PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

LITERACY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTER.

VOL. XV.

Session 1875-76.

MANCHESTER:

PRINTED BY THOS. SOWLER AND CO., RED LION STREET, ST. ANN’S SQUARE.
LONDON , BALLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET.

1876.

NOTE.

The object which the Society have in view in publishing their
Proceedings is to give an immediate and succinct account of the
scientific and other business transacted at their meetings to the
members and the general public. The various communications
are supplied by the authors themselves, who are alone responsible
for the facts and reasonings contained therein.

INDEX.

Aldis Professor T. S., M.A — On Glacial Action in the Valley of the
Wear, &c., p. 86.

Axon William, E. A., M.E.S.L., &c. — Notice of a Eecent Discovery of
a Pre-historic Burial-place near Colombier in Switzerland, p. 69.
Note on a Church Bell at North Wooton, Somersetshire, dated
A.D. 1265, in Arabic Numerals, and on a M.S. dated A.D. 1276, in
which they are freely used, p. 173.

Bailey Charles.-— On the Hybrid British Heath, Erica Watsoni, p. 13.

Baxendell Joseph, E.E.A.S. — On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,
p. 113. On the Connexion between the Humidity of the Air and
the Amount of Ozone, 177.

Binney E. W., F.E.S., F.G.S., V.P.— On the Eed Marls under Man-
chester, p. 2. On some Bronze Coins found sixty years ago under
a Peat Bog at Misterton Car, in Notts., p. 5. On Explosions of
Fire Damp, p. 56. On the Migration of Swallows, p, 62. On
Boulder Stones in the Manchester Drift, p. 71.

Bottomley J., D.Sc. — Note on a Method of Comparing the Tints of
Coloured Solutions, p. 63.

Brockbank W.j F.G.S. — On the Granites of Eavenglass and Criffel,
p. 70.

Burghardt Charles A., Ph.D. — On the Formation of Azurite from
Malachite, p. 72.

Carnelley Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. — On a Colorimetric Method for
determining small quantities of Copper, p. 24.

Cockle Sir James, F.E.S, — Notes bearing on Mathematical History,

p.6.

Dale E. S., B.A. On Crystals of Sulphate of Lead found in Alum
Eesidue, p. 89.

VI

Dancer J. B., F.R.A.S.— A.n Account of some early Experiments -with
Ozone, and Remarks upon its Electrical Origin, p. 121.

Darbishire R. D., F.G.S. — On a Series of Specimens of very young
Rhombus Vulgaris (Cuv.), p. 134. Notes made during a Visit in
the past Summer to the Swedish Shell-beds of TTdde valla and the
neighbouring districts, p. 135.

Dawkins Professor W. Boyd, F.R.S. — On the Depreciation in the
Value of Silver, p. 141. Note on Mr. Plant’s Fossil Sacrum from
Windy Knoll, p. 149. On the Eucalyptus, p. 161. On a series of
Specimens obtained in September, 1875, from the inner side of
the barrier reef at Honolulu, p. 179.

Dodgson William. — On a Graphical Method of Drawing Spectra,
p. 103.

Joule J. P., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.—Glue Battery, p. 1. On the Utilza-
tion of the Common Kite, p. 61.

Mackereth Thomas, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. — Results of Rain Gauge Obser-
vations made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1875,

p. 128.

Muir M. M. Pattison, F.R.S. E. — Note on the Temperature of the
Body during Physical Exertion, p. 10. On the Estimation of very
small quantities of Lead and Copper, p. 31. On certain circum-
stances which affect the Purity of Water supplied for Domestic
Purposes, p. 35. Chemical Notes, p. 57.

Percival James. — On a New British Moss— -Hypnum nitidulum (Wahl),

p. 101.

Plant John, F.G.S.—The Fauna of Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea, part 2,
p. 48. On the Gradual Decrease of Wild Birds during the last
twenty-five Years west of Manchester, p. 102. Evidence to prove
that a Bone from the Windy Knoll, Castleton, named by Professor
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., “ Sacrum of Young Bison,” is a Sacral
Bone of the Cave Bear, ITrsus Speloeus, p, 107. List of Shells
found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea ; Corrections and Additions,
p. 138. A Beetle of Good Omen from Yucatan, p. 180.

Rawson Robert.— -On Explosions of Fire Damp, p. 64.

Reynolds Professor Osborne, M.A. — On the Principle of the Electro-
Magnet constructed by Mr. John Faulkner, p. 17. On Graphic
Methods of Solving Practical Problems, p. 55.

Vll

Rogers T, On the Discovery of Jungermannia Nevensis, p. 178.

Roscoe Professor H, E., F.R.S.— Notes on a Collection of Apparatus
employed by Dr. Dalton in his Researches, which is about to be
exhibited (by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus at
South Kensington, p. 77.

Sadtler Professor. — On the Natural Gas from the Gas Wells in Butler
County, Pennsylvania, p. 68.

Schorlemmer Professor C., F.R.S.— On some Reactions of Bromine and
Iodine, p. 4. On a Sample of Peat from lagoons in the Sierra
Madre in Mexico, p. 55.

Schunck Edward, Ph. D., F.R.S., President.— On some Isomerides of
Alizarine, p. 142,

Schuster Arthur, Ph.D.—On a Direct- Vision Spectroscope, p. 73. On
a New Absorptiometer, p, 74.

Sidebotham J., F.R.A.S. — On the Life History of Lymexylon Navale,
p. 76, On Psammodius Sulcicollis, p, 76. On the Discovery of
iEgialia rufa, p. 178.

Smith R. Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.-— The Eucalyptus near Rome, p. 150.

Spence Peter, F.C.S.— On a Lead Pipe which had been transformed into
Galena, p. 17.

Stewart Professor Balfour, LL,D., F.R.S. — On an Instrument for
Measuring the Direct Heat of the Sun, p. 20.

Thomson William, F.C.S. — On the Degree of Accuracy Displayed by
Druggists in the Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in diffe-
rent Towns throughout England and Scotland, p. 90.

Waters Arthur William, F.G.S.— On the Zoological Station and
Aquarium at Naples, p. 82.

Williams William Carleton, F.C.S. — Stannic Arsenate, p. 67.

Vlll

Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section. — Annual, p. 177
Ordinary, pp. 113, 121, 177.

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section. — Annual, p. 181
Ordinary, pp. 13, 47, 75, 76, 101, 134, 178.

Report of the Council.— April, 1876, p. 165.

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 5th, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Mr. Thomas Mackereth, F.RA.S., F.M.S., was elected an
Ordinary Member of the Society.

“Glue Battery,” by Dr. J. P. Joule, F.RS., &c.

If sulphate of zinc or sulphate of copper be dissolved in
solution of gelatine and then carefully dried, an elastic solid
is produced holding the salt in combination, which softens
on the application of heat. I have taken advantage of this
circumstance to form a voltaic couple which illustrates Fara-
day's discovery of the necessity of liquefaction for electro-
lysis, and which also may not be without some practical
advantages.

I paint pieces of zinc with glue impregnated with salt of
zinc, and pieces of copper with glue charged with sulphate
of copper, dry, and lay them together in series. The pile
thus formed is inert when cold, but capable of giving a good
current when heated, as will be seen from the following
results obtained with a single couple in connexion with a
delicate galvanometer :

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol. XV.— No. 1.— Session 1875-6.

2

Temp. Fahr.

Deflection.

Temp. Fahr.

Deflection.

61°

... 0°

150°

5°

Ox

o

o

O

o

o

O

160°

7°

20'

GO

O

o

O
h— ■*

o

170°

8°

10'

90°

o

o

H

180°

10°

20'

o

O

i—1

H

... 2° 50'

190°

17°

40'

130°

... 3° O'

200°

o

CO

O'

140°

o

O

After the lapse

of three years

I find that the above

couple

has retained its powers almost unimpaired.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., V.P., said that many years ago, when
he first came to Manchester, the red sandstone found under the
city was known by the nameof theUpper New Bed Sandstone,
the lowest division of the Trias and the equivalent of the Bun-
ter. The authorities of the Geological Survey have divided
it into Lower Soft Bed Sandstone, Pebble Beds, and Upper
Soft Bed Sandstone ; but the Pebble Beds are the deposits
chiefly found under Manchester. Superior to this sandstone
he had seen a deposit of red marls which he thought resem-
bled the red marls of Cheshire, and at page 37 of the 1st
vol. of the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society
he states that “ this deposit, extending over so great a por-
tion of the neighbouring county of Chester and reaching to
a great thickness in the salt beds, is seldom to be seen in
the south east of Lancashire. The only place where I have
observed it is on the south of the town along the line of the
Oxford Boacl from All Saints’ Church to St. Peter’s Square.
After going through the diluvial clay a thin band of two
feet in thickness occurs. In Chepstow Street leading out
of Oxford Boad this bed is between four and five feet in
thickness. In the middle of it occurs a light coloured layer
resembling fullers’ earth in appearance, -which briskly effer-
vesces when treated with dilute hydrochloric acid. The
lower part of the marl becomes arenaceous and passes

3

gradually into the upper sandstone. Both rocks dip to the
W.S.W. at an angle of 8°. The marls here found are of a
dark red colour, variegated by streaks and patches of green
and yellow. They effervesce feebly with acids. No clearly
recognized organic remains have been found in them — a
circular concretion something resembling the cast of an
ammonite was found in Chepstow Street.” Since this no-
tice was written, about 35 years ago, nothing has appeared
respecting these marls. During the past summer he had
noticed some shafts being sunk on the site of the intended
new railway station of the Cheshire Lines in Back New-
berry and Bedford streets. In the first named locality the

following section was met with : —

Till or Brick Clay 15ft.

Red and Variegated Marl 27

42

In the last named

Till 15ft.

Red Marl 41

56

The red marls in their lower portions gradually became
arenaceous and finally passed into the underlying red sand
stone. In the pebble beds strata of red marls of one to two
feet in thickness are sometimes met with, but nothing like a
deposit of 40 feet. As the line of the Great Irwell fault of
above 3,000 feet in throw runs a little to the south of the dis-
trict where the marls are met with it is probable that these are
a lower portion of the Bed Marls of Cheshire lying above the
Bunter beds of the Trias. He brought the matter before
the Society for the purpose of directing the attention of the
members to any excavations they might observe, as it was
desirable that no facts concerning the rocks under our city
should escape notice, and as so few opportunities occur
for observing this deposit of marls no opportunity for ex-
amining them should be lost.

4

Ordinary Meeting, October 19th, 1875.

Edward Schungk, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

“ On some Reactions of Bromine and Iodine,” by Professor
C. SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.

Although it is well known that iodine dissolves in chlo-
roform and some other liquids, such as carbon-sulphide and
petroleum-naphtha, with a fine purple and bromine with a
yellow colour, it seems not to be known that, under certain
conditions, a colourless solution may be obtained containing
both these elements in the free state.

Thus on adding diiute chlorine water drop by drop to a
weak solution of potassium iodide and bromide, containing
an excess of the latter, and shaking the liquid at the same
time with chloroform, the purple colour of the iodine makes
first its appearance, but gradually becomes fainter and at
last disappears completely. It is, however, not easy to hit
exactly the point, when the chloroform becomes quite
colourless, but this is readily effected by adding so much
chlorine water that the chloroform assumes a faint yellow
tint, and then shaking the liquid with a cold and dilute so-
lution of sodium bicarbonate, which must be carefully added
drop by drop. It is easily proved that the colourless solu-
tion thus formed contains both free bromine and iodine, for
on adding more bicarbonate, in order to remove the free
bromine, the purple colour gradually appears again.

I am not able as yet to explain these facts ; it is not a
case of two complementary colours neutralising each other
as I first assumed; for on mixing dilute solutions of the two
elements in dry chloroform no colourless solution can be ob-
tained. It seems that the presence of water has something

*

0

to do with it, for on adding the solution of bromine to that
of chloroform until the purple is changed into a light brown,
then shaking well with water, the colour of the chlo-
roform becomes much paler and even disappears almost
completely.

E. W. Binney, Y.P., F.ft.S, said that at the last meeting
he had stated the circumstance of an urn containing bronze
coins having been discovered under a peat moss. He now
exhibited two small coins of bronze, about half an inch in
diameter, evidently Roman from the figures on them, and
most probably of the reign of Otho. They were found sixty
years since under a peat bog of fifteen feet in depth, in an
earthenware urn buried in the upper red marl of Misterton
Car, in Notts, which forms the southern portion of the Level
of Hatfield Cliace, a large turf moss on the borders of the
counties of York, Lincoln, and Nottingham. Some hundred
coins were in the urn, and the two in his possession were
presented to him about fifty years since by his relative the
late Mrs. Joseph Hickson of East Stockwith, on whose pro-
perty they were met with, and who furnished him with the
above particulars. In the peat under which they occurred
numbers of large oak and yew trees, with their roots
attached to them, were as thickly placed as they could have
grown on dry and strong soil. At the period when the urn
was deposited, the spot was a dense forest, which was prob-
ably destroyed by the drainage of the district having been
impeded by the raising of the beds of the rivers Trent,
Ouse, and Idle, and thus causing the formation of the bog.
The Hutch, under the direction of Sir Cornelius Vermuyden,
and more modern drainers, have succeeded in bringing the
land into a state fit for corn growing, but not capable of
producing such oaks and yews as are now found, with their
roots attached to them, lying in the peat.

6

“Notes bearing on Mathematical History;’ by Sir James
Cockle, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Society.

1. To the list of Professor Boole’s writings which follows
the preface to the Supplementary Volume of his “Differen-
tial Equations” [2nd (posthumous) ed., 1865, pp. viii — xi]
may be added a paper entitled “ Mr. Boole’s theory of the
mathematical basis of logic,” published in the Mechanics'
Magazine (1848, vol xlix, pp. 254-255).

2. Mr. Blissard in his “theory of generic equations” (Q J.
of Math. vol. iv, p. 279 ; vol. v, pp. 58 and 185, see also pp.
184 and 325) has applied “representative notation’’ very
extensively. Professor J. B. Young had noticed ( Mech .
Mag., 1847, vol. xlvii, p. 627) that the law of Bernoulli’s
numbers is expressed by

(1 +B)”-Bn = 0

if we write the exponents of B below instead of above that
symbol. Judging from what purports to be an examination
paper, I see that Prof. Young, examining for the Andrews
Scholarship, 1851, at University College, London, again
noticed (in question 7) the law.

3. In Notes and Queries (1854, vol. x, p. 48 ; see also p.
191; and 2nd Ser. vol. viii, p. 465, vol. ix, p. 340, vol. x, p.
162; and 4th Ser. vol. ii, p. 316) I long ago pointed out that
Barocius, in the margin of p. 264 of his Proclus (1560) cites
the Geometrical enarrationes of Geminus, and I suggested
that there might yet be some hope of recovering that work.
In a comment (jib. 2nd Ser. vol. ix, p. 449) on something I
had said, De Morgan remarked that he took “ enarrationum”
as a printer’s mistake for “ effectionum,” if Heilbronner were
right; adding that if there be, as both Petavius and Heib
bronner seem to state, a printed catalogue of the manu-
scripts of Barocius, it would be desirable to revive the
knowledge of it. De Morgan states that Petavius is the
authority for manuscripts of Barocius being brought to
England, and that it may be that a manuscript book of

7

Geminus, which Petavius describes as “ nondum editus,” yet
exists in some English library. One of two strange things
must have happened (see He Morgan, ib. p. 450), viz. either
the minute Petavius omitted the title of the work, if it were
given : or Heilbronner preserved a title from some other
source, if it were not. I am not aware that the manuscript
has been discovered.

4. Lagrange, at page 2 of vol. i of his “ Mecanique Anali-
tique” (1.811), observes that the laws of statics are founded
on general principles which may be reduced to three ; that
of the lever, that of the composition of forces, and that of
virtual velocities. He says (ib. p. 18, No. 14) that the
principle of the lever is the only one which has the advan-
tage of being founded on the nature of equilibrium consi-
dered in itself, and as a state independent of motion.

5. Lagrange (ib. p. 20) says that it does not appear that
the ancients knew of the law of virtual velocities. From
what is said by Whewell in his “ History of the Inductive
Sciences” (1837, vol. ii, pp. 39 and 42; vol. i, pp. 69, 81, 82
and 94) it seems that the law, so far as it relates to the
lever, was known to Aristotle. Whewell considered the
physical philosophy of Aristotle (ib. i, 25) and of the Greeks
(ib. 33) as an utter failure. He apparently regarded the
doctrine of the lever (see vol. ii, p. 59 ; vol. i, chap. I, sect. 1,
p. 91) with greater favour than that of virtual velocities (see
vol. ii, chap. II, sect. 4, p. 39), in connection with which he
makes no special mention of Lagrange (see vol. ii, p. 120).
Professor Cayley (Messenger, N. S., vol. iii, p. 1) has given a
dissertation “ On the general equation of virtual velocities.”

6. There are two modes of approaching the parallelogram
of forces. First, we may from the composition of motions,
through the second law of motion, pass to the composition
of forces. Thomson and Tait, fortified by the example of
Newton (see their ‘Treatise,’ &c., vol. i, pp. 181, 182,

§ 255 — 257) have followed this mode, which they believe

8

to contain the most philosophical foundation for statics.
Lagrange, whose writings are a mine of historical informa-
tion, says (‘ Mec. Anal/ i, 13) that the ancients knew the
composition of motions, as we see by some passages of
Aristotle, in his Mechanical Questions; and that the geo-
meters especially have employed it for the description of
curves, as, Archimedes for the spiral, Nicomedes for the
conchoid, &c.

7. Secondly, we may seek to arrive at the composition of
pressures, independently of the second law of motion, by
processes which are valid whether that law be a law of nature
or not, and which would be valid even if we had not any
conception of motion, and which indeed do not render it
necessary to consider whether pressure does or does not
tend to produce motion. Lagrange (‘Mec. An.’ i, 19) thinks
that the principle of the composition of forces, in being
separated from that of the composition of motions, loses its
principal advantages ; and he, just before saying this, throws
out a doubt as to whether a principle used by Daniel Ber-
noulli in his demonstration was altogether independent of
the conception of motion. The whole subject of composition
is discussed by De Morgan in his paper “ On the General
Principles of which the Composition or Aggregation of Forces
is a consequence.” (Carab. Trans. Yol X. Part II, 1859).

8. Lagrange (‘Mec. An.’ i, p. 14 No. 11) observes that,
although the principles of the lever and of composition lead
always to the same results, it is remarkable that the simplest
case for the one becomes the most complicated for the other.
He adds (ib. No. 12) that we can establish an immediate
connection between these two principles by a theorem of
Varignon. Newton’s view is noticed by Lagrange (ib. No. 10).

9 Thomson and Tait have a special object (“Treatise” &c.
vol. i, Preface p. v; p. 141 par. (f); p. 341 § 453), in refer-
ence to which Newton’s proof may be the more appropriate
or elegant. I here use the word “elegant” in the sense which

9

Austin, in his “Lectures on Jurisprudence5’ (vol. ii, p. 365)
says it is used by the Roman lawyers. But there is much
that is interesting in the other investigations on the subject.

10. Lagrange (ib. p. 29) uses the term “moment” in the
sense which Galileo (ib. p. 20) gave it, viz : the product of
the force into its virtual velocity ; noticing however another
{ib. p. 7) meaning viz. the product of the force into the arm
of the lever by which it acts.

11. Whewell (Hist. Ind. Sci., i, 93), speaking of a “matter
of obvious and universal experience,” says

“ This general fact is obvious, when w~e possess in our minds the
ideas which are requisite to apprehend it clearly. When we are
so prepared, the truth appears to be manifest, independent of
experience, and is seen to be a rule to which experience must
conform.”

He seems (ib. ii, 25) to reiterate this opinion, which, if
“appears to be manifest” be taken to mean “is self-evident,”
will hardly pass unquestioned.

12. Lagrange (‘Mec. An.’ i, 4, 5) tells us, hi words which I
translate as follows, to

“ imagine a triangular plane loaded with two equal weights at
the two ends of its base, and with a double weight at its vertex.
This plane will evidently be in equilibrium, when supported by a
straight line or fixed axis, which passes through the middle of the
two sides of the triangle ; for we may regard each of these sides as
a lever loaded at its two ends with two equal weights, and which
has its fulcrum on the axis "which passes through its middle.
Now we may contemplate this equilibrium in another manner, by
regarding the base itself of the triangle as a lever of which the
ends are loaded with two equal "weights ; and by imagining that
there is a transverse lever which joins the vertex of the triangle
and the middle of its base in the form of a T, and of which one
end is loaded with the double weight placed at the vertex, and
the other serves as the fulcrum of the lever wThich forms the base.
It is evident that this last lever will be in equilibrium on the
transverse lever which sustains it at its middle, and that the
transverse lever wdll consequently be in equilibrium on the axis

10

on which the plane is already in equilibrium. But since the axis
passes through the middle of the twm sides of the triangle, it will
pass also necessarily through the middle of the straight line drawn
from the vertex of the triangle to the middle of its base ; hence
the transverse lever will have its fulcrum at the middle point, and
must consequently be equally loaded at its two ends. Hence the
load supported by the fulcrum of the lever which forms the base
of the triangle, and wThich is loaded at its two ends with equal
weights, will be equal to th'e double weight at the vertex, and
consequently equal to the sum of the two weights.”

13. Whewell in his “Mechanical Euclid” (2nd ed. p. 170)
says that it will be found that Lagrange’s proof, if distinctly
stated, involves some such axiom as this : — that

“ If two forces, acting at the extremities of a straight line, and
a single force, acting at an intermediate point of the straight line,
produce the same effect to turn a body about another line, the two
forces produce at the intermediate point an effect equal to the
single force.”

He adds that though this axiom may be self-evident, it will
hardly be considered as more simple than the proposition to
be proved. Without discussing Whe well’s criticism I ob-
serve that Lagrange (‘Mec. An.’ i, 16, 19) regards forces as
quantities which can be added and subtracted, and which
may be regarded ( ib . p. 18) as weights. De Morgan (loc. cit.)
seems to be of opinion that the proposition that the weight
of the whole is equal to the sum of the weights of all the
parts is known only by experience.

“ Oakwal,” near Brisbane,

Queensland, Australia,
July 22, 1875.

“Note on the Temperature of the Body during Physical
Exertion,” by M. M. Pattison Mum, F.RS.E., Assistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

In Nature , vol. xii, p. 132, appeared an account of Dr.
Forel’s observations on body -temperature during mountain

li

climbing, the general conclusion of which was that the tem-
perature of the body increases during ascents or descents.

In the same journal, p. 165 of the same volume, Dr. Thorpe
has published the results of observations made upon himself
during an ascent of Mount Etna, from which it appears
that he noticed a small decrease of temperature.

Dr. Anderson, however, Nature, vol. xii, p. 186, partially
confirms the earlier experiments of Drs. Marcet and Lortet,
who observed a decrease of 8 or f degrees F. in the tempera-
ture of the body during mountain ascents. The greatest
fall recorded by Dr. Anderson amounts to 10,6 F.

During the long vacation I carried out a few experiments
upon my own body-temperature while rowing and while
ascending a height.

The observations were made with a registering clinical
thermometer, the bulb of which was placed in the mouth
underneath the tongue. The bulb was allowed to remain
in this situation during five minutes before the readings

were noted.

Experiment I.

Initial temperature 980,5 F.

After rowing for \ hour 99o,05

After hard rowing for f hours 9 8° ’6

After resting J hour, eating two biscuits,

and gently rowing for f hours 99°

Experiment II.

Initial temperature 9 8° -4 F.

After | hour’s hard rowing 99°

After 1 hour’s ,, „ 980,7

Experiment III.— Ascent of Goatfell.

Beginning ascent

Time.

1p.m...

Height
in Feet.

Temp.
.. 98 °*8

Easy climbing. Warm

P50 ...

... 900....

... 99°

Stiffer climb. Perspiring

2-30 ...

... 1,750 ....

.. 99°*5

Hard climbing. Perspiring much . . .

2-45 ...

... 2,200 ....

.. 99°-2

Very hard climbing. ,, „ ...

3-0 ...

... 2,750 ....

.. 99°

After descent of 2,500ft, Warm ...

4-0 ...

,

.. 99°*3

12

The observations were invariably taken while actually
rowing or climbing.

These numbers are, in the main in accordance with those
of Dr. Forel, and shew that a slight increase took place in
my body-temperature during physical exertion. This in-
crease was decidedly marked during the first half hour while
rowing, and the first one and a-half hours while climbing,
after which times a diminution of temperature took place,
the final temperature being in no case, however, so low as
the initial temperature.

Dr. Anderson, (loc. cit.) has attempted to explain the
varying results of different observers by supposing that in
some men the heat transformed into motion, and spent in
doing work is restored by quick oxidation of material with-
in the organism, while in the case of others whose power of
oxidation is slower, no such equilibrium is maintained, and
a decrease in body temperature consequently ensues.
Looked at in this light the above numbers seem to show
that during the earlier phases of physical exertion oxidation
was more than sufficient to restore heat spent in doing work,
but that as the work was continued and grew harder the
excess of heat was gradually encroached upon. In the paper
already cited from Nature (vol xii, p. 132) the abstractor
shews that if body-temperature be taken as the exponent of
internal work, then a greater increase ought to be observed
during extra muscular work if unaccompanied by external
work than if so accompanied. The results which I have
obtained during canoeing bear out this theory. The follow-

ing were the numbers : — -
Experiment IY.

Initial temperature 9S°*3 F.

After 20 minutes hard paddling 99°#4

After 30 „ „ „ 99°'4

The external work .done in propelling a light canoe
through the water must be less than that needed for the

13

propulsion of a tolerably sized rowing boat— yet there is a
very considerable amount of muscular work in maintaining
the paddle in position, in the movements of the body, &c.
Now the increase of temperature amounted to 1°*1 F., a
much larger quantity than any noticed either during row-
ing or mountain climbing, where the external work is
larger. Nor was the decrease which followed the first in-
crease in the latter cases, noticeable while canoeing, probably
because the external work was not continued long enough
to make any great demand upon the internal heat.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

October 11th, 1875.

Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Plant exhibited specimens of Locusta migratoria,
found in Ordsall Lane and Peel Park, Salford, after the
unusually strong equinoctial gales of the end of September.

“ On the Hybrid British Heath, Erica Watsoni , Benth.,”
by Charles Bailey, Esq.

Some weeks ago Mr. E. W. Nix, M.A., when in Cornwall
with his brother Mr. Arthur Nix, collected, on a wet, boggy
moor in the neighbourhood of Truro, a heath, whose habit
and characters struck him as being different both from
Erica Tetralix and E. ciliaris, and both gentlemen were
satisfied it was a hybrid form. A small specimen which
Miv Edward Nix brought home with him to Manchester
was shown to me for identification, and I had no doubt in
naming it as the Erica tetralici-ciliaris of Syme {—E. Wat-
soni of Benth am).

14

Nine years ago I spent a whole day in a careful but
unsuccessful search for this plant in the same neighbour-
hood, and it was with much pleasure I saw Mr. Nix’s speci-
men this year, as the only examples of this hybrid which I
had previously seen were those which Mr. H. C. Watson
has from time to time distributed through the Botanical
Exchange Club. Mr. Watson’s plant came originally from
Cornwall, where it was collected by the late Rev. C. A.
Johns many years ago, and this plant having been trans-
planted to Mr. Watson’s garden, has been the principal
source from which British botanists have obtained speci-
mens. Knowing the rarity of the occurrence of this plant
in a wild state, I urged Mr. Nix to procure a root from the
locality where he discovered it, and to the united kindness
of this gentleman and his brother the Section is indebted
for a sight of the living plant now exhibited.

From a paragraph in the report of the Botanical Ex-
change Club, which has appeared during the last three
weeks, we learn that Mr. Cunnack of Heiston, with Mr.
Blow, also found this hybrid last year, on a barren moor
between Truro and Penryn.

Mr. Nix’s plant has affinities with both its supposed
parents. It differs from Erica Tetralix in its longer and
larger corolla, which is pear-shaped rather than urceolate in
form through a rather sudden contraction in the uppermost
half ; in its having a herbaceous bract at the base of each
pedicel ; and in its more numerous barren branches.

It differs from Erica ciliaris in its less leafy habit and
more spreading branches; in its more raceme-like inflor-
escence ; and in its stamens, which have two minute, short-
ly-ciliate, subulate awns. Its leaves have more affinity
with those of E. ciliaris both in shape and pubescence, but
it is destitute of all glands at the extremities of the cilia
of the margin of the leaf; this feature is the more noteworthy
as the cilia in Mr. Watson’s specimens are nearly all

15

glandular. The styles are very slightly exserted and the
uppermost portion does not gradually widen upwards as
in E. ciliaris, but it is abruptly capitate as in E. Tetralix ,
and the ovary is downy, not glabrous, but I cannot find on
the whole plant a single ovary which has come to maturity.

The character by which the hybrid appears to be differ-
entiated from its allies the most readily is taken from the
anther, and more particularly by its awn-like appendages.
The anthers of E. Tetralix possess two awns which are
equal in length to the lobes of the anther, while the filament
is united to the anther at the back just above the base of the
lobes. The anthers of E. ciliaris are also attached by their
bases to the filament, but there is no trace of any awns. In
the hybrid plant however, the attachment of the filament is
higher up the back of the papillose anther, so that the two
lobes project much more than in the parent plants; from
each side of the filament at its junction with the anther,
there rises a slender awn whose length is only one-fourth
that of the anther, and these two awns do not project beyond
the lobes as they do in Erica Tetralix.

From a comparison of the specimens exhibited, it will be
seen that Mr. Nix’s plant comes nearer to E. ciliaris than
do Mr. Watson’s, particularly in the infloresence ; but they
agree perfectly in the character of the awns of the anther,
as noted above. In habit it seems to have some affinity
with E. MacJcaiana, and it is nearer E. Tetralix than E.
Ciliaris in this respect.

The habitat of the hybrid plant is described by Mr. Nix
as decidedly boggy, and his observation of the Cornish local-
ities of E. ciliaris leads him to conclude that it also flour-
ishes best in a similarly moist station. Dr. Syme on the
other hand gives “ sandy heaths ” as the character of the
station of E. ciliaris. Erica Tetralix loves boggy land, and
this seems to be the character of the station where Erica
tetralici-ciliaris flourishes in some abundance.

The Connemara station for Erica Mackaiana is peculiar;
according to my observation it occurs only on a small
rocky eminence which rises out of a vast bog which is the
home of E. Tetrcclix; as it grows in free flowering bushes a
foot or more in height, it may readily be picked out from
plants of E. Tctralix.

A series of British and Continental specimens of the
heaths named in this communication now lie on the tables
for comparison with the living plant.

17

Ordinary Meeting, November 2nd, 1875.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Peter Spence, F.C.S., &c., exhibited a piece of 2 to 3
inch lead pipe in which the metal had been entirely trans-
formed into galena, the crystalisation being visible through
the whole of the specimen.

The shape of the lead pipe was unaltered, showing that
the lead had not been exposed to a melting heat, no increase
of bulk was visible, but the pipe was so brittle as to shiver
with a blow. The circumstances in which this change was
effected, as nearly as can be made out, were as follows.

The pipe had been used for the conveyance of gas ammo*
niacal water and was sunk under ground. It was in the
vicinity of a furnace which heated the ground where it
lay. It had been disused for some years but never
taken up. When the ground where it lay had to be ex-
cavated for a new erection, it was found that there had
been a considerable leak of gas water, as the ground for
some space was impregnated with ammoniacal salts. About
25 per cent of the ammonia in gas water being sulphide,
and the ground being warm, a constant atmosphere of
sulphide of ammonium would surround the pipe, and this
seems to have been the cause of the conversion of the lead
into sulphide, as only that part of the pipe which was in
the vicinity of the leak was found to be transformed.

“ On the Principle of the Electro-Magnet constructed by
Mr. John Faulkner,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M A.
Proceedings— Lit, & Phil. Soc.—Yol. XV.— No. 2.— Session 1875-6..

18

The magnet which forms the subject of this paper consists
of a soft iron bar with a flat plate attached to one end and
surrounded by a coil of wire in the same way as the
ordinary electro-magnet. Outside this coil is placed a tube
of soft iron of the same length as that portion of the interior
bar which projects beyond the plate; this tube has flat ends
- — one of which is in contact with the plate, while the other
comes up flush with the end of the bar — so that a plate or
keep placed over the end is in contact with both the bar and
the cylinder. The magnet is excited in the ordinary way,
by connecting the ends of the wire which forms the coil with
the poles of a battery. When thus excited this magnet
exhibits certain peculiarities as compared with a common
magnet. In the first place the magnetic field is very limited,
being confined to the space in front of the open end of the
tube, there is little or no magnetism along the tube or at
the closed end. The magnet retains its keep with greater
force than the simple bar. Mr. Faulkner has some magnets
of this kind which retain the keep with 100 times more
force when the outer tube is on than when it is removed.
The ratio of these retaining powers appears, however, to
depend on the relative diameters of the bar and the tube ;
the larger the bar in proportion to the tube, the greater is
the difference. Some magnets, made especially to test the
relative powers, give an increase of only double as compared
with the simple bar magnet. This magnet has a greater
sustaining power than the horse-shoe magnet. This was
shown by putting tubes round the poles of a horse-shoe
magnet, by which means it was made to sustain greater
weights than it would without the tubes.

The object of the paper was to suggest explanations of
these phenomena. They were attributed to three principal
causes.

1. The tube surrounding the bar unites the poles and
converts the magnet into a kind of horse-shoe magnet, the

19

ends of the tube having the opposite polarity to those of the
bar. If this were all, however, this magnet would not have
any advantage over the horse-shoe magnet.

2. The close proximity of the tube to the bar enables the
one pole to exert greater inductive action on the other, than
in the case of the horse-shoe form.

3. The electro-magnetic action of both sides of the coil is
utilised in the same manner as in the astatic galvanometer.
The current converts the tube into a magnet of opposite
polarity to the bar, and hence these two magnets act upon
each other by induction, which their relative positions
enables them to do with the greatest effect. It appears
from the researches of Dr. Joule that the larger the bar
inside the coil the less will be the intensity of magnetism
exerted in it by the coil. While it may be shown that the
smaller the tube — the closer it is to the coil — the greater
will be the intensity of magnetism excited in it. Also the
inductive action of the iron in the tube on that of the bar is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Hence it follows that the effect of using the outside
as well as the inside of the coil must increase rapidly as the
diameter of the bar approximates to the internal diameter of
the tube.

After the reading of the paper, Mr. Faulkner exhibited
some of his magnets ; and by means of iron fdings scattered
on sheets of paper produced some very beautiful diagrams
illustrating the effect of the outside tube on the magnetic field,

General Meeting; November 16th, 1875,

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair,

Mr. John Boyd, of Victoria Park, and Mr. E. W. Nix,
M.A., of the Branch Bank of England, were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society.

•20

Ordinary Meeting, November 16th, 1875.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chau.

« On an Instrument for Measuring the Direct Heat of the
Sun,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D., P.R.S.

The instrument generally employed tor giving the radiant
energy of the sun’s rays acts upon the following principle.
In the first place the instrument is sheltered from the sun but
exposed to the clear sky, say for five minutes. Let the heat
so lost be termed r. Secondly, the instrument is turned to
the sun for five minutes. Let the heat so gained be termed
R. Thirdly, the instrument being now hotter than it was
in the first operation is turned once more so as to be ex-
posed to the clear sky for five minutes while it is shielded
from the sun. Let the heat so lost be termed r .

