^. 2//. kS

PEOCEEDINGS

EOYAL GEOGEAPHIOAL SOCIETY

OF LONDON.

Vol. IIL

SESSION 1858-9.

Nos. I. to VI.

EDITED BY DE. NORTON SHAW.

LONDON:

16, \VHITEHALL PLACE.

1859.

lOHOON : PaiNTKD BY W. CIX)WE8 AND SONS, STAMiUliD STKEET,
AND CHAKIKG CKOS8.

CONTENTS OF VOL. III.

Authors are alone respomible for the contents of their respective statements.

No, I.

Page
Thomson AND Kerr. — Ascent of Demavend . . .. ., .. .. .. 2

Gregory, A. C. — Search for Leichhardt .. .. .. .. .. ..18

Gregory, F. T. — Western Australia . . .. .. ... .. .. ..34

No. II.

OSBORN. — Gulf of Pecheli and the Peiho River .. ,. .. ., ..55

Clarke. — Search for Leichhardt .. _ .. .. .. .. .. .. 87

Peschurof, etc. — Amiir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

PRITOHETT.-TrEcuador .. .. .. .. .. .. •• ..93

W No. III.

Baines. — Zambesi Expedition • . .. .. .. .. .. .. ., 99

Squier. — Lake Yojoa, Central America .. .. .. .. .. .. 106

Sevin. — Mexico .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108

Burton AND Speke. — Central Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. Ill'

Tayler. — Aurora Borealis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 117

Palliser AND Hector. — Rocky Mts. .. .. .. .... .. 122

Atkinson. — Ala-tu and Ac-tu Mts. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 127

Strachey. — Fate of Schlagintweit . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 144

ADDITIONAL NOTICES.

Hayes. — Kane's Arctic Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

No. IV.

Babbage, Warburton, Stuart. — S.Australia .. .. .. .. .. 151

Hilliard. — Manacusi, or River King George . . . . . . . . ..160

Oliphant. — Yang-tse-Keang .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..162

Davis. — Yang-tse-Keang .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. I64

Strachey.— Death of Schlagintweit .. .. .. ,. .. .. ..172

Herschel. — Projection of the Sphere .. .. .. .. .. ..174

PiM. — Suez Canal .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 177

Stokes. — Danube .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 206

Macqueen. — Central Africa . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

iv CONTENTS OF VOL, HI.

No. V.

JY Sir Roe
G.C.St.S., M.A., D.C.L,, efc. e^c. e^c, President 215

Page
Anniversary Meeting. — Address by Sir Roderick ImpeyMurchi son.

No. VI.

Burton AND Speke. — Eastern Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. 348

Wallace. — New Guinea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 358

Macqueen. — Central Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 362

Palmer. — St. Helena ,. 363

King. — Slam and Cambodia .. .. .. .. .. .. ., .. 365

ADDITIONAL NOTICES.

MijLLER. — Timor 368

TCHIHATCHEF. — Asia Minor .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 370,385

Harmsen. — Sudden Rise of Sea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 372

COQUi. — DelagoaBay.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 373

Way.— Limpopo River .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 375

Edkins. — Chinese Rivers .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 375

O'Connor. — Gambia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. 377

„ Bijuga Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 379

Andrews. — Indus, e^c. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 386

Lamansky. — Sea of Aral .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 387

Ritter. — Asia Minor.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 389

Varnhagen. — Vespuce .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 389

Abbott. — Ghilan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

ClALDi. — Sea and its Currents .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 395

Index ' .. 399

€mnal oi t^t '^.a^d (B^ostK^^ud Bomi^.

The Earl op Ripon, &c., &c., &c.

COLLINSON, Capt. Richard, R.N., C.B., &c. 11 Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.StS., &c.
Everest, Colonel G., Bengal Arty. 1| Sykes, Col. W. H., M.P., &c

BiDDULPH, Robert, Esq.

Milnes, Richard Monckton, Esq., M.P.

Galton, Frauds, Esq., M.A.

II HODGKIN, Thomas, Esq., M.D., &c

€anntxL

Abrowsmith, John, Esq.
Back, R.-Adm. Sir G.
Brodie, Sir Benj., Bart.
Brooking, Thomas H., Esq.
Calthorpe, The Hon. F. H. G., M.P.
Crawfurd, John, Esq.
Denman, Capt. the Hon. J., R.N.
FiNDLAY, Alex. Geo., Esq.
Hamilton, W. J., Esq.
James, Col. H., R.E.

Murray, Capt. the Hon. H. A., R.N.
Oliphant, Laurence, Esq.
PORTLOCK, M.-General J. E., R.E.
Sabine, M.-Gen. E., R.A.
Seymour, H. D., Esq., M.P.
Sheffield, the Earl of.
Smith, E. Osborne, Esq.
Staveley, Thomas, Esq.
Strzelecki, Count P. E. de, C.B.
Warre, J. A., Esq., M.P.

§mhxB.

Biddulph, Cocks, and Co., 43, Charing Cross.

NOKTON SHAW.

boyal geographical society,

15, whitehall place, 8.w.

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDOK

SESSION 1858-9.

First Meeting y Monday, November Sth, 1858.

Sir EODEKICK I. MUKCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — General Duncan A. Cameron, r.e., c.b., and the
Right Hon, J. Stuart Wortley, Q.C., M.P., were presented upon their election.

Elections. — The Hon, Francis Baring ; Arthur John Edward Russelly
M.p. ; Lieut, George Brine, R.N. ; Charles Davidson Bell, Surveyor-General
of the Cape of Good Hope ; Aubrey De Vere Beauclerk, George G, Gilbert-
Heard J J, G. Johnstone, Joseph Paul, and Theodore Walrond, Esqrs., were
elected Fellows,

Accessions. — The accessions to the Library and Map-Eooms since
the last meeting were important, comprising, among others, 936
Ordnance Maps; 81 Admiralty Charts; 40 French Charts; 78
Belgian Maps; 10 Swedish Maps; 38 Native Maps of China; Stan*
ford's large Map of Europe ; the Dispatch Atlas ; an account of the
Principal Triangulation for the Ordnance Survey; Eeport of the
Ordnance Survey Commission ; Villavicencio's Geografia de la Ee-
publica del Ecuador ; Leigh SotheBy's Principia Typographica ;
11 vols, of the *Memorie della E. Accademia Ercolanese' from the
Neapolitan Government ; Hydrographical Notices published by the
Admiralty and the Depot de la Marine ; the eighth edition of Maury's
Sailing Directions ; Meteorological Papers published by the Board of
Trade ; Astronomical Observations made at the Eadcliffe Observatory ;
the Transactions of various Geographical and Scientific Societies at
home and abroad, &c.

VOL. III. B

2 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

The Papers read were : —

1. Journey through the Mountainous Districts North of the Elhurz, and
Ascent of Demavend^ in Persia. By E. F. Thomson, Esq., and Lord
ScHOMBERG H. Kerr, of H. M. Mission in Persia.

Communicated by the Earl of Malmesbury, Foreign Office.

From the Hon. C. A. Murray, c.b., cfcc, H. M. Minister in Persia, to the
Eight Hon. the Earl of Malmesbury, &c. &c.

Camp at Lar, Aug. 2, 1858.
My Lord, — I have the honour to transmit herewith a narrative of an excur-
sion in the Elhurz chain of mountains, and of the subsequent ascent of the
lofty mountain of Demavend, lately made by Mr. R. F. Thomson, first attache
to this mission, and by his colleague Lord Schomberg Kerr. As this grand
and interesting mountain range is but little known either to the general or to
the scientific public in England, I would respectfully request your Lordship
to be kind enough to forward the narrative, with the accompanying map
and specimens, to the Pi-esident of the Eoyal Geographical Society. 1
feel assured that I am truly anticipating your Lordship's sentiments when
I express an opinion that the zeal, energy, and intelligence exhibited b}^ Mr.
Thomson and Lord Schomberg Kerr on this excursion, and in the graphic
description of it, reflect the highest credit upon them, especially when it is
borne in mind that neither of them have had the advantage of any specially
scientific education, and that they have been obliged to supply, in many
instances from their own ingenuity, resources which would have been easily
attainable in Europe. Notwithstanding the certain amount of fatigue which
they necessarily had to encounter, it is evident from their narrative, as well as
from the fact of the ascent of Demavend having been lately made by two
gentlemen who accompanied them, and by two members of the Russian
Mission, none of whom were practised mountain pedestrians, that there is no
mountain in the world, of the same elevation, the ascent of which is attended
with so little risk or difficulty, its crater being at least 6000 feet higher than
the summit of Mont Blanc, which, even with the aid of the skilful and expe-
rienced Swiss guides, it is generally a work of greater labour and duration to
attain. Mount Ararat, which has long been considered the monarch of the
great mountain chain extending over Central Asia, from the Caucasus to the
Northern Himalayas, has now been dethroned by the unerring fiat of Mercury,
and must be content to take a secondary place by the side of his true sove-
reign Demavend, who has thus recovered a portion of the long lost honours
and glories assigned to him in the legend of ancient Persia.

I have, &c.,

Ch. a. Murray.

The principal object of our excursion, of which the following is
a brief sketch, was to determine the exact elevation of the Peak of
Demavend, a point which has never, we believe, been satisfactorily
ascertained. But before doing so, we proposed making a short
circuit through the mountainous districts north of the Elbiirz, a
locality little frequented even by Persians, and almost entirely
unknown to Europeans.

The mountains of Elburz, at the foot of the southern slopes of

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. 3

which the town of Tehran is situated, extend from the Plain of
Cazvin on the west to the town of Demavend on the east, forming
the division between the low belt of country on the southern shores
of the Caspian and the high lands of the central province of Irak.
They are a portion of the lofty chain which branches oif from the
Caucasus, and after passing through Azerbijan, the North of Persia,
and Affghanistan, terminates in the range of the Himalayas. The
line of these mountains, though occasionally broken in Persia,
especially in Khorassan, where it is intersected by several extensive
plains, may easily be traced throughout the whole of this vast tract
of Asia. The Elbiirz, although of enormous height, have not a
very imposing appearance from the Plain of Tehran. With the
exception of the huge cone of Demavend, no peak towers above its
fellows, and from a distance the summit of the range seems to be
nearly level. In summer the snow disappears almost entirely from
the southern face, but on the northern side it remains in large
quantities throughout the year. Another reason why they are
wanting in the beauties of chains much inferior in height is that
the highest range rises immediately out of the Plain of Tehran,
throwing out scarcely any spurs, and effectually concealing the vast
sea of mountains which extend in a northerly direction.

Like the generality of mountains in Persia, those of Elbiirz are
but scantily clothed with vegetation, the plants grovdng on the
slopes having a dry, blighted appearance, and, as usual, there is a
total want of trees of natural growth. The colour of the rocks
which form the lower part of the chain is in general a reddish
brown, varied here and there by huge blocks of grey stone. For
about one half of the whole height of the mountain these rocks rise
nearly perpendicularly. They are jagged and broken up into deep
precipitous ravines, down one or two of which small streams, fed
by the melting snow and by springs, force their way into the plain.
Above, the slope becomes more gradual, though still very steep, and
the rocks are for the most part covered by loose gravel and earth.

If, however, the Elbiirz mountains are poor in vegetation, they
are, like many other parts of this extensive range, rich in mineral
productions, copper, iron, lead, and orpiment being found in large
quantities. The specimens procured are not of any great purity,
but having been merely picked off the surface, cannot be considered
as showing what the value of the ore might be if scientifically
worked. Coal, of excellent quality, is also so abundant in many
districts in the immediate vicinity that an inexhaustible supply
might be procured at a trifling cost for the purpose of working the
mines, but the want of enterprise of the Persian people and the

B 2

4 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

indifference evinced by the government to all measures of improve-
ment, or schemes for developing the resources of the country, have
hitherto caused this source of wealth to be almost entirely neglected,
and the working is limited to the extraction of a small quantity of
coal for the annual supply of the European residents and the black-
smiths of the capital. No parrot or cannel-coal has hitherto been
discovered.

As many as five rivers, besides smaller streams, take their rise in
the Elburz, within 25 miles north of Tehran. The largest of these
is the River of Niir, which flows in a north-easterly direction, and
after passing to the north of Demavend, falls into the Caspian west
of the flourishing town of Amiil. The next in size is that of
Talighan, which flows from the mountains of the same name, and is
a tributary branch of the Sefid Eud or White Eiver, a large sheet
of water entering the Caspian to the east of Eesht.

The Heraz or Laur River, which rises near Shahzadeh Kiih,
passes through the district of Laurijan to the south of Demavend,
and falls into the same sea near the town of Amiil. Salmon, trout,
and, near their mouths, sturgeon abound in these several rivers. The
remaining two, those of Jajriid and Kerretch, after descending into
the plains of Veramin and Tehran, where a portion of their water
is withdrawn by means of canals for the purpose of irrigating the
lands belonging to the numerous villages with which these plains
are studded, are lost in the great salt desert beyond.
* Having made the necessary preparations and provided ourselves
with a small tent, a set of Casella's hypsometrical apparatus, and a
few other instruments procured from England, we left the summer
encampment of the mission at Gulabekon the 11th of July at 5 p.m.
The road from Gulabek passes to the north through the large village
of Tajrish about 2 miles distant, and 1 mile farther on through
Derbend, a village situated in the mouth of a narrow gorge, which
is from its elevation and reputed salubrity of climate a favourite
summer resort for the higher classes of Tehran. From Derbend the
road becomes more difficult, passing over rocky and uneven ground
until the small hamlet of Pess Kalaa (famous for its cherries and
wild strawberries) is reached. This path, bad as it is, has been
much improved of late years, as it leads to a cascade a little higher
on the side of the mountain, which place the Shah occasionally
visits during the summer months. The distance from Derbend to
Pess Kalaa is about 1 mile. The latter is the last village met with
on the southern side of the range of hills, and here we bivouacked
for the night on a rock in the open air.
_ July I2th. — We commenced ascending the mountain at half past

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. 5

4 A.M., winding over a narrow, rugged path. At about half way to
the summit the ascent becomes less abrupt, and the soil of greater
depth. Flowers, comprising tulips, crocus, wild lavender, and
thyme, besides a variety of other aromatic plants, are to be seen in
great profusion, and in many places the slopes of the hills assume
a green tint. The rocks and precipices on the lower half of the
mountain consist principally of limestone. No quartz was observed
by us here or in any other part of the Elburz. At that part of the
summit where the road crosses the range we turned to the right
and proceeded to the highest peak, measuring 12,887 feet above the
level of the sea. The peak bears due north of Tehran, of which, as
well as of the surrounding plains, it commands an extensive view.
On descending from this point, we passed what the Persians call
" the sea of ice," a kind of glacier, from which the market of Tehran
is abundantly supplied in the hot weather whenever, in consequence
of a mild winter, the ordinaiy provision of that luxury does not
suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants. Near this spot we
saw a large covey of about 30 " Kebk i derri," or royal partridges
(known also as the Caspian partridge), a bird equal in size to a
well-grown turkey, which, we believe, is only known in Persia, and
is rarely to be found excepting in the Elburz and some of the high
lands in Azerbijan. We also observed a number of wild sheep
crossing a stony ridge at some distance below us.

The road descends in a north-westerly direction to the valley of
Shehristanek, shortly after which we arrived at the principal village
of the district, bearing the same name. From Pess Kalaa to the
crest of the mountain is about 6 miles, and thence to the village of
Shehristanek 4 miles more. This valley runs as nearly as possible
east and west, is about 6 miles in length, and a small stream, a
tributary of the Kerretch Eiver, flows through its bed. To the east
there is another valley, that of Eudbar, opening into the district
through which flows the Jajriid Eiver, and containing, besides
some of the rich mines before mentioned, several large and flourishing
villages, the most important of which is named Ahar. The two
valleys are only separated by a small pass. Shehristanek is at an
elevation of 7040 feet.

July l^th, — ^We proceeded down this valley, which is fertile and
well cultivated, the higher slopes of the hills on the southern side
being scantily covered with stunted cypress trees. At the western
extremity of this district we entered the valley of Laura, its
general direction being nearly north and south, and aifording a
channel for the Kerretch Eiver, named " Doab " at the point of its

6 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

junction with the Shehristanek stream, whence the combined waters
flow for a distance of 12 or 14 miles through pathless and inaccessible
mountains, entering the plain 24 miles west of Tehran. It was from the
latter point that Haji Meerza Aghassi, the Prime Minister of the
late King of Persia, attempted to cut a canal by which he proposed
to supply the plain of Cazvin with a copious stream of water.
Native engineers were employed, a vast sum of money was ex-
pended, a day pronounced auspicious by learned astrologers was
fixed for the opening of this grand undertaking, the minister
invited the king to attend the anticipated ceremony with all his
court — everything in fact succeeded thus far, and the signal being
given, the dams were cut away, when the water streamed for a few
yards into the new channel, but there it stopped and still remains,
the Kerretch retaining its waters and the plain of Cazvin remaining
deprived of an element, the absence of which prevents it from
becoming one of the most productive parts of Persia.

July lUh. — The Laura Valley, in general about a quarter of a mile
broad and closed in by mountains which rise almost vertically,
contains several villages, and is well cultivated throughout its whole
extent. The road follows the left bank of the river and passes the
' village of Meidanek 3 miles from Doab : 2 miles farther on there is
another village, Hassanekber, and thence to Nissa is about 2 miles
more. Nissa is the principal village of the district, situated in an
open valley half a mile from the left bank of the river. Opposite
this village on the right bank we skirted the foot of the range of
the Talighan Mountains, extending from east to west, their height
being equal, if not greater than that of the Elburz Peak. The next
and last village in this valley is Getchiser, 3 miles from Nissa.
Before reaching this point the river is crossed by a wooden bridge,
and a little lower down a tributary stream, nearly as large as the
Laura itself, flows from a valley on the right bank. The elevation
of Getchiser is 7198 feet. At Getchiser the path leaves the river
and winds up a steep ravine (at the bottom of which there was still
snow in large quantities) to the north-west for a little more than
2 miles, and then, turning to the east, ascends the difficult pass of
the Shemlian. The mountains on either side of this ravine are
curious from their extreme steepness, being at an angle of 50^ or 55°.
What renders them the more remarkable is the almost total absence
of rock, which only here and there pierces through the thick coating
of light sandy soil which slopes in a perfectly even line from the
summit to the base. The elevation at the top of the pass is 9620
feet. Here the first view is obtained of the low range of hills

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. . 7

(161 W. of S.) covered with trees and jungle, through which the
low country of Mazanderan is entered. The descent on the northern
side is equally abmpt, and is also about 2 miles in length.

July 15th. — During the night a heavy dew fell, completely satu-
rating our bed-covering. Although this dew is productive of no bad
effect at this elevation, it is otherwise on the shores of the Caspian,
where the natives are extremely careful to avoid exposing themselves
to it at night. Our path now descended in a parallel line with a
rapid stream for four miles, quitting the Mazanderan road on the
left at the second mile. This route is only practicable for a few
months during the hot season, and is mainly used by the villagers
near Tehran, who gain a . livelihood by transporting charcoal from
Mazanderan to the capital. After two miles course north-east, we
entered the Valley of Diina, through which flows a small mountain
stream, joining that which waters the valley we had just left ; and
together they dash through a magnificent ravine, guarded on either
side by large precipices of red sandstone. The district of Diina is
small, containing only two villages of 60 families each. Continuing in
a northerly direction, we crossed a mountain-pass, which, compared
to the others in the neighbourhood, was neither high nor difficult,
and thence descended into a narrow valley, at the eastern extremity
of which there is one small village. The distance from Diina is 3
miles. The valley is called Kamrman, and is the property of the
present Prime-Minister of Persia. Elevation 7860 feet. A stream
flows through it, which, at a distance of 3 miles north-west, forces
its way to the wooded country below through a wild and narrow
gorge crowned with precipices of enormous height, which, with the
hills above, are partially covered with forest trees.

July l(5th. — Two roads lead from the valley of Kamrman — one
conducting to the valley of Niir, over a hill to the north of Shah-
zadeh Kiih ; and the other, which we followed, taking a north-
easterly direction over the range which forms the boundary between
the districts of Kamrman and Niir on one side, and Mazanderan on
the other. The summit of this pass shows an elevation of 10,890
feet. To the left of the road a lofty peak rises to the height of
1000 feet above the pass, and to the summit of this we went to
obtain a better idea of the country we had crossed. The range we
were now upon was of great height, forming the northern limit to
the Elbiirz chain. Looking down from its crest we saw below us a
low range of well- wooded hills, cut up in several places by deep,
rocky gorges, and opening in others into fertile valleys. These
gradually diminish in height, and at length disappear in the low level
country of Mazanderan. From this peak the Caspian Sea is visible,

8 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

in clear weatlier, at a distance of about 26 miles ; but in summer it is
seldom seen, owing to the exhalations from the damp and marshy
jungles on the coast, which produce a thick haze, effectually conceal-
ing the view even from heights much nearer the sea. Opposite to,
and south of this point, a huge and jagged rock, which appeared to
be inaccessible, in the form of a pinnacle, towers above all the sur-
rounding mountains. It is called the Shahzadeh Kuh, or Prince's
Mountain, and is considered by the natives to be the highest peak in
the whole range, with the exception of Demavend. There is a tradi-
tion among them that Noah's Ark rested upon its rocky peak ; and
they affirm, with the fullest belief in the story, that a portion of the
Ark may still be found near its summit. At the base of this
mountain, the Niir and Laur, or Heraz Rivers take their rise.
From this pass we crossed the range by a circuitous and rocky path,
descending on the Mazanderan side of the hill to a spring of water,
the temperature of which was 40^ Fah., where we halted for the
night. The distance from Kamrman to the top of the pass is 6 miles,
and thence to the spring 4. The elevation at this spot is 9438 feet.

Beyond the Valley of Zaniis, which lies immediately below, run-
ning north-east and south-west, we perceived the valley and extensive
district of Kujjiir bearing E. by N. A river passes through Kiij-
jiir, named the Shalis ; which, after being joined by two streams
flowing down the Zanus and Meekhsay Valleys, empties itself into
the sea. We did not visit this district ourselves, but were informed
by the natives that it contained numerous villages, and that its waters
abound in fish.

Jvly 1 1th. — Leaving the spring at which we had encamped, we
descended by a tortuous path into the forest below. The view here
was such as one seldom has an opportunity of seeing in Persia, where
trees are so rare. Behind us rose the mountains we had just crossed,
the grey crests of which, in the form of huge towers, stood out in
bold relief against the clear morning sky. In the ravines which
separated these rocks from one another the snow still lay, contrasting
with the steep grassy banks which sloped away below, and giving rise
to streams which leaped from rock to rock till lost among the trees
on the lower portion of the mountain. Around us on all sides forest
trees, including oaks, elm, maple, and fir, together with wild apple
and pear-trees, clung to the steep sides of the valley, whose banks
were also clothed with ferns and other plants. Descending through
the valley of Zaniis in a north-easterly direction, we passed a few
small villages rudely constructed with branches and shingles, occu-
pied by charcoal-burners. The distance to Zaniis is 7 miles. This
is a large village, within 20 miles of the Caspian in a direct line, and

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. 9

about 30 by the road. It contains upwards of 100 families, whose
houses are built of mud and stone, with pent roofs covered with rough
slates and the bark of trees. This was the northernmost point which
we reached, and the elevation was lower than at any other place we
passed through. Leaving Zaniis, we turned sharp round to the
right, following a valley which conducted us towards the same range
of hills we had crossed the day before. Here are several flourishing
villages, the chief of which is Meekhsay, 5912 feet above the sea
level. The road continues to ascend this valley for about 5 miles,
winding among rocks and forest trees. At this distance we began
to climb the mountain, the path, though steep, being neither difficult
nor dangerous. The distance to the summit, which is 10,561 feet in
height, is about 4 miles. The jungle growth ceases at an elevation of
8500 feet.

