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OF 


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OF THE 


ONONDAGA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 


VOLUME 


EDITED BY 
Tae PUBLICATION COMMITTEE: 


SYRACUSE; Ni Y:: 
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY. 
1903. 


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x _ SyRACUSE, N. Y. 


PROCEEDINGS. 


VOLUME I. BROCHURE I. 


APRIL 17, 1896. 


The first regular meeting of the Academy of Science was 
held in the rooms of the Onondaga Historical Association. Mrs. 
L. Leonora Goodrich, chairman of the committee on Natural 
Science of the Historical Association, of which the Academy was 
the outgrowth, presided. Meetings for the purposes of organiz- 
ation had been previously held on March 5, March 10, March 24, 
~ and April 7, and a temporary organization effected. 

Prof. J. A. Dakin delivered a lecture entitled 


THE WARBLERS AND HUMMING BIRDS OF 
ONONDAGA. 


The lecture was illustrated with a large number of speci- 
mens of birds and their nests. In the discussion which followed 
many questions were answered by Prof. Dakin. 


May 15, 1896. 
SECOND REGULAR MEETING. 


Mrs. L. L. Goodrich in the chair. 
Prof. E. N. Pattee spoke of 


mee ANALYSES OF THE GREEN STREET DIKE. 


The rock had been studied in place in the water pipe trenches 
and analyses made of the same in the university laboratory. 
These clearly proved the igneous nature of the rock. The miner- 


4 


als contained in the rock and also the inclusions were carefully 
described and illustrated with specimens. Borings in the adjoin- 
ing rock clearly proved that the igneous matter has been forced 
upward fully 6,000 feet. 


Prof. Philip F. Schneider next reported upon 
THE GEOLOGY OF THE GREEN STREET DIKES. 


Four dikes had been found crossing Green street at nearly 
right angles and extending in a northerly direction. The erup- 
tive matter had changed to a yellowish decomposition product in 
all of these but Dike IV., the most easterly. This had a foot of 
decayed material on either side of a twelve foot center of com- 
paratively hard rock, and was traced northward to Highland 
place. The only sign of metamorphism noted was a slight 
change in color of the adjoining shales. 

A record was made of the capture of a Lumpsucker, or sea- 
fish, in Onondaga Lake during the past week. 


JUNE 5, 1896. 
THIRD RFGULAR MEETING. 


Mrs. L. L. Goodrich in the chair. 


Reports on the various branches of work were given as fol- 
lows: 


Conchology by Dr. W. M. Beauchamp. 
Ornithology by Prof. J. A. Dakin 
Geology by Prof. Philip F. Schneider. 
Botany by Mrs. L. L. Goodrich. 


OcTOBER 2, 1896. 
FOURTH REGULAR MEETING. 


Mrs. lL. Leonora Goodrich in the chair. 


5 


The committee on Constitution being ready to report, the 
Constitution and By-Laws as published in a previous pamphlet 
were adopted. 


The election of officers as provided in the constitution was 
then held resulting as follows: 


President, Charles W. Hargitt. 

Vice-President, 5. R. Calthrop. 

Secretary, Philip F. Schneider. 

Treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts. 

Iibrarian, Miss Virginia Ll. Jones. 

Councillors, for one year, W. M. Beauchamp, E. C. Quer- 
eau; for two years, Eugene Haanel, John A. Dakin; for three 
years, John D. Wilson, Mrs, L. L. Goodrich. 


The following list of charter members was then prepared. 


Charles W. Hargitt, Henry A. Peck, John A. Dakin, W. H. 
Metzler, FE. N. Pattee, H. W. Britcher, Louise W. Roberts, 
Joanna M. Campbell, Virginia L. Jones, W. M. Beauchamp, L. 
Leonora Goodrich, Jesse G. Huntington, Philip F. Schneider. 
Also by nomination, EF. C. Quereau, Frank L. Mead, John D. 
Wilson S. R. Calthrop, Eugene Haanel, Franklin H. Chase, 
George A. Dakin, S. Ellis Crane. 


NovEMBER 20, 1896. 
FIFTH REGULAR MEETING, 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcrirt, in the chair. 
Forty-two persons present. 


President Hargitt delivered his inaugural address entitled: 
THE AIMS OF OUR ACADEMY. 


An abstract of this address is published in the first brochure 
of the academy under the heading, Organized Science. 


6 


Mr. Horace W. Britcher read a paper entitled: 


A SUMMER LABORATORY ON THE COAST OF 
MAINE. 


Mr. Britcher told of his specialty, spiders, and also de- 
scribed the methods of securing material at the laboratory, by 
dredging, etc. Many specimens were also shown. 


DECEMBER 18, 1896. 
SIXTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcrrr, in the chair. 
Forty-seven persons present. 


Dr. S. R. Calthrop delivered an address entitled, 
LOCAL GLACIERS. 


He described the earth’s surface at the time of the Glacial 
Epoch especially in this vicinity of Central New York, and then 
took up the results of the ice action in this vicinity. Skaneateles 
Lake was stated to be a result of glacial action. 


Dr. Alfred Mercer next spoke about 
ALASKAN- GLACIERS. 


He explained that the trip was taken with Prof. Muir, the 
discoverer of the famous glacier, and illustrated his talk with 
many maps, charts, and photographs. 


Dr. E. C. Quereau spoke about 
SWISS GLACIERS. 


The character of these streams of ice, their method of form- 
ation, their appearance, and their habit of forcing their way down 
to the region of green fields and flowers, were all carefully de- 
scribed, and many photographs shown. 


a 


JANUARY 15, 1897. 
SEVENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcirv, in the chair. 

F orty-one persons present. 

The report of the council recommended the election of Miss 
Mary Stanley and Gaylord P. Clark to active membership, and 
John H. Rollo and William W. Newman to associate member- 
ship. 

The report was adopted and the candidates elected by formal 
ballot. 


Dr. W. M. Beauchamp read a paper entitled, 


WHAT A BOTANIST MAY FIND OF INTEREST IN 
CES. VeENILY 


More than a dozen violets with rare colorings, and a half 
dozen species of the mallow family, forty species of leguminous 
plants, forty umbelliferous plants, fifty of the rose family, 
twenty-five of the heath family, more than one hundred of the 
composite family, milk weeds five in number, and many other 
varieties were described in detail. He did not neglect the trees, 
finding a score of willows, five oaks, nine cone-bearing ever- 
greens and others. Orchids, ferns, smilax, pond weeds, grasses 
(seventy-five in number). were given along with valuable sug- 
gestions that should excite the botanist who heard them. 


FEBRUARY IQ, 1897. 


EFIGHTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcirt, in the chair. 
Thirty-eight persons present. 


The names of Joseph Glass and W. R. Maxon were favor- 
ably reported for associate membership and they were elected by 
formal ballot. 


8 
Prof. J. A. Dakin read a paper entitled : 
HOW TO. STUDY-BIRDS. 


He would divide Ornithology into three classes, the syste- 
matic, the philosophic, and the economic. By this classification 
we can trace not only the relationship of one bird to another, but 
to all vegetable and animal life. From the study of the structure 
the step is to the philosophic, or the bird in field and forest, where 
we find the reason for the differences in structure. The migra- 
tions of birds make a living calender. 


MARCH 19, 1897. 
NINTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcirt, in the chair. 
Thirty-three persons present. 
Dr. H. A. Peck gave a lecture entitled : 


THE NEBULAR HYPOPREBais 


The theory was carefully traced from the time that it was 
first given to the world by La Place, and the antagonism which it 
had provoked briefly outlined. He did not believe that Book of 
Genesis was intended as a treatise on Astronomy. When we read 
the Bible as an exposition of religious facts instead of scientific 
facts we are not led astray. 


APRIL, 23, 1807, 
TENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirvt, in the chair. 
About two hundred and fifty persons present. 


The meeting was held in the Physical Lecture Room at 
Syracuse University. 


9 


A set of memorial resolutions on the death of Prof. Edward 
D. Cope, president of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, was then offered by President Hargitt, and read 
by the secretary. 

The resolutions were unanimously adopted as the sentiment 
of the society. 


Dr. Eugene Haanel gave a semi-popular lecture on 


aE XRAY: 


May 21, 1897. 
ELEVENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


' The president, Dr. C. W. Harceirt, in the chair. 

About fifty persons present. 

_ The report of the council recommended : 

(1) The election of Miss Belle Douglass, Miss Gertrude 
Moorehouse, Mr. E. A. Winchell, and Mr. Wardner Hall as 
associate members. 

(2) The payment of certain bills amounting to $9.20. 

The report was adopted, the bills ordered paid, and the 
candidates elected by formal ballot. 

A memorial of Edson S. Bastin was then read by Mrs. L. L. 
Goodrich, and the sympathy of the academy extended to his 
widow. 


Prof. John D. Wilson spoke about 
THE GONIATITE LIMESTONE. 


This formation is best studied on the road east of Jamesville, 
where some twenty feet of dark fragile Marcellus shale separates 
it from the underlying Corniferous Limestone. The Goniatite 
Limestone is less than three feet thick at this locality, and has 
two horizontal seams, one six inches from the top, and the other 


IO 


fourteen inches. The rock contains a large amount of organic 
matter, and has a distinct petroleum odor when first broken. 

When by means of chisels driven into the upper seam, a 
slab is raised, the Goniatites appear on the lower side of the 
raised portion. The fossil can rarely be obtained free from the 
rock, because the upper side of the shell is usually broken, having 
been more exposed than the lower which was imbedded in the 
soft sea bottom. 

Several varieties of goniatites, orthoceras, gomphoceras, and 
evroceras, together with other genera contained in the formation 
were described. 


JUNE 18, 1897. 
TWELFTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, CHARLES W. Harcirv, in the chair. 

About thirty persons present. ; 

For the geological section Prof. J. D. Wilson reported that 
meetings were being held regularly the first Friday of each 
month, at which time papers are read and reports on local work 
given. 

For the botanical section Mrs. L. L. Goodrich reported that 
a herbarium is being prepared for the academy. Two new plants 
have been discovered, one of which, a violet, is new to the state. 

For the zoological section Mr. H. W. Britcher reported that 
our local insects and reptiles are being classified at present. Also 
that classified lists of shells and birds are being made in those 
departments. 


SEPTEMBER 17, 1897. 
THIRTEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirv, in the chair. 


Twenty-five persons present. 


II 


Dr. W. M. Beauchamp gave an address entitled: 
ARCHEOLOGY. 


The speaker brought out the fact that this region was visited 
temporarily at least by the Esquimaux and the Mound Builders 
before the Indian came and made a permanent home here for him- 
self. Aboriginal implements may be classified as of chipped and 
polished stone, of bone, horn, shell, and copper. The Indian 
knew nothing of flint drills, and scrappers, stone spears, slate 
gorgets, stone tubes, and curious bird amulets. ‘These had be- 
come lost arts, showing an entire change in race before the Iro- 
quois and Algonquins came. The Onondagas did little work in 
stone, preferring to work in wood and bone. Their harpoons of 
bone have been found in large quantities near Brewerton. The 
difference between the Indian’s and the white man’s wampum 
was explained; many of the belts for which great antiquity is 
claimed belong to the latter class, and therefore the traditions 
concerning many of them are really mythical. 


OcTOBER 22, 1897. 
FOURTEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Hareirt, in the chair. 

Twenty-six persons present. 

An invitation was extended to the Microscopical Society of 
America to hold its next annual meeting in Syracuse. 

Reports of summer’s work were presented by the various 
sections. 


NOVEMBER I9, 1897. 
FIFTEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirvt, in the chair. 
Forty-four persons present. 
Dr. Gaylord P. Clark gave an address entitled: 


THE SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 


12 


DECEMBER 17, 1897. 
SIXTEENTH REGULAR MEETING, 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirvt, in the chair. 
‘Twenty-five persons present. 


The report of the council recommended : 

(1) That the name of Albert Perrior be added to the char- 
ter membership list. 

(2) That a public exhibit be given the third Tuesday in 
January. 

(3) That Charles. Wheelock and James M. Bronson be 
elected associate members. 

(4) That Charles E. White, A. Clifford Mercer, S. G. 
Harris, and F. P. Knowlton be elected active members. 

(5) That treasurer be authorized to secure some necessary 
supplies. 


The report was adopted, the consent given, and the members 
elected by formal ballot. 


Prof. E. N. Pattee read a paper entitled: 
CHEMISTRY IN MODERN LIFE. 


JANUARY IT, 1808. 
SPECIAL MEETING. 


Dr. Charles W. Hargitt, president of the academy, presided 
at this meeting which was held in the Historical Rooms. 


A lecture was given by Dr. E. C. Quereau entitled: 
CHANGES IN THE CRUST OF THE EARTH. 


Dr. Quereau spoke of various agencies at work affecting 
the surface of the earth constantly, and illustrated his remarks 
with stereopticon views representing scenes in various parts of 
the country. 


as 


The president also spoke, calling attention to the work of the 
academy and its various discoveries, after which a social hour 
was indulged in, during which refreshments were served by the 
ladies of the academy. 


JANUARY 21, 1808. 
SEVENTEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirt, in the chair. 
Thirty-four persons present. 


Mr. W. R. Maxon read a paper entitled : ; 
THE, DISTRIBUTION OF THE SCOLOPENDRIUM. 


The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as fol- 
lows: President, C. W. Hargitt; Vice-President, Gaylord P. 
Clark; Secretary, Philip F. Schneider; Treasurer, Miss L. W. 
Roberts; Librarian, Miss Virginia L. Jones; Councillors, W. M. 
Beauchamp, Edmund C. Quereau. 


FEBRUARY 18, 1808. 
EIGHTEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirt, in the chair. 
Twenty-seven persons present. 


The annual reports were presented as follows: 
SECRETARY S REPORT. 


The report of the secretary, Professor Philip F. Schneider, 
is summarized as follows: 

The academy has held twenty-two meetings at which papers 
and reports have been given. Fourteen have been held since our 
organization, October 23, 1896. 


14 


The following subjects have been discussed: Zoology, Gla- 
ciology, Botany, Ornithology, Electricity, Astronomy, Archeol- 
ogy, Geology, Physiology, Chemistry. 

The membership at present consists of thirty active, and 
eight associate members. 

The average attendance at regular meetings is thirty-six. 

Two semi-popular lectures have been held during the year, 
one entitled the “‘ X Rays ”’; the other, “ Geologic Changes in the 
Farth’s Crust.” 

Two papers read before the Geologic section have been 
printed in pamphlet form and distributed to the members. They 
are entitled: “ A Geologic Fault Near Jamesville, N. Y.,” and 
“The Limestones of Central New York.” 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 


The treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts, made a report of 
the finances of the year, summarized as follows: 


Receipts during the+year./.......:2 5 seen $42.80 
Disbursements durine the year... 5.32 aie 21.00 
Balance on hand January 21, 18085. .3.=ee $21.80 


LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. 


Miss Virginia L. Jones, librarian, reported the receipt of 
three bound volumes, and a large number of pamphlets during 
the year. 


REPORT OF SECTION A. 


Mr. John D. Wilson, chairman of the Geologic section, 
reported that the regular meetings of the section had been discon- 
tinued since October. Previous to that time regular meetings 
had been held the first Friday of each month. ‘Two of the papers 
read had been printed and copies distributed to all the members 
of the academy. <A ‘gasteropod shell, new to science, had been 
found in the Goniatite Limestone, and named Macrochelius 
Onondagensis by State Geologist John M. Clarke. 


15 
REPORT OF SECTION B. 


Mrs. L. L. Goodrich, chairman of the Botanical section, 
announced that brief accounts of the work in that section had 
been given from time to time in the regular meetings, and that 
her annual report had already been printed among the papers of 
the Historical Association. 


REPORT OF SECTION C. 


Mr. Horace W. Britcher, chairman of the Zoological sec- 
tion, read a report which is summarized as follows: 

During last spring six Batrachians were taken and during 
the summer six Reptilians. 

In September a small specimen of Scutigera forceps, a my- 
riadpod as yet rather uncommon here was taken. 

A beginning in the collection of the smaller Mammalia was 
made by the trapping last December of three mole-shrews, Blar- 
ina brevicanda, and one white-footed mouse, Calomys ameri- 
cans. 

During the year one hundred and thirty bottles of spiders 
have been taken (from one to twenty specimens to a bottle) 
comprising probably seventy-five different species, of which six 
or seven are new to the county, btit not to science. These were 
collected as follows: 

May 9, shaken from the trees and bushes at the Indian 
Reservation, 16 species; August 3, from bushes and among dried 
leaves at Oak Orchard, 27 species; August 26, beneath stones at 
Onondaga Hill, to species; August 27, from bushes and beneath 
stones, Jamesville road, 15 species; October 1-10, shaken from 
cedar trees in the swamp on Jamesville road, 22 species ; October 
1-10, shaken from cedar trees along the top of rocks overlooking 
the Jamesville road, 32 species; from Cicero swamp, Syracuse, 
Jamesville, Pompey Hill, and Tully, 10 species. 


President C. W. Hargitt delivered an address entitled: 
THE PUTURE. OF THE ACADEMY, 


Special lines of work suggested in this for the year included 
the biology of the lakes, streams, canals, and swamps; some- 


“ 


16 


thing in meteorology; chemical analysis of soils, rocks, and 
water; exhaustive study of our limestones, which are full of in- 
teresting problems; our mineralogy, with a view to furnishing a 
successor to the Solvay Process Company when it follows the 
salt business in exit; a further campaign in botany; a study of the 
fungi, liverworts, and algae, and continued research in the field 
of insect life, which is vast and almost unexplored. 

The report of the council recommended the election of Mrs. 
M. Bb. Ackerman and Dr. I. H. Levy to active membership, and 
Miss Ada A. Harris to associate membership. 


The report was adopted and the members elected by formal 
ballot. 


FEBRUARY 24, 1808. 


A special lecture was given on this date by Dr. Ralph §. 
Tarr of Cornell entitled : 


Ae TRIP? TO GREENLARD: 


The lecture was illustrated with numerous lantern slides 
and described the trip with the “ Hope”’, which went to relieve 
Explorer R. E. Perry in 1896. The Cornell party were left at 
Greenland while the Hope proceeded farther north, and the study 
of the glaciers there furnished material for the lecture. 


MarcH 18, 1808. 
NINETEENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcrrt, in the chair. 
Thirty-eight persons present. 


The lecture committee reported receipts amounting to 


$18.20. 


17 
Prof. John A. Dakin read a paper on 
ENTOMOLOGY. 


At the conclusion of the paper the academy took an intermis- 
sion to examine the collection of “ Lepidoptera ’’ which had been 
arranged for exhibition in the committee rooms. 


The council recommended the election of John Van Duyn to 
active membership, Miss Carrie M. Allen and Adam C. Hazel- 
barth to associate membership. 


The report was adopted and the members elected by formal 
ballot. 


APRIL 15, 1808. 
TWENTIETH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirv, in the chair. 
About sixty persons were present, the meeting being held in 
Lecture Room C at the Medical College. 
Dr. A. Clifford Mercer gave a lecture entitled: 
PHO TOMICROGRAE TY. 


The lecture was illustrated with many slides showing his 
method of securing photomicrographs, and the arrangement of 
his apparatus, together with many views of the objects them- 
selves, which were thrown upon the screen. 


May 20, 1808. 
TWENTY-FIRST REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirv, in the chair. 


Thirty-two persons present. 


18 


Dr. John Van Duyn gave an interesting talk entitled: 
ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY. 


This was illustrated with a large number of microscopic. 
slides. . 

Additional facts along this same line were given by Prof. 
F. P. Knowlton. 

A committee of five consisting of Dr. A. C. Mercer, Charles 
W. Hargitt, John Van Duyn, Mrs. L. L. Goodrich, and Miss 
Louise W. Roberts was appointed to act as a committee of 
arrangements for the summer meeting of the American Micro- 
scopical Society. 


JUNE 17, 1808. 
TWENTY-SECOND REGULAR MEETING. 


Pror. J. A. DAKIN in the chair. 
Fifteen persons present. 


Mr. C. W. Wheelock outlined the work in the geological 
section. ‘The season has been spent in making a careful study of 
the fauna of the Goniatite Limestone, the glacial evidences, and 
the chemical analysis of the Salina formation. 

In the Botanical section Miss L. W. Roberts reported the 
discovery of the horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, new to this 
county. Because of the unfavorable weather fewer excursions 
were made than in previous years. 

Mr. John A. Dakin reported one excursion of the Zoologic 
section; he is also contemplating the preparation of a life history 
of the birds of the county. 


SEPTEMBER 16, 1808. 
TWENTY-THIRD REGULAR MEETING. 


Dr. W. M. BEAucHAmpP in the chair. 


19 
Eighteen persons present. 


Mr. Britcher reported the taking of brown hydras, and of a 
tree toad, Hyla versicolar, during the summer. 


Dr. Beauchamp called attention to the opportunity afforded 
by the bone implements among the Indian relics for listing the 
extinct mammals of the county. 


Dr. E. C. Quereau gave the address of the afternoon en- 
titled : 


THE GEOLOGY OF MARTHA’S VINEYARD. 


OcTOBER 21, 1808. 
TWENTY-FOURTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harerrt, in the chair. 

Fifteen persons present. 

The report of the council recommended : 

(1) The payment of certain bills contracted in connec- 
tion with the meeting of the Microscopical Society. 

(2) The election to active membership of A. A. Tyler, and 
S. G. Rogers. 

(3) The election to associate membership of Dr. Mary E. 
Wright, Miss M. E. Hill, and Miss M. Rosenthal. 


(a0) Ihe transfer of the name of Dr. S. G. Harris to the 
corresponding membership list. 


~The report was adopted, the bills ordered paid, and the can- 
didates elected by ballot. 


The first lecture of the afternoon was by Mr. H. W. Britcher 
entitled : 


NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF BRANCHIPPUS 
POND: 


20 


This was followed by a paper on 
RECENT WORK ON ANIMAL GRAFTING. 
By Cuaries W. Harcrrr. 


The thanks of the academy were extended to the speakers. 


NovEMBER 18, 1808. 
TWENTY-FIFTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcirt, in the chair. 
Thirty-five persons present. 
The publication committee was instructed to ascertain the 
cost of publishing a thirty-two page pamphlet. 
The following paper was then read: 
THE WHETSTONE INDUSTRY. 


By Puitie F. SCHNEIDER. 
( Abstract. ) 


The speaker first gave a short history of the general subject 
of whetstones, in which he showed how they came to be employed 
and the circumstances leading to their use. This was followed 
by the description of local stone and the methods of its manufac- 
ture, concluding with an account of the Arkansas and Washita 
Novaculites. 


THE LABRADOR STONE. 


InNTRopucTION. In an almost inaccessible region among 
our southern hills lies a small body of water known as Labrador 
Lake. On either side of it rise lofty hills averaging more than 
_five hundred feet above the water, while not far to the eastward is 
the loftiest summit in Central New York, towering more than 
one thousand feet above the water of the lake and over twice that 
distance above the sea. Up toward the top of these steep cliffs 


21 


are the layers of rock which have recently become famous as the 
outcrop of the Labrador Whetstone. The layers used for this 
purpose are some fine grained greenish colored sandstones, inter- 
bedded with brittle shales of the Portage Group, the entire mass 
being several hundred feet in thickness and capping the hills. 

History. ‘The fitness of this rock for sharpening purposes 
was recognized Jong before it came into prominence as a whet- 
stone. The wood choppers of Fabius were among the first to 
note its effectiveness, for early in the fifties they are said to have 
used detached pieces from the neighboring ledges for sharpening 
their axes. One of the first of these primitive stones is still used 
by its finder, Mr. Hotaling, who picked it up on his farm near 
Labrador Lake over sixty years ago. It is still in good preserva- 
tion, all the rough edges having long since been worn off. In- 
deed, a large share of the stones used for sharpening purposes 
have been obtained in just this way, having been picked up by 
their owners in the fields or rocky ledges, and have never seen the 
interior of a whetstone factory. 

As this rough sandstone seemed to give such excellent re- 
sults in all of the ordinary sharpening purposes for which it was 
used, there seemed to be no question but if it were properly cut, 
it would prove an excellent whetstone. Mr. M. M. Thomas of 
Manlius was one of the first who was strongly impressed with 
this idea, and he spent many days in trying to convince others of 
the advisability of manufacturing this rock into whetstones. As 
a result the Labrador Oilstone Company of Manlius, N. Y., was 
organized in the autumn of 1878. Mr. A. S. Wilcox of Manlius 
was the principal stockholder, Mr. M. M. Thomas, and Mr. Allan 
Gillette also holding shares. Quarters were immediately secured 
at Manlius on the site of what is now known as Cheney’s Lower 
Foundry and work was begun with two small gang-saws, one 
rubbing plate, and one pair of wheel machines. But so great was 
the demand for the new stone that they could not begin to supply 
the same. It is estimated that ninety ton of the rough rock was 
cut during the first year. Increased facilities being demanded, 
the company decided to move their quarters and quadruple their 
facilities, This was accomplished by the addition of four pair 


22 


of large gang-saws. The industry continued to flourish and for 
several years no stone was cut excepting the Labrador oilstone, 
but after three years other kinds were also received until to-day 
there are over two dozen varieties of whetstone handled at the 
factory. 


STRUCTURE OF THE STONE. While almost everybody is 
sufficiently acquainted with whetstones to know their most 1m- 
portant uses and qualities, only a few know what to expect of a 
stone or how to care for one after it is obtained. Because the 
whole subject seems so simple and so common it is given little, if 
any, thought even by persons who constantly use whetstones, and 
they are the losers thereby. Many a valuable stone has been 
ruined by being used just once by the person who knows nothing 
about the proper care of a stone and who thinks there is nothing 
to know. 

The Labrador stone has been described by Griswold as a 
hard tough sandstone of keen grit, particularly suitable for glass- 
worker’s and carver’s files. 

There are at least three factors which determine the effec- 
tiveness of every whetstone: the size of the grit grain, its form 
and composition, and its structure. 

Looking at these three qualities in the order mentioned we 
find (1) that the effectiveness of a stone will depend on its ability 
to scratch off particles of the substance which is being sharpened. 
Some one has said that the grains may be likened to sharp teeth, 
which are comparatively large, in coarse gritted stones, and small 
in those of finer grit. In the coarser varieties the spaces between 
the cutting points are so large that the scratches made on the tool 
are far apart, deep scratches are also made by these large points, 
and hence because the furrows are both deep and far apart it is 
impossible to obtain a fine edge with a coarse stone. The fine 
grained stones on the other hand show only small particles of 
grit crowded closely together, so closely in fact that each grain 
makes only a tiny scratch, while the furrows are so close together 
that the eye cannot distinguish the individual scratches and the 
result is a polished surface. These little grains cannot work rap- 
idly and the amount of work given them to do should not be 


23 


large. In many instances it were better to first sharpen the tool 
on a coarse whetstone before using the finer variety. As both the 
rapidity and fineness of abrasion depend on the size of the cutting 
erains, the effectiveness of two stones will be as the cubes of the 
diameters of these grains. Hence a stone with grains of a diam- 
eter of one will abrade steel eight times as fast as a stone having 
grains with a diameter only half that size, but on the other hand 
the work of the latter stone will be eight times as fine. 

2. In examining the effect of the form and mineral com- 
position of the grit grain we notice that in the fine grained stones 
the grains should be uniform in size, for should there be large 
grains among the smaller ones it would be impossible to obtain a 
fine edge. The grains should also be angular in form otherwise 
they will not scratch, it is this rounded character of the grains 
which causes some stones to glaze after being used for a time. 
The amount of foreign matter among the grains also influences 
the abrading qualities, for if it separates the grains too much the 
scratches will be too far apart for effective work. The hardness 
of the material itself also effects its usefulness, but as silica is the 
abrading substance in almost all whetstones, it really makes the 
form of the silica the last influence. In sandstones the silica is 
in rough irregular grains, in schists in irregular massive grains 
scratching by means of angles and points, while in the novacul- 
ites it is in minute angular grains. The varieties of silica also 
vary slightly in hardness depending on the manner in which the 
particles are joined together. 

Finally, in considering the effects of structure we find that 
the particles may be consolidated simply by pressure, either with 
or without the présence of earthy material; or they may be act- 
ually cemented together, with or without the presence of earthy 
matter; or consolidation may be due to both of these causes. In 
the Labrador stone we have an excellent example of a stone in 
which the cementation is the important factor although it has also 
been subjected to pressure. It contains very little earthy matter. 
An iron cement binds the particles of silica together, and so 
strong is this cement that unless the stone is used hard it has a 
tendency to glaze. 


24 


GLAZING. One of the pricipal reasons why whetstones 
glaze is because they do not wear away fast enough. ‘The wear 
on the stone should always be greater than the wear on the steel, 
or the stone will glaze. This may be due to the scratching points 
becoming worn and smoothed which frequently happens in coarse 
grained, strongly cemented stones; or it may be caused by the 
filling in of the spaces between the grains with particles of the 
metal so that the stone loses its scratching power, which is more 
likely to happen with hard, fine-grained stones; or it may be due 
to a combination of both causes. Hence it will be seen that slow 
wearing stones always have a tendency to glaze, while fast cut- 
ting stones, by constantly giving a renewed supply of scratching 
points, ought never to glaze. But all mechanics know that some 
of the best fast wearing stones also glaze. Whenever this has 
occurred it has almost always been due to the use of poor lubri- 
cants, or else to an imperfect knowledge of their use. There can 
be no question but that the dry surface of a whetstone cuts more 
keenly than does the same surface when covered with a fluid; still 
a dry stone heats the tool which should be diligently guarded 
against. With the coarser stones which are liable to heat tools 
water is used, but as all such stones are fast wearing plenty of 
water should be used, otherwise the particles worn off by the 
abrasion will unite with the water to form a paste which is slowly 
ground into the pores of the stone. This soon produces a glaze 
which will damage the stone if allowed to harden. Such glazed 
spots are sometimes of service in putting a finer edge on the tool 
than would the stone itself, but they should be carefully scraped 
off after finishing the edge of the tool. Water is also occasionally 
used with some fine grained stones but. as such stones do not 
heat much its main use is for carrying away the powder formed. 
Since but a small amount of heat is generated by the use of such 
stones, it might at first appear feasible to use them dry, thus 
securing more rapid work, but the pores of the dry stone would 
surely become filled with the fine dust which is always worn off, 
thus causing it to glaze. As glazing due to this cause would 
prove equally injurious to a coarse stone it forms an important 


2 


oat 


objection to the dry use of any stone. The free use of water 
overcomes the objection 

Oil, however, is more frequently used with the fine-grained 
stones. As it is thicker than water, it keeps the powder out of the 
pores by holding it on the surface of the stone, where it acts like 
a polishing powder in giving a finer edge to the tool. Very little 
oil is necessary, and it is better in every case to carefully wipe 
off the same after using and thus prevent the formation of a glaze 
due to the hardening of the oil and powder. Ojlstones should 
always be kept moist thus preventing the formation of a hard 
gum by the drying of the oil. Frequently, porous stones are 
ruined by the hardening of oil in the pores of the stone. 


CUTTING QUALITIES. Sandstones, which are used for 
whetstone purposes, are divided into two kinds, the coarser and 
the finer, the Labrador stone being one of the latter. Two other 
fine sandstones have become more than locally famous, the Hin- 
dostan and the Adamascobite stones. The Labrador stone is 
harder and coarser than the others, its grain averaging 1-20 of 
a millimeter in diameter. In the common scythe stone they are 
1-5 of a millimeter in diameter. As the work done is propor- 
tional to the cubes of the diameters of the grains, the Labrador 
stone does work sixty-four times as fine as the scythe stone, that 
is it will produce sixty-four furrows or scratches to one of the 
other. The Hindostan averages 1-50 of a millimeter in diameter 
and is fifteen times finer than the Labrador stone. The Arkansas 
stone also cut at the Manlius factory, is 1-100 of a millimeter in 
diameter and is thus eight times as fine as the Hindostan, 125 
times as fine as the Labrador, and 8,000 times as fine as the 
scythe stone. Thus it may be seen that while the Labrador stone 
does not give a fine finish, still it is a great improvement over the 
common scythe stone, giving a good cutting edge for many kinds 
of work. 

Griswold* gives the following microscopic description of a 
slide of the Labrador oilstone: “This stone is a fine-grained 


*Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890 Volume 
III. Novalculites, by L. S. Griswold. 


