PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTER.

YOL. X.

Session 1870—71.

MANCHESTER :

PRINTED BY THOS. SOWI.ER AND SONS, RED LION STREET, ST. ANN’S SQUARE.
LONDON : H. BAILI.IERE, 219, REGENT STREET.

1871.

/

NOTE.

The object which the Society have in view in publishing their Proceed-
ings is to give an immediate and succinct account of the scientific and
other business transacted at their meetings, to the members and the
general public. The various communications are supplied by the authors
themselves, who are alone responsible for the facts and reasonings con-
tained therein.

INDEX.

Bailey Charles, Hon. Lib. — The Hawthorns of the Manchester Flora, p. 35.
On Carex flava L., and its Allies, of the Manchester Flora, p. 101.
On Seedling Sycamores haying abnormal cotyledons, p. 205. On
Mr. Charles Stodder’s experiments on the Microscopical contents of
the atmosphere of Boston, U.S., p. 207.

Baxendell J., F.R.A.S., Hon. Sec. — Observations of the Aurora of October
25, 1870, p. 17. Observation of the Eclipse of the Sun, December,
1870, p. 66. Remarks on Mr. Spence’s Experiments on the Effects
of Cold on the Strength of Cast Iron, p. 124. On a Diurnal Inequa-
lity in the Direction and Telocity of the Wind, apparently connected
with the daily Changes of Magnetic Declination, p. 194.

Binney E. W., E.R.S., F.G.S., President. — On two Singular Accumulations
of Boulder Stones on the Sea Beach at Seascales and Drigg, p. 30.
On the Larva of Tipula oleracea, p. 55. Notes on some of the High
Level Drifts in the Counties of Chester, Derby, and Lancaster, p. 66.
On the Postal System and Cotton Trade a Century since, extracted
from a memorandum book of Mr. George Walker, one of the original
members of the Society, pp. 75, 141, 159. Notes on Drift of the
Eastern Parts of the Counties of Chester and Lancaster, p. 179-

Brockbank William, F.G-.S. — Notes on Glacier Moraines in Cumberland
and Westmorland, p. 19. Notes on the Effects of Cold upon the
Strength of Iron, p. 77.

Brothers Alfred, F.R.A.S. — On the English Eclipse Expedition to Sicily
in December, 1870, p. 187.

Calvert Professor F. Craoe, F.R.S. — Experiments on the Oxidation of Iron,
p. 98.

Cockle Chief Justice Sir James, M.A., F.R.S. — On Convertent Functions,

p. 1.

Dancer J. B., F.R.A.S. — Observation of the Eclipse of the Sun, December
22nd, 1870, p. 65.

Dawkins W. Boyd, F.R.S. — Account of Work done in the Victoria Cave,
near Settle, p. 5. Account of an Examination of Offa’s Dyke, p. 7.
On a Method of taking Casts of Objects of Natural History, p. 17.
On Fossilization, p. 115. On Human Bones obtained from a cave
near Llangollen, and from a chambered tomb at Cefn, near St. Asaph,
p. 164.

VI

Fairbairn Sir WlLLi AM, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.— On the Properties of Iron
and Steel as applied to the Rolling Stock of Railways, p. 86.

Fellows Jambs. — Observation of the Occultation of Saturn, September 30,
1870, p. 28.

Gerland B. Wilhelm, Ph.D. — The Action of Sulphurous Acid on Phos-
phates, p. 129.

Highton Rev. H., M.A. — On the Mechanical Equivalence of Heat, p. 147.
Performance of the Electro -Magnetic Engine, p. 188.

Hopkinson John, B.A., D.Sc. — The Overthrow of the Soience of Electro-
Dynamics, p. 121. On Mr. Highton’s Objections to the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat, p. 150.

Hunt George E. — Notes on the Botany of Mere, Cheshire, p. 50. Notes on
Polygonum minus and its allies, p. 165.

Jekyll W. R. — On the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Diallyl, p. 9.

Johnson W. B., C.E. — On Improvements in Machines for Cutting and
Paring Heavy Articles of Machinery, p. 29. Some Observations upon
Railway Accidents, and Suggestions for preventing their frequent
occurrence, p. 56.

Johnson William H. — On the Effect of Cold on the Strength of Iron,
p. 97.

Joule J. P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P. — On the Changes in the Magnetic
Dip during the progress of the Aurora, October 25, 1870, p. 15. On
the Alleged Action of Cold in rendering Iron and Steel brittle, p. 91.
Further Observations on the Strength of Garden Nails, pp. 127, 131.
On Photographs of the Sun taken in November and December, 1868,
p. 132. Examples of the Performance of the Electro-Magnetic Engine,
p. 152. On a remarkable Atmospheric Phenomenon seen on the
evening of April 7th, 1871, p. 186. On Mr. Highton’s Remarks on
the Performance of the Electro -Magnetic Engine, p. 193.

Lockyer N., F.R.S. — Account of his recent Spectroscopic Investigations of
the Solar Atmosphere, p. 7.

Mackereth Thomas, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. — Results of Rain-Gauge Observa-
tions made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1870, p. 202.

Morris Walter. — On the Adulteration of Food, p. 209.

Plant John, F.G.S. — On some Logs of Oak found in the Irwell Valley
Gravels, p. 169.

Reynolds Professor O., M.A. — Tho Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona, and
the Aurora considered as Electric Phenomena, p. 39. Part II., p. 107.

RtrSPINl F. O. — Contributions towards a knowledge of Anthophila (Hymen-
optera Aculeata) in the Mersey Province, p. 59.

Schunok Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P. — On Anthrnflavic Acid, a Yellow
Colouring Matter accompanying Artificial Alizarine, p. 133.

Vll

Sidebotham Joseph, F.R.A.S. — On the Variations of Abraxas G-rossulariata,
p. 25. On Carex flava, p. 104. On the Cultivation of Madder in
Derbyshire, p. 118. On the Microscopical Examination of Dust
blown into a Railway Carriage near Birmingham, p. 205.

Simpson Henry, M.D — Observations on the Bilharzia hsematobia (Cobbold),
Distomum hcematobium (Bilharz), p. 212.

Smith H. A. — Arsenic in Pyrites and Various Products, p. 162.

Smith Watson, F.C.S. — On Isodinaplithyl, p. 47.

Spence Peter, F.C.S. — On the Effect of Cold on the Strength of Iron, p. 94.
Further Experiments on the Effects of Cold upon Cast Iron, p. 110.

Stewart Professor Baieottr, F.R.S. — On Sun-spot Curves, p. 7. On the
Temperature Equilibrium of an Enclosure containing a Body in
Visible Motion, p. 32.

Vernon G-. V., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. — On a Meteor observed August 15th, 1870,
p. 27. On the Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester, during the year
1870, p. 197. On the Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester, and
Comparison with the Average of Twenty Years and Seventy-seven
Years, p. 199.

Wiekinson T. T., F.R.A.S. — On the Aurora Borealis of October 25th, 1870,
p. 15. On the Drift Deposits near Burnley, p. 76.

Williamson Professor W. C., F.R.S. — On the Organisation of an Unde-
scribed Verticillate Strobilus from the Lower Coal Measures of Lanca-
shire, p. 105. On the Structure of some Specimens of Stigmaria,

p. 116.

Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section. — Annual, p. 188. Ordi-
nary, pp. 27, 187.

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section. — Annual, p, 212.
Ordinary, pp. 25, 35, 101, 114, 165, 205.

Report of the Council. — April 18th, 1871, p. 171.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 4th, 1870.

Rev. Wm. Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

“On Convertent Functions,” by Sir James Cockle, F.R.S.,
Corresponding Member of the Society.

It was only after some rather intricate and laborious cal-
culations that the possibility, which ought to have presented
itself to my mind earlier, of illusory results stealing in and
interrupting the processes, occurred to me. And even then
I did not at first realize the full extent of such results, or
sufficiently explain and illustrate the means which I sug-
gested for escaping them. Perhaps those means may be in
some measure inapplicable or impracticable, and the impor-
tance and interest which, as I conceive, attach to the subject
induce me to enter upon it more elaborately. To do it full
justice would require opportunities that I camiot promise
myself at present, but I propose, in this necessarily short
paper, to show how to obtain convertent functions in certain
marked cases. The results here indicated seem to show (1)
a correlation between the theory of coresolvents and that of
convertent functions, (2) the possibility of arriving at an
organized theory of conjugate definite integrals, and (3) the
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Society. — Yox. X. — No. 1— Session 1870-71.

2

possibility of expressing the Boolian integrals by indefinite
integrals. Availing ourselves of a word suggested by Mr.
De Morgan, let us call a rational and entire function of v.
wherein the coefficients may be any functions whatever of
another variable x, a “ quotic.” Also let us call a rational
fraction, whereof the denominator is the m-tli power of an
irreducible quotic of the the ?i-th degree, and the numerator
a quotic of a degree not exceeding mn — 1, a proper fraction
of the ?i-th class. Then the integral, with respect to v, of a
proper fraction of the u-tli class in general satisfies a linear
differential equation of the (n — i)th order, wherein the in-
dependent variable is x. But there is an advantageous
modification of this theorem. Let 6 be a quotic of the %-th
degree, and 3 a quotic of the (2 n — l)th degree, and, con-
forming to the notation of my last preceding paper ( Supra
vol. IX., pp. 8G, 87), intituled in the same way as the present
supplement to it, let us put

g, (10)

Also, in (5) of the preceding paper, let us take the summa-
tion on the sinister from a=0 to a=2n — 2 and that on the

dexter from 6 = 0 to b=2n (2n — 2) — 1 and, further, let us
put

f -

Jb (i + eyn- 2

(li).

Moreover let us add a term h, defined by the relation
h = ~ { Hx log (1 + 62) + Ho tan -10 j . . (12),

wherein the symbols H, like F and G in (5) and (6), are
functions of x only. Then (5) will, after these substitutions
are made, be the convertent equation of (10), but it will be
observed that in the present paper h is so constructed as to
be integrable by means of logarithmic and trigonometrical
functions, while in the preceding paper it was supposed to
be unintegrable, save by series. Thus 2n — 2 will be the

3

order of the convertent equation, and the possibility of the
reduction of order depends upon the circumstance that

1 dd
(1 + 02)m dv

is always integrable in terms of algebraical and trigonome-
trical functions. When m, which here represents 2n — 1, is
greater than unity, the case of m may be made to depend
upon that of m — 1, and so on.

Again, since

:= e +

Ki

l + e2 " ' \ + id + \- id ' '
where i is an unreal square root of unity we see that the
conversion of the integral of (10) may be made to depend
upon that of the integrals of two other proper fractions,
whereof the denominators are of the n- th degree only.
For 0 is supposed to be rational, and consequently imme-
diately integrable. It seems therefore that in many cases,
and perhaps universally, the conversion of the integral of a
proper fraction may be made to depend upon the solution
of a linear differential equation of the first order. For if
one and only one particular integral of a certain linear dif-
ferential equation is a linear function of one and only one
particular integral of a second linear differential equation,
and also of one and only one particular integral of a third
linear differential equation, then each of the three particular
integrals may be assigned by means of a linear differential
equation of the first order. This is shown as follows.
From the first equation eliminate its dependent variable by
means of the given linear relation, and call the result the
fourth equation. Then eliminate the dependent variable
between the second and fourth equations, and the result will
be a linear differential equation which will in general have
one, and only one, particular integral in common with the
third equation. Hence this one integral can be found by
means of a linear differential equation of the first order.

(13)

4

(See Boole, Diff. Eq., 2nd ed., pp. 206-7). In like manner,
by eliminating a dependent variable between the third and
fourth equations, we shall obtain a result which, combined
with the second equation, will give us a linear differential
equation of the first order for determining the particular
integral of the second equation. Use the particular inte-
grals thus obtained in the formation of an integral of the
first equation, and substitute the result therein, giving
where necessary proper values to the arbitrary constants.
Thus an integral of each of the three equations will be found ;
in the case of the Boolian integrals, the process admits of a
simpler application, which is not however in all cases so
simple as in that of the cubic. I shall illustrate this
application.

Consider the Boolian cubic in y. Transform it into an-
other cubic in 0, wherein z=ym — 1, m being within Boole’s
limits, and having no relation to the m hereinbefore men-
tioned. Then the differential resolvent of the cubic in 0 is
a linear biordinal which may be written thus : —

d2z dz

d? + L'Tx

+ z.

*« = Z • .

(14),

and Boole has shown that one of the three values of 0 satis-
fies an equation of the form

2 -/(“ - P)dv>

the integration being within the limits zero and infinity
and a and /3 being, each of them, proper fractions of the
third class. But the integrals of such fractions satisfy
linear differential equations of the second order. Hence,
putting

J'adv = a, Jfidv — b,

we may write

d2a da

*+Al& + A*a = x(“> = A ■ • • <15>

<p&

dx"

B,^r + B Jj = Mb) = B

(16)

5

Now every value of 0 satisfies (14). Hence

<p(a - b) = <p(a) - (p(Jj) = Z .... (17)

Consequently, combining (15), (1G) and (17), we have
cj>(a) - </>(&) - x(a) + if/(b)

'dx ldx

= (Z, - A')t! - (Z,

+ (Z2 - A2)a - (Z2 - B2)6

= Z + A + B (18)

But the linear differential equation (18) can be integrated
in the form

a + Xj6 = X2 (19)

where Xx and X2 are functions of x. By means of (19),
a and b may respectively be eliminated from (15) and (16),
giving results which may be represented by (20) and (21)
respectively. Then (20) and (16) will have a common
integral which will give an available value of b, and a like
value of a can be deduced by combining (21) and (15).
And, a and b being so determined, we have next to substi-
tute the resulting a — b for 0 in (14) if any constant remains
arbitrary. If not, the required integral is obtained as soon
as a and b are known.

I would add that, in certain cases, some of our expressions
may become infinite at the limits, but this circumstance
will not necessarily render the results illusory or inappli-
cable. In dealing with the Boolian integral for quadratics
by the method of conversion I ascertained, and communi-
cated the calculations and results to Mr. Harley some time
ago, that infinite values occur in the conversion but do not
affect the final results.

Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,
August 5th, 1870.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.RS., gave a short account of the
work done in the Victoria Cave, near Settle, since the last
notice brought before the Society. The two layers contain-

6

ing traces of man, which were separated at the entrance by
a talus of fallen stones, seven feet thick, that gradually
coalesced as the excavation passed into the cave, and at last
became so confused together as not to be easily distinguished
at a few feet from the entrance. The remains of a gigantic
bear which had been eaten, probably may be assigned to the
lower horizon, which furnished flint flakes, and a bone har-
poon in form resembling that used by the natives of Nootka
Sound ; the upper or Romano-Celtic stratum, continued to
supply evidence of the comparatively late date of its accu-
mulation in barbarous imitations of coins of Tetricus (A.D.
267-273.) A portion of the ivory handle of a Roman sword
and a coin of Trajan have also been found, along with large
quantities of the bones of animals that had been used as
food. Several spurs of cocks proved that the inhabitants
ate the domestic fowl, which was probably imported into
this country either directly or indirectly by the Romans.
The most striking object however is a beautiful sigmoid
fibula made of bronze, end ornamented with a beautiful
pattern in red, yellow, green, and blue enamel. It is an ad-
mirable example of the art of enamelling (“ Britannicum
opus ” ?) which the Celtic inhabitants of Britain probably
taught their Roman conquerors.

7

Ordinary Meeting, October 18th, 1870.

E. VV. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Professor Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., exhibited a series of
sun-spot curves projected from results obtained by himself
and Mr. De la Rue, from observations of Schwabe, Carring-
ton, and the Kew series of photographs of the sun. These
extend over a term of about 40 years, and exhibit a principal
and secondary maximum and minimum in each solar spot
period of 1 1 years, thus corresponding with the light curves of
R Sagittae observed by Mr. Baxendell, and j3 Lyras by Prof.
Argelander. Mence it may possibly be that notwithstanding
the darkening of the sun’s surface during the maximum
spot period, the total light and heat emitted by -the sun at
this period is really greater than at the times of minimum
spot frequency.

Mr. Lockyer, F.R.S., gave an account of his recent spec-
troscopic investigations of the solar atmosphere, and pointed
out that the conclusions arrived at by De la Rue, Stewart,
and Loewy confirmed the views to which he himself had
been led by spectroscopic observations of the sun during
the last tvTo or three years. These tended to show that the
absorbing atmosphere, termed the chromosphere, which he
had proved to exist round the sun’s body, had gradually
diminished in thickness since the last solar spot minimum
in 1867.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., gave a short account of the
examination of Offa’s Dyke made in the autumn by Col.
Lane Fox and himself. The portion examined extended
from Cherbury in the south to the abrupt range of limestone
hills to the north of Llanamynech. At Nantcribba Hall,

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol. X. — No. 2. — Session 1870-71.

i

8

near Forden, the dyke passes nearly due north between the
road to Montgomery and the abrupt boss of volcanic trap
which looks at a short distance like a ruined castle, and
which has been encircled by a very broad and deep moat.
There can be no doubt but that this was a point of observa-
tion, and as it is but some 20 yards on the English side
of the dyke, it was most probably one of the positions
permanently occupied by the English followers of the
Mercian king. From this point the dyke gradually swerves
to the east from the road between Montgomery and
Buttington and makes directly over the low slopes of the
hills, in some places being nearly ploughed down, and in
others, and especially in the small valleys, being of con-
siderable height and resembling a railway embankment,
until it reaches the higher ground of Fron. Thence it runs
through Pentre and gradually approaches the road, and
finally dies away in the alluvium of the Severn, nearly a
quarter of a mile to the south of Buttington Church. The
commanding camp to the south of this portion of the line is
Caer Digol, or the Beacon Ring, on the top of the Long
Mountain. The morass, which in Offa’s time must have
extended between the Main Ditch and the Severn, prevented
the necessity of any bank being made between Buttington
and the Cefn. Where, however, the open country demands
a defence to the north of Cefn, an embankment makes
sti'aight for the greenstone ridge of the Garreg, and is very
plainly seen close to the farm-house of that name, near the
Trewern Gate. Here we lost our clue, and it is very likely
that the steep ridges of Moel y Golfa, and the marvellously
strong camps of the Breiddan and Middleton Hills, formed
a sufficiently strong barrier without any dyke being raised.
We picked it up again, however, on the western or Welsh
side of the Severn, from which it runs, as shown in the
ordnance map, due north to the Four Crosses, where it joins
the Oswestry road, and where it is cut across by the new

9

railway. Thence it makes straight for the fortified hill of
Llanamynech, its line coinciding with the high road. On
reaching the summit of Llanamynech it takes the western
or Welsh side of the two large camps, and passes down into
the valley to the south of Whitehaven, which was the limit
of our expedition. The results of our examination are
the direct proof that the dyke was made for military
purposes and that it took the line which was best adapted
for repelling the incursions of the Welsh. Throughout the
district which was examined the embankment faces Wales,
and was therefore made to defend the country within it
from the Welsh. Dr. Wright’s view, therefore, that it was
a mere geographical boundary to prevent the Welsh from
stealing the cattle of the Mercians cannot be maintained,
although it may perhaps receive some confirmation from
the nursery-legend of Taffy. The camps in the neighbour-
hood of the dyke are probably older than Ofia’s time. The
bronze spears found in Llanamynech imply that the camp is
not later than the Bronze Age, while the Roman coins in
that of the Breiddan point to its occupation by the Romans.

“ On the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Diallyl,” by
William Robert Jekyll, Dalton Chemical Scholar in
Owens College. Communicated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

Diallyl was first prepared by Berthelot and Luca in 1856.
They found that it dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid
with the evolution of much heat, and that after some hours
an oil separates, which appears to be modified hydrocarbon.

In 1866 Schorlemmer published a paper on a new series
of hydi’ocarbons derived from coal tar, having the formula
(C„H2n_„)2 (Proc. Roy. Soc. xv. 132). He there says, “ As
these hydrocarbons were obtained by the action ol sulphuric
acid on coal tar oils boiling below 120° and as they differ by
C2H4, it appears to me almost certain that they are polymers
of the hydrocarbons of the acetylene series formed

10

in the same way as diamylene is formed by treating amy-
lene with sulphuric acid. In order to test this theory I
have made some experiments with the two isomers C6H10,
viz., diallyl and liexoylene. By acting with sulphuric acid on
these compounds, I obtained, besides large quantities of
tarry matter, polymeric modifications boiling above 200°,
having a smell similar to the hydrocarbons described above,
giving also similar nitro-compounds ; but the quantities
which I got were not large enough for a more exact exami-
nation.” With a view to throwing light upon this point,
at the request of Mr. Schorlemmer I undertook to investi-
gate the action of sulphuric acid on diallyl. The diallyl
used was obtained by the action of sodium upon allyl iodide
and boiled at 59°. Since concentrated sulphuric acid acts
with great violence upon diallyl, the latter was diluted with
about an equal bulk of pure paraffins boiling at from 55° to
60°. To this mixture sulphuric acid was gradually added
in small quantities, the bottle being frequently shaken. At
the end of the reaction the contents of the bottle were found
to be arranged in two layers, of which the upper one con-
sisted of unaltered paraffins, and the whole of the diallyl
having been taken up by the acid. The heavier and acid
portion was diluted with water, when a dark coloured oil
lighter than water separated out, and the whole was dis-
tilled from a large flask. The distillate consisted of a light
oil, which came over below 100°, mixed with a little water.
After a second solution in sulphuric acid and a repetition of
the foregoing processes, in order to remove all traces of the
paraffins, the oil was dried over calcium chloride and heated
for some hours over potassium. The oil was thus obtained
pure and boiled constantly at 93°. Analysis showed that
its composition is expressed by the formula C6H120.

This substance is readily soluble in concentrated sulphuric
and fuming hydriodic acids, and slightly so in water. It is
unacted upon by either caustic potash or potassium, and

11

possesses a strong ethereal odour like that of peppermint.
In presence of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, it
yields a blue colour, similar to that produced by perchromic
acid and common ether.

This compound has already been obtained by Wurtz
(Ann. Chim. Phys. (4) III. 174), by treating di-iodhydrate of
diallyl with silver oxide. He calls it diallyl monohydrate,
but says further on that this body comports itself as an
oxide or anhydride (ether), corresponding to dihydrate of

diallyl

C„H12

h2

standing to the latter in the same relation

as hexylene oxide to hexylene glycol, and might be called
therefore hexylene-pseudoxide. As I have shown that the
body is not acted upon by potassium, this view of Wurtz’s
is correct — it cannot be a hydrate, and I therefore propose
to adopt Wurtz’s second name, and to call it pseudoxide of
hexylene.

To throw some light on its constitution it was oxidized
by heating it in sealed tubes with a solution of potassium
bichromate and sulphuric acid. On opening the tubes car-
bonic acid was evolved. Their contents were distilled, and
the distillate neutralized with sodium carbonate. The neu-
tral sodium salt was heated in a retort with sulphuric acid,
by which means a distillate was obtained, which furnished
a silver salt. The following analysis shows the salt to
be silver acetate.

Found. Calculated for silver acetate.

G4'41 °/o silver. 64-67 °/Q silver.

The mother liquor likewise furnished silver acetate.

Repeated experiments showed that nascent hydrogen
evolved from sodium amalgam is without action upon
hexylene pseudoxide.

Hydriodic acid acts upon the pseudoxide even in the cold.
A few grams of the substance were heated at 100° with an
excess of fuming hydriodic acid in sealed tubes for about

12

four hours. A red heavy liquid formed at the bottom of
the tubes, the contents of which were distilled from a retort
in presence of a little phosphorus. The iodide in the dis-
tillate was separated from the water, dried over calcium
chloride, and distilled under a partial vacuum. On distil-
lation, much decomposition ensued, with the formation of
hydriodic acid, a little free iodine, and with the separation
of tarry matter. After a second distillation in vacuo, and
drying over caustic potash, a liquid was obtained, boiling
under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, at 165° to
167°, which is the boiling point of the /3 hexylic iodide of
Wanklyn, (Chem. Soc. Journal, 21.)

Several iodine determinations, made by means of an al-
coholic solution of nitrate of silver, further shows the sub-
stance to be hexyl iodide.

Found. Calculated for C6H13I.

(1) (2)

59-43 59-G8 % iodine. 59-90 % iodine.

In order to convert hexyl iodide derived from hexylene
pseudoxide into hexyl hydride Schorlemmer’s method was
employed. The oil obtained by this means contained but
little olefines, and after purifi cation boiled constantly at
68° to 69’. The following results of analysis show that it
consisted of hexyl hydride.

Found

(a) (b)

C 83-49 83-35

H 16-30 16-42

Calculated for

c«h14

83-72

16-28

99-79 99-77 100-00

A portion of this hexyl iodide was oxidised by heating it
in a flask attached to an upward condenser with a solution
of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid. During the
operation much carbonic acid was liberated. The condensed
acid was rendered neutral by sodium carbonate. From the

13

sodium salt thus formed the acid was fractionated from a
retort by adding successively five drops of sulphuric acid.
From the first four distillates silver salts were obtained
which furnished the following results on analysis.

Found. Calculated for silver acetate.

(1) 59-36 per cent, silver. 64-67 per cent, silver.

(2) 66-63 „ „ „ „ „

(3) 64-13 „ „ „ ,, „

(4) 64-66 „ „ „ „ „

The non-agreement of No. 1 with the calculated results was
owing to the fact that the salt was very impure and un-
crystalline, nor could I succeed in purifying it by recrystal-
lization. From distillates No. 2 and 4 similar results were
obtained from salts, which crystallized from the mother
liquors. A second series of experiments, in which a weaker
oxidizing solution was employed, also yielded carbonic and
acetic acids as the products of oxidation. It is of interest
that the hexyl iodide, which was obtained from hexylene
pseudoxide, and the boiling point of which resembled that
of Wanklyn’s |3 liexylic iodide, yielded carbonic and acetic
acids as oxidation products, while the (3 iodide yields on the
other hand butyric acid in addition.

The diluted sulphuric acid, which had been used for
acting upon diallyl, was neutralized with barium carbonate,
filtered and evaporated to dryness, but no organic sulplio-
acid had been formed.

Polymers of Diallyl. After distilling off the hexylene
pseudoxide from the diluted acid, a layer of hydrocarbons
remained on the top of the liquid, from which they Avere
separated by means of a stop-funnel. The hydrocarbons
were dried over calcium chloride, and found to boil at
between 200° and 300°. After several distillations over
metallic sodium, they were separated into three portions,
boiling at from 205°— 215°, 240°— 245°, 275°— 285°. These
hydrocarbons invariably left a slight residue on distillation.
Analysis showed that they have an empirical formula of
CcHI0.

14

(1) Boiling point 205° — 215°.

Found

Calculated for

C .

(«) (b)

87-31 87-38

C6H10

87-8

H.

12-52 12-31

12-2

99-53 99-69

100-0

(2) Boiling

point 240° — 245°.
Found

Calculated for

C .

(a) (b)

87-30 87-30

c6h10

87-8

H.

12-42 12-31

12-2

99-72 99-61

100-0

(3) Boiling point 275° — 285°.

Calculated for

Found

c6hio

C .

86-96

87-8

H.

12-81

12-2

99-77

100-0

No. 3 attacked sodium slightly, although it had been dis-
tilled over it several times, therefore it is probable that its
non-agreement with the calculated result was owing to ad-
mixture with an oxygen compound. From the above
analysis and boiling points, it is probable that at least two
polymers of diallyl are formed by the action of sulphuric
acid upon it. I had not however a sufficient quantity of
the hydrocarbons to obtain satisfactory vapour density
determinations, which would at once have settled the
point. It is nevertheless probable that No. 1 consists of
two molecules of diallyl condensed into one, and that it
has the formula C12H20; for Schorlemmer, by the action
of sulphuric acid on hydrocarbons boiling below 1 20° from
cannel oil, obtained one which boiled at 210°, and the vapour
density of which showed that its formula was

In conclusion, I have much pleasure in tendering my
thanks to Dr. Roscoe and Mr. Schorlemmer, for their kind-
ness and attention to me throughout the whole course of
this research.

15

Ordinary Meeting, November 1st, 1870.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. William H. Johnson, B.Sc.; Mr. Walter Morris, and
Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., were elected Ordi-
nary Members of the Society.

Dr. Joule, F.R.S., exhibited a series of curves obtained
by Dr. Stewart, F.R.S., from the self-recording instruments
at the Kew Observatory, showing a large amount of dis-
turbance of the magnetic declination and horizontal force
during the progress of the Aurora of the 25th October.
He also showed a curve of the changes which took place in
the magnetic dip as observed by himself at Broughton.
The most remarkable valuation occurred during the interval
from 6h. 15m. to 6h. 23m. G.M.T., when the dip increased
from 69° 8' to 70° 30'.

“ On the Aurora Borealis of October 25th, 1870,” by
T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S.

On the afternoon of Tuesday the 25th instant the wind
blew pretty strongly from about W.S.W. at Burnley. The
barometer suddenly rose from 28'5 to 29T at my residence,
which is situated about G92 feet above the level of the sea.
The atmosphere was cloudy most of the day, but soon after
noon the clouds assumed a very decided cumulo-stratus
form, and the crests of the huge masses were deeply tinged
with red. About three o’clock the western portion of the
sky became mostly free from clouds, with the exception of
what appeared to be a dense mass of dark brown vapour in
the low horizon. Immediately above this the sky was of a

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. 8oo.— -Yol. X. — No. 3. — Session 1870-71.

16

deep sea-green colour, which gradually faded into a whitish
blue at about 30 degrees above the horizon.

Occasional^ this portion of the sky became of a deeper
green, and then the crests of the clouds in the S. and E.
acquired a deeper rosy red tint ; and hence it may be inferred
that all the electrical conditions for an auroral display were
present for most of the afternoon, but the light of the sun
was too powerful for it to become visible. Between four and
five o’clock there were several vivid flashes of lightning,
accompanied by heavy thunder and occasional showers of
hail. By six o’clock the thunder clouds had mostly cleared
away, and the auroral display became most magnificent.

In the zenith there appeared to be a splendid corona of
large diameter. The centre at times became intensely
black, whilst its edges seemed to be draped with festoons of
bright rose-coloured rays. At times these seemed to become
wreaths of vapour, which soon shot out on all sides in red
streaks stretching towards the horizon. The intervening
spaces were frequently filled with stripes of bright green ;
the edges were tinged with red, shading off into yellow and
gray, like the gores of a variegated balloon. Occasionally
the whole visible atmosphere assumed this variegated
appearance, which anon changed into masses of bright rose-
coloured vapour. As the coronre disappeared the aurora
assumed the form of a bright semicircular bank of white
cloud, from which the usual pointed rays shot up towards
the zenith from S.W. to N.E. About seven o’clock rain
began to fall, and the sky was mostly overcast for several
hours. At ten o’clock the atmosphere was again clear, and
the auroral display was at times nearly as magnificent as
before. Coronse were formed every few minutes, and on
their dispersion the streamers shot up on all sides from the
semicircular bank in the north. By eleven o’clock the
atmosphere was again clouded ; rain began to fall, and no
further observations could be made. Certainly nothing

17

approaching to this magnificent display has occurred here
for very many years.

Mr. Baxendell stated that his observations of the
Aurora of the 25 th ult. were directed principally to the
determination of the position of the centre of the corona,
or point to which the beams of the Aurora appeared to
converge, by reference to the stars in its immediate neigh-
bourhood. The mean of his results gave at Gh. 35m. G.M.T.
azimuth, S. 19° 52' E ; altitude, 66° 9'. From this position
it would appear that the direction of the lines of magnetic
force in the region of the auroral beams deviated sensibly
from parallelism with the line of dip at the surface of the
earth.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S., exhibited a number of casts in
plaster of Paris of various objects of natural history, and ex-
plained the process by which any one can make them for him-
self. The material of the mould is artists’ modelling wax,
which is a composition akin to that which is used by dentists.
And as it becomes soft and plastic by the application of heat,
though in a cold state it is perfectly rigid, it may be applied
to the most delicate object without injury. As it takes the
most minute markings and striations of the original to which
it is applied, the microscopic structure of the surface of the
original is faithfully reproduced in the cast. The method is
briefly this. 1. Cover the object to be cast with a thin
powder of steatite or French chalk, which prevents the
adhesion of the wax. 2. After the wax has become soft
either from immersion in warm water or from exposure to
the direct heat of the fire, apply it to the original, being
careful to press it into the little cavities. Then carefully
cut off the edges of the wax all round, if the under cutting
of the object necessitates the mould being in two or more
pieces, and let the wax cool with the object in it, until it be
sufficiently hard to bear the repetition of the operation on

18

the uncovered portion of the object. The steatite prevents the
one piece of the mould sticking to the other. The original
ought to be taken out of the mould before the latter
becomes perfectly cold and rigid, as in that case it is very
difficult to extract. 3. Then pour in plaster of Paris after
after having wetted the moulds to prevent bubbles of air
lurking in the small interstices, and if the mould be in two
pieces, it is generally convenient to fill them with plaster
separately before putting them together, 4. Then dry the
plaster casts either wholly or partially. 5. Paint the casts
in water colours, which must be fainter than those of the
original, because the next process adds to their intensity.
The delicate shades of colour in the original will be mai'ked
in the cast by the different quantity of the same colour
which is taken up by the different textures of the cast.
6. After drying the cast steep it in hard paraffin. The
ordinary paraffin candles, which can be obtained from any
grocer, will serve the purpose. 7. Cool, and polish the cast
by hand with steatite. The result of this process is far
better than that obtained by any other. The whole opera-
tion is very simple, and promises to afford a means of com-
parison of natural history specimens in different countries,
which has long been felt to be a scientific need. Casts of type
specimens may be multiplied to any extent at a small cost
of time and money, and are as good as the original for
purposes of comparison, and almost as hard as any fossil.
Mr. Boyd Dawkins has employed it for copying flint imple-
ments, fossils, and bones and teeth, which can scarcely be
distinguished from the originals.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins then explained the extraordinary
hoax which had been practised on the Times by a sweep of
St. Asaph. The paragraph to which he referred gave a
most vivid picture of the capture of a huge reptile by a “Mr.
Hughes,” in the Cefn Caves, which were recently visited by

19

the British Association. The reptile in question died a
natural death in a menagerie at St. Asaph, and passed into
the hands of Hughes, a sweep of that place, by purchase, and
not as the meed of valour. And he exhibited it to the visitors
at Rhyl as having been killed in the caves of Cefn, after adver-
tising himself in the Times, and thereby exciting a great deal
of lucrative curiosity. The whole story as related in the
Times is a mendacious and impudent hoax, which has been
copied into many of the local papers and widely distributed.
Its insertion in an organ of public opinion like the Times
implies an amount of ignorance of natural history which is
not creditable to English civilisation in the nineteenth
century.

“Notes on Glacier Moraines in Cumberland and "West-
morland,” by William Brockbank, F.G.S.

The author referred to the proceedings of the Geological
Society of London for 1840-1, which contain notices of the
evidences of glaciers having existed in Great Britain, by
Professor Agassiz, Dr. Buckland, and others, and which
point out (1) “ Moraine-like Masses of Drift,” which occur
near the junction of the Eamont and Lowther with the
Eden, near Penrith ; (2) The “ large and lofty insulated piles
of gravel in the valley of the Kent near Kendal, and the
smaller moraines and their detritus, which nearly fill the
valley from thence to Morecambe Bay” ; (3) “ Similar
mounds near Shap,” and (4) the “Gravel mounds near
Milnthorpe and thence to Lancaster.”

Of these the author considered the Kentmere Group,
near Kendal, as most nearly fulfilling the conditions re-
quired in true glacier moraines, and that in the other cases
it admitted of doubt whether they were really due entirely
to glacial action.

The districts more particularly the subjects of the author’s
notes are (1) The valleys of Eskdale and the Duddon (which

20

were not visited by Dr. Buckland, but in which he supposed
moraines to exist, from the appearances of the valleys as
delineated in Fryer’s map of Cumberland) ; (2) The valleys
eastwards from Bowfell, and (3) The district of Shap Fells.

The highest mountain in the Lake District is Scawfell
Pike, 3,210 feet, and separated from it only by a narrow valley
is Bowfell, 2,960 feet. These two noble hills form the central
nucleus, from which radiate the valleys of Wastdale, Borrow-
dale, Langdale, Eskdale, and the vale of Duddon, and in this
district the author found the evidences of glacial action in a
very marked degree. The conformation of Bowfell is exactly
suited for a great gathering ground for snow, which would
accumulate on its summits, and flow over its huge shoulders
as glaciers, into the vales below. Its three summits are piled
up masses of unworn rocks, whilst its flanks are everywhere
scored and polished by glacial action; the porphyry and
greenstone of which they are composed retaining the mark-
ings very clearly, so that in many places you are able
almost to trace the course of the glaciers.

The finest series of moraines occur at the head of the
great Langdale valley, at the point where the paths diverge
by Rossett Gill to Wastdale, and over the Stake Pass to
Borrowdale. The valleys formed by five brooks, off the
shoulders of the Langdale Pikes and Bowfell here converge,
and the glaciers at this point would be abundantly fed
with ice from the lofty mountains, and a wide area of
gathering ground.

The moraines here stretch across the valley in a very
perfect series of rounded knolls of huge boulders and
debris, rising some 40 or 50 feet above the stream, and
forming at least three irregular lines ; as if the glacier had
gradually receded up the valley, at distant intervals of time.
The boulders are of the porphyries and greenstones of the
surrounding mountains, intermixed with clay soil, deeply
tinged with red Haematite iron ore, which occurs abundantly

21

in a vein at the summit of Bowfell, and in Rossett Gill. There
are many “ perched blocks ” on each side the valley above
the moraines, and which may possibly mark out the track
of the glaciers ; and the rock surfaces, especially in Rossett
Gill, are much scored and polished. Altogether the Langdale
moraines afford an almost perfect example of glacier debris,
and they are, in all probability, the remains of the last glaciers
which existed in England, and after the valleys around
Bowfell had assumed almost their present forms. Doubtless
at some earlier period, the Langdale glaciers extended far
down the valley, even to Windermere Lake, as the mam-
millated rocks, perched blocks, and groovings, which can be
clearly seen at many prominent points, abundantly prove ;
and they appear to have gradually receded, probably as our
climate became warmer ; until at length they had dwindled
down to the comparatively small size indicated by the
moraines now existing in almost perfect condition, at the
heads of the valleys, immediately under Bowfell.

Proceeding through Rossett Gill on the path to Wastdale
we find in Angle Tarn an interesting example of glacial
action ; the basin evidently having been scooped out by a
glacier, which descended from the top of Bowfell, poured
over the precipitous rocks which now overlook the Tarn,
and deposited the debris of moraines which now forms
the embankment across the valley at its foot. A little
further on is a similar example, at the head of Long Strath-
dale, where another Tarn has evidently existed, pent
in by a glacier moraine. The waters have here broken
through the embankment and escaped, leaving a swampy
marsh behind. The rocks which are thus left bare by the
departed waters, cover a considerable area, and are much
grooved and polished by ice.

There are similar moraines at the Borrowdale side of the
Stake Pass, as also at the foot of the Wrynose Gap at the
head of Little Langdale ; and doubtless they will be found

i

in all the valleys to the eastwards of Bowfell and Scawfell.

22

Westwards from Bowfell are the vales of the Esk and
Duddon. Eskdale proceeds directly to the sea at Raven-
glass, having in its short course of 12 miles a fall of nearly
3000 feet, and that chiefly in the first 6 miles of the valley.

The estuary at Ravenglass has a very remarkable appear-
ance, from the numbers of large boulders of granite, green-
stone, porphyry, and clay slate, which lie scattered along the
beach; resembling, on a small scale, the shores now fre-
quented by drift ice in the harbours of Newfoundland. A
nearer examination at once introduces a Lancashire geologist
to the family of boulders, occurring so plentifully in our
drift clays, and which, in all probability, have their origin
in the Eskdale valley. Proceeding up Eskdale the granite
district is soon reached. Standing on the bridge above
Muncaster Castle, about two miles from the sea, you are in
the centre of an amphitheatre of granite mountains, com-
prising Muncaster Fells, Harter Fells, and Birker Moor
Fells. The valley at this point, and for several miles inland,
forms a wide and almost level ‘strath/ being filled up Avith
diluvium, and it bears every appearance of having been an
arm of the sea ; which would in such case have washed the
bases of the granite hills from which the boulders came.
This is that part of Eskdale in which Dr. Buckland, judging
by Fryer’s map, supposed moraines to be in existence, but
it is quite evident that in the present aspect of the valley,
none are to be found.

The panorama of mountains which form the head of
Eskdale is by far the finest in the Lake District; comprising
as it does the whole of the Scawfell, Bowfell, and Coniston
range. The flanks of Bowfell on this side are glaciated in a
remarkable manner ; and in the Avhole of the upper part of
the valley there are evidences of the action of ice at almost
every turn. Seen from above the whole valley has an ice-
Avorn “ hummocky ” aspect.

The author did not find any moraines in the upper por-

23

tions of either the Esk or Duddon Valleys; and in this
respect there is a marked difference between the east and
west sides of Bowfell. This is probably to be accounted for
by the fact that to the eastwards the vales of Langdale and
Borrowdale lie high, and the ice would soon be checked in
its flow ; so that we now find the terminal moraines at the
heads of the valleys. To the westward the valleys have a
continuously rapid fall for five or six miles, throughout
which course they have a “hummocky” aspect, and below
this they are comparatively wide and levelled; so that in
all probability the glaciers which formerly existed had their
terminations in arms of the sea.

This is exactly the sort of glacial condition which would
best explain the requirements of a drift theory, by which
the travelled boulders found in Lancashire shall have been
carried thither by ice ; — and a careful study of the Eskdale
valley, after first ascertaining the existence of undoubted
glacial evidences at its head, confirms the writer in the
opinion that it is from this district, and by glacial agency,
that they were transported. It is only needful to suppose
a state of things to have existed in England analagous to
that which now obtains in similar latitudes, on the ice-
bound coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, where floe-
ice prevails for many months of the year over an area of
from 200 to 300 miles in width, whilst the land is covered
with glaciers during the same period. The glaciers there
carry the boulders down to the shore during the summer,
and they are picked up by the floe-ice the following winter,
and borne away at the breaking up of the ice, as warm
weather returns, and floated seawards, as the winds and
waves may direct. To complete the picture, we have
to realise the fact, that the Bowfell range of mountains was
at this period an insulated group, washed by a frozen sea,
and covered with perpetual snow ; and much of Lancashire
and the Midland Counties submerged. There is every

24

reason to believe that such was the condition of our country
during the boulder drift period.

The Duddon Valley, in its upper portion, which centres
in Bowfell, is, in its glacial aspect, similar in every way to
Eskdale. Below Seathwaite it would however receive a
very important affluent from the Coniston range of moun-
tains, which would there unite its glacier with that of the
Duddon Valley; — and at this point we find, as might be
expected, very fine examples of glacial action. The rocks
are mammillated in large groups. Perched blocks, high
up the hill sides, testify to the great thickness of the
glacier, and are very conspicuous in the landscape. They
frequently occur in groups, and seem to lie as if in one
main current, forming in places fine lateral moraines. The
estuary of the Duddon below Broughton-in-Furness opens
out into a wide bay, and supposing, as in the Eskdale
valley, that the sea formerly reached much further inland,
and was subject to the action of floe or drift ice, it would
then receive the moranic debris, as before described. The
granite district of Harter Fell would furnish its contri-
bution of boulders, to be mixed with the porphyries and
greenstones of Bowfell and the slates of Coniston in the
terminal moraines.