July 18th. — Descended to the valley of Niir, through which flows
the river of the same name, the course being south-easterly to the
village of Ouj, distant 8 miles from the top of the pass. We next
passed through the large village of Yoush, situated on the left bank
of the river, and halted at the point where the Niir is joined by
another large stream flowing from the south. Elevation 6539 feet.
The whole of the district of Niir, of which the tovni of Beledeh,
situated at the eastern or lower extremity of the valley, half-a-mile
below the junction, is the capital, belongs to Meerza Agha Khan, the
present Prime-Minister of Persia, whose family has held the property
for several generations. It is populous and well cultivated, and at
present derives no little importance from its being the native place
of the principal functionaries under the present administration of
Persia.

July 19th. — Left Nur, and followed the course of the Yalu Eiver
already mentioned. One mile from the jimction we passed the
village of Pulvek, where the Yalii River is joined by a considerable
stream of the purest water flowing from the south-west. We pro-
ceeded up the Yalii, and after following its course between rocky
mountains for some distance, we entered a small valley, containing
two villages, March and Yalii, also the property of the Prime Minister.
The distance to Yalu is 4 miles. Here the Y^alu river again divides
into two portions — one flowing from the east through a narrow ravine,
and the other coming down from the mountains to the south. This
latter we followed.

The mountains above Yalu are formed of a white friable stone,
probably gypsum. The road, after proceeding up the left bank of
the stream for about a mile, crosses it by a bridge of stone at the
mouth of a dark, narrow gorge, shut in by stupendous precipices

10 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

400 feet high, between which the river rushes furiously. The path
up this gorge is dangerous in the extreme : in places it traverses the
face of the precipice overhanging the torrent, which one can hear as
it roars and boils in whirling eddies far below ; and in others, the
low parapet which had been built by the side of the narrow path as a
slight protection had entirely fallen away, rendering the passage
perilous even to the sure-footed mules, for which Northern Persia is
famous. It would be difficult, however, to find a finer gorge than
that through which we were passing. After about 1:^ or 2 hours,
having attained a considerable height, we emerged upon an open
chummun,* in which we found several camps of Eeliats, or nomades,
who in summer seek these high elevations on account of the fine
pasturage the mountains afford to their innumerable herds. Passing
along this for about 3 miles, we came to the foot of another pass,
very steep and high, and which it took us an hour and a half to
ascend. Here we were caught by a thunder-storm, which however
did not prevent us from taking the elevation, found to be 10,851 feet.
The descent on the other side is neither so long nor steep as the
ascent, but it is more rocky. Among other descriptions of rock
we discovered coal of inferior quality in many places. At the foot
of the pass, as on the other side, is built a wretched caravanserai,
intended as a protection to travellers who may venture to cross these
hills in the early spring or late autumn. To the left, descending
from the rocks by innumerable falls, flowed the Sefid Aub. This
waters a fine open valley, covered with grass, and everywhere dotted
with the tents of Eeliats. We followed this stream for about 2 miles,
when we entered the valley of the Laur River flowing from the
north-west, and it being dark, we pitched our tent on its banks for
the night.

July 20th. — Walked down the banks of the stream, which is fed by
numberless springs, and whose sides are clothed with grass. The
width of the valley is about f of a mile. After about 6 miles it
opens out considerably, so much so that the space almost deserves
the name of a plain, being about 4 square miles in extent. After
this it narrows again, the river passing between two rocks which rise
immediately out of its banks. Beyond these we found the camp of
Mr. Murray and the Mission pitched at a pleasant spot named Chehel
Cheshmeh,t or the Forty Springs, from the numerous fountains of
clear water which well up out of the rocks and the plain in every
direction.

The first part of our trip was now concluded, the most important part

♦ Meadow. f Elevation, 7833 feet.

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. 11

— namely, the ascent of Demavend — ^being still to be accomplished.
The mountains through which we had passed are generally of the
same description, one being much like another, and formed chiefly of
limestone. Between them run valleys, very narrow, and almost
entirely wanting in trees except those planted by the inhabitants,
which consist of poplars, walnut, and mulberry. Barley, bearded
wheat, and clover, together with enormous quantities of butter and
cheese, form the staple commodities of these districts. In winter
the inhabitants are unable to move out from the depth of snow which
covers the ground, and they are forced to remain under the cover of
their rude huts, together with their flocks and herds, for which
during the summer months they lay in a large stock of grass and
dried plants from the mountains.

The inhabitants, nevertheless, seem happy and contented ; their
isolated position among the hills no doubt leaving them free and un-
touched by many of the exactions and cruelties to which the better
known provinces of Persia are subjected. Another cause which may
add to the prosperity of some of these villagers is the constant passage
during the summer of caravans of mules carrying charcoal from
Mazanderan to the capital.

Game does not exist in large quantities in these mountains : several
varieties are, however, met vdth. The Kebk i derri, a magnificent
partridge, already mentioned, we found in several places. There are
besides two other kinds of partridge, the Kebk and the Teihii, in
considerable numbers. Quail in abundance during the summer
months, and in the autumn snipe are to be found in the valleys.
Birds of prey, of great size and in vast numbers, are to be seen ;
they are chiefly vultures and hawks, eagles being rarely met with.
Of four-footed animals the wild sheep, or mouflan, and ibex are the
only remarkable ones. Hares are in some places frequently found.
All the rivers in this district, with the one unaccountable exception
of the Jajriid, are well stocked with trout.

On the 24th of July, shortly after daylight, we left the Mission
encampment, and proceeded for about 3 miles along the right bank
of the river, which here winds down the centre of a wide grassy
valley.

Two miles and a half below the Chehel Cheshmeh the Heraz is
joined by a smaller stream, which takes its rise at about 10 miles
distance among the mountains to the north-west of Demavend. It is
named the Sefid Eud, or White Eiver (this name is also given to
several other rivers in Persia), on account of the extraordinary milky

12 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

appearance of its waters. On reaching the end of the Yalley of Laur,
we crossed the river, and about J of a mile farther on passed over a
torrent fed by the melting snows from the mountains to the north.
After its junction with this stream, the Heraz dashes down a rocky
ravine, whose sides are so precipitous and narrow that, even 200 feet
above the level of the torrent, only a few feet intervene between one
side and the other. The path here leaves the river and winds high
up over the spurs of the mountain. It is rocky and difficult, being
in many places almost impassable for horses. Now and then, however,
we crossed fine open chummuns or grassy plains, in which great
numbers of mares of the royal stud were turned loose for pasture.

We had not proceeded very far before our track joined the high
road, if such it can be called, which leads from Tehran by way of
the town of Demavend to Ask, the capital of the district of Laurijan,
and the residence of its governor.

The hot baths of Demavend, so famous in Persia, are situated in
this locality. They are two in number : one, the tepid bath, is situated
within 100 yards of the town of Ask, on the right bank of the river.
It rises in an oval basin, measuring about 30 feet by 20, and about
3 feet in depth, formed by deposit from the spring, which gushes up
with great force in the centre of the basin, together with a consider-
able amount of gas. The water is composed of sulphur, iron, soda,
and magnesia.

The other spring, which is situated about 2 miles farther down
the valley, and on the mountain of Demavend, is so intensely hot
that the water has to be conducted through canals for some distance
before it is collected in an artificial basin, in which the patients bathe.
This water is also composed of magnesia, iron, and sulphur ; but the
latter is in much larger proportions, and naphtha in great quantities
also forms one of the ingredients. Near Ask there is also a spring
of cold water, strongly impregnated with iron. From Ask a road
leads down to the town of Amul, but it is extremely dangerous,
lives being lost annually from mules and their riders falling over
the precipice, along the face of which it runs.

Having on a previous occasion visited the town and hot springs,
we avoided the descent into the deep valley in which they are situ-
ated by following a track which led along the face of a precipice
formed of basaltic rock. The path was difficult, and in many places
dangerous. After an hour of this work we came upon a level piece
of ground, on which is situated the large village of Eeinah.* We did
not stop here, but pushed on to a point about a mile farther on,

* Elevation, 6618 feet.

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. 13

where the guides, &c. necessary for the ascent were waiting for ns.
The distance from Laur to this place is about 18 miles.

The lower portion of the mountain of Demavend does not differ
much from its neighbours. In fact, if anything, it is perhaps less
steep and difficult to ascend. It consists chiefly of long high ridges,
which commence at the foot of the cone, and run out for some
distance, when they end abruptly. The valleys and ravines between
these ridges are deep, and for the most part covered with loose
stones, gravel, and earth. Here and there huge volcanic rocks pierce
through the outer covering, breaking the larger valleys into ravines.
Strange to say, there are but few springs on this mountain.

We commenced the ascent by proceeding up an even slope covered
with large stones, between which flowers of different descriptions
sprung up in great variety. On reaching the top of this slope we
entered a narrow ravine of excessive steepness. In 1855, when we
first made the ascent of Demavend, we found a tolerable track up
this ravine, but a torrent having swept with great violence over this
part of the mountain during the last winter, all traces of it had dis-
appeared.

The ascent of this ravine was consequently painful and fatiguing
in the extreme, the loose stones rolling away from under our feet at
every step. Having at length gained the top, we found before us a
large extent of ground covered with huge shapeless blocks of basalt,
over which we made our way with some difficulty. Beyond this we
had to cross at right angles a ravine filled with snow, and extremely
steep. There is, however, not much danger in crossing this if
caution be used, except in the early morning, when the snow being
frozen, one is liable by a slip to be precipitated some hundred feet
into the valley below. After this the ground becomes more practi-
cable— it is very steep, but covered with a firm soil of reddish colour,
on which plants of great variety grow in considerable numbers.
Among others, we noticed the forget-me-not, wild thyme, lavender,
and ferns, besides a beautiful variety of the everlasting flower, of
most delicate form and colour. This plant we found at a higher
elevation than any other. After a fatiguing walk of four and a half
hours we reached a small tent we had before sent on, and which was
pitched some distance below the foot of the cone, by a spring of
water.

The elevation of this point is 12,664 feet, and shortly above it
vegetation ceases. The temperature of the air in the tent was not
so low as might have been expected, the mercury falling no lower
than 39° Fah., but outside the cold must have been intense, for a
stream which during the day flows from the melting snows above,

14 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

and is both very rapid and of considerable size, was completely-
frozen during the night, the water appearing to have been suddenly
arrested in its course, and only beginning to flow again when the
rays of the sun had played for some time on the solid mass of ice.

July 25th. — For the third time we were now about to attempt the
ascent of the cone of Demavend. On the first occasion we failed,
being obliged to return by a storm of wind and snow. The second
time we succeeded in reaching the top, but having no instruments,
we were of course unable to make any observations. On the two
previous occasions the mountain was much more covered with snow
than we now found it to be. In fact, the guides told us that they had
never seen so little remaining. Many places which before we found
covered with snow to a great depth, were, though a month earlier in
the season, now quite bare ; and in many places even the glaciers
which fill some of the ravines intersecting the mountain-side had
partially disappeared.

The cone of Demavend is doubtless of volcanic origin, and appears
to have been formed partially by having been forced up above the
level of the mountain by some subterranean agency, but more by
the debris and lava thrown out from the summit when the volcano
was still in activity. From a distance it appears to be nearly
smooth, and to slope evenly at an angle of about 45° from the top
to bottom. On a nearer approach, however, it becomes evident that
the cone consists of a number of ridges, which run from the summit
to the base, leaving between them deep ravines filled in general with
snow and ice, beneath which lies a mass of debris fallen from the
upper part of the mountain.

At an early hour after dawn on the 25th we quitted the tent, and
after proceeding for above a mile over ground covered with loose
gravel and large masses of stone, reached the foot of the snow, where
the cone of Demavend may be considered to commence. For about
2 hours we then climbed over rocks of lava and basalt broken up
into a thousand shapeless masses, and piled in confusion one above
the other. At the top of this we scrambled up a small precipice of
about 30 feet, and then found before us a long ridge, perfectly even,
and evidently formed by a stream of lava having run over the surface,
leaving it so smooth and steep that it was somewhat difficult to keep
our footing. Before leaving the tent, the guides had made us take
off our own shoes, and had tied round our feet pieces of ox hide.
We now found the use of this, the hide clinging tenaciously to the
rock, where ordinary boots must inevitably have slipped. The
ascent of this portion of the mountain was attended with great
fatigue, especially as the rarefaction of the air began to tell upon our

Nov. 8, 1858.] AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND. '. 15

lungs. After 2 hours more we reached another precipice higher
than the last. This we surmounted without difficulty, and then
found to our right a precipice of enormous depth. Opposite rose
another, whose rocks, however, unlike those on which we were
standing, were of a reddish-yellow colour, apparently composed of
sulphur and lime. The space below was filled with ice and snow.
Skirting along the edge of this precipice we came, after about 1^
hours, to Bamshi Bend, or Cats' Pass, in Mazanderani dialect.
This, though somewhat unpleasant from its great height, was this
time comparatively safe and easy. On the last occasion on which
we made the ascent, we were forced to cut steps in the ice with
hatchets in order to obtain footing ; we also took the precaution of
attaching ropes in case w-a should fall. Now there was no ice, and
but little snow. The elevation below this pass is 18,509 feet.
Above this we had again to scramble over blocks of basalt such as
we had met with at the commencement of the ascent. This con-
tinued for about an hour, after which, except in one or two places, the
ascent was rather less steep. We now crossed a long space covered
entirely with soft gravelly soil, consisting apparently of limestone
and disintegrated rock of various descriptions, together with crystals
of sulphur which lie about in large quantities, and of great purit}^
Beyond this rises the last ascent, up a steep slope, among rocks of a
light yellow colour, formed of limestone and sulphur.

The last part of the ascent from the Bamshi Bend was extremely
painful from the rarefaction of the air. We were attacked with
nausea and violent headaches, and experienced great difficulty even
when at rest in drawing breath. Monsieur de St. Quentin, of the
French Mission, and M. Castelli, a Sardinian gentleman, who hearing
of our intended expedition had asked to accompany us, were also
attacked in the same manner. Having recovered a little from our
fatigue, we proceeded to take observations of the height of the
mountain. This we ascertained to reach the enormous height of
21,520 feet.

The cone of Demavend terminates in a crater about 85 yards in
diameter, which is nearly surrounded by jagged rocks. The^e are
highest on the northern and southern sides. They are not, however,
everywhere of the same composition : to the north and west they
are of the same basalt of which we had seen so much in ascending
the mountain, while to the south and east they are composed of
sulphur and lime. The basin of the crater was almost entirely filled
with snow, upon which we did not venture more than a few yards,
as we found that it increased in depth at every step. There are two
caves near the summit, one 100 feet below the eastern side of the

16 JOURNEY THROUGH DISTRICTS N. OF ELBURZ, [Nov. 8, 1858.

crater, and about 16 feet deep by 5 broad ; the other, lower down to
the south-east, and much smaller. From both of these caves issues
a steam strongly impregnated with sulphur, which forms in crystals
over the whole interior surface. Not only from these points, but
from many small holes in the rocks, this steam issues in strong jets.
AVe had intended to pass the night in one of the caves, but found it
impossible to do so from the rarefaction of the air, and from the
eftect which the sulphuric vapours had upon us. Below the cave,
and to the north-east side of the cone, there is a large glacier, at so
steep an angle as to be altogether impracticable. It was smaller this
year than in 1855, but the blue points of ice stretching away far
.below still presented a fine appearance. We had made the ascent on
the south-eastern side of the mountain, and the path we had followed
appeared to be nearly the only practicable one.

We were unfortunate in the day we selected for the ascent. The
morning had been clear, but by the time we reached the Bamshi
Bend the weather had changed, and a heavy fall of snow continued
during the whole time we were at the summit, the thermometer de-
scending to 29^ Fah. in the open air. This prevented us from
obtaining a view, such as we had enjoyed on our previous ascent,
which was both extensive and magnificent.

We remained at the top for about an hour and a half, and then
descended by one of the ravines-, taking advantage of the snow,
wherever we found it, to slide down.

The next day we returned to the Mission Camp at Laur by the
same road which we had followed two days before.

The height of the mountain, the ascent of which we have just made,
took us much by surprise. From Tehran and the neighbouring hills,
though always a conspicuous and remarkable object, it fails entirely
to give a correct idea of the real elevation, which is, as before stated,
21,520 feet. This can only be accounted for by the fact that between
it and the observer, from this side, there exist other ranges of great
height, which must necessarily have the eifect of dwarfing any
object behind them ; and also that Tehran itself is at an elevation of
3600 feet. From Mazanderan, however, the view of this great
mountain is truly grand : thence the whole of its enormous height
unbroken from the summit to the base is seen, and that from a point
80 feet below the ordinary level of the sea.

It may therefore be as well to record the observations upon which
we base the statement of the height of Demavend.

Tehran is known from repeated observations to be 3600 feet above
the level of the sea. The instruments used were hypsometrical
apparatus by Mr. Casella, 23, Hatton Garden, and the results of the

Nov. 8, 1858.]

AND ASCENT OF DEMAVEND.

17

observation we worked out according to the tables of heights and
corrections furnished with the instruments. We, on most occasions,
took the observations with more than one thermometer, but those
here mentioned were shown by Casella's thermometer, No. 161, as
registered and rectified at the Koyal Observatory of Kew.

Station.

Boiling Point.

Hour.

Temperature.

Tehran .. ..

Laur

Reinah

Foot of the Cone

Below Bamshi Bend

205-2
197-8
199-9
189-4
179-7

7 A.M.

6-30 A.M.

11 AM.

6 A.M.

1 P.M.

o
76
64
83
42
44

The instruments not allowing of any greater height being taken
by their means, we were reduced to the necessity of boiling a
common thermometer, to ascertain the boiling point at the summit.
The accuracy of our observation may however be relied upon, for
after carefully comparing this common thermometer with that
furnished by Casella, we could distinguish no observable difference.
Apart from this, we may observe, that from the point where the other
thermometer was no longer available to the top we were nearly 3
hours walking, without stopping anywhere beyond what was neces-
sary for resting, during which time we could have scarcely mounted
less than 3000 feet.

The observation was taken in the cave 100 feet from the summit.
The boiling of the thermometer was complete and satisfactory, we
having provided ourselves with charcoal to be prepared in case
of need.

In conclusion, we may mention that we do not pretend to any
scientific acquirements whatever. The above is only a statement of
what we saw and observed, which may however prove somewhat
interesting from the fact that nearly all the country we have explored
has been hitherto almost, if not altogether, unknown to European
travellers.

Several specimens of sulphur from the summit of Demavend, and
a few specimens of mineral found in the Valley of Rudbar, are
transmitted with this paper, together with a map giving an outline
of the route we followed.

The President. — Whatever comments may be made upon this paper, and
upon the method employed to determine the height of the mountain Dema-
vend, you will all agree with me that the greatest possible credit is due to the
two gentlemen attached to Her Majesty's Mission in Peisia, who have em-
ployed themselves so energetically in the furtherance of geographical science.
Mr. Murray gives his young friends every credit for what they have done, and

VOL. III. C

18 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

no more praise than they really deserve ; and he expresses his opinion that
the present communication, and the observations upon which it is founded,
have deprived Mount Ararat of that superior altitude in the Eastern world
which has hitherto been attributed to it. But the fact is, that geographers,
particularly the venerable Humboldt, have not placed the Ararat of geographers
in this category. I have looked into the last volume of * Cosmos ' to-day, and
Humboldt records the height of Demavend at 19,715 feet, which is but 1785 feet
under the height attributed to it by our diplomatists. According to Humboldt,
Ararat is only 17,112 feet high.

General Monteith, f.r.g.s. — Having passed three years at the foot of
Mount Ararat, I am well acquainted with that mountain. I used many
means to ascertain its elevation, and I made it 16,000 feet above the level of
the Araxes — I mean the Ararat of modern geographers, in the province of
Erivan. I was not so fortunate as to reach its summit — though 1 attempted
the ascent with several men — ^in consequence of the mountain being so
thoroughly capped with ice. With regard to Mount Demavend, I have seen
it, but did not attempt to ascend it — not from want of curiosity, but from
want of time. 1 had the opportunity of seeing the Demavend from the
summit of one of the range of mountains across the Caspian Sea. The dis-
tance from me was 248 miles, and I was at an elevation of 7000 feet at the
time. I hurried down to the village to get instruments, but unfortunately I
missed the opportunity of seeing the mountain again. — Near the village of
Khoor, at the foot of the mountains between Ardabet and the Caspian,
though I had a tent and guard for seven days, the atmosphere was never
again clear of mist. The Mount of Demavend appeared to me not to be
more than twice the height of the general range, and of the same I was on,
which by lx)iling water gave 7000 feet above the Caspian. Ararat, I may
say, in appearance at least, is higher than any mountain in Persia, or even the
Caucasus. One-third of the mountain is buried in perpetual snow and ice, so
as to reflect a strong light like glass when the sun shines on it j in this par-
ticular it differs from any other mountain I have seen.

The second Paper read was : —

2. Expedition from Moreton Bay in Search of Leichhardf and Party. By
Augustus Charles Gregory, Esq. (Gold Medallist, r.g.s.).

8^A Dec. 1857. — Having received instructions from the Honourable
the Secretary for Land and Public Works to organize an expedition
for the purpose of searching for traces of Dr. Leichhardt and party,
who left New South Wales in 1848 with the intention of proceeding
overland to Western Australia, I proceeded to Moreton Bay (llth
Jan. 1858) with such portions of the equipment as had been prepared
in Sydney.

On reaching Ipswich forty horses were purchased, and having
despatched the stores to Mr. Koyd's station, on the Dawson Eiver,
by drays, the party was collected at that place; but, owing to
unforeseen delays in the transport of the stores, the equipment and
organization of the expedition were not complete till the latter part
of March.

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY, 1§

The following list of the party, horses, stores, &c., will show the
principal arrangements.

The party consisted of nine persons, viz. :—

A. C. Gregory, Commander ; C. F. Gregory, Assistant- Commander ';
B. Burgoyne, Assistant ; G. Phibbs, Overseer. Stockmen, Sfc, R. Bow-
man, W. Selby, T. Dunn, W. Wedel, and D. Worrell.

The stock consisted of horses alone, comprising 31 pack and 9
saddle horses, completely equipped.

Provisions comprised the dried meat of 2 bullocks and 4 sheep,
weighing, as butcher's meat, 16 cwt., but when dried and the bones
removed, reduced to 300 lbs. ; in addition to this, 500 lbs. bacon,
1600 lbs. flour, 100 lbs. rice, 350 lbs. sugar, 60 lbs. tea, 40 lbs.
tobacco, and some minor articles.

The arms and ammunition were : 1 Minie rifle, 8 double-barrel
guns, 9 revolver pistols, 25 lbs. gunpowder, 1 50 lbs. shot and balls,
percussion caps, &c.

For the conveyance of water two leather water-bags were pro-
vided, each holding 5 gallons, besides which each of the party was
furnished with a water-bag of India-rubber, holding 3 pints.

The tents were made of calico, each suited for the accommodation
of two persons, and the several articles of camp equipage were of the
lightest construction consistent with the service required.

The instruments employed were an 8-inch sextant, box-sextant,
prismatic compasses, pocket compasses, double axis compass, aneroid
barometers, thermometers, and artificial horizon, &c.

Including forty sets of horseshoes, farrier's and carpenter's tools,
together with sundry material for repairs, &c., the total weight of
the equipment was about 4600 lbs. exclusive of the saddles and
hamess, which gave an average load of 150 lbs. as the net load
carried by each pack-horse.

24ith March, — These arrangements being complete the expedition
left *' Juanda" and proceeded by the road to Mr. Carew's station at
*' Euroomba," from which (21th March), under the guidance of Mr.
Bolton — whose local knowledge was of material service — we made
our way through the dense scrubs and broken country to the west
for about 30 miles, to the head of " Scott's Creek," a small tributary
of the Dawson Eiver.

29^A March. — The general course was now AV.N.W., through a
country with rich grassy valleys and dense scrubs of " brigalow " acacia .
on the higher ground. Green grass was abundant at this time • but
I fear that in seasons of drought few of the water-holes are per-
manent. The timber consists of iron-bark, box, and a few other
species of eucalyptus; the brigalow acacia attaining the height of-

c 2

20 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

30 feet. Soft brown sandstones of the coal measures are the prevailing
rock, forming hills with table summits.