26 


sandstone of greenish-gray color. The grains of quartz vary 
from .08 to .o1 of a millimeter in diameter and many give polor- 
ization colors of a high order. The silica is imbedded in a matrix 
of calcareous earth containing a large percentage of iron, and 
there are present also flakes of muscovite, sometimes bent be- 
tween the grains of silica. The iron is limonite unevenly distrib- 
uted, which binds the particles of the stone together by its 
branching lines. The aggregation of iron into these lines repre- 
sents probably a secondary process, but with the exception of this 
and some doubtful secondary quartz, the stone is an unaltered 
sediment. Considerable effervesence occurs when treated with 
dilute hydrochloric acid. The abrasive qualities are due entirely 
to the rough quartz grains.” 

This description emphasizes the fact that the Labrador stone 
is a strong slowly wearing stone with a grit of medium fineness. 
Its strength and resistance to wear being its important qualities. 
It is well adapted for kitchen stones into which it is manufac- 
tured in considerable quantities. In this respect it differs from 
both of the other fine grained sandstones, which are not strong 
enough for kitchen stones or files. The Hindostan is better fitted 
for the ordinary tools of carpenters and mechanics, while the 
Adamascobite is too soft and too expensive for an economical 
carpenter’s stone. The Labrador stone, on the other hand, is 
not only a good but at the same time a handsome stone for all 
kitchen and table purposes, also for the various forms of files, 
and in fact for all whetstones where the tools permit of a consid- 
erable pressure, and do not require an extremely fine edge. It 
makes a first-class intermediate stone to use before finishing on 
the Arkansas. In speaking of its peculiar adaptation for kitchen 
purposes, a recent catalogue of the Pike Company says: “ It is 
a handsome stone cut from a solid piece of Labrador rock. It 
has a sharp, medium coarse grit, and gives a splendid edge to 
carving knives. It is strong and more desirable for ordinary 
kitchen or table use than the emery, as it will not glaze, nor eas- 
ily break.” 

MaNvuFacturRE. ‘The preparation of whetstones for use 
has always been a simple matter; the principle being the same for 


27 


every method of manufacture although the details differ some- 
what in order to suit the various stones. The process consists of 
but two parts: (1) the rough shaping of the stone to the desired 
form, (2) the rubbing down of these rough stones to a smooth 
finish which is always accomplished with sand and water. Thus 
simple is the entire process. In the early history of whetstones 
it is quite probable that the grinding with sand and water on a 
smooth surface comprised the greater part of the process, and 
even now it takes much time and labor. Since, however, it has 
become customary to first saw the stones into shape, the grind- 
ing has been much reduced. At present the cutting is done by 
means of gang-saws, while the rub-wheel is employed in the 
abrading process. In the factory at Manlius they have eight pair 
of gang-saws, also three rub-wheels, and so successful is the in- 
dustry that all are kept running constantly. 


THE Ganc-Saw consists of a rectangular frame in which 
strips of iron one-eighth of an inch in thickness, three inches in 
width, and some ten feet in length, are placed edgewise at the 
desired distances apart, and parallel to the long sides of the rect- 
angle. This machine is suspended in a horizontal position over 
the bed on which the stone to be sawed is placed, but attached to 
another framework sliding in oiled grooves; the latter is fastened 
at the four corners by chains which pass over wheels in the solid 
woodwork above and attached to an axle at about the center and 
top of the machine. To the wheel of the axle is attached a rope 
also passing over wheels at or near the end of the gang, and to 
the other end of this is fastened an adjustable weight. By means 
of this contrivance the gang-saw may be very easily raised, for 
simply pressing down on this weight turns the wheel and axle, 
winds up the chains, raises the sliding framework, and thus lifts 
the gang-saw attachment. By means of the adjustable weight 
which is always lighter than the framework and gang, the saws 
are kept constantly and steadily at work with a pressure equal 
to the difference of the two weights. While this machine, which 
is known as the Rope and Chain Gang, may seem a trifle cumber- 
some it has the great advantage of regulating itself to the char- 


28 


acter of the stone cut. Hence it is well adapted to the whetstone 
industry for here the rock is not always one great block of stone, 
in fact it is hardly ever that, but is almost always a mass com- 
posed of many small pieces which have been cemented together 
with plaster of Paris and sand in the saw bed and thus offers a 
somewhat varying resistance to the action of the saws. This is 
an important advantage over a “‘ Screw-feed ’’ gang in which the 
saws are moved down regularly by machinery at a rate propor- 
tional to the hardness of the stone. In the latter gang the saws 
become choked if hard spots are encountered, although they work 
well enough where the texture of the stone is perfectly homogen- 
eous. 

The cutting is produced by moving the saw gang backward 
and forward over the stone and freely supplying it with sand and 
water, the actual cutting of the stone being caused by the constant 
rubbing against the rock of these iron bands or saws in which the 
hard grains of sand become imbedded. As the sand is coarser 
than the grains of the stone, the latter are gradually scratched 
away. 


THE Sanp Pump. Until recently it was necessary to em- 
ploy workman, not only to watch the several gangs but also to 
supply the same with the sand necessary for sawing. One pair of 
gangs would usually furnish one man with plenty of employment. 
At that time the necessary water was supplied from a perforated 
pipe extending across the entire bed above the stone and from 
which the water was continually dripping. In thus trickling 
down it would first carry the sand to the saws, and then wash 
out the fine powder produced by the sawing. Recently, however, 
they have introduced the sand pump in the factory by means of 
which the water after carrying the sand to the saws and doing its 
work there, is drained from the groove surrounding the gang- 
saw and pumped up again to drop from the pipe above the bed. 
Thus the same sand and water is used over and over again mak- 
ing it possible to dispense with the extra workman, and enabling 
one man to watch an entire bank of saws instead of but one pair 
as formerly. 


29 


While the size of the wooden framework in which the saws 
are set measures five by ten feet, the stone bedding is somewhat 
less than this. More than three feet will have to be deducted 
from this length to allow for the eighteen inch swing of the saws, 
although the width of the bedding is nearly the same as that of 
the gang. Four by six feet is about the actual size of the stone 
bedding. The saws swing at the rate of sixty-five strokes per 
minute. 


THE Rus-WHEEL, or rubbing-plate, is simply an iron disk 
one and five-eighths inches in thickness, and revolving in a hori- 
zontal direction. Water and sand are also used upon the wheel 
to assist in the abrading process. ‘The sand is kept on a slightly 
elevated platform at the center of the wheel, and the water drips 
down upon it from an open pipe. Occasionally, if the dripping 
water does not carry along a sufficient quantity of sand, one of 
the workman will losen the sand a trifle with an iron hook, thus 
keeping a sufficient amount of sand constantly upon the wheel for 
polishing the stones. Above the wheel a stationary framework 
is placed, which comes close down to the surface of the wheel and 
divides the circle into several parts. Whenever it is desirable to 
grind a flat surface the stone is placed on the wheel next to one of 
the arms where it is weighted down and the moving wheel and 
grinding sand do the work. Much of the work, however, includ- 
ing all rounded edges, ends of slips, and particular forms, re- 
quires the special attention of a workman, who holds the stone 
in his hand while it is being ground. The wheels used at the 
Manlius factory are seven feet in diameter and are divided into 
five separate parts by the framework. Thus five men may work 
advantageously at one plate at the same time, but if necessary, 
each of these parts could accommodate two workman, although 
neither would then have the perfect freedom at present enjoyed. 
Fourteen men are now kept constantly at work in the rubbing 
department at Manlius. 


THE SAND used in the sawing is also deserving of mention. 
The regular sawing sand is obtained from Sylvan Beach, near 
Oneida Lake. It is a reddish brown in color and composed 


30 


almost entirely of fine angular quartz grains. At a recent visit 
to the factory during the snow blockade, which prevented their 
obtaining the regular sand I found that they were using the local 
village sand for cutting purposes with fair results. Specimens of 
it were obtained for comparison with the regular sand. It lacked 
the purity of the latter, containing hardened mud, small pieces 
of shale, and finely triturated limestone, together with the silice- 
ous particles. Although no actual measurements were made, an 
examination with the low power showed that the grains varied 
more in size than the Oneida Lake sand, some of its particles 
being much larger than any of the grains of the latter. Occa- 
sionally sand has been used which was obtained from Lake On- 
tario, no specimens of this were examined. 

The “ green ”’ sand as it is received at the factory can not 
be used on the rub-wheel, but must first be broken and reduced in 
the sawing process, after which it is preserved for use on the rub- 
bing-plate. 


WaTER PowER is used at this factory, there being several 
falls along the course of this stream, which is noted for its steady 
power. This is due to the existence of the DeRuyter reservoir 
at the head of the stream which is used as a feeder for the Erie - 
canal, thus giving a regular supply of water. A fifty horse power 
turbine wheel is used for obtaining the power. 


UsrEs AND Prices. We have already spoken of the fitness 
of the Labrador stone for glass-worker’s and carver’s files, also of 
its admirable adaptation for kitchen and table stones. It is also 
cut into carpenter’s whetstones, axe stones, and smaller stones 
for mechanic’s use. Its toughness makes it valuable wherever 
strength is a necessary quality, hence it is particularly adapted 
for coarser kinds of files. The following are wholesale prices 
quoted from the Pike catalogue for 1893. Cut into axe stones 
it brings 20 cents a pound, as slips it brings 50 per cent. more, 
wheels are classified at 50 cents per inch, while the kitchen hones 
bring from $4.00 to $5.00 per pound. 

In conclision it is well to remember that the Labrador stone 
is the only rock found in New York state which is used for whet- 


ein 


stone purposes. When the industry began in 1878 only the Lab- 
rador stone was cut here. At that time they had but two gang- 
saws and one rub-wheel. Now they have three rub-wheels and 
eight pair of gang-saws. Then the gangs measured 3x5 feet, 
now they are nearly twice that size. Then they had one pair of 
whee! machines, now they use six pair. Then they employed 
from four to six persons, now they give constant employment to 
over forty men. Then but one kind of stone was cut, now they 
cut six different kinds, and handle two dozen varieties. Then 
about ninety ton of the rough stone was cut, last year they cut 
over five hundred ton. 

The paper was illustrated with many specimens. of whet- 
stones from both the old and new world. 


DECEMBER 16, 18098. 
TWENTY-SIXTH REGULAR MEETING. 

The president, Dr. C. W. Harerrt, in the chair. 

Forty-five persons present. 

The publication committee reported that the cost of a sixteen 
page pamphlet with printed covers would be twenty-three dollars. 
The report was accepted and the committee authorized to pro- 
ceed with the publication. 

The council report recommended : 

(1) The payment of certain bills for postage, ete. 

(2) The name of Miss Elizabeth Conklin for associate 
membership. 


The report was adopted, the bills ordered paid, and the 
candidates elected by formal ballot. 


Professor Philip F. Schneider spoke about 
THE PALEOBOTANY OF ONONDAGA. 
( Abstract. ) 


The Arthropycus Harlani of the Medina group is quite 
abundant; the Clinton formation contains several small fucoids, 


32 


also the Buthrotrephis gracilis, and the Rusophycus bilobatus. 
The latter has sometimes been said to be merely the cast of a 
King Crab impression, but it is doubtless a plant and the most 
abundant fossil of the group in our vicinity. 

The Niagara formation contains a branching fucoid, while 
the beds of oolyte so closely resembling the roe of fish were no 
doubt formed by the cells of Glocotheca and Gloeocapsa in much 
the same manner that they form in Great Salt Lake and other 
places to-day. The Blue-green algae require carbon, which they 
abstract from the water, thus reducing its solvent power and 
causing it to deposit masses of the cells which form the beds on 
the bottom of water. 

The lignilites of the Salina group are of mineral rather 
than vegetable origin, although in the flints of the Corniferous 
we find some protophytes, diatoms, and desmids, also imperfect 
land plants belonging to the class of Lepidodendrids. 

The so-called coal of the Marcellus group is of vegetable 
origin, although the terrestial plant life at this time was quite 
limited, and the search for coal in paying quantities in this for- 
mation must ever prove futile. In the Hamilton period such life 
was more or less abundant as is proven by the lepidodendrids 
occasionally found at Pratt’s Falls and other places, the trunk of 
a tree fern unearthed near Cazenovia, and the somewhat doubt- 
ful forms from Skaneateles Lake region which have been re- 
ferred to the sigillaria and archeocalamites. 

It is also of interest to note that our shells and petrified trees 
are occasionally pierced by a boring algae, belonging to the class 
of Schizomycetes, proving the existence of bacteria even at that 
early time. 


The second paper of the evening entitled: 
VARIATIONS IN TRILLIUMS, 
was read by Mrs. L. Leonora Goodrich. 
The paper was illustrated with a large number of specimens 


which had recently been returned to Mrs. Goodrich from the 
Philadelphia Academy where they had been sent for description. 


33 


The third paper was given by Dr. A. A. Tyler, entitled: 
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES THROUGH VARIATION. 


The speaker said that the peculiar variations of the trillium, 
which had just been seen, might be accidental in which case the 
peculiarity would not be perpetuated, but sometimes peculiarities 
of plants do manifest themselves and are retained, thus forming 
new species. The way in which certain forms revert to their an- 
cestral varieties was described. ‘The new shoots which sprout 
from the stump of a willow tree look more like the willows of the 
Tertiary age than they do like the tree that was cut down, and 
thus with numerous other forms. 

The paper was discussed by W. M. Beauchamp and Charles 
W. Hargitt. 

After the literary program a social hour was spent together 
by the members during which refreshments were served by the 
members of the Botany club. 


JANUARY 20, 1899. 
TWENTY-SEVENTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. C. W. Harcrr’, in the chair. 
Seventeen persons present. 


The annual reports were presented as follows. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT. 
The report of the secretary, Philip F. Schneider, is summar- 
ized as follows: 


Stated meetings have been held on the regular dates during 
the year with an average attendance of 32. 


Papers on the following subject have been delivered: 
Botany, two; Zoology, two; Photomicrography, one; Ento- 
mology, one; Geology, one; Sectional reports, 3. 


34 


One popular lecture has been given during the year, entitled : 
“A Trip, to Greenland ” by Dr:.R. $. Tarr. 

We have also entertained as guests during the summer the 
members of the American Microscopical Society. A most enjoy- 
able feature of this convention was the Microscopical Soiree, 
when several hundred invited guests were received by the officers 
of the society and of the academy. 

Copies of the paper entitled, ‘ The Topography of the Green 
Lake Region ”’ read by Dr. F.. C. Quereau before the Geological 
Society of America have been distributed among the members. A 


twenty-page brochure of the academy is now in the hands of the 
printer. 


The present membership is as follows: Active, 32; associate, 
17; corresponding, 1; total, 50. 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 


The treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts, made a report of 
the finances of the year, of which the following is a summary: 


Balance on hand. January 21, 18Q8s.9500 ee $ 21.80 
Receipts: tram all sources ...\...'. c/a eee 153-05 

dotal > wih... J0f ee $174.85 
Disbursements during the year: 2.0... seee 107.39 
Balance on hand) January 20, 1890: 22am ee $ 67.46 


REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN. 


The librarian, Miss V. L. Jones, reported the receipt of two 
bound volumes, and a large number of pamphlets. 


REPORT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 


Read by Mr. H. W. Britcher, assistant secretary. 

The officers of the section are: Edmund C. Quereau, chair- 
man; Frank L. Mead, assistant chairman; Philip F. Schneider, 
recorder. 

The work of the year has included: ‘“‘ A Study of the Green 


Be) 


Lake Drainage,” by E. C. Quereau; “ A Comparison of the Gon- 
iatite Fauna with that of Equivalent Limestone in western New 
York”, John D. Wilson; A collection of photographs of impor- 
tant rock exposures, falls, and quarries, F. L. Mead; The Study 
of the Pleistocene Deposits at Onondaga Valley”, C. W. Whee- 
lock; The Disturbances along the line of the Helderberg Escarp- 
ment, Philip F. Schneider; Facts relating to the thickness of the 
Tully Limestone, G. A. Dakin. 

Mr. Frank Hall has also reported the discovery of a seam of 
quartz crystals in the Corniferous rock at the Indian Reservation. 
This is to be studied in an endeavor to discover the source and 
method of formation of the same. 


REPORT OF BOTANICAL SECTION. 


Read by Mrs. L. Leonora Goodrich, chairman. 

The Botanical section has continued. the work in ferns, 
mosses and liverworts, upon which we were engaged at the time 
of last annual meeting, until early spring. An extremely warm 
season prevented accomplishing all we desired by way of botaniz- 
ing, especially through swamps; our usual rendezvous during 
July and August. May 30, the exact anniversary of the day we 
found Cubeliwm concolor (gree violet) last year, an unsuccess- 
ful search was made in same locality—Round Top. In May sev- 
eral members of the Botanical section found quantities of Epigea 
repens, (Trailing Arbutus) a few miles from Phoenix. This 
beautiful little harbinger of spring has become nearly extermin- 
ated from localities nearer home where it was plentiful a few 
years ago. Mr. Britcher reports having found T. erythrocarpum 
southeast from Green Lake, in woods at entrance of Tully Lake 
Park, and Labrador Pond. ‘This pretty painted trillium cannot 
furnish too many localities to gratify the eye for beauty. Mr. 
Britcher also furnishes localities for several orchids, among 
which the rare Cypripedium Hookeriti blossoming in woods north 
of Britton’s quarry. 

Was delighted to hear of that as but one locality is known 
in the county, 772, that furnished by Mr. Beauchamp, near Bald- 
winsville. 


36 


We are pleased to report three plants new to this locality, 
Glaucium Glaucium, yellow horned sea poppy, found by Miss 
Louise Roberts near the old reservoir, in June. This is a Euro- 
pean plant and found here before, only very sparingly near the 
Atlantic coast. Miss Roberts has made efforts to perpetuate this 
plant, having collected the seeds and transplanted one of the 
roots as well as protected the roots that remained. 

To Mrs. Ackerman belongs the credit of finding in the 
southern part of the city Sanguis orba (Burnet). A specimen 
sent to Prof. Peck calls forth the fact that she has added one 
more plant to the state herbarium. ‘This plant is also introduced 
from Europe where it is used as a salad. 

During August in a lot near my house I found Crepis virens, 
not mentioned by Grey but identified through Britton’s Illus- 
trated Flora. Is noticed in the New York State annual report 
of 1864 as found in Greenwood Cemetery, Long Island, by Mr. 
Merriam, therefore not new to the state, but the next best thing, 
new to this county. Probably introduced here with grass seed. 
We can hardly claim either of these as indiginous. 

July 16, in company with two friends visited Tamerack 
swamp in search of Zigadenus elegans and Tofieldia glutinosa; 
two lillies I have never found elsewhere. Tofieldia we did not 
find though I received it from there about four weeks later, but 
Zigadenas elegans in large quantities. This plant I found in 
small quantities in Tamerac about sixteen years ago, but could 
not identify species by any of the existing botanies, though near- 
est Zigadenas Glaucus of Grey. I sent a specimen with statement 
of attempts and failures to Prof. Grey. In his reply he expressed 
great delight at receiving the first specimen he had ever seen, and 
stated that description was wrong and should be corrected in his 
next edition. 

In his last edition not completed at time of his death, it was 
so corrected under the name of Zigadenus elegans. 

We also found during that excursion Parnassia Caroliniana, 
three different pyrolas, different galliwms and two orchids. It 
appeared a grand time for a good find, for one could scarcely 
step without crushing flowers, but was an excessively warm day 


37 


and we did not penetrate the swamp many rods, before two of 
us, overcome by the heat, retraced our steps, taking a seat on the 
dusty sidewalk to await the arrival of the cars. I did not again 
venture to investigate a swamp. 

August 20, we found in woods not far away from the uni- 
versity Dasystoma Pedicularis (Fern leaved Fox glove,) with its 
large, yellow, snapdragon flowers. Has been found in the county 
before I am told, but this is the first I ever saw or heard of. Near 
it was a fine patch of Polygala verticillata. 

August 26, Cimicifuga racemosa was found on Round Top, 
also in Oakwood; singular that the two only known localities for 
that tall and graceful plant should be the two cemeteries. 

Miss Stanley and I spent the first week of July on the shores 
of Oneida Lake near Shackleton’s Point, there we found water 
willow, Hydrocotile Americana and the very rare Selaginella 
spinosa. 1 have yet to learn that this is not new to this state. It 
may be. I found it in Bangor, Penn., eleven years ago, the only 
specimens I have ever found. 

During September, among the salt blocks found quantities 
of the beautiful little lavender colored Tissa marina, (sand spur- 
try,) and Aster subulatus, (salt marsh aster,) both succulant 
plants, as most of the salt marsh plants are. 

Asters have been unusually fine this year. Mrs. Ackerman 
found a bright red Nova Anglae near the University Hill, and 
Mrs. H. D. White several pink ones in Tamerac, commonly they 
are blue. 

We meet for class work once in two weeks, and once a 
month evenings for the reading of papers. 

In October we met with Miss Stanley and listened to a very 
interesting talk, a review of work at the summer school at Cornell 
during two weeks in August. 

In November we met with Mrs. T. J. Leach where an inter- 
esting and instructive paper was read by Mrs. Hattie White on 
Papaveraciae, followed by an entertaining discussion. 

In December, we met with Mrs. White. A paper was read 
by Mrs. Goodrich on Insectivorous plants, followed by interest- 
ing discussions. Next meeting, on Friday next, we will be with 


38 


Mrs. Goodrich. Miss Campbell is expected to entertain, subject 
not announced. 

Friday evening, December 16, members of the Botanical 
section furnished a literary and social entertainment. We hada 
very pleasant discussion on the “ Variations of Plants,’ Mrs. 
Goodrich illustrating with about twenty different variating tril- 
liums of the grandiflorum species. All were collected in this 
county, and nearly all in the same locality, one Saturday in the 
month of May. 


REPORT OF ZOOLOGICAL, SECTION. 
Prof. John A. Dakin, chairman, gave a verbal report outlin- 
ing the work accomplished during the year. 
REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


The council recommended the payment of certain bills for 
postage rendered by the treasurer and corresponding secretary. 

The election of Mr. D. S. Chatfield as active member, and 
Mr. George Lynch as associate member. 

The report was adopted and the candidates elected by formal 
ballot. 


ELECTION OF OFFICERS. 


The following officers were then elected: President, John 
Van Duyn; Vice-President, John A. Dakin; Secretary, Philip 
F. Schneider; Corresponding Secretary, Horace W. Britcher; 
Treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts; Librarian, Miss Virginia 
L. Jones; Councillors, Gaylord P. Clark, Ernest N. Pattee. 


FEBRUARY 17, 1899. 
TWENTY-EIGHTH REGULAR MEETING. 


Dr. CHaryes W. Harcirr in the chair. 
Twenty-two persons present. 


The retiring president, Dr. C. W. Hargitt, gave a brief 


39 


address entitled: ‘‘’The Achievements of the Academy ” and in- 
troduced the president-elect, Dr. John Van Duyn, who spoke 
pointedly on the present condition of the academy and suggest- 
ively for its future. 


MaRCH 17, 1899. 
TWENTY-NINTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. Joun VAN Duyn, in the chair. 
Fifteen persons present. 
Dr. D. M. Totman was elected to active membership. 


Principal J. D. Wilson read a paper entitled: 
Bak HISTORY OF GEOLOGIC SCIENCE. 


Mr. W. W. Newman read the second paper, entitled : 
ONONDAGA GEOLOGY. 


This was an account of his own observations and detailed 
the conditions of surface geology, especially as they occurred 
in the valley a half century ago. 


Mr. C. E. Wheelock read the third paper, entitled: 
AE ORISKANY SANDSTONE: 


( Abstract. ) 


The Oriskany sandstone of Onondaga county would not be 
worth considering from an economic point of view, for it is 
nearly worthless for any useful purpose. It has, however, been 
used for building canal walls, and farm fences. In other places, 
it has been used for the manufacture of glass. (Notes on the 
Geology of Onondaga county, Schneider, page 26.) 

To the geologist this rock is interesting on account of its 
position in the geological series, dividing conformably the two 
great limestone formations, the Lower Helderberg and Cornifer- 


40 


ous. Other interestng features are its variable thickness, pecul- 
iar fossils, its mineral composition, and its remarkable develop- 
ment of certain forms of marine life, especially the Brachiopods. 

Beginning on the east side of the county at Manlius and pro- 
ceeding nearly westward, there are many exposures of the rock. 
This line of exposure is approximately identical with the strike, 
except in some cases the rock is exposed along the sides of the 
north and south valleys, at points south of the line of strike. (See 
Geological map of Onondaga county, State Geologist’s report, 
1895.) It is always found covered by the Corniferous limestone 
and the points where it occurs are easily located. Its greatest 
thickness is thirty feet, in the southern part of the town of El- 
bridge. ‘The minimum thickness is at the Split Rock quarries, 
where there is only a trace to be seen. The mineralogical com- 
position, color, etc., are given in the descriptions of the different 
outcrops which follow. 

At the quarry one-half mile east of Manlius, the formation 
is eight inches thick. The lower four inches is an imperfectly 
consolidated shale and, perhaps, should be referred to the Helder- 
berg, but as there is a well marked line of division between it 
and the underlying limestone, it seems proper to include it in the 
Oriskany, especially as there are no fossils to determine the mat- 
ter. This part is overlaid by a black concretionary, argillaceous 
sandstone, which is well preserved and full of fossils, mostly in 
the form of casts. 

Rensselaeria ovoides, which is rare at other exposures fur- 
ther west, is plentiful here. Strophomena rhomboidalis, which 
is considered rare for this formation, also occurs here. 

The underlying Helderberg contains corals, besides the 
characteristic species Stromatapora concentrica and Lederditia 
alta. 

The overlying Corniferous limestone is peculiar in that it 
contains great quantities of flint distributed in nodules, which 


are arranged in layers parallel to the stratification. This feature 
of the Corniferous is usually confined to the upper part but in 


this case the flints are nearly in contact with the Oriskany. 
The nodules at this place present a banded structure or alter- 


41 


nating white and blue concentric coats, with a geodetic cavity 
of quartz crystals forming the center of some of them. 

At the Green Lake west of Jamesville this formation occurs 
as a thin bed of black concretions, three inches thick, with a small 
quantity of yellow sand. The exposure described is just west of 
the lake and is not easily located, owing to the talus which cov- 
ers it at many points. 

The fossils are few and poorly preserved. Parts of the casts 
of Spirifera arenosus and Strophomena rhomboidalis were seen. 

At Britton’s quarries on the eastern ridge of Onondaga Val- 

ley, four miles southeast of Syracuse, the sandstone outcrops on 

the southern side of the quarry. It is of a rusty red color, twenty- 
one inches thick, with many dark, globular concretions. The 
rock is quite fossiliferous; the lower part in particular, seems to 
be made up of the casts of the various species. The rock is dis- 
integrating near the top and is darker in color. The overlying 
layer of Onondaga limestone contains some sandy nodules in the 
lower part. These nodules are quite often in contact with char- 
acteristic Corniferous Corals. 

At Hibbard’s quarry, one-half mile south of Britton’s, the 
Helderberg and Corniferous limestones are separated by a thin 
bed of rusty sandstone, five or six inches thick. The black con- 
cretions are also present. 

At Russell’s quarry, just south of Hibbard’s, the Oriskany is 
to be seen near the top of the eastern wall of the quarry, likewise 
the southern wall. The exposure, with six feet of Corniferous, 
passes beneath the over thrust Helderberg, at the line of fault 
which crosses the quarry at this point. It does not occur on the 
uplift farther south. The rock is about eight inches thick, the 
lower half being unconsolidated and including some thinly lamin- 
ated clay not thicker than paper. The upper part is harder and 
exhibits many shades of grey and black colors. Dark colored 
concretions and fragments of rock are included in it. Some sam- 
ples of the rock are decidedly calcareous. There are also a few 
white quartz pebbles as large as beans. A few fragments of fos- 
sils can be found here. 

The layer of underlying limestone is sandy in the upper part. 


42 


The concretions are also to be seen in the overlying Corniferous. 
Near the fault line the overlying layers of limestone are brecci- 
ated. The cementing agent is calcite with some fluorite crystals. 

On the Murry farm, one-half mile east of the Onondaga Cas- 
tle hotel, the sandstone occurs near the roadside, just south of Mr. 
Murry’s house. The stone is twenty inches thick. The black 
concretions are present in the lower part. The rock is full of fos- 
sil casts. ‘The Onondaga above contains many black nodules, 
some of which are eight inches in diameter. 

The underlying Helderberg is entirely composed of the char- 
acteristic fossils, Stromatapora concentrica and S. rugosa. 

At the Dorwin Springs outcrop, five miles southwest of 
Syracuse, the Oriskany sandstone is about seven feet thick. It 
has been described by P. F. Schneider in his ‘‘Notes on the Geolo- 
gy of Onondaga County’’, and is also mentioned by Vanuxen in 
the State report for 1842 and by E. B. Knapp in “ Glimpses of 
Geology of Onondaga County,” 1886. 

On the Crossett farm, four miles south of Syracuse and one 
mile north of Dorwin Springs, this rock again occurs. The ex- 
posure is near the top of the Valley ridge, along which it extends 
for three hundred yards, forming with the Onondaga a ledge 
which can be seen from the valley road quite distinctly, thus con- 
stituting a feature in the topography of the region, which is a 
rare thing for the Oriskany. ‘The rock is first seen on the south, 
in a shallow ravine. At this point it is twenty-seven inches thick. 
There are many shades of color, but it is generally lighter than 
at Dorwin’s. Fossils are rare. 

The Onondaga above is quite sandy in the lower four inches, 
with many black nodules. 

At a distance of 450 feet north of the ravine, the sandstone 
layer has gradually thinned out to thirteen inches. Going north 
300 feet further, it has entirely dissappeared excepting the four 
inches which adhere to the Onondaga and as stated, this is 
mostly composed of black concretions. Thus the seven feet of 
sandstone at Dorwin’s thins out to nothing on a north and south 
line not over a mile and a quarter in length and this is a very 
gradual diminution in thickness. The strata dip very uniformly 


43 


to the south. There are no sharp bends, such as are to be seen on 
the east side of the valley. 

At the quarries one mile east of Onondaga Hill there are 
about three inches of black concretions separating the limestones. 
These are quite firmly consolidated by a calcareous cement. The 
underlying limestone contains great numbers of the Ostracoid 
crustacean, Leperditia alta. ‘The Onondaga contains the black 
nodular concretions in the lower part of the layer. 

At the Split Rock quarries there is only a trace of sand sep- 
arating the limestones. 

On the farm of Mr. Thomas Murphy, two miles northwest 
of Marcellus Falls, near the corner of the towns of Marcellus, 
Skaneateles, Camillus and Elbridge, there occurs one layer of 
coarse, variegated sandstone, three and one-half feet thick. ‘The 
colors are white to rusty red. The black concretions are not pres- 
ent except a very few at the base of the Corniferous. The Stro- 
matapora layer underlies. ‘The lower part of the sandstone is 
very fossiliferous. 

Two miles west of this exposure the rock again occurs on 
the farm of J. A. Foster, one mile south of Halfway station. The 
rock is exposed to the west of the highway and the lowest layer 
extends across the roadway. The rock is mostly concealed by 
drift and an accurate measurement is impossible. A trigono- 
metrical estimate makes the thickness twenty-six feet. The rock 
is similar to that on the Murphy farm both in texture and color, 
except that one thin layer about eighteen feet from the base is 
much whiter than any other found in the county. There are no 
concretions except a few in the highest layer. A few small frag- 
ments of included rock are to be seen. The fossils are less num- 
erous than at Murphy’s. 

According to Professor Schneider’s “* Notes on the Geology 
of Onondaga County,” the sandstone occurs in the bluffs east of 
the Glenside Mills, Skaneateles village and is nearly twenty feet 
thick. 

The Oriskany sandstone forms part of the glacial drift south 
of the town line of Elbridge. Many large boulders occur, just 
south of the outcrop, which the farmers have appropriated for 


44 


fences and in some few cases they have been used for foundation 
walls. ‘Those observed seemed to be in a good state of preserva- 
tion. The rock also occurs in the drift in the town of Spafford. 

Dr. S. E. Crane reports finding fragments of sandstone in 
that locality containing specimens of Orthis lipparionyx and 
Spirifer arenosus. 

It is reported that the Oriskany sandstone is twenty feet 
thick in the Tully salt wells. Luther publishes a section showing 
this in the State report, 1895. 


The papers were discussed by Dr. C. W. Hargitt, and Mr. 
Horace W. Britcher. 


APRIL, 21, 1899. 
THIRTIETH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. JouN VAN Duyn, in the chair. 
About forty-five persons present. 
The report of the council recommended : 


(1) The payment of several printing bills amounting to 
$36.00. 