Dr. Buckland held the opinion that the granite boulders
of the Shap district had been carried southwards by glaciers,
and deposited by their agency over the midland counties;
but the writer was not able to find the same evidences of
glacial action in the Shap fells as those which exist in
West Cumberland. The granite district of Shap is limited
to an area of some 800 to 1,000 acres; comprising Wasdale
Pike, about 2 miles above the Shap Wells House. Wasdale
Pike is not an isolated peak, but is an outlier of the moun-
tain range at the head of Troutbeck, of which Tarn Crag
forms the central summit. The valley below the pike and
thence over the whole of Shap Fells has a most remarkable

25

aspect, from the large numbers of immense rounded masses of
granite which are everywhere scattered. These widely dis-
persed boulders cannot altogether be accounted for by the
agency of glaciers. The summit of Wasdale Pike is only
1,853 feet above the sea, and the valley at its base some 500
feet lower, and the junction of Wasdale Pike with the Lune
at Tebay is but 700 feet above the sea; so that it scarcely
appears probable that any glacier could be continuous to
such a point as would admit of its transporting its moraines
to the sea, where they could be carried away and dispersed
by drift ice.

Another explanation must be sought, and it will probably
be found in the very fact of the occurrence of this solitary
peak of granite. The whole district abounds in intrusive
veins of whinstone, and other plutonic rocks, crowned by
the granite peak of Wasdale Pike, which has evidently
been forced up through the slates by some volcanic force,
and this might produce the tremendous effects which scat-
tered these blocks far and wide.

The denudations here have been on a tremendous scale,
and possibly carried the granite boulders far down the Lune
valley, and formed the moraine-like mounds referred to by
Dr. Buekland, near Milnthorpe and Lancaster, at which
points possibly drift ice became the modifying and trans-
porting agent.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
October 10th, 1870.

Joseph Baxendell. F.R.A.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Mr. Joseph Sidebotham read the following paper —

“ On the Variations of Abraxas Grossulariata.”

26

The variations in animals and plants are of great interest,
and each contribution to the store of facts accumulated rela-
tive to these variations, their causes and limits, is of value
in determining the identity, and limits of species, in what-
ever way we interpret the word species. Abraxas grossula-
riata is probably one of the most variable insects we possess
in this country, in colour and markings, and it would be
quite pardonable in any one not well acquainted with it,
were he to split it up into four or five species ; but although
it varies in colour and markings in such a great degree, all
these varieties are joined together by gradual steps, and yet
no step is found to join it to the next species on our list,
Abraxas ulmata.

The larv® of this species will feed upon the leaves of
most trees and shrubs, and is therefore easily experimented
upon, as to whether the changes in food influence the colour
or markings. So far as my own experiments, and I believe
those of others are concerned, no difference whatever can
be detected from the varieties of food, except in size. That
long-continued changes of food through many generations
might have a perceptible effect is however more than
probable.

The type form of this moth is too well known to require
description. I will therefore exhibit a drawer of specimens,
having the type form in the centre, the various forms
radiating from it in steps, in one line ending in white,
another in black, another in which the white ground runs
gradually into brown, and various other marked varieties.

We may divide these into the following seven groups : —

1st variation. White, or the spots very few and distant :
this leads up to the type form.

2nd. Spots joined together, forming curves and lines.

3rd. A variety of intermediate spots and patches.

4th. The spots at the border becoming lines, and running
towards the base of wings.

27

5th. Spots confluent, forming solid black patches over
nearly the whole of wings.

6th. The spots having the type form, but the white
ground tinged with a smoky brown or drab colour, some-
times suffusing the whole of the wings.

7th. Spots of the type form, but the ground of wings
bright yellow.

From various experiments with many thousands of larvae
of this species, I have come to the conclusion that these
variations are in a great measure hereditary, that one brood
of eggs will produce moths of forms in a great measure
identical, if the parents be of the ordinary type ; if the eggs
be the produce of moths of extreme colouring, varying much
from the type, then, although the bulk of moths will be
marked dark or light, as the parents, there will be others of
the ordinary type, and also some of the very opposite
character of marking, precisely as in many florists’ flowers,
the seed from those varying most from the original form are
known to produce the most marked and opposite varieties.

These experiments can only produce approximate results,
unless a great number of years could be devoted to them,
and in this and many others of our most variable species, it
is almost impossible to rear them in confinement beyond the
second generation.

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

October 11th, 1870.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., stated that being at Keswick
on August loth, 1870, he observed, at about 8.45 p.m., a
shooting star fall from near the zenith, and apparently
explode at an elevation of about 30° above the horizon,
leaving a very peculiar appearance behind it.

28

After the explosion there appeared an elliptic ring of
illuminated vapour whose axis was nearly parallel to the
horizon, having a bright appearance at its western extremity
almost resembling the nucleus of a comet. The ring of
vapour became gradually fainter, but was plainly visible
for 20 minutes. The major axis of the ring which was
parallel to the horizon was about twice the length of the
minor axis.

The night was beautifully fine, and many stars were
visible, but the reflection of light in the west following
sunset made the brightness of the ring not so great as it
otherwise no doubt would have been.

Any one who had not seen the fall of the meteor would
certainly have taken the subsequent appearance for a comet.

Mr. Dickinson communicated the following “Observation
of the Occultation of Saturn, September 30, 1870,” by
Mr. James Fellows.

The opportunity for the observance of this phenomenon
was unfavourable. The moon and planet being very low,
and the latter much obscured by the dense atmosphere.
The disappearance was not seen by me, but having arranged
my telescope — one of 4 feet focal length, and 2£ aperture,
and using a power of 50, I observed the reappearances as
under noted, viz. : —

Reappearance 7h. 12m. 45s. G.M.T.

Last contact 7h. 13m. 20s. „

My watch having been carefully checked by the Town
Hall clock at about 5 p.m., no appreciable error could exist.
Place of observation, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

29

Ordinary Meeting, November loth, 1870.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

John Durham Bird, M.D. ; Mr. John A. Bennion; Henry
Deacon, F.C.S.; Mr. Joseph Carter Bell, and Thomas Stead-
man Aldis, M.A., were elected Ordinary Members of the
Society.

Mr. W. B. Johnson, C.E., brought before the notice of the
meeting the extraordinary advance that had been made
within the last 20 years in the capabilities of machines for
cutting and paring heavy articles of machinery, and said
this was particularly noticeable in the treatment of heavy
forgings. At no very remote date it was the universal
practice to pare down heavy forgings to something near the
finished dimensions in the smithy by hand labour only;
this mode of procedure was not only expensive, but rude
and imperfect in its results. The introduction of tools to
supersede the use of the hand chisel and file in the work-
shop has been developed to a remarkable degree. Machines
are now made of such enormous strength, and the cutting
tools so carefully devised, that the old system of paring
down in the smithy has been set aside; this competition
between the tools of the workshop and the hand work of
the smithy has resulted in establishing the system of tool
paring in preference to smith-work to an almost universal
extent. Twenty years ago there might be seen in engineer-
ing establishments a large smiths’ fire, in which was placed
a part of some heavy forging, and when the part under
operation was heated to a blood-red heat the superfluous
parts were cut off by means of a set, upon which the
successive blows of four and sometimes six strikers were
delivered with surprising precision and regularity, and by
these repeated heatings and dressings the forging would be
eventually brought down to its finished dimensions, except

Peooeedings — Lit. & Phie. Soc. — Voe. X. — No. 4. — Session 1870-71.

l>y so much as was necessary for the final finishing or
getting up. These operations in the smithy, as before
observed, have now ceased, the forgings are taken at once
and placed in a machine, which by heavy and continuous
cutting soon pares down the forgings, and then finishes
them without changing them to another machine or pro-
cess. Tool paring is not only economical of labour, but
the result as to accuracy is more satisfactory. Mr. Johnson
then showed to the meeting some specimens of steel and
iron parings sent to him by Messrs. Smith and Coventry,
machinists, Salford, and further remarked that these parings
demonstrated very clearly the capabilities of the machines
and cutting tools of the present day. One specimen from
a Bessemer steel shaft, the result of taking a cut f ths of an
inch deep by fths of an inch traverse, was particularly
interesting on account of the form and size in which they,
the parings, left the cutting tools. The cutting tools used
in obtaining the specimens exhibited to the meeting were
of a peculiar construction, and possessed some marked
advantages over those in ordinary use.

The President said that Mr. Brockbank, in a communi-
cation made to the Society at its last meeting, stated “ that
the estuary at Raven glass has a very remarkable appearance,
from the numbers of large boulders of granite, green slate,
porphyry, g.nd clay slate which lie scattered along the
beach.” Had he (the President) been present, he should
have called the attention of the members to two singular
accumulations of boulder stones on the sea beach below Sea-
scales station and west of Drigg station. At the first-named
place the upper permian sandstone of St. Bees bounds the
sea there at high-water mark, and is covered with blown
sand in which arc mingled some large boulders. Along the
shore, about 400 yards apart, are two singular banks of
stones running down to low-water mark parallel to each

31

other in a westerly direction for above 200 yards. The
sands between and outside these banks are quite free from
blocks of stone except some common shingle. At the last-
named place, on the Drigg beach, is seen another accumula-
tion of boulders known by the name of Barnscar. It is
nearly a mile long, so far as it is exposed seaward, and may
be longer, running from north-east to south-west, and about
300 yards in breadth. The blocks are for the most part
rounded and consist of green slates, porphyries, greenstones,
and granites, ranging in size from a few feet to 33 feet in
circumference and reaching up to 8 and 10 feet high. There
were three stones lying in a straight line considerably larger
than the rest. The first or most southerly was a greenstone
7ft. Gin. in height and 33ft. in circumference, of an irregular
oval shape. The second was also a greenstone about the
the same size as the last, but more square in form. The
third was a Wastdale granite not so square in shape as the
last, and measured 7ft. high and 33ft. in circumference. In
measuring the heights only that portion of the stones ex-
posed was taken ; a considerable part may have been covered
up. At both Seascales and Drigg no cliffs of till are at
present seen on the beach there composed of drift sea sand,
but these banks of stones appeared to him to indicate the
former existence of a deposit of till from which the smaller
stones and clay had been removed by the action of the sea
in a similar manner to that which had taken place between
the Pennystone and the present cliff to the nc Ji of Black-
pool, alluded to in his drift paper, page 130 in vol. x, second
sei'ies, of the Society’s Memoirs. Both deposits probably
owe their origin to the action of ice, and are the remains of
lateral and terminal moraines. His observations were made
nine years since, and the banks may have altered somewhat
in that time ; but as, to his knowledge, they have never been
noticed by any writer in treating of the Cumberland drifts,
lie thought it worth while to allude to them.

“ On the Temperature Equilibrium of an Enclosure con-
taining a Body in Visible Motion,” by Balfour Stewart,'
LL.D., F.R.S.

It has been established that in an enclosure containing
bodies which are all at the same temperature, and at rest,
the same amount of heat enters any surface forming part of
the walls of the enclosure as leaves it in the same time, so
that the body, of which this is the surface, neither gains nor
loses heat. It is also known that if we take Dot the outer
surface of such a body, but any plane passing through its
substance; say for instance one parallel to its outer surface,
then, as much heat passes across this plane going into the
bod}'', as passes across it going out of the body in the oppo-
site direction; and further, this equilibrium of heat is known
to hold seperately for every one of the individual rays of
which the whole heterogeneous radiation is composed.

The effect of the motion of a body in altering the wave-
length of the radiated light is also well known. In
consequence of this, if a cosmical mass, such as a star or
nebula should be formed of incandescent hydrogen, and be
at the same time rapidly approaching the earth, the light
which strikes the earth will not be the double line D, but a
line more refrangible than it, and therefore this light will
be able to pass through a mass of ignited sodium vapour at
the earth’s surface without suffering absorption, while, how-
ever, the light emanating from the sodium vapour will still
be the double line D.

In such a case even if the star and the terrestrial sodium
vapour should both be of the same temperature, yet the light
radiated by the latter will not be the same in quality as that
absorbed. This instance would appear to show that the
equilibrium which holds in an enclosure of uniform tem-
perature when all the substances are at rest does not hold
when some of these are in visible motion, and that if in that
enclosure there be a body moving towards or from the sur-

face of the enclosure, the heat which enters the surface from
the moving body will not be the same as that which the
surface gives out.

Suppose for instance that the walls of the enclosure are
made of glass, and that the temperature of the whole
enclosure including that of the moving body is 0°C., then,
were the whole at rest, the heat which strikes the glass
surface will all be absorbed at a very short distance below
the surface, and in like manner the heat radiated by the
glass will all emanate from a short distance below the sur-
face. But let us now suppose, to take an extreme case, that
the moving body is approaching one of the glass surfaces so
rapidly that the heat which it emits has been so much
increased in refrangibility as to enter the boundary of the
visible spectrum.

Then while the heat radiated by the glass will still con-
tinue to proceed from a very short distance beneath the
surface, the heat absorbed by the glass from the moving body
will be able to penetrate to a very considerable depth beneath
the surface of the glass.

The outer layer of glass will thus lose, while the inner
layer will gain, heat.

Now it is possible to conceive an enclosure with a fixed
diaphragm, and containing a revolving body, so arranged
that the heat which leaves it in the direction of a certain
part of the enclosing surface, shall always be given out by
that part of the revolving body, which is moving towards
the surface ; while on the other hand, the heat given out
by the revolving body to another surface, shall be given out
when the revolving body is moving from that surface.

There will thus be a want of temperature equilibrium
among the various layers, those near the surface being some-
what different in temperature from those beneath. But
when we have a temperature difference of this kind have we
not acquired the power of converting heat into work ? It

34

would thus appear at first sight that the mere presence of
a moving body, has given us the power of obtaining work
from an enclosure, all of whose particles were originally at
the same temperature. This appears however to be opposed
to the theory of the dissipation of energy, and in conse-
quence we are induced to think there must be some error in
the assumption.

Now does not the unwarranted part of the hypothesis
consist in our supposing that the revolving system can con-
tinue to revolve without losing part of its visible motion ?

When two moving bodies approach or recede from each
other is it not possible that each loses a small part of its
visible energy while at the same time there is a surface dis-
turbance produced in both ?

It might be said that believing in a medium pervading
all space we were prepared for a stoppage of motion of this
nature, and that there is therefore nothing gained by the
supposition which has been made; but it might be replied
that by looking at the problem in the above light we appear
to connect this stoppage of motion with other facts, besides
beino- made aware of a source of surface disturbance when

O

cosmical bodies approach or recede from each other.

Postscript added 19th November. — If we imagine a stop-
page of the motion of cosmical bodies of the nature above
described, then if the two approaching bodies be exactly
equal and similar, either extremity of the medium between
them will be similarly affected by the motion derived from
the approaching bodies; but if these bodies are unequal, the
two extremities of the medium will be dissimilarly, affected.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION,
November 7th, 1870.

Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

Mr. Baxendell reported that, in accordance with a wish
expressed by the Council of this Section, the Parent Society
had agreed to an alteration of the rules respecting the
admission of Associates to the Section ; in future the sub-
scription for Associates, with the present privileges, will be
10s. per annum, and to those paying a subscription of 20s.
per annum, the right of taking books out of the Library
will be accorded.

Mr. Spencer Bickham, Jun., called attention to the very
serious inconvenience that was experienced by all having
occasion to distribute Natural History specimens, owing to
the recent prohibition of the authorities to allow such
parcels to be transmitted by “sample post,” and it was
agreed that a Memorial be forwarded to the Postmaster
General.

“ The Hawthorns of the Manchester Flora,” by Mr
Charles Bailey.

Amongst the aggregate species of plants whose distribu-
tion in subordinate species is imperfectly known, stands
the common Hawthorn, Crataegus Oxyacantha L., met with
throughout Britain. In recent years (beginning with Jac-
quin, in 1775), this plant has been separated into several segre-
gate species, three or more of which are known to occur in
this country, viz., C. monogyna Jacq., C. kyrtostyla Fing.,
and C. oxyacanthoides Thuill. Of these three species, sub-
species, or varieties, according as they are so held, Mr. H. C.
Watson, in his recently completed “Compendium of the

Cybele Britannica” (Part III. p. 510), reports one, the
C. oxyacanthoides of Thuillier, as being ascertained to grow
in the Thames, Humber, Tyne, and East Highlands pro-
vinces. It will doubtless be found in other provinces, and
amongst the rest the Mersey province, in which the only
species hitherto recorded is the common C. monogyna of
Jacquin.

From the specimens now exhibited it will be seen that
the three segregate species just referred to occur within the
limits of the Manchester Flora, and as some confusion seems
to have arisen in their nomenclature, it will be desirable to
give, briefly, the characters by which they may be separated
from each other. Similar confusion exists amongst conti-
nental authors ; thus, Boreau, in his Flore du Cent. (T. 2,
p. 234), makes the C. oxyacanthoides of Thuill. a synonym
of C. monogyna Jacq., while Koch, in his Synopsis (p. 303),
and Grenier and Godron, in their Flore de France (T. 1,
p. 567), refer it to the C. Oxycicantha L., although they
recognise Jacquin’s plant.

C. monogyna Jacq.

C. lcyrtostyla Fing.

C. oxyacanthoides Thuill.

Peduncles ; glabrous.

Ped. : 'pubescent.

Ped. : glabrous.

Divisions of calyx : gla-
brous, or with a few
scattered hairs ; lan-
ceolate acuminate ;

reflexed and closely
applied to the fruit.

Calyx div. : pubescent;
oblong acuminate ;
patent-reflexed.

Calyx div. : glabrous ;
triangular acuminate ;
spreading, but recurv-
ed at the extremity.

Style: one; slightly bent.

Styles : 1 to 2 ; erect,
or slightly bent.

Styles: two to three; often
diverging.

Fruits: subglobose; with
one stone.

Fruits : oblong ; one to
two stones?

Fruits : large ; oval ;

two to three stones.

Leaves of barren shoots ;
deeply divided into
3 to 5 lobes, which
are somewhat acute.

Leaves : with three to
five acute lobes ; base
with sides generally
convex.

Leaves: usually trilo-

bate ; lobes obtuse ;
base cuniform with
coucave sides.

Nerves of leaves : diver-
gent.

Nerves : divergent.

Nerves : convergent.

37

The prevailing form in this district is the C. raonogyna
J acq. ; it is that of which all our quickset hedges are
made, and is said to flower a fortnight later than the third
sub-species.

The second form, the C. kyrtostyla of Fingerhuth, I col-
lected on the 25th May, 1867, in Botany Bay Wood (Mersey
Province, County No. 59 of Watson) on the path from
Barton Moss to Worsley, where it forms several handsome
trees. It attracted my attention at once by the large pro-
portion of its flowers which possessed two styles, and by
the comparative large size of the corymbs ; its fruit I have
not been able to examine, as the ground in which it occurs
is preserved by the Earl of Ellesmere, and is accessible only
by a written order.

The addition of the third sub-species, C. oxycicanthoides
Thuill., to our flora., is the most noteworthy, and is due to
the keen sight of Mr. John Hardy, who detected a single
bush of it on the 27th August last, at Marple (Trent Pro-
vince, County No. 57), on the right hand side of the high
road from the railway station, a little past the uppermost
lock of the canal. The leaves of this plant are of consider-
able size, being about twice as large as those of a plant in
my herbarium from Hampstead, collected by Dr. J. Boswell
Syme, and excepting that the leaves are glabrous, the
Marple plant appears to agree with the variety /3 mctjus,
Hobkirk. The fruits on the specimens exhibited are small
and urceolate in form, but they were not mature at the
time they were gathered. For some seasons back I have
unsuccessfully sought for it in this neighbourhood, and at
present it is not ascertained to occur in the Mersey pro-
vince, though it will doubtless be discovered on a more
careful search. The most obvious character for determining
this sub-species in the absence of the flower or fruit, is the
arrangement of nerves in the leaves, which are arcuate, with
the extremities turned towards the midrib; in the two

38

first-named forms the nerves are arcuate in the opposite
direction, i.e. they are turned outwards.

It is not a little remarkable that there is one peculiarity
in the venation of the hawthorns which is invariably over-
looked by the draughtsman and engraver, viz., the direction
of the secondary nerves, which proceed from the midrib to
the base of each sinus ; such an arrangement is very rare,
being found only in some other species of Cratcegus, as
C. Azarolus, &c., in species of Fagus, and in a few other
plants.

Mr. Joseph Sidebotham exhibited a series of specimens
of Limobius clissimilis, from Llandudno, on which the
markings were very distinct and perfect ; he discovered the
species in considerable numbers beneath the flowers of
Geranium sangui neum.

Mr. Spencer H. Bickham, Jun., reported the occurrence of
Myosuvus minimus, L., in plenty at Yale Royal, near
North wicli, which species he believed had never previously
been noticed in the neighbourhood. Mr. Bickham then
exhibited a series of specimens of Polygonum minus, Huds,
collected at Mere and the surrounding district; he stated
that he had searched for Polygonum mite, Schrank, but with-
out success, and believed with Mr. Hunt, that luxuriant
specimens of P. minus had been mistaken for it : on the other
hand he called attention to the fact that in 1859 Mr. John
Hardy, to whom Mr. Bailey had previously alluded, dis-
tributed specimens of P. mite from Mere, through the
Thirsk Exchange Club, and on this authority Mr. J. G.
Baker, the Curator, remarked in the report, “new to the
Mersey Province.”

It seems doubtful also whether Alopecurus fulvus, re-
ported from the same locality, has not been erroneously
recorded, peculiar states of A. geniculatus having been
mistaken for it. As, however, it was found in considerable
quantity at Oakmcre, in 1868, it appears probable that it
may occur elsewhere in Cheshire.

39

Ordinary Meeting, November 29th, 1870.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Sir Eustace Fitzmaurice Piers, Bart., and Edward John
Syson, M.D., Medical Officer of Health for Salford, were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., exhibited a series of palaeo-
lithic instruments from the valley of the Little Ouse, and
explained (after Mr. J. W. Flower, Q. J. Geolog. Soc. xxv.
419) the general features of the district and the deposit
of the beds and the implements.

Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., indicated the age of these
deposits as related to the period of the existence of Elephas
primigenius in the district of the south east of England
and the adjoining portions of the bed of the German ocean
and the north west portions of France.

“ The Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona, and the Aurora
considered as Electric Phenomena,” by Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A.

Although the tails of comets are usually assumed to be
material appendages which accompany these bodies in their
flight through the heavens — and the appearance they present
certainly warrants such an assumption — yet this is not the
only way in which these tails may be accounted for. They
may be simply an effect produced by the comet on the
material through which it is passing; an effect analogous
to that which we sometimes see produced by a very small
insect on the surface of still water. We see a dark spot,
and on looking closer we find a small fly or moth flapping
Pboobbdin&s— ■ Lit. & Phii. Soc. — Vol. X. — No. 5. — Session 1870-71.

40

its wings and creating a disturbance which was visible
before the insect which produces it.

There is nothing else that we can conceive their tails to be
so that they must be one or other of these two things; either

(1) Material appendages of the nucleus, whether the
material be limited to the illuminated tail or surround the
comet on all sides.

(2) Matter which exists independently of the comet, and
on which the comet exerts such a physical influence as to
render it visible.

Respecting the composition of these bodies, Sir John
Herschel says : — “ There is beyond question some profound
secret and mysteiy of nature concerned in the phenomenon
of their tails. Perhaps it is not too much to hope that
future observation, borrowing every aid from rational specu-
lation, grounded on the progress of physical science generally
(especially those branches of it which relate to the setherial
or imponderable elements) may ere long enable us to pene-
trate this mystery, and to declare, whether it is matter in
the ordinary acceptation of the term that is projected from
their heads with such extravagant velocities, and if not
impelled at least directed in its course by reference to the
sun as a point of avoidance. In no respect is the question as
to the materiality of the tail more forcibly pressed on us for
consideration than in that of the enormous sweep which it
makes round the sun in perihelio, in the manner of a straight
and rigid rod, in defiance of the law of gravitation, nay, even
of the received laws of motion, extending (as we have seen in
the comets of 1680 and 1843) from near the sun’s surface to
the earth’s orbit, yet whirled round unbroken : in the latter
case through an angle of 180’ in little more than two hours.
It seems utterly incredible that in such a case it is one and
the same material object which is thus brandished. If
there could be conceived such a thing as a negative shadoivt
a momentary impression made upon the luminiferous tether

41

behind the comet, this would represent in some degree the
conception such a phenomenon irresistibly calls up. But
this is not all. Even such an extraordinary excitement of
the aether, conceive it as we will, will afford no account of
the projection of lateral streamers, of the effusion of light
from the nucleus of the comet towards the sun; and its
subsequent rejection of the irregular and capricious mode in
which that effusion has been seen to take place, none of the
clear indications of alternate evaporation and condensation
going on in the immense regions of space occupied by the
tail and coma — none, in short, of innumerable other facts
which link themselves 'with almost equally irresistible
cogency to our ordinary notions of matter and force.”

There can be no doubt that if these tails are matter
moving with the comet, this matter must be endowed with
properties such as we not only have no experience of, but of
which we can form no conception. This alone would seem
a sufficient reason for rejecting the first hypothesis. More-
over, on the second hypothesis there is no difficulty in the im-
mense velocity with which these tails are projected from
the head or whirled round when the comet is in perihelio.
For to take the “negative shadow” as an illustration, here
we should have a velocity of projection equal to that of
light, and the only effect of the whirling would be a slight
lagging in the extremity of the tail, causing curvature simi-
lar to that which actually exists. And whatever the action
may be, if its velocity of emission or transmission be suffi-
ciently great, this effect will be the same ; but whether this
hypothesis is to be rejected because involving assumptions
beyond conception or contrary to experience, must depend
on the answers to the following question — Do we know, or
can we conceive any physical state into which any substance
which can be conceived to occupy the space traversed by
comets could possibly be brought so as to make it present
the appeai’ance exhibited by comets ?

42

Now, I think the answer must be in the affirmative, and
that we may leave out the terms conceive and conceivable.
For electricity is a well known state, and gases are well
known substances ; and when electricity under certain con-
ditions, as in Dr. Geissler’s tubes, is made to traverse
exceedingly rare gas, the appearance produced is similar to
that of the comets’ tails; the rarer this gas is, the more
susceptible is it of such a state, and so far as we know
there is no limit to the extent of gas that may be so illu-
minated. Hence we may suppose the exciting cause to be
electricity, and the material on which it acts and which fills
space to have the same properties as those possessed by gas.
What is more, we can conceive the sun to be in such a
condition as to produce that influence on this electricity
which should cause the tail to occupy the direction it does.
For such an electric discharge will be powerfully repelled
by any body charged with similar electricity in its neigh-
bourhood.

The electricity would be discharged by the comets on
account of some influence which the sun may have on
them, such an influence being well within the limits of our
conception.

The appearances of the comet in detail, such as the
emission of jets of light towards the sun and the form of
the illuminated envelope are all such as would necessarily
accompany such an electrical discharge.

In fact, if the possibility of such a discharge is admitted,
I believe it will explain all the phenomena of comets.
As to the possibility, or even the probability of such a dis-
charge, I think it may be established on very good grounds.

The tails of comets may or may not be one with their
heads; but whichever is the case, it is certain that the dif-
ference in the appearance of comets and of planets indicates
some essential difference either in the materials of which
these bodies are respectively composed, or else in the con-

43

ditions under which their materials exist. Now from the
motion of comets we know that their heads follow the
same laws of motion and gravitation as all other matter, and
therefore we have good evidence, so far as it goes, that
comets and planets are similarly constituted as regards
matei’ials. And since the appearance of a comet changes
very much as it passes round the sun, any assumptions
with regard to the material of comets in order to account
for their difference from planets would not account for the
variety of appearance the same comet presents at differ-
ent times. On the other hand the conditions of comets
and planets must necessarily be very cliffei’ent, from the
extreme difference in the shapes of the orbits they describe.
Each planet remains nearly at a constant distance from the
sun (whatever that distance may be), so that the heat or
any physical effect the sun may have upon it will also be
constant ; on the comets its action must change rapidly from
time to time, particularly when the comet is in certain
parts of its orbit. Hence we may say that the temperature
and general physical condition of planets is nearly constant,
and that of comets for the most continually varying.

There is, too, a very remarkable connection between the
appearance of the comet and the rate at which the sun’s action
on it changes. Herschel says : — “ Sometimes they first
make their appearance as faint and slow moving objects,
with little or no tail, but by degrees accelerate, enlarge, and
throw out from them this appendage, which increases in
length and brightness till (as always happens in such cases)
they approach the sun and are lost in' his beams. After a
time they again emerge on the other side, receding from the
sun with a velocity at first rapid, but gradually decaying.
It is, for the most part, after thus passing the sun that
they shine forth in all their splendour, and their tails acquire
their greatest length and development; thus indicating
plainly the sun’s rays as the exciting cause of that extra-

44

ordinary emanation. As they continue to recede from the
sun their motion diminishes and their tail dies away, or is
absorbed into the head, which itself grows continually
feebler, and is at length altogether lost sight of.”

Here, although unconsciously, Herschel has connected the
increase of brightness with the increase of speed with which
comets approach the sun, and the diminution in brightness
with the diminution of the velocity with which they leave
the sun. And although from Herschel’s remark just
quoted it might be inferred that proximity to the sun is the
cause of the increase of brightness, this is proved not to be
the case, for (as in the case of Halley’s comet) when near
its perihelion the tail always dies away, and the comet
shrinks. Thus when the comet is nearest to the sun there
is no development of tail, which shows clearly that it is not
the intensity of the sun’s rays but the change in their inten-
sity that is the exciting cause of these extraordinary appear-
ances. So that there is no reason to suppose that a planet
composed of the same material as a comet, no matter how
close to the sun, would show a vestige of tail or other
cometic appearance.

It is then to this change in position that we must attri-
bute those peculiar appearances which belong to comets.

Now, is not electricity the very effect which would natu-
rally result from such a state of change and variation in
condition ?

A. De la Rive remarks, “ Electricity is one of the most
frequent forms which the forces of nature assume in their
transformations. It certainly often accompanies a change
in temperature. There is every indication that it is so in
our atmosphere, for the times when its intensity is a
maximum are just after sunrise and just after sunset, both
winter and summer.

From these reasons it seems to me not only possible’ but
probable that these strange visitors to our system are clothed

45

in electrical garments with which the regular inhabitants
are unacquainted.

The electricity must after all depend on the composition
of the comet, for known substances do not all show the same
electrical properties. Hence by assuming comets to be
composed of various materials, we have a source to attribute
the different appearances presented by the different indi-
viduals. To the same source we may attribute the irregu-
larity in the direction of their tails and the lateral streamers
they occasionally send out.

Secondly, I think this electrical hypothesis is sup-
ported by the to me seeming analogy between comets, the
corona, and the aurora ; an analogy which suggests that
they must all be due to the same cause. They may be all
described as streams of light or streamers, having their
starting point more or less undefined, and traversing spaces
of such extent and with such velocities as entirely to
preclude the possibility of their being material in any sense
of that word with which we are acquainted.

The aurora has long been considered as an electric phe-
nomenon, and recently the same effect has been produced
by the discharge of electricity of very great intensity
through a very rare gas, there being no limit to the space
which it will thus traverse, This being so, why should not
the tails of comets and the corona also be electric phenomena?
Their appearance and behaviour correspond exactly with
those of the aurora, and there is surely nothing very difficult
in imaoinina’ the sun which is the source of so much heat
being also the source of some electricity. Neither will there
appear anything wonderful in the electricity of comets when
we consider that of the earth. We must not look on our
inability to explain the cause of such an electric discharge
as fatal to its existence, for we cannot any more explain the
existence of the electricity which causes the aurora. If we
cannot explain from whence these electricities come, we

46

can at least show that the conditions which are most
favourable to the development of the aurora exist in much
greater force on the comets than they do on the earth. The
greatest development of the aurora borealis takes place at
the equinoxes. There is a cessation in summer, and another
in winter. Now, the equinoxes are the times when the
action of the sun on our northern hemisphere is changing
most rapidly. Hence the condition favourable for the
aurora is change in the action of the sun. The same thing
is pointed out by the diurnal variation in the electricity of
the atmosphere. Now, as has been already shown, the
change in temperature on the comets is incomparably
greater than it is on the earth, and its variation corresponds
with the variation in the splendour of the comet.

o

Angstrom has also shown that the light from the aurora,
the corona, and the zodiacal light, are all of the same
character, or all give the same bright lines when viewed
through the spectroscope, and that these lines coi’respond to
the light from no known substance. This indicates that
whatever this light may be, the incandescent material is the
same in all cases; or may we not assume that it is the
medium which fills space that is illuminated by the electric
discharges ? This would be supported by the fact that the
light from the heads of two small comets indicated carbon,
whereas that from the tails only gave a faint continuous
spectrum. For an electric discharge would first illuminate
the atmosphere of the comet, or even carry some of the solid
material off in a state of vapour, and then pass off to the
surrounding medium. Thus while the spectrum from the
head would be that of cometary matter, the tail would be
due to the incandescent ether.

I would here suggest that gas, when rendered incandes-
cent by electricity, may reflect light — it will certainly cast
a shadow from the eJectric light — and if this be the case,
part of the light from comets’ tails may after all be reflected
sunlight.

47

At any rate, it is certain that the appearance of streamers,
the rapidity of change and emission, the perfect transparency
and the wave-like fluctuations which belong to these phe-
nomena, are all exhibited by the electric brush ; in fact, the
electric brush will explain all these appearances which have
defied all attempts at explanation on a material hypothesis.

I have only to add that the main assumption involved in
the electric theory is, that space is occupied by matter
having similar electrical properties to those of gas; and
I would ask, is it not more rational to make such an as-
sumption than it is to attribute unknown and inconceivable
properties to cometary matter ?

Theories even, if founded only on rational speculation,
often, I believe, prove very useful, insomuch as they afford
observers a definite purpose in their observations — something
to look for, something to establish or to refute; and I publish
these speculations of mine at this particular moment in the
hope that they may perchance serve such a purpose.

“On Iso-di-naphthyl,” by "Watson Smith, F.C.S. Com-
municated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

About the commencement of the month of March, 1870,
when endeavouring, on the suggestion of Mr. John Barrow,
in whose laboratory I was then engaged, to obtain anthra-
cene by the action of a red heat upon naphthalin, the
vapour of this body being passed through a red hot tube :
I found that instead of the anticipated result occurring,
according to the equation 7C10H8 = 5CUH10 + 6H, a body was
obtained which had a melting point and also a boiling point
pretty nearly agreeing with those of anthracene, but almost
all its other properties were dissimilar to those characterising
that body.

This substance I found to fuse at from 200° to 204° C.,
its boiling point lying over that of mercury considerably,
and also over that of anthracene as nearly as I could judge.

48

It is difficultly soluble in alcohol and ether, more soluble
in carbon tetrachloride and benzole, freely soluble, even in
the cold, in carbonic disulphide and oil of turpentine.

From all the above solutions except that of the turpen-
tine it crystallises in beautiful silky rhomboidal plates, which
on drying interlaminate, and possess a delicate light yellow-
ish green colour and silky lustre. From the turpentine it
crystallises in beautiful white lance-shaped crystals con-
gregating in tufts. Its subliming point lies considerably
below its boiling point, indeed not far above its melting
point.

It may be obtained perfectly white by carefully subliming
the recrystallised substance at as low a temperature as
possible. If the semi-purified body be recrystallised from
any of the above named solvents, the mother liquors on
filtering are found to have acquired a beautiful blue fluores-
cence, but the perfectly pure substance no longer yields a
fluorescent solution.

A mixture of two parts of potassium bichromate and sul-
phuric acid, cause energetic oxidation of this substance, but
no colouring matter is obtained by treating the product of
oxidation so obtained, by Perkins’ method for obtaining
alizarin from antlirachinon.

Cold sulphuric acid is without action upon it. Warm
sulphuric acid dissolves it, if pure, with a slight purplish
colour. If containing any of the yellow substance which
always contaminates the crude body, the warm acid assumes
a blue colour, which on further warming becomes green and
then brown.

Nitric acid oxidises it, with liberation of nitrous fumes.

Chlorine passed over it in the cold does not affect it, and
apparently not even on slightly warming.

I find that it is impossible to distill naphthalin to dryness
in any quantity, without this body being formed in minute
quantity. If an appreciable quantity be not obtained on

49

first distillation, it will be by transferring back the distillate
to the retort and again distilling to dryness; a minute
quantity of high boiling residue will then be obtained,
raising the temperature towards 300° C.

A quantity of the pure substance, submitted to organic
analysis, furnished the following numbers : —

Grans.

I. 0-1240 grm. of substance gave 0-4307 C02

II. 0-1237 „

5>

and 0-0624 H,0.
0-4284 C02
0-0626 H,0.

I.

II.

Calculated for

c10h7 1

C10H7 /

Carbon

Hydrogen

. 94-72

5-59

94-46

5-62

94-49

5-51

100-31

100-08

100-00

The hydrogen evolved in the process was collected and
measured, and the following calculation made : —

Weight of Naplithalin converted, 26-30 grms. (nearly).

Volume of Hydrogen at 0° C = 2359-7 cbc.

9KR 2 = 0-2107 grm. H.

2Ci0H8 = £10^ | + H2. 26-3 grms. lose 0-2055 grm. H.

Hydrogen actually liberated = 0-2107 grm.

„ calculated as above =0-2055 grm.

For the formuala 7C10H8 = 5CI4H10 + 6H = 0*1861 grm. of H.
must be liberated.

From these considerations, and seeing that the properties
of the body considerably differ from those of Di-naphthyl as
obtained by *Dr. F. Lossen, I propose to regard this body as
an Isomer, and propose to name it accordingly Iso-di-
naphthyl.

Prestolee Alkali Works, near Manchester,

November 29, 1870.

* Ann. der Chemie void P ha ran. : Band cxliv. 71, 1867.

50

“ Notes on the Botany of Mere, Cheshire,” by Mr. George
E. Hunt.

The border of Mere Mere has for long been a locality
famous to the botanists round Manchester.

The first published Manchester floras bore its name as
the habitat of the rare Elatine hexandra and Limosella
aquatica.

In 1855, Mr. Wilson’s Bryologia Britannica gave a still
greater notability to the place by the record of several
extremely rare mosses from thence, and among others of
Physcomitrium sphcericum, which is thus recorded by
him : — “ On the dried mud of pools, Mere, Cheshire, Sept.,
1834. — W. Wilson. Not found in any subsequent year:

the only known locality in Britain.”

The following are also recorded in the same work as
occurring at Mere: — “ Phascum serratum ft ; Phascum
sessile ; Phascum rostellatum.”

I was led, in 18G4, by these various notices, to commence
a systematic and continuous exploration of Mere, with the
view of discovering as many of the recorded mosses as
might still exist there. Some of them being exceedingly
minute, it has taken a considerable time to detect all ; and
it may be of service to other bryologists in the district to
mention those which grow there at the present date, and
also the nature of soil they prefer.

1. Physcomitrium sphcericum. A careful search, in 1864,
led to the re-discovery of this species in very minute
quantity. In 1865 it was still more sparing (not above a
dozen capsules). 1866 was so exceedingly wet a season
that the plant could not have come up at all. 1867, it
again occurred very sparingly. 1868, it was plentiful, but
destroyed by the autumn rains before much of the fruit
had ripened. 1869, again frequent, and would have been
plentiful but the autumn rains again destroyed it whilst
the fruit was even more immature than in the preceding

51

year. 1870, very plentiful, and abundance of it has come to
maturity. This moss always grows on dried mud.

2. Phascum serratum ft is frequent every autumn on
clay and sandy banks at Mere ; it occurs quite frequently
in corn fields at Bowdon, in damp seasons, coming up a few
weeks after the com has been cut. In com fields at Bowdon
its companions are Phascum muticum, Phascum alterni-
folium, and Pottia truncata, and very rarely Trichoclon
cylindricus — the latter never fruits in this district.

3. Phascum nitidum, frequent every autumn at Mere on
clay and sandy banks ; it occurs elsewhere about Bowdon on
newly- cut ditch banks.

4. Phascum rostellatum, on banks at Mere, with the two
previous species, but much more sparingly. It has also been
found in Sussex by Mr. Mitten, and was collected there
again last year by Mr. Davies. It is one of the rarest of all
the British mosses.

5. Phascum sessile, very rare at Mere. I collected it in
the autumn of 1869, and again in November, 1870, inter-
mixed very sparingly among Phascum serratum, from which
it is difficult to separate it except with the aid of the
microscope. With this it can be at once distinguished from
that species by its longer, more rigid, almost entire leaves,
with a very wide nerve. Phascum serratum has no nerve,
and the leaves are spinulosely serrated. Phascum sessile
was gathered in Sussex many years since, but I have not
heard of its recent discovery either there or elsewhere. It is
one of the rarest British mosses.

6. Phascum patens, on dried mud, almost every season,
intermixed with Physcomitrium splicericum, and usually
much more plentiful than that species. This moss comes
up in autumn in the Ashley district of Bowdon, although
very sparingly, wherever an open drain has been cut in
spring. It also springs up about Bollington, under the same
circumstances.

52

7. Phascum cuspidatum. I have not yet found this at
Mere, but it comes up on banks on the Chester Road be-
tween Bowdon and Bucklow Hill, when they have been
newly made up, or plastered with mud from the road.

8. Leskia polycarpa fruits freely about the roots of trees
on the borders of Mere, both in autumn and spring.

9. Hypnum riparium, a very neat variety of this moss,
fruits in abundance in August and April, on clay banks and
at the roots of trees at Mere.

Hepaticce.

Riccia fluitans and crystallina are both frequent on
dried mud at Mere, with Phascum patens, &c., and both
species fruit freely there.

Numerous interesting flowering plants are also found, viz.,
Elatine hexandra, Limosella aquatica, Peplis portula ,
Polygonum minus, Littorella lacustris — all plentiful on
mud ; Carex vesicaria, fringing the woods at the edge of
the Mere.

Scirpus acicularis, in vast quantity in sandy places.

Carex (Ederi, in stony and grassy places. This is the true
(Ederi, and very rare. I have only seen it elsewhere on
the sands on the south side of Southport, where it is very
abundant and luxuriant. It appears quite distinct as a
species from C. flava (including C. lepidocarpa), with which
it is often placed as a variety, —

Centunculus minimus, frequent some seasons in the open
pastures on the borders of the Mere.

Mentha sativa, in ditches by the road sides between
Bucklow Hill and Mere Mere.

Ruhus Balfourianus and Rubas palhidus, in thickets by
the Mere.

Polygonum mite has been reported from Mere, but after
searching without success for it for several seasons, I can only
suppose that some of the more luxuriant forms of minus,

53

frequent there, have been mistaken for it. The seeds of
P. minus, which are shining black, and only half the size of
those of mite, afford the only safe distinction.

Accompanying are specimens of the rarer mosses, from
which it will be seen how minute they are, and how easily
they may be overlooked without most careful search. The
specimens sent were collected on Saturday, 5th November.