2nd April. — With some difficulty, owing to the dense scrubs, we
crossed the basaltic ridge which divides the eastern waters flowing to
the Dawson Eiver from those trending to the west into the basin of
the Maranoa Eiver, a tributary of which, probably the Merivale
Eiver, was followed westward. The country became more sandy,
timbered with iron-bark, cypress, &c. The whole was, however,
well grassed, and suited for grazing, if not too heavily stocked.

5th April. — Eeaching the Maranoa Eiver in about latitude 25° 45'j
water was scarcely procurable in the sandy bed, and we had to dig
wells to obtain a supply.

Warned by the fact that Messrs. H. Gregory and Hely had been
unable to penetrate the country to the west from scarcity of water,
even three months earlier in the season, we followed up the Maranoa
to " Mount Owen " (7th April) ^ and having found a sufficient supply of
water and grass for a few days' halt, I proceeded to reconnoitre the
country to the west, and at length found a practicable route to tho
tributaries of the " Warrego " Eiver, to which the party was advanced
{I2th April).

A heavy shower of rain had filled the gullies in this locality, and
green grass clothed the country, forming a striking contrast to the
dry and waterless valley of the Maranoa.

Fine openly timbered valleys, well suited for pasture, alternated
with ridges of scrub of brigalow acacia till we reached "Mount
Playfair" (15i/i April), a basaltic hill on the sandstone ridge which
separates the Warrego Valley from that of the " Nive," a small branch
of which was followed (16th April) down to its junction with the
main channel in latitude 25^ 6'.

The soil in the valley of the Nive is sandy, thinly grassed, and
openly timbered with iron-bark, spotted gum, &c. ; the back country
rising into low sandstone ridges, covered with dense scrub of briga-
low acacia. Some pools of permanent water, containing small fish,
were passed, on the bank of which the remains of numerous native
camps were seen.

nth April. — From the Nive Eiver a N.N.W. course was pursued
through a nearly level sandy country, covered with a scrub of acacia,
eucalypti, bottle-tree, &c., which offered great impediments to our pro-
gress, till within 6 miles of the " Victoria Eiver," when we suddenly
emerged from the scrub on to open downs of rich clay soil ; but the
drought had been of such a long continuance that the whole of the
vegetation had been destroyed and swept away by the wind, leaving
the country to all appearance an absolute desert.

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 21

The bed of the Victoria was scarcely 10 yards wide, and perfectly
dry, so that it was only after a prolonged search along its course that
a small puddle of water was found in a hollow of the clay flat, and
near it, fortunately for our horses, a little grass growing in widely
scattered tufts.

Being now on the line of route which Leichhardt had stated his
intention of following, the party was divided, so that both sides of
the river were examined in all probable positions in which his camps
might have been situated (19th April) ; but as the high floods appeared
to have inundated the country for nearly a mile on each bank last
year, all tracks of previous explorers were necessarily obliterated,
and it was only by marked trees, or the bones of cattle, that we could
hope to discover any trace.

During the first two days* journey down the river only a few small
pools of water were seen, and these not of a permanent character,
while the rich vegetation on the open downs, which had excited the
admiration of Sir T. Mitchell on his discovery of the country in a
favourable season, had wholly passed away, leaving little but a bare
surface of clay, the deep fissures in its surface giving evidence of
long-continued drought.

■ 20th April— Jn latitude 24° 37', longitude 146° 13', a small sandy
creek, of equal size with the Victoria, joined from the east, and just
below the first permanent pool of water was found. There was a
slight improvement in the grass, but dense scrubs prevailed in the
back country, and even approached the river at intervals.

21 st April. — While collecting the horses near this pool of water, I
detected a party of armed natives watching one of the stockmen,
evidently, from their position in the scrub and general movements,
inclined to hostilities, and I imagine that it was a knowledge that
we were aware of their intentions which prevented my being able
to establish any communication with them. I may here remark that
this party, which numbered about eight, were the first natives seen
during the journey.

21st April— (Lat 24° 35', long. 146° 6'.) Continuing our route
along the river we discovered a '* Moreton Bay Ash " (Eucalyptus
sp.), about two feet diameter, marked with the letter L on the east
side, cut through the bark, about four feet from the ground, and
near it the stumps of some small trees which had been cut with a
sharp axe, also a deep notch cut in the side of a sloping tree, appa-
rently to support the ridge-pole of a tent, or for some similar purpose ;
all indicating that a camp had been established here by Leichhardt's
party. The tree was near the bank of a small reach of water, which
is noted on Sir T. Mitchell's map : this, together with its actual and

22 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

relative position as regards other features of the eotmtry, prove it
not to have been either one of Sir T. Mitchell's or Mr. Kennedy's
camps, as neither encamped within several miles of the spot, besides
which, the letter could not have been marked by either of them to
designate the number of the camp, as the former had long passed
his 50th camp, and the latter had not reached that number on the
outward route, and numbered his camps from the farthest point
attained on his return journey.

Notwithstanding a careful search, no traces of stock could be
foimd. This is, however, easily accounted for, as the country had
been inundated last season, though the current had not been suffi-
ciently strong to remove some emu bones and mussel-shells which
lay round a native camping-place within a few yards of the spot.

No other indications having been found, we continued the search
down the river, examining every likely spot for marked trees, but
without success.

The general aspect of the country was extremely level, and even
the few distant ridges which were visible had but small elevation
above the plain, the highest apparently not exceeding 200 or 300
feet. Timber was wholly confined to the bank of the river, and
though open plains existed, acacia scrubs were the principal feature.

Water became very scarce in the channels of the river, and we
were principally dependent on small puddles of rain-water from a
recent thunder-shower, but as we approached the northern bend
some fine reaches of water were passed.

6th April. — In latitude 24° 2' we observed a small dry creek
joining from the N.E. This I traced upwards for a few miles ; but
as its relative position with regard to the adjacent country, as well
as the latitude, did not correspond vdth that of the Alice Eiver on
the chart, we continued our route ; finding, however, that the
general course of the river changed to S.W., I left the party at a
small lagoon and rode up the river again (2Sth April), making a
second search, more especially at the junction of the small dry creek,
which proved to be identical with the Alice Eiver, though more
than five miles to the south, as the Victoria Eiver never reaches the,
parallel of 24°.

Our position was now becoming very critical, as a long continu^
ance of drought had not only dried up all the water, except in the
deepest hollows in the channel of the main river, but the smaller
vegetation, and even the trees on the back country were annihilated,
rendering the country almost impracticable from the quantity of
fallen dead branches, and even in the bed of the river, where the
inundation derived from heavy rain near the sources of the river

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 23

last year had somewhat refreshed the grass, it was scarcely possible
to find subsistence for the horses. Under existing circumstances, it
would have been certain destruction to attempt a north-west route
from this point ; and the only course that appeared open to us was
to follow down the main river to the junction of the Thompson
Eiver, and ascend that watercourse so as to intersect Leichhardt's
probable line of route, had he penetrated in that direction, favoured
by a better season. At the same time it was probable that, like
ourselves, he had been repulsed, and would then follow down the
river, and search for a more favourable point from which to com-
mence his north-west course, in order to round the desert interior on
its northern side (2^th April), and we therefore continued our search
dovni towards the Thompson River.

The country was perfectly flat on both sides of the river, and
showed traces of tremendous floods. The soil near the river was
often deeply-cracked mud, water very scarce, and grass seldom seen.
The back country was covered with scrubs of dead acacia, the soil a
red sand or gravel ; and such was the unpromising appearance that
I began to fear our horses would soon fail for want of food and
water ; but having camped at a water-hole during Sunday {2nd May),
to rest the party, heavy rain commenced, and though the greater
portion of the water was absorbed by the dry soil, some of the
channels of the river filled and commenced to flow. This relieved
us from much difficulty as regarded the want of water, and enabled
us to seek for grass in positions which were otherwise inaccessible.

3rd May. — Just as we were leaving our camp a party of seven
natives made their appearance, but, though they came up to us, and
talked much, I could get no iLseful information from them. As the
party moved on they followed us, and, thinking they were not
observed, made an attempt to throw a spear at one of the men ; but
Mr. C, Gregory wheeling his horse quickly and presenting a revolver
at the intending aggressors, they ran away and left us to pursue our
Journey in peace.

The abundance of water was not vdthout its inoonvemenees, and
had the rain continued the party would have been annihilated, as
our camp was between the deep channels which intersected the
plain ; and in attempting to extricate ourselves from the plains
subject to inundation (4rth May), found ourselves so completely en-
tangled among the numerous deep channels and boggy gullies, in
isome of which the horses narrowly escaped suffocation in the soft
mud, that after havii^ forded one branch of the river, carrying the
whole equipment across on our own backs, constructing a bridge over
a; second for the transport of the stores, and dragging the horses

.-^4 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

through as we best could with ropes, after three days of severe toil
we had scarcely accomplished a direct distance of five miles (Qth
May).

The dry weather which followed rapidly hardened the surface of
the clay plains, and I attempted to steer due west to the Thompson,
but found the country so destitute of feed, and covered with dense
acacia scrub, that we were compelled to return to the plains on the
bank of the river.

Sth May. — The valley of the river trending west was somewhat
contracted, and did not exceed five or six miles in breadth; the
plains were firmer, salt-bush and grass more abundant, and the
horses recovered slightly from the effects of the barren country.

Keeping back from the right bank of the main channel, we passed
some ridges of drift sand, and came on a fine lagoon nearly a mile in
length. Here we surprised a party of natives, who decamped on
our approach, leaving a net, fish, &c., which we of course left
untouched, and camped at a spot lower down the lagoon.

^th May. — The next day, being Sunday, we remained at our
camp, and the party of natives, consisting of seven or eight men,
three or four women, and some children, approached us, and re-
mained the greater part of the day near the tents. They were very
anxious to enter the camp, but this was not permitted.

By signs they expressed that they had observed we had not taken
away any of their property the evening before, when they ran away
and left their nets, and were therefore satisfied our intentions were
friendly ; but we could not procure any information relative to the
objects of our journey or the character of the country before us.

At 4 P.M. they informed us they were going to sleep at the most
distant part of the lagoon, and would return next morning at sun-
rise, and then departed.

9th May. — After dark, however, the natives were detected at-
tempting to crawl into the camp through the bushes, and though
we called to them in an unmistakeable tone to retire, they would
not withdraw.

As the position they had taken up was such as to command our
camp, and render it unsafe in the event of an attack, it was necessary
to dislodge them. I therefore fired a pistol over them, but was
answered by a shout of derision, which no doubt would have been
soon followed by a shower of spears had we not compelled them to
retreat by a discharge of small shot directed into the scrub, after
which we were not further molested.

10^/i May, — We were now approaching the junction of the
Thompson Kiver, but the country became worse as we advanced,

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 25

and the last 5 miles of the plain were absolutely devoid of vegeta-
tion. Our hopes were, however, raised on finding that the late
rain had caused the Thompson to flow, though the current was not
strong; we had, besides, to travel upwards of 12 miles up its
course before any grass could be found for the horses.

l^th May. — Continuing our route up the Thompson, nothing
could be more desolate than the aspect of the country : except the
few trees which grew on the immediate bank of the river, there was
scarcely a tree left alive, while the plains were quite bare of vegeta-
tion, except a few salsolaceous bushes. At the distance of 5 miles
low ridges of red drift sand showed the desert character of all
around ; even the lower surfaces of the clouds assumed a lurid tinge
from the reflection of the bare surface of red sand.

\2th May. — In latitude 24° 40' low sandstone hills, or rather
table-land, approached both banks of the river, and the gullies which
intersected them had supplied the water lower down, as the channel
was dry above. We, however, succeeded in reaching latitude 23° 47'
(15^^ May), when the absence of water and grass — the rain not
having extended so far north, and the channels of the river sepa-
rating into small gullies and spreading on the wide plains — pre-
cluded our progressing farther to the north or west ; and the only
prospect of saving our horses was to return south as quickly as
possible.

This was a more severe disappointment, as we had just reached
the part of the country through which Leichhardt most probably
travelled, if the season was sufiiciently wet to render it practicable.

Thus compelled to abandon the principal object of the expedition,
only two courses remained open — either to return to the head of the
Victoria Eiver and attempt a northern course by the valley of the
" Belyando," or to follow down the river and ascertain whether it
flowed into "Cooper Creek" or the Darling. The latter course
appeared most desirable, as it was just possible that Leichhardt,
under similar circumstances, had been driven to the S. W.

In order to ascertain whether any large watercourses came from
the west, the return route was along the right bank of the Thompson,
but only one small creek and some inconsiderable gullies joined on
that side ; nor was the country of a better character than on the left
bank— consisting of barren plains, subject to inundation, low rocky
ridges covered with dense scrub, and sandy ridges producing
triodia.

22nd May. — We had nearly reached the Barcu, or Victoria River,
when, in crossing a gully, Worrell's horse fell and hurt him so
severely that we had to halt for some time before he could be placed

20 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

on his horse again, and it was therefore fortunate that a small patch
of dry grass was found on the bank of the river, which enabled us
to halt the next day (23rd May\ which was Sunday.

Travelling down the right bank of the river the principal channels
were full of water, but the clay plains between were quite dry, the
rain which had caused the river to flow not having extended so far
south; nothing could well be more desolate than the unbounded
level of these vast plains, which, destitute of vegetation, extended
to the horizon. Our horses were reduced to feeding on the decayed
weeds, and even these were so scarce that they eagerly devoured
the thatch of some old native huts.

2^th May. — We had nearly reached the farthest point attained
by Mr. Kennedy when the horses showed. signs of failing strength,
and the channels on the east side of the plain being dry, I con-
ceived it prudent to cross to the western side again.

The dry mud was so deeply cracked that the horses were con-
tinually falling, and one horse was so completely exhausted that we
had to abandon him.

2Sth May. — Steering a westerly, and then a north course, we
reached the small water-hole at Mr. Kennedy's second camp on the
return route ; there was just sufficient water to supply the party for
one night, and a few scattered tufts of grass near it, but quite in-
sufficient for the supply of so large a number of horses.

Close to the water-hole we found Mr. Kennedy's marked tree ; it

was a large box-tree, marked on the north side thus : n ^^^

cuts of the axe and chisel were still quite clear, though twelve
years had elapsed ; but the slow growth and decay of trees in the
interior may be attributed to the dryness of the climate.

29th May. — Steering north-west, after toiling nearly 30 miles across
this fearful waste of dry mud, we at length reached a small patch
of grass on a sandy hummock, but only just in time to save the
horses, as many could scarcely keep on their legs, and we had ta
uemove their loads to those which were less exhausted.

30^^ May. — Long before the next morning our hungry animals had
consumed every blade of grass, and the small patch round the camp
was reduced to the same barren appearance as the surrounding plain.
We therefore started in search of food for them, and were fortunate
in finding a second patch of grass, about 3 miles to the south, and
halted for the remainder of the day, which was Sunday, thankful
that Providence had enabled us to make it a day of rest.

31s^ May. — The running channel of the river being still to the
vest of our position we steered south-west, over barren clay plains, to

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 27

some low ridges of drift sand, beyond which we found the channel
full of water, with a slight current (lat. 26° 2') ; but it terminated
in a large reach of water which had not yet filled, and the channel
lower down was dry.

Low ridges of red drift sand were now frequent on the plain, and
appeared to be the higher points of the former sandy desert, the clay
plains resulting from the deposition of mud in the hollows between
which had in course of time filled it to one uniform level.

1st June. — The channels on the western side of the plain were
very irregular, sometimes completely lost on the level surface, and
again collecting into large hollows, with box trees on the banks, in
which fine sheets of water still remained, some 100 yards wide and
more than a mile in length. We therefore did not experience so
much inconvenience with regard to the supply of this necessary
element as from the absence of sufficient grass, and the all but im-
practicable nature of the mud plains.

4th June. — In latitude 27° low sandstone table-land approached
the west side of the river, and we attempted to travel along the
slope between it and the mud plains, but found it so stony that the
horses' hoofs were soon worn to the quick, as we had been compelled
to remove their shoes to enable them to traverse the mud plains.

Had it not been for green bushes of salsola, and some similar
plants which had sprung up since the rain, this tract of country
exactly resembled the stony desert described by Captain Sturt, as
existing 200 miles to the westward. These remarkable features
forming the declivities of the sandstone table-land through which
" Cooper Creek " forces its way, and by confining the waters to a
narrower space during floods, causes the fine deep reaches of water
which characterise it.

8^/i June. — By following the western limits of the plains we reached
latitude 27° 30', when the sandstone table-land receded, and a bound-
less expanse of mud plain was before us ; the lines of box trees
which had hitherto marked the channels nearly ceased, polygonum
and atriplex constituting the main feature of the vegetation.

9^^ June. — After toiling S.W. a day and a half over this level sur-
face to latitude 27° 50', we approached some low ridges, at the foot
of which there was a lagoon 100 yards wide, exhibiting signs of a
current during flood to the N.W. ; and as there was an evident
westerly trend in all the smaller channels previously crossed, it was
evident they would soon merge in Cooper Creek.

Steering VV.N.W. the several channels collected together, and soon
formed a deep watercourse, with fine reaches of water.

9th June. — The sandstone table land closed in on both sides ; the

28^ '■ EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

soil of the intervening plain was much firmer, but showed by
the vegetation that saline nature which so often attends the develop-
ment of the upper sandstones in Australia. Grass was abundant,
and it was surprising with what rapidity the horses recovered their
strength.

12th June. — Approaching the 141st meridian, which is the boundary
of the province of South Australia, stony ridges closed in on both
banks of Cooper Creek, forming almost a natural division, across
which we followed a well-beaten native path ; and here I observed
the only instance which has come under my observation where the
aborigines have taken the trouble to remove natural obstacles from
their paths. The loose stones had been cleared from the track, and
in some places piled in large heaps.

14^A Jane. — After passing the stony ridge the valley became wider,
the hills receding suddenly, in longitude 140^ 30', both to the north
and south ; and the whole country to the west seemed to consist of
a succession of low ridges of red sand and level plains of dry mud,
subject to inundation.

Shortly before reaching the branch of Cooper Creek, named by
Captain Sturt "Strzelecki" Creek, we observed the tracks of two
horses, one apparently a carthorse and the other a well-bred animal ;
but as none of their tracks were within the last month, the rain had
obliterated them to such an extent that they could not be traced up,
as they had left the bank of the creek on the first fall of rain, as is
the usual habit of horses whose wanderings are uncontrolled.

There can be little doubt that these horses belonged to Captain
Sturt, who left one in an exhausted state near this locality, and also
lost a second horse, whose tracks were followed many miles in the
direction of this part of Cooper Creek.

" Strzelecki Creek," which separates nearly at a right angle from
the main channel, appears to convey about one-third of the waters of
Cooper Creek nearly south, and, as we afterwards ascertained, con-
nects it with Lake Torrens. We, however, continued to follow the
channels which trended west for 30 miles, but large branches con-
tinually broke off to the south and west, and at length (16^A June)
the whole was lost on the wide plains of dry mud between the sand
ridges ; and, as there was no prospect of either water or grass to the
west, I steered south and south-east for 50 miles over a succession
of ridges of red drift sand, 10 to 50 feet high, running parallel to
each other, and in a nearly north and south direction. Between
these ridges we occasionally found shallow puddles of rain-water, or
rather mud, as it was so thick with clay as to be scarcely fluid.
Fortunately, a great quantity of green weeds had grown up since

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 29

the rain, and the horses improved in condition and did not require
much water.

2lst June. — In latitude 28^ 24' we again came on Strzelecki Creek,
and then followed it nearly S.S.W. between sandy ridges to latitude
29^ 25', when it turned to the west and entered Lake Torrens.
(^25th June.) No permanent water was seen in the bed of the creek,
though there are many deep hollows which, when once filled, retain
water for several months, and this, combined with the existence of
a fine reach of water in Cooper Creek immediately above the point
where Strzelecki Creek branches off, renders it far the best line of
route into the interior which has jet been discovered.

Passing between the eastern point of Lake Torrens and what has
hitherto been considered the eastern arm, but now ascertained to be
an independent lake, the space between (about half a mile) was level
sandy ground, covered with salicomia, without any apparent con-
necting channel. The course was continued S.S.W. towards Mount
Hopeless, at the northern extreme of the high ranges of South
Australia, which had been visible across the level country at a
distance of 60 miles.

26th June. — As we approached the range of hills tracks of cattle and
horses were observed, and 8 miles beyond Mount Hopeless came to a
cattle station which had been lately established by Mr. Baker.

As the nature of the country we had traversed was such as not to
admit of any useful deviations from it if we returned to New South
Wales by land, I deemed it advisable to proceed forthwith to Ade-
laide, and, disposing of the horses and equipment, return with the
party by sea to Sydney.

31st July. — We therefore proceeded by easy stages towards Ade-
laide, experiencing the greatest hospitality at the stations on our
route, while our reception in the city was of the most flattering
nature.

His Excellency Sir Eichard Macdonald kindly gave me the use of
an extensive paddock for the horses, and provided quarters for the
men during the period which necessarily elapsed before the sale of
the equipment of the expedition was efi'ected. I have also to express
my acknowledgments of the kind assistance rendered by the Honour-
able the Commissioner of Crown Lands, to the Surveyor-General, and
the Superintendent of Telegraphs for valuable data connected with
the construction of the map of the route, as well as to many other
gentlemen whose cordial co-operation greatly facilitated my arrange-
ments.

It is extremely gratifying to record my appreciation of the untiring
zeal and energy which distinguished every individual composing the

so- EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

expedition ; and it is to the unvarying and cheerful alacrity with
which each and all performed their respective duties, that, under
Providence, the rapidity and success of the journey are to be mainly
attributed.

With reference to the probable fate of Leichhardt, it is evident,
from the existence of the marked camp, nearly 80 miles beyond those
seen by Mr. Hely, that the account given to that gentleman by the
natives of the murder of the party was untrue ; and I am inclined to
think only a revival of the report current during Leichhaidt's first
journey to Port Essington. Nor is it probable that they were de-
stroyed until they had left the Victoria, as, if killed by the natives,
the scattered bones of the horses and cattle would have been observed
during our search.

I am therefore of opinion that they left the river at the junction of
the Alice, and, favoured by thunder showers, penetrated the level
desert country to the north-west ; in which case, on the cessation of
the rain, the party would not only be deprived of a supply of water for
the onward journey, but unable to retreat, as the shallow deposits of
rain-water would evaporate in a few days, and it is not likely that
they would commence a retrograde movement until the strength of
the party had been severely taxed in the attempt to advance.

The character of the country traversed, from the out-stations on
the Dawson Eiver to the head of the Warrego River, was generally
that of a grassy forest, with ridges of dense brigalow scrub. A great
portion is available for pastoral purposes, but not well watered ; and
the soil being sandy, the grass would soon be destroyed if too heavily
stocked.

As we advanced into the interior it became more barren, and,
except along the banks of the larger watercourses, destitute of timber ;
and the character of the vegetation indicated excessive droughts.

North of lat. 26° dense scrubs of acacia prevailed on the level
country beyond the influence of the inundations ; but to the south-
ward sandy and stony deserts, with low shrubby vegetation, were the
characteristic feature.

West of longitude 147°, nearly to the boundary of South Australia,
in 141°, the country is unfit for occupation, for, though in favourable
seasons there might in some few localities be abundance of feed for
stock, the uncertainty of rain and frequent recurrence of drought
render it untenable, the grasses and herbage being principally
annuals, which not only die, but are swept away by the hot summer
winds, leaving the surface of the soil completely bare.

On Cooper Creek, near the boundary, there is a small tract of
second-rate country, which, being abundantly supplied with water, :

Nov. 8, 1858.] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARir. ?>1

may eventually be occupied. The best part is, however, v^ithin the
Province of South Australia.

Between Cooper Creek and Lake Torrens about 1 20 miles of sandy
country intervenes. This tract is destitute of surface water ; but as
it is probable that it could be obtained by sinking wells of moderate
depth, I think it might be occupied to advantage during the cool
season, and thus relieve the stations which are now established within
Lake Torrens, though I fear that the summer heat would be too great
to admit of permanent occupation.