(2) ‘The election of Dr. W. P. Graham to active member- 
ship and Guy A. Bailey to associate membership. 

(3) That the resignation of Dr. W. M. Beauchamp as 
councilor be accepted and that the secretary notify him of our 
regret at losing him as a director. 

(4) That his successor be elected at the May meeting. 


The report was adopted, and the candidates elected by 
formal ballot. 


The program for the evening consisted of an examination of 
many low forms of life under the microscope. ‘These were 
arranged for exhibition in the laboratory of the College of Medi- 
cine. Later in the evening the meeting adjourned to one of the 
lecture rooms where a series of microscopic slides were projected 
upon the screen. The slides were prepared by Dr. A. C. Mercer, 
Dr. J. Van Duyn, Dr. C. W. Hargitt, and Mr. C. G. Rogers. 


45 


May 19, 1899. 
THIRTY-FIRST REGULAR MEETING. 


The meeting was held in the Steele Hall of Physics, Syra- 
cuse University. 


The vice-president, Pror. J. A. DAKIN, in the chair. 
Twenty-one persons present. 


The council report recommended : 

(1) ~The election of Miss M. L. Overacker as active mem- 
ber. 

(2) The election of Mr. Sabine Meecham, and Mr. George 
Haight as associate members. 


(3) The election of C. W. Hargitt as councilor to succeed 
Dr. W. M. Beauchamp. 


The report was adopted, and the candidates elected by 
formal ballot. 


Because of the unfavorable condition of the atmosphere for 
astronomical purposes, Dr. H. A. Peck announced that another 
evening would be given for this purpose in the near future. 

The provisional programme was then taken up, consisting 
of an illustrated lecture by Dr. C. W. Hargitt, entitled: 


MIMICRY AND ANAMOLOUS FORMS. 


The lecture was illustrated with many beautiful lantern 
slides. 


JUNE 16, 1899. 
THIRTY-SECOND REGULAR MEETING. 


The meeting was held in the Steele Hall of Physics, Syra- 
cuse University. 


Dre ©. W. Harcirt, in the’ chair. 


Thirty-two persons present. 


46 


Prof. John A. Dakin delivered an address entitled: 
VARIATIONS IN THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. 


The lecture was illustrated with many specimens of birds 
by means of which the speaker showed how the form, size, and 
character of the birds and of their plumage varied under different 
conditions. 


Additional remarks were made by Dr. C. W. Hargitt, Dr. 
H.-A. Peck, Mr. George Lynch, and’ Mr. AY Permuer 


Mr. Perrior presented to the academy a copy of the report 
on the Migrations of Birds observed in this vicinity during the 
present season, which had been prepared for the U. S$. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 


Several hundred copies of an eight-page pamphlet, the sec- 


ond in the Science Series, entitled, ‘‘ The Marcellus Fault,’ were 
presented to the academy for distribution by Philip F. Schneider. 


The meeting adjourned to the Holden Observatory where 
Dr. Henry A. Peck explained the uses of the various astronom- 
ical instruments. 


SEPTEMBER 22, 1899. 
THIRTY-THIRD REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. JouN VAN Duyn, in the chair. 
Twenty-five persons present. 


Mrs. L. Leonora Goodrich reported the discovery of a new 
plant,Polyganum lapathi-folium, during the summer. 


Prof. John D. Wilson spoke about “ Birds’. He believed 
that if we were more thoughtful of them we would enjoy them 
better. He related experiences which were intended to show that 
if we make the birds feel that we are their friends they would 
readily associate with man. 


47 


Mr. Albert Perrior then read a paper, entitled: 
ONEIDA LAKE HERONS. 


This was a careful account of the breeding grounds of these 
birds near Oneida Lake, where about five hundred pair of heron 
nest in the swamp. Specimens of the birds and their eggs, to- 
gether with numerous photographs illustrating their nesting hab- 
its were shown. 


Prof. John A. Dakin then spoke about 
ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 


The true ornithologist is not a mere collector. There is 
more in a bird than can be found in the dead bodies and stuffed 
skins. The pleasure of studying their habits is the reward of the 
true naturalist. One can look for birds anywhere, even at our 
back doorstep, and never knows where he may make a rare dis- 
covery. The depopulation of our native birds is to be deplored, 
for the warfare which they constantly wage against the insects 
annually saves the country hundreds of thousands of dollars. 
The annual destruction of crops in the United States alone is 
placed at more than four hundred million dollars. 


The paper was discussed by Dr. W. M. Beauchamp, who 
believed that the depopulation of the native birds of our state 
was due more to the changed conditions rather than to the de- 
mand for them for women’s hats, as had been suggested. 


OcTOBER 20, 1899. 
THIRTY-FOURTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The vice-president, Joun A. Dakin, in the chair. 
Forty-one persons present. 


Mr. John G. Coulter was elected to active membership. 


48 


Dr. C. W. Hargitt read a paper entitled: 


THE APPEARANCE OF THE PERIODIC CICADA IN 
ONONDAGA COUNTY. 


( Abstract. ) 


‘ seventeen-year-locust ”’ usually applied to this 
insect is somewhat misleading as it is not a locust at all, belong- 
ing to an entirely different order, the Hemiptera, while the true 
locusts are members of the Orthoptera. The trus designation 
for our insect 1s Cicada septendecim, or the seventeen-year Ci- 
cada. 

Several species of the insect are known, but only one is 
likely to be confused with it hereabouts, namely, the two-year 
species, Cicada tibicen, the ‘‘ dog-day”’ Cicada, or, harvest fly. 
When seen together the two insects are easily distinguishable, 
the latter being considerably larger and heavier in body, with dis- 
tinctively green coloration where the former is reddish. The 
familiar song of the harvest-fly is the well known shrilling note 
so common in the hot days of July and August ringing from the 
trees of orchard or wood. An insect quite indistinguishable from 
the former, and known only as a distinct race is the thirteen-year 
Cicada, or Cicada tredecim. ‘This is chiefly a southern variety 
and without distinct record in this section of the country. 

Among the myriads of insect life there is perhaps none more 
interesting or anomalous than the Cicada, and this for several 
reasons among which may be mentioned : 

1. The anomalous larval period of seventeen years. So 
strange is this considered that it has been, and even continues to 
be, discredited by not a few well informed people. The fact that 
there are various “‘broods”’ so-called, of the insect some of which 
overlap in their distribution the region of others, and so makes 
it appear as if the various broods were but erratic occurrences of 
the same insects at these varying times and circumstances, further 
adds to the incredulity. 

Again the larval habit of seclusion and its slow growth and 
final transformation likewise add to the strange and apparently 
mysterious life history. 


‘ 


The name 


49 


2. The anomalous life habit and condition of the adult is 
hardly less remarkable than its larval history. It is not to be 
overlooked that the comparatively brief period of adult life, 
rarely exceeding a month, as compared with the long and subter- 
ranean life of the larva is not without its fair counterpart among 
not a few insects. Such for instance as the May-fly, whose larval 
period of some two or three years is followed by an adult life 
period of hardly more than a day. 

During its adult life this insect takes little or no food, tho 
this is a matter of some controversy and will be considered far- 
ther in a later connection. 

3. The anomalous phenomenon of a second race, Cicada 
tredecim, not distinguishable morphologically from the former 
and often overlapping into the same regions and occurring at the 
same time in many cases has been a more or less perplexing prob- 
lem, whose solution may even yet be considered unsettled. That 
its southern general range is in some way related to the shorter 
period seems not improbable, but in just what way is uncertain. 
If the one was derived from the other why may we not have 
instances of such mutations? But so far as is known there is no 
shred of evidence that such mutations occur. Experiments have 
thus far apparently failed to afford additional light. 

4. Distribution. This is various, though limited somewhat 
closely within the range of deciduous forests, and excluded from 
the predominently coniferous forest ranges, hence we have no 
record within the coniferous regions of northern New York and 
Minnesota. Furthermore it does not extend beyond the limits of 
the Rocky Mountains. This range of distribution may be safely 
regarded as due to the lack of adaptation of either the adult or 
larva to ovipositing or food habit in a coniferous environment. 

The occurrence of this insect in considerable numbers in our 
vicinity during the past spring, 1899, and the unique interest 
attaching to its nature as above noted makes fitting some review 
of its occurrence and history in this county. So far as records 
are available we are able to trace its occurrence back by the fol- 
lowing stages: 

1882, this occurrence will be recalled by many here present. 


50 


The early records are fragmentary. In Fitch’s Reports are 
found records of 1865, 1848, and reference to 1831 and 1814, or 
even earlier citation from earlier observers. In addition to these 
dates, which refer to only a single “ brood,” there are other 
“locust years’ which have been no less carefully recorded. It 
should be stated that there are no less than five rather distinct 
broods of this insect within the state, occurring at periodic times 
and in different localities. This occurrence of “ broods ” within 
limited localities whose period is just as invariable as the other 
adds an additional difficulty to that noted above. No less than 
twenty of these have been definitely recognized within the limits 
of the United States, members of the same brood occurring at 
remote localities at the same time, a fact somewhat difficult of 
explanation. Of these the following come within the state: 

Brood VIII, Which seems chiefly distributed in the region 
of Long Island; its last occurrence being in 1889. 

Brood XII, is chiefly eastern in its distribution, ranging 
from Albany down the Hudson to Staten and Long Islands; last 
occurrence 1894. 

Brood XVII, chiefly in the region of Westchester and Staten 
Island, 1898. 

Brood XX, chiefly in western New York, and apparently 
somewhat doubtful, due to occur in 1900. 

Brood XXII, chiefly western part of the state, chiefly about 
Niagara and adjacent counties. 

The brood under consideration here, known as XIX, is a 
~ comparatively small one and chiefly limited to this state, ranging 
from Onondaga county westward including Livingston, Madi- 
son, Monroe, and Ontario counties. 

Its appearance in our vicinity was noted about May 25th, in 
comparatively small numbers at first, becoming quite abundant 
about June 1oth, after which the numbers rapidly diminished, the 
insect being attacked by numerous enemies, English sparrows, 
blackbirds, robins, etc., and also by certain fungi, many speci- 
mens being found literally alive with fungoid filaments and 
spores, probably the same as pointed out long ago by Leidy and 
described by Professor Peck of Albany as Massospora cicadina. 


51 


By June 20th, comparatively few specimens could be found, 
indeed only occasionally could its characteristic note be detected 
where only a few days previous the air was resonant with the 
monotonous music. The damage done was hardy perceptible, 
very few twigs falling or showing dead leaves during the summer 
quite in contrast with the condition noted in connection with the 
1885 brood in Ohio and Indiana where I had noted its presence 
last. That it is greatly on the decline in this region there seems 
no doubt, both from the small numbers of the present brood as 
compared with the earlier reports and from the imperceptible 
damage done in ovipositing. It may not be safe to turn prophet 
here, but unless signs fail we may expect that the occurrence of 
the 1916 will scarcely be noticeable to the average observer and 
wholly unknown to the general public. 

The Cicada as an article of food has more than once been 
considered by students and by others as well. Professor Reily 
has himself made certain experiments .as to its edibility, which 
while not promising for it an epicurean demand, seems to render 
altogether credible the various vagrant accounts of its use by 
Indians and primitive peoples. Fitch, in one of his early reports, 
1855, p. 752, says that it is credibly reported to be used by the 
Indians, being roasted in a hot oven, carefully browned by con- 
stant stirring and said to be quite palatable. Dr. Wm. Beau- 
champ has also advised me that it has been so used by the Onon- 
daga Indians, who take the insects as they emerge and after pre- 
paring them with a batter, cook them, and pronounce them very 
good indeed. 

It is very well known that many domestic animals devour 
them greedily, pigs being said to fatten on them, as is also the 
case with poultry. Cats and dogs likewise feed upon them in 
many cases. 


MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENTERON. 


While much attention has been given to the general subject 
of the food habits of the periodical Cicada and not a little discus- 
sion indulged pro and con it has in the main been directed to its 


52 


manner and times of taking food, whether the adult ever feeds, 
whether both sexes are alike in this respect, nature of the food 
of the larva and pupa, ete. Into these phases it is not the purpose 
of the present paper to enter. The more particular purpose is the 
presentation of the observations made upon the morphology of 
the enteron of the adult as compared with the larva and pupa and 
some suggestions as to the probable functions of the several 
regions. 

It has been a more or less current opinion for many years 
that the adult Cicada takes no food, and that therefore the enter- 
on is, as a result, more or less rudimentary. During the occur- 
rence of the insect here, occasion was taken to submit specimens 
to the class in zoology for dissection as a part of the regular 
course of laboratory work. Unusual difficulty was encountered 
by students in securing anything like satisfactory demonstrations 
of the alimentary system, and in many specimens anomalous cay- 
ernous spaces were found in the abdominal region, in some cases 
the entire region appeared to be little more than a thin shell-like 
structure comprising hardly more than the body walls. The sub- 
ject seemed sufficiently interesting to call for further attention 
and members of the senior class were asked to undertake a de- 
tailed study of both the general morphology and histology of the 
tract, the results of which I have since reviewed with more or less 
care. 

An examination of such literature as has been available fails 
to show any work of consequence upon the subject. Marlatt in 
his recent monograph refers to the adipose matter stored in the 
tissues as a probable source of food during adult life but gives no 
specific evidence in support of the suggestion. 

The careful dissection of a large number of specimens 
showed only in two or three cases a continuous enteron from 
mouth to anus such as may be traced in the early larva. This 
degeneration, or atrophy, first shows itself in the pupa stage 
where the tract becomes more or less rudimentary in the posterior 
portion, the entire abdomen becoming packed with adipose mat- 
ter from which oil droplets exude upon dissection of the insect. 
On emergence from the pupal skin there seems to be almost com- 


53 


plete atrophy of the hind gut, at any rate so far as to render its 
dissection extremely difficult. 

During the late pupal condition and early adult there ap- 
pears a somewhat anomalous metamorphosis of the mid gut, the 
first indication of which appears as a slight enlargement of the 
tract in this region and an internal vesicular cavity. This cavity 
increases in size with the growth of the Cicada to maturity after 
emergence and with increasing age it becomes the cavernous 
structure to which reference has been made above. Coincident 
with this change there was a decrease of the amount of adipose 
tissue which gradually dissappeared by absorption as will be sub- 
sequently shown. With the enlargement of this portion of the 
tract the convoluted character of its epithelium, ‘so characteristic 
a feature during the larval period, gradually disappears almost 
entirely, the inner surface appearing quite plain and smooth as 
seen under the dissecting microscope. A histological examina- 
tion of the tissue confirms this condition. 

Coincident with these changes in form and size there is a 
corresponding change in the character of the tissues comprising 
the walls of the tract in this region. The muscular tissue degen- 
erates, the tunica likewise grows thin and in places entirely dis- 
appears, leaving only the lining epithelium connected by slight 
strands of connective and mucous cells. It should be noted in 
this connection that these changes are restricted for the most 
part to the region of the abdominal tract, the walls of the crop 
retaining more of less clearly their normal histological features. 

But the most distinctive aspects of this metamorphosis is 
shown in the cytological changes which accompany it. The 
epithelium which in the larval enteron is quite typical shows 
undoubted degenerative characters. Globules of oil appear here 
and there in the cells, becoming more abundant with the age of 
the insect, until the cells become literally packed with these fat 
globules. Associated with this condition are no less evident signs 
of degeneracy in the amitotic division of the cells and in their 
multinucleate condition in many cases. 

Moreover, in many cases the nuclei showed the presence of 
vacuoles of varying shapes and size, and in certain of these could 


54 


be distinguished the same fat globules which packed the cyto- 
plasm of the cells. 

All in all, there seems to be exhibited here a rather remark- 
able set of cytologic facts confirming the suggestion made above 
that associated with this atrophy of the alimentary tract of the 
adult insect there is formed an adaptive organ of absorption by 
which the reserve fat of the larva becomes available as a source 
of energy to the adult. And it should be noted that even the mal- 
pighian tubules apparently participate in this work of absorption, 
their epithelium likewise becoming charged with fat drops. 


Mr. Horace W. Britcher next spoke about 
PROTECTIVE, MIMICRY AMONG THE SPIDERS. 


NOVEMBER 17, 1899. 
THIRTY-FIFTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. JouN Van Duyv, in the chair. 
About one hundred and fifty persons present. 


The speaker of the evening, Dr. J. M. Clarke, gave a most 
interesting address, entitled: 


THE NEW GEOLOGIC NOMENCLATURE.* 


He began by describing the early history of the New York 
State geological survey. The state was divided into four sections 
and each given into the hands of a competent geologist to survey. 
Onondaga county was in the third division and was under the 
supervision of Geologist L. Vanuxem, and the early study which 
it received was second to none in the state. Dr. Clarke gradually 
led up to the reasons for a new nomenclature and then explained 


* For complete description see Science for December 15, 1899, pp. 874-875 


5 


S| 


in full the new system which had been worked out by Dr. Charles 
Schuchert of the United States Museum and himself. 
After explaining the new nomenclature, Dr. Clarke spent 


‘ 


some additional time in describing the “ Transition Fauna of the 
Portage and Chemung Epoch.” By means of maps and charts 
he showed that there was a gradual change in the forms in the 
different eras and that the fauna was varied in rocks of the same 


time in different parts of the state. 


56 


THE NEW YORK SERIES. 


ERA OR SYSTEM. PERIOD OR GROUP. AGE OR STAGE. 


Georgian Georgia slates 
Cambric 
or Acadian 
Taconic 


Potsdamian Potsdam sandstone and limestone 


Canadian (3) J Beekmantown limestone (15) 
(Paleochamplainic) | Chazy limestone 


Mohawkian (4) {Black i limestone (16) 


(Lower Silurian (Mesochamplainic) Black river limestone 


and Ordovician) Trenton limestone 


Utica shale 
Lorraine beds (17) 
Richmond beds (Ohio, Indiana) 


Cincinnatian (5) 
(Neochamplainic) 


Champlainic (1) 


: Shawangunk grit 
(Paleontaric) Medina sandstone 


a Clinton beds 
Ontaric (2) Niagaran (7) Rochester shale 


i (6) fee conglomerate 


or . : 
Siluric (Mesontaric) Gettin do oo 
Salina beds 
fear Rondout waterlime (18) 
Manlius limestone (19) 
9 Coeymans limestone (20) 
= - New Scotland beds (21) 
- Helderbergain (9) Becraft limestone (22) 
= Kingston beds (23) 
fe) 
. < Oriskanian (10) Oriskany beds 
Qu 
Y { Esopus grit (24) 
5 Ulsterian (11) Schoharie grit 
Fs (Onondaga limestone 
a=) 
9 : f Marcellus shale 
Devonic £ Erian (12) \ Hamilton beds 


Portage beds 
Senecan (13) (Naples beds, 
Ithaca beds, 
Oneonta beds, 
local facies) 


Neodevonic 


Chemung beds 
Chautauquan (14) (Catskill sandstone, (25) 


Tully limestone 
Genesee shale 
local facies ) 


an 


DECEMBER I5, 1899. 
THIRTY-SIXTH REGULAR MEETING. 


The president, Dr. Joun VAN Duyn, in the chair. 
T-wenty-six persons present. 


A vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Charles P. Ryan for 
chairs and services rendered at the November meeting. 


Dr. W. M. Beauchamp spoke about 
THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ONONDAGA COUNTY. 


The early people that visited our county followed our 
streams in search of fish and game. This is shown by the soap- 
stone kettles, etc., which they left behind them in their wander- 
ings. The striped birds show that they came from the region of 
the Great Lakes. The Esquimaux was one of the early visitors. 
This is shown by the tusk of the walrus, and the strange knives 
only used by these people and which are occasionally found here. 
It is quite probable that the Northmen saw the Esquimaux here 
but not the Indian. 


The advent of the Five Nations in this vicinity was about 
the year 1600. The forts at Cazenovia and Pompey are proba- 
bly the only ones occupied by them. The barbed fish hook which 
is occasionally found shows that the Indian had at that time come 
in contact with the white man. The bone and horn implements 
must always be dug for, they are never found on the surface. 
Many bone harpoons have recently been found at Brewerton, 
which one site has given us more than all the rest of the country 
put together. 


' The evidences of early man in the county are (1) chipped 
implements, (2) polished implements, (3) pottery, (4) bone im- 
plements, (5) wampum. 


The paper was discussed by Dr. G. W. Hinsdale. He gave 
additional statements describing the results of his search for bone 
implements. An island in Oneida Lake gave him the best results. 


VOLUME. BROCHURE II. 
JANUARY 19, 1900. 
FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING. 


The vice-president, Mr. Joun A. Dakin, in the chair. 
Twenty-three persons present. 
The report of the council recommended : 


(1) The payment of certain bills. 

(2) The election of Dr. J. M. Clarke as corresponding 
member. 

(3) The election of W. G. Hinsdale, Charles M. Crouse, 
and H. M. Smith as active members. 

(4) The election of Mrs. George J. Whelan to associate 
membership. 

(5) The transfer of the name of George Lynch from the 
associate to the active list. 

(6) The payment of two dollars to the elevator boy. 

The report was accepted and the candidates elected by secre- 
tary’s ballot. 

The annual reports were then presented as follows: 


SECRETARY S REPORT. 


The report of the secretary, Mr. Philip F. Schneider, is sum- 
marized as follows: 

Stated meetings have been held regularly during the year 
with an average attendance of 39. 

Papers have been delivered on the following subjects: Orni- 
thology 2, Zoology 2, Geology 2, Photomicrography 1, Archeol- 
ogy 1, reports of officers I, reports of sections I. 

One semi-popular lecture has been given during the year, 
the address of Dr. J. M. Clarke entitled, ‘‘ The New Nomen- 
clature of the State.” 

One pamphlet, a 24-page brochure, containing the constitu- 
tion, president’s address, etc., has been printed during the year. 


59 


Another, the second in the Science series, containing an account 
of the “Geologic Fault at Marcellus” was distributed in June. 

Nine members have been added to the rolls during the year 
and one member lost. The present membership is: Active 36, 
associate 21, corresponding 1, total 58. 


REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY. 


The corresponding secretary, Mr. H. W. Britcher, read his 
report, which is summarized as follows: 

The corresponding secretary has sent reports of the meet- 
ings, with one exception, to “Science” in which paper they have 
been duly published. Copies of the constitution were mailed to 
members, and others interested in scientific investigation, also to 
all kindred societies. Many of the latter were requested to place 
the academy on their regular mailing lists. Quite a number 
have replied that they would. 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 


The treasurer, Miss L. W. Roberts, read her report for the 
year, of which the following is a summary: 


Balance on hand, January 20, 1899.......... $ 67.46 
ieee arom all sources... ... 0.00.2 be eee 66.00 

dlbatalie”. eee a itevntntes $133.46 
Mrebirsements during the year. i... 2h. 59.94 
Balance on hand, January 19, 1900.......... $ 73.52 


LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. 


The librarian, Miss Virginia L. Jones, reported the receipt 
of a large number of bulletins, and other pamphlets. 


REPORT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 


Read by Mr. C. E. Wheelock, recorder of the section. 

Since the reorganization of the section last autumn, it has 
been holding its meetings regularly on the first Friday evening of 
each month. These meetings are open to the public at large. As a 


60 


rule, two members are appointed in addition to the speaker to 
lead in the discussion of the paper. 

The speakers and subjects for the entire year have been 
made out and a folder will be published containing this and other 
information. 

The meetings thus far have been marked with interest and 
three valuable papers have been delivered. 

At the November meeting, the chairman, Prof. Philip F. 
Schneider, gave a brief outline of the work already accomplished 
in this vicinity, and told of the problems still remaining for inves- 
- tigation. 

At the December meeting Mr. C. E. Wheelock read a paper 
entitled, ““The Marl and Tufa Deposits of Onondaga.” It was 
an interesting account of the manner in which these deposits are 
formed, together with the location of the more important depos- 
its. The speaker suggested the possibility of the deposits, espec- 
ially those at an altitude of about 440 feet, being formed in lakes 
formed by the drying up of Lake Iroquois. 

At the January meeting Prof. E. N. Pattee rece on the 
“Tron Ore Deposits of the Salina and other Formations.” The 
fact was emphasized that although many of the formations con- 
tain more or less iron, it did not occur in quantities sufficient to 
make it commercially valuable at present. In the early history of 
the county, the bog-iron ore was obtained in the valley, and 
smelted at Muggles Furnace at Elmwood. 

The present officers are Philip F. Schneider, chairman; 
Charles E. Wheelock recorder. 


REPORT OF THE BOTANICAL, SECTION. 


Read by Mrs. L. L. Goodrich, chairman of the section. 

One year has passed since our last annual meeting, and the 
ever natural question faces us, What have we accomplished? I 
am pleased to state that the Botanical section has not lain dor- 
mant and notwithstanding the summer’s drouth, think we have 
accomplished more than during the previous year. 

We commenced the season’s excursions in search of trailing 
arbutus. 


6I 


April 29, an excessively hot day, found us five miles north 
of Phoenix, in the same locality where we found it so abundant 
last year, searching only to find that almost the entire crop had 
been uprooted and carried away. Where then there were huge 
patches found, now only here and there a scattering branch. It 
was a lamentable and deplorable sight, convincing us that we 
should be cautious in our greed; not taking root and all, espe- 
cially when collecting the rarer plants. We were obliged to go 
to another locality a mile beyond. The outing made in company 
with several university students and their professors was de- 
lightful, although the quantity and quality of specimens of arbu- 
tus were not all that might be desired, and of course at that sea- 
son of the year there were no’other plants in flower to supply the 
place of the beautiful and rare arbutus. Early in the summer 
those not confined in the school room determined to carry out 
Mr. Beauchamp’s plan of searching among the salt works fre- 
quently during the season. The last week in May, two of us” 
went beyond Solvay as far as cars could carry us, then walked 
to the first bridge where we crossed the canal, and searched back 
and forth between the long rows of salt vats for about three hours 
until we found ourselves opposite Solvay with nothing gained. 
From there we rambled over the low lands to the State Fair 
grounds. Nothing as yet. We next crossed the fields to the 
lake. Here we found a bridge over a little stream flowing into 
the lake. Down I went on my knees, peering under the bridge. 
In that imploring position I found Ranunculus Aymbalana, or 
Seaside Crowfoot. Rare but not new, being the first plant of a 
saline nature we had seen. Except such plants as are common 
in every field, Aymbalaria was the only evidence of our day’s 
research. 

We have since made several excursions among the salt vats 
but not until very late in the fall did we find a really prolific spot, 
which locality will frequently call our rubber boots and rainy day 
skirts into requisition with benefit. 

Several profitable trips have been made to Tamarac Swamp, 
Round Top, Hopper’s Pinnacle, the valley, Orville woods, and 
other surrounding places, but the most satisfactory excursion was 


62 


to Beaver Lake, June 10, with Mr. Beauchamp, our ever-ready 
friend and co-worker, as guide. Beaver Lake is one of the rich- 
est botanical fields within easy access of Syracuse. In one day 
were found nine different orchids, fringed polygala, indian pipes, 
pitcher plants, two species of sun-dew, and many others, 
besides specimens of any or all of the bog plants of the surround- 
ing swamps, and quantities of spiders, bugs, and various insects 
for Mr. Britcher’s benefit. 

Formerly we felt satisfied if we analized a flower, and found 
its name, now we wish to search into its more hidden and struc- 
tural parts. How some of these carry on assimulation, the most 
essential function of the plant, converting inorganic matter into 
organic matter. The essential qualities of parenchima, which 
contains the grains of chlorophyl, may be regarded as the most 
important of all vegetable products, as in the chlorophyl, all 
ordinary assimilation takes place. ‘The stomata, or breathing 
spores, guardian cells communicating with air chambers through- 
out the regular intercellular spaces which permeate the whole 
leaf and new branches. The effect of obstructions on these cells. 
The results from aphides, mealy bugs, and other injurious in- 
sects, all unite in forming one of the most fascinating and inter- 
esting studies of nature. 

During the summer we met weekly, and during the winter 
bi-weekly, for class work. Once a month we spend an evening 
at the home of some member, and listen to a paper furnished by 
a designated member followed by discussions on the same. Nine 
such papers have been read, most of which have been not only 
entertaining but instructive. 

Our experience with the variations in trilliums last year has 
led us to note the liability to variations in most plants, convine- 
ing us that very many of the so-called species are but variations 
of one species, and that the number of specific names of our plants 
will be greatly reduced in the future. 

I now have a very unique variation in the trillium, one with 
petals, sepals, and leaves stalked. ‘Those of the sepals and petals, 
three-fourths of an inch long, with broad blades. 

We have found two more localities for Glaucium glaucium, 


63 


the horned poppy, discovered by Miss Roberts last year; also 
another locality for Crepis virens, more than a mile from where I 
discovered it last year. 

I am informed by Mr. Britcher that a new locality for Scolo- 
pendrium has been discovered; I am greatly pleased. as every 
new locality for that rare fern adds laurels to our county. We 
have noted the adroitness with which seeds are dispersed in differ- 
ent ways by birds. By watching, for several weeks, the bees 
extracting honey from the pure white and fragrant flowers of my 
garden, I have, in my own opinion, exploded the theories of 
Grant Allen, Sorley, and others, 7. ¢., that bright colors are essen- 
tial to attract bees and other insects, and that the lines in varie- 
gated and mottled flowers all point to the honey sac. We have 
been greatly interested in the study of fungi, as far as our oppor- 
tunities permitted, and hope to be more successful next year. 
Our greatest achievement is the glory of having discovered three 
new plants. Mrs. T. J. Leach found Hyssapus officinalis be- 
tween EImwood and Onondaga Hill. I found Polyganum lapa- 
thifolium, a saline plant, in the first ward salt marsh last October, 
and Chenopodium Antheminticum, about an old stoneyard near 
the canal. All have been verified by Professor Peck, who ex- 
presses much gratitude in getting the last named from a different 
location than as yet acknowledged by any botanist. 


ELECTION OF OFFICERS. 


The following officers were then elected: President, John 
Van Duyn; Vice-President, J. D. Wilson; Secretary, Ernest N. 
Pattee; Corresponding Secretary, H. W. Britcher; Treasurer, 
Miss L. W. Roberts; Librarian, Mrs. L. Leonora Goodrich; 
Councillors until 1903, Henry A. Peck, George A. Dakin; until 
tgor, W. M. Beauchamp. 


MEMORIAL RESOLUTIONS. 


Whereas, This organization has been called upon to mourn 
the untimely death of one of its most faithfyl and earnest mem- 
bers, therefore be it resolved 


64 


First, that in the death of Principal John A. Dakin, the 
Onondaga Academy of Science loses one of its first and firmest 
friends, one of its most earnest, faithful, and capable members, 

SECOND, that we record our abiding sense of appreciation 
of his scientific spirit and zeal and our deep sense of loss in his 
death, 

THIRD, that in his death the city has lost an enterprising and 
capable citizen, and science a worthy diciple and advocate, 

Fourtu, that we extend to his bereaved widow and friends 
our sincere condolence. 

CHARLES W. HArcirt, 
LouisE W. RoseErts, 
Puitip F. SCHNEIDER, 

FEBRUARY 23, I9OO. Committee. 


FEBRUARY I5, IQOI. 
DEFERRED FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING. 


The meeting was called to order by Professor Ernest N. 
Pattee, and immediately proceeded to the election of officers with 
the following result: 

President, Dr. W. M. Beauchamp; Vice-President, C. W. 
Hargitt; Secretary, H. W. Britcher; Corresponding Secretary, 
P. F. Schneider; Treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts; Librarian, 
Mrs. L. L. Goodrich; Councillors for three years, J. D. Wilson, 
Mrs. M. B. Ackerman. 

President Beauchamp appointed the following program 
committee: C. W. Hargitt, Mrs. M. B. Ackerman, Miss L. W. 
Roberts. 

The following annual reports were subsequently read and 
ordered filed: 


SECRETARY S REPORT. 


The report of the secretary, Prof. E. N. Pattee, was read 
as follows: 
Ten monthly meetings have been held during the year, no 


65 


meetings being held during July and August. Eight of these 
meetings were held in the Historical rooms and two in the Medi- 
cal College. 


The following are the programs: 


January. Annual reports of sections. 

February. “Professor Atwater’s Experiments on the Nu- ° 
tritive Value of Foods,” Dr. H. M. Smith. 

March. “Stellar Astronomy,’ Dr. H. A. Peck. 

April. “Inhibition,” Dr. Gaylord P. Clarke. 

May. “Wireless Telegraphy,” Dr. W. P. Graham. 

June. Miscellaneous program. 

