserts ; and we should have paid more, if the state of our affairs did not require us to be prepai'ed with funds for the possible event of war. We mean to continue the same line of conduct in futm-e ; and, to remove all jealousy with respect to Mr. Jay's mission to London, you may say that he is positively forbidden to weaken the engagements between this country and France. "It is not improbable that you will be obliged to encounter, on this head, suspicions of various kinds. But you may declare the motives of that mission to be, to obtain immediate compensation for our plundered property, and restitution of the posts. You may intimate, by way of argument, but without ascribing it to the government, that if war should be necessary, the affections of the people of the United States towards it would be better secured by a manifestation that every step had been taken to avoid it, and that the British nation would be divided when they found that we had been forced into it. This may be briefly touched upon, as the path of prudence ^ith respect to ourselves ; and also with respect to France, since we are unable to give her aids of men or money. To this matter you cannot be too attentive, and you will be amply justified in repelling with firmness any imputation of the most 45 distant intention to sacrifice oui* connection with France to any con- nection with England — ^you may back your assertions by a late determi- nation of the President to have it signified abroad, that he is averse to admit into liis public room, which is free to all the world besides, any Frenchmen who are obnoxious to the French republic, although perhaps it may again happen sometimes, as many go thither whose names and characters are utterly unknown. '* It is very probable that our country will become the asylum for most of the French who expatriate themselves from their native land. Our laws have never yet made a distinction of persons, nor is such a distinction very easy. Hence some of those, who are perhaps attainted in France, have thrown themselves upon the protection of the United States. This will not, as it surely ought not, to be misinterpreted into any estrangement from the French cause. You will explain this, when- soever it shall be necessary. •' The stories of Genet, as to the royal medallions, &c., being exhibited in the President's room, and his giving private audiences to certain French emigres, are notoriously untrue ; and if any insinuation should be made with regard to Mde. La Fayette, so directly as indispen- sably to call for an answer, it may be afl&rmed, that notwithstanding the warmest friendship contracted between the President and him, in the most interesting scenes, notwithstanding the obligation of the United States to him, and the old pre-possessions in his favour, the efforts of the President in his behalf have never gone further than to express a wish to the authority which held him in confinement, that he should be liberated. But even thus much need not be said without the most invincible necessity ; because, though what has been done is justified by every consideration, it is never well to give notice of it to those whose extreme sensibility may see impropriety where none exists. "4. If we may judge from wliat has been at different times uttered by Mr. Fauchet, he will represent the existence of two parties here irreconcileable to each other, — one republican, and friendly to the French Revolution, — the other monarchical, aiistocratic, Britannic, and Anti-Gallican ; that a majority of the House of Representatives, the people, and the President, are in the firet class, and a majority of the Senate in the second. If this intelligence should be used in order to inspire a distinist of our good will to France, you will industriously obviate such an effect ; and, if a fair occasion should present itself, you may hint, that the most effectual means of obtaining from the United States what is desired by France, will be by a plain and candid appli- cation to the government, and not by those insidious operations on the people, which Genet endeavoured to carry on. 46 •♦ 6. The information which we possess of France, before and in the early stages of the Revolution, must be considerably changed at this day. You will therefore transmit to us, as soon as possible, an account of the navy, the agriculture, and the commerce of France. It is desirable, too, to know upon what footing religion really stands. These, however, are general objects. But we are particularly concerned to understand the true state of the different sects of politics. Are there any of the old friends to the ancient regime remaining? Are any new friends created by the course of things? Are the Brissotines extinguished? Are the Dantonists overwhelmed ? Is Eobespierre's party firmly fixed ? Is he capable, from talents and personal fortitude, to direct the storm ? Is his character free from imputation as to money ? Is he friendly to the U. S. ? How is the executive power administered now ? What new accession of authority may have lately accrued to the Committee of Public Safety ? "What relation do the twelve Commissions of Adminis- tration, which have been lately established, bear to that committee ? What is the true cause of the various changes which have lately taken place, by one party rising upon the ruins of another ? What assurance can be had, that any party can so long maintain itself as to promise stability to the government ? Are the people sincerely affectionate to their present government ; or are they restrained by the terror of the revolutionary tribunal, or by the danger of having their country dis- membered by the coalesced princes ? What species of executive will probably be at last adopted ? What characters bid fair to take the helm of affairs after the great destruction and banishment of able men? These, and many other questions of the same nature, ought to be solved, to enable us to see things in a true light. For, without doubting the solidity of the French cause, we ought not to be unprepared for any event. If, therefore, any very momentous turn should arise in French affairs, upon which the conduct of our government may depend, you need not hesitate at the expense of an advice boat, if no other satisfac- tory opportunity should occur. But it is the wish of the President, that, at the end of every week, you commit to a letter the transactions of it, and embrace every proper conveyance, by duplicates, and in great cases even by triplicates. "6. Should you be interrogated about the Treaty of Commerce, you may reply that it has never been proposed to us by Mr. Fauchet. As to anything else concerning it, you will express yourself not to be instructed, it being a subject to be negotiated with the government here. •' 7. In like manner, if a Treaty of Alliance, or the execution of the guarantee of the French Islands by force of arms, should be propounded, 47 you will refer the Republic of France to this side of the water. In short, it is expected, with a sure reliance on your discretion, that you will not commit the United States by any specific declarations, except where you are particularly instructed, and except, too, in giving testi- mony of our attachment to their cause. *• 8. There is reason to believe that the embargo, when it was first laid, excited some uneasy sensations in the breast of the French minis- ter. For it so happened, that, at the moment before its operation, pretty considerable shipments of flour were made to the British West Indies; and a snow, called La Camille, laden with flour for France, was arrested near Newcastle, on the Delaware, after she had quitted the port of Philadelphia. But you know enough of the history of this business to declare, that the embargo was levelled against Great Britain, and was made general, merely because, if it had been partial against her, it would have amounted to a cause of war ; and, also, that it was not continued, merely because it was reputed to be injurious to France. My letters to Mr. Fauchet will explain the case of La Camille, and all his complaints about the embargo. " Should our embargo be brought up, the way will be easy for our complaint against the embargo of Bordeaux ; at any rate, you will remonstrate against it, and urge satisfaction for the sufferers. You will receive all the papers which have come into the Department of State relative to these matters ; and you will, besides, open a correspondence with the captains and persons interested at Bordeaux, in order to obtain more accurate information. " But you will go farther, and insist upon compensation for the cap- tures and spoliations of our property, and injuries to the persons of our citizens, by French cruisers. Mr. Fauchet has been applied to, and promises to co-operate for the obtaining of satisfaction. The dilatoriness with which business is transacted in France \Nill, if not curtailed in the adjustment of these cases, produce infinite mischief to our merchants. This must be firmly represented to the French republic ; and you may find a season for intimating how unfortunate it would be, if so respectable a body as that of our merchants should relax in their zeal for the French cause, from irritation at their losses. The papers on this head are a statement of French cases, Mr. Fauchet s letter to me, and the documents themselves. "9. You know the extreme distress in which the inhabitants of Saint Domingo came hither after the disasters of the Cape. Private charity, and especially at Baltimore, most liberally contributed to their support. The Congress at length advanced 15,000 dollars, with a view of reim- bursement from France. This subject has been broken to Mr. Fauchet 48 here, aud he appears to have been roused at the idea of supporting, by French money, French aristocrats and democrats indiscriminately. Both he and his nation ought to be satisfied, that in the cause of humanity, oppressed by poverty, poHtical opinions have nothing to do : add to this, that none but the really indigent received a fartliing. It was the duty of the French repubhc to relieve their colonists labouring under a penury so produced ; and, as it would have been too late to wait for their approbation before the payments were decreed, it will not be deemed an offensive disposal of French money, that we now make a claim for repayment. If Mr. Fauchet has power upon the subject, an attempt will be made for a settlement with him here ; but, that being very doubtful, it will forward the retribution by discussing it in Europe. "10. You M-ill be also charged with the demands of seveml American citizens for bills of exchange drawn in the French West Indies on France. The report of a committee of them, Mr. Fauchet's letter, and the vouchers which you will carry, leave no doubt of your success. But, if there should be any difficulty, do not fail to communicate it to the Secretary of State — instantaneously. The sooner, therefore, the affair is entered upon, the better. "11. It is impoitant that no public character of the United States should be in France, which is not acceptable. You will inquire into the consuls, and inform how they are approved, and whether they be deserving. Although the President wdll avoid as much as possible to appoint any obnoxious person consul, it may happen otherwise, and must be considered as accidental. Mr. Alexander Duvemah goes for Paris in the quaUty of vice-consul ; and Mr. Fauchet said that he had nothing to object to him. " Consulates are established in every port of France, where they are conceived useful. But perhaps you may find it advisable to mark out some other places for such officers. " 12. It is recommended that no business of consequence be carried on, verbally or in writing, but in your own language. The Minister of each nation has a right to use his national tongue ; and few men can confide in their exactness, when they do business in a foreign one. But great care is necessary in the choice of interpreters, when they are to be resorted to. "13. It is a practice of gi'eat utility to note down every conversation of consequence which you hold, immediately after retirement ; and the Executive will expect to receive copies of what shall be thus written. "14. A communication with our other ministers in Eiu-ope, under proper caution, may be advantageous. "15. Let nothing depend upon verbal commimications, which can be canied on in writing. . 49 " 16. To conclude : You go, Sir, tx) France, to strengthen our friend- ship with that country, and you are well acquainted with the line of freedom and ease to which you may advance, without betraying the dignity of the United States. You will shew our confidence in the French RepubUc, without betraying the most remote mark of undue complaisance. You will let it be seen, that in case of war with any nation on earthy we shall consider France as our first and natural ally. You may dwell upon the sense which we entertain of past services, and for the more recent interposition in our behalf with the Dey of Algiers. Among the great events with which the world is now teeming, there may be an opening for France to become instrumental in securing to us the free navigation of the Mississippi. Spain may perhaps negotiate a peace, separate from Great Britain, with France. If she does, the Mississippi may be acquired through this channel, especially if you con- trive to have our mediation in any manner solicited. " With every wish for your welfare, and an honourable issue to your ministry, ** I am, Sir, '* Your most obedient Servant, - -EDW: RANDOLPH. " Colo. James Monroe, " Minister Plenipy. to the Repub. of France." Mr. S. HuGGiNs read the first part of a Paper on " Fine Art : its Nature, Relations, and Tendencies." Mr. Thomas Dorning Hibbert read a short biographical sketch of President Bradshaw, from original documents. He also exhibited a genuine autograph. {fO SIXTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — January 12, 1852. THOMAS SANSOM, Esq., in the chair. Mr. Thomas Avison, F.S.A., was elected an Ordinary Member. Mr. Samuel Huggins read the second part of his Paper, of which the following is an abstract : — ON FINE ART : ITS NATURE, RELATIONS, AND TENDENCIES. In introducing the subject, he observed, that the arts usually brought under the denomination of "fine arts," in England, were painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving ; but that, in associating poetry, music, and eloquence wdth them, the French had made a wiser classifi- cation. Poetry was common to both literature and art, and inseparably interwove them. Poetry was the art-spirit, and it might be said to manifest itself in a literaiy, as well as in a pictorial, sculptural, or architectural foim. In the examination of art, he proposed to inquire, firstly, its nature — what art was ; secondly, its position with regard to the more exact and practical developments of the human intellect — or its relation to science ; thirdly, its tendencies — what in its present state it does. True art (in its full acceptation) was an expression of our whole Hfe, of all nature and human history and experience ; and when we gazed on any real work, whether it were architecture, sculpture or painting, or whether Egyptian or Indian, Roman or Gothic, we beheld a reflection of nature, — its effect upon the human mind imder the varied circumstances of life. Art was nature, not with corrections and additions, but with notes and annotations ; and as it was nature stamped with the signet of mind, it was in the highest sense nature, — an union of the physical and the spiritual. The various branches of art, he considered, were alike the discern- ments of the spirit, or higher intellect, and their works were alike the result of that spiritual discernment. It was the living presence of the art-soul in the expressed result or performance that stamped it a work 61 of art. It was not acquaintance with the recognized canons of art that made the architect, but the power to project himself as it were into the media of his calling, and thus expound, in characters of wrought and can'ed stone, the dictates of the oracle within. It was the same in poetry, which was not rythmic or cadenced words, but a voice of the heart — *' a thought so passionate and alive, that like the spirit of a plant or an animal, it had an architecture of its own." In every one of the arts, the same law held sway : the elements used for any one art, as essential to a given expression, were those which were also employed in the others. Let sublimity, for example, be sought, and under the hand of the architect, the broad, simple, and harmonious masses rose up till we stood under the dome of St. Pauls, or gazed on the chaste fame of Minerva. The musician came, and the orchestra was thronged with its thousand voices ; in broad streams of sound poured out each well-defined phmse, with a full and telling energy, as with a voice of deep calling unto deep ; the answering parts fugued in, whilst harmonic purity added its soul of strength to all, and we listened enti'anced wliilst Handel rolled out the sphered thunders of his Halle- lujah. The sculptor essayed, and the colossal statue towered up : in broad folds fell the drapery; lofty decision of expression marked the attitude, energetic fulness the contour, a dignified purity the whole treatment : and we gazed on the Moses of Michael Angelo. The poet next succeeded, and then (in the highest degree) the elementaiy terms were no longer words, but living realities : the magnitude was magni- tude of soul ; the breadth, a world-encircling comprehensiveness of the intellect ; the decision, a subtle and unening exactitude of definition ; the fulness, an unexhaustible depth and pregnancy of meaning; the purity, a celestial extiltation of language : and we drank in the inspira- tion of that most ancient poem spoken unto Job '* out of the whirlwind." He entered at some length into a history of the fine arts, in order to show that unity in their career, that simultaneous progress, which natu- rally and inevitably resulted from the fact of their central identity. The Parthenon was built and decorated, and architecture and sculpture attained their highest pitch of excellence in Greece, under Phidias, Pyraxitiles, Polycletus, Lyssippus, Ictinus, and others, when or about the same time that ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their tragic poems : that purity of feeling and perfection of intellect that revealed itself through her poetry, her philosophy, her laws, were prominent also in the arts of Greece, which were alike devoted to the honour of the gods and the reward of heroism and virtue. After an examination of the arts among the Romans, he entered on the origin of Christian art, and observed that the spirit of Christianity 5a had entered into the ashes of the antique, and raised up a new art that was to supersede the old, and grow to perfection under a new motive, and towards a different goal. From the reign of Constantine the Great, when Christianity became the religion of the State, architecture ceased to be employed in the erection of heathen temples, and was pressed into the service of the new religion. The art that had rejoiced in the con- struction of the imperial palace and the arch of triumph, that had reared the cupola of the Pantheon over the sculptured deities of paganism, now busied itself in the service of religion, and became manifest in basilicas or churches for the celebration of its rites. Painting and sculpture were soon after called to its assistance ; sculpture, which among the Greeks had been the apotheosis of human beauty, and among the Romans an element of luxury and ostentation, now become the expression of a new and spiritual life, an embodiment of the joys and griefs, the hopes and aspirations of humanity, and, along with the sister art of painting was employed to adorn the new temples with representations of the events and personages of sacred story. He did not consider the discarding of the entablature and abandon- ment of the horizontal principle in architecture, which ultimately led to the Gothic system, as a necessary and inevitable consequence of the spirit of Christianity, but as the result of the accidental meeting of that spirit with a depraved taste in art among the Romans. Had there existed at the time sufficient purity of artistic feeling to have regulated the religious zeal, which was indiscriminate against all that was pagan, the classic architecture had, he thought, been adopted by Christian builders in another manner ; had Christianity become the religion of the empire two or three centuries sooner, in the reign of Augustus instead of Con- stantine, when Greek art was respected and still flourished, — had the new art sprung up amid the prosperity and glory, instead of the degra- dation of the empire, — very different, he thought, had been the character of our mediaeval architecture generally. On the second head of his paper, — viz., "What are the relations of art ?" — after explaining the nature of the inquiry, he observed, that the oldest art-witnesses extant to the truth of historical record were archi- tecture and poetry ; in music, antiquity had left us nothing intelligible ; and, though Egypt and Nineveh presented us with both sculptures and frescoes, they were, sesthetically considered, far inferior to the architecture they adorned ; the sculpture being, for the most part, rude general resem- blances of form, and the frescoes partaking more of polychromic embel- lishments than works of art. In architecture and poetry the case was different; in these, however ancient the specimen, however rude the material, we found the manifested presence of the ait-spirit. After 53 comparing these two ails in their aesthetic form with their respective material elements, he said, the source of the material form of architec- ture, i. e. habitational construction, was physical necessity ; the source of the material form of poetry or language was social necessity; and that, by the action of the art-spirit thereupon, these physical and social necessities were elevated into the ethereal region of art. Thus, too, by the action of the highest on the lowest element of life, — of the aspirations of the soul on the necessities of the body, — was brought to light the first germ of science. Architecture, in common with all the arts of form, as well as music, called for and became based on geometry ; and the ruined temple and the bardic fragment were witnesses, not only to the birth of architecture and of poetry, but also to the progress of the mathematics, of mechanics, and of dialectics. The ruhis of many of the primitive specimens of architecture set forth in their arrangement the exactitude of mathematical figure and propor- tion, while the massiveness of their constituent materials showed the existence of the knowledge of the mechanical powers, and their mode of application ; and in the earlier poetry we often found a clearness of perception, an accuracy of definition, a power 6f harmony of language, and a critical sagacity, which, if not logic itself, was the spirit of the end that logic aims at. Architecture, thus produced, had been ever, in common with all the arts of form, indissolubly connected with science : along with sculptiu-e and painting, it had been fed and administered to by nearly the whole range of its branches, — chemical, mechanical, anatomical, mathematical. Euclid contributed in no shght degree to Greek architecture and sculp- ture, when he gave his propositions to the world ; painting was indebted to optics and perspective, and to chemistry, in the matter of colour; and whether the researches of Hippocrates in anatomy first led to the minute anatomical parts being expressed in Greek sculptiu-e, as some contend, or not, certain it was that a knowledge of anatomy was an indispensable advantage to both the sculptor and the painter. Nor was art slow in requiting the obligation : pictorial ait had been the indis- pensable agent of science in diffusing knowledge in its various branches, — ^physiological, botanical, geological. The connection of poetry with science, though of a different nature, was not less intimate than that of architecture, though by supei-ficial people, the former had been thought and spoken of as a thing distinct from science, which had been supposed inimical to it, nay destructive of it; and scientific men themselves had too often forgotten the true nature of the poet's office. Poetry had been well defined as the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge, — the impas- sioned expression that is on the countenance of all science. Science 54 and art divide the universe between them, and the tendency of the fonner is to extend the field of the latter, any new discovery presenting the muses ^vith a new theme. " If," as Wordsworth had remarked, •' the labours of men of science should ever create any material revolution, direct or indirect, in our condition, and in the impressions which we habitually receive, the poet would sleep then no more than at present : he would be ready to follow the steps of the man of science, not only on those general indirect effects, but he would be at his side carrying sensa- tion into the midst of the objects of the science itself. The remotest discoveries of the chemist, the botanist, or mineralogist would be as proper objects of the poet's art 'as any upon which it could be employed." But there was none of the fine arts that was more inalienably associated with and related to the present, or be benefited by every improvement in mechanical science, than Architecture — a truth that had scarcely been recognized, in the^ present day, either by architects or their employers. The architect's province was to take the elements of his style — the material characters of his architecture — from nature, through the medium of, or assisted by, extant productions of art ; and, in the exercise of his art, he was to throw these into the mould of the actual requirements of the day. An edifice so wrought would become an organised, harmonious, and living thing, instinct with the life of the present hour, and expressing the idea of its peculiar and destined purpose. Architecture was not the child of archaeology, the creature of the traveller's sketch-book ; it was the child of its time ; and its mission here was to erect, not Romanesque churches, or Greek temples, or Swiss cottages, but British and nineteenth century edifices, pregnant with the life, and, according to their peculiar purpose, embodying the ideas of the present hour. It might be asked, were we to make no use of extant art ? We were, he would reply, to make great use of it ; just the same use of it that all wise literary men had made of extant literature ; the same use that Dante made of preceding poets ; that Plato made of the wisdom of Socrates ; just the same use that Watt and Davy made of known science, to carry it forward and extend its boundai'ies. We were to study their principles, and, as far as they were true to nature, adopt them : but we were -not to copy their forms and masses. Nature, our type and model, was an infinity, and the elements supplied by her were to be thrown into the mould of our present purposes. If this were truthfully and faithfully done, the result would be architecture worthy of Great Britain and of the nineteenth century. After treating at length on the province of the sculptor, he observed that sculpture was independent of poetry in her choice of walk ; it was because poetry was the eldest that she had often been the inventor for the 65 other arts. Antient sculpture followed in the footsteps of poetry, and petrified her conceptions ; but had i)oetry slumbered through the morning of time, or delayed her advent till the other arts had reached their per- fection, it was more than probable that most of such works would never- theless have been produced. Art, as a German writer had observed, would itself have arrived at and invented gods, had it not found them ; and it was possible that many of the highest and exclusive triumphs of poetry, as far as witliin its scope to embody them, would have been won by sculpture, and the Iliads and Odyssies have been written on stone. After what had been advanced relative to the sculptor's province in the present day, he thought little needed to be said on that of the painter, as far as history and portraiture were concerned. The latter were fields he could only share with the sculptor ; but landscape art was one in which there could be no rivalry with sculpture ; it was peculiar to the painter, and was his private walk, untrod by any other. As the branch of painting peculiar to the modems, it claimed particular notice. What was cliiefly to be desired in reference to it was, that the landscape artist would see nature with his own eyes, and not through the medium of the schools, and give his whole energy to a truthful rendering of her facts, on which all his combinations were to be based. Though the same object might thus come to be differently rendered by different artists, yet if each had given his own impression of it — its image on his own soul, their works would be all true pictures, — psychical truths. In thus faithfully representing nature, the artist followed the example of the poet, who but held the mirror up to nature, and with him he would find no lack of room for the faculties of genius. Imagination and feeling were to penetrate the arcana of nature, and lead to a detecting of those beauties which to the dull or feeble were nfever manifested, to vivify the impression received, and influence the treatment of the subject. Landscape painting must not be underrated ; while we ex- patiated on the refinement, spirituality, and difiiculties of expression in sculpture and in historical painting, we were apt to forget that external nature had also a soul to express, and that subtleties analogous to those existed in the art of the landscape painter. Expression, in historical or figure painting, was in the form, as the artist saw it before him, and to catch it was doubtless the highest effort of delineation ; but to seize the harmonious spirit of external nature, as it revealed itself through the mysterious and fleeting glories of light, and shade, and colour, — to discover the secrets by which the effects of chiaro scuro were produced — To untwist the magic links that tie The secret soul of harmony, — to do this was also a task not unworthy of the highest minds. 56 On the concluding branch of his subject, — viz., a consideration of the tendencies of art — he said, the poet's page had not only been dh-ectly the instrument of the highest refinement and exaltation of wliich humanity was susceptible to the favoured of nature, the elect of taste, but through their medium, by means of their example, it had imbued with intellectual sweetness the public mind, and conduced to the moral and mental im- provement of the lowest in the social scale. But whilst the poet was followed in his lofty flights by all who think and feel, how few were the genuine recipients of the artist's inspirations, who entered his magic circle and participated in his emotions ! The painter and sculptor were poets also, who, through their respective media — their epics and dramas — expressed tiniths as great and as sublime ; but what, he would ask, had they done ? — where were their fruits of labour? They had, doubtless, given pleasure by symmetry of form, contrast and harmony of colour, and light and shade, and all that go to make up sensuous beauty ; they had gratified the animal feeling, but what nobler purpose in relation to the soul had been answered by their works ? The failure he complained of proceeded less from a want of power in our art productions, than from the prevalence of narrow and false views of art itself, and of what constitutes the perfect and entire man. Pictorial and sculptural art spoke not merely to the intellect and senses, but to the heart and spirit, carrying "healing on its wings ;" and there were inherent qualities in the human breast to which its objects appealed ; for beauty, which was the symbol of goodness, had a natural tendency to exalt the mind ; but this truth was not generally recognized, and art was estimated too much from an intellectual point of view, to the neglect of the spiritual, and this narrowness of compre- hension reflected back an injurious influence upon the quality of art-produce. But a cause of the inefficacy of art, which he had never heard adverted to, was its being unreflected in the daily lives of artists. We looked for the most vivid manifestation of religion in the demeanour of its ministers ; and if we did not find it, we hearkened but impatiently to their precept. The artist was a revealer of the beautiful and true to others, but what did the truth and beauty of the universe profit himself ? He used the word artist here in its mdest sense, as inclusive of poet and musician, along with the painter, sculptor, and architect ; and he spoke advisedly when he said, that whatever eff'ect their art might have upon the hves of others, it appeared to have none upon their own. Not only were their lives out of keeping with their art-achievements, but they were more out of harmony with the whisperings of art than other men's. So far from being great men, — men commensurate with their 57 works, — they were, taken as a body, U$8 than men. Individual ex- ceptions could, of course, be pointed to — uniform and consistent men — stars in the firmament of art-history, and some too of the first magni- tude— who have exhibited an epic grandeur in their lives, that shed an after lustre on their works ; but, £is a body, the reproach lay at the door of all generations of artists, and reached to the very highest names, — that inspiration was in their art-utterance alone, — that they were of those who say, and do not ; they were priests to the goddess of the fair and the pure, but they were not lovely in their lives. The " eccentri- cities of genius" generally meant its follies and weaknesses ; and the calamities and distresses of poets and others were mostly traceable to a non-fulfilment of the conditions on which alone comfort and happiness could be secured. SEVENTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — January 26, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c.. President, in the chair. Mr. Thomas Spencer, of London, and William Reynolds, M.D., of Coed-du, Denbighshire, were elected Correspondmg Members. It having been arranged, that at the conclusion of the ordinary busi- ness of the Meeting, the Portrait of the President, painted by Mr. Philip Westcott, should be presented, — Thomas Thornely, Esq., M.P., one of the founders of the Society, was requested to take the chair. The Rev. Dr. Hume, in introducing the subject, gave a short sketch of the history of the Society, from its formation, in 1812, down to the present time, and called upon the Secretaiy to read the following address : — To Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq., F.S.A., President of the Literary AND Philosophical Society of Liverpool. Dear S|R, The Members of the Literary and Philosophical Society, at the close of forty yeai-s of the Society's existence, are rejoiced to meet 9 58 you, as one of the original members, in the enjoyment of health and happiness. They desire to thank you for the kind interest which you have taken in the labours of the Society during the whole of that period ; and they have much pleasure in stating — as a mark of respect and appreciation on the part of their predecessors and themselves — that you complete this Session the fourth triennial period as President of the Society, On the same grounds, and with every kind wish, the present members have obtained a portrait of you, by an eminent artist of the town, which they now request that you will do them the favour to accept. They are aware, however, that in the course of a long and active life, your usefulness has extended far beyond this Society, and they know that many inhabitants of Liverpool, as well as casual visitors, will desire to look upon this portrait in future, as well as at present. But fearing that your own delicacy might prevent you from affording them that gmtification, the Members of the Society venture to request that you will allow it to be placed permanently in some public collection of the town. They tmst, however, that you will long be spared, in person, to your many friends, and to others who take a still deeper interest in all that concerns your welfare. I remain, dear sir, Very faithfully and obediently yours, (Signed) DAVID P. THOMSON, M.D. Royal Institution, Liverpool, January 2dth, 1853. Mr. Yates then read the following reply, and handed it to the Secretary : — To the Members of the Literary and Philosophical Society OF Liverpool. Gentlemen, I receive, with the most gi*ateful feelings, the testimony of approbation and regard now offered on the part of the Literaiy and Philosophical Society. To have been associated for forty years with a body so distuiguished — to have been placed by them during a long portion of that time (how- ever unworthily) in the chair formerly occupied by men who have filled a large space in the annals of European literature — will always be considered by me as the most flattering and honourable circu^istance of my life. Conscious of my own deficiencies, I have endeavoiu-ed to compensate for them by an ardent zeal in the promotion of those 59 pursuits which shed a lustre upon the most refined society, and without which all worldly wealth becomes an incumbrance, and all worldly honour an empty pageant. Your support and countenance have been always cheerfully rendered ; and to these must be attributed the harmony and efficiency which have attended our joint labours. With regard to the placing of the Portrait, so ably executed by the distinguished artist of this town, and so kindly presented by you, I beg to leave the matter altogether to your judgment to determine. Permit me now to express an earnest hope, that the talent and acquirements which I know to exist amongst you may be kept in active exercise ; and to conclude by exhorting the younger members of your Society to cultivate those pursuits, which will be no incumbrance under the pressure of business or of adverse circumstances, but which will constitute the highest ornament of your prosperous days, and the most delightful companions of your leisure. I remain. Gentlemen, Your obliged and obedient servant, (Signed) JOS. B. YATES, President. Royal Institution, Liverpool, 26th January, 1852. Moved by Mr. William Rathbone, seconded by Mr. Edward Heath, and carried unanimously, — That the thanks of this Meeting be presented to the Portrait Com- mittee, (viz. the Rev. Dr. Hume, Mr. Charles Barber, Mr. Joseph Mayer, and Dr. Thomson,) for the part they have taken in procuring 80 valuable and faithful a likeness of the President. The following Paper was read by Joseph B. Yates, Esq., F.S.A., &c.. President : — ON ANTIENT MANUSCRIPTS, AND THE METHOD OF PREPARING THEM. In all the great libraries of this coimtry and of the continent, there exist a considerable number of Antient Manuscripts, forming in fact the most valuable portion of their treasures. By Antient Manuscripts are meant, as the term imports, documents which are inscribed or vs-ritten hy the hand, and not by stamps or types, and which have been conse- quently produced, with few exceptions, prior to the invention of printing in the middle of the fifteenth century. Their value will be appreciated when we reflect that they are the only medium by which we have become accurately acquainted with the maimers, institutions, and 60 opinions of our remote progenitoi's, with the stirring events which in bygone ages have influenced the fate of nations, and even with the precepts and sanctions of our religion, and the personal history of its holy Founder. The subject may be considered under the following heads : — I. The substances written upon ; II. The implements and materials employed in delineating the characters ; III. The decorations bestowed upon manuscripts ; IV. The persons by whom they were usually written, and the places where ; V. The means of ascertaining their age and authenticity. I. The Substances Written Upon. The earliest written documents were inscribed upon stone and other materials calculated to insure their permanence. Thus the annals of nations, the laws by which their civil and religious polity were regu- lated, the actions of their worthies, and their attempts at astronomical calculations, were often engraven rudely upon rocks, of which some may be seen to this day in Norway and various parts of Asia. In places where such depositories of writing were not easily found — as in Egypt — pillars and obelisks were employed ; and of these many important specimens still exist. In the ruins of Babylon we find the very bricks of which the walls were constructed marked with characters which are now nearly unintelligible; and the present excavations of Dr. Layard and M. Botta ar j dragging out of the deserted mounds of Nimroud and Khorsabad, sculptured slabs, from which the learned are laboriously unravelling the long lost annals of the Assyrian empire. When writing became more frequent, the necessity became also apparent, both of a portable material to work upon, and of an adequate method of preservation. The laws of Moses, which were supplementaiy to the Ten Commandments, were in the first instance inscribed upon great plastered stones fixed in the ground.-!'^ In the Ark of the Cove- nant had been originally deposited the stone tablets upon which the finger of God had written. But when the divine lawgiver found his death * Deut. ch. xxvii. Voltaire endeavours to throw ridicule upon this, as a most inconvenient and unsafe mode of recording the laws. But it must be remembered, that the stones were protected bj the reverential awe of the people. The words used in our English translation of the Scriptures by no means convey an adequate idea of the mode adopted. The Vulgate version, following the original Hebrew, runs thus — " Eriges ingentes lapides, et calce leviga bis eos, ut possis in eis scribcre omnia verba hnjus legis." It is evident, therefore, that the characters were imprinted with a sharp instrument in the wet plaster, which was then suffered to dry. 61 approaching, he took the further precaution of delivering to the Levites, who carried the Ark, the books wherein he had been employed in copying these supplementary " Words and Judgments of the Lord. '* In all probability, this book consisted of a scroll or scrolls of leather, which material is used by the Hebrews to this day for the same purpose. Lead and copper (or brass) were sometimes employed, in these remote ages of the world, for the preservation of documents, though it is clear that the use of these metals for such objects must have been extremely limited. The Roman laws of the twelve tables were engraven on brass. Pliny informs us that the first writing of the Egyptians was upon palm- leaves, which are still partially employed among Eastern nations. But the material which was very early and very extensively brought into use among the people of Asia and the countries bordering upon the Mediter- , ranean, was the Papyrus. This was manufactured from the inner rind of the plant of that name, called also by the Egyptians (iv^Xoa — whence are derived the terms paper and Bibk. The process of the manufacture was as follows : — The outer bark being stripped off, the inner coats were separated by a sharp instrument. These pellicles were then laid upon a table, two or more over each other transversely, were glued together with paste or with the slimy water of the Nile, pressed, and made smooth with a glass or ivory roller. After a number of sheets had been thus prepared, ten or twenty of them were pasted together endways, and rolled upon a staff with umbilici or bosses at the extremities. Hence we derive the word vohune. The writing was generally executed in the direction of the length of the roll, and in successive columns, divided by blank spaces. The first sheet of the manuscript — i. e. the end to the left hand — was frequently composed of parchment or other skin, which not only furnished a strong and unyielding cover when it was rolled up, but was capable of receiving some extensive decoration. A portrait of the author was occasionally inserted. Sometimes both ends of the roll were secured and ornamented in this manner. A label was fastened at one end, upon which the title of the work was given. Half a dozen or a dozen of these rolls were frequently placed in a scriniumf or ark (generally made round,) for taking upon a journey, ka. One of these scrinea was found at Herculaneum, decorated with the busts of Demos- thenes, Epicurus, and other worthies ; but it crumbled into dust on exposure to the atmosphere. In the Florentine Museum is an antient statue of a scriniarius, or master of the rolls, with his circular scrinium * Exodasch. xxiv., and Deat ch. xxxi. Eleven, hundred jean after this, the poems of Homer were, with much ceremony, placed by Alexander the Great, surrounded by his generals, in a splendid ark or scrinium, selected from the richest spoils of Darius. + Sometimes callevar, a great number of Missals have been brought into England fi:om the continent, by which the saleable value has been much reduced, excepting of such as can boast of superior skill and delicacy. To the Harleian and other sections of the British Museum Library, we turn for the most valuable exemplars of manuscripts in general. Amongst other precious rehcs of antiquity we find a copy of the four Gospels in Latin, (No. 2788), of the eighth century. It is written in capital letters of gold, and in many respects it may vie with any other now in existence. Every page of the sacred text, consisting of two • See Roscoe's Sale Catalogue, A. O. 1816. 