The geological character of the country is remarkably uniform.
Carboniferous sandstones and shales, containing occasional beds of
coal, with superincumbent hills and ridges of basalt, extend from
Darling Downs to the 146th meridian, where these rocks are covered
by horizontal sandstones, with beds of chert and water-worn quartz
pebbles. This latter formation extends as far as Mount Hopeless,
where the slate ranges of South Australia rise abruptly from the
plain.

The sandy deserts and mud plains are only superficial deposits, as
the sandstones are often exposed where the upper formation is inter-
sected by gullies.

The direction of the parallel ridges of drift sand appears to be the
result of the prevailing winds, and not the action of water, it being
sufficient to visit them on a windy day to be convinced that it is
unnecessaiy to seek for a more remote and obscure cause than that
which is in present operation.

It is, perhaps, with reference to the physical geography of Australia
that the results of the expedition are most important ; as, by con
necting successively the explorations of Sir T. Mitchell, Mr. Ken-
nedy, Captain Sturt, and Mr. Eyre, the waters of the tropical interior
of the eastern portion of the continent are proved to flow towards
Spencer Gulf, if not actually into it, the barometrical obsei-vations
showing that Lake Torrens, the lowest part of the interior, is de-
cidedly above the sea level.

Although only about one-third of the waters of Cooper Creek flow
into Lake Torrens by the channel of Strzelecki Creek, there is strong
evidence that the remaining channels, after spreading their waters
on the vast plains which occupy the country between them and
Sturt's Stony Desert, finally drain to the south, augmented probably
by the waters of " Eyre Creek," the " Stony Desert," and perhaps
some other watercourses of a similar character coming from the west-
ward.

This peculiar structure of the interior renders it improbable that
any considerable inland lakes should exist in connection with the

82 EXPEDITION FROM MORETON BAY [Nov. 8, 1858.

known system of waters ; for, as Lake Torrens is decidedly only an
expanded continuation of Cooper Creek, and therefore the culmi-
nating point of this vast system of drainage, if there was sufficient
average fall of rain in the interior to balance the eftects of evapora-
tion from the surface of an extensive sheet of water, the " Torrens
Basin," instead of being occupied by salt marshes, in which the
existence of anything beyond shallow lagoons of salt water is yet
problematical, would be maintained as a permanent lake.

Therefore, if the waters flowing from so large a tract of country
are insufficient to meet the evaporation from the surface of Lake
Torrens, there is even less probability of the waters of the western
interior forming an inland lake of any magnitude, even should there
be so anomalous a feature as a depression of the surface in which it
could be collected, especially as our knowledge of its limits indicates
a much drier climate and less favourable conformation of surface
than in the eastern division of the continent.

The undulations of the surface of the country are nearly parallel
to the meridian, gradually decreasing in height from the dividing
range between the eastern and western waters till, instead of the
waters of the rivers being confined to valleys, they occupy plains
formed by a slight flattening of the curvature of the sphere. Thus
the sides of the plain through which the river ran before it turned
west to Cooper Creek were 150 feet below the tangential level of the
centre channels, and even the summit of the sandstone table land
which rose beyond was below the visible horizon.

It is this peculiar conformation which causes the stream beds to
spread so widely when following the course of the valleys from north
to south, and it is only where they break through the intervening
ridges that the water is confined sufficiently to form well-defined
channels.

The existence of these extensive valleys trending north and south
over so large a tract of country, renders it by no means unlikely that
they continue far beyond the limits of present explorations, and it
is not unreasonable to infer that the great depression which has been
traced nearly 500 miles north from Spencer Gulf through Lake
Torrens to the stony desert of Sturt (or rather the mud plains con-
tiguous to its western limit), may be continuous for an equal distance
beyond to the low land at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria ; a
theory also supported by the fact, that the rivers flowing into the
Gulf either come from the east or west, apparently from higher land
in those directions, while there is not a single watercourse from the
soiith, or any indication of elevated country in that direction.

With regard to the number and habits of the aborigines, I could

Nov. 8, 1858,] IN SEARCH OF LEICHHARDT AND PARTY. 33

gather little information, as only a collective number of about 100
men, a few women and cbildren, were seen in small scattered parties ;
but, judging from the number of encampments seen, at least a
thousand must visit the banks of the river ; and it is probable that
the whole of the inhabitants for at least a hundred miles on each side
are dependent on it for water during the dry season.

Neither sex wear any clothing. Their weapons and utensils are
similar to those used on the eastern coast ; nor was there any cha-
racteristic by which they could be observed to differ from the abo-
rigines of other portions of Australia.

Fish, rats, grass seeds, and a few roots, constitute their chief food.

On the upper part of the river they bury their dead, piling wood
on the grave ; near the junction of the Thompson they suspend the
bodies in nets, and afterwards remove the bones ; while on Cooper
Creek the graves are mounds of earth 3 to 4 feet high, apparently
without any excavation, and surmounted by a pile of dead wood.
In the last-named locality the number of burial mounds which had
been constructed about two years ago greatly exceeded the propor-
tion of deaths which could have possibly occuiTcd in any ordinary
season of mortality, even assuming the densest population known in
any other part of Australia ; and it is not improbable that the seasons
of drought which proved so destructive to the tree vegetation higher
up the river may have been equally disastrous in its effects on the
aboriginal inhabitants of this portion of the interior.

A. C. Gregory.
Sydney, 27th August, 1858.

The President. — I am happy to hear that the views of so experienced an
Australian traveller as Mr. Gregory coincide with the opinion I have so fre-
quently expressed as to the probable saline condition of the interior of Aus-
tralia. I'liis is the same gentleman who performed that remarkable journey
from North Australia to Sydney, which obtained for him our Gold Medal.
He is the first man who has gone far to determine the great problem, by
journeys on three sides of Australia, that the great interior is a saline desert.

Count Strzelecki, f.r.g.s. — The valuable i)aper which was just commu-
nicated to the Society suggests at its outset a painful reminiscence, and as
painful regret that Mr. Gregory's expedition, undertaken with a view to ascer-
tain the fate of the deeply-lamented Lcichhardt, has failed in the humane
object with which it was conceived, and that, like the preceding ones, it only
adds fresh evidences of the indubitable loss which the public has sustained.
The services of Lcichhardt deserved indeed all the efforts which New South
Wales has been making in search of him. In about 1840, while I was
engaged in surveying the south of that colony, Leichhardt began his career of
an explorer in the north of Moreton Bay : in 1846 he undertook and accom-
plished the perilous journey across from Brisbane waters to Port Essington,
which, from its dangers, privations, and value of geographical discoveries,
earned for him the well-deserved honours which this Society and the colony
so justly bestowed upon him. Unfortunately, in the end or the commencement

VOL. HI. D

34 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON", LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

of 1847, Leicliliardt fell a prey to Lis praiseworthy attempt to traverse the
contiaent from Moreton Bay to Swan liiver. His loss originated then a
series of expeditions, among which that of Mr. Gregory deserves a most
prominent place and notice from the range of scientific knowledge which it
furnishes of the Australian continent. For although his expedition did not
lead to the discovery of Leichhardt's traces, his dilferent journeys from the
north-east and south-east, performed towards the centre, girdle as it were the
mysterious and impenetrable region of the interior of Australia, and facilitate
thus the solution of that geographical problem. Considering then the services
rendered to science by Mr. Gregory, this Society cannot but join cordially in
the thanlvs to that distinguished explorer which are proposed to him from the
chair.

The third Paper read was : —

3. Exploration of the MurcJiison, Lyons, and Gascoyne Rivers in Western
Australia. By Mr. F. T. Gregory.

Communicated by the Colonial Office. '

Perth, July 26, 1858.
Sir, — In accordance with the instructions conveyed in your letter
of the 15th March, authorising me to take the command of the
Expedition to Shark Bay, in course of organization by the northern
settlers, I have the honour to furnish the following report of our
proceedings while on that service, for the information of his Excel-
lency the Governor.

The preliminary arrangements having been completed, and the
heavy portion of the stores forwarded by sea to Champion Bay, I
left Perth on the 26th of March, accompanied by Mr. James Eoe as
second in command, chainer Fairburn having started the previous
day with the team and light equipment of the expedition.

Proceeding by way of Toodyay to the Irwin River, the party were
joined by Mr. W. Moore, with three horses ; passing on by way
of Champion Bay, we arrived at Koobijawanna, the point of general
rendezvous, by the 10th of April. On the 12th the remainder of the
stores arrived from Champion Bay, the party being augmented to
six persons by the addition of Mr. C. Nairne and Dugel, an aboriginal
policeman. This day and the following were occupied in weighing
and packing stores, shoeing horses, &c.

lUh April. — The equipment of the expedition being completed
(with the exception of one horse to be procured at the Geraldine
Mine), we moved on to Yanganooka, passing the Geraldine Mine on
the 1 6th, and bivouacked on the Murchison Eiver, 6 miles above the
mine, having obtained the additional horse, making in all six saddle
and six pack-horses ; our supplies consisting of 60 days' rations, on
a scale of li lbs. of flour, 8 ozs. of pork, 4 ozs. of sugar, and ^ an

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 35

oz. of tea per diem, the party being all well armed and furnished
with ammunition.

The mean of our obsci'vations with the aneroid barometer gives
575 feet for the elevation of this part of the river above the sea.

llth to 26th April was occupied ih ascending the Murchison
Eiver by easy stages to the junction of the Impey, the highest point
attained by me last year. The only observations worthy of remark
were, that the inundation had not been so great as that which
occurred the previous summer, the grass up to this point not being
by any means so abundant as I had found it on my former visit ;
the volume of water now running in the bed of the river being,
however, at this time about the same, although none of the tribu-
taries, including the Eoderick and Impey, had been in flood, little
or no rain having fallen to the W. of the 117th degree of longitude,
except to the N. of latitude 26°.

I availed myself of the opportunity afforded to make several addi-
tions and corrections to the map of this part of the country, verifying
the correction made by me last year in the latitude of Mount Mur-
chison and adjacent hills. By an improved series of triangulation
and a carefully observed set of lunar distances, I am inclined to
place Mount Murchison in about longitude 116° 30' E., which makes
it more nearly approximate to the longitude formerly given by Mr.
Austin.

The variation of the compass I found by several amplitudes to
be 2° 30' W. The bed of the Murchison River is here about 1077
feet above the sea. In addition to the fish and game formerly ob-
served on this part of Ihe river, we met with large flocks of the
gallinule, which have for so many years excited the curiosity of the
colonists as to their habitat; from subsequent observations it is
evident they come from much farther to the north-eastward. But
one party of natives had as yet been seen, consisting of eight or ten,
who chased our native Dugel to the camp while out shooting, but
it was difficult to ascertain whether with hostile intentions. From
this time to our return we regularly mounted sentry during the
night, and no one was allowed to quit the party any distance alone,
a precautionary measure, the necessity of which was fully borne out
by the sequel.

26th April. — From our camp, which was situated about 8 miles
west of Mount Murchison, we fairly commenced the exploration
of unknown country. Following the river nearly N.N.E. for 14
miles, it turned abruptly to the east; we, however, held our course,
which, at 4 miles farther, brought us to the foot of Moimt Narryer,
which we ascended, and procured a valuable round of angles from

D 2

36 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

its summit. This hill has an altitude of 1G88 feet above the sea,
and is formed by the eruption of a coarse dark-coloured crystalline
trap through a base of amorphous sandstone, the direction of the
range of which it forms a part being nearly north and south.
Skirting round the north end of this range we struck east over a
stony plain, thinly grassed, amongst open wattles, and at 5 miles
again came upon the Murchison some time after dark. The pools
here were somewhat larger than for many miles below, being from
60 to 80 yards wide and ^ a mile in length, the water in them
becoming decidedly brackish; samphire, atriplex, and other sal-
suglnous plants being abundant on the banks.

27th April. — We only advanced 9 miles, owing to Mr. Moore and
Dugel having to return for one of the water-breakers, which had
been torn oif the pack-saddle the previous night in a thicket.
Towards our bivouac, which was in latitude 26° 23' 38", the country
near the river improved much, the channel of the river becoming
very shallow ; the water had spread over the flats for more than i a
mile on either side, large flooded gum trees growing abundantly,
with a fine sward of grass beneath, the soil being a rich brown clay
loam. Gallinule and cockatoos were in large flocks feeding on the
grass seeds, which were now nearly ripe.

2Sth April. — To latitude 28^^ 07' the river continued to come from
north by east through an extensive plain, bounded on the west by a
low range of trap and granite hills, at an average distance of 6 or
7 miles, while to the eastward only a few distant peaks were visible,
flooded gum growing plentifully for more than a mile back from the
river, on flats of tolerably good pasture. Eeceding somewhat farther
from the river the country opens out into extensive plains, yielding
but little grass ; atriplex bush and thinly scattered stunted acacia
and melaleuca trees forming almost the entire vegetation.

2^th Apnl. — A few miles nearly north brought us to where a con-
siderable tributary joins the Murchison from the north, the river
trending first north-east, then east, and finally, towards the after-
noon, it came from the southward of east, our bivouac being only
7 miles north of the previous night, while we had made nearly 18
miles of easting. The bed of the river had gradually become more
rocky as we ascended ; gneiss, with quartz dykes, passing through
it and yielding a large quantity of salt, rendered the running water
of the river scarcely drinkable : the only fresh water was found in
the back channels filled by the late inundations. The ranges which
ran parallel with the river to the westward terminated some miles
to the north of the bend. Another range apparently granitic and
broken up into detached peaks, commencing a little to the eastward

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 37

of its termination, runs east for about 20 miles at the distance of 6 '
or 7 miles from the north bank of the river.

To the eastward an elevated range, w^ith two conspicuous summits
which were respectively named Mount Matthew and Mount Hale,
terminated the view in that direction, while to the south only a few
detached peaks were visible.

To-day we first observed a very beautiful convolvulus, which we
afterwards found to bear roots like a sweet potato, some of them more
than a pound weight and well flavoured, forming a very important
article of food to the natives. The flowers are numerous, and mea-
sure from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, their outer edges of a dark lilac,
deepening to a rich purple at the centre, with a pale-green convolute
ribbing on the outside, the stem and leaf of the plant resembling the
canidia. Mr. Drummond, to whom I have described it, considers it
an important discovery, as by cultivation it might become a valuable
addition to our Australian esculents.

A small species of rock-melon was also found in great abundance,
about the size of a pigeon's egg, somewhat bitter to the taste, but
they were not ripe ; in other respects it much resembles the cul-
tivated varieties.

The bed of the river at this night's bivouac had attained an eleva-
tion of 1 240 feet above the sea.

30^^ April. — Finding that the Murchison was leading us too much
to the eastward, the object of the expedition being to reach the
Gascoyne with as little delay as possible, we quitted the river on a
N.N.E. course for about 8 miles over a tolerably grassy plain, in
some parts open, with atriplex and samphire, and in others rather
thickly studded with acacia and melaleuca. Ascending a granite
hill of 150 feet elevation, the plain was observed to the eastward to
extend to the horizon, only broken by one remarkable bold trap hill
at the distance of 20 miles, which was eventually named Mount
Gould, the main Murchison flowing round its southern base, while a
considerable tributary from the north-east passed close under it to
the north-west. To the north of our position the country rose into
a succession of stony ridges thinly grassed and nearly destitute of
trees ; in the vallej^s the kangaroo grass was tolerably plentiful and
quite green, a sufficient evidence that we had now arrived within
the influence of the rains that had produced the recent inundation,
which gave us every hope of being able to push across the country
intervening between this and the Gascoyne. We accordingly
altered our course to north-west for the remainder of this and the
following day, crossing several tributaries to the Murchison, in
which we found plenty of water, and on their banks an abundant

38 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

' supply of grass for our horses ; the streams being generally divided
from each other by low stony ridges or plains of red sandy loam,
yielding a rather scanty supply of grass.

ord May. — Having rested the party the previous day, it being
Sunday, in latitude 25° 33' 48", at a fine pool of fresh water in a
stream running south, and apparently tributary to the Murchison,
we resumed our course for 3 or 4 miles up a branch of the stream
upon which we had been encamped, which terminated at a gentle
stony ascent ; another mile brought us to its summit, which proved
to be the water-line between the Gascoyne and Murchison ; its
elevation was found to be 1500 feet above the sea. From this ridge
a short descent northward led us to the head of a water-course,
which we followed in the same direction for 17 miles, augmented
by several small tributaries ; turning to the westward it foiined a
junction with another river coming from the eastward, in latitude
25° 14' 23", at an elevation of 1144 feet above the sea.

The country through which we had passed was a nearly level
and barren plain, evenly and closel}^ paved with small stones,
among which a few stunted acacia found a precarious existence ;
to this portion of country we gave the characteristic name of Mac-
Adam Plains.

4th May. — The river we had encamped upon the preceding night
had a level sandy channel 35 yards wide, with several shallow pools
in its bed ; a narrow belt of flooded gum lined either bank, which
also produced abundance of excellent feed ; several of the grasses
were new to us, yielding a large quantity of seed ; farther back
the pasture was more scanty, and of an inferior variety of grass, the
trees consisting almost entirely of small hakea or acacia.

The features of the country are generally very tame, with the
exception of a prominent hill of considerable altitude nearly 20
miles to the northward, to which we gave the name of Mount Gas-
coyne. The summit of another range of less elevation, a little
to the northward of west, distant 15 miles, was called Mount
Puckford.

Having decided upon following the left bank of the river, with the
view of ascertaining what tributaries might join it from the south-
ward, we, this morning, took our course for Mount Puckford,
touching frequently upon the bends of the river, which soon formed
a junction with a large channel coming from the eastward, which
ultimately proved to be the main Gascoyne ; it Avas still running in
a small stream in the bottom of a sandy bed 80 yards wide, traces of
recent heavy floods being plentiful. At 10 miles the river has
broken, through a ridge of ancient opaque white lava, lying north-

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE KIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 39

east and south-west, and a few miles farther, coming in contact with
the south-east foot of Momit Puckford, it doubles back round its
north-east base, and there takes a general north-west course to lati-
tude 24° 36' and longitude 116° E., which we reached by noon of
the 7th, a considerable tributary joining at this point from the
northward. A compact sandstone range resting on a granite base
(which was named the Lockier Eange, after Mr. Lockier Surges,
one of the principal promoters of the expedition) here diverts the
course of the river to the left, which, by sundown, we found was
running nearly south. The country, for the last 50 miles, varies
but little in character; extensive open plains alternating with low
granite ridges, the banks of the river, which here has acquired a
width of 100 yards, with a depth of 40 feet, being, in many places,
stony and cut down by deep muddy creeks, rendering travelling
both slow and laborious. Several tributaries join from the north
and south, all of which had very recently ceased to run.

To the north and east were several prominent peaks and ranges of
trap hills clothed with short herbage ; to the highest of the former,
a single conical peak, with deeply serrated sides, was given the
name of Mount James, after my friend and fellow traveller Mr.
James Eoe ; while two lofty summits, far to the northward, were
called Mount Samuel and Mount Phillips.

The principal feed was found near the banks of the rivers, the
back country still yielding only a scanty supply of a red coloured
silky grass of little value except when quite fresh. A tree resem-
bling the sycamore of the Murchison, but with the leaves arranged
in triplets, and the seed-pods in the form of a large bean, grows near
the river, and attains a diameter of 2 feet, wdth a height of 40 feet ;
the wood is light and spongy, something resembling the Nuytsia
floribunda, but not gummy. It is formed by the natives into
shields, and near the coast into canoes. We also found on some of
the rocky hills a tree with fruit and flowers, resembling a small fig,
the leaves like a lemon, but yielding an acrid milky juice.

Several new species of crested quail and dark brown pigeons were
first observed here; the beautiful small doves, common in the
northern districts, were also seen by thousands ; Gallinule and the
elegant Geophaps plumifera (crested pigeon of the marshes) w^ere
also very numerous.

Sth May. — Pursuing our course down the left bank, we crossed
several stream beds w^hich drain a large tract of country, between
this and the Murchison. The Gascoyne here divides into several
broad sandy channels, sometimes as much as a mile apart. Towards
evening we came upon a native encampment : few of the men appeared

40 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

to have returned from their day's hunting, but we observed upwards
of 30 women and children, who ran into the bed of the river to hide,
some of the women immersing their children completely under
water occasionally to prevent their cry of alarm attracting our atten-
tion. Although we had before met with and spoken to several
natives, this was the first opportunity we had of examining into
their domestic economy. Around their fires, of which there were
many, were ranged a number of wooden scoops capable of holding
from 2 to 4 quarts ; these contained a variety of seeds and roots ; the
most plentiful was a species of grain like small plump drake gathered
from a grass much resembling wheat, which is very abundant on the
alluvial flats, and a root resembling an onion, not larger than a
pistol bullet, a few rats, which are very numerous in the grassy flats,
and a small variety of samphire like a Hottentot fig, formed the
principal portion of their evening repast.

The few weapons left by the men consisted of heavy spears, with
from 3 to 18 barbs cut out of the solid wood, the shaft from 10 to 12
feet in length ; large shields resembling those in use by the natives
at Champion Bay, made from the sycamore, and a few skins of the
red kangaroo, formed their entire camp equipment.
, Leaving everything as we found it, we passed on about 2 miles
and encamped for the night on a low sandy island in the bed of the
river, which was here full of flooded gums of large growth, there
being just sufficient grass for our horses immediately around our fire.
By 9 o'clock our supper had been disposed of, and I had just com-
pleted my observations for latitude, when we heard the shouts of a
large party of natives approaching from the direction of their camp ;
leaving Mr. Eoe with two others to guard the camp, I advanced with
Mr. Moore and Dugel to ascertain the object of their visit, which we
soon found to be evidently hostile, as they came on rapidly all well
armed to the number of 60 or 70, the women and children retiring
to some rocky ground, while the men advanced lighting the large
stacks of drift which were abundant in this part of the river. When
within about 40 yards they halted a moment, as we had damped our
fire, and they could not exactly make out our position. Mr. Moore
was in the act of removing his horse from the front when a fresh fire
enabled them to see us, upon which ten or twelve of the leading
men shipped their spears. Being still desirous if possible of avoid-
ing a collision I hesitated to fire upon them, but observing a large
body of them advancing with the evident intention of attacking Mr.
Eoe and his little party in charge of the camp, I advanced a few
steps and fired a charge of small shot at the leading men as they
were in the act of throwing at us : the effect was instantaneous and

Hov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 41

most salutary, as they fled with some precipitation, some of them
being evidently wounded; we mounted extra guard for the re-
mainder of the night, but they did not again venture to attack us.

9th May. — Being Sunday we only moved a few miles lower down
the river for more grass, and again found ourselves in close proximity
to the natives ; in the course of the day several of them made their
appearance at the top of a hill overlooking the camp, but appeared
afraid to molest us ; they had with them several large white dogs
which were evidently of Australian breed.

10th May. — The river took a south-west course, receiving two
large tributaries from the south-east, one of 90 and the other of 50
yards in width. The flats were wider and large trees more abund-
ant ; the recent floods had, however, been very destructive to the
pasture, and removed much of the soil for a considerable distance
back from the river. The trap hills here ceased to appear : the last
remarkable one lay about 10 miles S.E. of our morning's camp, and
had been named Mount Dalgetty. Our evening's bivouac was found
to be in latitude 25^ 14', longitude 115*^ 30' E. by account, and its
elevation 700 feet above the sea.

11th May. — Until noon our course along the river was nearly north-
west, sandstones beginning to crop out on the banks, and the country
generally was poor and scrubby ; from our noon halt to sunset, our
course was nearly west; our bivouac being in latitude 25° 02'.
The bed of the river had here widened out to 300 yards with an
average depth of 30 feet, a small stream running through the sand
in the bottom. In addition to the flooded gum, which grows here
abundantly, observed in the bed of the river a melaleuca of large
size like a paper bark-tree, but having broad leaves resembling the
eucalyptus. During the night the natives were very noisy in the
vicinity, some of them approaching so close as to startle our horses,
keeping us well on the alert; the horses on this, as on several
other occasions, appear to have been our principal safeguard against
sudden attack.