Mx\ Hardy remarked that he had no claim whatever to
be considered as the original discoverer of Polygonum mite
in the Manchester district; for so long ago as 1828, Mr.
William Wilson, of Warrington, sent the plant from a
Cheshire locality, under the erroneous name of minus, to
the late Sir William Jackson Hooker, in whose herbarium
at Kew the specimens still are. Mr. Hewett C. Watson, the
author of the “Cybele Britannica,” mentions these specimens,
and does not express any doubt of their being the P. mite
of Schrank. Mr. Hardy found the plant at Mere in 1860,
and sent specimens to the Botanical Exchange Club, then
located at Thirslc : and Mr. J. G. Baker, the Curator, in his
report for the next yeai', mentions these specimens as new
to the Mersey Province. Mi*. Hardy stated his belief in
Mr. Watson’s idea, that P. mite was much more difficult to
distinguish from P. Persicaria than from P. minus ; and
he had not the least doubt, notwithstanding Mr. Hunt’s
objection, that, now special attention having been called to
the species in question, it would be proved, in the course of
another season, to be an inhabitant not only of the Mere
district, but common in other stations included in the
* Manchester Flora.

Correction in paper on “ The Hawthorns of the Manchester
Flora,” Proceedings, p. 37.

The locality for Cratcegus oxyacanthoicles, Thuill., lies

54

within the Mersey province, and not, as stated, in the Trent
province, the Lstation being only a few hundred yards from
the boundary of both provinces.

Charles Bailey.

30th November, 1870.

Ordinary Meeting, December 13th, 1870.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. J ohn Angell, Science Master at the Manchester Free
Grammar School, and Mr. Carl Schorlemmer, Senior Assist-
ant in the Chemical Laboratory of Owens College, were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

The President stated that the “ grub,” as the larva of the
Harry Longlegs, the Tijpula oleracea of entomologists, was
commonly called, had made great ravages with meadow
grass during the last summer. In the eastern parts of the
township of Moston, near this city, some fifty or sixty acres
had been for the most part destroyed. After the land had
been manured in the spring, the grass showed well until
the middle of May, when it began to disappear and leave
the ground nearly bare. In the space of a square foot he
found twelve of the grubs, and all the roots of the grass
under that space appeared to be quite eaten through.
Several remedies, such as salt and gas lime, have been pro-
posed for destroying the grub, but these, although effective,
exercise for the time a deleterious influence on the grass.
The fancy onion growers of the district, chiefty weavers,
keep them down by careful watching. He had been sur-
prised at the growing of onions betwixt Oldham and Man-
chester by working men, one of whom had produced a
specimen 25 ounces in weight. This did not obtain the
prize, which was awarded to an onion grown at Hollinwood
of 29| ounces. For many years past the south-east
part of Lancashire has been noted for growing large goose-
berries and celery, and it is now equally famed for its
onions.

Proceedings — Lis. & Phil. Soc.— Vod. i.— No. 6. — Session 1870-71.

56

“Some observations upon Railway Accidents, and sug-
gestions for preventing their frequent occurrence,” by W.
B. Johnson, C.E.

The early history of our Railways does, I believe, show
that the accidents in the first few years were mainly due to
the breakage and derangement of some portions of the
rolling machinery, and this to a much greater proportion
than prevails at the present time. We rarely hear now of
any fatal accidents arising from the breakage of the loco-
motive engine, yet 25 years ago they were far from being
uncommon, especially if we include accidents arising from
boiler explosions, and engines running off the lines.

This observation is made, because it is necessary in look-
ing at a question such as is now under consideration, to
ascertain if possible how this change has been brought about.
In the first place it must be remarked that the traffic upon
our railways, both goods and passenger, has increased to an
almost incredible extent within the period just named; but
the writer is inclined to believe that the change has not
arisen from this altered condition (as regards traffic), but is
to be accounted for in some degree by the very marked im-
provements that have been made in the locomotive engine
itself: for instance, the accurate balancing of the working
and fixed parts of the engine, that obtains at the present
day, has done much to reduce the number of accidents
ai’ising from broken axles and running off the line. The
enquiry may very reasonably be made as to whether cor-
responding improvements have been made in the other de-
partments of railway construction and management. The
answer is somewhat doubtful, for while the locomotive
engine has steadily improved under the united and untiring
labours of many able scientific engineers, the system of
railway points or switches and signals remains the same in
principle, if not in practice, to that in use on some of our
earliest railways. The present arrangement and construction

57

of points and signals do not appear to be adapted to meet
safely the requirements of the traffic of to-day, as is too
clearly demonstrated by the many recent accidents. An
arrangement of points might be adopted, that would con-
siderably reduce the number of accidents now occurring, and
that by placing the points on the main lines, so that in all
cases without any exception (saving at terminals having no
through traffic and main junctions) they shall open in a
direction opposite to that in which the trains run.

It must be apparent that under such an arrangement,
accidents could not take place by a train being inadvertently
turned into a siding, such as occurred at Tamworth, on the
London and North Western Railway, not many weeks since;
and all accidents of this class might, under such an arrange-
ment of points just named when generally applied, be con-
sidered as impossible of occurrence. No doubt in many
cases such an arrangement of the points is adopted, perhaps
for the sake of convenience only, but the full benefit can
only be derived by its universal practice.

More than 25 years since, the writer represented to
several railway officials the security arising from the carry-
ing out of such a system of points into general practice; but
it was then considered as carrying precautionary ideas too
far, and convenience had the rule, and appears to have had
up to the present day. Of course the increase of traffic has
materially increased the contingencies leading to accidents,
and the question may be fairly raised — whether railway
companies should be allowed to take any amount of traffic
they may choose to do, without being compelled, by parlia-
mentary enactment if necessary, to provide in every possible
way against accident to the lives of the passengers commit-
ted to their charge. The usual objections of expense and
inconvenience will no doubt be made against carrying out
universally the arrangement of points now named; but what-
ever these objections might amount to, the writer is of

58

opinion that in the long run its adoption would be found to
be beneficial to the shareholders of our railways, and it
would contribute in some degree to the safety of the travel-
ling public.

There are two other sources of accidents on our railways
that require notice — one, the system, now so prevalent, of
centralising the signals, and the other, the breaking and
making up of trains on the main line.

The centralising of the signal handles into one box may
possibly possess some advantages in saving wages, and also
in placing the signals and points connected with or depend-
ent upon each other within the control of one man ; but
may not this be carried too far ? When the centralising of
signals requires the man in charge to have his attention
directed to two different trains -at the same time, and per-
haps coming in opposite directions, it does create contingen-
cies of a nature that will, at some time or other, lead to
accident, and it is unreasonable to expect a man at such
critical junctures always to do the right thing. Another
objection to the centralising of signals arises from the work-
ing of the distant ones. The mechanism required to form
the connection between the signal box and the signal itself,
is on account of the distance, liable to derangement, being
affected by frost, heat, and rain, and repairs and adjustments
are frequently necessary, thus creating another class of con-
tingencies that may lead to accident. And it may be fur-
ther observed that it does sometimes occur that the distant
signals are beyond the observation of the signalman in his
box, and is always so in thick weather ; so that he has no
chance of knowing, in such cases, whether the signals
answer to his workings in the box or not.

The breaking and making up of trains on the main line
has been the occasion of many accidents, and its continu-
ance, especially upon lines having a large traffic, must lead
to similar results. It needs no argument to show that a

59

line of railway upon which such work is never done has
removed one contingency to accident, and to that extent it
is a safer line to travel upon.

To these contingencies leading to accident might be added
others, but the writer will now only refer to the one arising
from imprudent management, in allowing slow and some-
times even luggage trains to precede an express without
sufficient margin of time.

Viewing these contingencies together, as combining to
bring about one result, viz. : accident, we must cease to won-
der that they are so frequent, and begin to wonder that they
so seldom occur.

“ Contributions towards a knowledge of Anthophila
(Hymenoptera Aculeata) in the Mersey Province,” by Mr.
F. 0. Ruspini. Communicated by H. A. Hurst, Esq.

The following list is very meagre, and contains only 56 of
the 220 species of bees known to inhabit the British Isles.
It simply professes to be the result of one season’s collecting
by the author, mostly within the limits of a single parish in
Cheshire.

Family I. Andrenidse Leach.

Sub-family I. Obtusilingues Westw.

Genus Colletes Latr.

1. G. cunicularia Linn. — hirta St. Farg. Discovered by
Mr. Nicholas Cooke near Liverpool in 1869 ; appears in April.

2. C. succincta Linn.=fodiens Curtis Brit. Ent. II. fol. 85.
Abundant at Lindow, Cheshire, in August.

3. C. Daviesana Kirby MSS. Lindow Common, August ;
not so abundant as succincta.

Sub-family II. Acutilingues Westw.

Genus Sphecodes Latr.

The females appear in spring, and both sexes in the autumn.

1. S. gibbus Limi.=Melitta sphecoides Kirby. Plentiful

60

on Lindow Common and at Alderley ; also taken by Dr.
Simpson in Lancashire.

2. S. rujiventris Panz.=rufescens Smith’s Monog.=gibba
Fabr. and Kirby. Very plentiful all over the country.

3. S. subquadratusSmith=gihhus Wesmael. A rare species,
occurring at Lindow.

4. S. ephippius Linn. = divisa Kirby, and $ Geoffrella

Kirby. Plentiful at Lindow, Cheshire.

Genus Halictus.

The females appear in spring, and both sexes in autumn.

1. H. rubicundus Christ. = flavipes Panz. Abundant
everywhere.

2. H. Tumulorum Linn. = flavipes Auct. Lindow, Che-
shire, and Silverdale, Lancashire — an abundant insect.

3. H. 4--notatus Kirby. Common at Lindow.

4. II. cylindricus Fabr. $ — abdominalis Kirby, and ? =
fulvocincta Kirby. Lindow, Cheshire, and Silverdale, Lan-
cashire— a very common insect.

5. H. albipes Fabr. ?=obovata Kirby. A local species :
plentiful at Lindow.

6. H. villosulus Kirby. Common in Cheshire and Lan-
cashire.

7. H. nitidiusculus Kirby. With us the most abundant
of the genus, but rare in Northumberland.

8. H. subfasciatus Nyl. A rare species : taken on Lin-
dow Common.

9. II. minutus Kirby. Taken by Dr. Simpson in Lanca-
shire and by the author at Lindow.

10. H. atricornis Smith n. s. Ent. Ann. 1870. Occurs
only at Hazel Grove, near Stockport.

11. II. Smeathmanellus Kirby. Local; scarce at Lindow.

12. II. Morio Fabr. Taken by Dr. Simpson in Lanca-
shire and by the author at Lindow.

61

Genus Andrena Fab. (in part).

1. A. cineraria Linn. Plentiful at Lindow in April and
May.

2. A. albicans Kirby. Abundant everywhere in spring.

3. A. fulva Schrank. Common in Cheshire in spring.

4. A. varians Rossi. Not abundant at Lindow, appears
in May.

5. A. nigrocenea Kirby. Plentiful at Lindow in April
and May.

6. A. Trimmerana Kirby. Plentiful at Lindow in May;
the 9 emits a strong smell of garlic.

7. A. denticulata Kirby. 9 = Melitta Listerella Kirby.
A rare species, not uncommon at Lindow in May. All the
specimens taken were dwarfish females.

8. A. fulvescens Smith. Rather scarce at Lindow; ap-
pears in June and July. One specimen, a $ , is of stronger
build than the type, and is more densely pubescent on the
thorax and abdomen.

9. A. albicrus Kirby. Taken by Dr. Simpson, in Lan-
cashire and by the author plentifully at Lindow in May.

10. A. minutula Kii'by; var. = parvula Kirby. Taken
at Lindow, but not plentifully, in May.

11. A. Gollinsonana Kirby. $ = proxima Kirby, and
var. ? = digitalis Kirby. A pair taken at Hazel Grove,
near Stockport, by the author in July, 1870.

12. A. xanthura Kirby = A. chrysosceles Nyl. ; var. $ =
ovatula Kirby. Plentiful at Lindow in May.

Family II. Apidse Leach.

Sub-family II. Cuculinm Latr.

Genus Nomada Fabr. (in part).

1. N. ochrostoma Kirby. 9 = vidua Smith. Taken at
Lindow in May and June, but sparingly.

2. A. Fabriciana Linn. Noticed in some numbers on a
sandbank at Lindow in May, a rather unusual occurrence.

62

3. N. alternata Kirby. $ = Marshamella Kirby. Abun-
dant in Cheshire and Lancashire in spring; parasitic on
A. nigroEenea and A. Trimmerana.

4. N. succincta Panz. = Goodeniana Kirby. Taken at
Lindow in spring, but sparingly; parasitic on A. Trimmerana.

Genus Epeolus Latr.

1. E. variegata Linn. Local. The author bred a ? in
August from cells of Colletes Daviesana found on Lindow
Common.

Genus C^elioxys Latr.

1 ? C. simplex Nyl = conica Kirby ; $ = sponsa Smith.
Remains of a specimen found in an ant’s nest at Silverdale.

Sub-family III. Dasygastrae Latr.

Genus Osmia Latr.

1. 0 rufa Linn. 9=bicornis of Linn. Dr. Simpson lias
a 9 taken at Frodsham, Cheshire.

2. 0. fulviventris Panz.=hirta Smith. $ = Leaiana of
Kirby. Taken by the author near Alderley sparingly in
June, 1867. It is a local insect.

Genus Megachile Latr. (in part).

1. M. centuncularis Linn. The author dug up some cells
of this species on Lindow Common in August, 1870.

Sub-family IV. Scopulipedes Latr.

Genus Anthophora Latr.

1. A. acervorum Fabr.=retusa Kirby. Seen but not cap-
tured at Lindow in early spring.

Sub-family V. Sociales Latr.

Genus Apathus Newman.

The females appear in spring, and both sexes in autumn.

1. A. vestalis Kirby. Females abundant at Lindow in
spring ; also taken by Dr. Simpson in Lancashire.

63

2. A. campestris Panz. The author has observed it para-
sitic on Bombus muscorum. Many of the varieties are
plentiful at Lindow.

3. A. Barbutellus Kirby. Sparingly at Lindow. Dr.
Simpson has also specimens taken in Lancashire.

Genus Bombus Auct.

The females appear in spring, and all the sexes in autumn.

1. B. muscorum Linn. Abundant everywhere.

2. B. senilis Fabr.= muscorum Kirby. Abundant through-
out our district.

3. B. frcigrans Pallas. A local insect, found on Lindow
Common. This bee when alive has an agreeable perfume.

4. B. Derhamellus Kirby (also Raiella of Kirby.) Scarce
at Lindow.

5. B. pratorum Linn. ?=subinterrupta Kirby, and 6 =
Burrellana Kirby. Very abundant in our district.

6. B. lapidarius Linn. Abundant with us.

7. B. terrestris ■ Kirby. One of our commonest Bombi.

8. B. lucorum Linn. 9 — terrestris Linn. By far the
most abundant of the genus with us. The author has ob-
served this species swarming in hedges in early spring,
probably attracted by the juicy shoots of the whitethorn.

9. B. hortorum Latr. Plentiful in our district.

10. B. subterraneus Linn. Black var.=Harrisella Kirby.
Somewhat local, but plentiful at Lindow, where the black
variety also occurs.

Genus Apis Linn, (in part).

1. A. mellifica Linn.= domestica Auct.

2. A. ligustica Spinola = helvetica Hermann. Both these
species are cultivated in our district.

/

Note. — The author desires to take this opportunity of
acknowledging his indebtedness to Mr. Frederick Smith of

64

the British Museum, both for types of various species and
for much kind help in the determination of his captures.
He further wishes to make known to collectors of Hymen-
optera in this district that he will be much obliged to any
of them who can communicate to him the names of any
species of Anthophila taken by them in the “ Mersey” pro-
vince, with a view to his publishing hereafter a supplement
to the foregoing list.

Fulshaw Farm, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

65

Ordinary Meeting, December 27th, 1870.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

“ Observation of the Eclipse of the Sun, December 22nd,
1870,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

The eclipse of the Sun on Thursday, the 22nd of Decem-
ber, was favourably observed at Ardwick. Although a
slight fog prevailed, all the details of the phenomenon were
distinct, and tolerably well defined. A number of spots
were visible on the Sun’s surface, two of which were of some
magnitude. The nuclei of these spots were linked together
by maculae, and surrounded by a penumbra which extended
to a considerable distance. Faculae also were very nume-
rous and distinct. The approximate times of contact taken
by a chronometer corrected by the standard clock at the
Town Hall were as follows :

H. M. s.

First contact of the moon’s limb with the sun 11 5 49

Contact of moon’s limb with nucleus of the first

large spot 11 31 36

With the nucleus of the second large spot 11 37 20

Last contact of moon’s limb with the sun, Green-
wich mean time 1 37 3

The temperature during the progress of the eclipse was
taken at intervals by a mercurial thermometer with a
black bulb in vacuo, exposed to the sun at the height of

4 feet from the ground.

TIME.

H. M. s.

11 10 0>

— 35 0

— 45 0

— 50 0

12 22 0

— 35 0
1 37 0

Pbooebdikm— Lit. & Phil. Soo.

TEMP.

DEGREES.

31-5

........ 30-25

29-75

29-25

27-2

28-5

29-0

■Vot. X.— No. 7.— Session 1870-71.

66

I had an impression that the moon’s edge could be traced
a short distance from the edge of the sun at the upper and
lower points of contact, but this might be imagination.

The black surface of the moon appeared very uniform in
colour. I tried with powers of 80 and 180 to distinguish
the moon’s disc, but did not succeed. Light clouds were
passing over the sun’s disc at this time. The diminution in
light was quite perceptible at the time of the greatest
phase.

Mr. Baxendell said that he observed the commencement
of the Eclipse at Cheetham Hill. The first contact took
place at Ilk. 5m. 46-2s. G.M. Time, or 24-2 seconds later
than the time calculated by Mr. Dickinson and Mr. Hind.
The definition of the limbs of the sun and moon, and of the
spots on the solar disc, was remai’kably good, and he
did not think his observation of the time of first contact
could be in error to the extent of one second. The limb of
the moon on the sun’s disc appeared to be more sharply
defined than the sun’s limb. No distortion of the cusps
was noticed. Unfortunately he was obliged to leave the
observatory before the end of the eclipse, and therefore did
not observe the time of last contact.

“Notes on some of the High Level Drifts in the Counties
of Chester, Derby, and Lancaster,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., President of the Society.

Introductory Remarks.

Until late years little attention has been devoted to the
study of the deposits of Drift, found on the sides of the
Pennine Chain, and the hills lying between Macclesfield and
Buxton.

The late Mr. J oshua Trimmer drew attention to the beds
of Drift on Moel Tryfaen, in Caernarvonshire so early as

1831.

67

In 1841 a Paper of his own was read before the Man-
chester Geological Society, and published in its Proceedings
for that year, on the Lancashire and Cheshire Drift, wherein
it was stated, that the Drift in some places as near Black
Moss, above Ramsbottom, in Walmersley, and at Pikelow,
near Macclesfield, reached to heights of from 1,000 to 1,200
feet above the level of the Irish Sea ; and he said that he
had little doubt but some of the most ancient portions of it
might have passed over the Pennine Chain, through the
Vale of Todmorden, by the Summit Valley, above Little-
borough, as the highest part of the last-named valley was
not more than 612 feet above the level of the Irish Sea.

In 1862 he took Mr. Prestwick, F.R.S., President of the

\

Geological Society, to show him the Arnfield deposit, and
in the course of conversation that gentleman mentioned to
him the fact of his (Mr. P.,) having seen some fossil shells in
a bed of gravel near the turnpike road, leading from Buxton
to Macclesfield, about three miles from the last-named place.
Accordingly, when describing the Arnfield specimens in a
notice published in the Proceedings of the Society for Nov.
18, 1862, he stated that fact as having been observed by
Mr. Prestwick. This notice led Mr. Sainter, Surgeon, of
Macclesfield, and Mr. Green, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey,
to hunt out and explore Mr. Prestwich’s locality, and they
soon found it in an old gravel pit below Walker Barn,
above Vale Royal.

Mr. Hull, F.R.S., in his memoir of the Geology of Bolton-
le-Moors, published in 1862, at page 29, notices the
occurrence of Drift on Winter Hill at an elevation of 1,380
feet.

The late Mr. J. Whitaker, of Burnley, in 1863, described
a bed of gravel containing chalk flints, at Barrowford, near
the foot of Pendle Hill. See Vol. IV., p. 176, of the Trans-
actions of the Geological Society of Manchester.

In November, 1864, Mr. R. D. Darbiskire, F.G.S., read a

68

paper on the Marine Shells found near Macclesfield, and in
a Postcript to the Memoir printed in Yol. III. (3rd series)
of the Society’s Transactions, alludes to the beds near the
Buxton Road, mentioned by Mr. Prestwich, which he makes
to be about 1,150 feet high. He also alludes to the Yale
Royal and Macclesfield beds, and gives a full catalogue of
the shells found in the latter in a communication to the
Geological Mazagine for July, 1865.

In March, 1865, Mr. Sainter read a paper befoi'e the Man-
chester Geological Society on the Macclesfield Drift Shells,
wherein he alludes to Mr. Prestwich’s beds. See Yol. V., p.
114, of that Society’s Memoirs.

Mi-. A. H. Green, in his Memoir of the Geology of Maccles-
field, &c., published in 1866, notices the Yale Royal and
Macclesfield beds, as well as the scattered boulders (No. 1)
on the hill sides.

Mr. John Aitken, F.G.S., the President of the Manchester
Geological Society, in a paper read before that body in Feb-
ruary, 1868, and published in Vol. VII., p. 5, of its Memoirs,
notices the occurrence of a thin bed of gravel in which he
found a chalk flint on Holcome Hill, near Ramsbottom, at
an elevation of 1,150 feet above the sea.

Mr. A. H. Green, in his interesting memoir on the Car-
boniferous Limestone, &c., of North Derbyshire and the
adjoining parts of Yorkshire, published by the Geological
Survey in 1869, notices the heights at which the drift has
been found on the western side of the Pennine Chain, and
gives a map showing its distribution.

General Description.

The Drift Deposits, all of which have been found at high
levels, may be classed under four distinct heads, namely : —
1st. Scattered blocks of granites, greenstones, porphyries,
silurians, mountain limestones, and carboniferous, now found
lying on the surface of the ground without any clay or

69

sand. 2nd. Strong bluish brown till, containing rounded
and angular blocks varying in size of the above named
rocks. 3rd. Sti'atified beds of sand and gravel, containing
chalk flints generally yielding entire or fragmentary marine
shells. 4th. Gravelly clay frequently containing the re-
mains of shells in greater or less abundance.

(No. 1.)

The first named blocks of stone are found more or
less on the tops and sides of the crescent of hills from
south of Clulow Cross through Cheshire and Derbyshire to
Rivington Pike in Lancashire, and further northwards at
heights varying from 1,000 to 1,400 feet above the Irish
Sea. They are found on ground higher than deposits No.
3, at Bull Strang, Yale Royal, and Bugsworth, than No.
at Bakstondale, and No. 4, at Arnfiekl. They vary in size
from a hundredweight to several tons, and are probably the
remains of a bed of till like No. 2, the clay and small
pebbles of which have been removed by denuding causes in
the course of a long period of time.

Bakstondale Section (No. 2).

At the top of a valley of this name, above Lyme Park, in
Cheshire, some 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, in sink-
ing a pit down to the Smut coal, a bed of bluish brown till,
very full of granites, greenstones, and other foreign rocks,
many of them weighing several hundred weights, resting on
broken coal measures, was met with. No fossil shells were
found in it, and it could not be distinguished from the
ordinary till found near Manchester, except that the pebbles
on the whole were larger and more numerous. Many of
the rocks were striated and polished, whilst others were
both rounded and angular. The deposit was in a sheltered
spot, and appeared to be the remains of a larger bed, the
greater part of which had been removed by denudation.
At a higher level than this bed of till, detached boulders of

70

considerable size were scattered over the surface, and are
probably the remnants of a former extension of the till over
the places where such boulders are now found. No beds of
gravel or sand were seen in the vicinity, but over the hill, to
the east the Bugsworth, beds are found in the valley of the
Goyt.

Bull Strang Section (No. 3).

About six miles to the south of Macclesfield, on the road
to Swithamley, lies Clulow Cross, near which are some
singular stones known by the name of the Bull Strang.
On the north side of this place is a gravel hole, having a
face exposed of about 30 feet of beds of well rounded gravel,
composed of granites, greenstones, porphyries, silurians,
mountain limestones, coal measure rocks, and a few chalk
flints, parted by beds of brown sand. In all the beds
numerous fragments of shells are found, which Mr.
Sainter cannot distinguish from those found by him in the
Macclesfield Cemetery beds, including the Cytherea chione
and Cardium rusticum, and amounting to 53, as enumerated
in Mr. Darbishire’s catalogue, besides 10 or 12 more species
which Mr. Sainter considers to be new. The elevation of
the locality is probably between 1,300 and 1,400 feet above
the level of the sea, and the area occupied by this sand and
gravel extends over several acres, and could be traced from
a little above the Macclesfield Road to the gravel pit ; but
it is much greater in thickness, so far as it is exposed, for it
cannot at present be seen resting upon any other deposit, on
the north end of the hill, where the face of 30 feet is
seen.

Mr. Sainter was so kind as to point out the section to me,
and to him we owe its discovery. This section, which is
most probably at an elevation equal to that on Moel Tryfaen,
affords, according to that gentleman, many of the shells
found at Macclesfield some 900 feet lower.

Higher up the hill than the gravel pit are seen some large

71

boulder stones (No. 1), several of them being upwards of a
ton in weight.

Vole Royal Section (No. 3).

This interesting section, for the discovery of which we
are indebted to Mr. Prestwich, is found about three miles
due east of Macclesfield, on the turnpike road to Buxton, in
Yale Royal, below Walker Barn. It is exposed in an old
gravel pit, which has been wrought for the repair of roads,
and occupies the end of a knoll lying between two little
valleys, in which flow small streams of water. The lowest
part of the deposit is not exposed so as to allow us to see on
what it rests. Higher up the hill scattered boulders (No. 1)
are seen lying on the surface.

By the kindness of Mr. Sainter, the following section was

obtained : —

Ft. In.

1. Surface soil (black mould) 1 0

2. Ferruginous clays, gravel and small boulders.. 6 0

3. Red sand 0 6

4. Alternate beds of small gravel and drifted

shale 4 6

5. Loamy sand 3 0

6. Drifted shale and gravel, with small boulders,

and a few fragments of shells 2 8

7. Sand and loam : 7 G

8. Coarse sand, with boulders and pebbles 2 0

9. Gravelly clay, with a few boulders 3 0

10. Dark sandy gravel, containing shells in plenty.

Depth not ascertained 2 0

32 2

In this locality nearly all the Macclesfield Cemetery Shells,
including the Cytherea ckione and Cardium rusticum have
been obtained by Mr. Sainter. The elevation of the beds,
which lie over the Yoredale rocks, is about 1,200 feet above
the sea.

Bngsworth Section ( No. 3.)

An interesting section is exposed in the valley of the
Goyt, above Bottoms Hall, Derbyshire. In going along the
road from that place to Bugsworth a cutting is seen on the
north side which shews a section of about 25 feet of beds
of well rounded gravel, composed of granites, porphyries,

72

greenstones, Silurians, mountain limestones, coal measures,
and a few chalk flints, all well rounded, and capped by a
deposit of brownish coloured till, with angular stones in it,
of from 4 to 5 feet in thickness. A few small fragments of
shells were met with in the gravel, but their genera could
not be recognized.

Above the section last described, and in the cutting of the
Midland Railway, just before the latter enters the tunnel,
is seen a face of 40 feet of well rounded gravel, parted by
beds of brown sand, very similar to the deposits below, pre-
viously described. They have a dip to the south. A few
flints and small fragments of shells were also met with. The
main valley of the Goyt runs here nearly north and south,
and the Bugswortli valley enters it from the east. The
gravel has been removed, if it ever was there, across the
Bugsworth valley, but it makes its appearance again on the
south side towards Whaley Bridge, and is also seen by the
side of the turnpike road leading from the last named place
to Chapel-en-le-Frith. The height of this deposit, at the
entrance of the tunnel, is about 500 feet; much lower than
the elevation of the three last described sections.

Arnfield Section (No. Ip).

This was exposed in making the Hollingworth (Cheshire)
Reservoir, belonging to the Corporation of Manchester, and
is in the Etherow Valley a little to the west of Glossop.
It was first seen in cutting the goit from the Arnfield Brook
to the reservoir. A few years since, in company with Mr.
Prestwich, the writer examined the deposit, which consists
of a gravelly till, containing plenty of foreign rocks, four to
five feet in depth of which were exposed. It evidently lies
on the top of the thick bed of till which occupies the lower
part of the valley of the Etherow, that was exposed in
making the new reservoir below Tintwistlc. In it marine
shells were found in considerable abundance. Amongst
others there were Turritclla communis, Fusus, Banfjius,
Purpura lapillus, two species of Tellina, Cardium cdule,
C. aculcatum, and Cyprina islandica. The elevation of the

73

deposit 'is 568 feet above the level of the sea. It lies on
the extreme western edge of a deep valley between two
ranges of hills, those of Staley bounding the western, and
those of Hadfield the eastern sides, each about 1,500 feet in
height, and is in a direct line nearly 50 miles from the Irish
Sea. This gravelly till, although more clayey in character,
appears to be very similar in other respects to the upper
bed seen in the sections of Bull Strang, Yale Royal, and
Bugsworth.

Concluding Remarks.

It has not, to my knowledge, been hitherto noticed that
the high level drift beds (No. 3) in the counties of Chester,
Derby, and Lancaster, which have all the appearances of
ancient shingle beaches, and look as if they had never been
disturbed since they were deposited, so far as yet examined
contain chalk flints, although such flints are commonly
found in the gravels of the Isle of Man.

The gravel of Bull Strang must be between 1,300 and
1,400 feet above the level of the sea, and consequently about
the same height as the beds on Moel Tryfaen, which are
1,350 feet high. It is also clear that the fossil shells found
there and at Vale Royal at 1,200 feet, are nearly of the
same description as those discovered by Mr. Sainter in the
Cemetery beds at Macclesfield, at a level of 500 feet, and
probably with those at Bugsworth and Arnfield hereinbefore
described. Mr. Darbisliire, in his second Memoir, previously
quoted at p. 6, says, “ A very short inspection of the
(Macclesfield) specimens will satisfy those who see them
side by side that the Macclesfield series precisely correspond,
as to their geological and zoological facies, with the Moel
Tryfaen and Blackpool fossils, and may fairly rank with
them.” To the localities before named may now probably
be added those at Bugsworth and Arnfield.

The following is a section of the drift beds perforated at
the North Cheshire Brewery, kindly supplied to me by Mr.
Sainter : —

74

Ft.

Sand and gravel 33

Fine sand 4

Sand and gravel 4

Brick clay 18

Upper boulder clay of the Geological Survey 13

Gravel with pebbles 6

Gravel with boulders and pebbles 11

Fine gravel, containing fragments of marine shells.. 4

Gravel and clay 5

Fine sand 6

Coarse gravel 2

Clay and gravel 14

Brick clay 7

Sandy clay with pebbles containing shells 4

Lower boulder clay with large boulders 12

Gravelly clay with pebbles resting upon the pebble

beds of the Trias 5

148

These two boulder clays are placed according to the
classification of the Geological Survey, but although it is
very convenient to have an upper and a lower boulder clay
and pack in all the sands and gravels between them, it
cannot be done, for there are at places 3 or 4 boulder clays
divided by sands and gravels. Certainly only two are to be
found here ; but there are two series of sands and gravels,
the higher one being above the upper boulder clay. In this
section probably the cemetery beds are represented by the
higher sands and gravels.

None of the sections hereinbefore described, except that
at Bakstondale, are actually seen down to the underlying
rock, but it is probable that they will all be found to be similar
in that respect when excavated to a sufficient depth.

The gravel beds described in this communication have,
doubtless, been formed under nearly similar conditions, but
at different times to those at Macclesfield. However, we are
still at a loss for a theory which will satisfactorily account for
all the drift phenomena found between these higher levels>
and the 50 miles of country intervening betwixt them and
the sea, of which the North Cheshire Brewery beds at
Macclesfield afford a comparatively simple section.

75

Ordinary Meeting, January 10th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The President, in the name of Mr. Bernard Hartley
Green, of this city, solicitor, presented to the Society
another memorandum book of one of the original members
of the Society, Mr. George Walker. In it is some curious
information as to the postal system and the cotton trade a
century since. As to the former, it is stated that the packet
for North America is dispatched from the post office in
London the first Wednesday in every month. N.B. No
postage to pay with letters in. The mails to all parts of
Eui’ope are dispatched from the General Post Office every
Tuesday and Friday night at 12 o’clock, so that letters must
go into the office at Manchester on Wednesday morning
and Saturday night. “ Novr. 1774, Sent a Letter to Messrs.
Anderson and Lothian in Glasgow, by express, Manchester
to Glasgow, by way of Wetherby, Newcastle and Edinburgh,
309 miles.

Paid for 309 measured miles at 3d. per mile £3 17 3

Paid for 20 stages 10 6

„ for sending off. 2 6

4 10 3

Express to London at 3d. per mile 2 5 9

14 stages at 6d 7 0

Sending off at Manchester 2 6

2 15 3

Pbookedincm — Lie. & Phil. Soo.— Vol. X. — No. 8. — Session 1870-71.

76

Sep. 1772, G. W. sent an express from London to

Manchester, and paid £3 5 6

This express was delivered in Glasgow in about 66 hours.
The express to London went in 36 hours.

On the motion of Mr. Spence, seconded by Mr. Brock-
bank, it was resolved unanimously — That the thanks of
the Society be given to Mr. Green for his interesting and
valuable donation.

Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.S., &c., communicated the fol-
lowing : —

In Mr. Binney’s “ introductory remarks ” to his “ Notes,
on some of the High Level Drifts,” (Proceedings, vol. x.
pp. 66-8.), he has given references to several memoirs and
papers on the subject, ranging in dates from 1831 to 1869.
He has, however, made one or two omissions which I now
wish to supply, inasmuch as the first paper mentioned was
omitted from the index to the fourth volume of the Trans-
actions of the Manchester Geological Soci-ety. In No. V.,
pp. 108-113 of that volume, I published an account of
“ The Drift Deposits near Burnley,” which, when read, gave
rise to a discussion occupying pages 113 to 120. This was
followed by “Additional Notes on the Drift Deposits in
Burnley and the Neighbourhood,” which occupies pages 65
to 73 of the fifth volume of those Transactions. Several
of the sections contained in these papers lie much higher
(750 feet) than that in which the late Mr. Whittaker found
his chalk flint (440 feet), and may therefore properly be
classed as high level drifts. I have since found flints on the
top of Entwistle Moor, at least 1,100 feet above the sea, and
the drift occupies still higher elevations in the neighbour-
hood of Boulsworth. Large masses of sand, occasionally dis-

77

coloured by carbonaceous matter, occur all over this district
at elevations not exceeding from 400 to 600 feet above the
level of the sea. These are most probably ancient sea-
margins, or current-deposits, belonging to the period when
extensive denudation was taking place in what is now the
East Lancashire basin.

The President said that he was quite aware of Mr. Wil-
kinson’s observations, having been present at the reading of
his paper, but he did not then state that he had found chalk
flints and shells near Burnley. When he (the President)
came to treat on the Lancashire drift generally he should
avail himself of Mi\ Wilkinson’s researches.

Professor Reynolds described the effects of an explosion
of a copper cylinder forming part of the hot water apparatus
at his house, and pointed out the dangers to be apprehended
from such cylinders in frosty weather.

“Notes on the Effects of Cold upon the Strength of
Iron,” by William Brockbank, F.G.S.

The severity of the present winter has brought the
question of the effects of low temperatures upon the
strength of iron, very prominently before the public, and it
is a curious circumstance, that a subject of so great impor-
tance should have escaped the attention of winters on iron,
to such an extent, as that it is either ignored, or dismissed
with a few brief remarks or inconclusive experiments,
which leave the subject altogether unsettled.

After referring to the observations and experiments on
the effects of low temperatures on the strength of cast and
wrought iron, in the works of Sir W. Fairbairn, Dr. Percy,
and David Kirkaldy, and pointing out the inconclusiveness
of all the experiments hitherto recorded, the writer went

78

on to detail the following experiments, which he had, by
the kindness of the several parties named, caused to be
made during the severe frosts which have recently prevailed;
and which have in all cases been carried out with the
greatest care and exactness.

Experiments on the transverse strain of cast iron bars
were made at the works of Messrs. P. ft. Jackson and Co.,
of Salford, and were repeated thrice, with the following
results : —

In Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments only one sort of pig iron
was employed. It is now "well known that a much sounder,
and more regular casting, can be obtained by a judicious
admixture of several suitable kinds of pig iron; a very pro-
bable source of error would thus occur in Mr. Fairbairn’s
experiments, and this will probably point to the unsatisfac-
tory results he obtained.

The bars employed in the present experiments were made
from a mixture of four pig irons of the highest class, added to
some good scrap iron ; they were all poured from the same
ladle, and were moulded from the same model, and they were
remarkably regular in size and quality, so that the results
may be fairly relied on. The castings wrere all made on F riday,
the 30th of December last, and the bars were tested ou the
following Tuesday, January 3, 1871. The machine used
was a powerful lever or steel yard, the bars having a three
feet bearing, and the results were taken with all possible
care, and are detailed in the following table.

Experiments upon the transverse strain of cast iron at
low temperature, made at the works of Messrs. P. It. Jack-
son and Co., Salford, January 3, 1871, by W. JBrockbank,
F.G.S.

The mixture of metals was Cleator Hematite, Ponty Pool
cold blast, Blaenavon cold blast, and Glengarnock hot blast
pig iron, with some good scrap iron. All the bars cast from
one ladle.

79

Size of

No. Bar.

1

2

3

4 3ft. by lin.

5 I by lin.

between the

6 supports.

8

g

Deflec-

tion.

Breaking

Weight.

Ave-

rage.

Temperature.

Remarks.

0 625 in.
0'562 ,,
0-687 „

790 lbs.

840 „ )

>842-5
845 „ j J

825 lbs.

About 26° Fah.^

a a T

a a J

Exposed to
frost in
the open
yard.

0-687 „
0-687 „
0-687 „

820 lbs. '

850 „

865 „

845 lbs.

32° Fah.

ti ti
ii ii

Left in
the sand
in the
Foundry.

0-812 „
0-812 „
0-812 „

950 lbs. >

945 „

945 „ J

950 lbs.

45“ Fah.
120“ to 130“ „
45“ „

( This bar
■j was

( warmed.

The results show a gradual and considerable decrease of
strength in the bars, with the increase of cold below the
freezing point. They also lost their elasticity in a similar
degree.

A further trial was made at Messrs. Jacksons’ works with
similar bars and the same admixture of metals, January
10th, as detailed in the following table. One bar was cooled
to a temperature of 15° by a mixture of snow and salt.

Size of

Deflec-

Breaking

No.

Bar.

tion.

Weight.

Average.

Temperature.

Remarks.

1

'\

0-6875 in.

780 lbs.

780 lbs.

15“ Fah.

2

0-75 in.

815 lbs.

35° Fah.

3

0-76 „

840 „

844-3 lbs.

35“ „

4

3ft. long
between
- Bearings
by lin. by

0'8125 ,,

878 „ J

35“ „

5

0 75 in.

845 lbs. >

62° Fah.

6

lin.

0-6875 „

855 „

859-25 lbs.

62“ „

7

0-8125 „

867 „

52“ „

8

0-8125 „

870 „ ,

52“ „

9

/

0'S8 in.

893 lbs.

893 lbs.

70“ Fah.

These experiments are borne out by the general ex-
perience of ironfounders, many instances having come to
my knowledge during these investigations, a few examples

of which may be cited.

80

(1) I find it a matter of general opinion that pig-iron
breaks much more easily in frost than in ordinary tempera-
tures, and that breakages of castings are much more
frequent in frosty weather.

(2) In rolling mills, and particularly where chilled rolls
are employed, especial care has to be used in frosty weather
to warm the rolls before using them, and when in use to
keep them carefully covered from the frosty air. If not
properly protected and carefully managed they are found
to be very liable to fracture.

(3) Mr. Edgar Gilkes, of Middlesborough, informs me that
the cast iron wheels of the Chaldron wagons of the Stockton
and Darlington railway are found to fracture very fre-
quently in frosty weather, and in a severe frost it is some-
times quite a serious matter.

(4) Messrs. Peel, Williams, and Peel had a remarkable
example on January 5th (20° F.). A hydraulic cylinder
had been cast upon a cast iron hollow core bar 7 inches in
diameter and 1£ inches thick, coated with lb inches of loam
and hay. It was put out in the yard to cool during the
severe frost, and when they came to draw the core bar it
broke by the mere torsion, and was found to be quite brittle.
A portion of this core bar was warmed, and it was then
found to have recovered its nature and to be quite strong
and tough. The lowest temperature on this date was
19° Fahrenheit, and the casting was expossd to it for many
hours. Numerous other examples could be readily fur-
nished if required.

There can therefore be no doubt whatever that the
strength of cast iron is very materially lessened by severe
cold.

For experiments in wrought iron I am indebted to many
friends, and the results are of similar import. My first ex-
periments were directed to the method adopted by Mr.
Kirkaldy, and I soon found that neither by torsion nor

81

gradual tensile strain could the true result be ascertained,
as the bar almost immediately became heated under the
strain, and the effects of frost at once disappeared. The
following experiments made by Mr. William Johnson, of the
Messrs. Johnson’s Ironworks, Bradford, near Manchester,
will illustrate this conclusively.

A coil of galvanised wire o f B.W. gauge was left in the
open air for 21 hours during severe frost, December 24,
1870; 24 pieces 1 yard in length each were then cut off.
Of these 6 were tested for tensile strength by the direct
application of weights, and 6 for torsion — the same tests
were used for the remaining 12 after they had been warmed
to about 80°. The results were as follows :

Tension. Torsion.

At 20°

At 80°

At 20°

At 80°

2142 lbs.

2142 lbs.

16* twists

twists.

2114 „

2058 „

15J

14*

V

2114 .,

2086 „

9

13*

>>

2142 „

2086 „

1 H

5 J

141

2114 „

2128 „

16

12*

55

2114 „

2086 „

CO

H

14

55

Total

12740 „

12586 „

90

co

CO

55

Average

2123-3 lbs.

2097-6 lbs.

15 twists.

13 -9 twists.

Thus, in both experiments, the iron tests worse when
warm than when frozen. In each case the wire immediately
became warm. Mr. F. Monks, of the Whitecross Wire
Works, Warrington, also tested wire rods for me with
precisely similar results. Finding these experiments to be
unsatisfactory, I arranged for a series to be tried by the
more rough and ready method of the striker’s hammer,
which I judged would be more likely to show the true state
of the iron in its frozen condition. The result either of
gradual torsion or tension is to expel the frost there may be

82

in the bar almost immediately, so that in the further
progress of the trial there is no difference between bars
which were originally either cold or warm.

If low temperatures have any influence in rendering iron
weaker or more brittle, the only way in which the amount
of such influence can be realised is by a sudden impact,
and the striker’s hammer was the readiest appliance for the
purpose. In the following experiments great care was
taken that the blows should be as nearly as possible of the
same force in each trial, and as the experiments were all
carefully conducted, and are vouched for by the parties
named, they may be fairly relied on as representing truly
the facts of the case.