7-2 separate columns, is inclosed within a broad and beautifully illuminated border. The figures of the Evangelists, with their symbolic animals, are curiously painted in the front of their respective Gospels, and the initial letter of each Gospel is richly illuminated, and so large as to fill an entire page. In the same noble collection is deposited another MS. (No. 2831) of the four Gospels — Vulgate version — written in letters of gold in the tenth century. It is superbly illuminated, and adorned with pictures of the following subjects, painted on purple ground, viz. : before the Gospel of St. Matthew, in a circle, are, first, the representation of our Saviour sitting enthroned, holding in his right hand the book of the new law, that of the old law lying in his lap, with the four Evangelists, in the four angles, kneeling; secondly, our Saviour standing, with St. John resting his head upon his bosom ; thirdly, the portrait of St. Matthew ; and fourthly, the Salutation of the Virgin Mary. Before St. Mark's Gospel are a portrait of that Evangelist and the Salutation of the Virgin. At the beginning of St. Luke's Gospel are his portrait and the Crucifixion of our Saviour ; and before the Gospel of St. John are the pictm'e of the EvangeHst and the x\scension of our Lord. In the same collection are magnificent manuscripts of a more modem date, such as Chroniques de Froissart of the fourteenth century, in great folio, (No. 4380,) filled throughout with large and magnificent repre- sentations of battles, tournaments, banquets, and other transactions of that period. Of these the late Colonel Johns availed himself in his well-known translation of Froissart. To the treasures of the British Museum many important additions have been made of late years, by judicious purchases from the collections of Dr. Butler, the Duke of Sussex, and others. In the Bodleian Library at Oxford, a number of choice manuscripts are deposited; and Trinity College in Dublin may boast of several, among which the most important are veiy early exemplars of the sacred Scriptures, of great use in biblical as well as paleographical science. It is only of late years that the full value and extent of Irish as well as Anglo-Saxon manuscripts has been thoroughly understood. That our Sa.xon forefathers and their neighbours in Ireland excelled in cali- graphy, is proved by several splendid examples which have come down to our times. One of the most precious and early of these is a manu- script of the Gospels preserved in the library of King George III., now forming an important part of the national collection. It is of larga size, eighteen inches by fourteen, the writing very clear, and several of its leaves are stained with dark purple. At present seventy-seven leaves only remain; but, from the numbering of the quaternions, the 78 volume must originally have contained the whole of the sacred Scriptures. It is considered to be of the seventh century. From an inscription at the beginning, " Liber Sancti Augu.stini Cantuariensis," it would appear that a tradition prevailed that it had belonged to Saint Augustine. For a description of very early and beautiful MSS. written by Irish scribes, we must refer to Westwoods fine work, entitled, Paleographia Sacra Pictoria ; 4 to, 1845. To enter upon a review of the antient manuscripts preserved in the continental libraries would lead very much beyond the limits which are now prescribed to us. It is impossible, however, to refrain from joining in the tribute wliich all lovers of learning are bound to pay to that muni- ficent restorer of it in the dark ages — the Emperor Charlemagne. After the final overthrow of the lioman empire, a long night of ignorance and barbarism ensued, until in the eight century this great man, by the subjugation of the Lombards, Huns, and Hungarians, established the Empire of the West. To the means which fortune placed in his hands was added the most ardent zeal for the propagation of religion and letters. He founded universities, and drew to his court learned men from different parts of the world. Under his auspices many transcripts (chiefly of the holy Scriptures) were made, and these were often revised by his own hand. The authors of the Nouveau traite de Diplomatique say of him, " Charlemagne fit a la verite changer la face de la literature. L'ortho- graphic prit un etat de consistence q'elle n'avoit point eprouve jusqu' alors." He ordered that all priests should make themselves acquainted with the Greek and Latin languages, and that every bishop, abbot, and count should retain a secretary to write correctly. In consequence of tliis, the form of the letters became very much improved, so that the writing of his day acquired the name of Caroline. One of the most valuable and magnificent of these manuscripts is an Evangelistarium, (or collection of portions of the gospels used in the services of the church), written throughout in golden initial letters, by order of Charlemagne and his Queen Hildegai-de. The writing is upon purple vellum, in double columns, surrounded by ornamental borders. Its dimensions are 1*2 J by 8^ inches. The six first pages ai*e covered each with a splendid illumination. Here we find the Saviour, the four Evangelists, and some architectural designs, with mystical figures. At the end of the gospel lessons is a calendar extending from the year 775 to 791, in the margin of which, opposite to the year 781, is a contem- porary notice, that in this year " our Lord the King Charles went to St. Peter's at Rome, where his son Pepin was baptised by the Pope." The two last pages are occupied with Latin verses, setting forth (inter alia) that the volume took seven years to complete it, and that in A.D. II 74 781 it was finished by Godschalcus, who, it appears, was deacon of Liege. It was given by Charlemagne to the abbey of St. Serwin, in Toulouse, and was long preserved there in a case of massive silver. But in the year 1793, during the heat of the French revolution, it was stolen for the sake of the silver, and the manuscript itself was thrown among a heap of parchments intended to be sold or destroyed. It then remained for some years in the public library at Toulouse, and, having been presented by the citizens of that town to Napoleon on occasion of the birth of his son, it has at last found a resting-place in the Imperial Library of Paris. It may natumlly be concluded that the princes and wealthy pei-sons, who caused such valuable manuscripts to be written, would spare no expense in providing for them a suitable covering. Accordingly we find they were often bound in the most costly silk or velvet, with golden clasps and other ornaments. Jewels were added not unfrequently. A numerous list of books thus decorated may be found in the Inventoire ou Catalogue de Uancienne Bibliotheque du Louvre, made out A.D. 1375 by Gilles Mallet, keeper of the said library — printed and published at Paris in the year 1836, by Messrs. De Bure. Such magnificent decorations no doubt offered a strong temptation to plunder, in periods of anarchy or misrule, yet several specimens remain to this day in the libraries of London, Paris, and Vienna. Before the discovery of printing, the prices of manuscripts were of course enormously high. It sometimes happened that an estate in land was bartered for a single volume. Even since the invention of the art, and down to the present day, large sums continue to be paid for such as may possess great beauty, high antiquity, or special merit in the eyes of critics or commentators. For example, the " Bedford Missal," described in this memoir, cost Sir John Tobin £1000. For the prices of others, at different periods, the curious reader may refer to the agreeable pages of Home, Beloe, or Dibdin. IV. The Persons by whom they were usually "Written, and the Places where. We come now to speak of the places where manuscripts were in antient time produced, and the parties by whom they were written. It would be foreign to our present purpose to discuss the merits or demerits of monastic institutions. But we cannot withhold from them the praise to which they are entitled, of having preserved, during a succession of barbarous ages, the glorious remains of antient learning and refinement, the arts of peace, and the sublime records of the Christian dispensation. Whilst rapine and bloodshed prevailed around, 76 the inmates of these secluded abodes sought out and carefully kept copies of the sacred Scriptures, and of what are called the classical productions of Greece and Rome. There, and there only, were these deposits protected from the assaults of ignorant barbmsm. "There Homer and Aristotle were obliged to shroud their heads from the rage of gothic ignorance, and there the sacred records of divine truth were preserved, Hke treasure hid in the earth, in troublesome times — safe, but unenjoyed."* Although the greater part of the inmates resigned themselves to luxurious repose, or to the bare performance of the devotional tasks of the day — there were found, in almost all monasteries, individuals who were skilled in the copying, illuminating, and binding of manuscripts. In some of the larger and more favoured establishments, where the superior was animated by a love of learning or by the encouragement of a lay patron, a very considerable multiplication of books took place. And, although the persons thus employed very frequently bestowed their labour upon works suited to the taste of the age — such as the legends of saints, and treatises upon astrology and scholastic divinity — they were frequently engaged in rescuing from destruction the more precious monuments of antient genius. A monastery thus fortunately circum- stanced, was provided with a separate apartment called the Scriptorium ^ in which books were completed for the church service, for the library attached to the community, or for any individual who was minded to employ a portion of his wealth in the acquisition of literary treasures. This apartment was situated within the enclosure of the convent, but at a distance from the other buildings, so as not to be affected by noise or disturbance ; and no one was allowed to intrude upon the writers except the abbot, the prior, the sub-prior, and the armarius or store- keeper. Here some of the younger monks, having been previously taught to write with correctness and elegance, were employed by order of the abbot in making fair copies of such books as he prescribed. It was the business of the armarius to furnish them with parchment, ink, reeds or pens, and the other necessary implements. A large annual sum was paid in some monasteries appropriated to the Scriptorium. In many cases the tithes of the parishes or villages were thus applied. Amongst the various denominations of Csenobites, the Carthusians, who by the rules of their order were prevented from going abroad, appear to have placed a peculiar stress on the occupation of copying books. In their own statutes they declare, •' We teach all who enter our society, if possible, to wTite. For we think that books ought to bo preserved with the greatest care, as the continual repast of our souls ; • Dr. Aikin's Essays. 76 and, since we cannot preach the word of God with our mouths, we do it wth our hands. We consider every copy written by us as a herald of the truth, and hope to be recompensed by the Lord on account of all persons, who by such means have their errors corrected or make proficiency in the Catholic religion. "t« Dufresne. the author from whom this quotation is made, informs us of a very remarkable mode of con- ferring posthumous honour upon those who had been distinguished in tliis department of monastic duty. Their fingers, or the bones of their fingers, were sometimes preserved after death as relics. Sir Frederick Madden, the principal keeper of manuscripts in the British Museum, shewed me not long since some of these relics. They were deposited in small capsules scooped out of the wooden binding of a MS. written by the departed scribe. In some cases we find the name and the description of the writer, of the person who employed him, the monastery to which he was attatched, and the date. Latin verses are sometimes appended by the lowly brother, who calls himself " a vile and miserable scribe," and solicits all readers to pray for him. Often, also, is he found moralising, as in the following words : *' The hand that writes will soon moulder in the tomb — but that which is written endures for many years, even for ever and ever. Amen." Although the religious houses may certainly claim the production of the vast majority of these works, it happened occasionally that laymen of rank, or possessing leisure and taste, employed themselves in the like manner. The parties thus engaged, whether ecclesiastics or laymen, were called by different names, according to the department in which each excelled : as CalUgraphers, from the uniform beauty of their handwriting ; Chrysographers, when they confined themselves chiefly to the production of gilt letters or other decorations in gold ; or Illuminators, (which tenn has been contracted into limners,) when they employed themselves in filling with splendid miniatures the spaces left vacant by the scribes. Matthew Paris, the learned monk of St. Albans, who appears to have united in himself all the accomplishments of his age, excelled in the elegance of his hand-writing, and understood design and painting, many specimens of which served to embellish his valuable history. Osmund, the munificent bishop of Salisbury, did not disdain to employ some of his leisure in the writing, illuminating, and binding of books. On the general revival of literature, at a later period, many enthusiastic scholars, both lay and clerical, made fair copies of the great authors of antiquity for their own or their patrons' libraries, or for the pui'pose of improving their own style of composition. * Dufresne v. Scriptorium. 77 It is sometimes found that manuscripts richly illummated record the names of the artists who adorned, as well as the scribes who wrote them. Such a record was, however, in many cases, wholly unnecessary. The brilliancy of the productions bespoke the unrivalled powers of Cimabue, Giotto, and other great artists, whose works have come down to our times, not only in the illuminations of manuscripts, but in large paintings, both in oil and distemper, of masterly design and execution. These men, in a word, were the revivers of art at this period. In considering the degree of obligation we are under to the scribes attached to conventual establishments, we are led to compare the extent of the largest libraries in the middle ages with that of the Ubraries of classical times. In the former, the number of volumes rarely amounted to one thousand ; while the latter were in some cases able to boast an accumulation of several hundred thousands. The Alexandrine was said to contain at one time seven hundred thousand. \Mien, therefore, we hold in view the number of monasteries, and the multitude of inmates in each, who were possessed of leisure, it is impossible to acquit them of the charge of indolence which has been so generally imputed to them. On this very account, however, the greater praise is due to the few individuals who kept alive the torch of knowledge amidst civil broils and superstitious enthralment. Prominent among these stands our country- man, Alcuin, the preceptor and friend of Charlemagne. In writing to his royal pupil from the monastery of St. Martin, at Tours, where he passed the latter part of his life, this great scholar feelingly complains of the scarcity of books now experienced by him, comparing it with the ample stores to which, as a young man, he had access in the hbrary collected by Egbert, Archbishop of York, and proposes that the emperor should send proper persons into Britain to take copies of the most important manuscripts. During the five centuries of ignorance and misrule which succeeded the death of Charlemagne, the memorials of taste and learning might have altogether perished, but for the circumstance that the Greek language continued to be spoken and written with tolerable purity at Constantinople, where a few men of letters carefully guai'ded and transcribed the manuscripts which they possessed. But the barbarism of Western Europe was become so gross, that when, in 1204, Constanti' nople was sacked by the army of the Crusaders, the manners and customs of its inhabitants were ridiculed and insulted by the conquerors in all ways, and amongst others by exhibiting in the streets, pens, ink- stands and paper, as the contemptible instruments of a race of students and of scribes. Many Greek MSS. remain, which were written during this period by command of the Byzantine monarchs, while the potentates 78 of Western Europe evinced very little ardour in sustaining the cause of literature and the arts. But a brilhant era was approaching, when the clouds of ignorance began to pass away. In the republics of Italy there rose a number of persons — ^laymen as well as ecclesiastics — who became animated with an ardent zeal for the revival of learning; and, thus inspired, they were content to sacrifice in many cases their own ease and even renown, to their anxiety for preserving and multiplpng the works of the great masters of antiquity. Petrarca and Bocaccio led the way in the four- teenth century, and, after some lapse of time, were succeeded by Poggio, Bracciolini, Filelfo, and other literati, who gave themselves up to the study of these writings, and spared no pains or expense in obtaining copies. In search of manuscripts, we find them rummaging the neglected turrets and corners of religious houses, and after dragging these precious treasures from the dust and mould in which they were obscured, frequently copying them with their own hands. Many tran- scripts thus made are to be found in the great libraries of Paris and other places. Petrarch and Poggio describe in vivid colours the journeys which they undertook, the expenses they incurred, and the missions sent by them in furtherance of their views, more especially for the discovery of works supposed to have been lost. A noble consummation was the result. The Medico-Laurentian Library was founded at Florence by Lorenzo, and the Library of the Vatican was established by Pope Nicholas V. The invention of printing, which was contemporaneous, superseded the labours of the scribe, and sw^ept away the barriers which stiQ impeded the free range of human intellect. V. The Means of Ascertaining their Age and Authenticity. The fifth and last division of our subject brings us to consider the means of ascertaining the age and authenticity of Manuscripts. This has been denominated, by MabiUon and the French writers who succeeded him, the science of Diplomatics ; but it goes more generally and more properly under the name of Paleography. To the great importance of this science learned men have at all times borne the most ample testimony ; and accordingly it has been a paramount object with princes and public bodies to collect and deposit among their archives such antient manuscripts as contain records of national tran- sactions in peace or in war — of disputed or vested rights in property or franchise — and of the descent and achievements of illustrious individuals. Here, then, may be descried the landmarks, as it were, which are to serve as guides to the historian, the priest, and the theologian. Without these, everything that occurred prior to the invention of printing would 79 be seen only through the misty and delusive light of tradition. And if we go back to the period when writing itself was little practised, how very scanty is our information respecting the mighty nations who occu- pied 80 large a space in the world before the settlement of the Greeks in Europe ! How little do we know of the men who distinguished them- selves among those nations ! "Vixere fortes aute Agamemnona Multi; sed omnes illaohrymabiles Urgentur, ignotique longa Nocte." Almost all our knowledge of them is derived from the brief and inci- dental notices given in the Old Testament. The importance of Paleographical science is evinced more especially in biblical research. Since it is agreed on all hands that the truths of our holy religion are contained in certain books called The Scriptures, it is of the liighest moment that the most correct and authentic copies of these books should be consulted in order to ascertain with precision the transactions and the precepts intended to be communicated. Nay, even the very evidences of our belief consist of a chain of testimony which, by the aid of manuscripts, we are happily enabled to establish by deduc- tion from the earliest periods. Is it desired to ascertain the true nature and scope of the injunctions put forward by Christ or his apostles, we must have reference to the most antient and best authenticated copies of the Gospels and other books of the New Testament. It is true that the original autographs have been lost or worn out long ago. In the successive transcripts made from them, errors would of course be multi- plied—omissions would be made — and interpolations would in some cases be inserted to suit the views of dififerent parties. It is therefore the office of the bibhcal student, after possessing himself of the earliest exemplars, to collate copies, and apply all those tests which modem criticism well understands. The design of our great Master was, to found a Catholic Church, which, resting its claims upon his plain precepts, should draw into it the rich and the poor, the wise and the unlearned. When, therefore, we look on the one hand at the " Word of God," which he that runs may understand, and on the other hand at the lamentable way in which it has been perverted and misinterpreted, so as to generate feelings and acts whoUy at variance with Christianity, we are struck with horror. Surely then it is of the last importance to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the exact words used by our Saviour, and by such of his immediate followers as were empowered by the Holy Spirit to place those words on record, or to enlighten after times by their own exposition of the divine mission and its objects. 80 Although the paramount value of the Holy Scriptures is such as necessarily to lay the first claim to the researches of the learned, still much time and labour have been most usefully employed upon the manuscript copies of those which are usufJly denominated prophage writings. From fixing the dates and the genuine readings in such copies we arrive at much accurate information, not only of a philological nature, but likewise as to the actual manners, thoughts, and proceedings of the persons therein treated of. The date of a manuscript is sometimes inserted at the conclusion by the scribe who wrote it — and of course no testimony can be more con- clusive than this. In some cases not only the year, but the month, day, and hour are given when the work was brought to a conclusion. Of these, several examples are found in our own public libraries and in those of the continent. In other cases the exact date, or a very near approximation to it, is found by internal evidence, as when events con- nected with the history of a monastery or other establishment are chronicled therein. Circumstances may transpire connected with the very patronage of the scribe — of which a very curious example is offered in a beautiful manuscript in the possession of the wiiter. It is a copy of the apocryphal treatise of Aristotle, De Regimine Imperii, made originally for the reigning Pope, Innocent VIII., to whom the writer appears in a highly finished miniature to be presenting it. His Holiness seems finally to have refused to accept the dedication, or possibly omitted to reward the scribe, who thereupon has erased the name of the Pope, and hastily substituted that of Ludovico Sforza. The date, therefore, must have been between A.D. 1484 and 1492, during which years Pope Innocent occupied the chair of St. Peter. In the imperial library at Vienna a most valuable manuscript of Dioscorides is deposited, containing many miniatures, among which is a portrait of an Empress seated on a golden throne. Of two squares one is so placed upon the other as to describe the figure of an octagon, within which this portrait appears, and in the eight triangles thus formed by the diagram are written the eight letters which compose the name of the Empress lOYAlANA (Juliana) who signalised herself early in the sixth century by various acts of piety and liberality. At this period therefore the manuscript must have been written in honour of the said Empress. An instance has been already adduced wherein the tenure of land in Sicily was adjusted by the fixing of the time when a deed was written. Still more important in deciding adverse claims is the famous survey of England made by order of William the Conqueror and called Domesday hook. Of tliis it is impossible to mistake the date or the authenticity. 81 because the book itself has been carefully preserved in the archives of the country, and may be seen at this day in the chapter house at West- minster. Many other instances might be adduced where the dates may be pretty nearly fixed by collateral evidence derived from the names of persons or things introduced into the body of the writing itself. The substance written upon (as already mentioned) is to be attended to. Parchment was employed long before cotton paper, which did not come into use until the tenth century, and was in its turn superseded by that manufactured from linen. It is thus that the imposture practised by the ecclesiastics of St. Mark's church at Venice has been exposed. They have been accustomed for centuries to exhibit to the curious a certain mouldy and illegible manuscript, as being the original Gospel written by the hand of that apostle himself. On being submitted, however, to the examination of competent persons, it has been lately found to be composed of cotton paper, which at once upsets these absurd pretensions. A much better criterion may be found in the /orm of the letters. The earliest manuscripts which have been left to us are written in Uncials, or what we should now call large capital letters, the same as those which appear on monumental and other contemporaneous inscriptions upon stone or on metallic coins. These Uncials were in general use until the ninth and tenth centuries, when small letters began to be used for greater convenience and dispatch. In the Codex AUxandrinus we have a noble specimen of Uncial writing. This celebrated manuscript, which is deposited in the British Museum, is of the fifth or sixth century, and is probably not surpassed in value by any other manuscript in the world. In the most antient manuscripts we find no division of words, nor do accents make their appearance, excepting that sometimes they have been inserted by a more modem hand. Again, it was not until the twelfth century that writers bethought themselves of distinguishing the letter I by a hair-stroke placed over it, which in the fifteenth century dwindled into a mere dot. At this period various forms of writing were introduced which serve to fix their age ; but an enumeration of these would lead us beyond the limits to which we must now restrict ourselves. It is proper however to remark, that Contractions then became exceedingly common in con- sequence of the scarcity of parchment, and these Contractions were carried to such an extreme as to render many manuscripts almost unintelligible. Much study and much comparison are required to enable us in many cases to pronounce with accuracy what may b3 the age of this or that manuscript. But the best judges — such as Mabillon and 12 82 Castley deceased, and Madden and Ellis now living--have pronounced that they could in most instances declare the age of such as were placed before them, just as they could that of a man — by his general appearance. In bringing this memoir to a conclusion, I cannot refrain from lamenting the very inadequate provision made by our Legislature at all times for preserving, collating, and transcribing the manuscripts which exist in this countiy. Many of our national records also remain in a mouldy and neglected state. They are deposited in buildings which are by no means secure even against fire — no warning having been taken by the conflagration which in the early part of the last century destroyed a large and most valuable portion of the Cottonian collections. Let us hope that the buildings now in course of erection may protect these invaluable documents from perishing, and that every facility may be afforded for bringing to light those antient memorials which our nation is known to possess in greater abundance than any other in the world. (The reading of the preceding memoir was accompanied by the exhibition of a great number of antient MSS. from the author's library.) At the conclusion of the paper, it was moved by Mr. Samuel Holme, and carried by acclamation — " That the thanks of the Society be presented to the President for his valuable paper." Thanks to Mr. Thornely, for having presided during part of the evening's proceedings, were moved by Mr. Richard Rathbone, and seconded by Mr. Thomas Bolton, after which the meeting separated. EIGHTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — February 9,^852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., Ac, President, in the chair. Mr. Alfred Holt was elected an Ordinaiy Member. The Secretary read a Letter from Theodore W. Rathbone, Esq., President of the Royal Institution, expressing the gratification felt by the Committee in allowing the Portrait of Mr. Yates to be hung in the Committee-room of the Institution. Dr. Inman announced that Mr. Byerley was far advanced in the preparation of a Fauna of Liverpool and the neighbourhood. He suggested that the Council should consider how far the Fauna might be made complete, by circulating amongst the members and others a printed copy of Mr. Byerley 's list. The subject was referred to the Council to report. The following Paper was read by Thos. Inman, M.D., F.B.S.E., &c. ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF HAIR. All organized beings, be they animal or vegetable, have a tegumentary covering. To this are attached a number of appendages, such as hairs, nails, horns, hoofs, scales, feathers, down, shell, &c. The character of the skin varies considerably. In the vegetable world, we have it thin as imagination can conceive, or thick and hard as a nutshell. In the animal, we have every gradation, from the delicate skin of an oyster, to the hard and shelly coat of a lobster — from the velvet-like softness of a beauty's cheek, to the rough hide of an elephant or a shark. In like manner the appendages of the skin vary. We have hair so fine that the eye can scarcely detect it, and so coarse that it resembles horn. We have hairs upon one animal, featliers on another^ scales on a third ; bristles upon this, fur upon that, and wool upon another. But, /A'^^/^y^ 2y 84 however they may differ, an analogy can always be detected, even between the most opposite forms, through a number of connecting links. On the present occasion we shall confine ourselves to a history of hair, fur, and wool, and merely indicate en passant its connection with other varieties. If we examine hair in the vegetable world, we shall find that the type is simple. It consists of a minute pointed cell, continuous with, and attached to, the epidermis. A single cell is rarely met with, two or more usually making up the hair ; according to the relative size and shape of these cells, we have acuminated, knobby, beaded, or other forms. If the number of cells becomes greatly multiplied, we find the shapes assumed as singular as they are beautiful. We have tables and stars, spears and shields, arrows and horns. In some there is a development of a poisonous material, and in the stinging hairs of the nettle we have a resemblance to the fearful fangs of the serpent. The greatest departure from the usual type is to be seen in the almost bony spines of the skin of the dog rose, where the once soft cells have become converted into a tissue harder than the wood itself. In the fera and allied genera, the original type has almost disappeared, and is replaced by scales. After this short account of hairs in the vegetable kingdom, w^e shall be prepared to find a similar diversity in the animal. The simplest form of hair in the auimal kingdom is a single elongated cell, and is met with chiefly in the insect tribes. From this type we may trace many varieties. In the caterpillar of the tiger moth, we have the simple hair, singly branched, a number of points projecting from its sides, whose cavities are continuous with that of the parent stem. In the spider, these points are increased both in number and length, so that each hair bears a resemblance to a feather. In some, tertiaiy points exist which increase the resemblance. The same may be said of the swimming hairs of most of the crustacae, as the shrimp, lobster, &c. In one specimen in my possession, marked " hairs of a caterpillar," the branches from the central stem are sparse, except at the summit, where they ajre given off in large masses similar to the long feather of the peacock. Having pursued, by gradual steps, a simple hair to a highly compUcated one, and shown its diverging into feather, we again turn back and titice it to another form. If we examine the wing of certain butterflies, (Ithamaea and Heliconia, for example,) we shall find, near its junction with the body, a few simple 85 hairs ; further off we find others which differ from the former in being forked like the letter Y. These forks shortly begin to swell at their juncture with each other, and at the margin of the wing the fork is quite tilled up, and the hair has become converted into a large scale. These scales exist more or less over the greater part of the body of the insect, the presence of hair being the exception. In some moths and butterflies no hair whatever is to be found — scales alone are seen. The scales of insects form, therefore, a connecting link between the hairs and scales of higher animals. It is interesting to examine into the anatomical difference between the different hail's and scales we have mentioned as growing on the wing of the " Ithamtea." The single hair consists of an outer or fibrous coating and an inner substance or medulla analogous to, though not identical with, the stnictures found in mammalia. Both these increase, but not in an equal ratio. The inner, growing much more rapidly than the outer, divides the latter into dots or ridges, which are connected together by delicate lines in some instances, and by a continuous membrane in others. These dots and ridges, however, are very regular in each class, so that in many cases a butterfly can be identified by the dust off his wing — which proves that there is some other agent at work beyond simple distension. To see the inner structiu-e properly the scales must be well rubbed between two plates of glass, to remove the lines. It is then found to be clear, transparent, and usually colourless, but in some cases it is bluish or rose-tinted ; it is of great tenacity, and is capable of much resistance — when torn, it appears to consist of two membranes closely adherent. There is reason to believe that the inner structure is nothing more than a duplication of the dermis or inner skin. The lines upon the scales are usually longitudinal ; a few secondary ones may occasionally be seen passing obliquely from the point of insertion of the scale, which are probably due to a puckering of the inner membrane. When the lines are close together they form good microscopic tests — they also produce a beautiful play of colours by reflected or transmitted light. The brilliant colours on the wings of many butterflies have no absolute existence, as may be readily demonstrated by the microscope ; they are produced by the light being decomposed when passing through or reflected from fine lines, and in this resemble thin sections of the Haliotis splendens and Mother-of-Pearl. Having seen in the insect world how gi-eat is the variety of forms to be met with, and having traced the connection between the most opposite ones and their relation in outward shape at least to corresponding forms 86 in their classes of animals, we now come to describe the hairs as met with in the class mammalia. Three structures may be distinguished in the great majority of hail's : a cortical or scaly, a horny or fibrous, and a medullary or cellular portion. Each deserves particular description. We will commence with the general characters of the hair, as regards shape and colour. The shape of the hair varies considerably, as regards both its long and cross sections, in the same and in different animals. Its usual form is that of an elongated cone, but in some instances there are alternate contractions and dilatations, the terminal one being largest. A transverse section shows that hairs are round, triangular, or square, with the angles rounded. In curly hair, the shape is always, as far as I have seen, kidney- shaped or semiterete ; and we may reasonably account for the curl, either by assuming that there is excess of development on one side, or arrest of growth on the other. In the fur of the hare (Lepus timidus), the shape varies with its size, from a perfect circle to a complete dumbell. The largest hairs commonly assume the latter form, but I have seen one or two circular. The colour of hair varies in different animals, sometimes in the same. In the Ichneumon we have hairs marked by broad, dark-brown lines, while the rest of the structure is brownish-yellow. In others, one hair is white, another black, another yellow, as in the Ermine. In ourselves, we have black hairs on our head, and red ones elsewhere, and brown intermixed with white. If we examine, microscopically, upon what this colour depends, we find that in one variety a colouring matter is uni- formly diffused throughout the whole tissue ; in others it is deposited in cells or granules. The colouring matter is usually soluble in liquor potasscB and appears to be of an oleaginous character. In other cases it seems to consist of pure carbon. These coloured spots are by many supposed to be the remains of the original cell, but there is strong reason to believe that they are secreted to a great extent by the hair itself. We shall see that all the primitive cells are colourless. One point in connection with this is well worthy of notice, viz. that it is now well known that hairs have changed their colour, from brown or black to grey, with great rapidity, — " The hair has turned wliite In a single night." " Deadly fear will time outgo, And blanch at once the hair." This can only have been effected by an absorbing or changing power of the hairs themselves ; and, where there is a power of absorption, there is 87 a power of deposition or secretion. The most striking illustration I can give in support of this origin of the colouring matter, is drawn from the Ornithorynchus. In it, that part of the hair nearest the skin is colourless, but at the distant extremity it bears a large brown head, in which the pigmentary matter is very abundant, and of a deep brown tint. It has been observed, that, if a hair be rolled between the fingers, it has a tendency to go backwards. This arises from its conical shape and its scaly coat. Examined microscopically, each hair is marked by a number of transverse lines — the free margins of scales superimposed one upon another, like tiles upon a roof, making each hair resemble a slated pillar. These scales commence close to the bulb of the hair, and are continuous to its apex. They may readily be made conspicuous by immersing the hair for a short time in pure sulphuric acid. One scale is rarely to be seen embracing a larger portion of the shaft than one-half or two-thirds. They vary greatly in different classes of animals. In some, (the deer and peccari, for example,) they are scarcely to be detected. In the harp seal they are distinct and clear. In man, they frequently require manipulation before they can be seen. In the smaller hairs of the racoon their acute angled edges stand out from the surface like rudimentary spines.* In the shrew, fsorexj and some varieties of mice, the scales assume the appearance of a number of cones placed one above another, with their apices all directed backwards. In the bat tribe, especially in some tropical varieties, the scales are more prominent objects than the central shaft. The appeai-ance of this hair can only be compared to a row of large funnels, whose tubes are stuck within each other for a small distance. Mr. Shadbolt has described a somewhat similar hair as occur- ring in one of the Tarantulidee, of which a description is given in the Transactions of the Microscopical Society. There is sufficient evidence to prove that the scales are simply an epithelial covering to the hair. They tire continuous with the epidermis, and are first met with in the root of the hair, where the modelling sheath is united to the bulb. By immersion in sulphuric acid, the scales are made to stand out from the stem, giving it the appearance of a bearded ear of corn ; when rubbed off, the scales are found to vary in size and shape — most of them are polyhedral and non-nucleated — some are more or less ovoid and nucleated. In this point also they resemble the epidermis, whose cells are rarely, though occasionally, found to con- • To examine these correctly, they should first be well cleaned with ether, and then put up dry — they are spoiled by being put up in balsam. tain a nucleus. These scales render the hah* rough and coai'se, and so break up the raj^s of light falling upon or passing through tt, that it seems under ordinary circumstance to be quite opaque ; when, however, these small crevices or roughness are filled up with water, or with grease and the like, we have a smooth and glossy appearance, each hair reflect- ing tlie light, and permitting it to pass through almost unbroken. This explains why it is that the hair on some parts and some persons is more glossy than on others, in consequence of the small size of the scales, and the amount of oily matter filling up their angles. The structure of the fibrous portion of the hair is not readily detected without manipulation. At first sight it appears homogeneous, or at most to be marked by colour cells. After maceration, however, in sulphuric acid, it may be readily torn, and is then proved to consist of a number of fibres, of small size and gi'eat tenacity, that pass from the root to the apex. The fibres are united by cement and by the scaly coating. When either the one or the other is destroyed by friction or age, the hair splits readily, as may be seen in the long hairs of women or the perineal and axillar hairs of man. I may mention, cursorily, that the fibrous appearance is very much damaged by the specimen being placed in Canada balsam, and that it must be examined freshly, or else kept in a liquid cell. In grey hair, a number of interstices exist between the fibres, which contain air in some form or other. These are to be found sparingly in the bulbs, but are not numerous enough there to account for their con- stant presence in the shaft. I believe they are produced mainly by the shrinking of the cement binding the fibres together. Kolliker has, I see, by a recent review, endeavoured to show that these fibres are elongated nucleated cells. I am quite unable to confirm his observations, the whole weight of evidence appearing to me to mili- tate against this view. A great peculiarity exists in the hairs of the axilla and the perineum. They ai'e there exposed to a great amount of friction, and are constantly bathed with perspiration. The result of the former is, that the majority are resolved into their fibrous elements, and many of them have large holes torn in them from the separation of the fibres. The summits in like manner are usually broken up into fibres, and more or less rounded off. Some may be seen with these fibres perfectly loose, like a brush; others have been united together by some exudation, and appearing not unlike a knobbed stick. The result of the splitting of the hair itself is the accumulation of matter on their exterior surface in an extremely irregular manner. The 89 epithelium, softened by perspiration, fills up the crevices, and before it has had time to harden, another accumulation takes place, and so on until the whole hair is often covered with a dense coat. This makes the axillary hairs appear coarser than any others, and rougher to the feel. They may however readily be cleaned by passing through the finger. These present no other peculiarity beyond their palpably fibrous character. I am aware that another explanation may be given of this appearance, namely, that it arises from an exudation of the cement which binds the fibres together, that it is a sort of haemorrhage like that which takes place in a tree when its bark has been cut through. This view is important, as it bears upon the doctrine of the great or small vitality of the hair. I do not adopt it, for the following reasons : first, hairs cut elsewhere do not exude any cement or fluid substance ; secondly, this deposit is occasionally in layers, but is never uniform the whole length of the hair ; thirdly, it is absent where two hairs are in contact ; fourthly, it is most abundant at the extremity of the hair, where the probability of any exudation is the smallest. I have met with oue instance in which the whiskei*s of a gentleman, naturally black, appeared as if powdered with white. This arose from a natural cracking of the hair half way across, and a separation of its fibres; each of these refracted the light, and so gave it the appearance of a white patch. The medulla of the hair consists of an irregular row of cells occu- pying the centre of the hair, and continuous with the mucous layer of the follicle. It is met with in almost all hairs, such as the human, &c. It is not to be confounded with the cellular interior of other hairs, such as the rat's, deer, &c. Its normal character is that of a number of cells superimposed on each other like a row of coins. Occasionally, no division into cells can be traced, owing to absorption of the contiguous cell walls. It may be seen equally at the top of the hair and at the bulb, from which it takes its origin. Its intention is evidently to supply a nutritious material to the rest of the hair. It appears to be absent in cellular hairs, as may be proved by an inspection of the roots. In them it is replaced by the expansion of the fibrous tissue. This cellular expansion commences at a short distance from the surface of the skin, and varies according to the size of the hair and the class of the animal. The simplest form is in the fur of the rabbit, and where the cells are rectangular and arranged in a linear direction. In the hare, they are still rectangular, but arranged in many rows, and occasionally uniting. In the deer, they are so numerous as to occupy the whole of the body of the hair, and so irregular that no particular place of subdivision can 18 be traced. They commence at a small distance from the bulb. In the shrew, mole, and others, the development of cells is intermittent. In the terminal portion of the hair of the omythorynchus they resemble a rope of onions ; in other parts they are flattened discs. In the rat there is only one row of cells, but these are so peculiar in their shape, as to show pretty distinctly that they have been produced by the fusion of others. Originally three cells have existed — two below, and separated from each other, and a third above them, its ends resting on the nearest points of tlie rest. The line of junction has subse- quently become absorbed. In many of the larger hairs a still further absorption has taken place of the partition walls, so that the hair ulti- mately resembles a hollow cylinder, with irregular projections from the central chamber. The intention of this cellulai- formation will be glanced at hereafter, the most obvious is to afford bulk without increase of weight. The cellular structure of the hair is best shown by immersing it into turpentine or Canada balsam, whose refracting power, being about the same as that of the hair, deprives it of the dark shadows produced by its convexity, and enables us to examine the interior as if it were flat. The cells, whatever their origin may be, are found usually to contain air, and so are well mapped out by the depth of their shadows ; after the lapse of time, however, the cells are gradually filled by the balsam taking the place of, or absorbing the air, and the whole becomes trans- parent. When filled, we find that there are a number of transverse lines or planes occupying the interior walls of the cells, which vary in colour, according to the colour of the fur of the animal, but usually consist of carbon in a minute state of sub-division. This is pai'ticularly well seen in the hairs of the mole, and in the darkest ones of the rat and mouse. This colour receives its utmost development in black wool, in which the carbonaceous matter is deposited on all the walls of the cell, so as to give the appearance of a large black patch instead of a single plain surface. The deposit of pigment in the medullary cell is very marked in many large hairs, such as those of the ichneumon, lion, and sable. In them the amount is so great as to give the central portion the appearance of a perfectly black canal, and the difficulty of even tracing the cell walls is 80 great, in consequence of their obscurity, that many observers have been inclined to hold the opinion, that the centre of the hair was occu- pied by a tube, lined by a hypothetical membrane. A patient boiling in turpentine will suffice to fill the cells with this fluid ; they then become transparent, and we can see not only the cellular character of the struc- ture, but also the mode in which the colour granules are deposited. 