12^/t May. — By the time we had commenced loading our horses a
large body of natives had collected and approached to reconnoitre
our camp ; I advanced towards them to keep them in check until
the loads were completed. On observing that I came alone, three
natives advanced to meet me, throwing three or four spears at me
in a friendly way, which I picked up and stuck in the ground by
my side ; this token at once established a good understanding, and
after an interchange of presents they followed us for many miles
down the river before quitting us. Towards nightfall several of

42 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858

our friends of the morning again made their appearance with a
number of strange natives, dodging us among the deep muddy
ravines, which abound at this part of the river ; their manoeuvres
being equivocal and unsatisfactory we kept well on our guard ; they,
however, ran off at night, on my facing about on horseback to drive
them away.

Our course during the day had been nearly west 22 miles, one
large tributary having joined the river from the northward, which
was afterwards named the Lyons, in honour of the gallant Admiral
of that name; this accession had increased the breadth of the
channel to 400 yards. As we drew towards our evening's bivouac,
the river entered a gorge formed by the river cutting through the
south end of a flat-topped sandstone range of about 1200 feet eleva-
tion above the sea, presenting many bold and picturesque outlines
and detached summits, terminating in abrupt and almost pre-
cipitous faces ; to this we gave the name of the Kennedy Eange in
honour of our present Governor.

To the south, a detached mass of broken sandstone hills gradually
falls away in the distance, apparently into a barren scrub similar
to those on the banks of the lower Murchison, while to the west
lay before us an extensive plain, unbroken by a single object, save
a few low ridges of red drift sand, clothed with a stunted scrub of
melaleuca and acacia. The bottom of the gorge we found to be 480
feet above the sea.

13th May. — From this morning to noon of the 15th the country
passed over was similar to that first described, the sand ridges
running north-west and south-east at about a quarter of a mile
apart; the river keeping a general course of west-north-west, its
channel deepening to 60 feet, and maintaining an average width of
400 yards. Grass was only to be found in small patches along the
margin of the river; the accumulated waters of the late inunda-
tions, having been confined to one channel, had risen to the height
of 48 feet, carrying away many of the largest timber trees, as also
much of the soil from the banks, leaving a scene of devastation
exceeding anything of the kind I had hitherto witnessed.

A small description of Spanish reed was here first observed to
grow on the margin of the pools. Deep muddy creeks, having only
short courses, were very numerous, rendering travelling both
tedious and intricate.

From noon of the 15th the country gradually opened out to a
thinly grassed plain of light alluvial soil, atriplex bushes and
acacia, widely scattered, forming almost the entire vegetation ; the

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 43

ground, with the exception of the bed of the river, being parched
and dry, no rain having fallen during the summer to the west of
the Lyons Eiver in longitude 115^ 30' E.

16th May. — Being Sunday, we only moved 4 miles lower down
the river for better feed, the channel widening out to 600 yards.

11th May. — Early to-day the river began to throw off numerous
channels to the north and south, shedding, when in flood, a con-
siderable amount of water over the adjoining plains, clothing the
country in the garb of spring, the grass growing luxuriantly along
the numerous channels, atriplex and other low bushes generally
covering the plain, the lowest levels of which were extensively
covered with fields of mud from 1 to 14 inches thick, the deposit
of a single inundation, yet scarcely hardened by the summer sun.

At 20 miles we ascended a sandy ridge of about 60 feet in height,
from which we had our first view of Shark Bay, Babbage Island,
and the mouths of the Gascoyne, now only 4 miles distant.

Behind the ridge upon which we stood, and for many miles to
the south-east, the country was still under water from the recent
floods, while between us and the sea la}^ a low flat, on which were
many patches of acacia thicket, alternating with open grassy
glades, or fields of atriplex and samphire, terminating to the west-
ward in a broad, irregular belt of mangroves, resting on the shallow
margin of the bay.

Descending to the flat, we encamped in a rank patch of grass on
the bank of the river, about a mile above Babbage Island, the north
end of which I found to be in latitude 24° 52', which is 4 miles
north of the position as given by Sir G. Grey.

lB)th May. — We found no difficulty in crossing the southern mouth
on to Babbage Island, the tide being low ; it was quite dry at the
junction. Having, with Mr. Eoe, walked over the greater part of
the island, making a rough sketch of its outlines, and completing
the requisite observations, while the rest of the party were occupied
in an unsuccessful attempt to catch fish, we retraced our steps and
crossed the main channel opposite our last night's bivouac, where
it is not more than 250 yards wide. Continuing our course north-
east for nearly a mile, we crossed several back channels, some
trending towards the Kolaina Flat of Sir G. Grey, while others were
lost in the deep sandy ravines that extend for some distance to the
north of the river.

While on Babbage Island several natives had waded across the
northern mouth of the river to meet us, and had returned after a
friendly interview, in which they apparently described the recent
landing of two boats with Europeans. We now again fell in with

44 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

the same natives on the north bank, near a largo encampment of
women and children; the latter quickly hid themselves on our
approach, but the men assumed a threatening attitude, following us
for some distance with much clamour. As their numbers quickly
augmented, and they appeared determined to commence a fight, we
led them out on to an open plain, where, leaving the pack horses in
charge of two of the party, four of us suddenly faced about and
charged them at a gallop. This harmless manoeuvre had the desired
effect ; several of them having narrowly escaped being trodden
under foot by the horses, they were very quickly dispersed, and
made no farther attempt to molest us. We encamped this night
about 6 miles above Babbage Island.

19th MaTj. — As our object was to explore as far to the northward
as circumstances would allow, we left the river on a north-east
course, but two hours' ride across an open plain, through which
several channels ran to the north-west, brought us to dry barren
scrubs, in which it appeared hopeless that we should find either
feed or water ; we accordingly altered our course to south-east, and
made the river again about sundown.

20th to 23rc? May was occupied in tracing up the north bank of
the river in the hope of finding a tributary coming in from the
northward, but, with the exception of one small stream which drains
the western face of the Kennedy range, not a single tributary was
met with until we arrived at the Lyons Eiver, a distance of more
than 90 miles from Babbage Island. The country on the north
bank differs but little from that on the south, except that travelling
was somewhat easier.

24:th May. — Our horses having had a rest, the previous day being
Sunday, we made an early start, and by noon halted on the Lyons
River a short distance above its confluence with the Gascoyne ; its
channel here was equal in magnitude and similar in appearance to
the main river : a small stream was still flowing through the wide
sandy bed, and gradually increased in volume for nearly 80 miles
up the river. Three miles to the north of our midday halt Mr.
Eoe and myself ascended a stee]3 sandstone peak, from which we
had a fine view of the Kennedy range, the nearest part of which
lay about G miles to the Avest, extending for nearly 30 miles to the
northward ; the eastern face presents an almost unbroken line of
nearly perpendicular sandstone, of probably 500 or 600 feet eleva-
tion. To the north a few remarkable peaks served as valuable
points to carry on our triangulation, which had been continued
almost uninterruptedly from Mount Hope, on the Murchison.

To the east were several ranges of flat-topped hills, filling in the

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 45

space between the Lyons and the great southern bend of the Gas-
coyne, while to the south, with the exception of a few very distant
peaks, it appeared, as far as the eye could reach, to be an uniform
plain of open but almost grassless scrub.

Having completed our round of angles, we struck south-east to a
patch of forest on the banks of the river, which we did not reach
until some time after dark.

2bth May. — From this point to lat. 23^ 56', the Lyons maintains
a general course of N.N.E. The country passed over during to-
day had evidently been tolerably grassy, but the floods had been
quite as destructive here as on the Gascoyne, the bed of the river
and flats for half a mile on each side being mostly choked up or
buried under fields of fine white sand, which had been brought down
by the inundations. In several places we observed beds of gypsum
and fossil shells, with other strong indications of the existence of
coal in the vicinity. Bivouac in lat. 24° 41' 18".

2Qth May. — A few miles along the river brought us to a gorge in
the eastern edge of the sandstones, to the east of which it opened
out into extensive plains, in some parts well grassed and in others
much washed by the river. Several trap and granite hills were
visible at some distance to the northward and eastward. Our
bivouac was in lat. 24° ST 05", about 3 miles south of a bold trap
range, the summit of which was named Mount Sandiman.

21th May. — The country still maintained its variable character,
travelling near the river being exceedingly heavy on account of
the sand. The morning had been calm and sultry, but towards
noon a strong breeze set in from the north, bringing with it a dense
cloud of fine red dust, against which it was no easy matter to make
head with our horses. Towards evening the flats began to improve,
and we halted for the night among fine grass ; melons and tobacco
also growing very luxuriantly. To-night it rained for about two
hours, clearing the atmosphere of its load of dust.

2'^th May. — Eesuming our course up the river, at 4 miles w^e
crossed a stream-bed 40 yards wide, coming in from the N.N.W.,
and in the course of the day passed over several thin beds of
opaque white lava resting upon the sandstone. At our camp, which
was in lat. 24° 3' 08", gi'anite began to make its appearance in the
bed of the river.

2'^th May.—OvLY packhorses having now been much lightened of
their loads, we were to-day, for the first time, able to trot for several
hours, and as the countr}^ still improved, several fine grassy valleys
coming in from the eastward, wo made considerable progress.

At our noon halt, Mr. Moore and myself ascended a hill of red

46 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

schist, of 300 or 400 feet elevation, in lat. 23° 57' 15", wMeli had
been named Mount Thomson. From this hill we had an extensive
view of the surrounding country ; close to the northern foot the river
divided into two nearly equal parts; one, coming from the N.N.E.,
wo named the Alma. To the north, just resting on the edge of the
tropic, lay a compact range, tlirough which there was apparently
but one break, and that was on the line of the Alma ; from the
southern face of this range, which extends nearly 40 miles to the
eastward, numerous streams take their rise and flow southward
into the Lyons, which had altered its course and was now coming
from the E.S.E. Our intention had been to keep our course until
we had touched upon the tropic, but, as the Alma was not running,
we decided upon following the main course of the stream, and
accordingly adopted an easterly course for the remainder of the day,
encamping about 6 miles to the east of Mount Thomson. The river
here was much narrower, with a rocky bed containing many pools of
permanent character, overshadowed by flooded gums of large
growth, much resembling the Eucalyptus piperita of the flats of the
Swan, but not possessing the same pungent leaf.

30^/i 1%.— Sunday. Found our latitude to be 23° 58' 32", and
long. 116° E., by account.

31s^ May. — We started off at a quick pace, clearing 16 miles
by noon, over some fine open grassy flats, timbered for nearly a
mile from the river ; one tributary 100 yards wide having joined
from the north and a smaller one from the south. Leaving the
party busily occupied catching fish, which were abundant in this
part of the river and much resembling those found in the Murchison,
but much larger, some of them being upwards of a pound in weight,
I walked with Mr. Naime to the summit of a granite hill 2 miles to
the northward, from which I had a number of cross-bearings to hills
already observed from Mount Thomson. One of considerable eleva-
tion, bearing N. 121° 30' E., distance 50 miles, lay directly up the
valley of the river, and was named Mount Augustus, after my
brother, now conducting the expedition in quest of the remains of
Dr. Leichhardt. Pushing on 12 miles farther, we halted for the
night in lat. 23° 59' 39". Tobacco here grew of sufficient size for
manufacture, occupying many hundred acres of the best land ; a
plant much resembling stramonium was also abundant on the moist
land, yielding a strongly offensive odour from its leaves.

\st June. — For the first 12 miles along the river the flats much im-
proved, and were only occasionally broken up by stony ridges ; good
country was seen to extend up the tributaries, several of which came
in from the north. To the south, at 2 or 3 miles distant, and run-

Nov. 8, 1858.} GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 47

ning parallel with the river for many miles, was an even grassy range
of moderate elevation, nearly destitute of trees or bushes : the acacia
and melaleuca, which had hitherto generally covered the plains, were
evidently fast giving way to an open, undulating, and thinly-grassed
country, the back lands being, however, still too stony to yield
much pasture, the summer grass being already parched and dry, the
flats alone continuing moist and verdant.

At our noon halt the main river had ceased to flow, but a tribu-
tary coming from the N.E. had a small stream still running in the
bottom of a muddy channel, dov^ai which the recent floods had
brought flags and portions of bulrush, the only instance throughout
the district in which we had observed them.

The next 10 miles passed over between this and sunset was
chiefly an alluvial flat, much resembling the fertile lands near the
mouth of the Greenough : the acacias and several varieties of mela-
leuca, among which was the Callistemon phceniceus^ with its beautiful
scarlet flowers, were growing with tropical luxuriance, the soil in
many places being still saturated with moisture. A water melon
was here first observed, the fruit not attaining to more than two
inches in length, but not otherwise differing from the cultivated
kinds. We also found a fruit in shape like a pear, three inches in
length, growing on a small creeper ; the interior of the fruit con-
sisted of a number of small flat seeds, to which were attached a
bundle of long silky fibres resembling cotton. Our bivouac was in
lat. 24P T 52", near a fine pool of fresh water, with limestone
cropping out in a thin bed on the banks ; we had frequently met
with it distributed in small nodules scattered over a large portion
of the country on the Upper Murchison.

Since quitting the mouth of the Gascoyne we had seen natives
almost daily ; to-night we again found ourselves in close proximity
to a large encampment of them.

2nd June. — Our neighbours paid us an early visit this morning,
some of them evidently bent on mischief, but were restrained by
others more prudent, not, however, before it had nearly cost one of
them his life ; having pointed a spear at Mr. Moore, Dugel, whose
natural instincts are very destructive, hastily took aim at him, but
fortunately pulled the wrong trigger, which just gave his adversary
time to lower his weapon. On our mounting our horses they hastily
fell back and joined their other companions at their camp, which
was just in our line of march ; about thirty of them awaited our
approach with some tokens of defiance, but most of them decamped
on our coming within spear's throw.

Directing our course for Mount Augustus, we pushed on at a

48 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

rapid pace, with the object of ascending it, if possible, before sun-
down, but, after riding 20 miles, we found it to be farther oif than
we anticipated, and accordingly altered our course and encamped
at a pool in the river about 3 miles N.E. of the Mount, in lat.
24° 20', and at an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea.

We here met with strong evidences of the cannibalism of the
natives ; at a recently occupied encampment we found several of
the bones of a full-grown native that had been cooked, the teeth
marks on the edges of a blade-bone bearing conclusive evidence as
to the purpose to which it had been applied ; some of the ribs were
lying by the huts with a portion of the meat still on them.

Nearly the whole of the country passed over this day was an
alluvial flat, extending on the south-west to the grassy range
already described, while to the north and east it extended for many
miles, branching out into the numerous valleys that drain the
d liferent ranges in that direction ; the grass and vegetation on these
flats are not so rank as on that traversed the previous day, but more
even, and the soil better adapted for agriculture ; the amount of
good land on this part of the Lyons Eiver was estimated at 150
square miles, while on the tributaries between Mount Thomson and
Mount Augustus I have no doubt that there is as much more. Water
at this time was plentiful in the numerous channels that intersect
the plain, their permanency being the only matter of doubt : our
limited acquaintance with the nature of the seasons in these latitudes
does not enable us to decide with any degree of certainty ; the
pools lower down the river are unquestionably of a permanent
character, but many of them were already becoming brackish.

The quantity of game seen in this part of the country was also a
favourable indication. Turkeys, and a new variety of pigeon
having a brown back and slate-coloured breast, on the wing re-
sembling a tame pigeon, congregate in flights sometimes of a thou-
sand together ; emeu, cockatoos, quail, and paroquets are also very
numerous, particularly the latter.

Srd June. — A gentle ascent of 2i miles brought us to the foot of
Mount Augustus, where, leaving our horses in charge of Fairburn
and Dugel, we commenced the ascent up the only accessible point
on this side of the hill ; it required two hours' heavy toil to bring
us to the summit, the barometer gradually falling until it only
registered 26*10, which, compared with the simultaneous observa-
tions kept at Champion Bay by Mr. H. Gray, gives an elevation of
3,480 feet above the level of the sea, the last 500 feet of the summit
being clothed in thickets of melaleuca, among which grew a non-
descript variety of red gum-tree, the only new thing observed in

Kov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 49

this locality. The air was fortunately very clear, enabling us to
take bearings to almost every remarkable summit within 80 miles,
and in two instances to hills more than 100 miles distant.

From this commanding position I was enabled to sketch in the
courses of the rivers for more than 20 miles, some of them probably
taking their rise from 60 to 100 miles still farther to the eastward.
To the N.E. the country continued to improve in appearance until
the view was intercepted by bold ranges of trap and granite, one of
which, bearing N. 30° E. magnetic, distant nearly 100 miles, having
a sharp volcanic outline, reared its summit above all the rest. To
the S.E. the country was not quite so promising, the ridges pre-
senting naked stony outlines, upon which was only a little scanty
grass or a few bushes ; to the south it was almost an uninterrupted
plain, extending almost as far as the Murchison River, over which
lay our homeward course. Descending the Mount, we encamped at
a spring, in some fine feed, close at its foot.

4:th June. — As we had now been out fifty-one days, and as our
provisions were only calculated to last twenty-four days longer,
although we had reduced our allowance shortly after quitting the
Geraldine Mine, we were reluctantly compelled to turn our steps
homeward, as we were still 360 miles from the settled districts.
Passing, therefore, over the eastern foot of Mount Augustus, we
pursued a S.S.E. course for 20 miles, over alternating grassy plains
and stony ridges ; we encamped on a river with a sandy bed, in
which were a few shallow pools, its trend bearing N.N.W., and
probably joins the Gascoyne near the Lockier Eange. The feed on
this river, as well as on those between this and the Murchison, was
principally kangaroo grass of strong growth; the course of the
stream being easily traceable from a distance by the flooded gum-
trees that invariably lined their margins.

bth June. — A south course of 10 miles over a poor stony country
brought us to the head of a stream, which following in the same
direction to lat. 24° 51' 52", we found plenty of grass on its banks
and pools of water in its bed, which was here 30 yards wide ; the
principal features of the adjacent country being low granite ridges,
intersected by occasional quartz dykes, alternating with chlorite
schist.

Qth June. — Sunday.

1th /wne.— Following a S.S.E. course, at 6 miles the stream turned
to the S.W. Passing over several miles of stony country, in lat.
24° 59' 32", wo crossed another stream-bed, 40 yards wide, running
to the westward, and forming a junction with the last at some miles
distant. Towards sundown we came upon a recently inundated

VOL. III. E

50 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

plain, and a mile farther struck a grassy channel 30 yards wide,
which had barely ceased running, the soil for some distance on
either bank being a strong red loam, yielding a fair supply of
pasture. This channel we afterwards found to be only one of
several which formed the main branch of the Gascoyne. The
observed latitude was 25° 6' 30", and elevation 1740 feet above
the sea.

Sth June, — A mile farther we came upon the main channel of the
river, with a wide shallow bed, down which a small stream was
still running: the flats were well grassed, and the flooded gums
growing for more than a mile back from the river. To the eastward
the country continued level and grassy as far as the eye could
reach ; our time was, however, too limited to admit of our making
any further examination of this promising tract. A party of 20 or
30 natives were encamped here, and were apparently living upon
the roots of the convolvulus, which grows in the vicinity in great
abundance.

For 15 miles to the south-east it continued a level plain of red
loam, tolerably well grassed and covered with an open wood of
acacia ; the next 8 miles was over a poor, stony ridge of moderate ele-
vation, terminating at a large dry stream bed, in latitude 25" 24' 16",
with some fine kangaroo grass on its banks.

9^^ June. — Ten miles south, over a granite country, we struck the
head of a water-course, which, after winding about for 16 miles, ran
close to the western foot of Mount Gould, where we encamped at its
junction with another small stream coming from the northward.
The country passed over to-day was generally very stony, until we
came within a few miles of Mount Gould.

10 til June. — Taking our course direct for Mount Hale, the pasture
rapidly improved ; at 10 miles the water-course we had been following
formed a junction with the main Murchison coming in from the cast-
ward. From the appearance of the river at this point, it is probable
that it takes its rise nearly another 100 miles farther to the N.E.
The next 13 miles down the river was fair average cattle pasture, ex-
tending for several miles to the right and left — open flats of atriplex
and samphire occurring at intervals.

nth Jane. — The river soon divided into several channels, shedding
its waters over a fine alluvial flat of considerable extent, yielding a
rich sward of grass, under flooded gums of large growth. A little
after noon we came upon our outward track, and encamped at night
near the north-west bend of the Murchison.

12th to 22nd June was occupied in descending the river to the
Geraldine Mine, cutting off several bends of the river, and making

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 51

sucli additions to our sketch of the outward route as circumstances
would admit.

23rd June. — We all arrived safe at the hospitable residence of Mr.
W. Burges, just in time to escape a set in of rain, which lasted, with
little intermission, till the 26th.

27th and 2Sth June were employed in packing up and otherwise
disposing of the equipment of the expedition. On the 29th we arrived
at the house of Mr. L. Burges, on the Irwin ; the following day being
occupied in making up the accounts connected with the expedition,
which, including the whole of the cash expenditure, did not exceed
40?., which sum had already been subscribed by a few settlers inte-
rested in the undertaking.

Quitting the Irwin on the 1st of July, and proceeding by way of
Dandaragan and Toodyay, I arrived with Mr. Eoe and chainer Fair-
burn in Perth on the 10th instant, having accomplished a journey of
nearly 2000 miles in 107 days.

On reviewing the foregoing report, I find it necessary to add a few
observations on subjects that could not well be introduced into the
body of the narrative.

In the first place, viewing the geographical and geological features
in combination, the tract of country contained within the 114th and
118th parallels of longitude, and the 24th and 27th degrees of south
latitude, may be considered as an inclined plain, the eastern edge of
which has an elevation of about 1700 feet above the level of the sea.
Commencing from the coast, the first 100 miles is almost exclusively
of tertiary sandstone formation, which the process of denudation has,
in many instances, converted into either stony or sandy tracts, rarely
fertile, except when subject to the influence of frequent inundation.
This region seldom gives rise to rivers or watercourses ; the flat-
topped ranges which are often found towards the eastern limits of
this formation do not generally exceed 500 or 600 feet in altitude,
and are only those portions of country that have not as yet yielded
to the waste of time or the constant action of rivers, which, rising
in the higher lands more to the eastward, rapidly abrade, and in
their onward course remove the soft and porous sandstone from their

In the deeper valleys, towards the eastern edge of these sand-
stones, thin beds of oolitic limestone, containing numerous fossil
shells, occasionally occur ; also gypsum and clayey shales, with other
indications of the probable existence of coal in the vicinity : following
the series appears a compact, fine-grained amorphous sandstone,
having an almost flinty fracture ; this rock in a few miles gives place

E 2

52 EXPLORATION OF THE MURCHISON, LYONS, AND [Nov. 8, 1858.

to granite and gneiss, frequently broken up by the upheaval of whin-
stone and porphyritic trap hills, having an elevation of from 100 to
500 feet above the plain.

As we proceeded eastward, the eruptive rocks became more
numerous; chlorite slate, veins of quartz, chert, and variegated
jasper, frequently forming the summits of the most elevated hills,
while, on the general level of the plain, are occasionally found thin
beds of ancient lava.

The rivers, unlike most others in Western Australia, have nearly
an even fall throughout their entire length, amounting on an average
to G feet per mile : this, in a country subject to the sudden fall of
almost tropical rains, is what gives rise to the destructive inunda-
tions already described.

Of the climate and seasons, so little is at present known, that,
allowing all other difficulties to have been overcome, it would be
very hazardous to risk flocks and herds beyond the head of the Mur-
chison, until the country has again been visited at a different period
of the year, as it is probable that it has as yet only been seen under
the most favourable conditions.

The fluctuations of the temperature are occasionally considerable :
in the middle of June it some days amounted to 46*^ in six hours,
registering at 7 a.m. 36°, and at 1 p.m. 82° ; ice having been seen as
far north as lat. 24° 30'.

The prevailing winds during the period of inundation appear to
have been from the south-east, as most of the trees blown down while
the soil was in a state of saturation, lay with their tops to the north-
west. In May and June the winds ranged between north-east and
south-east.