September. “The X Rays,” W. H. Jakway. 

October. “Tumors,” Dr. J. Van Duyn. 

SRoot Fungi,’ Dr j Gy Coulter. 

November. “Gold Mining,” Prof. E. N. Pattee. 

December. “The Dwellings and Customs of the American 
Indians, Dr. F. W. Betts. 


The changes in membership have been as follows: 


Four persons have been elected to active membership, two 
have been changed from the associate to the active list, one has 
been changed from the associate to the corresponding list. One 
active member has died and one has resigned. The membership 
at the opening of 1901 is as follows: Active, 40; associate, 17; 
corresponding, 3; total membership, 60. 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 


The report of the treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts, is 
summarized as follows: 


meance-on hand, January, 1900... ..... 5. $ 73.42 
merenes dri the; years -2.tcac eco. oe ws 43.12 
Ota rie cns wrk $116.54 

Peiebursements for the year..-..2....--.... 27.50 


» 


66 


REPORT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 
Read by Mr. C. E. Wheelock, recorder of the section. 


The section began the year by following the plan adopted 
last year of having regular monthly sessions, and listening to 
the reports of work and papers of the members. In accordance 
with this plan, subjects were assigned, work laid out, and the first 
meeting held. After this meeting it was discovered that there 
was a conflict of dates for the meeting nights of the scientific 
societies to which many of the leading members belonged, and 
as no time convenient for all could be found, the plan of work 
adopted was continued, although the regular meetings were dis- 
continued. Several interesting conferences of the members have 
been held during the year. The most important work of the year 
was in the line of the “ Gypsum and Plaster Deposits” and 
“The Detailed Study of the Pleistocene Geology of the Vicin- 
ity.” The interesting fact was also announced that the children 
of a quarter of a century ago were in the habit of frequenting 
the glens and ravines on Prospect Hill, near what is now St. 
Joseph’s Hospital, and gathering and eating a pinkish colored 
clay, which abounds in that vicinity. Most of the work assigned 
to the members has been completed, and the reports and papers 
on the same will be taken up in the regular meetings of the com- 
ing year. 


REPORT OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SECTION. 


The following “ digest’ of the work of the Zoological sec- 
tion was read by Dr. C. W. Hargitt. 

The capture during the year of one specimen each of three 
additional salamanders, Amblystoma jeffersonianum, Hemuidoe- 
tylium scutatum, Plethodon glutinosus. The finding on the 
Onondaga Reservation of Uranidea gracilis (Miller’s Thumb) 
a representative of the fish known as star-gazers and distructive 
of the eggs of trout, etc. The identification of the cyclops like 
Copepoda Canthocamptus as occurring in “ Branchippus ” Pond 
and also at “ the Darks.” ‘The identification of about 25 spiders 
new to the Onondaga county list, and the taking of about a 
dozen more which are as yet not identified. 


67 


The procuring during last winter and spring of all(?) the 
larval stages of Branchippus gellidus (Hay) and the collection 
during the spring of a quantity of eggs, some of which it was 
attempted to hatch during the summer and fall but without suc- 
cess. 

Soil taken from the pond in September and after the middle 
of November and placed in acquaria, both gave algal life and sev- 
eral cypridae but no other forms of life have been noticed as yet. 

The pond filled with water November 25-28 and on January 
8 (six weeks later) Cyclops with eggs were abundant, also Cy- 
pridae; one male Branchippus, 34 inch long; Planaria, (green 
abundant, gray ones less so) two Corethra (phantom) larvae, 
two or three young Caddis larvae, small (young?) worms, and 
one water bug were taken. No signs of Daphnia or larval Bran- 
chippus. I suspect two species of Cyclops to occur in the pond 
but am not yet positive. ; 

H. W. BrrtcHer, Chairman 


The members then proceeded to the lecture room of the 
Medical College where Dr. L. M. Underwood of Columbia Uni- 
versity delivered an illustrated lecture upon ‘“ Botanical Gardens 
and their Influence.” 


The thanks of the academy were extended to the speaker. 


INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
W. M. BEAucHamp, S. T. D. 
MaRcH I5, IQo!. 


It is now many years since a few persons of scientific tastes 
devised an Onondaga Academy of Science of a somewhat infor- 
mal nature, with few meetings but possibly with much corre- 
spondence. I was to answer all questions from inquirers on 
conchology, Professor Underwood on botany, E. B. Knapp on 
the fossils of the Tully limestone and the Hamilton shales, and 
to others various departments were assigned. JI, at least, had no 
questions to answer, and but little came of the attempt. With the 


68 


more successful founding and work of the present academy you 
are familiar. 

The question of how best to carry on our work may well call 
for a few moments attention. 

In Buffalo the Historical Society, the Academy of Science, 
and some kindred organizations are under the same roof, with- 
out any vital connection as societies, and sometimes partially 
encroaching on each other’s field. In archaeological specimens 
the academy far outranks the Historical Society there, and I have 
twice lectured before it on subjects of this nature. In our city 
you will observe that the Historical Society is broad in its aims, 
in its constitution takes cognizance of some natural sciences, 
appointing committees on them, and has a collection of shells of 
much interest and extent. Harmonious action seems thus pro- 
vided for at the outset, and the Botany Club has an understood 
relation to the older society. A botanical class meets here reg- 
ularly, and there is a good basis for conchological study. Were 
there no other resource it would be admitted that all societies of 
this nature might profitably be united as auxiliaries of the His- 
torical Association, in studying and preserving illustrative exam- 
ples of the past history of this county, not only of its men, but of 
its animal, vegetable and mineral forms. Man is but the cap- 
stone of a great pyramid, and all things existing affect his work 
and well being. The Central City is that of the salt springs, ab- 
horred by the aborigines, but valued by the whites, and the min- 
eral wealth of our land not only supports great industries, but 
founds great towns. So men are interested in man’s natural 
auxiliaries. I think the Historical Association never had a live- 
lier session than when one evening it discussed local geology. 
Our county, the whole world, is a part of man’s history. We are 
made by environment. 

No man can study one science thoroughly without a knowl- 
edge of some others. I am giving much attention to archeological 
work, but in this every department of natural history helps me 
out. It is often of vital importance to know what a shell, a tooth, 
a bone, a piece of stone may be. So that a society like this ought 
to be an adjunct of any well equipped Historical Association. An 


69 


archeological friend, a physician of high reputation in New York, 
is studying the teeth and bones of quadrupeds this winter, be- 
cause he will need this knowledge in field work next summer. 

Just now there comes in a disturbing element in the way of 
joint efforts. The Historical Association expects a new building, 
but so does the city look for a new library, in which a society 
like this might gather and exhibit many things for the common 
good, in a fitting place always accessible. It is understood that 
suitable quarters will be provided for a loan Art Museum, and 
might be for others. I wish that in some way our artistic, scien- 
tific, and historical interests could be combined in one great edu- 
cational project and center, resulting in a splendid endowment of 
valuable material worthy of a live city like this. 

There are certain collections in Syracuse now which deserve 
passing attention. The admirably arranged geological cabinet 
of the High School I have not seen for many years, but it seemed 
just the thing such students need. So of the various collections 
at the University. They well illustrate the lessons there taught, 
and are intended for this. They are working cabinets for special 
uses. 

An Academy of Science has other plans, if of a local char- 
acter. It may indulge in anything curious, beautiful or strange, 
which it can obtain, but its great aim is to study and illustrate 
its own home field. For its purposes it may be said, “ A man’s 
best things lie nearest him, lie close about his feet.” We want 
to know and collect our local treasures. 

This local work often has rich results. Mrs. Treat said she 
found more in carefully studying a small space of ground than 
when she traversed broad acres. After the Skaneateles library 
was founded, a cabinet was thought desirable. Gifts were made, 
but there was local work. Boys and men came home with pock- 
ets full of rocks from shores and ravines, and the result was the 
naming of several fossils new to science. In this one field we 
have much yet to do. All Onondaga’s problems are not solved, 
or its treasures exhausted. 

In actual work my idea is that we want both a concentration 
and a division of labor. First, a division, in order that each one 


70 


may have something to do. The Botany Club used to have a rule 
that a family of plants should be assigned to each member for 
her summer’s work. She might do all else she pleased, or get 
all the help she could in that, but on that work was expected a — 
special report. Without determining the limits or nature of such 
personal division I would suggest that it might take some such 
form as this: All the members identify themselves with one or 
more of the various sections, as of geology and botany, and let 
them choose or have assigned the subjects they will study. Geo- 
logically it might be the Green Lakes of this county, the Tully 
lakes, the gypsum beds, the Hamilton shales, the gas wells, the 
mineral springs. A long catalogue could be made. ‘Take in all 
else you choose, but study the subject assigned. The result will be 
a definite gain to the student, and possibly a gain to science itself. 
Let it be understood that a simple report by each one shall be 
made of observations at some proper time. In this way you have 
no wall flowers, no mere listeners, but a body of workers, helpful 
to all. 

There are some old subjects not unworthy of notice. Pursh 
mentioned some plants here that are not otherwise on record in 
a wild state. These may be rediscovered. In the summer, in old 
times, the waters of Skaneateles creek almost disappeared in the 
crevices of the limestone ledge. What was the probable effect 
on the underlying strata? Bird life and fish life have changed 
here; what were the old conditions? Are game laws alone to be 
depended on? or are there other agents? 

I spoke of concentration of work. Our flora and fauna, and 
partially our geology, have here a double division. There is the 
gradual descent from south to north, geologically and in altitude 
The lines of division in this cross the county from east to west. 
Some birds inhabit the southern towns which are rare in the 
northern, or vice versa. Many shells are nowhere found south of 
the canal. The same law applies in plants, and in fossils of 
course. 

Then we have a second cause of division. Five great valleys 
run from south to north, until the canal is reached, and each one 
of these has peculiar features. The gypsum of Nine Mile creek 


FM 


in its prominent crystalline forms, differs from that of Lime- 
stone creek. The fossils of Skaneateles creek are not those of 
Onondaga Valley in variety and abundance. 

The moraines of this valley have no such representatives 
elsewhere. Every botanist knows that there are similar differ- 
ences in the plants. The prevailing types are the same, but each 
valley has individuality. The separating hills are like garden 
walls, restraining or excluding plants and sometimes animal life. 
A mere suggestion of this fact is enough. 

Now we might profitably take a tier of towns from east to 
west, and observe their scientific facts, or we might concentrate 
our sttidy on one of these valleys, as seems to me better. When 
one is mastered, it will be simpler work to differentiate the others. 
In its physical features Syracuse lies in the most interesting of 
the five. Its salt springs and marshes give it an unusual charac- 
ter, the prominent quarries afford fossils in profusion, its evi- 
dences of glacial action are unusually fine, a great city becomes 
the starting place of some naturalized plants, and Onondaga Lake 
is visited by birds seen nowhere else. It would seem that a con- 
centration of observation and study on this, our central valley, 
would be productive of good results. Nearly all parts are very 
easy of access, and this is a great necessity in studying some 
forms of life. In their season and in that line we might gain 
some knowledge merely by observing what kinds of game are 
brought here for sale. 

I used to have an idea of writing a monograph on Onon- 
daga lake. Its fish and shellfish I know; its Indian relics I have 
seen in large part, and have often trod its early sites. Many of 
its plants I have observed but not all. So my plan was once a 
week through the summer to make its circuit, and observe all 
that was new. When a couple of trips had been made, the rest 
would be easy. That done I could write my paper. 

It would lack one thing. We have fairly good maps of the 
lake, and a fair idea of its bottom, but all might be done with 
more accuracy, and a yacht club should know the soundings and 
perhaps give its aid. In the Skaneateles library hang two maps 
of Skaneateles lake. One was a free hand drawing by Capt. 


72 


Benjamin Lee, made seventy-five or more years ago, but having 
one valuable feature. Near the village he gave the soundings 
three times across at intervals of a quarter mile, then of a half 
mile, then in every mile in the middle of the lake, his last sound- 
ing being ten miles up. All the way he recorded the kind of bot- 
tom. 

The other map was made by the Cornell University engi- 
neering class, with the best instruments, and with ample time 
and care, and is a fine piece of work. The contour of the hills, 
ravines, the points and streams, the surroundings and other 
things are there. A far less elaborate work would it be for a class 
from the High school or university to give us a similar map of 
Onondaga lake. Perhaps it would not be difficult enough. It is 
worth doing, however, and members of this academy could see it 
done. 

There are some questions of interest about animals which 
once lived here. In this city strange bones and horns have been 
reported from excavations. I saw some fine elk horns not long 
since from this vicinity, and have drawn a tooth of the fossil 
elephant which once dwelt here. As time goes on more of these 
traces of early animals will be found, and a society like this will 
see them cared for. For lack of one much has been lost. Let us 
hope that a permanent home for future material will soon be ours. 

You will observe in this that I have passed over some im- 
portant branches of science. ‘‘ The heavens declare the glory of 
God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork.” To my mind 
there is nothing so elevating, so plain an evidence of the Creator’s 
wisdom and power, so suggestive of the endless enjoyments of an 
eternal life, as considering the heavens as they appear, or their 
greater glories as seen through the glass. Earthly things be- 
come insignificant; earthly life is as nothing. 

We may not be able to do much here, astronomically, but 
the mere machinery and work of the Syracuse Observatory, well 
explained, would be of great interest to some. How much more 
to all would be occasional addresses on the more striking phe- 
nomena of the heavens. 

We have not overlooked the skill of the physician and sur- 


a3 


geon. I owe a great deal to some merely popular lectures of this 
kind which I have heard in my earlier days. In a city which has 
a notable Medical College and a Medical Society of high reputa- 
tion, the deeper problems of disease and remedy will naturally 
find an appreciative hearing, but there are those of great interest 
which less trained minds can hear and enjoy. My predecessor 
in office has a high reputation in his line and we have listened to 
him with profit and pleasure. Whatever his surgery may be his 
remarks are not cutting, and I hope for a West India lecture on 
his return, as genial and delightful as his own nature. 

Folk lore now takes rank as a science, and is a pursuit well 
adapted to many. The collection of old tales, proverbs and signs, 
is not necessarily a vain employment. I have done something in 
Indian lore, not without value, but there is a wide field open to 
many in such work here. Our many nationalities, religious 
beliefs, our life in city and country, give great opportunities here 
for research of this kind. What are our weather signs? On 
what foundation do they rest? Does the full moon affect vegeta- 
tion, or fishing, or the pork in the barrel? Do weather signs 
have a real value? Old probability says yes, and so do many 
good observers. In mere superstitions you will find many curi- 
ous things. Those connected with funerals have sometimes caused 
me inconvenience, but some had a good reason at their origin. 
It is a large subject which I can only mention now. 

I am no profound scientist; perhaps more a forager than a 
cultivator, but I have greatly enjoyed much desultory work. To 
give needed attention to one, I have now to lay them aside except 
in a holiday sort of way. My archaeological work seems a little 
apart from the objects of this society, but it is a study of fossil 
men as distinguished from corals and shells. In this study of ear- 
ly American life we have gained vastly in a score of years, and a 
comparison of facts is continually correcting our errors and en- 


larging our vision. So it is in everything. No one man and no 
orie age will master all knowledge. Columbus-like, we look ahead 
on undiscovered seas, leading the way and making charts for 
those who come later. 

If we labor, let us also hope that all will not be in vain, but 
that other men will enter into the fruits of our labors. 


74 
GLACIAL CLIMATE. 
TC. Moreins, Pa we 

APRIL 19, I9O1. 


One of the difficult questions that confronts the student of 
glacialogy to-day is to give a satisfactory explanation for the 
change in climate that would produce glaciation at low levels in 
northern United States. It might appear at first glance that the 
investigations of recent years which have added greatly to our 
knowledge of glacial phenomena would have simplified the ques- 
tion but such is not the case. The investigations have added addi- 
tional conditions to the problem in even greater proportion than 
positive information has been gained towards an answer. 

A few years ago it was only necessary to account for one 
glacial period, now he who would give an acceptable explanation 
must account for several, he knows not how many. Some of the 
leading glacialogists tell us that there were not less than five or 
six glacial periods in Pleistocene time while others contend that 
there was only one. Previous to the glacial period of Pleistocene 
time there were probably other periods of glaciation but it is not 
safe at the present time to say how many. It appears to be well 
established that there was a glacial period at or near the close of 
the Carboniferous age, which produced glaciers on both sides of 
the equator between 20 and 30 degrees. Between that period and 
this there was a mild climate in high latitudes during a consider- 
erable portion of Mesozoic time. More-over there are periods of 
aridity during Triassic, Permian and Silurian times that indi- 
cate great climatic changes that are probably more or less closely 
related to glacial climatic changes. 

Hence any explanation for the glacial climate that would not 
permit a number of recurrences would not be received with 
much favor by many of the glacial students. Quite a number of 
hypotheses have been advanced to account for the different cli- 
matic changes, some of which are purely speculative and some are 
based on sound principles and have been received with consider- 
able favor. While some of these explanations have been received 


fa 


wiht favor no one of them appears to give full satisfaction, as 
strong objections have been brought against each one and not 
one of them can be said to be established satisfactorily. 

Among the different hypotheses might be enumerated the 
following: 1. The earth in its passage through space may have 
passed through colder portions that would produce glacial cli- 
mate and warmer portions that would produce interglacial per- 
iods. 

2. The sun is said to be a variable star and the glacial per- 
iod may correspond to one of the periods of decrease of the sun’s 
heat. 

3. The earth’s axis of rotation is not fixed and it may have 
shifted sufficiently to move the frigid zone into the now North 
Temperate latitudes. 

These three hypotheses might be put in the same category as 
they are all purely speculative without any positive evidence in 
their favor. They are now working hypotheses and have never 
been received with much favor by the scientific world. 

Among the explanations that have been received with more 
favor might be mentioned: 4. The elevation of the land area 
in northern latitudes which might cause the accumulation of snow 
and thus cause a glacial climate. The evidence in favor of the 
elevation is found in the deeply eroded river channels of the 
north. All through northern United States are many old stream 
channels now filled to a depth of several hundred feet with glacial 
debris. We are now standing or sitting over one of these old 
valleys. We are told that wells have been sunk at least 400 feet 
in the glacial debris in the old Onondaga Valley in Syracuse. It 
has been argued, however, with some show of reason that this 
elevation was not sufficient to cause glaciation, nor is it definitely 
known that this elevation did not take place a considerable length 
of time before the glacial period. While, in the light of our pres- 
ent knowledge on the subject, the elevation of the land does not 
appear in itself to be a sufficient cause to account for glaciation it 
is probable that either directly or indirectly it is an important 
influence and possibly deserving of greater credit than is ordin- 
arily given to it. 


76 


5. Croll’s hypothesis, named from one of its ablest advo- 
cates, has been received with much favor. It postulates a change 
in the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit along with a precession of 
the equinoxes. It is an attractive explanation and has probably 
been received with greater favor than any of the others, yet there 
have been some grave objections brought against it. It places 
the last glacial period too far away, and there does not appear 
to have been the regular recurrence that the hypothesis demands. 
Becker’s mathematical investigations of the hypothesis lead him 
to the conclusion that maximum ellipticity is the most unfavor- 
able for glacial accumulation instead of the most favorable as in- 
volved in the hypothesis. While Becker’s conclusions are based on 
mathematics advocates of the hypothesis may question some of 
his premises on which the reasoning is based. 

6. An attempt is now being made by some of the students of 
glacialogy to establish a working hypothesis for the cause of the 
glacial climate on an atmospheric basis. It is not entirely inde- 
pendent of some of the explanations already offered, nor can it 
be said to be wholly new. It attempts to put in concrete shape 
principles that have been known for many years. More than fifty 
years ago Tyndall urged that a variation in the content of CO2 
in the atmosphere was sufficient for a glacial climate, but the 
statement received scarcely more than a passing notice until quite 
recently, when it has been elaborated and presented in such detail 
and in such concrete form as to command the attention of all per- 
sons interested in the subject. 

It has long been known that CO2 and water vapor are the 
chief agents in retaining the heat radiated from the earth’s sur- 
face, but apparently no effort was made to consider the quantita- 
tive effect upon the temperature of the atmosphere by any given 
change in the content of CO2 until a few years ago when it was 
undertaken by Prof. Svante Arrhenius*. He explains that the 
air retains heat in two ways: I. The heat suffers selective dif- 
fusion as it passes through the air. 2. The gases themselves 
have the power of absorbing selectively the light and heat of cer- 
tain wave lengths. The CO2 and the water vapor have this power 


* Phil. Magazine and Journal of Science. V. 41. (Sth series.) 1896. 


77 


to a greater extent than any of the other gases. The results of his 
investigations leads Professor Arrhenius to the conclusion that 
if the CO2 is increased 2.5 to 3 times its present value, the tem- 
perature in the Arctic regions must rise 8 to 9 degrees C and pro- 
duce a climate as mild as that of the Eocene period. A decrease 
of .65 or .55 of its present value would cause a fall of from 4 to 
5 degrees C and produce a glacial climate. 

Professor Chamberlin took up the subject at this point 
endeavoring to show geological relations that might produce 
such atmospheric changes. It is he says an attempt to frame a 
working hypothesis of the cause of glacial periods on an atmos- 
‘pheric basis. 

Along with the fact that the increase of COz2 in the atmos- 
phere tends to raise the temperature and a decrease to lower it, 
it has been shown that the increase of CO2 tends to equalize the 
temperature while a decrease tends to intensify the variations or 
differences in temperature between (1) low and high latitudes, 
(2)day and night, (3) the seasons, (4) land and sea, (5) the 
upper and lower portions of the atmosphere. Hence, a decrease 
would lead to (1) greater local heat as well as greater local cold, 
(2) to greater local dryness as well as greater local moisture, 
(3) to more intense movements of the atmosphere in the effort 
to restore equilibrium, (4) to lower the average temperature. 

On the assumption that the increase and decrease of CO2 in 
the atmosphere causes corresponding change in the temperature 
along with corresponding equalization or intensification of the 
variations it next becomes necessary to find the agencies that can 
produce the increase or decrease. The agencies of both increase 
and decrease may be divided into permanent and the temporary. 

The permanent loss consists (1) in the carbonation of the 
silicates, that is a change of the silicates of the igneous rocks to 
the carbonates of the sedimentary series. This is accompanied 
by the formation of oxides, sulfates, phosphates, etc., but that 
does not change the fact that large quantities of CO2 are used 
up in the formation of the limestones and the dolomites. (2) 
By plants and the fixation of large quantities of carbon in the 


78 


form of coal, petroleum, natural gases, etc.—some of the hydro- 
carbons may have an inorganic origin. 

Source of temporary loss of COz2: (1) The locking up of 
CO2 as bicarbonates in the solution of the limestones and the dolo- 
mites. T. M. Reade estimates that this is annually 1350 million 
tons as compared with 270 million tons in original carbonation. 
(2) Absorption in sea water. (3) Some CO2 may be used in 
decomposing sulfates by organisms. | 

Sources of permanent gain: (1) The CO2 inclosed in the 
crystalline igneous rocks set free by disintegration, (2) that 
brought up by volcanoes, (3) possibly some brought in by mete- 
orites. | 

Sources of temporary gain: (1) chemical action—the set- 
ting free of the second CO2 in the bicarbonates by the action of 
organisms, (2) by dissociations, (3) by setting free or diffu- 
sion into the air of the CO2 in the sea water due to a rising tem- 
perature and (4) by the decomposition of organic matter. 

These fluctuations of carbonic acid are correlated with the 
elevation and extension of the land on the one hand and the ad- 
vance of the sea on the other. During extensive land elevation 
the silicates are changed to carbonates more rapidly and the dis- 
solved limestones carried to the sea more rapidly, both processes 
using up CO2 from the atmosphere. Correlated with this is a 
lessening of the sea area, particularly of the continental shelf 
which is the habitat of the lime-secreting forms. Limitation of 
the lime-secreting forms retards the process of freeing the CO2. 
The result is a reduction in temperature which increase the capac- 
ity of the sea for holding CO2. 

In periods of sea extension and land reduction the shallow 
water area is increased giving acceleration to the agencies that set 
CO2 free from the ocean, at the same time the land area being 
diminished the carbonation of the silicates would go on more 
slowly as likewise the solution of the limestone thus acting con- 
jointly to increase the CO2 in the atmosphere. 

APPLICATION. To apply the hypothesis to our last glacial 
period is the next step. It is noted that there was a marked ele- 
vation and extension of the land at or near the close of the Plio- 


79 


cene period. ‘This uplift as already mentioned has been cited as 
the cause of the glacial climate. In the present hypothesis it is 
an incident rather than the sole cause as previously advocated. 
This uplift is known in modern literature as the Ozarkian or 
Sierrian. Its extent is shown by comparing the estimated area 
of that period 65,000,000 square miles with the 44,000,000 of the 
middle Tertiary and the 54,000,000 at the present time, an in- 
crease of 47 percent. over the mid-Tertiary. This indicates a ne- 
cessarily great change in the effective contact of the atmosphere 
with the surface of the earth. This is greater than would appear 
at first sight if we consider the contact on the surfaces of grains, 
pores and fissures. This contact becomes a rapidly increasing one 
by the sinking of the ground-water surface which was at first car- 
ried up by the uplift, but would be lowered by the trenching of the 
streams. 

Along with the increased land area there was a correspond- 
ing decrease in the sea area and a very great decrease in the shal- 
low water areas, almost to obliteration, thus producing a great 
lessening in the rate of freeing CO2 to co-operate with the in- 
creased consumption on the land in hastening the depletion of the 
atmosphere. 

There was a lowering of the temperature from these causes 
which would tend to further check the lime-secreting life of the 
ocean and at the same time give the ocean greater absorptive 
power. 

AssIGNED Causes oF GractIAL OscILLation. The as- 
signed causes are self accellerating the effect of which is to push 
the results to an extreme from which reaction will take place. 
For example: (1) A necessary consequence of the increased 
rate of transmission of CO2 to the sea along with a decreased 
rate of its release would be an accumulation of CO2 in the sea. 

(2) The cooling of the sea waters reduced the dissociation 
of the bicarbonates and hence they were more abundant than 
before. 

(3) With the increase of the snowfields there would be 
increased reflection and a decreased absorbtion of the sun’s rays. 

(4) With increasing cold there would be less rapid decay of 


80 


organic matter and less CO2 set free; however this may be offset 
by the reduction in the amount of carbon locked up in the living 
organisms. These agencies, particularly the first three tend 
towards the acceleration of the refrigeration through the earlier 
stages but the process involved the conditions of its own arrest. 

BEGINNING OF THE REACTION. (1) The ice sheet itself 
was probably an important agency in checking the loss of CO2 as 
at its maximum it covered nearly 8,000,000 square miles, or 15 
per cent. of the land area. Perhaps another area at the border but 
outside of the ice sheet would be affected by prolonged freezing 
so as to check if not prohibit carbonation. 

(2) If the reaction once started the rising temperature 
would cause the release of more of the CO2 in the seawater and 
this would further hasten the process. 

(3) The increasing warmth would call forth more lime- 
secreting life forms in the sea which would hasten the process. 

(4) The increase of water from the melting ice would in- 
crease the shallow water zone. 

(5) The increased decay of organic matter would develop 
CO2. This may be offset by increased growth. 

(6) The increase of water vapor would increase the ther- 
mal capacity. 

INTERGLACIAL Epocus. If the land areas remained high 
and large nothwithstanding local depressions attributed to the 
weight of the ice the conditions would again prevail for a renewal 
of the glaciation. So glaciation and deglaciation might follow 
each other until the general causes disappear. That is in so far 
as the continental land masses settle back toward sea level or are 
worn away the conditions would disappear. 

INTERCURRENT AGENCIES. Glacial oscillations on the at- 
mospheric basis might be interrupted or disturbed by other out- 
side influences: (1) Any movement of the land which affected 
the aggregate atmospheric contact might disturb the rhythm. 

(2) Any notable change in the supply of CO2 by volcanic 
or other agency might affect it to a considerable extent. 

(3) The precession of the equinoxes has a rhythm of its 


SI 


own that might or might not coincide with the atmospheric one, 
likewise the change in the eccentricity. 

It remains to consider whether the time necessary for these 
changes falls within working limits. If we take Reade’s estimate 
of the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and the amount annu- 
ally consumed in bicarbonates we find that it takes only 926 years 
to exhaust half of the CO2 in the atmosphere now and only 
17,500 years to exhaust half of the CO2 of the atmosphere and 
the sea. There is a considerable variation in the estimates of the 
length of time involved in and since the recent glacial period, but 
all the estimates that have met with any favor are consistent with 
the figures given, viz., 17,500 years. 


ASPAMILY OF BLU EABIRDS: 
PRINCIPAL JOHN D. WILSON. 
JUNE 14, IQOT. 


The scarcity of suitable nesting places is a cause for the dim- 
inution of our native birds, which has not received the attention 
which it deserves. 

Sparrows are versatile architects. They can nest anywhere. 
That is why they breed so fast. 

Hollow stumps and trees which formerly furnished homes 
for blue birds, wrens, and chimney swifts, are rapidly being 
cleared away. ‘The place of these might be easily supplied by 
artificial devices which would largely increase the number of 
birds in a very few years. ‘Those who have never tried the exper- 
iment will be surprised at the readiness with which birds respond 
to assistance. 

‘Early this spring, the recollection that, when a boy, I had 
often found a blue bird’s nest in a hollow stump led me to make 
an attempt to entice a pair to locate in my garden. 

On the t2th day of April I took four pieces of common 
house-siding about four inches wide and nailed them in the shape 
of a hollow, square prism. ‘The opposite sides were respectively 
twelve and fifteen inches in length. I nailed a little strip across 


82 


the bottom, stuffed in a piece of newspaper, nailed another little 
board over the top, placed a cross piece projecting about three 
inches on each side for a perch, and fastened the device securely 
on the top of a grape arbor about fifty feet from my house. The 
device when finished was four inches square, fifteen inches high, 
with two, opposite, three inch openings just under the roof, and 
having about two inches of newspaper in the bottom. 

I did not expect tenants this year; but I was happily disap- 
pointed. On the afternoon of April 26th a pair of beautiful blue 
birds made a brief, informal call. Saturday, the 27th, while I 
was working in my garden, they were in and out all day, though 
I did not see them carrying material for a nest. The following 
week I was away in the North Woods. On my return home, my 
first inquiry was about the blue birds. The report was that they 
had not been seen, and I reached the conclusion that the house 
did not suit. I kept a close and quite watch, however, and soon 
learned that they were still making frequent visits. By the 12th 
of May, I felt quite sure that the female was sitting. She would 
remain in the nest for several hours at a time and then leave it 
for only a few minutes. During this time the male bird was 
usually perched on some high point, sometimes on the telephone 
wire, overlooking the nest. When the female would come out, 
he would hop up and down on his perch and flap his wings like a 
little rooster, then he would dart down and peer into the nest. 
He did not sing in the vicinity of the nest during the time his 
mate was sitting. 

By May 23rd, it was evident from the increased activity of 
the pair, that a brood had been hatched. The female was visit- 
ing the nest about fifteen times an hour. The male less frequently. 
He rarely entered the nest except when the female was present. 
On May 25th, between 3 o’clock and 3.30, the female made seven 
visits and both made three visits, a total of thirteen in half an 
hour. I soon learned that the business of the male bird is to carry 
refuse out of the nest, while the female does the feeding. 

It is a curious fact that the mother bird almost invariably 
entered the nest at the south door, apparently just as one forms 
a habit of always sitting at the same place at table. 


83 


We soon began to hear the little ones every time the mother 
bird entered. 

Saturday, June Ist, was a cold, rainy day. The old birds 
were rarely seen and the little ones could not be heard. I rapped 
on the post which supported the nest. No response. I feared 
they had perished. ‘To satisfy myself, I got a step-ladder, re- 
moved the top of the box and looked in. There were five plump, 
fat fellows, snug and warm, and all feathered out except their 
tails. 

Last Sunday, June oth, as soon as | returned from church, 
I went out to see my pets; and as the mother bird left the nest, 
one of the little fellows hopped up to the edge of the opening and 
looked out. I knew at once that the day of departure was near, 
so I returned to the house so as not to hasten their exit. 

I did not go out again till six o’clock when I saw one in a 
cherry tree, and two perched in the openings of the bird house, 
one on each side. I returned to the house and went to an attic 
window overlooking the garden, where they could not see me. I 
saw one little fellow fly from the nest to the top of a tree at least 
ten feet higher than the point from which he started. So his first 
flight was upward. ‘They were soon all out, flying from tree to 
tree, picking among the leaves or holding their mouths open to be 
fed. By seven o’clock they were all away, just forty-four days 
from the time the old birds made their first visit. 