91 Hassall has figured a hair with a double medullary cavity. This is an evident monstrosity, and one which I presume to be very rare, as I have not yet met with a single instance. When the hair has attained its highest development, we find it, apparently, a much more complex structure than we have hitherto described. In that of the peccaii, e. g. which is so large as to have the appearance of bristles, we see a regular system of stays passing from one side to the other, and evidently intended to give strength and support to the out«r coating. This is better seen in the section of the hair of the porcupine and hedge- hog, where the structures are so dense as to have received the name of quills, and so lai'ge as to be recognised by the naked eye. But this ap- parent complexity soon disappears when we consider the central part as nothing more than an excessive cell development, with an increase of density of the cell walls in particular directions. Having spoken now of the soft hair of the deer, and the large hair of the peccari, and also of the hard and dense spine of the porcupine and hedgehog, let us examine into the essential difference between hair and bristles, and why it is, that one large hair is soft and another hard. As we might anticipate, the difference is not so much, in actual struc- ture, as in the relative growth and thickness of the cortical or fibrous, and the cellular parts. In those we have as yet considered, the latter has been developed to the greatest extent. In bristles and all hard hairs, the outer coat increases without any great increase of cellularity in the interior. There is a dense exterior covering, and only a single small row of central cells, which have been gradually decreasing since their first appearance. This will readily be understood by the following table : — Ratio of Cortical and Cellular Structure, in Diameters. OOTER. iknrb. Hare s Fur, small hairs I to 1^- — 2 „ „ large hairs 1 „ 6-7 Musk Deer, large hairs 1 „ 60 Red Deer, „ 1 „ 70 Porcupine 1 „ 910 Human Hair 10 „ 1 Eyelash of Whale 17 „ 1 Pig's Bristle about 100 „ 1 Horse Hair about 100 „ 1 Not only, however, are the bristles of the hog tribe strengthened by an enormous development of their outer coat; their resistance is still further 92 increased by a number of bands, which pass from the centre of the cir- cumference, and are of a denser" character than the rest of the hair, and contain a larger amount of pigment. These evidently have a similar intention to those we have already seen in the peccari and the porcupine. This outer coating is usually marked by a number of dark brown spots, which vary in size, from points almost too small to be measured, to the thousandth of an inch in diameter. In this respect, the fibrous structure of bristles is very similar to that of horns, hoofs, claws, and other appendages of the skin. This similarity is most marked in the large hairs of the elephant, a transverse section of which does not materially differ from a section of the horn of the rhinoceros, or the hoof of a horse. The most important distinction is, that on the application of the polari- scope to the hair, scarcely any change is effected, while the horn shows a number of crosses dividing each circle, precisely as we see in a trans- verse section of the haversian canals of bone. It is not uninteresting to enquire into the probable reasons of the vast difference that exists between objects of so similar a nature as hairs and bristles. We shall find, as a general rule, that all the pachydermatous, or thick skinned animals, have strong and bristly hair, — that those who stand next to them, in the same scale, are those whose hair is not much required for warmth, or defence against the inclemency of the weather. Those animals, on the contrary, whose hide is comparatively thin, such as the graminivora, and who are, from their habits, constantly exposed to the winter's cold, have soft and cellular hairs. It has long been known that furs, when wrapped round a heated body, prevent it parting rapidly with its caloric : consequently they are familiarly spoken of as warm coverings. This property arises from the power they have of retaining a large amount of air (which is a very bad conductor of heat) in their interior. The air may be retained in two ways, namely, by being confined in the interstices of a long staple, as in the long wool of the alpaca, sheep, and goat, or by being retained in small cells in each individual hair, as in the deer, hare, and other animals. In the first, the solidity of the structure is made up for by its length, — in the latter, the shortness of the fur is made up for by its cellular nature. It is obvious, that by this contrivance, the means of preserving warmth is not accompanied by any material increase of weight. The design is beautiful. The hare and deer, for example, (they being graminivora,) have less power of resisting cold than carnaria, they have to shun their enemies more carefully in the winter than the summer. The presence of snow. 93 or the softness of the ground, frequently obliges them to make more violent efforts to escape from the hungry wolf than would be called for in July. The increase of labour thus imposed would be considerably augmented, if there was as great an increase in the length and weight of their hair, as there is in the more domestic animals, the goat and sheep. Providence has therefore devised a plan, by which the utmost possible amount of warmth may be obtained at the smallest possible cost. This may be illustrated by the following table of the comparative warmth (to speak popularly) of the following substances : — The experi- ments were conducted by Rumford. A thermometer was placed in a glass tube, and the bulb was closely invested by the substance to be examined. The whole was first plunged into boiling water, and then removed into melting ice. The time required for the thermometer to cool from 190 F., to 54.5, was then noted in seconds, which thus became a compara- tive measure of the conducting power of the body. When air alone was interposed, it required 576 seconds to cool down ; with 16 grains of sew- ing silk, which is not cellular, it required 817; with fine lint, 1032; cotton, 1046 ; wool, 11 18 ; raw silk, 1284. All these would mechanically prevent a free convection of air by their long staple, &c. ; beaver s fur, which is very cellular, and has not a long staple, required 1296 ; eider down, which has a very long and entangled staple, 1305 ; and hai'e's fur, which is comparatively short, but very cellular, required 1315 seconds before the thermometer fell to 54. A singular appearance is met with in the shrew mole, and other burrowing animals. When first the haft- leaves the skin it is small and solid ; at a short distance from its exit, it becomes cellular, greatly dilated and ribbon like ; the fibrous portion that occupied the centre is almost wholly driven to the circumference, and we have increased bulk without increased weight. In a little time the hair contracts again, and shows a simple central canal ; it soon dilates again, each dilatation being usually greater than the last ; after as many as eight, or even more alternations, it ends by forming one large terminal head, of different colour to the rest of the hair. In the mole, the alternations are not quite so numerous, and the top joint is of the same colour as the rest. The scales on these hairs are very prominent, and, unless examined care- fully, appear to be nothing more than projections from the side. They are not set uniformly in one direction, but in a sort of spiral manner, the greatest projection changing sides, after every contraction of the hair. On the terminal joint the scales are agglutinated together as they are on other hairs, and do not show any projections. This formation receives its fullest development in the hairs of the 94 omithorynchus. In it the lower part of the hair consists of a trans- parent, colourless, cellular pillar — near the free extremity, this con- tracts to one-sixth of its original diameter. It shortly afterwards again dilates, and assumes a new character. It has now a dense brown out«r coat, so thickly studded with pigment granules, that its colour is conspicuous to the naked eye. It has also a row of central cells about one quarter the size of those in the colourless portion of the hair. I have found that each of the animals possessed of this peculiar hair is burrowing in its habits — which readily proves that the direction of their fur can be made to vary according to the way it is stroked, whether from the head or tail. When the creature advances in its hole, the fur lies backwards — when it retreats, the direction of the fur is forwards. The whole of the hair is too bulky to move ; the heads or tips of the hair alone are moved. They move on the contracted por- tions, as on a joint. The CDutracted portions act as so many hinges. In this instance the hairs afford an insight into the characters and habits of the animal. Rabbits have not this peculiarity, — and if we examine why, we shall find that though the rabbit burrows, it always enters and leaves its hole head first. The most complicated forms of animal hair I have yet met with, are those of the elephant and two-toed sloth. In the former, a number of small hairs of an ordinary size and struc- ture seem to lie side by side, cemented together by a tissue similar to that of which the fibrous outer coat is usually composed. This, as I have before noticed, gives its transverse section a similarity to that of horn. In the two-toed sloth, whose hair is fluted like a Corinthian pillar, each is composed of a number of rods of comparatively small size, bound together by a granular tissue ; one rod occupies each projection of the pillar, and one or two may occasionally be seen in the central portion. They are from nine to twelve in number, may be readily isolated, and are then found to resemble any other common hair. The actual diame- ter of this compound structure, is materially less than that of the musk deer; the one being about l-200th of an inch in diameter, aud the other 1-5 0th. Having thus, as it were, carried one form of hair up to its highest point, we must return again, to speak of another class, of which as yet we have taken no notice, but which is of great commercial interest — namely, wool, or woolly hairs. These have the power of felting, in which they differ materially from straight hairs and bristles. If we examine microscopically into the difference between hair and wool, we shall be unable to trace any decided distinction in appearance 06 between the one and the other — both have a scaly covering, a fibrous cor- tical layer, and a central cellular tissue. The relation between the outer and inner structure is tolerably balanced. But, when we turn our atten- tion to the direction of woolly hairs, we find a marked distinction ; hairs are always more or less straight — wool always more or less curly. Each individual hooks into two or three of its neighbours, and these again hook into others. They are kept still more from being separated by the ser- rations of their scales. It is this which enables us to fabricate them into light cords, as in worsted, or into a more solid form, as in felt. The fur of animals is often of two kinds, i. e. hair and wool, as in the beaver. How much the influence of curliness has to do with the process of felting, may be noticed in the hind legs of our fancy dogs. The spaniel and many allied species, when they attain a mature age, have a number of long feathery hairs proceeding from different parts of their bodies ; these are more or less curly, and require incessant combing, to keep them from entanglement ; if neglected, they very soon become matted inextricably together, and closely resemble a coarse piece of felt. This does not occur in the hairs of the other part of the body, which are straight, no matter what length they attain. Many a lady, who has no trouble with combing her back hair out, would have great difficulty in combing a sheep's fleece straight, and the maid, who combs with ease the smooth coat of a spaniel, will shrink from the task of cleaning in Uke manner the cru-ly hair of a poodle or a Skye terrier. Hair has been analysed by Sherer and Van Laer, an account of which is given in Simon's Chemistry,* It has been found to contain margarin and margaric acid, olein, a brown matter soluble in water, chloride of Bodium and potassium, and lactate of ammonia. Some hairs contain much more olein than others, but whether this depends upon the hair itself, its bulb, or the glands near its root, or upon all combined, it is difficult to say. Its ultimate analysis gives us carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, with a varying proportion of ash. This ash contains a varying quantity of peroxide of iron, from 163 parts in 1000. The large amount of sulphur in hair, averaging 5 per cent., is the cause of its colour being affected by various metallic salts. As there is no constant difference in the results obtained by the analysis of hair of various tints, it is to be presumed that the colour is dependent on peculiar arrangements of the ultimate particles. It might be enquired, whether there are distinctive characters sufficient, • Ray Society edition, vol. i, p. 41^. 06 in the hair of different animals, to enable us, from an examination of them, to distinguish the source from which they sprung. Mr. Busk called attention to this subject some time ago, and showed the peculiarity of certain classes, such as the bat tribe, the deer, the roebuck, and others. 1 can only say from my own experience, that I have been unable to draw any general rule. All that I can say is, that certain hairs are peculiar to certain tribes, e, g. the porcupine's, peccary's, the hare's and rat's, the shrew's, ornithorynchus', the bat's and racoon's, the deer's, and the sheep's and goat's ; and, as I have before mentioned, the whole tribe of burrowers can be recognized by their fur. The description hitherto given has applied solely to that portion of the hair above the skin ; we must now describe the root, and enquire into the growth and development of the hair generally. The commonest observer must be aware that a considerable portion of the hair is implanted in the skin ; if the place from which it has been drawn is examined by a magnifying glass, a distinct aperture may be seen — the opening of the hair follicle. A more experienced observer is aware of the fact, that when the epidermis is separated from the true skin by maceration, the hair is brought away likewise. This shows that the hair is not a part of the cutis vera. The same person will probably have seen that the hair passes apparently through the true skin, into the fatty tissue beneath, and will be at some difficulty in reconciling this with his previous observation. These things are readily explained by a re- ference to the microscope. Before describing the anatomy of the hair follicle, we must say two or three words about the skin. This is composed of three layers, the cutis vera or true sldn, which is the innermost and thickest, of a fibrous character. The rete mucosurn, which consists of a number of soft rounded cells, varies in thickness according to its locality, and is intei'posed between the scarf-skin and cutis : the outer layer, or epidermis, or scarf-skin, which lies above the rete mucosum — like it, it is composed of cells, which are irregular in shape and size, in consequence of exposure to the atmosphere, friction, pressure, &c. The rete mucosum plays an important part in the formation of all those things which are essentially parts of the epidermis — such as corns, nails, hail's, horns, &c. Each hair follicle consists, like the skin, of three parts ; it is, in fact, nothing more than an involution of that organ, and may be compared to the inverted finger of a glove. It will be necessary, therefore, to prevent misconception or confusion, that we understand rightly the change of terms made when passing from a description of the skin to that of the hair follicle : as, by involution of the finger of the 97 glove, the outer surface has become an inner one, in respect to its central axis — so, by inversion of a portion of the skin, the outer layer becomes the inner, and the outer layer of the follicle is a continuation of the inner layer of the skin. The outer layer of the follicle is essentially a part of the true skin modified by the particular function it has to perform. It consists of two parts, an areolar layer connecting it with the cutis generally, on which, in a state of health, the capillaries ramify ; and a fibrous coat of con- siderable thickness and tenacity, whose fibres are circulqjly disposed, and which reaches as high as the commencement of the homy streak of the hair. An inner membrane is described by Kolliker, which is con- sidered to be analogous to limitary membrane. I must confess that I am very sceptical upon this point, and think that the smooth surface r{ the fibrous layer, seen obliquely, lias led to the id^a of a separate mem- brane. Those, however, who hold that there is a limitary membrane between the cutis vera and rete malpighianum, will readily believe in tbe existence of a similar membrane here. This folUcular sheath is moderately supplied with nerves ; in some large hairs, as the whiskers of the cat, &c., separate nerve twigs may be traced to each ; the rest merely partake of the general sensibility of the cutis, and have no independent supply. The pain produced by the extraction of liaii-s varies very considerably in different parts. Thus, the hau*s on the upper lip are more sensitive than any others. Next in order come those of the nostril, temple, scrotum, fingers. The most insensible parts are the vertex, eyebrow, eyelid, and chin. Whenever a hair is inflamed, no matter what its position, its sensi- bility is greatly exalted. In peculiar states of the system, manipulation of the hair exerts a remarkable influence on the nerves — some are soothed by their head being combed ; others faint when the hair is cut ; some suffer acutely under the hands of the friseur ; others fall asleep under his operations. If we may credit the mesmerists, there is so much virtue and elec- trical character in the hair, that any disease of the person owning it may be told by a clairvoyant, from a lock of hair, as surely as if he were tbe profoundest physician that ever walked this earth; and the hair thus becomes equal to the tongue, pulse, aspect, and temperament com- bined together. Under ordmary circumstances, the outer layer only of the follicle is vascular, no blood therefore follows the extraction of the liaii*, which, as we shall see, simply removes the bulb, leaving the follicle uninjured. If, however, from any c-ause, the follicle becomes inflamed, the 14 98 vascularity is fouud to extend to the capillar surface, and the removal of the hair is followed by bleeding, precisely as if a portion of epidermis had been removed. The next layer on the capillar surface of the follicle is one which is continuous \^'ith the rete mucosum of the skin. It dips down to the bottom in a stiutum of vaiying thickness, and forms there an ample nidus for the formation of the bulb. It is remarkably soft, and its structure is detected with difficulty. On the application of a low power it seems granular, but when a one-eighth inch object glass is used, it may be seen to be composed of round nucleated cells. A portion of this is invariably removed when a hair is forcibly torn from the skin. Hassall describes this as the outer sheath, but does not advert to its continuity with the middle layer of the skin. At the base of the hair it is often seen to form a cone, on which the fibrous part of the bulb rests. It is from this cone that the medulla of the hair is produced. The medulla therefore may be said to represent the rete mucosum. The innermost layer is connected with the epidermis, and may be most satisfactorily examined when it has been artificially separated from the rest of the contents of the follicle. This is most readily effected by macerating a thin section of the haiiy scalp in a moderately strong solution of potash, by means of a little manipulation. The hair and its investing sheath may be removed entire, and then a removal may occasionally be made of the hair itself, leaving the sheath entire. This sheath is found to commence superiorly by a funnel-shaped depression of the epidermis, which may usually be detected by the naked eye. The funnel varies in size in different cases, and is best marked in the young infant and foetus : it terminates by closely investing the hair (when oil glands are present the epidermis dips down into them, gra- dually decreasing in density and tenacity); about half way down the foUicle it suddenly changes its character, and forms a dense and strong sheath. A few faint markings on the exterior of this alone remain to indicate its cellular origin. This homy sheath terminates below, by surrounding the upper part of the bulb of the hair, to which it is connected by a layer of epithelium ; it is of a fibrous character, and possesses great tenacity — internally, it is often marked by numerous depressions or pits, which seem to arise from some inequality of contraction in its different parts. I have seen this ver)' distinctly marked in skin which has been presened in spirit, while 99 it is almost absent in perfectly fresh specimens. Its circular fibrous character, and its epithelial origin is well shown in the rhinoceros. Its thickness is considerable. It is lined interiorly by a delicate epithelium, which often bears the impression of the scale of the hair it is in contact with. At the bulbous termination this epithelium receives a considerable increase in ,*density, and is reflected on to the hair, forming a conspicuous collar. It is precisely at this spot that we find the hair assume its scaly character. We have therefore no hesitation in affirming, that there is strict continuity with the coating of a hair and the ordinary epidermis. In some instances — the hare and pig, for example — the epi- thelium does not appear to extend to the bottom of the sheath, but is reflected on to the hair half-way down. A process, however, of epidermis, is prolonged between the sheath and the hair, as far as the former extends. There can be little doubt that this sheath has been correctly con- sidered as a modeller of the hair. In young hairs, the follicles are very simple, consisting merely of an inversion of the epidermis forming the homy sheath, and an outer coating of rete mucosum lying in a depres- sion in the cavity. At the bottom of some follicles, a large vesicle may be seen ; it appears to contain an oily material, and to be connected with the bulb of the hair by a small neck. Its walls are of moderate thickness, but of small tenacity. I am quite ignorant of its use, and am inclined to think it somewhat of a monstrosity, its presence is so mre. The bulb of the hair is formed at the bottom of the follicle. It may be easily examined, either in situ, or after forcible extraction of a single hair. Two parts are readily detected — ^an outer funnel, and au inner cone ; the former continuous with the hair, the latter with the medulla ; both are formed from the cells of the rete mucosum. In the hair or funnel, the cells are large, with small nuclei and a number of fibres ; and colour granules e.xist in the inter-cellular spaces. In the cone or medulla, the cells are smidl, and the nuclei of remarkable size. What becomes of the cells in the fibrous portion, I am unable to trace, for the collar of the hiiir is always opaque. They probably form the cement by which the fibres are ultimately held together. Kolliker's idea seems to be that they are con- verted into fibres — a view I do not concur in, as the latter are so evidently produced outside the cell walls. Grey hairs answer for microscopical examination, better than the bro>vn or black. The cells of the inner cone, iiTegularly situated at first with re.spect to each other, gradually arrange themselves as they proceed onwards, forming a broad line — like a column of soldiers, shoulder to shoulder. 100 As the bulb contracts into the hair, these gradually become consoli- dated, and form either a cellular medulla, by the absorption of the nuclei and cell walls, or a tolerably solid medulla, by the agglutination of the whole structure into one. The bulb may be said to terminate where the hair enters the epithelial eheath and receives its scaly coating. These appearances are most marked in the large whiskers of the cat and other animals. In many instances, T have detected a second bulb below the first, but the appearance is not common ; it might arise either from preternatural constriction of the upper part by the fibrous sheath, or from the development of a new hair, prior to the old one being shed, or from disease. Hairs in many situations are abundantly provided with oil glands ; in others they ai'e more rare. Where these exist, they are two in number for every hair, and are situated on opposite sides of the follicle, a little above the commencement of the horny sheath. According to their number and activity in secretion, we have either a dry and harsh, or a moist and oily hair. In many of the lower animals, these are far more abundant than with us — no single hair being without them. The structure of these glands is very simple, being nothing more than a convoluted and distended tube. A German author says, that nine hairs out of ten in the majority of persons, have a small entozoon, a kind of acarus, close to their roots, and this he looks on as so constant an occuri'ence, that he considers it an ex- ception for the follicle to be free from it. He has even found it in the foetus. I have never yet met with such an object. Mr. E. Wilson has figured a similar insect. The development of the hair in the lower animals, is essentially the same as in man. The peculiarities we meet with are more of degree than of kind, and may be shortly summed up. If we examine very closely, in ourselves, any hairy surface, a day or two after it has been shaved, we shall see that the hairs do not arise singly or independantly, but in groups of two or more. These emerge from one aperture, but have independant roots. This being the case with us, whose hair is by no means densely planted, we may readily imagine it to attain to a still greater extent when the hair is more abundant. I have as yet only examined the dog, the sheep, the pig and cow, and the hare. In the hare (lepus timidus), we find it a general rule, that one large hair and fourteen small ones spring from the same spot — the largest being usually implanted the deepest ; the rest iiTegularly round 101 it. Occasionally they are met with on the same level. The epidermic funnel comes low down into the skin, and its reflection on to the stem can readily be detected in each hair. Each is furnished with a pair of oil glands, which, by their opacity — and their frequently covering the bulb, render an examination difficult. The capillar scales are very strongly developed near the roots, where they appear as large as in the racoon. Each bulb is invested with an independent rete mucomm which, though cellular at first, becomes rapidly fibrous — little colouring matter and no medulla is to be seen. The hair is in all cases solid above the bulb, and only becomes cellular after it reaches the surface of the skin. The number of cells and the size of the hair is often greater at a distance from the skin than near tlie root. All the bulbs are contained in a single cuticular investment, and are evidently capable of indefinite multiplication. The number of hairs in one follicle, and their consequent small adhesion to the true skin, will explain the facility with which fur is torn from the rabbit or the hare. The hair of the dog is grouped like that of other animals, as many as fifteen or more usually coming out of the same spot in the epidermis. Small and crowded at their orifice, they are spread out at their roots. Each has a separate set of coats ; the inner sheath may easily be traced from the epidermis, and the middle and outer ones correspond, as in tlie human being, with the rete miicosum and cutis vera. In one specimen I examined, where the colour appeared black to the naked eye, but where it was, in reality, only an intense brown, the pig- mentary matter was very abundant in the bulb, which was also dilated, and in many instances opaque. Two hairs seemed, in some places, to have a common origin, rising like the letter v, but this was not by any means usual. The quantity of oil globules around the base of these hairs makes maceration in ether necessary before a full view can be got of the appearance of the hair follicles and their contents. Haii-s grow chiefly from their roots, being constantly elongated by fresh increments to their bulbous extremity. In this they resemble bonis, hoofs, and nails. But, that this is not the only way in which they grow, we have seen in the hare, shrew, mole, and others, where cells become developed after the hair has left the skin. It is usually received as an imdoubted fact, that human hair is capable of undergoing a cliange of foi-m at a considerable distance from the bulb, viz. that cut hail's will in time become pointed. U)'2 I will not dispute the occasional occurrence of such a phenomenon, but I do assert, that it is compai*atively mre, and that, when it does take place, the pointing is so slightly acuminated, and requires so long a time to be efifected, {i.e. from 2 to 6 months,) that it affords no proof that our hairs can elongate themselves by their own inherent power. Much misapprehension, I believe, has taken place upon this particular point, from mistaking new hairs, which are pointed, for old ones which have been cut. The best way to ascertain the fact is by shaving a part, and examin- ing the hairs at intervals of a week or so. As far as my experience goes, the majority become knobby, from the partial separation of the terminal fibres, and never become pointed at all. Respecting the development of hair little need be said. It exists in almost all parts of the skin, and shows itself at an early period of foetal life, It is stated that about the third month a depression may be detected in the skin which forms the follicle ; the bulb is of course developed next, and by its gi'owth a hair is produced. This is frequently curled up, and the termination of the follicle closed for a considerable period. It ultimately shows itself on the surface of the skin about the fifth or sixth month. In some parts of the body, the leg and thigh for example, these hairs remain curled up for many years, and may readily be detected and exposed. They evidently do not grow very fast. In the male, they usually burst their bonds at puberty ; in the female, they scarcely do so at all. When once formed, the hairs are increased by new follicles being developed in the close vicinity of the older ones, and it is by no means uncommon for the older ones to die as fast as the new ones are produced. This is particularly the case in the lower animals, whose coat is annually regenerated. The same holds equally correct in many cases in the human body, but is not so general. Most persons are aware that a great change takes place in the develop- ment of the hair at certain periods, dependent upon adolescence and age. The influence of the several organs is very striking at puberty in the male ; the hair is developed especially upon the face, chest, and pubis ; it grows to a smaller degree upon the abdomen, legs, thighs, hands, and arms, I have seen one individual hairy all over, like a monkey. This tendency can rarely be repressed, but I have met with one instance in which, by patient plucking out of the hairs at puberty, the growth of a beard has been prevented. The gentleman's whiskers ai'e large, full, and red ; a few stray hairs appear occasionally on the chin, but with 103 this exception the skin there is quite smooth. In women, hair is developed at that time on the pubis only, and that to a very limited extent. It may occasionally be seen round the nipple of the breast, and in the axilla. In after life, and in some rare instances at an earlier period, there is a development of hair on the female lips and chin. Where the operation of castrating has been performed in man, the hairy sexual marks are lost ; and where a corresponding occurrence has been resorted to in a female, {i. e. the removal of the ovaries,) it is stated that the development of hair resembles that of man's. There are some cases on record of women as hairy as men, and yet perfect women in all other respects. After a certain age there is a great tendency to the atrophy of the hair ; this is shown by the bald scalp of old age, and the grey hair of those who retain it — the grey colour being an indication of deficient energy in the bulb. I do not know whether these changes take place in other parts besides the head and face ; as far as I can charge my memory I have never seen grey hairs upon the pubis — certainly I have never known them fall off by age on any part except the head. Hairs are much influenced by disease ; it is well known they fre- quently fall off after fevers. In this they partake the same characters as the skin; it generally desquamates, they fall off; occasionally the follicles are destroyed — usually, however, the hair is reproduced. This 'admits of exceptions : in erysipelas, exempli gratia, the whole of the cuticle peels off, but the hairs are retained. Hail's are sometimes met with in out-of-the-way places. I have met with them in the ovary ; others have found them in uterine moles, in tumours, on noevi, in the intestines, gall-bladder, and on the conjunc- tiva. In the nostril they are commonly met with in man, and on the tragus of the ear. This is rare in the opposite sex. The only part of the sldn free from hairs, are the palms of the hands and feet, the tips of and the interstices between the fingers and toes, and the great body of the panis. Some calculations have been made respecting the number of hairs on the head and elsewhere ; these vary according to the extent of the parts covered ; any given portion may readily be examined by the microscope. The scalp contains about 200 in a square inch ; and, if we consider that the space covered contains about 150 square inches, we have about 180,000 for the whole head; next in numerical order, comes the face, then the pubis, then the fore- arm, then the back of the liaud, and then the thighs. Some persons express surprise, that when hairs are pulled out by the roots, they should ever grow again. It is readily explained by con- 104 sidering that the bulb of the hair is not the root. The thing made is alone removed, not the part that makes it ; that remains behind, and cannot well he separated, mthout sepaxatmg the whole skin with it. If the nail should be torn off, and its matiix left entire, it would grow again like the hair. It is a matter of some interest to note the direction in which hairs, fur, &c., usually lie, and to mark the evident design of the an-angement. Throughout the whole of the animal kingdom, we notice one law holding good respecting them, viz : that they all lie in a direction away from the head. On the head itself there is some little variety in the starting point. On man, the vertex or crown is tlie place whence all the hairs radiate. In horses, cows, sheep, &c., the point is high up in the forehead. In the mouse, mole, and rat, it is at the tip of the nose. In the fish and serpent, the scales, the representatives of hair, are all lying in a direction from the mouth. In the bird, the feathers lie away from the beak ; the point is occasionally prolonged along the median line of the dorsal surface of the body, in which case the hairs in its immediate neighbourhood lie at right angles with it, rather than parallel. This is well seen in the mane of horses, and the sort of comb often existing along the spine of certain deer. The design of this is not so evident in man, as it is in the lower animals, whose coats are given them for warmth and protection against the weather. In them we can understand the intention the best, by imagining what w^ould be the result, supposing an opposite direction had been given to the fur, &c. ; in that case, a deer when running would have every hair standing on end, and opposing the rapidity of its flight by the enormous friction of their whole number — the air, too, would enter freely between each, and the animal would be almost as cool as if his skin was bare. The fish, in swimming, would have to go backwards whenever he was in a huny ; and the swallow would find that the faster he wished to fly, the more determined his feathers were to prevent him. The mole, mouse, and rat, with a variety of others, would soon have their skins choked up with dirt, caught up in their numerous burrowings ; and the diving birds when they made their plunge, would find themselves sud- denly stopped at the surface of the water, by their distended feathers, acting as a sort of float or parachute. The exceptions to this law respecting the dii'ection of hair are very few — they are to be met with chiefly in those instances where a par- ticular purpose has to be served. Thus for example we have hairs converging to a centre in the stig- mata of insects, where their intention is to keep out dust. We see the 106 same in the nostrils of man and the lower animals, in the auditory passage, and in the external ear. We have them again radiating from a circle in those cases where they occur round the nipple in man or woman, and when they surround the orifices of the vulva and the anus. In the extremities, the hair also radiates from a centre, but this can scarcely be classed as an exception ; for as all point downwards, they may fairly be said to be directed from the head. In the human eyebrow we have the hairs arranged on a peculiar plan. Between them, and at the root of the nose, a few central hairs may be seen pointing directly forwards ; above these a few point upwards, below them a few point downwards ; on each side they all diverge outwardly. The centre point, then, may be considered to resemble in some respects the "star" on the forehead of the horse, &c. When the hair is long, it can be forced to a great extent to lie in any direction ; when shortened, the natural tendency is resumed. It is unnecessary to dwell at length upon the supposed power that exists in some animals to alter voluntarily and temporarily the direction of their liairs. This is done, not by the roots, or by any part of them, but by the muscular fibres, which lie in close contact with them, at the under surface of the skin. It is therefore only to be seen in those creatures which have a cutaneous muscle. This change is best seen in l)irds, where long quilled feathers take the place of hairs. The erection of the head feathers by the occipito frontalis muscle, in many of the parrot tribe, will be familiar to all. Amongst mammals, the porcupine gives us the best example of this power. The human hair cannot undergo any material change of direction ; each particular hair cannot really stand on end like porcupine's quills ; they are not influenced by any direct muscle, and can only be moved by contraction or distension of the skin, &c. In the scrotum, the direction of each hair changes as the cellular tissue relaxes or wrinkles up. Some recent anatomists have attempted to demonstrate the existence of muscular fibre in the skin itself. If this be so, there will of course exist the power of changing the direction of liairs, independently of the voluntary sub-cutaneous muscle to which the power has usually been referred.* • While these sheets have been going through the press, I have had my attention called to a paper respecting the muscularity of the skin, by Dr. Lister, in tlie Microscopic Journal. He has ascertmned that there are minute muscles connected with each hair — that these muscles are usually of the unslriped variety, but that they are striped or vulnntary at the root of the whiskers of cats, &c. I have seen the structures described, but doubt whether they deserve the name of muscles, except in the last case. But I have no doubt they are eontractile, and can change the direction of hairs. 15 106 It is unnecessary to linger long upon the physical qualities of hairs. Like all fibrous bodies, they are possessed of great strength. In two experiments, I found the average suspending power of a man's hair was 1200 grains; of the female, 1130. This is liable to vary with the individual, and the freshness of the hair. That which is old and dry does not possess one-half the strength of the recent. Its elasticity is very considerable, as may readily be shown, by pulling a hair between the fingers. It is of all tissues of the body perhaps the least influenced by decomposition. If taken into the stomach, it will remain for years undigested, and if the body be buried with it, it will remain long after flesh and bones have crumbled away and perished. Electricity can be readily excited by rubbing hairs, as is well known to school boys, who occasionally catch a cat, to stroke her the wrong way of the fur : a slight crackling and electric light are produced thereby, if the experiment be conducted in the dai'k on a dry evening. The same thing may often be witnessed when an individual combs his or her hair before the glass, on a dark frosty night. Hairs have a great affinity for moisture, and consequently become, to a great measure, indicators of the quantity existing in the atmosphere. Many a lady is unable to keep her hair curled on a damp day, who can do so readily on a dry one. It is this property of the hair to which we look to explain the pheno- menon of its growth after death. At one time there was some doubt upon this point. Our forefathers believed that it did grow after death, in many instances, and considered it as a proof of the buried having been a grievous sinner. Their des- cendants called the assertion into question, but experience has decided the fact, and it is now established that, in many instances, where a per- son has been shaved after death, the hairs have attained a con- siderable altitude above the skin in the course of a day or two. This is accounted for, in the first place, by the strong affinity the hair has for moisture, by which it is sensibly elongated ; and, in the second place, by the gradual diminution of the thickness of the skin, produced partly by the blood leaving the capillaries, and partly by actual evapora- tion of the watery particles it contains. The change of colour effected by certain dyes, and by bleaching agents, is extremely interesting, but I must content myself with refemng to works of medical jurisprudence those who wish for full information on the subject. A few words will suffice upon the uses of hair. In the higher animals 107 they are 'used almost wholly for purposes of warmth ; but it is evident, that the idea of beauty and distinction is also adraissable from the difference in the fur of various creatures, and in the male and female of the same species. In man they are chiefly developed on those parts most exposed to at- mospheric influences, and when the parts beneath are not covered by muscle. The hairs of the perineum and axilla, have the effect of pre- venting the frequent soreness which would be produced by constant motion, between parts softened by constant perspiration. If the surfaces were not mechanically separated by a substance as soft and moveable as the hair, few would escape excoriation or soft warts after a days' long walk. As it is, the perineal hairs are frequently too short to prevent this effect in the rates. In the lower animals of the insect and crustacean character, the uses of hair are numerous. It promotes warmth ; it acts as a guard to prevent the ingress of dust &c. into the tracheoe, and is stationed with that especial object at the external orifice, as the hairs are in our own nostrils ; it acts as an additional cuticular expansion for the aeration of the blood ; it is used as an instrument of progression on the tarsi of flies, (fee, on the swimming legs of the entomostraca, and on the tail of the shrimp and lobster. Respecting the commercial uses of hair or fur, it is quite unnecessary to enlarge. The hair is in fested by its peculiar parasites. We have spoken of one in the bulb — another lives on the hair outside the skin. The pedi- culus pubis, as it is called, is an ordinary louse in all respects except its feet. These are developed so as to enable the creature to embrace the hair, to which it attaches itself with a tremendous grip. The first pair of feet are not so large as the second or third, and are seldom used — two feet only are used at a time. The head is sometimes fur- nished with recurved hooks, by which the animal can fasten itself to the sides of the hair follicle. The egg is fastened to the hair by a transparent cement, and is large enough to be visible to the naked eye. This animal does not confine itself to the pelvis, but has been found on the thighs and legs, the abdomen, chest, axilla, whiskers, eye-brows — as yet I believe it has not been found on the scalp. It is readily destroyed by mercurial ointment, which seems to act as a poison upon it. The hair is also attacked by a vegetable parasite, producing the diseases called scalled-head and ring- worm. In the latter case, there is some doubt whether the vegetable is the cause of the disease. I will only remark that I have known the patient apparently to get perfectly 108 well, aiid the hair to appear perfectly healthy, even although the vegetable growth was as great as it had been. I have in my possession many long bail's filled with the branches of the fungus, and whose roots were still coated with it, which were taken from a boy whose seeming perfect recovery had been tested by the lapse of about ten months. My paper has however run already to too great a length to permit me to enter upon the subject of the diseases of the hair.* NINTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — Februaiy 23, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Pbesident, in the chair. The Secretary intimated that the Council had agreed to print a certain number of copies of Mr. Byerley's Fauna, according to the vote of the Society on the preceding night, which referred the subject to the Council. It was resolved to renew the invitation to the British Association, to hold its meeting in 1853, in Liverpool. The President and Secretary were requested to communicate with the Town Council, and Local Societies, on the subject. Mr. Henry Behrend drew attention to the peculiar metres of Hebrew Poetry, recently discovered in some manuscripts at Oxford. At the request of the Society, he promised to communicate a Paper on the subject at a future meeting. Mr. J. Byerley exhibited a specimen of glass, obtained from the ashes of a stack of oats consumed at Hoylake. * For description of the plates illustrating this paper, sec the end of the vohune. 109 Mr* Joseph Boult read a Paper, of which the following is an abstract : — STANDARDS OF TASTE, SUPPOSITITIOUS AND ARBITRARY. The artistic remains of the older antiquity are strongly characterized by the predominance of conventionality of form or action ; the several objects introduced into its pictorial or sculptural efforts are modelled each class upon one type ; kings, eunuchs, slaves, warriors, birds, boats, fishes, woods, and streams, have all their easily-recognised representa- tives,— rude indeed when compared with the natural type, but remark- ably expressive when received as intended, that is conventionally. Even down to the period of Grecian civilization the predominance of this conventionalism may be traced, though greatly refined both in conception and in execution. Winckelmann shows that the Greeks endeavoured to make their heroes impersonations of the ideas associated with them. With the artists of the earlier Christian civilization these conventional- isms were not so prevalent, in consequence, probably, of the great multiplication of their demi-gods, from the frequent canonization of saints and martyrs, whose individuality was distinguished less by a conven- tional type than by the story, and the introduction of some accepted symbol, usually the instrument of martyrdom. In the enjoyment of a work of art the mind is influenced in two ways, through the judgment and through the imagination. By the former we appreciate the manner in which the mechanical difficulties are surmounted : and in works which yield unalloyed pleasure careful reflec- tion will show that the mind assumes that the conditions requisite to satisfy the judgment are fulfilled ; and where such an assumption is impossible, in so far as the defects of execution obtrude themselves, the imagination is unable to enjoy its peculiar portion. It is not essentijd that the mechanical difficulties are surmounted in a manner positively excellent : it suffices if the execution be relatively good ; that is, as good as the explained or supposed conditions permit. The works of rude and uncultivated people illustrate this observation ; as also those of antiquity, when the conventionalism is accepted at its own value. The principle of mathematical proportion is sometimes proposed as a standard of beauty; and in some minds the dislike to speculative uncertainty is so great, that they eagerly accept the assertion of its value. In what is called classical architecture, this principle has been uni- versally received since the recovery of the books of Vitruvius ; though its application has varied, as increased research has suggested modified- 110 tions of the canon. In truth, almost every building, of which there are remains, oflfers varieties of proportion ; and it is customary, to avoid the uncertainty of abrogating the standard, to adopt some particular example, on the proportions of which the modem instance is said to be modelled. Thus the proportions which pervaded the noblest works of antiquity are introduced into buildings of eveiy class in this country, from the church or cottage to the front door of a dwelling-house, the shop front, the lamp pillar, or even the balluster of a stair or balcony. Are these specimens necessarily agreeable ? Do they generally come up to the ideal standard of excellence ? — On the contrary, are they not usually cold, stiff, insipid and awkward ? speaking of the rigidity of exact measurement, of the scale and dividers, of aliquot parts, and common multiples. They are so painfully correct, it is pleasant to detect an error, just as it is a relief to see a very proper person betrayed into a Httle natural impropriety. Though the Assize Courts and Branch Bank may apparently refute these observations, they in fact yield strong confirmation. Their architects have been superior to the literal require- ments of the style ; they have Anglicised or Italianized the Greek ; neither of these buildings bear such traces of the line and rule as usually prevail in the imitations of the classical " Orders." Analogies between scientific experiment and the practice of art are frequently delusive ; but the value of mathematics in each appears similar, though greater in science than in art. As the formulae derived by Professor Hodgkinson from Mr. Fairbairn's experiments assisted Mr. Stephenson to design the Tubular Bridge — ^and will aid in the construction of any other tubular bridge, whatever the span — so the discovery of the Kleis, or primary figure of the Temple of Theseus, will facilitate the reduplication of that temple to a larger or smaller scale. But, as the formulae for tubular bridges are totally useless in designing wooden girders, so the Kleis of the Temple of Theseus is of no value in designing a Gothic church or private residence. If a number of forms and their relations be given, these relations may be interchanged to an almost infinite extent ; but in many cases the practical value of this interchange is nothing ; and in most there is a sameness of effect, which for a continuance usually proves wearisome. The ancient temples, which appear to have been designed on strict geometrical rules, are pervaded by great sameness of character ; of their three orders the buildings belonging to each are very similar, and are principally distinguished by variations in the proportion of the column and entablatiu-e, or in the detail of ornament, and probably derived their chief interest and aesthetic influence from the sculpture and poly- chromy, with which they were lavishly decorated. Ill It has been attempted to prove, with doubtful success, that the free- masons made a similar use of geometry ; but it is one thing to establish an ex post facto geometrical relation, and another to prove that the geometrical relation was designed, and that the buildings are therefore beautiful. It is probable that, to a limited extent, the geometrical or arithmetical relation of forms is agreeable sensuously ; and that the mathematician may discover such relations in beautiful works of art, as he does in almost every subject he investigates ; but some idea may be formed of the want of precision in these relations from a comparison of all the known styles of architecture, whence it appears that the ratio between the diameter and the height of columns varies from one in two to one in two hundred. There is great variety also in the ratios of their capitals and bases ; as well as in those between the columns and the entablatures, or superincumbent weight ; and in their intercolumniations or distances apart. The proportion of base, shaft, and capital, which the Greek architects considered adequate to the support of an entablature a fourth or a fifth of the height of the column, some of the Roman and modem architects have considered only adequate to carry a single human figure, of very much less apparent weight. The maintenance of certain arithmetical and geometrical relations throughout a building may be highly conducive if not essential to exact symmetry, especially in ornament ; but it does not follow that, because a building is symmetrical, therefore it will yield intense pleasure ; or, because it is unsymmetrical, therefore it is unpleasing ; it may be picturesque or subHme ; and sometimes the quaint and romantic beauty so attained is inexpressibly delightful. Those, who advocate the mathematical standard of taste, appear actuated by a desire to reduce all fine art to a science, and to attain a definite guage by which the beauties, or deformities, of a work may be measured off as known quantities, or by which excellence of any kind may be infallibly produced to order. But what they call principles are for the most part nothing more than rules or formulae, which cease only to be empirical when the data from which they are derived are under- stood ; and yet it is a moot point whether a geometrically-proportioned edifice is beautiful or sublime to all competent beholders ; there are some who deny any very high rank to the temples of Greece, or to St. Paul's cathedral ; whilst others are so enamoured with their correct- ness of proportion, they would deny to the former buildings what they style the factitious aid of polychromatic decoration. Inasmuch as we are enabled to gather from the work before us the ideas, the feelings, the characteristics, or the incidents in the conception 112 of the artist, in so far shall we consider the delineation a work of art ; inasmuch as there is a want of expression, an inability to convey or excite the ideas or emotions, so far will the work be deemed defective. Sympathy, therefore, is the test by which we may discern the true, beautiful, and sublime ; though it may be thought that the conflicting opinions current upon different works, both of art and of nature, nega- tive this hypothesis. Man is of twofold nature — the physical and the mental — ^using the latter, in its widest sense, as antithetical to the former. The emotions of the physical man may be regarded as dual, namely, the sensuous and the sensual ; the latter including those sensations which ally him most nearly to the inferior animals ; the former such as minister to the grati- fication of the senses. From the observations of physiologists, it seems probable that men are so constituted that certain scents, tastes, forms, colours, and sounds, are pleasant or disagreeable to the physical organiza- tion, in individuals, of the senses of hearing, sight, taste, or smell ; and to these it has been proposed to apply the term sensuous : to which may be added those other emotions, which appear to spring spontaneously from the physical organization, as nervous fear ; and the delight of mere existence, in certain conditions of mind and body. Mental pleasures and annoyances also require to be classified, accord- ingly as they are intellectual and wholly dependent upon the reasoning faculties ; or moral, having reference to individual accountability and social requirements ; or emotional, and belonging to that subtler and more occult phase of the mental organisation, which gives life and warmth to the cold abstractions of pure and close reasoners, inspires poets, painters, orators, prophets, and martyrs, finding its lowest expres- sion in ordinary, but thorough, courtesy, and its liighest in religious piety. Now, if each human being contains these five main chai'acteristics, it is manifest that an infinite variety of individuality will be produced, as all of them are equally cultivated, or as they are partially neglected and partially developed ; consequently the sympathetic action and reaction will be greatly modified, as the sensual, the intellectual, or moral element predominates. After adducing the opinions of Byron in disparagement of Words- worth, and of Burlington, Wren, and Wild, depreciatory of Gothic architecture, the author observed that : — These instances, out of many, suffice to show that there is really no unvarying standard of excel- lence in art. But, inasmuch as the study of the subject induces a certain amount of concurrence in people equally educated, the practical 113 standard of each age will be the resultant of comparisons between the educated men of the age — not the practice of poets, artists, musicians, and architects only, nor the judgment of the educated public only — but that which is composed of the one acting upon the other. The abstract notions of the amateur require to be modified and reduced by practical experience, just as the technicalities of the professor require to be enlarged by the freer judgment of men, who can appreciate real excel- lence, and aie unfettered by mere rules. After explaining how the production of veri-simiJitudes is not con- sidered within the scope of art, illustrating the meaning that should be attached to the phrase " true to Nature," and contrasting the coarseness of the Dutch school with Wilkie and Maclise, and of Smollett and Fielding with Bulwer Lytton and Dickens, the author remarked upon the defective taste of those who substitute mannerism and mere me- chanical excellence for that higher element of composition which speaks to all ; and observed that the first element of success in the fine arts, as in most elevated pursuits, is real or apparent forgetfulness of self. People do not wish to be reminded of the artist in his work ; although it is essential that the object is known to be a work of art, lest it be mistaken for a fac-simile, or accident of nature. But, this assumption being made, the author should be forgotten in his work, and traces of his skilful manipulation should appear only when sought. If, with this condition, the artist can combine mechanical excellence, accuracy of drawing, good colouring, correctness of touch, and the other fruits of study and prac- tical refinement, it is well ; but, if it be mere mechanical excellence that is wanted, recourse should be had to the skilful mason, the expert house-painter, or Mechi's versifier. The appreciation of beanty in art or poetry, depending on the accord or sympathy which subsists between the artist and the spectator — ^the value of that beauty as a w^hole, or in its higher elements, is not to be determined by the external rule of any defined standard. With almost literal truth, may it be said that " each eye makes its own beauty," so infinite, and so subtle, are the various bias by which the ultimate judgment is swayed, where that judgment is of any value. The ordinary ob- server will form a general conclusion, favourable or adverse, but will be unable to assign reasons; and, indeed, few are qualified for detailed criticism. Hence the public taste has been much too feverish, and swayed greatly by fashion. At one period it has been the Dutch school of painters, at another the Italian, or the English, which has had the preference ; in music it has been Italian or German ; in architecture, Grecian and Roman in all their supposititious varieties, Renaissance or 16 114 Gothic ; in all cases fashion has degenemted into mere pedantry, a natuml result where the spectator is pleased by mle, or because others have so approved or performed ; instead of appreciatiug by self-identifica- tion with the ideal of the artist. That a work may be readily classed as belonging, to any individual style, or school, is generally evidence of its imperfection ; for exclusive n ess is fatal to the thorough adoption of the work by the observer, as the expression of his own thoughts or ideal ; and, therefore, the less traces of individuality are apparent, the more readily and generally will it be understood, and accepted as belonging to all men, and to all time. If then ideal excellence in art is so very indeterminate, it may be asked why should any time be spent in the investigation of its nature ? — why endeavour to comprehend the indefinable ? The essential character of all fine art, is to express emotions and sentiments, which cannot be subjected to the restraints of ordinary intercourse and media. The feelings cannot be subjected to the rules of intellectual logic ; they are correlative forces which cannot be controlled by the reasoning faculties, though they may influence, and be influenced by them, to an extent, which humanly speaking is infinite. But there is a logic of the feelings, as of the intellect — from certain known or assumed premises, the heart impatiently flies to its conclusions, whilst the reason plods its steady course ; and, it is only by repeated investigation of the two series of results — the intellectual and the emotional — that ultimate correctness can be attained ; but when attained, the enjoyment supplied by works of art, as well as their more perfect execution, will be promoted. Meanwhile, the investigation gives a keener relish to artistic pleasure, and tends to correct the indiscriminate encouragement of all kinds of productions, some of which are unduly stimulated by the prejudices wliich prevail in its absence. However noble commerce may be in its effects, considered as a w^hole, its detail influence is generally allowed to be contracting ; its devotees, even when favourably disposed towards literature and art, are prone, when on 'Change, or in the counting-house, to test all values by a brief standard whose scale is L. s. d. The daily influence of such a practice is very likely to blunt the perception for enjoyments, which so far from favourably affecting the scale, precipitate it below zero, and are classed amongst minus quantities. Men of science, also, naturally acquire a habit of appreciation far too exclusively intellectual for the atmosphere of art. Poets of all kinds are the amanuenses of the emotions, and if he who peruses the eff'usion, has no ready perception for traits of feeling, the vocation of the poet has ceased, as far as that person is concerned ; 115 but if it be so, he has lost some of the more refined elements which belong to oui- human nature ; and, in ceasing to sympathise with art, has lost some of those qualities, which make up the Mah. TENTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — Maich 8, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Pkesident, in the chair. Mr. Norman M'Leod and Mr. Robert G. Williams, B.A., were elected Ordinary Members. Mr. Byerley exhibited living specimens of Doris tuberculata, ,, bilamellata, Eolis Drummondi, „ aurantiaca, „ papillosa, all from Hilbra island. Dendronotus arborescens, Ascidia sordida, „ scabra, Natica monilifera, Dr. Dickinson noticed the discovery by Mr. Byerley of the Eolis Lanshurgii, on our own coast; hitherto only one specimen had been obtained, and that was discovered by Mr. David Landsborough, Jun., at Saltcoats. A Paper was read by Mr. John Faram, of which the following is an abstract : — ON THE POWER THAT ORGANIZES AND ANIMATES. Vegetables and tinimals cannot be formed from the proper tendencies of chemical elements, and therefore the power that organizes them into such bodies must be a distinct and superior power. iir. 1. There is no iiiieqiiivocal ground of presumption, that chemical elements are endowed with other than chemical tendencies, from a supposition that to endow them with organic tendencies, as well, would be a greater display of creative Nvisdom, — because simplicity is as much required in a display of ingenious intelligence as comprehensiveness, 2. Mineral elements can arrange but cannot organize themselves. An arrangement, as in a crystal, is only a repetition of an unchanged tendency, and every increment is without a variable. But in an organization there is a continual difference in the disposition of the same element, and no element arrives at its destination except thi'ough the function of an organ previously formed, and therefore a mineral element does not organize, on the contrary it is organized. Minerals in general cannot even be assimilated into an animal body, unless they have been previously organized as vegetables, although in the animal the organs exist for the purpose of assimilation ; and therefore how much less could they of their proper tendencies form an animal, or confer the power of an animal organ. What they have not they cannot give. The organic power, therefore, is taken to be a distinct and specific entity, an energetic species controlling and guiding the polarities of chemical elements, to build them up into its own form, 3. The organic power is antagonistic to chemical affinity. Chemical activity alone tends to a state of rest, as the action of gravity does ; and the elements would ultimately repose in the embraces of the highest affinities ; but now, coming under the dominion of the organic power, it counteracts the highest affinity and liberates the elements for other unions. On the other hand, no sooner has the superior authority abdicated and left the body organic to the influence of the proper dispositions of its constituent individuals, than they break out in open insurrection, and turn it into a mass of disorder and corruption. 4. The organic power is different from mineral, because of the varia- tion of phases. Minerals may aggregate and ciystalise indefinitely, like the salt rocks of Cheshire, and the last addition be as bright and perfect as the first. In vegetables and animals the form is definite within small limits,' — and this is true of the size ; mineral powers know nothing of age. Organic structures run through a continuous variation of phases from their origin to their dissolution. The former energies are ever fresh and new; were the power of our life identical with them, we should rejoice ever in the bloom of youth, and wrinldes and hoar hairs would be unknown to us. 5. The power that organizes has a comprehensive unity. The unity appears from the convergence of all the control to one end, the building 117 up and maintaining of one structure; and the comprehensiveness appears in the endless variety of the distribution and subordination of the same elements, when they are converted in countless different forms to make up the parts and members of one body. Nor is it less evident that it acts extensively, as well as intensively, that it pervades the cedar of Lebanon as well as the hyssop that gi'ows from the wall, and the elephant as the mite. 6. The production and re-production of plants and animals implies an original and continual creation. Elementary atoms could not organize themselves without a previous concert, and an assignment to each of its proper position in the structure to be formed ; for this they have neither intelligence nor intrinsic tendencies, and therefore they must be arranged and disposed from an extrinsic source of sufficient intelligence and power. In re-production, the vital power has an incipient transmission from progenitor to progeny, but without sub- duction, and, therefore, what is required for the sustenance and develop- ment of the offspring must be supplied from the original creative source. The life and power of the present generation has not been subtracted from the past : to a great extent it existed simultaneously with it, nor is it certain that all present organic existence is entirely owing to pro- creation, and not to creation. 7. It is not the same power that organizes, animates, and under- stands. To form a limb or a nerve is one thing: to feel by it is another; and to direct it, by volition, is another. The functions are distinct, the powers are distinct. A plant has a power to organize it ; it has not the power to feel. An oyster may have both, but it does not understand. In ourselves, we have direct consciousness, that the power that uses our hmbs does not animate them, and did not form them, nor does it sus- tain them. 8. Yet, the organs that are actuated, and the power that actuates them, have essential affections in common. The palpable properties of body are not its essence : it may lose all those properties that are not power, without losing aught of its essence. Body, considered as essen- tial power, has ultimately affections in common with other essential powers, vital, instinctive, mental, — and, where they come in contact with common properties, they act and re-act on one another. There is nothing, therefore, more abstruse in the ability to move the hand, than in the power of the wind to move the sail. 9. The certainty of our future existence depends upon a mental law of casualty, a law of understanding tliat requires an efficient and final cause for everything that begins to be ; consequently, the distinct mental 118 and mineral phenomena require our conviction of distinct causes or essential powers on which they depend. If the powers are distinct, then they may be separated, and our minds capable of immortality. That our minds are morally and intellectually constituted, has a final cause, or there is some sufficient reason for it, or end in view ; that end is not attained in this mortal life, but requires a life to come. The certainty attending on this anticipation of immortality, being subjective, must rise in degree, as the mind and conscience are expanded and purified, where moral sentiments and pious affections are vigorous and joyful ; the law of final cause establishes a glowing anticipation of immortality. ELEVENTH MEETING. BoTAL Institution. — 22nd March, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. The Secretary read a copy of a Letter, addressed by the President to the Mayor of Liverpool, on the subject of inviting the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, to hold its meeting in Liverpool in the year 1853. The Secretary read a Letter from T. F. Marsh, Esq., Town-clerk of Warrington, Honoraiy Secretary to the Warrington Museum and Library, inviting the members of the Society to visit that town and neighbourhood, in company \vith other Societies, upon Friday, the 7th May. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted. The Secretary having introduced the subject of a contemplated Soiree, under the united auspices of the Literary and Philosophical Society, Polytechnic Society, Architectural and Archaeological Society, Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, and the Chemists' Association : — 119 The President, ex officio. Dr. Ihne, Dr. Thomson, and Mr. Smfth, were appointed delegates to confer with the other Societies, and carry out the necessary arrangements. >< Dr. Dickinson exhibited specimens of Cocculus Platyphylliis, from the forests of the Amazon, and Ceradia Furcata, from Africa, supposed to yield the frankincense of Scripture. TWELFTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — 3rd May, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. H. S. Evans read a Paper, of which the following is an abstract: entitled, THE TEAS OF COMMERCE, THEIR MANUFACTURE AND SOPHISTICATION. After tracing the history of tea from its earliest legendary introduc- tion as an article of diet amongst the Chinese, the author detailed the various methods of cultivating, gathering, and preparing the tea hop for use ; from which he concluded that the difference in colour and proper- ties of the green and black teas of commerce arises from the peculiar method of preparing the leaves, and not from any specific difference in the plants from which the leaves are obtained. Thus, from the northern districts of China, a tea is furnished to the dealers having a fine olive green colour, while, from the southern districts, the leaf of the same plant is so prepared as to furnish a tea having a rich brown-black colour. In both cases the principle of drying is the same ; and, in fact, there is but little apparent difference in the details of the process ; yet, shght though the difference may appear, it is quite sufficient to account •On Thursday, the 22nd April, 1852, the contemplated Soiree wa« held under the Presidency of J. B. Yates, Esq., at the Royal Institution. for the very great difference existing between green and black tea. In the southern districts the process is protracted, and the leaves, after bemg gathered, are heaped together for some time before the ''firing,'' or drying process, is commenced. In the northern districts, on the other hand, the ''firing'" process is commenced immediately the leaves are gathered, and is carried on as rapidly as possible till the leaves are sufl&ciently diy for packing. Decomposition of the vegetable principles is thus almost entirely prevented ; whereas, in the southern districts, where the leaves are heaped together in the fresh state, a decomposi- tion to some extent must take place : a species of fermentation is in all probability set up, which, to a great extent, destroys or alters the narcotic principle contained in the fresh leaf, but which, in the green tea that is carried to the drying pans immediately it is gathered, is pre- served unchanged ; and hence we may trace the powerful effects of green tea upon the nervous system. The prolonged firing and sponta- neous fermentation black tea undergoes is sufficient to account for the peculiar chemical and physical difference existing between the green and black teas when they leave the tea farmers' hands ; but at this time none of that " beautiful bloom," so much esteemed in this country, is to be found on the green teas, nor do the Chinese themselves appreciate what the vitiated tastes of Europeans esteem so highly : for they never consume the " blooming" green tea. Much has been said about the cause of the greenness, or " bloom," of the green teas of commerce. It is most frequently attributed to copper ; and the popular notion appears to be that the leaves are dried in copper pans ; but this is too absurd a notion to be any longer enter- tained. The fact is, that, when the teas reach the native merchants and contractors, they have to go through a series of preparations to fit them for the foreign markets, and the green teas are very ingeniously painted to suit the fancies and tastes of their customers, who like, and will have, a fine, bright "blooming" tea, in preference to the soft natural olive green of the pure tea leaf. There are however two varieties of green tea in the market, known as glazed and unglazed, or faced and unfaced ; the one a " blooming " variety, the other almost in the natural state, as delivered by the tea farmer to the native merchant. When these two varieties are examined by the aid of a powerful magnifying glass, a vast difference is observable, and the character of the " bloom" or facing may to a certain extent be readily seen. In all the cases of glazed green tea, which have come under my notice, the leaves have been covered with a very fine powder ; in some cases almost white, and of a crystalline character ; in others it was more or less coloured with green, yellow, or blue. More minute and careful exami- nation enabled me clearly to distinguish the coloured particles which consisted of blue and yellow grains, in varying proportions according to the tint required. Unfaced green teas, on the other hand, present none of these characters, but the leaves are covered with a soft coat, of a yellowish or olive brown colour, which consists of many minute hairs, without any of the white or coloured crystalline powder observed on the glazed or blooming varieties. With a view to satisfying my own mind as to the nature of this facing or glazing, I examined a number of samples of glazed green tea. The glaze is most readily removed by agitating the tea rapidly in a small quantity of cold water, and straining the hquor, from which the glazing precipitates readily. The tea removed, may be re-dried without losing its former curl, and then has no longer the beautiful green colour it formerly had, but has all the appearance of black tea. The washings of the tea are opaque, and more or less of a deep green colour, from which the glazing separates as an abundant precipi- tate, and, when examined under the microscope with a power of about two hundred and eighty, is seen to consist of a white crystalline powder, with a number of blue and yellow granules interspersed. Of one sample I examined of ** Young Hyson," but slightly glazed, and of a dull yellowish colour, I found the glazing to consist of an immense number of minute six-sided prisms, many of which, when grouped together, had a pale lemon colour, from the particles of yellow colouring matter con- tained in their interstices. Besides these there were also a number of yellow and deep orange coloured grains with a few blue (inclining to violet) granules. From another sample of " Fine Catty Gunpowder" I obtained a very voluminous precipitate, by washing with cold water, having similar characters to the former, but the grains were much finer : the blue were very deep coloured and predominated over the yellow. It seemed evident from these two samples that the colouring had been applied separately ; first the blue, then the yellow, and lastly, to give the gloss or bloom, the white powder. A sample of very highly glazed young hyson appeared to have been faced with a powder previously well incorporated. It yielded an abundant precipitate, chiefly consisting of an extremely fine crystaline powder, amongst which a few very minute blue and yellow granules could be discerned. A sample of very " blooming " gunpowder yielded a copi- ous apple-green precipitate, consisting of a number of well-defined crystals, some tabular, and some six-sided prisms, chiefly colourless ; but, 17 1-22 in a few cases, assuming an olive green tint. The coloured particles were numerous, and seem in a state of very minute division of a deep blue and brownish yellow colour. All the samples examined were tested with potassa, under the micro- scope, and in every case it was found that the blue grains were con- verted into a dirty yellowish colour ; while, upon the yellow granules, it had no effect whatever, except in one case, in which a few deep orange- colom*ed particles assumed a much paler hue. On adding a dilute acid to the alkaline mixture thus produced, the originally blue particles resumed their former colour, but no change could be perceived with regard to the yellow grains. Chlorine water was also employed, but in no case had it the effect of bleaching the blue grains, therefore they could not consist of indigo. We may conclude from these experiments, that the powder producing the " bloom " upon green tea is composed of a white crystaline powder, coloured with Prussian blue, and some yellow pigment, not however turmeric, as has been affirmed by some writers, for, in that case, the addition of an alkali would have turned them brown, instead of which it had either no effect at all, or, as in one case, a contrary effect was pro- duced, a paler coloming being the result ; and that it is therefore of a mineral, and not a vegetable origin, and, in all probability, consists of chrome yellow, yellow ochre, or, as some say, possibly Dutch pink. Since the experiments from which these conclusions were drawn, a sample of the powder used by the Chinese has been obtained : it is an extremely fine apple-green powder, and, when examined under the microscope, presents precisely the same appearance described above. A complete chemical analysis of this powder gives the following result : — Sulphate lime 62.590 Silicate magnesia 9.305 Chromate of lead 4.404 Prussian blue 2.800 Water 15.472 Organic matter 3.270 Oxide iron, alumina, with traces of copper and brass 2.159 100.000 thus confirming the conclusion arrived at from an examination of many samples of glazed green tea, the bases of the bloom being gypsum, 1*23 or probably soap stone, which imparts a greater gloss than simple sulphate of lime, and accounts for traces of copper being occasionally found in the ashes of green tea; and also the yellow pigment is of mineral and not vegetable origin. By the use of this powder, a ready means is afforded the Chinese of getting rid, in an advantageous manner, of spurious tea leaves, or of damaged black tea. An instance of such a fraud being committed is related by Dr. Davies, in liis interesting work on "The Chinese." Surely, when Europeans are generally aware of these facts, they will no longer give a preference to these spurious painted "blooming" green teas, but be content to receive, and consume them, in the same pure and natural state in which the Chinese themselves make use of them. It must not be supposed that the high sounding names, given to the teas of commerce, are by any means generic, or apply in any way to the district in which they are grown, or the peculiar mode of preparing them; they are merely specific tei-ms, given to indicate the variety according to the size of the sieve through which they have been passed. There are five varieties of green tea, of which the largest and coai-sest leaf is Twankay ; it was formerly the principal variety consumed in this country, and amounted to nearly three-fourths of the whole imports. But, since the introduction of uniform rates of duty on all qualities, the demand for inferior qualities has very much decreased, and consequently the imports of -Twankay, from being seventy-five per cent, of the whole, have fallen to scarcely one per cent. But the bulk of the tea, which used to be imported imder the name of Twankay, is now received as Hyson and Gunpowder. It is now generally considered by the trade that the public has benefited by reduced rates and a uniform duty, inasmuch as the im- ports of the true Hyson leaf have increased very materially, under the title of Imperial, Gunpowder, and Young Hyson; these kinds now con- stitute seven-eighths of the whole imports. In addition to these there are a number of spurious teas, classed by the trade as ** Canton teas," because they are manufactured to order, at Canton, out of materials from which it would be difficult to extract one grain of tea. With regard to these spurious compounds, the Chinese display an amount of candour not common among them; they will only export them luider the very appropriate name of '• Lie teas." And Lie teas they truly are ; for they consist of sand, vegetable matters of a variety of kinds, held together with a mucilaginous substance, and painted, as already described, to imitate black or green tea, as ordered. Samples of this compoimd yield from 30 per cent, to 50 per cent, of ash ; but very 124 seldom couiain even the fractional part of a per centage of tea. Very large quantities of Lie teas are annually imported into this country for mbcing with teas of higher qualities ; but much larger quantities are sent to America. It is therefore a commodity of pretty considerable manu- facture. The process is simple and interesting. Large quantities of sand, or substances of a similar nature, ai'e introduced into a large tub or other vessel, together with a number of pounded leaves, of various kinds, and vegetable dust, or, in fact, anything containing vegetable matter ^vill do ; for they are not very particular. These are well mixed with a kind of plaster of Paris, and sprmkled with water in which rice has been steeped. This being glutinous, the composition, by stirring, is collected into small balls. In the course of a short time, and with dexterity of manipulation, the whole tub full of this fraudulent mix- tui'e acquires a granular sti'ucture. The granules thus formed have next to be faced or coloured : some are coloured green with the bloom- ing compound already described to imitate gunpowder tea ; others are painted black, to imitate flowering caper tea, with black lead. When these lie teas are mixed with genuine gunpowder or caper tea, it is almost impossible for the inexperienced eye to detect the fraud. Doubtless the public has benefited by the throwing open of the tea tmde : for, although more genuine teas were obtained during the East India Company's charter, yet larger supplies of really good and medium quality teas are now obtained. For instance : during the continuance of the Company's charter, the consumption of Bohea, the commonest kind of black tea, was about 20 per cent, of the whole, whereas now Bohea is scarcely known in the market. With regard to the production of tea in our East Indian possessions at Canton, the experiment, so far as it has gone, has proved as satisfactory as could be expected ; and there seems but little doubt that the tea leaf will form an important article of commerce with the east, and that the trade with China wall be materially affected by the change. Assam teas are stronger, and have hitherto been coarser in flavour than those from China ; but this latter imperfection is now nearly reme- died, Chinese workmen having been obtained, and^ their experience in the cultivation and preparation of the leaf having wonderfully improved the quality of the tea. Mr. Geo. Hamilton read a paper on '• The Law of Gravitation." THIRTEENTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — 17th May, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. Bloxam exhibited an autograph letter of Dr. Jenner, enclosing threads dipped in vaccine virus, from a cow-pox pustule. Mr. TowsoN reported having received certain tide-tables, graphic illustrations of the tides at various stations, and other documents, from the Admiralty, bearing upon the question of a SeK-registering Tide- gauge, which the Society wished to be erected at the Liverpool Observatory. A Sub-committee, consisting of Dr. Duncan, Chairman, Mr. Towson, Mr. M'Leod, Mr. Hartnup, Mr. J. P. G. Smith, and the President, Treasurer, and Secretary, ex officio, was appointed to take the subject into further consideration, with a view to memorialize the Town Council or Dock Committee. The Secretary intimated that a resolution, unanimously passed at a meeting of the Soiree delegates from the dififerent societies, recom- mending a trial of the electric-light upon the landing-stage, had been forwarded to the Dock Committee. Mr. R. W. Anderson, and Mr. Bloxam, gave a detailed account of the visit to Warrington. A resolution was moved by Mr. Bloxam, and carried by acclamation, that the thanks of this Society be given to the Committee there, and to Mr. Marsh in particular, for the kind attentions paid to the members who joined in the excursion. FOURTEENTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — 31st May, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. J. P. G. Smith exhibited an unpublished Map of the Roman Roads of England ; also, specimens of Lepidopterous Insects, from Cali- fornia, viz., Papilio eurymedia, Argynnis zerina, Melitcea calcedon; all described by Dr Boisduval, in the Ti'ansactions of the Entomological Society of Paiis. Mr. Sansom exhibited specimens of the following lately described species of Hubi, from Leicestershire, viz., Rubus mucronatus, (Bloxam,) R. nitidiiSy (Bell Salt,) R. calvatus, (Bios,) R. Lindleianus, (Lees.) Mr. Henry Behrend exhibited a figure in pure gold, taken from the tomb of an Indian chief. Mr. George- Hunt exhibited a copy of a very ancient Bible. Owing to the absence of the title page, Mr. H. is unable to ascertain what par- ticular edition of the Scriptures this is. The title-page of the New Testament is preserved, and bears date, " Yeare of oure Lorde God. M. D. XLIX." From minute information, very kindly furnished by the Rev. John Sansom, of Oxford, there is ample internal evidence to show that it is neither the reprint in 1549, of the earlier edition of 1537, generally known as Matthewe's Bible, nor a reprint of Cranmer s Bible, which also came out in 1549. From the fact of there being a prologue, headed, •• Unto the Reader W. T.," and also a long prologue to the 127 book of Jonas, with the headmg " W. T. unto the Christen reader," it is most probably some reprint of Tyndal and Coverdale. The President exhibited, and read frojn, the Salisbury Missal. Mr. Isaac Byebley communicated a paper in explanation of his " List of Animals found in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, intended as a nucleus for a Faima of the district," which had been printed in a preliminary form for distribution amongst the members of the Society. This list, with subsequent additions, contains the names of 37 mam- malia, 150 birds, 11 reptiles, 86 fishes, 186 moUusca, 62 Crustacea, including the valuable addition of 15 species of entomostracia by Mr. Weightman, nearly 700 insecta (all lepidoptera), about 40 annelids, 12 ecliinodermata, 14 acalephse, 65 zoophytes, and 4 sponges. It was Mr. Byerley's original intention to have published the list, properly classified and arranged, with the localities of the animals and other remarks worthy of note, in the present volume ; but he thinks it expedient however to postpone it until a later period. In this opinion he is joined by many gentlemen who have kindly assisted in the investi- gation. This course has been determined upon because several additional species have been appended to the list since it was printed ; and it is reasonable to hope that many more may yet be included. Moreover, several species have not been named. In three or four instances this circumstance is owing to their being new to the British fauna : one of these is a nudibranch mollusk, of the genus Antiopa, found at Hilbra Island by Mr. Price and himself. Mr. Alder thinks that, from its glassy transparent appearance, the name of vitrea, or crystallina, would be appropriate. Three annelids also, which have been put into the hands of Dr. Williams, of Swansea, who is engaged in the preparation of a monograph upon this class, are stated by that gentleman to be new. Others, again, have not been determined, owing to the scattered nature of much of our zoological literature, the papers necessary for reference being in periodicals and other expensive works difficult of access. It was thought worthy of notice that two specimens of Eolis Landsburghi, and one of Doris subquadrata, have been found upon our shores, the figures in the parts of Alder and Hancock's work upon the British nudibranchs having been drawn from single captures at the time of their pubUcation. Among the reptiles, also, Lissotriton palmipeSy a very rare species, was found at Upton, and kept in captivity for several months. Inde- pendently of the gaps which may be filled up amongst the classes in 128 the list, there are several tribes of animals which have not been noticed, Arachnida, the remainder of the insecta, Myriojyoda, Ccelelmintha, Sterel- mintha, and microscopic Infusoria would be most desirable additions. These are so numerous that it is almost too much to hope for even a moderately full list of them in a short space of time ; nevertheless, if gentlemen fond of natural history pursuits could be induced to under- take the investigation of different sections, much might be effected. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LITERAEY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL. SESSION FOKTY-TWO, 1852-3. FIRST MEETING. Royal Institution. — October 18, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c.. President, in the chair. The Secretary read the following Report of the retiring Council, which was received and adopted : — The Literary and Philosophical Society has now entered upon the duties of the Forty-second Session, and in accordance with the Laws, the retiring Council present their Report. At the last Annual Meeting the gentlemen whose names were enrolled as members amounted to 202 : of these, 137 were ordinary members. During the session, 2 were added to the number of corresponding members, both of whom had previously belonged to the Society, and 14 new members were elected. But 15 names have been removed from the list of ordinary membei*s, by death, resignations, and the 2nd law ; BO that our numbers are now 136 ordinary, and 67 corresponding members : 203 in the aggregate. SeveraJ Donations to the Library have been made during the past year, for which the thanks of the Society have been offered to the donors. The Council cannot report upon this occasion, as on the last, the pubHcation of another volume of "Proceedings," inasmuch as it has been found advantageous to print biennially. 18 180 The public presentation of the Portrait of our President was a prominent feature in the Society's proceedings last Session; and the Council offer their congratulations upon having within the Royal Institution such an admirable and life-like portrait of one who has been so long an active and much respected member of the Society. The Council would refer with pleasiu'e to the very attractive Soiree which was given in April last, under the joint auspices of this and four other Societies. Owing to the limited accommodation of the building, the tickets were necessarily limited, and it is regretted that on that account many were disappointed in obtaining admission. The Society has expressed its thanks for the very courteous invitation received from the Town-Clerk and other gentlemen of Warrington, to meet several learned Societies there, on the 7th of May last ; and the Council were glad to learn that the proceedings of the day gave the greatest satisfaction. An invitation was duly forwai'ded to the British Association from this Society, at their recent meeting at Belfast, and another emanated from the Mayor and Town Council ; but though these were well received, and personally supported by our President and Chief Magistrate, the claims of Hull were accounted prior to those of Liverpool. The Committee appointed to prepare a Memorial upon the erection of a self-registering Tide-gauge at the Observatory have been unable to finish their labours, chiefly in consequence of the long-continued and severe illness of Mr. Hartnup ; but they rejoice in his recoveiy, and encourage the hope of being able soon to cany out the wishes of the Society. The nucleus of a local Fauna has been prepared, and copies will be furnished to members, or their friends, who may be able to extend our knowledge on the subject. The Council have again to urge upon the members to come forward with Papers, and to give early notice to the Secretary of their intended contributions. The Treasueer's accounts will be laid before you; and, in conclu- sion, the Council have to thank you for your support, and the retiring President for his assiduous attentions to the business of the Society. In demitting office they have to recommend that the following gentlemen shall be elected upon the new Council, viz. : — Rev. H. H. Higgins, Mr. Samuel Huggins, Dr. Turnbull, Mr Towson, and Mr. MacLeod. The Treasurer's accounts were then read and passed. — (Vide Appendix No. II.) The Society then proceeded to ballot for a President, Council, and Officers, when the following gentlemen were declared elected : — 131 President. Joseph Dickinson, M.A., M.D., M.R.I.A., F.L.S. Vice-Presidents. Joseph Brooks Yates, F.S.A., M.R.G.S., M.P.S. Thomas Inman, M.D. R. M'Andrew, F.R.S., F.L.S. Treasurer. Edwakd Heath. Hon. Secretary. Thomas Sansom, A.L.S., F.B.S.E. Other Members of Council. W. H. DUNCAN, M.D. JOHN HAKTNUP, F.R.A.S. REV. H. H. HIGGINS, M.A., F.C.P.S. SAMUEL HtlGGINS. WILLIAM IHNE, PH.D. NORMAN MACLEOD. J. P. G. SMITH, JOHN T. TOWSON. JAMES TURNBULL, M.D. • It was moved and carried unanimously, — "That the thanks of the Society be presented to Dr. David P. Thomson for his valuable services during the time he filled the ojfice of Secretary." SECOND MEETING. Royal Institution. — November 1, 1852. JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.D., F.L.S., &c., President, in the chair. Mr. J. P. G. Smith exhibited three valuable and interesting spe- cimens of native gold from AustraUa, the lai-gest of which is estimated at a value of upwards of £180. Mr. W. NisBET exhibited specimens of the fruit of Pekea guianemis, now selling in the markets of the town, and in many respects found preferable to the common Brazil nut ( Bertholletia excelsa). Also a cocoa nut, in a state of germination. The following papers were read : — ON TIME-BALLS AND SYMPATHETIC CLOCKS, By John Hartnup, Esq., F.R.A.S., etc. There appears to be some doubt to whom we are indebted for the first application of electro-magnetism as a maintaining power to clocks. Mr. Alexander Bain had applied it in 1 842 ; but the attractive and repulsive forces of the magnets were, at that time, brought to bear directly on the pendulum — a method fatal to accurate performance, since batteries of unvarying power cannot be obtained. The electric clock, which I recently saw at the Royal Observatory, at Greenwich, was constructed by Mr. C. Shepherd, of Leadenhall-street, London. In this clock, the maintaining power is transmitted to the pendulum by a spring, so that the varying power of the batteiy is not communicated directly to the pendulum. Galvanic currents can, however, be transmitted along a conducting wire, either by an electric clock or by an ordinary astronomical clock, and, by causing the currents thus transmitted to excite magnets, the hands of any number of clocks, placed in the circuit, may be made to move simultaneously with the hands of the primary clock. At Greenwich, the clock which transmits galvanic currents is an electric clock, and it is made to show correct time by a mechanical action on the pendulum. At each vibration towards the right, the upper part of the pendulum-rod comes in contact vdth a pin, and thereby completes the circuit ; as the pendulum vibrates towards the left, the contact is broken ; therefore, the primary clock causes the trans- mission of a galvanic current once during two oscillations of the pendu- lum. Each secondary clock is provided with an electro-magnet, which becomes animated during the transmission of a galvanic current, and draws its armature towards its poles : when the contact is broken, the armature is made to fall back by the force of gravity. In this way the pallets are made to oscillate, and this oscillatory motion is communi- cated to the seconds arbor, and thence to the minute and hour hands, by the ordinary system of wheels. At present the primary clock at Greenwich gives motion to five secondary clocks, four of which are on the premises, and one is in the Electric Telegraph Ofiice, at London Bridge, a distance of five miles Ids from Greenwich. By means of electro-magnets and armatures, and a peculiar arrangement for the transmission of a galvanic current once in every twenty-four hours, this primary clock is also made to drop the time-balls at Greenwich and at Charing Cross, and, when the arrange- ments are complete, it will transmit signals for the regulation of the large clock at the New Houses of Parliament. As an instance of the faciUty with which branch clocks may be connected when once the main wire is laid down, the Astronomer Royal told me, that when the main wire was carried through the Electric Telegraph Office at London Bridge, on its road to the time-ball at Charing Cross, a connection was made with the wire on its passage through the office, without the knowledge of either the Astronomer Royal or his assistants, and one of the secondary clocks was set to beat simultaneously with the Greenwich clocks, and made to show exactly the same time. The assistants at Greenwich, when they were acce- lerating or retarding the primary clock, in order to make it show true time, were therefore, without being aware of it, operating in a similar manner on a clock five miles distant. There is an electric clock opposite the Electric Telegraph Office at Charing Cross, and it has been stated, in the London newspapers, that this clock is under the control of the sistronomers at Greenwich. Such, however, is not the case. It is worked in the following manner. There is a clock in the Electric Telegraph Office, which is put right by hand, every day, when the time-ball drops, and this clock works the clock in the street by galvanic currents. The street clock is erected on the top of a lamp-post ; it has four faces, and the minute hand is made to move on suddenly at the end of every minute. In a conversation wliich I recently had, on sympathetic clocks, with Mr. Walker, the telegraph engineer on the South-eastern line, he informed me tliat he had, at Tunbridge, a large clock going sympathetic- ally at the distance of two miles ; its performance had been very satisfactory during the two years that it had been going, and the battery which worked the clock did not require attention more than once in six months. From the experiments which have now been tried at Greenwich and in London, there cannot be a doubt of the practicability of making one primary clock work several secondary clocks at the distance of four or five miles. Therefore, if one clock at the Observatory were made to show correct time, as determined by astronomical observations from day to day, other clocks, placed in different parts of the town, might be connected with it, and all the clocks so connected would show precisely the same time as the clock at the Observatory ; and if a time-ball were 134 erected, on the top of a high building in Liverpool, so that it might be well seen from the river and the surrounding neighbourhood, such a ball might be dropped, by the transmission of a galvanic current from the Observatory, with the same ease and precision as the ball which we now have at the Observatory is dropped. Now, with regard to the advantages to be derived by an extensive diffusion of accurate time, it is possible that, for the ordinary purposes of life, a want of it does not often cause a more serious inconvenience than that of our being too late for a steam-boat or a railway train ; but an exten- sive dissemination of accurate time in a large sea-port, lends to facilitate navigation, and to add greatly to its security. It is, therefore, a subject well worthy of the attention of the authorities of the largest sea-port in the world. AN ACCOUNT OF TWO GREEK SEPULCHRAL INSCRIP- TIONS AT INCE BLUNDELL, (the Seat of Thomas Weld Blundell, Esq.,) NEAR LIVERPOOL, By Joseph B. Yates, Esq., F.S.A., etc., V.P. In the valuable collection of Antient Marbles at Ince Blundell, near Liverpool, made by the late Hemy Blundell, Esq., at an enormous expense, are a few Greek inscriptions, of which no account has yet been given to the public. Two of these are very remarkable, and of them it is now proposed to furnish copies and a description. In the Catalogue, printed with much labour and cost by the late proprietor, he merely expresses an inability to interpret them, although they " are said to be very interesting. "^- Subsequently to the printing of this catalogue, the late Mr. James Christie had engravings of them made, which, however, were not very accui-ate. They were purchased by the late Charles Townley, for Mr. Blundell, at the sale of Lord Besborough's effects, at Roehampton, in April, 1801, and are now built into the wall composing the front of the Greenhouse, or smaller Pantheon, at Ince. It is evident that they have formerly been affixed to the entrance of sepulchres, (r}pojojv,) or of tombs, ifivrjfiuojv,) at Smyrna, or some other city of Ionia, or of the neighbouring islands. One of them inflicts a fine, payable to the goddess Cybele, as worshipped upon the mountain Sipylus, in illustra- tion of which coins are still extant, bearing the turreted head of the goddess surrounded by the word CinYAHNH on one side, and a lion with the word CMYPNAIQN on the obverse. The term rjpwa was applied to sepulchres of a handsome description, • Vide Catalogue, p. 184. 135 built in the form of small temples, and rising to the height of 10 or 20 feet. An example of these may be found in Sir Charles Fellowes s work, " Excursion in Asia Minor." Tombs of less pretensions were called fivtjftna. These burial places were erected by individuals during their life-time, and the inscriptions upon them served to indicate the parties who erected them, and those to whose sepulture they were to be applied, with the penalties attaching to any persons violating or intruding thereupon. They were erected in the environs of great cities, and were so numerous as to extend in some cases several miles beyond the gates. Both inscriptions seem to belong to the age of the first Roman Emperors. At this period a change took place in the form of the three letters ESQ, which came to be thus written, e c w, as in the inscrip- tion of Ulpius now before us. In Ionia, however, and other Eastern parts, these letters continued for three or four hundred years to be expressed by both sets of characters. The y, as it appears in the present inscription of Cacuchius, is not often found so written. It occurs, however, sometimes in the more antient marbles. I have translated the word ^ptfifia CD o X H CO e ^ ^ > -i t> O — CO -J > -J r> -d o X S2 > o o o o o o _ 3^ o o o z o O -< o > > o o -< > CD > -< CD •-0 O o i ^ > o o o ^ s 5> 5 =1 I 5 i 2 > o O I— I o > 13 -d I o K -I o o > o H o Sri hi 8 o o bD o o H CD -< =1 O o -< > o o o -< > o o o 137 besides himself having liberty either to sell anything, or to introduce any strange corpse. If any person shall dare to sell anything, or to introduce any stiange corpse, he shall pay to the Senate and the young men two thousand denarii. A copy of this inscription is deposited in the State-House. TRANSLATION OF INSCRIPTION No. II. I, Ulpius, the son of Julius, a native of Smyrna, a Senator, Master of the Feasts, and one of the Prytanes, have purchased this Sepulchre. I have fitted it up for myself and my wife Fortune, (Tyo.he,) and my children and my grand- children and my domestic kindred and my freedmen ; no one else having liberty either to bury any other person, or to sell anything hereout. If any one slial' dare to do ought of the kind, he shall pay to the Sipylenian mother of the god five thousand denarii. THIRD MEETING. Royal Institution. — November 15, 1852. JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.D., F.L.S., &c., President, in the chair. At an Extraordinary Meeting, held previous to the ordinary meet- ing, the recommendation of the Council, — " That the Society consider, if it be not well to give the privilege of attendance at the Public Meetings to the Presidents and Secretaries, ex ojiciisy of such Societies as meet in the Royal Institution, or may be approved by the Society," — was confimied, agreeably to the 46th Law. Mr. J. P. G. Smith read a communication on THE RECENT EARTHQUAKE. It recorded his own observations, and classified the various notices which have appeared in the public prints. The earthquake occurred about 4h. 28m. 20s., a.m., Greenwich mean time, on the 9th instant.' There were five distinct movements, three in one direction and two in the reverse, above E. and W. The motion felt was the same as if the bed had been forcibly and rapidly moved from side to side, and the total duration of the vibrations was from one-and-a-half to two seconds, certainly not more than two seconds, if so much. The windows and doors shook in their frames ; the crockerj', 19 138 and different loose objects in the room, rattled. The movement was quite enough to have disturbed any one but a very heavy sleeper. E.Kcept the motion of the windows, Ac, mentioned, no noise or nimbHng sound whatever was heard. The time was noted carefully by a good watch, and corrected a few hours afterwards at the Observatory here, through the kindness of Mr. Hartnup. The sky was overcast ; the night very dark ; the air appeared perfectly calm, and, though apparently saturated with moisture, no rain was falling; the temperature was 50.2. For several days previous to the earthquake the temperature had been several degrees higher than the mean average for this period of the year ; the atmosphere damp, extremely electric and oppressive*; the sky overcast, and rain almost daily, as vnll be seen in the table subjoined : Average oi Nov. Dry Bulb. Wet Bulb. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 7 previous yeuts. BaromiUr. Kain. 1 57.5 55.3 57.3 51.8 54.6 49.3 29.533 0.000 2 55.5 52.5 57.0 51.3 54.2 50.1 29.476 0.075 3 51.7 49.5 56.5 48.5 52.5 48.4 29.506 0.038 4 52.U 48.0 51.7 45.9 48.8 40.7 29.768 0.401 5 58.7 55.7 58.5 47.7 53.1 46.1 29.176 0.259 6 50.4 46.1 58.8 43.3 51.1 49.5 29.662 0.116 7 CO.l 55.5 59.9 48.8 54.4 47.8 29.629 0.154 8 60.7 56.0 60.7 55.7 48.2 47.9 29.871 0.006 9 50.5 48.1 59.3 50.5 54.9 47.9 30.150 0.221 10 47.2 43.6 51.7 44.3 48.0 -i7.7 30.072 0.171 11 39.5 38.1 46.7 36.3 41.5 49.1 29.539 1.201 12 45.2 41.8 44.4 39.0 41.7 47.4 29.657 0 049 13 42.9 40.7 44.8 39.8 42.3 47.2 29.509 0.031 14 42.9 40.8 42.6 39.8 41.2 45.7 29.349 0.344 15 46.9 45.8 46.5 41.9 43.7 45.6 29 078 0.196 The above observations are suppUed by Mr. Hartnup. The places from which we have accounts of its being felt are Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Bewdley, Worcester, Gloucester, Bristol, Bath, Kidderminster, Shrewsbury, and Chirk, to the south ; Wexford, Wicklow Mountains, Dublin and its vicinity, Carlow, Carlingford, and Belfast, on the west ; Isle of Man, Lancaster, part of Dumfries, Kendal, Fleetwood, Lytham, Southport, Blackburn, Bury, and Manchester, on the north and east ; so that it appears to have been confined to a tract of country which we may show on a map by describing a circle of about 100 to 120 miles radius round Snowdon. After allowing for a certain amount of unintentional exaggeration, and taking into account that a very large proportion of those who think that they were awake at the time of its occurrence were really roused by it, and, therefore, less able to form an accurate opinion of its duration, 139 the sounds they heard, and its intensity — it does not appear to have been more severe in this particular locality than in any other from which we have accomits. Some persons assert they heard a rumbUng sound ; others that it was a very loud noise which awoke them, and made them feel quite bewil dered ; that some one was walking heavily across the room ; that the sensation was such as a large dog would produce if he were beneath a bed, and forcibly lifting it up. One gentleman describes the towels hanging up in his room to have oscillated so much as to attract his attention. At Birkenhead a child's rocking horse was set in motion. At one of the graving docks, some of the shores against a vessel under repair were shaken down. A policeman leaning against one ol the huts near the docks says it shook so much that he thought it would have fallen into the water. Another heard a loud noise, and saw a flock of small birds, which had been sheltering under the roof of one of the dock sheds, fly out in a state of great terror ; two of them struck against one of the pilbu^, and fell dead. In Dublin a sttick of chimneys fell down. A man, in getting over the wall of Trinity College, felt the shock, and feared the rails on the top were giving way ; when he dropped on the ground the motion had ceased ; it did not last more than slk seconds ; there were four distinct shocks, at an interval of about a second and a half ; the direction was N.E. and S.W. A companion, who was on the opposite side of the wall, standing on soft ground, did not feel it at all. No sound whatever was heard. In Molesworth-sti'eet, Dublin, a grass-plot is said to have sunk down, leaving a deep pit. At Preston some houses in course of erection were so much shaken that they fell down the same day. At Shrewsbury some large cheeses rolled off the shelves on which they were placed. The bells in the church vibrated ; and in the County Graol the idea prevailed that the prisoners were attempting an escape. A man, going to his work, felt the ground tremble so much that he thought he should have fallen. At Chirk the ground is said to have rocked violently for about thirty seconds. At Bangor, great tremor and loud noises. Thus there appears a general concurrence in the phenomena, with the exception of the time it lasted and the noise, which only a few appear to have noticed. In some houses, from the nature of their construction, it has probably been felt more sensibly than in others, and to have lasted longer ; and with regard to the noise, the evidence leads to the inference that the shaking of windows and doors, heard at the moment of waking from sleep, was the only sound made. 140 Maiiy persons entertain the opinion that disastrous inteUigence is to be expected from other quarters, of the effects of some violent shock, of which this we have felt is the more subdued tremor ; but with the exception of the great earthquake which destroyed Lisbon in 1755, there is no authentic record of the minor shocks, we have from time to time experienced, being connected with the fearful disasters that have desolated other regions. A good series of observations made by intelligent persons upon the state of the atmosphere before and since the occurrence, the direction in which the shocks were felt, how many, and of other circumstances in connexion, would be greatly valued, and might be made useful, if sent to the secretary of their society. Mr. H. SuGDEN Evans read a paper, of which the following is an abstmct : — ON THE COFFEES OF COMMERCE. The author commenced his paper by giving an account of the history of Coffee, from its earliest traditional discovery as a beverage, by one of the Persian anchorites, to its introduction, two hundred years since, into this countr}% by Edw^ards, a Turkish merchant. The Coffee Plant (Coffea Arahica) is an elegant evergreen shrub, very much resembling the bay tree. It is a native of Ethiopia, producing most elegant white flowers, and diffusing an exquisite fragrance. The fruit is a plump, reddish purple berry, about the size of a cherry, each berry containing two seeds (or coffee beans) within a glary yellow juice. Not more than one pound of coffee beans are annually produced by each tree, and as there are but a thousand trees on an acre, the average yearly crop is a thousand pounds of coffee per acre. The fruit is usually gathered in May, and is partially dried in the sun, then crushed, to separate the seeds, which are either cleansed and dried in the shade, or, as in the West Indies, allowed to steep for twelve hours in water, and then dried in the sun. After describing the varieties of coffee met with in the market, and the damages frequently sustained on the voyage, Mr. Evans proceeded to detail the various modes of using coffee. In the first place, the bean has to be roasted, to develope its aroma: and on the manner in which this operation is conducted depends the excellence and flavour of the coffee. Various means are adopted for the roasting of coffee ; but in Europe, generally, cylinders of silver or iron, revolving slowly over a bright charcoal or coke fire, are chiefly employed. In 141 Arabia and the East, the coffee is roasted in shallow pans, over an open fire, and as the beans are sufficiently roasted they are removed. By whatever process the roasting is accomplished, the greatest nicety is required to determine the exact point at which the process must be stopped ; and perhaps a great cause of English coffee being inferior to French is, that the English dealer will not allow more than from _16 to 20 per cent, of loss in the roasting — ^a loss which, according to Cadet s experiments, is scarcely sufficient fully to develope the aroma. Coffee is made by decoction and infusion ; but its aroma, depending upon the volatile empyreumatic oil generated in the roasting, is rapidly dissipated by boiling, a quantity of mucilagenous matter being extracted, imparting a mawkish flat flavour. This, however, is not the case with infusion ; it is therefore preferable. In the East both methods are employed. Boiling water is poured upon the bruised, not ground, coffee, with a little spice : the whole is then boiled up for a moment, and drunk unstrained, and without milk or sugar. The adulteration to which coffee has been subjected is enormous, and amongst the articles detected admixed with coffee, the chief are chicory, roasted com and beans, burnt farina, exhausted coffee grounds, mahogany sawdust, spent tan, acorns, &c. &c. Of these, chicory, the roasted root of dchorium intyhns, is chiefly employed, partly from the fact of its addition being generally considered an improvement to the coffee, and partly from there having existed, until lately, no law to prohibit the admixture, leaving it perfectly optional with the dealer how much of this cheap and worthless aiticle he should employ to ''improve " his more valuable coffee. In Holland, and many parts of Germany, where the culture and manufacture of roasted chicory is largely carried on, the peasants frequently substitute it entirely for coffee ; but, by itself, its use is injurious, as it contains a narcotic poison resembling lactncarium. The manufacture of chicory- coffee is carried on to a very large extent, both on the Continent and here, and indeed not long since there was constructed in this town a machine for the moulding of chicory into the exact shape of coffee beans ; but it is now disused. In this country chicory is seldom substituted wholly for coffee, but variously mixed, either to suit the requirements of the consumer, or the fraudulent propensities of the dealer. Mixed in certain proportions with coffee, it is considered a decided improvement, and few persons ignoi-ant of its presence would give a preference to the pure coffee. The quantity of chicory required to produce this result must, however, be regulated by the quality of the coffee. The presence of chicory may in general be detected by sprinkling a poition of the suspected coffee upon the surface of cold water. The particles of chicor}' immediately shik to the bottom, imparting to the water a more or less intense orange bro>\ii colour ; coffee, on the other hand, owing to the essential oil it contains, floats on the surface, and scarcely imparts any colour to the water. But the surest and best means of detectuig adulterations in coffee, is that of the microscope : the tissues are so different, that, when once seen, they can be imme- diately recognised by the experienced observer. The unroasted coffee bean consists chiefly of a tough homy albuminous substance, composed of irregularly angular cells, adhering to each other with so much tenacity, that in breaking the tissue up, the cell walls give way before the cells separate. The cell walls are thick, containing within their substance innumerable little pits filled with an oily fluid. Sur- rounding this homy albumen, is a tunic composed of a single layer of elongated lance-shaped cells, with very characteristic blocks, oblique ridges, or markings upon them. These characters are but little altered by roasting, further than the cell walls become dried up and thinner, and the oil globules less plentiful. Of chicory the microscopic characters are equally distinct. The sub- stance of the root consists of loose cellular tissue — much smaller than the coffee cells and more regular — and many of these cells contain within them starch. The cell walls are thin and are easily detached from each other. Amongst this loose cellular tissue are found a number of bundles of vascular tissue, dotted ducts, with occasionally one or two spiral vessels. The process of roasting has but very little effect upon these characters. Even chicory itself is subject to considerable sophistication, and for this purpose a variety of substances have been used : amongst those of frequent occurrence may be named old coffee grounds, mahogany and other wood saw-dust, burnt sugar, &c. Mr. Evans stated, as a general result of the examination he had made, thaX pure ground coffee had seldom been sold, for with but one excep- tion he found chicory in varying proportions (from 4 to 50 per cent.) in all the samples which came under his notice. One sample, obtained from a small huxter's shop in a low part of the town, consisted of large quantities of old coffee gi'ounds and bmiit farina, with scarcely sufficient fresh coffee to impart a faintly aromatic odour : it contained no chicory. Many other samples procured in similar loca- lities furnished scarcely better results, excepting that chicory was found in all the others, and in some, saw-dust, and grit, and dirt. Samples obtained from more respectable dealers vvere seldom found to contain any adulteration but chicory, this frequently amounting to 30 per cent. 143 In conclusion, Mr. Evans urged the importance of public attention being directed to the subject of the adulteration of food, and considered that a great boon would be conferred on the community, by the establish- ment in large towns of efficient examiners of food, with full power to condemn adulterated or spurious articles. FOURTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — November 29, 1852. JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.D., F.L.S., &c.. President, m the chair. At an Extraordinary Meeting held this evening, the resolution passed at the last meeting, viz., "That Visitors be admitted at the commencement of the Meeting," was read and confirmed, agreeably to the 46th Law. Mr. John Brewer, the Rev. A. Fischel, and Mr. Wm. Lassell, Jun., were elected Ordinary Members. The following paper was read by William Ihne, Ph.D., &c., — ON THE TRUE MYTHOLOGICAL CONCEPTION OF JANUS, HIS ATTRIBUTES AND WORSHIP. By their wily policy, and by the irresistible strength of their legions, the Romans subdued Greece, enfeebled by her political divisions. But the martial conquerors, whilst imposing upon Hellas a political yoke, acknowledged the intellectual superiority of their subjects, and became, in their turn, subject to the nobler dominion of the Hellenic mind. All mental culture of indigenous Italian growth, like the wild forest tree, served only to receive the more generous Hellenic graft. Hence Roman art and Hterature are, in reality, Greek art and Greek literature trans- planted to the less genial soil of Italy. Nor was it native art and Hterature only which gave way to the Hel- lenic influence. Something far dearer to the national feeling was overlaid and almost stifled by similar importations from abroad. It was the old national religion that gave way by degrees and vanished into oblivion, whilst the brilliant reign of the Greek Olympus was established 144 on the Roman Capitol. In the works of the chissical Latin poets, in Horace, Virgil, and Ovid, as well as in the chief temples of Imperial Rome, we find Greek Myths and Greek Gods almost as dominant as in ^schylus or Pindar, or in the shrines of the Athenian Acropolis. The ancient national Deities were unsung by the national bards, their dignity and power were unheeded, their attributes and meaning dimmed by igno- rance or indifference, nay, the very names of some were forgotten, or had become mere sounds without meaning.* In this general crumbling away of the old national religion a great service was rendered to the contemporaries of Cicero and Augustus by the historical researches of the great Varro. This distinguished antiquary, in a comprehensive and learned work, collected all the fragments, then extant, of ancient myths and rites, and taught the Romans how their fathers had thought, prayed, and worshipped in the olden time. We have been unfortunately deprived of tliis work in the general wreck of ancient literature ; but it seems that the information which it con- tained, found its way into all the grammarians, commentators of Virgil, Christian fathers, and others, who touched upon this subject, and it is thus, that many valuable fragments have been saved to throw some light on that most interesting subject, the religion of early republican Rome. One of the ancient Italian deities, whose worship in later times had dwindled into insignificance, was Janus, known chiefly, and almost exclusively, as the guardian and protector of doors. His name was identical with that of a passage or gate ; f especially, such buildings were called Jani, which having the appearance of gates or arches, spanned the public thoroughfares in several places, without, as it appears, serving any practical purpose. | Three such Jani were erected on the forum, some on the vegetable market and in other parts of Rome. Some of them, as for instance, the celebrated Janus Bifrons, near the Forum, contained the well known double-faced statue of the god Janus, but they were not, properly speaking, temples, except in so far as every consecrated spot was a templum ; nor were they gates, for they were never closed. A derivation from the word Janus is janun,^ a door, equivalent with • Schol. Cruq. in Hor. Ep. 1, 10, 49, Vacuna apod Sabinos plnrimum colitnr. Quidam Dianam.nonnulU Cererern esse dixerunt; alii Venerem, alii Victoriam, deam vacationis, quod faciat vacare a curig. Sed Varro MineiTam dicit, quod ca maxime hi gaudeot, qui sapientiee racaot + Traiisitiones perviee, iani. Cic. N. D 2,27. t Such a Janus is Temple Bar, in London. S By the difference in gender and termination, two different though cognate things havA been expressed, as, in Greek, 6 ttvXwi/ and t] TruXr/ ; in French, le portail and la parte ; in German, da» Thor and die Thiire. 145 forei. The janua also was frequently adorned and made sacred by a statue of the god, looking both ways, — into the house, and into the street ; and thus Janus appears, both by his name and functions, to be especially a protector of gates and doors. Now it seems unreasonable to imagine that, this subordinate and menial-looking function could have been the original attribute of the god Janus, and the one to which he owed his existence ; for we find that in the national traditions Janus was reckoned among the oldest Italian deities. He was reputed to have been the oldest kuig of Latium, and to have reigned there even before the arrival of Saturn, the iather of Jupiter, whom he is said to have hospitably received. Nay, he was identified with the very beginning of all things, primeval Chaos ; and by other traditions, with Heaven. He was called Father Janus, and God of Gods, in the ancient hymn of the Salian priests. He was said to have dedicated temples to all the gods. To Ovid's poetical conception he reveals himself in the following terms : — " Whatever anywhere your eyes survey, The heaven, the earth, the skies, the houndless sea. All these are subject made to my command, And each is closed or opened by my hand. The world's vast charge is placed in my controul, With power to turn the pivots of the pole." Ovid^ Fasti I. 117, translation of John Taylor, of Liverpool. In accordance with these mighty powers, Janus wears the keys of heaven, to which he thus has a very enviable right of admission, acknowledged even by the gods themselves. M. Messala, the celebrated augur, says of Janus, that he makes (fingit) and governs all things ; that he binds together and unites, by the surrounding heaven, the heavy matter of which the earth is composed, viz., earth and water, which are always pressing downward by their weight, and the air and fire, which are for ever rising upwards.* Nor was this prominent position, occupied by Janus in the religious system of ancient Latium, confined to theological speculations about his attributes and powers. In the ceremonies and forms of public worship he was equally honoured and distinguished. In all solemn adorations of the gods, his name was mentioned first, even before that of Jupiter ; and to him the first libations were offered in public as well as private sacrifices. This appears most authentically in the ancient form of prayer, by which a Roman consul, in devoting himself to death and the infernal gods, called down destruction at the same time upon the hostile army. Livy has preserved this prayer, undoubtedly from the most • Macrob. Sat I. 0 fin. 20 145 authentic source, the sacred books of the Pontifice8> The consul having covered his head, touching his chin with his hand, and standing on a spear, repeated the form of prayer given out bj the pontifex : — ** O Janus, Jnpit«r, Father Mars, Quirinns, Bellona, ye nine gods, ye native gods, ye gods who have power over as and our enemies, ye blessed departed spirits, I pray yon, I entreat yon, I beseech you to grant strength and victory to the Boman people of the Qnirites, and to strike terror, and fear, and death into the enemies of the Roman people of the Qnirites. As I have spoken the words even thos for the Commonwealth of the Boman people of the Qnirites, for the army, legions, and anxiliaries of the Boman people of the Qnirites, do I devote, with myself, the legions and auxiliaries of onr enemies, to the gods of death, and to the earth." It is quite clear that this Janus is not the door-keeping god of whom we have spoken. He evidently ranks in the first line of the great national deities, and the guardianship of doors is only one of his secondary attributes. He appears in a far more dignified f connexion with the astronomical year. He opens it in the month of January, which is named from him. The first day of this month is his chief festival, though prayers were offered to him on the kalends of every successive month of the year, at twelve altars, corresponding to their number on the hill Janiculum, which was also named after him. In this worship he was united with Juno, the Queen of Heaven, to whom the kalends of every month were sacred, and from whom he received the name Junonius. His principal statue, on the Forum, exhibited on one hand the number 300, on the other 55, or 65,* the number of days in the year ; and as Matutinus Pater, he was adored as the protecting deity on each successive day. Whence this connexion with year, month, and day, if the god was originally merely a protector of doors and thoroughfares ? In trying to solve this question we must fix our attention on the fact, that in the Latin religious system the deities went in pairs, a god and a goddess having, with some slight variations, the same fimctions assigned to them. Such pairs of gods were Jupiter and Juno, Vulcan and Vesta, Mars and Bellona. The female deity now, corresponding to Janus, was Jana, which, with a slight variation in the pronunciation, is Diana. Her we know well. She was the moon personified and deified, and with this observation our conclusion respecting the natiure of Janus is at hand. There can no longer be any doubt that he represents the sun. An • Ut. VIII. 9. f At least, dignified according to oar present notions. t Pliny, Hist Nat. XXXIV. 7, gires the former, no doubt correcter,date; Macrobitis I. 9, the latter. 147 additioiml proof of the correctness of this view is afforded by a rerj curious myth related by Ovid,* which is particularly interesting, as it seems to be one of the very few myths of the Roman theology that are not imported exotics from Greece, but genuine products of the Italian soil. It therefore deserves a careful examination. Ovid, speaking of the month of June, relates as follows : — " The first day is dedicated to Cama, the Goddess of Hinges, who has power to open what is closed and to close what is open. Whence she has these powers is at present almost forgotten, but my verses will explain it. There is, near the Tiber, a grove of old Helemus, where, even to the present day, the Pontifices perform sacrifices. There was bom a Nymph— our fore- fJEithers called her Crane — in vain desired by many suitors. She was wont to roam through the country, to harass with her javelins the wild beasts, and to lay the knotty snares in the hollow valley. Quiver she had none : Yet was she believed to be the sister of Phcebus ; and in truth, Phoebe, you could not be ashamed of her. Had some swain spoken of love to her, forthwith would she answer in the following strain : — * There is too much light in this place, and light is accompanied by shame ; but if thou wilt lead the way into some secret cavern, I will follow.' The credulous lover first enters the cave, she hides herself behind some bushes, and is not to be found anyhow. But Janus saw her, and when he had seen her he burned with desire, and addressed the coy nymph with gentle words. She, as usual, bade him find a secluded cavern ; she followed him into it, and then escaped from her companion. Foolish was she ! For Janus sees what goes on behind his back. Your attempts are vain; he discovers your hiding place ; he seized you in his arms and, having gratified his desires, said : * As a reward for our union and thy forfeited virginity, I give thee power over the hinge.' Thus he spoke and gave her a white thorn, with which to drive away from the doors sad misfortimes. There is a kind of greedy birds; not those who cheated Phineus of his meals, but of that race : the head is large, the eyes fixed, the beak adapted for rapine, white is the plumage, and the claws have hooks. They fiy in the night," &c. It is hardly neoessaij that Ovid should add : they are called owh. These owls, hke vampyres, suck the blood of young children and kill them. But Crane, the nymph, has magic charms against them. Such is Ovid's account. Now for our interpretation. It is clear that this nymph. Crane or Came, is identical with the goddess Cardea, t. e. the goddess of Hinges, mentioned by St. Augustine, Tertulhan, and Cyprian, f Ovid's story points directly to this. This • Fa»ti VI. 100 ff. * Angnst IV. 8. VI. 7. TertnU. idioL c U. Cjfinm, itM. tsb. c 9. 148 goddess of Hinges now is very appropriately brought into connexion with Janus the god of Doors, who protects the dwelling at whose entrance he is placed during the day, as she does by night ; for she drives away the night bi|;ds, and, no doubt, spectres and other dangers. Whilst she is thus associated with Janus as a guardian divinity of the dwelling, she has also a higher astronomical meaning in connexion with him. There can be no doubt, that she is the Moon, as Janus is the Sun. This is clearly expressed in Ovid's statement, that she was considered to be the sister of Phoebus, i. e. the Sun god. Her identity with Phoebe, Diana, or Artemis, is further proved by her being represented as a coy maiden and as a huntress. Her festival is very appropriately placed on the kalends of June, a month dedicated to Juno, with whom she was originally iden- tical ; for there can be no doubt, that Juno also was a Moon Deity, and at first identical with Jana and Diana. For this reason the first days of all the months, i. e. Moons, were dedicated to her, and she was wor- shipped in connexion with Janus, who was called also Junonius. Perhaps the word Cardea was originally only an adjective attributed to Juno, or Jana in her quality as protectress of hinges ; for it has often happened, and is quite in the true spirit of polytheism, that certain qualities of the great gods were detached as it were from the parent stem, and struck root as distinct plants. But what is the meaning of the myth related by Ovid ? It is an astronomical phenomenon clothed in mythological language : The Moon is a chaste Maiden, She flees from all suitors. She bids them mockingly to follow her into a dark cave ; this cave is the vault of the heavens. Janus, i. e. the sun, also courts the Maid ; he precedes her into the remote vault; she follows; but the Sun sees her and embraces her. What is this embrace of Janus, the god of doors, and Cardea, the goddess of hinges, but a conjunction of the Sun and the Moon ? At the time of the New Moon we do not see her orb ; she has hidden herself in the dark vault of heaven, but the Sun god espies her to enjoy her embrace. If it were possible to doubt the identity of Janus and the Sun after the evidence previously given, it seems that this myth is too palpable and striking a proof to be resisted even by the most sceptical. We have thus arrived, by a series of independent reasoning, and by a combination of various isolated facts, at the same result, which is expressed in the words of Nigidius Figulus, by Macrobius, (Saturn. I. 9,) " that Janus is Apollo and Jana Diana," a statement which has too long been overlooked, perhaps, as unfoimded and whimsical. It is, however, the simple truth, and by it every thing becomes clear. We have found the key of Janus which will unlock every door and solve every difficulty : 140 the chaos of unintelligible and conflicting facts assumes shape and order. We now see why days, months, and the year itself, are under the protec- tion of this god. The sun causes the day to break and the year to revolve ; the sun rises in the east and sets in the west ; the double face of Janus will be no longer enigmatical, especially if we bear in mind that, in his celebrated statue, the Janus Bifrons, in the Argiletum, near the forum, it was towards east and west that his faces were turned.