(1) William Bouch, Esq., C.E., Engineer of the Stockton
and Darlington Railway, made the following experiment
December 29th, 1870, the temperature at the time being
about 26°, but it had been as low as 19° over night.

A bar of round iron, l^in. diameter, of best quality, was
taken from the yard, being then coated with ice ; it had
been exposed to a week’s hard frost. It was held over the
edge of a smith’s anvil, and one blow from a 121b. hammer
by the striker, broke apiece, 4in., long short off, the fragment
flying twelve yards along the floor of the workshop. The
same bar was then put into the mouth of a furnace, but not
in contact with any flame, for a short time, to unfreeze it.
The heat received into the bar was so moderate that a
smith could grasp it with his hand. It was then allowed
to lie on the floor for some time, until it had quite cooled
down to the temperature of the workshop. It was now
placed on the anvil, and the same striker as in the flrst
experiment, with the same hammer, gave fourteen blows
without causing the slightest fracture, the bar being merely
bent about two inches. Mr. Bouch adds that he has, in his
experience, met with many cases nearly as convincing as
the above.

83

(2) Mr. Kobert Peel, of Messrs. Peel, Williams, and Peel,
Manchester, has kindly made for me the two following
experiments with boiler plate iron, as shown by the samples
now on the table, viz. : —

No. 1. A strip of boiler plate, of best best quality, was
taken from the open yard, where it had lain during several
days of severe frost, January 5th, 1871, temperature about
20° Fah.

It was laid across the anvil, and a striker, with a single
blow of a 141b. hammer, broke off the piece now exhibited.

The fracture shows a very “ short ” crystalline face, with-
out any appearance of fibre, and is torn and irregular, in
remarkable contrast to the sample No. 2, which is from the
same piece, viz. : —

No. 2. The remainder of the above strip was slightly
warmed to dispel the frost, and then allowed to cool to the
temperature of the shop. It required several blows from
the same hammer, and bent considerably before breaking,
being exceedingly tough and fibrous.

The fracture shows a good fibrous structure, except on
the inner side of the curve, where there is a thin crystalline
skin.

The difference of appearance in these two fractures is
very striking and remarkable, and can only be accounted
for by the action of extreme cold.

No. la. This experiment was made on January 6th, tem-
perature about 26° Fah. A strip of Low Moor best best
boiler plate was taken out of the snow, having lain
there during several ' days of intense frost. It was laid
across the anvil, and broken off short with a single blow
from a 141b. hammer. The fracture is fibrous, but with
patches of crystals, especially on the edges of the plate;
the general appearance is “ short ” or “ tender,” very differ-
ent from the usual character of Low Moor iron in its nor-
mal state.

84-

No. 2a. The remainder of the same strip was placed in
the drawing office at a temperature of 70°, and allowed to
lie there for some hours. It then required six blows from
a 14-lb hammer, the plate being reversed each time, the
grain being thus severely bent backwards and forwards,
under heavy blows, before it severed. The outer skin still
remained in cohesion, and it had to be separated by bending
backwards and forwards in the smith’s hands. This frac-
ture shows a splendid quality of iron, the fibre being bent
in both directions as the blows were alternately reversed.
There is a slight crystalline line on the skin of one side.

Mr. F. Monks, of the Whitecross Wire Company, Warring-
ton, has kindly made the following experiments with wii'e
billets, which are the very toughest form of iron manufac-
tured. The wire exhibited is made from one of the same
bars, and will clearly show the quality of the iron.

The billets are 1} inch square, being in the semi-manufac-
tured form ready for the final heating and rerolling into
wire. They had been lying in the open air several days
during severe frost. Experiment tried January 1st, 1871,
10° lowest to 30° highest temperatures.

Three bars were broken in the open air. They failed to
break with 22 blows with a 151b. hammer. A small nick
Jj-in. deep was then cut, with three light blows on a “ set,” in
the top of each bar, and at another part of it, after which
a single blow sufficed to break each bar.

The bars were then thawed and allowed to cool to the
usual temperature, or about 70°. 22 blows were given to

each as before, and the same nick was made on one side as
nearly as possible like the frozen bars had been treated.

One bar then broke after 11 blows, one after 10 blows,
and one after G blows.

The frosted bars are more crystalline, and show no signs
of fibre ; the other bars show a good amount of fibre, and
are slightly crystalline in the fractures.

85

The following experiments with rails were made at the
works of the Darlington Iron Company, November 30th,
1869.

The rails were taken promiscuously from a lot of 1,000,
all supposed to be of the same quality, weight, and exact
section. It had been found that the rails which were then
in course of manufacture for the East Indian Railways at
these works, and which were of a very high quality, failed
to pass the required test in frosty weather, whereas in
ordinary temperatures a failure was a very rare occurrence.
The ten rails were accordingly selected to settle the question
whether higher and lower temperature affected the strength
of the rails. Four rails were heated up to 120° Farenheit ;
the other six were tested cold, the temperature of the
atmosphere being about 26°.

Test of East Indian Railway Rails, 82lbs. per Yard, Not. 29th, 1869,
TESTED BY A FALLING WEIGHT OF 2,000LBS. ; CENTRES OF SUPPORT,
3 FEET 6 INCHES APART.

No.

No. of Blows.

Height of
Fall.

Permanent

Set.

Temperature

Bemarks.

1

fist blow
-l 2nd „
V3rd „

5ft. Oin.
5 0

7 0

7-16tbs

3-4ths

>

>■ 120 deg.

Not broken.

2

fist „

i 2nd ..

V3rd „

5 0
5 0
7 0

3-8ths

13-16tlis

{ Do.

Ditto.

3

fist „

{S

5 0
5 0
7 0

3-8ths

13-l6tha

^ Do.

Ditto.

i

{2nd ;;
\3rd „

5 0
5 0
7 0

3-Sths

7-8ths

{ Do.

Ditto.

5

( 1st blow
1 2nd „

5ft. Oin.
5 0

3-Sths

broke

j- 26 deg.

Broke with 2nd blow.

6

( 1st „
(2nd „

5 0
5 0

3-8ths

6-8tlis

| Do.

Passed test.

7

(1st „
1 2nd „

5 0

6 0

3-8tlis

broke

j- Do.

Broke with' 2nd blow.

8

fist „
( 2nd „

6 0
5 0

3-8ths

broke

j- Do.

Ditto ditto.

9

1st „

5 0

broke

Do.

Ditto with 1st' blow.

10

1st „
l 2nd „

5 0

6 0

3-Sths

broke

j- Do.

Ditto -with 2nd blow.

86

At 120° all the bars stood two 5ft. blows and one 7ft. blow.

At 26° only one bar stood two 5-feet blows, three broke
at the second 5-feet blow, and one at the first 5-feet blow.

At 60° all would probably have passed the test easily,
many thousands having previously done so from the same lot.

It will therefore be seen that the results are in perfect
agreement in all these experiments, showing that bar iron,
boiler plates, wire billets, and rails are most materially
weakened by the action of intense cold, losing all their
toughness, becoming quite brittle under sudden impact,
and having their structures changed from fibrous to crystal-
line.

Similar instances could be given in illustration of this in
the daily practice of engineering. In large works the break-
ages of wrought iron are very considerable during frosts.
Quarrymen find that their chains are very liable to fracture
from the same cause ; and doubtless the numerous accidents
of failing tires in our railways may be attributable to it.
In many cases however the contraction of iron must also be
taken into account, as it is a serious item.

In conclusion, I think it cannot be doubted, after the
above recital, that iron does become very much weaker,
both in its cast and wrought state, under the influence of
low temperatures. This subject is one of such paramount
importance, that a careful series of investigations ought to
be undertaken by one of our scientific bodies, to ascertain
the precise nature of the changes which are thus shown to
take place, as there is herein an item which materially
affects the stability of all iron structures during frosty
weather, and which has not hitherto been adequately
recognised.

“ On the Properties of Iron and Steel as applied to the
Rolling Stock of Railways,” by Sir William Fairbairn,
Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

87

Dr. Joule communicated to me the discussion which
took place at the last meeting of the Society, on the
question of the effects of intense cold on steel tires. This
enables me to refer to a series of experiments which had
for its object the effects of various degrees of temperature
on wrought iron. These inquiries are to some extent
analogous to the cause of the recent accident which occurred
on the Great Northern Railway, near Hatfield, by the
breaking of a steel tire, which caused the death of a number
of persons.

It has been asserted, in evidence given at the coroner’s
inquest, that the breaking of the steel tire was occasioned by
the intensity of the frost, which is supposed to render the
metal brittle, and of which this particular tire was composed
This is the opinion of most persons, but judging from my
own experience such is not the fact, and provided we are
to depend on actual experiment, it would appear that
temperature has little or nothing to do with it.

Some years since I endeavoured to settle this question by
a long and careful series of experiments on wrought iron,
from which it was proved that the resistance to a tensile
chain was as great at the temperature of zero as it was at
60° or upwards, until it attained a scarcely visible red heat.
To show that this was the case, and taking, for example,
the experiments at 60°, it will be found that the mean
breaking weight, in tons, per square inch, was in the ratio
of 19 '930 to 2T879, or as 1 : 1*098 in favour of the speci-
mens broken at the temperature of zero.

The generally received opinion is, however, against these
facts, and it is roundly asserted that the strength of iron
and steel is greatly reduced in strength at a temperature
below freezing. The contrary was proved to be the case in
wrought iron plates, and assuming that steel follows the
same law, it appears evident that we must look for some
other cause than change of temperature for the late fracture

88

of the tire on the wheel of the break-van of the Great
Northern Railway.

In our attempt to investigate the cause of the failure it
may be interesting to show how the experiments on
wrought iron to which we have referred were obtained at
various temperatures, and subsequently to give the results
as found in the summary.

The immense number of purposes to which both iron and
steel are applied, and the changes of temperature to which
they are exposed, renders the enquiry not only interesting
in a scientific point of view, but absolutely necessary to a
knowledge of their security under the various influences of
those changes, and when it is known that most of our metal
constructions are exposed to a range of temperatures vary-
ing from the extreme cold of winter to the intense heat of
summer, it is assuredly desirable to ascertain the effects
produced by those causes on material from which we
derive so many benefits, and on the security of which the
safety of the public frequently depends. It was for these
reasons that the experiments in question were undertaken,
and the summary of results are sufficiently conclusive to
show that changes of temperature are not always the cause
of failure, as that which occurred near Hatfield on the Great
Northern Railway.

That such is the fact, I may adduce several accidents of
broken tires all of which occurred during the spring and
summer months when the temperature was high. One of
them occurred on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in
the summer of last year when the temperature was 50° to 60°
above freezing. I could enumerate others in which the
winter frosts had nothing to do with the fractures which
ensued.

It might have been satisfactory to have shown the process
by which the following results were obtained, suffice it to
observe, that all the specimens were torn asunder with and

89

across the fibre in oil and water baths, and those under the
freezing point were made in a snow bath reduced to zero.
The summary of results is as follows : —

SUMMARY OP RESULTS.

No. of
the Expe-
riments.

Temperature

Fahr.

Breakage weight
per square inch
in lbs.

Breakage weight
per square inch
in tons.

REMARKS.

Duration of
strain in regard
to fibre.

1

0°

49009

21-879

With.

2

60°

40-357

18-001

Across.

3

60

43-405

19-377

Across.

4

60

50-219

22-414

With.

5

110

44-160

19-714

Across.

6

112

42-088

18-7S9

With.

7

120

40-625

18136

With.

S

212

39-935

17-828

With.

9

212

45-689

20392

Across.

10

212

49-500

22098

With.

11

270

44-020

19651

With.

12

340

49-968

22-307

With.

13

340

42-088

18-789

Across.

14

395

46086

20-574

With.

15

Scarcely

Red

38032

16*978

1

Across.

16

Dull Red

30-513

13-621

Across.

From the above it will be seen that the plates from which
these results are obtained are much stronger in the direc-
tion of the fibre than across it.

The above experiments are quite conclusive as regards
the strength of wrought iron plates, till they approach red
heat. At that temperature nearly one half the strength
is lost ; it becomes exceedingly ductile, and may be drawn
to a considerable extent in the direction of the fibres before
it breaks.

Another sei’ies of experiments were made on wrought
iron bars, which indicated somewhat different results. In
these experiments, the specimens from the same works
attained the maximum of strength, and gave at the tem-
perature of 415°, a resistance of 3 9 '072 tons per square inch,
and at zero, and 00° there were little or no differences, ex-
cepting in the case of temperature when the resistance was
increased from 28,419 at zero and 60°, to 39 tons per square

90

inch at 415°. This may, however, be accounted for from
the increased manipulation of rolling where the fibre is
drawn and elongated to a much greater extent than in
plates. This does not, however, affect, to any great extent,
the ratio of compression and extension as regards the effects
of temperature, although I should he inclined to take the
experiments on plates before that on bars, as analogous to
the broken tire, which, it must he borne in mind, is without
weld and perfectly homogeneous.

The danger arising from broken tires does not, according
to my opinion, arise so much from changes of temperature
as from the practice of heating them to a dull red heat, and
shrinking them on to the rim of the wheels. This, I believe,
is the general practice, and the unequal, and in some cases,
the severe, strains to which they are subject has a direct
tendency to break the tires.

To show how easily this may be effected, let us suppose
that a tire, two feet six inches or three feet diameter, is
shrunk on to a wheel one-tenth of an inch larger than the
tire, it then follows that the tire in cooling must be elonga-
ted to that extent, with a strain, equivalent to the force
of the shrinkage, and calculated to produce that amount of
molecular disturbance. It may be more or it may be less,
but supposing the strain to be one-half or three-fourths of
that which would break the tire, it then follows that the
constant action of its irregular motion on the rails must
ultimately lead to fracture*

I am not surprised that this should be the case, as most,
if not the whole, of railway tires, excepting those on engines
and tenders, are not turned but selected by hand, heated
and shrunk upon the wheels with every degree of tension,
as suits the 'convenience of the workman. So long as this
process is pursued, the public will be exposed to the risk of
broken tires.

# Prom long continued action under strain, it lias been proved that it is
only a question of time when rupture takes place as repeated increased and
diminished changes with the same load ultimately leads to fracture.

91

What is required in this description of manufacture is,
that the rim of the wheel and the inside of the tire should
be turned to a standard gauge, accurately calculated to give
the required amount of tightness with a larger margin of
strength, and this done we should attain greatly increased
security to the public, and a great saving in wear and tear —
to say nothing of the large sums expended by companies in
the shape of compensation for injuries and loss of life.

“ On the Alleged Action of Cold in rendering Iron and
Steel brittle,” by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.RS., & c., Vice-
President.

As is usual in a severe frost, we have recently heard
of many severe accidents consequent upon the fracture of
the tires of the wheels of railway carriages. The common-
sense explanation of these accidents is, that the ground
being harder than usual, the metal with which it is brought
into contact is more severely tried than in ordinary circum-
stances. In order apparently to excuse certain Railway
Companies, a pretence has been set up that iron and steel
become brittle at a low temperature. This pretence, al-
though put forth in defiance, not only of all we know of the
properties of materials, but also of the experience of every-
day life, has yet obtained the credence of so many people
that I thought it would be useful to make the following
simple experiments : —

1st. A freezing mixture of salt and snow was placed on a
table. Wires of steel and of iron wmre stretched so that a
part of them was in contact with the freezing mixture, and
another part out of it. In every case I tried the wire broke
outside of the mixture, showing that it was weaker at
50° F. than at about 12° F.

2nd. I took twelve darning needles of good quality, 3in.
long, -Ain. thick. The ends of these were placed against

steel props, 2^in. asunder. In making an experiment, a

92

wire was fastened to the middle of a needle, the other end
being attached to a spring weighing machine. This was
then pulled until the needle gave way. Six of the needles,
taken at random, were tried at a temperature of 55° F.,
and the remaining six in a freezing mixture which brought
down their temperature to 12° F. The results were as
follow : —

Warm Needles. Cold Needles.

64

oz.

broke.

55

OZ.

broke.

65

))

64

5J

>>

55

>>

72

62

>>

60

bent.

44

68

broke.

60

>>

bent.

40

Average 68J Average 59f

I did not notice any perceptible difference in the perfec-
tion of elasticity in the two sets of needles. The result, as
far as it goes, is in favour of the cold metal.

3rd. The above are doubtless decisive of the question at
issue. But as it might be alleged that the violence to
which a railway wheel is subjected is more akin to a blow
than a steady pull ; and as, moreover, the pretended brit-
tleness is attributed more to cast iron than any other
description of the metal, I have made yet another kind of
experiment. I got a quantity of cast iron garden nails,
inch and quarter long, and ^in. thick in the middle. These
I weighed, and selected such as were nearly of the same
weight. I then arranged matters so that by removing a
prop I could cause the blunt edge of a steel chisel, weighted
to 41bs. 2oz., to fall from a given height upon the middle of
the nail as it was supported from each end, 1 ,Vin. asunder.
In order to secure the absolute fairness of the trials the
nails were taken at random, and an experiment with a cold
nail was always alternated with one at the ordinary tem-
perature. The nails to be cooled were placed in a mixture

93

of salt and snow, from which they were removed and struck
with the hammer in less than 5".

Up to Series 10, each set of sixteen nails was made up of
those of the previous set which were left unbroken, added
to fresh ones to make up the number.

Series 1. Temperature of eight cold nails 10°. Of eight
warm 36°. Height of fall of hammer 2 inches.

Result. No nails broke.

Series 2. Temperature of eight cold nails 14°. Of eight
warm ones 36°. Fall of hammer 2|- inches.

Result. No nails broke.

Series 3. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 3G°. Fall of hammer 3 inches.

Result. One cold nail broke. No warm one broke.

Series 4. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 36°. Fall of hammer 3-1 inches.

Result. Two cold nails broke. One warm one broke.
Series 5. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 3G°. Fall of hammer 4 inches.

Result. One broke of each sort.

Series G. Temperature of eight cold nails 0°. Of eight
others 38°. Fall of hammer 4J inches.

Result. One broke of each sort.

Series 7. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 36°. Fall of hammer oj? inches.

Result. No cold nail broke. One warm nail broke.

Series 8. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 40°. Fall of hammer 6|- inches.

Result. Two cold nails broke. One warm nail broke.
Series 9. Temperature of eight cold nails 2°. Of eight
others 40°. Fall of hammer 7i; inches.

Result. Three cold nails broke. Three warm nails broke.
Series 10. Experiment with the ten left in the last.
Temperature of five cold nails 2°. Of the five others 40°
Fall of hammer 8^ inches.

Result. Two cold nails broke. One warm nail broke.
Series 11. Experiment with the six left from the last

94

Temperature of three cold nails 3°. Of the other three 40°.
Fall of hammer 10 inches.

Result. Two cold nails broke. Three warm nails broke.

Series 12. Experiment with fresh nails. Twelve cooled
for four hours to 3°. Twelve others 41°. Fall 7 inches.

Result. Seven cold nails broke. Eight warm nails broke.

The collective result is that 21 cold nails broke and 20
warm ones.

The experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, of Smeaton,
of Dulong and Petit, and of Trough ton, conspire in giving a
less expansion by heat to steel than iron, especially if the
former is in an untempered state. Such specimens of steel
wire and of watchspring as I possess expand less than iron.
But this, as Sir W. Fairbairn observed to me, would in certain
limits have the effect of strengthening rather than of weak-
ening an iron wheel with a tire of steel.

The general conclusion is this — Frost does not make
either iron (cast or wrought) or steel brittle, and that acci-
dents arise from the neglect of the companies to submit
wheels, axles, and all other parts of their rolling stock to a
practical and sufficient test before using them.

“On the Effect of Cold on the Strength of Iron,” by
Peter Spence, F.C.S., &c.

In the conversation at the last meeting of the Society
on one of the causes of railway accidents, namely, the
breaking of the tires of the carriage wheels, there was a
general expression of opinion that the reduction of tempera-
ture during frost had the effect of reducing the strength of
iron, and that this was the proximate cause of these
occurrences. Dr. Joule, on the other side, stated that
however general the impression might be, he knew of no
experiments that tended to prove that impression to be a
correct one.

It seemed to me that a few experiments on cast iron

95

could without much difficulty be made, and which might
set the matter at rest one way or the other.

I therefore decided on having some lengths of cast iron
made of a uniform thickness of |in. square, from the same
metal and the same mould; these I obtained after a good
deal of trouble, on account of the moulders being off work
at new year’s time, and this must be my excuse for not
being able to give due notice of my communication.

Two of the four castings I got seemed to be good ones,
and I got the surface taken off, and made them as regular
a thickness as was practicable.

I then fixed two knife-edged wedges upon the surface of
a plank, at exactly nine inches distance from each other,
with an opening in the plank in the intervening space, the
bar being laid across the wedges a knife-edged hook was
hung in the middle of the suspended piece of the bar, to
the hook was hung a large scale on which to place weights.

The bar was tried first at a temperature of 60 Fahr. ; to
find the breaking weight I placed 561b. weights one
after another on the scale, and when the ninth was put on
the bar snapped. This was the only unsatisfactory experi-
ment, as 14 or 281bs. might have done it, but I include it
among the others. I now adopted another precaution, by
placing the one end of the plank on a fixed point and the
other end on to a screw-jack, by raising which I could,
without any vibration, bring the weight to bear upon the
bar. By this means, small weights, up to 71bs., could be put
on while hanging, but when these had to be taken off and a
large weight put on, the scale was lowered to the rest, and
again raised after the change was made. I may here state
that a curious circumstance occurred twice, which seems to
indicate that mere raising of the weight, without the slightest
apparent vibration, was equal in effect to an additional weight.
3fcwts. were on the scale, a 141b. weight was added, then
71b., then 41b., 21b., lib., and lib., making 4cwts. and lib.
This was allowed to act for from one to two minutes, and
then lowered to take off the small weights, and replaced by

96

a 561b., intending to add small weights when suspended,
raised so imperceptibly by the screw, that the only way
of ascertaining that it was suspended was by looking under
the scale to see that it was clear of the rest. As soon as
it was half-an-inch clear it snapped, thus breaking at once
with one pound less than it resisted for nearly two minutes.

Sis experiments were carefully conducted at 60° Fah.
the parts of the bars being selected so as to give to each
set of experiments similar portions of both bars : the
results arc marked on the pieces. My assistant now
prepared a refrigerating mixture which stood at zero
and the bars were immersed for some time in this, and
we prepared for the breaking trials to be made as
quickly as could be, consistently with accuracy, and to
secure the low temperature each bar on being placed in the
machine had its surface at top covered with the freezing
mixture. The bars at zero broke with more regularity than
at 60°, but instead of the results confirming the general
impression as to cold rendering iron more brittle they are
calculated to substantiate an exactly opposite idea, namely,
that reduction of temperature ccvteris paribus increases the
strength of cast iron. The only doubtful experiment of the
whole twelve is the first, and as it stands much the highest,
the probability is that it should be lower ; yet, even taking
it as it stands, the average of the six experiments at 60° Fah.
gives 4cwt. Mbs. as the breaking weight of the bar at that
temperature, while the average of the six experiments at
zero gives 4cwt. 201bs. as the breaking weight of the bar at
zero, being an increase of strength from the reduction o^
temperature equal to 3 -5 per cent.

Mr. Wm. Radford, C.E., asked if Mr. Brockbank had con-
sidered what the effect must be upon iron used in Russia,
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, for if the theory which was
sought to be established were true, the tires of railway
wheels in those countries must fly to pieces in winter; as far
as his experience went in Denmark such had not been the
case on the Copenhagen Railway.

97

Ordinary Meeting, January 24th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Brothers, F.RA.S., exhibited a drawing from the
fine photograph of the solar Corona, taken by him at Syra-
cuse, during the late total eclipse of the Sun.

Mr. W. B. Johnson, C.E., gave an account of two cases of
very narrow escapes from serious accident to railway trains,
in consequence of the present faulty system of arrangement
of the points or switches.

Dr, Joule, F.R.S., &c., read the following letter, dated
January 21st, 1871, which he had received from Mr.
William H. Johnson, of Bowdon.

“ Since the last meeting of the Philosophical Society I
have made some further experiments on the ‘Effect of cold
on the strength of Iron.’

In these I have maintained a nearly fixed temperature,
and thus avoided to a great extent the error occasioned by
the rise in temperature, consequent on sudden torsion.

January 11th. A piece of a charcoal wire rod, •237 of an
inch diameter, gave the following results: —

1st. 2nd. Srd.

At about 40° F 20 twists ... 19 twists ... 17 twists.

Adjacent 6" at tempe-
rature of melting

zinc 10 twists ... 9 twists ... 1\ twists.

4th. 6th.

Twisted very slowly, surrounded by salt

and snow ' 19 \ twists ... 16 twists.

Adjacent 6" at about 40° F 15 twists

The twisting under salt and snow was performed so
slowly, each experiment lasting a quarter of an hour or
more, that the temperature cannot have been affected by
the torsion. The same care was taken at the temperature
of 40° F.

Peooeedinos — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Voi. X. — No. 9.— Session 1870-71.

98

The great diminution of strength at the melting point of
zinc is remarkable.

I take the liberty of communicating these results to you>
as unfortunately I shall be away at the next Meeting, and
thus shall not have an opportunity of seeing you.”

Mr. Brockbank remarked that these experiments did not
affect the conclusions stated in his paper, read at the last
meeting. He believed that the strength of Iron under
torsion was most affected by the heat developed by the
twisting, and that the cooling mixture employed by Mr
J ohnson would have the effect of making the wire stand a
greater number of twists by counteracting the excessive
heat produced by the torsion.

Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S., exhibited a drawing of the
machine used by him in his experiments on the strength of
Cast Iron at different temperatures.

“Experiments on the Oxidation of Iron,” by Professor
F. Crace Calvert, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.

Some two years since, Sir Charles Fox inquired of me if
I could give him the exact composition of iron rust, viz., the
oxidation found on the surface of metallic iron, I replied
that it was admitted by all chemists, to be the hydrate of
the sesquioxide of iron, containing a trace of ammonia; to
this, he answered, that he had read several books on the
subject, in which the statements referring to it differed, and
from recent observations he had made, he doubted the cor-
rectness of the acknowledged composition of iron rust. He
further stated that if he took a bar of rusted wrought iron,
and put it in violent vibrations, by applying at one end the
fall of a hammer, scales would be separated which did not
appear to him to be the substance I had described.

This conversation induced me to commence a series of
experiments which I shall now detail. I first carefully ana-
lysed some specimens of iron rust, which were procured, as
far as possible, from any source of contamination. Thus

99

one of these samples was supplied to me by Sir Charles Fox,
as taken from the outside of Conway Bridge, the other
secured by myself at Llangollen, North Wales. These speci-
mens gave the following results when submitted to analysis:

Conway Bridge. Llangollen.

Sesquioxide of Iron 93-094 92-900

Protoxide of Iron.. 5 -8 10 6*177

Carbonate of Iron 0-900 0-617

Silica 0*196 0-121

Ammonia Trace Trace.

Carbonate of Lime 0-295

These results clearly show the correctness of Sir Charles
Fox’s foresight, that the composition of the rust of iron is
far more complicated than is stated in our text books.
Therefore the question may be asked, is the oxidation of iron
due to the direct action of the oxygen of the atmosphere, or
to the decomposition of its aqueous vapour; or does the very
small quantity of carbonic acid which it contains determine
or intensify the oxidation of metallic iron? To reply to
it I have made a long series of experiments, extending
over two years, and which I hope will throw some light on
this very important question.

Perfectly cleaned blades of steel and iron having a gutta
percha mass at one end, were introduced in tubes which
were placed over a mercury trough, and by a current of
pure oxygen conducted to the top of the experimental tube,
the atmosphre was displaced, and it was then easy to intro-
duce in these tubes traces of moisture, carbonic acid, and
ammonia,

After a period of 4 months the blades of iron so exposed
gave the following results: —

Dry Oxygen

Damp „

Dry Carbonic Acid

Damp „

.No oxidation.

In three experiments only one
blade slightly oxidised.

No oxidation.

Slight appearance of a white
precipitate of the iron, found
to be carbonate of iron. Two
only out of six experiments

did not give these results.

100

Dry Carbonic Acid and Oxygen... No oxidation.

' Oxidation most

Damp Oxygen and Carbonic Acid

rapid, a few
hours being sufficient. The
blade assumed a dark green
colour, which then turned
brown ochre.

Dry Oxygen and Ammonia No oxidation.

Damp „ „ No oxidation.

The above results prove that under the conditions
described, pure and dry oxygen does not determine the oxida-
tion of iron, that moist oxygen has only feeble action; dry
or moist pure carbonic acid has no action, but that moist
oxygen containing traces of carbonic acid acts most rapidly
on iron, giving rise to protoxide of iron, then to carbonate
of the same oxide, and last to a mixture of saline oxide and
hydrate of the sesquioxide of iron.

These facts tend to show that carbonic acid is the agent
which determines the oxidation of iron, and justifies me in
assuming that it is the presence of carbonic acid in the
atmosphere, and not its oxygen or its aqueous vapour,
which determines the oxidation of iron in common air.
Although this statement may be objected to at first sight,
on the ground of the small amount of carbonic acid gas
existing in the atmosphere, still we must bear in mind that
a piece of iron, when exposed to atmospheric influences,
comes in contact with large quantities of carbonic acid
during 24 hours.

These results appeared to me so interesting that I decided
to institute several series of experiments.

When perfectly clean blades of the best quality of com-
mercial iron are placed in ordinary Manchester water they
rust with great facility, but if the water is previously well
boiled and deprived of oxygen and carbonic acid, they will
not rust for several weeks. Again, if a blade of the same
metal is half immersed in a bottle containing equal volumes
of pure distilled water and oxygen, that portion dipping in
the water becomes rapidly covered with tire hydrate of the
peroxide of iron, whilst the upper part of the blade remains
for weeks unoxidized; but if a blade be placed in a mixture of

101

carbonic acid and oxygen, a very different chemical action
ensues, as not only that portion of the blade dipping in the
water is rapidly attacked, but the upper part of it imme-
diately shows the result of chemical action, and also the sub-
sequent chemical re-actions are greatly modified by the
presence of the carbonic acid. For in this case that portion
of the blade is only covered with a film of carbon, together
with a dark deposit, composed of carbonate of the protoxide
and hydrate of the sesquioxide. The fluid, instead of
remaining clear, becomes turbid.

These series of experiments substantiate the interesting
fact observed — that carbonic acid promotes oxidation.

A long series of experiments were also made to try and
throw some light on the curious fact, first published by
Berzelius, subsequently studied by other chemists, and well
known to soap and alkali manufacturers, namely, that
caustic alkalies prevent the oxidation of iron; my researches
can be resumed as follows: —

1st. That the carbonates and bicarbonates of the alkalies
possess the same property as their hydrates ; and

2nd. That if an iron blade is half immersed in a solution
of the above-mentioned carbonates, they exert such a pre-
servative influence on that portion of the bar which is
exposed to an atmosphere of common air (oxygen and
carbonic acid), that it does not oxidize even after a period
of two years.

Similar results were obtained with sea water, to which
had been added carbonates of potash and soda.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

January 9th, 1871.

J. Baxendell, F.B.A.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

“ On Carex jtava L., and its allies, of the Manchester
Flora,” by Charles Bailey.

102

Some discussion having taken place at a recent meeting of
the section, in regard to the distribution of the Carex fiava
group in this district, I present the following notes upon the
matter, illustrating them by a large suite of specimens.

The prevailing form in the district, and one very common
to the south of Manchester, is the Carex lepidocarpa
Tausch.; this is the C. (Ederl Sm., and of Grindon’s Man-
chester Flora, and the C. fiava var. j3 of Buxton’s Guide.
The true C. fiava (a- genuina E.B.), as stated long ago by
Mr. Buxton, is nowhere met with in the district. Speci-
mens of G. CEderi Ehrh., from Mere Mere, the locality
mentioned in Buxton’s Botanical Guide, were recently
exhibited at a meeting of the Society, and the sandhills at
Southport are, so far as I know, the only other locality in
the neighbourhood for this species.

There is some confusion in the nomenclature of the group)
and the characters given in our standard authority — English
Botany, 3rd edition — do not altogether dispel it. In that
work, Dr. Syme describes C. eu-flava, (3. lepidocarpa as
usually having the male spikes sessile or subsessile, and the
female spikes as being all approximate, or the lowest a
little remote when its stalk is said to be wholly included
within the sheath. The Manchester plant however has the
male spike stalked, the peduncles being often of great
length, while the female spikes are scarcely approximate,
but rather scattered, and the lower spike is generally pro-
duced, its stalk being conspicuously exserted. The fruits are
more narrowed at the base than represented in “English
Botany,” and the bracts are very long, much exceeding the
male spike.

There are two forms of C. lepidocarpa Tausch. in the
district; the more common one, which occurs in fields and
open ground, has the leaves as long as or longer than the
somewhat thick and rigid stems, but the latter are without
the roughness at the summit described by Grenier and
Godron, in their Flore de France; the fruit is slightly inflated,
and the beak long but straight. The single specimen which
I possess of Billot’s No. 2159 (FI. Gall. ot. Germ, exsicc.)

103

closely approaches this form, hut it is less rigid, and has only
a single spike of fruits.

The other form, occurring in damp ground amongst long
grass, is much taller and more slender than that just named;
its stems exceed the leaves, and the fruit is less inflated, so
as to be gradually attenuated into a beak. Some plants of
this form, which I collected at Oakmere, Cheshire, and at
Whaley Bridge, Derbyshire, near the reservoir, agree very
well with the plant issued in Wirtgen’s Herb, plant, select.,
Fasc. VI., No. 287, the chief difference being that the
Rhenish plant has the beak more recurved.

Billot’s specimens of C. flava L., from the fosse of the
citadel of Strasbourg (No. 2158), quoted by Dr. Syme as
synonymous with his var. a. genuina, do not quite agree
with any Scotch or north English plant which I have
gathered or seen. Dr. Syme describes the female spikes
of genuina as not contiguous, but they are all contiguous
in the Strasbourg plant, while the leaves are rather longer
than the stems, and the lowest bract greatly exceeds the
male spike — the contrary being stated inE.B. to be the case.

It may be mentioned that Godron, in the FI. de France,
t. III., p. 424, like Dr. Syme, divides C. eu-jlava into var. a.
genuina and (3. lepidocarpa, the former having approxi-
mate, and the latter slightly scattered spikes, while the var.
a. genuina of E.B. has the spikes not contiguous, and (3.
lepidocarpa all approximate. The plants of the north of
England which I have examined agree better with Godron’s
characters.

The figure of C. (Ederi Ehrh., given in “English Botany,”
No. 1G74, very accurately represents the plants of Mere
Mere and Southport, which also agree with Belgian speci-
mens published in Van Heurck’s “Herbier des plantes rares ou
crit.,” No. 189. But Dr. Syme quotes Billot’s plant (FI. Gall,
et. Germ, exsicc., No. 1352) as identical with this species,
whereas the specimens in my set differ greatly from the
E.B. plate and description. In Billot’s plant the male
spikes are on long stalks, while the female spikes are widely
separated from each other, and are not as spreading as they

104

are represented in “ English Botany”; the fruits also differ
in not being abruptly narrowed or inflated, and the beak,
instead of being short and straight, as in the Manchester
plants, is somewhat long and slightly recurved. It is worth
noticing, as bearing upon the specific distinctness of this
plant, that M. Crepin, in his “Manuel de la Flore de Belgique,”
mentions that it is remarkable in its shoots, putting forth
every year new tufts of leaves and new stems, — which I
understand to mean that fresh stems appeal1 simultaneously
with the new leaves, instead of the stems being produced
from the tufts of the preceding season, as in most sedges.

Mr. Sidebotham said that this group of plants was in
considerable confusion, some botanists classing all together,
and scarcely noticing the different forms even as varieties;
others, both British and Continental, whilst distinguishing
the forms, were by no means agreed as to the nomenclature.

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited a large series of each of the
plants from various localities, and gave it as his opinion
that they were three distinct species, not difficult to sepa-
rate, even in their extreme forms, and he extended to all
three the remark of Professor Syme, in the new edition of
“English Botany,” where he says, that although it might
sometimes be difficult at first sight to distinguish the species,
when a dried specimen only was seen, he had never found
the least difficulty when the plants were growing.

The following short characters were, he thought, quite
sufficient to separate the species from each other.

Carex Jlava. Fruit yellow, nuts large, beak very long,
deflexed.

Carex lepidocarpa. Fruit pale green or yellowish green,
nuts smaller and beak shorter than in C. Jiava, beak straight.

Carex OEderi. Fruit pale yellow, nuts very much smaller
than preceding, and more globular, beak very much shorter,
straight.

Mr. Sidebotham had never gathered Carex flava in the
Manchester district, although abundant in the north of Lan-
cashire, and he reported Carex (Ederi as occurring abund-
antly at Llandudno.

105

Ordinary Meeting, February 7th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

“On the Organisation of an Undescribed Yerticillate
Strobilus from the Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire,” by
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., &c.

The author directed attention to the existing state of know-
ledge in reference to internal structure of the organisms
long known as Volkmannke, pointing out the publication,
1st, of one form, by Mr. Binney, subsequently described also
by Mr. Carruthers from Mr. Binney’s sections, and 2nd, of a
second type published by himself. He then proceeded to
describe a third type from a specimen discovered in the
lower coal measures by Mr. J. Butter worth. This is an

oblong strobilus of a lax and slender habit. Its central
axis consisted of a bundle of vessels the transverse section
of which was a triangle with concave sides and truncated
angles. This was surrounded by a broad cylinder of delicate
cellular tissue, which again was enveloped by an outer
cylinder of prosenchymatous cellular tissue of a dense
character. At each node this latter tissue extended out-
wards as a thick continuous disk, which, at a little distance
from the central axis, became subdivided into a peripheral
circle of stiff prosenchymatous bracts, the flattened extremi-
ties of which stretched upwards and outwards. The upper
Proceedings — Lit, & Phil. Soo. — Vol. X. — No, 10. — Session 1870-71.

106

part of each undivided disk gave off a large number of
slender sporangiophores, many of which ran along the upper
surfaces of the disks and bracts to reach the more peripheral
sporangia. These sporangia were large and conspicuous —
those belonging to each segment being arranged nearly in a
plane parallel to the disk — and in four irregular concentric
circles. Each sporangium appears to have been attached to
the disk by a separate sporangiophore. The spores were
very numerous and perfectly orbicular, but their minute
organisation, like that of the cells and vessels of the oi’gan-
ism, was masked by the mineralisation which it had under-
gone, being preserved in a highly crystalline carbonate of
lime. The author then proceeded to examine the probable
affinities of the several forms of strobilus of which the
structure is now known. One, which he previously described
in the Memoirs of the Society he assigns to Calamites.
The other two, viz., that originally figured by Mr. Binney
and that now described, he believes to belong to the Annu-
larian forms of vegetation. Two varieties of verticillate
foliage have most probably been confounded under the
names of Asterophyllites and Annularia — the one being that
of the Calamitean plants, the other belonging to the genera of
Asterophyllites and Sphenophyllum, and it is to one or the
other of these two genera that the strobilus now described,
as well as that figured by Mr. Binney, appear to belong.
The structure of their central axes is what the author chiefly
relies upon in arriving at these conclusions. The name of
Volhnannia Dcnvsoni is provisionally proposed for this new
strobilus, in honour of the distinguished Principal of M’Gill
College at Montreal, and in recognition of his valuable eluci-
dations of Canadian phytology.

107

“ The Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona, and the Aurora ,
considered as Electric Phenomena, Part II.,” by Professor
Osboene Reynolds, M.A.

In the paper which I read before this society, on the 29th
of November last, I endeavoured to show that it is probable
that these phenomena are a species of that action known
as the electric brush taking place in the medium which
fills space, be it ether or simply gas, or both. The
reasoning I made use of was, essentially a fortiori. I
pointed to the fact that tho electric brush as seen in
the Geissler tubes exhibits similar appearances, and that
at the times of greatest display on the part of comets
and the aurora similar conditions are present, such as a
change in the action of the sun, conditions which, to say
nothing more, are favourable to electric disturbance. I
purposely avoided all attempts to explain how the brush
may be produced, feeling that it was sufficient to point to
the aurora, which is universally admitted to be electrical,
as a proof that such phenomena do exist even if we cannot
explain how. This proof, however, is perhaps not quite
satisfactory. In order that it may be complete, the other
phenomena must be produced in the same way as the aurora,
and this, although possible, is not necessary. An assumption
which is commonly made respecting the phenomena of the
aurora cannot be made with respect to the others. This
assumption assigns the two magnetic poles of the earth as the
two electrodes between which the electric discharge takes
place, which forms the aurora borealis and the australis. If
this assumption be maintained, some other explanation must
be found for the manner in which electricity may form the
tails of comets and the corona. It is quite clear that the

108

tail of a comet cannot be due to a discharge between two
electrodes situated on the comet itself. In the same way,
from the position occupied by the corona, it can hardly be
due to electricity passing between two electrodes on the sum
In fact, if a comet’s tail is electrical, it is due to a discharge
of electricity of one kind or another from the comet, which
for the time answers to one of the electrodes only. The
same may be said of the corona and the sun. If we could
observe the aurora from a point distant from the earth,
it is very probable that we should find the same to be
the case, but whether this would be so or not, an assump-
tion has been made as to the cause and nature of the
aurora, which will answer just as well for the corona and
comet’s tails : it is, that the sun acting by evaporation or
otherwise, causes continual electric disturbance between the
earth and its atmosphere, the solid earth being negatively
charged and the atmosphere positively, and that the aurora
is the reunion of these electi’icities taking place in the
atmosphere.

Now as has been already said, this assumption will serve
for the comets and the sun as well as for the aurora. If
there is a continual electric disturbance between the sun
and the medium in which it is placed, so that the sun be-
comes negatively and the medium positively charged, the
reunion of these electricities would form the corona. It
must not be supposed that I assume the sun to be a reser-
voir of electricity which it is continually pouring into space.

I consider that the supply of electricity in the sun is kept
up by some physical action going on between the sun and
the medium of space, whereby the sun becomes negatively
charged, and the medium positively.

109

This may be well illustrated by reference to the common
electrical machine : here the motion of the glass against the
rubber causes the glass to become positively and the rubber
negatively charged; and these electricities do not unite
instantly there and then, but remain and accumulate in the
respective bodies, until collected and brought together again
by the conductor.

Assume then, that the sun is in the position of the
rubber, while the ether is in that of the glass : then
the corona corresponds to the spark or brush which leaves
the conductor. On the same assumption the negative elec-
tricity of the comet would be more and more set free by the
inductive action of the sun as the comet approached it, and
would also be driven off by induction in a direction opposite
to that of the sun ; and combining with the positive electri-
city in the ether would form the tail of the comet, in a
manner anologus to that in which a negative spark is given
off by the lid of the electrophorus.

I think that a rational account may in this way be given
of the manner of the electrical action to which I have
attributed these phenomena, but I do not consider that the
probability of the truth of this electrical hypothesis depends
on the value of such an explanation. It is an assumption
based on the manner in which it fits into its place, and
explains the appearances presented by these beautiful
phenomena.