It thus appears that r denotes the heat lost by convection
and radiation united when the instrument, before being
heated by the sun, is exposed for five minutes to the clear
sky, while r' denotes the heat lost by these same two opera-
tions by a similar exposure after the instrument has been
heated by the sun; and it is assumed that the heat lost
from these two causes during the time when the instru-
ment is being heated by the sun will be a mean between
r and r', and hence that the whole effect of the sun s rays

X + Tf

will be in reality R+ --

Now although this assumption may in the average of a
great number of experiments represent the truth, yet m
many individual cases it may be far from being true,
would therefore seem to be desirable to get rid Ox t ns
uncertainty by constructing an instrument in which we are
sure that the causes of variability are not allowed to

operate.

21

Ihese causes of variability I have attempted to get rid of
in the following manner. With the help of Mr. Jordan,
mechanician at Owens College, the following instrument lias
oeen constructed. It consists of a large mercurial ther-
mometer with its bulb in the middle of a cubical cast iron
c namber, this chamber being of such massive material that
i s temperature will remain sensibly constant for some time.

The chamber with its thermometer has a motion in azimuth
round a vertical axis A, andtdso a motion in altitude round
a horizontal axis B. A three inch lens C of 12 inches focal
length is attached by means of a rod to the cubical chamber
so as to move with it. The nature of this attachment will

be *een m the figUre- Tllus the whole instrument may be
easily moved into such a position that the lens as well as

ie upper side of the chamber which is parallel to the plane

o the lens may face the sun, and an image of the sun be

nown through a hole D in the side of the chamber upon
the thermometer bulb E.

The stem of the thermometer protrudes from the chamber
as in the figure. A screw S somewhat larger in diameter
than the bulb of the thermometer is made use of to attach
the thermometer to its enclosure, and a smaller screw S'
pressing home upon india rubber washers enables the ther-
mometer to be properly adjusted and kept tight when in
adjustment.

In the present instrument the internal diameter of the
chamber is 2 inches, while the bulb of the thermometer is
about 1J inches in diameter.

The scale of the thermometer is very open, more than an
inch going to one degree. I have generally allowed the
image of the sun given by the lens to heat the thermometer
bulb for one minute, during which time an increase of tem-
perature, not exceeding in any case two degrees, has been
produced.

As far as principle is concerned there appears to be no
objection to the present instrument, nevertheless it is open
to a very serious practical objection. The scale being so
very open, the stem comprehends only a few degrees;
frequently, therefore, the temperature is such that the
extremity of the mercurial column is either below or above
the stem. Now the thermometer has a small upper cham-
ber, and by means of a method of manipulation well known
to those who work with thermometers, it is possible to add
to or take away from the main body of mercury in the bulb
so as to keep the end of the mercurial column always in the
stem. But experience has convinced me that for a ther-
mometer with such a large bulb, frequent manipulation of
this kind is not unattended with danger to the bulb. On
this account the instrument in its present form is, I conceive,
unsuited for steady work in an observatory from year to
year.

It is however possible without any appreciable sacrifice
of the scientific principle of the instrument to alter it in

23

such a manner as to remedy this defect. Without altering
the size of the bulb, I should propose for a permanent
instrument a stem say 18 inches long with a bore of such
diameter that the stem should embrace a range of tempera-
ture betwen 20° Fahr. and 92° Fahr. Thus somewhat less
than five degrees will go to the inch. The stem might be
protected from the risk of accident by an appropriate shield.
Let such a thermometer be heated for two minutes and the
size of the lens be somewhat increased. In this case a rise
of something like 5° Fahr. will be obtained, and this heating
effect might very easily be estimated to one hundredth of
the whole, while the same thermometei would serve for all
the temperatures likely to occur in these islands during the
course of the year.

I ought to add that a pasteboard cover, gilded on the out-
side is made to surround the chamber, and also that between
the lens and the chamber there is a pasteboard shield with
a hole in it to permit the full rays from the lens to pass-— the
object of this shield being to prevent rays from the sun or
sky from reaching the instrument.

In such an instrument r or the change taking place in the
thermometer before exposure to the sun will in all pro-
bability completely disappear, while r will be extremely

small.

At any rate we may be quite certain that R +

r + r'

'~T~

will accurately represent the heating effect of the sun.

We may probably suppose that in the same instrument
the lens (which must always be kept clean) will always stop
the same or nearly the same proportion of the solar rays.
But the lens of one instrument may not stop the same pro-
portion as that of another instrument. This, however, is no
objection if it be borne in mind that the instrument is a
differential one. In practice there would be some standard
instrument which would be retained at a central observatory,
and all other instruments would, before being issued, be

24

compared with it. It would be thus possible to compare to-
gether the indications of various instruments working in
different places provided that these before being issued had
their co-efficients determined at the central observatory.

“On a Colorimetric Method for determining small quan-
tities of Copper/’ by Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc., F.C.S.,
Demonstrator in the Chemical Laboratory of Owens College.
Communicated by Professor PI. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., &c., &c.

Last year I brought before this Society a paper (Proceed-
ings Yol. XI Y., 2) on a colorimetric method for determining
iron in waters, and as this method has been found convenient
for estimating small quantities of iron in substances other
than water,* I thought it would likewise be useful to have a
delicate and easy method of a similar kind for copper, and
it is the description of such a method that forms the subject
of the present paper.

The reagent used is the same as in the case of iron, viz.,
potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a purple-brown colour
with very dilute solutions of copper. This reaction, how-
ever, is not so delicate as it is with iron, for 1 part of the
latter in 13,000,000 parts of water can be detected by means
of potassium ferrocyanide, while 1 part of copper in a neutral
solution, containing ammonium nitrate, can be easily detected
in only 2,500,000 parts of water. Of the coloured reactions
which copper gives with different reagents, those with sul-
phuretted hydrogen and potassium ferrocyanide are by far
the most delicate, and as a preliminary the comparitive
values of these two reagents were tested with the following
results, the determination being made in each case in 150cc.
of water

(1) With H2S. 1 part of copper produces a colour in
2,500,000 parts of water.

* Among others I may mention that use has been made of this method
by Wanklyn, in the indirect determination of Alum in Bread. — Chemical
News, Yol. XXXI., p. 67.

25

(2) With K4FeCy6

(a) In acid solutions, the colour produced being earthy
brown, 1 part of copper produces a colour in 1,000,000 parts
of water.

(h) In neutral solutions, the colour being purple-brown,

1 part of copper produces a colour in 1,500,000 parts of
water.

(c) In neutral solutions containing ammonium nitrate, the
colour being purple-brown, 1 part of copper produces a
colour in 2,500,000 parts of water.

From the above it will be seen that of the two reagents,
sulphuretted hydrogen is the more delicate, except in the
latter case when they are of equal value. But potassium
ferrocyanide has a decided advantage over sulphuretted
hydrogen in the fact that lead, when not present in too
large quantity does not interfere with the depth of colour
obtained, whereas to sulphuretted hydrogen it is, as is well
known, very sensitive.

And though iron if present would, without special pre-
caution being taken, prevent the determination of copper
by means of potassium ferrocyanide, yet by the method
as described below the amounts of these metals contained
together in a solution can be estimated by this reagent.

As the above results show ammonium nitrate renders the
reaction much more delicate ; other salts, as ammonium
chloride and potassium nitrate, have likewise the same effect.

The method of analysis consists in the comparison of the
purple-brown colours produced by adding to a solution of
potassium ferrocyanide — first, a solution of copper of known
strength, and secondly, the solution in which the copper is
to be determined.

The solutions and materials required are as follows : —

(1) Standard copper solution. — Prepared by dissolving
0-393 grm. of pure CuSo4*5H20 in one litre of water, lcc.
is then equivalent to 01 mgrm. Cu.

26

(2) Solution of ammonium nitrate. — Made by dissolving
100 grm. of the salt in one litre of water,

(3) Potassium f 'err ocyanide solution. — Containing 1 part
of the salt in 25 parts of water.

(4) Two glass cylinders holding rather more than 150cc.
each, the point equivalent to that volume being marked on
the glass. They must, of course, both be of the same tint
and as nearly colourless as possible.

(5) A burette, marked to Acc., for the copper solution ;
a 5cc. pipette for the ammonium nitrate, and a small tube
to deliver the potassium ferrocyanide in drops.

The following is the method of analysis : — Five drops
of the potassium ferrocyanide are placed in each cylinder,
and then a measured quantity of the neutral solution in
which the copper is to be determined into one of them (A),
and both filled up to the mark with distilled water, 5cc. of
the ammonium nitrate solution added to each and then the
standard copper solution run gradually into (B), till the
colours in both cylinders are of the same depth, the liquid
being well stirred after each addition. The number of
cubic centimetres used are then read off. Each cubic
centimetre corresponds to 0T mgrm. of copper, from which
the amount of copper in the solution in question can be
calculated.

The solution in which the copper is to be estimated must
be neutral, for if it contains free acid the latter lessens the
depth of colour and changes it from a purple brown to an
earthy brown. If it should be acid it is rendered slightly
alkaline with ammonia, and the excess of the latter got rid
of by boiling. The solution must not be alkaline, as the
brown coloration is soluble in ammonia and decomposed by
potash ; if it is alkaline from ammonia this is remedied as
before by boiling it off ; while free potash, should it be pre-
sent, is neutralized by an acid and the latter by ammonia.

Within moderate limits the amount of potassium ferro-
cyanide does not affect the accuracy of the method as was
proved by several experiments, for instance, when ^cc. and
2cc. of the ferrocyanide were added to the two cylinders re-
spectively, water up to the mark, and 5cc. of ammonium
nitrate to each, then 7cc. of the standard copper solution
produced in each an equal depth in colour.

The same may be said of the ammonium nitrate, for in
one of several trials, all leading to the same result, when
there were five drops of ferrocyanide in each cylinder, with
water up to the mark, and 5cc. of ammonium nitrate in one
and 15cc. in the other, an equal depth of colour was ob-
tained on running into each 7cc. of the standard copper
solution.

The following are the results obtained by estimating the
copper in pure solutions of copper sulphate of known
strength : —

Copper found. Copper calculated.

205-00 mgrm 202-08

32-36

6-50

1*18

M3

0-96

0-75

0-59

0-52

0*42

0-39

0-22

0-13

0-12

0-055

>>

j?

»

j?

})

J5

31-32

6-27

M3

1-21

1-01

0-75

0-61

0-50

0-40

0-38

0-20

0-13

0-10

0-050

mgrm,

>>

5>

}>

»

>>

J)

?>

})

In order to test the effect which the different salts might
have on the accuracy of the method, 8-0 grms. of a mixture
of the following salts, viz.: — Ammonium chloride, sodium
chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium chloride, calcium sulphate,

28

and magnesium sulphate, were dissolved with an amount of
copper sulphate, containing (HOI grm. Cu. to 1 litre. Vary-
ing quantities of this solution were taken, and the copper
estimated therein with the following results, from which it
is seen that these salts have no detrimental effect. : —

Copper found. Copper calculated.

0-54 mgrm 0-51 mgrm.

0-71 „ 0-71 „

0-91 „ 0-91 „

In the same manner the effect of the presence of colour-
less non-volatile organic matter wTas tested by dissolving up
13 grins, of sugar with an amount of copper sulphate
equivalent to 0-0505 grm. copper in 1 litre of water, and the
copper estimated in two different portions as before, the
following numbers being obtained : — •

Copper found. Copper calculated.

0'52 mgrm 051 mgrm.

0-82 „ „ 0-81 „

In order to see what influence the presence of lead might
exercise on this method of estimating copper, a quantity of
the sulphate containing 0 2 55 grm. Cu. was dissolved in
water, the copper precipitated by potash, washed, and the
oxide dissolved in nitric acid and the solution after nearly
neutralizing with ammonia diluted to 1 litre with the ad-
dition of 2 grm. of lead, nitrate = 1’25 grm. Pb. Vary-
ing quantities of this solution were taken, and the copper in
them estimated with the following results : — -

Copper found. Copper calculated.

080 mgrm 0'77 mgrm.

0-75 „ 0-70 „

0-51 „ 0-49 „

0-49 0-51 „

0-38 „ 0-35 „

From which it will be seen that lead when present in not
too large quantity has little or no effect on the accuracy of
the method. The precipitate obtained on adding potassium

29

ferrocyanide to a lead salt is white, ana this, except when
present in comparatively large quantity with respect to the
copper, does not interfere with the comparison of the colours.
In the above experiments the proportion of lead to copper
was as 5 to 1.

When copper is to be estimated in a solution containing
iron the following is the method of procedure to be adopted.
To the solution a few drops of nitric acid are added in order
to oxidise the iron, the liquid evaporated to a small bulk
and the iron precipitated by ammonia,. Even when very
small quantities of iron are present this can be done easily
and completely if there is only a very small quantity of
fluid. The precipitate of ferricoxide is then filtered off,
washed once, dissolved in nitric acid and reprecipitated by
ammonia, filtered, and washed. The iron precipitate is now
free from copper, and in it the iron can be estimated by dis-
solving in nitric acid, making the solution nearly neutral
with ammonia and determining the iron by the method
given in the paper before referred to. The filtrate from the
iron precipitate is boiled till all the ammonia is completely
driven off, and the copper estimated in the solution so
obtained as already described. The following are the results
obtained with solutions containing known quantities of iron
and copper : —

Copper Iron

Found Calculated Found Calculated

(1) 0'53 mgrm 0’51 mgrm 0-22 0*20 mgrm.

(2) 0-69 „ 0-61 „ 2-15 2*40 „

(3) 0-79 „ 0-76 „ 2*42 3-00 „

(4) 0-66 „ 0-G6 — _

When the solution containing copper is too dilute to give
any coloration directly with potassium ferrocyanide, a
measured quantity of it must be evaporated to a small bulk
and filtered if necessary, and if it contains iron, also treated
as already described.

30

In the determination of copper and iron in water, for
which the method is specially applicable, a measured quan-
tity is evaporated with a few drops of nitric acid to dryness,
ignited to get rid of any organic matter that might colour
the liquid, and dissolved in a little boiling water and a drop
or two of nitric acid, if it is not all soluble it does not
matter ; ammonia is next added to precipitate the iron, the
latter filtered off, washed, redissolved in nitric acid, and
again precipitated by ammonia, filtered off and washed.
The filtrate is added to the one previously obtained, and the
iron estimated in the precipitate and the copper in the
united filtrate.

The distilled water used in the Owens College Laboratory,
and which is condensed by the apparatus made by Hirzel
of Leipzig, gave, on analysis by the above method, the
following results, two litres of the water being used for the
purpose ; — ■

0T5 parts Cu.

O 03 parts Fe.

The copper and iron in this case were evidently derived
from the fittings of the condensing apparatus, which con-
sisted in great part of these metals.

in 1,000,000 parts of water.

31

Ordinary Meeting, November 30th, 1875.

Edward Schtjnck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

“ On tlie Estimation of very small quantities of Lead and
Copper,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E., Assistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

As I have lately been occupied with experiments upon
the action of saline solutions upon lead and copper, which
involved the measurement of very small quantities of these
metals I thought it might be well to test the accuracy and
delicacy of the method employed.

The method itself is in no way new, being that described
by Wanklyn in his Book on “ Water Analysis.” The depth of
colour produced by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen
water to a known volume of the liquid under examination
is compared with the colour produced, by the same means,
in an equal volume of water to which a known amount of
lead or copper, in solution, has been added. In comparing
the colour of the liquid under examination with the
standard liquid I find it preferable to employ stout glass
tubes, holding about 1 00 cc. and having a diameter of about
1'5 cm., rather than white porcelain dishes as recommended
by Wanklyn. The contents of the tubes are thoroughly
mixed by means of glass tubes on the ends of which bulbs
have been blown. (See Thorpe on a method of estimating
nitric acid, &c. Ohem. Soc. J. [2] XI. 547.)

Wanklyn recommends the use of standard solutions, 1 cc.
of which is equal to 1 mgm. of copper or of lead : he em-
ploys 70 cc. of the water to be tested. If, therefore, the
colour produced on adding sulphuretted hydrogen water to
70 cc. of the liquid under examination is found to be equal

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil, Soc.— Vol. XV.— No. 3.— Session 1S75-6.

32

to that produced by the addition of the same reagent to
70 cc. of distilled water to which 1 cc. of the standard has
been added, vTe shall have 1 grain per gallon of lead in the
water. But one-tenth of a grain of lead per gallon is generally
considered hurtful when present in a drinking water; to
estimate this we should require to use only 0T cc. of the
standard : a very small error in reading the burette measure-
ments would introduce a comparatively large error in the
result. Thus in the case of a water containing one-tenth
grain of lead per gallon an error in reading of 0'05 cc. would
introduce an error in the quantity of lead equal to one-half
of the total quantity to be estimated. The first point, there-
fore, to investigate appeared to be the strength of the
standard solutions. I shall describe the experiments made
with copper.

Standard used 1 cc. = 1 mgm. copper.

Expt. Taken. Found.

No. 1 5 mgm. per litre... 4 mgm. per litre.

No. 2 2-5 ,, „ 2 „ „

Standard used 1 cc.r^OT mgm. copper.

Taken. Found.

No, 3 5 mgm. per litre... 4 ’8 mgm. per litre.

No. 4 2-5 „ „ 2-4 „

No. 5 0-5 „ „ 0-5 „

In each case 50 cc. of liquid was used.

Similar results were obtained with lead solutions.

The use of a standard, 1 cc. of which is equal to 0T mgm.,
of copper or of lead enables more accurate and more delicate
results to be obtained than the use of a stronger standard
does.

The second point to be determined was the limits of
accuracy of the method, and first as to the lower limit.

From the experiments with copper already detailed it will
be seen that 0*5 mgm. of copper per litre could be estimated
by using 50 cc. of the liquid.

33

Standard used 1 cc. = 0-1 mgm. copper.

Solution contained 0*25 mgm. of copper per litre. Details as before.
Added 0-3 cc. standard. Colour too dark.

Added 02 cc. „ Colour rather too dark.

Added 0-1 cc. „ Colour equal to the other.

Taken. Found.

No. 6 0-25 mgm. per litre. ... ...0*20 mgm. per litre.

In this experiment it was very difficult to determine the
exact point at which the colours were the same, as the
intensity of coloration produced was very slight. A further
addition of O05cc. of the standard could hardly he said to
produce a noticeable change in the depth of colour.

I think, therefore, that 05 mgm. of copper per litre =
0-035 grains per gallon is the smallest quantity which can
be accurately estimated by this process when working with
50 cc. of the liquid under examination.

The amount of lead which can be estimated with accuracy
is less minute than the amount of copper.

Standard used lee. = 0T mgm. lead.

Taken. Found.

No. 7 Q-25 mgm. per litre... no coloration.

No. 8 0-5 „ „ 0’4 mgm. per litre.

No. 9 0-75 „ „ 0-6 „

No. 10 .DO „ „ DO „

1 mgm. of lead per litre = 0 -07 grains per gallon, is, there-
fore, the smallest quantity which can be accurately estimated
by this process when working with 50cc. of the liquid under
examination.

By the evaporation of 1 litre of water to 50cc., a quantity
of copper so small as 0-025 mgm. per litre, or of lead equal to
0-05 mgm. per litre, can be estimated by this process. In
other words, the process will estimate 1 part of copper in
2,000,000 parts of water, or 1 part of lead in 1,000,000
parts of water.

Secondly, as to the upper limit.

34

Standard used lcc. = OT mgm. copper.

Taken. Found.

No. 11 20 mgm. per litre... 20*4 mgm. per litre.

No. 12 10 „ „ 10

No. 13 25 „ „ 24— 28 „

No. 14 30 „ „ 28— 32 „

20 mgm. of copper per litre = 1*4 grains per gallon is the
largest quantity which can be estimated by this method
when working with 50cc. of the liquid under examination.
With lead the following results were obtained : —

Taken. Found.

No. 15 10 mgm. per litre... 10 mgm. per litre.

No. 16 12 „ „ 12 — 15 mgm. per litre.

No. 17 15 „ „ colour too dark to allow of

estimation.

10 mgm. of lead =0 ‘7 grains per gallon, is, therefore, the
largest quantity which can be estimated by this method
when working with 50cc. of liquid.

In making these determinations, I found that the colours of
the liquids might be compared immediately after the addi-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. The colours did not become
intensified on standing.

I also found that it was immaterial whether the standard
was added before the sulphuretted hydrogen water or vice
versa. Thus there is no need if the colour of the standard
be too light, to prepare a fresh standard, as must be done in
nesslerising. It is only necessary to add another measured
quantity to the liquid which already contains sulphuretted
hydrogen.

The addition of one or two drops of dilute hydrochloric
or nitric acid in no way affected the accuracy or delicacy of
the estimation of copper. In the case of lead, a drop of
hydrochloric acid caused a faint turbidity (especially in
estimating large quanities of the metal), which interfered
materially with the results. If an acid must be added,
acetic acid is, I think, the best.

35

When working with 50cc. of liquid, so small a quantity
as 0'5 mgm. of copper, or 1 mgm, of lead per litre, may be
estimated by this process. If it is required to estimate
smaller quantities than these, the liquid must be con-
centrated by evaporation. If the amount of copper exceed
20 mgm., or of lead exceed 10 mgm. per litre, a smaller
quantity of the liquid than 50cc. must be used.

“On Certain Circumstances which affect the Purity of
Water supplied for Domestic Purposes,” by M. M. Patti-
SON Muir, F.K.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry,
Owens College.

Water as supplied for domestic use may suffer contamina-
tion from various sources. Those which I propose to con-
sider are (1) the metallic pipes through which the water
flows, and the metallic vessels in which it may be stored,
(2) certain of the metallic vessels through which the water
may pass during various domestic processes, and (3) the
existence of cisterns inside the house in which the water
may be stored before it is used.

The metals which are most commonly employed in the
formation of water pipes, or of vessels in which water is
kept, are lead and copper : these metals exert, as is well
known, a poisonous action upon the human organism.

It is known that water exerts a certain solvent action
upon these metals, and that this action varies in accordance
with the quality and quantity of the salts held in solution
by the water. I have endeavoured to obtain a few definite
measurements of this action in regard to (a) the nature of
the salts in solution, ( b ) the quantity of those salts, and (c)
the length of time during which the action proceeds.

I. Action on Lead.

» A number of solutions were made containing; a known
amount of various salts dissolved in distilled water : pieces
of clean bright lead were suspended in these liquids for

36

various lengths of time, and the amount of lead which was
dissolved was estimated at certain intervals ; the method
employed being the colorimetric one described in the lore-
going paper. The salts employed, the amounts of each, and
the amount of lead dissolved after 24, 48, and 72 hours’
action are stated in the following table in mgrrns. per litre
and in grains per gallon. The surface of lead exposed
measured 5600 sq. mm.

Table A.

Lead dissolved by water containing various salts in
solution.

Salt.

Mgms.
per litre.

Grains
per gall.

Lead dissolved.

r

In Mgms. per Litre.
After 24 48 72

In Grains per Gallon.
24 | 48 1 72 hrs.

Ammonium Nitrate

20

1*4

13-0

25-0

0-91

1*75

Ditto

40

2-8

15-0

15-0

32-0

1-05

1-05

2-24

Ditto

80

5'6

15-0

• • •

1-05

• • •

• . •

Potassium Nitrate

■\ 20

P4)

and

> and

and >

2-0

2-0

• • •

014

0-14

• • • j

Sodium Sulpliate ...

) 50

3-5 )

Potassium Nitrate

4 40

2-8

and

> and

and >

0-8

l'O

1-2

0-05

0-07

0-08

Sodium Sulpliate ...

) 212

14-7 )

Potassium Nitrate

S 45

3-1 .

and

> and

and >

• • •

• • •

0-3

• • •

0-021

Potass. Carbonate...

) 305

21-5 )

Potassium Nitrate

4 70

5-4

1

and

>and

and >

• • .

• • •

0-5

• • .

. • •

0-035

Potassitim Sulphate

) 504

35-2 )

Calcium Sulphate...

252

17-5

0-4

0-8

0-02

• . •

0-05

Ditto

408

28*5

0-4

• • •

1-0

0-02

• . •

0-07

Potass. Carbonate ..

310

217

1 •••

0'2

• . •

0-014

Ditto

516

36-1

• • .

0-2

0-014

Calcium Chloride ...

250

17-5

0-5

0-5

0‘5

0-04

0-04

0-04

Ditto

510

35 "7

0-3

0-4

0'02

0.028

Sodium Sulphate . . .

200

14-0

. i .

0-8

• . •

0-05

Ditto

400 .

28-0

0-5

0-03

Ammonium Nitrate

) 20

1-4 )

and

> and

and >

• . .

i • .

P8

...

. . .

0-126 !

Calcium Chloride ...

) 60

4-2 )

Ammonium Nitrate

b 20

i-4q

Potass. Carbonate

f 100

7-0 [

0’4

0-028

and

( and

and (

...

• • •

' 1 '

Sodium Sulphate ...

j 200

14-0 J

Sodium Sulphate

"'i 200

14'°")

Potass. Carbonate

f 40

2-8f

o-i

0-007

and

C and

and (

...

t • •

C 0 •

Calcium Chloride . . .

j 100

7-0j

Loch Katrine water

1-0

DO

1*5

0-07

0-07

0-105

Distilled water

2*0

2-0

3-0

015

0*15

1

0-210

From this table it is evident that the salts enumerated

37

have, when in solution, very different actions upon lead.
Nitrates undoubtedly very largely increase the solvent
action of water upon lead : the other salts generally diminish
this action.

The general conclusion which I would draw from these

O

results are

(1.) Nitrates if present alone even in small quantity
cause water to exert a very marked solvent action upon lead.

(2.) The presence of other salts — sulphates , carbonates,
and chlorides — along with nitrates, greatly decreases, or even
stops, this solvent action : carbonates especially exercise a
deterrent action.

(3.) Carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides, when added to
distilled water, greatly diminish the solvent action of that
water upon lead.

(4.) A small quantity— about 15 grains per gallon— of
these last mentioned salts exercises almost as great a
deterrent action as a comparatively large quantity, about 35
grains per gallon.

(5.) The amount of lead dissolved increases but slightly
after the lapse of twenty-four hours, in the presence of these
salts which exercise a deterrent action upon the solvent
power of water on lead. In the presence of salts which
increase this action— notably of nitrates — the amount of lead
dissolved increases with the length of time during which
the water remains in contact with the lead. I cannot speak
with certainty upon this point for a greater length of time
than 72 hours.

In these experiments the lead was uniformly clean and
bright. Inasmuch as natural waters, even if contaminated
with nitrates, usually contain small quantities of soluble
carbonates, sulphates, or chlorides, the solvent action of these
waters upon leaden pipes and leaden cisterns may, I think,
be said to be, under ordinary circumstances, exceedingly
small. I would especially draw attention to the experiment

38

made with water containing 1 *4 grains of ammonium nitrate
and 42 grains of calcium chloride per gallon; the amount ol
lead dissolved, after 72 hours being only 0126 grains per
gallon, whereas water containing the same amount of
ammonium nitrate, but without the addition of any other
salt, dissolved D75 grains per gallon, or about fifteen times
as much lead in the same time. As a water which contains
nitrates very often also contains chlorides this reaction is one
of some importance.

Under certain circumstances there can be no doubt that
water will dissolve considerable quantities of lead, this is
especially the case with water charged with carbon dioxide,
and with hot water

Dr. Roscoe has described a case in which a leaden cistern
was very quickly acted upon by hot water.*

For the following details regarding the amounts of lead
found in various samples of aerated beverages in the manu-
facture of which leaden apparatus had been employed, I am
indebted to my friend, Dr. Milne, of Glasgow.

Table B.

Lead found in various samples of aerated beverages .

Description of Quantity of Lead in

Liquid. grains per gallon.

Lemonade 0*20

Do 0*40

Do 0-05

Gingerade 0T0

Sodawater — O’GO

Do 0-05

In addition to these numbers I have determined the follow-
ing, which show the amounts of lead dissolved by distilled
water charged with carbon dioxide at the ordinary
atmospheric pressure for varying lengths of time, and also
the amounts dissolved by the same water on the addition of
various salts. The surface of lead exposed measured 2,100
square millimetres.

# Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., of Manchester, Vol. xiv., p. 23.

39

Table C.

Lead dissolved by ivater charged with carbon dioxide at

ordinary pressure.

Lead Dissolved.

Mgms.

Grains

In mgms. per litre.

A

In grains per gallon.

per litre.

per gallon

After 24

48

72

24

48

72 hrs.

Distilled water char-

ged with Carbon
Dioxide

O

o

O

O

3

0-21

0.21

0-21

The water poured

off, more added

and again poured
off, and finally
fresh water con-

taining Carbon

Dioxide added ...

None.

None.

Potassium Carbon-

I 100

7'0

ate and

> and

and

> Merest trace.

Merest trace.

Ammonium Nitrate

20

1-4

As the results indicated that water charged with carbon
dioxide at the ordinary atmospheric pressure exercises no
considerable solvent action upon lead, and moreover that
this action ceases on the addition of carbonates ; the large
amounts of lead, found in some of the samples of sodawater
examined by Dr. Milne are probably due to the increased
solvent action of water containing large quantities of carbon
dioxide forced into it under pressure. In order to test the
truth of this supposition I have made a few determinations
of the amounts of lead dissolved by distilled water, and by
the same water containing known quantities of various salts
when charged with carbon dioxide at a pressure of several
atmospheres.

The apparatus consisted of an ordinary gasogene used for
making so-called “soda water.” From the known capacity
of the globe and the weight of sodium carbonate and tartaric
acid employed the pressure exerted in the interior of the
vessel by the carbon dioxide was calculated as approxi-
mately equal to 6 atmospheres.

The surface of lead exposed measured 750 sq. mm.

40

Table D.

Lead dissolved by water charged with carbon dioxide at a
\ 'pressure of about 6 atmospheres.

Salt.

Mgms.

per

litre.

Grains

per

gallon.

Lead Dissolved.

K

f

In Mgms
21 horn’s.

per litre.
48 hours.

In Grains
24 hours.

per gallon.
48 hours.

Potassium Carbonate..

Ditto

Calcium Chloride

Ammonium Nitrate ...

Ditto

Distilled Water

80

160

160

16

40

5 ‘60
11‘20
11‘20
1-12
2-80

13- 2

32

5

10

14- 8

32-0

6-0

44

35

24

0-924

2-24

0-35

0- 70

1- 036

2- 24

0- 42

3- 08

2-45

1- 68

It appears from these numbers that distilled water charged
with carbon dioxide under a pressure of (approximately) G
atmospheres dissolves five times as much lead as the same
water charged with the gas at the ordinary atmospheric
pressure : that the presence of a small quantity of ammo-
nium nitrate does not increase the solvent action until after
a lapse of 48 hours or so : and that potassium carbonate,
when present in somewhat large quantities, exerts a marked
deterrent action. The amount of lead dissolved, however,
even in the presence of potassium carbonate, is far too large
to allow of such a water being drunk with safety.

II. Action on Copper.

The experiments under this heading were carried out in a
manner similar to that already described. The pieces of
copper foil presented a surface of 420 sq. mm. to the action
of the various solutions. The results obtained were with
one exception negative : no copper was dissolved. The
action of the following liquids was examined: — distilled
water ; the same containing ammonium nitrate in quanti-
ties varying from ‘02 grams per litre ( = 1*4 grains per gallon)
to *408 grams per litre (= 28-56 grains per gallon); the
same containing potassium nitrate in like amounts; the
same containing ammonium sulphate in quantities varying
from TO to *20 grams per litre ( = 7 to 14 grains per gallon) :
and also distilled water containing simultaneously carbonates
and nitrates, carbonates and sulphates , and chlorides and

41

nitrates. The length of time during which the copper was
exposed to the action of these solutions varied from 18 to
150 hours. The only liquid which exercised any solvent
action upon the copper was that containing the large quan-
tity of 38'56 grains per gallon of ammonium nitrate ; this
action was manifested only after 150 hours contact of the
liquid with the copper, the amount of metal which had then
passed into solution being equal to 3 milligrams per litre ,
or O' 31 grains per gallon.

The general conclusion to be drawn from these experi-
ments therefore undoubtedly is, that at ordinary tempera-
ture neither distilled water nor water containing the salts
which commonly occur in drinking waters exercises a solvent
action upon copper.

That water charged with carbon dioxide will dissolve
copper is apparent from the following figures, which repre-
sent the amounts of that metal found by Dr. Milne in vari-
ous samples of aerated beverages.

Table E.

Copper found in various aerated beverages .

Description
of liquid.

Soda water . . .
Potash water
Lemonade . . .
Ginger ale . . .
Potash water
Aerated water
Soda water . . .
Aerated water
Soda water . . .

Quantity of copper
in grains per gallon.

-084

*098

*053

-053

TOO

-089

TOO

'084

'036

In order to arrive at some accurate measurements of this
solvent action of water containing carbon dioxide upon
copper, I prepared a number of solutions charged with that
gas at the ordinary atmospheric pressure and placed in each
a piece of clean copper foil exposing a surface of 2100 sq. mm.
The amount of copper dissolved was estimated by adding

42

sulphuretted hydrogen and comparing the depth of colour
produced with that in a standard liquid : the process is ex-
ceedingly accurate and delicate.

T/4BLE F.

Copper dissolved by water charged with Carbon dioxide

at ordinary pressure.

Mgms.

per

Litre.

Copper dissolved.

A.

1

Salt.

i

Gram."? {
per Mgms. p<

Gallon.

j 24 48

jr Litre. |
72 ! 120

Grains per Gallon. '

i 120 1

24 1 48 72 i hrs.

Potassium Carbonate . .

200

14 0-1 ...

0-15

0-2

•007 ...

•0105 *014

Calcium Chloride

200

14 ! 07 ...

1*20!

1-80

•049 ...

•084 *126

Ammonium Nitrate ...

20

1*4 0'3 ...

0-60

1*40

•021 ...

•042 -098!

Ditto

40

2-8 0*G ...

0-80

1*40

•042 ...

’056 -098!

Potassium Carbonate

1 100

! 7 )

I

1

and

> and

and > 0'2 ...

0-30

1-0

•014 .

•021 -07

Ammonium Nitrate ...

) 20

1 1*4)

!

Potassium Carbonate

j 200

14 )

and

} and

and > trace ...

trace

o-i

trace . . .

trace ‘007

Ammonium Nitrate ...

) 40

2*8 )

Ammonium Nitrate

| 20

D4 ,

1

and

? and

and > 0'6 ...

2-4

3*6

1*042 ...

•168 ’252

Calcium Chloride

) 200

14 )

1

Distilled Water

i 0-1 0*3

1

...

1*0

, -007 -021

... -07

1

The general conclusions which I would draw from these
results are :

( 1 ) Distilled water, charged with carbon dioxide, exercises
a notable solvent action upon copper, the amount of metal
dissolved increasing with the length of time during which
it is exposed to the action of the water.

(2) The salts which have the greatest effect in increasing
this action are chlorides and nitrates, especially the latter :
if there are both present the action is very largely accelerated.

(3) Carbonates, especially when present in large quanti-
ties, very materially diminisli this solvent action.

(4) If carbonates and nitrates are present together the
solvent action of the latter is much diminished by the pre-
sence of the former salts, so much so indeed that if the car-
bonates be present in proportionately large quantities the
solvent action upon the copper almost entirely disappears.

I have also carried out a few experiments with the view

43

of determining the amounts of copper which are dissolved
by water charged with carbon dioxide under a pressure of
several atmospheres : the results are subjoined.

The apparatus were the same as that employed in the
experiments with lead.

Surface of copper exposed = 2100 sq. mm.

Table G.

Copper dissolved by water charged with carbon dioxide
at a pressure of about 6 atmospheres.

1

Salt.

Mgms.

per

Litre.

Grains

per

Gallon.

Mgms.p
24 hrs.

lopper c

er Litre
48 hrs.

.issolved

Grains j
24 hrs.

\

)er Gall.
48 hrs.

Potassium Carbonate ...

40

2-8

ro

D2

07

•084

Ammonium Nitrate

16

1-12

0-8

» • •

•056

Ditto

80

5-60

i-2

1-4

•084

•098

Distilled Water

...