* We see the reason why he bears the key of heaven ; why he " turns the Pivots of the Pole ; " why the heaven, the sea, the clouds, the earth, are closed and opened by his hand ; for is it not the sun that brings the universe under our view and withdraws it by giving way to night ? It is the sun that opens and closes day, month, and year. Janus is also mentioned as the inventor of wreaths, (Athen xv, 692). Why ? The word annus (and annulus) explains it. The high rank of Janus among the gods is also explained. The sun holds a most prominent position in all systems of natural polytheism. As the giver of light and warmth, as the source of fertility and plenty, as the lord of the year and seasons, as the most splendid of heavenly bodies, the sun could not fail to call forth feelings of awe and veneration from the children of nature. Janus was therefore, as god of the sun, perhaps the principal god of one of the races who, by coalescing, formed the Roman people. His name proves, on a close examination, to be identical with Zeus and Jupiter, different though the sounds may be at first sight, f He seems, therefore, to have been first supplanted by the Etruscan Jupiter ; but as the latter was represented more as the god of day and heaven than as the sun-god, Janus would most likely have retained that rank if he had not been supei-seded by Apollo, a deity imported into Rome from Greece. Now, if it had so happened that the name of Apollo had not been brought over, but that all his attributes had been conferred on Janus, it is possible that the * Procopius. Bell. Goth. I. 25. •f The primitive syllable of this word is DI, of the radical signification to thine. This ro<>t is compounded with all the other vowels of the alphabet, and thus produces the fullowing forms : — 1. DI, followed bv the letter A, produces Dianus, Diana, Janus, Jana, Zdv, Zdvu; the identity of c, faoUeJ. 3. DI with O produces Jovis, Vediovis. 4. DI with U produces Jupiter. Juno, divns, diamas. 6. DI, without additional vowels, makes Dis, Ai(roc), Tina. A great number of other words might be drawn into this comparison, botraongh has bron enumerated to show the identity of the names of the great deities, and the connexion between them and the words for Light aad Day. 150 latter would not only have retained his high rank, but that he would have been raised to new honours by this Greek importation, just as Diana had all the benefit of the adoption, by Rome, of the myths of Artemis, whose Greek name was not adopted like that of Apollo. But it appears the celebrity of the Delphian oracle had made the name of Apollo so famous in Italy at an early period, that poor Janus was ousted by him from his honourable position, and relegated to the humble station which we find him occupy in later times. But whence the connexion of the sun-god and the doors ? All the other points in the theology of Janus have been cleared up ; let us hope the god of light will not leave us in the dark here. Our previous remarks have shown that the door, janua, was not the idea which gave rise to the notion of Janus, the great national god, but that it must have been a secondary attribute. What was the link connecting the sun-god with the door? Janus is the name of the god, and it also means a passage. Is the god called from the passage, or vice versa, the passage from the god ; or was neither the case, and were the two words independent of one another in their origin ? The last has been supposed to be the tmth, and this casual similarity of name has been held to be the reason why doors were placed under the guardianship of Janus. But this cannot be admitted; for we find that the Greek Apollo, the god of the sun, was likewise the protector of doors and streets.* This shows that in the opinion of the Greeks and of the Romans there must have been something in the nature and attributes of the sun-god which qualified him especially for the office in question. Nor shall we have any difficulty in discovering what this was. The sun opens and closes the day and the year, he turns the celestial hinges — why should he not have a similar office in the civil communities and in the private house ? As Vesta presides in the interior of the town and dwelling, as the tutelary deity of the family hearth, so Janus was placed at the threshhold to vouchsafe a happy going in and coming out.f As the Temple of Vesta represented the common hearth of the city — the emblem of political union, so the archway of Janus was the symbolical gate of the com- munity, kept open in time of war, not as Ovid says, to let out the furies of war, which are again to be locked up there in peace, nor, as Heyne conjectures, to enable the citizens to enter the sanctuary for the purpose of supplication, but simply that the god might be enabled to rush out and succour his worshippers if he saw them in danger. This he had actually done in the time of Romulus ; for when the Romans were hard pressed by the Sabines, and were fleeing towards the gate of their city on the * As Apollo, ^wpaTog and 'Ayvtsiif. + Cif. N. D. II. 27. 151 Palatine, Janus suddenly poured forth from his sanctuary such a hot torrent, that the Sabines were driven back in dismay. The ancients required a visible sign of the presence of their gods. Thus the Ephe- sians, when their town was surrounded by the besieging army of Croesus, connected the town wall by a rope with the temple of their protecting goddess Athene, thinking thus to place her into immediate contact with the danger.* With a similar notion the Romans left the Sanctuary of Janus open in war, to enable the god freely to communicate with the combatants. Then was Janus also a god of war? Undoubtedly he was. The chief god of a warlike nation must necessarily have a martial character, whatever functions and qualities may be ascribed to him besides. Thus it was, that even a goddess, like Athene, was represented with helmet, shield, and spear, and fabled in Homer to overcome fierce Mars himself, in personal combat, though she is pre-eminently a goddess of peace, the inventress of the art of spinning and weaving, the patroness of science and learning, nay, the creator of the olive tree itself. It is therefore quite natural, that at the time when Janus, the Latin sun-god, was still worshipped as the chief national deity, he should also be the god of war, in proof of which we find him called Janus Quirinus. Nor is anything else indicated by the fact of his protecting the gates of the city. As the private dwelling house is watched over by Janus, and protected against foes and depredators, so the same god was supposed to repel the attacks of foreign enemies on the whole community by watching over the safety of the city gates, and rushing out of them in time of need to meet the foes in the field. FIFTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — December 13, 1852. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Vice-President, in the chair. Mr. William Ferguson was elected an ordinary Member. The Secretary read a letter from the Rev. Dr. Hume, Hon. Secretary of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, dated Dec. 10, • Herod. I. 26. 162 1852, communicating the following resolutions, adopted unanimously, first at a Meeting of the Council, and afterwards at a Meeting of the Members of that Society, viz : — 1. That, on all occasions of special interest, the Secretaries be authorized and directed to extend to the Officers of the other learned societies in town the privilege of admission possessed by the members of the Historic Society. 2. That the circulai-s be regularly sent to the President and Secretaries of those Societies, giving them the right of admission to the ordinary meetings of the Session. It was resolved unanimously, " That the thanks of the Society be presented to the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire for their invitation to the Officers of this Society to attend their meetings." The following resolutions of the Council were read, and received the unanimous confirmation of the Society, viz : — 1. That in accordance with the resolution of this Society, to give th© privilege of attendance at the public meetings to the President and Secretaries, ex ojiciis, of such Societies as meet at the Royal Institution, or may be approved of by the Society, it is resolved that the President and Secretaries of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire be invited to attend the meetings. 2. A similar resolution as regards the Polytechnic Society. 3. A similar resolution as regards the Architectural and ARCHiEo- LOGicAL Society. Mr. R. V. Yates called attention to the remains of a sea-beech found by Mr. Newlands in making excavations for the sewer near the Dingle. In exhibiting specimens of the shells that had been found, Mr. Yates remarked that it was highly probable, at some distant period, the bed of the Mersey had extended to that district. Mr. Hartnup exhibited a very beautiful and life-like Daguerreotype portrait of General Pierce, the President of the United States. Mr. James Yates, M.A., F.R.S., &c.. Corresponding Member, gave on account, accompanied with maps and other illustrations, of THE RHENO-DANUBIAN BARRIER OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. This great work was chiefly constructed under the Emperors Hadrian and Probus. It commenced on the Danube near Ratisbon, and after 158 traversing the" modern kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, and crossing the duchies of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel, and Nassau, entered what is now Rhenish Prussia, and terminated on the Rhine. It generally passed over high ground and through thinly inha- bited districts, and was conducted along the water-shed. Without this last arrangement it would have been subject to rapid destruction by the action of water collecting on one side of it, and always tending to under- mine or to overflow it, so as to produce in it continually increasing rents. The wall of Antoninus, which joined the Friths of Forth and Clyde in Scotland, did not pass along the water-shed ; but provision was made for its preservation by means of stone conduits passing underneath it so as to carry off the accumulated waters. As the German Wall commonly passed through forests, it was obvi- ously necessary to cut down the forest for the space of from fifty to one hundred feet on each side of it. The timber thus obtained, besides supplying abundance of fuel, furnished materials for erecting palisades, bridges, towers, and other edifices. These erections have disappeared, and the forest has resumed its dominion over the cleared space. But the earthen mound, or vallum, with its foss, is conspicuous through long tracts, and is commonly found to pass in straight lines, not only over the level ground, but up and down steep declivities. When it changes its direction it usually turns, not in a curve, but in an angle. Agreeably to the account given by an ancient Latin writer, it is found that the wall was fortified by watch-towers, placed about a Roman mile (mille passus) from one another. The foundations of these are dis- covered in many places on removing the sod. They were occupied by a few soldiers placed in each, whose duty it was to look out, and, if any incursion was made, to give the alarm by blowing a trumpet, waving a torch, or raising a column of smoke. Thus information of the appre- hended attack was rapidly communicated along the line, and was also sent, from certain points, along the military roads to the larger camps and the cities. Thus the so-called *' Pfahl-graben," or ♦' Palisade-ditch," was to a considerable degree effective as a defence. But its chief design was to mark the boundary of the Roman Empire, and to show where the tem- tory still left in possession of the Germans commenced. The palisade, which bristled over the whole length of the mound, from the Danube to the Rhine, must also have served to prevent the straying of cattle and of game, and thus to dry up the sources of innumerable misunderstand- ings and quarrels.* * Mr. J. Yates' account of this structure appeared in full in the Arehetological Journal. 154 SIXTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — January 10, i8r)3. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Vice-President, in the chair. The Secretary read letters from the Arcliitectural and Archaeological Society, and from the Polytechnic Society, acknowledging the invita- tion of the President and Secretaries of those Societies to attend the meetings. The Secretary also read a letter, dated December 27, 1852, addressed by Mr. James Boardman to the President, suggesting that the 8th of March next, being the centenary of the birth-day of William Roscoe, it should be celebrated by the Literary and Scientific Bodies of the town. It was resolved unanimously, " That the 8th of March, 1853, being the centenary of the birth-day of William Roscoe, it is desirable to celebrate the same, and that Dr. Dickinson, President, Edw^ard Heath, Esq., Treasurer, Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq., Vice-President, William Rathbone, Esq., and the Secretary, be appointed delegates to confer with the other learned Societies, with full power to conduct the necessary arrangements for the celebration of that day."- • The Centenary was celebrated in Liverpool, on the 8th March, 1853, under the manage- ment of the Ibllowiug committee of representatives Iroia the Architectural and Archaeological Society. Chemists' Association, Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool Academy, Polytechnic Society, and Royal Institution. Committee. Chairman, — Joseph Dickinson, M. D., M.A„ F. L. S., &c., Pres. Lit. Phil. Soc. Rev. Thomas Moore, M.A., Hon. Sec. Hist. Soc. J. A. Picton, F.S.A., Chairman of Library and Museum Committee. John Poole, Esq. Rev. Thomas Raffles, D.O., L.L.D. Theodore W. Rathbone, Esq. William Rathbone, Esq. J. W. Rawle, Esq. C. F. Salt, Esq., Hon. Sec. Poly. Soc. W. R. Sandbach, Esq., Pres. Royal Inst. J. P. G. Smith, Esq. R. Sumner, Esq., Pres. Chem. Asa. Rev. David Thom,D.D., Ph. D., V.P. Hist. Soc. Rev. J. H. Thom, Hon. Sec. Royal Inst. Charles Verelst, Esq., Pres. Arch. Soc. R. VVhiuerey, Esq. J. B. Yates, F.S.A., M.R.G.S., V.P. Lit and Phil. Soc. Secretary,— Thomas Sansora, A. L. S., F. B. S. E., Hon. Sec. Lit. and Phil. Sac. The proceedinga of the day commenced with a Public Breakfast in the Philharmonic John Abraham, Esq., Hon. Sec Chem. Ass Charles Barber, Esq., Pres. L'poid Acad. James Boardman, Esq. Joseph Boult, Esq., Hon. Sec. Arch. Soc. R. Clay, Esq. Henry Dawson, Esq. Edward Evans, Esq., Treas. Chem. Ass. E. D. Faulkner, Esq. John Hay, Esq., V. P. Arch. Soc. Edward Heath, Esq., Treas. Lit. and Phil. Soc. H. P. Horner, Esq., Pres. Poly. Soc. Francis Homer, Esq., Treas Arch. Soc. Rev. A. Hume, D.C.L., L.L.D., F.S.A.,&c., Hon. Sec. Hist. Soc. Edward Jones, Esq. Joseph Mayer, F.S.A.,Hon. Cur. Hist. Soc. Robert M'Aiidrew, F.L.S., V.P. Royal lust. J. A. P. M'Bride, Esq., Sec. L'pool Acad. 166 Mr. J. J. Moss exhibited three antique watches of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, purchased at the sale of the effects of the Duchess of Saxe Coburg Gotha, in May last. Mr. Heath exhibited a seed vessel of the una delgato, (cats claws,) a plant belonging to the natural order Legurainosae, from Lima ; also a head of maize, in a high state of preservation, from a Peruvian grave, three hundred years old. Mr. John James Moss read an account of an explosion in a granite quarry at the Furnace, Loch Fine. The paper, which was illustrated by a diagram of the ground plan of the quarry, showing the position of the shaft, &c., entered fully into the principles of the explosion. Mr. TowsoN remarked that the effects were most terrific where powder exploded in slightly confined places, such as buildings or ships ; Hall, at which the Right Hon. the Earl of Sefton, Lord Lieutenant of the Coantr, presided, and which was attended by upwards of twelve hundred ladies and gentlemen. An addre&s was delivered by William Ruthbune, Esq., detailing personal reminiscences of Roscoe ; after which the Rev. Dr. Hume delivered an address on his genius and writings. These were responded to by William Caldwell Roscoe, Esq., grandson of the historian. Other addresses were delivered by Samuel Holme, Esq., Mayor of Liverpool, the Lord Bishop of Chester, James Crossley, Esq., President of the Chelham Society, J. S. Mansfield, Esq., Stipendiary Magistrate, and the Rev. Dr. Raffles. — At two o'clock, the Mayor, together with the Aldermen, and Town Councillors proceeded from th'i Town Hall to the public opening of the Museum of Natural History, presented to the town by the Right Hon. the Earl of Dehby. The inaugural address was delivered by His Worship the Mayor, which was responded to by the Rev. Rector Campbell, on behalf of the Derby Trustees, and by J. A. Picton, Esq., F. S. A., «&c., on behalf of the Committee of the Town Council; and after an address from the Lord Bishop of Chester, the meeting separated. — At hulf-past three, a re-union of the personal friends of Roscoe took place in the Theatre of the Royal Institution, where addresses were delivered by Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq., F.S.A., &c., and the Rev. T. Raffles, D.D., LL.D. Throughout the day, the Museum of the Royal Institution, together with the gallery of Art, were opened to the Public, as was also Mr. Mayer's Egyptian Museum in Colquitt-street. The celebration was brought to a most gratifying termination by a soiree given by His Worship the Mayor, when the magnificent suite of apartments in the Town Hall were thrown open. The en^rtain* mtints embraced a short vocal and instrumental concert, and were varied by the introduu. tion of the following subjects of interest— illustrated books, presideaously had disdained to have anything to do with the upstart Romans. Among others, a great number of Sabines came with their wives and daughters. Suddenly, on a given signal, the Roman youths rushed for- ward with drawn swords, drove away their male guests, and carried off the women. Thus the Roman people, and Romulus their leader and prototype, first wooed the women who were to be the mothers of a nation of heroes. There is nothing absolutely miraculous- in this story, as there is in that of the birth and death of Romulus, and it has consequently been implicitly believed, even at a time when the fable of the She-wolf was considered little better than a nureery tale. Livy saw nothing incredible in it, and Dionysius relates it with the same air of historical precision which he always adopts to make a doubtful story pass as authentic. Even Niebuhr does not reject it altogether, but surmises, that there is some historical foundation for the story. We shall come to a different conclusion. In the first place the story is, a priori, improbable. It is closely connected with that of the Asylum, by which it is supposed, that a numerous male population was attracted to the infant city. This story is entirely without foundation, as I have shown in some other place. =p Hence great doubt is thrown on the sister story, with which we have to deal at present. It is neither likely, that the majority of the original Roman citizens consisted of fugitives and out- casts from other states, nor that they obtained their wives by an act of treachery. If the former statement were true, we might indeed imagine, that the Sabines and Latins would indignantly refuse to allow the right of intermarriage to the inhabitants of the upstart robber-city ; but we cannot think it possible, that they nevertheless should accept the invi- tation of these same despised and dreaded neighbours, and visit them en masse, accompanied by their wives and daughters, whom they knew to be coveted by them. The story of the Asylum therefore, though in a legend a necessary counterpart of that of the rape, is quite incompatible with it, if either or both are looked upon as historical facts. * Researches iutu the History of the Roman Cuu»>lituliuu, i>age 26. 150 Let us next consider the detail of the story. In the first place, as to the time of the occurrence, there are two diverging statements. Livy is sensible enough not to mention the exact date. It merely appears from his narrative, that he thinks it took place very soon after the foundation of the city, and, very naturally : for the want of a female population, it is to be supposed, must have been felt very soon. Other writers were less afraid than Livy of committing themselves to unfounded statements. They boldly assert, that the rape took place in the fourth month after the foundation of the city. This statement looks very authentic, and might induce an incautious observer to suppose, that there really existed a genuine and accurate tradition. But how easily is such a deceit removed ! The foundation of the city was supposed to have taken place on the 2l8t of Apiil, when the festival of the Palilia was celebrated in honour of the pastoral goddess Pales, who made the flocks and herds fruitful. The festival of the Consualia, in honour of Census, which afforded the opportunity for carrying off the Sabine virgins, took place in August, I. e. in the fourth month after the Palilia. Here we have the authority, upon which the statement rests, that four months after the foundation of the city the rape of the Sabines was effected.* This appeared, however, an incredibly short time to all reflecting writers. In four months the whole state had to be organized, the original companions of Romulus, the new adventurers, the strangers, of all sorts, flocking to the Asylum, had to be enrolled as citizens, senators, soldiers ; an army had to be formed ; the whole economy of a civil and military administration had to be established. Granted that this could be done in a very rough and crude manner, yet would it have been wise or politic, or possible for Romulus to incur the hostility of such powerful neighbours as the Sabines ? Arguments of this kind no doubt suggested themselves to such writers, who endeavoured to dress up the old Roman legends in the garb of a credible historical narrative, the rationalists of Roman history, who thought, that by explaining away the miracles and plausibly interpolating improbabilities, they could convert them into historical facts. These writers, for instance, denied the miraculous conception of Romulus ; his real father, they said, was not the God Mars, but his uncle Amulius, who deceived the affrighted vestal virgin Rea Silvia, by assuming the costume of the God of War. Nor was Romulus carried off to heaven by his divine progenitor, when he sud- denly disappeared diu-ing the thunder and rain in the field of Mars. No, such a fable could not be beheved by reasonable men ! The truth was, they said, that Romulus, being hated by the aristocracy, was cut to * Niebubr Rum. Hut Vol. I., Nota 080. 100 pieces by the Senators, who carried away under their cloaks the mang- led fragments of his body, and gave out to the credulous populace, that he had been carried up to heaven. Nothing was easier for such writers than to remove the objection to the story of the Rape, which lay in the shortness of the period intervening between it and the foundation of Rome. Instead of four months, they made it to be so many years.* The rejected statement, they thought, was attributable to a slight mistake. This being removed, the whole story became highly probable, and a portion of genuine and authentic history. We make bold to think differently. This arbitiury meddling with the tradition seems to us to prove that the tradition itself was neither very old nor generally credited. We shall arrive at the same result by examining another statement, viz. that referring to the number of women carried oif on the occasion. Here again we meet with a variety of opinions. According to the oldest form of the tradition, the number was not greater than thirty,! and from these the names of the thirty Curies are said to have been taken. This number betrays the legendary character of the tradition, for the numbers B, 30, 300, frequently occur in the legends of ancient Rome. Thus three years elapsed between the landing of ^neas in Latium and his death ; thirty years between the foundation of Lavinium by ^neas's son, Ascanius, and that of Alba Longa ; three hundred years between that of Alba Longa and Rome. The league of the Latins numbered thirty cities; Rome consisted of three patrician tribes and thirty curies ; the three Horatii and the three Curiatii decided the struggle between Rome and Alba Longa; three Sibylline books were purchased by Tarquin, but three times three had been offered for sale. More instances might be enume- rated to show, that thirty is a sacred number in the legends of Rome, and that, where it is prominent in a story, there is a natural presumption, that this story is not historical but fabulous. But besides the sacred character of the number 30, there is another objection to its appealing historical. It is evidently too small. Why, so the rationalistic historian would argue, it would hardly have been worth while for Romulus and his Romans to incur the chances of a dangerous war for so slight an advantage. What were thirty women among a large population of men? Even the sensible Livy seems to feel the weight of such objections. He says, that " no doubt a much greater number was carried off," but he cannot tell " how many, nor by what principle the Romans were guided in selecting the thirty, after whom they named the thirty Curies of the state, whether by their age, the rank of those who became their husbands, or by lot." From this • Diouys. II. 31. + Niebuhr Rom. Hist., Vol. I., page of uote 680. 161 uncertainty regarding the number of the Sabine maidens we are unfor- tunately not rescued by a statement of an old annalist, Valerius of Antium, who is never at a loss for a number. He boldly and unscru- pulously states the number to have been 627 ! The same Valerius knows also, how many senators were left at the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, and how many new ones were added by Brutus or Publicola. To him, no doubt, we owe the various highly accurate statements respecting the number of slain in the early battles ; as for instance in a battle which his namesake Valerius Publicola is said to have gained over the Sabines in the 4th year of the Republic, and in which 1,300 Sabines were killed, wliilst the Romans did not lose a single man ! Another writer, Juba, quoted by Plutarch,* has a statement pretend- ing to a similar accuracy respecting the number of the Sabine maidens, which he asserts to have amounted to 683. These figures prove nothing but the barefaced impudence of those who give them; and instead of imparting to the legend in question a character of greater authenti- city, they tend to prove that it was not firmly established in the ima- gination of the Romans, and could be treated ad libitum by every successive writer. I am therefore not inclined to approve of Niebuhr's conjecture, that there is nevertheless some historical foundation for the tale. He fancies, that the aboriginal Romans, settled on the Palatine hill, lived in a sort of dependence on the Sabines, who occupied the Capitol and the Quirinal ; that they had not the connuhium, i. e. the right of inter- marriage with them ; that, however, at one time they were aroused to a consciousness of their strength and importance, and in a war with their proud neighbours compelled them to grant the right in question, which they were too haughty to concede to their entreaties ; that in conse- quence of this war and a subsequent alliance, the Romans and Sabines became one people by intermarriage, and formed one body poHtic. f This hypothesis, ingenious as it is, does not satisfy me. Tt inverts the order of events in the legend, by placing the war of the Sabines before, instead of after the intermarriage. It is another, though more refined and clever mode of coining history out of fables. I would lay it down as a leading principle of historical investigation, that when a popular tradition is intended to explain the origin of some national custom, a religious ceremony, the introduction of some peculiarity in social or political life, it is to be assumed, that the matter intended to be explained by the stoiy has given rise to it ; that the story is a fiction, intended to explain the thing ; in other words, that in general popular * Romulns 14. 4 Niebnhr, Roman Hist I., page of note 746- 22 10-^ customs do uot originate in historical events, but are the natural and gradual produce of a nation s civilisation and mode of life, of the geographical and climatic influences under which a people lives, and that tales are invented to account for their origin, Just as striking natui*al features of a country are ascribed to the miraculous agency of giants and heroes. This genei*al law applies to the popular traditions of all nations. Where there is an isolated rock on a plain or on a coast, it has been dropped by some giant of old. The pillars of Hercules were planted by the hero who rent Africa and Europe asunder. All the constellations of the heavens were referred by the imagination of the Greeks to some god or hero. Every worship, every festival, had its myth which recounted its origin. The first establishment of civil government, of social order, of marriage, was referred to a specific author, and related in an appropriate myth or legend. Such a legend, in my opinion, is the story of the Rape of the Sabines. It was first intended to explain the peculiar ceremonies which accom- panied a Roman wedding. The Roman maid was carried off by her bridegroom with simulated violence.^ Three youths led her from her parents' house to that of her intended husband ; she was carried over the threshold ; her hair was divided with the point of a spear, as a token that she was won in war, for all the spoils of war came under the spear (sub hastaj, and a spear was erected over the prisoners of war sold into slavery. " Under compulsion, and with sadness, did the Roman maidens marry," says Varro.f For this reason a wedding could not take place at Rome on a festival of one of the celestial gods, because violence, mourning, and lamentation were as hateful to them as they were acceptable to the gods below. | These ceremonies, pointing to force and violence, were not peculiar to the Romans. They are very natural in a rude and warlike people. We consequently find them again among the Spartans ;§ and it is as imlikely that there they were introduced in consequence of a single occurrence as this was the case in Rome. On the contrary, such an occurrence was invented in order to account for the ceremonies. Romulus, the founder of the city, the father of the Roman nation, was very appropriately represented also as the author of the Roman mar- riage, with all its ceremonies, with its rights and duties. He is there- fore related as having taken his wife also from among the Sabine virgins. The Roman mamage, in its strictest and most solemn fonn, was essentially Sabine ; so was the " Patria potestas," a paternal autho- * Festus, 8. V. rapi. + Plutarch, QusBst. Rom., 105. i Hariuiig, Relig. d. Roemer, II. 88. S Plutarch, Lycurg. 15. MuUer, Dociuns II. 282. 168 rity over wife and children, so strict, and systematically carried out to all its consequences as it has never existed anywhere else. I have said already that the whole character of the marriage ceremonies was explained by the popular tradition, which connected their introduction with the story of the Sabine maidens. So were also the privileges which the Roman matrons enjoyed. Their freedom from all servile labour but spinning and weaving, was supposed to be a reward for their noble and successful endeavours for restoring peace between their Roman husbands and their Sabine fathers. If there should be still a proof wanted for the theory which I have advanced, I trust it will be found in the following. The festival on which the Rape of the Sabines is said to have taken place, was the Consualia, instituted in honour of the god Consus. This is one of the old Roman deities, that were almost forgotten in later times. Nothing was known for certain of the attributes and meaning of this god. The later writers call him Neptunus Equester,'f a most unhappy interpreta- tion, arising, no doubt, from the observation, that in Thessaly and Boeotia equestrian games were celebrated in honour of Poseidon Hippios. But the Roman Neptune had no connection with horses whatever; he was confined to his original element the sea; and in proportion as the Romans were a non-maritime people, the god of the sea occupied a very inferior position in the Roman mythology, even at the time when Rome had the sway of the Mediterranean. In the very infancy of her existence, however, when the seven hills were the haunts of shepherds and rude husbandmen, it is hardly conceivable that a festival should have been instituted in honour of Neptune the sea-god. Equally futile is the guess, for it hardly deserves any other name, that Consus was the god of secret counsel, f This notion is merely taken from an etymology, and that a false one, of the name Consus ; for it can neither be derived from consilium nor from consulo. The real signification of Consus, and his place in the mythology of Rome, is nevertheless perfectly clear ; and here we have an instance which shows that, on some difficult points of Roman antiquities, modem research, guided by the true method of critical investigation, has been enabled, after the lapse of two thousand years, to come nearer the truth than the Roman authoi*s themselves, though they were surrounded by a mass of evidence of which we can only scrape together some miserable fragments. In trying to explain the nature of Consus, it is of great importance to know that his altar was under ground, and laid open only during the *LiT. 1.9. Dionjsias I. 33. Strabo V. 8, 3, p. 380, and others, f Dioujsiiu II. 80. Plutarch. Romul. U. Neibiihr, Rom. Hist. L, Note 639. 1(54 celebration of the games. This fact at once stamps Consns as one of the subterranean (Chthonian) gods, the deities of the earth and all that belongs to it, who receive into their bosom the bodies, and harbour the spirits, of the departed, and who send forth new life in plant and animal. That this conclusion is correct, appears from the fact, that Dis and Proserpina, the king and queen of the infernal regions, had likewise a subteiTaneous altar, twenty feet below the surface, in the Campus Martins, where the Tarentinian games were celebrated. It follows, moreover, from the custom of adorning, during the Consualia, horses and mules with flowers, and of using mules for the races ; for mules, as barren animals, were especially grateful to the gods below, whose natural disposition was supposed to be to do mischief, and to prevent fertility and plenty, and who were on this account pacified and appeased by solemn games, festivals, and sacrifices. For the same reason, barren cows were sacrificed at the Taurian games, a similar festival instituted in honour of the subterranean gods. The relation of the horse to these deities appears from the annual sacrifice of the October horse, the blood of which, on the festival of the Palilia, was used to purify the fields, and to protect them from the evil influence of the Lares and other spirits of the lower regions, The name of the god Consus is neither to be derived from consilium, nor from condere (to hide), but from con and the root su, which is equivalent to generare, parere, according to Bopp, Pott, and Benfey. He is, as a terrestrial deity, a god of fertility, wherefore statues of Segetia and Messia, the deities of seed-time and harvest, were very appropriately placed in the Circus Maximus, where the Consualia were celebrated. Now, it is quite evident, why the festival of this god was selected as the one with which the myth of the Rape should be connected; the origin of marriage could not take place at a more befitting season than during the festive games in honour of a god who had it in his power to grant or withhold the blessing for which, more especially, marriage seemed to the ancients to be instituted.* At the same time the purely mythical character of the story must, beyond all further doubt, be apparent, from its intimate connection with the religious notions of the ancient Romans. It is highly satisfactory to the author to add, in a postscript to the above paper, that since it was written, and read in the Literary and Philosophical Society, a very able work was published in Germany, by Dr. A. Schwegler, professor at the University of Tiibingen, being the • TO yvrjalutg iraiSoiroieioSraif cf. Becker Charikles II. p. 4.39. Hermann Grieck Antiquit. III. § 30 165 first volume of a Roman History. In this work, which is in the highest degree promising, the learned author has put forth precisely the same opinion respecting the Rape of the Sabines which has been nmintained in the above paper. Professor Schwegler uses the term aetiological, with which he designates all those apparently historical traditions which are in reality fictions, intended to account for the origin of old institutions, handed down from time immemorial. The author of the present paper has, in preparing it for the press, availed himself of Professor Schwegler's able exposition of the true character of Census, who, though viewed originally in the same light as now, was not so fully and satisfactorily proved to be, what he really was, a Chthoniau god of fertility. SEVENTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — January 24, 1853. JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.D., F.L.S., &c.. President, in the Chair. The Secretary read a letter from Mr. Joseph Boult, Hon. Secretary of the Architectural and Archaeological Society, dated 15th January, 1853, transmitting copies of the following resolutions, passed by that Society, viz. : — 1. That, on all occasions of special interest, the Secretary be autho- rised and directed to extend to the Officers of the other learned Societies in this to\vTi the privileges of admission possessed by the Members of the Architectural and Archaeological Society. 2. That the Circulars be regularly sent to the Presidents and Secre- taries of those Societies, gi^'ing them the right of admission to the ordinary Meetings of the Session. It was resolved unanimously, " That the thanks of the Society be presented to the Architectural and Archaeological Society, for their invitation to the OflBcers of this Society to attend their Meetings." 166 The Secretary read a letter from Mr. James Boardman, containing an account of the Explosion of Gunpowder at Corunna, January 13, 1809, after the retreat of the army under the command of Sir John Moore. Mr. Sansom exhibited specimens of the Pohjpodium Alpestre, a fern new to Britain. It is found in the mountains of Perthshire not unfrequently ; hut, until lately detected by Mr. H. C. Watson, it had been mistaken for Lastrcea felix fcemina, which it very much resembles. Also specimens of Schizea pusilla, a fern peculiar to one locality in New Jersey (U.S.), where it occupies a spot of about one square mile in extent. In the absence of the author, the following paper was read by the Secretary : — WHO WAS MACBETH? By the Rev. Abraham Hume, D.C.L., LLD., F.S.A., &c. At the close of the darkest period of Scottish history, viz., in 843, it is known that Kenneth II, commonly called Kenneth MacAlpine, became king of all Scotland. He had previously been the sovereign of the small community, who, coming from Scotia Major (Ireland), settled in Argyle and Lorn, which they called Scotia Minor ; but the principal portions of Caledonia, which lay north of the Forth and Clyde, had till this period been governed by a succession of Pictish kings. The name " Scotland " was unknown except in reference to Ireland ; and the whole of the modern Lowlands, with some small exceptions in Strathclyde and Galloway, formed part of England. They were sometimes called " Lodoneia," but generally included in the extensive name " Northumbria." Two hundred years after Kenneth, Macbeth was king of Scotland ; and his reign terminated with his life, shortly before the Norman conquest. The two centuries which elapsed in the interval, have never been regarded as belonging to quite the darkest part of Scottish history, and yet little was known about them till a comparatively recent period. Historians were satisfied to commence with Malcolm Canmore, the contemporary of our William I. ; and wliile admitting that there had been such persons as Ken- neth MacAlpine at one end of a line and Macbeth at the other, they were content to leave the narrative in its original obscurity, and to say that " shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it." The researches of our modern antiquaries, however, have thrown back the clouds, so that our information respecting this period is now comparatively full ; and at least as credible as the accounts of our Saxon kings, the principal statements respecting whom are currently admitted . N uraerous facts and statements »67 are gleaned with care from the earliest monkish chroniclers, apparently of little consequence in themselves, but rising in importance when we find them confirmed in the most remarkable manner by the testimony of other independent writers. The catalogue entitled "Nomina Regum" may be wrong, but if we find it confirmed by the " Annals of Ulster," the probability is on the other side ; and if we find the Sagas of the north incidentally confirming both, all reasonable doubt should vanish. The same evidence, too, which establishes a fact should give a certain degree of credibility to a document in which there are several facts mentioned ; some of which may be confirmed in part or in whole, while others stand alone on their unique authority. So strong is the evidence now on these subjects generally, that the history of Scotland has been written for centuries anterior to Malcolm Canmore ; and the "Annals " of the three classes of people, Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, which Ritson has compiled, have in the main been confirmed and approved by those best competent to judge. Inquiries of a similar kind are found in '• Pinkerton's History," in '• Skene's Highlanders," and slightly in " Wilson's Archaeology and Praehistoric Annals" of Scotland. The law of succession in the days of Kenneth MacAlpine was so peculiar, that if we attempt to judge of it by modern instances, every step will be an error. Thus, a brother of the last king was supposed to have a greater claim to the crown than a son ; and for the same reason — t. e. that a youth might never sway the sceptre in preference to a man of mature years — we find the crown frequently passing from the decendants of one son to the descendants of another, until cousins, second cousins, third, and even fourth cousins inherited in preference to the son, who was, we may suppose, an inexperienced youth. Farther, by the ancient Pictish law of succession, two brothers by the same mother were con- sidered more nearly related than two by the ^Sime father : and similarly, maternal relationship held the place of preference which most modem nations give to that which is paternal. This arrangement exercised a strong modifying influence in the succession of the Scottish kings down to the time of Malcolm Canmore, with whom began the modem law of succession. These curious principles are illustrated in the following Hue of descent. Kenneth II. (MacAlpine) left one daughter and two sons on his death, in 859, but not one of them succeeded liim. His brother Donald ascended the throne, and, he dying without issue, the succession reverted to Kenneth's family. The daughter did not inherit, but Constantine, the elder, succeeded in 863, and after him Hugh, the younger, in 882. Each of the three children having left a son, the descendant of the daughter next ascended the throne ; so that Edward III. of England, ] c.s was only announcing an ancient law of North Briton, when he said that though a woman could not reigu she could transmit her right. The son of the daughter was succeeded by the son of Constantine, then by the son of Hugh. The order is next Constanthie s grandson, Hugh's grandson, Constantine s great-giundson, Hugh's great-grandson, a younger great- grandson of Constantine, a great-great-grandson of Hugh, a great-great- grandson of Constantine. This last was Kenneth IV., called the Grim, who succeeded in 994. The descendants of the daughter had been overlooked for two generations, but Malcolm, her grandson, asserted his right, conquered Kenneth the Grim, and in 1004 ascended the throne as Malcolm III. The slightness of their relationship may be inferred from the fact that he was third cousin to Kenneth's father. He died in 10'29, leaving an only daughter, Dorcha. Kenneth the Grim had left a son and a daughter: the former ascended the throne as Malcolm III., and, dying in 1033, left an only daughter. The whole of the males of the royal line being extinct, the representa- tion was vested in three daughters. Dorcha, the daughter of Malcolm II., married Finlay, Thane of Angus, and was the mother of Macbeth; Bethoc, daughter of Malcolm III., married Crinan, the Culdee abbot of Dunkeld, who was also Thane of the district now called Atholl, and Seneschal of the Isles. This lady was the mother of Duncan. Macbeth, therefore, was the grandson of one king, through his mother ; Duncan was grandson of another in the same way. It is true that Duncan's grandfather was the more recent king ; but that which might have been a reason among the Saxons of England, was, as we have seen, no reason whatever to the Celts in Caledonia (just now beginning to be called Scotland, as the term had been quite dropped in reference to Ireland). If to the claims thus nearly balanced we add that Duncan was a youth, Macbeth a man of strength and years, the circumstances seem changed in favour of the latter. Be- sides, he married Gruoch (" Lady Macbeth"), the daughter of Kenneth the Grim, and the sister of Malcolm III. ; so that, being related to the crown through two of the three ladies who represented it, by alliance as well as by descent, his claim in that age was in-esistible. But what Duncan wanted in right, he possessed in influence. His father Crinan, though a chui'chman (the ceUbacy of the clergy was then unknown), was a distinguished warrior ; and his younger son, Maldred, had married the daughter of Uchtred, the great Earl of Northumberland, who was the sou-in law of Ethelred II. of England. Such a powerful support as this gave him in the adjacent lowlands, and in the whole of England, easily accounts for his claim succeeding for a time ; especially as Macbeth re- sided in the remote north, and is supposed to have been, through his father, allied to the Norwegians who had settled there. 