Since this paper was written, my attention has been called
to the fact that Mr. Richard Proctor has published views
of these phenomena, which somewhat resemble mine. He
attributes them in part to electricity and in part to meteors.
There is however this fundamental difference between our

110

views, that he considers the tails of comets as consisting of
cometary matter, the difficulty of conceiving which was the
origin of these speculations. Moreover, I can conceive no
electric discharge between two meteors without a medium
between them, and if there is a medium, why is there any
necessity for meteors ? If, as I see good reason to suppose,
gas, when glowing with electricity, reflects or scatters rather
than absorbs light of the wave-length which it radiates, that
portion of the coronal light, which is polarized and as-
sumed to be reflected, will be accounted for. I think that
the recent observations have confirmed the probability of
these speculations, inasmuch as they have confirmed the facts
on which these speculations were based. There is one point
which has not been already noticed, but which seems to me
to be of some importance.

If the corona be an electric discharge, the electricity will
be continually carrying off some of the elements of the sun
into space where they will be deposited and condensed.
May not this stream of matter be the cause of the existence
of small meteors, and supply the place of those which con-
tinually fall into the larger bodies ?

“Further Experiments on the Effects of Cold upon Cast
Iron,” by Peter Spence, F.C.S., &c.

In resuming these experiments upon the effects of cold
on cast iron, it is not necessary for me to say that I was led
to resume them from the apparent undecisiveness of all the
experiments brought before the Society some time ago, my
own being included in that category, none of them being so
free from possible sources of error as to be fitted for finally
settling the matter.

In the experiments which I have now to bring before the
Society I have limited my aim to a single point, namely, as
to whether the reduction of temperature has any, and if so
what effect on cast iron in regard to its powers of resisting

Ill

transverse strain either of weight or pressure, and it appears
to me that if this point can be satisfactorily settled it will
go a long way in settling the other points now in dispute.

As my object, in showing that I have in these experi-
ments eliminated as far as seems possible all sources of error,
will be best effected by minute detail, you will excuse any-
thing that may seem trifling. As I was not trying the
absolute strength of any sort of cast iron I did not see the
force of Mr. Brockbank’s objection to my using Jin. bars
instead of the orthodox lin. bars. I could obtain Jin. bars
equally good castings, and the machinery for breaking them
was more manageable and in my opinion more exact.

Messrs. Rye, Son, and Ogden, of Newton Heath, kindly
undertook to make for me 50 bars, each 3ft. long by Jin.
square, all out of one ladle, and of No. 3 Glengarnock pig
and Kirkless Hall common pig — I name these although it
does not seem of importance ; all I wanted was good, sound,
clean, and equal castings; and, knowing the purpose for
which they were intended, with great care they turned
them out so good that not one of those sent to me was
rejected. I now cut each of these bars into tlmee lengths
of lfo. each, and as they were cut they were thrown into a
heap making nearly 150 pieces. They were now taken and
all their ends covered with paint, in order that the new
fracture might be examined as they were broken. The heap
was then brought into the laboratory, having thus had three
chances of perfect mixing. A boy of 11 years of age now
handed me the pieces singly from the heap, and as I
received them I placed them alternately one by one in two
lots, until I had got 70 pieces in each lot. One of these was
now taken and put into a cask capable of holding 2cwt. to
3cwt. of freezing mixture composed of pounded ice and
chloride of sodium (which instantly reduces the temperatui'e
to zero), and being surrounded with sawdust, they were
kept there for nearly 4S hours.

112

The other 70 were now put into water at 70° Fah,
and this was done chiefly in order that they might be
broken wet, as those would necessarily be when taken out
of the freezing mixture.

The mode of breaking was this : — I put a bar on the
suspending wedges, then hooked on the weight scale, and
with a number of weights much under the breaking load,
raised the loose end of the plank by the screw jack so as to
bring the weights to bear. I now added single pounds or
21b. weights till 151b. were put on, these were then taken
off and a 141b. weight was placed and single pounds again
put on, thus regularly adding till the bar snapped ; I then
recorded the breaking weight, my assistant meantime put-
ting on another bar. I spent nearly eight hours in breaking
these 70 bars, and every one got an equal amount of care.

On opening up the freezing mixture 44 hours after
enclosing it, I found it in perfect condition, little solution
and no increase of temperature having taken place. The
bars were taken into the laboratory in small lots and im-
mersed in another freezing mixture, from which they were
withdrawn singly with pliers. Having seized one piece with
too firm a grasp I found that my fingers grew white and
produced an intense pain as if burned. Some of the freezing-
mixture was spread on each bar by a spatula while on the
the machine, so that every one was broken at a temperature
within one or two degrees of zero. The mode of breaking
was exactly similar to that employed with the other lot, and
equal care was given to every bar. This I can affirm, as
every one of them was broken by myself, and all entries
made by myself.

The results are before you, and to me it was a matter of
surprise, when both sets were completed and added up, to
find that they almost exactly corroborated my previous
experiments, which I do not think were fallacious in their
character, but merely defective in their not covering a suffi-

113

cient amount of ground to give certainty to the result. I
have however so much confidence in those now detailed,
that I have no hesitation in giving it as an ascertained
law, that a specimen of cast iron having at 70° Fah. a given
power of resistance to transverse strain, will on its tempera-
ture being reduced to zero have that power increased by
3 per cent.

Breaking weight of Jin. square,
iron bars, 9in. between points of
pension at 70 deg. Fakr,

cast

sus-

Breaking weight of .Jin. square cast
iron bars, 9in. between points of sus-
pension at Zero.

Cwt. Qrs. Lbs.

Cwt. Qrs. Lbs.
Btfd.129 2 21

Cwt. Qrs.

Lbs.

Cwt. Qrs. Lbs.
Bt.fd. 139 1 22

JNo. 1

4

0

14

No. 36

3

3

14

No. 1

4

1

15

No. 36

3

2

25

2

4

3

26

37

4

2

24

2

4

0

14

37

5

0

14

3

3

2

2

38

4

1

1

2

3

0

10

38

4

0

4

4

3

0

14

39

4

1

14

4

3

0

6

39

3

3

4

5

3

3

16

40

3

3

12 1

5

2

3

20

40

4

1

15

6

3

2

14

41

4

0

14

6

3

3

18

41

3

0

12

7

3

2

10

42

3

0

14

7

3

1

12

42

3

1

0

8

3

0

0

43

4

0

6 i

8

4

2

14

43

4

2

8

9

3

3

0

44

3

2

1

9

4

0

22

44

3

3

22

10

3

1

1

45

4

0

0

10

4

1

15

45

3

2

0

11

3

1

14

46

4

0

27

11

4

0

14

46

4

2

1

12

3

1

14

47

4

0

22

12

4

2

1

47

4

1

1

13

3

1

24

48

3

0

2

13

3

1

26

48

4

0

4

14

3

0

14

49

3

3

14

14

4

0

4

49

4

0

3

15

3

3

0

50

4

1

8

15

3

2

8

50

4

2

14

16

2

3

14

51

4

1

15

16

4

3

0

51

4

0

12

17

4

2

8

52

4

0

24

17

4

1

15

52

3

0

18

18

4

1

1

53

3

0

5

18

3

2

i

53

3

2

8

19

3

1

0

54

3

2

27

19

4

1

15

54

4

0

15

20

3

3

20

65

4

3

0

20

4

2

1

55

4

1

12

21

4

1

0

56

3

2

4

21

4

2

24

56

3

1

13

22

3

0

12

57

4

0

12

22

3

2

26

57

4

1

26

23

4

1

0

58

4

0

14

23

4

1

1

58

2

3

10 ■

24

3

3

14

59

4

0

0

24

4

1

26

59

4

1

26

25

4

0

0

60

4

1

1

25

3

3

12

60

3

2

20

26

3

2

14

61

4

0

18 1

23

3

0

14

61

4

0

0

27

3

1

18

62

4

0

12 1

27

4

1

15

62

3

2

24

28

3

2

22

63

4

0

11

28

3

0

12

63

3

O

o

15

29

4

0

14

64

4

0

4

29

4

2

14

61

3

0

20

30

3

3

1

65

3

3

10

30

3

2

15

65

4

0

14

31

4

0

26

66

3

1

18

31

3

0

22

66

4

0

4

32

3

3

8

67

3

1

7

32

4

3

13

67

3

0

20 ;

33

4

2

7

68

3

2

6

33

4

1

14

68

3

2

12

34

2

2

14

69

4

3

0

34

4

0

13

69

4

2

1

35

3

2

1

70

4

1

0

35

3

2

18

70

4

0

1

Ford. 129

2

21

268

3

is !

Ford. 139

1

22

276

3

0

Fahr. Cwt.

At 70 deg. 268
At Zero 276

Qrs. Lbs.
3 18

3 0

Mr. Thomas Carrick called attention to the fact that the

114

tabulated statement of Mr. Spence’s experiments showed a
maximum breaking weight of about ocwt. and a minimum
of about 3cwt. The mininum breaking weight was there-
fore 40 per cent less than the maximum. With experi-
ments showing such an excessive range in the breaking
weight of bars, which from the care taken in their produc-
tion ought presumably to have been homogeneous in quality,
it was very unsafe to rely upon a resulting difference of
only 3 per cent derived from separately adding the breaking
weights of each set together and comparing the gross results.
The iron used was obviously of an inferior quality and quite
unsuitable for the purpose of reliable experiments.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

January 30th, 1871-

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., exhibited sections of the
calcareous nodules from the Gannister coals of lower coal
measures of Oldham, in which the intimate structure of the
various forms of carboniferous vegetation were admirably
preserved. He also brought before the notice of the Society
a series of microscopical sections of coal prepared by Mi\
Newton, in which the spores and sporangia present in all
bituminous coals, and from which a large percentage of their

115

bituminous properties was derived, were clearly to be seen.
None of these minute bodies have been discovered in
anthracite.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., then called the attention of
the Society to a series of fossils on the table in which the
original matter of the hard parts of the living creature had
been more or less removed, and replaced by various minerals
which happened to be in solution in the matrix in which
they were imbedded. Thus the Trigonia Moretonis of the
Stonesfield slate was proved to be a mere cast in calcite of
the space once occupied by the shell of the creature. The
calcification of the ligament in Cypricardia rostrata and
Cardium Stricklandi from the great oolite of Enslow
Bridge (Oxon), and its identity of structure with the valves,
showed also that the whole of the original hard parts had
disappeared before their replacement by calcite. The same
fact was shown to hold good in the case of the corals, which
only show organic structure on the outside of the fossil. In
some cases, however, the structure of the outer surface has
been carried inwards by the petrifying material, as in a case of
Nuceolites dvmidiatus from the coral rag, in which the
ambulacral pores and the shape of the angular plates com-
posing the test were carried inwards to the centre of the
calcareous spar which now fills the space occupied by the
soft parts. Other specimens showed that the calcareous
shell had been replaced by sulphide of iron, phosphate
of lime, sulphate of baryta, or by silica. The hard parts
of the vertebrata are better preserved in their original
condition than fossil shells, from the insolubility of the phos-
phate of lime in the bones and teeth,

116

A comparison of the various substances of which fossils
are composed leads to the conclusion that very little of the
original matter of the hard parts is preserved, and that very
generally the fossil is a mere cast of the original, filled with
whatever mineral happened to be in solution in the stratum
in which it is imbedded. In some cases the cast exhibits
the minute structure of the original, as in the case of the
Yorkshire hazel nuts in the Oxford Museum, in which the
kernels have been converted atom by atom into calcite
without the cellular arrangement of the oi'iginal being dis-
turbed, and without the shell being altered in any degree.
The fact that our knowledge of animal life in past time
depends principally on mere casts of the hard parts which
happened to be imbedded in the strata demonstrates the
truth of Mr. Darwin’s view that the geological record is
very imperfect.

Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., exhibited some
specimens of Stigmaria, and indicated their bearing upon
views advanced even by the most recent writers on the sub-
ject. He demonstrated that the centre of the axis was
occupied by a pith of delicate parenchyma, wholly devoid of
the vessels described and figured by Goeppert, and which
certainly never belonged to the part of ‘the plant in which
he figured them. The lenticular spaces long known to exist
in the lignous zone surrounding the medulla, Professor Wil
liamson showed to be true medullary rays, occupied by
mural cellular tissue prolonged directly from the medullary
parenchyma. Besides these, smaller or secondary medullary
rays separate many of the individual laminae of the vascular
tissue. He then pointed out the truo source of the vascu-

117

lar bundles, which proceed to the large cylindrical rootlets
of the plant. The radiating series of vessels which are im-
mediately vertical to each of the quincunctially disposed
lenticular medullary rays are projected downwards for a short
distance, like a tongue, into the lenticular spaces. Down to
this point, the component vessels are disposed vertically,
hut they became suddenly deflected outwards, at right
angles to their previous course, to reach the rootlets for
which they are severally destined. The deflected vessels
are very numerous, but the greater part of them disappear
in succession, only a limited number finally constituting the
bundle occupying the centre of each rootlet.

Professor Williamson pointed out the important bearing
which these facts have upon the affinities of the Sigillaria of
which Stigmaria is the root. He showed that not only the
true Lepidodendra, but also the Lepidodendroid stems which
Mr. Binney has described under the name of Sigillaria Vas-
cularis, never could have belonged to the same plant as these
Stigmarian roots. In the plants indicated the central or
medullary axis is occupied by scalariform vessels intermingled
with remarkable forms of scalariform cells, as already shown
in the case of Lepidodendra by Mr. Carruthers, and which
equally characterise the other plants referred to. It appears
improbable, being contrary to all known facts, that the serial
stem should have such a structure, whilst in the roots its
vascular scalariform tissues were replaced by cellular paren-
chyma of an altogether different type and character. The
conclusion to be drawn from these observations is that we
are yet as far as ever from all actual knowledge of the inter-
nal organisation of the Sigillarne. For the two principal
specimens from which the above conclusions were drawn,

118

Professor Williamson was indebted to Mr. Whittaker, of
Oldham, and for others of a similar kind to Mr. Butterworth,
of Shaw.

“ On the Cultivation of Madder in Derbyshire,” by Joseph
SlDEBOTHAM, F.RA.S.

Several attempts have been made to cultivate madder in
England and Ireland, but the records of the experiments
are very meagre and unsatisfactory, and one can only judge
their want of success from the fact that they are not re-
peated.

Being desirous of ascertaining the capabilities of our soil
and climate for this branch of farming, and having suitable
land at our disposal at Strines, Mr. Nevill and I determined
to try the experiment, the results of which I have now the
honour to lay before you.

In order to make the matter plain to those who do not
understand the different qualities of madder, it is necessary
to give a few words of explanation.

Madder is the root of Rubia tinctoria, by some authorities
supposed to be a mere cultivated variety of a plant indige-
nous to this country, and found wild in many places in the
limestone districts on rocks and walls. This plant is culti-
vated for the purpose of dyeing in many parts of Europe
and in India.

Its qualities vary much ; that from Holland, called Dutch
Madder, will dye red, but not purple, and the colour is not
fast ; that from Italy, called Naples Madder, d}ms good reds
and purples, but the colour is also loose ; that from Turkey,
dyes good reds and purples, and is very fast; from France we
get two qualities, called respectively roses, from their dyeing

119

beautiful reds and pinks, and Paluds, the latter being a name
given because the roots are grown on marshy land. The
latter yield, besides the fine reds, also a good purple, nearly
allied to that produced by Turkey roots.

For the purpose of the experiment we selected a piece of
rich land, near the river, at Strines, a little less than an
acre, and having prepared it in the usual manner, we had it
sown with seed from fine Palud madder, early in the Spring
of 1868. The weather was unusually dry and the ground
produced a crop of remarkably fine polygonum aviculare,
which almost choked the young madder seedlings. (I am
inclined to think the seed of this polygonum were mixed
with the madder seed.) In the Autumn the madder plants
came into flower, and the roots of some pulled up measured
13 inches in length.

The field was weeded, and the plants came up in the
Spring of 1869, very strong and healthy, and so on until
August, 1871, when we had them dug up. To produce the
best results the roots should have remained another year in
the ground, but for the purpose of our experiment this
growth was considered sufficient. As to yield, the quantity
produced was small, probably owing to the very dry season
after sowing ; in appearance and size the roots were about
equal to fine French roots, but on breaking them, instead
of the deep red colour in the best French roots these were
orange, or yellow.

The dyeing properties were of a very disappointing nature:
out of the dye the colours looked full, but on being cleared
with soap they were found to be loose, and precisely in char-
acter like Dutch madder, the reds and pinks being weak
and loose, and the purple element entirely wanting. From

120

a single experiment it would be unwise to do more than
hazard an opinion, as more extended experiments might lead
to other results ; but I think it probable that the deficiency
of colouring matter in these English madder roots is owing
to a deficiency of sun and heat. It would not be easy in this
country to select a more likely soil for the purpose than that
at Strines, and the seed was obtained from a district where
the best quality of French madder is grown.

It is said to be a fact that French seed when sown in
Holland does not produce a French quality of roots, but one
similar in every way to the usual Dutch madder. This, if
correct, would support my opinion.

I have here to illustrate this subject, specimens of the
various madders in the root and ground state, also the colours
produced by each, and the relative degree of fastness, ex-
hibited by portions of each being subjected to boiling soap.

i

i

121

Ordinary Meeting, February 21st, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

“ The Overthrow of the Science of Electro-Dynamics,” by
John Hopkinson, D.Sc.

In science no theory should be considered unquestionable
and no man’s work held sacred from attack, and our scienti-
fic periodicals should afford the freest scope to discussions
no matter how hostile to established notions. Still it is
evident that the journals ought not to publish everything
that may come to hand; they should at least take care that
a hostile critic understands the meaning of what he criticises.

Two papers appeared last month in the “ Quarterly Jour-
nal of Science” and the “ Chemical News” respectively, in
which the author (the Rev, Mr. Highton) somewhat summa-
rily disposes of the science of Thermodynamics, fancying he
has disproved the equivalence of heat and work. I will
only trouble you with one or two quotations with a view
to support my opinion that the papers in question ought
never to have been permitted to appear in any journal pre-
tending to scientific position.

In the “ Chemical News,” p. 42, we find, speaking of Joule
and Scoresby’s experiments on electro-dynamic engines —
“They say that ‘the quantities of zinc consumed’ (that is,
respectively, when the engine is at rest and doing work)

‘ being as a to b, (a — b ) represents the quantity of heat con-
verted by the engine into useful mechanical effect.’ There-
fore, since on the supposition of a mechanical equivalent of
heat a grain of zinc consumed equals 158 foot pounds, if
x = pounds raised a foot high per consumption of a grain
of zinc in the battery, —

_{a-b) 158
oc —

a

PBOOEEDIN03— Lit. & Phil. Soc — Vox. X.— No. 11.— Session 1870-71.

122

Hence the authors draw the conclusion : — ‘ Therefore when
b vanishes, or becomes infinitely small, the economical
duty is a maximum.’ Certainly this is a most startling
result; that the maximum of work should be done when
no zinc at all is consumed.” The last sentence is a mis-
statement of the conclusions of Joule and Scoresby’s paper,
in which (Philosophical Magazine, vol. 28, p. 451) it is
stated that “ the economical duty will be a maximum when
b vanishes or becomes infinitely small in comparison with a.
In this case sc =158, while the power of the engine will
become infinitely small with regard to work performed in a
given time.” Comparing the phrases ‘ economical duty’ and
‘ maximum of work,’ as he uses them, he evidently confuses
the duty of an engine with the whole work done by it.

A little further on we have — “ They calculate the maxi-
mum theoretical power of a grain of zinc to be 158 foot
pounds, and yet using permanent magnets, which, by their
own statement, were so badly constructed as to have only a
quarter the power they ought to have had, with the poles
of the electromagnets never approaching the permanent
magnets nearer than \ of an inch (and what an enormous
loss is incurred here!); with an engine constructed almost
at haphazard, and with scarcely a consideration of the best
principles or of the most advantageous construction of such
engines, they actually obtained a result of 1029 foot pounds
out of a calculated theoretical maximum of 158. With a
little care and consideration, I do not hesitate to say the
duty per grain of zinc might easily have been increased
tenfold.” It is hardly credible, but the above looks very
like a confusion between Force and Work ! The author
seems to assume that if the forces in operation in an engine
are greater, that the engine will necessarily produce more
work from the same quantity of fuel. In these experiments
the quantity of zinc (a — b) used to produce work W is
observed; if the engine was made more powerful, if the

123

permanent magnets were four times as strong, and the
electro-magnets passed § of an inch from them, doubtless W
would be greater, but so also would (a — b), and it does not
W

follow that , -r with which we are concerned would be at

(a-b)

all changed. What becomes then of the dogmatic assertion
that the duty of a grain of zinc could he increased tenfold ?

Now let us turn to the paper in the “ Quarterly Journal.”
Here we may find enough in one article for our present
purpose, taking chap. II. Art. 2. — “ Why are we forced to

suppose that the same amount of fuel produces the

same amount of energy, whether it is consumed in the steam

engine, the horse the gnat ? At any rate, we may

observe that the very phrase is certainly a misnomer, and a
misnomer of such a kind as to have a fatal effect in pro-
ducing a false conception of things. For mechanical energy
just as often produces cold as heat ; it may produce either
heat or cold, or neither. In fact, as a general rule, though
with notable exceptions, every pushing or compressing force
produces heat, and every pulling or expanding force cold.
Place a weight on a pillar, and the weight produces heat in
the pillar ; hang it on a wire and it cools the wire.” “ In ex-
actly the same way, in a fire-syringe use force to press down
the piston, it produces heat — heat enough to kindle tinder ;
but use the same force to pull up the piston, and it produces
cold.” Surely this is enough to show that the author’s notions
of what he is attacking are, to say the least of it, shallow;
for what he quotes as paradoxes are simple deductions from
the two laws of Thermodynamics. That a wire is cooled by
stretching follows from the fact that heat expands it. In
the case of the fire-syringe the case is simpler. The work-
ing body is the air in the syringe ; on pulling up the piston
this air does work, and therefore uses up heat and is cooled.
Mr. Highton seems to imagine that because the arm of the
experimenter does work, it is done on the air in the syringe,
whereas this column of air and the observer are really
co-workers in raising the air external to the cylinder.

To point out all the fallacies of these papers in detail

124

would take too much of your time. My object was to show
that if the *• Quarterly Journal of Science” and the “ Chemi-
cal News” are to represent scientific opinion with any degree
of truth, they would do well to use a little discretion as to
what they print.

“ Remarks on Mr. Spence’s Experiments on the Effects of
Cold on the Strength of Cast Iron,” by Joseph Baxendell,

F.R.A.S.

In concluding his paper read at the last Meeting of the
Society, Mr Spence stated that “ he had so much confidence
in the experiments then detailed, that he had no hesitation in
giving it as an ascertained law, that a specimen of cast iron,
having at 70° Fall. a given power of resistance to transverse
strain will, on its temperature being reduced to zero, have that
power increased by 3 per cent.” Now, in physical investiga-
tions it is often very hazardous to rely too much on the
simple means of sets of experiments or observations, however
numerous, unless the theory of errors has been employed to
test their value; and in the inquiry as to the effect of cold
on iron, this remark applies with peculiar force.

Mr. Carrick lias objected to Mr. Spence’s experiments
that the differences between some of the breaking weights
are very large; and also that the iron used was of an
inferior quality; but the quality of the iron, unless it is
actually very bad, is a matter of secondaiy importance,
since its only effect will be to increase the range and
diminish the average of the breaking weights; and with
respect to the wide differences between some of the results,
this is more than compensated for by the number of the ex-
periments which is sufficiently great to afford the means of
determining approximately the law of error to which they
were subject, and thus of ascertaining whether the final
results are entitled to the high degree of confidence which
Mr. Spence has placed in them. When, however, I ran my
eye over the columns in Mr. Spence’s table after the reading
of his paper, it at once struck me that the differences of the
individual breaking weights from the mean values in both

125

sets of experiments, when calculated out, would he found to
indicate a law of error, differing considerably from the
ordinary law of simple errors of experiments or observa-
tions, and that the mean value of the minus differences
would be very sensibly greater than that of the plus
differences. I therefore calculated the means of the two
sets of experiments, and the differences of all the breaking-
weights from these means, and grouping these differences
according to their order of magnitude, I projected the
results on ruled paper, but instead of a tolerably regular
curve having only one maximum I obtained a curve having-
two well marked maxima. It was therefore at once evident
that some unsuspected condition or disturbing cause had
operated during the experiments to produce an undue
number of breaking weights considerably above, and also
considerably below, the general average. The effect, in fact,
was somewhat similar to that which would be produced by
a series of throws of a number of dice, some of which were
weighted on one side, while others were weighted on the
opposite side. I concluded, therefore, that many of the
bars used by Mr. Spence had their sides of very unequal
strength, and that it depended upon the position in which
a bar was placed when tested, whether its breaking weight
would be high or low. With the strongest side of the bar
placed downwards the breaking weight would be high, but
witli the weakest side downwards the breaking- weight
would be low. Either of the other two sides placed lowest
would in general give a breaking weight of intermediate
value. If in two sets of experiments A and B a greater
number of bars happened to be placed with their weakest
sides downwards in set A than in the set B, then the mean
of A would be less than that of B ; and this, in fact, appears
to have actually taken place in Mr. Spence’s experiments.
Thus, if we divide the set of 70 experiments made at a
temperature of 70° Fahr. into two sets of 35 each, the mean
breaking weight of the first 35 is 3cwt. 2qr. 231bs., and
that of the second 35 is 3cwt. 3qr. 25-51bs., the difference
being lqr. 2-51bs., or 2| times greater than the difference

126

between the means of the two sets of 70 each made under a
difference of temperature of 70° It is obvious, therefore,
that Mr. Spence’s experiments, though evidently made with
great care, afford no certain evidence that any sensible
change takes place in the strength of cast iron when its
temperature is reduced from 70° to zero of Fahrenheit’s scale.

As showing the little reliance to be placed, in certain
cases, on results derived from short series of experiments, I
may mention that in Mr. Spence's experiments, notwith-
standing the very great diversity in the breaking weights
of the bars used, and the care taken to mix them as much
as possible before testing, there is in one case a run of
eleven consecutive experiments in all of which the breaking
weights are below the general average; while in another
there is a run of eight in which the breaking weights are
all above the average. Similar runs of six and five each
occur several times. Facts like these will show to those
who have little experience in the application of the theory
of errors how necessary it is, in some inquiries at least, to
multiply experiments as much as possible before proceeding
to deduce results and draw conclusions. Taking all the
experiments on the effect of cold on iron which have yet
been brought before the Society, they can only be regarded
as indicating that if any effect at all is produced, it is more
apparent on iron of good quality than on inferior iron, but
that its amount is so small as to be wholly inadequate to
account for the railway and other accidents which have
been attributed to it.

Mi\ Brockbank stated that at the time he entered upon
the experiments communicated to the Society, he had no
knowledge of those made by Mr. Knut Styffe of Stockholm,
and C. P. Sandberg, A.I.C.E./of London, as detailed in the
English translation of Mr. Styffe’s work on the Strength of
Iron and Steel. He was however pleased to find that the
researches of these gentlemen confirmed the conclusions
drawn from his own experiments ; and he especially pointed
out that in Mr. Sandberg’s experiments on the Strength of
Rails, the objection raised as to the hardness of the ground

127

by frost was obviated, as the experiments were performed
upon a solid granite rock in situ, and this could not be
hardened by cold to any considerable extent so as to affect
the results, and yet in these experiments the rails are shown
“ to exhibit only from one- third to one-fourth the strength
at 10° Fahr. which they possessed at 84° Fahr.”

Dr. Joule observed that the admitted fact that the sup-
ports of the bars in Mr. Sandberg’s experiments were in a
different condition at the two temperatures rendered the
results arrived at with them valueless as evidence on the
question at issue.

“Further Observations on the Strength of Garden Nails,”
by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.RS., &c.

Since communicating the paper on the Alleged Influence
of Cold in giving Brittleness to Iron, I have collated the
results with cast iron nails in order to show the range of
strength in such specimens.

Height of Fall

Percentage of

of Hammer.

Fractures.

2 inches

0

24

,, ..........

0

3

JJ

6-25

34

v

23-5

4

JJ

30

44

36-4

54

??

37-5

64

??

48

7

62'5

7A

' 2

}>

64-3

84

J?

75

10

92-8

I chose the garden nails for experiment after some thought,
as presenting a marked variety of metal in contrast with the
iron and steel wire, tempered and untempered. I did not
expect them to possess great strength, but having found
them to require a heavier blow than I expected to fracture
them, I have had the curiosity to make some experiments
on them which may be interesting to the Society.

I took pairs of the nails, placed them head to point
parallel to each other so that pressure applied in the middle
by pincers sufficiently forcibly would fracture one of them.

128

Paper slips were pasted on the edges of the nails, and then-
distances asunder measured by a microscope with micro-
meter eyepiece divided by lines corresponding to rbv of an
inch. Weights were gradually added to the lever of one
arm of the pincers until fracture took place, which was
always accompanied with a sharp report. The observed
deflection or bending of the nails was taken continuously
as the weights were laid on, and the calculation of what it
would have been at the moment of rupture taken from the
immediately preceding observations. The amount of deflec-
tion was almost exactly proportional to the weight laid on

in each

experiment.

No. of
Experi-
ment.

1 ....

Length of
Nail between
Supports.

.. 105 ...

Breadth of
Nail in
Fracture.

... 0-13 ...

Depth of
Nail at
Fracture.

... 0-127

Deflection.

. -0062 ...

Breaking

Weight.

Lbs.

... 145-5

2 ....

.. 1-1 ...

... 0-114 ...

... 0-125

. -0067 ...

... 141

3 ....

.. M ...

... 0-120 ...

... 0-115

. -0090 ...

... 171

4 ....

.. 1-08 ...

... 0-111 ...

... 0-106

. -0073 ...

... 142-5

5 ....

.. M2 ...

... 0-122 ...

... 0-145

. -0098 ...

... 189

6 ....

.. 1-06 ...

... 0-138 ...

... 0-120

. -0087 ...

... 184-5

7 ....

.. 1-08 ...

... 0-150 ...

... 0-118

. -0095 ...

... 201

Average

1-084...

... 0-1264...

... 0-1223

. -0082 ...

... 167-8

If we

compare

the above

with Mr. Brockbank’s

experi-

ments we shall

find, approximately, on

reducing

them to

the dimensions he adopted, viz. 3 feet between supports and
1 inch section —

Breaking Weight. Deflection.

Mr. Brockbank’s, with large bars... 860 -7 -740

My own, with nails 2673- T106

The metal, in the form I used it, was therefore more than
three times as strong as that of the large bars to resist a
compressing and tensile force, while its extent of spring at
the breaking weight was half as much again. Therefore,
so far from being of inferior quality, it would sustain a very
much heavier blow without fracture.

“ On the Action of Sulphurous Acid on Phosphates,” by
Dr. B. W. Gerland. Communicated by Dr. B. Angus
Smith, F.B.S., &c.

The abstract of this paper will appear in the next
number of Proceedings.

129

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

“ The Action of Sulphurous Acid on Phosphates,” by Dr,
B. Wilhelm Gerland, Macclesfield. — Communicated by
R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The researches which this paper describes, lead to the
following conclusions : —

1. An aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide acts upon seve-
ral phosphates, not by decomposing them, like other strong
acids, but by combining with them forming, soluble com-
pounds. Basic phosphates require from 4 to 6, and neutral
phosphates 2 mols. of sulphur dioxide for solution. These
solutions part less readily with their sulphur dioxide than the
simple aqueous solution of the latter, and those of the neutral
phosphates more easily than those of the basic phosphates.
From some of these solutions the original phosphate can be
again obtained, from others a less basic salt, but the de-
composition in the solutions of this class does not proceed
to the formation of phosphoric acid.

The following phosphates belonging to this class have
been examined :

a. Tricalcium phosphate is abundantly soluble in water
and sulphur dioxide. The concentrated solutions undergo
a slow decomposition at temperatures above 18° C., and
form besides calcium sulphite, dicalcium- and mono-
calcium- phosphate. Both concentrated and dilute solutions
deposit mixtures of calcium sulphite and dicalcium hydric
phosphate by addition of alcohol, by exposure in vacuum,
or by boiling under reduced pressure. Boiling under at-

PEdcmsDiNos — Lit, & Phil. Soc.— Vol. X.— No. 12,— Session 1870-71.

130

mospheric pressure on the other hand causes the formation
of the new compound : tricalcium phosphate sulphite,

Ca3 PA, SO,, 2H,0, as a crystalline precipitate which is dis-
tinguished from the above mentioned mixtures of dicalcium
phosphate and calcium sulphite by its great stability. It
claims more general interest as being an active manure and
disinfectant. The unusual composition of this substance
made it desirable to prepare corresponding compounds of
other metals, but all attempts in that direction have been
unsuccessful.

Dicalcium hydric phosphate is readily soluble in water
charged with sulphur dioxide. From the solution the
original phosphate can be easily obtained.

b. Trimagnesium-, dimagnesium-, and magnesium-am-
monium- phosphate are dissolved in large quantities by
water charged with sulphur dioxide ; the first two Avithout
decomposition, but if an excess of the latter has been used,
dimagnesium hydric-phosphate is left undissolved. All
these solutions have a great tendency to deposit dimagne-
sium hydric phosphate in crystals.

c. Tri- and di- manganese phosphate are very soluble in
sulphur dioxide and Avater. Both solutions give crystals
in vacud, consisting principally of dimanganese phosphate,
but by boiling, precipitates of trimanganese phosphate are
formed.

cl. Copper phosphate is soluble, although in smaller quan-
tity, in an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide without
decomposition. The solution deposits at summer tempera-
ture in course of time crystals of cuprous and cupric-sul-
phite, and by boiling, cupric phosphate.

e. Uranium phosphate is very slightly soluble in Avater
charged with sulphur dioxide. The phosphate of the
original composition separates again from tho solution after
the removal of the sulphur dioxide.

/. Crystals of trisodium phosphate absorb sulphur

131

dioxide in such quantity that it would suffice to convert
all the sodium present into sodium hydric sulphite. How-
ever, alcohol separates sodium dihydric phosphate from the
solution, and less than fths of the sulphur dioxide are expelled
by boiling-. The concentrated solution obtained by satu-
rating the crystals with the gas, shows the peculiar pheno-
menon of separating into two distinct liquids by gravitation;
agitation unites these again to a perfectly homogeneous
liquid.

2. Sulphur dioxide in aqueous solution has no action
upon bismuth-, stannous-, stannic-, and metastannic- phos-
phate.

3. Sulphur dioxide and water act upon some phosphates
in the same manner as other strong acids by forming a sul-
phite and phosphoric acid. The phosphates of barium,
silver and lead have been observed to undergo this decom-
position.

4. Calcium arsenite, calcium arseniate, and cupric vana-
date are dissolved like the first group of phosphates,
without decomposition by sulphur dioxide and water.
The solution of the first forms calcium sulphite by boiling,
the second begins soon to deposit calcium sulphate, owing
to the reaction of arsenic acid on sulphurous acid, and the
solution of the vanadate on boiling deposits beautiful
golden colored scales, which are, probably, copper vanadite
sulphite.

5. Calcium oxalate is dissolved, in very minute quantity,
by water charged with sulphur dioxide, and is deposited
unchanged after expulsion of the gas.

*** This paper was read at the Meeting of the Society,
held on the 21st February, 1871.

“ Further Observations on the Strength of Garden Nails,”
by J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S., Y.P.

The author thought it desirable to ascertain how far

132

hardness had to do with the strength and elasticity of these
small specimens of cast iron. For this purpose he plunged
some of them at a heat near the melting point into water,
then selecting those which had been hardened sufficiently to
resist the action of the file. Others he cooled slowly from
a bright red heat. The experiments were conducted in the
manner described in the last number of the Proceedings.

No. of

Length of

Breadth of

Depth of

Breaking

Experi- Nail between

Nail at

Nail at

Deflection.

Weight.

ment.

Supports.

Fracture.

Fracture.

Lbs.

03

' 1 ....

.. 10 ...

...o-ll ...

... 0-122 ...

... -0067 ..

....129

"cS

2 ....

.. 1-04 ...

... 0-12 ...

... 0-12 ...

... -0037 ..

.... 84

3 ....

.. TO ...

... 0-12 ...

... 0122 ...

... -0028 ..

.... 81

V

4 ....

.. 1-02 ...

... 0-143 ...

... 0-102 ...

... -0077 ..

....129

K

5 ....

.. U ...

... 0-138 ...

... 0-13 ...

... -0071 ..

....203

Average

1-032...

... 0-1262...

... 0-1192...

.. -0056 ..

...125.2

m

6 ....

.. 1-0 ...

... 0-112 ...

.. 0-117 ...

... -0088 ..

....141

*3

7 ...

.. 1-05 ...

... 0-139 ...

... 0-114 ...

... -0087 ..

....150

5zj J

8 ...

.. 1-02 ...

... 0-130 ...

.. 0-138 ...

... -0051 ..

....176

9 ...

.. 1-04 ...

... 0-117 ...

.. 0-090 .

... -0101 ..

....101

m

10 ..

.. 1-04 ...

... 0-121 ...

.. 0-108 ...

... -0073 ..

....113

Average

1-03 ...

... 0-1238...

... 0-1134...

... -008 ..

...136.2

Reducing to a length of 3 feet and 1 inch square section,
and making a deduction of \ from the deflections, on account
of the taper of the nails, the above results, along with those
in the last number of Proceedings, become

Breaking W eight. Deflection.

Nails in original state 2673 ’922

Hardened ditto 2002 -677

Softened ditto 2448 -924

Dr. Joule exhibited three photographs of the sun taken
on the 1st December, 1858. The images, '43 in. diameter,
were produced by the achromatic object-glass of a telescope
with half-inch stop. Exposure, by means of an apparatus
completely detached from the camera, during a small frac-
tion of a second. He had been induced to examine them
after seeing the beautiful photograph of the late eclipse by
Mr. Brothers. On examining the three images a nebulosity

133

is observed, very similar to that in Mr. Brothers’s photograph
In all three, taken at an interval between each of about a
minute and a half, the nebulous appearance appears situated
on three quarters of the limb, the remainder being quite
free. There are also indications of a radial structure, so that
he thinks it highly probable that the representations are
actually those of the corona.

Since communicating the above, he has carefully exa-
mined the two other photographs of the sun which he
possesses, and which were taken early in the month of
November, 1858. These, one of which must have been ex-
posed at about 2 hours 20 minutes after the other, present
nothing remarkable to the naked eye ; but when viewed
through a glass of moderate power, a thin crescent-shaped
envelope is observed on each, with this remarkable circum-
stance, viz., that in the two it appears on opposite limbs,
suggesting the idea of a semi-revolution in the above inter-
val of time at a velocity not much less than that due to
Kepler’s law of planetary motion. In one of the photo-
graphs there is, under the crescent and apparently on the
rim of the sun itself, a narrow band in breadth about 300 of
the diameter of the disk, and of at least double the intensity
of the sun. This may probably be referred to the actinic
action of the chromosphere and the red flames.

“On Anthraflavic Acid, a Yellow Colouring Matter accom-
panying Artificial Alizarine,” by Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.

The artificial formation of alizarine is a process of so
much importance both theoretically and practically, being
in fact the first instance in which a natural colouring matter
has been produced by artificial means, that everything con-
nected with it must in the eyes of the chemist possess more
or less importance, especially when we consider that it is
chiefly to alizarine that madder owes its valuable dyeing

134

properties. The process itself", as described by its disco-
verers, Grabe and Liebermann, seems exceedingly simple,
and consists in the conversion of the hydrocarbon anthra-
cene CUH10 by the action successively of an oxidising agent,
of bromine or sulphuric acid and of caustic alkali into aliza-
rine C14H804. Nevertheless, the product obtained on a large
scale for the use of dyers and printers by this process is very
far from being pure alizarine, so far indeed that some per-
sons are inclined to doubt its perfect identity with the
natural substance. Its solution in caustic alkali, for instance,
has not the fine violet colour of a solution of pure alizarine,
but is more or less purple or even red, and it differs in other
respects. Now, though I have never entertained much
doubt as regards their identity in the main, it might, I fan-
cied, be interesting to ascertain whether the differences
observed between the natural and artificial products were
due to impurities accompanying the latter or not, for though
these impurities, if present, might not cause any injury or
inconvenience during the dyeing process, they might pos-
sibly be formed at the expense and take the place of aliza-
rine, and thus be a source of loss to the manufacturer.
Now a few simple experiments are sufficient to prove that
artificial alizarine as ordinarily prepared is always accom-
panied by other substances, some of which are coloured
while others are colourless or nearly so. My object on the
present occasion is to describe one of these substances and
to point out the relation in which it stands to alizarine.

My attention was first directed to this part of the subject
by the results of some experiments made on a small scale to
obtain alizarine from anthracene according to the directions
of Grabe and Liebermann. I was surprised to find that in
spite of all the precautions taken I always obtained besides
alizarine a notable quantity of another body also crystalline,
but dissolving in alkalies with a yellow colour. This body
bore so strong a resemblance in some of its properties to

135

several of the rubiacine class of colouring matters, sub-
stances which are contained in madder along with alizarine,
that my curiosity was excited. Having communicated this
fact to Mr. Perkin, who, as is well known, is engaged in the
manufacture of alizarine on a large scale, he kindly sent me
for examination a specimen of the residue obtained by him
in evaporating the mother liquors of alizarine. This residue
was a crystalline, reddish-brown mass soluble in alkalies,
with a cherry-red colour. I found it to contain in addition
to alizarine a quantity of a substance apparently identical
with that I had previously obtained directly from anthra-
cene. I afterwards found the same body in commercial
alizarine, both in that manufactured by Mr. Perkin and in
a sample from a continental firm. I therefore requested
Mr. Perkin to supply me with a quantity of his alizarine
sufficient to enable me to prepare a pure specimen of this
body, a request to which he very kindly acceded.

This alizarine, which was a yellow, almost amorphous
powder, was in the first place treated with dilute caustic
soda, in which it dissolved for the most part, yielding a dark
purple solution. A small quantity of a pale yellow powder
was left undissolved, which was filtered off, washed, dried,
and heated, when it yielded crystals of anthraquinone. To
the purple liquid there was added an excess of acid, which
produced a bulky brownish-yellow precipitate. This was
filtered oft and treated with boiling alcohol until the whole
was dissolved. The alcohol on cooling deposited a quantity
of almost pure alizarine in small mica-like scales. The
mother liquor of course contained alizarine, and in order to
separate it acetate of lead was added, which gave a bulky
purple precipitate of the lead compound of alizarine. The fil-
tered liquid, which had a dark yellow coloui', was evapo-
rated, when it left a yellowish-brown residue, consisting for
the most part of the yellow colouring matter or acid. In
order to separate the latter from the impurities accompany-

136

ing it the residue was treated first with water, and then
with cold alcohol. It was then dissolved in dilute caustic
soda, and to the boiling solution chloride of barium was
added. The filtered liquid deposited on cooling a mass of
small shining crystals of the barium salt of the acid. These
were purified by recrystallisation from boiling water, and
then treated with hydrochloric acid. The lemon-yellow
flocks left by the acid were filtered off, washed, and dis-
solved in a little boiling alcohol. This on cooling deposited
a quantity of yellow silky needles, consisting of the acid,
which I have named Anthvaflavic Acid, in order to indicate
its source and its most obvious external property.