...

0-4

0-6

•028

•042

Distilled water, charged with carbon dioxide, under a
pressure of (approximately) 6 atmospheres, dissolves about
three times as much copper as the same water charged at
the ordinary atmospheric pressure. Nitrates increase this
action and carbonates diminish it.

III. Influence of house cisterns upon the water supply.

There appears to be a somewhat wide-spread feeling
against the use of cisterns in dwelling-houses, which is, I
suppose, chiefly due to the fact that the waste pipe from
the cistern is generally in connection with the soil pipe
which carries off the drainage of the house.

The hurtful sewer gases may thus readily find their way
into the cistern, and so contaminate the water therein
stored. On the other hand, however, it may be urged that
inasmuch as the water in cisterns is frequently changed
there is no great probability that the water actually used
for domestic purposes will be, at any rate largely, con-
taminated by sewer gas. I have attempted to obtain
some definite measurements of the amount of contamination

44

present in cistern waters, in so far as this may he estimated
by the chemical processes at present in our possession.

The method which I have adopted consists in measuring
the amount of free and of albumenoid ammonia, and the
amount of nitrogen existing as nitrates and nitrites : from
these data we may deduce, at any rate comparative measure-
ments, of the purity of various waters.

In order to prove conclusively, for my own satisfaction,
that if sewer gases be absorbed by water their presence will
be indicated by a marked increase in the quantities of
ammonia, free and albumenoid, obtained from that water
on analysis, I carried out the following preliminary experi-
ment : —

A quantity of distilled water, free from ammonia, was
placed in a porcelain basin, which was covered with porous
paper, and suspended at a short distance above the liquid in
a sewer which received the refuse from a very large area,
chiefly occupied by dwelling-houses, in Glasgow. After 96
hours, the free and albumenoid ammonia were estimated
with the following results : —

Free ammonia =0 '60 mgms. per litre = parts per million.
Albumenoid „ —Ob 4 „ „ = „ „

It is thus evident that the absorption of sewer gases by
water causes a marked increase in the quantities of ammonia
obtained on analysis.

The method adopted for the estimation of ammonia was
the well known one of Wanklyn and Chapman: the method
for the estimation of nitrates was that described by Thorpe
in the Journal of the Chemical Society for June, 1873.
This method consists in evaporating the water, along with
a fragment of ignited quicklime, to a small bulk, and then
evolving the nitrogen, as ammonia, by the action of zinq
coated with a deposit of spongy copper, at a boiling heat.

In selecting the waters for examination I endeavoured, as
far as possible, to obtain typical samples : in this endeavour

45

I was greatly aided by the kindness of Mr. Macleod, the
Sanitary Inspector for Glasgow, who obtained for me samples
of waters from various houses situated in the lower parts of
the town.

The results are calculated as follows

Table H.

Ammonia and nitrates found in various samples of water.

Mgms. per Litre=Parts per Million.

i.

ii. | iii.

iv.

V.

vi.

vii. viii.

xi.

X.

xi.

xii.

Free Ammonia

Albumenoid Do. ...
Nitrogen as Ni- )
trates & Nitrites, j

•005

•092

•309

•085

•120

•463

•023

•080

•082

•321

•015

•090

•360

.

•015

•080

•20

•010 -035
•085. -085

•258 ...

•015

•070

•284

•075

•065

•306

*200

•370

*414

*045

•090

These samples were obtained from the following situations.
No. 1. From main pipe. No. 2. From cistern in same
house, little used. No. 3. From cistern in house similar to
No. 2, but water generally used. No. 4. From pipe leading
directly out of the bottom of cistern in well-situated dwell ing
house. No. 5. From cistern in smaller dwelling house.
No. 6. From small cistern supplying part of a dwelling
house only. No. 7. From public well supplied by Loch
Katrine water contained in a wooden cistern closed at the
top. No. 8. From cistern situated just under the slates in a
house in a lower locality than any of the preceding . No. 9.
From cistern over water-closet in a dwelling house. No. 10.
From cistern similar to above. No. 11. From the cistern
same as No. 9, but after stirring up the muddy deposit at
the bottom. No. 12. From cistern near the slates in a
house where there had been two cases of fever and where the
water ivas complained of.

Omitting for the present No. 11, it is found that No. 2
sample yields the highest number for free and for albumenoid
ammonia, also for nitrates. Now this sample was taken
from the cistern of a house in which the pipes have been
recently entirely renewed, and in which the pipe leading
from the water-closet to the main drain is thoroughly venti-

46

lated. The water in this cistern is however very rarely used;
for all domestic purposes a supply is obtained directly from the
main ; it would therefore appear that sewer gases are slowly
absorbed by water stored in such a cistern. That this
absorptive action must take place slowly is evident if we
look at the results obtained from the other waters. Although
many of these waters were taken from badly situated
cisterns, yet in none of them can the influence of sewer
gases be distinctly traced. We must therefore conclude that
the rapidity with which the water in the cistern has been
changed has prevented any appreciable action of the gases
upon these waters. There are, it is true, slight variations in
the numbers obtained, but in no case do we find a notable
increase as compared with water from the main pipe.

The amount of ammonia, &c , obtained from a sample of the
slimy matter found at the bottom of one of the cisterns
(No. 11) indicates that a great part of the ammonium
salts, &c., is concentrated therein; this matter may there-
fore perhaps exercise a certain beneficial effect upon the
water.

The general conclusions which I would draw from these
results are

(1.) That sewer gases are absorbed by water, but that this
absorption takes place slowly.

(2.) That in ordinary house cisterns the water is not
contaminated to any great extent with sewer gases, probably
because of the short time during which this water is
allowed to remain in the cistern, and also perhaps because of
the deposition of part of the impurities in the muddy sub-
stance which settles at the bottom of the cistern.

The general problem of the influence of the means of
supply upon potable waters is a very wide one. I offer
these measurements as a contribution towards its solution.

47

In the course of the discussion which took place after the
reading of the above papers several of the members stated
that the town’s water as received at their houses was some-
times very turbid, and the President said it ought never to
be used for drinking purposes without being filtered.

J. G. Lynde, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., said that at his house
he had always found the water quite clear and pure, and
that although he had a filter it was now never used.

T. H. G. Berrey, Ass. Inst. O.E., superintendent of
the Manchester Corporation Water WTorks, stated, in reply,
that there was no reason why the water should be dis-
coloured at the points named, except that it must have
been caused by the neglect of the turncock to cleanse the
hydrants according to instructions. The general supply
throughout the 86 townships supplied by the Manchester
Corporation was quite satisfactory, and the water was
never rendered turbid except in the case of a very heavy
thunderstorm, when the turbid water would sometimes,
during the night, get into the service reservoirs from the
adjoining brooks before it could be sent down the flood
watercourse.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

November 8th, 1875.

Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Percival exhibited specimens of Bryum Neoda-
mense Itzig [ = B. formosum, Wilson MSS.] found by him,
in company with Dr. Wood and Mr. T. Rogers, on May
23rd, 1875, fruiting abundantly. Hitherto it had only been
found in a barren state in Britain. The locality is near
Freshfield, Lancashire.

48

The true place of this moss is next to B. pseudo triquetrum,
common upon the Lancashire mosses.

It was originally found at Birkdale, near Southport, but
soon disappeared, owing to draining and building operations;
then it was again observed at the Bullrush Slack, by its
original discoverers, viz., Dr. Wood, Mr. W. Wilson, and Mr.
H, Boswell, but never in a fruiting condition.

Mr. Thos. Rogers exhibited living specimens of the rare
Irish Slug, geomalacus mcicnlosus, from Lough Corrib, its
only known British habitat, and even there its range is
exceedingly restricted.

“The Fauna of Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea,” by John
Plant, F.G.S. — Part 2.

The list of the fishes and mollusca which I read to the
Section last April included all the species which had been
identified from the collections made in the summer of
1874 and at Easter, 1875.

The present list includes those which have been added by
a further examination of the shores and waters along the
coast from Rhoseolyn to Aberffraw, of which line Cym-
meran Bay forms the centre.

The time devoted to the work extended from the end
of July to September, when the weather was rarely
disturbed by furious gales, such as prevail on this coast in
spring and autumn— -'-so that the new collection possesses
none of the varieties which the rude waves of the Atlantic
at such times cast upon the rocks and sands.

The species in this list are therefore more likely to be
local and permanent than are some included in the former
list.

During the summer a fine young seal, Phoca vitulina ,
was caught fast asleep upon the rocks in the bay, and kept
in confinement a few days with the intention of sending it to

49

Belle Vue Gardens, Manchester, but it managed to escape
from the room it was kept in, and actually travelled
down to the rocks, and got away to sea.

The fishermen say that the seal is well known along the
coast, and breeds in the more inaccessible clefts and caverns
in the bold sea cliffs, from the North Stack to Bfioscolyn.
The Welsh name for The Skerries, the well known rocky
islets off Carmels Point, is Ynysoecld Moelroniaid , the Isles
of Seals. A century back, the seal was very common on
these rugged and little frequented coasts.

A tew years ago, a shoal of Cetaceans found their way to
the head of Cymmeran Bay and were stranded in the strait
which divides Holyhead from Anglesea. They proved to
be the Bottle-nosed Dolphin, Tursio truncatus , of Mon-
tagu.

The common Porpoise, Phoccena communis , not infre-
quently is seen and captured when sporting out in the
channel.

The additions to the fishes already enumerated, are not
many, for it is not easy to obtain specimens of the species
that are small and worthless for the table-— they readily
escape through the nets used for mackerel and herrings.

Specimens of big sharks are often seen in the bay by the
fishermen, but they give them a wide birth, and I
cannot make out the species from the imperfect descriptions
given in such an unscientific tongue as is the mixed Welsh
and English.

The Picked Dogfish, Acanthias vulgaris , will at times get
caught in the nets during the night, after making a hearty
meal upon the cod and whiting.

The spotted Bay, Rctia maculata , is often captured by
trawling, but it is not used for food, being cut up like its
congenor the thornbaek Bay, as bait for lobsters and crabs.

The Turbot, Rhombus maximus, is caught of moderate
size.

50

The Garnsh; Belone vulgaris, rare.

The Grey Gurnard; Trigla gurnardus, is common with
the Piper Gurnard all the summer.

The additions to the former list of mollusca made during a
long visit have been sixty-two *specieS; making a list of one
hundred and forty-one species. It is remarkable that
although the sandy shores about Cymmeran and Aberffraw
bays are both extensive and level between high and low
tidal marks, such well-known common species as
Carclium edule, TurriteUa communis, Mytilus edulis, and
others, should be excessively scarce, whilst such species as
Cyprcea European, Patella pellucida, Tellina fabula, T.
tenuis, Cyprina Islandica, Mactrcc stultorum, Pecten maxi -
mus, and Littoringe should be fairly abundant, if not quite
common.

The small species of Rissoa Odostomia, Skenea, and
Mangelia, occur in great numbers, the sand in places being
almost made up of these shells, mixed with Entomostraca,
Serpulse, comminuted shells, and crustacean claws. The
varieties of Rissoa parva, costata and striata are endless,
and it would be easy to multiply species of this genus, and
also of Skenea, if only extremely marked or smooth speci-
mens were regarded.

In my former list are many species which were called
rare, as only one or two specimens or even a single valve
had been found in 1874, or at Easter of 1875. In some
cases this rarity has been proved by not finding additional
specimens this summer, asin Corbula,Psammobia, Dentalium,
TurriteUa (only two), Ciiemnitzia, Trophon, and Cylichna.

Amongst the fresh species there are none that occur
abundantly, but Pecten pusio, Cyprina, Scaphander ,
Ceratisolen, Crenella, A deorb is, Kellia, and Assiminea are
found in fair numbers between high and low tidal marks.
The rock-borers and tunicata have had but cursory attention
paid to them at present.

51

Some species are very local, being only found within a
small rocky cove, or else confined to a limited zone on the
wide sands either at Aberffraw or at Cymmeran, a few even
are restricted to smaller patches of sand in one of the
numerous little creeks along the coast.

Additions to the Molluscci.

CEPHALOPODA.

80. Sepia officinalis. The animal is occasionally caught in the

dredges, nets, and lines of the fishermen, and the bone
or shell is thrown on shore after a gale.

81. Sepiola Atlantica, seen at times in the deeper pools of the

rock.

82. Octopus vulgaris. This singular animal has been taken, but

it is very seldom kept, as its uncanny ways make it
dreaded by the fishermen.

83. Loligo vulgaris, taken in the nets. It is probably common

amongst the rocks, as my son saw the inky cloud dis-
charged from one in a small pool as his boat passed over
the spot.

ACEPHALA.

Fam. I. — Pholadid^,

84. Teredo norvagica, portions of the tube found in wreck.

85. Teredo navalis. The tube of this common shipworm is

found in old wreck floating into the bay, after months of
drifting in the Atlantic or in the Channel.

8G. Pholas Candida. Specimens are rare; no doubt the absence
of limestone rocks along this coast accounts for the
rarity of the Pholadidse.

87. Saxicava rugosa. A few specimens.

88. Mya truncata. A few perfect shells.

Fam. VI. — AnatinidzE.

89. Thracia phaseolina. One ralve only.

FAM. VII. — SOLENIDiE.

90. Solen ensis.

91. Solen marginatus.

92. Ceratisolen legumen.

Fam. IX. — Tellinhle.

93. Syndosmya prismatica, one specimen, rare.

Fam. XI. — Mactrid.e

94. Lutraria elliptica, many thick valves, separated and broken

by the gulls.

94a. Mactra elliptica, rare.

Fam. XII. — Venerid.®.

95. Venus verrucosa, small variety.

96. „ casina.

Fam. XIII. — CvPRiNiDiE.

97. Circe minima, very rare, only one valve.

98. Astarte sp. ?

Fam. XIV. — Cardiad^e.

99. Cardium fasciatum, very rare.

Fam. XVI. — Kelliad,®.

100. Montacuta ferruginosa, rare.

101. Turtonia minuta, one valve, rare.

102. Kellia rubra.

Fam. XIX. — Mytilid^:.

103. Crenella marmorata.

Fam. XX.— Arcade.

104. Nucula decussata, rare, one valve.

105. Pectunculus glycimeris, rare, one valve.

Fam. XXI. — Ostreame.

106. Pecten pusio, fine living shells, dredged.

107. „ tigrinus, rare, one very small valve.

108. ,, opercularis, rare.

109. „ niveus, rare.

110. Anomia striata, rare.

HI. „ ephippium, many varieties of this species, occur
commonly at high water line, living specimens dredged.

53

PROSOBRANCHIATA.

112. Chiton, sp. These singular mollusca occur pretty commonly
but the species are not yet satisfactorily identified.

FAM. XXVIIL—PATELLIDiE.

113. Pilidium fulvum, rare, one worn specimen.

Fam. XXXI II.—1 Troohidjj.

1 1 4. Trochus lineatus, very fine specimens about the rocks at

low water — abundant.

115. Adeorbis subcarinata, a few specimens,

Fam. XXXYIL— LiTTORiNiDiE,

116. Littorina saxatilis, one specimen.

117. „ tenebrosa, and varieties,

118. Lacuna pallidula.

119. „ puteolus.

120. „ vincta, and varieties.

121. Assiminea Grayana.

122. Rissoa calathus.

123. ,, ventrosa, dead shells

124. Skenea planorbis.

125. „ nitidissima.

126. „ rota.

Fam. XLI. — Pyramidellid^.

127. Eulima polita.

128. Chemnitzia sp., uncertain until other specimens are found

for comparison.

129. Odostomia conoidea.

130. „ rissoides.

131. ,, unsGulpta.

132. „ spiralis.

133. ,, sp. uncertain.

Fam. XLY, — Muricid.®.

134. Nassa incrassata.

135. Fusus antiquus, brought up alive by dredging.

Fam. XLYI. — CoNimE.

136. Mangelia linearis.

54

Fam. XLYIII. — Bullidjs.

137. Tornatella fasciata, rare.

138. Scaphander lignariu's.

TUNIC AT A.

Fam. — AsciDiATiE.

139. Ascidia mentula. I found a very fine one attached to a

piece of slate, at a very low tide : it was nearly six
inches long.

140. Ascidia sp. Several other forms have been seen, but not

taken for preservation.

Crustacea. — Upon further exploration it has been found
that the shrimp is a very rare species all along this coast,
but that the prawn, Palcemon serratus, is very abundant.

The fishermen firmly believe that the lobsters and crabs
are sensitive to coming violent changes in the wind and
weather, and maintain that they forsake the neighbourhood
of the rocks in the bay and go far out into deep water in
the channel 24 to 48 hours before the storm breaks on the
coast ; for none are ever caught in the ports a day or two
before the storm. That fishes leave the shallow waters
of the bay for deeper water before a storm, is a fact for
which I can myself bear testimony, as well as the fact
that on warm quiet days and nights, when the water is oily
and without a ripple, the fish frequent the bay in thousands.

The Crustacea, Balanidae, Lepadidae, Annelidas, Echino-
dermata, Actinozoa, are only at present half ascertained, but
a sufficient number of specimens have been obtained to
make their further collection important ; and these, toge-
ther with the land and fresh-water shells, will be given in
a future list of the fauna of Cymmeran.

55

Ordinary Meeting, December 14th, 1875.

Fdward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair,

Professor Schorlemmer exhibited a sample of peat from
lagoons in the Sierra Madre in Mexico. It is very dense
and not readily inflammable, giving very little flame, but
when once red-hot it burns completely, without requiring
much draught, to a perfectly white ash containing much
calcium carbonate and a little sodium sulphide, which is
derived from glauber salt which the peat contains.

“ On Graphic Methods of Solving Practical Problems” by
Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

In the first part of this paper it is pointed out that, when
dealing with practical problems by the aid of the graphic
method, it is not necessary to break off the operations of
drawing, and find numerical values for the quantities repre-
sented, in order to perform on them the operations of multi-
plication and division. For by the aid of a parallel ruler
the operations of multiplication and division may be per-
formed graphically with great facility. The only geometri-
cal proposition involved being that of finding a fourth
proportional to three distances. When two distances have
to be multiplied or divided the one by the other, a third dis-
tance is chosen equal to unity, and a fourth proportional
found which represents the product or ratio of the first
according as unity is the first or third of the given quanti-
ties.

_ Tlle method was illustrated as applied to the determina-
tion of areas, centres of gravity, and moments of inertia.

In the second part of the paper a graphic method is
described by which the velocity and acceleration of a
moving point can be determined when the times at which it
PBOCEEDiNas-LiT. & Phil. Soo.-Vol. XV.— No. 4,-Session 1875-6.

56

occupies certain positions are known, i.e. the curves repre-
senting the velocity and acceleration of the point may he
drawn from the curve representing the positions of the
point. Also a converse method by which the position of a
point at any time may be found from the curve representing
either its velocity or displacement.

" On Explosions of Fire Damp.”

E. W. Binney, V.P., F.B.S., said that the fearful loss of
life in our coal mines deserved the careful attention of all
societies like ours. It ought to be one of the objects of
science to endeavour to find out the cause of these explo-
sions and to devise some means to prevent their occurrence
or lessen their frequency. No doubt Government Inspec-
tion had been of service, and the examination of managers
would tend to improve the efficiency of mining officers; but
still notwithstanding these improvements the explosions of
fire damp are sadly too frequent. The lamentable events
which have taken place during the last ten days clearly
show that they sometimes occur without any great change
in the barometric pressure of the atmosphere, although
undoubtedly sudden depressions in a barometer ought to
caution miners against emission of gas from the seam of coal
and coal wastes, and put the men more on their guard at
such times.

It has been stated in this society that certain conditions
of the atmosphere quite irrespective of barometric pressure
may have something to do with causing the “ drag” in the
currents of air circulating through a mine, as explosions
have frequently occurred during an east wind and a muggy
state of the atmosphere, and a vesicular condition of water
in the air has been suggested as the probable cause of this
lessening of the speed of the air passing through the galle-
ries of mines. Now, careful observations with a good
anemometer in the return air course of a mine ought to

57

determine whether or not such an effect is produced, and
thus settle this point by direct experiment.

Another source of accidents at this time of the year has
to be taken into consideration. Before Christmas and in cold
weather there is often a brisk demand for coal, and both
managers and men are in a hurry to increase the output,
and under such circumstances probably there may be
sometimes not so much care and caution exercised as are
necessary for them to use in the dangerous work in which
they are engaged.

In the management of a fiery mine, in my opinion,

1. There ought not to be any unventilated wastes.

2. The mixed use of Davy lamps and naked lights should
not be permitted where the former are commonly employed.

3. Blasting of coal by gunpowder should not be sanc-
tioned where Davy lamps are in common use.

4. An anemometer under the care of a competent man
should be in constant use in order to see that a sufficient
current of air is passing through the workings to insure
perfect ventilation of the mine..

5. When there are marked indications of fire damp in a
mine, shown by a cap on the flame of a lamp, the men en-
gaged in hewing and drawing coal should be removed from
the pit until by ventilation the place is cleared of gas and
rendered safe for a working collier.

The above precautions may probably cause an increased
cost in the getting of coal, but they are necessary for the
preservation of human life if such catastrophes as now fre-
quently occur are to be prevented. It is now pretty gene-
rally admitted that all explosions of fire damp are caused
by there being too little pure air and too much of that gas
in a mine.

“ Chemical Notes/5 by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E.,
Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

I. On the Solubility of Potassium Perchlorate in Water.

58

Haying a small quantity of pure Potassium perchlorate
at my disposal, I thought it might be interesting to deter-
mine the solubility of this salt in water at different temper-
atures.

The apparatus employed was similar to that described by
Hannay.*

The salt was placed in a small test tube to which a ther-
mometer was strapped, the whole being surrounded with ice
or water maintained at the proper temperature.

The following were the results obtained.

A. Temperature 0° C.

Weight of liquid in the "bulb 4’7 22 grms.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0 0333 grms.

Weight of distilled water contained in the bulb at
0°, 4 '75 7 5 grms.

Weight of bulb itself, 5 '3954 grms.

Hence the specific gravity of an aqueous solution of this
salt saturated at 0° equals 1-0005: the percentage of salt in
solution is Q-705 : and the solubility of the salt is 1 part in
142-9 parts of water.

B. Temperature 25° C.

Weight of liquid in bulb 4-7418 grms.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0-0907 grms.

Other weights as before.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 253,
1-0123.

Percentage of salt in solution, 1-92.

Solubility, 1 part in 52 '5 parts of water.

O. Temperature 50° C.

Weight of liquid in bulb 4 '798.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0-243.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 50°,
1-0181.

Percentage of salt in solution 5 -07.

Solubility, 1 part in 15*5 parts of water.

* J. Chem. Soc. [2] xit 203.

59

D. Temperature 100° C.

Weight of liquid in bulb 4 ’9 9 6 5.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0'7870.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 100°,
1-06603.

Percentage of salt in solution 15 ’7 6.

Solubility, 1 partin 5 04 of water.

For each rise of 25° the solubility and the percentage of
salt in solution increase in round numbers threefold.

I may add that I found Hannay’s apparatus exceedingly
accurate and serviceable.

II. On Basic Bismuth Perchlorate.

If metallic Bismuth be heated with an aqueous solution
of perchloric acid it is slowly converted into a white non-
crystalline mass. This substance is insoluble in water;
when thoroughly washed and dried between folds of blot-
ting paper it presents the appearance of a bulky, pure white
powder which it is difficult to obtain equally divided as the
particles tend to gather together and form small more or
less compact masses. This substance yields the following
numbers on analysis :

(a) 0-364 grams gave 0*2675 grams Bi203 = 0-2382 grams JBi.

(5) 0-4173

v n 0-298 ,, ))

= 0-267

a ii

(c) 0-450

n ii 0”3231 j, „

= 0*290

)i a

Calculated for BiO.C104

Found.

I. II.

III.

Bismuth 210

64-52

65-44 63-98

64-44

These numbers agree very well with those required by
the formula BiO.C104, or it may be written Bi(C104)3.Bi203.

Basic Bismuth perchlorate is almost perfectly insoluble in
water even at 100°; it is very readily dissolved by hydro-
chloric or nitric acid ; less readily by sulphuric acid ; at a
red heat it is decomposed with formation of bismuth
chloride which is slowly volatilised.

60

III. On the Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the Air of Sea

Coast Places .

Thorpe (Chem. Soc. J. [2] y. 189) has shown that the air
over the ocean contains less carbon dioxide than air over
the land, the mean numbers being S'O and 4 ‘04 vols. per
10,000 of air respectively.

During the long vacation I interested myself with a few
experiments upon the air of the sea coast with a view to
determine whether it inclined, as regards carbon dioxide, to
sea air or to land air.

The samples of air were collected at A rdrossan , a small
town on the firth of Clyde, where the liver is almost entirely
merged in the open sea.

The estimations were conducted in accordance with Pet-
tenkofer s method.

1

Date,

1875.

Weather.

Place and Time. Temp.

|

Barom.

Wind.

Vols. of
CO2 per
10,000 of
air.

Aug 2.

Fine but cloudy.

In boat, i mile
from shore ; 12
noon.

16'-5

707mm.

Why S

3-87

4

J5

Clear, cloudless
sky. Sunset.

On shore, 8 p.m.

21°

700mm.

W byN

3-88

14

,,

Fine, fresh breeze

200 yards from
shore, 3 p.m.

21°

700mm.

SW

3-34

CD

rH

Fine, very clear ;
very heavy rain
during preced-
ing night.

On shore, 8.30
a.m.

10a

759mm.

NW

3-40

» 21.

Fine, very clear ;
rain during

morning.

In boat, i mile
from shore, 2. 30
p.m.

IK,*'

1/ O

707mm.

NW

3'84 |

Sept. 3.

Fine, showers

during preced-
ing da7fs.

300 yards from
shore.

16°

759mm.

NW

4-01 !

1

Mean=3'72 vols. CO-2 per 10,000 of air.

The air of such a place as Ardrossan, although it be situ-
ated almost in the open sea, is not therefore influenced by
the sea, so far as the carbon dioxide is concerned, but con-
tains almost the same amount of that gas as is found in land

air.

61

Ordinary Meeting, December 28th, 1875.

Edward Schunok, Ph.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

The following communication from Dr. Joule, F.RS.,
Y.P., was read : —

Unsuccessful attempts have recently been made for the
purpose of utilizing a modification of the common kite as a
means of obtaining a view of the surrounding country.
The machine in each instance rose only to fall violently to
the ground after remaining in the air a very short time.
These trials have brought to my recollection some experi-
ments I made more than six years ago, but of which I did
not publish the results, imagining that all such matters
must have been thoroughly elucidated by the Chinese, if
not by our own more juvenile kite flyers. The usual
method of making the skeleton of a kite is to affix a rather
slender bow to the top of a standard, tying the extremities
of the bow to twine fastened to the bottom of the standard.
The steadiness of the kite in the air depends on the fact
that the wings yield with the wind. If the bow is too stiff
and the surface nearly a plane, instability results. A kite
ought to have a convex spherical surface for the wind to
impinge upon. Such a surface I readily made by fixing
two bows crosswise. The string was attached to a point a
little above the centre of the upright bow, and a very light
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XV. — No. 5. — Session 1S75-6.

62

tail was fastened to the lower end. The kite stood in the
air with almost absolute steadiness. I found that by pull-
ing strings fastened to the right and left sides of the hori-
zontal bow, the kite could be made to fly 30° or more from
the direction of the wind, and hence that it would be pos-
sible to use it in bringing a vessel to windward. One great
advantage of such a mode of propulsion over ordinary sails
would be that the force, however great, could be applied
low down, so as to produce no more careening than that
desired by the seaman.

E. W. Binney, V.P., F.B.S., said that in the Isle of
Man there had been a prevalence of easterly winds through-
out the months of October and November, such as he had
never experienced during a residence of ten years. This
appears to have influenced the migration of swallows. In
the beginning of September the chimney swallows and the
house martins assembled in great numbers on his buildings
on Douglas Head, as they were accustomed to do prior to
their annual departure, and disappeared. On the 5th of
November, between 10 and 12 a.m., he observed a dozen
house martins ( Hirundo urbica ) in front of his house and
between it and the sea, busily employed in pursuing their
prey. During the summer months the swift and sand
martin are frequently seen in the same locality, but seldom
the swallow or house martin, and he was inclined to believe
that the presence of the latter was due to their having been
driven out of their course by the easterly gales.

/;o

0O

Ordinary Meeting, January 11th, 1876.

Edwakd Schctnck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

“ Note on a Method of Comparing the Tints of Coloured
Solutions,” by J. Bottomley, D.Sc.

In the last number of the Chemical News, January 7th,
is a letter from Mr. Thos. P. Blunt, M.A., proposing a new
method of ascertaining the quantities of bodies in solution
by colorimetrical experiments. To two cylinders containing
equal columns of the fluid to be examined for a certain sub-
stance he adds measured quantities of that substance, adding
more of it to one cylinder than to the other ; he then pur-
poses to shorten the darker column until it corresponds in
depth of tint with the other, then from the length of the
two columns he calculates the quantity of the substance
originally present. At the end of his letter, alluding to the
method for shortening the column, he states “ The appro-
priate apparatus mentioned above so far as I am aware is
still a thing of the future.” Mr. Blunt’s suggestion with
slight variation may be practically carried out as follows : —
Take two cylinders of equal diameter; inside, at the
bottom of each, place a white porcelain disk (the flat lid of
a crucible will do). In these cylinders let there be equal
columns of fluid. In one cylinder, which may be called A,
let a tint be produced by a known quantity of the substance
sought. Suppose B to contain this substance, and first sup-

64

pose the tint in B darker than A. Take a white porcelain
lid and elevate it or depress it in B until the tint produced
is the same as in A, then if the height of the column of
fluid above the disk be h, and the total length of the
column H, and p the weight of the substance in A, then the

weight in B will be . If the tint be stronger in A than

h

in B. then the disk must be allowed to sink in A until
identity of tint is obtained. It will be convenient to have
the cylinders of equal radii. If they are not so, then if R
be the radius of B and r the radius of A, the quantity of

R2 H

the substance sought in B will be —r, — p. Instead of sup-
porting the string attached to the disk by the hand it
would be more convenient for it to pass over a pulley and
have a counterpoise at the other extremity

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp/’ by Robert Raws on. Esq.,
Hon. Member of the Society.

Mr. Binney has done wisely in calling the attention of
the Society to the great loss of life in our coalmines by the
explosion of light carburetted hydrogen. Surely the appli-
cation of science may do a little good, even if its powers are
limited to pointing out the advantages of order and obedi-
ence while contending with a foe so subtle and powerful as
is carburetted hydrogen, and which is unfortunately so
plentiful in many of the coalmines® My object now is to
supplement the excellent rules recommended by Mr. Binney
with a few observations which struck me in reading Mr.
Binney is paper on this subject. Fire damp may be regarded
as an enemy possessing terrible powers — and coalminers on
the other hand may be regarded as an army whose mission

65

is to filch the black diamonds from the grasp of this power-
ful enemy with the least possible expenditure of life and
force. In my opiuion a little of military obedience and
tactics might be introduced with advantage into the struggle
maintained between the coalminer and the fire damp. It is
well known that the safety of an army, when before an
enemy, is much improved by keeping a good look out at a
considerable distance and in every possible direction. Ve-
dettes are usually stationed on the outposts of an army for
the express purpose of watching the movements of the
enemy, and to give timely notice of his approach. By this
means the evils which frequently follow a surprise are con-
siderably diminished, and sufficient time is given for the
army to retreat or otherwise with advantage if the enemy
is too strong. Many illustrations of this simple and obvious
principle may be found in the common affairs of every-day
life, but the above is sufficient to show the force of my argu-
ment in reference to the dangers met with in coalmines.
Why the army of coalminers should be deprived of a system
which affords so many obvious advantages is a question
which should receive immediate and serious consideration
from every lover of humanity. A system of vedettes should
therefore be at once adopted in coalmines to watch the
movements and strength of the fire damp.

1. A vedette, armed with ample knowledge of the proper-
ties of fire damp, should be placed at the various outposts
of the mine where the enemy is likely to appear. His duty
should be to watch, constantly and carefully, over the safety
of the miners, and not allow them to remain at work until
the enemy is upon them.

2. Miners should not be allowed to work where it is

66

unsafe to fire a shot or expose a naked light. For men to
work several hours in an atmosphere highly charged with
light earburetted hydrogen may be consistent with their
desires to maintain their families in comfort and independ-
ence; but is hardly consistent with the wish of a great
nation for the welfare of its mining population.

3. Unventilated wastes are magazines of dynamite, and
according to Mr. Binney should be, if possible, avoided in
coalmines.

4. System, watchfulness, and complete knowledge of the
enemy’s position and force, will no doubt diminish the
probability of the happening of events which too often
overtake the miners by surprise and fatal consequences.

5. A more palpable and delicate test of the presence and
strength of fire damp should be supplied than the flame of
a candle or Davy lamp.

I may add in conclusion my conviction, that the increased
price of coal incident to the changes here alluded to would
be cheerfully borne by the public, who would rejoice to see
the adoption, at any reasonable cost, of a system which
promises to reduce the fatal casualties in coalmines.

Ordinary Meeting, January 25 th, 1.870,

E. W, Binney, F.R.S., F.G.3., Vice-President, in the Chair.

“ Stannic Arsenate,” by William Carleton Williams,

F. C.S., Demonstrator in the Chemical Laboratory of the
Owens College.

A mixture of moderately concentrated aqueous solutions
of stannic chloride and arsenic acid gradually thickens on
standing, and after the lapse of two or three weeks solidi-
fies, forming a transparent colourless noncrystalline mass.
In order to ascertain the composition of this substance I
subjected a considerable quantity of it to dialysis; hydro-
chloric acid and the excess of arsenic acid or stannic chloride
passed through the dialyser, leaving a gelatinous residue of
pure stannic arsenate. This jelly is heavier than water, it
floats in a liquid having a specific gravity 1*135. Strong
acids, and solutions of caustic potash or soda, dissolve it
readily. In water it dissolves very slowly. From this
aqueous solution certain reagents reprecipitate the arsenate
of tin as a gelatinous mass, identical in its appearance, proper-
ties, and composition with the original jelly. These reagents
are hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids, the chlorides of
barium, calcium, ammonium, and iron, also silver nitrate
and potassium iodide. Alcohol, acetic acid, sodium phos-
phate, mercuric chloride, and the carbonates of sodium,
potassium, and ammonium, do not produce any change.

This substance contains a large amount of water, the
greater part of which is expelled at a temperature of 100° C.
A small quantity however is retained most pertinaciously,
and is not driven off at 200°, Below a dull red heat decom-
position takes place and fumes of arsenious oxide escape.

51*9 grm. dried at 100° C. left 1*9 grm. residue. Loss of
water = 50 grm. or 96'3 per cent.

The residue somewhat resembles gum arabic in appear-
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil, Soc.— Vol. XV.— Ho. 6.— Session 1S75-6.

68

ance. It is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and in aqua
regia, but is insoluble in water, nitric and sulphuric acids.

Analysis of the residue gave the following results:

TVt. tkn. gave °/o Avge.

0’3897 grm.... 0-1696 grm. Sn02 = 34.4Sn \ Q, ,,, Q

„ =34-52,,

0-8214

0-3013

0-5228

0-7842

0-852

>}

55

55

.0-359

..0-2395

..0-397

..0-0801

...0*099

)>

55

MgNH4As04H20 = 2 9*9 6 As

55

29-69

55

HoO

L2'

55

= 10-21H2O 1
= 11-62 „

29-82 As

10-91 HoO

The simplest formula agreeing with these results is

Sn,(As04)46H20.

As

Sn

O

H,0

Found

...29-82...

. . — . . ,

...10.91

Calculated . .

....29-46...

...34*76

..25-18...