169 If these simple facts were sufficiently known, we might leave it to posterity to do justice to the name of Macbeth ; but more requires to be told. Duncan reigned six years — " Donchath Mac Crini, abbatis de Dunkeld, et Bethoc filiae Malcolm Mac-Cinat, sex annis regnavit." He is called Duncan " of the clean breath" (probably meaning of good re- putation) ; yet in '* The Chronica Hegum" his name is entirely omitted. We are told by Simeon of Durham, that in 1 035 he besieged that city, but he lost all his foot and some of his horse, and had a narrow escape for his own life. It is probable that this unfortunate event tended to show his incapacity, for the same writer records that he was slain by his own people (a suis occisus), and, with one or two exceptions, that is the form in which his death is recorded. Tigemach tells us what we sus- pected before, that he was *' supremus AlbaniaB, rex immatura cetate: " and Simeon says that his death took place not long after his return from the disasters of Durham to Scotland (nee multo post cum jam in Scotiam rediisset). It was actually five years after ; but the two events are associated as cause and efifect, and it is not improbable that he had taken refuge in the meantime in Cumberland, or with his powerful relatives in England. In 1040 (some say 1037), Macbeth began to reign. •' The Annals of Ulster" record that the gallant old Crinan was slain in 1045, in "a battle between the Scots themselves," where fell " even nine times twenty heroes." He was evidently trying to avenge the death of his son; but Macbeth was too firmly seated on the throne. In 1050, the king was at Rome on a pilgrimage, as several writers attest ; and it would appear, from the abundance of his largesse, that he had enough and to spare — '* argentum spargendo distrihuit" In 1054, the great battle was fought, in which Macbeth was defeated by the assistance of the English allies ; but the authorities do not concur that he was killed there. "The Annals of Ulster" again record that 3000 Scots and 1500 Saxons fell ; but the mention of the king's death is by a few English chroniclers, whose " wish was" probably '• father to the thought." The male line of Crinan, namely, the children of Duncan, inherited at last the throne of Scotland, after the modern manner, and the memory of Macbeth was execrated. It was said that he was the son of the devil, and that his mother and sisters were well known to be witches ; some of which polite and compUmentary traditions survived, no doubt, till the time of Shakspeare. But the testimony of Androu of Wyntoun, in his " Cronikil," the materials of which all existed for more tlian 200 years before Shakspeare wrote, is interesting, impartial, and bears the stamp of truth upon it ; for he wrote with all the calumnies before him. He says — 23 170 All his tyme was gret plente, Habundande bathe on lande and se : He was in justice richt lauchful, And til his legis al awfulle Quhen Pape was Leo the Nynt* in Rome, As pilgryme to the court he come; And in his alms he sew silver Til al pur folk that had myster. In al tyme oysit he to wyrk Profetabilly for haly kyrk. An examination of the places at which Duncan and Macbeth respec- tively are said to have died will show us sometliing of the real value of popular tradition. Tradition tells us that Duncan was killed in Glammis Castle, and stains of blood are shown, which^ remain as a witness of the deed at the end of 800 years ! Now, Macbeth is certainly called " thane of Glammis " by Shakspeare ; but that village is situated in the south of Forfarshire, near Dundee; whereas, we know that the whole events took place on the north coast, near the Moray Frith. Another tradition assures us that the deed was done in Cawdor Castle ; and here the very bed is shown on which Duncan slept, the night of the murder! This, again, is what Mr. Oldbuck of Monkbarns would call " a lie with a circumstance ; " for even Shak- speare does not say that Macbeth had inherited the lands or entered the castle of Cawdor, at the time of the alleged " murder." The Shak- sperian rubrics, as we may call the directions to the players, tell us that it took place in Macbeth's castle at Inverness ; and here Lady Macbeth was residing when she received the letter. For these three traditions there is not one word of historic authority. On the contrary, the " Register of St. Andrews " says — " Interfectus a Macbeth Mac-Finleg in Bothgouanan, et sepuUus in lona:'' while "The Chronicon Elegia- cum" says — '' Percussit ewn Macaheda, vulnere lethali, rex apud Elgin obit." The whole confusion now disappears ; King Duncan was wounded (at Bothgouan), and died at Elgin. " But there is no such place as Bothgouan," says some one. This may be so, as it is a Celtic word, meaning a smith's shop ; and somewhere near the forge he must* have received the mortal wound. " But at least he was killed by Macbeth," says another. Certainly, in open battle, but not even in a duel, and especially not in cold blood. The authorities are numerous and distinct that he was killed by his own people, of whom we may naturally infer that Macbeth was the leader. The next question is, where was Macbeth killed ? and Shakspeare has answered with great minuteness. He tells us the very castle, the * From 1048 to 1054 171 facts respecting the surrounding country, the peculiar fulfilment of the witches' prophecy, &c. Unfortunately for all this, its falsehood is shown both by internal and external evidence. We learn from the English chroniclers that Siward entered Scotland with an army of horse and a powerful fleet fequestri exercitu et classe validd) ; yet no allusion is made by the dramatist to horses or ships — the army is one of foot soldiers. They approach Dunsinnan by Birnam Wood, and before they reach the outskirts of the latter, adopt a precaution to conceal their numbers. Thd reader supposes that they advance along a plain, where the front rank only would be visible ; but the precaution would have been utterly ussless, as the entire host could be overlooked from the castle or even from the hill. The reader also supposes that the distance is a mile or two at most, for Macbeth 's messenger saw the wood begin to move. Now, the distance is exactly twelve miles in a straight line, and Siward was at the remote side of the wood. Farther, to complete the absurdity, and to demonstrate that Shakspeare never was there, the broad river Tay flows between ; . so that the assailants of Macbeth would have required to be like the Macleans at the Deluge, who " had a boat o' their ain." Even the name of the place the drama- tist appears to have got from a book, for he mispronounces it throughout. It is Dunsmnan hill, and he calls it T>xmsmane. Tradition, accom- modating itself in part to the play, points out tbe "giant's grave," where " Macbeth the Giant " was interred ; but it avers that he threw himself from the top of a cliff, and did not fall by the sword of Macduflf. True histoiy, from without, clears away all this rubbish. It tells us that Macbeth was killed or murdered by Malcolm, the son of Duncan. In the " Nomina Regum " we read, '* Interfectus in Lunfanen et sepultus inlona;" Tigernach says, '' trucidatus est :'' the "Annals of Ulster" say that he was killed in battle ; and the " Chronicon Elegiacum " has the following couplet — Huiic tamen in Lufnant truncavit morte crudeli, Dimcani natus nomine Malcolmus. Thus the place of his death is settled as Lufnanty the modern Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, about twenty miles west of Aberdeen. The name signifies " the bare little valley ; " and it is possible that tradition is correct in saying that Macbeth fell in single combat. It is wrong, however, in attributing a cairn to him, as we know that he was buried in lona. After Macbeth, reigned Lulach the Foolish for four months — a silly young man, who was remotely related to Lady Macbeth, and therefore to the royal line. So that Malcolm did not succeed at once, and three years had elapsed between the great battle by Siward and the death of 172 Macbeth. Thus Shakspeare fuses into one, three events, which took place at three distinct periods — the defeat of Macbeth, his death, and the accession of Malcolm. He also attributes to Lady Macbeth the idea of the " murder" of Duncan ; yet she stood to him in the relation of grand-aunt, had no children of her own, and at the time of his death, making due allowance for the early marriages of the period, cannot have been less than sixty years of age. Duncan is represented as a man of mature years, and his sons grown men ; yet Duncan, we know, was still young, and seventeen years afterwards his eldest son was only a mar- riageable young man. In mixing up modem ideas with ancient ones, the dramatist also represents the chiefs or nobles as being called by their respective titles, Glammis, Lennox, Rosse, &c., though we know that the custom did not originate till long after. Each man was called by his own name, and his title superadded, as Macduff Thane of Fife, Siward Earl of Northumberland. * * 51= f >!< * Two points, totally distinct, are often confounded by ordinary readers — the truth to nature and the truth in fact. Sir Walter Scott's " Ivanhoe," " Waverley," or " Rob Roy," is true in the former sense, and this is all that we expect. No one dreams of trying any such work by the standard of actual history. In this sense, too, Shakspeare 's play of " Macbeth" is true, some few portions excepted ; that is to say, the events might have occurred. But when we ask, Did they occur ? there is but one honest answer — "They did not." Posterity has given to the work of the dramatist, through ignorance or veneration, a degree of importance which he himself would never have claimed for it; and, therefore, it has become necessary to state what history has recently brought to light. A venerable lady has been " unsexed" and pictured as a demon ; though no sufficient motive actually existed, and human feeling was on the other side. Macbeth himself has come down to us as a man whose heart was black with treason, and his hands red with blood ; yet, in religion, equity, peacefulness, and moderation, he stands almost alone in those turbulent times. We have wronged him long enough, for his name in our household words and proverbial phrases is connected with honid cruelty ; let us do tardy justice to his memory, and write his character in the language which truth and honour dictate. We do not question the poet's right to paint the Macbeth of popular romance in colours more revolting than those of any of the inmates of Pandemo- nium ; but, we claim, with great respect, the right to distinguish the Macbeth of true history — the valiant chieftain and the wise sovereign, the hero without fear and without reproach. 173 EIGHTH MEETING. Royal Institution. — ^February 7, 1853. J. B. YATES, Esq., F.S.A., &c., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Secretary read the following recommendations from the Council, which were unanimously agreed to : — 1st. — *' That, in accordance with the resolution of the Society passed on the 29th November last, the President and Secretary of the Chemist's Association should be invited to attend the meetings of this Society." 2nd. — ♦' That, in order to enable the Officers of the Society to carry out the wishes of the learned bodies in the town, with regard to the celebration of the centenary of the birthday of Roscoe, on Tuesday, the 8th March next, the ordinary Meeting of the Society, which falls on the previous evening, should be suspended."* The Secretary read a letter from Mr. C. F. Salt, Secretary of the Polytechnic Society, stating that a resolution had been unanimously passed by that Society inviting the President and Secretary of the Literary and Philosophical Society to attend its meetings. Resolved unanimously : — "That the thanks of the Society be presented to the Polytechnic Society for the invitation of the Officers of the Society to attend their meetings." Mr. William Ferguson exhibited drawings of Bomhycilla Caro- linensis, B. Garrulay and Merops Apiaster. The Bomhycilla garrula or Bohemian chatterer, is a common visitant now of our country, though originally a denizen of Northern Asia and Europe : it has also been lately discovered in North America. It is interesting, less from its rarity, than from the peculiar waxy expansion of the midrib of the wing feathers. It is not unlike the American cedar bird, B. Carolinensis, but is larger, and has white bars on the wings. Two years ago it was asceitained, on unquestionable authority, that one specimen at least, killed in England, and recorded as '* garrula,'' was the cedar bird " Carolinensis." It is possible that this latter may have occurred oftener, and been mistaken for the more common chatterer ; and it is worthy of the attention of local ornithologists to note • For account of the proceedings, see note at page 154. 174 this. The Bee-eater, Merops Apiaster, is a much rarer visitant ; it has only been once before recorded in scientific journals as having been seen in Scotland, but it has been met with near Dimdee, Montrose, Perth, and elsewhere. It is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Swainson has seen flocks of twenty and thirty skimming like swallows over the vineyards and oliveyards in Italy. Those killed in this country have been all single birds, with the exception of a flock of twenty occuring in Norfolk, in 1794, quoted by Sowerby, in his British Miscellany, and there figured by him, plate 69. The specimen from which Mr. Ferguson's drawing was made, was shot at Kenmudy, in Aberdeenshire, on the 4th June last. They were a pair, male and female, but, though hotly pursued, the latter managed to escape. The stomach of the specimen captured was full of bees. Both are mentioned in Yarrell. The author could not help feeling sorry that the individual Bee-eater was killed, since, being a pair, there might have been a chance of their breeding, as there is plenty of cover. The Rev. Aethur Ramsay, M.A., read a paper ON THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. The subject on which I am about to treat is, I am well aware, one far too extended to admit of being satisfactorily discussed within the limits of a short essay like the present. It spreads itself out in such manifold ramifications on every side, each branch taking root, and forming itself into a new stem, that what I can advance at present will be little more than suggestive. I believe, however, that we do not as yet, in spite of all that has been said and written on the subject, properly realize the treasures of living truth that frequently lie encased within the shell of the outward word, or the extended plain of thought which the study of Comparative Philology may open to our view. To the metaphysician, the natural philosopher, the antiquaiian — in fact, to all who think, a knowledge of the origin and primary meaning of the terms they use, cannot fail to suggest rich stores of thought, illustrating and enlightening the truths of their several sciences. First, to take the case of the moral and metaphysical philosopher, it is easy to show how the very first words of his terminology often contain, in their origin and essence, a depth of meaning well calculated to throw light on his researches, and give distinctness to his views. A meditative man is, as Mr. Hare remarks, constantly astonished, when, on digging down to the idea which lies at the root of some 175 metaphysical term, he finds how much wiser his language is than the wisest of those that use it.* More especially is this the case when reading the works of Hobbes, Bentham, and that class of philosophers, who have endeavoured to turn and twist the meaning of the words they are obliged to use, so as to adapt them to their own preconceived notions. There we see that not only facts, but words too, are *' stubborn things ; " for words are, as Mr. Trench remarks, not only *' fossil poetry," but "fossil ethics," and therefore not to be bent so as to subserve £Uiy peculiar and individual system. Of this obstinacy of words Jeremy Bentham was so well aware, that when he attempted to introduce a new system of Metaphysics, instead of endeavouring to impress a new meaning upon his words, as Hobbes had done, he coined an entirely new set of words wherewith to express his theories, and in reading his writings, we find " deontologies," " endaimonologies," ** felicitarianisms," and " ipse-dixitisms," (to use his own favourite term of reproach,) starting up in every page.f But to return to my subject ; I said that a consideration of the terminology of Metaphysics may suggest to us many thoughts capable, in the hands of a skilful master, of throwing much light upon the science. First, to take this very word " Science" which has so aptly fallen in our way. Is it not a very curious fact, and one well worthy of notice, that almost all the words which express " seeing " or " knowing," have their origin in some root signifying "division," or "separation?" In this word " Science," for instance, we all know that the root SCI means "to divide." We find it in the Greek wmte," properly " to cut round." Like our English "score," however, this word means not only to ♦* cut," but to *' count." Thus computsire, computate is to count by running up the '* scores," or " notches." Of this connexion between counting and thinking, we have another example in the term " Ratio," which means both " counting," and '* thinking," or *• reasoning." Now what do all these remarkable examples of the mode in which the ideas of " dividing" and " seeing" are interfused, teach us, but that the mental eye as well as the bodily, when it sees, must separate the space before it into different parts, — that, as there can be no true sight without division, so there can be no true knowledge without discri- mination. As another instance of the manner in which the same ground truth forms the substratum of terms expressing the same moral or mental quality throughout many languages, I shall now consider for a few minutes those pregnant words right and wrong, terms containing within themselves inexhaustible mines of thought — terms, a realization of the inmost meanings of which, cannot fail to impart to our moral conceptions vividness and distinctiveness. First, however, I must state tliat liquids, especially the liquids I and r, generally convey the idea of motion, and very often of motion in an horizontal direction. Thus the root RI''^ or RE primarily signifies flowing forward in a line. We have it in the terms for Rivers, f such as river, nil, runneW, in the Spanish "no," J in the Latin "npa," the bank running alongside of the river, — in the term rival, originally meaning a person living by the bank of a river ; in the word '• denve," to trace as a river to its source ; in the names of rivers such as Rhine, Rhone, Endanus, Araxes, Eurotas ; in the Greek piut and the English •' rain." All these however have the notion of moisture, as well as that of flowing, just as we find the two ideas combined in the words luo, piwo, fZno, belonging, I am inclined to suppose, to a cognate root, the interchange between I and r being most common, as the modern Corunna was once called Co^onna, and the Spanish for peruke is peZuca.§ ♦We find the element "ri" in the Latin "rota," Ga;l. "roth," WeWi "rftod," and Fr. "rone," all meaning " a wheel," in rAeda, roll, and many others. ♦ The Persian word for a river is " rud " and the Aifghan "rod." Cump. Grk. Kpt\vr\. X Compare " Bio Janeiro," January River, "iZto de la Plata," Silver River, R. £ntre Rio«, (or between the rivers,) Rialto, 4cc. % The liquids naturally glide into one another, as we may observe in the case or children who often pronounce I for r. Compare th? French rossignole witli the I^atin /usciniula ; roar-is with ma/e, g/i^o with creSio, pilgrim, and Span. "peAiriu," with peregrious, li/ium with Xapiov, and the Span. " pa/a)>ra"- with the French " parole," peiigro and peril, oti/agro and luiraculum, Sutpov and dole, men and mi/ieu. 24 178 But connected with the root RI, are another set of words conveying tlie idea of onward motion without the idea of moisture entering in. Such are "run," "range," "rank," "array," "arrange," "reach," " stretch," the French " rue," and our own word " row." We now come to the most important form of the root ''reg" "to make straight," a stem which enters most largely both into our own and other languages. For a person who makes and keeps things straight, we have in different languages the terms " rajah,'' rex, roi, rey, and others.* The same element is found in " bishopnc," " Alanc," and perhaps in the ending of such words as Orgetorix, Vercingetonx, &c. Now " reg'' or " rig,'' meaning " to make straight," " red" or " right" will be the past participle, signifying " made straight," or in its substantive form " that which is made straight." It is worthy of remark that the French term " droit" has precisely the same primary signification. The words them- selves teach us the great lesson, that the right course is ever a straight- forward one, and that, morally as well as physically, the straight Hue is ever the shortest, f And as the word "right" means straight, J so its opposite, "wrong," means crooked, or turned aside from the straight way ; for " wrong," as well as "right," and many other adjectives,§ is properly a past parti- ciple coming from the verb " to wring," the root being the " wri," found in the words micry, writhe, Merest, wrench., wreath, and others of that family. Here again, too, similar analogies are found, not only in the Italian " torto," and the French " avoir tort,"\\ but also in the words ''error," " pravus," and ''pervert," all of which convey the idea of a deflection from the straight-forward course. The next word I shall take is the term " Virtue." Speaking of it Mr. Carlyle remarks : — " Virtue, (properly manliness, the chief duty of man,) meant in old Rome power of fighting, means in modem Rome connoisseur- ship, in Scotland thrift." The Greek apETi} is, as we all know, the exact equivalent of the Latin virtus. IF Connected with dpeTij, we have also *We might add stich words as " regent," " rector," " ruler," " sovrcign," " viceroy," or the names Filzroy, jRoyston, and perhaps Surrey, {i.e. Sudn'ce the South Kingdom,) and tho Latin words sur^o, porrigo, per^o, Aust-ria (i.e. ^ster-reich). + Archimedes defines a straight line as " the shortest line between any two given points." t " St" is the element of stability. Of the intensive form of s we have examples in " i>ike * and " apike," "mash" ^nd "smash," "lash" and " «lash,' "spine" and "spear," from the root " pi," and many others. § So " strong " is the past participle of the verb " to string," " tolld " of " to will," " odd " and " oion " of " to owe." U " Torto" and " tort" are from " tortus," the p«wt participle of the Latin " torqueo." IT Verstegao, in his " Restitution of Decayed Antiquities," connects the German " Tu- gend" with our words "thews" and "doughty," making it also mean strength or valour. This, however, like many other of his derivations, appears quite untenable. 179 the word heroism^ and many other words, such as Ares,* Mara, and Hercules, the gods of heroes ; Ar-viin-iua and Herr-mann, meaning hero-mrding to Home Tooke, a kind of sliding-scsde, — a thread of quicksilver, moving up or down, according as the climate of the moral man chances to be hot or cold. It is curious to see this etymology thus made the basis of an attempt to revive one of the sophistical doctrines of Protagoras, against which Plato so long and stoutly contended in the Theaetetus and other of his dialogues, namely, that all things are in a perpetual flux, — that " tmth " is ♦' becoming," not " being," and that therefore the individual man is the standard of truth. The word '* ought," as is well known, is the participle of owe, and it is not a Httle significant that in most languages, the idea which under- lies the words expressing duty, is that of something outing. We find it so in the Greek upines8 has often been the subject of observation. Jeremy Bentham, in his Deontology, endeavours to do away with the great lesson to be derived from a consideration of the original meaning of the word happiness, by coining a word of his own, •' felicitarianism ; " but if Mr. Donaldson be right in connecting felix with Faustu8, favor, Favo- nius, and other words of the stem of AQ, to blow, we do not see what advantage is gained for his system by this change of terms. The synonyms irvlvfia, anima, spirit, and the Saxon geist,-!'' all involving the idea of the enlivening breath of life, are well worthy of remark. Nor are these the only instances, in which a similar blending of these two ideas is found. Schlegel, in his able dissertation on the languages of India, notices the connexion between the Indian term for spirit, '* atmoh," and the German '* athem,"" to which we might add the Greek drudq. Dr. Pritchard also, in his book on " The Origin of the Celtic Languages,'' observes that the word for " spirit " in the Erse is •' anaim,'' and this he traces to the Sanskrit verbal root " an,'' signifying "to breathe," The connexion of these words through the common stem "AQ, not merely with such terms as aer, cBther, atmosphere, but also with words signifying speech, such as &ivo^ aio, for, and ^»7/tti, and moreover with favor, i^avonius, and (pd^g, might furnish us with many interesting deductions. The connexion of aer and dvpavdst with cUpu), to raise, as compared with the remarkable analogies of Heaven, from heave, and the German term for air, " luft," from " luften," (our word " lift,") is also worthy of observation. So also with the synonyms Hell and Hades, both meaning " invisible," the former being from the Saxon "helan," to conceal,} and the probable connexion of Ood with good in English, of Deus and dlvinus with duonus, the old Latin for bonus,J and of the Celtic term Duw with their word for goodness, "Daioni," Still more remarkable are the relations of hum&ne to ^wman, * Our word ghost is similarly connected with gora, to breathe, and gust, wind. + A tiler, or slater, in the west of P'ngland is still called a " liellier." The Saxon " fie]an " appears to be allied to the Latin " celo" and "occulere." Inferi, connected with infra, in another synonym of Hell. I Da often becomes b, as e^uonus becomes &onus, (fuellum ftelliim, duAa bis, duini bim. 181 kind to kin, gentle and ^^werous to ^^nus, and the exact equivalence of "benignant" to "generous," each word literally meaning well-bom, " generosus," full of genus, a thorough gentleman, — benignant, of a good genus or stock, well kinned.* The similarity of this stem GEN, or KIN, with one signifying knowledge, may suggest to us that in order thoroughly to know and understand a man, a book, or a subject, we must become akin to it, •' must love and admire it, must pass out of ourselves into it." As a popular modem writer has observed, " none know a man thoroughly but his friends ;" in other words, none ken him but those who are kin to him.f From the same or a very similar stem, comes the word Nature, i. e. natura, " that which is ever being bom," similar in its origin to its correlative ^voiq. The connexion of this latter with fu-\, jfi-o, ^-lius, /6?-tu8, fe-mmsL, with the Sanskrit va-man-i, and our own words /e-male and M?o- man, is full of instruction if followed out. J The idea of measure underlying such terms as mens, medit&tion, mo»m calvus. Again, by bearing in mind the interchange between o and ui, he can f nn nuit from nox, nuire from no(c)ere, huit from octo, huile from oleum, and huitre from ostreum. By placing e in the stead of an initial s, he has etude from studium, ecole from schola. epais from spissus; by putting ch or g in the place of b, p, he has approcher from ad-propriare, roche from rapes, rouge from ruber. 185 French ; — at any rate lie can never forget it, in the manner that most scholars who have previously learned Latin do. Nor is this all ; — the notice of these very changes leads to a consider- ation of their causes, illustrative both of the mental cast of the nation, and the physical, moral, or social influences, which render them unable or indisposed to pronounce certain sounds, or induce them to soften or change certain letters.* Again, the Greek, Latin, and other verbs may be made much more interesting and instructive to the learner, by directing his attention to the formation of the personal terminations, and showing as Professor Key and Dr. Pritchard have done, that these are in fact modifications of the personal pronouns. In teaching geography also, philology is no less sen-iceable. What a liveliness does it give to a boy's perceptions, when he learns that the features of a country are commonly named after the features of the body ; — that projecting points are called cape, from the head ; naze, ness, or nez, from their resemblance to a nose ;< — bill, from the beak of a bird ; — and corn, (as in Cornwall,) from the horn of an animal ;f — that the names of seas and rivers often contain a description of their position or their character, while those of places and countries may tell us of their history, as Murviedro, the muri veteres of Saguntum, — their situation, as Beaumaris, (beautiful place on the sea),- — their founder, as St. Petersburg and Constantinople,' — their trade, as Copenhagen, (harbour of merchants), — their productions, as Pihodes, (so called from its roses), — or the character of their soil, as Rutland, {ie. red-land.)* Again, it is most interesting to a boy to learn that the names of rivers, • The French, being a vivacious nation, instinctively shorten , as we have seen, th« Latin words, and their quick " frere" is a great contrast to the lazy Itahan " Iratello." In Italy, Again, the monastic life has supplanted the family life, and thu» frate has come to mean "a monk," and they have been obliged to coin a new word. " fratello," to express the r lation in domestic life. Our own tendency to brevity, as compared with the Italians, may be illustraifd by the words John and Giovanni, both formed irom Johannes; and James and Jachimo, both from Jacob. + We may compare "coast," from the Latin " costa," a rib, French " cote ; " isthmus, a neck; Siuus, agulf or "a bosom;" Savannah, from sabana, a sheet; Sierra, a saw-shaped ridge, (comp. Furca), ^gnWim, needles. ♦ The new n^me, though often very different in appearance, constantly coincides in meaning with the old, as Edin-hurgh and Dmi-edin, (both meaning King Edwin's hill.) Saragossa and Ce:.sar Aut^usta, Holy-MwW and Tre-ffynnnn, Ca(^e)r-]\ii\e and Lugu-vallnm, (caer being exactly etjuivalent to the Latin vallum,) Winchetter (Saxon, Wt/an-cea»/er,) and Caer-gu-eut, (both meaning " white city,") Ba/h and jlqnte calidie, Glatxon-hurr and Ynis- iri^ryn, {ix. glassy isle, witryn being identical with the Latin rt/rnm and the French verre,) Z>on-ube and 7»-tfr, G/6ral-li»r and Mons Calpe, (Jibel, like cal or col, meaning elevation.) Jnato\-ia and Z^iaDt, Mesopotamia and Al-jezireb, Tadmor and Palmyra, Rio de la P^ta and Jryent'xne. 25 186 such as Ab,* Avon, Don, Isis, Ts-ter, Ystwith, Esk, Ouse, and others, are of such frequent occurrence, because they all signify "water ;" — that the word /itlaud is connected with one of these terms {is), and means water- land ; — that the same element is found in the Celtic terms Inch, applied to the islands off the coast of Scotland,! and Innis applied to those adjacent to Ireland ; — that this same " is," pronounced as we pronounce it, is found in the termination of the names Jers-ey, Guems-ey, Alder-ney, Orkn-ey, Shepp-ey, Rams-ey, Bards-ey, and others ; — that the Celtic " aber," so often found in the names of places situated where two rivers meet together, as Aber-ystwith, Aber-gavenny, &c., is also found in the Celtic term for York, Ebor-ac, and in Scotland under the form " Inver," as in Inver-ness, Inver-ary, (on the river Aray,) and perhaps also in the word " Humber." I And a vast amount of history may be interwoven not merely with the names of countries, counties, and towns , but also with the nomenclature of the more prominent features of the land. The constant occurrence of the Norwegian terms " haugh," (for hill,) "forth," "tarn," "fell," and "force," in the mountainous districts of our own country, at once points to the fact that the Northmen settled in those parts of our island, which most nearly corresponded in physical features to their own native land. And thus too, those spots which are called after some Danish conqueror, as Sweynside. (from Sweyn,) Ormskirkand Ormsby, (from Gorm or Guthrum,) Grimsby and Grimston, * This "ab" is found in Puuj-a6, "the country of the five rivers," (pung being another form of the Grk. Trifnre, Lat. quinque, Span, cinco. Germ, /un/, and Welsh pump,) Do-ab, the country of the two rivers ; Daii-u6e, //yp-an-is, and ^fe-us, the old name of the Humber. This "ab" appears to be identical with the Celtic Jpan,.(4won, or^if won, and the Gaelic Ap. Don we find in J)an-uhe, Z>n-Ieper, Z>n-iester, Don-&n, Eridan-us, 'Rho-dan-as, and others. In many of these terms both, and in some all three syllables are allied to terms meaning water, as Dan-ube, [g-is, It-ter, Hypan-ig, Dn-ieg-ter, Rho^^an-us, Eri-dan-us, Wans-beck -water, &c. + Inch, in this sense, is found in the names Inch Keith, Inch Kenneth, &c. ; and Innis in /nr/ix-more, great island ; /nnfs-beg, little island ; £nnis.killen, church island; Fnig-wen, white island, the old name of Britain ; and Z'inrf/s-farne. Both are doubtless'connected with the Latin insula, though I observe that in the Terminational Dictionary (by Mr. Daw.sou and Mr. Rushtoii.) already referred to, insula is derived from in and sul (another form of "sed," sit, found in the Latin "sella," and our "sill,") as consul, from con and sul, making it (" iu-sul-a") equivalent to a "settlement." But surely the "ula" is merely a termination, and the root of the word is the same " is " that we find in i«leand j«land. The insertion of the n iu insula, Inch, and Jim\s, has many analogies, such as the relation of unda and uda, scala and sca/ido, palam and pando, mala and mando. The suppression of the < in the pronunciation of island shows that the "is" is akin to "ey" and " ei," in Guerns-ey and the German £»-land. We have this same "is" in the common term "whisky," a corruption of the Erse " usky," an abbreviation of usque-baugh, in its turn a corruption of uisge-beatha. i.e. aqua vitee, or eau de vie. Uisge is the Celtic term. Perhaps it is also incorporated in Wig-he&ch, Weg-er, and Vig-tula. * The neighbourhood of a river or sea constantly gives its name to a place, as Lam-7/ 21' 48" N. : Longitude. 3' 0' 1" W. CUteni of the Barometer elevated Si feet alwve the meaii level of the (lea. The Meteorological observations taken at the Liverpool Observatory during the past two years consist, first, of a continuation of the series of observations commenced in 184f5, and secondly, of observations taken with Osier's Self-registering Anemometer and Pluviometer, during the year 185-2. Of the series of observations commenced in 1846, the results for the five years ending December 81, 1850, form Appendix II to No. VI of the Proceedings of this Society. In the introduction to those results a description is given of the instruments with which the observations were taken, together with a full explanation of the way in which the index corrections and the corrections for diurnal range were obtained ; and the explanations there given will apply equally well to the results for 1851 and 185'2, since no alteration whatever lias been made either in the instruments, the time of taking the observations, or in the method of reducing them. The table containing the force and direction of the wind from estimation has, for the sake of uniformity, been continued for I8')v>, notwithstanding the erection of Uie anemometer. For the seven yeare over which our observiait»ii> now extend, the mean reading of the barometer was Ji9-867 in. ; the highest reading was 80-862 in., on February 11, 1849; the lowest 28-38'2 in., on December 0, 1847. The two latter results shew the state of the barometer on the days named at the ordinary time of reading, but at 10 p.m. on the last named day the reading was 28*154 in., making the extreme range for the seven years 2*708 in. We have no self-registering barometer, and therefore the true range is probably greater. The mean pressure of dry air reduced to the level of the sea was 29*589 in. The mean temperature of the air 50*0" ; the highest reading of the self- registering maximum thermometer in the shade, was 82*3° on the 19th June, 1846; the lowest reading of the self-registering minimum ther- mometer, was 20*8° on the 29th January, 1848. The extreme range of temperature for the seven years was 61*5°; the mean daily range was 8*9°. The mean annual fall of rain was 28*39 in, ; the largest annual fall was 32*20 in. in 1852, and the smallest 21*46 in. in 1850; the average number of days in the year on which rain fell was 174. The mean amount of cloud was such as to cover 6*8 of the sky, the largest mean amount in any one year was 7*3 in 1851, and the smallest 6-3 in 1849. The mean temperature of the dew-point for the seven years was 450°, being 5° lower than the mean temperature of the air. The mean elastic force of vapour, or mean amount of water mixed with the air, was 0*325 of an inch. The mean weight of vapour in a cubic foot of air was 3*70 grains, and the mean additional weight required to saturate a cubic foot of air, 0*67 of a grain. The mean degree of humidity (complete saturation=l) was 0*851. The mean amount of vapour mixed with the air would have produced water, if all had been precipitated at the same time on the surface of the earth, to the depth of 4*48 inches. The mean weight of a cubic foot of air, under the mean pressure, tem- perature, and humidity, was 5*385 grains. In the autumn of 1851 Mr. Follett Osier erected a self-registering machine for the purpose of recording the force and direction of the wind, the amount of horizontal motion of the air, and the fall of rain. At an elevation of thirty feet above the roof of the observatory, a pressure plate of four superficial feet is kept facing the wind by means of a set of small vanes. This plate is urged in opposition to the wind by eight springs, so arranged that a slight spring comes into play with a light wind, and stronger springs are made to act in conjunction with the first successively as the plate is driven back by the force of the ^vind. A chain from the pressure plate passes over a pulley and communicates with a wire which passes through a vertical spindle, and is held tight at the bottom by a slight spring; by this wire a pencil is moved trans- versely to the direction in which the paper, intended to receive the record, is carried by a clock. Lines are printed on the paper which correspond to the different values of the pressure; the intervals of these lines were adjusted by applying weights of 4 lbs., 8 lbs., &c., to move the pressure plate in the same manner as if moved by the force of the wind. The vanes which keep the pressure plate facing the wind are made to turn the vertical spindle, and by means of a spiral groove near the bottom of the spindle a rod is raised or depressed. This rod 'carries a pencil which is moved, when the direction of the wind changes, transversely to the direction in which the paper is carried by the clock. Lines are printed on the paper which correspond to the positions which the direction pencil must take when the pressure plate faces the diffe- rent points of the compass ; the paper has also transverse lines which correspond to the positions of the pencils at eveiy hour. The direction pencil was adjusted by placing it on the south line when a vane placed over the transit instrument was seen, during a brisk wind, to point to the meridian mark. The meridian mark of the transit instrument is three miles distant from the observatory. The receiving surface of the rain-gauge is 30 feet above the ground, and it exposes to the rain a surface of 397 6 square inches. The col- lected water passes through a tube into a glass vessel ; the glass vessel is made to descend by the weight of the water, and in its descent a pencil is carried with it. When a quarter of an inch of rain is collected, the glass receiver discharges itself by means of a modification of the syphon, and the pencil ascends to the zero line. The scale of the printed paper was adjusted by filling the water vessel until it emptied itself, and then by weighing the water its bulk was ascertained. The velocity of the air is obtained by means of a horizontal windmill, having for its vanes four hemispherical cups ; the action of the wind on the concave surfaces exceeds that on the convex ; and Dr. Robinson has found by a great number of experiments that, in a windmill thus constructed, the centres of the cups move with one-third the velocity of the air. The hemispheres are eight inches diameter, and the distance of their centres from the axis of rotation is three feet. A vertical spindle connected with the horizontal windmill is made to turn a cylinder, the circumference of which is 278 inches. The paper which receives the record is stretched tight over the cylinder, and for every inch of paper worked off the centres of the hemispheres travel l'2-75 miles, or 38*25 miles of air pass over the sbitioii. The sensitiveness of the machine to the action of the wind may be judged of from the fact, that there were only nineteen hours in the year 1852, during which the horizontal windmill ceased to record the motion of the air, and it is remarkable that four of these hours occun*ed on the 9th of November, the day on which the shock of an earthquake was felt in this neighbourhood. The worked paper is preserved for future reference, but the principal results are tabulated. I have the pleasure of exhibiting to the Society this evening both the original records and the tabulated results. Those for the year 1852, which I have the honour to present to the Society, have been deduced from the tabulated hourly results. In table I, they ai-e arranged according to the hours of the day. Column 2, contains the average horizontal motion of the air for the year, between any one hour of the day and the next hour following, from which it will be seen that the minimum velocity of the air is between midnight and 1 a.m., and the maximum velocity between the hours of 1 and 2 p.m. the former is eleven miles and two- tenths of a mile, and the latter fifteen and a half miles an hour. The velocity of the air appears to gradually increase from a little after midnight to a little after noon, and to gradually diminish from a little after noon to a little after mid- night. The mean hourly horizontal motion of the air for the year is thirteen miles; and if we consider this to equal 1*00, the minimum velocity will be represented by 0'86, and the maximum by 1*19, as shewn in column 8 ; therefore the horizontal motion of the air between the hours of 12 and 1 a.m. is thirty-three per cent, less than it is between the hours of I and 2 p.m. ; column 4 shews the whole quantity of rain, in inches, which fell between any one hour of the day and the next hour following during the year, and column 6 the time in hours during which rain fell; column 5 shews the relative fall of rain, and column 7 the relative time duiing which rain fell, on the assumption that the average is equal to unity ; column 8 shews the average hourly rate at which rain fell between any one hour of the day and the next hoiur following. In table II the results are arranged according to the direction of the wind. Column 2 shews the whole amount of air which passed over the observatory during the year, referred to sixteen points of the compass, and column 4 the number of hours that the wind blew from each point. 13y an inspection of these two columns, it will be seen that the direction of the wind was referred to the S.S.E, point one thousand five hundred and six hours, or sixty-two days eighteen hours, and that the whole amount of air which passed over the observatory from that point was eighteen thousand one hundred and eleven miles ; the largest amount of Vll air which passed over the station from any other point was fourteen thousand five hundred and forty-one miles from W.N.W., and the wind blew from that direction seven hundred and sixty-three hours, or thirty-one days nineteen hours; therefore the winds from the S.S.E. during the year 185*2 greatly prevailed over the winds from any other direction. Column 6 shews the average hourly velocity of the air for each of the sixteen points of the compass; it will he seen that the N.N.E. wind is the lightest wind, the mean hourly velocity being only five miles and eight-tenths of a mile, and that the N.N.W. wind is the strongest wind, the average velocity from that direction being nineteen miles and one-tenth of a mile an hour. Column 8 shews the amount of rain which fell during the time that the wind blew from each point, and column 10 the number of hours occupied in falling; column 12 shews the average hourly rate at which rain fell when the wind blew from each point; and it will be seen that with a south wind the mean hourly rate at which rain fell was only twenty-six thousandths of an inch, but with a N.N.W. wind rain fell at the average rate of eighty-nine thousandths of an inch an hour. Columns 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 represent respectively the per centage of the results given in columns 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10. The sums of all the changes in the direction of the wind for the year were, in the order N. E. S. W. N. twenty-eight revolutions, and in the order N. W. S. E. N. twelve revolutions ; therefore the excess of the direct motion over the retrograde motion was sixteen revolutions. The following results shew the comparative violence of the four heaviest gales of wind which passed over the observatory during the year 1852. IS n Jan. 4 9 Dec. 25 „ 27 Pounds. 28 29 42 42 5ia.m. 3 * 4} . 7 „ Miles. 53 62 70 71 5 (fe 6 a.m. 4 & 5 » 4 » !>• CO ?0 -^ lO i^r^«pTjQpg5cpT»*Tj. »o gTftOOAcOt^COCOOiCOti'O o M C» CJ^r^r*i>«bxcbx Strength, 0 to G. (NXOiOl(?*TfC<-"X— X'O J-,6©© — — — — 6 — ©6 '^ ;© — •t«(»'*«0©'*©«« s ^•'^eoO'^ — '^O90'«i'ao— Tf s§ ^"TfC0««©«WJ'©» 6 6 ' Extreme range of teinpeiature for each month and year. Day on which it occurred. Lowest reading of tlie minimum thermomettr. Day on which it occurred. Highest reading of the maximum thermometer. S*-S!2§a'^"^g5 Mean daily range of temperature for each month and year. (^ Mean temperature deduced from the readings of all the dry thermometers. •Ot^COCOtOt^Tf'Ot^OO' Mean pressure of dry air reduced to the level of the sea. Extreme range of the barometer readings lor each month and year. Inches. 