On Monday morning I saw one of the little ones receiving 
breakfast from its mother in a nearby tree. I have not seen them 
since. J really miss them for I enjoyed their interesting ways. 

The sparrows paid no apparent attention to the bird house 
during the period of nesting. It was too deep for them. 

On the afternoon when the little blue birds were coming out, 
about a dozen sparrows and two robins came over to see what 
was going on. These the parent blue birds immediately attacked 
and drove away. 


Had I fed and handled these little birds while they were 
helpless in the nest, it would have tamed them and induced them 
to remain near me all summer, but I reasoned that such treatment 
would weaken them, and that they would be stronger in the 
struggle for existence if I kept myself out of their life. 


84 


FAUNA OF THE AGONIATITE LIMESTONE OF 
ONONDAGA COUNTY, N. Y. 


Joun D. WILson. 
OcToBER 18, IQOT. 


The transition from the Corniferous limestone, gc of the 
geological series, to the Marcellus shale, 10a, is abrupt. Going © 
eastward along the Jamesville and Manlius road in front of the 
new penitentiary, one may travel for a quarter of a mile on a 
smooth, natural pavement, the top of the Corniferous. At the — 
burying ground, east of Jamesville, there is a sudden rise in the 
road. Upon inspection the hill is found to be composed of a 
black, fragile shale so highly charged with bituminous matter 
that will often blaze for a. time if thrown upon a fire. In this 
shale which is almost destitute of fossils, at a distance above the 
Corniferous, varying from a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet, 
occurs what is now known as Agoniatite limestone. The forma- 
tion is composed of two layers joined by a horizontal, suture-like, 
seam which is extremely difficult to open unless the rock has been 
exposed for some time to the weather. 

It extends from Schoharie county on the east to Ontario 
county on the west. In Onondaga county, where the formation 
is best known, and where it probably has its fullest development, 
the lower layer is twenty-eight inches in thickness, and the upper 
one six inches. ‘The lower layer has no cleavage lines. It is com- 
posed of irregular nodules of very hard substance, interspaced 
by softer material. It contains but few fossils and these are not 
well preserved. The upper layer has cleavage lines which form 
an angle of about thirty degrees with the connecting suture. This 
makes it difficult to separate fossils from the matrix, for they lie 
in a horizontal plane. 

Both layers bear abundance of iron, have a distinct petro- 
leum odor when first broken, and soon disintegrate when exposed 
to the atmosphere. 

The upper six inch layer abounds in fossil remains, the most 
abundant beingA goniatites expansus and Orthoceras Marcellense. 


85 


These when whole lie in a horizontal position and are so numer- 
ous that they are, in places, touching one another. 

If a goniatite is tilted, it is sure to be only a fragment, or a 
very small specimen. Those lying horizontally are usually whole 
on the lower side. The upper side is rarely preserved, probably 
having been worn away by the elements before the mud in which 
it was deposited hardened into stone. ‘The orthocerata are usu- 
ally whole; but because of the striae on the outside, the test gen- 
erally adheres to the matrix when the fossil is removed from the 
rock. 

The fossil fauna of the Agoniatite limestone is unique, being 
distinctly different, except in rare instances, from ‘the forms 
found imbedded in the rock both below and above. A very few of 
the forms appear higher in the Hamilton shales. While fossils 
are numerous, species are comparatively few. In twenty years 
of effort, I have obtained about twenty from rock in place. I 
have at the present time eighteen species: Cephalopoda, nine; 
gasteropoda, three; branchiopoda, one; pteropoda, one; pisces, 
one; lamellibranchiata, two; plantae, one; crustacea, none. 

The fish remains are too meagre to indicate anything except 
that they were large. 

The single pteropod, Colcolus acicula, is described by Hall 
in Vol. 5, Natural History of New York, page 187. 

Brachipoda are represented by one species, Leiorhynchus 
limitare, the Orthis limitaris of Vanuxem, Vol. 4, page 356. Let- 
orhynchus lumtare is usually found inside of the shell of an ago- 
niatites or an orthoceras, sometimes as many as one hundred in 
a single shell. ‘Fhis is probably due to a gentle movement of the 
water in which the little creatures lived. Lamellibranchiata are 
rare. I have found but two: Lunulicardium curtum, Hall, Vol. 
5, and Panenka ventricosa, Hall, Vol. 5, page 417. 

Gasteropoda are represented by Loxonema delphicola, com- 
mon in the higher Hamilton shales, Hall, Vol. 5, page 47; Euom- 
phalus planodiscus, Hall, Vol. 5, page 57, and a new species de- 
scribed and named by Dr. John M. Clarke in museum bulletin 
No. 49, page 127 as follows: 

“ Macrochilina onondagaensis, sp. nov. Shell rotund with 


86 


short acuminate spire having incurved slopes, its length being 
about one-quarter of the entire length of the shell, or that of 
the body whorl. Whorls largely concealed. Surface convex, 
sutures impressed; body whorl very high, somewhat abruptly 
convex near the suture where the surface of the penulti- 
mate whorl is overlapped for 4-5 of its width. | Non-umbilicate 
but with the columellar lip well defined and slightly twisted; 
aperture entire, outer lip but slightly thickened. Surface smooth, 
shining, bearing only fine concentric lines. Internal cast smooth. 

Dimensions: Height 22 mm.; width across body whorl 17 
mm. ; height of body whorl 18 mm. 

Locality: Agoniatite limestone, Manlius. This very pretty 
species has been found by Prin. John D. Wilson of Syracuse, 
who has considerately presented the type specimen to the state 
museum. It is unlike any species known from the New York 
Devonic in its short, concave spire and very large body whorl, 
features which also distinguish it from other forms of the 
genus.” 


The above views of Macrochilina onondagaensis, which were printed in 
Museum Bulletin No. 49, were furnished to the Academy through the courtesy 
of state paleontologist, J. M. Clarke. 


The cephalopoda are large, numerous, and interesting. Ago- 
niatitites expansus and Orthoceras marcellense are the most com- 
mon. Goniatites discoideus, Nautilus discites, Orthoceras con- 
strictum, Gomphoceras fischeri, Gomphoceras solidum, and Gyro- 
ceras transversum are not so abundant, though occasional speci- 
mens of all these may be counted on. 

Thoracoceras wilsoni is a new cephalopod named and de- 
scribed by Dr. John M. Clarke in museum bulletin No. 49, page 
126, as follows 

“ Thoracoceras wilsoni, sp. nov. The shell has a slight cyr- 
toceran curvature, notable chiefly in the distal apertural region. 


87 


The cast of the interior shows a very decided prismatic appear- 
ance, there being ten well defined prism faces with flat or at times 
slightly concave surfaces. Of these faces that on the inner curv- 
ature of the dorsal surface is the broadest and 1s well defined over 
the body chamber, where the other faces become faint or quite ex- 
tinguished. The body chamber shows a slight constriction at 
about one-half its length. In two of the casts in which the body 
whorl and aperture are entirely preserved, this chamber has a 
length of 45 mm., which is equal to the depth of 6.5 chambers. 

On the exterior the surface 1s ornamented by fine concen- 
tric or horizontal imbricating or engraved lines, which are 
bunched together into low concentric annuli and are crossed ver- 
tically by ridges of about the same size. These are ten in number 
to correspond with the prism angles. Where these cross the an- 
nuli, they are raised into projections which appear for the most 
part to be short, stout and blunt but in some vertical sections of 
the shell are apparently extended, acute and spiniform. The 
exterior markings become fainter on the body whorl, but are 
plainly visible to the aperture, in this respect contrasting to the 
condition of the internal surface. The aperture is sinuous with 
a marked channel on the left lateral margin. 

Dimensions: The specimens observed have an apertural 
diameter of 30 to 40 mm., and bear 16 septa in a distance of 100 
mm., from the last downward. The approximate entire length 
of these shells was 250 mm. 

Locality: Manlius; John D. Wilson, collector and donor.” 

Because of the fragile shale both overlying and underlying, 
and its own unstable character when exposed to the atmosphere, 
exposures of Agoniatite limestone, satisfactory for study, rarely 
occur. Out-crops are common enough, but they are generally 
meagre. ‘Those best known to me are the following: 

At the road side about half a mile southeast of Marcellus vil- 
lage, on both sides of Onondaga Valley from one to three miles 
south of the city line, and in several small ravines south of the 
road between Jamesvile and Manlius. 

In the foregoing paper, I have mentioned only fossils col- 
lected by myself from rock in place in this county. 


88 


I have seen and have had at times others. Some years ago 
I found a large cephalopod in the form of an open coil. 

Prof. P. F. Schneider reports Pleurotomaria regulata* and 
a small trilobite**, and Hall in the state reports gives several 
species as occurring in Agoniatite limestone, which are not here 
enumerated. 


CEPHALOPODIA; Agoniatites cxpansus, Agoniatites discoid- 
eus, Nautilus discites, Orthoceras marcellense, Orthoceras con- 
strictum, Thoracoceras wilsoni, Gomphoceras fischeri, Gompho- 
ceras solidum, Gyroceras transversum. 

GastERopopA; Loxonema delphicola, Marcrochilina onon- 
dagaensis, Euomphalus planodicus. 

Bracuiopopa,; Leiorhynchus linutare. 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,; Lunulicardium curtum, Panenka 
ventricosa. 

Preropopa; Coleolus acicula. 

PISCES; spines. 

PLANTAE; leaves. 


SOME FUNGI OF ONONDAGA COUNTY, NEW YORK. 
Miss MINNIE L. OVERACKER. 
DECEMBER 20, IQOT. 


Our class work in the fungi began with the early colonies 
of Coprinus micaceous found so frequently by roadside and pave- 
ment wherever a center of decaying wood offers foothold and 
food supply. This little Coprinus that came early and stayed 
late, has a conical tan-colored cap sprinkled with shining parti- 
cles like mica, and is edible though somewhat thin. 


*Since writing the above Principal Wilson also found the pleurotomaria 
in rock, unquestionably agoniatite, he has also discovered a third species in 
this rock. It is no doubt a variety of gasteropod, and has been forwarded to 
State Paleontologist Clarke for classification and description. 


**This tribolite, according to Professor Schneider’s “ Notes on the Geol- 
ogy of Onondaga County,” is Proetus Haldeman. Mr. Schneider has found 
it in considerable numbers at one exposure, the cutting in the roadside at 
the hill just before reaching the Vandemark homestead on the turnpike going 
east from Jamesville to Manlius. He also reports the same specimen from 
Oriskany Falls about 33 miles east of Syracuse. 


89 


Cop. atramentarius, noted for the whole plant dissolving in 
age into a black inky fluid—came about the same time and was 
smoky or silvery gray in color. The most striking Coprinus 
however is C. comatus—tall, barrel-shaped, and covered with 
shaggy scales,—and this species to a mycophagist, is a dainty 
morsel. 

Among other dark-spored species, we found abundant Hy- 
pholoma, both the common creamy H. appendiculatum and the 
brick-red H. sublateritiwm— lasting from May to October. 

Stropharia semiglobata was not uncommon, but its relative 
S. aeruginosa was a dainty rarity with its delicate robin’s-egg 
blue cap and pale chocolate gills. 

In this brown spored division is also the genus Agaricus: 
Agaricus campestris being the common mushroom of culture 
caves and shops. In the latter part of summer came an interesting 
series of Agarici—the broad-topped, delicately scaly species pla- 
comyces, the horse-mushroom A. arvensis, the delicate little wood 
form, A. silvicola, and the fine, stout, crimson-gilled A. rod- 
mani. It is especially interesting with mushrooms, so difficult at. 
best to determine accurately,—to be able to examine a series of 
related species and note the minor points of difference together 
with the typical characters of the genus. 

The largest group of Agarics is the section having white 
spores. Here we studied the most poisonous of all mushrooms, 
the Amanitas, and found numerous species: the beautiful A. 
phalloides, pure white or tinted with gray or buff; tall, with 
graceful white collar and distinct cup at base. Some of these 
we watched with great interest, developing from the egg. Close- 
ly related is the smaller A. verna, called the destroying angel—its 
exquisite purity together with its fatal principle giving sufficient 
warrant for the poetic term. 

Then A. virosa, A. velatipes, (properties untested but prob- 
ably vicious), the little 4. floccocephala, the bright orange A. 
muscaria called the fly-mushroom, and the reddish-tinted A. ru- 
bescens. Amanitopsis is closely related and lacks only the collar 
on the stem; we found that with gray and salmon-tinted caps. 

Next in order of relationship comes Lepiota the parasol 


gO 


mushroom 


lacking the volva at the base of the stem and, like 
Amanitopsis, quite harmless. Several species of Lepiota came to 
our hands. Of the genus Pleurotus which includes the oyster 
mushroom and other plants highly prized for their edible quali- 
ties, we found at least six species. P. sapidus, a large, fleshy, 
attractive looking mushroom, though classed with the Leucos- 
porae, has beautiful lilac-tinted spores. 

Collybia is a distinct genus of this group; we found four 
species, of which C. radicata, with the deep, tapering, root-like 
projection of the stem, seemed the very commonest among the 
mushrooms; it was found growing in all sorts of places. 

Among the pink-spored Agarics,Pluteus cervinus was com- 
monest and usually easily recognized by its ball and socket joint 
between cap and stem. Claudopus, Entoloma, Leptonia, and Cli- 
topilus were other genera found. 

The genus Pholiota, distinguished among the ochre-spored 
agarics by its distinct ring on the stem, was abundant in several 
species. Late in Autumn, a large cluster of the bright yellow 
P. adiposa was found growing on a decaying stump at Dorwin’s 
Spring. Species of Naucoria, Inocybe, Tubaria, Crepidotus, 
Galera, and Cortinarius were frequently found. The violet Cor- 
tinarius is a beautiful plant and one easily recognized in that dif- 
ficult genus. Paxillus, found in two species, proved very inter- 
esting as presenting a transition state from gills to pores. 

Owing to the long weeks of rain in the early part of the 
spring and summer, this past season of I901 was remarkably fav- 
orable to mushroom growth. Species new to us appeared at 
every turn; in groves and pastures, on grassy hillsides and sandy 
banks, by roadside and street, in lawn and garden—almost any 
where one might catch glimpses of fresh Agarics peeping up. 
Mushroom hunting has this decided advantage over collecting 
flowering plants, that the same locality may be visited day after 
day and yield each time fresh plants whose existence was not 
before hinted at—or if so, the hint was imperceptible. So while 
a wide range of territory is not to be disdained, a very limited 
hunting ground will often yield fresh material indefinitely. 

Kimber’s Springs, Dorwin’s, the woods near the Sugar 


QI 


Loaf, Long Branch, the woods toward Jamesville, the vicinity of 
Baldwinsville, were all cherished haunts of this year’s mushroom 
hunters. In a few hours collecting over some wooded hillsides 
and damp meadows near the Split Rock road, one hundred and 
twenty-five species were counted, and these of course of the more 
evident varieties; for the most part, we left Ascomycetes, Myx- 
omycetes, etc., severely alone. 

A fact noted, due no doubt to the favorable season, was that 
measurements of many species far exceeded those given in books 
of reference. For example, Armillaria mellea grew 25 cm. tall, 
instead of 15 cm. as it was said to do. 

In those same Split Rock woods, we found many very inter- 
esting plants;—among them the black, shaggy Strobilomyces, 
one of the pore-fungi said not to be very common; the in- 
digo Lactarius where the ordinary milky juice, characteristic 
of the genus is replaced by a bright blue fluid. A number of 
other Lactarii were found—the golden brown L. volemus and 
L. corrugis, the yellow-spotted L. chrysorrheus, the zoned L. de- 
lictosus, and the white L. piperatus with an extremely hot flavor 
of pepper. Russula is an allied genus, easily recognized and usu- 
ally beautiful. We studied five or six species of that,—the dull 
brown capped R. adusta, the delicate green FR. virescens, the crim- 
son R. emetica (said to be poisonous), R. fragilis and R. aluta- 
cea. A very unusual specimen of the last was found near the St. 
Lawrence river, having a small perfect plant growing directly 
from the pileus of a large one. Some dead leaves had drifted 
across the larger plant but the small plant was firmly attached 
and seemed part of the other. Professor Atkinson wrote that he ~ 
had never observed a case of the kind. Something similar was 
noticed inTricholoma personatum where the large plant was part- 
ly covered with straw and bore two small imperfect pilei on its 
upper surface. In neither case could it have been parasitism, for 
the small plants were clearly of the same species as their support- 
ets: 

While we studied Agarics chiefly, we identified occasional 
species belonging to genera of the Polyporaceae,—especially 
Boletus, Polyporus, and the beefsteak fungus, Fistulina. Also 


Q2 


several interesting species of Hydnum, Clavaria, Stereum, and 
Craterellus. 

A number of species of puff-balls were found in abundance, 
and some appetizing repasts reported based on the largest one, 
Lycoperdon giganteum. 

But to give a somewhat detailed description of the species 
of fungi studied in one season by our beginners’ class would 
demand far more space than can be taken here,—the whole num- 
ber of species positively identified reaching a total of one hun- 
dred and eighty. Whence it is clear that, given a favorable sea- 
son and the penetrating eyes of a few active mycologists, Onon- 
daga county need not fear to compete in the abundance, variety, 
and interest of her fungus-flora with the rich Adirondack region 
itself. 


FUNGI COLLECTED NEAR SYRACUSE, IQOI. 
Agarics (white spored). 


Amanita floccocephala September 9. 
Frostiana, September 9. 
muscaria, June 17. 
phalloides, September 9. 
velatipes, July 26. 

verna, July 206. 

virosa, September 7. 
Amanitopsis vaginata, September 7. 
Armillaria mellea, September 1. 
Cantharellus aurantiacus, September 1. 

‘ cibarius, September 1. 
cinnabarinus, September 1. 
Clitocybe candida, September 15. 

a cyathiformis, October 20. 
infundibuliformis, July 26. 
laccata, June 15. 

Collybia dryophila, June 8. 
platyphylla, June 15. 
radicata, May 25. 
velutipes, May 25. 


ce 


“e 


(73 


gS 


Hygrophorus coccineus, May 25. 

a conicus, July 15. 
miniatus, September 
psittacinus, June 10. 
puniceus, September 1 
Lactarius chrysorrheus, September 14. 

4 corrugis, September 14. 
deliciosus, September 9. 
fulginosus, August 14. 
indigo, September 5. 
piperatus, August 5. 
volemus, July 206. 
Lentinus lecomtei, June 3. 

“i lepideus, September 14. 
Lenzites betulina, November 2. 

See rctatacel, September 14. 
sepiaria, August 5. 
Lepiota cristata, August 9. 

“naucina, May 27. 
procera, September 1 
Marasmius campanulata, August 8. 

= capillaris, June 15. 
oreades, June I5. 
rotula, June I5. 
Mycena cyanothrix, September 1. 
epipterygia, June 8. 
galericulata, May 23. 


haematopa, October 206. 
polygtamma, June 8. 
pura, August 14. 
Omphalia campanella, August 14. 
epichysium, June 8. 
Pleurotus dryinus, June Io. 

“ ostreatus, June 10. 
petaloides, November 12. 
sapidus, November 2. 
septicus, November 2. 
serotinus, October 26. 
sulphuroides, June 15. 


cc 


ce 


ce 


“cc 


“ce 


“ce 


“ce 


94 


Russula adusta, September 7. 

" .-alutacea, “\itie ous, 
fragilis, July 25. 
virescens, September 7. 
Schizophyllum alneum, August 8. 
Tricholoma personatum, August 8. 


“e 


“ec 


(pink spored. ) 


Claudopus nidulans, November 2. 
Clitopilus prunulus, September 5. 
Entoloma grayanum, August 14. 
strictius, September 9. 
Leptonia asprella, August 14. 
Pluteus cervinus, June IT. 
Volvaria bombycina, August 31. 


(ochre spored. ) 


Cortinarius cinnamomeus, July 25. 
ochroleucus, September 7. 

violaceus, September 7. 
Crepidotus applanatus, May 15. 

es fulvotomentosus, May 15. 

haustellaris, October 7. 
versutus, October 26. 
Galera ovalis, July 25. 
Galera tenera, July 25. 
Inocybe entheloides, July 25. 


Naucoria abstrusa, May 15. 

cf semiorbicularis, May 15. 
Paxillus atrotomentosus, July 15. 

. involutus, September 14. 
Pholiota adiposa, October 20. 

ia aegerita, October 20. 
dura, May 22. 
marginata, October 20. 
praecox, May 28. 
squarrosa, June 14. 


““ 


se 


95 


(brown spored.) 


Agaricus arvensis, September 7. 
campestris, May 27. 
placomyces, September 5. 
Rodmani, June 3. 
silvicola, October 13. 
aroma appendiculatum, May 15. 
sublateritium, May 15. 
Stropharia aeruginosa, October 30. 
semiglobata, July 14. 


(black spored. ) 


Coprinus atramentarius, May 20. 
fee comatus, June 3: 
micaceus, May 20. 
Panaeolus papilionaceus, May 31. 
=) retirugis, July 14. 
Psathvrella disseminata, May 20. 
= prona, November 11. 


ce 


Polyporaceae. 


Boletinus porosus, September 7. 
Boletus Americanus. 
““ badiceps. 
castaneus. 
chrysenteron. 
edulis. 
felleus. 
granulatus. 
luteus. 
obsonium. 
retipes. 
vermiculosus. 
Daedalea confragosa, July 25. 
it; quercina, October 20. 
unicolor, May 25. 


ee 


“ec 


se 


96 


Favolus alveolarius, June 9. 
Fistulina hepatica, August 5. 
Fomes applanatus, October 20. 
Fomes fomentarius, October 20. 
Gleoporus conchoides, November 2. 
Polyporus brumalis, July 25. 

F elegans, July 25. 
gilous, July 25. 
lucidus, July 2 
picipes, November 3. 
resinosus, October 26. 
sulphureus, September 3. 
tomentosus, September 3. 
Polystictus cinnabarinus, May 25. 
cinnamomeus, September 14. 
hirsutus, May 25. 
perennis, October 20. 
pergamenus, May 15. 
versicolor, May 15. 
Strobilomyces strobilaceus, September 5. 


Hydnaceae. 


Hydnum aurantiacum, September 30. 
caput-ursi, October 3. 


flabellatum, October 20. 
repandum, September 7. 
Irpex mollis, September 30. 
Phlebia radiata, November 2. 


“ec 


“cc 


Thelephoraceae. 


Craterellus cantharellus, September 9. 

2 clavatus, September 9. 
cornucopioides, September 9. 
Stereum spadiceum, September 9. 
Thelephorum Willeyi, August 9. 


“ce 


97 
Clavariaceae. 


Clavaria botrytes, September 9. 
cinerea, September 9. 
cristata, September 9. 
formosa, September 9. 
pistillaris, September 9. 


Tremellineae. 


Leotia lubrica, September 4. 
Tremella lutescens, June 8. 


Gasteromycetes. 


Crucibulum vulgare, November 2. 
Diectyophora duplicata, September 23. 
Geaster mammosum, November 2. 
Lycoperdon cyathiforme, September 7. 
. gemmatum, June 15. 
giganteum, September 7. 
pyriforme, October 7. 
Tulostoma mammosum, November 2. 


ce 


“ec 


Ascomycetes. 


Hypoxylon coccineum, November 2. 
Morchella conica, May 15. 
Morchella esculenta, May 15. 

Peziza badia, May 15. 

Peziza coccinea, May 23. 

‘Xylaria polymorpha, September 5. 


98 
THE GINSENG INDUSTRY OF ONONDAGA CO., N. Y. 
Miss Louise W. Roserts. 
DECEMBER 20, IgO1. 


One member of the araliaceae family, Panax quinque foli- 
um, now rarely greets us from its shady nook in the ravine and 
forest but more often from its artificially shaded and highly cul- 
tured fields. 

The history of ginseng is unique, and its fabulous cost is sur- 
prising when we remember that only one nation makes use of it 
to any extent. 

For hundreds of years the roots have been cherished by the 
Chinese as a panacea for all their ills, and a prized article for 
presents. The roots are often forked or branched and grow in 
imagination, to resemble the human form, hence its name, gin- 
seng, signifying man. ‘They imagine the parts representing the 
arms will cure the diseases of the arms and so on. ‘The more 
nearly the root resembles the human form the more expensive it 
is. The highest grade is raised in Manchuria in the royal gar- 
dens and hunting grounds, and carefully watched. Death is the 
penalty paid for dealing in it without a government license. The 
price of the Manchurian roots ranges from $40 to $200 a pound. 
The next in value is the Rorean species which our Panax quin- 
que folium so closely resembles. The roots of the Kurean plants 
range from $15 to $35 a pound. 

When the Europeans learned of these fabulous prices they 
began searching for it in North America where the French, 
through the description given them by Father Jartoux, who for 
a long time was a Jesuit missionary among the Chinese, discoy- 
ered a plant in Canada which answered the description. It was 
our Panax quingue folium. ‘This plant was discovered in the year 
1710. 

The Iroquois soon found great quantities in their lands. 
They called it ga-ren-to-quen, signifying legs, thighs. 

So the French ,aided by the Indians, collected and exported 
great quantities. The demand increased, and for some time it 


ee, 


was one of the important articles of trade between these two 
countries. A company from India in 1757, eager for gain, sent 
agents in every direction collecting it in a wholesale manner. 
So many roots of an inferior quality were gathered and mark- 
eted that it destroyed the trade for some time. New localities, 
principally west of the Mississippi, were found producing better - 
quality roots which helped to revive the trade. 

The price varies according to the demand and supply. In 
the year 1900 good quality roots brought about seven dollars a 
pound. The appraisal of the American exports for the year 1900 
was $4,000,000. 

This American species is an erect perennial herb from elon- 
gated, aromatic roots with five leaves palmately arranged.. The 
flower stalk is from two to five inches long, bearing in June or 
July an umbel of small flowers. These are soon followed by 
fruit which developes rapidly, remaining green until the mid- 
dle of August, when it begins to turn red. Each berry bears two 
or three seeds. 

In cultivated plants 75 to 100 seeds are the usual number, 
although as many as 152 seeds have been gathered from a single 
plant. The wild plant generally bears only about 50 seeds. 

The forest ginseng only propagates by seed which lies in 
the ground eighteen months before germinating. In some states 
the laws are stringent for its protection, prohibiting its being 
gathered excepting at certain times of the year. The, autumn 
being considered the most profitable time for it to be gathered. 

Its properties are demulcent, slightly stimulent. Its taste 
mucilaginous and sweet. It is strange that a plant with no 
stronger properties should be the means of such great revenues. 
Some of the wild roots have been sent from this and adjoining 
counties. It was while Mr. George Stanton, trying to recuperate 
his health by being out of doors, became interested in gathering 
it and while doing so thought “ the supply will soon be exhausted, 
why not cultivate it?’ So by way of experiment he planted 
some roots in a starch box and placed it in the cellar until spring 
and then planted them in the ground. This was the first cultiva- 
tion of ginseng in America. Onondaga county being the pioneer 


TOO 


county and Mr. George Stanton the pioneer cultivator. He has 
enlarged his beds and is now in correspondence with nearly all 
parts of the new world and much of the old on this subject; for 
the craze to enter the business is spreading, stimulated by the fab- 
ulous prices paid for both roots and seeds. Mr. Ready of the 
Amber ginseng gardens received in November $9 a pound for the 
cultivated roots, and from $6 to $7 for the wild roots. 

The seeds are greatly in demand. Four years ago the seeds 
sold for $1 an ounce, now they are being sold for prices ranging 
from $5 to $20 an ounce. Mr. Stanton expressed his satisfaction 
with $5 or $6 an ounce, as during the year 1901, he sold from 
one-fourth acre 50 pounds at that price, making that fourth of an 
acre to yield $4,500 in one year. About that same time he sold 
70 pounds of roots for $593.69, and also 224 pounds for $1,344.- 
37, which was the product of twelve square rods. Many of the 
beds had borne but one crop before. 

The principal growers are Mr. George Stanton at Apulia, 
Mr. Ready of Amber, Mr. Mills of Rose Hill, Mr. Timmerman 
of Apulia, Mr. Meara of Tully. 

Its culture has become one of Onondaga’s industries. 

The seeds are ruined if allowed to dry, so when gathered 
they are packed in dry sand and placed in a cool place. 

There is a demand for the neck of the roots from which 
plants are also raised by cultivation. 

To'what the craze for its cultivation will lead none can tell, 
nor of the future financial prospects for as yet only one nation 
makes much use of it, and the demand there may be more from 
sentiment than for any real virtues in this plant. When that 
nation shall have become more enlightened on medical remedies 
their high estimate of ginseng may wane and the fabulous prices 
be a thing of the past. 


IOI 


JANUARY 17, 1902. 
SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING. 


The president, Dk. W. M. BEAUCHAMB, in the chair. 


The minutes of the December meeting were read and ap- 
proved. 

The name of Guy Bailey was proposed for membership. 

The report of the council recommended : 
(1) The election of Dr. E. H. Kraus to active member- 
ship. 

(2) The payment of bills amounting to two dollars. 

(3) The transfer of the name of Dr. I. H. Levy from the 
active to the corresponding list of members. 

The report was adopted, the bill ordered paid, and the can- 


didates elected by secretary’s ballot. 


SECRETARY S REPORT. 


In the absence of the secretary, Mr. H. W. Britcher, the 
work of the year was summarized by the corresponding secre- 
tary, P. F. Schneider as follows: 

Eight regular meetings have been held during the year, 
there being no meetings in January, July, August, September. 
tanical Gardens and Their Influences,” L. M. Underwood, Ph.D. 

The speakers and their subjects follow: 

February 15. “ Botanical Gardens and Their Influences,” 
L. M. Underwood, Ph. D. 

March 15. “ President’s Inaugural Address,’ Dr. W. M. 
Beauchamp. 

April 19. “ The Goniatite Limestone,” J. D. Wilson; ‘‘ Gla- 
cial-Climate,’-T. C. Hopkins. 

May 17. “ Conditions in Porto Rico,” Dr. John Van Duyn; 
Site Marine Lite of Porto Rico,” Dr. C. W. Hargitt. 

fone 14) ~ Bird Notes,” Charles G. Rogers; “ Hawks,” 
George D. Lynch; “ A Blue Bird Family,” J. D. Wilson; “ Pond 
ire Ft. W. Britcher. 


102 


October 18. “The Fauna of the Agoniatite Limestone,” 
J. D. Wilson; “ Notes on the Butternut Dike,” T. C. Hopkins 
and Philip F. Schneider. 

November 15. ‘“ The Chemistry of Onondaga Rocks,” 
Ernest N. Pattee; “ Modern Explosives,’ H. Monmouth Smith. 

December 20. “ Some Fungi of Onondaga County,” Min- 
nie I,. Overacker; “ The Ginseng Industry of Onondaga Coun- 
ty,’ Louise W. Roberts; ‘ The Chemical Composition of the Co- 
coanut,” J. EF. Kirkwood. 

The lecture of February 15, by Dr. L. M. Underwood was 
popular in character and attracted a large audience. 

The present membership is: active 43, corresponding 4, 
associate 17, total 64. The average pe at the regular 
meetings has been twenty-four. 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 


The treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts, gave her annual 
report which is summarized as follows: 


Balance in treasury, January, 1901. ,-..c- eee $ 89.04 
Receipts: irom, all“sources... . .:06< 48 ee 51.47 
“Total 03.5 oh = oe $140.51 
Disbursements, Sst. disuse lAde ale ee 32.95 
Balance on hand’. 0.) $107.76 


The corresponding secretary and librarian gave short verbal 
reports. 


BOTANICAL SECTION. 


Mrs. Leonora Goodrich for the Botanical section reported 
that the ‘‘ Fungi’”’ had been the special subject for the past year. 
In view of the full report from this section at the last regular 
meeting no detailed written report was offered. 


ZOOLOGICAL SECTION. 


In the absence of Mr. Britcher, chairman of this section, Dr. 
C. W. Hargitt, reported on the work accomplished during the 


103 


year. [lis report showed valuable work accomplished on the 
protozoa, mollusca, amphibians, and birds. 


GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 


The report of this section was read by its chairman, Prof. 
P. F. Schneider. It showed that a second species new to science 
had been found in the Goniatite Limestone by Principal J. D. 
Wilson, and the name Thoracoceras Wilsoni has been suggested 
for the same by the State Paleontologist, J. M. Clarke. Another 
important piece of work was that of Dr. S. E. Crane of Onon- 
daga, who sees in the east and west channels of our county (ex- 
tinct watercourses) the key to our complicated surface geology. 
Mr. Charles E. Wheelock has contributed an interesting paper on 
the subject of our pleistocene geology. Two new exposures of 
intrusive dikes have been discovered in this county during the 
year and drawings and descriptions of the same have been made 
and preserved. Full reports on these will be given at some future 
meeting of the academy. 