...10-6

Professor Reynolds, M.A., exhibited and explained the
action of a Geissler’s Light Mill.

Ordinary Meeting, February 8th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Mr. W. A. Cunningham and Mr. W. Brockbank were
appointed Auditors of the Treasurer’s Accounts.

Professor C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S., read the following
communication, which he received a short time ago from
Professor Sadtler, of the University of Pennsylvania : —

“ Since I heard from you I have been analysing some of
the natural gases from the gas wells in Butler County,
Pennsylvania, in the midst of the oil region.

“ This gas has been brought in lines of piping eighteen
miles to Pittsburg, and is used with great success as fuel in
the rolling mills there, so the Geological Survey sent me to
collect and analyse it.

69

“You will remember that Fouque (Cornpt. Mend. 07,1054)
analysed five of these natural gases from widely different
localities and found them to be mixtures of the lower mem-
bers of the paraffin series.

“ I find free Hydrogen, Marsh Gas CH4, Ethyl Hydride
C2H6, and a trace of Butyl Hydride Cj|I10, with some little
Carbonic Acid, in the two that I have already analysed. The
hydrides of ethyl and butyl I collected qualitatively at the
wells by passing the gas through absolute alcohol.

“ The occurence of free hydrogen was an unexpected result,
as F ouque found none in any of the gases analysed by him ;
but its presence is proved by his own equations given for a
mixture of the paraffin series.”

Professor Schorlemmer added, that Dr. E. Ronalds, of Edin-
burgh, examined, in 1865 ( Journ . Chem. Soc . 18, 54) the
most volatile constituents of crude American petroleum, and
found them to consist of homologues of marsh gas. Marsh,
gas itself was not present ; but in conclusion he says : there
appears to be little doubt that marsh gas and, perhaps, even
free hydrogen will be found among the gases which are
evolved with the oil at the springs.

iC Notice of a recent discovery of a prehistoric burial place
near Colombier in Switzerland,” by WilliHm E. A. Axon,
M.R.S.L., &c.

The Journal des Debods of Feb. 1st, 1876, cites from a
Swiss paper a notice of an interesting arch geological disco-
very in Switzerland. In sinking the foundations for a
building now in course of construction on the border of the
lake between Colombier and Auvernier, the workmen came
upon some large pieces of stone each about one metre broad
and one metre 50 centimetres long. These covered a series
of cavities formed of flagstones surrounding the opening,
which was filled with earth, pebbles, and gravel. The stones
are blocks of various sorts of Alpine granite, evidently

70

fashioned by human labour at a very remote period. In
one of the cavities were found fifteen skeletons, one of
them being that of a child. The discovery of a bronze ring
would appear to indicate that these individuals belonged to
the bronze age, but there were also found a stone axe
(nephrite), and bears’ teeth pierced to form necklaces. The
first grave was explored on the 24th January, and further
examination was in progress.

Mr. Brocebank, F.G.S., exhibited a large collection of
granites from the Ravenglass district, and from Criffel,
which he had got together with a view to proving the
origin of the large granite boulders recently found in the
glacial clay or till of this district.

The fine boulder recently placed in this Queen’s Park, and
which was found in the railway cutting through the drift
clay at Collyhurst, proves to be of Ravenglass granite, such
as is found in Eskdaie, about four miles above Ravenglass.
It is a very fine example of a glaciated boulder, being
polished and scratched on several sides, and very little
'weathered, so that it is pretty much in the condition in
which it was when deposited in the clay.

Two large boulders were recently found in the foundations
for the corporation buildings near the Manchester Exchange.
One of these is of Ravenglass granite, of a deep red colour,
such as is now found in the Muncaster Fell quarries about
two miles from Ravenglass.

The other is a most interesting specimen differing greatly
in appear ence from the Queen’s Park boulder, in being
much weathered, and presenting no worn surfaces except
one of its sides, and no ice markings. Tins may partly be
accounted for by its having been found in the gravel, but
the writer believed it to point to other glacial conditions
than those which had obtained with the Collyhurst boulder.
This granite appears to be identical with that now worked

71

in the Spy Crag quarry, near Dalbeattie, in the Criffel
district, and if so it affords a most interesting evidence of
tlie northernly origin of our drift current.

The red granite boulder -which for many years stood at
the end of the watering trough at Kooden-lane, and which
now lies in the grounds of Mr. H. M. Ormerod, at Cheetham
Hill, is of the red granite of Muncaster Fell, near Ravenglass.

It had been asserted by Professor Dawkins that the
Queen’s Park boulder was of Shap granite, but the writer is
quite certain that this is not the fact, and he has never
found any of the Shap Fell granites in the boulder clays of
South Lancashire,

E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S., said, since the publication of
his paper on the Drift Deposits of Manchester in Yol. PHI.
(second series) of the Society’s Memoirs, attention had been
directed to the preservation of large boulder stones. The
date of that memoir was 1847, and in it was described and
figured the fine block of grey granite now placed in Peel
Park. It was found in the till or brick clay at Park Place,
Higher Broughton, just below the house then occupied by
Mr. W. Sale, and remained on the road side till about the
beginning of 1850, when the owners of the land were dig-
ging a hole to bury the stone, and thus get it out of the way.
Pie wrote a letter to the Editor of the Manchester Guardian,
which appeared in that paper of the 13th February, 1850,
suggesting that the Peel Park Committee should fetch the
stone mid place it in their park. His appeal was responded
to without loss of time, and it now is placed at the entrance
to the park. He was glad to find that the preservation of
this specimen had been of service in saving other large
boulder stones from the rite of burial. Pie had himself seen
the fine specimen of red granite placed in the Park at
Macclesfield, and the large block of hard green stone, weigh-
ing nearly 20 tons, now preserved in the Oldham Park. It

12

was very desirable that when any more specimens are met
with they should be preserved in the public parks, or some
other suitable places for the inspection of the public. Lan-
cashire and Cheshire contain many large boulders, and it is
to be wished that they should not be buried near to where
they are found, so as to get rid of them. In his remarks on
the building stones of Manchester in 1856, Yol. I., p. 194 of
the Proceedings of the Society, he stated : “ By the facilities
which railways now afford one might have expected that
some of the beautiful syenite of Shap, containing large
crystals of felspar or the grey syenite of Bootle and Kaven-
glass would have made their appearance in Manchester, but
to nry knowledge none of them have been used. It is
possible they may not have been known to our architects/'
He was glad to say that the former stone had been intro-
duced into the buildings of our city, and, when polished,
had a beautiful appearance. It was a granite of very
marked character, and could not easily be mistaken. After
a search of forty years he had never found a specimen of it
in the drift near Manchester, and when he heard from the
newspapers that a block had been discovered at Collyhurst,
and placed in Queen's Park, he went to look at it, but that
stone was certainly not Shap granite, a rock which he had
several times carefully examined in the quarry at Wastedale
Head. It was a grey granite, and it was difficult to speak
with certainty whether it came from Bavenglass, Dalbeattie,
or the Isle of Man, as specimens from those places are much
alike, and it would require to be carefully analyzed by a
chemist before it could be identified.

ffQn the formation of Azurite from Malachite," by
Charles A. BcjrgJeardt, Ph.D.

Two years ago I placed a specimen of rather poor Mala-
chite (from Alderley Edge) on a rockery in my garden
where it would be exposed to the action of the weather, in,

73

order to ascertain whether any change would take place in
its composition. Last December I examined the specimen
and found it had been acted upon by the weather to a con-
siderable extent, as specks of a dark blue mineral were
distributed here and there upon its surface. This dark blue
mineral proved to be Azurite. Messrs. Wibel and T ungel
(Dent. Chem. Geo. Berichte IV. 138), in a short paper on the
formation of Azurite state that it is formed from Malachite
by the absorption of carbonic acid and elimination of water,
as Azurite contains a much larger percentage of carbonic
acid than Malachite, This statement still remains to be
proved, but it is scarcely probable that the moderate heat of
our last two summers was sufficient to cause a loss of water
in the Malachite specimen. At some future time I shall
endeavour to ascertain the real cause of the formation of
Azurite,

“ On a Direct-Vision Spectroscope of great Dispersive
Power,” by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

This instrument is made by Mr. Adam Hilger of London.
The following are its chief advantages

1. The compound prism has a very great dispersive
power. The nickel line between the two sodium lines is
easily seen in the solar spectrum.

2. The cross wire is replaced by a very fine slit which
can be illuminated from above to any degree of intensity.

3. The slit is moveable by means of a very fine micro-
meter screw; the position of the slit can be read off to
within 0*0001 inch.

The measurement is made by bringing the line to be
measured against the bright slit which comes down from
the top to the middle of the field. The position of the lines
can be easily measured to within the fifth part of the dis-
tance between the sodium lines.

“On a New Absorptiometer” bv Arthur Schuster,
Ph.D,

In some recent researches Professor Vogel found that the
relative intensity of the red and blue part of the solar
spectrum was subject to great changes. While working
with the spectroscope at considerable heights on the southern
slope of the Western Himalayas, I was struck by the same
fact. The instrument which I have now the honour to
exhibit before the Society is constructed in order to measure
the relative intensity of the red and blue light in the solar
or any other spectrum, by comparing the intensity of each
ray with that given out by a standard lamp. The photo-
metric principle involved in the measurement is that first
used by Professor Zollner. The intensity of a certain part
of the spectrum is brought to the same intensity as that of
the standard light by a system of Nicol’s prisms. Pro-
fessor Zollner only compared the whole intensity of two
sources of light and did not investigate the relative intensity
of the different colours. D. Glau constructed another ap-
paratus by which he could measure the relative intensity of
different colours, but his instrument was constructed for an
entirely different object, and is not suitable for the purpose
for which the present instrument is made.

The instrument, which I have called absorptiometer,
because it is intended chiefly for the determination of the
absorption of light taking place in our atmosphere, consists
of a table similar to that of a goniometer table, but being
able to turn round on a horizontal axis so as to give it any
inclination to a horizontal surface. The telescope of the
goniometer is replaced by a direct -vision spectroscope.
Opposite the spectroscope a tube is fixed to the table con-
taining two Nicol’s prisms. One of the prisms is fixed,
the other can be turned, and its azimuth read off on a
graduated circle. The standard light is placed behind its
tube. The intensity of the light falling unto the slit of the
A

spectroscope is — sina, where a is the angle between two of
the principal planes of the two Nicol prisms, and A the

intensity of the light which would fall into the slit of the
spectroscope if the Nicol’s were removed.

A plane parallel piece of glass, acting as mirror, is fixed
unto the small table, the centre of which coincides with the
centre of the large goniometer table. The parallel sides can
be adjusted by means of 3 screws until they are vertical.
This mirror reaches to such a height that the horizontal
plane laid through the top of the plate would bisect the
tube containing the two Nicols.

The light which is to be examined falls through a tube
containing one Nicol, and is reflected by means of the
plane parallel mirror into the lower half of the spectroscope.
If the ray of light is reflected at the angle of polarization
the intensity of this light can be reduced to nothing by
means of the rotation of the Nicol.

On placing the standard light in front of the tube con-
taining the two Nicols and allowing the light which is to
be examined to be reflected into the spectroscope on the
mirror through the tube containing one Nicol, the mirror
being placed at the angle of polarization, we observe in the
spectroscope the two spectra one above the other, and by
turning the Nicols we can reduce the intensity of the
brighter light to that of the weaker for any colour we like.
The positions of the Nicols will enable us to find the
relative intensity of the two lights for the different colours.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

December 6th, 18*75.

Charles Bailey, Esq., Vice-President of the Section, in

the Chair.

Mr. SideboT’HAM, F.R.A.S., sent for exhibition some sand
from a river farmland of New Guinea, containing particles
of gold, magnetic and n on-magnetic iron, foraminiferse,
silicified fragments of echini, and shells.

76

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill exhibited two specimens of the
Spurge Hawk Moth (Deilephila Euphorbise) ; said to have
been captured in the larval state at Ecclesbourne, near
Hastings, feeding in all probability on Euphorbia Amygda-
loides, as he subsequently visited the spot and could see no
trace of any other Spurge.

January 17th, 1876.

John Barrow, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., exhibited a magnified drawing
and specimens of lymexylon navale from Dunham Park,
and read a short paper on the life history of the insect,
which he and Mr. Chappell had studied since its discovery in
Dunham Park in 1872. Previously to that time only one
authentic British specimen was known; this was found
at Windsor nearly fifty years ago.

The species is very abundant in some of the old oak trees
in Dunham Park, but specimens are difficult to capture, as
they fly about the tops of the trees, and to obtain them
a net attached to a very long pole is required.

Mr. Sidebotham also read a paper on Psammodius Sulci -
collis, and exhibited specimens taken at Southport in 1875.
This has been considered a very rare species, but its habits
being now known, it' is easy to obtain a comparative abund-
ance. It buries itself in the dry sand at the foot of the
sandhills during the day, coming out about 5 p.m.

Mr. PLANT exhibited various objects of interest, including
a longicorn Beetle (Astinomus sedilis) from a coal mine
near Manchester; also cases of a N. American caddis worm
(Phryganea sp.) much resembling a mollusk of the genus
Yalvata, and once named by Lea Valvata arenicola.

77

Ordinary Meeting, February 22nd, 1876.

Edwakd Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

“ Notes on a Collection of Apparatus employed by Dr.
Dalton in his Researches, which is about to be exhibited
(by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus
at South Kensington,” by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

The apparatus employed by John Dalton in his classical
researches, whether physical or chemical, was of the simplest
and even of the rudest character. Most of it was made
with his own hands, and that which is to be exhibited lias
been chosen as illustrating this fact, and as indicating the
genius which with so insignificant and incomplete an expe-
rimental equipment was able to produce such great results.
The Society has in its possession a large quantity of appara-
tus used by Dalton, most of which however consists of
electrical apparatus, models of mechanical powers, models of
steam engines, air pumps, a Gregorian telescope, and other
apparatus of a similar kind, which was either bought or
presented to him. It has not been thought necessary to
exhibit these, but rather to show the. home-made apparatus
with which Dalton obtained his most remarkable results.

I. Meteorological and Physical Apparatus made and used

hy Dr. Dalton.

Throughout his life Dalton devoted much time and atten-
tion to the study of meteorology; indeed his first work,
published in 1793, was entitled “Meteorological Observa-
tions and Essays,” and his last paper, printed in 1842,*

* Vide Life of Dalton by Dr. Henry, published by the Cavendish
Society ; Memoir of Dr. Dalton and the History of the Atomic Theory,
published in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, 2nd Series, Vol. 1 ; Dr. Lonsdale’s Life of Dalton, Lono*mans,
1874.

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol. XV.— No. 7.— Session 1875-G,

78

(Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. VI. 617), consists of auroral obser-
vations. Hence the first of Dalton’s apparatus which claims
attention are the meteorological instruments.

No. 1 is Dalton’s mountain barometer, with accompanying
thermometer, made for him by the late Mr. Lawrence Buchan,
a member of the Society. The barometer is enclosed in a
wooden case which Dalton was accustomed to carry in his
hand.

Several home-made barometers used by Dalton in his
observations are in possession of the Society. They are all
of them filled, and the scales prepared, by Dalton himself,
and are simple siphon tubes with a bulb blown on at the
bottom to serve as a mercury reservoir. These are attached
to plain pieces of deal upon the upper part of which the
paper scale is pasted. One of these, which has probably
also served for tension experiments (No. 2), has been placed
in the collection.

Many of the thermometers appear also to have been
home-made. No. 3 is a mercurial thermometer evidentlv

i/

made and graduated by Dr. Dalton, and marked with his
initials, J. D. The freezing point of this thermometer was
tested recently by Mr. Baxendell, who found that it had not
altered since the instrument was graduated. Another
(No. 4) is of the same kind and bears the date 1823; No. 5
is a third mercurial thermometer with long stem and
wooden scale ; No. 6 is an alcohol thermometer with wooden
scale ; and No. 7 a registering maximum and minimum ther-
mometer employed by Dalton, maker’s name J. Bonchetti,
29, Balloon-street, Manchester.

II. Apparatus Constructed and Used hy Dalton in his

Researches.

(1) “On the constitution of mixed gases,” (2) “On the
force of steam or vapour from water or other liquids at
different temperatures both in a Torricellian vacuum and

79

in air,” (3) “ On evaporation,” and (4) “ On the expansion of
gases by heat.”*

No. 8 is an apparatus used for the determination of the
tension of volatile liquids at low temperatures ; it consists
of a siphon tube, at the upper end of which is a scale in
inches in Dalton s handwriting. He describes it thus :

c I took a barometer tube 45 inches in length, and having
sealed it hermetically at one end, bent it into a siphon
shape, making the legs parallel, the end that was closed
being 9 inches long, the other 36 inches. I then conveyed
2 or 3 drops of ether to the end of the closed leg and filled
the rest of the tube with mercury except about 10 inches
at the open end. This done, I immersed the whole of the

short leg containing the ether into a tall glass containing
hot water.”

^ o. 9 is a smaller tube containing another liquid, also
having a graduated scale written on paper and attached to
the tube. Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, are tubes used by
Dalton for measuring the tension of vapour from water and
other liquids at higher temperatures than their boiling
points, both in a vacuum and air. No. 15 is a tube used by
Dalton for measuring the tension of the vapour of bisulphide
of carbon, labelled “Sulphuret carb.” with a paper scale in
Dalton s handwriting, and a cork showing that the upper
portion of the tube containing the bisulphide of carbon
could be heated in a water bath to various temperatures.
No. 16 is a manometer tube, fixed into a board, divided and
numbered by Dalton. No. 17 is an apparatus used by
Dalton for the determination of the tension of the vapour
of ether, and is interesting as being the instrument by means
of which Dalton arrived at one of his most important
experimental laws. It is described as follows (p. 564):

Octobe?' “nd ' Tm eSB7™! th® ab0™ Subjects> John Dalton> read
Dirt 2 oft, ’ and 30tll’1801> and published in the 1st series, vol. 5,

Chester ^ LiWy attd PM°aophical Society of Man-

80

“ Tlie ether I used boiled in the open air at 102°. I filled
a barometer tube with mercury moistened by agitation in
ether ; after a few minutes a portion of the ether rose to the
top of the mercurial column, and the height of the column
became stationary. When the whole had acquired the
temperature of the room (62°) the mercury stood at 17-00
inches, the barometer being at the same time 2975 inches.
Hence the force of the vapour from ether at 62° is equal to
1274 of aqueous vapour at 172° temperature, which are 40°
from the respective boiling points of the liquids.”

This is generally known as Dalton’s law of tensions, since
shown by Regnault not to be rigorously true.

No. 18 is a wet and dry bulb mercurial thermometer
made by H. H. Watson, of Bolton.

III. Apparatus for Measuring Gases, and for determining
the Solubility of Gases in Water.

No. 19 is an apparatus with a graduated tube, probably
used by Dalton foi the determination of the laws regulating
“ the absorption of gases by water and other liquids,” read
October 21st, 1803*. No. 20 is a graduated glass tube
attached to a bottle of indiarubber, also probably used in
his researches on the absorption of gases by water. No. 21,
No. 22, are divided endiometer tubes, employed by Dalton
for measuring the volumes of gases. No. 23 is a spark eudi-
ometer ; Nos. 24, 25, 26 are glass tubes, pipettes, and
funnels graduated by Dr. Dalton and used by him for
measuiing gases; No. 27 is a graduated glass bell-jar, used
for measuring gases ; No. 28 is a phial, with graduated tube
attached by cement, for collecting and measuring gases ;
Nos. 29, 30 are stoppered phials with the bottoms cut off*
used as gas jars foi collecting and measuring gases; No. 31
is a thousand grains specific gravity bottle, with its counter-
poise of lead stamped “175” and paper labelled “bottle

* “Manchester Memoirs.” 2nd Series. Vol. 1.

81

balance;” No. 32 is a pipette; No. 33 square bottle of thin
glass, fitted with brass caps, and probably used for the
determination of the specific gravities of gases; No. 34 is an
earthenware cup, used by Dalton as a mercury-trough, and
containing a small phial with mercury; Nos. 35, 36 are
bulb-tubes, with graduated scales which may have served
for the determination of the coefficients of expansion of
gases ; No. 37 is a Florence flask with cork and valve for
determining the specific gravity of gases ; No. 38 is a glass
alembic.

IV". Weights, Balances, Apparatus, Reagents and Specimens

used by Dalton.

No. 39, eleven phials, containing creosote, iodine, amal-
gam of bismuth and mercury, quercitron bark, grana
sylvestra cochineal, and other substances, labelled in Dal-
ton s handwriting. No. 40, three divided blocks, used by
Dalton for the illustration of his lectures; these are not,
however, the balls an inch in diameter (referred to in his
latest memoir on the “ Analysis of Sugar ”) which he em-
ployed occasionally in his lectures, as illustrating his newly-
discovered laws of combination and the atomic theory;
these appear, unfortunately, to be no longer in existence.
No. 41 is a common pair of scales used by Dalton ; No. 42,
a pair of apothecary’s scales and weights employed by
Dalton, with a paper of weights made of wire, labelled in
his handwriting, “ 100th grains.” No. 43 is a box of weights
used by Dalton, and containing a pill box labelled “Platina,”
another pill box labelled “ Hund,” and containing 100th of
grains, and another wooden box containing brass gramme
Weights, labelled “Weights, French;” the other ordinary
weights are of lead. No. 44 is Dalton’s pocket balance,
consisting of a small pair of apothecaries’ scales, with beam
about 4 inches long, and having the pans attached by
common string ; it is contained in a tin case for the pocket.

82

No. 45 is a penholder used by Dalton. No. 46, leaden
grain weights made by Dalton from sheet lead, and stamped
in numbers by him ; No. 47, iron punches used by Dalton
for this purpose. No. 48, a glass lens, wrapped in a piece
of paper labelled, in Dalton’s writing, “Sun’s focus 42
inches.” No. 49 is a paper containing “10th of grains,”
made by Dr. Dalton of iron wire. The paper in which these
are wrapped is part of a note from one of Dr. Dalton’s
pupils (as is well known he lived by teaching mathematics
at half-a-crown per lesson), in which the writer presents his
“compliments to Mr. Dalton, and is sorry that he will not
be able to wait upon him to-day, as he is going to Liver-
pool with a few friends who are trying the Railway for the
first time. Mr. D. may fully expect him on Monday at the
usual time.” No. 50 are bottles of tin, earthenware, and
silver, some of them being common penny pot ink bottles.
Each has a thermometer tube cemented into the neck of
the bottle, and these tubes are provided with paper scales.
These were used by Dalton probably for experiments on
radiant heat. No. 51 is a manometer tube used by Dalton;
it consists of a tin vessel attached on either side to leaden
tubing, and having a thermometer-tube closed at the upper
end, and provided with a divided scale, fixed into the upper
portion of the tin vessel. No. 52, Dalton’s balance, made
by Accum, and capable of arrangement as hydrostatic bal-
ance, with weights and counterpoises.

The following letter from Mr. Arthur Wm. Waters,
dated Naples, February 9th, 1876, was read by Mr. Baxen-
DELL : —

Having expected to return ere this, I thought that, in the
conversational hour before papers are read, I should have
been able to say a few words on the Aquarium at Naples,
where I have been working for six weeks, the British
Association Committee for the establishment of zoological

83

stations, having granted me tlieir table; but having, for the
purpose of getting further acquainted with the fauna of the
Mediterranean, become connected with the institution for a
short time, I shall ' not be in England until after the last
meeting of the session, and so send a letter that you may
read, if you see fit, when there is a dearth of subjects for
conversation.

The zoological station is connected with an aquarium
which is more generally known, but is the least important
part of the institution, and it was for the sake of the former
that the undertaking was started and has been carried on
by Dr. Dolirn. There are, in rooms above the aquarium,
tables for twenty-four to work, and the greater part of these
have been taken up by different governments, but some by
other institutions — as the British Association and the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, and Dr. Dohrn is anxious the whole
number should be taken, in order to place the station in a
satisfactory position.

As the full advantage of such stations are not known to
all, a word or two on the opportunities for scientific utility
may perhaps have an interest for some of my friends of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

The station has been established by Dr. Dohrn two years,
when he built, as I have before said, an aquarium, together
with convenient rooms for study, library, and museum. As
the most important direction of zoological research is at the
present moment embryology and the study of development,
it is natural that it should be principally used for advancing
science in this direction, and, as I shall show, in no branch
are the advantages more felt ; and although this, I believe,
was fully appreciated by Dr, Dohrn, when he determined to
erect an aquarium at Naples, it was not merely with the
idea of advancing zoology in this branch, but that natural-
ists should have the opportunity of using it for any purpose
which they found might forward the branch of science they

84

had taken up. The greater number who have used the
tables here have followed up the embryology of some group
or species, but others have worked at the anatomy either of
an organ or, on the other hand, of a class or species. I found
that it presented great advantage for studying systematically
a group, and in the six weeks during which the British
Association granted me their table, I have been able to
make a large collection of Bryozoa, the determination of
which I have not been able to complete, as I cannot obtain
some of the most important literature on the subject here;
but I may say that I have over one hundred species and
expect to find it not under one hundred and fifty, and
probably it will be the largest number obtained from any
one locality. These I have collected for the purpose of com-
parison with my collection of Bryozoa from various periods
of the tertian formation.

For the study of embryology it is necessary that a very
large number of animals should be collected, and that often
continuously for a long time ; and this is a difficult and ex-
pensive thing for a naturalist, especially in a foreign town,
but as the station has two fishermen, with a very large
knowledge of the animals, who are out every day with in-
structions to bring such animals as are wanted at the time,
and as the fishermen in the whole neighbourhood are
encouraged to bring anything rare or that is wanted at the
time, it will be clear that for such studies or other anatomi-
cal work the advantages are very great, and I have found
the same advantage of having the opportunity of constantly
overhauling a considerable amount of material for the
systematic study of any group of smaller animals. Each
worker has a good-sized tank and two smaller ones for
keeping anything he requires alive. Besides having the
animals or plants collected which each is studying, he has
on the working table all the reagents which are ordinarily
required, besides glass vessels, drawing materials, and cer-

tain simple apparatus, so that the naturalist on his arrival
may find at once what he requires for his studies, and can
directly set to work ; and further, finds a very considerable
library of zoological works, which is especially rich in the
department of embryology. This was for a large part Dr.
Dohrn’s private library, but by presents from authors and
publishers it has now become a very important library,
numbering about three thousand volumes, but being com-
paratively very recent it is not a matter of surprise that
with systematical works it is but very poorly supplied, but in
time, by gifts and purchases, it will no doubt possess the
most important for determining the fauna and flora occurr-
ing here. I should stronglyadvise any naturalist who intends
to study to previously obtain the catalogue, that he may
know what books that he is in the habit of using he had
better bring with him.

Another very important feature is collecting and preserv-
ing the animals brought, so that there is a stock of cer-
tain animals in alcohol always ready for anyone who may re-
quire it, and supplies are constantly being sent to all parts of
Europe to those who require the material for study, and are
sent at about cost price. At the present moment there is an
application from a neighbouring Literary and Philosophical
Society for a supply of Amphioscus in various preservative
solutions. A few animals have been determined by special-
ists who have worked here, and this will form a nucleus of
a museum of the fauna and flora of the Bay of Naples. The
specimens as yet determined in this manner are too few to
have much importance, but when the collection is more
considerable it will be very useful, as any one sending for
specific specimens can feel more security in the determina-
tion when this is necessary.

Besides the knowledge of the fauna and flora, which can
be gained by the material brought daily by the fishermen,
those who are working here have the opportunity from

86

time to time to go out dredging ; and it is to be hoped that
a commencement may be made this spring of systematically
dredging in the Bay, so that gradually a very complete
knowledge may be gained of the nature of the Bay and the
condition of depth and soil, with reference to the various
animals found; but this can be carried out much more satis-
factorily when the station has the steamer which has
recently been presented by the Berlin Academy for the pur-
pose of dredging.

As I indicated above, the expenses of this station are
partly supplied by different governments and institutions
who pay £75 per annum for a table ; in some cases two
governments have jointly taken a table, and the tables are
granted to those who wish to proceed to Naples for study.
At present, England has but two, i.e., the Cambridge Uni-
versity and the British Association ; but probably Oxford
will soon take one, and why should not Owens join with
the other Northern Universities, or with London, to take
one ?

“On Glacial Action in the Valley of the Wear, etc,” by
Professor T. S. Aldis, M.A.

The coal workings in the county of Durham have revealed
the existence of a great depressed trench excavated in the
coal measures, and partly filled in with drift. The part best
known stretches from Durham to Newcastle in nearly a
straight line, the Team Valley being the upper visible por-
tion of it, the lower part being filled in for nearly 200 feet.

There is, I believe, no doubt that this “ Wash ” is the old
valley of the Wear.

The glaciers filled up this trench to such an extent that
the river, when set free again, often failed to find its former
valley-in fact was altogether thrown to the east at Chester-
le-Street, entering the sea by a post-glacial valley, though
possibly guided in forming it by a dene or glen previously
existing.

87

This diversion of rivers by glacial action is referred to by
Geikie, in liis “Great Ice Age/’ but the Wear gives better
instances than I imagine can elsewhere be found.

Above Durham the river meanders through a valley
1 esembling that of the Irwell opposite Eersal-moor, one or
both of the opposite banks being composed of drift. At
Dui ham itself a firm dam of clay has been thrown across
the old valley, and the river has cut a narrow horseshoe-
shaped ravine in the solid rock, thus isolating the block of
stone on which the cathedral and castle stand. As soon as
the stream emerges again from the rock into the pre-glacial
valley, the bounding cliffs fall back, and the valley widens
below as above the town. The narrow isthmus which joins
the isolated block of rock is called Clay-path, and the
boulder-clay in it is decidedly tough.

There are other instances of this clay-bar across the old
livei valley, and the isolation of a block of rock connected
with the opposite side by a clay mound which has usually
by this time weathered much lower than the isolated rock
above which at first it must have risen. There is a very
beautiful example of this (one amongst many) on the Esk,
by Lealholm Station, near Whitby.

At Sunderland Bridge Station on the N.E.R. mainline to
the south of Durham is one of these diverted channels, half
eat down. The liver has begun a semi-circular ravine in
the solid rock, but after it had dug down some 40 feet the
clay barrier failed, and the ravine is left apparently pur-
poseless. The Sunderland-bridge Railway Station stands in
the hollow, and the railway forms the sagitta, whilst the
viaduct across the present valley of the Wear beyond marks
the site of the former clay barrier. Narrow, rocky-sided
and deserted river valleys will therefore be usually of post-
glacial formations. ** P

This Wash, or old valley of the Wear, proves that before
t ic glacial period the north-eastern part of England was at

88

least some 300 feet higher than at present, for a rise of some
200 feet would push the sea much further off, and yet only
bring the bottom of the Wash at Newcastle about to sea-
level.

The depth of these old effaced river-beds gives us surely
the best index of land elevation in old times, and several
interesting conclusions follow from it.

Rock stretches, I believe, close to the surface of the
ground all across the mouth of the Tees estuary. If then we
raise the land to pre-glacial elevation,’ the Tees valley here
should be sunk some 200 feet below the surface. The Tees
therefore, we may assume, in pre-glacial times flowed south-
ward into the Ouse, as the Wear flowed northward into the
Tyne.

The York plain and the vale of Malton represent the
filling in of valleys whose rock bottoms, in the case of the
plain of York, may be 200 or 300 feet below the present
surface.

The section of the ravine excavated by the Wear since
the glacial period is at least, I judge, forty times less in
area than that excavated before. How old, then, are our
English rivers ?

It is therefore, I think, a tolerably safe rule that all nar-
row rocky valleys are post-glacial, — e.g., I have no doubt
the Nidd at Knaresbro’, the Derwent at Castle Howard,
Swale at Richmond, Esk at Whitby harb our, are cases of
post-glacial section. In several of these cases we can see
clearly the old filled-up valleys. The Derwent apparently
formerly flowed out by Gilling, on to Pilmoor, &c., &c.

It is stated that scratched flints occur at the top of
boulder- clay a little to the north of Sunderland. If this be
so it proves that at the close of the glacial period there were
chalk beds to the east, off Sunderland, in continuation of the
York wolds, at such a height as to send glaciers backwards
when the great ice-sheet had so far lessened as to permit
the free play of ice on minor slopes.

89

Do the clay dams across the pre-glacial Wear valley and
other similar valleys mark epochs in the decline of the ice
when the retiring glacier for a time advanced again and
mounted up a huge mass before it ? It is possible, of course,
that they do not really differ from the rest of the denuded
drift, but on the other hand they appear in some degree to
correspond in Weardale and Eskdale, the to two cases I know
best. Lealholm corresponds to Bishop Auckland : above
these points in both valleys I have not noticed any great
filling-up of the valleys. One can even fancy a correspond-
ence between some of the clay dams in the one valley and
in the other as regards relative position and completeness.

Mr. Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc., exhibited and explained
the action of Edison’s Electric Pen.

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the Chair.

Mr. R. S. Dale, B.A., exhibited Specimens of Crystals of
Sulphate of Lead found in Alum Residue, and said that “In
the manufacture of pure red liquor (alumina acetate), lead
sulphate occurs as a bye-product from the admixture of
alum and lead acetate. This lead sulphate is filtered to a
stiff paste. In a cask of this pulp the very curious crystals
I exhibit were found embedded in the centre of the mass,
and, so ,far as could be seen, unattached. These crystals
resemble the axes of a crystal of the regular system,
and are undoubtedly pseudomorphs from crystals of alum.
Lead sulphate in the crystalline state belongs to the Rhom-
bic system. In the same cask crystals of alum were found,
which leaves little doubt that such was the origin of these
extraordinary forms. Analysis showed them to consist of
lead sulphate.”

90

“ On the Degree of Accuracy displayed by Druggists in
the Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in different
towns throughout England and Scotland,”* by Willi AM
Thomson, F.C.S.

The results obtained by Mr. Allen, the public analyst for
Sheffield, a short time ago in reference to the inaccuracies
displayed by druggists in making up prescriptions, led me
to believe that it would be interesting to have the same
prescription dispensed by different druggists, in different
parts of England and Scot] and, and by analysis to decide
the range of inaccuracies, if any. By the aid of my friend,
Dr. Sinclair, of Manchester, to whom I am indebted for
much subsequent help, I was furnished with two ordinary
prescriptions, the principal ingredients of which admitted
of very accurate determination, as I shall afterwards show.

The prescriptions were as follows : —

R. Potass Iodid 3ij

Sp. Chlorof. 3j

Aq. ad §vj

M. 5ss ter die.

R. Zinci Sulphat. 9 ij

Aq. Pur gij

M. Fiat Lotio.

The processes of analysis were so simple for both that it
leaves little doubt as to the accuracy of the results. The
specific gravity of each solution was first taken. 100 grains
measure at 60° Fahr. were then placed in clean, accurately
tared and marked platinum capsules, weighing from 180 to
200 grains each ; the fluids were then carefully evaporated
to dryness on a water bath, those containing the potassium
iodide being afterwards heated in an air-bath at 220° Fahr.
till they ceased to lose weight, whilst those containing the
zinc sulphate were dried at 220° Fahr. and afterwards heated
to dull redness to drive off the last molecule of water

# The facts contained in this paper were accepted by the Committee
of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, to be read before them,
and subsequently, on the day advertised by them for its reading, rejected
by the Council.