Of the regularity of the return of the summer rains it is at present
difficult to form a decided opinion ; but as far as observation would
admit, I am inclined to think the}^ cannot be relied on with any
degree of certainty to the southward of the 25th degree of lat., the
period at which they fall being about January and February ; and
it is a significant fact that the grass found buried beneath the mud
during these months, had generally attained only about half its
growth.

With regard to the quantity and distribution of the available
lands, it will only be necessary to observe that, with the exception
of 30,000 or 40,000 acres at the mouth of the Gascoyne, there is no
land worth occupying for many years to come to the west of the
Lyons River. The amount of land on this river has already been
estimated at nearly 300 square miles, while on the Upper Gascoyne
and its tributaries there is, probably, double that quantity : this, with

Nov. 8, 1858.] GASCOYNE RIVERS, IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 53

tlie lands on the Mnrchison, near Mount Hale, would make a total of
about a million of acres.

A very important circumstance in connection with this district is
the total absence, so far as we were able to observe, of any of the
varieties of Gastrolobiiim or Euphorbia, which constitute the poison-
ous plants so fatal to cattle and sheep in other parts of the colony.

The means of access to the Upper Gascoyne and Lyons is another
important matter for consideration. I am inclined to think that
these districts cannot be advantageously settled until the tract of
country between it and the north coast has been explored, and a port
established somewhere between Exmouth Gulf and Depuch Island,
as, should the country in that direction fulfil its promise, the inter-
vening space would very quickly be filled up and the lands on the
Gascoyne become available, its distance from the north coast being
about 200 miles, while from Port Gregory or Champion Bay would
not be less than from 340 to 360 miles ; a difference of some moment
in the transport of stores or produce.

From the lay of the country to the northward of the Lyons Eiver
there does not appear to be any reason to suppose that a river of any
magnitude falls into Exmouth Gulf, as there would be hardly room
for it between the sources of the Alma and the rivers flowing to the
north coast.

I cannot bring my Eeport to a conclusion without recording my
acknowledgments to Mr. James Eoe for the able and efiicient as-
sistance he has rendered me throughout the expedition, barometrical
observations and management of the provision department having
been especially under his charge.

My best thanks are also due to Mr. W. Moore and Mr. C. Nairne,
who on every occasion endeavoured to relieve me as much as possible
from some of the many arduous duties that necessarily devolve on
the leader of an exploring party. Chainer Fairburn and the Native
Dugel also gave general satisfaction in the performance of their
respective duties.

I may add that to the ready co-operation and unanimity that pre-
vailed throughout the party may, in no small degree, be ascribed the
successful issue of the undertaking.

I have the honour to be. Sir, &c.,

F. T. Gregory, Assistant-Surveyor.
To the Hon. the Surveyor- General^ &c.

The President. — ^I feel personally obliged to Mr. F. Gregory for having
brought the Murchison River into lashioii. When my friend Sir George Grey,
the present governor of the Cape of Good Hope, went to explore this country

54 MURCHISON, LYONS, AND GASCOYNE RIVERS. [Nov. 8, 1858.

many years ago, I was enabled to be of some little use to liim, and in grati-
tude he named after me one of the rivers that he discovered. It was supposed
that this river would turn out only a poor stream through a barren saline
country ; but I am glad to hear that it is so productive. Moreover, I find
they have named two of its affluents the "lloderick" and tlie "Impey."
To pass from that part of the subject, I consider the paper one of great value.
Western Australia is rapidly extending into importance. We have long
wished to know whether a large and rich tract of country might not be colo-
nised to the north. Mr. Gregory has assured us that such tracts do exist,
and has also shown that there are copper-mines, iron, and other ore in great
abundance. Mr. 1\ Gregory is one of the three younger brothers of our
Medallist, and they are all good geographical explorers.

Mr. J. G. Austin. — I have been a resident in Western Australia from
thirteen to fourteen years, and I have had a personal acquaintance with the
family of Mr. Gregory, and can speak to their energy and competency, and
to the credit which their statements deserve. Some three or four years ago
the tribes who communicate one with another in a chain down to Swan ,
River, gave us to understand that birds mentioned by Mr. Gregory came from
a good country. Consequently an exploration was formed for the purpose of
discovering whether it was so or not. The discovery by Mr. Gregory of this
bird, which had not been seen on the Swan River, except in 1854, during the
last twenty years, proves, in my opinion, that there is a great extent of good
land in the neighbourhood in which it was found by Mr. Gregory. It is
apprehended that the great distance at which the land is situated from
head quarters will for a time prevent the colonists from taking advantage
of it ; and a report is current that to the east and north-east (at about 250
to 300 miles east of the Swan River) there is an impenetrable belt of under-
wood, which the natives say is forty miles through, and impossible to be
penetrated, and which presents an insuperable barrier to further exploration
of the interior of the great continent of Australia from the western coast.

Mil. J. Crawfurd, f.r.g.s. — I wish to say a few words upon those produc-
tions which are said to characterise the river Murchison — a very good name,
and I wish the river were worthy of it — the wild tobacco, the musk-melon,
and the water-melon. As to the wild tobacco, I believe that to be perfectly
correct, and say so on the authority of my late excellent friend Robert Brown.
But he assured me it was of no value as a production. The land watered by
the Murchison is the first part of Australia in which I have heard of anything
like an esculent tuber resembling that of the Convolvulus batata — the potato.
Will any botanist present assure us that this is the true batata? because if it
were so, or indeed any esculent tuber, the natives in this part of Australia
ought, cultivating it and feeding on it, to have been found in a higher state
of civilisation than any Australians have yet attained. With respect to the
musk and water-melon, Mr. Gregory must have mistaken something else for
them, because they are really the productions of certain parts of Asia. I am
glad to hear of this fertile territory of the river Murchison. It will no doubt
be quite favourable for the production of wool, and a very different country
for the sheep from the hot tropical region of Australia to which some gentle-
men have been proposing to push their runs.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON.

^ SESSION 1868-9.

Second Meeting, Monday, Nov. 22nd, 1858.

Sir KODEKICK I. MUKCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — The Eight Hon. Sir John Pakington, Bart., m.p.,
First Lord of the Admiralty ; Edward Beldam ; Joseph Locke, m.p. ; and
Alderman W. A, Rose, Esqrs. ; were presented upon their election.

Elections. — Lord Ashburton ; Sir Alexander Bannerman, Bart. ; Vis-
count Cranbourne ; Captain Chas.D. Cameron, H.M. Vice- Consul at Bedout
Kale ; Lord Skelmersdale ; Captain Hammel J. Strutt ; Captain the Hon.
Sudeley C. G. H. Tracy ; the Rev. Richard Leah, b.a. ; and James Barratt ;
John Botterill ; Francis W. Davis, R.N. ; John Donne ; Edward J. Hawker ;
David Kay; Joseph Mayer; James Pincott ; H. Birch Reynardson ;
J. Northcote Ryder ; and Theodosius Uzielli, Esqrs. ; were elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — A Chart of the Delta of the Danube, by Captain
Thos. A. B. Spratt, r.n. ; Views of Norfolk, the Fiji and other
Islands in the South Seas, by Captain Denham, of H.M.S. Herald ;
Chart of Shark Bay and Gascoyne Eiver, N.W. Australia, by F. T.
Gregory ; and Brion's Eelief Map of Brighton and its Environs ; were
exhibited to the Meeting.

The Papers read were —

1. Notes, Geographical and Commercial, made during the Passage of
H.M.S. Furious, in 1858, from Shanghai to the Gulf of Pecheli and
back. By Capt. Sherard Osborn, r.n,, c.b., f.r.g.s., &c. With
Sailing Directions by Mr. S. Court, r.n.

Part I.

Thanks to the obstinacy of the Chinese Government, which rejected
the advances made by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain and
France to bring about an amicable arrangement of existing differ-
VOL. m. F

56 NOTES DURING THE PASSAGE OF H. M. S. ''FURIOUS" [Nov. 22, 1858.

ences by a conference at Shanghai in the spring of the present
year, His Excellency Lord Elgin found himself compelled to pro-
ceed thence to Tientsin, on the Peiho Kiver, with a naval force,
so as to compel H. I. M. Hien-Fung the First, to listen to onr
demands.*

H. M. S. Furious had already had for some months the honour of
carrying about the British ambassador and suite in Chinese waters ;
and replete with interest as had already been my cruise in the old
steam-frigate, the new ground upon which we were shortly to enter
rendered the voyage we were about to make a source of perfect
delight, and all our preparations for a prolonged stay in the Gulf of
Pecheli were expeditiously and zealously completed. Apart from
mere curiosity, the importance of reaching the near vicinity of the
Chinese capital, and of placing the ambassador in a position to
dictate his own terms, had long been patent to all ; and none but
those grown blind by gazing at Canton could help seeing that it
was unworthy of Great Britain to be merely squabbling with the
militia of a wretched Chinese city, two thousand miles distant from
the centre of government.

Taking care to start from Hongkong at such a time as to give the
Furious the best chance of escaping the bad weather likely to occur
about the vernal equinox, we were enabled to visit Swatow, Amoy,
Fu-chow-fu, Ningpo, Shapu, and the whole Chusan Archipelago,
without encountering a single double reef topsail breeze to mar the
interest of the trip to my many guests, or prevent them by sea-sick-
ness from acquiring that local information from personal observation of
the resources and capabilities of the many places visited, which,
after all, is worth far more than reading whole libraries of travel or
history.

After waiting at Shanghai from March 25th to April 8th for the
Admiral and gunboats to arrive. Lord Elgin induced Captain Sir
Frederick Nicolson of the Pique to proceed to the Gulf of Pecheli
without farther delay ; and a few days afterwards, April 10, 1858,
the Furious took the Slaney gunboat in tow, and weighed from
Shanghai to proceed down the Yang-ze-kiang Eiver for the same
destination.

Of the queen of central China, the good city of Shanghai, I need
not say more, while so much has been written and is being written
of it, than that sixteen years ago I was one of some half-dozen
English boats' crews, under the present Commodore Watson, who

* See 2nd Vol. of the " Proceedings" R. G. S., p. 201, for Mr. Wm. Lockhart's
Notice on China. — Ed,

Nov. 22, 1858.] FROM SHANGHAI TO THE GULF OF PECHELI. 57

first burst upon tlie Chinese quietude of its existence as the pioneers
of a new order of things ; and I am sure not the most sanguine
among us could have anticipated that such a magnificent European
colony would have been created in so short a space of time — that
where no foreign keel had ever before floated, an import and
export trade in European bottoms, amounting to the value of
(26,774,018?.) twenty-six millions seven hundred and seventy-four
thousand odd pounds ! would now exist,* and that at the same time
the native trade and native craft would show no apparent diminu-
tion. Yet it is so. Where a low, unhealthy marsh existed, dotted
with squalid Chinese abodes, a fine quay, or bund, is now seen ;
such a quay as would put you, who live on the banks of Father
Thames, to the blush! — handsome houses, gardens, yachts, mail
steamers, and steam-tugs — a thousand indications, in short, of the
wealth and prosperity of the commercial community.

The naval officer, contemplating such a scene of prosperity and
wealth, replete with high promise to all the world, suddenly created
on the footprints left by his profession, may, at any rate, without
egotism, say that its labours have not been in vain ; and as I turned
my back upon Shanghai towards the fresh unbroken ground north of
the Yang-ze, the hope naturally arose that our labours might be
equally prolific in benefits to Great Britain and China.

The weather, whilst we had been in Shanghai, was beautiful ;
the north-east monsoon had lost its keen edge, while the sun was not
yet too hot to wear blue clothing, or to admit of brisk exercise ; spurts
of wind from south and south-east had occurred for the last month,
and taking advantage of it, two divisions of the Chinese grain junks
had already started for Pekin : the first division, with some eight
thousand tons of rice, &c., had arrived at the capital ; the second
division started about the time we arrived in the river, and when
the Chinese officials at Shanghai learned the possibility of hos-
tilities, the greatest anxiety was expressed lest we should occasion
a famine in the North and in Pekin by intercepting these supplies.
The rebellion in the valley of the Yang-ze-kiang, the occupation
of Ching-kiang-fu on the Great Canal, and the unruly Hoang-Ho, or
Yellow Eiver, having left its bed and taken some other course, had
all combined to force the old canal traffic between Northern and
Southern China into a coasting trade ; and it said a good deal for
the energy and nautical enterprise of the Chinese that they had thus

* The Custom House returns for 1857, published at Shanghai by the head of
the Anglo-Chinese Customs, Mr. H. N. Lay, show for 1857, 16,239,696^.
general trade; opium, 5,243,288/.; treasure, 4,846,260/.; copper coin, 444,774/.
Total, 26,774,018/. 1!1

F 2

5^ NOTES DURING THE PASSAGE OF H.M.S. ''FURIOUS*' [Nov. 22, 1868.

quickly adapted themselves to circumstances, and undertaken to
convey not only luxuries, but actually food to the northern pro-
vinces, in the same description of vessels with which I perfectly
remember seeing them navigate the smooth waters of the Yang-ze-
kiang in former days. With such a people I maintain it is folly to
say that they will " break before they will bend." They are only
Asiatics ; make them do a thing — compel them to advance — and they
will do it as well as any of us ; but consult their prejudices, or their
ease, and good bye to any change or advancement. They are to us
what the child is to the man : bear that in mind — treat them as
children ; make them do what we know is for their benefit, as well
as our own, and all difficulties with China are at an end.

Between the Amherst Kocks at the northern entrance of the
Yang-ze and Shantung Point, we steamed and sailed in, generally
speaking, smooth water, although sharp breezes of short duration
sprang up alternately from north-north-east and south ; the latter
bringing with it a low white mist, through which the quaint hulls and
quainter cut sails of many Chinese junks were constantly seen. The
majority of these vessels were recognised by their peculiar form to
be from Shanghai, or the Yang-ze-kiang, whilst here and there
those of Fu-chow-fu, Amoy, and Canton were distinguished by
certain forms of hull, cut of sail, or eccentricity in their paint ;
for it is as easy to recognise the junks belonging to the different
provinces of the sea-board of China — indeed to distinguish the
fishing boats of one portion of the coast from those of another — as it
is when running up the English Channel to know a Cawsand-Bay
smack from an Isle of Wight wherry, or Brighton cobble. Be it
remembered, however, that it is only in the external form and paint of
his junk, or cut of his sails, that the Chinaman of the South differs
from him of the North. In all the internal fittings and nautical gear
there is not the slightest difference. In all sea-going junks the
rudder lifts or lowers at pleasure, the tiller is equally long, the sails
are similarly fitted, and the wooden anchor and coir-cable work
upon immutable principles, which would delight such ancient
mariners of Europe as weep over the departed days of hemp cables
and shingle ballast. This unconsei'vative departure from certain
fixed laws which the Chinaman allows himself in junk-building is,
however, of this much use to the European, that in thick weather
our opium-clippers and packets, running up and down the coast,
often know they are off a certain port or district b}'" the appearance
of the fishing boats working about in the offing.

The uniformity of the soundings, as well as nature of the bottom,
the i^wnbws sailed over in the 360 miles of sea intervening between

Nov. 22, 1858.] FROM SHANGHAI TO THE GULF OF PECHELI. 59

the mouths of the Yang-ze-kiang and Shantung Point, proved
we wrere still travelling over a submarine region, formed by the
alluvial deposits of those twin giants, the Hoang-Ho and Yang-ze-
kiang ; and it was deeply interesting to think that at some future
day the plain beneath our keel would, by accumulated deposits, rise
to low-water mark, and then, like much of the adjacent coast of
China, be immediately seized upon by swarming Chinese, be diked,
cultivated, populated, and added to that already wonderful region
known as the Great Plain of China : an event which, judging by the
rapid formation of Tsung-ming, Bush Island, and other spots in this
neighbourhood, is not so far distant as many might suppose. After
a run of nearly 400 miles on a north course, we reached the
Shantung promontory, and entered what has been called the Yellow
Sea, though I know not with what justice, for its waters struck mo
to be of a purer pale sea green than those of the region we had left
behind us, or those of the Gulf of Pecheli, which we afterwards
entered. There was now a decided decrease in the temperature of
the air, and at nights it was even in our cabins as low as 58^ Fahr.
Daylight of April 13th found us off Alceste Island, and as we steered
to the westward for the Straits of Mia-tao, a cold south-east breeze
from the high lands of Shantung rolled back the night mists from
hill and valley, displaying under a rising sun a glorious and striking
panorama, which, though perhaps not so rich as the valley we had
been so long in, to the southward, was far more preferable to the
eye. Leu-cung Island and Wei-hai-wei harbour were soon passed,
and it took us all the forenoon to cross the broad unsheltered bay, at
the eastern horn of which stands the now important city of Che-
chow-fu. Great numbers of junks were working close along shore :
most of them, possibly from fear of us, passed inside the numerous
islets forming the Che-fow harbour of our charts.

This anchorage, of which we have a survey by Lieutenant D.
Ross, of the Bombay marine, made in the year 1816, only affords
partial shelter to north-east and east gales, which are, I should
think, those most to be avoided in this sea. A Fj ench frigate lately
anchored in the bay, and in a north-east breeze pitched bows under
in a tremendous sea, with 180 fathoms of cable on a single anchor.
Outside, and bearing about north-east by east f of a mile distant
from the outer island, called North Island, we observed breakers
which are not marked in the charts, showing that although the
survey is generally correct, so far as cross-bearings and transits of
the points would allow us to form an idea, it must have been
hastily done. From Che-fii Point to Teng-chow-fu, a large city
30 miles W.N.W. of the former, the land was very, picturesque, the

60 NOTES DURING THE PASSAGE OF H. M. S. '"FURIOUS" [Nov. 22, 1858

coast slightly indented, but with no appearance of secure harbours.
The scenery of Shantung, the peculiar form of the hills, and the
natural or artificial tumuli which appeared to crown their summits,
or rise from the level plateaus, recalled strongly to mind the penin-
sulas of Taman and Kertch, on the shores of the Black Sea. The
resemblance led to speculation in my mind as to the connec-
tion between two points so far apart upon the globe's surface.
Both were in Asia ; both spots were on the southern edge of the
great Tartarian region, and in about the same degree of north lati-
tude ; over both, at no very remote period, nomadic tribes of the
same great family had wandered as conquerors or fugitives, and
erected those silent yet expressive tumuli, either as tokens of their
sovereignty, or in barbaric honour of departed warrior chiefs. Those
in the far West were now in the hands of the warlike Russian, to be
hollowed out into Mamelons and Malakoffs for the good of the
orthodox faith ; these before us in the East had been seized upon by
the Chinese, a far more practical race, who, alas for the poetry of the
act ! turned these chambers, fashioned for the post-mortem revels of
the mounted Viking of Tartary, into lime and brick-kilns ! if not
yet viler pui-poses.

Ugly shoals and broken water showed on either side of the city
of Teng-chow-fu,* and as the Furious rattled along under steam
and sail, the extensive battlements of the city struck even me, who
was fresh from the great Chinese towns of Canton and Shanghai, as
enclosing an area larger than any before seen. Teng-chow-fu
stands upon a level, which rises somewhat abruptly from the sea
for a hundred feet or so. Within its walls, and at the N.W. angle,
is a conical hill, crowned with a temple. Not far in the rear the
lofty hills of Shangking are seen, and the ground rises on the
eastern and western sides of the city ; indeed, in a military point
of view, the walls are dominated by a ridge of hills running out
to the east, and from the extreme point of which the Gulf of
Pecheli may be said to commence.

The best information we possess of Teng-chow-fu, and that
meagre enough, is to be found in the voluminous narrative of Lord
Macartney's embassy to China in 1793; and as it is now one of
the new ports open for European commerce, and likely to play an
important part as the emporium of Northern China, I shall take

♦ It is hopeless to profess to be correct about the pronunciation or orthography
of names of places in China, so long as those learned in such matters differ in
opinion. The Admiralty Chart calls it " Teng-chu-fu ;" I^ord Macartney writes
it " Ten-choo-foo ;" Mr. Williams, the American, in his map spells it *' Tang-
Chau-fu ;" and so on.

Nov. 22, 1858.] FROM SHANGHAI TO THE GULF OF PECHELI. 61

the liberty of briefly transcribing the remarks contained in that
work.

After mentioning that the walls of Teng-chow-fu enclosed more
ground than was occupied by houses, a remark, by-the-bye, appli-
cable to all Chinese cities, the writer proceeds to say, —

" The bay, or rather road, of Teng-chow-fu, not only is open to the east-
ward and westward, but is not well sheltered from the northward, the
Mia-tao islands being too distant to break oif much of either wind or swell
from that quarter. The anchoring- ground consists, in great part, of hard,
sharp rocks ; and at about a mile and a quarter from the shore is a dangerous
reef, covered at high water, extending nearly a mile, east and west, round
which the water shoals so suddenly as to render any approach to it very
perilous. At Teng-chow-fu is constructed a kind of dock or basin for vessels
to load or discharge their cargoes. The entrance into it is between two piers,
and is from 30 to 40 feet in width. The ground near the sea-coast is richly
cultivated, and rises in a gentle ascent until terminated by high, broken, and
barren mountains, apparently granitic. The rise and fall of the tides in the
Strait of Mia-tao are about 7 feet. The flood-tide runs east, towards the sea ;
the ebb runs to the westward, into the Gulf of Pekin."

This latter piece of information applies, perhaps, to the eddy tida
in the anchorage off Teng-chow-fu, for when the Furious struck
on an unknovni sandbank in passing through these straits (at a
later hour in the afternoon), we found the ebb-tide running, as it
should do, out of the Gulf of Pecheli; and it will be hereafter
shown that off the Peiho River the flood and ebb evidently, from
their direction, run in and out of the gulf.

The evening of the 13th April was now closing in; we had a
rattling breeze behind us, with every token of an increase both in
the appearance of the sky and fall of the barometer, and I knew
that at this season dense fogs might be expected, with an almost
unknown sea before me. There was no anchorage east of the
Mia-tao Islands, and consequently no time was to be lost in pushing
through the straits, so as to have sea-room in the Gulf of Pecheli.
I had been cautioned by the Eussian officers who visited this
channel in 1857 not to trust the charts as to the limit of the exten-
sive shoal which runs out from the Shantung coast, and projects in
a N.W. direction, but to borrow freely upon the starboard hand,
as the islands of Chang -shan and Ta-he-san were steep to. Keeping
this in mind, seeing quite distinctly the sand-spit which runs off
from Chang-shan, and observing a large fleet of junks ahead, as well as
others running the same way as ourselves, I steered boldly through
the strait, but suddenly struck a sandbank almost as steep as a wall,
which brought the Furious up all standing, with her stem in 11 feet
water, her centre in 14 feet, and her afterpart in 5 fathoms. Of
course we had gone ashore as a man-of-war should do, according to

62 NOTES DURING THE PASSAGE OF H. M. S. ''FURIOUS" [Nov. 22,1858.

printed instructions and articles of war — leads going, anchors clear,
masthead-man in his station, and the captain, master, and officer
of the watch on the paddle-boxes. With a little trouble we were
off in deep water again by 6*30 p.m., none the worse for our feat.
Had time and circumstances admitted of it, I should have waited
until next day to examine this danger ; it is either a prolongation
of the sand-spit of the Mia-tao Islands, or else a detached patch. I
am inclined to think the latter, as it is about three quarters of a
mile from the extreme laid down in the charts.* And subsequent
to this event, H.M.S. Sampson, towing up two gunboats, appears to
have scraped so close to it that the bight of the hawser, by which
she had a gunboat in tow, fouled it ; and the gunboat Leven, running
out of the gulf in the same spot, suddenly shoaled her water from
several fathoms to 13 feet, the spit from the island being at iho
time plainly visible.