The election of officers resulted as follows: 

President, Dr. W. M. Beauchamp; vice-president, Charles 
W. Hargitt; secretary, Philip F. Schneider; corresponding secre- 
tary, IT. C. Hopkins; treasurer, Miss L. W. Roberts; librarian, 
Mrs. L. L. Goodrich; councillors for three years, Ernest N. Pat- 
tee, Franklin H. Chase. 

Meeting adjourned. 


NOTES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF BIRDS. 
CuHarues W. Harcirt. 
MARCH 21, 1902. 


Birds have from time immemorial appealed to human obser- 
vation and interest. Their mode of life, grace of form, richness 
and variety of coloration, all having conspired to endear them 
to the lover of nature. From this too, they have probably been 
among the first of a given fauna to enlist critical attention at the 
hand of the scientific observer. Such observations in America 


104 


date from almost the dawn of settlement, though it was not till 
early in the eighteenth century that anything approaching sys- 
tematic, or scientific observations could be said to have begun, in 
such records and descriptions as Catesby’s Natural History of 
Carolina, 1731; Bartram’s Travels in 1791, and Barton’s Frag- 
ments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania, in 1799. 

With the work of Wilson and Audubon early in the nine- 
teenth century the distinctive aspects of systematic ornithology 
may be considered as fairly established, though of course greatly 
extended by many noted ornithologists even up to the present 
time. 

This however partook but slightly of what may be desig- 
nated as economic ornithology, or that phase of the subject con- 
cerned with the economic relations which birds sustain to the 
varied aspects of organic nature, particularly to that of agricul- 
ture. Such were the aspects of the earlier inquiries and reports 
of several of the state agricultural societies, as those of Ohio and 
Illinois, of Allen’s Birds of New England, Elliott’s Game Birds 
of the United States; the last dealing more particularly with the 
aspects of birds as food. 

The only one of these earlier inquiries which proceeded upon 
modern lines of investigation seems to have been a report made to 
the Massachusetts Horticultural society in 1858, by Jenks, based 
chiefly upon observations made upon the robin; and included a 
systematic examination of the food contents of stomachs of birds 
killed at stated intervals during the year. 

The devastations of the Rocky Mountain locust during the 
period from 1870 to 1880 called out extended observations on the 
food habits of various animals in their possible relations to the 
locust plague. 

Notable among these was the report of Aughey in 1878*, 
and included both critical observations made upon the feeding 
habits of birds in the fields, as well as upon the food contents of 
the stomachs of those taken for that purpose, and was up to that 
time one of the most valuable contributions made to the subject. 

The work of Professor Forbes, of Illinois, whose contribu- 
tions to this subject at various times from 1880 to 1890 mark a 


105 


noteworthy advance in the subject both in methods of observa- 
tion and estimation of relative food values of.items concerned, as 
well as the relative importance of factors in the problem, which 
he termed “ Beneficial,” “ harmful,’ and “ neutral.” 

From that time up to the present work has been prosecuted 
by individual or organized activity, the latter chiefly under state 
or national supervision and support. 

Without in the least discrediting the work of individual 
investigation along this line, nor that of state entomologists and 
experiment stations, many of which have been important, it is not 
too much to say that the contributions from the United States 
Department of Agriculture have been noteworthy to a degree 
unequalled by any similar organization in the world, so far as I 
am aware. 

These reports, as separate documents, or as substantial com- 
ponents of the Annual Reports of the Department, have extended 
to almost every phase of bird life, so that data are available for 
estimating with reasonable approximation, the specific economic 
relation of a large proportion of our avifauna, and from a com- 
parison of habits affords grounds for approximate estimates of 
almost all. 

Aside from the general faunal relations of birds, concern- 
ing which it is not the purpose here to inquire, the economic 
aspect of birds presents an important problem which is two fold 
in its nature: 

t. That of the food consumed, and its direct commercial 
value, as for example, the rice of the bobolink, fruits and berries 
of robins, corn and other grains by crows, etc. 

2. That of the indirect problems involved in the relations 
of insects to vegetation, crops, etc., as modified by birds. 

While somewhat distinct problems they will be seen to 
stand closely related in a very large majority of cases and hence 
will of necessity have a generally coincident consideration. 

In the usual course of nature we might leave all such adjust- 
ments to the methods of nature; that is, in the struggle for exis- 


*Report U. S. Entomological Commission, Vol. I. 


106 


tence it usually comes to pass that a healthy balance is maintained 
on the principle of the survival of the fittest. 

We do not have to be reminded however that in the problems 
before us there is no longer a natural or free “ struggle for exis- 
tence,’’ since man and his methods have so obtruded themselves 
upon the scene as to greatly disturb the balance so easily recog- 
nized in wild nature. No single factor within the entire history 
of life has so disturbed the natural course of balance and adjust- 
ment as man,—this forest destroying, soil ravishing, bloodthirsty, 
or sport-craving maniac, so-called “ civilized ” man. 

It is therefore under conditions associated with this changed 
condition of things that our problems become such. And here 
they receive their significance and importance in the bearing they 
come to have on man’s conceptions of economy. It is moreover 
under the altruistic and humanistic spirit which has come to 
fruition in these later times and which looks both forward and 
backward as well as downward, recognizes an obligation and 
righteousness and equity in the constitution of nature, that these 
with kindred problems have come to their rightful recognition. 

The present method of investigation is so far as I now recall 
due to the scientific spirit and aim of Prof. S. A. Forbes, of the 
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, from which in other 
lines as well, have come many of the best products of such inves- 
tigations. 

It consists essentially in a critical investigation and deter- 
mination of the food contents of the stomachs of birds in suffi- 
cient numbers and seasons to warrant an inference as to their 
actual and average food proclivities. 

A second method and one not without its advantages, 
though lacking to some extent in the elements of exactness char- 
acteristic of the former is that of direct observation of the actual 
feeding habits of birds in open nature. It has the added advan- 
tage, which is great, that it does not involve the destruction of the 
life of the bird, which generally should be saved. It is constantly 
open to the objection that it can seldom be relied upon except 
when made by those trained by critical observational habits, for 
ordinarily the personal bias or equation of the observer is so dom- 


107 


inant as to prejudice his conclusions. But with all its disadvan- 
tages it remains an always open field for the critical observer and 
if done by the aid of good field glass, or by the aid of the camera: 
during the feeding of young, may become fruitful of excellent 
results. 

That neither of these methods alone is sufficiently conclusive 
is evident in that neither has found perfect agreement in the 
hands of different observers. It may be well to point out in this 
connection some of the sources of error in the first as has also 
been done in the second. 

One of the first difficulties encountered in an examination of 
the stomach contents of birds is the promiscuous mixture and 
mutilated and semi-digested condition of much of the food con- 
tents which in many cases renders actual indentification largely 
impossible. ‘To estimate the number or amount of insect food 
from the fragments of a few elytra or disarticulate segments of 
legs can best only be an approximation. A further difficulty and 
one more serious to my mind than the first is the almost impossi- 
ble task of making any equitable comparison as to the relative 
importance and equivalence of beneficial or harmful elements. 

Certainly a comparison of bulk in most cases would be mani- 
festly absurd. For example, the bulk of a single blackberry 
would outmeasure a thousand plant aphids or chinch-bugs, yet 
as to economic balance of the two masses it would be glaringly 
absurd to claim equivalence. So too of cut worms or straw- 
berries, May-beetles and May cherries. ‘To presume upon an 
equivalence here, or to meet out praise or blame, as the one or the 
other element might predominate, would be hasty and uncritical. 

Again it seems to me that it 1s equally unscientific to insti- 
tute a comparison and contrast even between the so-called bene- 
ficial elements as against injurious or neutral. To class all berry 
seeds as among the beneficial is uncritical. Who will presume to 
distinguish between the seeds of the wild and cultivated berry? 
How much of the wild fruit under present conditions is to be 
claimed as of economic importance and value? <A very large 
measure of it must under the most favorable conditions go to 
waste unless used by birds or other fruit eating animals, and to 


108 


place this under the essentially beneficial is as unwarranted as to 
place all insects under that of harmful. While an effort is made 
.in the last to distinguish between the two this has not been to any 
considerable extent in the former. : 

After some personal practical experience and a more or less 
critical review of the facts now fairly numerous and common, I 
am constrained to submit that the showing under this method, 
while generally not appealed to as discrediting birds as economic 
factors, is yet incorrectly placed too often on the wrong side of 
the balance sheet, at least in part. 

Another factor apparently overlooked, or left out of consid- 
eration in these estimates is that of the enormous capacity for 
multiplication through propagation shown by most of the so- 
called ‘ injurious ”’ elements. 

When, for example, a May beetle has been estimated on the 
same quantitative basis as a May cherry, what account has been 
made for the gorged ovaries of the former which only awaited 
favorable conditions for oviposition? None whatver. And what 
is presumptively true in this case is demonstrably true in innum- 
erable other instances. ‘To cite a single case of recent observation 
in our immediate vicinity, the females of the periodic Cicada were 
so closely captured by insectivorous birds as to greatly lesson the 
damage done to shrubs and trees through ovipositing, to say 
nothing of subsequent injuries of larvae, or a subsequent genera- 
tion of adults. 

The same principle holds for a large proportion of noxious 
insects. For it must not be overlooked that the season of greatest 
activity among destructive and ovipositing insects is likewise that 
of corresponding activity among insectivorous birds. This must 
be true in the nature of the case, the latter depending largely upon 
the former. 

I am aware that these reflections are applicable alike to bene- 
ficial as to injurious insects. An insect-feeding bird is no respec- 
tor of persons on economic or ethical grounds. But by so much as 
the beneficial insects are in marked minority, will the objection be 
invalidated. 

Again, not a few of the pedacious insects are, like the birds, 


109 


not over-scrupulous as to their prey, beneficial preying upon oth- 
ers of similar qualities. Hence, if we should limit the utility of 
birds on this account we may likewise apply the same restrictions 
to the so-called “ beneficial ’’ among insects. 

A point which has come to be noted by many observers is 
that so far as bird injuries to fruits are concerned it is largely by 
the young for a short time after flight from the nest. This has 
been remarked specially with reference to the robin. It probably 
applies with equal justice to the thush, red-head, and others. 
Since this period is usually a brief one, tho it be coincident with 
the ripening cherries and berries, and hence not lessening this 
feature of damage, it should not be overlooked that these birds 
must live and have a being dependent upon other diet for at 
least nine-tenths of the year, and that during this time the 
food is largely of insect, or similar nature. It should not be over- 
looked therefore that even allowing some loss at times to the hor- 
ticulturist and agriculturist, there are over-balancing and prepon- 
derating compensations difficult to over-estimate. 

It is not implied in this conclusion that no precautionary or 
protective measures should be employed against the fruit-eat- 
ing birds at this season. It does not however, seem necessary that 
they should go to extent of actual destruction of the birds. 
Where “ scare-crows ”’ are ineffective a small boy with a pocket- 
ful of rocks, or with perhaps a gun and some blank cartridges to 
add to his interest, might prove adequate for reasonable protec- 
tion. Or where these may not be practical | have known nets 
thrown over trees or bushes to effectually protect the fruit and 
spare the birds. 

To the recurring query whether we not only may facilitate 
the restrictive value of birds against insect depredations by their 
adequate protection, as is now done in most of our states, but by 
importing birds of known insectivourous habits, it must be re- 
plied that while this is always possible it should be done only after 
careful investigation. The mischievous results following the in- 
troduction of the English sparrow are too well known to need 
emphasis in this connection. 


TG 


On the other hand there are not lacking cases of equally 
important value in such introduction. Among such is that of the 
India ‘‘ Meina brought to the Island of Mauritius and proved 
effectual in exterminating the locust pest which had become intol- 
etabley (Ci: Imseet ite, V ol) TH, ‘pi s44s) 

Later reports concerning this bird do not seem to confirm 
the anticipation entertained concerning it. (Cf. Report U. S. 
Dept. Agr., 1899, p. 290.) 

All in all, there seems little doubt as to the fact that the con- 
sesus of scientific opinion points unmistakably to the high eco- 
nomic importance of birds from almost every point of view. 

Both observation and somewhat extended experience con- 
spire to suggest extreme caution as to introduction of foreign 
birds, or other faunal factors. 

It is not beyond reasonable expectation that continued agi- 
tation and distribution of reliable information may do much 
toward the protection of our avifauna from the cruel rapacity of 
thoughtless sportsmen and pot-hunters, and from the heartless 
vanity of a barbarous fashion. 


THE GEOLOGY OF THE SERPENTINES OF CENTRAL 
NEW YORK. 


Puitiep F. SCHNEIDER. 
APRIL, 18, 1902. 


Igneous rocks in the horizontally stratified Paleozoic beds of 
Central New York are too rare to pass unrecorded; and when, 
recently, excavations in Syracuse for the Butternut street trunk 
sewer disclosed another of these occurrences in a new locality and 
at so great a depth that ordinary excavations had not reached it 
because of the thickness of the overlying drift, it became impor- 
tant that some permanent and available record should be made of 
the same. 

The eruptive rock was first noticed April 16, 1901, some 
three days after it was penetrated. At this point, a short dis- 


Lisi 


tance, beyond the place where the sewer crosses Highland street, 
the eruptive rock occurred in the bottom of the trench and was 
dug into only to a depth of some two feet. It was overlaid by 
nearly three feet of decomposed peridotite, which had been entire- 
ly changed to a soft greenish-yellow earth. As the excavation 
progressed to the east of Highland street, the workmen pene- 
trated deeper into the rock, which for some distance presented a 
slightly stratified appearance suggesting a sheet branching from 
the dike proper, which subsequent excavations proved to be the 
case. 

The dike itself was first encountered 126 feet east of the cen- 
ter of Highland street, and was so hard and firm as to be removed 
with great difficulty. The width of the dike is 36 feet and it 
comes up to within ten feet of the natural surface. From its loca- 
tion in the trench, which was five feet in width, the strike of the 
dike appeared to be N. 5 degrees E. There was scarcely any 
sheet to the east of the dike, but to the westward it extended over 
three hundred feet. 

The rock in the main dike, with the exception of the upper 
two feet, is perfectly hard and firm. It is of a dark green color, 
some of it being almost black, and contains an abundance of 
apparently jet black crystals. The upper portion, immediately 
beneath the drift, had changed to a soft greenish-yellow earth, 
in some places to a yellowish earth. The fact that the lower por- 
tion of the drift contained much of the serpentinous earth mixed 
with it would suggest that a considerable area was covered with 
eruptive matter. The typical rock contained few inclusions as 
compared with that at Dewitt, N. Y., or even that in the Syra- 
cuse dikes at Green street. The softer rock of the sheet, however, 
contained many of them. No prominent fossils were found in 
any of these inclusions, whereas in the rock at Dewitt they were 
very abundant. No traces of the enclosing walls of the dike 
could be found. Sheet material banked it on the west, and heavy 
pleistocene clays with quicksand beyond them formed the eastern 
border. At Green street the enclosing walls are perfectly shown, 
and it was hoped that further excavations would open up other 
exposures showing the contact phenomena, but this did not occur. 


Ti2 


The other excavations, where the strike of the dike would seem 
to indicate its existence, were all on higher ground with heavy 
mantles of drift which even this deep sewer did not penetrate. 

One other opening occurred in a return sewer on Highland 
street. The excavations passed for 180 feet through rock which 
was thought at that time might be merely sheet material from 
the dike, but I am now convinced that it was another parallel 
dike. This rock, while almost as difficult to excavate as that of 
the first dike, decayed very rapidly after a few days exposure. It 
also had more or less of a massive wedged appearance in the 
trench like the first dike, and quite unlike the banded appearance 
of the sheet, and furthermore contained many inclusions. It also 
contained numerous small red crystals, the ‘ rubies,” which the 
neighboring school children collected in abundance. None of 
these peculiar forms were found in the Dewitt, or in any of the 
Syracuse dikes at Green street. Some of them appeared to be 
perfectly crystallized garnets, but so rapidly did this rock break 
up, especially when dry, that they usually fractured’ soon after 
being exposed. A few crystals of greenish color were also ob- 
tained from the same rock, but none of either kind were 
noticed in the hard firm variety. All of these facts would seem 
to indicate a second dike more or less parallel to the first and less 
than 250 feet away. Through this second dike the excavations 
must have passed very nearly longitudinally, while the sewer 
proper crossed the main dike at nearly right angles. As the 
return sewer stopped when connection had been made with the 
sewer proper, and as the excavations up to this point did not pass 
through to the farther side of the dike, no facts as to its width 
can be given. The proximity of these dikes to those at Green 
street, which are less than a mile away, suggests some under- 
ground connection, and inasmuch as their general direction is the 
same they may be merely a continuation of those dikes. The in- 
tervening space has frequently been trenched, and at such times 
the excavations have been carefully watched for evidence of the 
dikes without revealing any trace of them. 


ii 
THE GREEN STREET DIKES. 


The prominence which has ever been attached to the Syra- 
cuse Serpentines proper, since their discovery by Vanuxem in 
1839, together with the fact that the original locality has long 
been lost but is now known, will warrant a brief description of 
the dikes. 

For several years past the dikes which must have been the 
source of the intruded sheet in James street, (the original Foot 
street of Vanuxem) has been locally known as the Green street 
dike. ‘This was because the grading of Green street, which par- 
allels James street 600 feet to the southward, cut into the dike and 
left a permanent exposure, sometimes referred to in the local dail- 
ies as the Green street volcano. When this entire section was 
piped for city water in 1894, three additional and nearly parallel 
dikes, not previously known to exist, were temporarily exposed. 
As the excavations to a depth of eight feet were in progress 
through this entire section at the same time, and as they remained 
open for over a week it gave an excellent opportunity of locating 
the dikes and of tracing them to other localities as well. The fol- 
lowing facts were obtained at that time. 

Dike I. The water trench is situated on the north side of 
Green street, and extends in a northeasterly direction, cutting 
through all of the dikes at nearly right angles. Dike No. 1 begins 
at 283 feet east of the east crosswalk on Lodi street. It is nine 
paces in breadth and even in the trench had been entirely altered 
to greenish-yellow earth. This was the decomposition product of 
the peridotite. I have traced this dike but forty feet south and 
five feet north of the trench. 

Dike II. At the top of the trench this dike and the preced- 
ing would appear to be one, but there is a little doubt that a wid- 
ening of the fissure in its upper part causes a contact here of two 
distinct dikes. In the very bottom of the trench a mass of hard 
limestone, two feet across, separates them. This dike is 14 paces 
in width and contains practically nothing but the greenish-yellow 
serpentinous earth. Southward I have traced it to excavations 
in the rear of Clinton school, northward to a point twenty-five 
feet beyond James street, a total distance of 1050 feet. 


114 


Dike III. begins at 138 feet east of No. 2 and is but five 
feet broad. It contained merely the serpentinous earth, and was 
traced to the southward about 25 feet. 

Dike IV. is by far the most interesting of this series. It is 
the only one that contains any quantity of unaltered rock, and is 
sQ situated as to be permanently exposed on the north side of 
Green street. This is due to the lowering, some years ago, of the 
grade of the street about fifteen feet at this point. The section 
is most favorable for study, crossing the dike at right angles, and 
showing not only the dike proper, but a small branch of the same, 
an overflow spreading over the adjoining shales for some dis- 
tance, the uplifting and flexing of the adjoining shales and lime- 
stones, contacts which are most clear and distinct, and a slight 
discoloration of the immediately adjoining shales. This dike is 
25 feet east of No. 3 and is 14 feet in width in the trench. 
In this excavation there is from 18 to 24 inches on either side 
where the rock had changed to earthy matter resembling the 
material in the adjoining dikes but for fully ten feet at the center 
it was hard and firm rock. In the permanent exposure above the 
present roadway the width of the dike is more than twice its 
width in the trench. Here the exposed surface of the rock is 
much altered but back in the hillside it is quite firm. There is 
little question but that the “intruded sheet ’’ which was made 
so much of in the earlier descriptions and which led to Hunt’s 
“Chemical Precipitation Theory’ for the formation of serpen- 
tine, was derived from this dike; or, more properly, the facts 
now known seem to warrant the statement that the seemingly in- 
truded sheet was really the dike itself. The James street hillside, 
sloping to the westward, formerly exposed the edges of the hori- 
zontal layers of Salina rock. Striking northward a part way up 
this hillside is the dike. To a person climbing the hill what would 
be more natural than to suppose that this band of greenish crys- 
talline rock apparently lying between horizontal calcareous layers, 
seemingly above and below it, was the edge of some correspond- 
ing layer? Sixty-five years ago, when this rock was first noticed, 
this region was open, uninhabited, and contained little or no veg- 
itation on the slope, and the dike could be easily distinguished. 


IIS 


At present it is one of the oldest, most fashionable, and most 
exclusive districts in town, and covered with well kept lawns 
which prevent careful observation. ‘Thus was its location lost. 
Nevertheless to one constantly on the field to take advantage of 
small excavations, as the removal of trees and the transplanting 
of flowerbeds, finding the direction of the dike is not at all diffi- 
cult. That it was not a horizontal sheet was further evidenced by 
a quotation from William’s paper “ An excavation fifty feet fur- 
ther up the hillside did not pass through it at all.” 

I have traced dike No. 4 northward from Green street across 
James street to Highland Place, beyond which it is entirely lost. 
South of Green street it was noticed about sixty feet. The entire 
distance over which it has been noticed is more than a quarter of 
a mile. As plotted on the city map the strike is N. 14 degrees EF. 
A great anticlinal fold, produced by the igneous matter forcing 
its way through the horizontal rock, was especially noticable in 
the trench on account of the existence there of a heavy limestone 
band among the thinner shales. The same thing, though less 
noticable, can be seen in the thinner bedded shales of the perma- 
nent exposure. 


THE DEWITT DIKE. 


Until some two weeks ago, I had secured but few additional 
facts concerning the relations of this dike, outside of those con- 
tained in Dorton’s paper.* 

An exposure on the southern side of the hill, 250 feet south- 
west of the reservoir, seemed to indicate the direction of the dike 
but in the absence of other evidences in this direction this could 
hardly be taken as conclusive evidence of its strike. It is also 
safe to say that the slight disturbance 600 yards north of the res- 
ervoir mentioned in that paper, together with another in the field 
a quarter of a mile farther north, have no connection with the 
dike but were produced by the action of salts whose presence in 
the partially hardened layers produced a wrinkling of the same. 
Quite recently, however, I have found the extension of the dike to 


*American Journal Science, Vol. XLIX, June, 1895, 


116 


the eatsward of the reservoir. It strikes E. ro degrees N., and by 
making small excavations across the adjoining field it can be 
traced in this direction to the north and south road connecting 
Messina Springs and Orville. Here the serpentinous earth com- 
posing the dike can be readily found in the gutters on either side 
of the road and is easily distinguishable from the heavy red clay 
and greenish shale of the Salina rock through which it has forced 
its way. Continuing into the pasture to the eastward its strike 
can be followed with little trouble to a place about one-third of a 
mile east of the reservoir where the harder gypseous shales form 
a small bluff over the lower reddish shales. In the lower lands 
beyond I have as yet been unable to trace the dike. In the east 
side of the bluff it is quite distinct, its width as indicated by the 
yellow earth being 105 feet. In the absence of any distinct con- 
tacts it is probable that the width of the dike is less than this. 
Darton’s paper quotes the contractor as saying ‘ that the entire 
bottom of the reservoir, 200x250 feet, was covered with the 
greenish-yellow earth ’ also, ‘ that the blocks of rock varied great- 
ly in size, some being 20x50 feet.’ My experience with these dikes 
convinces me that it is unlikely that any one of the great wedge- 
shaped blocks into which the cooling peridotite contracted would 
be as much as 20x50 feet in size. On the other hand it is improb- 
able that an intelligent contractor would be greatly mistaken in | 
his figures in regard to this mass, especially as it was a hard, 
tough mass of rock making its excavation extremely difficult. 
Therefore it is altogether likely that this was a section of the dike 
itself extending across the excavation, and which to the workmen 
would seem like a great block imbedded in the softer serpentinous 
matter, or even in the argillaceous or calcareous Salina shales 
which make up a part of the excavated hill. According to this 
supposition the width of the dike did not greatly exceed 20 feet. 
The other blocks which were thrown out from the excavation in 
such quantities were undoubtedly the farther extension of the dike 
across the reservoir. These blocks furnished sufficient rock for 
building up the walls of the reservoir, a considerable surplus 
remaining. Because of the tendency of the peridodite to altera- 
tion it is surprising to see how well this rock is wearing in the 


117 


walls, where it has been since 1892. It may also be of interest to 
know that the surplus peridotite was crushed and used for road 
material in Dewitt with satisfactory results. The rock was hard 
enough to wear well and still sufficiently soft to produce a finely 
packed bedding. Of course there was scarcely enough of the 
material used to pronounce upon its value as a road metal, even 
that which was used being mixed to some extent with the wall 
rock, inclusions, and an occasional bowlder thrown out in the ex- 
cavations. The larger number of fossils which were obtained 
from the inclusions and partly altered adjoining rocks in connec- 
tion with this dike are surprising. In fact not a few of them indi- 
cate geological formations which are now found in place only 
some distance to the southward, and in higher geological horizon. 


THE MAMMALIA OF ONONDAGA COUNTY, N. Y. 
Horace W. BRITCHER. 
JUNE 21, 1902. 


So far as I am aware the mammals of Onondaga County 
have: never been critically studied. I have taken a few mice, 
shrews and bats, but the data from which the present list 1s com- 
piled, are chiefly check marks of species which I have identified 
by the use of Jordan’s “‘ Manual of the Vertebrates.” The at- 
tempt is here made to follow the nomenclature used in the . 
“ Preliminary List of New York Mammals” by Gerrit 5. Miller, 
issued in 1899 as Bulletin 29 of the New York State Museum. 

Onondaga County is situated in the transition zone but the 
difference in elevation, about 1,500 feet, between the northern 
and some of the southern towns, with the presence of deep, 
cool gorges and ravines, and the conditions prevailing at Beaver 
Lake, Cicero Swamp, the Green Lakes and Labrador and Carpen- 
ter Ponds, would seem sufficient warrant for expecting to find 
such characteristic forms of the Canadian zone, as the red-back 
mouse, Canadian white-footed mouse and smoky shrew. 

The county has been under settlement about one hundred 


118 


and ten years. From Clark’s “ History of Onondaga County ”’ 
we learn that deer were so plentiful in the early days as to be 
sometimes a nuisance, and in the various towns bears, wolves, 
panthers, wild cats, otters and beavers were more or less common. 
In Cicero two moose were killed by Indians in 1789. Probably 
other transition forms such as the lynx, wolverine, fisher and 
wapiti also occurred. It is doubtful if the opossum, occasionally 
offered for sale in our markets and reported two or three times 
from nearby counties, ever occurred here otherwise than as an 
“escaped convict” or possibly an abnormal straggler. In this 
last category must be placed the harbor seal shot in Onondaga 
Lake some eighteen years ago. The former presence within the 
county of the bison and the fossil elephant is attested by skull, 
teeth and bones at present in the University and High School mu- 
seums. 


EXTANT SPECIES. 


Sciurus hudsonicus loquax, Bangs. Southeastern red squir- 
rel, 

Sciurus carolinensis leucotis, Gapper. Northern gray squir- 
rel. Common in Oakwood. Hunted too much to be common 
elsewhere, but generally distributed through the southern towns. 

Tamias striatus (lysteri?), Richardson. Northeastern chip- 
monk. 

Arctomys monax, Linnaeus. Woodchuck. 

Sciuropterus volans, Linnaeus. Southern flying squirrel. A 
specimen in Mr. Perrior’s collection is probably this species. Fly- 
ing squirrels are said to be common about Onondaga Hill, Pom- 
pey Hill and elsewhere. 

Mus musculus, Linnaeus. House mouse. 

Mus decumanus, Pallas. House rat. 

Peromyscus leucopus noveborancensis, Fischer. Northeast- 
ern white-footed mouse. ‘Taken at Jamesville and Tully. 

Peromyscus canadensis canadensis, Miller. Canadian white- 
footed mouse. One specimen taken at Tully probably this form. 

Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus, Ord. Eastern field 


119 


mouse. ‘Taken at Jamesville and Tully. 

Fiber zibethicus sibethicus, Linnaeus. Muskrat. 

Zapus hudsonius hudsonius, Zimmermann. Meadow jump- 
ing mouse. One specimen at Tully. 

Erethizon dorsatus, Linnaeus. Canada Porcupine. A strag- 
gler shot in Tully in 1900. Once common. 

Lepus floridanus transitionalis? Bangs. Northeastern cot- 
ton tail. 

Lepus americanus virgimanus, Harlan. Southern varying 
hare. 

Vulpes fulvus fulous, Desmarest. Red fox. 

Mephitis mephitica mephitica, Shaw. Skunk. 

Putorius vison lutreocephalus, Harlan. Southeastern mink. 
Our mink is probably this form. 

Putorius noveboracensis noveboracensis, Emmons. New 
York weasel. One specimen killed at Pompey Hill. Weasels are 
found throughout the county but the form is not distinguished. 

Procyon lutor, Linnaeus. Raccoon. 

Sorex personatus personatus, St. Hilaire. Masked shrew. 
One specimen taken at Tully. 

Blarina brevicauda, Say. Short-tail shrew. Taken at 
Jamesville and Tully. 

Scalops aquaticus, Linnaeus. Naked-tailed mole. 

Parascalops brewri, Bachman. MHairy-tailed mole. A spec- 
imen thought to be this species was seen at Tully but it succeeded 
in evading capture. 

Condylura cristata, Linnaeus. Star-nosed mole. 

Myotis lucifugus, Le Conte. Little brown bat. One speci- 
men taken in the “ cave’ at Indian Reservation. 

Myotis subulatus, Say. Say’s bat. One specimen taken at 
Tully Lake. 


120 


BATRACHIA AND REPTILIA OF ONONDAGA 
COUNTY: 


Horacté W. BriITCHER. 


BATRACHIA. 


Order: Proteida. 


Necturus maculatus, Rafinesque. Mud puppy. Has been 
found in Erie Canal and Onondaga Creek. 


Order: Urodela. (Salamanders. ) 


Amblystoma punctatum, Linnaeus. Spotted salamander. 
Found in ponds and ditches as soon as the ice melts in the spring. 
Taken about Jamesville and Onondaga Valley. Reported from 
Tully. 

Amblystoma tigrinum, Green. Tiger salamander. A speci- 
men apparently this species was seen upon lifting a large stone 
near Jamesville, but it escaped into a hole before it could be se- 
cured. 

Amblystoma jeffersonianum (var. jeffersonianum ) Green. 
One specimen taken from Branchippus pond, on the Jamesville 
road. 

Hemidactylium scutatum, Tschudi. Four toed salamander. 
One specimen taken in sphagnum moss in swamp on the James- 
ville road. 

Plethodon cinereus (var. erythronota ) Green. Red-backed 
salamander. Beneath logs and stones. Marcellus, Onondaga 
Valley, Pompey, Jamesville, Onondaga Hill. 

Plethodon cincerus (var. cinereus) Green. Found occa- 
sionally in similar places. 

Plethodon glutinosus, Green. Viscid salamander. One 
specimen beneath stone, Onondaga reservation. 

Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, Green. Purple salamander. 
Two immature specimens in swamp, Pompey Hill. 

Spelerpes bilineatus Green.  Striped-backed salamander. 
Beneath stones and logs in wet places. Pompey Hill, Onondaga 
Valley, Jamesville. 


I2I 


Spelerpes ruber, Daudin. Red triton. In mud at bottom of 
springs and brooks. Pompey Hill. 

Desmognathus ocrophaea, Cope. One specimen, probably 
this species, beneath loose bark of hemlock log, Apulia. 

Desmognathus fusca, Rafinesque. Dusky salamander. Be- 
neath stones in brooks, etc. Pompey Hill, Onondaga Valley. 

Diemyctilus viridescens, Rafinesque. Newt. Triton. Com- 
mon in ponds. Syracuse, Jamesville, Pompey, Tully. 

Diemyctilus viridescens (var. miniatus) Rafinesque. Red 
foot. In woods. Active after rains and in wet weather. Tully, 
Jamesville, Onondaga Valley, Manlius. 