91

of crystallization, and the anhydrous zinc sulphate cal-
culated into the crystalline or hydrated zinc sulphate;
these prescriptions, then, contained no ingredient which
could interfere with the direct determination of the salt
introduced. I give the dispensers, in this paper, the
advantage of not estimating the actual proportion of
the pure salt, but the total, of what had been added
by them. The first prescription should have been
made up to a total fluid measure of 6 ounces (2625
grains) which quantity should have contained 120 grains
of potassium iodide. The second prescription should
have been made by adding 40 grains of crystallized zinc
sulphate to 2 ounces of water, which would make a total
fluid measure of 893 grains, but as few gave either the
exact measure of liquid, or weight of solid, I found it
necessary to make three columns of figures, in the following
tables, for each prescription^ the first to show the amount
of liquid measured out ; the second to show the total
amount of solid weighed out ; and the third, as a comparison
of the actual strength of the different fluids, which is made
by calculating the amount of potassium iodide which would
be contained in exactly 6 ounces (2625 grains measure) of
the mixture, and the amount of zinc sulphate which would
be contained in exactly 893 grains measure of the lotion,
supplied by each druggist.

It will, of course, be clearly seen, that if the potassium
iodide or zinc sulphate were damp, or in bad condition,
although the weighings may have been made with absolute
accuracy, the actual amount of the salts found on analysis
would be less than that weighed ; but this is equally a fault,
because dispensers ought to have all their drugs in good
condition. The following table will show the results of the
analysis of eighty-one samples of the potassium iodide
mixture, and the same number of the zinc sulphate lotion,
one sample of the mixture, and one of the lotion, having

been dispensed by each druggist; besides which, at the
suggestion of Dr. Sinclair, I have annexed the prices
charged by each, for the two bottles, as in his opinion it
might prove of general interest to dispensers, and will
make the table more perfect, because from those who charge
most, the greatest degree of accuracy should be expected.
I may further state, that from each important town, I
endeavoured as far as possible to have one lot dispensed by
a druggist having the highest reputation and another by
one of the lowest class, but I found it difficult to carry out
this exactly, so that the prescriptions have been made up
more generally by high class or respectable druggists than
by those of a lower class. 1 have, however, as far as pos-
sible, marked those who could be recognised as having
decidedly large and respectable shops, and those that were
decidedly low class ; the others may all be accepted, I
believe, as respectable, and many may even be termed high
class druggists.

Table I

4

5

6

7

8
9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20
21
22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47
4S

49

50

51

52

53

54
5a

56

57

58

59

60
61
62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80
81

Name of Town, &o.

Scotland.
Aberdeen

Small village in \
Kincardineshire j

Cupar Fife

Inverness

Banff ....
Dundee*.
Glasgow .

Designa-
tion of
Shop.

Edinburgh
Airdrie

55

Greenock ..

55

Dumfries ..

England.
Carlisle

Lancaster .

55

Preston ...,

Manchester :
City

Oxford-street.

Didsbury

Strangeways. .

Large

Medium.

Large

Medium.

Large

Medium

Large

Medium

Low

Medium

Large'

Low;

Medium

Large

Medium

Medium

Low

Large

Large

Medium

Large

LowerBroughton

Deansgate

Gt. Ancoats-st. ...

Ardwick

Pendleton

Patricroft

55

Eccles

Stretford-road ...
Stretford'

Bowdon ....

55 ••• •

Altrincham.

55

Southport

Blackpool

Oldham

Ashton-under- Lyne
Warrington

Nantwich
Derby

Loughborough

55

Nottingham

Kegworth

Chesterfield ..
Birmingham

Norwich

55

London

55

Weymouth

55

Liskeard, Cornwall,

Low

Low

Low

Low

Low

Low

Large

Large

Small

Mediun

Large

Low

55

Large

55

Low

Mediui

Large

Prescription containing

Prescription containing

Iodide of Potassium.

Sulphate of Zinc.

mount of
measured
the Drug-

<D fc>>

o vco

mount of
measured
the Drug-

O

3

i-1f

go

-aig .
g£ s

g

mount c
Suiphat
d out b;
iggist.

equal t
t of Su'
containe
fluid gr
2 ozs.)

s'S 2 n

ce

r3 P CO -4-h

otal
Fluid
out b;
gist. '

Sfofi

fcgg*

T3 ,Q

a

3 (POi ?

3 -SCO g

■as g s

■gPH £3

a § a -a

<u o o5

^ C4 OTl

■sse!

ofH O Go

ta.9'3 S
■§N £3

g

s

lisa

EH

oo

EH

EH

cri

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

measure.

weight.

weight.

measure.

weight.

weight.

According

to the pre

scriptions the soluti

ons ought

to contain,

m

CD

(6 oz.)

120

[about 2

o

•rH

2,625

120

ozs.)893

40

40

Ph

s. d.

2650

119-3

1181

860

40-1

417

1

6

2650

120-6

1194

910

41-2

40-4

1

6

2830

122-5

1137

890

36'5

36-6

2

0

2740

128-5

1231

850

40-4

42-5

1 10

2760

122-3

1163

760

393

46-1

2

2

2840

118'7

1097

910

41-2

40-4

1

8

2710

120-0

116-6

940

47'4

45-0

1

6

2800

122-4

114'7

810

361

39-8

1

1

2590

120-7

122-3

870

41-2

42-3

2

2

2740

119-7

1147

910

357

35-0

1

6

2730

103.6

99'6

810

45-2

49-8

2

2

2520

116-4

121-3

880

36'5

37-l

2

4

2600

116-7

117-9

950

42’5

39’9

2

2

2520

119-4

124-4

870

42-3

43‘4

2

4

2600

1357

137'1

910

40-5

39‘8

2

6

2790

128-9

1213

860

32-5

337

2

0

2750

141-6

135'2

860

43-2

44-9

2

0

2800

121-8

1142

920

41-3

40-1

2

6

2320

120-4

136-2

810

53'8

59-3

1 10

2440

121-5

130-7

800

40-9

45'7

2

8

2580

120-5

122-6

940

45'7

43-4

2

0

2490

127'6

134-5

920

41'6

40 ‘4

2

0

2590

112-9

114-5

890

39-3

39‘5

2

0

2810

102-1

95-4

965

40-7

377

2

0

2560

121-6

124-7

825

41'0

44‘4

1

8

2730

120-7

116-6

820

39-9

43’4

1 10

2700

116-9

1137

920

35-2

34‘2

2

0

2560

118-3

121-3

920

56-1

54-4

2

6

2590

121-6

123-3

885

38-3

38 "7

2

9

2660

1232

121-6

1020

39'8

34 "8

2

8

2750

135-9

129'7

910

41-8

41-0

2

8

2360

118-3

131-6

900

39-9

39-6

2

4

2670

115-3

113-4

870

37-8

38-8

2

9

2650

114T

113-0

900

40-9

40-6

2

9

2630

119'0

118-8

940

40-4

38-3

2

9

2610

119-8

120-5

965

427

39"0

2

6

2700

113-0

109-8

830

387

417

2

0

2800

121-8

114-2

870

40‘8

41-8

1

0

2400

116-6

127-5

840

38-3

40’7

2

4

2520

104-2

108-5

1190

45'6

34’2

1

6

2630

119-1

118-9

860

40'4

42-0

2

0

2300

117'8

134'4

860

57'2

59-3

1

6

2690

120-8

117'9

820

44-0

47-9

2

2

2720

117-8

113-6

900

40"1

39-8

2

6

2560

107‘6

1103

930

45-4

43-6

2

0

2780

119'4

1127

950

39-1

36-8

2

0

2820

119-1

110-9

900

41-5

41-2

2

6

2620

1267

126-9

960

39-9

37-1

1

8

2590

123-0

124-8

900

46-0

45-7

2

4

2440

116-5

125-4

950

41-5

39-0

2

0

2620

120'0

120-5

830

42-3

45-4

1

9

2590

HO'9

112-4

840

28'6

30-4

2

3

2600

114-9

116-0

990

39-7

35‘8

2

6

2550

104-8

107-9

810

8-1

8-9

2

0

2660

126-1

124-4

800

453

50-6

2

0

2670

122-8

120-8

940

38-2

36’3

2

6

2670

99’9

98'2

960

226

21-0

1

6

2520

120-9

126-0

890

417

41-8

2

2

2560

116-7

119-7

955

42-5

39-8

2

2

2620

60-5

60-6

985

31-8

28-8

1

4

2720

122-1

117’9

900

39'4

39-1

2

0

2S20

125-8

117-1

850

38-9

40-9

i

9

2940

119-1

106-3

960

38 "3

35 6

2

0

26S0

1195

117-1

890

39-6

39 "S

i

10

2810

120-3

112-4

980

89-8

86-3

i

6

2710

121-1

117-3

1197

840

41-9

446

2

2

2550

116-3

880

88 ‘6

891

i

6

1 2690

44'2

431

930

39'9

3S-3

i

1

2640

128‘8

128-1

890

39-6

89 "S

i

4

2690

122-4

119-4

850

40'0

42-0

i

0

2530

116-9

121-3

910

40-2

S9'4

2

9

2640

1177

1171

920

36'9

85-8

i

9

2580

119-5

1215

810

39-8

43-9

2

2

2520

1157

120-5

900

38-0

87-7

i

6

2490

114-5

120-8

890

SS'2

S8"3

i

9

2620

1216

121-8

930

41-3

39-6

2

4

2660

11S-4

116’S

940

897

87-7

2

9

2580

101-6

103-4

870

41-5

42-6

0

9

l 2550

123-7

127-3

860

40-6

42 "2

2

0

2660

117-0

115-5

910

89-2

S8"5

2

0

l 2610

.

104‘0

104-6

S50

433

45-4

i

s

(The figures given in the above table show the amounts of Anhydrous Potassium Iodide
in the mixture, and of Zinc Sulphate, containing 7 molecules of water of crystallization in the
lotion.)

■

'

.

.

■

•

93

It might be well to mention here with regard to the veri-
fication of these figures, that the analysis of each sample
which deviated beyond five grains in the potassium iodide?
or zinc sulphate, from the prescribed amount, was repeated,
and the result, of the second analyses found in each case
to agree with that of the first. The specific gravities of all
the lotions closely coincided with the amounts of zinc sul-
phate found, but in the mixtures, owing to the different
amounts of spirit of chloroform which had been added, on
the one hand, and the difference in the actual composition
of that spirit of chloroform on the other, the specific gravity
was no indication to the quantity of potassium iodide pre-
sent. In looking over the above table it will be seen that
only two druggists out of the eighty-one have given exactly
the required weight of potassium iodide; thirty-four have
given more than the prescribed amount, and forty-five less ;
but it may be of further interest to notice that when the
whole of the quantities of potassium iodide given by the
eighty-one different druggists are added together that the
total quantity comes to 220J grains less than it would have
been if each druggist had dispensed the exact quantity.
Again, in the lotion, only one druggist out of the eighty-
one gave the exact weight of zinc sulphate; forty-three
have given more than the prescribed amount, and thirty-
seven less ; and when the whole of the quantities of the zinc
sulphate given by the eighty-one different druggists are
added together it comes to only 12J grains more than it
would have been if each druggist had dispensed the exact
quantity. This resume seems to show that a larger per-
centage of druggists have given less weight for the more
expensive drug, viz., potassium iodide, than for the zinc
sulphate, the value of which is infinitesimally sma]l, but
still, no one can come to the conclusion that this is really
done with dishonest intention in the large majority of cases.

94

I think, however, that no one can have a doubt about the
want of care which is shown generally in dispensing, by the
above table. A large percentage have dispensed within a
range of accuracy which many might consider reasonable.

I have, however, made all my estimations with analytical
accuracy, and I think it must be left to the medical profession
to decide what limits of error they consider might be allowed.
With the view to decide what amount of inaccuracy a phar-
macist would consider allowable, I consulted a gentleman
who is a partner in an establishment which does a con-
siderable business in dispensing. After informing him of the
investigation I had been making, I asked him what
amount of inaccuracy he would consider allowable in
dispensing 120 grains of potassium iodide in 6 ounces of
fluid, and also for 40 grains of zinc sulphate in 2 ounces
of fluid; he considered that in both cases they ought to
be absolutely accurate, but if I allowed three-tenths of a
o-rain either way I should be allowing sufficient for all
practical purposes. I have, however, been still more lenient
than my pharmaceutical friend, and have allowed five-
tenths of a grain on either side of the prescribed quantity
as the range of practical accuracy. I know that many
dispensers will take objection to this range of inaccuracy as
impracticable. We, as analysts, can weigh easily to the
one-hundredth part of a grain, and I know that balances used
by dispensers for weighing such quantities as 120 grains
are capable of turning with the tenth part of a gram if kept
in CTOod condition, and I think under such circumstances it
would be absurd for any one to contend that it is impracti-
cable to weigh drugs within half a grain on these premises.
I have formed the following summaries of the above re-
sults:—For the potassium iodide mixture, two druggists out
of the eighty-one have given the exact weight prescribed ;
nine out of the eighty-one have come within the practical

95

range of accuracy ; fifty-five out of the eighty-one have
weighed within 5 grains either way of the prescribed
amount; whilst the remaining twenty-six have made greater
errors. For the zinc sulphate lotion, one druggist out
of the eighty-one gave the exact weight prescribed; nine-
teen out of the eighty-one have come within the practical
lange of accuracy; fifty-one out of the eighty-one have
weighed within 2 grains either way of the prescribed

amount; whilst the remaining thirty have made greater
errors.

In the actual measuring of the fluids, I have assumed that
measurements within 5 fluid grains either way are absolutely
correct, whilst those within 15 grains either way are prac-
tically correct.

or the potassium iodide mixture, six dispensers out of the
eighty-one have measured correctly; eleven out of the
eighty-one have come within the range of practical accur-
acy ; thiity-two have measured within 50 grains (a tea-
spoonful) of the prescribed amount; whilst the remaining
forty-nine have made greater inaccuracies. For the zinc
sulphate lotion, six dispensers out of the eighty-one have
measured correctly ; sixteen have measured within the range
of practical accuracy; twenty-eight have measured within 25
grains of the prescribed amount ; whilst the remaining fifty-
three have made greater inaccuracies. Lastly, with respect to
the strength of the solution, some dispensers may make both
theii weighings and measurements in excess or deficiency,
and in either case the strength might be exactly what is
lequiied , whilst otheis may have weighed correctly and
measured incorrectly, or vice versa , and in these instances,
the strength of the solution, which is the most important
poiin, w ould be wrong. The following shows the amount oi
deviation made in this respect :

96

Not one dispenser has succeeded in making the prescrip-
tion to the exact strength in either the mixture or lotion.

In the potassium iodide mixture, five out of the eighty-
one dispensers have come within the range of \ a grain
more or less than the prescribed amount ; forty have made
the strength of the mixture within 5 grains more or less
than the prescribed amount ; whilst the remaining forty-one
have made greater errors.

In the zinc sulphate lotion fourteen out of the eighty-
one dispensers have come within the range of J a grain
more or less than the prescribed amount; forty-five have
made the strength of the lotion within 2 grains more or
less than the prescribed amount ; whilst the remaining
thirty-six have made greater errors.

It may be interesting, before leaving this part of the
subject, to make a few further observations on the dis-
pensing of these solutions. We found that the mixture of
No. 74, dispensed by a man in Birmingham, was strongly
alkaline to test paper, and I submitted its contents to
further analysis and found, that out of the 115 7 grains
represented in the table, 100*1 was composed of carbonate
of potash, and 15*6 of iodide of potassium, etc. From
this large proportion, it seems as if the former salt had been
intentionally added, along with a small proportion of potas-
sium iodide. One (No. 48) from Eccles contained 2*5 grains
of Potassium Carbonate in the 126*7 grains weighed out.
Many were absolutely free from Potassium Carbonate and
many contained traces of that salt. No. 46 had both the mix-
ture and lotion corked with very dirty corks. The dispenser
of No. 16 (from Edinburgh) put in a preparation of orange

97

instead of spirit of chloroform. No. 4 (from Cupar Fife)
added the spirit in such proportion that it possessed the smell
of whisky; whilst No. 18 (from Airdrie) dispensed the chloro-
form without any spirit, so that it remained insoluble at the
bottom of the bottle. This error might have proved serious
if the last dose in the bottle, containing all the chloroform,
had been swallowed by the patient. The seven mixtures
to which the following numbers relate contained disagree-
able looking sediments — 17, 24, 45, 46, 56, 74, and 78.
One more potassium iodide prescription was made to
contain the same quantity of salt as the others, but the
solution made up to two instead of six ounces. The fol-
lowing shows the result : —

Table II.

Potassium Iodide Prescription.

No.

District.

Description
of shop

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Potassium
Iodide
weighed out
by

the Druggist.

Strength
of the mixture
calculated on
the

two ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

875

120 grs.

120 grs.

s. d.

1

Manchester :
Stretford-roac

895

123T

120“4

1 2

With the view to test further the range of inaccuracies
in other and more valuable medicines, Dr. Sinclair and I
arranged to have a few different prescriptions dispensed,
and he accordingly wrote out five, having the following
composition : —

R. Argent. Nitrat 3 j

Aq. Distillat § j

M. Fiat lotio. To be kept from the light.

These were subject to analysis, and the following Table
shows the results : —

98

Table III.

Silver Nitrate Prescription.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the lotion
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Silver Nitrate
weighed out

fly

the Druggist.

Strength

of

the lotion
calculated on
447 ’5 gr.

Price.

The lotion as prescribed.

447-5

60-0

60-0

S.

d.

Manchester :

1

Moss Lane W.

410

59-8

65-3

1

0

2

do. London-rd.

Low.

425

44-8

47-2

1

0

3

do. Oxford-st...

425

57*4

60-4

1

6

4

Liverpool :

Gt. Homer-st..

Low.

433

73-2

75-6

1

4

5

London, E.C....

365

59'0

72-3

0

8

The figures in this table show the amounts of anhydrous
silver nitrate contained in the solution.

These show that not one of them has given the weight
of this drug accurately; one came within the range of
practical accuracy ; three came within the range of 5 grains,
and two made inaccuracies of upwards of 13 grains. In
measuring, none came within the range of absolute accuracy,
viz., 5 grains either way, and only one came within the
range of practical accuracy. In strength, one came within
the range of practical accuracy, the others made errors of
over 5 grains.

The next prescription was the following : —

R. Quin. Sulphat 3 j

Acid. Hydrochlor. dil 3 j

Aq... ..ad. gij

M. Sig. One teaspoonful to be taken in a wineglass of water

twice a dav.

Two of these prescriptions were dispensed, and three
more containing the same amounts of quinine sulphate and
hydrochloric acid, but made up to 6 instead of 2 ounces

measure.

99

These were submitted to analysis, with the following

results : —

Table IV.

Quinine Sulphate Prescriptions.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual meas-
ure

of the mixture
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Quinine
Sulphate
weighed out

by

the Druggist.

Strength
of the mixture
calculated
on the
two ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

875

60 grs.

60 grs.

s.

d.

1

Liverpool :

Lime Street

920

59-7

56*8

3

6

2

London, E.C.

Low.

900

42-0

40'6

2

6

In No. 2, the hydrochloric acid of the prescription had
not been introduced, and most of the quinine sulphate
remained undissolved.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed.

(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Quinine
Sulphate
weighed out
by

the Druggist.

Strength

of

the mixture
calculated on
the

six ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

2625

60 grs.

60 grs.

s.

d.

3

L’ncaster,Town

2660

56-8

56-1

3

0

4

Manch.Lnd.-rd.

2700

64-5

62-7

1

6

5

Liverp’l, Bootle

2810

59-7

55*8

2

2

The figures in these two tables represent the amounts of
Quinine Sulphate containing 7 molecules of water of crys-
tallization.

In this it will be noticed that in the quantities weighed
none of the five dispensers arrived at absolute accuracy,
two came within the range of practical accuracy, and the
remaining three are outside this mark ; none measured
within the range of either absolute or practical accuracy,
and none came within the range of either absolute or prac-
tical accuracy in the strength of their solution,

100

The third and last prescription was the following : —

R. Ferri et Quin. Citrat 3 ij

M

Sig. ^ss, ter die.

Two of these prescriptions were dispensed, and one con-
taining the same amount of salt, but made up to 2 instead
of 6 ounces.

The results of the analysis are as follows : —

Table V.

Ikon and Quinine Citrate Prescriptions.

No

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed
an

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Quinine and
Iron Citrate
weighed out
by Druggist.

Strength
of the mixture
caclulated on
the

2690 grains.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

2690

120 grs.

120 grs.

s. d.

1

Manchester :

Hulme.

2690

122

122

1 6

2

London, E C.

2570

140

146-5

1 9

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Quinine and
Iron Citrate
weighed out
\ by Druggist.

Strength
of the mixture
calculated
on the
940 grains.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

940

]20

120

s. d.

3

Manchester :
Oxford.road.

985

107

102-1

2 6

The figures in these tables represent the dry iron and
quinine citrate, plus 105 per cent, the amount which we
found the salt to lose on drying at 212° F.

Not one of these three came within the range of absolute
or practical accuracy in either the weight or the strength of
solution. One, however, measured with absolute accuracy,

101

the remaining two were out of the range of practical
accuracy in every respect.

In concluding, it may be of some importance to mention
that in the dispensing of these prescriptions, in the large
majority of cases, and generally in the more respectable
shops, no questions were asked of the purchasers, and no
remarks made, but in some cases, and especially in those
shops of a lower class, questions of rather an impertinent
nature were asked ; in one, not only was the patient’s name
demanded, but the name of the medical man who pre-
scribed ; and in another instance the druggist actually
refused to dispense a prescription containing 10 grains
doses of quinine sulphate on the ground that the dose was
excessive, and one who did dispense it remarked that the
dose was a strong one. The bearing of these facts on the
relative position of the physician, patient, and druggists,
although of much importance, especially to the medical
profession, does not come within the scope of my paper.

In conclusion I must express my best thanks to our
assistant, Mr. Percy J. Winser, for the painstaking and
accurate manner in which he had helped me in this
investigation

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

February 14th, 1876.

Charles Bailey, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. E. W. Nix, M.A., was elected a Member, and Dr. John
Roberts an Associate of the Section.

Mr. Percival, through Mr. Rogers, exhibited specimens of
a new British moss— Hypnum nitidulum (Wahl), belonging
to the sub-genus Plagiothecium — found by him and Mr.
Whitehead on June 8th, 1868, at Penneghant Gill, Craven,

102

Yorkshire. It differs from its near ally, H. pulchellum
(Dicks), in its leaves being broader and larger, and in the
male flowers being separate and distinct. Besides, H. niti-
dulum affects rotten wood, decayed bark, or decomposed
vegetable matters as a site for its growth; whilst H. pulchel-
lum always grows in the fissures of rocks.

Mr. Plant exhibited a rare hydrocarbon mineral from peat
found near Manchester, The mineral crystals which encrust
and radiate over the inner surface of the pine bark in the
specimen exhibited, belong to the Fichtelite group of the
hydrocarbons, and may be subsequently determinable to
this. If so, it will be the first instance of Fichtelite having
been recorded as occurring in Great Britain.

Mr. Plant then read a paper on the gradual decrease of
wild birds during the last 25 years west of Manchester.
The list included all the birds — residents, visitants, and
casual stragglers — observed in and near to Peel Park, in the
years 1850-60-70, and the numbers resident in 1871-75.

The birds recorded in 1850 were 71 ; 1860, 42; 1870, 19;
and in the last five years only 8 resident birds were to be
found.

The causes for the decrease were chiefly increase of
building, destruction of trees from many causes, and general
absence of food and shelter for birds.

103

Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Arthur Schuster exhibited an interesting collection
of objects brought by him from Siam and the Western
Himalayas.

“ On a Graphical Method of Drawing Spectra,” by Mr.
William Dodgson, Whitworth Scholar. Communicated by
Professor Roscoe, F.R.S., &e.

Construction of Curve for ascertaining the wave-lengths.

A number of points are first plotted on the curve-paper, the
abscissae of these points being the micrometer scale-readings
of certain lines, as observed directly in the spectroscope, or
being absolute— or relative measurements taken from an
existing photograph ; whilst the ordinates of these points are
the corresponding wave-lengths, taken from the determina-
tions of some reliable observer.

If there be a large number of points taken, the curve ought
not to be drawn actually through them all, or it would
probably be irregular ; it therefore becomes necessary to
draw a mean curve, i.e., a continuous even curve which shall
pass near to all the given points, some being on one side
and some on the other.

The following method was employed to determine the
wave-lengths of the well defined edges of the bands in two
absorption spectra.

The micrometer scale readings of 27 air-lines were obser-
ved in the spectroscope, in addition to those of the absorbing
vapour, and taken as abscissa ; and the corresponding wave-
lengths determined by Thalen as ordinates. These 27 points
when plotted on the curve-paper, fell naturally into six
groups ; a mean point was then found for each group by
accurate measurement, and the curve drawn through these
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XV. — No, S. — Session 1875-6..

104

six mean points, such that the sum ol the shortest distances
of the several points of any one group from the curve is zero.

The mean points were obtained by means of the arrange-
ment shown in Fig. 1.

The wooden rod AA has a steel point CC fixed at one
end, and a graduated scale of tenths of an inch at the other;
the axis of the steel point is kept vertical and the scale
horizontal while the rod is being rotated, by the strip of
wood TTP, the end P sliding on the table. The centre C
being placed at some fixed point, the curve-paper is then
adjusted on the table, so that some particular division on
the scale (found by trial) describes a circle through a group
of points, and also through two adjacent groups, one on each
side, which circle if drawn would pass not far from the mean
points of the three groups we are proceeding to determine.
The distance from each point of the middle group to the
centre C is then read off on the scale to the ToVoth of an
an inch, with the aid of a lens, and a second scale divided
into Troths of an inch ; and a point plotted near the centre
of gravity of the middle group at a distance from C equal
to the mean of these readings.

This process is repeated for each of the four middle
groups, the mean points of an end group being determined
with the paper and centre C in the same positions as for
the second group from that end.

A nearer approximation to the true position of the mean
points may then be found, by making use of those already
obtained, to find more correctly the radius of the circle
through the three groups, and repeating the process of
measuring and plotting.

In one case an isolated point occurs ; this is taken as one
group, and the curve drawn through it.

105

The curve consists of arcs of circles, which pass through
the six mean points, with radii varying from 64 J inches at
the upper end, to 61 § inches at the lower end, drawn by
means of the rod AA, having a drawing pen fixed to it.

The wave-lengths corresponding to the scale-readings of
the observed lines in the two spectra, were then found by
measurement from the curve to ^oVo th of an inch, by means
of a lens, and scale of Tooths of an inch.

The above method of graphically drawing a curve, may
be extended to the case where the points are nearly
uniformly distributed, and not divided into groups naturally
as in the case of the air-lines.

Divide the points into any number of groups, about an
equal number in each group. Find the mean points as
described, by aid of lens and vernier scale on the rod ; draw
the curve through the points by the best practical method.
The number of groups taken will be guided by judgment,
and will depend on what degree the proposed curve shall
be. The greater the number of groups, the greater will be
the degree of the equation to a curve passing through their
mean points, and the greater probably will be the irregular-
ities in the variation of the radius of curvature.

Construction of Beale for Map of Spectrum.

The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 has been employed to
draw the map scale, and found to be an accurate and ex-
peditious method.

106

ABCD the drawing board, EFGH the drawing paper,
TT Stanley’s ebony-edged T-square, resting against the
pins RIt during the operation ; MM Stanley’s ebony-
edged set-square, which slides along the edge of TT ;
SS Stanley’s engine-divided, millimetre scale, connected at
one end to the edge of the set-square M, by pins and elastic
string NN, so as to slide with the set-square, and have its
graduated edge parallel to the edge of TT, and also parallel
to the lines KK, K'K' on which the scales have to be con-
structed ; LL a very fine ink line at right angles to the edge
of the scale, beyond the extremity of the required scale KK,
on the right hand side, to which the divisions of the milli-
metre scale are adjusted by the eye, with the aid of a lens
placed on a stand, its axis in a vertical plane through the
line LL ; a fine adjustment of the line and division is
obtained by means of the blunt handle of the drawing pin,
used as a lever against the end of the scale, the surface of
the board or the paper being the fulcrum.

The divisions of the map scale are drawn at Z,Z, with a
very thin drawing pen, very close to the edge of the set
square, so that the variation of the inclination of the draw-
ing pen is a very inappreciable error. If the map scale is
required to be longer than the scale S, another very fine
perpendicular ink line LX' must be drawn at an exact
multiple of 10 millimetres distant.

To prevent mistakes in drawing the principal divisions,
the line LL is arranged so that they may be drawn when
the corresponding principal divisions on the scale SS are
coincident with the line.

The advantages of this method of drawing a map scale,
arise from the fact that the error due to the observation of
the coincidence of two lines, is much less than that of plot-
ting a point opposite each division of the millimetre scale.
Also in the fact that the error due to drawing a line
with a thin pen very close to the edge of the set-square,

107

(the pen approximately at the same inclination) is much
less than that of drawing the divisions through the plotted
points, judging by the eye.

If only one scale be required on the map, place the edge
of the scale S near to the line KK. If two are required,
place the edge of SS half-way between KK, K'K' to lessen
the errors due to imperfections in the straight edge of the
T-square.

Construction of a Vernier Scale for the above Map Scale .

The drawing board, T-square, set-square, and paper as in
Fig. 2. 00 a strip of paper, on which the vernier scale is

to be constructed, its edge being parallel to TT, the scale SS
is attached to the edge of the set-square and slides with it, by
means of the pins and elastic NN as before, but inclined to
the edge of TT at an angle a = sec.-1 ih ; it is kept in this
position by the pegs U, U in the end of the scale ; the fine
ink line LL is drawn at right angles to SS, the lens being
used on a stand as before, with its axis always in a vertical
plane through LL.

The divisions on the vernier scale will be l-jfo millimetres
in length.

“ Evidence to prove that a Bone from the Windy Knoll,
Castleton, named by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,

108

‘ Sacrum of young Bison/ is a Sacral Bone of the Cave
Bear, Ursus Speloeus,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

When I first described, at the Manchester Geological
Society in April, 1874, a number of bones which came from
a limestone fissure near Castleton, they were correctly
attributed, even upon a cursory examination, to be the
remains of Bison, Reindeer, Wolf, and Bear, the bulk of
them belonging to the Bison. In the course of a careful
examination subsequently, several of the bones were found,
presenting characters not to be determined by the aid only
of such scanty help for comparison which was at my service,
so I took a number of them to the Liverpool Museum, and,
with the kind assistance of Mr. Moore, the Curator, was able
to compare them with skeletons of bovine and ursine ani-
mals, as well as with a collection of bones of the Cave Bear
— U. Speloeus — which the Museum possessed, from La Grotte
des Echelles, France. Some of my specimens could not be
determined then, and have not yet been identified ; but in
one case both Mr. Moore and myself were quite of the
opinion that it bore a close resemblance to a sacral bone of
the Cave Bear, in their collection from La Grotte des
Echelles, and I ventured without hesitation to ascribe it to
that animal.

At a meeting of the Geological Society in May, 1874, I
specially exhibited this bone, and described the new interest
which had become attached to it. Professor Dawkins,
however, expressed his doubts as to the correctness of my
naming, and I at once placed the bone in his hands so that
he could satisfy himself upon the matter. A month after
(June 24) I received the bone, with a short note saying; —
“ The bone which I have ordered to be returned is sacrum
of young Bison,” and upon the bone itself was written,
“Bison, W.B.D.”

Surprised, but not convinced, I paid another visit to the
Liverpool Museum, and with my friend Mr. Moore recom-

109

pared this identical bone with the sacral bones of all the
bovine skeletons in the Museum, and from merely having
an opinion, I became positively certain of my first deter-
mination of the bone, and equally certain that my specimen
did not, and could not, belong to a bovine animal.

In the Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, October 6th, 1874, p. 6, Professor
Dawkins states— “ The Cave Bear, or Ursus Spelceus , is also
stated by Mr. Plant (Manchester Geological Transactions,
xiii, 180—156) to have been discovered in the Windy Knoll
fissure, principally on the fancied resemblance which a
sacrum of a young animal bore to a sacrum in the Peel Park
Museum, said to belong to TJrsus Speloeus, partly also on
the stumps of two teeth, worthless for purposes of specific
identification. I have carefully analysed, this evidence , and
on composing the sacrum in question with that of the ox
and bear , I believe that it belongs to a young bison, and
not to any carnivora. And, further, even if it belong to a
bear, there is no evidence as to the species, because the
specific characters of that bone in the fossil bears have not
yet been ascertained. The researches of Professor Busk,
during a long series of years, and my examination of the
most important collections of fossil bears in this country
and in France, prove that the determination of the species
is a point of extreme difficulty, and we are only able to
detect characters of specific value in the heads and dentition.
On this point I would refer to Professor Busk’s memoir,
and to the vast collection at Toulouse. The Cave Bear,
therefore, of Windy Knoll must be given up, as being based
on a faulty determination.”

It was a great surprise to me to find Professor Dawkins
deliberately stating “ that he had compared my specimens
with the sacral bones of the ox and bear, and that it
belonged to a young bison and not to any carnivora.” I am
aware that he is credited with the possession of great

110

experience and knowledge in the bones of Pleistocene
animals, and must know the risks of damaging that
reputation in giving an opinion upon a matter like this
without full consideration; but as he had the bone in his
possession for nearly one month, it could not be said he
formed his opinion in a hasty manner.

Notwithstanding this deliberately expressed opinion of
Professor Dawkins that it belonged to a young bison, I was
not alarmed for my small reputation as a palaeontologist,
or convinced that he was right. I had myself seen and
examined sacral bones of both oxen and bears, and always
found the differences between them far too striking to be
mistaken. I was sure this bone could never be bovine,
and I had a firm opinion that it was Cave Bear ; moreover,
I considered that nature could never be so hard up for
variety as to give to the stiff-backed oxen tribe a sacrum
that could be confounded with the sacrum of the lithe and
flexible hindquarters of the bears.

However, I set myself to the study of bears and oxen,
took the bone with me whenever I had a chance of
comparing it with bones in public museums and private
collections, and sent it for examination and report to
gentlemen, who have made comparative osteology their
special study, and without exception the opinions I received
were unanimous in one respect, that it was not the sacrum
of a bison, or even of a bovine animal — but the sacrum of
a bear.

It is not necessary, nor do I intend, to mention the names
of gentlemen to whom I here allude ; their opinions were
formed pretty much like my own by direct comparison only,
without going into the minute anatomical points of the
differences of structure between sacral bones of bovines and
ursines. Comparison is usually a safe method of deter-
mining species in natural history, and it applies with equal
force with bones, or portions of bones, when authenticated
specimens can be obtained for comparison.

Ill

Being in London in February, I waited upon Professor
Owen, at the British Museum, and submitted the bone to
his experienced judgment. He most kindly undertook to
make a thorough examination of the bone, and give me his
opinion. A few days after I called upon him again, when
he took great pains to show me a number of sacral bones of
bears and bison, and point out the clear differences between
them in certain points, and in what way it could be proved
that my specimen belonged to the bear and not to the
bison, at the same time giving me the results of his deter-
mination in writing, with full permission to use it in any
way that would serve the purpose of my enquiry.

“ British Museum, 8 th February , 1876.

“ The fore end of the sacrum yields the best and readiest
characters for distinguishing that of an ox from that of a
bear. In the Ruminant the pre-zygapophyses present each
a long longitudinal semi-cylindric channel, for the corres-
ponding convexity of the post-zygapophyses of the last
lumbar vertebra.

“In the Bear the pre-zygapophyses of the first sacral,
present a short suboval flat, or almost flat, surface, which
becomes slightly concave below through the production of
the mesial border of the process.

“ In the Ox the symphysial surface for the ilium is in great
part presented by the transverse process of the first sacral,
which is much produced, these processes give a winged
character to the fore part of the sacrum ; the surface itself
is long, narrow, and looks backward more than outward.

“ In the Bear the transverse process of the first, is little
longer than of the second, sacral, and it is much thicker in
proportion to its length than in the Ox. The second sacral
contributes a larger proportion to that surface than in the Ox.

“The neural spine of the first sacral in the Bovines is
long (lofty), compressed, and becomes confluent with the
second, as this with the succeeding sacral spines, to form a
continuous bony crest.