The chief properties of this acid are these : — When crys-
tallised from alcohol and dried, it has the appearance of a
dark lemon-yellow silky mass, which under the microscope
is seen to consist of slender four-sided prisms. When heated
on platinum foil it gives off copious yellow fumes and then
burns with a luminous flame without leaving any residue.
When cautiously heated in a tube or between two watch
glasses, it may be almost entirely volatilised, yielding a
vapour which condenses in the form of a yellow sublimate.
This sublimate consists of small lusti’ous crystalline plates,
which, examined under the microscope, exhibit very regular
outlines. The acid is only slightly soluble in boiling water,
and almost insoluble in cold. It is more soluble in alcohol
and ether, but insoluble in boiling benzol and sulphide of
cai'bon. It dissolves readily in concentrated sulphuric acid
even in the cold, forming a dark yellow solution, from which
it is precipitated by water in yellow flocks. It is not much
affected by dilute nitric acid even on boiling. With fuming
nitric acid it yields a so-called nitro-acid, to which I shall
return presently.

It is the fact of this substance yielding with bases com-
pounds of well defined character, some of them being regu-
larly crystallised, that entitles it more especially to be

137

classed among acids. When an alcoholic solution of anthra-
flavic acid is mixed with an alcoholic solution of potash, it
assumes a dark yellow colour, and deposits on standing long
orange-coloured needles arranged in stars and possessed of
considerable lustre. The sodium compound prepared in the
same manner crystallises in needles and resembles the
potassium salt, but is lighter in colour. The ammonium salt
may be obtained by dissolving the acid in boiling absolute
alcohol and adding a slight excess of ammonia ; on cooling,
the solution deposits dark yellow lustrous crystals. These
crystals however, after a short exposure to the air, lose the
whole of their ammonia, leaving a yellow residue consisting
of the acid itself. This inability to retain ammonia even at
the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere is a proof of
the feeble nature of the acid. The potassium and sodium
salts are also rather unstable compounds, for if it be attempted
to recrystallise either of them from boiling water a portion
of the acid separates, the solubility of the base in water
being sufficient to overcome its affinity for the acid. Anthra-
flavate of barium may be obtained by dissolving the acid in
boiling baiyta water, or by adding chloride of barium to a
solution of the substance in caustic alkali. It is deposited
from its watery solution in small shining plates, and after
being filtered off and dried has a fine maroon colour. Under
the microscope it is seen to consist of small crystals with
very regular outlines. It may be recrystallised from water
without decomposition. The strontium salt is very similar,
being soluble in boiling water and crystallising in long
needles. The calcium salt is, however, insoluble in water,
and is precipitated in orange-coloured flocks on the addition
of chloride of calcium to an ammoniacal solution of the acid.
On adding sulphate of magnesium to a solution of the acid
in ammonia no precipitate is produced, but on standing
some time the magnesium salt is deposited in dark yellow
crystalline plates and needles arranged in star-shaped clus-

138

ters and possessed of much lustre. The aluminium com-
pound, when prepared in the same manner, appears as a
yellow deposit consisting of microscopic crystals. The am-
moniacal solution gives with acetate of lead a voluminous
orange -coloured precipitate, with acetate of copper a light
brown, and with nitrate of silver a reddish-brown precipi-
tate. The other compounds are of no particular interest.

All the compounds of the acid which are soluble in water
yield yellow solutions; none are red. It is chiefly the
presence of this acid in crude alizarine which affects the
colour of the alkaline solution, changing the violet due to
alizarine into purple, or when present in larger quantity,
into red. For the same reason an alkaline solution of crude
alizarine does not show the absorption bands in the spectrum
so distinctly as one of pure alizarine. Alkaline, as well as
alcoholic solutions of anthraflavic acid, absorb the blue end
of the spectrum very powerfully, though no bands are
visible, even with very dilute solutions. A solution of the
acid in concentrated sulphuric acid, if not too dark, shows,
however, a broad but well-defined absorption band at the
extreme edge of the blue bordering on the green, accom-
panied by a total absorption of the violet as seen with the
other solutions.

Anthraflavic acid dissolves very readily in fuming nitric
acid even in the cold, yielding a deep yellow solution, which,
on standing for 24 hours, becomes lighter in colour, without
evolving any gas. On now adding water a quantity of
light yellow shining crystals is deposited. These, when
filtered off, washed, and dried, resemble anthraflavic acid.
They are, however, totally different in their properties, and
consist, there can be no doubt, of a so-called nitro-acid, in
which one or more atoms of hydrogen are replaced by
N 0.,. When heated they deflagrate, and they give a potassium
salt crystallising in yellow needles, very little soluble in
water, and resembling picrate of potassium. Want of mate-

139

rial has prevented my examining this product more fully.

Though anthraflavic acid yields intensely yellow com-
pounds with bases, it seems to possess no dyeing properties.
The freshly precipitated acid suspended in water communi-
cates not the least tinge of colour to alumina and iron
mordants on calico, however long the liquid may be boiled.
Its presence in artificial alizarine is therefore of no conse-
quence as regards the dyeing qualities of the latter.

The composition of anthraflavic acid is expressed by the
formula C15H10O4. That this is the true formula was proved by
an examination of the silver and barium salts. The formula
of the first is C15H8Ag204 ; that of the second C16HsBa04 + H20.
The additional molecule of water attached to the barium
salt is not driven off by heating to a temperature of 120°C.
The acid is therefore bibasic. Hence it appears that this
substance and alizarine stand in a very simple relation to
one another. They are homologous bodies. Anthraflavic
acid may be viewed as alizarine in which an atom of hydro-
gen is replaced by methyl. Though the great difference in
properties, and especially the far greater stability of the acid,
might lead to the inference that it is only as regards their
composition that the two substances approach one another,
a very simple experiment is sufficient to prove that they
are in fact very closely related. If pure anthraflavic acid
be dissolved in an excess of caustic potash, and the solution
be boiled down to dryness, a yellow residue is left, which,
after being carefully heated almost to fusion, dissolves in
water with a red colour. This solution contains alizarine,
as it shows the absorption bands in the spectrum peculiar
to the latter, though not very clearly on account of unde-
composed anthraflavic acid still present. Pure alizarine
may, however, be obtained from it, by simply adding an
excess of acid, filtering off the flocculent precipitate, dissolv-
ing the latter in alcohol, and adding to the solution acetate
of lead, when a purple precipitate falls, which contains the

140

whole of the alizarine, the excess of anthraflavic acid
remaining in solution. From the lead precipitate alizarine
may be obtained having all the properties of that substance.
It is certain, therefore, that by the action of caustic potash,
anthraflavic acid is converted into alizarine, the process
being doubtless one of oxidation, though it should be stated
that the conversion is never complete, probably because the
action, if carried far enough to convert the whole of the
acid, leads to the decomposition of the alizarine already
formed. I am at present occupied with some experiments
for the purpose of substituting an atom of hydrogen in
alizarine by methyl, and thus forming anthraflavic acid
synthetically. It is evident that the acid cannot be con-
sidered as a methylic ether of alizarine, since both sub-
stances combine with two atoms of base to form neutral
compounds. If the substitution by methyl be possible, it
must therefore take place in the radical of alizarine. The
possibility of such substitutions is allowed by Griibe and
Liebermann, who consider chrysammic acid for instance as
anthracjuinone in which 4H are replaced by 4N02. Should
the synthesis just mentioned succeed, it will, I imagine*
throw some light on the constitution of the so-called yellow
colouring matters of madder, such as rubiacine and rubia-
dine, which certainly contain 16 atoms of carbon, and may
possibly turn out to be substitution products of alizarine.

In what manner anthraflavic, with its 15 atoms of carbon,
is formed from anthracene, which contains only 14, is not
very clear. I imagined it to be just possible that the anthra-
cene employed for preparing the alizarine supplied to me
might have contained a higher hydrocarbon, say C15Hi2 or
methylanthracene, which, by oxidation, would yield methyl-
anthraquinone, and at the end of the process methylalizarine.
On requesting Mr. Perkin to favour me with his opinion on
this point, he informed me, however, that my supposition
was improbable, because the alizarine which he sent me was

141

prepared from nearly perfectly pure anthraquinone, which
had been distilled and crystallised from benzol.

Another point remains to be considered in connection
with this subject. It is well known that the beautiful dis-
covery of the mode of forming alizarine was the direct
result of a previous one, viz. : that of the reduction of the
natural product by means of metallic zinc to anthracene.
The question therefore naturally suggested itself: what is
the nature of the hydrocarbon formed by the same process
from anthraflavic acid ? Is it anthracene or something else ?
In order to decide this question I took a quantity of the
acid and heated it with 50 times its weight of zinc powder,
in the manner described by Grabe and Liebermann. I ob-
tained a quantity of a brownish crystalline sublimate,
amounting to about 10 per cent of the acid employed, which
was purified by sublimation and washing with ether. It
still retained the yellowish tinge which, according to Grabe
and Liebermann, adheres so pertinaciously to anthracene,
but it did not differ in other respects from the pure substance.
It melted at the same temperature as anthracene, and began
to sublime before fusing, it dissolved in boiling alcohol, but
more readily in benzol, and was deposited from these solu-
tions in lustrous crystals of a very regular form, and it gave,
like anthracene with picric acid, a compound crystallizing
in long red needles. I wish to speak with some reserve on
this point, as the quantity of material at my disposal was
not sufficient for an analysis, but should it turn out that my
product is identical with anthracene, this fact would throw
doubt on some of the reasoning of Grabe and Liebermann,
who assume that if an organic substance yields a definite
hydrocarbon by the action of metallic zinc, the latter con-
tains the same number of atoms of carbon as the original
substance.

The President stated that in looking over the Memoran-

142

dum Book of Mr. Walker, one of the original members of this
Society, kindly presented by Mr. Green, he had met with
some interesting facts connected with the Cotton Trade a
centuiy ago. At that time the only places from which
Manchester received cotton, except from continental ports,
were Turkey, the West Indies, Brazil, and Demerara. To
show the value the following extract is given.

, July 15th. Prices

of cotton wool at London

d.

d.

St. Domingo

12*

to

13

Dominica

12

Grenada

11

12

Tortola

10*

?3

11

Jamaica

12-

13

French

12

Smyrna

9

33

H

Solonica

H

33

8*

Adonia

8

Brazil at Manchester

13

“All the above prices present payment. In the year 1771,
J oshua Holt bought in Liverpool Tortola at 8*d., Grenada
at 9d. to 10d., Tarlton’s M.P.’s 12d., St. Domingo, good, 13d.”
At that period other European countries imported cotton,
as shown by the following extract: —

“ From Berbecia all the cotton is sent to Holland, and the
quantity rarely exceeds 150,000 lbs. annually, and some
years when crops fail the quantity imported is not above
5,000 lbs. weight. Surinam at most 100,000 lbs. in one
year. Essiquibo and Demerary not more than 50,000 lbs.
in one year. These cottons are mostly consumed in Swit-
zerland and at Brabant.”

“Prices of cotton at Amsterdam, 15th November, 1774,
from Ri voire and Van Heyst.

Smyrna

22

Essequibo ...

... 39

to

40

Demerary . . .

... 39

33

40

Surinam

... 39

3)

41

Berbecia

... 44

33

45

Curacoa

.. 50

33

55

Groots per lb. of Holland.

40 groots = 1 guilder or florin,
iand 2 groots = lid.

143

“ Cotton was packed in bags which ran from 280 to 300lbs.,
and in pockets varying from 60 to 701bs. each in weight.”
The following is an account of the cotton imported at
Bordeaux in the year 1774 : —

Prom From

St. Domingo. Martinique.

Bags. Pockets. Bags. Pockets.

“January.. 47 12

February... 38 122 11 .

March 26 315

April 37 86

June 64 124

July 59 47 10 3

August ... 95 224 29

September. 49 232 20 1

October ... 2 1

November. 20 4

From

Guadoloupe.
Bags. Pockets,

1

71

29

108 3

118 13

3 1

3

437 1167 59 15 332 18”

In order to show the route the Turkey cotton came to
England, an extract of a letter from Otto, Franck, and Co.,
of Leghorn, dated March 24th, 1775, is given; it is as follows :
“ W e have very good friends at Smirna, whose solidity and
zeal can be depended on. If you choose to speculate from
thence you are undoubtedly informed that not cotton only,
but all products of the Levant cannot be sent from thence
to England direct, when bought with Bullion or Bills of
Exchange they must be landed and re-shipped here. To
that effect we annex the following invoice account of
freights and charges generally attending such transactions
for your government. Talleris (a species of coin sent up
thither) are at present very cheap, per 113 per cent., so that
it would turn better to account to purchase them at this
place and remit them to Smirna, than for the friends to
draw.”

It appears that in olden times there was a fair proportion
of reckless speculators to honest traders, as is the case now.
This is shown by extract from a letter addressed by Becker,
Smith, and Buckholm, of Leghorn, to Mr. Walker, dated
September 20, 1775.

144

esse-

»

“ The many spoil-traders in the Levant (and particularly
the Jews) are the chief cause of those high prices which the
products there now bear. For buying up cottons and other
goods, and drawing for the same, it very often happens that
the Receivers in Leghorn are obliged to sell them under
prime cost, in order to raise money to pay those drafts.
By the last advices from Smyrna they quote the price of
first sort 40L$, which would cost in warehouse here 18|d.
to 18£d. But the last sold here was lGfd. to I7d., so that
there is a difference of 10 per cent. Indeed it often happens
that articles from the Levant, especially cottons, generally
sell here for less than they really lye in.

“The advantages arising to the English and French by
their traffick in the Levant is owing to the goods they send
thither for sale; such as woollen goods and other manufac-
tured articles, which fetch a good price there, and the agents
often barter them for cotton wool. But notwithstanding
these advantages both the English and French frequently
apply to this city for Turkey cotton, which makes it evident
that they can get it cheaper here than they could import it
from the Levant.”

Here is an account from Messrs. Mayler and Maxse, of
Bristol, dated October 4th, 1774.

“Cotton imported into Bristol this year: —

June 10. From Nevis 2 B. sold I5d. very foul and stained.

July 18.

Tobago .. . .

. 12

„ 18d. clean and good staple-

„ 28.

Tortola

. 3

,, 1 7d. 'i

Aug. 23.

5?

Dominica..

. 1

V middling quality.

„ 29,

Grenada ..

.150

„ 20d. very good parcel.

Sep. 1 3.

Nevis

. 3

„ 16d. very dirty and dis-

coloured.

„ 24.

Jamaica..

• 12)

Not yet sold, but engaged at mar-

Ditto

. 53)

ket price, supposed 19 to 20d.

Tobago ..

. 14

19d. clean and good.

250 Bags.

“ Most of the cotton imported at Bristol goes through the
hands of Mayler and Maxse. Customary payment for cotton

at Bristol is by Bills at 1 month, (i weeks, or 2 months.
The last is thought an indulgence.

“Freight from Bristol to Liverpool 30s. per ton. Insu-
rance 20s. to 30s. per cent, according to the season of the
year, but the ships are very irregular in this conveyance.”
“Prices of Cotton in some of the West India Islands,
April, 1775, as per letter received from John Craven, dated
St. Croix, April 24th, 1775 : —

At St. Croix 2s. per lb. 1001b. Dutch weight there
are equal to 1121b. English.

d.

Exchange 84^ per cent Ilf

Duty on Exportation 15 per cent li

Commission there, Freight, Insurance, <fcc., home... 3
Interest till in cash again f

lib avoirdupois cost home 17

St. Eustatia — Exchange 70 per cent.

d.

22d. per lb., under the above circumstances 15-|

2s. 3d, ditto ditto 18-J

2s. 6d. St. Domingo Cotton (Interest Id.) 20^”

“Cotton imported at London from Christmas, 1769, to
1774, per a clerk at the Custom House : —

Year. lbs. weight.

1770 1,544,488

1771 726,923

1772 2,730,167

1773 988,737

1774 2,691,473

530,832, West India 1 As per Bills of

1,253,637, Turkey J Entry.”

“At Lancaster — Tare 41b. per 1121b., draught lib. per bag.

West India Cotton imported ...17 71... 3 107 \

1772. . .3803 j

1773. . .3821 / p . ,

1774 4993 > Bags and

To December, 1775... 4051 i OC e

1776. . .3055 ]

1777. . .4903

Carriage by land to Manchester, 2s. 6d. per cwt.

Freight to Liverpool from Lancaster, 8d. per 1121bs.
Insurance £ per cent. This way 2s. 6d. also.”

1776.

146

“Cotton imported at Lancaster from January, 1775, to

January 1st, 1776 : —

From Jamaica
Grenada
St. Vincent
Dominica
St. Kitts
Antigua
Barbadoes

Bags.

479 ..

lbs.

96,999

854 ..

. 225,483

330 ..

88,533

813 ..

. 232,470

568 ..

. 145,257

55 ..

13,322

672 ..

. 100,337

3,771 902,431”

u

West India Cotton imported at Liverpool —

1770

5,820 \

1771

4,897 j

1772

1773

1 Bags and Pockets.

1774

5,276 \

1775

4,525 J

1776

( 6,566 West India.
{ 1,547 Turkey.

Direct from West Indies 4,411

Havre de Grace 81

Nantes 5

Cadiz 6

Rotterdam

4,525

Turkey Cotton imported into Liverpool in

From Leghorn 507

,, Rotterdam 588

,, Amsterdam 288

„ Marseilles 1,356

1775-

bales.

Turkey Cotton imported at Liverpool ... 2,739 bales.”

147

Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. John Hopkinson, D.Sc., was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.

“ On the Mechanical Equivalence of Heat,” by the Rev.
H. Highton, M.A.

The following is an abstract of the arguments as given in
the paper and brought out in the subsequent discussion.

1. The author apologised for having mentioned other
names in connection with great discoveries which were
undoubtedly due primarily to Dr. J oule, and spoke of the
very great value of Dr. J oule’s experiments, even when he
did not agree with the deductions drawn from them.

2. The subject is of extreme importance both for the
interpretation of physical phenomena and for determining
what limits are assigned by the stern laws of Nature to the
exercise of man’s mechanical and scientific skill.

3. No doubt Dr. Joule has ascertained the heat ordinarily
derived from the destruction of energy, by means of friction
with various substances ; but it has been assumed, in defi-
ance of facts, that the numerical relations which connect
heat and energy in the case of friction hold good when
energy and heat produce or destroy each other by any
other means.

4. In the case of friction itself, energy is not transformed
simply into heat, but partly into heat and partly into an-
other kind of energy, which is involved in the expansion of
the solids or liquids acted on.

Pbocis^dxk(»s — Lit. <fe Phil. Soc. — Yol. X. — No. 13. — Session 1870-71.

148

5. No doubt the coincidence between the mechanical
equivalent of heat, found by Dr. J oule from friction, and that
by M. Favre from working a magnetic engine, seems very
striking ; but

A. The value of Favre’s experiment disappears on exami-
nation. It was but a single experiment, either never
repeated, or never repeated with the same results; in a
very delicate experiment there was only the difference of
300 units out of 18,000 ; and even the permanent* enlarge-
ment which always takes place in magnets which are in
use might account for these ; and

B. Numerous and long-continued experiments by M.
Soret show results entirely discordant with the single one of
M. Favre.

6. It seems incredible, that with the imperfectly con-
structed engine used by Joule and Scoresby, they should at
the very first trial have succeeded in utilizing 2-3rds of the
magnetism evolved, or capable of being evolved, by their
battery; and Dr. Joule now tells us that according to his
latest calculations of the mechanical equivalence of heat,
they utilized 6-7ths of the power of the battery. The only
conclusion we can arrive at is, that the real power of the
battery, and therefore of a grain of zinc, must have been
much greater than he calculated.

7. For consider the disadvantages under which the
engine acted:

A. The temporary and permanent magnets were never
nearer than J of an inch apart. Though Dr. Joule assures
us this does not affect the power of the engine, it certainly
produces a waste of zinc, as the near approach of the mag-
nets creates counter-currents which check materially the
consumption of zinc.

B. The copper wire was not tested for conductivity; a
subject little thought of at that time, and it is found that
a very small impurity in copper wire will very, very, largely
diminish the power of an electro-magnet.

C. The iron was not tested for specific capacity for mag-
netism; yet this is a most important point which is even
now hut little appreciated. It is found practically that, if
two electro-magnets be made from the very same piece of
iron, most carefully prepared, with the very same length of
the same wire, without the slightest assignable cause, one
will sometimes have three times the power of the other.
Hence I conclude that the maximum energy capable of being
evolved by a grain of zinc must be very much greater than
that assigned to it by Dr. Joule.

7. Dr. Hopkinson’s argument, in his paper lately read to
this Society, virtually amounted to this — that a well con-
structed magnetic engine will get no more duty from a
jjrain of zinc than an ill-constructed one; and consequently,
I presume, that magnets might be weakened to any extent,
and removed to ever so great a distance from one another,
without necessarily affecting the efficiency of the engine.

8. Dr. Hopkinson has in his criticism strangely substi-
tuted (a — b) for ( b .) In Joule and Scoresby’s paper, the
consumption of zinc is expressed not by (a — b) but by (6);
and consequently the duty of a grain of zinc not by

W W

- — - but by— ; and when the magnets are stronger and

approach nearer to each other, even if W be not increased,

( b ) is diminished.

9. My argument was this, that since the accepted theory
of the mechanical equivalence of heat is that production of
energy absorbs, and destruction of energy produces, a defi-
nite amount of heat, if we find cases, as those of elastic
wires, and water below its maximum density, in which de-
struction of energy produces cold, not heat, then the doc-
trine of the mechanical equivalence of heat cannot be true ;
we might with equal justice call it a mechanical equivalence
of cold. It is no reply to say that such facts are simple
deductions from the haws of thermodynamics. This would

150

only show that the laws of thermodynamics are inconsistent
with the doctrine of the mechanical equivalence of heat.

10. The argument from the fire syringe I withdraw, as
inconclusive. But I think my case was sufficiently estab-
lished without it.

11. Joule and Scoresby in their paper incorrectly assume
that if the quantities of electricity in the current at different
times be represented by (a) and ( b ), the heat varies as
a2 to 62. This is only true where the resistance is the same.
In the case before us the working of the engine introduces
a fresh element in resistance.

12. Again, by assuming that ( a — b ) represents diminu-
tion of quantity of the current, and the diminution in
the zinc consumed, and the heat converted into useful work,
they involve the supposition either that less zinc produced
equal heat, or that heat was changed into useful work which
was never produced at all, and therefore could not be ab-
sorbed. In fact there was no proof that any heat was
absorbed at all.

13. It is said that in electro-plating, electro-magnetic
engines, worked by steam, are found more economical than
batteries. This is in cases where a battery of many cells
would be required; which is always wasteful, as a large
number of equivalents of zinc must be consumed to deposit
one equivalent of silver or other metal.

14. Besides, there is a far greater advantage in changing
work into electricity, than electricity into work. In the
former case all, or nearly all, the work is effective ; in the
latter, a very small portion of the electricity has hitherto
been utilised.

Dr. Hopkinson said that most of Mr. High ton’s objections
to the mechanical equivalent of heat appear to arise from a
mistake as to what is meant by the term. The nature of
this mistake may be best seen in the case of a perfect heat

151

engine, of which q and t0 are the absolute temperatures of
the source and refrigerator. Then from every unit of heat

leaving the source we obtain

h ~ tp

h

J

units of work.

Now

this a quantity variable with q and t0 ; it would be similar
to most of Mr. Highton’s arguments to infer that from a
given quantity of heat a variable quantity of work could be
obtained. But, of course, the case really is, that, of the unit

of heat leaving the source, -j- is lost in the refrigerator,

h

whilst — - -° disappears as heat and is converted into the work

done, and the principle of the equivalence of heat and work
asserts that J is constant. It will be seen that this is the
mistake Mr. High ton makes in his paper in the Journal of
Science (end of article G). He seems there to imagine it
stated, that the work done is equivalent to the whole heat
thrown into the gas, and he fails to perceive that a certain
portion is used to raise the temperature of the air or turpen -
tine.

This will make my criticism of his paper in the Chemical
News clearer. Mr. Highton argued against the mechanical
equivalent, and what I pointed out was, that the chemical
energy, which was converted into mechanical effect and not
used to heat the wire, was proportional to a — h, that there-
fore, in order to prove that there was no mechanical equiva-

lent, Mr. Highton must show is variable. I do not as-
sert that a badly constructed engine will get as much heat
from fuel as a good one, but merely that the work done
and the heat, which has disappeared as heat and been
converted into work, are in a constant ratio.

Now as regards Mr. Highton’s argument from the case of
elastic wires — that the wire will be cooled when stretched
follows from the two laws of thermodynamics, a proof may
be seen in Tait’s Therm odynamics, p. 105. Mr. Highton

152

replies, “Quite true; but this only shows that one of the
laws of thermodynamics is inconsistent with the doctrine of
the mechanical equivalence of heat.” Now the first law of
thermodynamics asserts nothing else than that there is a
mechanical equivalent, constant in all cases; whilst the
second law, as usually stated, involves the first law, and
involves nothing else but Carnot’s axiom and the principle
that in conduction heat flows from the hot to the cold body,
both of which no one will doubt. Mr. Highton’s reply is
very similar to stating that one of Kepler’s laws is incon-
sistent with the planets moving in ellipses. What Mr.
High ton proposes as a paradox is then a necessary conse-
quence of the principle he attacks.

Though the doctrine of the mechanical equivalent of heat
finds its firmest basis in the immortal experiments of Dr.
Joule, the fact, that assuming it we can explain many phe-
nomena, is a valuable supplementary proof.

“Examples of the Performance of the Electro-Magnetic
Engine,” by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., V\P.

Some experiments and conclusions I arrived at a quarter
of a century ago having been recently criticised, I have
thought it might be useful to place the subject of work in
connexion with electro-magnetism in a different and I hope
clearer form than that in which I have hitherto placed it. The
numbers given below are derived from recent experiments.

Suppose an electro-magnetic engine to be furnished with
fixed permanent steel magnets, and a bar of iron made to
revolve between the poles of the steel magnets by reversing
the current in its coil of wire. Such an arrangement is
perhaps the most efficient, as it is the most simple form of
the apparatus. In considering it, we will first suppose the
battery to consist of 5 large Daniell’s cells in series, so large
that their resistance may be neglected. We will also sup-
pose that the coil of wire on the revolving bar is made of a

153

copper wire 389 feet long, and Ar of an inch diameter, or
offering a resistance equal to one BA unit. Then, on con-
necting the terminals of this wire with the battery, and
keeping the engine still, the current through the wire will
be such as, with a horizontal force of earth’s magnetism 3-678,
would be able to deflect the small needle of a galvanometer
furnished with a single circle of one foot diameter, to the
angle of 54° 23'. Also this current going through the above
wire for one hour will evolve heat that could raise 110-66 lbs.
of water 1°, a quantity equal to 85430 ft. lbs. of work. In
the meantime the zinc consumed in the battery will be
535-25 grains. Hence the work due to each grain of zinc
is 159-6 ft. lbs., and heat -20674 of a unit.

I. In the condition of the engine being kept still we have
therefore, current being 1-396, as shown by a deflection of
54° 23',

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 110-66 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 535-25 grains.

3. Heat due to 535-25 grains, 110-66 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be(110-66- 1 10 ’66)7 7 2 = 0.

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be ^§^25 ~

II. If the engine be now started and kept by a proper
load to a velocity which reduces the current to §, or -9307,
indicated by deflection 42° 57' we shall have

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 1 1066 x

2'

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 535-25 x ~ = 356-83 grains.

3. Heat due to 356-83 grains, 110-66 x g = 73-77 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (73-77-49-18)772

= 18983 ft. lbs.

18983

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be -g3- = 53 -2 or } of

the maximum.

III. If the load be lessened until the current is reduced
to \ of the original amount, or to -698, we shall have

{§}

= 49-18 units.

154

1. Heat evolved per hourby the wire 110 -66 x (gj = 27-665 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 535 25 x i = 267 ‘62 grains.

u

3. Heat due to 267 '62 grains 1 1 0*66 x i = 65-33.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (55-33-27-665)772

= 21357.

21357

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be 267-62 = ^'8 or I °f

the maximum duty.

IV. If the load be still further reduced and velocity in-
creased so as to bring down the current to \ of what it was
when the engine was still, or to '4653, shown by a deflec-
tion of the galvanometer of 24° 57' we shall have

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Heat evolved per hour by the wire 110 -66 x = 12-294 units.

Consumption of zinc per hour 535-25 x; = 178-42 grains.

o

Heat due to 178-42 grains 110-66 x i = 36-89 units.

Therefore the work per hour will be (36-89 - 12-294)772
= 18988 ft. lbs.

18988

And the work per grain of zinc will be - 106-4, or § of
the maximum duty.

V. Remove the load still further until the velocity in-
creases so much that the current is brought down to to<r of
its quantity when the engine is still. Then we shall have

1.

Heat evolved per hour by the wire 110-66 x

(m) ’= -011066

of a unit.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 535-25 x -^ = 5-3525 grains.

3. Heatdueto5-3525 grainsof zinc 110-66 x ^ = 1 "1066 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (1-1066 - -011066)772

= 845-73 ft. lbs.

845*73

5. And the work per grain of zinc will bo 57352 =15® or 1V0

of the maximum duty.

When the velocity increases so that the current vanishes
the duty = 159 6.

155

I. Let us now improve the engine by giving it a coil of 4

times the conductivity, which will be done by using a

copper wire 389 feet long and £th of an inch diameter, the

same battery being used as before. Then when the engine

is kept still we shall have a current 1*396 x 4 = 5*584,

shown by a deflection of 79° 51'. Then we shall have

42

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 110*66 x - =442*64 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 535*25 x 4 = 2141 grains.

3. Heat due to 2141 grains 442*64 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (442*64 — 442*64)772 = 0.

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be gpji - 0

II. Start the engine with such a load as shall reduce the
current to f, or to 3*7227 (74° 58'), then we shall have

1. Heatevolvedperhourbythewire442*64 x = 196*73 units.

2

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 2141 x - = 1427*3 grains.

3. Heat due to 1427*3 grains 442*64 x | = 295*09 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (295*09 -196*73)772

= 75934.

5. And the work per grain of zinc*, will be ^7-3 ~ ^ *2 or ^ of

the maximum duty.

III. Lessen the load so that the velocity of the engine is
increased until the current is reduced to one half its original
amount, or 2*792 shown on the galvanometer by a deflec-
tion of 70° 18'. Then we shall have,

1. Heatevolved per hour by the wire 442*64 x = 1 10*66 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 2141 1070*5 grains.

3. Heat due to 1070*5 grains, 442*64 x - = 221*32 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (221*32- 110*66)772

= 85430 ft. lbs.

85429

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be = 79*8 or £ the

maximum duty.

156

IV. Let the load be further reduced until the velocity
reduces the current to or to 1'8G13 shown by a deflection
of 61° 45'. Then we shall have

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 442'64 x - 49T82 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 2141 x - = 713'66 grains.

3. Heat due to 7 13-66 grains of zinc 442-64 x i= 147-55 units.

O

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (147 '55 - 49-182)772 =

75940 ft. lbs.

75940

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be — 106'4 or § of

the maximum.

V. Let the load be still further reduced until, with the
increased velocity, the current becomes reduced to tott, or to
•05584 showing a deflection of 3° 12'. Then wTe shall have

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 442-64 x =-044264

of a unit.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 2141 x jqq = 21-41 grains.

3. Heatdueto 21-41 grains of zinc 442-64 x = 4-4264 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (4‘4264 - -04426)772 =

3383 ft. lbs.

3383

5. And the work per grain of zinc will be = 158 or of

the maximum duty.

Now suppose that we still further improve our engine by

#

making the stationary magnets twice as powerful. In this
case all the figures will remain exactly the same as before,
the only difference being that the engine will only require
to go at half the velocity in order to reduce the current to
the same fraction of its first quantity. The attraction will
be doubled, but the velocity being halved no change will
take place in the amount of work given out.

In all cases the maximum amount of work per hour is
obtained when the engine is going at such a velocity as

157

reduces the current to one half of its amount when the
engine is held stationary; and in this case the duty per grain
of zinc is one half of the theoretical maximum.

The same principles apply equally well when, instead of
employing the machine as an engine evolving work, we do
work on it by forcibly reversing the direction of its motion.
Suppose for instance we urge it with this reverse velocity
until the quantity of current is quadrupled or becomes
22-336 indicated by a deflection of 87° 26'. Then we shall
have

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire 442-64 x 42 = 7082-2

units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour 2141 x 4 = 8564 grains.

3. Heat due to 8564 grains of zinc 442-64 x 4 = 1770-56 units.

4. Therefore the work per hour will be (1770-56 - 7082-2)772 =

-4100432 ft. lbs.

- . /*. ... . 4100432 i n, r>

5. And the work per gram of zinc will be — e564~~= ~ 478 -8 or

- 3 times the maximum working duty.

The principal reason why there has been greater scope
for the improvement of the steam engine than for the
electro-magnetic engine arises from the circumstance that

in the formula - — -> applied to the steam engine by Thom-

son, in which a and b are the highest and lowest tempera-
tures, these values are limited by practical difficulties. For
a cannot easily be taken above 459° + 374° =833° from
absolute zero, since that temperature gives 12-425 atmos-
pheres of pressure, nor can b be readily taken at less than
the atmospheric temperature or 459° + 60°=519°. Also
there is much difficulty in preventing the escape of heat ;
whereas the insulation of electricity presents no difficulty.

I had arrived at the theory of the electro-magnetic engine
in 1840, in which year I published a paper in the 4th Vol.
of Sturgeon’s Annals, demonstrating that there is “ no varia-

158

tion in economy, whatever the arrangement of the conduc-
ting metal, or whatever the size of the battery.” The
experiments of that paper indicate 36 foot lbs. as the maxi-
mum duty for a grain of zinc in a Wollaston battery. Multi-
plying this by 4 to bring it to the intensity of a Daniell’s
battery, we obtain 144 foot lbs. Here, as in the experi-
ments in the paper on Mechanical Powers of Electro-Mag-
netism, Steam, and Horses, the actual duty is less than
the theoretic; which is owing partly to the pulsatory
nature of the current, and partly also to induced currents
giving out heat in the substance of the iron cores of the
electro-magnets; although these last were obviated as far
as possible by using annealed tubes with slits down their
sides.

159

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.RS., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. W. Mellor and Mr. S. C. Trapp were appointed
Auditors of the Treasurer s Accounts.

The President said that Mr. B. H. Green had presented
to the Society another of the books of the late Mr. George
Walker, from which he desired to give a few extracts. The
following relates to the production of cotton : — “At Liver-
pool, May 8th, 1784, met with Mr. Cock, lately come from
Barbadoes, and who had resided in that island as factor for
the last eight years. He says the crop of cotton in that
island this year is greater than ever was known, and that
the quality is very good; not less than 8,000 bags from 1\
to 2 cwt. each will this year be produced there. The usual
time for sowing the Cotton seed is in the month of July,
and Cotton is ready to pick off said trees the next Christ-
mas, say in five or six months. These trees would continue
to produce Cotton annually for several years, but the planter
finds it most advantageous to plant fresh seeds every year.
The trees are pulled up by the roots when the cotton pick-
ing is ended, and which is in April or May in each year.
These shrubs serve for fuel. Betwixt the rows of cotton
trees there are vegetables which come to perfection long
before the cotton is gathered. This picking or gathering is
performed every day as the pods open, and continues from
Christmas to March.

Proceedings — Lit. & Phix. Soc. — Vox. X. — No. 14. — Session 1870-71.

160

“ The best Cotton is produced on the windward part of
the Island. That produced to the leeward is called Syke’s
Cotton, and is inferior in colour and staple, nor is it so well
cleared from seeds and dirt as that to windward. There is
a species of Cotton in Bai’badoes called Vine Cotton from
the stems resembling those of vines, being long and slender.
This plant produces but few pods in proportion to their
common Cotton trees, therefore it is not much attended to.
The Cotton is very white, long, and silky, something like
Demerara or the finest Withy wood Jamaica Cotton. Some
of this Cotton is packed in small bags entire, but often
mixed with common Barbadoes. G. W. bought 4 Bags this
day at I7fd. and the best Barbadoes was offered at lofd. at
same time.

“ The usual quantity of Cotton produced on each acre of
land in Barbadoes is about 300 lbs. This year 8 acres have
produced 3000 lbs., which shews that there is a plentiful
harvest. It generally happens that the produce is of the
best quality when the crop is plentiful. When land is
bought in Barbadoes the usual price is £50 per acre, and
£50 per head for every slave kept on that estate. The
seller always disposes of the slaves along with the planta-
tion.

“ Mr. Cock says the Islands of Guadaloupe, Martinique,
and Grenada will produce great quantites of Cotton this
season, but the crop will be very small on Tobago, there
being there a general blight. The current prices in Barba-
does is 15d. Exchange 135. In the French Islands 205 to
215. Exchange 182.

“Lancaster, June, 1784. — On enquiry made here it
appeared that the current prices at Guadaloupe and Marti-
nique were 170 to 180 Louies for 100 French Weight and
the Exchange 180 per Cent.”

161

COTTON WOOL.— MEMORANDUMS RESPECTING IT.

AVERAGE PRICES OP COTTON.

m

'd

a

8

d

&

1

>»

4)

c3

a

<p

I

CO

M

'd

u

ce

4

03

43

i

o*

to

o

to

i

•a

I

i

u

a

c3

43

d

a

c3

•s

3

cS

9

1

£

43

4)

a

43

U

IT

&

o

o

a

CO

a

a

43

1

O)

%

e

(h

O

43

H

m

o

H-l

P4

H

0

s

«

P

m

o

fk

O

cl.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d,

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

1771

1770

Liverpool ....
Manchester..

9}

10}

104

in

13

14

13

12

ts a

!f S'fe

1772

9

11}

12

13

12}

12

1773

1774

»»

1775

1776

a -s

1777

Manchester. .

194

18

21

4)r7 w

1778

13

17

184

to 2

1779

ir

16

18

1780

If

154

19

21

17S1

2L

27

30

In Nov-781 .T.&W. sold Barb. 3s. 7d.Cr.

1782

24

36

40

1783

16

20

21}

1784

13

17

19

1785

14

21

23

1786

14}

m

22

23

23}

23}

2/6

2/2

2/2

2/3

3/3

1794

10}

15}

17

17

17

im

22d.

In June.

1795

14}

221

m

23

2/4

2/3*

2/4

1796

I*

17}

2/-

2/-

23}

2/2

2/04

2/3

2/4

1797

19

2/3

2/2

2/5

1798

If

23

20

2/5

2/8

2/8

21

1799

18

3/9

l

4/4 )

4/2

2/64

II

2/2

J

2/10 J

Oct

Oct

20

1800

2/-

28

2/9

2/84

3/1

1801

• 1

2/6

2/7

2/6

2,10

2/8

31-

221

1802

If

2/3

2/10

21

January-

COTTON IMPORTED.

Year.

London.
Wst India

Turkey.

Liver
Wst India

pool.

Turkey.

Lancaster
Wst India

Bristol.
Wst India

Hull.

Scind.

Glasgow.
Wst India

1788

25055

6560

24469

485

6196

1510

5012

1789

38227

9690

46671

673

9295

2000

1680

5878

1790

34874

12575

51060

851

8842

2000

3066

12478

1791

41266

4235

68100

10000

2000

5033

12531

1792

36390

18928

66390

6186

1793

26432

11168

22114

2770

1794

39702

16953

36669

835

1795

44799

2051

55917

32

1796

49475

4271

63914

. . •

1797

25552

5922

58352

1798

35637

7824

69520

151

1799

66172

12640

93014

186

1809

215405 from North America, Brazils, and West Indies, from Jan. 1st
to August 21st, 1809. — See particulars below.

Liverpool, August 28th, 1809. — William Peers to John

Aspinwalls.

162

Cotton imported at Liverpool from 1st Jan. to Aug. 21st.

From New Orleans

Different American States

Brazils

Demerara

Barbadoes

Jamaica

West India Islands

4773 | 99767 Bags.

94994 j

68460

14210

5053

7379

20536— Total, 215,405 Bags.

Cotton imported into London, Liverpool, and Glasgow,
during the year 1807.

British West Indies

Colonies conquered from the Dutch...

Portugal

East Indies

United States of America

All other ports

28969 Bags.

43651

18981

11409

171267

8390

(See Month Review
for August, 1812.)

282,667 Bags.

Add Bristol and Lancaster.

“ Arsenic in Pyrites and Various Products,” by H. A.
Smith, communicated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

The difference existing between the amount of Arsenic in
Pyrites in published analyses and that found in practical
working led the author to make the following series of ex-
periments, the results of which are arranged in three tables.

Table I. Part I. Gives the analysis of various specimens
of Pyrites ; these are extracted from Richardson and Watt’s
Technology in Part II. The author’s analyses are given of
a few specimens of the same species of ore.

Table II. Gives the amount of arsenic in a certain kind
of Pyrites; in the sulphuric acid manufactured from it; and
in the various products in the manufacture of which the
sulphuric acid had been used ; also the amount of arsenic in
the chamber and flue deposits.

Table III. Is calculated from Table 11. , giving the amount
in a manner more useful for practical purposes.

163

TABLE 1.

Pyrites.

Arsenic
per Cent.

Pyrites.

Number

of

Analyses

made.

Arsenic
per Cent.

Spanish

Belgian

Westphalian...

Norwegian ...

0-21 to 0-31

Trace.

Trace.

None.

c . , ( Mason’s
Spanish | TharsU

Belgian

Westphalian

at • f Hard

Norwegian [ goft

10

10

8

8

8

8

1-7453.

1-6517.

0- 9437.

1- 8783.
1-6490.
1-7085.

TABLE II.

Substance in which Arsenic is found.

Number of
Analyses

Arsenic per
cent.

Pyrites before burning

8

1-649

,, after „

4

0-465

Sulphuric Acid

15

1051

Deposit in flue leading from Pyrites kiln 1

4

46-360

to Lead chamber j

Deposit on bottom of Lead chamber

5

1-857

Hydrochloric Acid

8

0-691

Sulphate of Soda

15

0-029

Soda waste

6

0-442

Carbonate of Soda

12

Recovered Sulphur (Morid’s process) 1

4

0-700

before purification began J

Morid’s process, latest methods

2

0-000

The Pyrites used for analysis in Table II. was the hard
Norwegian, and this, as may he seen in Table I. comes next
in order in freedom from arsenic to the Belgian. The Bel-
gian itself was put aside owing to the fact that it made
too much “ smalls” in breaking for the kilns, which became
an expense as well as inconvenience.

TABLE III.

Tons As.

100 tons hard Norwegian Pyrites (Table I) contain

before burning 1 -649

„ „ after burning 0-465

100 tons hard Norwegian Pyrites make 140 -875 tons

H2S04 containing 1 *48 1

140-875 tons Sulphuric Acid make 104-9 tons HC1

containing 0-724

140-875 tons Sulphuric Acid make 204-12 tons

Na2S04 containing 0'059

164

This Table gives the amounts of arsenic on a practical scale
so that the total impurity may be seen at once.

We see by this Table how the arsenic persistently adheres
to the products in the manufacture of which acid made from
Pyrites has been used, and how it becomes distributed
through the acid and soda in various stages.