Order: Salientia. (Toads and frogs.) 


Bufo lentiginosus, Shaw. Hop toad. Common everywhere. 

Ayla versicolor, LeConte. Common tree toad. Long Branch, 
Branchippus pond. 

Ayla pickeringu, Holbrook. Little tree toad. Pompey, Tul- 
ly, Onondaga Valley, Branchippus pond. 

Rana virescens (var. virescens ) Kalm. Common frog. 
Common everywhere. 

Rana palustris, LeConte. Pickerel frog. Less common 
than virescens. 

Rana sylvatica, LeConte. Wood frog. In moist woods: 
Usually the first frog to deposit eggs in the spring. Possibly two 
varieties occur. 

Rana clamata, Daudin. Green frog. In streams. Tully, 
Cicero, Jamesville. 

Rana catesbianca, Shaw. Bull frog. Seneca River, Kirk- | 
ville. 


REPTILIA. 
Order: Ophidia. (Serpents. ) 
Storeria occipitomaculata, Storer. Red-bellied snake. Com- 
mon, but less so than the following. 
Storeria dekayi, Holbrook. Little brown snake. Common. 


Eutainia saqurita, Linnaeus. Riband snake. Rather rare. 
One specimen taken at Long Branch. 


122 


Eutainia sirtalis, Linnaeus. Garter snake. Abundant, the 
varieties ordinata, Linnaeus; and dorsalis, Baird and Girard; and 
possibly obscura, Cope, being found. 

Natrix fasciata sipedon, Linnaeus. Common water snake. 
Common. Seneca River, Kirkville, Tully. 

Liopeltis vernalis, DeKay. ‘Green snake.” Grass snake. 
Common. Syracuse, Pompey, Jamesville. 

Zamenis constrictor, Linnaeus. Black snake. Jamesville, 
Kirkville, Manlius. 

Diadophis punctatus, Linnaeus. Ring-necked snake. Rare. 
Near Oakwood, Dr. L.M. Underwood; at Tamarac Swamp, Dr. 
C. W. Hargitt. 

Osceola doliata, (var. triangulata,) Boie. Milk snake. 
Spotted adder. Common. Pompey, Jamesville, Onondaga Val- 


ley. 
Order: Testudinata. (Turtles. ) 


Chelydra serpentina, Linnaeus. Snapping turtle. Seneca 
River, DeWitt, Tully. 

Chrysemys picta, Hermann. Mud turtle. Common. Tully, 
Otisco, Seneca River, DeWitt. 

Chelopus guttatus, Schneider. Speckled tortoise. Rare ? 
One specimen at White Lake, near Jamesville. 

The localities given are those in which specimens have been 
taken and in no way limit the range of species. 

The cave salamanders and the musk turtle have been found 
in nearby counties and may occur here. The ground snake, easily 
confounded with the red-bellied snake, and the striped water 
snake, closely resembling the common garter snake, should be 
sought for as well as also the following, with less probability, 
however, of success, the swamp tree toad, the wood tortoise and 
the brown lizard. 


123 
THE SPIDERS OF ONONDAGA COUNTY. 
Horace W. BriTCHER. 


There have been very few local lists of spider faunas pub- 
lished in the United States. Dr. George Marx has collected 370 
species in the District of Columbia and listed 308 of them, the 
remaining 62 being undescribed. Dr. Nathan Banks has listed 
278 species from the neighborhood of Sea Cliff, Queens county, 
N. Y., and 363 species from the region about Ithaca. Mr. J. H. 
Emerton has briefly described 343 species from the New England 
States. The present list is composed of 159 identified species and 
8 species, probably new, identified only as to genus. It does not 
contain the smaller spiders of the family Therididae, of which a 
large number have been collected and only a few identified. Many 
Drassidae and Clubionidae and some Lycosidae, Thomisidae and 
Attidae remain unindentified. Of the spiders collected those 
belonging to the family Epeiridae have probably been more com- 
pletely identified than those belonging to any of the other larger 
families. Of this group the county has 37 species as against 43 
for Ithaca and 53 for New England. It seems reasonable to 
believe that a fairly complete list of the spiders of the county 
would enumerate considerably over 300 species. 

The collecting has been done chiefly in the towns of Onon- 
daga, Salina, DeWitt (about Jamesville), Pompey and Tully. 
The eastern, northern and western towns have been almost en- 
tirely unvisited. 

For the sake of uniformity the nomenclature used is that of 
Dr. Marx’s Catalogue of Described Aranae of Temperate ‘North 
America published in 1890 by the Smithsonian Institution. The 
descriptions by Dr. Banks, the arachnologist of the National Mu- 
seum;, Mr. Emerton’s description of New England Thomisidae 
and Attidae and Dr. J. H. McCook’s descriptions of Epeiridae 
have been published since that date. At present the nomenclature 
of the entire group is in a very unsettled state and it is to be hoped 
that the near future may yield a revised list of North American 
spiders with synonomy to date and with keys to the genera of the 
different families. 


124 


FILITELARIAE. 
Family : Dysderidae. 


Dysdera crocata, C. Kock. One specimen in a cellar, Syra- 
cuse. 


Family : Scytodidae. 


Scytodes thoracica, Latr. In dark corners in houses. 


PLAGITELARIAE. 
Family : Pholcidae. 


Pholcus phalangioides, Fuesslin. In cellars in Syracuse. 


TUBITELARIAE. 
Family : Drassidae. 


Micaria longipes, Em. Ant-like spider, in grass and under 
stones. 

Micaria montana, Em. Ant-like spider, under stones. 

Drassus robustius, Em. 

Drassus saccatus, km. Under stones. 

Prosthesima atra, Hentz. Under stones. 

Prosthesima depressa, Em. Under stones. 

Prosthesima ecclesiastica, Hentz. Under bark and in build- 
ings in woods. 

Prosthesima rufula, Banks. Under stones. 

Gnaphosa conspersa, Thorell. Under stones. 

Poecilochroa bilineata, Hentz. One specimen, Spafford. 


Family : Dictynidae. 


Dictyna muraria, Em. On buildings and walls. 

Dictyna rubra, Em. 

Dictyna volucripes, Keys. On plants in fields. 

Dictyna volupis, Keys. On plants in fields. 

Amaurobius ferox, Walck. 

Amaurobius sylvestris, Em. 

Titanoeca americana, Fm. Under stones in dry localities. 


125 


Family : Clubionidae. 


Auyphaena incerta, Keys. 

Clubiona ornata, Em. On plants. 

Trachelas ruber, Keys. On plants. 

Thargalia bivittata, Keys. Under stones and in grass. 

Thargalia crocata, Hentz. Under stones and in grass. 

Thargalia pinnata, Em. Under stones. 

Corwna sp.? Lives with small black ants under stones and 
logs. 

Agroeca pratensis, Em. Among leaves in woods. 

Prurolithes alarius, Hentz. Among leaves in woods. 

Prurolithes sp.? Among leaves in woods. 


Family : A galenidae. 
Agalena naevia, Walck. ‘The common grass spider. 
Tegenaria derhami, Scopoli. 
Coelotes medicinalis, Em. In cellars. 
Hahmia bimaculata, Em. Among leaves. 
Hahnia radula, Em. Among leaves. 


RETITELARIAE. 


Family : Therididea. 


Theridium differens, Em. On plants and bushes. 

Theridium frondeum, Hentz. On bushes in woods. 

Theridium globosum? Hentz. Two specimens in moist 
woods. 

Theridium murarium, Em. On plants. 

Theridium rupicola, Em. Crevices in cliffs. 

Theridium sexpunctatum, Em. Among ground hemlock in 
wet woods. 

Theridium spirale, Fm. On plants. 

Theridium tepidariorum, C. Kock. Common about ceilings. 

Theridium sp.? Among well stones, Onondaga Valley. 

Theridium sp.? On plants, Tully. 

Steatoda borealis, Hentz. 

Steatoda nigra, Em. 


126 


Teutana triangulosa, Walck. 

Lithyphantes marmoratus, Hentz. 

Ariamnes fictilium, Hentz. Among underbrush in swamps. 

Argyrodes argyrodes, Walck. In cedar trees. ; 

Argyrodes cancellatus, Hentz. One specimen, Indian Reser- 
vation. | 

Asagena americana, Em. Under stones. 

Mimetus interfector, Hentz. In trees and bushes. 

Mimetus epeiroides, Em. In stone piles, Pompey Hill. 

Theridula sphaerula, Hentz. Lower branches of hemlock, 
Apulia. 

Ulesanis americana, Em. In cedar trees, Jamesville. 

Crustulina sticta, Em. Under stones. 

Euryopis funebris, Hentz. In moss and lower branches of 
cedar trees. 

Linyphia bucculenta, Clerk. 

Linyphia communis, Hentz. In trees, especially hemlock, 
Pompey. 

Linyphia mandibulata, Em. 

Linyphia marginata, C. Kock. In underbrush in woods. 

Linyphia nebulosa, Sundevall. 

Linyphia phrygiana, C. Kock. In bushes and trees in woods. 

Linyphia (Drapetisca) socialis, Sundevall. In trees. 

Linyphia (Drapetisca) sp.? 

Tapinopa bilineata? Banks. In underbrush in woods. 

Erigone florens, Cambridge. 


ORBITELARIAE. 
Family: Epeiridae. 


Argiope argyraspides, WWalck. In meadows. 

Argiope cophinaria, Walck. In meadows. 

Ordgarius bisaccatus, Em. One male, Eastwood. 

Epeira arabesca, Walck. In meadows. 

Epeira benjamina, Walck. In fences, ete. 

Epeira cornuta, Clerk. In fences, ete. 

Epeira corticaria, Km. In grass in moist meadows and 
woods. 


127 


Epeira displicata, Hentz. In bushes and trees. 

Epeira eustala, Walck. In trees in woods. 

Epeira gibberosa, Hentz. In grass. 

Epeira labyrinthea, Hentz. In woods, Baldwinsville. 

Epeira marmorea, Clerk. In bushes in woods and meadows. 

Epeira nordmani, Thorell. 

Epeira placida, Hentz. In bushes and trees. 

Epeira sclopetaria, Clerk. The “round web spider” in 
windows, etc. 

Epeira silvatica, Em. In trees in woods. 

Epeira stellata, Walck. On plants and bushes in meadows. 

Epeira thaddeus, Hentz. In small trees and bushes. 

Epeira trifolium, Hentz. In bushes in meadows. 

Cyclosa conica, Walck. In woods, common. 

Cyclosa turbinata, Walck. One specimen with very distinct 
shoulder humps, Tully. 

Singa maculata, Fm. Tully, Jamesville. 

Singa pratensis? Em. Pompey Hill. 

Singa variabilis, Fm. Tully. 

Argyroepeira hortorum, Hentz. Among ferns, etc., in 
woods. 

Meta menardi, Latr. In cellars and dark cavities in woods. 

Theridiosoma radiosa, McCook. Jamesville. 


Tetragnatha elongata, Walck. In bushes near streams, 
Pompey. 

Tetragnatha extensa, Linnaeus. In bushes near streams, 
Pompey. 


Tetragnatha laboriosa, Hentz. In grass. 

Tetragnatha sp.? In cedar trees in swamp, Jamesville. 
Eugnatha straminea, Em. 

Eucta caudata, Em. In swampy meadows, Tully. 
Pachygnatha autumnalis, Keys. Syracuse. 
Pachygnatha brevis, Keys. Syracuse, Tully. 
Hyptiotes cavatus, Hentz. 

Uloborus plumipes, Lucas. 


ere 


etc. 


128 


LATERIGRADAE. 
Family: Thomisidae. 
Xysticus gulosus, Keys. On the ground, under stones, etc. 


Xysticus limbatus, Keys. On the ground, under stones, etc. 
Xysticus quadrilineatus, Keys. On the ground, under stones, 


Xysticus stomachosus, Keys. On the ground, under stones, 


Coriarachne versicolor, Keys. On fences and trees. 
Misumena oblonga, Keys. 

Misumena vatia, Clerk. On flowers, etc. 

Thomisus aleatorius, Hentz. On golden rod, ete. 

Thomisus asperatus, Hentz. On golden rod, ete. 

Tmarus caudatus, Hentz. On trees and bushes. 

Ebo latithorax, Keys. On small trees, ete. 

Tibellus duttoni, Hentz. On grass, bushes, ete. 

Tibellus sp.? (possibly a variety of duttont). 

Thanatus sp.? (possibly a variety of T. lycosoides, Em.) 


Onondaga Valley. 


Philodromus lineatus, Em. 

Philodromus ornatus, Banks. On plants, ete. 

Philodromus pictus, Em. On plants, ete. 

Philodromus vulgaris, Hentz. On fences, beneath bark, etc. 


CITIGRADAE. 
Family : Lycosidae. 


Lycosa carolinensis, Walck. Under stones. 
Lycosa communis, Em. In fields. 

Lycosa frondicola, Em. Among leaves in woods. 
Lycosa nidicola, Em. Under stones. 

Lycosa nigroventris, Em. Under stones. 

Lycosa pratensis, Em. 

Lycosa rufiventris, Banks. 

Tarantula kochu? Keys. 

Pirata insularis, Em. In fields. 

Pirata minuta, Em. In fields and woods. 


129 


Pardosa albopatella, Em. In fields. 

Pardosa lapidicina, Fm. In dry fields, ete. 

Pardosa nigropalpis, Em. In fields. 

Pardosa pallida, Em. In fields and woods. 

Aulonia aurantiaca, Em. In swamps. 

Ocyale undata, Hentz. Among leaves. 

Ocyale (Micromata) subinflata, Hentz. Possibly a variety 
of undata. 

Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Hentz. About edges of ponds, etc. 

Dolomedes tenebrosus, Hentz. Near streams in woods. 

Dolomedes scriptus? Hentz. 


SALTIGRADAE. 
Family: Attidae. 


Phidippus galathea, Walck. 

Phidippus morsitans, Walck. 

Phidippus rufus, Hentz. 

Dendryphantes capitatus, Hentz. In bushes and trees. 

Tcius elegans, Keys. On plants. 

Icius lineatus, C. Kock. Under stones, etc. 

Icius mitratus, Hentz. On plants. 

Icius palmarum, Hentz. On plants. 

Hasarius hoyi, Peckham. On plants. 

Habrocestum peregrinum, Peckham. 

Habrocestum splendeus, Peckham. 

Saitis pulex, Hentz. Among leaves, etc. 

Astia vittata, Hentz. On plants. 

Epiblemum scenicum, Clerk. ‘The “ tiger spider’ common 
on buildings. 

Marptusa familiaris, Hentz. On fences and tree trunks. 

Mememerus binus, Hentz. On plants in swampy meadows 
at Long Branch, where both sexes are common. The male was 
described by Banks as Icius formosus from a single specimen 
from Ithaca. 

Neon nellii, Peckham. Among leaves. 

Zygoballus bettini, Peckham. On plants. 


130 


Zygoballus terrestris, Em. 

Attus palustris, Peckham. 

Synemosyna formica, Hentz. An ant-like spider. Common 
on spice bush plants at Indian Reservation in 1900. 

Synageles picata, Hentz. An ant-like spider which frequent- 
ly thrusts forward its second pair of legs and moves them about 
as an ant does its antennae. 


NOTES ON SOME ERUPTIVE DIKES NEAR ITHACA. 
Puitie F. SCHNEIDER. 
SEPTEMBER IQ, 1902. 


The upper end of Cayuga Lake lies in a depression several 
hundred feet below the surrounding surface, so that the streams 
which flow into it have produced deep gorges with excellent expo- 
sures of the Hamilton, Tully, Genesee, and Ithaca formations. 

In several of these gorges narrow dikes of igneous rock 
occur and it is probable that a careful examination of all would 
furnish numerous additional exposures to the list given below. 

These dikes were first mentioned by Vanuxem, in the Report 
of the Third District of New York, page 169. He says: “ Near 
the Tully limestone in the fissures of the slaté (Genesee) are two 
narrow veins of semi-crystalline rock of a blackish-brown color, 
becoming olive by alteration. It appears to be a mixture chiefly 
of serpentine and limestone having the appearance of a Trap rock. 
There are also two similar sets of veins near the foot of the sec- 
ond falls, in the same ravine. Both sets of veins traverse the 
creek at nearly right angles to its course.” 

They are again mentioned by Dr. J. F. Kemp in a paper en- 
titled, “* Peridotite Dikes in the Portage Sandstones, near Ithaca, 
N. Y.” in the American Journal of Science, November, 1891, 
page 410. He quotes Vanuxem and adds that he “ had recently 
visited the locality but only the two dikes near the upper falls of 
Vanuxem could be found. They are each about one inch wide 
and only show over a short space as they disappear above and 
below. They were inaccessible and from the distance of a few 


131 


feet their igneous nature was not conclusively shown. The 
other two could not be found.” 

* Being in the vicinity of Ludlowville recently I undertook to 
rediscover the dikes mentioned by Vanuxem and was unusually 
successful in locating the same. This was probably due to the 
fact that the summer has been the most rainy in many years and 
not only were the streams badly swollen, but the rock forming 
the sides of the gorges had been freshly broken off and washed 
down thus furnishing an excellent opportunity for study. 

The best results were obtained in the gorge of Townley’s 
Creek, a branch of Salmon River, on land owned by Mr. Howell, 
between the series of cascades locally known as The Indian Falls. 
Although this ravine could not be identified as Vanuxem’s 
“third ravine east of Ludlowville,”’ the appearance of the falls an- 
swered so closely to his discription that it left little doubt in my 
mind that it was the original locality. If this be the case, subse- 
quent erosion has exposed more of the dikes for this careful obser- 
ver speaks of but four dikes in all, while seven distinct dikes are 
now visible in this gorge, as follows: 

Drxe I. About 75 yards east of the first falls, that flowing 
over the Tully limestone, this dike may be found, crossing the bed 
of the creek at nearly right angles. It occurs in one of the joint 
planes of the Genesee slate, as do all of the others of this locality. 

It strikes N. 10 degrees E., magnetic. 

It is one-half inch in thickness in the shales on the north 
bank of the creek, becoming thicker as it crosses the bed of the 
creek to the southward. ‘Twelve feet from the north bank of the 
stream (as far south as it was accessible) it was 6% inches 
wide and apparently increasing in width toward the opposite side 
of the stream. This was easily ascertained as the dike forms a 
noticeable depression in the bed of the stream, which at the deep- 
est point measured was 16 inches below the adjoining shale rock. 
On the south side of the stream this depression was 15 inches in 
width, which is of course somewhat thicker than the actual 
breadth of the dike. Its width could not be accurately obtained 
because of the depth of water in the stream at this point and the 
detritus filling the depression. In the cliff a short distance to the 


132 


southward, the dike could not be traced at all, due to the talus and 
overgrowth of weeds. . 

Dixe II. This occurs five feet east of No. 1, and is parallel 
to it. It is 144 inches wide at the level of the stream on its north 
bank, but unlike No. 1, it grows thinner and seems to pinch out 
toward the center of the stream. It grows thicker as we ascend 
the bank to the northward, and six feet above the level of the 
stream has increased to five inches in thickness. It no doubt 
grows wider as we ascend but is inaccessible in this direction. 

Dike III. Following up stream to the foot of the second 
falls above the Tully limestone, we come to another set of dikes. 
The first of these that we reach in ascending the stream, is best 
seen on the south bank. It is from 6 to 7 inches wide at the level 
of the water and can be distinguished crossing the bed of the 
stream at nearly right angles and with practically the same width. 
The south wall of the gorge is nearly vertical at this point, and 
makes an excellent place to study the dikes. Dike 3 strikes exact- 
ly north and south, magnetic. In the cliff, 16 feet above the level 
of the stream, the dike has become four inches in thickness and 
sub-divides into two parts, each less than an inch in width. These 
continue upward a few feet, gradually pinching out. 

The fresher rock is of a dark green color, resembling the 
rock of the Green street locality at Syracuse quite closely, except 
that the jet black particles are very much smaller. No inclusions 
were noticed in the rock. Where weathered it is lighter in color, 
and when badly decomposed is of a greenish-yellow color. There 
is about one inch of greenish-yellow serpentinous earth on either 
side of the comparatively hard five inch center of this dike. Lin- 
ing the sides of the fissure and adjoining the dark colored shales 
is a layer of white crystalline calcite 3-16 of an inch in thickness. 

Dike IV. Two feet east of No. 3, another parallel dike, 1%4 
and then thins out again, disappearing at 151% feet above the 
level of the stream and extends upward a short distance beyond 
the upper extremity of dike No. 3. Three feet above the water 
and fifteen inches east of dike No. 3, two small dikes, an inch 
apart and %4 and % inch in thickness respectively, occur. They 


135 


extend upward but a few feet and no doubt represent the lower 
portion of this dike. 

DikE V. Eighteen feet above the level of the stream and 
eleven inches east of No. 4, this dike occurs. It is 2% inches in 
thickness and has entirely changed to a light-greenish colored 
earth. It extends upward toward the top of the cliff clearly dis- 
cernible as far as the eye could reach. A half dozen minute seams 
of igneous matter, not more than 1-20 of an inch in thickness, 
extend along parallel to this dike and on either side of the same. 

Dikk VI. Fight feet above the level of the stream and 
twenty-six inches east of dike No. 5, a thin seam of igneous mat- 
ter occurs, which gradually grows thicker as it extends upward. 
and then thins out again, disappearing at 151% feet above the 
level of the stream. It is the smallest and narrowest of the dikes, 
its maximum thickness being only 5¢ of an inch. 

Dike VII. About eighteen feet above the level of the 
stream and twelve inches east of dike No. 6, the last dike in this 
gorge was noticed. It is a badly disintegrated mass of greenish- 
yellow color, about an inch in thickness and is easily distinguished 
from the adjoining black shale as it extends toward the top of the 
cliff. 

That some of these dikes also occur on the north side of the 
gorge is unquestionable, but the large amount of talus here pre- 
vented any study of the same. 

In the first ravine to the southeast of Townley’s creek, we 
have other traces of the dikes. They occur about midway be- 
tween the first and second falls, or 300 yards east of the falls over 
the Tully limestone. 

Dike I. is best seen on the north bank of the stream where 
it is 1% inches wide. It maintains this thickness across the entire 
width of the stream. 

It strikes north and south, magnetic 

It has changed to a lightcolored earthy substance slightly 
different in appearance from the decomposition product of the 
other dikes. 

Dike II. Six feet and three inches east of No. 1, a second 
dike occurs. It is 114 inches wide in the center of the stream, 


134 


thinning out to %4 inch of an inch on the north bank and probably 
doing the same toward the south. This end was covered with 
detritus and not observable. 

Dixk III. About a foot east of No. 2, a third dike was 
observed, visible only for about two feet near the center of the bed 
of the stream. The ends were covered with detritus. It is par- 
allel to the others and is not more than 1% inches in thickness. 
The strike of these dikes would seem to indicate that they are the 
continuation of the series near the third falls in the Townley 
ravine. No traces of the first series near the Tully Limestone 
could be found. It is quite possible that these were the dikes 
noticed by Kemp, as they correspond to his descriptions in the 
paper quoted.* 

The large ravine, which cuts through the Hamilton shales 
just south of the last mentioned gorge, did not reveal any trace 
of the dikes. It probably does not extend far enough to the east- 
ward to expose them. 

A visit was also made to Ithaca, ten miles south of Ludlow- 
ville, where the dikes are also exposed. The locality studied was 
in the gorge of Cascadilla Creek, between the entrance to the 
Cornell campus and the street car trestle. 

Dike I. occurs between the trestle and the new bridge over 
the creek. It forms a noticeable depression in the rocky walls of 
the creek but is difficult to study because the water from the race- 
way of the reservoir follows this depression in its descent to the 
creek. ‘This has succeeded in eroding a larger channel for itself 
than the natural width of the dike and prevents access to the 
same. In places, pieces of the comparatively hard dike rock can 
be broken off through the dashing water, and these show it to be 
a peridotite of dark green color with numerous crystals of olivene. 

In general appearance it closely resembles the Syracuse ser- 
pentine. Owing to the peculiar conditions, it was impossible to 
tell the exact width of the dike but it could not have been more 
than 28 or 30 inches thick. ‘The adjoining sandy shales of the 
Portage group have weathered down with the dike, and been 
eroded by the stream, so that the depression in which the dike 


*Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov., 1891, p. 410. 


135 


occurs is much wider than this, and might easily lead to an erron- 
eous inference concerning its width. 

The depression corresponding to the dike can be readily 
traced across the bed of the stream where it is filled with detritus 
to a similar depression in the north bank of the gorge, which is 
filled with earth and overgrown with weeds. Its strike was not 
taken but it was very nearly parallel to the adjoining dikes which 
occur but a few rods to the westward. 

Dike II. This occurs a short distance west of the new bridge 
and between the two falls. It is from 2% to 3 inches wide. It 
differs in color quite materially from the other dikes, which have 
a general family resemblance. This rock is of a light gray color 
with numerous small white particles disseminated through it. 
Besides these there are many lenticular inclusions of dark black 
color giving the mass when freshly broken an earthy appearance 
quite different from the dark green crystalline peridotites of the 
adjoining dikes. 

It strikes N. 10 degrees W. (?) 

Dike II]. Twelve inches west of No. 2 a third dike occurs. 
It is six inches wide and strikes parallel to No. 2. It is different 
in appearance from No. 2, having the general aspect of the other 
peridotites, and resembling especially the glistening crystalline 
appearance, so characteristic of the Dewitt dike. 

Dikes two and three were traced a few feet across the stream 
through water high at the time, and while they may occur on the 
north bank a rather cursory examination failed to disclose them. 

There is little question but that a careful examination of the 
gorges of Six Mile* and Fall Creeks which extend parallel to 
Cascadilla Creek at this locality, would reveal other traces of 
these dikes whose discovery would amply repay a search for the 
same. It is also probable that other glens farther north and south 
than these points might furnish additional exposures. 


*Kemp in the Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov., 1891, p. 410, mentions a peridotite 
dike occuring in the gorge of Six Mile Creek, about two miles from the 
Cornell campus. Like the others he says that this dike occurs in the north 
and south joints which are so abundant in the shaly sandstones; that it crosses 
the stream like a narrow ribbon; and that it pinches out a few feet above the 
surface of the water. It has a light brown, or drab color. 


136 


The age of these intrusives is a matter of considerable inter- 
est. That the dikes occurring at Manheim, Syracuse, Dewitt, 
Ludlowville, and Ithaca, all date from the same general disturb- 
ance can scarcely be doubted, when we consider their striking 
similarity as shown by the microscope and otherwise. The Man- 
heim intrusion is known to be newer than the Utica slate; the 
Syracuse dikes penetrate the Upper Group of the Salina shales; 
the Dewitt rock cuts through the gypseous Salina shales, al- 
though the Oriskany and Helderberg formations were also 
thrown out in the excavations as indicated by the fossils; the Lud- 
lowville dikes penetrate the Genesee slate; and the Ithaca dikes, 
the Portage group. Hence they are no doubt later than the Devo- 
nian. | techie Mia 

Smith,* however, has shown that the Manheim dike occurr- 
ing as it does in one of a series of parallel faults which have 
affected the rocks from the Archean gneisses to the Utica slate, 
and which it is generally believed mark the western extension of 
the forces of the Appalachian uplift, no doubt dates from the close 
of the Carboniferous, and suggests this as the date of the others 
also. He adds that “ Diller has also suggested this as the age of 
the Elliot Co., Ky., peridotite, cutting through Carboniferous 
strata, although he considers a later date more probable.” 


THE OIL WELLS OF THE UNITED SY 3 eee 
Mr. Joun T. KILHAmM. 
NOVEMBER 21, 1902. 


I will try and make a sketch in crude oil, which will be only 
an outline, for we lack the time to go into the detail of colorings, 
shades and tints that are required to produce a finished picture in 
oil. 

Oil is a slippery subject, and this is literally true in more. 
ways than one. The study of oil should be classed with the Fine 
Arts, for like art, it has but one end, the beginning. 


*Amer. Jour. Sci., April, 1892, pp. 322-327. 


137 


If one cares to take up this study in any other than a prac- 
tical way, he will soon find that there is a scarcity of books and 
printed articles on the subject, and many of such as are found, 
have been written by persons not familiar with the industry, 
which can readily be detected by experienced oil men, by the 
errors and want of technical terms used. 

It is simply presumption for a writer to try and post him- 
self in a couple of weeks, on a subject that takes us ordinary mor- 
tals a life time to gain a fair knowledge of. 

In a recent article in one of the leading magazines, the tools 
used in drilling oil wells are thus described: “‘ The auger-stem 
is some twelve or fifteen feet long, and as heavy as a man can 
lift.” Asa matter of fact, the auger-stem is about forty feet long 
and weighs some two or three tons. I suppose the author was 
not really writing about the auger-stem, but was trying to de- 
scribe the drill proper, that we call the bit, which is about three 
or four feet long, and weighs from three to six hundred pounds, 
and is screwed on to the lower end of the auger-stem. 

When an author does not thoroughly understand the sub- 
ject in hand, he does the reader a great injustice; and I am in- 
clined to think it is better not to know anything about a given 
subject, than to be poorly posted on it ;—that is, to know some- 
things about it right, and some things wrong, and at the same 
time, not to know which are right, and which are wrong. 

It is pity that such a great and interesting industry as the 
production of oil, has really no literature of its own. I suppose 
this comes from the fact that the oil men are the busiest people 
on earth, for they drill and pump both night and day, and have 
not the time to write matters up; while outsiders simply could 
not, as but comparatively few have the opportunity of studying 
the subject in a practical way. This is why I cheerfully meet 
with you to-day to talk about oil,—a subject that is full of inter- 
est, for there is no lack of material, the difficulty lies in making 
a wise choice, and I wish I knew just what would interest you 
most. I will first give a brief history of the industry, then I will 
take up the oil fields of the United States from physical and finan- 
cial standpoints. 


138 


We are all aware that the discovery and use of crude oil is 
nothing new. It was known to the ancients, and found in many 
eastern countries. In America it was produced to a certain extent 
by a pre-historic race. On Oil creek, French creek and on the Alle- 
gany river in Pennsylvania, are pits that were dug for the collec- 
tion of oil. Some of them are still cribbed with timbers down to 
the rock, which is about twenty feet below the surface, and they 
contain ladders made of a small tree, with the trunk thick set with 
branches. ‘These were cut off four of five inches from the trunk, 
and thus formed steps by which the well owner could go down 
and collect the oil that accumulated on the surface of the water; 
just as was done by the old oil producers on the banks of the 
Caspian and the Irrawaddy. These tree-ladders are similar in 
every way to those commonly found in the ancient copper mines 
of Lake Superior, and perhaps the oil and copper industries were 
both carried on by the same people. Some of these old oil pits 
are over-grown by trees four feet in diameter, proving that the © 
pits have been abandoned for at least five hundred years. It 
remained for Yankee ingenuity to discover and produce oil, 
which has now grown to be an industry second to none, and with 
a history whose every page teems with dramatic interest. 

Crude oil is carbon and hydrogen in various combinations, 
and is formed by the subterranean decomposition of organic mat- 
ter. 

About 1849, Samuel M. Kier, a druggist of Pittsburg, 
began to bottle and sell crude petroleum extensively as a “ cure 
all.” It was called “ Seneca oil” and was obtained from his 
father’s salt wells on the Allegany River. The labels on the bot- 
tles contained a cut of a derrick used in sinking salt wells, which 
picture of a derrick suggested to Colonel Drake the idea of drill- 
ing for oil. 