112

“ In Ursines the sacro-neural spine in the first vertebra is
small and short; in the second often almost obsolete, that of
the third sacral, though small and short, is usually better
developed, but all remain distinct from each other, with
well marked intervals, except along their base.

“No palaeontologist who had ever made this comparison
could risk the mistaking of a bear’s sacrum for one of a
bovine quadruped.

“ Richakd Owen.”

Before leaving Professor Owen I pointed out to him that
the bone he had taken so much trouble to compare with the
large series of specimens before him was marked “ Bison,
W.B.D.,” and had been so named by Professor Dawkins, and
I also informed him that it had previously been submitted to
the care of Mr. Wm. Davies, acknowledged to be the most
experienced comparative osteologist in the Zoological Depart-
ment in the British Museum, and also to the assistant in
this department, Mr. Gerrard (who has charge of the
skeletons), who, although at first inclined to the opinion
that the bone had the aspect of a bovine sacrum, after
careful examination, agreed with his colleague Mr. Davies
in his determination, which is this — “ Undoubtedly the first
and second sacral vertebrae of the Cave Bear, TJrsus
Spelceus.— Wm. Davies.”

The last remark of Professor Owen was that this opinion
from Mr. Wm. Davies was quite sufficient in itself to have
settled the question of the species of the bone. His own
remarks had been solely directed to explain the marked
differences between the sacral bones of oxen and bears.

The drawings I exhibit to assist in showing the special
points alluded to by Professor Owen, the specimens of sacral
vertebrae of oxen, bison, and the sacrum of Cave Bear from
the Liverpool Museum, to compare with the sacrum from
Castleton, will, I doubt not, be convincing, and prove beyond
all doubt that the bone in question was at the first correctly
described when I named it sacrum of Ursus ftpeloeus.

113

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

October 12th, 1875.

E. W. Binney, F.RS., F.G.S., President of the Section, in
the chair.

“ On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,” by Joseph
Baxendell, F.K.A.S.

The source of atmospheric ozone is a subject respecting
which various opinions have been entertained by chemists
and meteorologists. According to M. Schonbein, Mr.
Dancer, M. Houzeau, Professor Boscoe, and others, it is
due to electrical action. Dr. Daubeny, from a long series
of experiments, was led to attribute it to the action of sun-
light on the green leaves of plants. M. Gorup-Besanez
believes it is simply the result of evaporation; and Mr.
Mackereth regards it as being dependent on a peculiar and
direct action of the sun’s light upon the oxygen of the
atmosphere.

In my paper “ On Observations of Atmospheric Ozone,”
read October 20th, 1868, 1 stated that from my own obser-
vations it seemed probable that the amount of ozone near
the earth’s surface depended upon the height at which
clouds are formed in the atmosphere. Subsequent obser-
vations confirmed this view, and also showed that the
amount of ozone had, in general, some relation to the degree
of transparency of the lower atmosphere. Thus when fogs
and haze were prevalent it rarely happened that even the
faintest trace of the presence of ozone could be obtained ;
but on their disappearance the indications became more
marked, and in clear states of the air the test papers were
generally more or less coloured. It appeared, therefore,
from these results that atmospheric ozone was absorbed or

114

decomposed by haze or fog, and was given off or produced
when evaporation changed haze or fog into invisible aqueous
vapour.

From the very small degree of solubility of ozone in

water it seems highly improbable that the amount of water

♦

existing in ordinary haze or fog could absorb the whole of
the ozone usually found in the atmosphere, nor could the
whole of this ozone be contained in the water from which
the aqueous vapour in the air had been derived. Moreover,
not only does haze prevent the coloration of the test
papers, but it often rapidly bleaches those which had
already been coloured by the action of ozone. This
bleaching effect, however, is not produced if the papers are
thoroughly wetted by immersion in water, and therefore it
has been attributed to the action of a form of oxygen
differing essentially in some of its properties from ozone,
and which has, therefore, received the name of antozone.

The existence of antozone is, however, doubted by many
chemists, and it becomes, therefore, necessary to seek some
other explanation of the bleaching effect of fogs and haze,
which will also, at the same time, account for their effect in
apparently absorbing or decomposing ozone, and afterwards
of giving it off or forming it on evaporation.

As it is generally supposed that the minute vesicles or
globules of water which form fog and haze are similar in all
respects, except perhaps in size, to the globules which form
the spray from a breaking wave, a waterfall, or fountain, it
was evidently desirable to ascertain whether the spray from
any of these sources would produce effects similar to those
produced by fog and haze, since it might be contended that
as in the one case the globules were the result of a conden-
sation of aqueous vapour taking place in the air, while in
the other they were produced by a more or less violent
mechanical action, their effects upon the oxygen or ozone in
the atmosphere might be very different.

115

In 1872 I had a series of observations made twice daily
for five weeks at stations on opposite sides of one of the
reservoirs of the Manchester Corporation Waterworks, and,
grouping the results according to the direction of the wind,
I found that the mean values for the station on the lee side
of the reservoir were not sensibly different from, those at
the station on the windward side. The surface of the
water was, however, seldom sufficiently disturbed to produce
any appreciable amount of spray; but the results of the
observations clearly indicated that mere evaporation from a
large continuous surface of water had no effect in increasing
the amount of ozone in the air passing over it.

Observations and experiments made at Southport on the
action of spray from the sea led to no satisfactory result on
account of the difficulty of eliminating the effects due to
varying velocities of the wind ; but the influence of fogs
and haze in checking the coloration of the test papers was
very marked.

I had long been anxious to try the effects of spray from
a large fountain, but had no opportunity of doing so until
June last, when I became aware for the first time of the
existence of the fine fountains at the Arnfield and Holling-
worth reservoirs in the Manchester Corporation Water-
works’ district. In both these fountains the diameter of
the column of water as it issues from the discharge pipe is
nine inches, and under full pressure the height of the
column or jet is about 27 feet at Arnfield, and 35 feet at
Hollingworth. The water is turned on at very irregular
intervals, and generally for only short periods of time, but
with the kind assistance of Mr. James Wilkins, the very
intelligent reservoir-keeper, and observer at the Arnfield
meteorological station, I succeeded in making a satisfactory
series of experiments, the details of which are as follows : —

For the exposure of the test papers two open boxes were
used, each about 2 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 4 inches

116

deep. These boxes were placed on end, one on the
windward, the other on the leeward side of the fountain,
and the test papers were pinned in the upper ends of the
boxes, and the boxes so placed that the papers were not
exposed to direct sunlight, nor to wind and rain.

The first experiments were made on June 16, 1875, and
three of Schonbein’s test papers were placed in each box
and exposed from 9.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m. At the Arnfield
fountain the resulting tints were : —

In Windward.
Box (W).

4*5

5-5

52

In Leeward.
Box (L).

70

70

80

Mean = 5*07 Mean — 7*33

At the Hollingworth fountain they were : — -
W. L.

50 6*5

4-0 6-5

5*0 75

Mean = 4*67 Mean = 6 ‘83

Fresh papers were exposed from 1.30 to 6.30 p.m. with
the following results

ARNFIELD.

W*

5-5

7-5

6*0

L.

8*0

70

50

6-67

Mean = 6*33

The third paper in the L. box was evidently a faulty one.

HOLLINGWORTH.

W.

50

40

4*0

Mean = 4*33

L.

6*5

6*5

6*0

Mean rr 6*33

117

And the mean results of the two experiments were : —

w. L.

Arnfield 5*7 7'0

Hollingworth ... 4*5 6*6

July 2 and 9.

Experiments were made on both these days, but the
atmosphere was hazy and rain fell, and none of the papers
were coloured.

July 10— AENFIELD.

Three papers, exposed in

each box from 2.20 to 7.20 p.m.;

but at 4.45 it was noticed that the wind had changed and

the boxes were removed into fresh positions. The height

of the jet was only 11 feet.

The tints were

w.

L.

5*0

4*2

4*5

6-0

4*5

5*5

Mean = 4*66

Mean = 5*23

July 31-

-AENFIELD.

Three papers in each box exposed from 9.30 to 11.40

a.m. ; height of jet about ‘

L6 feet ; very cloudy, but the air

pretty clear.

W.

L.

4*0

5*5

3*5

5*0

40

4*0 +

3*83

4*83

At 11.50 a.m. one paper was left in each box, and at 4.50
p.m. the tints were— -

w. l.

3*5 5*0

The weather was showery, and the wind oscillated
between W.S.W. and W.N.W.

At 7.0 p.m. two papers were left in each box, and at 8.0
the following morning one paper was taken from each box,
and the shades of colour were found to be —

w. L.

20 3*0

118

At nine a.m. the remaining papers were both No. 4.

July 15— ARNFIELD.

Three papers exposed in each box from 2.30 to 4.40 p.m. ;
height of column of water about 20 feet; wind blowing in
strong breezes from E.N.E. ; air pretty clear, but sky veiy
cloudy. The results were : —

w. L.

3*5 40

30 3*5

2-5 3-5

Mean = 3-00 Mean = 3*66

Fresh papers were exposed from 4.50 to 7.5 p.m., with
the following results : —

W.

4*0

3*5

3-5

L.

40

4*5

5*5

Mean = 3*66 Mean = 4*66

At 9 p.m. two papers were left in each box, and at 5.0

the following morning the results were —

W. L.

7*5 9*0

8*0 9*0

Mean = V* 75 Mean = 9*0

August 11— ARNFIELD.

Two papers in each box from 12.30 to 3.30 p.m. ; height
of jet about 16 feet; temperature of the air at 12.30, 70°.5;
temperature of evaporation, 63°. 0 ; wind, S.W. to W.S.W. in
light breezes.

W. ' L.

2*5 4*5

3*5 5*5

Mean = 3 00 Mean = 5*0

One paper in each box was afterwards exposed from 4.0
to 7.0 p.m., when it was observed that the air was becoming
hazy.

W.

2.0

L.

3.0

119

August 12.

Two papers in each box from 12.0 to 4.0 p.m. ; but the
air was very hazy, and there was no action on any of the
papers. A thunderstorm occurred between 4.0. and 6.0
p.m., and at 7.0 p.m. the papers were again examined, with

the following results : —

W. L.

00 1-0

00 2-5

Mean = 0*0 Mean — 1*7 5

August 13— ARNFIELD.

Two papers in each box from 1 to 2.30 p.m.; air pretty
clear; light breeze from W.S.W.; jet 16 feel. The spray
box L was 9 yards from the jet. The distance on former
occasions had varied from 7 to 17 yards according to the

strength of the wind.

W. L.

1-0 (A) 3*0 (A)

3-5 50

The papers marked (a) had been in my pocket-book
since the previous day, but the others were fresh from the
ozone box. A thunderstorm occurred between 4 and 5 p.m.

August 14.

At 10 a.m. two papers were placed in each box; at 12
no action had taken place on any of them, the air being
very hazy. At 2.15 p.m. the air had become much less hazy
and the tints were—

W. L.

0*0 2-0

O'O 2-0

The height of the jet ot water on this occasion was 21
feet. At 2. 1 5 p.m. the readings of the dry and wet bulb
thermometers were : — Dry, 68°-5 ; Wet, 61°.7.

The experiments thus briefly described appear to me to
prove that the spray from a fountain on evaporating gives
off or produces atmospheric ozone, and in this respect is
similar to ordinary fog or haze.

120

In some of the experiments which I made the papers in
the leeward box became sensibly damp in consequence of
the box being placed too near the fountain, or from the
acting of strong gusts and eddies of wind. In these cases
the coloration of the papers was very much retarded or
altogether prevented, and it therefore appears that spray
has, like fog or haze, the power of absorbing or decomposing
atmospheric ozone.

Having now proved, experimentally, that spray produced
by mechanical means, and ordinary fog or haze produced by
the condensation of aqueous vapour in the air, are precisely
similar in their relations to atmospheric ozone ; and having
also shown that the quantity of ozone usually found in the
air could not have been held in solution by the water from
which the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is derived it
becomes evident that the production of atmospheric ozone
is in some way dependent upon the minute state of division
in which water exists in the air in the visible form of
clouds, fogs, and haze, and often also probably in an
invisible form. This consideration has led me to infer
that water exposed to the air has the power of condensing
Oxygen upon its surface into a thin film of ozone. When,
therefore, complete evaporation of the vesicles or globules
of moisture which constitute a cloud or fog takes place the
ozone is left free to diffuse itself through the air ; but when
evaporation takes place from the surface of a large and
practically inexhaustible mass of water the ozone is not set
free but remains adhering to the surface It will, however,
be objected that if ozone is formed in this way test papers
ought to be coloured very rapidly in a fog or dense haze,
and that no bleaching action could take place upon papers
which had already heen ozonised. The explanation which
I will venture to offer is that ozone associated with moisture
and in the presence of the oxydised potassium will combine
with the freed iodine and form iodic acid which, uniting

121

with the potash, will form the colourless iodate of potash.
v But it may also he that the direct action of ozone on
iodide of potassium is retarded or altogether prevented by
an excess of moisture when the ozone is present in only
small quantities as is usually the case in the atmosphere,
and this view is supported by the fact that dry papers
appear to be generally more sensitive than damp ones.

Admitting that the inference I have drawn from the facts
given in this paper is correct, it will enable us to explain
why, on the sea coast, winds from the sea bring more ozone
than those from the land, and why, when the cloud
stratum is high, the quantity of free ozone near the surface
of the earth is, in general, greater than when the cloud
level is low. It also indicates that the sudden and com
siderable manifestations of ozone which sometimes occur
may be found to be due to descending currents bringing air
from the cloud region to lower and warmer levels and thus
causing the rapid evaporation of the condensed vapour
which it contains. It may also enable us to trace out the
causes of the differences which exist between the mean
amounts of ozone in different localities, and will, I believe,
be useful in suggesting new methods of treating meteorolo-
gical observations and attempting the solution of some of
the difficult but interesting problems which are at present
engaging the attention of meteorologists.

February 29th, 1870.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section, in
the chair.

“ An Account of some early Experiments with Ozone, and
remarks upon its Electrical Origin,” by J. B, Dancer,

F.RA.S.

122

Nearly a century since it was noticed that oxygen gas,
when electrical sparks had been passed through it, acquired
a peculiar smell and the power of attacking mercury.
Somewhat later it was found that electrified air possessed
the property of purifying decomposing animal and vegetable
matter. In 1826 Dr, John Davy believed this principle
existed in the atmosphere, and proposed tests for its
detection.

When residing in Liverpool in the year 1838 I supplied
some Daniell’s batteries to Mr. T. Spencer. The apparatus
consisted of a number of cells, in which I had substituted*
thin porous jars, made of unglazed biscuit ware, to separate
the two fluids, in place of the bladders, and ox gullets,
which were very disagreeable in use, and easily destroyed ;
these porous jars and cells are now in general use, not only
in Daniell’s, but also in Grove’s, and other batteries in which
two fluids are employed.

It was expected that this battery would exhibit consider-
able power, and an evening was fixed upon to try some
experiments with it at Mr. Spencer’s house. The parties
present at these experiments were Mr. Spencer, the late
Mr. John Wilson (teacher ol chemistry at the Liverpool
Mechanics’ Institution), Mr. James Robinson (now of
Dublin), and myself. The first experiment was the
decomposition of water. A Faraday’s voltameter, with
large platinum electrodes, was connected with the battery,
and the mixed gases, as they were evolved, were collected
in a glass gas jar, of the capacity of 180 cubic inches. The
gas jar was filled with water, and placed on the shelf of a
pneumatic trough ; a bent glass tube from the voltameter
had its end placed under the open bottom of the jar. When
the experiment had proceeded for a short time we noticed
that a white cloud, or vapour, escaped from the bubbles of

* Page 229. First edition of Elements of Natural Philosophy, by Dr.

Golding Bird. London, 1839.

123

the mixed gases as they burst at the surface of the water
in the jar. This white cloud remained permanent, and its
unexpected appearance gave rise to many conjectures.
When the jar became filled with the oxygen and hydrogen,
it was removed from the shelf for the purpose of refilling
with water, in order to repeat the experiment. As the
gases were displaced from the jar, we became aware of the
presence of a powerful odour, so pungent as to produce
coughing. This was a second surprise, and it led to
considerable discussion. The prevailing opinion seemed to
be that some impurity in the sulphuric acid, used in the
voltameter, had caused the white cloud and the odour. On
one point we were all agreed— the odour was identical with
that produced during the excitement of a frictional electrical
machine, and the novel phenomena we had witnessed were
admitted to be worthy of investigation. On repeating the
experiment a second time similar results were obtained, and
the room was filled with the electrical odour ; being mani-
pulator, I probably inhaled more of this odour than the
rest of the company, and my throat was in a state of
irritation for several days. I constructed another battery
of similar power to that already named, and repeated the
experiment at my own house, taking the precaution to have
carefully-prepared sulphuric acid in the voltameter. The
white cloud and odour were produced just as in the first
experiments.

It became clear, therefore, that impurity in the sulphuric
acid was not the origin of either cloud or odour. I filled
several bottles with these odorous gases, and tried some
experiments, such as the solubility of the odorous substance
in water, its alkaline and acid properties, &c. These experi-
ments were named to many scientific friends, one of them,
the late Dr. Brett, then a chemist of repute, a relative of
Dr. Golding Bird, of London. Dr. Brett offered to join me
in investigating the properties of this peculiar odorous body,

124

and it was agreed that we should commence experimenting
as soon as leisure would permit. Business affairs, however,
obliged me to leave the subject in abeyance.

In the year 1839 F. 0. Schonbein, Professor of Chemistry
at Basle, whilst decomposing water by a voltaic battery,
noticed that an odorous substance was evolved along with
the oxygen gas at the positive pole. The identity of this
odour with that which usually accompanies lightning, and
that which is produced by passing sparks from an electrical
machine to pieces of platinum or gold, induced him to enter
on an investigation to discover, if possible, the source and
properties of this odorous body, to which he gave the name
“ Ozone.” His discovery was announced in a memoir which
he presented to the Academy of Munich in 1840. When an
account of his experiments appeared in the scientific
periodicals, I recognised under the name of ozone the
odorous body which had surprised us during our experi-
ments in 1838.

The announcement of Schonbein’s discovery caused com
siderable excitement in the scientific world, and a large
number of scientific men in this country, and on the
Continent, commenced investigating the properties of this
remarkable body. In this brief and imperfect notice I can
only name a few of the experiments. Those who are
interested in the history of ozone may consult Dr. C. Fox’s
exhaustive work on ozone and antozone.* In “ Nature,”
March 5th and 12th, 1874, there is also a very interesting
account of ozone, in an address delivered before the Royal
Society of Edinburgh by Dr, Andrews, F.R.S., December,
1873.

What is ozone ? This is a question not easily answered
in a satisfactory manner. This body has been tortured in
every conceivable way by a legion of able experimentalists
for the last thirty years, and up to this moment scientific
men are not all agreed upon this subject.

# Published by Churchill. 1873,

125

Ozone is formed by passing an electric current through
air or oxygen gas. Schonbein discovered that it was also
generated, during the slow oxidation of phosphorus, in
moist air. Ozone is a powerful bleaching and oxidising
agent, possessing the property of purifying decomposing
animal and vegetable substances. It oxidises many of the
metals, is insoluble in water, and in solutions of acids and
alkalies. If breathed in a concentrated state, it has a
powerful effect on the animal system. To test the presence
of ozone in the atmosphere, Schonbein proposed the
employment of slips of paper impregnated with iodide of
potassium and starch. These are exposed to the atmosphere
with certain precautions ; if ozone is present, these papers
become coloured, and the depth of colour is supposed to
indicate the amount of ozone. Schonbein at first supposed
that ozone was a new electro negative element, analogous
to chlorine and bromine ; afterwards he suspected it to be a
constituent of nitrogen. His investigations were continued
for many years, and, from certain experiments, he concluded
that oxygen could exist in three distinct states. When
electro negative it was ozone, when positive it was antozone,
and when these two states were combined it became passive,
or neutral oxygen.

There are some scientific men who do not think the
existence of antozone is satisfactorily proved. The elaborate
researches of Dr. Andrews and Professor Tait have added
largely to our knowledge of the nature and properties of
ozone. These gentlemen discovered that when oxygen gas
has been ozonised by a discharge of the electric current
the volume of gas was diminished — for example, 100
volumes of oxygen become reduced to about 92 volumes.
If changed back again by the agency of heat, or otherwise,
it becomes 100 volumes again. Sordt discovered that the
oils of turpentine and cinnamon, being brought into contact
with ozonised oxygen, the whole of the ozone was absorbed.
He concluded that ozone was 1£ times the density of

126

oxygen. At present the prevailing opinion is that ozone is
an altered condition of oxygen, the molecular constitution
being different to that of ordinary oxygen.

Is ozone which is produced by an electrical discharge
through air, or oxygen gas, identical with that observed in
the atmosphere ?

Many eminent men of science doubted the existence of
atmospheric ozone ; it was thought that other active sub-
stances in the air had similar reactions to those exhibited
by ozone. The carefu] experiments of Dr. Andrews, which
were intended to settle this important question, appear to
confirm in a satisfactory manner the original views of
Schonbein.

Ozone presented itself to my view in such close union
with electricity that I have been almost forced to believe in
its electrical origin. I expected that it would be ultimately
found that an unstable chemical union existed between
electricity and oxygen in the ozonised state. Some very
careful experiments by Dr. Andrews appear to show con-
clusively that such is not the case ; he finds that ozone may
be readily destroyed by agitating it strongly with fine
fragments of glass. Dr. Andrews remarks that this
experiment forms a new and closer link than any hitherto
observed between a purely mechanical action and a chemical
change. Probably the generation of ozone is constantly
taking place in the higher regions of the atmosphere ; the
formation of clouds, rain, hail, snow, &c., developing free
electricity, under conditions highly favourable for the
conversion of oxygen into ozone. The amount thus pro-
duced would be vastly augmented by agencies in operation
at certain portions of the earth’s surface. Ozone is said to
be abundant at sea. This might have been anticipated;
the friction of the wind on the surface of the waves, and
the conversion of water into aqueous vapour (a change of
state which always developes an abundance of free
electricity) produce conditions as favourable as those

127

which, exist in the upper regions of the atmosphere.

In the Lake district the manifestations of ozone are
considerable ; again there are conditions somewhat similar
to those already named.

. On land the amount of ozone generated will vary
considerably with the character of the surface of the earth.

In localities where vegetation abounds ozone should exist
in considerable quantity ; there is the mechanical action of
the air over the moist surfaces of the vegetation, and the
formation of aqueous vapour ; and if it be true, as stated,
that the oxygen which is evolved by plants is in an ozonised
condition, we should have an additional source for the
production of this purifying agent.

Heavy storms of rain, hail, and snow are always accom-
panied by free electricity and a manifestation of ozone.
The pleasant sensations experienced on breathing the
atmosphere after heavy rain are, perhaps, not altogether
due to the washing of the atmosphere, but in part produced
by the ozone contained in it. Mr. Baxendell noticed that
when the fountains at the Waterworks, Arnfield, were set
in operation he found the manifestation of ozone greater
than he had observed in severe thunderstorms. This I can
quite imagine possible. In discharges of lightning the
production of ozone would be confined to the locality of the
flash, and the effect on the test paper would depend on its
situation and the direction of the wind. A water fountain
may be regarded as a hydro-electric machine,* the friction
of the water issuing through the jets developing electrical
action, materially assisted by the conversion of the spray
into aqueous vapour. I would suggest that this fact should
be prominently brought before municipal bodies, to induce
them to erect fountains in all available places in large cities
as sanitary agents. They might prove highly beneficial in
crowded localities.

* Humboldt mentions in Cosmos, vol. 1, page 344, “ That the negative
electricity near high water falls is sufficiently intense to produce an effect on
a delicate electrometer at a distance of 300 or 400 feet.”

128

“ Results of Rain Gauge Observations, made at Eccles,
near Manchester, during the year 1875/' by Thomas Mac-
keketh, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

The rainfall of last year was above the average, by a
little over the amount which fell in July above the average
for that month. Hence it may be said that the excess of
rainfall for the year was due to the excessive amount which
fell during July. Great excesses fell during June and Sep-
tember, and the fall during all the summer and autumn
months was invariably above the average. The fall was
greatly below the average in February, March, April, and
December, so that the year was characterised by a dry
spring and a very wet summer and autumn, though the
excess of the rainfall of the year is about the average fall
for a month at this station, yet the number of days on which
rain fell is below the average. This usually happens during
the periods of excessive rainfall, which shows how much
more rapidly the clouds condense during periods of heavy
than of light rainfalls; and is another instance of a rule in
rainfall that I pointed out last year. The following table
shows the results obtained from a rain gauge with a lOin.
round receiver placed 3ft. above the ground.

QuarterlyPeriods.

1875.

Fall

in

Indies.

Average
of 15
years.

Differences.

QuarterlyPeriods.

Average
of 15
years.

1875.

Average
of 15
years.

1875.

Days.

Days.

c

January

3-469

2-857

4-0-612 •)

K9

49 3

February

0-833

2-103

—1-270 >

7-336

5-081

%J U

March. .

0-779

2-376

—1-597 )

April

0-763

1-913

—1-150 "I

46

44 i

May

2-676

2-116

+0-560 l

6-729

7-336

(

June

3-897

2-700

+1-197 )

c

July

5‘624

3-223

+2-401 }

53

56 <

August

4-067

3-333

+0-734 [

10*692

15-180

l

September

5-489

4-136

+1-353 )

c

October

5-030

4-310

+0*720 -)

58

5 Q]

November

4*099

3-325

+0-774 [

10-514

10-295

(

December

1-166

2-879

—1-713 )

209

205

37-892

35-271

+2-621

129

In the next table are given the results obtained from rain
gauges of two different kinds, placed in close proximity in
the same plane, and 3ft. from the ground, the one has a lOin.
round receiver, and the other a 5 in. square receiver. Nearly
all the months on which there was an excess of rainfall the
smaller gauge registered the larger amount; out of the four
months when the rainfall was below the average three of
them show the greater fall in the greater gauge. Nearly
the whole difference between the fall in the two gauges
occured in January. A similar circumstance happened in
the December of the previous year, that is in the preceding
month, and both cases were doubtless due to the same cause,
namely the fall of snow. An average fall in both gauges
over a period of eight years shows a difference of only rloTr
of an inch. Thus as I have said before the two gauges are
practically checks upon each other.

1875.

Rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver 3ft
from
ground.

Rainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

Difference.

From 1868 to 1875.

Difference.

Average of
8 years
rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

Average of
8 years
rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July-...

August „

September

October

November

December

3-469

0-833

0-779

0- 763

2- 676

3- 897
5-624

4- 067

5- 489
5-030
4-099

1- 166

4'062

0-824

0-724

0- 779

2- 690

3- 956
5-710

4- 056

5- 497
4-960
4-118

1- 131

—•593

+•009

+•055

—•016

—•014

—•059

—•086

+•011

—•008

+•070

—•019

+•035

3-082

1- 974

2- 203

1- 853

2- 008

2- 548

3- 148

3- 372

4- 069
4-983
3-272
3-023

3‘142

1- 940

2- 227
1-827

1- 978

2- 522

3- 143

3- 351

4- 030
4-967
3-306
3-073

—•060

+•034

—•024

+•026

+•030

+•026

+•005

+•021

+•039

+•016

—•034

—•050

37-892

38-507

—•615

35-535

35-506

+•029

In the next table I give the results obtained from two
exactly similar gauges placed at different heights from the
ground and free from every interference ; each gauge has a
Sin. square receiver, and the one is placed 3ft. and the other
34ft. above the ground. The total fall in the one 3ft. from

ISO

the ground for last year was 38-507in., and in the one 34ft.
from the ground it was 32-921in. The difference between
the fall in the two gauges is 5 '5 8 Gin. or about 18 per cent
less rain fell in the higher gauge than in the lower one. In
the same table I give the average fall in the same gauges
for eight years, and by comparing the results it will be
found that the average difference between the fall in the
two gauges is about 17 \ per cent, very nearly the difference
I showed last year on a seven years’ average.

1875.

Rainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver 3ft.
from ground,
1875.

Rainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver 34ft.
from ground,
1875.

From 181

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 8 years
in 5in. square
receiver 3ft.
from 1 ground.

38 to 1875.

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 8 years
in 5in. square
receiver 34ft.
from ground.

January

4-062

2-613

3-142

2-217

February

0-824

0-585

1-940

1*461

March

0-724

0-605

2-227

1-748

April

0-779

0*543

1-827

1-545

May

2-690

2-345

1‘978

1-784

June

3-956

3-326

2-522

2-220

July

5-710

5-312

3143

2-819

August

4-056

3-791

3-351

2-852

September

5-497

4-917

4-030

3-453

October

4-960

4-605

4-967

4-154

November

4-118

3-464

3*306

2-597

December

1-131

0-815

3-073

2-460

38-507

32-921

35-506

29-310

The following table gives the ratios of the excesses of
rainfall 3ft. from the ground over the amount measured at
34ft. from the ground. It is astonishing how these ratios
vary their places in each single year, and yet how they
maintain their positions in and after a six years’ average.
There was absolutely no comparison between the ratios of
' the single years of 1873 and 1874 and the ratios of the six
and seven years’ averages, which were almost identical.
So also of these ratios of last year, there is not the slightest
comparison between them and the eight years’ average, and
practically there is no difference between the six, seven, and
eight years’ averages. Now, according to the seven and

131

eight years’ averages, the greatest difference between the
amounts of rain which fell in the lower and higher gauges
occurs in January, decreases gradually in difference till
May, when it attains a minimum. This minimum main-
tains itself till August, when there is a slight increase; then
after a slight decrease in September, the increase becomes
constant to J anuary again. On the theory first enunciated
by Mr. Baxendell that the excess of rainfall in the lower
gauge is due to the particles of invisible vapour in the air
between it and the higher gauge coalescing with the falling
rain-drops, the results seem to show that in the spring and
early summer months there is relatively less of this vapour
in the air below a height of 34ft., and there is relatively
more of it in the winter months and particularly in J anuary.

Monthly and annual ratios of the excess of rainfall
measured at 3ft. from the ground over the amount measured
at 34ft. from the ground ; together with the amount of the
mean humidity of the atmosphere, full saturation being

represented by unity.

Ratios of such
rainfall for 1875.

Ratios of such rain-
fall for an average
of 8 years, from
1868 to 1875.

Mean humidity of
the atmosphere
for 8 years, from
1868 to 1875.

January

”643

•705

•871

February

”709

•753

•855

March

*835

•784

•836

April

•697

•845

•765

May

•871

•901

•755

June

•840

•879

•747

July

•930

•896

•759

August

•934

•851

•793

September

•894

•856

•777

October

‘929

•836

•840

November

•841

•785

•853

December

•720

•800

•872

Annual Ratios

•820

•824

•810

That I might demonstrate as far as possible that this is
the true way to account for the difference of rainfall at the
two heights above the ground, I took out the representatives
I had for the last 8 years of the relative amount of moisture
in the atmosphere. These results were obtained from a

132

wet and dry bulb hygrometer, which I have had in use for
16 years, and reductions based upon Glaishers humidity
tables. In the foregoing table the averages of the relative
amount of moisture in the atmosphere are given in the last
column. Of course the order of the amounts is inverse to
the ratios of rainfall, one being positive and the other
negative. The striking resemblance between facts shown
by each is at once obvious. I have, however, projected
them in the following diagram. The irregular line marked

(a) represents the rainfall ratios, and the one marked (6)
the mean relative amount of humidity. Hence I infer
that the maximum of dry air on the ground is in May,
June, and July, and the minimum in November, December,
and January. These periods of maximum and minimum
are closely allied to similar periods of ozone results.

In the next table I give the fall of rain for 1875 during
the day, from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night
from 8 p.m. to 8 a.rn. The results of these observations for
1874 I pointed out were exceptional, as in every pre-
vious year since I instituted them the day-fall had always
been greater than the night-fall. The last year gives the
original kind of results, and the day-fall exceeds the night,
and by about the same amount as the reverse of 1864.
The excess of the day-fall over the night of last year was
2*517 inches, or about 13 per cent.

133

1875.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 a.m. to 8 p.m.

Rainfall in
inches from
8p.m. to8a.m.

Difference
between night
and day fall.

January

1-605

2-457

+0-852

February

0-468

0-356

—0112

March

0380

0-344

—0036

April

0-396

0-383

—0-013

May

1-249

1-441

+0-192

June

2-425

1-531

—0-894

July

3-780

1-930

—1-850

August

2033

2023

—o-oio

September . . .

2-410

3-087

+0-677

October

2759

2-201

—0-558

November ...

2-584

1-534

—1-050

December

0-423

0-708

+0-285

20-512

17-995

—2-517

In the next table I present the average day and night
fall for a period ol eight years. The results of this table
continue to show that the day-fall exceeds the night-fall
so far as the whole year is considered. The months which
have an excess of rainfall in the nights are those which
show the greatest amount of atmospheric vapour, namely
January, February and December; August and September
show an increase, but in these months the amount of vapour
in the air begins to increase, but whether the excess in those
months is due to that cause is yet doubtful.

Average of eight years, from 1868 to 1875:—

1875.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 a.m.
to 8 p.m.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 p.m.
to 8 a.m.

Difference
between night
and day fall.

January

1-361

1-781

+0-420

February

0-825

1*114

+0-289

j March

1-199

1027

—0-172

April

1-054

0-772

—0-282

May

1-156

0-821

—0-335

June

1463

1-058

—0-405

July

1-813

1-330

—0-483

August

1-656

1-695

+0-039

September ...

1-875

2155

+0-280

October

2-585

2-381

— 0-204

November ...

1‘682

1-624

—0-058

December

1-351

i *721

+0-370

18-020

17*479

—0-541

134

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

March 13 th, 1870.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., F.G.S., in the chair.

Mr. John Boyd was elected a Member, and Mr. Robert
Ellis CunlifFe, and Mr. Walter Edward Barratt, Associates
of the Section.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited a series of slides illustrat-
ing similarities of structure in Dicotyledonous and Monocoty-
ledonous stems.

Mr. Bailey likewise distributed among the members dried
plants of Potamogaton lanceolatus sm. from Lligwy, Anglesea,
that locality being still the only recorded habitat for this
rare Pondweed; and exhibited some Egyptian plants
collected by H. A. Hurst, Esq., Treasurer of the Section —
the most noteworthy of which was Tamarix articulata—
from Alexandria.

Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., exhibited a series of speci-
mens of very young Rhombus vulgaris (Cuv.), showing (1),
the two eyes on each side of the vertebral plane, (2) the
removal of the eye from the underside to the dorsal edge, (3)
the appearance of both eyes on the one (upper) side of the
fish. These specimens had been found and given by Dr. A.
W. Malm, of Gothenburg ; who first proved the remarkable
physiological change of form. Dr. Malm stated that he had
had no difficulty in procuring specimens so young as these
by using a surface net at sea before dawn in the hot days
of summer. These were taken in the Kattegat on the 25th
July, 1875.

135

Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., also communicated some
notes made during a visit in the past summer to the Swedish
shell-beds of Uddevalla and the neighbouring district, and
exhibited a collection of the fossils of remarkable extent
and beauty. He referred to the notices of these fossils by
Linmeus, 1747 (9 species), and others ; by Sir C. Lyell, 1834,
in his paper on the proofs of a rising of the land in Sweden
(Philos. Trans. 1834) (25 species) ; by Mr. J. G. Jeffreys*
1863, British Ass. Rep. (85 shells, and 14 other invertebrata),
and M. Thuden, 1866 (116 specimens of shells), and to the
great collections of Mr. R. Thorburn in the Museum of
Uddevalla, and Dr. Malm in that at Gothenburg. The two
latest lists must be used with discrimination as they are
conchological rather than geological ; each enumerating in
one consecutive list fossils from older, newer and compara-
tively recent beds.