I have rather dwelt upon this subject to show how much neces-
sity there is here for an active nautical survey, and I think the
good people at home should dispense for awhile with home surveys,
which only bring to light such interesting little facts as that Dun-
garvan Harbour has shoaled 6 inches in 200 years ; and let the
great highroads of commerce or empire, fast opening in the East,
be rendered safe for the merchant-ship and man-of-war. This work
should not be confined to British surveyors — the Americans ought
to join us in making a complete survey of the seas and coast from
the entrance of the Yang-ze-kiang to the river Amiir. As j^et
they have left the whole onus and expense to England, and all the
many millions' worth of foreign property carried to and fro on the
coasts and in the rivers are indebted for safety to the admirable
charts of English officers.

Aided by fine weather, during the first watch we felt our way
carefully through the Straits of Mia-tao, passed some hundreds of
large junks at anchor in the sheltered anchorage between the shoals
of Teng-chow-fu and the southern islands, and at 10*30 again put
the ship before the breeze and shaped a course for the bar of the
Peiho river, across the surface of the Gulf of Pecheli.

Before we pass from the shores of the province of Shantung to
those of Chili we must dwell for a few minutes on the geography of
that division of the Chinese empire. Its area is just that of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Wales ! its population exceeds that of Great

* Position of H. M. S. Furious when aground : — East extreme of Long Island
(Chang-shau) just open of the south extreme, and the west extreme of Ta-he-san
Island N.W. by W.

Nov. 22, 1858.] FKOM SHANGHAI TO THE GULF OF PECHELI. 63

Britain and Ireland by exactly half a million souls ! In latitude it
agrees with the southern and fairest portions of Spain and Italy,
but the extremes of heat and cold in summer and winter are far
greater, though these are much modified by one half the borders of
the province being washed by the sea. The western half of Shan-
tung is a dead level, forming a portion of that wonderfully rich
region known as the Great Plain of China, — a plain which rolls to
the south from Pekin, in 39° N. latitude, gradually extending in
width until its huge base rests, at a distance of 600 miles, against
the base of the mountains of Che-keang and Kiang-si. The only high-
land which intervenes between this plain and the sea is the mass of
mountain, peak, and plateau forming Eastern Shangtung. It looks
as if in remote ages it had once been an island, and had been con-
nected with China Proper by the silting up of the intervening sea ;
just as, in process of time, the Gulf of Pecheli will be filled up if, as
it is now said, the erratic Hoang-Ho has returned to its ancient bed,
and discharges its waters into the south-west bight of the Gulf of
Pecheli.

The Chinese, speaking of this province, do not think very highly
of its resources, as compared, of course, with those of the fat
soil of the delta of the Yang-ze-Kiang ; but it seems likely,
from its products and climate, to play an important part in European
commerce. Coal and iron are abundant, and, it is said, largely
exported to other parts of China by the natives. Its fruits are
famous for their size, if they be not so for flavour, throughout the
whole seaboard of the empire, and we were eyewitnesses of the
prodigious quantity of millet and beans it contributed to the supply
of the capital, shipped in strong-built junks, not unlike Dutch
galliots, and manned by a race of seamen who, for pluck and inde-
pendence, would not yield much to those of Northern Europe.

To Teng-chow-fu the foreign missions to be hereafter stationed
in Pekin will undoubtedly come to escape the monotony of their
solitary existence in the imperial city, as well as to enjoy a climate
which, during the six weeks of midsummer or midwinter, will be
infinitely preferable to that of Pekin ; and when the severity of the
Manchurian winter closes the Gulf of Pecheli to our traders, they
will doubtless congregate at this convenient emporium, and thence
by land supply the traders of North China, as well as the Corea,
with such British staples as they must assuredly desire ; and I feel
convinced, without being a prophet, that within ten years' time we
shall see at Teng-chow-fu as flourishing a settlement created by the
commerce of Shantung, Chili, Shonsi, and Shansi, as that of Central
China can show in the great city of Shanghai.

64 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

By the next mail I hope to be able to send my notes on the Gulf
of Pecheli, the Peiho, and the commercial and political advantages
likely to accrue from Lord Elgin having succeeded in inducing the
Chinese to open the port of Neu-chong in Shingking province, the
seaport of Moukden, capital of Manchuria.

The map of China, by Mr. Williams, published by Mr. Atv^ood
of New York, contains a better general view of China than any now
published ; but, for particular districts, those published by Mr.
Arrowsmith of Soho Square, one of which, embracing nearly all the
region upon which I have touched in this paper, lies before me,
and, except in nomenclature, is wonderfully correct, and, although
not acknowledged, is evidently the basis of the map by Williams.

Part II.

Notes^ Geographical and Commercial, upon the Gulf of Pecheli and the
Peiho River.*

Before entering on a description of the Gulf, and turning my back
finally upon the Strait of Mia-tao, it is right that I should say that
it affords the only really secure anchorage, in a seaman's acceptance
of the term, between Shantung Point and the bar of the Peiho river.
A glance at the chart will show how the islands to the north, the
sandspit of Chang-shan to the east, the coast of Shantung to the
south, and the shoals of Teng-chow-fu Point to the west, shield the
roadstead of Mia-tao on every side from the seas adjacent, whilst
vessels desirous of seeking a still quieter spot for discharging cargo
and repairing damages, have but to anchor between the islands of
Mia-tao and Chang-shan. The bottom throughout is mud, or mud
and sand ; depths to be found at choice from 7 to 4 fathoms. The
islands are inhabited ; fresh water is abundant, and such supplies
as may be needed and they do not afford, may be easily procured
from Teng-chow-fu, only 5 miles distant. If, as I fully anticipate,
a few short years hence this anchorage be much frequented by
European shipping, it will be the seaport, so to speak, of Teng-
chow-fu, and a colony of all those who live by, and live upon,
the merchant, ship-master, and ship-owner will be rapidly formed on
either Mia-tao or Chang-shan.

♦ See the 2nd Vol. of the "Proceedings" R. G. S. at p. 302, for an extract
from Captain R. Woodbine Parish, r,a., Notes upon the Passage up the Peiho
with Lord Macartney in 1793. — Ed.

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 65

We found, as I have before said, vast numbers of junks riding at
anchor in the Strait. It is from this spot, as I learned at Shanghai,
that the native traders from the south take their departure afresh for
the ports of Manchuria (or Shingking), the Corea, or Chili. Those
bound to either of the two former provinces steer north along the
islands which guard the entrance of the Gulf, until they strike
Cape Lao-thie-shan (the extreme of a peninsula strangely named in
our maps the Eegent's Sword) : thence they diverge on their re-
spective coasting voyages ; whilst the grain-junks bound to the
Peiho Eiver take advantage of a propitious breeze, and strike direct
for it across the Gulf from Mia-tao Strait.

Thither we must now follow the Furious, which through a muddy
sea and murky atmosphere, which sadly limited the circle of vision,
staggered before a freshening breeze, in never more than twelve
fathoms water, for the low and shallow coast of Chili. Knowing
how limited was our knowledge of this sea, how scant the soundings,
the set of currents, or existence of shoals or rocks, one might have
been serious or anxious in thus plunging along at a speed of eight
knots per hour, had it not been that we were constantly sighting
some queer-looking "argosy " of China, rolling along like nothing else
earthly but what she was — " a junk at sea," and the feeling that a
sea which a Chinaman can navigate in such clumsy craft ought to
be and is child's play to an English seaman.

At noon, on April 14th, we found by observations obtained that
the current had set the ship 2-2 miles per hour to the south-west
since entering the Gulf, and we altered course accordingly. This
southerly current we had subsequently reason to believe to be
very frequent, if not constant, at this season of the year, for nearly
all the vessels which made the traverse experienced it, in a more or
less degree, until the end of May, and it is so far advantageous that
it will always keep a ship clear of the Sha-lin-tien shoals, and of
her approach to the coast the lead-line will always give ai^ple
warning. The cause of such a current is very easily explainable.
A prodigious discharge of water, occasioned by summer thaws,
must, in March, April, May, and June, be thrown into the Gulfs of
Leo-tung and Pecheli from the high lands and snow-covered plains
of Mongolia and Manchuria. The surplus of what is not carried
off by evaporation must flow southward into the Yellow Sea,
naturally causing a constant current in that direction, only partially
checked by the flood-tide.

From noon the soundings graduallj'- decreased ; many junks were
seen on every hand, standing in the same way as ourselves, and
just as we had run by patent log the distance from our position

66 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

at 1 2 o'clock to the 6 fathoms marked on the Admiralty chart of the
Gulf of Pecheli, we obtained exactly that amount of water and saw
the land rise like a black line out of the waters on the western
horizon, proving that the chart was so far very correct.

Running into [4 fathoms water, and sighting the leading marks
over the bar of the Peiho River — a bar which we did not then
despair of carrying the Furious across — we shortened sail, and
anchored close to the Russian war-steamer America, bearing the flag
of the Admiral and Plenipotentiary Count Putiatin. Shortly after-
wards, H. M. S. Pique, Captain Sir F. Nicolson, joined us.

It must be acknowledged that our anchorage, as well as the view
of the adjacent coast, was far from cheering. We were 8i miles oif
the shore, with only 22 feet under our keel at low-water. The
sea was of a thick muddy colour, the sky murky and misty.
Very indistinctly visible to the westward the low land at the mouth
of the Peiho was seen dancing from the effects of refraction, whilst
three eminences, more marked in outline than the rest, denoted the
position of the forts and batteries of Taku, which, of course, we well
knew, in spite of the surf, the bar, and all the Tartars in Mongolia,
would very shortly be ours.

At night the breeze slackened somewhat, and the sea became
overspread with phosphoric light, as brilliant as any ever witnessed
in equatorial regions ; this, however, only took place once or twice,
and that during the early period of our stay in the Gulf, and it is
right that I should say that the very muddy condition of the sea-
water gradually abated as the season advanced, and in July the
water at the anchorage was simply of a turbid sea-green colour.
This change arises, probably, from the rivers having ceased to throw
so large a volume into the Gulf of Pecheli after the snows of the
uplands had melted away, and because the constant action of the
southerly monsoon forces in more salt-water from the seas beyond :
an opinion substantiated somewhat by the increased depth of water
at the Furious' s anchorage of no less than one foot during the three
months she remained there, the south-west monsoon having com-
menced.

Time, however, reconciled us considerably to the apparent
deficiencies of the anchorage we were in, and I have no hesitation
in saying that, as a summer holding-ground, it is sufficiently safe —
that is, from April 14th to the end of September. Vessels, we
know, have been much later at it, and in a steamer, with good
anchors and cables, the roadstead might be used until the winter
ice, which forms in the rivers, compelled her to start for Mia-tao
Strait. During the eleven weeks the Furious and squadron remained

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 67

at tlie anchorage, smart double-reef topsail-breezes were frequent,
and sometimes very heavy squalls, in wbicli the wind shifted
abruptly, and blew equally hard from south-east to north-west or
south-west to north. The sea that arose on these occasions was
never trying to the ships, neither did any of them have to get down
their topgallant-masts on account of the weather; but for boat-
work, intercommunication between vessels or with the shore, or to
discharge the cargoes of merchantmen, there was often sufficient
sea to render such operations hazardous, if not impossible. The
heaviest sea experienced was from the south-east, the drift of the
waves from that direction being the greatest; that from north-
east gales, which in the offing make perhaps the heaviest sea experi-
enced in the Gulf, being broken where ships lie at anchor by the
extensive sandbanks known as the Sha-lin-tien Shoals, of which
a very good chart was published by the Admiralty, in the year 1840,
compiled by Mr. Norsworthy, of H. M. S. Py lades. To complete
my remarks on this anchorage, I annex the observations made
by an excellent officer, Mr. Stephen Court, Master of H. M. S.
Furious, together with a tide-table, kept by my officers and checked
by myself.

The most important points to be deduced from those tidal
observations are that the rise and fall is 9 feet at spring-tides, and
that the time of high- water at the full and change of the moon is at
4h. 8m. ; whereas the rise and fall had formerly been stated to be
as much as 11 feet, and the time of high- water had been variously
stated as at 3h. 38m. and 2h. 45m.

From the Gulf of Pecheli it is now time to turn to the Peiho
Eiver. The Peiho, which, being translated, means " the North
River," has its sources in the high lands at no great distance be-
yond Pekin, and runs for the major portion of its tortuous course
through a level country, the velocity of its stream, rather than the
volume of its water, having scoured out a narrow bed in the stiff
clay which forms the substratum of the plain of Chili. This scour-
ing force, however, becomes so weakened as it approaches the sea,
owing to the low level of the shores allowing a constant overflow,
that instead of cutting a 12-feet channel straight out into the Gulf
of Pecheli, the depth of the river suddenly decreases, and the river
discharges itself over an area several miles in extent, forming what
is known as the Bar.

The best, indeed the only, chart we possess of the bar of the
Peiho River is the American one, a tracing of which accompanies
this paper, and I can testify to its general correctness, except that
the water found by the Americans on the bar is nearly two feet

68 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

deeper at low water, than it is at present — an error probably caused
from computation, instead of doing as we did, remaining constantly
upon the bar from high water to dead low water. My corrections
are upon the chart.

The manner in which this, the American, chart came into my
possession, and afterwards into general use throughout the squadron,
is a proof of the necessity for a better understanding between geo-
graphers of different countries, and a more frequent interchange of
information collected by each. I will state the circumstances to
exemplify the case : — Prior to leaving Hongkong in March, 1858,
a conviction that the ultimate result of our Canton operations would
be to carry the Furious and the British Ambassador to the Peiho
River, if not to Fekin, induced me to seek carefully for any in-
formation bearing upon that part of China. I soon found that in
the British chart-boxes there was nothing about the Peiho beyond
the fact that the Hon. Company's steamer Madagascar had once
crossed the bar, but there was no certainty as to what water she car-
ried over it. The French, of course, were equally ignorant ; but
from Mr. Eeed, the American ambassador, as well as Captain Du
Pont of the U.S. frigate Minnesota^ I learned that, much to their
astonishment, Count Putiatin, the Russian envoy, had shown them
an American Survey of the bar of the Peiho Eiver, made by the
officers of the John Hancock^ of which they had been previously
ignorant, and of which no copy had even been supplied them from
the Hydrographic Bureau at Washington. That it was authentic,
however, there could be no doubt, and the good folks of the
United States can best explain how it was that a Russian could pro-
cure a copy of an official record before it was furnished to their
own accredited minister. Count Putiatin made no secret of his
valuable document, and when we arrived at Shanghai, and found
him there, he very kindly allowed me to make a copy of it, and
added some kind and valuable information touching the tides off
the Peiho and the dangers in Mia-tao Strait. Directly the Pique ^
Captain Sir F. Nicolson, joined the Furious off the Peiho River, I
was able to lend him the American chart to copy, and we subse-
quently did as much for the flag-ship.

With that chart and one of the river to Tientsin, of which the
Royal Geographical Society may procure a copy from the Admiralty,*
it will be easy to understand the following remarks : — The bar of the

* A very fair chart of the river from Taku to Tientsin was made by Mr. Vine,
second master of H. M. S. Coromandel, and a copy of it, I am told, transmitted to
the Admiralty by the Admiral.

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE t»EIHO RIVER. 69

Peiho Eiver, measured on the seaward side, extends in a great
curve of 6 miles in length, and at its narrowest point between the
deep water within and without it is 2 miles wide. It consists of
very stiff clay, with a few patches of shingle here and there ; the
whole overlaid by 9 or 10 inches of earthy deposit from the river.
At low water spring tides we only found 2 feet water upon the bar
in the deepest places ; indeed, on more than one occasion whilst
living upon it in boats (as Mr. Court the master, and I, did for a
fortnight), we often found that a stiff breeze off shore reduced the
water to only a foot in depth. The deepest water observed in calm
weather, when such observations could be relied upon, showed a
depth of rather more than 11 feet. The time of high water and
the amount of rise and fall agreed admirably with that observed on
board H.M.S. Furious, viz. H.W. at F. & C. of <[ 4h. 8m., and rise
and fall = 9 English feet. It is, however, possible that in the Gulf
of Pecheli, as in other shallow, land-locked seas, these data are
to some degree dependent upon the season of year ; and that winds
of a certain force or from certain directions may at other seasons
retard or hasten the time of high water, and affect the height of
water upon the bar to the extent of a foot or 18 inches. At any
rate, it is certain that vessels drawing 10 ft. 8 in. can easily cross
the bar of the Peiho at spring tides, and on interrogating the masters
of trading junks, through an interpreter, I learned that the largest
vessels trading with Tientsin, varying from 300 to 600 tons burden,
never exceeded 1 1 English feet in draught. The Chinese mark the
channel over the bar with bamboos ; their positions when we
arrived were inserted in the chart, but, as they subsequently cut
some of these bamboos away, we replaced them with buoys, by
means of which the gunboats and despatch vessels of the allied
squadron were eventually carried safely over the bar into the Peiho
Eiver on May 19th, 1858.

There is no continuous surf upon the bar, but when it blows a
fresh breeze from the south-east there is quite enough sea on to
render the bar highly dangerous for open boats ; indeed the smallest
native craft used in this neighbourhood are decked. My own im-
pression is that when the Imperial Government grows wiser it will
be very easy to cut a channel through the bar, and that by driving
a few piles along its margin to confine the force of the current in
the same direction, a passage for junks will be made fit for all times
of tide. The force of the current of the Peiho Eiver at its mouth
is always much affected by the direction of the wind ; in calms it
runs from 2 to 2^ knots per hour. During the first three hours of
the flood and the last three of the ebb tide the current sets directly

70 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

in and out over the bar, but whilst the tide is high enough to cover
the mud flats, the direction of the current follows that of the tides
in the offing.

Directly the bar is crossed a deep channel is entered, which,
although tortuous, has never less than 12 feet water in it, and in many-
places much more, all the way from the entrance to Tientsin. Off some
of the salient points where the river takes a sharp turn, projecting
spits of mud or sand are sometimes found, but the general character
was uniform, namely a muddy stream running through flat country,
wonderfully free from all obstructions, and the channel generally
steep to the river bank. There are strong indications of vernal and
autumnal inundations during the ascent of the first 15 miles, but
beyond that distance the river banks as far as Tientsin were nowhere
artificial, but rose with a natural abrupt escarp 3 to 6 feet above
high-water mark. It would be difficult to account for the sharp
bends in this river or its generally tortuous course, seeing that it runs
through a plain as level as a table, and has had apparently only to
cut its way through stiff blue or yellow clay ; nevertheless, in the
short distance of 30 miles which intervenes between the city of
Tientsin and Taku, at its mouth, the river turns and twists over
not less than 50 miles of ground, very much as laid down in the
chart accompanying the account of Lord Macartney's embassy to
Pekin in 1793 — which chart, however, is decidedly very incorrect
directly Tientsin is passed.*

Apart from the natural excitement of breaking in on new ground
as belligerents, nothing could be less interesting than the first part
of the ascent of the Peiho Eiver. On either hand extended a dreary-
mud flat, which looked as if it had been only yesterday wrung from
the sea. Reeds, rushes, and such plants as love a marshy or saline
soil, are seen in patches ; but the major portion is nought but a saline,
the glistening product of which, piled in great pyramids by the
thrifty Chinese, breaks the uniformity of the scenery. The banks
of the river are, however, turned to every possible advantage by a
swarming population. Mud-built villages commence within a mile
of the entrance : the largest of them, " Taku," has now become well
known as the scene of late hostilities — " a crowning mercy " which its
imfortunate but strong-smelling inhabitants will long have occasion
to remember. Wretched, dirty, and foul-smelling though these
villages appear to the eye of an European, they are, in fact, exceeding
rich with the hoarded fruits of commercial and agricultural industry,

* See Admiralty Chart of R. Peiho, by Capt. R. Woodbine Parish, b.a. Pub-
lished March 17th, 1857.— Ed.

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 71

and the plunder carried off by the Allies from Taku, which looked
about as wretched as Worthing does in the month of January, could
not have been found by the most experienced leader of a " Kazzia"
in anything smaller than one of our large cities. In front of each of
these villages fleets of junks were anchored or hauled into mud
docks cut in the banks ; the majority were grain-vessels or vessels
pressed into that service by our active friend the Taoutae of Shanghai,
who remorselessly applies to his master's service the shipping of
Amoy, Fu-chow-fu, Shanghai, or Shangtung, paying them only a
small nominal freight — an act of oppression against which, instead
of murmuring, the Chinese shipmaster quietty indemnifies himself
by carrying a small venture of European produce, opium, cottons,
and lucifer matches, &c., which he charges an enormous price upon,
and cheats the government of all taxes and dues.

Beyond the first 1 5 miles the Peiho improves rapidly : the soil
overlieing the clay stratum increases in depth and fertility, signs of
agriculture increase on either hand, fields of Indian corn, millet,
bearded wheat, lettuces, and radishes, follow in rapid succession*
The villages are embosomed in fruit orchards, or hide their ugliness
in groves of handsome trees. Some of the reaches of the river
become exceedingly picturesque, although there is a lack of the
grotesque temple and quaint pagoda which give so marked a cha-
racter to Chinese scenery in the south. From the masthead of the
gunboat I was in, the villages, population, and cultivation appeared
confined to the immediate vicinity of the Peiho, in two belts, varying
from 2 to 4 miles in width. This I could only account for by the
want of water elsewhere, and it was remarkable that in a distance of
60 miles we only counted two small streams or creeks flowing into
the Peiho. Beyond this belt of cultivation and its teeming popula-
tion a dreary steppe was seen extending, on which trees were scarce
and the houses few and isolated. It put me much in mind of the
interminable plains of Eussia : however, I do not mean to assert
that the plain of Chili is uninhabited, but that it is so by com-
parison with the borders of the fresh-water streams, of which there
are several flowing into the sea besides the Peiho, if the Chinese
are to be believed. I counted at one time no less than 25 villages
in sight from the masthead, and often 10 or 15 were visible : they
were none of them ruined in condition, and all appeared full of
inhabitants — stalwart naked labourers and hosts of noisy healthy
children ; women were not seen until afterwards, and of them there
was no lack. Our first arrival as the " avant-garde " of the squadron
was a startling event to these poor villagers ; but a stranger sight
was the whole male population of a village ranged along the bank,

VOL. III. <^

72 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

on their hands and knees, and performing " kotow " as onr gnnboats
passed, it would be difficult to witness. Besides this form of respect
and reverence for the Fanqui, they each offered a token of peace and
amity in the shape of a fowl, and here and there some, more fright-
ened than the rest, shouted to the interpreter, Mr. H. N. Lay, " Hail,
great king ! Oh pray be pleased to disembark and reign over us ! "
One man at a village, who I fancy was a Christian convert, improved
upon the proceedings by placing himself on his knees in the position
of adoration, and continued so as long as H.M. gunboat Bustard re-
mained in sight. He, poor fellow, was no doubt anxious to propitiate
the demon that had so suddenly burst upon the quietude of his
Chinese village ; but the application of his Christian teaching was
as original as that of some Sandwich Islanders, who I heard not many
years ago singing the 64th Psalm to soothe a heathen goddess who
presides over their troublesome volcano.

A reach, 3 miles long in a straight line, brought us in sight of the
city of Tientsin, and the salt-heaps or magazines for which the city
is famous commence at the end of this reach, near the remains of an
old ruined tower which once guarded this approach. Owing to my
consort, the Staunch, having grounded in this said reach in trying to
turn under steam, it became my good fortune to enter Tientsin alone
on board the Bustard, commanded by Lieut. Hallowes. The interest
of that forenoon's work, May 26, 1858, will not be easily effaced
from my memoiy. As every fresh point mentioned by Barrow and
Ellis came in sight, I could not but recall with some degree of elation
the altered circumstances under which the British flag now made its
appearance. Then over the craft bearing our Ambassador floated a
flag on which was written the lie that he was bearing tribute to a
Chinese Emperor ; mandarins and rabble indulged in all their im-
pertinences and arrogance ; and whereas then his audience with the
Emperor took place to the air of " subjugation perfected!" by a
Pekin band, it now appeared more than probable that an English
one would shortly be performing " God save the Queen!" in the
same spot. As our tiny craft with her crew of seamen and marines
from the Furious sped on, we came abreast of the huge pyramids of
salt, 100 feet high and 200 feet long, which formed a magnificent
defence, and we naturally hoped to see a gun appear in sight to
add some eclat to our capture of Tientsin. But we looked in vain ;
not an armed man was visible anywhere. We now passed into the
southern suburbs of the city — a long row of dingy hovels, the one
on the eastern shore being the most extensive — or rather I ought to
have said we screwed in between two long rows of human beings,
piled head above head as thick as standing room would admit.