The arsenic also has an effect on the Nitric Acid supplied
to the lead chamber, being converted from arsenious to
arsenic acid, and thereby causing a slight loss of the Nitric
Acid Gas. In the deposit in the chamber (mentioned in
table II.) were found crystals of Arsenic Acid, as a proof
of this result.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., exhibited a collection of
human bones obtained from a cave at Terlhi Chwareu, a
place about six miles from Llangollen, and from a cham-
bered tomb at Cefn, near St. Asaph. The corpses to which
they belonged had been buried in the sitting posture, as in
most of the Neolillni interments. The examination of the
skulls proved that the cranial capacity of the ancient
dwellers in Denbighshire at that time was not below the
average at the present day. The angle at which the nasals
articulated with the frontals showed that their noses were of
the turned-up order, and in no sense aquiline. Their sta-
ture, however, ranged from 5 feet to 5 feet 4 or G inches.
Some of the leg bones from both interments exhibited the
peculiar antero-posterior flatness of shin which Prof. Busk
terms platycnemic, and which M. Broca believes to be a
race-character, while others were of the more usual form.
The flatness however differed from that observed in the
interments of France and Gibraltar, in that it was due to
the anterior extension of the bone, and not to its posterior
extension. The skulls differ most materially from both
those of Gibraltar and of France. It follows therefore that
M. Broca’s estimate of the value of platycnemism as a race-
character is far too high, since it is found to obtain in skelc-

165

tons of races offering most important cranial differences, and
since it is not found in all the individuals of the same race
at Cefn and Terllii Chwareu. This is the first case of its
being noticed in any skeleton in Great Britain.

The relation of these interments to history is unknown,
and there is no clue to the race of men by whom they were
made. Besides the Teutonic and Celtic and Iberian races
which have successively occupied Britain, there were most
probably other races of which the very names have perished.
Till we can be certain that this is not the case, it will be
impossible to assign remains of this kind to any given race
by an appeal to cranial and skeletal characters. A flint
flake in the cave corroborates to a certain extent the Neo-
lillni character of the interments, which were undoubtedly
made by men of the same race. The chambered tomb was
of a class common to France, Britain, and Scandinavia,
termed by Dr. Thurnam ‘gallery-graves/ and by Professor
Nilsson ‘gangraben.’

“Description of some Experiments on the Method of
propelling Balloons, illustrated by a Model,” by Professor
Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“Notes on the Drift of the Eastern Parts of the Counties
of Chester and Lancaster,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
President.

*** Abstracts of these papers will appear in the next
number of Proceedings.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
February 27th, 1871.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

“Notes on Polygonum minus and its allies,” by Mr.
G. E. Hunt.

1G6

The following remarks are written in reference to the
discussion at this Society in November last, as to the
claims of Polygonum mite, Schrank, to rank as a native
of Cheshire, and in support of which it was stated that
“so long ago as 1828, Mr. W. Wilson, of Warrington, sent
the plant from a Cheshire locality under the erroneous
name of P. minus to the late Sir W. J. Hooker, in whose
Herbarium at Kew the specimens still are.”

Through the kindness of Mr. Baker of Kew I have been
since furnished with the pei'ianths and fruit of the original
specimen referred to above, and have compared them care-
fully with P. minus and mite from various stations both in
Britain and from the Continent. The comparison quite
satisfied me that the Kew specimen from Cheshire could not
be associated with P. mite, but was correctly referred by
Mr. Wilson to P. minus, Huds. I forwarded specimens to
Mr. Baker for his opinion, stating my own views as ex-
pressed above, and received his reply as follows, in a letter
dated 81st January, 1871 — “I believe now that I have laid
the nuts side by side and compared them carefully, that you
are quite right about the Polygonum.” I may further add
that all the specimens also of more recent collection from
Lancashire and Cheshire seen by me belong to P. minus,
Huds.

Polygonum minus, Huds., has a lax perfectly erect some-
what interrupted spike of small flowers, with small pitchy
black smooth shining nuts. Syme (in Eng. Botany) men-
tions the presence of very minute glands at the base of the
oclirese and perianths, and I find these in the Cheshire
specimens. Leaves linear lanceolate, smooth margin, ciliated.
Stems, in all the specimens I have seen, more or less diffuse
or ascending, but never erect. Syme describes the stem as
commonly geniculate and rooting at the base, then erect
and ascending. Babington describes it as usually procum-
bent,'' diffuse.

Polygonum mite, Schrank, is a more robust plant than P.
minus, and has a lax perfectly erect, somewhat interrupted
spike of rather large perianths, with dark, slightly rough,
but shining nuts, twice the size of those of P. minus ; leaves

167

elliptical, smooth margin, ciliated. Syme describes the stem
as erect, Babington as 1-3 feet high. I have never seen
living specimens, but in dead ones which I possess there
seem to be, as in P. minus, very minute glands at the base
of the ochrese and perianths. After careful comparison of
the ochrese of this species and P. minus I can find no differ-
ence to be relied on.

Syme in English Botany quotes without any expression
of doubt Polyg. dubium, Stein, as a synonym of P. mite, and
refers to Gren. and Godron. P. dubium, Stein, seems to me
to be a well marked variety or sub-species, differing from P .
mite in its longer, denser, and pendulous spike, and lanceo-
late leaves. Its aspect is that of P. Hydropiper, which
species however is at once separated from all its allies by
the presence of numerous large and conspicuous glands on
the perianth.

Grenier and Godron on the other hand quote Polygonum
mite, Schrank, as a synon ym of a hybrid plant, viz., P. Hydro-
piperi — dubium G. and G., and add to this hybrid as another
synonym P. hydropiperoides, Mich., FI. Am. boreal. P.hydro-
piperoides, Mich., is described by Dr. Asa Gray in his Manual
of Botany of United States as “ common, especially south,
ward,” and he adds as a synonym to this plant, “ P. mite,
Persoon, not of Schrank,” and of the two plants supposed by
G. and G. to be parents to this, one, viz., P. Hydropiper, is
marked in Gray’s U. S. Flora as “Naturalized from Europe,”
and the other parent, viz., P. dubium, Stein, is altogether
absent. P. hydropiperoides is nearly related to P. mite,
Schrank, but is distinguished by its rough or appressed
pubescent leaves.

Polygonum Persicaria, L. is in all the specimens I have
seen readily separated from P. mite by its shorter, dense,
oblong, uninterrupted spikes; leaves roughish with sparing
appressed pubescence ; shorter, wider, and more strongly
fringed ochrese, and the nuts as pitchy black, smooth and
shining as those of P. minus ; in size and form however the
nuts exactly resemble those of P. mite.

Accompanying, for sake of comparison, are tracings of

168

leaves of P. minus, P. mite, and P. dubium, also perianths
and ripe nuts of the same.

Mr. Hardy remarked that Mr. Hunt's paper was an able
resume of the characters of the allied species of Polygonum,
but so far as he could perceive it added nothing to our
knowledge on the subject. With respect to the more
immediate purport of the paper, viz., the disputed identity
of the Mere Mere and Jackson’s Boat plants, with the P.
minus of Hudson, it would appear from Mr. Hunt’s remarks
that besides Mr. Baker, two at least of our oldest and most
able botanists had failed to differentiate P. minus, and P.
mite, when specimens were before them. In support of
what was stated at the previous meeting of the Society, as
quoted by Mr. Hunt, Mr. Hardy read the following extract
from an article in the old Phytologist (vol. 2, p. 332), by
Mr. H. C. Watson, “ On the Polygonum mite of Schrank
and allied species” : — “ Cheshire specimens (of P. mite) are
in the Herbarium of Sir W. J. Hooker, sent by Mr. William
Wilson, under the name of P. minus (1828) ; I have also
European specimens of the same species, sent with the names
of laxiflorum ( Weihe ), dubium (Braun ), Braunii ( Bluff and
Ping.), and mite (Persoon).” Mr. Hardy declined to accept
Mr. Hunt’s dictum that the relative size of the nut furnished
the only good character by which to separate the two plants,
believing that the size of the flower and the habit of growth,
when occurring side by side, as these specimens did, ought
not to be passed over; the leaves, too, of the Mere Mere
specimen in particular were actually more broadly lanceolate
than those of the Oxford and Surrey specimens traced by
Mr. Hunt ; and both the nuts and flowers larger than any
of the other selected minus exhibited by Mr. Hunt, and
doubtless correctly named. The presence or absence of
glands was, he believed, an important character, but it was
requisite, for the observation of these, that the specimens
should be freshly gathered.

Mr. Hunt’s localities for P. mite in Britain are all southern,
but Mi*. Baker, in his “North Yorkshire,” gives no less than
four localities for P. mite ; two in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the city of York, and one as far north as Thirsk.

169

Mr. Hardy referred incidentally to the notes by the
Hon. J. Warren in the January No. of the Journal of
Botany, on the Mere Mere P. nodosum, and also on the
Cheshire Epilobium called obscurum, and stated that Mr.
Warren seemed to be going over old ground as regarded
these two plants, the former of which he believed to be the
seedling form of P. amphibium (terrestre) and the latter
identical with the plants published by Mr. Baker in his
“Plant® Critic®,” and North Yorkshire Fasciculus, under
the name of E. ligulatum (Baker).

March 27th, 1871.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

“ On some Logs of Oak found in the Irwell Valley Gravels,”
by John Plant, F.G.S.

The author described the valley of the river Irwell as
being irregular and flat, except in such places where the red
sandstone hemmed in the river between high banks, with
the river forming several horseshoe curves, both above and
below Manchester. The flat meadows are covered with layers
of fine sandy loam, without pebbles or large foreign matters ;
it averages six feet deep, and in heavy floods — especially
the one of November, 1866 — these flat lands are flooded and
a fresh deposit of silt takes place. This silty loam rests
upon gravels and sands, but sometimes upon the red rock
which forms the basin of the valley from Kearsley Paper
Mills on the N.W. to below Carrington where the Irwell
joins the Mersey.

These gravels and sands are evidently of estuarine origin,
are current bedded with bands of strong ferruginous cement
running in them. The pebbles are of moderate size, rarely
exceeding 5 inches in diameter, and are smoothed and flat-
tened ; sixty per cent are from the coal measure sandstones,
the remainder being igneous or metamorphic. There are
plenty of Wastdale and Eskdale granites, with a few of the
whiter granites of Creefell and Dalbeatie, but no Shap

170

granites; black dolomites, greenstones and basalts, all doubt-
less derived from the boulder clays which cap the high land
bounding the valley. There are no records of bones of extinct
mammalia or flint weapons having been found in these
sands or gravels. Occasionally a black deposit is found at the
top of the gravel, with numbers of the common hazel nuts
and within the gravel fine logs of oak timber have not un-
frequently been found. At the present moment three of these
]ogs have been found lying quite near each other, and another
was found a few years ago about 300 yards to the south of
these. The three logs were under 6 feet of loam and 2 feet
of very clean red gravel ; they were denuded of bark and the
smaller branches all gone, but they were perfectly sound^
purplish black and very heavy ; only one was exhumed and
it measured 25 feet long and 2 feet diameter at the bole.
All the holes from which branches were torn were filled
with clean gravel.

It is quite probable that they have been originally washed
out of beds of peat from the high moorland and brought
down by floods to their present position, but it must be
referred back to the times when estuarine waters occupied
the low lands of Lancashire and Cheshire to the very base
of the hills very far to the East of Manchester.

Mr. Plant exhibited and described the finding of a large
flint-core in the alluvial deposit near Ordsall Lane Railway
Station. The river deposits partake of the same features as
are described above, and the flint-core was found at the
bottom of a bed of loam nearly five feet from the surface.

Mr. Plant also exhibited fine remains of coal period
reptiles, a lower jaw of “ A nthracosaurus” 15 inches long,
dermal plates of Loxomma , with a portion of a jaw having-
five erect teeth, and a scale of a new fish MccjaUclithys
coccosteus, and stated that at a future meeting he would
exhibit and describe a number of other new reptiles and
fishes in his collections from the Manchester coal field.

171

Annual Meeting, April 18th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The following Report of the Council was read by one of
the Secretaries :

The Council have the satisfaction to report that the past
year has been one of steady progress for the Society. On
the 31st of March, 1870, the general balance of the Treasu-
rer’s account was £268 Is. 2d., and on the 31st of March
last it had increased to £287 19s. ljd.

The number of ordinary members on the roll of the So-
ciety on the 1st of April, 1870, was 161, and 14 new
members have been since elected. The losses during the
year have been — deaths, 1 ; resignations, 3 ; and defaulters
2. The number on the roll on the 1st of April instant was
therefore 169.

In the last annual Report it was stated that in conse-
quence of the rapid increase of the Library of the Society it
would be necessary to provide additional accommodation.
This has since been done, a new bookcase having been fitted
up in the Council room in place of a smaller one which has
been removed into the tea room.

The Council refer with pleasure to the fact that the prin-
cipal result of the recent solar eclipse expedition is due to
the energy, intelligence, and skill of a member of the Society,
Mr. Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S., whose beautiful photograph
of the solar corona is now generally regarded as having
settled the long disputed question as to the real nature of
this remarkable phenomenon.

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. X. — No. 16. — Session 18 0-71.

172

The following papers and communications have been read
at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the Society during
the session now closing : —

October Ath, 1870. — “On Convertent Functions,” by Sir James
Cockle, F.R.S.

“On the Victoria Cave Exploration,” by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

October 10th, 1870. — “On the Variations of Abraxas Grossu-
lariata,” by Mr. Joseph Sidebotham.

October IDA, 1870. — “On a large Meteor seen at Keswick,
August 15th, 1870,” by G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S.

“Observation of the Occultation of Saturn, September 30th,
1870,” by Mr. James Fellows.

October 18 th, 1870. — “On Sun-spot Curves,” by Professor Bel-
four Stewart, F.R.S.

“ On recent Spectroscopic Investigations of the Solar Atmos-
phere,” by Mr. Lockyer, F.R.S.

“Account of an Examination of Offa’s Dyke,” by W. Boyd
Dawkins, F.R.S.

“ On the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Diallyl,” by W. R. Jekyll,
Dalton Chemical Scholar in Owens College. Communicated by
Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

November ls£, 1870. — On the Changes in the Magnetic dip during
the Aurora of October 25th, 1870,” by Dr. J. P. Joule, F.R.S.

“On the Aurora Borealis of October 25th, 1870,” by T. T.
Wilkinson, F.R.A.S.

“ On the Position of the Centre of the Corona of the Aurora of
October 25th, 1870,” by J. Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

“ On a Method of Taking Casts of Objects of Natural History,”
by W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

“Notes on Glacier Moraines in Cumberland and Westmorland,”
by W. Brockbank, F.G.S.

November 7th, 1870.—“ The Hawthorns of the Manchester
Flora,” by Mr. Charles Bailey.

November \bth, 1870. — “On Improvements in Machines for
Cutting and Paring Heavy Articles of Machinery,” by W. B.
Johnson, C.E.

173

“ On Two Singular Accumulations of Boulder Stones on the
Sea Beach at Seascales and Drigg,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., President.

“ On the Temperature Equilibrium of an Enclosure containing
a Body in Visible Motion,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

November 29th, 1870. — “The Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona,
and the Aurora, considered as Electric Phenomena,” by Professor
Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“On Iso-di-Naphthyl,” by Watson Smith, F.C.S.

“Notes on the Botany of Mere, Cheshire,” by Mr. G. E. Hunt.
December 13 th, 1870.— “Some Observations upon Railway Acci-
dents, and Suggestions for preventing their Frequent Occurrence,”
by W. B. Johnson, C.E.

“ Contributions towards a knowledge of Antkophila (Hymenop-
tera Aculeata) in the Mersey Province,” by Mr. F. 0. Ruspini.
Communicated by H. A. Hurst, Esq.

December 27th, 1870. — “Observation of the Eclipse of the Sun,
December 22nd, 1870,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

“ Notes on some of the High Level Drifts in the Counties of
Chester, Derby, and Lancaster,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S,, F.G.S.,
President of the Society.

January 9th, 1871. — “On Garex jlava, L., and its allies of the
Manchester Flora,” by Mr. Charles Bailey.

January \9th, 1871. — “ On the Postal System and Cotton Trade
a century since.” Extracted from a memorandum book of Mr.
George Walker, one of the original members of the Society, by

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.

“On the Drift Deposits near Burnley,” by T. T. Wilkinson,

F. R.A.S.

“Notes on the Effects of Cold upon the Strength of Iron,” by
W. Brockbank, F.G.S.

“ On the Properties of Iron and Steel as applied to the Rolling
Stock of Railways,” by Sir William Fairbaim, Bart., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c.

174

“ On the Alleged Action of Cold in rendering Iron and Steel
brittle,” by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ac., Vice-President.

“ On the Effect of Cold on the Strength of Iron,” by Peter
Spence, F.C.S., Ac.

January 2ith, 1871. — “ On the Effect of Cold on the Strength
of Iron,” by Mr. William H. Johnson.

“ Experiments on the Oxidation of Iron,” by Professor F. Crace
Calvert, Ph.D., F.R.S., Ac.

January 30 th, 1871. — “On Fossilization,” by W. Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S.

“ On the Structure of Some Specimens of Stigmaria,” by Pro-
fessor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.

“ On the Cultivation of Madder in Derbyshire,” by Joseph
Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

February 7 th, 1871. — “ On the Organisation of an Undescribed
Verticillate Strobilus from the Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire,”
by Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.

“ The Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona, and the Aurora, con-
sidered as Electric Phenomena, Part II.,” by Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A.

“ Further Experiments on the Effects of Cold upon Cast Iron,”
by Peter Spence, F.C.S., Ac.

February 21 st, 1871. — “ The Overthrow of the Science of Electro-
Dynamics,” by John Hopkinson, D.Sc.

“ Remarks on Mr. Spence’s Experiments on the Effects of Cold
on the Strength of Cast Iron,” by Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

“ Further Observations on the Strength of Garden Nails,” by
J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ac.

“ On the Action of Sulphurous Acid on Phosphates,” by Dr.
B. W. Gerland. Communicated by Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., Ac.

February 27th, 1871. — “ Notes on Polygonum minus and its
allies,” by Mr. G. E. Hunt.

March 7th, 1871. — “Further Observations on the Strength of
Garden Nails,” by J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.

“On Anthraflavic Acid, a Yellow colouring Matter accompany-
ing Artificial Alizarine,” by Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.

175

“ On the Cotton Trade a Century ago, being further extracts
from the memorandum book of Mr. George Walkei’, one of the
original Members of the Society,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
President.

March 21 st, 1871. — “On the Mechanical Equivalence of Heat,”
by the Rev. H. Highton, M.A.

“ On Mi-. Highton’s objections to the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat,” by John Hopkinson, D.Sc.

“ Examples of the Performance of the Electro-Magnetic Engine,”
by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., V.P.

March 27th, 1871. — “ On some Logs of Oak found in the Inyell
Valley Gravels,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

April Mh, 1871. — “On the Production of Cotton a Century
ago.” Extracted from a memorandum book of Mr. George Walker,
one of the original Members of the Society, by E. W. Binney,
F.R.S., F.G.S., President.

“ Arsenic in Pyrites and various Products,” by H. A. Smith.
Communicated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

“On Human Bones obtained from a cave near Llangollen, and
from a chambered tomb at Cefn, near St. Asaph,” by W. Boyd
Dawkins, F.R.S.

“Description of some Experiments on the Method of propelling
Balloons, illustrated by a Model,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds,
M.A.

“ Notes on the Drift of the Eastern Parts of the Counties of
Chester and Lancaster,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President.

The printing of the fourth volume of the Society’s third
series of Memoirs has been completed, and a new volume
has been commenced. Some of the papers in the above list
have already been passed for printing in this volume.

During the session now ending an important alteration
has been made in the terms of admission of Sectional
Associates, the annual subscription having been reduced
from one pound to ten shillings, except for those Associates
who wish to make use of the Society’s Library, who will
still continue to pay a subscription of one pound per annum.

176

The Librarian reports that he has not been able to send
any books to be bound in the course of the past year. The
Society continues to receive the publications of those
societies to whom our own “Memoirs” and “Proceedings”
are sent, but the recent war between France and Germany
has to some extent interrupted the transmission of the
works of many continental societies.

The number of Societies, &c., now in relation with the
Society is as follows : —

In England 86

In Scotland 12

In Ireland 10

In British India 7

In Australia and Tasmania 4

In Canada 5

In the United States 28

In France and Algeria 59

In Germany 54

In Belgium 5

In Holland and Luxembourg 16

In Switzerland 9

In Denmark 2

In Sweden 5

In Norway 4

In Italy 14

In Austria and Hungary 14

In Russia 8

In Spain 1

In Portugal 2

In Batavia 2

In the Brazils and Chili 2

Total 349

Showing an increase of 38 in the number at the correspond-
ing period last year.

177

On the motion of Dr. S. Crompton, seconded by Mr. S.
Ogden, the Annual Report was unanimously adopted.

On the motion of Mr. S. Clement Trapp, seconded by
the Rev. Brooke Herford, it was resolved unanimously —
That the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing session.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year : —

frmknt.

EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.E.S., F.G.3.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &e.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Rev. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A.

HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

ftixmnxzx.

THOMAS CARRICK.

'pbrtmtm.

CHARLES BAILEY.

©tfrer Ifymhm ot t&e Couiuil

PETER SPENCE, F.C.S., M.S.A.

WILLIAM LEESON DICKINSON.

HENRY WILDE.

ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.

WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S.

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179

The following paper was read at the Ordinary Meeting of
the Society, held on the 4th of April, 1871 : —

“Notes on Drift of the Eastern Parts of the Counties of
Chester and Lancaster,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
President.

Having in a previous paper during this session given a
short description of the higher drift found in these counties,
we will proceed to consider the thick surface covering of
the general drift, which nearly hides from our view the
underlying strata, except where they are exposed in river
courses, or in canal or railway cuttings. This generally
reaches to an elevation of about 700 feet above the sea,
and does not alter much in its appearance, whether it is
seen at Blackpool, Ormskirk, or Liverpool, or at Burnley,
Rochdale, Glossop, or Macclesfield, except being usually
more divided as it is found inland, and approaches the sides
of the Pennine chain. It consists of beds of till, clay,
sand, and gravel. We commence with it at Crewe, and
follow it by Sandbach, Macclesfield, Poynton, to Stockport,
and thence up the valleys of the Goyt and the Etherow,
and past Hyde, Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, Oldham,
Rochdale, Heywood, Middleton, Bury, up into Rossendale,
by Bolton, Chorley, and Preston, running up to Blackburn,
Burnley, and Colne, on the one side, and by Kirkham and
Poulton-le-Fylde, to Fleetwood, on the other.

It has been treated on by various authors, a list of whose
works are given. The deposits were tracked along the
line above named ; and betwixt that line and the Irish Sea,
the only direct allusion to them was on the line of Rail-
way from Liverpool through Newton, Manchester, Middle-
ton, and Rochdale, to Todmorden, with sections of sinkings
Pboceedings — Lit. & Phie. Soo.— Vol. X. — No. 16.— Session 1870-1.

180

and borings on each side of it. This is at the best merely
an outline, but it is probably better than attempting to lay
down the deposits over a great extent of country, without
possessing sufficient data for a map of such changeable
deposits as those of the drift are, it being considered more
desirable to give an incomplete rather than a made up
description. Certainly it is not intended to pretend to lay
down the drift deposits over 600 square miles of country ^
and to predict what beds lie under. Some districts will be
more particularly described, because materials are at hand
for doing it. The county around Poynton, and High Lane,
Stockport, and Brinnington, between Manchester and Old-
ham, and Manchester and Middleton and Rochdale, near
Bury, around Clifton, Swinton, Astley, Leigh, and Asliton-
in-Mackerfield. In addition detached sections proved by
boring or sinking will be given, and the height above the
sea of the localities where it can be ascertained.

In memoirs published in the Society’s Transactions,* the
order of superposition of the drift beds at Manchester was
given by me in the following descending order, namely : —
(1) valley gravel; (2) forest sand and gravel containing
beds of till and clay; (3) till or boulder clay; (4) lower
gravel and sand. In a paper published by the Manchester
Geological Society,*}' “after noticing at length the great value
to all classes of society of a correct knowledge of those
superficial deposits which were formerly termed diluvium
but are now better known by the name of drift, the author
describes the whole of the counties from the Irish Sea to
the foot of the Pennine chain as being more or less covered
with different portions of foreign drift so that the under-
lying strata are only visible in steep escarpments, the great
lines of drainage, or in artificial sections. In some places it
l’eaches to heights of 1000 to 1200 feet above the level of

# Vols. Till, and X. (Second Series),
t Proceedings of the Society for 1842-3, p. 6.

181

the Irish Sea. The flat surfaces and hollows of underlying
rocks appear to have afforded lodgment for it in much
higher places than sloping sides of rock at a lower level.
Near the shores of the Irish Sea it is very simple, being-
composed of brown till covered with a thin deposit of fine
forest sand, as seen near Ormskirk. At Manchester it is
composed of lower gravel, till, and upper sand and gravel,
while at Heywood and Poynton, near the base of the Pen-
nine chain, the beds of the last named sand and gravel are
parted by several beds of loam and clay.”

In a Paper published in the Society’s Memoirs by Mr.,
now Professor, Hull, F.R.S.,* that geologist classes the drift
and recent deposits of the basin of the Mersey and its
tributaries, as follows : —

Recent — 1. Valley gravel and river terraces.

2. Upper boulder clay or till, Bolton, Halshaw Moor,
Clifton Moss, Moston, Oldham, Newton Heath, Denton,
Cheadle Hulme, &c.

3. Middle sand and gravel, Bolton, Pendlebury, Prest-
wich, Kersal Moor, Heywood, Middleton, Blackley, Gorton,
Stockport, Poynton, Wilmslow, Prestbury, Macclesfield,
Crewe, &c.

4. Lower boulder clay or till, Monton, Salford, Man-
chester, Heaton Norris, &c.

At page 455 of the same paper the author says, “The
middle sand is, unfortunately for its consistency of character)
not always free from bands of loam or clay. One of these,
which is largely used for brick making near Prestwich,
Heywood, and Rochdale, occurs about the centre of the
mass, and divides the sand into two main beds, the upper of
which frequently occurs in detached hillocks. This bed,
however, is of very local occurrence, and thins out south-
ward.” At page 458 he gives a general section to shew the
arrangement of the drift deposits between Manchester and
# Note, Yol. 2. (Third series), page 431.

182

CO

Oldham, illustrated by a wood-cut showing the two beds of
till and the intervening sand and gravel.

At page 451 he states, “We have no-
where been able to discover the lower
£ sand No. 4 in situ during our examina-
« tion.”

| Professor Hull’s classification has been
| adopted by Mr. De Ranee, F.G.S., and
® other authors connected with the geo-
° logical survey. In order to test the value
of this classification of the drift betwixt
Manchester and Oldham, a distance of
j? between six and seven miles, the sinkings
g and borings of the district have been
g collected, several of which have been

PQ

| supplied to me by Mr. Bailey, of Honey -
£ well-lane, Oldham. By practical men
” the term “marl” is used for till, and
when the clay is full of pebbles it is
called strong, or stony marl. Of course
"a the sinkings are more to be relied on
s than the borings, but it is surprising how
| skilled borers by long experience are able
to detect small variations in the struc-
ture of deposits.

Professor Hull’s general section is here
^ given, and the letters A, B, C, and D, are

c3

3 marked upon it to designate the points
S where the actual sinkings and borings

0

” have been made. The line is not a
©

1 straight one, but makes a considerable
- curve to the north by Blackley, and my

j sections are not all on the line, but
j some to the east and others to the west
^ of it.

hi

183

A

Strata found in sinking the
shaft at St. George’s Col-
liery, Rochdale Road, Man-
chester. Height above the

sea, 183 feet.

ft. in.

Till 45 0

Sand and Gravel 10 6

Resting on Red Clays..

55 6

B

Sinking at Crumpsall Work-
house. 250 feet.

ft. in.

Till [Upper BoulderClay

of Hull] 5 0

Sand 16 0

Quick Sand 26 0

Loam 4 0

Till 30 0

Clay in laminae 5 0

Till 4 0

Hard Clay 0 6

Sand 2 0

Gravel 7 6

Till 25 0

Sand with small stones
resting on Trias Rock

125 0
C

Sinking at New Pit, Moston.

325 feet.

ft. in.

Soil and Clay 4 0

Marl 21 0

Sand 5 9

Marl 4 0

Sand 0 6

Marl and Loam 9 0

Loam 19 0

Dry Sand 12 0

Quick Sand 2 0

Strong Marl 23 3

Loam 8 6

Strong Marl 9 0

Loam 2 0

ft. in.

Quick Sand 15 6

Strong Marl 21 6

Clay 1 0

Gravel 16 0

Resting on Coal Mea-
sures. —

174 0
C

Mr. Wood’s Bore above Med-
lock Yale. 250 feet.

Soil

ft.

1

in.

0

Till

21

0

Sand

6

0

Till

13

0

Sand

2

6

Till

14

0

Sand

7

0

Till

2

0

Sand

2

0

Till

Brown Metals

27

6

C

97

0

Boring at Mr. Walmsley’s, near

Failsworth Pole. 327 feet.

ft. in.

Soil 1 2

Clay 3 0

Soft Marl 12 4

Loamy Sand 1 0

Marl 3 0

Sand 0 5

Marl 9 2

Marl with sand beds ... 3 0

Sand 0 9

Marl 42 0

Sand 1 6

Hard Sand 17 10

Loamy Marl 0 10

Marl 10 5

Loamy Marl 7 7

Black Sand 3 4

Loamy Marl 4 6

Red Marl resting on red

sandstone 5 4

127 0

184

C

Sinking at Bower Colliery, (No.
2 Pit), near Holliuwood. 350

feet.

ft. in.

Marl 19 0

Quick Sand 1 6

Solid Marl 64 0

Sand and Gravel 3 0

87 6
C

Boring at Lymeditch, Fails-
w or th. About 350 feet.

ft. in.

Marl 16 6

Loamy Sand 0 3

Wet Sand 1 0

Soft Marl 1 5

Wet Sand 1 7

Marl 4 3

Dry Loam 2 10

Soft Marl 5 0

Marl 4 0

Loamy Sand 2 0

Soft Marl 1 0

Loamy Sand 1 6

Quick Sand 1 0

Marl 3 0

Marl and Sand 0 9

Loam 1 1

Strong Gravel 2 2

Strong Marl 40 9

Loamy Marl 7 11

Soft Smooth Marl 6 2

Wet Sand 1 0

Quick Sand 2 3

Loamy Marl 1 8

Quick Sand 2 6

Resting on Coal Measures

112 7
D

Sinking at Park Colliery, near
Oldham. 550 feet.

ft. in.

Soil and Clay 6 0

Strong Blue Marl 24 0

ft. in.

Sand and Gravel 7 0

Strong Marl with small

gravel beds 63 0

Sand and Gravel resting

on rock 6 0

106 0

D

Bore near the Middleton June-

tion Railway

Station. 350

feet.

ft.

in.

Soil

1

6

Gravel

2

0

Loamy Sand

18

0

Marl

9

0

Dry Sand

17

6

Wet Sand

10

6

Marl

5

2

Wet Sand

21

9

Wet Grey Sand ..

9

0

Loamy Marl

12

7

Wet Sand

5

9

Marl

0

3

Wet Sand

5

0

Marl

0

2

Wet Sand

5

8

Marl resting on

Coal

Measures . . . .

2

8

126

6

D

Sinking at Hartford Colliery,

Werneth. 550 feet.

ft.

in.

Soil and Clay

6

0

Marl

27

0

33 0
D

Sinking at Honeywell Lane Pit.

580 feet.

Soil and Clay 6 6

Strong Marl 48 0

54 0

185

The district near Chamber Hall lying betwixt Hartford
and Park collieries is almost free from drift, and the
Chamber Hall rock can be seen cropping out to the surface
with very little cover upon it.

The sinking at St. George’s Colliery may be a little
to the east of Mr. Hull’s line of section, but the beds
there are about the same as those which are met with
in the brick-yards of Cheetham; and from the last-named
place by Crumpsall Workhouse to Moston Colliery, leav-
ing Mr. Wood’s section above Medlock Yale, and Mr.
Walmsley’s at Failsworth to the east, thence by Bower
Colliery, leaving Lymeditch to the east, up to Park
sinking, leaving Middleton Junction and Hartford to
the west, and Honeywell-lane to the east, are nearly upon
his line.

To me it appears that the drift beds found between
Manchester and Oldham cannot well be classed under the
triple division which Professor Hull has adopted, although
it would doubtless simplify matters if it could be done.
However that may be, we have nothing left but to take the
deposits as we find them in sinkings and borings, which
certainly are not always to be relied on, still they are better
to trust to than leisurely walking over the ground and
making ideal sections.

The drift deposits are so variable, and our knowledge of
them inland so limited, that at present any classification
should be regarded as provisional, and the intercalation of
beds of sand and gravel in the till, instead of two or more
beds of till with the sands and gravels all packed between
them, will probably be more convenient, as it will enable
us to include the lower sand and gravel which, although
often absent, is sometimes found under the till.

In other districts numerous sinkings and borings in the
drift are given for the purpose of showing the nature of
the deposits, similar to what has been done between Man-

180

Chester and Oldham, and these, on the whole, appear to
show that the thick bed of till has a tendency to divide
into several beds, parted by sands and gravels, generally to
the north and east. This is especially seen near Manchester,
where the middle sand and gravel at its junction with the
thick bed of till is not observed overlying it, but cropping
out from under it.

At the Annual" Meeting of the Society, held on the 18th
of April, 1871,

Dr. Joule, F.R.S., drew attention to the remarkable
atmospheric phenomenon which had been seen by several
persons in Derbyshire and elsewhere, on the evening of
Good Friday, April 7th, and stated that he had witnessed a
similar appearance near Glasgow, on the day before it was
observed in this neighbourhood. The perpendicular ray
extended upwards from the sun to an altitude of 30°, and
was very clearly defined. It was observed from half an hour
before, until after the sun had set. The phenomenon was
also witnessed, at the same time, by Professor J. Thomson,
who was sailing on the Firth of Clyde.

187

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

March 28th, 1871.

E. W. Btnney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Mr. Brothers, F.R.A.S., after some preliminary remarks
as to the chief objects of the English Eclipse Expedition to
Sicily, in December last, exhibited on the screen a series of
photographs illustrating, in the first instance, the means
adopted for obtaining photographs of the eclipse. A series
of pictures was then shown illustrating the corona as photo-
graphed during the eclipses in 1860, 1868, and 1869, and
the whole of the pictures taken during the totality in 1870
at Syracuse. These were shown in comparison with the
pictures taken in Spain by the American observers, and
also with sketches taken by members of the English expe-
dition in Spain. These illustrations showed in a remarkable
manner the advantages of photography in depicting pheno-
mena such as are seen during eclipses of the sun— the strict
identity of the positions of the rifts or dark spaces in the
corona being shown most perfectly. The identity of those
rifts was also shown by comparison with a drawing made
by Professor Watson at Carlentini, in Sicily.

During the evening Dr. Roscoe, F.R.S., explained the im-
portance of spectrum analysis in investigating the solar
phenomena, and described the preparations he had made for
viewing the eclipse from his station on Mount Etna, about
5,000 feet above the sea level.

The photographs and other illustrations were exhibited
by means of Mr. T. Harrison’s powerful electric apparatus.
Pboceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Yol. X. — No. 17.— Session 1870-71.

18b

Annual Meeting, April 25th, 1871.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

^iK-^rtsibtnls.

E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S. | ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S,

JStmifttg.

a. Y. VERNON, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

Srnmtrcr.

THOMAS CARRICK.

“ Performance of the Electro-Magnetic Engine,” by the
Rev. H. Highton, M.A.

1. I am sure that Dr. Joule is a sufficient lover of truth
not to feel offended if I submit his last explanations on this
subject to the test of facts and experiments.

Not having myself the means of trying experiments
with sufficient accuracy to venture to publish results, I will
make use only of M. Favre’s and Dr. Joule’s own experiments.

2. The whole basis of Dr. Joule’s new reasoning is, that
when a magnetic engine works rapidly, less heat is evolved
and more absorbed in it. Taking his own figures as a basis,
I find he calculates that when the current is reduced to
one-half what it was when the engine was at rest, the heat
evolved per hour would be one quarter, and per equivalent
of zinc consumed one half. Now let us take the measure-
ment by M. Favre’s calorimeter (“ Comptes Rendus,” vol.
XLV.) When the engine was at rest, the calorimeter in
which it was placed showed, per equivalent of zinc con-
sumed, 2,219 heat-units. When it worked slowly, raising a

189

weight, it evolved 2,947 units, and when it worked rapidly,
raising no weight, it showed 4,769 units. In that case,
therefore, the effect was exactly the reverse of what Dr.
Joule supposes.

3. I have taken Dr. Joule’s own experiments described in
the “Philosophical Magazine,” vol. XXVIII., and have
calculated, on the data he gives, what weight ought to
have been raised in each experiment. I subjoin a table
of what should have been raised and what actually Ava,s
raised : —

Exp.

Foot pounds calculated.

Actual.

I.

19,377

21,100

II.

18,628

17,820

III.

11,533

8,800

IV.

11,232

9,000

V.

17,416

10,031

VI.

18,033

12,673

In order that

any mistake I may

have made

detected, I subjoin the calculations themselves in an
appendix. The numbers are calculated on the supposition
that the resistance of the battery could be neglected. If
Dr. Joule in those experiments acted on the erroneous prin-
ciple, into which he was misled by Jacobi, that the resistance
of the wire should be equal to that of the battery, each of
the above calculated numbers should be reduced by one
half, which in every case would make the work actually
done considerably more than the calculation, in some cases
more than double.

4. Let me next observe that if, instead of a wire 389 feet
long and iVth of an inch in diameter, Dr. Joule had taken
one which was half the length and half the section, all his
figures would apply equally well; or, again, a wire of
German silver a quarter the length and with four times the
resistance; or, to take an extreme case, a wetted cord
enclosed in an insulating tube Tooth part the length, and
with 100 times the resistance.

190

5. Dr. Joule when he demonstrates that there is no
variation in economy, whatever the arrangement of the
conducting metal, or whatever the size of the battery,
demonstrates too much ; for it would follow from this, that
no diminution in the size of the battery would affect the
result injuriously. Why then should he prescribe a battery
of such a size that the resistance may be neglected ? Take,
again, his own figures in the 4th vol. of “ Sturgeon’s Annals.”
By reducing his battery from 40 pairs to 10 he increased
his economic duty from 65 00 to 97'00 or 50 per cent.

6. But in reality Dr. Joule’s views in 1840 were more
correct than they are now; for he was then not so far
committed to the theory of the mechanical equivalence of
heat. In 1840 he allowed that an economy could be effected
by increasing the quantity of wire. Let us see whether he
was right then, or whether he is so now. In his experi-
ments in 1845 he used twice as much wire in his first two
experiments as in his four last. What was the consequence ?
In his first two experiments the average of foot-pounds per
hour was 19,460, and duty per grain of zinc 98-35. In the
four last experiments the average per hour 10,125, and duty
per grain of zinc 51 '8, thus clearly showing that doubling
the quantity of wire nearly doubled both the actual work
done, and the economical duty.

7. Again, a comparison of his two first experiments would
tend to prove that reducing the intensity below one half
reduces not only the work done per hour, but the duty
also, instead of increasing it. For the full current being
2,232, a reduction to 920 produced 21,100 foot-pounds of
work per hour, and a duty of 1029 ; whereas a reduction to
850 (by increasing the turns from 140 to 180 per minute)
produced only 17,820 foot-pounds of work per hour, and a
duty of only 93’8, or nearly 10 per cent. less.

8. Dr. Joule’s accurate and most valuable experiments
are still the great storehouse of facts on this subject. What
I contend is, that they disprove, not prove, his own theory.

191

APPENDIX.

Calculations, according to Joule’s present theory, for his
experiments in 1845.

N.B. The calculations are only close approximations, and
not perfectly accurate.

FIRST EXPERIMENT.

I. When the engine was at rest, current in BA units,
1,296.

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire = 102-89 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 49 7 ’7 grains.

3. Heat clue to 497 '7 grains, 102*89 units.

4. Work per hour (102-89 - 102-89)772 = 0.

5. Work per grain of zinc = 0.

II. The engine was then started, and kept to a velocity
which reduced the current to -5338.

•5338\ 2

(?

296/

= 1715

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire, 102-89 x

units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 497*7 x JIM? = about 205

1'296

grains.

3. Heat due to 205 grains, 102-89 x = 42-25 units.

4. Work per hour (42-25 - 17-15) x 772 = 19.377 ft. lbs.

SECOND EXPERIMENT.

III. The current is reduced to *495.

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire, 102-89 x =15-15.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 49-77 x = about 190

grains.

3. Heat due to 190 grains, 102-89 x = 39-28.

-L zyb

4. Work per hour (39'28 - 15-15) x 772 = 18,628 ft. lbs.

THIRD EXPERIMENT.

IV. When the engine was at rest, current *806.

1. Heat evolved per hour, 63 -88 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 309 grains.

3. Heat due to 309 grains, 63-88 units.

4. Work, 0.

192

V. The current is now reduced by the velocity to ’495.

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire, 63 -88 x

units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 309 x = about 190 grains.

3. Heat due to 309 grains = 39 -28 units.

4. Work per hour (39-28 - 24-34)772 = 11,533 ft. lbs.

FOURTH EXPERIMENT.

VI. The current was now reduced to -3934.

1. Heat evolved by the wire, 63-88 x ' = 15*25 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 309 x ~ ?|= 151 grains.

3. Heat due to zinc = 31 -21 units.

4. Work per hour (31-21 - 15-25)772 = 1T232 ft. lbs.

FIFTH EXPERIMENT.

VII. When the engine was at rest the current was 1-211

1. Heat evolved per hour by wire, 96-07 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 465 5.

3. Work, 0.

VIII. Current reduced to -757.

1. Heat evolved by the wire, 96-07 x J 2 = 37"6.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour = 291 grains.

3. Heat due to 291 grains = 60-16.

4. Work per hour (60-16 - 37-6) x 772 = 17,416 ft. lbs.

SIXTH EXPERIMENT.

IX. When the engine was at rest, current 1 182.

1. Heat evolved per hour by the wire, 94-15 units.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour, 453-4 grains,

3. Heat due to 453-4 grains, 94-15.

4. Work, 0.

X. When the current was reduced to -58.

1. Heat evolved by the wire, 94-15 x / =22-74.

2. Consumption of zinc per hour = 223 grains.

3. Heat due to 223 grains = 46-103 units.

4. Work per hour should be (46T03 - 22-74)772 - 18,033 ft. lbs.

'***)• = 24-34
•806/

193

Dr. Joule said in noticing Mr. Highton’s remarks, — I
would refer him to my paper on the caloi'ific effects of mag-
neto-electricity and the mechanical value of heat, published
in the Phil. Mag. for 1843, vol. 23. He will there find it
stated, pp. 274, 351, as the result of my experiments, that the
heat evolved by the wire of my revolving electro-magnet
varied with the square of the current passing through it,
and was not affected by the resistance presented by magneto-
electric induction in consequence of the working of the
electro-magnetic engine. This fact is the basis of my
reasoning in that paper, and the neglect of it has involved
Mr. Highton in error, as may be seen in his reply to Mr.
Apjohn’s most lucid exposition of the true theory in the
Chemical News, vol. 23, p. 105.