1-346 1-406 1-595 0-853 0-790 0 861 0-470 1133 1-254 1-442 1-350 1-399 o o Day on which it occurred. -'^ii222i:*^gj^i2:2 Lowest reading of the barometer. OJ cc w «o to iQOOiOiOJOiOiOiasoiasX'X) Day on which it occurred. Highest reading of the barometer. CD«0 — Oi — t^X'-OTt<«OC5 ji7*t^XC0C0O5'-"W'VTf — C^ :©o666a>666ci66 True mean deduced from all the rea666666©66© Mean temperature of dew point. Mean Amount, 0 to 10. Strength, 0 to 6. »o©*»Oi« — a>05©© — CO ——©©——©©———— ^Tti^^rfOS© — OiX3i©W S5 -- t^X — WWCOWW^W-^O ^_«0©<(N©<0 — ««0 — — «© 09 "" • xot^x©«t^««o-«*»^xi^ H«0 — O5t>.©eOCO0OC300««O ;©(rix®^©» — — ««« w© — — — «c«o — -*©««© as ;— «e»c«o©«'«*'e9«' 3 '3 ll §"■' 1 1- > 1 "< Miles. ♦Hours. Miles. f Inches. Hours. Inches. N. N. E. 2488 0-35 426 0-78 5-8 0-48 2-353 1-20 34-3 080 0069 N. E. 1239 017 198 0-36 6-3 0-50 1158 0-59 20-0 0-47 0-058 E. N. E. 2799 0-39 320 0-58 8-7 0-69 1439 0-73 242 0-57 0060 E. 4708 0-66 427 0-78 11-0 0-89 1-408 0-72 30-9 0-72 0046 E. S. E. 4134 0-58 423 0-77 9-8 0-79 1-478 0-76 27-5 0-64 0054 S. E. 5907 0-83 515 0-96 11-5 091 1-609 0-82 341 0-80 0-047 S. S. E. 18111 254 1506 2 75 120 0 95 4414 225 117-8 2-76 0037 S. 10452 1-48 909 1-66 11-5 091 1-742 0-89 66-5 1-55 0-026 s. s. w. 8059 109 587 107 13-7 109 1-815 0-92 41-2 097 0-044 s. w. 8311 1-22 445 0-81 18-7 1-48 2-003 1-02 41-9 0-98 0-048 w. s. w. 6982 0-98 417 0-76 167 1-32 2-099 107 412 097 0051 w. 7479 1-05 397 0-69 18-8 1-49 1670 0 85 43-9 1-03 0038 W. N. W. 14541 203 763 1-39 191 1-51 3-264 1-66 71-3 1-68 0046 N. W. 7788 109 476 0 87 16 4 1-30 1-147 0 53 322 0-76 0033 N. N. W. 8702 1-24 629 115 13 8 110 2-984 1-52 336 0-79 0-089 N. 2576 036 327 0-59 7-9 0-62 0-947 0-48 22-7 0-53 0042 Columns 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 • There were nineteen calm hours in the year. + There was one calm hour during which 0-034 of an inch of rain fell. APPENDIX II. ^00 oco o o-^ • O 06 o o >-< Of) t« 1-^ O O O O 'O CO O CO o ^ m —1 oTi e~i to G •a i u Oi-H 1-1 o o ® o OJ o O? CO CO O CO QOOOO iH O (N So 1 o c8^ o la C5 o& o 5D pH O 00 , =4J io» ^o :t> O « i-H >» pa « i? O •111 >-i o ^ I r- o3 eS Oc/20 . 00 ?» I-H o 00 ^ ^ O O O O C "<*< O 00 W O O O CO «o c o j5 rl< O ^ CO 00 O; O 00 O >« CO Ti( C5 rH 00 O C^ g O? C i-H Ti( C5 I-H O O O 00 -^ O pH CO O? ^ I i 2 i O 11 OJ C •EJ to ^ 5,-l OS 3tfH le to Tre ael, for Se er, Comir ance di i Mich Turn "a -a pq Ph 1 1851. 5t. 20.- L852. «2 So w ,„ o III d O t^ CO OS § 'c-S rH ^ Ul il as .2.22 en ■^ fl o „ C cc o O Ph;M 3 «2 _ a.^ 5 6 6 a a s I I § § I 00 «3 I-H « O c c 1-H O "(f o o 5§ .5 't, 5.S 5! &5P 1% 2 S ^ i T3 . §fe 8 net— 43-- C c«-3 r^O . o i-i OJ 00 ^ P CLi ^1 a rl a> S eq g DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY, Fbom October, 1851, to Jone, 1853. M'Andrew, Robert. — Notes on the distribution and range in depth of the Mollusca, and other Marine Animals, observed in 1849; from the Author. Duncan, Dr. W. H. — Report to the Health Committee of the Borough of Liverpool, on the Health of the Town during 1847 — 1860 ; from the Author. Hartnup, John. — Report on the Liverpool Observatory 1851 ;/rom the Author. Reports to the Health Committee of the Borough of Liverpool, by the Borough Engineer, Inspector of Nuisances, and the Medical Officer of Health ; from Mr. JamSs Newlands. Charlesworth, Edward. — Catalogue of British Marine Recent Shells ; from the Author. Lassell, Wiluam. — Drawing of Saturn, as recently seen through his Telescope ; from Mr. Lassell. Lectures, delivered at the Museum of Practical Geology, viz. : — Inaugural Discourse, by Sir Henry de la Beche. On the relations of Natural History to Geology and the Arts, by Professor Edward Forbes. On the Importance of cultivating habits of Observation, by Robert Hunt. On Abstract Science, applied to Industry, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., all presented by Sir H. de la Beche. Melville, Rev. D. — Nature's Teaching : a Lecture, &c. ; from the Worcestershire Natural History Society. DiRCKS, Henry. — Jordantype, otherwise called " Electrotype ;" its early history, being a vindication of the claims of C. J. Jordan, as the inventor of Electro-Metallurgy ; from the Author. Memoir of the Right Honourable Sii* John Sinclair, Bart. ; from Messrs. W. and R. Chambers. Catalogue of a collection of ancient and mediasval Rings and Personal Ornaments, formed for Lady Londesborough ; from the Right Hon. Lord Londesborough. Hume, Rev. A., LL.D. — Remarks on certain Implements of the Stone Period ; from the Author. Address delivered at the Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool, on the celebration of the centenary of Roscoe's Birthday, 8th March, 1853 ; from the Author. Who was Macbeth? From the Author. Verbatim Report of the Addresses, &c., delivered at the Roscoe Festival, held in Liverpool, March 8tii, 1853 ; from Mr. Sansom. Booth, Rev. J., LL.D. — On the Trigonometry of the Parabola ; from the Author. Researches on the geometrical properties of Elliptic Integrals ; from the Author. XV m. CoBDEN, RiCHD., M.P. — 1793 and 1853, in three Letters; from the Peace Conference Committee. TuRNBULL, James, M.D. — Report on the progress of improvement in the treatment of Consumption ; from the Author. Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. — Eighteenth and Nineteenth Annual Reports, 1850 — 1851; /rom the Society. Royal Society of Edinburgh. — Proceedings, Vol. III. Nos. 40, 41, and Index to Vol. II. ; Proceedings, 1851 — 1852 ; from the Society, LiNNEAN Society. — Proceedings of, Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44, 1849 — 1850 ; from the Society. Royal Institution of Great Britain. — Charter, &c., and Report of Visitors, for 1849 ; — List of Members, Officers, &c., with the Report of the Visitors, for 1851 ; — Notices of Meetings, Parts I. and II. ; January 1851, to July 1852 ; from the Institution. Aberdeen Philosophical Society. — Laws, and List of Members ; from the Society. Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. — Proceedings of the Session III., 1850—1851 ;— Session IV., 1851—1852 ;— Laws ;— Report of the Council, and Abstract of Expenditure, Session IV., 1851 — 1852 ; fi-om the Society. Royal Astronomical Society. — Proceedings, Vol. XL No. 9 ; — Vol. XII. ; — Vol. XIII. Nos. 1 to 6 ; frotn the Society. Chemists' Association of Liverpool. — Transactions for 1851 ;/rom the Association. Philosophical Society of Glasgow, — Proceedings, Vol. III. Parts III. and IV. ; from the Society. Royal Institution of Cornwall. — The Thirty-second Annual Report ; from the Institution. Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. — Memoirs, Vols. IX. and X., N.S. ; from the Society. Literary and Scientific Institution of Kilkenny. — ^Laws ; from the Society. Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. — Proceedings, Vol. III. No. 2; from Dr. George Johnson. Warwickshire Natural History Society. — Sixteenth Annual Report ; from the Society. Liverpool Architectural and Arcileological Society. — Proceed- ings, Vol. I. ; from the Society. Society of Arts. — Subjects for Premiums, Session XCIX., 1852 — 1853;/rowi the Society. Literary and Philosophical Society of Hull. — Twenty-ninth Annual Report, &c. ; fi'om the Society. Royal Irish Academy. — Proceedings of, for the year 1851 — 1852, Vol. v.. Part II. ; from the Academy. Royal Society.— List of the Fellows, 30th November 1852 ; from the Rev. Dr. Booth, F.R.S. Catalogue of the Salford Library, and certain Documents relating to the Museum of that Borough ; frotn the Committee of the Salford Free Library. Catalogue of the Liverpool Free Public Library ; from the Com- mittee. LIST OF MEMBERS. SESSION XLII.— 185253. COUNCIL. JOSEPH DICKINSON, M.A., M.D., M.R.I.A., F.L.S. Vitt»l^xt»i1itnts. JOSEPH BROOKS YA.TES, F.S.A., M.R.G.S., M.P S. THOMAS INMAN, M.D. | R. M'ANDREW, F.R.S., F.L.S. Srrasttrer. |k?on. SrcreUrs. EDWARD HEATH. | THOMAS SANSOM, A.L.S., F3.S.E. <9tl)er fUtmhtxn ot Council. W. H. Duncan, M.D. John Hartnup, F.R.A.S. Rev. H. HiooiNS, M.A., F.C.P.S. Samuel Huooins. William Ihne, Ph. D. Norman M'Leod. J. P. G. Smith. John T. Towson. James Tubnbull, M.D. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Elected. 1833 Aikin, James, 1, Goree-piazzas, and 1, Alfred-street. 1851 Anderson, Robert Worrall, 23, Falkner-square. 1841 Anderson, Thomas Francis, fi, Cable-st., and Holly-lodge, Fairjield. 1844 Archer, Francis, M.R.C.S.E., Corresp. Mem. Nat. Hist. SS. Boston and Belfast, 49, Rodney-street. 1851 Avison, Thomas, F.S.A., 16, Cook-street, and Aigburth. 1834 Baines, Thomas, Castle-street, and Marine-terrace, Liscard. 1845 Balman, Thomas, M.D. St. And., M.R.C.S.E., 4, Oxford-street. 1851 Banner, Edward, 24, North John-st., and Grove-park, Lodge-lane. 1837 Banner, John Maurice, Hon. F.R.C.S.E., Surg. Nor. Hosp.. Fel. Lond. Med. Soc, 42, Rodney-street. 1816 Barber, Charles, Pres. Liverp. Ac&d., Roy allnstitution, and Olive- mount, Wavertree. 1851 Bean, William, Revenue-buildings, and 77, Wellington-road. 1850 Behrend, Heniy, M.R.C.S.E., 15, Canning-street. 1812 Bickersteth, Robert, Hon. F.R.C.S.E., Sen. Surg. Liverp. Infir- mary, 2, Rodney-street. 1848 Bishop, Rev. Francis, 7, Park-road. 1847 Bloxam, Fred. William, Cow-lane, Wavertree. 1834 Boult, Francis, Jun., 6, Rumford-place, and Clifton-park. 1846 Boult, Joseph, Hon. Sec. Architect. Soc. Liverp., 24, North John- street, and Grove-park, Lodge-lane. 1835 Boult, Swinton, 37, Castle-street, and Heswell, Cheshire. 1852 Brewer, John, Barister-at-Law, 2, South John-street. 1844 Bright, Samuel, 1, North John-street, and Sandheys, Mill-lane, West Derby. 1861 Brougham, James Rigg, Reg. Court of Bankr., South John^Ureet, XX. Elected. 1849 Burke, William, Reventie-buildings, and 36, Percy-street. 18J8 Byerley, Isaac, M.R.C.S.E., Upton, Cheshire. 3848 Casey, George, North View, Everton-valley. 1853 Cautj, Henry John, M.R.C.S.E., 31, Norton-street. 1850 Chambres, Charles, 7, Castle-street. 1851 Clare, John Leigh, 11, Exchancfe-huildings. 1844 Clay, Robert, 38, Saint Anne-street. 1853 Cohen, Douglas, M.D., 16, Hardy-street. 1850 Cox, Henry, 'ZA., Exchange-alley North, d Spring-hank, Walton-breck. 1844 Dale, R. N., 12, Exchange-st. East, d Hill-house, Higher Tranmere. 1845 Davis, George Millett, M.RC S.E., 78, Rodney-street. 1848 De Finance, G., 39, North Bedford-street. 1840 Dickinson, Joseph, M.A. and M.D., Trin. Coll. Dub. and Cantab., M.R.C.P.L., M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.B.S.E., Lect. on Princip. and Pract. of Med. Liverp. School of Med., Phys. to Liverp. Infirmary, 5, Nelson-street. 1848 Dove, Percy M., 1, North John-street, and 49, Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 1851 Dovvie, James, Tower-buildings West, and 4, Dingle-terrace. 1847 Driffield, W. W., Prescot. 1848 Drysdale, John J., M.D. Edin., L.R.C.S.E., 44, Rodney-street. 1836 Duncan, William H., M.D. Edin., Medical Officer of Health, Cornwallis-street, and Peel-terrace, Falkner-square. 1833 Eden, Thomas, M.R.C.S.E., 105, Park-road, f Dingle-hill. ) 1848 Edwards, John Baker, Ph. D. Gies., F.C.S., 42, Berry-street. 1844 Ellison, King, M.R.C.S.E., 30, Rodney-street. 1850 Evans, Henry Sugden, F.C.S., 1, Seel-street. 1848 Falcon, W. B. 1846 Faram, John, 29, Seel-street, and 6, Craven-terrace. 1852 Ferguson, William, York-buildings, and Erskine-street. 1852 Fischel, Rev. A., 102, Duke-street. 1849 Fisher, William M'Naught, Ph. D., F.R.A.S., 39, Great George-st. 1837 Fletcher, Edward, 122, Chatham-street. 1838 Focke, Julius, Rumford-place, and Green-lane, Aigburth. 1849 Forshaw, John, 1, Sweeting- street. 1844 Gray, Thomas, 1, North John-street, and Tranmere. 1833 Grimaldi, Joseph, 7, Seymour-street. 1850 Hamilton, George, Wellington-road, North Egremont. 1847 Hampton, Rev. H., M.A., 18, Upper Parliament-street. 1837 Hartley, John Bernard, Coburg Dock, and Mount-pleasant, Linacre. 1850 Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Liverpool Observatory. 1850 Harvey, Enoch, 12, Castle-street, and 5, Princes-park-terrace. 1844 Harvey James, 5, Falkner-square. 1841 Heath, Edward, Orange-court, Castle-street, and St. Domingo-grove, Breckfield-road. 1850 Hibbert, Thomas Doming, 39, SackviUe-st., d Mid. Temple, London. XXI. Elected. 1849 Higgin, Edward, Fenwick-chambers, and WdUon-breck. 1846 Higgins, Rev. H. H., M.A. Cantab., F.C.P.S.. RainhiU. 1836 Higginson, Alfred, M.R.C.S.E., 44, Upper Parliament-street. 1850 Hodson, Thomas Llewellyn, M.R.C.S.E., 19, Great Nelson-street North. 1852 Holt, Alfred, 2, India-buildings. 1849 Holt, George, Jan., Fenwick-chambers, and 2, Rake-lane, Edge-hill. 1847 Horner, Henry P., Pres. Polyt. Soc, Basnettst.,andl ,Everton-road. 1850 Howson, Rev. John Saul, M.A. Cantab., Principal of the Colle- giate Institution, 2, Holland-place ^ Edge-hill. 1847 Huggins, Samuel, 35, South John-street , and 17, Brunswick-road. 1841 Hume, Rev. Abraham, D.C L. Dub., LL.D. Glasg., F.S.A.. Corresp. F.S.A. Scot., M.P.S., Hon. Sec. Hist. Soc, 9, Clarence-street, Everton. 1852 Hunt, George, 31, Irvine-street, Edge-hill. 1851 Hutchinson, Richard, M.R.C.S.E., Upper Stanhope-street. 1850 Ihne, William, Ph. D. Bonn, Head Master Mechanics' Institution, 7, Carlton-terrace, Upper Parliament-street. 1844 Inman, Thomas, M.D. Lond., M.R.C.S.E., F.B.S.E., Lect. on Mat. Med. and Med. Jurisp., Liverp. Sch. of Med. 16, Rodney-st, 1844 Jevons, William, Devonshire-terrace, Birkenhead. 1852 Jones, Morris Charles, 75, Shaw-street. 1851 Jones, Roger Lyon, Great George-square. 1844 Kemp, Edward, 50, Hamilton-square, Birkenhead. 1846 King, Joseph, Jun., 3, Union-court, and 59, Shaw-street. 1848 Lamport, William James, Fenwick-chambers, and Rock-ferry. 1839 Lassell, William, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., StarJieU, West Derby-road. 1852 Lassell, William, Junr., Starjield, West Derby -road. 1844 Lear, John, North John-street, and 50, Pembroke-place. 1844 Lord, William, Lieut. R.N., Revenue-buildings, and 16, Sandon-st. 1849 Lowndes, Richard, 'Hi, Exchange-buildings, and 29, West Derby-st. 1834 M*Andrew, Robert, F.R.S., F.L.S., 84, Upper Parliament-street, 1852 Macleod, Norman, Sailors' Home, and 8, Peel-street. 1822 Macrorie, David, M.D., Edin., M.R.C.S.E., and Ed., }26,Dukest. 1853 Marrat, F. P., 15, White Mill-street. 1848 Marshall, Buchanan, M.D., Glasgow, 29, Islington-terrace. 1839 Martin, Studley, Exchange-chambers, and 3, Chesterjield-street. 1844 Mayer, Joseph, F.S.A., 68, Lord-street. 1853 Milner, Rev. J. W., M.A., 1, Devonshire-terrace, Upper Parlia- nient-street. 1849 Moss, Rev. John James, B.A., Otterspool. 1850 Mott, Albert, South Castle-street, and Grove-park, Lodge-lane, 1834 Neill, Hugh, F.R.A.S., L.R.C.S.E., 115, Mount-pUasant. 1851 Ne wlands, James, Borough Engineer, Comwallis-st. , and Lodge-lcoM, 1847 Nisbet, William, L.F.P. and S.G., Church-street, Egremont. xxu. BUoted. 1846 Padley, George, M.R.C.S.E., Lect. Pract. Anat. Liverp. Sch. Med., 53» North Bedford-street. 1846 Picton, James A., F.S.A., 19, Clayton-square, and Sandy-knowe, Wavertree. 1850 Ramsay, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Cantab., Hayman's Oreen, West Derby. 1844 Ramsay, Peter, M.D.St.And., F.R.C.P.E.,M.R.C.S.E., Surg. R.N., 69, Chatham-street. 1812 Rathbone, Richard, 24, Water-street, and Woodcote, Aigburth-road. 1812 Rathbone, William, 24, Water-street, and Green-bank, Wavertree. 1844 Reay, Thomas, 87, Church-street. 1851 Redish, Joseph Carter, 58, Oxford-place. 1840 Robberds, Rev. John, B.A., High-park-street, Toxteth-park. 1853 Rowe, James, 2, Chapel-walks. 1850 Ryder, James 0., 1, Fenmck-street, and 39, Falkner-square. 1836 Salt, Charles Fred., Hon. Sec. Liverpool Polytech. Society, 88, Upper Canning -street. 1845 Sansom, Thomas, A.L.S., F.B.S.E., Reventie-buildings, and 7, Everton-road. 1846 Scholfield, Henry Daniel, M.D. Oxon, M.R.C.S.E., U, Hamilton- square, Birkenhead. 1837 Scott, Roger Wakefield, M.D., Edin., Physician to the Northern Hospital, 64, Rodney-street. 1844 Shute, Robert, 28, Bedford-street North. ' 1812 Smith, James Houlbrooke, 28, Rodney-street, S Green-hill, Allerton. 1848 Smith, J. P. G., M.B.M.S., M.Ent.S., 6, Oldhall-street, and Spnng- bank, Breck-road. 1850 Smith, R. C, Church-street, Birkenhead. 1842 Taylor, Robert Hibbert, M.D.Edin., L.R.C.S.E., F.B.S.E., Lect. on Ophthalm. Med. Liverp. Sch. Med., Percy-street. 1849 Thomson, David Purdie, M.D.Edin., L.R.C.S.E., 4, Salisbury-st. 1812 Thomely, Thomas, M.P., 8, Mount-street. 1844 Thomely, Francis, 9, Exchange -alley, and 16, Hope-street. 1849 Thorp, H., North John-street, and St. Catherines-terrace. 1851 Towson, John Thomas, Sailors' Home, and 23, Grreat George-square. 1844 Tumbull, James, M.D.Edin., Phys. Liverp. Infirm., 4, Morning- ton-terrace. 1844 Vose, James Richard White, M.D.Edin., Sen. Phys. Liverp. In- firmary, 5, Gambier-terrace. 1844 Walmsley, Joshua, Lord-street. 1849 Watling, John William Heniy, M.R.C.S.E., Wavertree. 1852 Williams, Robert G., B.A. Lond., 32, Chatham-street. 1844 Winstanley, Samuel, Church-street, and 68, Mount-pleasant. 1836 Yaniewicz, Felix, 60, Mount-pleasant. 1812 Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A., M.R.G.S., M.P.S., 25, King-street, and West Dingle. 1834 Yates, Richard Vaughan, 31, Brunswick-street, and The Shrubbery, Toxteth-park. XXUl. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Elected. 1812 Rev. Francis Parkman, Boston, U.S. 1812 Peter Mark Roget, M.D.Edin., F.R.C.P..F.R.8.,F.G.S.,F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Ac, London. 1813 Very Rev. William Buckland, D.D.Oxon., F.R.S.. F.L.S., F.G.S.. F.R.G.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., Dean of Westminster, Deanery, West- minster. 1814 Alexander Blair, L.L.D., London. 1815 Benjamin Smith Barton, M.D., Philadelphia. 1816 Thomas Stackhouse. 1816 George Gumming, M.D., Edin., L.R.C.P., Denbigh. 1816 John Wakefield Francis, M.D., Bond-strMt, New York. 1817 John Bradbury, New York. 1817 George Cantrell, Eaton. 1818 Willis Earle, Calcutta. 1819 John Stanley, M.D., Edm., Whitehaven. 1819 & 1825 Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D., F.R.SS.L. & E., &c., &c. 1820 Joseph Came, F.R.S.,M.R.I.A.,F.G.S., &c., Penzance, Cornwall. 1823 John Reynolds. 1824 Rev. H. Jones. James Thomson, Mexico. 1827 Rev. William Hincks, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.B.S.E., Queen's CoUege, Cork. 1828 Rev. Brook Aspland, Duckinjield, Cheshire. 1831 Charles Pope, Portishead, Bristol. John Ashton Yates, M.R.G.S., Bryanston-square, London. 1833 Professor TraiU, M.D., Edin., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., &c., Edinburgh. 1833 Earl of Harrowby, P.C., D.C.L., Sandon-hall, Staffordshire. 1833 James Yates, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.. Lander daU-house, Highgate, London. 1834 William Macdowall Tartt. 1836 George Patten, A.R.A., London. 1835 William Ewart, M.P., Cambridge-square, Hyde-park, London. 1835 Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux, M.A., F.R.S., &c., &c., Ac. 1835 Francis, Earl of EUesmere, D.C.L., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A., Ac. London. 1835 Samuel Angell, Gower-street, Bedford-square, London. 1830 H. B. Robinson, London. 1836 Chevalier de Kirkhoflf, Antwerp. 1837 Earl of Burlington, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.. M.R.I.A., F.G.S.. F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., F.Z.S., Ac, Belgrave-square, Londoti. 1838 Professor Airey, M.A., D.C.L.,. F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Ac, Astronomer Royal, Green- uHch. XXIV. Elected. 1840 James Nasmyth, Patricroft. 1840 Richard Duncan Macintosh, L.R.C.P., Exeter, Devonshire. 1841 Charles Brjee, M.D., Glasg., Fell. F.P. and S.G., Socio dell* Accad. de Lin. Roma., Ludlow. 1842 J. W. Dixon, Cape of Good Hope. 1844 George Chater, Norwich. 1844 J. B. Jukes, Wolverhampton. 1844 Professor Edward Forbes, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., King's College, Londoti. 1844 T. B. Hall, Coggeshall, Essex. 1844 Peter Rylands, Warrington. 1844 Professor Scouler, M.D., Royal Society Dublin. 1844 Professor T. Rymer Jones, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.R.C.S.E., &c., Kinqs College, London. 1844 W. H. White, M.B.S., London. 1844 Robert Patterson, Belfast. 1844 Signor L. Rellardi, Turin. 1 844 Signor Michelotti, Turin. 1844 M. L. Phillips, Brighton. 1844 Thomas Bell Salter, M.D.Edin., M.R.C.S.Eng., and Edin., F.L.S., F.B.S.E., Ryde, Isle of Wight. 1844 Professor Alger, Boston, U.S. 1844 Sir Chailes Lemon, Bart., M.A.Cantab., F.R.S., F.G.S., Cardew, Cornwall. 1844 II Cavaliere Carlo Passerini, Pisa. 1844 Professor William Carpenter, M.D.Edin., M.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., London University. 1846 Rev. Professor Baden Powell, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., &c., Oxford. 1847 Su- William Rowan Hamilton, LL.D., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., &c.. Astronomer Royal of Ireland, Dublin. 1849 Thomas Nuttall, F.L.S., Rainhill, Lancashire. 1849 Rev, Thomas Corser, M.A., Stand, Bury. 1850 Rev. St. Vincent Beechey, M.A. Cantab., Worsley, near Eccles. 1851 James Smith, F.R.SS.L. & E., F.G.S., Jordan-hill, Glasgow. 1851 Henry C. Pidgeon, Putney College, and 37, Berners-st., London. 1851 Rev. 'Robert Bickersteth Mayor, M.A. Cantab. Fell. St. John's Cantab., F.C.P.S., Rugby. 1851 George Johnston, M.D.Edin., LL.D. Aberd., F.R.C.S.E., Ber- wick-upon-Tweed. 1852 Thomas Spencer, London. 1852 William Reynolds, M.D., Coed-du, Denbighshire. INDEX. Abbeville, manuscript in, 67 Abrudbaiiya, discovery of Waxen Tablets, 64 Accounts, Treasurer's, Sess. zxxix and x!, App. xv. Aerolite, fall of, 207 Adulteration of Coffee, 141 Age of MSS., means of ascertaining, 78 Agriculturalist of Rome, 38 Agriculture, niaiiu-script on, 69 Alcuin, preceptor of Charlemagne, 77 Alexander the Great deposits Homer's Poems in a splendid ark, 61 n. Alexandrine Library, MSS. in, 77 Alpaca,hairof, 92 Ambassador from United States to Republic of France, instructions to, 43 Analysis of hair, 95 Ancient manuscripts, 59 Ancient writing, implement'* used, 66 Anderson, R. \V., details of Soc. visit to Warring- ton, 125 ; elected member, 20 Anemometer, results of, 1K51-2, App. v. Angelo Mai discovered Cicero's De RepubHea, 66 Anglo-Saxon MSS. in British Mu.seum, &c.. 72 Animates, the power that organizes and, 115 Antiopa, n.s. found at Hilbra Island, 127 Antoninus, Wall of, 153 Arabs, tenure of land, 29 Architectural and Archeeological Society, invitation from, 165 ; to, 152 ; letter from, 154 Architectural criticism, 8 Architecture and nature, 199 Architecture as a fine art, 50 Argynnis zerina, exhib., 126 Aristotle's De Regeminr Imperii, MSS. of, 80 Amo, valley of, 15 Art, its tendencies, 56 Arts, fine, Mr. Huggins on, 50 Ascidia sordida, 115 ; scabra, 115 Asia, manuscripts of, 60 ; tenure of land in, 29 Asp of Egpyt, 20<5 Asplenium marinum, exhib., 199 Assam teas, 124 Assyrians conquerors, 28 Audobon, deatli, 1 Australian gold exhibited, 131 Authors of papers : — Boardman, J as., 166 ; Boult, J ., 109; Byerley, Lsaac, 127; Evans, H. S., 119, 140; Faram, John, 115; Ferguson, W., 173 ; Hamilton, George, 124 ; Hartnup, John, 7, 132, 209, App v ; Hibbert, T. D., 49 ; Homer, H. P., 8 ; Howson, Rev, J. S., 204 ; Huggins, Samuel, 49,50, 199 ; Hume, Rev. Dr.. 22, 166, 208; Ihne, Dr. W., 28, 143,156 ; Inman,Dr ,83; Lassell,Wm.,20; Moss, Rev. J. J., 1.55 ; Ramsay, Rev. A., 174 ; Smith, J. P. G., 137; Stevenson, W., 209; Symonds, H.E.,207; Thomson, Dr., 8 ; Towson, J. Tjl92; Williams, George, 4 ; Tates, James, 153 ; tatea, J. B., 59, 134 Avison, Thomas, elected, 50 Babylon, bricks found at, 60 Baily's beads, 5 Bain, Mr. A., magnetic clock of, 132 Banner, Edward, elected, 20 Bat, hair of, 87, 96 Barber, Mr. C, vote of thanks to, 59 Barrier, Rheno-Danubian, 159 Beach, sea. at the Dingle, LW B—n, William. d«etod, 10 Beaver, hair or, Oft Bedford misaal noticed, 06, 71. 74 Behrend, Henry, on metres or Hebrew poetry, 100; exhib. gold figure, ISO Bengal, tenure of land. 31 Bible, ancient, exhib., 126 Binns, Mr. T., collection of prints, &c.. 196 Bloxam, Mr., exhib. autograph letter of Dr. Jenner, 125 ; detail of Society's visit to Warrington, 1S5 Bluiidell, T. W. , Greek inscriptions belonging to, 194 Boa constrictor, skin of, 191 Boardman, James, explosion of gunpowder at Corunna, 166 ; proposed celebration of Eoseoe Centenary, 154 Boccacio mentioned, 78 ; Misfortunes of Great Men, manuscript of, 69 Bodlean Library, MS. in, 72 Bombycilla carol inensis and garrula, 173 Bond's ring of Saturn, 7 Books copied by the Carthusians, 76 ; first printed, 68 ; first bound, 63 Botany, manuscripts on, 69 Botta, M., quoted, 60 Boult, Mr. I., on standards of taste, 109 Bound books, when first used, 63 Hracciolini mentioned, 78 Bradshaw, President, biographical sketch, 40 Brasses from Childwall, 206 Breviary- of Queen Isabella of Spain, noticed, 71 Brewer, John, elected member, 143 Bricks found at Babylon, 60 Bridge, Soutbwark, 18 ; Menai Straita, 18 Bristles, 91 British Association, invitation to, 106, 196; letter from Professor Phillips, 208 British Museum library, referred to, 71 Brodrick, Mr., of Hull, 15 Brunswick-street, office in, 15 Builder, quoted, 20 Butterflies, colour in scales of, 85 ; hair of, 64 Burke, quoted, 13, 19 Busk, Mr., quoted, 96 Byerley, Isaac, elected on Council, 3 ; exhib. glass {torn oats, 108 ; discovery of Eolis Landsburgii, 115 ; exhib. living animals from Hilbra Island. 115 ; fauna of Liverpool, 83, 106, 1S7 . Calligraphers, 76 Canada, colonized by French, 30 ; tenure of Iand,30 Carthagenians conquerors, 26' Carthusians, copying of books one of their roles, 75 Castley, quoted, 83 Cat, whiskers of, 100 Cauty, H. J , elected member, 196 Centenary of Roscoe celebrated, 154 Ceradia ftircata exhib., 119 Charlemagne, his character, 73 Charts, ancient MS., 70 Chemical elements, 1 16 Chemists' Association, invitation tram, 105, lOO; invitation to. 178 Chiar-oscuro. 13 Chicory used instead of coffbe, 141 Childwall, brasses from, 100 China, tenore of land in, 99 Chinese paint some teas, 110 Christian art, 51, 59; democracy, 30 temples. arrhitMtnre of, II XXYl Chrysographers, 76 Cicero, De RepubUea discovered, 66 Cichoriiim intvbus, 141 Cimabue embollisbed MSS,, 70, 77 Cimbex, J. P. G. Smith on foot of, 206 Cirri, on the motion of, 217 Citizenship of Rome, 37 Clare, J. L., elected, 28 ; exhibition of instructions to Col. James Monroe, 43 Clients, Roman, 39 Clocks, sympatlietic, J. Hartnup on, 132 Club Houses of London, 15 Cocculus plat}-j)hillus. exhib., 119 Cocoa nut exhibited, 132 Codex Alexamirinus mentioned, 81 Coffea Arabica, 140 Coffees of commerce, H. S. Evans on, 140 Cohen, D., M.D., elected member, 204 Coin of Rome, 38 Colombo, pendulum experiment at, 8 Comitia curiata,S7 Committee appointed to memorialize the Town Council, &c.,on subject of a self-registering tide- gauge, 125 Compass, deviation of, 192, 205 Conception of Janus, 143 Conquest, states owe their origin to, 28 Constantinople sacked by the Crusaders, 77 Consus, Roman god, 163 Contractions used in MSS., 81 Coracco nuts exliibited, 43 Corrientes, fall of aerolite in, 207 Corunna, explosion at, 166 Cotton paper first used, 65, 81 ; restricted in its use, 65 Cottonian MSS. destroyed by fire, 82 CoimcU, Report of, 1851-2, 1 ; 1852-3, 129 ; elected, session xli, 3 ; session xlii, 130 Creditor and debtor of Rome, 38 Criticism, architectural, 8 Cumberland statesti)en,'il ; tenure of land in, 41 Cupolas of Europe, 17 Curies, origin of name, 160 Cutis vera, 96 Cyclonic theory of storms, 210 Da Fiesole embellished MSS., 70 Daguerreotype of Gen. Peirce, President U.S., 152 Danubian \VaU,152 Davies, Dr., quoted, 123 Dawes, Mr., on Saturn, 8 Debtor and creditor of Rome, 38 Decoration, architectural, 201 ; of manuscripts, 68 Deer, hair of, 87, 89, 91, 92, 96 Dendronotus arborescens, 115 Deviation of compass, 192, 205 Derby, Earl of, death, 1 Dibdens Bibliographical Decameron quoted, 71 Dickinson', J., M.D., elected President, 131 ; elected Vice-President, 3 Dingle, ancient sea beach at, 152 Dioscorides, MSS. of his works, 80 Diplomatics, meaning of, 78 Diptych a, 64 Direction of the hair, 104 Dog, hair of, 95 Domesday Book noticed, 80 Donations to Library, App.xvii. f Don Jacopo, of the Monastery of Camaldoli, cafi- graphi»t,70 Doors, Janus, god of, 143 Doris, tuberculata, 115; bilameUata, 115; sub- quadrata, found, 127 Dowie, James, elected, 28 Dufresne quoted, 76 Duncan, Dr., elected V.P., 3; elected on Council, 131 Duomo of Florence cupola, 17 E. Edwards, Dr. J. B., photographic pictures of micro- scopic objects, 204, 205 Egbert, Archbishop of York, his library, 77 Egj'Pl^ian art, 52 ; conquerors, 28 ; nmnuscripts, 00 Electric clocks, 132 Electric light exhib., 205; recommended to the Dock Committee by the Soiree delegates, 125 Elephant's hair, 92, i'>4 Elizabethan architectural ornament, 19 Ellis, Sir Henry, quoted, 82 England, tenure of land, 30 English MS. of John Lydgate, 69 Entozoon in hair, 100 Eolis Landsburghii found, 115, 127 ; Drummondi, 115 ; aurantiaca, 115 ; papillosa, 115 Ermine, hair of, 86 Etruscan States of Italy, 34 ; table. 19 Evans, H. S.,on coffeesof commerce, 140 ; on tea,119 Evangelistarium of Charlemagne, 73 Exhibition of 1851, ornament, French and Eliza- bethan, 19 Exhibitors :—Behrend, H., 126; Bloxam, F.W., 12.5; Byerley, J., 108, 115; Clare, J. L., 43; Dickinson, Dr., 119: Edwards, Dr., 204, 205; Hartnup, J., 152, 206 ; Heath, E., 155 ; Higcin- son. A., 191 ; Hume, Dr., 206; Hunt, Georce, 126; Ihne, Dr., 205; Marratt, F. P., 191, 204,206; Moss, J. J., 155; Nisbet, W., 43. 132. 198; Sansom, T., 126, 166, 199; Smith, J. P. G.,131, 126, 206 ; Yates, J. B., 82, 127, 207 ; Yates, R. V., 152 Extraordinary Meeting, 137, 143 Falconry, books on, 69 Famese palace, 15 Faram, Mr. J., on the power that organizes and animates, 115 Farms of Rome, 38 Fauna of Liverpool, 83, 108, 127 Ferguson, W., elected member, 151 on Bombycilla garrula, &c., 173 Earthquake, J. P. G. Smith on, 137 Eclipse of 28th July, la-Jl, 4 Fingers of monkish scribes often preserved as relics, 70, 76 FUelfo mentioned, 78 Fine Arts, Mr Huggins on. 50 architecture ranked with, 9 Fire which destroyed Cottonian MSS., 82 Fischel, Rev. A., elected member, 143 Florence, palaces of, 15 ; cupola of Duomo, 17 Follicle of hair, 96 Foot of Cimbex, 206 France, tenure of land, 32; architectural orna- ment, 19 ; instructions to United States Minis- ter to Republic of, 43 Francis I. of France, prayer book of, notice, 71 Freeholders of Rome, 38 Froissart's Chronicles , manuscript of, 69, 72 Furnace, explosion at, 155 Gales in 1852, App. vii German wall, 153 Germany, modern architecture of, 12; tenure of land, 30, 32 Giotto embellished MSS., 70, 77 Glass, from a stack of burnt oats, 108 Goats' hair, 92 Godschalcus finishes the Evangelistarium of Charlemagne, 74 Gold from Australia exhibited, 131 figure exhibited, 126 Gothic architecture, 19 Gravitation, Mr. Hamilton on. 124 Greek architecture, 10, 11, 16,19; conquerors, 28; inscriptions atlnce Blundell, 114; MSS. written at Constantinople, 77 Greenwich, docks at, 132 Grimmia ovata exhib., 204 H. Hair, nat. history and microscopic character of, 83, XX VII. 219; alpaca, 92; analysis of, 99; axilla., 88, ba. 87, 96 ; beaver, 95 ; butterflies, 84 ; cater- pillar of tigermoth, 84; deer, 87, 89, 91, 03, 98; direction of, 104; diseases of, 107; dog, 90; electricity of, 106 ; elephant, 92, 14 ; ermine, 88 ; explanation of plates, 219; follicle, 96; goat, 92; f(rey, 88; hare, 86, 89, 91, 92 100; horse, 91; ichneumon, 86; insects, 84; Lepus timldus, 86, 89, 91, 9i, 100; lobster, 84; man. 87, 91; mole, 90, 93; mouse, 87, 90; omithorynchus, 87, 89, 94, 96; peccari, 87 91. 92, 96; peri- neum, 88; pig, 91; rabbit, 89. 94; racoon, 87; rat, 90 ; seal (harp). 87 ; sheep. 92 ; shrew, 87, 90, 93; shrimp, 84; sloth, 94; spider, 84; strength of. 106; structure and shape, 86 ; taran- tula. 87; use of, 107; vegetable, 84 ; whale, 91 Hamilton, Geo., on gravitation, 124 Hancock. Etruscan table, 19 Hands of Silvestro and Don Jacopo preserved at Camaldoli, 70 Hare, hair of, 86, 89, 91, 92, 100 Harlean manuscripts referred to, 71 Hartnup, John, el-cted on council, 3, 131 ; exhib. daguerreotype of Gen. Peirce, 152 ; exhib. record of Osier's anemometer, 206 ; meteorological re- sults, 1851-52, 209, app. v.; ring of satum, 7; on time balls, &c., 182 Hassall, quoted, 91, 98 Heath. Edward, elected treasurer, 3, 131 ; exhib. 8eed vessels, una delgato, &c., 155 Hebson, Edward, elected. 4 Hebrew poetry, on the metres of, 108, 118 Hedgehog, quill of. 91 Helicon ia, hairs of, 84 ; scale of, 84 Helots, Spartan, 33 Herculaneum, manuscripts found at, 63 Herschel, Sir William, quoted, 21 Hesperides, fac similes of his works. 205 Hibbert, T. D., on President Bradshaw, 49 Hlggins, Rev. H. H., elected on Council, 131 Higginson, Alfred, on a parhelidK^l Hildegarde (Queen), mentioned, 73 Historic Soc, invitation to, 152; invitation from, 151, 205 History of Lit. and PhU. Soc. 208 History, Roman, trustworthiness of, 166 Hoof of horse 92 Horn of Rhinoceros, 92, 99 Horner, H. P. architectural criticism, 8 Horse hair, 91 ; hoof, 92 Horsemanship, books on, 69 Houses of Parliament, 14 Howson, Rev. J. S., elected on Council, 8; on nautical terms. 204 Huggins, Samuel, elected on Council, 131; archi- tecture and nature, 199 ; on fine arts, 49, 50 Hull, house at. 15 Hume, Rev. Dr., on English popular literature, 22 ; exhib. two brasses, 206; History of Lit. and Phil. Soc, 208 ; on presentation of Mr. Yates' portrait, 57 ; vote of thanks to, 69 ; Who was Macbeth? 166 Hungary, tenure of land, 31 Hunt, George, elected, 20; exhib. ancient Bible, 126 I. Ichneumon, hair of, S6 Ihne Dr., elected on Council, 3,181; exhib. /oe similea of Hesperides, 205; on Janus, 143; tenure of land amongst the Romans, 28 ; trustworthiness of Roman history, 156 niuminated manuscripts, 67, 68 Illuminators. 76 Implements used in writing, 66 Ince Blundell, Greek inscription, 184 India, tenure of land in, 29 Inman, Dr., elected on Council, S ; elected V.P., 131 ; on the nat. hist, of hair, 83,819; explana- tion of plates, 219; on fauna of Liverpool, 88 Inscriptions at Ince Blundell, 184 Insect hairs, 84 ; scales, fti Invitation to members to vUlt Warrinfton. US Irish M88. in British Museum. 72 Iron, bridges, 18; use of, restricted by the £tnu- I»fS**'*ASl'r" "/Spain, breviarv of noticed, 71 Italian building in Brunswick Street. 15 lUly. tenure of land. 82; architecture 16th een tury, 14 IthamsBa,hairflof,84; scale of. M« 8ft J. Jacopo (Don) ealigraphist, 70 Janus. mythological conception of. Hi Jenner. Dr , autograph letter of, 125 Johns's translation of Proissart quoted, 69 Jones, M. C, elected member, 198 K. Knowsley. 80 ; geological ooUeotlon, 1 KoUiker, quoted, 88, U7 L. Laconia, land in. 82 Lamprey Dr., on pendulum. A Land, tenure of, amongst Romans. 28 Language, Rev. A. Ramsay on, 174 Lastraea filix foemina exhibited, 166 Lassell. Wm., eclipse of sun in Sweden. 4 ; elected on Council, 3 ; satellites of Uranus 20 Lassell, Wm. jun.. elected member, 143 Layard. Dr., quoted, 60 Lepus timidus. hair of, 86, 89, 91, 92. 100 Lissotriton palmipes found. 127 Library , Alexandrine, MS8. in. 77 Library, donations to, App. xvil. Lie-teas, nature of, 123 Limner, 76 Linen paper, discovery of, 66 Lister, Dr, quoted. 105 Lit. and Phil. Society, history of, 208 Literature, popular. 22; of 17th and 18th centu- ries. 23 Liturgies, ancient. 67 Liverpool, fauna of. SS, 108, 127 Liverpool observatory, meteorological results at, 1851-52, App. V. Lobster, hair of, 84 Lydgates Life of St. Edmund noticed. 60 M. Mabillon quoted. 81 McAndrew, R. elected V. P., 3, 131 Macbeth? who was, 166 Macedonians, couquerors, 28 McLeod,Norman, elected, 115; eltcttd on Coun- cil, 131 Madden, Sir F.. quoted 83 Magnetic pol.s. 192 Maixe from Peruvian grave, 165 Mallet (G.), Inventoire ou Catalogue de rADdeone Bibli»)theque du Louvre, noticed. 74 Melitia? Chnlc d<>n exhib. 126 i Man, hair of, 87, 91 I Mansions of nobility. 15 I Manuscripts, ancient, 50 ; by whom writtvn. 74 ; I decorations of. 08; found at Herculaneum, 69 ; means of ascertaining their age . 78 ; ou stone, 60 ; when first bound. 63 ; where written, 74 I Maps,anci>-nt MS..69 M^ne charts, MS8., ancient 70 : Marriage, Roman. 162; portion. In Rome. 41 Marratt, F. P.. elected member, 198; exhfb. asp of Egypt, 20(} ; moeses new to flora of Liverpool. 204; on skins of boa constrictors 19! Marsh. J. F., invitation to visit Warriigton, 116 : vote of thanks to, and to the Cumraittee at Warrington. 125 Mary of Burgundy, prayer book oi; noticed, 71 Massman. Professor, quoted. 65 Material. choice of, for building. 15 Mayer, Mr. J. . vote of thanks to, 50 Medea, conquerors, 96 xxvm. Medlco-Laurentian Library founded at Florence, 78 Medulla of the hair, 89 Meetiug extraordinary called, 137, 143, 203, 205 Meeting suspended, 173 Members elected : — Corresponding — W. Reynolds M.D.,57; T, Spencer, 57 Members elected :— Ordinary— R. W. Anderson, 20; J, Avi8on,.V); Edward Banner, 20; William Bean, 20; J. Brewer. 143; H. J. Cauty, 198; John L.Clare, 28; Dr. Cohen, 204 ; James Dowie, 28; W. Ferguson. 151; Rev. A. Fishel, 143; Edward Htbson, 4: Alfred Holt, 83 ; George Hunt, 20; M.C.Jones, 198; \V. La88ell,jun,14:<; N. McLeod 115; F. P. Marrat. 19.H; Rev. J. W. Milner, 205; James Newlands, 4:»; J. C. Radish ; 20; J. Rowe, 204; J. T. Towson, 28; R. G. "Williams, 115 Members, list of, Session 42, App. xix. Menai Straits bridge, 18 Metayer system of France, 32 Meteorological results, 1851-^52, App. v. Merops apiaster, 174 Mexico, tenure of land, 30 Military tactics, books on , 69 Milner, Rev. J. W. elected member, 205 Miniature paintings in old manuscripts, 68 Mineral elements, 116 Minister Plenipotentiary to the Republic of France from the United States, instructions, 43 Missal, Salisbury, exhib. 127 Moguls' tenure of land, 29 Mole, hair of, 90, 93 Moon, mountains of, 5 Monroe, Colonel J., letter of instructions from E. Randolph. 43 Montfaucon quoted, 65, 67; on Greek MSS., 69 Moses, law of, how ftrst written, 60 Moss, Rev. J. J., on explosion at Furnace, 155; exhib. watches, 155 r.Ioiise, hair of, 87, 90 Mythological conception of Janus, 143 Natica monilifera, 115 Natural history, manuscripts on, 69 Nautical terms, history of, 204 Necker, autograph of, 206 New Brighton, villa at, 15 Newlands, James, elected, 43 Ninevehan art, 52 Nisbet, W. exhib. fruits of Pekea guianensis, 132; cocoa nut, 132; portraits of Roscoe, 198; seeds of coracco nuts, 43 Norway, manuscripts of, 60 Nuts, coracco, exhibited, 43 O. Observatory, meteorological results taken at Liver- pool, 1851-52, App. V. Organic power, IIG Organizes and animates, on the power that, 115 Ornament, architectural, 19 Ornithorynchus, hair of, 87, 89, 94, 96 Orthotrichum pumillum, exhib. 204 Osier's anemometer, results of, 1851-52, App. v. Osmund, Bishop of Salisbury, 76 Ovid's Metamorphosis quoted, 64 P. Painting as a fine art, 50 ; miniature, in old manu- scripts, 68 Paleography, meaning of, 78 Paper, linen, discovery of, 06 ; cotton, first used, 65, 81 ; cotton, restricted in its use, 65 Papilio eurymedia, exhib. 126 Papyrus, books written, 61 ; prohibited to be ex- ported from Egypt, 62 Parchment, invented by Eumenes II, 62 ; used 81, Parhelia, ol)served in Liverpool, 191 Paris Matthew, mentioned, 76 Parliament, Houses of, 14 Patrons, Roman, 39 Patricians, 37 Peccari, hair of, 87, 91, 92, 96 Pediculus pubis, 107 Peirce, General, Daguerreotype of, 152 Pekea guianensis, exhib. 132 Pendulum expeiiment, 3, 8 Pens for writing, first mentioned, 68 Pentaptycha, 64 Persia, conquerors of, 28; tenure of land in, 29 Peru, tenure of land, 30 Petrarca mentioned, 78 Pha-scumalteniifoliuni and Floerkianum,exliib. 204 Phojuicians, conquerors, 28 Phillips, Professor, letters from, 208 Philology, Rev. A. Ramsay on, 174 Photogi-aphic pictures , exhib. 205 Picton, J. A., elected on Council, 3 Pig's hau-, 91 Plates, explanation of, 219 Plebeians, 37 Pluviometer, results of, 1851-52, App. v. Poetry, Mr. Behrend on the metres of Hebrew, lOH ; its relation to art, 50 Poggio mentioned, 78 Poland, tenure of land, 31 Polypodium alpestre, exhib. 166 Polytechnic Society, invitation from, 173 ; invita- tion to, 152 ; letter from, 154 Popular literature, 22 Populus Romanus, 37 Porcupine, spine of, 91, 92 Porsena subdued Rome, 34 Portrait of Mr. Yates presented, 57; Committee, vote of thanks to, 59 Power that organizes and animates, 115 Prayers of monkish scribes, 76 Prayer book of Mary of Burgundy, noticed, 71 ; of Francis I. of France, noticed, 71 President elected, 131 Presidents and Secretaries of learned societies in- vited to attend meetings, 137 Printed books, first, 68 Printing invented, 78 Proceedings, expenses of No. v. and vi. compared, 2; proposed discontinuance of publication of, 203, 20."> Quill of hedgehog, 91 ; of porcupine, 91, 92 Rabbit, hair of, 89, 94 Racoon, hair of, 87 Ramsay, Rev. A., on comparative philology, 174 Randolph, E., letter to Colonel Moiux)e, 43 Rape of Sabines, 157 Rat, hair of, 90 Rathbone, T. W., letter from, 83 Records, national, unprotected state of, 82 Redish, J. C, elected, 20 Report, session xli, 1 ; session xlii, 129 Rete mucosum, 96, 99 Reynold.s, Sii- Jo.shua, quoted, 11 Reynolds, Dr. VV., elected, 57 Rheno-Danubian wall, VyH Rhinoceros, horn of, 92, 99 Richelieu, Cardinal, autograph of, 206 Ring worm, 107 Roman history, trustworthiness of, 156 Roman, tenure of land, 28; conquerors, 28 ; ai-t, 51,52 Roman roads in England, unpublished map ex- hibited, 126 Rome, architecture of, 10; cupola of St. Peter's, n ; palaces of, 15 Roscoe, centenary celebration, LH, 173; portraits of, exhib. 198 Rowe, James, elected member, 204 Rubrics, ancient, (i7 Rubus calvatus, R. Lindleranus, muci-onatus, and nitidus, 126 Rumford quoted, 93 Ru.skin, Mr., Stones of Venice, quoted, 16 Russia, tenure of land, 31 Ryot tenancy, 31 XXIX. Sabine king of Rome, Tatius, 33 Sabines, rape of, 157 8. Chad's, Shrewsbury, window, 17 S. Edmund, Life of, by John Lydgate, 09 S. Paul's Cathedral, 17 ; cupola, 17 S. Peter's at Rome, cui)ola, 17 Salisbury Missal exhib. 127 Sansom,T., elected on Council, 3; elected Secretary, 131 ; exhib aspleuium mariiium, 199 ; exhibition of ferns, KJfi ; exhib. rubi, 126 Satellites of Uranus, 20 Saturn, Mr. Hartnup on Bond's ring of, 7 Saxe Coburg Gotha, Duchess of, watch»'s, IV. Scald-head,! 07 Scales of insects, 85 Schaw, Lieut, on pendulum, 8 Schizea pusilla exhib. 166 Scribes, monkish, 76 Scrinarius, statue of, 61 Sorinium, 61 Scriptorium, arrangements of, 75 Sculpture as a fine art, 60, 54 Sea beach at tlie Dingle, 152 Seal, harp, hair of, 87 Secretaries, Presidents and, of learned societies invited to attend meetings, 137 Sepulchral inscriptions at Ince Blundell, i:34 Serfs of Rus.sia, &c., 31 Session xli, 1851-2, 1 ; xlii, ia'i2-3, 129 Sheep's hair, 92 Shepherd, Mr. C, electric clock, 132 Sherer quoted, 95 Ship'i Tea, Mr. H. S. Evans on, 119; analyci* of paint used by Chinese, 122; lie-teas, natur* of. \jn painted for English market, 120 Telescope, Mr. Williams's, 4 Tempemore of wool, Jcc, 93 Temples, Christian, arobitectare of, 11 Tenure of land amongst the Romans, 2H Thomson. Dr. D. P., elected Hon. See., 3 ; letter t« Mr. Yates, presenting his portrait, 58 ; on pen dulum experiment, 8 ; Tote of thanks to, 3,50 13! Thomely, Thos., M. P., vote of thanks to, 82 * Tide-gui^, committee appointed to memorialize the Town Council on tlie subject of, 185 Tiger moth, caterpillar of, hair, 84 Time-balls, See., J. Hartnup on. 132 Towson, J.T.. elected. 28; on the compass, 1 9-J 205 ; on explosions, 155 ; on self-registering tide- guage, 125 ; vote of thanks to, 3 Treasurer's accounts, Sept 40—41, App. xv. Trinity CoUege, Dublin, M88. in Library, 72 Triptycha, 64 Trollhatten, eclipse seen at, 4 Turkish fanaticism, 36 Tumbull, J., M.D., elected on council, 131 ; oi. consumption, 209 U. Uncial letters, 81 United States, instructions to Minister to thi Republic of France, 43 ; tenure of land, 30 Urauus, satellites of, 20 Van Laer quoted, 95 ; Vatican, library at founded, 78 I V^etable hairs, 84 j Venetian house at Hull, 15 compass, deviation of, 192 Shrew, hair of, 87, 90, 98 Shrewsbury, window at St Chad's, 17 , _, . . . . „„..„. Shrimp, hair of, 84 ) "emce, miposition at St. Mark s, 81 Silvestro,moiik of Camaldoli, embellished MSS.. 70 i „.^!*°****'*® , . , Skin, general characters of, 83 Visitors to be admitted at Sloth, hair of, 94 mg, 143 Smith, J. P. G., elected on CouncU,3, 131 ; on Vifaiivius quoted, 17 earthquake. 137; on foot of a cimbex, 206 ; ex- i ^'''^ Ti^^^f ^."\,„ , ,„ hib. gold from Australia, 131 ; exhib. unpublished ^^S^^' "r. lates s MS. of, 70 map of Roman roads in England, 126; lepidop- I w. of. terous insects, 126 Snake, skin of, 191 Societies hol Standards of taste, 109 Stanistreet in Sweden, 4 " Statesmen" of Cumberland, 41 Stephen.son, bridge for Menai Straits, 18 Stevenson, W., on storms, 209 Stone, manuscripts, 60 Storms, on their general character, 209 ; of 1852, App. vii. Subscription, proposed increa.se of, 203, 205 Sun, eclipse of, 4 ; parhelia, 191 Sweden, eclipse of sun in, 4 Swift, Dean, quoted. 70 Symond, H. E.,on fall of an aerolite, 207 Sympathetic clocks, &c., J. Hartnup on, 132 Table, Etruscan, 19 Tablets found at Abrudbanya, 64 Tar<[uin the younger, 38 Tarquinii kinss of Rome were Etruscans, 35 Tarantula, hair of, 87 Taste, standards of, 109 Waagen quoted, 71 Wall, Rheno-Danubiaii, LW Warrington, invitation to Members to \isit, 116; Messrs. Anderson and Bloxam, details of Society °s visit to, 125 ; vote of thanks to Mr. Marsh and the Committee at. 125 War, Janus, god of, 151 Watches of Duchess Saxe Coburg Gotha, 155 Waxen tablets, 64 Weissia lanceolata exhib. 2041 Westcott, Philip, portrait of Mr. Yates, 67 Westwood's Paleographia Sacra noticed, 73 Whale, hair of, 91 Whiskers, curious state of, 89 ; of the cat, JOO Williams, George, solar eclipse, 4 Williams, R. G., elected, 115 Wind, gales of, in 1852, App. vii. Window, St. Chad's, Shrewsbury, 17 Worship of Janus, 143 Wordsworth, William, on arehitecture, 16 Wren quoted, 14, 17 Writing, ancient implements used in, 66 Y. Yates, Mr. J as., on the Rheno-Danubian barrier, 162 Yates, J. B., President, 3; elected V. P., 131 ; on ancient manuscripts, 50 ; exhib. Salisbury Missal. 127; exhib. autographs, 806; exhib. andent M8S.,82; MS. of Vulgate, 70; Oi«ek iiiMrip- tions at Inoe, 134 ; reply to the Members on the Presentation of his portrait, 68 ; portrait ^, to be unir in committee room, 83 ; vote of thanks to.Mt Yates, R. V., on a sea beach at the Dingle, 168 Z. Zemindars of Bengal,31 HENRY OREBNWOOD, PRINTKB. 16, CAMNIXO PLACB, UTSRPOOL. ERRATA. Page 43, line 5, /or Nisbett reorf Nisbet. » G4:, instead of last line insert] ^ r \-\ n \ ^^■u o or. ( + Instit. Orat. lib. x. cap. 3, 30. 116, line 19, for T. F. Marsh read J. F. Marsh. hop read leaf. brass read loss. Canton read Assam. Calcedon read Chalcedon. beech read beach. Session xxxix. read Ix. » Ix. read Ixi. „ 119, „ 16, ^, 122, „ 34, „ 124, „ 28, „ 126, .. 6, ., 152, „ 26, ipp endix, page xv., „ « xvi., ccorr ex ( C( c c CO c< C CC5 C C - ( C ' CC c € <:c«- C' C' ^ C C < ■ V '. 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