He described the great deposits at Kapellebacken S.W.
and at Samnerod, Bracke and Kurod, N.E. of Uddevalla,
and noted especially the following facts as proving that,
whether the greater part of those vast accumulations of
remains had been drifted into the bottom of the ancient
fiords or not, some at least of the shells had lived where
they are now found. The perfect and unviolated occurrence
of the species named, the horizontal position of the small
beds of sand and shingle in which some of the shells are
found, point to very steady and slow movement. Sir Charles
Lyell indicated the present rise of the southern part of
Sweden as at the rate of 3 feet per century. As the highest
beds at Uddevalla are about 206 (English) feet above the
level of the sea, this means that they have been rising for at
least 7,000 years. How long it was before they emerged
from the water, that the lower parts of the deposit, which
at Kapellebacken are apparently more than 70 or 80 feet
thick, were laid in the bottom of the sea, there is no record.
The most elevated beds of the district appear to be those at

136

Kapellebacken. In a small quarry, where the material has
been worked for agricultural purposes, the following shells
were found under conditions which imply that they lived
where they now lie. They occur in horizontal patches,
shewing on the sections as level, and remarkably limited
strata. There is, at a level many feet below the top of the
older deposit, a curious patch of much more modern raised
beach with Littorina littorea and Cardium edule.

This bed also is horizontal and undisturbed.

My a truncata : The two valves together, upright in
sandy shingle, and filled with the same.

Mytilus E dulls : In beds, the valves of various sizes
lying confused and packed. In this species the ligament
and hinge are weak and the valves speedily detach them-
selves. One pair was found in the mouth of a baccinum,
which could scarcely have rolled over after its lodger had
died without losing his shell.

Modiola Modiolus : In a bed of fine sand shells of this
species occurred in a remarkably perfect condition, the
valves closed, posterior edge uppermost, the hinge and back
at the top; large shells and smaller (all of a more fragile
variety than is commonly dredged in British seas.) In
digging back into this layer shell after shell appeared;
while fresh, “ as perfect as if alive,” but soon to warp and
crack in drying.

[Query : Does this Modiola ever live burrowing free in
fine sand ?]

Pecten Islandicus : In beds, large and small, the valves
together, horizontally, with the flatter valve uppermost.
The colour of this shell is often preserved with extraordinary
freshness.

Buccinnum undatum : and B. Greenlandicum : Both
species occasionally occurred, older and younger shells
together, grouped in horizontal strata, though, naturally, not
so massed as the less locomotive bivalves, and besides,
generally diffused through the whole deposit.

137

Fusus Antiquus : Also occurred, though not massed, old
and young shells free from sea-wear.

Echinus Drobachiensis : Also occurred in sandy layers,
grouped, old and young, as these animals are usually found
to live.

Balanus Hameri , a species whose component plates seem
very slightly attached to each other, and speedily fall apart
after death and disturbance, occurs whole. It was at this
locality that M. Brongniart noticed the basal plate shells
adhering to the gneiss rocks, between which the shales are
heaped. The like were still to be found there.

In the more amply extended deposits at Bracke, which
do not rise above a level of 100 feet "above The sea, there
are enormous accumulations of the shells of Saxicava
rugosa. Wherever there was a fresh section ready, or could
be made, it was easy to pick out multitudes of specimens
with the two valves together. As the ligament of this shell is
very slight, and the hinge nothing, these pairs of valves
cannot have suffered either sea wash or any geokinetic
change of position, or even pressure.

The great size and the freedom of growth of the Uddevalla
Saxicava has been long noticed, indicating its life outside
of such burrows as gave the more modern form its name.
One may suppose that the shells, growing at liberty amongst
piles of shells of their ancestors, may well have developed, as
we see. Both varieties (rugosa and arctica) occur, the latter
somewhat more rarely.

At the same place there were found amongst the Saxi-
cava valves, which form, as it were, the matrix of the deposit,
many specimens of Astarte borealis, old and young, with
both valves in juxtaposition, placed vertically with the
posterior end uppermost, in the position of life. Astarte
elliptica occurred also in the same condition, though more
rarely.

It was at Bracke that Sir Charles Lyell found the balanus
hameri still attached to the rocks.

138

Saxicava arctica, Mya truncata, and Mytilus edulis
appear in forms peculiarly distorted, in a way which it is
usual to attribute to exposure, during intervals, to greater
or less infusion of fresher or colder water. This may be
supposed to he due to some direction of the currents of the
old land streams, probably coming down from glaciers, over
shellbeds, not far from shore, and at no great depth. The
variation of Mya truncata from some such cause has given
rise to the form known as M. Uddevallensis.

Dr. Thomas Alcock has kindly examined three parcels of
sand, and reports finding the following species ;

Kapellebacke

From sand
in Modiola.

n— high level-

From sand
in Echinus.

Brache— lower.

From sand
among shells.

Polystomella umbilicatula..

%

Miliolina seminnlum

#

*

,, trigonula...

Botalina turgida (?)

%

#

Truncatulina lobatula

*

Another form

#

Mollusca, fry of

Ostracoda

3

2

3

The specimens are all of strong kinds, and appear much
worn. They were not common in any parcel.

Mr. John Plant made the following remarks, being
addenda and corrigenda to the list of shells already
published, found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea.

List of Shells found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea. Cor-
rections and Additions, by John Plant, F.G.S.

Since the printing of my last list of the Fauna of
Cymmeran Bay, the collection of shells obtained from
there has been more than once revised, and I have seen
reason to believe that in several instances my determination
of the species has been faulty, from my having had only

139

young or greatly worn shells to deal with. Several species
have been added to the list of this collection. It is
therefore necessary to print a few corrigenda and addenda.

25. Lucina leucoma, was so named from a few worn and
small valves, since which living shells have been
taken and it proves to be L. borealis, smaller
than normal specimens.

31. Cardium rusticum; this must be given up as belong-
ing to this locality. All my specimens belong
to C. echinatum.

96. Venus casina, are shells much worn of V. verrucosa.

97. Circe minima ; the one small valve so named proves

to be a very young Cyprina Islandica.

99. Cardium fasciatum; the two small specimens so
named are young of C. echinatum.

109. Pecten niveus ; the valve so named is a white
variety of P. pusio, a common shell in the bay.
White varieties of P. varius approaching nearly
to the niveus are also found.

39. Acmsea testudinalis ; the shells so named are the
young of a variety of P. vulgata.

121. Assiminea Grayana are only worn and small forms of
Lacuna Vincta and L. puteola.

Fusus Islandicus should be called F. gracilis, the former
name has long been applied to this English
shell, but erroneously.

The following are additional species which have been
satisfactorily determined since the last list was printed.

Venus ovata, several specimens from both Cymmeran and
Holyhead.

Artemis lincta, a lew valves.

Cardium echinatum, previously named C. rusticum.

Cardium pygmseum, not very common.

Astarte sulcata, one small specimen.

Lucina borealis, previously named L. leucoma.

140

Modiola modiolus, not common.

Sphsenia Binghami, a good number of smallish specimens.

Trochus Lyonsii, a well marked variety of T. zizyphinus,

Dentalium tarentinum, from Holyhead.

Patella athletica, rather common.

Natica nitida, far from common.

Odostomia acuta (Jeff), two specimens of a dull white
variety, distinctly umbilicated — vide Brit. Mol.
v. 3, p. 270.

Sepia bisserialis, Towyn Capel, Defarh bays. Mrs. Plant
found four of these beautiful and rare shells
after very stormy weather, in August, 1 873.

141

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1876.

Edward Sohunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., called the attention
of the Society to the depreciation of silver which is now
under the notice of a select committee of the House of
Commons. It has been attributed to a panic, to the
demonetisation of silver in Germany, or to the increased
production of silver. In all probability all these causes
have been in operation together. With regard to the
last he had had the opportunity of examining a part of
the silver mining district in Nevada last autumn, and
he was very much impressed by the enormous mineral
wealth of that region, which is as yet scarcely touched. In
spite of the depression of trade, which was marked by the
number of miners out of work, new localities are being dis-
covered which will afford an almost inexhaustible supply of
silver. To take an example. In June last a new lode
was discovered in the range of metamorphic schists and
slates about 1 2 miles from Battle Mountain, a station on the
Central Pacific Railway, 519 miles from San Francisco.
When he visited it in October it was nearly in working
order, and at the present time is in full production. The
lode runs N. and S. and outcropped on the surface of the
ground, forming a vertical mass looking almost like a
broken down wall in some places, and measuring 32 feet
wide, the richer portions being of course irregular in thick-
ness.

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Yol. XV.— No. 9.— Session 1875-6.

142

These metalliferous ranges extend southwards through
Arizona and New Mexico into the great Mexican mining
districts, and northwards to an unknown limit. The
principal obstacles to their wealth being realised are, 1. The
hostility of the Indians, 2. The want of wood, 3. The diffi-
culties of carriage. These however are swiftly being
removed. The Indians are rapidly perishing, and the rail-
ways are bringing places hitherto inaccessible within reach
of the seaboard and the Eastern States. And although the
lonely plains covered with sage-brush which sweep round
the metalliferous ranges almost like a sea, and at a height of
from 4000 to 5000 feet, are without a tree, the Sierra
Nevada on the one hand, and the Rocky Mountains on the
other, offer an endless supply of timber. It seems therefore
that the production of silver in this district is likely to be
largely increased. Unless the demand keep pace with the
supply, the price must necessarily fall. Fourteen tons of silver
coined at the San Francisco mint were sent to the Eastern
States on 21st of March last, and the export from San Francisco
to China, which was under one million sterling in 1874
according to Sir Hector Hay, in 1875 reached one and a
half millions, which gives an increase of 50 per cent, and
this in spite of the extraordinary depression of trade.

“ On some Isomerides of Alizarine,1 ” by Edward Schunck,
Ph.D., F.R.S., and Hermann Roemer, Ph.D.

Considering the importance of everything connected
with the history of alizarine, we have been induced to
undertake the study of such of the isomerides of that body
as we have been able to obtain. These isomerides are
interesting from a theoretical point of view, as presenting a
problem with regard to internal constitution which has
not yet been solved, and technically some of them are
interesting as they occur along with artificial alizarine and
not being available for tinctorial purposes are the source

143

of loss to the manufacturer. The isomerides of alizarine
hitherto observed are the following : —

1. Purpuroxanthine, a body first obtained by Schiit-
zenberger from commercial purpurine, and afterwards
prepared artificially by the action of reducing agents on
purpurine. It crystallises in yellow needles, soluble in
alkalies with a blood-red colour.

2. Isoalizarine, a substance derived from madder and
described by Rochleder, having properties very similar to
those of purpuroxanthine, and perhaps identical with it.

3. Frangulic Acid, a substance also very similar to pur-
puroxanthine, obtained by Faust by the decomposition of
franguline, a constituent of the bark of Rhamnus frangula.

4. Anthraflavic Acid or A nthraflavine, a body accompany-
ing artificial alizarine, first described by one of the authors in
a paper read before this Society,* and subsequently examined
by Mr. Perkin. Its isomerism with alizarine was established
by Mr. Perkin, who was the first to obtain it in a state of
perfect purity. It is easily distinguished by the colour
of its alkaline solution, which is yellow.

5. Anthraflavon, a product obtained by the action of
diluted sulphuric acid on oxybenzoic acid. We have not
yet had an opportunity of preparing and examining this
body, but on reading the description of it given by its
discoverers, Barth and Sennhofer, it is evident that it bears
a strong resemblance to the preceding.

G. Quinazarine , obtained by Baeyer, by the action of
phthalic acid on hydroquinone. Of all the isomerides it
most resembles alizarine itself. Its alkaline solutions have
the same violet colour as those of alizarine, and it dyes
mordants, while the other isomerides have no tinctorial
properties.

i . Chrysazine , a body formed by the action of nitrous
acid on hydrochiysammide, and carefully examined by its
* Memoirs, 3rd Series, Vol. V., p. 227.

144

discoverer, Liebermann. By tbe action on it of strong nitric
acid it yields chrysammic acid, the nitro-acid first obtained
from aloes by one of the authors many years ago.

To these we have now to add—

8. Isoanthraflavine, a substance accompanying artificial
alizarine, generally found along with anthraflavine in the
commercial product, and which we shall describe presently.

Chrysophanic Acid , the crystalline colouring matter of
rhubarb, which at one time occupied a place in the list has
been erased, since it has been shown by Liebermann that it
is in reality a homologue of alizarine, having the formula
C15H10O4, and is derived not from anthracene, but from a
methylanthracene.

We propose in this paper to give an account of some
experiments on two of these isomerides, viz., anthraflavic
acid and the one generally accompanying it, which we have
lately observed for the first time.

Anthraflavic Acid or Anthraflavine.

We have little to add to the description of this substance
given in the paper above referred to. Its melting point is
above 330°C. It is less soluble in glacial acetic acid than
in alcohol. The analysis of a carefully purified specimen
of the substance gave numbers agreeing exactly with the
formula C14H804, and confirming the results obtained by
Perkin. The barium salt, which has been previously
described, loses when dried over sulphuric acid a con-
siderable quantity of water, becoming at the same time
much lighter in colour. On being now heated at a
temperature of 150°— 180°C. it loses two molecules of water,
and the dried salt has a composition corresponding with the
formula C14H6Ba04. Our results do not quite agree with
those of Perkin, who found the formula of the salt dried at
180° to be 2C14H6Ba04, H20.

Tetrabromanthraflavine , C14H4Br404, is prepared by

adding bromine in excess to an alcoholic solution of the

145

substance. It crystallises in yellow needles, which are
almost insoluble in the usual menstrua, such as alcohol,
benzol, and glacial acetic acid.

Nitroanthraflavic Acid, a body already referred to in
the paper of 1871, is prepared by dissolving anthraflavine
in fuming nitric acid and after allowing to stand some time,
adding water, which precipitates the nitro-acid as a light
yellow crystalline powder. It is obtained on spontaneous
evaporation of its alcoholic solution in large well-defined
rhombic crystals of a deep yellow colour, the composition of
which is expressed by the formula 0i4H4(NO2)4O4. Most of
the salts, such as the potassium, sodium, magnesium?
barium, silver, and mercury salts, are soluble in boiling
water, and crystallise in lustrous needles, varying in colour
from light-yellow to brownish-red. By reduction with tin
and. hydrochloric acid the nitro-acid yields a dark-blue
powder, which is almost insoluble in alcohol, glacial acetic
acid, &c., but dissolves in caustic alkalies with a fine violet
colour like that of alkaline solutions of alizarine.

Diacetylanthraflavine has already been described by
Perkin* We found its melting point to be at 227°G.

Diethylanihraflavine, C14H6(C H5)204 was prepared by
heating a mixture of anthraflavine, caustic soda, iodide of
ethyl, and a little alcohol in sealed tubes to 120°, and crys-
tallising the product from boiling alcohol. It crystallises in
light yellow needles, which are soluble in benzol and glacial
acetic acid, but insoluble in water. It fuses at 232°. The
fused substance on cooling is converted into a mass of pris-
matic crystals. The spectrum of the solution in concentrated
sulphuric acid, which is red, shows a well-defined absorption
band between the green and blue.

Dimethylanthmflavine, the preparation of which is
similar to that of the preceding, has almost the same pro-
perties as the ethyl compound. It fuses at 247°-248°.

# Journal Chem. Soc. XXYL, p. 20.

146

Isoanthraflavine.

This isomeride of alizarine was prepared from a by-pro-
duct of the manufacture of alizarine supplied to us some
time ago by Mr. Perkin, and which, according to the latter,
had been obtained by treating the crude alizarine with lime-
water, filtering and precipitating the red extract with acid.
The product was treated with dilute caustic soda lye, in
order to separate some anthraquinone. The filtrate gave with
hydrochloric acid a yellow gelatinous precipitate, which was
filtered off and treated with cold baryta water, until nothing
more dissolved. The residue left undissolved after this
treatment consisted of barium anthraflavate, and was em-
ployed for the preparation of anthraflavine. The blood-red
solution was mixed with hydrochloric acid, which gave a
yellow precipitate consisting of isoanthraflavine. This was
purified by repeated crystallisation from boiling alcohol,
and was obtained in long yellow crystalline needles. Some-
times it yielded golden yellow lustrous scales, but these on
recrystallisation always gave needles. These needles, after
drying over sulphuric acid, still contain one molecule of
water of crystallisation, which is driven off by heating to
120°. The dried substance has a composition agreeing with
the formula C14H804, five analyses giving as a mean C69,79>
H365, the calculated amounts being C7000, H3*33. The
properties of isoanthraflavine resemble those of anthra-
flavine. It melts at a temperature above 330°. When
slowly heated between watch-glasses it yields a sub-
limate consisting of lustrous bright yellow needles and
plates. It is a little more solub]e in boiling water than an-
thraflavine. It dissolves easily in boiling alcohol and in hot
concentrated sulphuric acid, but is almost insoluble in benzol
and chloroform. It imparts no colour whatever to mordants
and differs in this respect very widely from alizarine. It
may be easily distinguished from anthraflavine by the colour
of its alkaline solutions, which is distinctly red, while the

147

colour of anthraflavine solutions is deep yellow, or when
concentrated reddish-yellow. In concentrated sulphuric
acid isoanthraflavine dissolves with a cherry-red, anthra-
flavine with a yellow colour. The two substances may also
be readily distinguished by their behaviour towards lime
and baryta water, in which isoanthraflavine dissolves easily
in the cold, yielding red solutions. Anthraflavine, on the
other hand, is almost insoluble in cold baryta water, and
only dissolves on boiling, while in lime water it is almost
insoluble at all temperatures. Isoanthraflavine in most of
its properties approaches purpuroxanthine even more closely
than it does to anthroflavine ; but having prepared a speci-
men of purpuroxanthine according to Schutzenberger’s pro-
cess, we are enabled to assert positively that the two bodies
are not identical. One of the characteristic properties of
purpuroxanthine is that it yields phthalic by oxidation with
nitric acid, whereas isoanthraflavine gives with nitric acid
a nitro-substitution product.

The barium compound of isoanthraflavine can be made to
crystallise (though not without some difficulty) in dark red
needles resembling barium anthraflavate. It contains water
of crystallisation, which it loses on being heated to 150°.
The composition of the dry salt corresponds with the for-
mula C14H6Ba04.

Tetmbromisoanthmflavine, C14H4Br404, is prepared in the
same way as tetrabromanthraflavine. It crystallises in
yellow needles, soluble in boiling alcohol and in glacial
acetic acid.

Diacetyiisoanthraflavine, C14H6(C2H30)204 was obtained
by the action of acetic anhydride on isoanthraflavine at 160
to 180°. It crystallises in light yellow microscopic needles,
which are soluble in alcohol and more easily soluble in
glacial acetic acid. At 175° it commences to soften, and at
about 195° it fuses completely. It is decomposed by alco-
holic potash solution.

148

Diethyliso anthraflavine, C14H6(C2H5)204, was prepared
in the same way as diethylanthraflavine, which it closely
resembles. It crystallises from alcohol in long light yellow
shining needles, soluble in alcohol and ether, more soluble
in glacial acetic acid and benzol. It fuses at 193 — 194°.
It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming a purple
solution, the spectrum of which shows two ill-defined ab-
sorption bands, one in the yellow, the other in the green.

Isoanthraflavine gives with fuming nitric acid a nitro-
substitution product similar in its appearance and general
properties to nitro-anthraflavic acid, but we have been
unable from want of material to examine it minutely.

We will conclude with a few remarks on the action of
caustic alkalies on anthraflavine and isoanthraflavine.
On a former occasion it was stated by one of us that
anthraflavine yields by the action of fusing hydrate of pot-
ash alizarine, and it was this supposed convertibility into
alizarine which led Liebermann and others to the conclusion
that anthraflavine was identical with monoxyanthraquinone.
We are now in a position to assert with confidence that the
product of the action of alkalies is not alizarine. On
repeating the experiment on a larger scale by fusing the
substance with caustic potash in a silver basin we obtained
a substance which after being freed from impurities crystal-
lised from alcohol in orange-coloured needles strongly resem-
bling but certainly not identical with alizarine. On heating
it yields a sublimate in needles very similar to sublimed
alizarine. The solution in alkalies is however devoid of the
violet tint characteristic of alizarine, and on dilution appears
distinctly red. The spectrum of the solution shows two
absorption bands similar to those of alizarine solution, but
these bands, according to the determination kindly under-
taken for us by Dr. Schuster, lie further away from the red
end than the bands of alizarine. It appears probable that this
body may turn out to be an isomeride of purpurine, resem-

149

bling Mr. Perkin’s antlirapurpurine. Isoanthraflavine when
treated in the same way yields a body which has most of
the properties of anthrapurpurine, though it seems to crys-
tallise more readily and in longer needles than the latter
substance does, according to Mr. Perkin’s account. We are
at present engaged in the investigation of these products.

Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., made the following
remarks :

It is not my intention to add more than a few necessary
words to the literature, serious and comic, which has Windy
Knoll for its centre. At the last meeting I was unable to
give a decided ‘ yes’ or ‘ no’ to Mr. Plant’s evidence that the
c bone of contention’ was not that of bison, because it is a
fragment of a variable and unimportant bone which I had
not seen for nearly two years. I have re-examined the
evidence, and consulted Mr. Davies, of the British Museum,
and I find that I was mistaken in referring it to bison. The
mistake is however a side issue and not of any scientific
importance, because the remains of that animal from that
place are considerably over one thousand in number, while
those of the bear are over sixty,

With regard to the real point at issue, as to whether it
adds the cave-bear to the fauna of Derbyshire, as urged by
Mr. Plant, I have only to add to the opinion expressed in
Proceed, of Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester, 1874, p. 6, the
views of Professor Busk and Mr. Davies. The former
writes — “ I should be very loth to give any opinion what-
ever as to the specific characters of a fossil bear from that
part of the skeleton alone.” The latter, after regretting
that Mr. Plant had omitted to mention the discovery of the
associated ursine jaws and teeth when the bone was sub-
mitted to him, says (25th March, 1876), “I have not suffi-
ciently studied the bones of the bears, with the exception
of the jaws and teeth, as to enable me to determine with
certainty the species to which they belong. Had I known

150

all the facts, I should not only have hesitated but refrained
from assigning the bone to any particular species of bear.”
The evidence of the jaws and teeth proves that the bear of
Windy Knoll is not the cave, but the great fossil grizzly
bear ( U. ferox fossilise JJ. prisms), as may be seen by a
reference to the Quart. Geol. Journ., Lond. 1875, pp. 251-2.
It is unnecessary to go into further details.

“ The Eucalyptus near Rome,” by Dr. R. Angus Smith,
F.R.S., Y.P.

A few years ago I wrote to a friend in Italy, suggesting
that, as he had leisure, he might try the value of the
Eucalyptus in that country for the removal of those con-
ditions which engender malaria. His reply was somewhat
to the effect that every one was aware of the value of the
tree, and everywhere trials were being made, so that there
was no use in his doing what everybody was doing. This
was very cheerful, showing how rapidly the Italians had
risen up to a full appreciation of new ideas. This winter I
went to Rome with a desire to learn on the spot something
of the conditions of the ground complained of, and receive
some knowledge from the learned men of the place, as well
as from any books which may not be well known here. I
certainly did not obtain any confirmation of the opinion
that every one was attending to the subject. I saw men in
scientific and social positions, in which one might expect
to find the fullest knowledge of the subject, and I came to
the conclusion that it had excited very little interest in
Rome or the neighbouring country.

One small experiment, however, was spoken of, and
several knew of it, although I met few who had seen it.
It was made at the Church of St. Paolo alle Tre Fontane
(usually called Tre Fontane), three or four miles from
Rome, and as this is the only place I have seen from which
to derive a lesson, I must be excused taking such a small

151

*

example. The church has two other churches near it, and a
small residence for monks of the^ order of La Trappe.
The station had been deserted for 40 years, and the ancient
building — the largest and lowest in situation — had been
filled up with mud to the depth of three feet. The Campagna
here is much exposed to malaria, and hence the desertion.
It is by no means a dead level, neither is the upper part of
the Campagna or agro Romano by any means so. The soil
is very deep, and it is cut into vales of a depth which I will
not venture to characterize generally, but enough to say,
they were at this place 30 to 40 feet. The streams, like the
Tiber itself, had brought down their mud, and the place
had become to a large extent a desolation. In 1869 it was
re-inhabited ; and before entering on the dwellings, a num-
ber of prisoners were set to clean out the place, remove the
accumulated mud, and make drains. Round the desolate
spot there is now a garden, and although it is not yet in fine
order, it is, at least in sunshine, a great improvement on the
neglected land around. I venture to give no exact history,
but tell only such few things as were told me at the spot.
During the first season several of the monks died — I think
five was the number given — and of fever such as marshes
produce. A few specimens of Eucalyptus Globulus were
planted, and, as they grew well, a small garden is now
thinly covered over with various species. As one enters
there is a peculiar odour perceptible, it is fragrant, pleasant,
and resinous; some compare it to that from turpentine,
some to the black currant, but every one attempts to give
the name of some other odour as evidently mixed with this
more prominent one. The most of the plants are two or
three years old and about ten feet high; but there is a
diversity, and the oldest has been planted only five years.
This largest was judged by myself and others to be about
thirty-five feet high : at the height of fourteen inches from
the ground it was eight inches in diameter.

152

Not one of the monks had died after the first year, hut
then the place had not been inhabited during the night
until last summer. Still, it will be seen that the experiment
is a very small one and a very imperfect one. It is, how-
ever, important in this respect, that during the last summer
and autumn — the dangerous seasons— no one had died,
whilst during the first there were several deaths. But it
must be remembered that the place had been cleaned out
and drained, and placed, as the buildings were, in the lower
part of a valley, draining must have been much required*
and the fact of mud being in the church itself, showed how
readily the whole was flooded. Although there are now
some trees growing, they are only at one side and they are
small. It is true they give out a very distinct odour very
striking when one goes near, and it may be said that the
cause must pervade all the surroundings even if it be not
perceptible. This will certainly take place in vei^ still
weather, and the low situation protects it greatly from winds.
Still, with every desire to give to the emanations of the
Eucalyptus every virtue demanded, it is not easy to look on
this as a good instance of its success.

One of the monks by name Orsise, had prepared a tincture
from the leaves, and a glass of this was given to every one
daily when fever showed itself. This seems to have been the
really efficient agent that in conjunction with the drainage

protected the brethren last summer.

It is not my intention to speak of this substance with
details to any extent. It is however known that in the
leaves and the bark and even wood of the blue gum tree is an
oil with a very strong odour. There may rather be said to be
several oils, but one which has been called eucalyptol boils
between 170° and 178° C. This is the oil which is said to
resemble cajeput oil, and is said to have an effect similar to
that of quinine. But the substance which has the medical
effect is probably a much more volatile oil continually

153

rising from the plant, and J. Bosisto adds a volatile acid.*

This experiment mentioned shows that men may live in
health in one of the worst parts of the Campagna with proper
precautions, and how different would things be if this plan
were general ; instead of a neglected country with scarcely a
house, it might be a pleasant habitation, as it once was, for
many thousands. Still we should not expect this to occur if
the inhabitants were obliged to take tincture of eucalyptus
leaves very frequently. Indeed the use of the tincture is
itself an objection to the experiment. The difficulty into
which Sir Samuel and Lady Baker got when detained in
Africa was aggravated by fever of a marsh kind, but seems
to have been entirely removed when they used the spirit from
the sweet potato. The fever was not a severe one, but the
fact injures to some extent the experiment at Tre Fontane.

If however we look to other countries we are informed
that the tree itself with its exhalation is quite sufficient to
render a district healthy, and it is perfectly certain that if
the oil is efficacious, and the evidence gives faith,
those who live near must be continually taking in
doses which must soon equal in amount that usually given
as a cure. They must in fact be living in a constant vapour
of this healing oil. In order to produce this condition the
houses must be surrounded with the trees, and every wind
will then blow its measure of health. At Tre Fontane this
is not attempted, and although more ground has been pro-
mised the monks, it is not promised to extend on every side
so that they may manage to be surrounded.

In speaking of the subject it of course occurs to ask : Is
it really certain that this tree will destroy the malaria, and
if not certain, will the expense not be a most alarming one ?
Can any one venture then on giving advice on the subject ?
This last is the very point which I look on as so clear.

* See “ Is the Eucalyptus a fever-destroying tree?” by I. Bosisto.

Roy. Soc. of Victoria, 1874.

154

I do not pretend to give from my own experience any infor-
mation on the curative powers of the oil, but I have read
enough on the subject to satisfy me that the character given
to the plant is well founded. A brochure by Dr. Carlotti*,
of Corsica, goes over the whole subject very fully, and
journals in abundance have treated the subject. But strong
as I believe the arguments are, I would conclude that even
if they were weak the tree ought to be encouraged and
grown largely, because if the benefit of the curative agency
were less there is another advantage arising, and that is from
the nature of the wood. I went to Tre Fontane with a
friend who planted about a million and a half trees in this
country annually, and had studied the growth carefully, and
he said that the best growing tree would require about thirty
years to grow the wood made in five years by the eucalyptus.
The question I then asked was this : Does this rapid growth
arise from the difference of climate in Scotland and Italy ?
But the surprise of the Italians at the rapid growth was
equally great, although I am not able to tell the difference of
increase of the same kind of tree in the two countries. See
on this also the book quoted.

M. Lambert, quoted by M. Carlotti, gives the growth in
Algeria thus : —

Circumference in

centimetres after 1 year .

.. 10

i)

»

V

2 years.

.. 13

5)

»

3 „ .

.. 30

>)

))

;;

4 „ .

.. 40

>)

))

;;

5 „ .

.. 55

5)

)>

V

6 „ .

.. 75

»

}>

7 „ .

.. 90

))

)>

))

8 „ .

..1*20

J)

))

yy

9 „ •

..1-50

M. Carlotti has seen the growth from 11 months to be

equal to 17 cent, in circumference.

* Assainissement des Regions cliandes insalubres par Regulus Carlotti.

(Ajaccio, 1876).

155

Wood about Rome is scarce ; people are cold in winter
and would gladly use a fire, and they put cloaks on even
in their houses I am told. True, their winter is short. It
is a very expensive thing to have a fire in a hotel, and one
can easily burn five francs’ worth of wood in a day, or at the
rate of seventy pounds’ worth a year for a fire in one small
room. People have not fires enough for the wants of a full
civilisation. Even large hotels allow their fires to go out in
the evening, and cooking at unusual times cannot be accom-
plished. The wood of a gum tree five years old is larger
than necessary for firewood, and would at any rate be of a
most convenient size for splitting up. It is too large near
the ground to be used entire, and much larger than any of
the wood which I got in Rome or Florence.

Let us imagine this as a source of fuel, a portion of the
Campagna, Maremma, Pontine marshes, &c., growing such a
crop of combustible matter every five years. Where else
will be found a coal field equal in value ? Let the power
obtainable from this be calculated.

Professor Boyd Dawkins tells me that Sir Charles Nichol-
son, late Governor of Queensland, had proposed planting the
gum trees in Italy twenty years ago, and had sent seed
enough to have covered the Maremma with trees, but we
see what has been done.

Speaking with a Roman senator on the subject, he said it
would take thirty years to grow the trees, and man was a
shadow and could not look so far. I know that man is
mortal, but have often heard that Rome is eternal, and it
is for the future we must act. This senator had the same
idea we have here of thirty years for a pretty strong stem,
but now it is reduced to five with apparent certainty.
These five years themselves may be reduced, because at two
years the trees give out rich odour, and perhaps when still
younger, and thus they begin to work almost at once, pre-
paring wholesome habitations. The evidence seems to be

156

that in the second year the homesteads would with care be
habitable, and in five years there would be a rich crop of
wood off the plantation, whilst the ground cultivated for
other purposes would be richer of course, because it would
be receiving that attention which for a long time it never
has had. The trial in this point of view ceases to be a specu-
lation; it is a fine opening for producing wealth and comfort.
Even if the malaria were not removed the gain from the
wood would be great.

It is said that the tree will not grow if the temperature
falls below 4° C, or about 25° — 26° Fahr. One specimen had
lost the top leaves by frost; but the great fact remains that
they lasted the five years required. There are many varieties
of the tree, and some grow in Australia at the height of
4,000 feet, but I cannot learn if these produce as much wood
or oil as the globulus ; if they do, they promise to be valuable
in this country. The eucalyptus viminalis was said to be
the best for drying up swamps, and it had the appearance of
a willow ; but it was by no means so full of oil to all appear-
ance or so fragrant as the eucalyptus globulus. The
eucalyptus coccifera never suffered at all from the frost at
Tre Fontane, but it had not been long tried ; still the attempt
was made in its tenderest years.

M. Bosisto says that the Eucalyptus Amygdalina grows
350 feet on high undulating forest land, but not above 100
miles from the coast. This may be the best species for
Italy. M. Carlotti seems to recommend the Globulus ;
M. Bosisto’s remarks seem to favour the amygdalina.

The conclusion arrived at was that the frost of the Cam-
pagna would not hurt to any great extent any species of
the tree tried there, and the principal specimen especially.
Nearer the Sabine hills it was said not to grow so well, but
there is abundant low land where it is required.

The value claimed for the eucalyptus is intelligible if we
consider it as continually giving out a medical agent. So

157

far as we know this medical agent, when constantly inhaled,
has no unfavourable effect, a result not very usual ; but it is
difficult to compare it with others, because in no cases can
we take medicine in doses so minute, constant, and equable.
There is room here for a very interesting inquiry.

One virtue claimed for the tree is not so clear— -namely,
its drying up of swamps. This has been accounted for by
its wonderful rapidity of growth ; but I do not hear that it
requires wet ground to grow upon, and am told that it grows
in Australia in very dry places.

M. Bosisto mentions cool refreshing draughts of water
obtained from the trunk of the dwarf trees in the region of
the river Murray. Still one would be glad to hear more on
this point. These dwarfs are only 25 feet high.

A paper read before the Koyal Society of Yictoria by
I. Bosisto shews a great variation in the amount of oil. He
says the Euc. Odorata yields 7 fluid ounces from 2000 lbs.
of leaves attached to small branchlets.

Viminalis..

Rostrata

Obliciua

J.

Globulus

Sideroxylon

Oleosa

Amygdalina

I suppose these numbers to represent the total amount of
oils and resins.

In a report on the strength of wood, published by the
Science and Ait Department, Kensington, the Eucalyptus
stands high, but as there are several species from several
situations the numbers vary considerably.

In a list where the highest breaking weight is 11,158 lbs.
in the case of white or pale iron bark, the blue gum of
N.S. Wales is 7,364 to 6,860, of Queensland 5,663, 4,074,
3,416, and as a means of comparison, may be given Russian

158

Larch 2,142, White Cedar, Queensland, 2,105; the blue
gum, therefore, takes a high position.

That drying is an important element in the removal of
th e causes of malaria cannot be doubted in the most of cases,
but it is by no means apparent in all. It cannot be doubted
that Garibaldi's plan of having another passage for the Tiber
south of Rome would be of great advantage, but especially to
the city itself, which is so frequently inundated, and which
must, therefore, be on a foundation exceptionally wet. The
mud brought down is proverbially great ; but so far as I
could judge it was not so fine as that of the Nile, which,
however, I have seen only in bottles. The Egyptian mud
causes no fevers ; perhaps because it is more rapidly dried
up. The mud of the Tiber is deposited on a very deep soil,
but the same occurs on the Nile. The depth of mud, how-
ever, may have an important bearing in a less burning sun.