The correctness of Jacobi’s formula for the proper arrange-
ment of the wires of a battery to produce the maximum
magnetic effect is not necessarily connected with the subject
of economy of work. Nevertheless 1 may refer Mr. Highton
to my experiments on this subject in Sturgeon’s Annals for
1839, by which I showed that the attraction of electro-
magnets for one another is proportional to the square of the
current between very wide limits.

Mr. Highton seems to forget, when commenting upon the
large amount of duty obtained in the first two experiments
of my paper with Scoresby, that in them the theoretical
duty was also greater than in the others, owing to the current
being worked down to a lower intensity. Another reason,
explained in the paper was, that in those two experiments,
recently mixed, and therefore hot solutions were used in
the battery, the potential of which was thereby increased.

Mr. Highton is in error if he supposes that my paper in
the Proceedings for March 21 contains a new theory, or that
I have abandoned any of my original views. My object in
that paper was simply to place the true theory in a form in
which it might be easily understood by those who have not
worked on the subject.

194

“ On a Diurnal Inequality in the Direction and Velocity
of the Wind, apparently connected with the daily changes of
Magnetic Declination,” by Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

In a Paper with the above title read before the Section
on the 5th January, 1867, I gave the results of a discussion
of the Anemograph observations made at the Radcliffe obser-
vatory, Oxford, during the eight years 1859 — 66, and showed
that the differences between the bi-hourly directions and
velocities of the wind indicated the operation of a force
acting in a direction from magnetic west to east during the
hours of from about 7 a.m. to 9 p.m., and producing its
maximum effect from 1 to 2 p.m. The Anemograph results
for 1867, have since been published in the volume of
“Radcliffe Observations” for that year; and a copy of the
unpublished results for 1868, having been kindly forwarded
to me by the Rev. R. Main, F.R.S., the Radcliffe Observer, I
have combined the results of these two years with those of
the previous eight years, and thus obtained the following
mean results for the entire period of ten years, 1859-68 : —

h

Mean

Direction.

O 1

Mean

Bi-horary

Velocity.

h

Mean

Direction.

o /

Mean

Bi-liorary

Velocity.

0

222

30

15-88

12

214

14

12-38

2

223

33

1602

14

214

32

12-27

4

221

37

15-00

16

214

47

12-28

6

218

23

13-53

18

216

28

12-26

8

214

36

12-78

20

217

9

1301

10

213

32

12-58

22

219

54

14-62

These results, like those for the eight years, 1859-66,
show that during the night little or no change takes place
in the direction and velocity of the wind; about 7 a.m. both
the angle of direction and the velocity begin to increase,
and attaining their maxima a little before 2 p.m. they
afterwards gradually diminish until about 9 p.m., when
they again resume their night values.

The rectangular co-ordinates A aud B of these directions
and velocities, taken in the direction of the meridian, and
at right angles to it, and the differences between the indi-

195

vidual and the mean values of A and B are shown in the
following table : —

h.

A

Difference from
Mean.

B

Difference from
Mean.

0

11-71

+1-04

10-73

r2-41

2

11-61

-j-0'94

11-04

-2-72

4

11-21

+0-54

9-96

_

-1-64

6

10-60

—007

8-40

-0-08

8

1052

—0-15

7-26

-1-06

10

10-49

—0-18

6-95

-1-37

12

10-24

—0-43

6-97

-1-35

14

1011

—0-56

6-96

-1-36

16

1009

—0-58

701

-1-31

18

9-86

—0-81

7-29

-103

20

10-37

—0-30

7-86

-0-46

22

11-22

+0-55

9-38

+1-06

Now if the view I took in my former paper is correct, and
the mean daily movement of the wind is due to two forces, —
one constant, or nearly so, both in direction and intensity,
and the other constant in direction, but variable in intensity,
and acting during only a portion of the day, then the sums
of the differences in columns 3 and 5 of the above table,
taken without reference to sign, will be the rectangular
co-ordinates of the angle of direction, and total amount of
movement caused by the action of the variable force. These
sums are : —

A differences = 6 To.

B differences = 15-85.

And the resulting angle of direction = 248° 48', and the
total movement = 17'00 miles.

The mean magnetic declination at Greenwich during the
period of 1859-68 was 20° 46' W.; and as the declination is
about 40' greater at Oxford than at Greenwich, the mean
value for this period at Oxford would be 21° 46' W., or the
angle of magnetic west would be 248° 34'. The calculated
angle of direction of the disturbing force differs therefore
only 14' from that of magnetic west.

Deducting the sums of the A and B differences from the
sums of the A and B values, we have the co-ordinates of the
direction and movement of the wind due to the action of
the constant force. These are 12T88 and 83-96, and the

196

bi-horary values = 10156 and 6-997. The amounts for a
period of 10 hours will therefore be 50-78 and 34-98 ; but
the amounts actually observed during the 10 hours, from
9 p.m. to 7 a.m. are 5079 and 3518, and we are therefore
entitled to conclude that the disturbing force is almost, if
not altogether, inoperative during this interval.

The rate of increase and decrease of the variable force will
be seen from the following numbers : —

h.

20

+0-21

+086

22

1-06

2-38

0

1-55

373

2

1-45

4-04

4

105

2-96

6

0'44

1*40

8

036

0-26

An examination of these numbers shows that the intensity
of the force increases most rapidly about the time when the
north pole of the magnetic needle is moving most rapidly to
the westward. It is at its maximum when the needle is at
its greatest elongation west ; and its greatest rate of decrease
occurs at the time when the needle is moving most rapidly
to the eastward. These coincidences and the fact that the
force acts in the direction of a perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian, seem to indicate very clearly that it is directly
connected with the forces which cause the daily changes of
magnetic declination.

In my paper “ On Periodic Changes in the Magnetic Con-
dition of the Earth, and in the Distribution of Temperature
on its Surface,” read before the Society, on the 8th of March,
1864, I suggested that changes in the magnetic condition
of the earth might produce corresponding changes in the
directions of the great currents of the atmosphere, and as
the changes in some of the magnetic elements take place in
a period corresponding with that of solar spot frequency, it
occurred to me to examine whether the mean direction of
the wind at Oxford, in different years, had any relation to

197

the number of spots observed on the sun’s disk. The mean
direction in each year of the series was

1859

S. 531° W.

1864

S. 20° W.

1860

70£

1865

16

1861

51

1866

12J

1862

511

1867

24

1863

41

1868

38

It appears therefore that the greatest angle of direction
occurred in 1860, which was a year of maximum solar spot
frequency ; and the least angle in 1866 when solar spots were
least numerous. I had noticed this remarkable coincidence
when I wrote my paper in 1868, but did not mention it in
the paper, as I thought it better to wait for the publication
of the observations for another year or two, to see whether
the angle of direction of the wind would increase after the
period of solar spot frequency had passed its minimum.
The above numbers show that an increase has taken place,
and I therefore now feel justified in drawing attention to
the subject as one of considerable importance in its bearing
upon meteorological science, and also upon that of terrestrial
magnetism.

In conclusion, I may mention as a noteworthy fact that
although observations of the direction and velocity of the
wind have, for many years, been made at various observa-
tories in this country, and elsewhere, with self-recording
instruments, I have not yet been able to meet with any, save
these made at Oxford, the results of which are published in
a form available for the purposes of an investigation similar
to the one which forms the subject of this paper. This is
however only one of many instances that might be adduced
to show how important it has become to effect a reform of
the unsatisfactory system which has so long and so generally
been pursued in publishing the results of meteorological
observations.

“ On the Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester, during the
year 1870,” by G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

N

198

The rainfall for 1870 was remarkable for its very irregular
distribution over the year. The total amount collected was
5'988in. below the average of the last seventy-seven years :
it fell upon 155 days, or upon 55 days less than in 1869.

During the first, second, and third quarters of 1870, the
rainfall was below the average of the corresponding periods
of the last seventy-seven years : whilst the fourth quarter
was in excess, but by no means making up for the previous
deficiency.

January, March, April, and October, had a rainfall in
excess of the average, the amount in October being very
exceptional.

February, May, June, July, August, September, November,
and December had a rainfall below the average.

The rainfall of October was very remarkable, no such
an amount having fallen in this district between 1794 and
1870, the largest amount registered being 7'793in. in 1843.

In every year in which the rainfall has been above five
inches in October, since 1794, excepting 1804, the rainfall
for the year has considerably exceeded 30000in., and it
appears to be very unusual to have a dry year with a very
excessive rainfall in October.

OLD TRAFFORD, MANCHESTER.

Rain Gauge 3 feet above the ground, and 106 feet above sea level.

Quarterly

Periods.

1870.

Fall

In

Inches.

Average

of

77 years.

Difference.

No.of

Days

Rain-

fall

in

1870.

Quarterly Periods.

77 Years. , 1870.
Inches. Inches.

Difference.

1869.

1870.

Days.

Days.

c

Jan. . . .

3T31

2-505

+0-626

18

)

56

4i 5

Feb....

0-856

2-397

—1-541

14

£ 7-199

6-365

—0-834

(

March.

2-3/8

2-297

+0-081

9

3

c

April...

2-217

2031

+0-186

10

)

44

35 }

May . . .

0-746

2-316

—1-570

9

[ 7 030

4-753

—2-277

(

June.. .

1-790

2-683

—0-893

16

3

(

July...

0809

3-515

—2-706

10

)

48

32 1

August

1-652

3-534

—1-882

8

[ 10-312

5-118

—5-194

l

Sep. ...

2-657

3-263

—0-606

14

3

c

Oct. ...

8363

3-877

+4-486

23

62

47 1

Nov....

2-420

3-814

—1-394

12

y 10-998 13-315

+2-317

l

Dec

2-532

3-307

—0-775

12

210

155

29.551

35.539

—5.988

155

35-539

29651

—5-988

199

“ On the Rainfall at Old TrafFord, Manchester, and Com-
parison with the Average of Twenty Years and Seventy-
seven Years,” by G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S, F.M.S.

In a paper published in Volume I. of the third series of
the Society’s Memoirs, I gave the rainfall for Old TrafFord,
for the years 1850 to 1860, and I beg now to submit to the
society a continuation of the same down to the end of 1870,
making a period of ten years.

The period 1850 to 1860 was unfortunately very incom-
plete, owing to the month of August being deficient in the
first six years of the period. The series I now submit is
complete throughout the period of ten yoars.

In the first place I annex a comparative statement of the
various periods.

Month.

1850-1860

1861-1870

1850-1870

1794-1870

J anuary

2'778

2-659

2-719

2"505

February

1-899

2-412

2156

2-397

March

1-925

2-356

2131

2-297

April

1-848

1-983

1-915

2-031

May

1-808

2-112

1-953

2-316

J une

3-310

2-286

2-798

2683

July

2-869

2-547

2-713

3-515

August*

4-806

2913

3-454

3-534

September

2-745

4014

3-349

3-263

October

3-280

4-191

3-785

3-877

November

2-611

3-245

2-928

3-814

December

2-786

3-347

3053

3-307

Sums

32-665

34-165

32-954

35-539

* 1850 to 1860, 4 years only.

This table evidently points out the fact that the period
1850 to 1860 was drier than the period 1860 to 1870, and
would have shown it much more so if the observations for
August had been complete during the earlier period, as the
average of the four years 1857, 1858, 1859 and 1860 is quite
an abnormal value ; the rainfall in this month being exces-
sive in each of these years.

During the last ten years the smallest amount of rain
occurred in 1865, the amount being 29-389in. falling upon

200

164 days; the largest amount occurred the following year
1866, the amount being 43169 falling upon 214 days.

From the longer period of observations, 1794 to 1870, it
seems to be quite well established that in this district the
minimum rainfall occurs in April, and the maximum in
October, and but for the departure from symmetry in Sep-
tember we should have a simple curve with one maximum
and one minimum.

In October, 1870, the largest fall of rain for the month
occurred of any October between 1794 and 1870, and
during this entire period there were only two months
approaching so large a fall, viz., July, 1828, ]l-280ins., and
August, 1799, 8‘740ins. (Society’s Memoirs, second series,
Yol. XV.)

The summer months of 1868, 1869, and 1870 were ex-
cessively dry. The four months of May, June, July, and
August had a total rainfall of

1868, 4T94ins. ; 1869, 7'612ins.; 1870, 4 -997ms.

The average for seventy-seven years being 12 -048ins., show-
ing a very great falling off', especially in 1868 and 1870.

In trying to trace some law of periodicity in this long-
series of rainfall observations I have not been able to find
any defined period.

Going back to 1786, it would appear from Mr. Walker’s
rainfall returns, 1786 — 1793, that the heaviest rainfalls did
not occur at the period of lowest annual mean temperature,
but a few years later; but the irregularities arc so great
that some other method must be adopted to reduce the
irregularities of the temperature and rain curves for the
year : perhaps taking 5 yearly means might enable a better
comparison to be made, that is, the year itself and the
two preceding and two following ones in each case.

201

RAINFALL AT OLD TRAFFORD, MANCHESTER.

Year.

January.

February. | March.

Bain- Differ, of
fall. 21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Bain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of | Bain-
77 years, j fall.

Differ, of
21 years,

Differ, of
77 years.

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868

1869

1870

In.

0- 388

1- 896
4-425

1- 684
3112
3-252
3-270

2- 746
2-686

3- 131

In.

—2-331

—0-823

+1-706

—1-035

+0-393

+0-533

+0-551

+0-027

—0-033

+0-412

In.

—2-117
—0-609
+1-920
— 0S21
+0-607
+0-747
+0-765
+0-241
+0-181
+0-626

In.

2-522

0958

0-941

4-027

2-357

2983

2-930

2-114

4-436

0-856

In.

+0-366
—1-198
—1-215
+1-871
+0-201
+0-827
+0-774
—0-042
+ 2-280
—1-300

In.

+0-125
—1-439
—1-456
+1-630
—0-040
+0-586
+0-533
— 0-2S3
+2-039
-1-541

In.

4-143

3-669

0- 804
2-011

1- 674

2- 168
1-446
3-999

1- 270

2- 378

In.

+2012

+1-538

—1-327

-0-120

—0-457

+0-037

—0-685

+1-868

+0039

+0-247

In.

+1-846

+1-372

—1-493

—0-286

—0-623

—0-129

—0-851

+1-702

—1-027

+0-081

Mns

2-659

2-719

2-505

2-412

2-166

2-397

2-356

2131

2-297

April.

May.

June.

Year.

Rain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Bain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Bain-

fali.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years,

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868

1869

1870

In.

2-426

2-717

1-391

1-602

1082

0- 299
4-323

1- 676

2- 096
2-217

In.

+0-511

+0-802

—0-524

—0-313

—0-833

—1-616

+2-408

—0-239

+0-181

+0-302

In. i In.

+0-395 0-734
+0-686 4-470
—0-640 1-724
—0-429 3-175
—0-949 3-187
—1-732 1-540
+2-292 1-950
—0-355 0-872
+0-065 2-726
+0186 0-746

In.

—1-219

+2-517

—0-229

+1-222

+1134

—0-413

—0-003

—1-081

+0-773

—1-207

In.

—1-582

+2-154

—0-592

+0-859

+0-871

—0-776

—0-366

—1-544

+0-410

—1*570

In.

2- 412

3- 072

4- 631

2- 945

0- 957

3- 975

1- 591

0- 368

1- 122
1-790

In.

—0-386

+0-274

+1-833

+0-147

—1-841

+1-177

—1-207

—2-430

—1-676

—1008

In.

- 0-271
+0389
+1-948
+0262
—1-726
+1 292
—1-092
—2-315
—1.561
—0-893

M’ns.

1-983

1*915

2-031

2112

1-953

2-316

2-286

2-798

2-683

July.

August.

September.

Year.

Bain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ of
77 years.

Bain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Bain-

fali.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868
1869

I 1870

In.

3- 646

4- 527
1-630

1- 687

2- 996
4-309
4-284

0- 454

1- 131
0-809

In.

+0-933

+1-814

—1-083

—1026

+0-283

+1-596

+1-571

—2-259

—1-582

—1-904

In.

+0-131

+1-012

—1-885

—1-828

—0-519

+0-794

+0-769

—3061

—2-384

—2-706

In.

2'232

2-350

5-027

2- 367

3- 840
5-119
! 1*410
52-500
2-633
1-652

In.

—1-222

—1104

+1-573

—1-087

+0-386

+1-665

—2-044

—0-954

—0-821

—1-802

In.

—1-302

—1-184

+1-493

—1-167

+0-306

+1-585

—2-124

—1-034

—0-901

—1-882

In.

4050

4- 998

5- 559
4-009
0-666
7-128
2-990
1-760

6- 320
2-657

In.

+0-701

+1-649

+2-210

+0-660

—2-683

+3-779

—0-359

—1-589

+2-971

—0-692

In.

+0-787
+1-735
+2-296
- -0-746
—2-597
+3-865
—0-273
—1-503
+3-057
—0-606

M’ns.

1

2-547

2-713

3-515 12-913

3-454

3-534

4-014

3349

3-263

202

Year.

October.

November.

Deoembee.

Rain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Rain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

Rain-

fall.

Differ, of
21 years.

Differ, of
77 years.

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868

1869

1870

In.

1-230

5- 035

6- 242

1- 90S
5"005

2- 521
3 979
4-505

3- 119
8-363

In.

—2-555

+1-250

+2-457

—1-877

+1-220

—1-264

+0-194

+0-720

—0-666

+4-578

In.

—2-617
+1158
+2-365
—1-969
+1-128
—1-356
+0102
- -0-628
—0-758
+4-486

In.

3-878

1- 685

2- 902

3- 255
2-770
5-721

2- 431

3- 108

4- 284
2-420

In.

+0-950

—1-243

—0026

+0-627

—0-158

+2-793

—0-497

+0-180

+1356

—0-508

In.

+0064

—2-129

—0-912

—0-559

—1-044

+1-907

—1-383

—0-706

+0-470

—1-394

In.

2 066
3-221
3 064

1- 970
0-743
4154
3-975
8-123
3-623

2- 532

In.

—0-987

+0-168

+0011

—1-083

—2-310

+1-101

+0-922

+5070

+0-570

—0-521

In.

—1-211
—0086
+0057
—1-337
—2-564
—0-847
- -0-668
- -4-816
- -0-316
-0-775

M’ns.

4-191

3-785

3-877

3-245

2-928

3-814

3-347

3 053

3-307

Yearly Fall.

1861 ...

In.

.. 29-727 ...

Days.

... 199

1862....

.. 38-598 ...

... 218

1863....

.. 38-340 ...

... 215

1864...

.. 30-640 ...

... 171

1865....

.. 29-389 ...

... 164

1866...

In.

.. 43 169 ...

Days.
... 214

1867...

.. 34-579 ...

... 188

1868....

.. 32-225 ...

... 188

1869..,.

.. 35-446 ...

... 197

M

00

O

.. 29551 ...

... 155

“ Results of Rain-Gauge Observations made at Eceles,
near Manchester, during the year 1870,” by Thomas
Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

It will be seen from the table I present below that the
rainfall of the past year was in some respects very similar
to that of the two previous years, viz., that the excesses
happened in the coldest months of the year, and long
droughts in the hottest months. The individual character-
istic of this year’s fall is the quantity collected in the month
of October. This is the largest amount I have measured in
any month during the last ten years. It will be seen that
it reached 8-900 inches. The total fall of the year is 30'404
inches, or 3-975 inches below the average of the last ten
years. The driest month of the year was July, in which
0775 inch of rain was measured. The following table
shows the results obtained from a rain-gauge with a lOin.
round receiver, placed 3 feet above the ground.

203

Quarterly Periods.

I

1870.

Pall

in

Inches.

Average

of

10 years.

Quarterly Periods.

Average
of 10
years.

1870.

Differences.

Average

of-

10 years.

1870.

Days.

Days.

(

January

3-127

2-681

+0 446 b

51

44 i

February

0-949

2-292

—1-343 [

7-534

6-547

(

March

2-471

2-561

—0-090 )

(

April

2049

1-968

+0-081 b

43

38 <

May

0-899

2-052

—1-153 [

6-417

4-866

l

June

1-918

2-397

—0-479 )

c

July

0-775

2-550

—1-775 S

48

41 1

August

1-828

3-109

—1-281 f

9-647

4-949

l

September

2-346

3-988

—1-642 )

r

October

8-900

4-181

+4-719 S

56

55 J

November

2-757

3-345

—0-588 i

10-781

14-042

December

2-385

3-255

—0-870 )

198

178

30-404

34-379

—3-975 1

In the next table I give the fall of rain during the day
from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night from 8
p.m. to 8 a.m. The coldest months give a greater rainfall
during the night than the day. This is somewhat reversed
in the spring and summer months, June and August show-
ing an exception.

1870.

Rainfall

from

8 a.m. to 8 p.m.

Rainfall

from

8 p.m. to 8 a.m.

Difference
between Night
and Day Fall.

January

1-476

1.810

+0-334

+0-268

—0-240

February

0-325

0-593

March

1-354

1.114

April

1-584

0-472

—1-112

May

0797

0-086

—0-711

June

0753

1-136

+0-383

—0027

July

0-380

0-353

August

0-343

1-246

+0-903

September

1-456

0-889

—0-567

October

4-488

4-406

—0082

November

1-416

1-289

—0-127

December

0-906

1-465

+0-559

Sums

15-278

14-859

—0-419

I have measured the rainfall for the day and night a little
over three years, and therefore present below the average

204

day and night fall for three years. This table shows that,
without exception, the coldest months of the year have a
greater rainfall during the night than the day, and the ex-
ceptions to the reverse of this during the warmer months
are, as in last year, June and August. Of course a three
years’ average is scarcely sufficient to point to a rule. This
must be left to be shown by the results of future obser-
vations.

Average of Three Years, from 1868 xo 1870.

Rainfall

from

8 a.m. to 8 p.m.

Rainfall

from

8 p.m. to 8 a.m.

Difference
between
Night and Day
Fall.

J anuary

Inches.

1-414

Inches.

1-523

Inches.

+ 0109

February

0-864

1-481

+ 0617

March

1-226

1-260

+ 0034

April

1075

0829

-0-246

M ay

1-179

0-394

-0-785

June

0-530

0-714

+ 0-184

July

0-424

0-315

- 0109

August

0-983

1-594

+ 0-611

September

1-731

1-731

0000

October

2-804

2-839

+ 0-035

November

1-453

1-772

+ 0-319

December

1-945

2-596

+ 0-651

Sums

15-628

17-048

+ 1-420

205

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

April 24th, 1871.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section,
in the chair.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited some seedling sycamores
having abnormal cotyledons. He said it was by no means
rare to meet with occasional sports in the form and number
of the cotyledons of the Sycamore, but most of the seedlings
which had come up this season in his garden presented
some aberration from the normal type. The most frequent
deviation was that in which the extremity of one of
the cotyledons bifurcated ; in a lesser number this division
extended more than half way down the cotyledon ; while
in some of the specimens exhibited the division was com-
plete, so that the seedling possessed three distinct cotyledons
of equal dimensions. A less frequent, although not un-
common, form was one in which both cotyledons were bifid,
the divisions occasionally extending more than half way
down. Most of the seedlings seemed to be the production
of one tree, and Mr. Bailey had not hitherto noticed any
change in the plumule.

“ On the Microscopical Examination of Dust blown into
a Railway Carriage near Birmingham,” by Joseph Side-
botham, F.R.A.S.

On the 24th May, 1870, while travelling by rail between
Saltley and Camp Hill, I spread a paper on a seat of the
carriage near the open window, and collected the dust that
fell upon it. A rough examination of this with the two-
Pkoceedings — Lit. & Pun. Soc. — Yol. X.— No. 18. — Session 1870-71.

206

thirds power showed a large proportion of fragments of iron,
and on applying a soft iron needle I found that many of
them were highly magnetic. They were mostly long, thin,
and straight, the largest being about xi o of an inch, and,
under the power used, had the appearance of a quantity
of old nails. I then with a magnet separated the iron from
the other particles.

The weight altogether of the dust collected was 57 grains,
and the proportion of those particles composed wholly or in
part of iron was 2-9 grains, or more than one half. The
iron thus separated consisted chiefly of fused particles of
dross or burned iron, like “ clinkers,” many were more or
less spherical, like those brought to our notice by Mr.
Dancer from the flue of a furnace, but none so smooth ; they
were all more or less covered with spikes and excrescences,
some having long tails like the old “Prince Kupert’s drops”;
there were also many small angular particles like cast iron,
having crystalline structure.

The other portion of the dust consisted largely of cinders,
some very bright angular fragments of glass or quartz, a
few bits of yellow metal, opaque white and spherical bodies,
like those described by Mr. Dancer, grains of sand, a few
bits of coal, &c.

After the examination of this dust, I could easily under-
stand why it had produced such irritation ; the number of
angular, pointed, and spiked pieces of iron, and the scoriae
or clinkers, being quite sufficient to account for the un-
pleasant effect.

I think it probable that the magnetic strips of iron are
laminae from the rails and tires of the wheels, and the other
iron particles portions of fused metal, either from the coal
or from the furnace bars. The large proportion of iron
found in the dust is probably owing to the metal being
heavier than the ordinary dust, and accumulating in cuttings
such as those between the two stations named.

207

If I had to travel much by railway through that district,
I should like to wear magnetic railway spectacles, and a
magnetic respirator in dry weather.

Mr. Charles Bailey, as bearing upon the subject intro-
duced by Mr. Sidebotham, drew attention to some experi-
ments which Mr. Charles Stodder, of Boston, U.S., had been
making on the microscopic contents of the atmosphere of
that city. Amongst other investigations he was led to
examine a fine black dust from a beam in the polishing
shop of the United States Armoury, at Springfield. He
found it to contain a few vegetable fibres, some apparently
organic fragments, and some broken crystals ; but the great
mass of it was made up of amorphous fragments of iron, of
the 1-100 m.m. and upwards in size, as well as curved and
irregular fibres and masses of iron with sharp jagged edges,
from 5 to 15 m.m. in size; there were also some very minute
perfect spheres, probably iron. In trying the effect of a
magnet upon this dust, he found it removed it from a sheet
of paper as completely as if it had been swept off with a
brush, and he concluded that the non-metallic portions
adhered to the iron particles by the thin layer of oil with
which all the particles of dust were coated.

To prevent this dust passing into the atmosphere of
cities, Mr. Stodder recommended a plan which had been put
in practice many years ago in this country, but abandoned
from the indifference of the workpeople, viz., the fixing of
magnets in the immediate neighbourhood of grindstones
and polishing wheels.

In the same report, Mr. Stodder alludes to the labours of
two members of this Society — Dr. Angus Smith and Mr.
J. B. Dancer — in examining the contents of the air, and
points out an important matter considerably affecting the
results of such investigations, viz., the method employed for
filtering the air through water. The usual method has been

208

to place a small quantity of pure water in a large bottle, and
shake it in the air under investigations, repeating the opera-
tion with renewed volumes of air in the same water ; but
Mr. Stodder shows how impossible it is to intercept all the
foreign particles in the atmosphere in this way, inasmuch
as the smallest bubbles of air which pass through the water
very much exceed in size the particles of matter which are
sought for, and myriads must elude observation. A greater
difficulty, however, is to obtain absolutely pure water for
such experiments, and whether filtered or distilled water
was used, a drop evaporated on a glass slide always left a
deposit of scaly and granular particles. This result, as Mr.
Stodder justly says, puts an end to this mode of investi-
gation, and throws a cloud of suspicion on all reported
researches in this line, when water was the medium used.

Mr. Bailey stated that the information communicated
above had been extracted from an official document ema-
nating from the “ State Board of Health of Massachusetts,”
and he commended it to the Officers of Health and to the
Corporations of Manchester and Salford, as an illustration
of what is required in this neighbourhood. The document
just issued gives a summary of the work done during the
past year, and embraces reports upon Public Abattoirs ; the
Cattle Plague, and its effect on milk; an Outbreak of
Typhoid Fever; the Overcrowding of Tenements and want
of Clean Streets in Boston ; Smallpox ; Poisoning by Lead ;
Trichiniasis in Massachusetts ; Health of the various Towns
in the State; Homes for the People; Alcoholic Drinks;
Mortality of the City of Boston ; Ventilation of School-
houses; Water Supply, and its Comparative Purity; Air,
and some of its Impurities; Health of Children employed in
the manufacture of Textile Fabrics; Effect of Sewing-
Machines on Health, &c. ; and all this at a cost of under
£600 the year.

209

Mr. Walter Morris read a paper “ On the Adulteration
of Food,” principally with a view to its detection by the
microscope. Adulteration was defined as being the fraudu-
lent addition to any substance of another, for the sake of
increased sale or profit. There are several modes of
accomplishing this end ; the first, and the most common, is
by the addition of some article to increase the bulk or
weight, as when starch is added to mustard, and cheaper
flours to wheaten flour; the second by improving the
appearance and apparent quality, so as to sell an inferior
article at the price of a better, as in the case of the artificial
colouring of pickles made of stale vegetables to resemble
fresh. One of the commonest apologies for these practices
is that the public prefer the adulterated article to the pure;
that, for instance, pure mustard “will not sell.” This
allegation is, however, hardly a fair one, as the pure article
is never offered; and, doubtless, if the pure article were
used as freely as the ordinary mixture, it would be found
unexpectedly pungent. But the fallacy of such apologies
has been exposed by the example of pickles, which under
this plea used to be invariably coloured with an artificial
and frequently poisonous pigment. The public eye was thus
educated to expect them of a bright green ; yet, since some
manufacturers have exposed the fraud and sent out pure
pickles, the public have completely turned round, and avoid
any which show an unnatural colour.

The adulteration of bread and flour with alum, to make
them look whiter and of a superior quality, has to some
extent diminished ; but that substance is often replaced by
the still worse sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, which was
recently detected in 16 out of 20 loaves tested. In this case
the public has been led to suppose that the quality of bread
is shown by its whiteness, whereas by taking out the bran a
most valuable part of the grain, viz., its azotised or flesh-form-
ing portion, is lost. Less dangerous admixtures are those of

210

cheaper flours, such as barley, rice, and “ cones” (the latter
made from a species of wheat called revet), and even beans.

The adulteration of coffee with chicory, though so well
understood, exists, especially in poorer neighbourhoods, to an
extent hardly credible. Out of 47 samples, 18 were found
pure, the lowest price of which was Is. 4d. per lb. ; of the
the rest, most were half, and some were wholly, composed
of chicory, which being worth about Gd. per lb., was thus sold
at Is. and Is. 4d. The difference can be readily detected by
the microscope, the cells of chicory being much larger, and
the cell walls much thinner, than those of coffee.

Even chicory itself is much adulterated; out of 57
samples only about one-half were pure, the adulterants
being roasted wheat, acorns, beans, carrots, and sawdust.

Tea is less subject to adulteration than many articles of
food; such abominations as the celebrated Maloo mixture,
consisting of old used leaves redried, willow leaves and
twigs, and even iron filings, have been quickly detected and
refused by the trade. The “ facing,” however, of green tea,
with poisonous coloring matter, is both absurd and harm-
ful : and it will probably be continued so long as the public
are content to accept such a palpable imposture as “ genuine
green.”

It is a matter of opinion whether cocoa as ordinarily sold
is to be considered an adulterated, or a manufactured, article.
It is seldom sold pure and alone ; being usually mixed with
starch and sugar — the term “ pure cocoa” is therefore in
most cases intended to mislead. Some kinds have lard or
suet admixed, and to others red ochre is added to bring up
the colour, rendered pale by an excessive quantity of starch.
The relative quantities of these component parts in any
sample of cocoa may be readily ascertained by the microscope;
that of starch may be roughly seen by shaking up some of
the cocoa with water in a test tube or tall bottle, breaking
up the lumps and then allowing all to settle ; when the

211

starch will sink to the bottom and form a white layer beneath
the cocoa. On warming the water, the fat will of course
float on the top, and the sugar will be dissolved. The sugar
crystals and fat are also shown by redrying the solution on
a glass slide.

Sugar is mixed with inferior kinds of the same article,
but not (as popularly believed) with sand ; the chief impu-
rities in raw sugar are cane fibre, accidental dirt, and the
sugar mite or acarus. The latter exists in most raw sugars
(out of 72 samples, 69 contained mites); but more abund-
antly in the moderately brown kinds than in the darker.
The insect is barely visible to the naked eye. To obtain
specimens, the sample should be dissolved in tepid water and
well stirred, then allowed to stand a few minutes, and the
acari will be found as minute particles floating on the top.
The process of refining entirely removes these and the other
impurities named.

Mustard is invariably adulterated with flour, which forms
one half or three fourths of the article as usually sold. It
may be readily detected by the microscope, mustard itself
containing no starch whatever. Turmeric is often added to
bring up the colour, after this wholesale admixture, and
cayenne to give it strength.

Pepper may now be obtained pure of respectable dealers ;
but as regards the cheaper kinds, and in poor neighbour-
hoods, it is largely adulterated with meal or starch, gypsum,
and dirt of any kind, to give bulk and weight. The starchy
substances may be detected by the microscope, the earthy
ones will be left as ash after burning, and their character
may be ascertained by the polariscope. The particles of
pepper itself are easily recognized by the characteristic stel-
late cells in the outer skin, and the hard angular ones
of the inner part of the seed.

212

Many examples of the above and other kinds of adultera-
tion, mounted for the microscope, were exhibited at the
same time, for comparison with pure specimens.

Attention was drawn to the loss science has sustained by
the death of the late Mr. William Wilson, the eminent
museologist, and it was unanimously resolved that a letter
of condolence be forwarded to Mrs. Wilson and her family.

Annual Meeting, May 8th, 1871.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

“Observations on the Bilharzia hsematobia (Cobbold),
Distomum haematobium (Bilharz),” by Henry Simpson,
M.D.

The Bilharzia h&ematobia is an entozoon infesting the
human body, and very prevalent in some hot climates. It
occurs abundantly in Egypt and at the Cape of Good Hope,
where it is the cause of the hsematuria endemic in those
countries.

It was discovered in 1851, by Dr. Bilharz, of Cairo, and
found to inhabit the small blood vessels of the bladder,
kidneys, &c., producing various abnormal changes in the
mucous membranes. It slowly undermines the health, and
leads eventually, in many cases, to a fatal result. It is very
common in Egypt, for Griesinger and Bilharz found the
worm in 117 out of 3G3 post mortem examinations.

The first cases met with in this country were related by
Dr. John Harley, in 186k These were from the Cape. In
1869 and 1870 he published papers supplementary to his
first one.

213

As the opportunities for observations on this parasite are
not abundant in this country, and as it is interesting both
from a scientific as well as from a medical stand-point, I
will briefly remark on some points suggested by a case
recently under my care in the Manchester Infirmary, avoid-
ing medical details as far as possible.

Through inflammatory changes leading to loss of sub-
stance, the ova become free in the bladder, and are washed
away in the urinary secretion in immense numbers, along
with blood discs and pus corpuscles. They are generally
ovate in form, but vary somewhat in outline. At one end
the shell is produced into a short spike, something like that
on Von Moltke’s helmet. Occasionally this is placed later-
ally. They vary in length from xboth to -sooth of an inch,
and in breadth from xAofh to Taoth of an inch. The shell
is without any distinct operculum. The contents of the
egg are seen in all stages of development, from scarcely
distinguishable granules, enclosed in a vitilline membrane,
to the perfectly formed ciliated embryo, exhibiting active
movements of the body and rapid play of the cilia while
still enclosed in the shell. Sometimes the head of the
embryo lies towards the spiked end, sometimes to the plain
end of the shell. Free, living embryos are often met with
in the urine, and it is curious to watch the mode in which
they escape from the shell.

The general shape of the embryo is elliptical ; they are
abundantly supplied with cilia, especially at the anterior
extremity, and show distinct traces of a water vascular
system. The development of this entozoon in all probability
follows the same general plan as that of the other Trematode
worms, or Flukes, which pass through several phases or
alternations of generation; one or two intermediate hosts,
generally mollusca or aquatic larvae, being necessary before
the adult fluke becomes parasitic in the body of the verte-
brate animal destined to be its host.

214

The liver-fluke of the sheep, which is occasionally found
in man, is the best known of these parasites. The adult
worm we are now considering was called by Bilharz, Dis-
tomum haematobium, but more recent writers have placed
it in a distinct genus, because each individual is male or
female, and not hermaphrodite, as in the Distomata, Diesing
called it Gynaecophorus haematobius, and Cobbold, Bilharzia
hsematobia, in honour of its discoverer. It is described by
Kiichenmeister, Leuckart, Cobbold, and others, in most cases
from materials derived from Griesinger ; so that I will only
say that the male is about half an inch in length, having a
short body and long tail. The female is rather longer, but
much more slender, the anterior end being less than Tooth
of an inch in thickness, and lower part about -/oth.

It has been supposed to be taken into the body in a
larval condition, either with the water, or along with un-
cooked vegetables, as water-cress, on which small molluscs
containing cercarise may have been lodged. Another sup-
position is that while bathing the larvae penetrate the skin.
Opposed to this is the statement that, at the Cape, while
the Colonists and the Coolies, who are not remarkable for a
love of bathing, are subject to the disease produced by the
Bilharzia, the Kaffirs, who bathe frequently — sometimes
three or four times a day, are free from it.

The history of the case under my care gave no clue as to
the mode in which the parasite obtained access to the body,
further than this, that it was quite possible that it might
have been taken either with the water or food, the former
being occasionally drunk unfiltered.

The question of the introduction of the disease among us
is a matter of much interest and importance. In these days
of travel, cases will be imported more frequently than
formerly, and the eggs of the parasite distributed in immense
numbers. Dr. Cobbold mentions the case of a little girl
from the Cape who has been recently under his care, and he

215

estimates that 10,000 eggs must have escaped daily for
many months. He concludes, from experiments as to the
effects of reagents on the living embryos, that there is not
likely to he any risk of its spread by means of sewage
distribution, as they were killed by water in which decom-
posing matter of any land had been introduced, and indeed
required water almost absolutely pure for their development.
The addition of a little salt to the water seemed, however,
to act favourably. The conditions apparently required in
these experiments are veiy unlikely to be met with in
nature, and if they were necessary, the worm should, I
think, have been extinct long ago in its native home.

With the exception of temperature, the other conditions
for their development are probably present with us, and we
do not as yet know that the former is essential. The truth
seems to be that the circumstances necessary for their
development are still unknown, and that it is premature to
assume that sewage distribution will not increase the risk
of its becoming acclimatized among us.

Specimens of nearly all the descriptions of Caoutchouc
known to Commerce were exhibited by Mr. Spencer H.
Bickham, and a paper was read illustrative of the probable
sources of supply, and the chief characteristics of each class.

The following report of the Council and Treasurer’s
Account for the past year were read and passed : —

Your Council have to report that during the past Session
papers on the following subjects have been read at the
meetings : —

1870.

Oct . 10. — “On Abraxas grossulariata,” by Joseph Sidebotham,
F.R.A.S.

JST0V_ 7. — “ The Hawthorns of the Manchester Flora,” by Charles
Bailey.

216

Nov. 7. — “On Limobius dissimilis,” by JosErH Sidebotham,
F.R.A.S.

„ “ Notes on the Botany of Mere,” by G. E. Hunt.

„ “ On the occurrence of Myosurus minimus, near Nortli-

wich,” by S. H. Bickham, Junr.

Dec. 5. — “ Contributions towards a knowledge of Anthophila
(Hymenoptera Aculeata) in the Mersey Province,”
by F. 0. Ruspini.

1871.

Jan. 9. — “ On Carax flava L. and its Allies,” by Chables Bailey.

30. — “ On Different Modes of Fossilization,” by W. Boyd
Dawkins, F.R.S.

„ “On Stigmaria,” by Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.

„ “Notes on the Cultivation of Madder in Derbyshire,”
by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

Feb. 27. — “ Further Notes on the Polygonum from Mere,
Cheshire,” by G. E. Hunt.

Mar. 27. — “ On some Logs of Oak found in the Irwell Valley
Gravels,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

April2L — “On Abnormal Forms of Cotyledons of the Sycamore,”
by Charles Bailey.

,, “ The Microscopic examination of Dust blown into a

Railway Carnage near Birmingham,” by Joseph
Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

„ “ On the Adulteration of Food,” by Walter Morris.

May 8. — “ Observations on the Billiarzia hiematobia,” by Henry
Simpson, M.D.

„ “ On the Various Descriptions of Caoutchouc known to

Commerce,” by S. H. Bickham, Junr.

At the close of last Session, your Council were requested
to endeavour to make arrangements with the Parent Society
by which Associates could be admitted on more favourable
terms. They have to report that the liberality of the
Parent Society has enabled them materially to modify the
regulations affecting the admission of this class of Members,
and trust that, owing to the alteration, a great accession of
strength will be gained.

217

Already seven new Associates have been elected, and the
Section now consists of 37 Ordinary Members^one Corre-
sponding Member, and 13 Associates.

The Treasurer’s report is annexed, from which it will be
seen that the finances of the Section are in a very satis-
factory condition, there being a balance in hand of £34 3s.

The election of Officers for the Session 1871-2 then took
place, and the following gentlemen were elected : —

^resilient.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
Ftcc=lj3rcsrticnts.

JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM, F.K.A.S.
R. D. DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
CHARLES BAILEY.

treasurer.

HENRY ALEXANDER HURST.

*

Secretary.

SPENCER H. BJCKHAM, JUN.

©f tl;c ffiounett.

JOHN B. DANCER, F.R.A.S.

W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

A. G. LATHAM.

HENRY SIMPSON, M.D.

JOHN BARROW.

W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.R.S., F.G.S.
WALTER MORRIS.

218

3£ist of J^temfifra.

Alcock, Thomas, M.D.

Baxley Charles.

Barrow, John.

Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
Bickham, Spencer EL, Jun.
Binney, Edward Wm., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Brockbank, W., F.G.S.

Brogden, Henry.

Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S.
Cottah, Samuel.

Coward, Edward.

Coward, Thomas.

Dale, John, F.C.S.

Dancer John Benj., F.R.A.S.
Darbishire, R. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.R.S.
Deane, William K.

Gladstone, Murray, F.R.A.S.
Heys, William Henry.

Higgin, James, F.C.S.

Hurst, Henry Alexander.
Latham, Arthur George.

Lynde, James Gascoigne, Mem.

Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
Maclure, John Wm., F.R.G.S.
Mitchell, Captain. Madras.
Corr. Mem.

Morgan, Edward, M.D.

Morris, Walter.

Nevill, Thomas Henry.

Piers, Sir Eustace.

Rideout, William J.

Roberts, William, M.D.
Sidebotham, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
Simpson, Henry, M.D.

Smart, Robert Bath, M.R.C.S.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vernon, George Venables,

F.R.A.S.

Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.

Wright, William Cort.

Bradbury, C. J.
Callender, A. W.
Hardy, John.
Hunt, G. E.
Hunt, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.

Hast of Siasodatcs.

Meyer, Adolph.

Peace, Thos. S.

Plant, John, F.G.S.
Ruspini, F. 0.

Stirrup, Mark.
Waterhouse, J. Crbwdson.

The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,

in Account Current with H. A. Hurst, Treasurer.

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(Signed) W. Boyd Dawkins,

Spencer H. Bickham, Jun.