In 1853, J. D. Angier made the first oil lease, with Brewer, 
Watson & Co., lumbermen, to gather oil on shares from their 
spring near Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. The next year Dr. F. B. 
Brewer, son of the senior member of the firm, went to Hanover, 
New Hampshire, on a visit, taking with him a bottle of oil, 
which his solicitous mother probably packed into his grip, think- 


139 


ing it might be useful in case of accident, or illness; and it was to 
obtain a supply of oil like this sample bottle for medicial purposes 
that induced Bissell, E,veleth, Townsend and Drake, to undertake 
the drilling of the first well on Oil Creek, near Titusville, Penn- 
sylvania. They started out under the name of ‘The Pennsylvania 
Rock Oil Company,” which was later merged into “ The Seneca 
Oil Company.” Colonel Edward L. Drake put the well down 
under great difficulties and discouragements. There was then 
no railroad in that part of the country. Colonel Drake went 
twice to Pittsburg to engage men who worked on salt wells to 
come to Titusville and drill an oil well for him, and each time the 
drillers backed out and failed to come, as they thought Drake 
was crazy to drill for oil. At last he secured William A. Smith, 
commonly called “ Uncle Billy” Smith, and his two sons, James 
and William, of Freeport, Pennsylvania, to drill the well. All 
the machinery had to come in wagons from Erie, a distance of 
forty miles, and he had to send there for everything; once for a 
couple of common shovels, the store at Titusville being unable 
to furnish them. Colonel Drake soon spent the money advanced 
him by the company, and they refused to furnish more. He had 
also exhausted his credit, and could not get trusted for the value 
of a hemlock plank. Here it was that Drake showed the quali- 
ties of a true oil man, which are indomitable energy, and untir- 
ing perseverence. He was thought to be insane, and people called 
him “crazy Drake.” His workman were unpaid and discon- 
tented, and his enterprise must have failed when on the verge of 
success, had not two gentlemen of Titusville, R. D. Fletcher, and 
Peter Wilson, come to the rescue. They had faith in the man and 
his work, and endorsed his paper and loaned him money. 
Saturday, August 28th, 1859, the Smith boys measured up 
just before shutting down for the night, and found that they were 
down 69% feet. Then they washed up, put on their coats, took 
their dinner pails and went to their boarding house as usual. ‘The 
next day was Sunday, and “ Uncle Billy ” went over to the well 
in the afternoon for a stroll. He found there was fluid in the 
hole, nearly to the derrick floor. He got a piece of tin spouting, 
closed up one end, and lowered it into the hole. Drawing it up 


140 


he found it full of the precious fluid. They had struck oil. ‘This 
well pumped about twenty barrels a day, and twenty barrels was 
more oil than had ever been gathered or dipped in any one year 
before. Colonel Drake’s well was the beginning of an industry 
that has furnished more romances in real life, than the most fer- 
tile imagination ever conceived. 

In 1864, the government tax of $1.00 a barrel on crude oil, 
amounted to ten thousand dollars a day. At the present time, the 
oil and natural gas industries together, are producing half a mil- 
lion dollars worth of raw materials every day, in the United 
States alone. 

Not long ago, Mr. H. H. Rogers, of the Standard Oil Com- 
pany, to whom Colonel Drake was a friend in the pioneer days, 
erected a seventy-five thousand dollar monument over his grave 
at Titusville; but this is not the only monument erected to his 
memory. There are about one hundred and seventy-five thou- 
sand others, in the shape of derricks, which are scattered all over 
this vast country, from the head waters of the Alleghany River 
westward to the Pacific Coast, northward to the Great Lakes, and 
southward to the Gulf. In some places they cluster thick together, 
like the masts of ships in a great harbor. Then again, an isolated 
one is seen crowning some distant hill top like a lonely sentinel, 
and the very wind as it blows through the hollow ribs of this 
vast army of headless skeletons says: “ Don’t forget poor Drake.” 

The news of Colonel Drake’s well spread over the country 
like wild fire, causing what is now known as “ The oil excitement 
on the creek,” and never in the history of the world, has there 
been anything to equal it. Men went oil mad, and such was the 
rapidity of their plunges in this wild speculation, that it was no 
uncommon thing for a man to make and loose several fortunes in 
a single day. Thousands sold their all for what they could get, 
and rushed to Oil Creek to promptly loose the money they took 
there. <A little oil for medicinal purposes was a good thing, but 
soon the early operators discovered that they had too much oil; 
that it was ‘‘ An elephant” on their hands, and that there was 
practically no demand for it, consequently it was almost worth- 
less. ‘They tried to burn it in lamps that gave a little light, lots 


I4I 


of smoke, and more smell than either, and which sputtered and 
exploded. 

Yankee ingenuity is a great thing. It took hold of this prob- 
lem with a right good will, and worked at it, and experimented 
with it, analyzed and refined the oil, separating it into its com- 
ponent parts, and again combining them in various ways, until 
to-day we have one hundred and fifty useful and beautiful sub- 
stances of value in science, mechanics, medicine, domestic econo- 
my, and the arts, that are produced from crude oil. Lamps were 
made that were perfectly adapted to the burning of refined oil, 
and from the little spark that Colonel Drake made when he struck 
the first oil well, has grown the flame that has practically lighted 
the world for nearly half a century. 

It has been truthfully said, that “ Facts are stranger than 
fiction,” and the history of the oil industry abundantly proves it. 
In 1860, James Farrell, a teamster, bought thirty acres of stony 
land on the east side of Oil Creek for two hundred dollars, in the 
southwest corner of what is now Oil Creek township. Orange 
Noble leased sixteen acres of this tract for six hundred dollars 
and one-fourth royalty. In five months, with a “ spring pole,” 
the primitive method of putting down wells, a well of one hun- 
dred and thirty feet deep had been drilled without finding any 
signs of oil. For three years the hole was abandoned, but in the 
spring of 1863, Noble associated with George B. Delamater, 
(who was defeated by Robert FE. Pattison for Governor of Penn- 
sylvania,) and L. L. Lamb, made a contract with a man by the 
name of Fertig, to sink the well down to five hundred feet, hop- 
ing to find the third sand, which had been successfully drilled to, 
in other sections of the Oil Creek territory. Fertig’s agreement 
was to take one-sixteenth working interest as part payment. At 
a depth of four hundred and fifty feet, a crevice was encountered, 
and Fertig fearing the loss of his tools, consulted with the own- 
ers, and it was decided to go ahead with the drilling, and on the 
27th day of May, drilling was again resumed. ‘Two of the part- 
ners, Noble and Delamater had received an offer of one hundred 
thousand dollars for one-half of the well, which they refused. In 
less than an hour after the drill was started, oil was struck, and 


142 


the well produced three thousand barrels in the first twenty-four 
hours. The price of oil rose about this time from four to thirteen 
dollars a barrel, and the total production of this one well was over 
four millions of dollars. In less than two years, the four thou- 
sand dollars, which represented the cost of the lease and well, was 
repaid one thousand times. One million dollars of this sum went 
to the family of the poor teamster, he having died shortly after 
his phenomenal strike. Thirteen additional wells were drilled 
on the Farrell tract, and one hundred fortunes were the result. 
At one time the income from the first well amounted to thirty- 
nine thousand dollars each day. 

In 1861, William Phillips drilled a well on the Tarr farm 
that was called “ The Albino,” which held the record for longev- 
ity, as it produced oil for twenty-seven years, and stopped its flow 
on the night that James Tarr, the owner of the farm died. “ The 
Albino” produced over one million barrels of oil, some of which 
sold from three dollars to thirteen dollars a barrel. 

In this connection permit me to tell you about a well that C. 
K. O’Hara drilled on the Silas Richardson farm on Sugar Run, 
Pa., in which I carried a quarter interest in the well completed. 

O’Hara started the well in the fall of 1881, and things went 
from bad to worse, and when money became scarce he went to 
work on the well himself. They had a series of streaks of bad 
luck, and were obliged to pull the casing fifteen or twenty times 
before they got below the fresh water. Then they had fishing 
jobs, and they came often, and in bad places, till the money was 
all gone; then he hung the boys for their wages as long as he 
could, and one after another stopped work until he was left 
entirely alone. Let me say right here that afterward every man 
received the money due him. O'Hara lost heavily, his last dollar 
was buried in that worthless hole, while he had conceived the idea 
that it might be worth a million if he could only get it down. He 
pawned his overcoat and some books in Bradford and got a little 
grub and went to work to try and get the well down alone. He 
had no money to buy coal, so he chopped wood and carried it on 
his back to fire the boiler, and thus he worked night and day. It’s 
a pretty hard thing for one man to do the work of two. He be- 


143 


came very blue and discouraged but still kept at it and would no 
sooner get to running before something would break and he 
would be obliged to shut down and fix it up as best he could. He 
kept at it, however, in this fashion for three months—proving the 
truth of the old adage, “Continual dropping wears a stone.” Fin- 
ally when he had the hole down within one hundred feet of the 
oil sand, in sheer desperation, he sold three-eighths interest in the 
well for three hundred dollars. With this money he soon finished 
her up, and she came in dry, and there have been hundreds of 
similar experiences in the oil business. 

In January, 1865, the Frazer well on the Holman farm at 
Pithole, Pa. was struck. ‘This was the first of a series of rich 
strikes in the way of flowing wells, and they acted like powerful 
magnets drawing restless spirits from every quarter. Pithole 
grew as by magic. Natural gas had turned night into day and 
in the evening contracts were let to have houses completed by 
sunrise next morning. All the beds were doing double duty and 
as soon as any were empty the second relief turned in. Within 
a few months Pithole grew from nothing to a city of 20,000 
inhabitants. It also had a $75,000 hotel, a fire department, daily 
newspapers, a fine opera house, churches,, etc., and it was the 
third postoffice of importance in Pennsylvania, being outranked 
only by Philadelphia and Pittsburg. To-day there is not a build- 
ing to mark the site of this ephemeral city; it came and disap- 
peared like a phantom of the imagination. 

The question of how to handle the oil and get it to the refin- 
eries was one of vital importance. In 1862 a mechanical genius 
named Hutchingson of New Jersey laid the first pipe line from 
the Tarr farm to the Humbolt refinery. Teamsters and roust- 
abouts were the uncompromising enemy of the pipe lines, and 
they repeatedly tore them up to prevent competition with the 
hauling of oil. The first lines were made of iron with lead joints. 
The jar of the pumps would loosen the joints, and cause them to 
leak, so they were impracticable. In 1864, Samuel Van Sickle 
also of New Jersey, solved the problem and laid a two inch iron 
line with screw joints from Pithole to the Miller farm. This was 
capable of running eight hundred barrels of oil a day. There are 


144 


now pipe lines running to Buffalo, Baltimore, Cleveland, Toledo, 
Pittsburg, Chicago, and to the seaboard at Bayonne, New Jersey. 
In all over one hundred refineries are connected with the wells 
in various oil fields, requiring about 80,000 miles of pipe for 
transporting oil, and about 20,000 miles more for the use of nat- 
ural gas, making a total of 100,000 miles of pipe-line in the 
United States. 

The first oil operators were pioneers struggling with the 
dangers and difficulties incident to a new and unknown industry. 
They had no past experiences to guide them, and worked with 
crude and imperfect implements. As the industry increased in 
importance, there came improved methods, until to-day there is 
to be found a greater per centage of skilled labor among work- 
men who produce oil than in any other industry. It is also the 
best paid, as the drillers and tool dressers receive about five dol- 
lars a day. I wish I had the time to tell about some of the skill- 
ful things drillers do. Sometimes the tools get stuck down in a 
hole 2,000 feet below the surface, and cannot be loosened in any 
way. Formerly such holes were abandoned ; to-day only the tools 
are abandoned, the hole being switched over and drilled down at 
the side of the tools that are stuck. There are some 250,000 men 
engaged in the various branches of the oil industry. There are 
no labor unions and we never have a strike. Drilling deep wells 
is an art for the conditions and complications are constantly 
changing. ‘The casual observer has been heard to say, as he sat 
on the bellows in the derrick of the drilling well,—‘* How clumsy 
everything is.” That's so, they have to be heavy and strong; 
they are made for use not beauty. But they are perfectly adapted 
to the uses for which they are intended. There is so much money 
involved in the production of oil that the best American skill has 
been brought to bear upon the mechanical part of the industry. 
A machine that with the aid of skilled workmen is able to drill a 
hole six and one-quarter inches in diameter and over one-hundred 
feet deep in twenty-four hours, as is frequently done, is a triumph 
in mining engineering. It is an established fact that the drilling 
of wells about a mile deep in the solid rock is prominent among 
the wonderful mechanical achievements of modern times. 


145 


The deepest well ever drilled was put down at West Eliza- 
beth, near Pittsburg, by the Forest Oil Company, and was 5,530 
feet deep, or 250 feet over a mile. 

In the early days about a thousand wells a year were drilled, 
now the holes are going down at the rate of about a thousand 
wells a month. There have been something like 170,000 wells 
drilled for oil and natural gas in the United States. 

In 1901, the United States produced 53,000,000 barrels of 
illuminating oil. It is so easy to speak the word millions and so 
hard to really comprehend its meaning. Let us look at this vast 
volume in another way. If we put the oil produced into barrels, 
and then placed those barrels end to end, we have enough to reach 
all around the world and some to spare. After making a second 
row from New York to San Francisco we have not used all yet; 
so let us pile up what barrels remain one upon the other, and the 
top one is more than 10,000 miles above the earth. But this is 
really only about half the oil that was actually produced, for the 
fuel oils of California and Texas amounted to about 50,000,000 
barrels more. The Lucas well at Beaumont is estimated to have 
started off at 100,000 barrels a day. To store and handle this 
ocean of oil 2,000 iron tanks, as large as a circus tent, each hold- 
ing 35,000 barrels and 20,000 tank cars are required, also 150 
immense tank steamers to carry it across the seas to Europe, Afri- 
ca, India, China, Japan, and Australia. 

Because oil was first found under Oil Creek, the pioneer 
operators thought it was only to be found under water courses, 
and they drilled wild-cat wells on what they called surface indi- 
cations. After a number of years of this kind of experimenting, 
during which some oil fields had been found (more the result of 
accident than anything else) it was noticed that they had a gen- 
eral direction of northeast and southwest and that they ran on a 
forty-five degree line. The oil fields are not all on the same line 
for there may be any number of parallel forty-five degree lines, 
but the general trend is from northeast to southwest and they are 
about twice as long as wide. 

In drilling in wild-cat territory there is no one who can tell 
just where to drill as is proven by the fact that the men who 


146 


have done the most of this kind of drilling have drilled the most 
dry holes. Our knowledge along this line is of a negative nature 
and enables us to steer clear of places where there is no possibility 
of striking oil. The novice, however, might start his well on the 
granite, which was created before the oil and gas, and contains 
no organic matter, as it was produced by the agency of fire. 

The early operators were looking for repititions of what had 
already been found; to-day we are looking for surprises, for we 
have learned that every new field has certain conditions peculiar 
to itself, and what may hold good in one section may not hold 
good in another. 

The oil is right in the pores of the rock. There are no actual 
veins, pools, or ponds of oil but a porous rock saturated with oil. 
The oil rises in the rock to a fluid level, for if we strike oil here at 
2,000 feet and locate the next well on a hill whose rise is 200 feet 
above the first, we will strike the oil at 2,200 feet if at all. 

The average life of oil wells is about fifteen years. The 
Allegany field in this state has been the best field ever struck in 
point of staying qualities. It was struck in 1880 and is still pro- 
ducing. ‘The Bradford field has been the largest field as regards 
area. The West Virginia oil fields are the most expensive to 
operate as many wells in them cost $10,000 each, and some wells 
more. ‘They are from two to three thousand feet deep but this 
is not the reason that they cost so much. It is because in places 
the rock slacks like lime when water comes in contact with it and 
caves are formed, which have to be cased off, and it is no uncom- 
mon thing to finish a well with six or seven strings of casing. I 
have seen wells that had over two miles of pipe in the single well. 

The Grayville oil field in Monroe County, Ohio, is what we 
call a “ glycerine production,” for the wells show scarcely a sign 
of oil till they are shot ; then they start off at about a hundred bar- 
rels and settle to ten or twenty barrels a day. In some fields, 
and under some conditions, we now use as heavy as 700 quarts 
of nitro-glycerine to a shot. To see a well on a bright day respond 
to a shot and make a big flow of oil is a very beautiful sight. It 
is better than fireworks. The yellow oil glistens in the sunlight 
like’a fountain of molten gold. aS 


147 


East of Findlay, Ohio, is what is called the “ Big Salt 
Water District.”’ I have seen wells in this district that have 
pumped a three inch stream of salt water, and no oil, for six 
months night and day; then they would get to oil and start off at 
300 or 400 barrels of oil a day. It takes grit to operate this kind 
of territory. 

_ The oil field around Marion, Indiana, was a natural gas field 
until about two years ago. At that time the gas pressure became 
low and the wells went to producing oil, and last year about 
1,000 wells were drilled for oil in that section. Along the Lick- 
ing River in Kentucky, an oil is produced that has an asphalt 
base, and is as black as tar. In a fairly good field it requires 
about one well to every five or ten acres to get the oil out of the 
rock to best advantage. 

Most oil wells flow from gas pressure, but it looks as if the 
great wells at Beaumont were flowing from a water pressure on 
the artesian well plan, and as the oil is lighter than the water, it 
is on top and being thrown out first. These wells have no gas to 
speak of. 

The wild speculations in the oil territory around Beaumont 
last year put the “ Tales of the Arabian Nights”’ in the shade. 
Charles Ingalls owned seven acres on which he lived at “ Spindle 
Top.” A “ Gusher ” was drilled near his property and when any- 
one would attempt to talk to him about selling he woud walk off 
and leave them, saying, “ don’t bother me, I'll have nothing to do 
with this oil business.’ Finally he was disturbed so much that 
he made up his mind that he would end the whole thing by put- 
ting such a price on his property that no one would think of buy- 
ing it at his figures. So when he was next asked to sell, he 
replied, “ I'll take $2,000,” and the bargain was closed at once. 
When the buyers came to get the wife’s signature to the deed 
Ingalls laid the deed down on the table, saying to his wife, “ put 
your fist to that.” She replied, “ I will not, what are you doing ?” 
“T’ve sold the place for $2,000 spot cash.”” Mrs. Ingalls insisted 
that it was not enough, and that she must have some money for 
herself or she would not sign. So she received $2,000 for her- 
self and the Ingalls’s were happy. The seven acres were thrown 


148 


upon the market and went flying around like a ping pong ball. 
One day an old neighbor met Ingalls and told him that the seven 
acres he sold out at Spindle Top had just sold for $800,000, and 
asked him what he thought of that? Ingalls took a fresh chew, 
and said, “ I don’t care if it has sold for eight hundred millions of 
dollars, I got $4,000 spot cash and that was $3,500 more than the 
darned old place was worth.” The widow Sullivan owned 
twenty-five acres near “ Spindle Top.” It was known as the 
“Swill cart place,’ for she used to go to Beaumont every day with 
a cart for swill. She sold twenty acres for $10,200, and it proved 
to be dry, and was offered back to her for $300, but she declined, 
saying, ““ what do I want to buy the place for, when I can get the 
use of it for nothing.” 

At present Pennsylvania oil is quoted at $1.39. This does 
not mean just the oil that is produced in that state, but includes 
the oil produced in the Allegany field of New York, the oil of 
Monroe County, Ohio, and the entire production of Wset Virgi- 
nia, all of which is known in the trade as Pennsylvania oil, 
because it is of the same grade, and produced from sandstone. 


JANUARY 23, 1903. 
SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING. 


The regular meeting was held in the Historical Rooms, the 
president, Dr. W. M. BEAucHAmp, in the chair. 


The report of the council recommended : 


(1) The payment of bills amounting to $3.50. 
‘(2) The printing of the postals for the coming year. 
(3) The appointment of the secretary and the treasurer as 
a membership committee. 
The report was accepted and adopted. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT. 


The report of the secretary, Mr. Philip F. Schneider, was 
next read, and is summarized as follows: 


149 


Meetings have been held regularly during the ten months 
of the year, with an average attendance not including the popular 


lecture of thirty-five. In place of the customary meeting in May, 
a joint excursion with the Science Association of Syracuse Uni- 
versity was taken to Pratt’s Falls, Pompey. 


The following list of programs was given during the year: 

January 17. Reports of officers and sections. 

February 21. “ The Peopling of Early America,” W. M. 
Beauchamp, S. IT. D. 

March 21. “ Bird Migration and Food Habits,’ Charles W. 
Mere n. 1.; °° Traits of Birds,” Prof. Guy A. Bailey. 

April 18. “ The Geology of the Serpentines of Central New 
York,” Philip F. Schneider, Ph. M.; “ The Mollusks of Onon- 
daga County,” W. M. Beauchamp, 8. T. D. 

May 17. “ The Geology of Pratt’s Falls, Pompey, N. Y.,” 
1. C, Mepkins, Ph. D. 

June 20. Miscellaneous program. ‘“‘ A Syracuse Bison,” C. 
W. Hargitt, Ph. D.; “ An Onondaga Elephant,” P. F. Schneider, 
Ph. M.; “ An Onondaga Mastodon,” W. M. Beauchamp,s.T.D. 

September 19. ‘‘ Notes on Some Eruptive Dikes near Itha- 
eee OE. . Schtieidér, Ph. M. 

October 17. “ The Natural History of Our Giant Salaman- 
Moers, “ibert M. Reese, Ph. D.; “The Vicissitudes of a Blue- 
bird Family,” Charles W. Hargitt, Ph. D. 

November 21. “The Gas and Oil Wells of the United 
States,’ Hon. John T. Kilham. 

December 19. “A Trip Through the Dinosaur County,” 
W. M. Smallwood, Ph. D. 

A popular lecture was given in Assembly Hall, University 
Block, March 15, to about two hundred persons by Dr. F. H. 
Herrick. It was entitled, “ The Wild Bird at Arm’s Length,” 
and was illustrated with many beautiful lantern slides and did 
much to awaken an interest in the subject of birds throughout 
the city. 

Through the courtesy of President Beauchamp many of the 
members received copies of two pamphlets, Bulletin No. 50 of 


150 


the State Museum entitled, ““ The Horn and Bone Implements 
of the New York Indians,” and ‘‘ Onondaga Plant Names ”’ ;and 
from the secretary, “ New Exposures of Eruptive Rock at Syra- 
ense, IN YS’ 


Six active and two associate members were elected during 


the year, and two members placed on the corresponding list. Our 
membership now stands: Active, 49; associate, 16; correspond- 
ing, 8; total, 73. 


LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. 


The treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts, read her report for 


the year which is summarized as follows: 


Balance om-hand, Januaty, 1902... 20.3. $107.76 
Receipts dutine-the year. :).). \.. 2% «ase 40.61 
AP Gta. 35 Fe, See eee $154.37 
Disbursements: ir...) seks 4 oh ae ee 50.67 
Balance on: hand: 3 5) -22ee $103.70 


LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. 


The librarian, Mrs. L. Leonora Goodrich, gave a detailed 


report showing the accessions to the library during the year. 


REPORT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 


Philip F. Schneider, chairman of this section, read a report 


showing the following things accomplished by the members of the 
section : 


Relief map of the county constructed. T. C. Hopkins. 
Location of branch of Green street Dike. T. C. Hopkins. 
Butternut street Dike described and accounts published. P. 


F. Schneider. 


Ithaca dikes described. P. F. Schneider. 
Goniatite knowledge advanced. A third new species found. 


J. D. Wilson. 


Knowledge of ancient water courses advanced. S. E. Crane. 
Geology of our Niagara group advanced. C. E. Wheelock. 
Caves explored and investigated. T. C. Hopkins and others. 


151 
ZOOLOGICAL, SECTION. 


The report of this section was given by Dr. C. W. Hargitt. 
The most important work was the completion of the list of spi- 
ders of the county. This with the list of mammals and reptiles are 
now ready for publication. 


BOTANICAL, SECTION. 


Mrs. L. L. Goodrich announced that during the summer the 
Torrey Botanical Club of New York together with many noted — 
scientists had been guests of the section and spent several days 
examining the rich flora of this vicinity. Two specimens new to 
the county had been discovered during the year. The section is 
now studying the trees of the county. 

The election of officers resulted as follows: President, Ed- 
ward H. Kraus; vice-president, John D. Wilson; secretary, Philip 
F. Schneider; corresponding secretary, Thomas C. Hopkins; 
treasurer, Miss Louise W. Roberts; librarian, Mrs. L. Leonora 
Goodrich; councillors for three years, W. M. Beauchamp, John 
Van Duyn. 


MEMBERSHIP, 1903. 


HONORARY. 

DMETE, CARROM UN sh Me sg) 2 90nd ee ee Syracuse, N. Y. 
CORRESPONDING. 
CAR Be ee EL MD 2200 by < ice caharaciess fe) One Albany, N. Y. 
CLASS | ORE PIs: a gens iil > Saa e Syracuse, N. Y. 
HAANEL, EHUGENE,) PUD. ..: 27: 4.-42.4.4, poe Canada. 
HarLow, GERTRUDE MOooREHOUSE............. Kibbe, Conn. 
[nO 0:014 Rano Pa © ned c= (oh! 0): aes aOR Er Gs A = Newburgh, N. Y. 
pV: SUAS eV ID 5... su; «caer eee Syracuse, Noe 
Peay We Ams eA eis ets 5 | abies eee South Onondaga, N. Y. 
ARR) RAL PETS rR, . 52 » {= vei Ithaca, Sie 
UNDERWOOD Le Vi pee DL) foe ee Columbia College, N. Y. 
ACTIVE. 

ACKERMAN MRS. MATTIE B...”. 5:4.es 206 West Beard avenue. 
dee UEMI ee GAO 2 ee ee ae ee a Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 
BEAUCHAMP, Wireram M.,.D. DD... eae 204 Maple street. 
Boynton, Mrs. MARY «Al... 02 2.22. ae 1o1g South Salina street. 
BRITGHER, LIORAGE Wh, B.C. I... 2 oe 707 South West street. 
CALT EROS, (REV aoa ney L582 tee 1571 South Salina street. 
CAMPBELL, Miss JOANNA M............. 334 Westcott street. 
CHASE, FRANKLIN H. 302 Stinard avenue. 
CHATEIBED DM. sae i te o2 Seay ee ee 312 Gifford street. 
CLARK, GAyLorD P., A. M., M. D....619 West Genesee street. 
CRANE, STEPHEN BETIS. M.D). ee Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 
CROUSE CC HARES gum ores ere 416 West Genesee street. 
AKIN, (GRORCH CONG ef nine vie nie 2,5 a ee Herald building. 
DIDAMA, DES a DO Naina se oon eee 424 South Salina street. 
Douc Lass, Miss BELLE........:......220 West Castlessmeemm 
GoopricH, Mrs. L. LEONoRA......... 505 East Willow street. 
GRAHAM, WILLIAM P. Pu. D.... 2a ee 504 University Place. 
PLATCH i (GEORGE ia 7.521 ee Onondaga Valley,N. Y. 
ITAL, WARDNER Swe. co bact ee 316 East Onondaga street. 


_— , -—_ oe 


tad 
Peet, CHARLES W., PH. D’...../..... gog Walnut avenue. 
Meme Vitss ADA Aun lel ee 201 Elliott street. 
fee FRANK 1,,.M.D.......... 0... 300 Hawley avenue. 
Meemreviiss MARY Fo... ek ee ek 509 James street. 
eerreDALE, WitttAmM G., M.D........... 546 Seymour street. 
Meme | C., Pa. Deel. ek. 103 Marshall street. 
PumiernGTON, Miss JESSIE G............. 311 Howard street. 
Geeeeeiics VIRGINIA L......0...00..... 403 Howard street. 
PEOSCAR Co. ce ee es 110 Lancaster avenue. 
0 112 Raynor street. 
muemrnen FRANK P.; A.M............. 309 Orange street. 
Pome tpwARD H., Pu. D........... 907 East Adams street. 
MRM ORGE Do ee eee ee go6 Irving avenue. 
MeeenanK L., A.M........-...... 701 South Beech street. 
MPMGMIAMAy OABINE.............-05 Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 
Mercer, A. Ciirrorp, M. D., F. R. M.S..324 Montgomery st. 
Mieomvertt M.D... ..... 006s 926 West Genesee street. 
ieee viics M. J... 2 ae ee eee 138 Linden street. 
Pete eunncr N. M. S....0.0...... 05 402 Euclid avenue. 
ein eH: LD). ee ese 307 Waverly Place. 
PSPERAOR PUB ERT  - . kk de 316 East Kennedy street. 
Peter rorce M:,M.D............ 412 South Warren street. 
feeoe ee ieneeT MPa. D......... 709 South Crouse avenue. 
eres, Miss Louise W.....:... ....500 Roberts avenue. 
MereermOmartEEs G., A.B........-.... go7 University avenue. 
Peeemiany, Miss MartHa, B.S............ got Grape street. 
SAwNoeRs, HREDERICK K., PH.D...... 313 South Beech street. 
Pemneimen, Priip P.M. PH............. 319 Jackson street. 
SMALLWOOD, Martin, Pu. D....... 609 South Crouse avenue. 
pact oH. MonmMoutH, Po. D........ 701 University avenue. 
Pemiemins ALFRED. .............. 1o1g South Salina street 
Pee OrARTES B. Pu. D............¢. 121 Phelps Place. 
cimnmeernes). Ve M.D... i... eee 303 Montgomery street. 
woes: JOMN, M.D... 2... 0... eee 318 James street. 
MiprmenNOGK, OHARLES F..... 0... ee 110 Cathers avenue. 
ROE MRIPONEIN I. SS Masse wos be. ale ss wieyece ace 1508 Grape street. 


omen MARY B., M)D.......... 1609 West Genesee street. 


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: ONONDAGA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 


Be is! EDITED BY 3 By Re 
THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. — 


ae TIS SYRACUSE, N. Y.: — 
oi PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY. 
a ie 1903. 


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VOLUME 8 ‘BROCHURE. I fs 
Organization adi re eae her go 
Charter aoe 
What a Botanist may find i in n this wiciity W. ME 


So ASTEAIAD, oo ig Les at oda a is phesaac fin phavas aia see ae ee 
The Goniatite Limestone: J. D. WILSON ss 
Election and Annual Reports for ASSL eee 

A Trip to Greenland: Raupx S. Maw“. cake . F 
The Whetstone Industry : PHie F. SCHNEIDER 
The Paleobotany of Onondaga: PHILip F. Scunt 
Election and Annual Reports for 5) Bee re 
Onan Crystals i in eee PRANK Hatt. oe 


The New Geologie een with Table: a j 
CTAB reesei ae meres pekakaseeee 


Z pe <e 


CONTENTS. 
fos a : VOLUME I. BROCHURE II. 
ooaes | PAGE 
 Penrth Annual Meeting, Tannary,: 2900.06.00. .cciateteeterees es -— «6688 
is Botanical Report for 1899: Mrs. L. L. GoopricH Sh es 60 
” Memorial Resolutious for J. A. Dakitt.....c.cccceeseeserers See faa 
- Deferred Fifth Annual Meeting, 1901............ es cad 64 
> aeoeiat Address: W. M. BEAUCHAMP........ccsccsccsseseseeess 67 
_ Glacial Climate: T. C. Hopxins.......... Pe ReAG iis he Te 
~ A Blue Bird Family : Tidy eo NVILSON os sbtsctaher ti ors saikebiac tse: 81 
The Fauna of the Agoniatite Limestone: J. D. WILSON..... 84 
~ Onondaga Fungi: MINNIE L. OVERACKER. .oeescscscssevseeeeseses 88 
7 : The Ginseng Industry of Onondaga County, N.Y.: LOuIsE | 
é ay Oo EES SEES or tet eae NO ig) Aa ne 98 
"Sixth Annual Meeting, January, 1902........ccccccseeereeereees 101 
_ The Food ‘Habits of Birds >C. W. Harerrv......... ee as 103 
- The Geology of the Serpentines of Central New York: . 
Par MTG We By SCUNEIDRR «6.09.56. 506555. 5 hi dicecsckcassibicndeatoines 110 
The Mammals of Onondaga: H. W. BRITCHER.; ¢:00c)5s00s << 117 
The Batrachians and pages of Onondaga: H. W. 
is Eg SMSO 8 an gap pot eee ce er are - 120 
“The Spiders o of Onondaga: TW 2 BREE CHER (5.5. 505e0 essere 123 
Notes on some Eruptive Dikes near Ithaca: Puiuip F. 
- SCHNEIDER... De receiere cea Hat ea re hv hancak fans Catapults «fob cde posleoas 130 
| The Oil Wells of the United States: John T: KILHAM........ 136 
~ Seventh Annual Meeting, January, A908 eu sr ieee et 148 
Present Membership BA iene seve iu ie veg iah tout dineaen adi Gonna ieetye 152 


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‘fom D. Wilsom serarnronenm 


Thomas ¢ Hols mn ! 
ne Miss Louise W. Roberta tc demstanes 7 


; ‘Mrs. te Leonora Goodrich... 


SECRETARY, 


‘TREASURER 


% ae % “LIBRARIAN: ie 
: _ COUNCILORS- as 

‘TERMS EXPIRING IN 1904 
“John D. Wilson and Mrs. Mattie B. 
a TERMS EXPIRING IN 1905 
Fiala H. Chase and Ernest 1 

an ‘TERMS EXPIRING D IN 1906 : 


GEOLOGY - 
Philip’ F. *Sehiapider: chairman 
Dea ee E. Wheelock, recorder 


"BOTANY 


"Horace W. Britcher, chairman 
Charles Ww. Heer pads 


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