The mud of the Tiber seems always to have been remark-
able, and one wonders why it should be able to go on so
long unchanged, but on going up the river the difficulty
ceases; there we find mud hills, many of them conical, all
with steep sides and nearly all without any vegetation except
below in some cases. There is in fact from water an enor-
mous deposit raised to a great depth, and enough to keep the
Tiber as muddy as ever for ages. It seemed to me that all
this fine earth would be very valuable in much of our
country, where we are glad of a few inches over chalk, or of
a little soil scattered among large stones. Here it lies in
great excess, cut into millions of little valleys, a fine study
for those who wish to examine the action of streams, but a
land wasted and almost useless. If these were made to bring
out crops there is room enough for a great population to live,
and if crops were closely grown, the mud would proportion-
ately cease to flow. There is a good deal of friendfy inter-
change of favours to be made between the lower and upper
Tiber. That this is possible seems to be proved from

159

some of these hills being covered, although there are few
in this condition. It may be difficult to coat the steep sides
with any vegetation, but when the top is covered this diffi-
culty diminishes. Still this is work for many men and for
a long time.

A peculiar feature of the unwholesome land struck me.
It began exactly at the foot of the hills. There was no
gradual slope, but you came down from the hill and
were at once on the plain stretching out for miles. This, of
course, favours violent floods, and may be coexistent with
very bad drainage of the plain. Still, as it has been,
remarked, the Campagna around Pome is not a plain surface,
neither are the lower parts the least healthy.

I hope to think more fully of this if I describe the various
opinions on the cause of malaria; at present it comes
only incidentally. The great engineering works which only
governments can undertake promise to be of value, but the
planting to which I specially allude seems to point it out as
the work of private men. This view of the subject, if
correct, must be most comforting to Italy, because it prevents
that delay which is needful before great numbers can be
brought to act in concert. If enough can be done privately
to enable the agricultural labourers to inhabit the plains
without fear, the larger schemes will come in time. The
Tiber is dammed up by bridges, and one, namely Pons
Sublicius, lies now at the bottom, and the water flows over
with difficulty. No wonder the bed rises, and no wonder
the Tiber bursts all bounds at times. It did so even in the
time of Horace, who tells us in his second ode his fear of
another flood as in the time of Pyrrha, when the fish rose
into the trees or paid a visit to the mountains.

This shows that even by reducing the bed of the Tiber
to the level it had in the time of Augustus, floods would not
cease, and deepening is not at all likely to be a sufficient
measure. It is a pity that the double bed should be so

160

expensive. That is, however, not for private action ; but the
use of the eucalyptus is for all who live on the plains out of
town.

This fear is greater now, and the ground less wholesome ;
but of that and the inquiries of Dr. Balestra and others I
hope to speak; after some time. At present I shall content
myself with a few recommendations.

The conclusion to which I come is that enough is known
to prove that great benefit may be expected from the
cultivation of the eucalyptus globulus and perhaps more from
other species. The best plan to begin would probably be
by surrounding with trees any house to be inhabited in a dis-
trict subject to malaria.. That the benefit seems to arise in
the second year, as soon as the plants give out a great deal
of odour. That the experiment near Borne is very small
and somewhaf mixed, but is nevertheless enough to give
great hope to those who have an opportunity to try the
same in the Campagna and elsewhere. That the experi-
ments made in other countries seem to indicate a certainty
of benefit. That, the value of wood being great near Borne,
the eucalyptus promises a substance much wanted and there
is therefore a double reason for growing it. That the
growth is unusually rapid, so much so that even in five years
the wood is much larger than that usually employed for
burning in Borne. The expense of the crop is therefore
small, and Borne is thus promised both a supply of health,
of warmth, and of power by the outlay of little money and
with little labour. Apparently Borne need never envy us
our coals, for her coal thus got will last for ever.

I have made no new discovery in relation to this subject?
but have only put together a few of the more striking points,

161

that my Roman friends may be induced to stimulate action
in those who are more directly concerned, and not leave
neglected such a promising source of comfort and of national
wealth. For not only is this great source of power to be
obtained in the rapidly growing wood, but the removal
of malaria is the introduction of better cultivation and addi-
tional wealth from other crops.

Professor Boyd Dawkins. F.R.S., remarked that in
Australia and Tasmania the eucalyptus grows in almost
every sort of situation and from the sea level to a height
of several thousand feet above the sea. It is to be seen
growing equally well on arid rocky soil based on thick
sandstones, analagous to our millstone grit, and on swampy
ground. In the Blue Mountains a ridge of carboniferous
rock rising in New South Wales to a height of 3,000 feet
above the sea, it is subjected to considerable extremes of
climate. At Mount Victoria, for example, on the 7th of
August, 1875, there was a heavy fall of snow followed by a
frost; and this, I was told, was by no means unusual in the
winter. It seems, therefore, that some varieties of euca-
lypti can stand a moderate amount of cold, and I see no
reason why, if it be thought desirable to grow so ugly a tree,
it should not be naturalised in this country. On this point,
however, I have a letter from Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
which is an important contribution to the history of the
introduction of the plant into Europe.

[copy.]

“ Some years since I wrote to the Government botanist at
Melbourne, suggesting to him the possibility of acclimatising

162

some of the harder varieties of the eucalyptus in the British
Islands ; and at the same time asking him to procure me the
seed of any plants belonging to that family whose habitat
was alpine, or that belonged to the most southern and colder
parts of Tasmania. In compliance with this request he sent
me a collection of seeds, which, however, I suspect were
nearly all derived from the neighbourhood of Melbourne,
Gipps Land. I had them sown in pots, and kept the young
plants in a greenhouse for a couple of years. They grew
with such rapidity that I no longer had any space for them,
and after giving away a number of plants, I turned about
half a dozen out into the open air. Three or four of the
specimens (they were all of the s. eucalyptus globulus or
quadrangular) seemed scarcely to feel the change, and in the
course of some four years attained a height of about ten or
twelve feet. The other specimens put out in the open air
were cut down each winter, growing again from the root
with the return of each succeeding spring.

“ Such has been the result of my experience up to within
the last fortnight. Two days ago, however, on going to my
farm in Essex, I was disappointed to find that my trees,
which had so successfully resisted the frosts of four winters,
had in consequence of the late severe weather been seriously
affected, the greater part of the foliage and the more tender
branches being shrivelled up and dead. I do not imagine,
however, that the trees themselves will be destroyed ; they
will probably lose some two or three feet of their height
and again flourish, if they escape a succession of severe
winters.

“ Were I to attempt — and I regret that I have not done

163

so — the cultivation of the eucalypti, I would arrange the
plants in thick plantations, mixed with pines or nondeciduous
trees, in order that the latter might afford protection to the
young plants during their earlier growths. I find that the
stokea, an Australian genus, grows perfectly well and is
wholly unaffected by the winter climate of England: it
would prove a good associate with the gum tree.

“Some twenty years since, on landing at Naples, and
seeing so many plants of the Australian flora flourishing
there, it occurred to me that the cultivation of the gum trees
might be most advantageously followed throughout the
whole of the Campagna. I tried to impress some of the
official people in Rome whom I met with the idea, amongst
others, Monsignor Talbot, whom I knew, and he engaged,
if provided with the necessary supply of seed, that the
experiment should be tried. At the cost of some trouble
and expense, I procured a quantity of seed, sufficient by
this time to have covered the whole Maremma and Pontine
marshes with a forest of gum trees. But I believe the
attempt in those good old days of Papal supineness was
never made to initiate an experiment which, if successful,
would transform the climate of Italy, and be of value in a
thousand different ways.

“ The coincidence of the presence of the eucalyptus and
the infrequency of malaria is a most curious one. The
investigation of the cause is one well worthy of pursuit.”

In a second letter Sir Charles gives an account of the
eucalyptus in India and New Zealand :

“In 1861 I went through India, and on visiting the Nil-
glierry hills was delighted to see the accacias, eucalypti and

164

angophorus growing, especially the first (the accacias) in the
greatest luxuriance? I afterwards learnt from Sir William
Denison (the then Governor of Madras) that many millions
of plants had been established and were growing indifferent
parts of the Presidency, and that the eucalyptus had been
found to thrive on arid spots and places where no other
trees could be grown. As a source of future supply for
timber the cultivation of the eucalyptus is of course an
object of the very highest importance. As you are probably
aware, hundreds of thousands of acres of land that a few
years ago in New Zealand were open downs or treeless
plains, are now clothed with a thick forest of the indigenous
trees (especially the eucalyptus) of Australia.”

165

Annual General Meeting, April 18th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Mr. Robert Ellis Cunliffe, of Manchester, and Mr. Thomas
Hornby Birley, of Somerville, near Manchester, were elected
Ordinary Members of the Society.

Report of the Council , April , 1876.

The Treasurer’s account shows that in consequence of the
large outlay required for the repair and beautifying of the
property, the renewal of upholstery, the charges for the
incorporation of the Society, binding books, and a new cata-
logue, the expenditure for the year has been £824 11s. lid.
in excess of the income, and has diminished the balance to
that amount; but the ordinary expenditure, allowing an
average amount for binding and assistance in the library,
would be within the income.

The ordinary balance is £94 8s. 7d., and there is due to
the Society one year’s rent from the Geological Society,
which would make £125, less accounts owing for periodi-
cals, £10, and voted for binding and not paid, £27, leaving
an available balance of about £88.

The number of ordinary members on the roll of the
Society on the 1st of April, 1875, was 169, and 3 new
members have since been elected ; the losses are— -deaths,
2 ; resignations, 2 ; and defaulters, 2. The number on the
roll on the 1st of April instant was, therefore, 166.
The deceased members are Murray Gladstone and William
Jackson Rideout.

Mr. Murray Gladstone, who died on August 23, 1875, was
the fifth son of Robert Gladstone of Liverpool, where he
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol. XV.— No. 10.— Session 1875-6,

166

was bom on the 14th of February, 1816. He was educated
as an Engineer, being articled to the late George Stephen-
son. He followed this profession for several years, after
which he became a member of the firm of Ogilvy Gillander
and Co., and went to Calcutta, where he remained for several
years. On the 30th April, 1861, soon after his return to Eng-
land, Mr. Gladstone was elected a member of this Society.
He then resided at Higher Broughton, at the house which
is now Bishop’s Court. He here set up an observatory
with a 7i-inch refracting telescope equatorially mounted.
On the removal of the Crumpsall observatory to Altrincham
Mr. Gladstone placed his observatory at the disposal of Mr.
Baxendell. Some of the results of the observations made at
this observatory have been published in the Society’s Pro-
ceedings. On leaving Manchester he removed his observa-
tory to his new residence, Penmaenmawr.

The Council having received a request from the Commis-
sioners of the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus to
contribute any interesting objects belonging to the Society,
have, with the assistance of Dr. Boscoe, selected such of the
late Dr. Dalton’s apparatus and instruments as appeared to
be of the greatest historical interest, and have sent the col-
lection to South Kensington for exhibition.

The following papers and communications have been read
at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the Society
during the session now ending : —

October 5th , 1875. — “On a Glue Battery,” by Dr. J. P. Joule,
F.R.S., <fcc.

“ On the Red Marls under Manchester,” by E. W. Binney,
F.R.S., Y.P.

October 1 \th, 1875.—“ On the Hybrid British Heath, Erica
Watsoni, Benth.,” by Charles Bailey, Esq.

October 12th, 1875. — “On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,” by
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

167

October 19 th, 1875.— “On some Reactions of Bromine and
Iodine,” by Professor C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S.

“On some Bronze Coins found sixty years ago under a Peat Bog
at MisertonCar, in Notts,” by E. W. Binney, Y.P., F.R.S.

“Notes bearing on Mathematical History,” by Sir James
Cockle, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Society.

“ Note on the Temperature of the body during Physical Exer-
tion,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on
Chemistry, Owens College.

November 2nd, 1875. — “ On a Lead Pipe which had been trans-
formed into Galena,” by Peter Spence, F.C.S.

“On the principle of the Electro-Magnet constructed by
Mr. John Faulkner,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

November Sth, 1875. — “ The Fauna of Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea,
Part II.,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

November 1 Oth, 1875. — “On an Instrument for Measuring
the Direct Heat of the Sun,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

“ On a Colorimetric Method for Determining Small Quantities of
Copper,” by Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc., F.C.S. Communicated by
Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., &c., &c.

November 30th , 1875. — “On the Estimation of very small
quantities of Lead and Copper,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E.,
Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

“ On certain circumstances which affect the Purity of Water
supplied for Domestic Purposes,” by M. M. Pattison Muir,
F.R.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

December 14 th, 1875. — “On a Sample of Peat from lagoons in
the Sierra Madre in Mexico,” by Professor Schorlemmer, F.R.S.

“ On Graphic Methods of Solving Practical Problems,” by Pro-
fessor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp,” by E. W. Binney, Y.P., F.R.S.

“Chemical Notes,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E., Assistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

December 28 th, 1875. — “On the Utilization of the Common
Kite,” by Dr. Joule, F.R.S., V.P.

“ On the Migration of Swallows,” by E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S.

168

January Wth, 1876. — “Note on a Method of Comparing the
Tints of Coloured Solutions,” by J. Bottomley, D.Sc.

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp,” By Robert Rawson, Esq., Hon.
Member of the Society.

January Ylth, 1876.—“ On the Life History of Lymexylon
Navale,” by J. Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

“ On Psammodius Sulcicollis’” by J. Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

January 25th, 1876.—“ Stannic Arsenate,” by William Carlton,
Williams, F.C.S.

February 8th, 1876. — “On the Natural Gas from the Gas Wells
in Butler County, Pennsylvania,” by Professor Sadtler, of the
University of Pennsylvania. Communicated by Professor C.
Schorl emmer, F.R.S.

“ Notice of a recent discovery of a pre-Historic Burial Place,
near Colombier, in Switzerland,” by William E. A. Axon,
M.R.S.L., &e.

“ On the Granites of Ravenglass and Criffel,” by Wm. Brock-
bank, F.G.S.

“ On Boulder Stones in the Manchester Drift,” by E. W.
Binney, Y.P., F.R.S.

“ On the Formation of Azurite from Malachite,” by Charles A.
Burghardt, Ph.D.

“ On a Direct -Vision Spectroscope of great Dispersive Power,”
by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

“ On a New Absorptiometer,” by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

February lith, 1876.— On a New British Moss — Hypnum
nitidulum (Wahl),” by Mr. James Percival.

“ On the Gradual Decrease of Wild Birds during the last 25
years West of Manchester,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

February 2 2nd, 1876.—“ Notes on a Collection of Apparatus
Employed by Dr. Dalton, in his Researches, which is about to be
Exhibited (by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Appa-
ratus, at South Kensington,” by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

“ On the Zoological Station and Aquarium at Naples,” by
Arthur William Waters, F.G.S.

169

“ On Glacial Action in the Valley of the Weir, etc./’ by Pro-
fessor T. S. Aldis, M.A.

February 29 th, 1876. — “ An Account of some early Experi-
ments with Ozone, and Remarks upon its Electrical Origin,” by J.
B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

“ Results of Rain Gauge Observations, made at Eccles, near
Manchester, during the year 1875,” by Thomas Mackereth,
F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

March 7th, 1876. — “ On Crystals of Sulphate of Lead found in
Alum Residue,” by R. S. Dale, B.A.

“ On the Degree of Accuracy displayed by Druggists in the
Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in different towns through-
out England and Scotland,” by William Thomson, F.C.S.

March 13 th, 1876. — “ On a Series of Specimens of very young
Rhombus Vulgaris (Cuv.),” by R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S.

“ Notes made during a Visit in the past Summer to the Swedish
Shell-beds of Uddevalla and the neighbouring district,” by R. D.
Darbishire, F.G.S.

“ List of Shells found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea. Corrections
and Additions,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

March ‘list, 1876.-—“ On a Graphical Method of Drawing
Spectra,” by Mr. William Dodgson, Whitworth Scholar. Com-
municated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S., &c.

“ Evidence to prove that a Bone from the Windy Knoll,
Castleton, named by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
‘ Sacrum of young Bison/ is a Sacral Bone of the Cave Bear,
Ursus Spelaeus,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

April ith, 1876. — “ On the Depreciation in the value of
Silver,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

“ On some Isomerides of Alizarine,” by Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., and Hermann Roemer, Ph.D.

“ Note on Mr. Plant’s Fossil Sacrum from Windy Knoll,” by
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

“ The Eucalyptus and Malaria, by Dr. R. Augus Smith,
F.R.S, V.P.

“ On the Eucalyptus,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

170

Several of the above papers have been passed by the
Council for printing in the Society’s Memoirs. The printing
of Vol. V., third Series, of the Memoirs has been completed,
and the copies are now in the hands of the bookbinders.

Idle Council again consider it desirable to continue the
system of electing Sectional Associates, and a resolution on
the subject will be submitted at the annua] meeting for the
approval of the members.

The Librarian reports that since the last annual meeting
a large number of volumes have been bound and the cata-
logue has been printed. The number of societies with
which we correspond continues nearly the same as last
year. Copies of the catalogue can be had by members on
application.

On the motion of Dr. BorghARDT, seconded by Mr. R. S.
Dale, the Report was unanimously adopted, and ordered to
be printed in the Society’s Proceedings.

On the motion of Mr. Baxendell, seconded by Mr.
Bailey, it was resolved unanimously : —

That the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing Session.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and member's of the Council for the ensuing year :

frmknt,

EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F .G,S.

Ita-frmknts.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S-, F.C.S.

HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

171

<gjeajetam&

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.

%xmmx.

SAMUEL BROUGHTON.

7§%bxmm.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

#t t\z Cmnuil.

Rey. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A.

ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.

WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A,, F.R.S.

BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D,, F.R.S.

CHARLES BAILEY.

CARL SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.

On the motion of Mr. Henry H. Howorth, seconded by
Mr. John A. Bennxon, it was resolved :

That the Council be requested to consider the amendment
of the present imperfect system of election of officers of the
Society.

On the motion of Mr. Spence, seconded by Dr. R. Angus
Smith, it was resolved unanimously :

That a Memorial be presented to the Mayor and Corpora-
tion of the city of Manchester expressing the regret of the
Society to hear that it is proposed to transfer the Reference
Library to the upper rooms of the new Town Hall, and
urging the importance, in the interests of science and litera-
ture in Manchester, of having the valuable books of refer-
ence belonging to the city placed in a central locality in
rooms which will afford the easiest possible access and large
facilities for study.

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

Balance Sheet from April 1st, 1875, to March 31st, 1876.

SAMUEL BROUGHTON, Treasurer.

tj

rH

GO

r-H

CD

h*

rH

>t3

r*N |

NO^OOOH I
^ 1

W

„ >-4*

$0 co ^

oo

O C CC O X |

rH rH 1-H 1

03

r^WCCCS

t— ( rH

?>1 cc H co 1

rH CO j

Ol

CO CO cc

rH n T

173

Ordinary Meeting, April 1 8th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

“Note on a Church Bell, at North Wooton, Somersetshire,
dated A.D. 1265, in Arabic Numerals, and on a MS. dated
A.D. 1276, in which they are freely used,” by William E,
A. Axon, M.R.S.L., &c.

The date at which Arabic numerals were introduced into
this country has been a matter of considerable doubt and
discussion. There are very few to be found upon our monu-
ments and public buildings earlier than the 16th century.
Dates have frequently been cited, such as 1090, 1102, and
so forth, but closer examination has proved that they have
been misread. There is a doubtful date which may be 1417
given in the Archaeological Journal, Vol. VI, p. 291. Heath-
field church contains the date 1445, and Lych-gate, at Bray.
Berkshire, is dated 1448. In documents the Arabic nume-
rals are only occasionally met with in England in the
fifteenth century, and only two examples are known belong-
ing to the fourteenth century. Mabillon, after examining-
six thousand European MSS., found no earlier instance of
the use of these figures than one of 1355, in the hand-
writing of Petrarch. Having written an article on the
history of the Arabic numerals in the Companion to the
Almanac for 1875, in which these dates were given, I re-
ceived from Mr F. W. Dunkerton, an interesting rubbino*

o t>

of a bell inscription, which I now exhibit. The bell is in
the church of North Wootton, near Wells, in Somersetshire,

174

The church is about seven miles from Glastonbury, and there
is a local tradition that one of the bells once belonged to the
famous abbey of that place. Mr. Dunkerton’s curiosity
being thus excited, he examined the bells. Two are modern,
but the largest is an old one, and round it towards the top
is this inscription :

ANMO DOMINM! A P. W.L. CW. 1265.

The letters appear to be cast, and not incised.

If we were to accept this date as accurate, it would upset
all our previous notions upon the subject. There are other
reasons for regarding it with doubt. The earliest known
English church bell is that at Claughton, near Lancaster,
which is dated ANNO DOMI M.CC. NONOG. VI. (1296).
The North Wootton date is thirty-one years earlier. It
would be strange if the oldest bell should chance to be also
the earliest example of the use of the Arabic numerals in
English inscriptions. Dates are but rarely found on me-
diaeval bells. The earliest instance of the use of Arabic
numerals on them with which I am acquainted is at Egling-
ham church, near Alnwick. The inscription is in German,
and the date 1489. Strasburg is said to have one bell dated
1461, and another 1474. There is therefore strong proba-
bility against the accuracy of this North Wootton date.
The style of the letters remind one of a later period. Apart
from the date, most persons would be inclined to attribute
them at the latest to the 16th rather than the 13th century.
The three sets of initials seem also to indicate a comparatively
recent age. Mr. H. T. Ellacombe, in his work on the “ Church
Bells of Somersetshire,” suggests that the date should be
read 1625, the figures being out of order. This seems impro-

175

bable. Mr. Ellacombe does not appear to have seen the bell
itself. The letters have a strong resemblance to those used
by Roger Semson, of Ash Priors, who was at work in the
middle of the 16th century.

The vine leaf ornament which is observable over the
inscription suggests an even later date. It was a form of
decoration frequently used by a family of bellfounders at
Closworth, one member of which, Thomas Purdue, died in
1711, aged 90 years. The letters he used strongly resemble
those employed by Semson.

Mr. J. A. Picton, F.S.A., who has paid a good deal of
attention to the history of numerals, writes to me that he is
inclined to identify the second figure with the gobar figure
5, though it differs in position, and the last figure with the
gobar 4. In this case the date would be 1564. Whilst
agreeing with him in assigning the inscription to the 16th
or 17tli century, I am unable to solve the riddle of the date
in a satisfactory manner. It is certainly the most puzzling
of all those which seem to carry back the use of Arabic
numerals to a much remoter date than is commonly allowed.
On this general subject, however, the last word has not yet
been said. Since the publication of Mr. Pictons memoir
“ On the Origin and History of the Numerals” in the
Transactions of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
Society , 1874, and of my own paper in the Companion to
the Almanac , 1875, we have both heard of a MS. of the
13th century, in which the Arabic figures are freely used.
It is a treatise on the Astrolabe, by Macha-allab, or Messa-
hala, and is dated 12/6. This is now one of the treasures of
the Cambridge University library, where it is marked Ii. 3.3.

176

A portion of it has been printed in the Rev. W. W. Skeat’s
edition of Chaucer on the Astrolabe ( Early English
Text Society , 1872.)

This shows that the Arabic numerals were in use at a date
much earlier than is generally supposed. A critical examina-
tion of this MS. and of the form of the numerals employed
would probably throw more light upon this interesting
subject.

177

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

Annual Meeting, March 28th, 1876.

E. W. Binney, F.RS., F.G.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., and ft. F. Gwyther, B.A.,
were elected members of the Section.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —

Jrwiiwttt.

E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S. | J. B. DANCER, F.R.A.S.

&xmmzx.

SAMUEL BROUGHTON, ESQ.

Ihmlarg.

THOMAS MACKERETH, F.R.A.S., F.M.S,

April 25th, 1876.

Alfred Brothers, F.B.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr, Baxendell read a paper “ On the Connexion between
the Humidity of the Air and the Amount of Ozone,” in
which it was shown from observations made at the South -
port Observatory during the four years ending J une 30th,
1875, that in the months of January, February, March, Sep-
tember, October, November, and December the amount of
ozone was above the mean when the relative humidity of
the air was below the mean, while in the months of April,
May, June, July, and August it was above the mean when
the relative humidity was also above the mean. The excess
with a relative humidity below the mean was greatest in
the months of September, November, and December; and
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc,— Yol. XY.— No, 11.— Session 1875-6.

178

with a relative humidity above the mean the greatest excess
of ozone occurred in April and May. The results of the
four years’ observations are as follows : —

;

Mean Amou
with the
Humidity

Below the
Mean.

nt of Ozone,
Relative
of the Air

Above the
Mean.

Difference.

January

5-6

4-5

+1.1

February

4'8

3*9

+0-9

March

5’4

5T

+03

April

4-0

5-7

—1-7

May

5-2

6-8

—1*6

J une

5*2

62

—1-0

July

53

5-4

— 0T

August

4-9

5-1

—0-2

September

6-4

4-1

+2*3

October

5-0

37

+1-3

November

5-8

35

+■ 23

December

5-8

3-7

+2'1

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION,
April 10th, 1876.

A. Brothers, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Sxdebotham, F.R.A.S., made the following remarks.

On the discovery of JEgialia Tufa.

In the middle of last June I captured two specimens of a
species of Coleoptera new to me. This proves to be rEgialia
rufa of Fabricius, a species found in North Germany, but
said to be rare. Rufa differs from the other two British
species in being of a red colour, the pro thorax is rugose and
margined at the base, and the elytra strongly crenate striate.
The specimens found were on the loose sand at the base of
the sand hills at Southport. I send one of the specimens for
exhibition, also specimens of the other two allied species.

Mr. T. Rogers communicated the following

I recorded the discovery of a Jungermannia which has
been provisionally named Jungermannia Nevensis, by Dr.

Carrington. It was discovered by Mr. John Whitehead
during a botanical excursion to Ben Nevis, July, 1875. It
has not yet been described, but is near in form to Junger-
mannia Starkii, and probably may have been overlooked
for that species. Dr. Carrington thinks it may be new iu
science, but he confirms Mr. Whitehead’s surmise that it is
new to Britain, and it will consequently appear in the ap-
pendix to Dr. Carrington’s work on British Hepaticse. It
grows in moderate sized patches on the sloping banks of the
mountain. Neither male nor female flowers have yet been
found.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., exhibited a series of
specimens which he obtained in September, 1875, from the
inner side of the barrier reef at Honolulu, ^together with
photographs. At that point of examination the reef was
formed of irregular nodular limestones composed in part of
corals, millepores, and perfect shells, but mainly of fragments
so broken up and altered by the action of carbonic acid that
the original structure was almost lost. The fine calcareous
sediment forming the bottom of the lagoon, and covering
the shore up to the very edge of the lofty palms was analo-
gous in every respect to that which composes the oolitic
limestones, and especially the Bath or great oolite. In the
deposits on the inner side of the reef, as well as in the
limestones above mentioned, corals were equally distributed.
The masses of coralline limestone were traversed by Ser-
pulse, just as in the case of the Coral Crag.

The few shells which he happened to find were as
follows -

Range in British Museum.

1. Triton Chlorostoma, Lam. ... West Indies.

2. Fasciolaria stigmataria , A. Ad. ... Sandwich Isles.

3. Purpura hau strum, Marty n.

4. Nassa hirta, Hi]. ... Seychelles.

5. Obeliscus teres A. Ad. ... Penang.

o

180

Range in British Museum.

6. Cyprcea caput-serpentis

... New Zealand.

7. Cyprc/ea gangrenosa ? Sol.

. . . Mozambique.

8. Trochus anthosa {J)

... New Zealand.

tuberculata ? Gray.

9. Natica Brodripiana ? Reclus

West Columbia.

10. Turbo margaritacea , Lam.

. . . Seychelles.

11. Tellina rugosa

.f. New Caledonia.

12. Myrtea scalia, Lam.

... St. Thomas.

18. Terna California ? Young.

Terna Cumingii ? Reeve.

14. Modiola tenuistriata , Dun.

It is worthy of note that the Obeliscus teres of the above
list is the nearest living representative of the oolitic genus
JYerincea so abundant in the limestones of that formation.

The following communication from Mr. Plant, F.G.S.,
was read : — -

A Beetle of Good Omen from Yucatan.

This curious beetle is found in the Province of Merida,
and the Indians find it in the caverns and underground
chambers in the ruins of the ancient buildings, described by
by Mr. J. L. Stephens in his interesting work on Yucatan.
The natives have a strong superstitious regard for these
beetles, considering them as powerful charms against evil
spirits, and sure to bring good luck to their 'possessors, so
they keep them alive in their houses^ and carry them about
on their persons. In order to secure the beetle from
wandering away, a light band of gold is fastened round the
thorax, having a gold chain and hook attached to it ; this
hook serves to secure the beetle to the curtains of a bed,
as a protection during the night from ghosts and evil spirits
and also to fasten in front of the dress in the daytime, to
wear like a living brooch. The Indians have a belief that
the beetle will live for years without food or water, and

181

that it is quite harmless, having no power to bite, and cannot

fly-

It is probable that in a natural state the beetle will live
several years, as it belongs to a tribe of coleopterous insects
of sluggish habits, concealing themselves in dark and damp
places and shunning the daylight.

The whole of this tribe of beetles (Melasoma) is usually
uninteresting to coleopterists, being nearly all of dull black,
brown, or greyish colours, ugly in forms, and of bad repute
for their habits and odours. This particular beetle is
oblong, flattish, an inch and half long by half an inch broad
(looking much like a large Elater), the thorax and elytra
ashy white, a black cross on the thorax, the scutellum and
tips of the elytra black, with raised oblong black spots,
sparingly on the elytra which are united together under-
neath, black with numerous ashy pits.

The beetle is Heteromerous, coming under the family of
Melasoma (Latreille), in which the British Bleeps Mortisaga
is included, but I have not at present been able to find any
authority for the genus and species.

It is an interesting instance of reverence and superstition
attached to an insect, and coming from Yucatan, may be
one that has descended from the ancient people who built
those marvellous cities and temples.

Annual Meeting, May 1st, 1876.

J ohn Barrow, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Thomas Hornby Birley, of Somerville, Pendleton, was
elected a member of the Section.

The Treasurers account, and report of the Council were
read and passed.

r*

H

P . •

§ ©

C/2

P

■•*1

O

i— i

W

PM

O

m

©

P

1—4

w

Ph

P

£

<

>*

H

a g

g g

►3 M

P3 3
p -q

Eh

CQ , .

h ta

w ^

o

p
tf
£>

c o

P <|

W P

N 03

Eh

t*

P3

O

Eh

P

w

Em

fe
O

£

O

£ a

O H
P f-j
C/2 £

Eh

a

a

o

oq o

tS 3

HH <tj

P !5

◄ a

a

t>

Eh

P

52;

<1

P

<1

o

l-H

PM

O

o

oq

o

Ph

O

HH .

£ JS

p ^

w

Eh

0

>T3

00

o

O

a

rH

CO

a

o

O

cn

cq

CO

r— (

rH

r— 1

H-i

h-H

o

rH

b-

rH

O

CO

o

f—H

r— 4

ca

o o o
o o o

o co i>»

^ r-M

ri4

a

o3

pp

■+3

• •

a

CO

©

CD

a

o

• rH

a

H-3

c3

Ph

*Ph

PP

o

CO

PP

42

a

Ul

ip

b-

00

00

CD

■4-3

o3

H §

CCS 00
© co

ip

b-

00

£

CO

i-

00

5h

Ph

<1

©

a _

o m

a

©

t>

CD

CO

Ph

CD

42

a

<D

£

Ph

a

c2

j>>

-4-3

Ph

IB

o
£

-+j

a

c3

Ph

o

o ^

O H-2
-4-3

CO

©

Ph CD _
£ 02 £

s g

C3

gq CQ

jj *H ^

s K

5 -h H2

w

M-3

a

• i—4

C4H

o

^ cT

-4 CD
©

fi

o

a

o

CD £

q 3

c3 _£

a ^

a ^

W Q

o

*73

£

O

— (

"c3

§ | a

P> a <n

• — H 4^H -

CD

O

©

«

Ph

©

-4-3

a

I— <

rd

O

o

O

o

O

o

O

o

CO

o

rH

00

00

o

00

o

rH

oq

PI

oq

co

1— i

00

CO

pq

rH

rH

rH

rH

rH

00

t-H

o

Ol

pq

T— I

co

r-H

rH

rH

i-i

rH

•

»

rH

C*

co

r-H

a

-©

CO

a

a

■73

CO

w ©

>

C3 • i-H
Ph 4^

a O

a Ph

CO

l"c3

a

a

Cj

CO

CO

oo ^ <!

CO

©

• r*H

4P

©

Ph

<4

co

©

r-H

o

*>

a

o

£

o

-43

H-o

• rH

h3

O

H-3

©

0

1

£

©

h

H-3

o

PP

•

CD

O

m

o3

■ — i
©
h3

CO

H-3

o

©

CO

©

©

Ph
o
o

2 -2
Ph h-3

.3 H

s 'g

©

— ' 1—1

Q £

pp

©

P5

H->

a

0

CO

1 ®
^ ©
<1 02

CO

42

a

ui

i — i

cS

a

o

CQ

©

■73

co

©

Ph

Q *H

8

©

rH

■73

CO

t—

GO

Ph

«S

CO

• r— i

a

Ph

cS

CO

*Ph

a

.2 Ph

HJ

CO
©

os a

■+■> OS

o PQ

Ph ^

a

CO

©H

a

c3 .

© c3

PP Ph

©

o

a

02 CS

c3

Ph
O
CO
42

M H W

o3

© c3

O

frasi

■4J

©

©

Ph

Ǥ
m

1

c3

Ph

©

H-3

02
©

rP ..

CD CO

p CO

a |

-4> “<1

8 S

J ^

'a a

pp (g

<£>

pp

GO ^

£

CQ

«

o

Eh

I— I

p

p

h

p

a

a

HH

pp

p

p

◄

p

© 9
£ g O

Ph P a

8 H *H

T3

a

a ^

c2 ^

r» n IN ts rv

^3

a

o3

t3

©

a

c3

©

a

bD

• rH

C/2

H

co

a

a

W

ffl

183

The election of Officers for the ensuing year took place
as follows

^csftrtnt.

W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.R.S., &c.

Uitt^rcsftwits,

R. D. DARBISHIRE, B.A., &c.

CHAELES BAILEY.

E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

treasurer.

HENEY ALEXANDER HUKST.

Secretary

J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

Council.

JOHN BAEEOW.

THOMAS COWAED.

A. BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.E.A.S.
SPENCER H. BICKHAM, Jun.
JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM, F.E.A.S.
THOMAS ALCOCK, M.D.

W. BEOCKBANK, F.G.S.

134

List of Members and Associates of the Section

Alcock, Thomas, M.D.

Bailey, Charles.

Barrow, John
Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
Bickham, Spencer H., Jun.
Binney, E. W., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Birley, Thomas Hornby.
Boyd, John.

Brockbank, W., F.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.

Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S.
Cottam, Samuel.

Coward, Edward.

Coward, Thomas.

Cunliffe, Robert Ellis.
Dale, John, F.C.S.

Dancer, John Benj., F.R.A.S.
Darbishire, R. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.R.S.
Deane, W. R.

J4Umfccrs.

Heys, William Henry.

Higgin, James, F.C.S.

Hurst, Henry Alexander.
Latham, Arthur George.
Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S.
Morgan, J. E., M.D.

Nevill, Thomas Henry.

Nix, E. W., M.A.

Piers, Sir Eustace.

Roberts, William, M.D.
Sidebotham, Joseph, F.R.A.S.
Smart, Robert Bath, M.R.C.S.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.

Wright, William Cort,
Waters, A. W., F.G.S.

Barratt, Walter E.
Hardy, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.
Meyer, Adolph.
Peace, Thos. S.
Perciyal, James.

Associates.

Plant, John, F.G.S.

Rogers, Thomas.

Roberts, John, M.D.

Ruspini, F. Orde.

Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S.

Tatham, John F. W., M.D.
Warren, Hon. J. B. Leicester.

Waterhouse, J. Crewdson.

Thos. Sowler and Co., Printers, Red Lion Street, St. Ann’s Square, Manchester.