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 73

Astonishment, wonder, and curiosity had mastered all their fears.
Presently we saw a bridge of boats extending across ahead, and
beyond it the river evidently made a sharp bend to the right, whilst
on the left, the mouth of the Great Canal was distinctly visible. We
all cheered with delight ; we felt Tientsin was ours, and that in it
we held, to use the figurative language of Shanghai, the throat of
China! Although the mob officiously opened the bridge and ap-
peared anxious to cheer us onward, I felt it was my duty to take up
a position for sweeping the southern face of the city walls, and as
they were now only a few hundred yards oif, I anchored at the
bridge. Two conspicuous public buildings were visible from the
Bustard; one ahead looked down the reach, which from its importance
we supposed to be the Temple at which, in 1793, Lord Macartney
was met by the Emperor's Legate. This building subsequently
became the abode of the allied Ambassadors. The other was only
seen from the masthead : it was a handsome isolated building on the
plain, about 1200 yards distance from the river ; its gorgeous paint-
ing attracted our attention, and it strangely enough was the place
in which the treaty of Tientsin was eventually signed. It was
named by the Chinese " the Temple of the Glory of the Ocean."

Hardly had our anchor reached the bottom before Chinamen and
boys began to swim ofl* with fowls, eggs, fruit, and vegetables for
sale ; and as our seamen were revelling in a degree of wealth which
was particularly irksome to them, consisting of copper coin captured
in the batteries of Taku, the good folk of Tientsin were not a little
astonished at the wonderful amount of wealth thus strangely pouring
in upon them, and evinced every anxiety to take all possible advan-
tage of it. In the height of the excitement, which our men increased
to fever heat by showering handfuls of cash among the crowd for
a scramble, a midshipman stationed aloft reported that a large body
of Chinese troops were quitting the Temple of the Glory of the
Ocean and marching into the city. The pivot-gun was rapidly
cleared away and pointed over the crowd : the buyers and sellers
became sadly agitated between fear and cupidity. We made signs
that all we required was room enough to fire at their countrymen ;
they appreciated the joke amazingly, cleared a space 50 yards wide
in front of the gun's muzzle, and then sat down to see the fun.
Happily for the retreating soldiery, as well as for the Temple of the
Glory of the Ocean, the Bustard's gun could not be sufficiently ele-
vated to clear the adjacent housetops, and I was unwilling to fire
through them at the mandarins without some provocation, otherwise
it is possible that His Excellency Lord Elgin would not have found
that said temple sufficiently wind and water-tight for those con-

G 2

74 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

ferences, which have eventually led to the glorious treaty of Tientsin
being signed within its walls.

Having sent the boats of the Furious into the Great Canal, to be
able to say that my ship's boats had been the first European ones
to reach the northern end of that remarkable work, a piece of
selfishness for which I hope to be pardoned, I returned in my galley
to meet the Coromandel, bearing the flag of the Commander-in-Chief,
who joined us an hour or two afterwards.

Tientsin consists of a small walled city, built in the form of a
square, each face as nearly as possible a mile long, and each facing
to the four cardinal points of the compass. In the centre of each
of the time-worn walls a single gate opens out, giving only four
outlets, a pretty good proof that it is not a very large place, and
has not a very numerous population. It stands at the angle formed
between the south bank of the Great Canal and the river Peiho,
but its walls are from two to three hundred yards from the water's
edge. Suburbs of some extent lie to the north and west and east,
but on the plain facing the southern wall, few, if any, houses are
seen. These suburbs consist for the major part, as does the city,
of mud-built houses, giving the whole place an appearance of mean-
ness and poverty, little in keeping with the general reputation of
Tientsin for wealth and commercial importance. Previous travellers
have, they say, been always struck with the numbers and busy
character of its population ; we were disappointed in both respects,
but it is possible that the circumstances under which we visited it
may account for the seeming inactivity of the people ashore and
afloat. The population, such as we saw, never exceeded 100,000
souls, yet the residents vowed that there were half a million souls
in Tientsin. All the prodigious floating population had naturally
fled in their boats, and moreover it is quite possible that Tientsin,
like Nijni-Novgorod or other great marts of Eussia and Siberia,
becomes at times densely populated with merchants, boatmen, and
other frequenters of fairs, and often relapses into what we saw it, a
dull, dirty town with no large fixed population, and not exhibiting
(because it does not retain) any of the wealth which is constantly
passing through it.

The streets within the city ran for the most part at right angles
to each other ; in the suburbs they were far more eccentric : all were
excessively ill-kept, and of all the strong-smelling places it has been
my hard fate to visit in this land of strong and foul smells, Tientsin
city and suburbs — streets, houses, and inhabitants — are the most
disagreeable. They seem to be aware of it, and feed largely upon
garlic to master the difficulty ; but to a visitor the odour is perfectly

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 75

capable of giving one nose-ache. All tlie water drank by the in-
habitants is either that of the river or canal, and all day long
thousands of stalwart water-bearers are rushing in and out of the
city on four paved causeways especially intended for that purpose.
This water as it is drawn is full of foreign matter and muddy ; the
Chinese clear it by putting into it a very small quantity of alum — a
practice it became necessary to adopt ourselves, as the river-water,
in its natural state, gave our men diarrhoea. Next to the vast store
of salt which lined the river banks, the wood stores of Tientsin ap-
peared very important and valuable. Acres of ground were covered
with magnificent slabs of beech- wood, most of them 1 00 feet long,
and from 4 to 9 inches thick. This wood enters largely into the
construction of river craft in the province, and, in spite of its ten-
dency to sun-rents, when coated with Chinese varnish, and wetted
twice or thrice a day with water, stands the powerful sun of
Northern China remarkably well. Nearly every house in the sub-
urbs was a shop : those to which we gained admittance were very
well furnished with the products of different parts of China ; articles
from the southern and west provinces — Yunnan, Quantung, and
Fokien, &c. — being dear, showing the want of greater facilities of
interchange. Other articles — such as rattans, canes, peppers, spices,
sugar, &c. — were plentiful ; but they, as well as tea, were in great
demand, and dear. The profits that would have accrued to importers
of all these articles would have been very handsome, and I heard
that it would have taken many cargoes to have glutted the market.
People at home often suppose tea and sugar to be produced all over
China, but as a proof how great must be the demand for sugar
alone in Northern China, I would point out from the Custom-house
records of Shanghai, the following interesting figures, showing
the extraordinary vitality of commerce in China : —

European Imports. — Sugars Imported into Shanghai from Southern China
and the Straits of Malacca.

Sugar Imported. Value

Piculs. Tons. £ sterling.

vessels j

1856. During the entire year ending i 438,004 = 27,395 = 404,-534
June 30th j ' '

1855. None imported by European

vessels

1856. During the entire year ending

June 30th

1857. During an entire year .. .. 529,009 = 33,062 = 751,103

Increase 5,667 = 346,569

I do not deny that it is possible that a portion of this used for-
merly to be imported in native craft, and that it may only be con-
sidered as so much tonnage added to the European carrying trade ;
still it is said that the native vessels visiting Shanghai have in no
wise decreased in number in an equal ratio, which would have

76 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

been the case, had the trade been merely one of transfer from
native to foreign bottoms. Nearly every shop I entered at Tientsin
had some article or other of European manufacture ; sad trash for
the most part, but still high-priced ; indeed I saw more British,
American, and German articles in Tientsin than the shops of Canton
or Shanghai usually exhibited. There being no staple export from
Tientsin, the trade there must be purely an import one ; and from
the profusion of metals we observed here, there could be no diffi-
culty as to purchasing until some products, such as wool, hides,
coals, were brought into the market as a return. All the thousands
of jimks from the south were leaving in ballast, their returns for
grain being silver and copper coin. Considering how severely
China drains our money-market, we shall have every reason to
rejoice if, apart from opium, we can discover some mode of creating
a purely import trade in Northern China to balance the exports of
the South.

Grain is, and must be, the great article of commerce in Tientsin.
Formerly, whilst China was at peace within its borders, the canal
perfect, and communication between her rice-producing districts
and the capital assured, it would have been difficult to have com-
peted with our Indian rice against the Chinese farmer ; but not im-
possible, for be it remembered we import that grain largely into
Canton. But the canal is irredeemably ruined by the Hoang-Ho
Eiver having altered its course. Rebellion, ruin, and misery have
for years prevailed in Central China ; the route by sea has been
voluntarily adopted by the authorities. Our rice is largely bought
up at Shanghai and sent by junks to Tientsin ; as the following
figures will show, we have merely to step in as carriers of that
grain and to cheapen it. The Shanghai import of rice in European
vessels shows the following increase : —

Value
Rice Imported. Value ,p, „^ at Shanghai.

Piculs. InTaels. ^"^^- £ sterling.

Year f ^ year to June 30th.
1856 I ^ year to Dec, 31st.. 110,000 = 220,000 = 7,000 = 7,333

^^^^ { 2nd^ht[/yTar '.'. '.[} 8^4,637 = 1,810,849 = 54,039 = 603,281

Increase in one year .. .. 47,039 = 595,948

And how dire must be the need in Northern China for rice is best
proved by the following facts, which will give some assurance to
the trader of the amount of fair profit he may count upon : —

Dollars, d.

Summer of 1858 , . . , / gl^^ ^l Shanghai = 3 a picul or 2 per lb.
I. ( Rice at Tientsin = 6 „ 4 „

Winter of 1857-1858 .. Rice at Pekin = 12 „ 8 ,,

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 77

The above price at Pekin was, of course, a famine one, but it was
not so at Tientsin, for two-thirds of the grain expected had arrived
safely, and the local harvest of wheat was an average ; yet we saw
hundreds of athletic men starving, and the major portion of the
labourers looked but ill-fed on boiled beans and tares, which wo
should only have fed cattle upon. This trade for the rice of Akyab
and Siam will be the first and readiest opened with Northern China,
apart from her coasting trade ; it will then remain for the Chambers
of Commerce of Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield to bestir them-
selves, by employing active agents to ascertain the wants of these
provinces, and then to strive and produce it letter and cheaper than
they can make it. It is very certain that the commercial houses
now in China are too well satisfied with the rapid fortunes made in
their present course of export trade to speculate in new markets.
People who, in three or four j'cars, can clear 30,000/. in exporting
tea and silks, very justly will object to entering on new lines of
commerce. Our import trade into China must be watched and
fostered from home, or other nations more enterprising and specu-
lative, will monopolize the metallic wealth which lies fallow in the
North of China as it did in the Indies in former days, when all nations
bought and none sold there. American drills and Eussian broad-
cloth were plentiful in Tientsin : the former might have some right
there ; but now that Eussia has become too wise to continue to tax
those of her subjects who drink tea, so as to furnish Chinamen with
cloth cheaper in Pekin than a Eussian can buy it at Moscow, the
fault will be ours if, in Christmas, 1859, a yard of anything but
Yorkshire broadcloth is sold in the province of Chili.

All supplies needed for the table were most abundant at Tientsin ;
sheep, poultry, vegetables, and fruit procurable to any extent. We
ordered beef, and cattle came ; there were occasional laments, on the
paii of the authorities, at our voracious consumption of an animal
so usefal for agricultural purposes, but there was no lack of them.
The following tariff was laid down by the allied Commanders-in-
Chief, in concurrence with the magistrates, as fair market prices ;
and, according to our ideas of money, everything was very cheap.

Tariff of Prices established at Tientsin 28th May, 1858.

Bullocks (average 4 cwt.) 10 dollars = 40s. each.

Sheep 2 dollars = 8s.

Fowls (per dozen) 1 dollar = 4s.

Ducks „ 2 dollars = 8s.

Geese „ 2 dollars = 8s.

Eggs (per 1000) 3 dollars = 12s.

Vegetables (per (picul) cwt.) .... 1 dollar 50 cts. = 6s.

Ice (per cwt.) 200 cash = 2d.

Pigs according to size From 1 dollar 50 cts. = 6s.

Yams (per cwt.) .. 1 dollar = 4s.

Pears and apples (per 100) .... 1 dollar = 4s.

73 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

Tho Peiho River, as will be seen by reference to the enclosed
eye-sketcli of Tientsin, turns sharply off to the right (or to the east)
JTist at the junction of the Great Canal, and then recurves back for
a mile to the westward before the channel again resumes its
northerly and southerly direction. By this strange twist the river
gives a vast increase of water frontage to the city and suburbs.
Immediately opposite to the salient point formed by this sudden
bend, a small canal is seen on the eastern shore, and numbers of
small boats, of a peculiarly flat construction, were daily seen coming
down it laden with grain and millet seed, and then ascending the
Peiho and When-ho Rivers. I believe they came from the city of
Lutai, situated on a stream northward of the Peiho, flowing nearly
parallel to the lower portion of its course, and discharging itself
into the sea about 10 miles north-east of the entrance of the Peiho.
This stream we had early information about, and the junk-sailors
said it was largely used as a place of import for vessels of lighter
draught than those usually ascending the Peiho as high as Tientsin,
and that a canal from Lutai enabled boats to convey the cargoes to
Tientsin and Pekin. After operations commenced, and trade was
totally interrupted in the Peiho, this northern stream was largely
used by the Chinese, and fleets of junks varying from 25 to 50 in
number were constantly counted going in and out of it. For some
reason or other none of the British vessels visited it, but in any
future operations against Pekin the blockade of this stream will be
as necessary as that of the Peiho. Lutai will be found marked in
the map of Chili (or Pe-cheli, as it was then called), drawn by
Arrowsmith, to which I alluded in the first part of these papers.

To return to the Peiho. Abreast the town — indeed, throughout
the whole extent of Tientsin — there was at least 18 feet at low-
water, without a single shoal or obstruction; but, just as the
northern suburb is cleared, an extensive shallow commences, a
mile in extent, having only 6 feet on it at low- water, and about
10 feet at high- water. Just above this flat, a fine canal is seen
to the north-west, spanned by a handsome bridge ; this canal,
we were informed, communicated with the great city of "Ran-
ching " or " Pan-ting." Vast numbers of river-craft were reported
to have escaped up this artificial stream. In Macartney's map this
canal is not marked, or perhaps it has been subsequently con-
structed, although of that I have strong doubts. The river beyond
the canal, and just at the confluence of the When-ho, or Salt River,
deepens suddenly to five fathoms, but does not long remain so, as
the Peiho now commences to assume a totally different character
to what it is below Tientsin. Artificial embankments exist on
either side directly the mouth of the When-ho is passed, especially

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 79

on the eastern hand, and, apart from shallows, the channel is very-
narrow, and turns rapidly from one side to the other. We soon
found it necessary to abandon the Bustard gunboat for one of lighter
draught, the Kestrel, Lieutenant Kason in command. Taking
advantage of high- water, which only gave us from 6 to 7 feet in the
deepest part of a long reach 3 miles above the When-ho, we pushed
past several populous villages, the men and boys in which volun-
tarily turned out to track our boats, or drag at the gunboat's
hawsers. The river was nowhere more than 100 yards broad, in
many places not more than 200 feet, and the difficulties of the navi-
gation increased apace as we advanced. Under these circumstances,
the senior officer decided on not risking the groimding of the gun-
boat where she would not float off until the next spring tides ; we
therefore turned back in our reconnaissance when abreast of the
village named, I believe, " Quam-yin," and about 9 to 10 miles
beyond " Tientsin." At this point there was still a rise of tide of
2 feet 6 inches, and the flood was perceptible. The river was
200 feet broad, with a narrow channel, in which from 8 to 10
feet water existed for a width of 25 feet, equal to about that of a gun-
boat ; the rest of the stream was very shoal. Three fine villages
were in sight, the farthest, a brick-built one, of evident importance.
There was every appearance, in marks upon the river-bank, of
the river being at times much higher than when we saw it, and,
from all I heard, I feel little doubt that, in early spring during
the thaws, and in autumn or summer rains, there would be no
difficulty in one of our small-class gunboats, lightened to 4 feet,
ascending one-third of the way up to Tung-chow, the landing-
place for the city of Pekin, or about 20 miles above Tient-sin,
leaving only 40 miles to be done with rowboats. A boatman of
the Peiho, whom I interrogated through Mr. Lay, said that one-
third of the way between Tientsin and Tung-chow, the river had
deep water in it ; that in the next third it was as deep as up to his
waist, and the rest of the way it was only knee deep. It is true
that, during the time the water in the Peiho is highest, the current
would be strongest ; still that would be no great obstacle with
steam-power and an unlimited amount of manual labour at com-
mand. The country above Tientsin varied in no degree from that
immediately below it. A splendid paved road exists between
Tientsin and Pekin, and in dry weather the whole plain is passable
for carriages, men, or horses. If, at any future time, military opera-
tions against Pekin be necessary, the months of April, May, and
June would be the best to employ. The course of the Peiho
should be followed to Tung-chow for facilities of transport, sup-

80 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

plies, manual labour, aud fresh-water ; depots should be there
established, and the fall of Pekin would be assured with no great
difficulty.

The only general remarks upon Chili that I have to add, are
touching the climate. Nothing could have been more invigorating
and delicious than the weather we experienced throughout April and
May. Europeans could work in the siui with perfect impunity, and
the nights were cold enough to wear blue clothing and to sleep
under a blanket. During June the power of the sun increased very
much, but the nights, particularly on shore, were still very refresh-
ing. Two hot days were, in June, invariably followed by a tornado,
generally coming from the north-west, which cooled the atmosphere
amazingly.

Dry, hot winds from the desert of Kobi were occasionally experi-
enced ; they were not more trying than the siroccos of the Mediter-
ranean, and, provided no violent exertion was called for during
their continuance, which never exceeded more than twelve hours,
no evil ensued.

The following are the maximum and minimum temperatures
registered during 84 days off the Peiho Kiver and in Tient-sin : —

Maximum.

Minimum.

» Fahr.

« Fahr.

Thermometer on board ship, April

.. 68

46

May

.. 74

50

„ on shore June

.. 86

62

„ in the ship July

.. 98

73

During the same period of 84 days — that is, from the 14th April
to the 14th July — the wind prevailed as follows : —

12 days the wind prevailed from North to East.
12 days „ „ North to West.

38 days „ „ South to East.

22 days „ „ South to West.

Just prior to quitting Tientsin the temperature rose to 96°
during the day in the shade, and we thought it very hot ; but when
in a week subsequently we found ourselves gasping in the hot,
steam-like atmosphere of the Yang-ze-kiang, all looked back with
regret to the clear and bracing climate we had left behind us in
Northern China.

At some future day I hope to be able to throw together some
remarks upon the Gulf of Leotong and the Corea, but for the pre-
sent I must draw this long paper to a close with every apology to
the Fellows of the Koyal Geographical Society for having so long
detained them upon a subject of which possibly 1 may have over-
estimated the interest and importance.

Nov. 22, 1858.]

AND THE PEIHO RIVER.

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NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

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AND THE PEIHO RIVER.

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84 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

Off the Peiho River, Gulf of Pecheli, lat. 38° 55' 18" N.; long.Wlo 54' 30'' e.,
distant 8 or 8i miles from the Forts at the entrance of the River, in 22 ft.
at low water.

From this positiou tlie land about the entrance of the river is just visible
from a ship's deck in fine weather ; and with a glass the forts (since destroyed)
and a joss-house in the village are easily distinguished — the joss-house
N. 68° w,, and fort n. 60° w., true. The bottom is a mixture of sand and mud,
and holds well ; but a strong breeze causes a very disturbed sea, and no doubt
the heavy winter gales would render a more sheltered spot desirable.

The river itself is barred by a shallow bank of sand, mud, and in some
places small stones, extending completely across its mouth, and having at low
water spring-tides no more than 2 feet over it in any part. The rise and fall
at spring-tides is about 9 feet ; therefore a vessel drawing 10 ft. 8 in. might
safely cross the bar at the highest springs, and in July, under favourable cir-
cumstances as to wind, &c., 1 ft. more might accomplish it, as the south-west
monsoon, when fairly set in, appears to increase the depth to that amount.

Strangers entering should examine the bar at low water, when the remains
of old bamboo -beacons used by the Chinese junks will be seen, and serve as
the best guides to the channel. By using these no difficulty will be expe-
rienced until the water begins to deepen, when the ripple on the banks on
either side will be a safe guide right to the entrance.

The time of high- water in April, at full and change, was 4^ 8"", but in
July 3^ 30" ; and the highest tide generally happened on the second and third
days after new or full moon.

The most water ever actually measured by me on the bar was 11 ft. ; but
from the Eegister of Tides kept oh board the ship, allowing for the difference
of depth, T find as much as 12 ft. in July. The tides near the entrance run
very strong nearly across the course at the first of the bar, but more fairly
in, when farther advanced, the flood running to the northward and ebb to the
southward, changing with the change of tide. When once the rising has com-
menced, it continues very rapidly, and the slack is of very short duration. A
vessel of 10 ft. draught should therefore be prepared to start at a full hour
before high-water time, so as to ensure not missing the greatest depth, as the
tide commences to fall fully an hour before it ceases running up between the
forts.

Eunning from the Straits of Mia-Tao for the anchorage off the Peiho River,
a w.N.w. course was found to carry several ships a considerable distance to the
Bouthward — so much so that they arrived steering n.n.w., and even n., to the
anchorage. This I attribute to a constant southerly set ; it was observed
more particularly during the time of the north-east monsoon, and may possibly
not exist at all times.

During the passage across from Mia-Tao soundings will be obtained the
whole distance, and will give sufficient warning of the approach to land to
prevent running into danger.

The Sha-lin-tien islands and banks were not examined by us ; but the joss-
house on the centre of the eastern island was seen, and being distinctly visible
eight or ten miles off, would serve, as a very good landfall to direct to the
anchorage.

During the north-east monsoon a day seldom passes without a strong breeze ;
and although none were experienced during our stay sufficient to cause
anxiety as to the ship's anchorage, great difficulty was experienced by boats in
getting back to their ships : they should therefore always be provided for a
day or two of absence.

These strong breezes ^ame on sometimes very suddenly, a,nd were not con-

Nov; 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 85

fined to any quarter, changing without warning from south-east to north-west,
and blowing at a force of 7. After the month of May, or when the south-west
monsoon had fairly set in, the weather became much more settled, sea-breezes,
or those from east and south-east, setting in soon after noon, and continuing
until the next morning.

Generally south-east, south-west, and westerly winds carry the lowest
barometer, and north-west and northerly the highest.

Stephen Court, Master k.n.,
H. M. S. Furious.

The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to Captain Sherard Osborn,
said : We always receive any *' stray leaves " which come from our friend
Captain Osborn with gratitude ; and I am quite sure that he has never sent
any communication to us, whether from the Arctic regions or the Sea of Azof,
which has excited greater interest among the Fellows of the Geographical
Society than this vivid and striking description of the bay and river which
lead to the metropolis of China. There are, I know, persons present who are
well capable of throwing additional light upon the subject.

Capt. W. H. Hall, r.n., f.r.g.s. — I may just mention that I was in the
Gulf of Pecheli, when a youngster, in the Ijyra, and that I quite coincide with
all that Capt. Sherard Osborn has said of that interesting part of China ; in
fact, 1 have been much gratified and edified in hearing such a good account of
that part of China from one who has gone over the same ground as myself. I
certainly did not go up the river ; but as a midshipman, with Lord Amherst's
embassy, 1 entered the mouth of the Peiho in a boat, and I was glad to find
that the last expedition got up so much farther than we did, and that they
did so much good service.

Mr. Wm. Lockhart, f.r.g.s. — -With much pleasure I have heard the paper
read from Captain Osborn, and I hope it will be the prelude to many papers of a
similar kind regarding the north part of China, which has hitherto been an
entirely unknown region. It is to be hoped, now that we are about to have
large intercourse with the coast of China, that it will be one of the first efforts
of our Government to institute an inquiry into the nature of that coast. We
have no good charts, and there are no means of forwarding commercial enter-
prises beyond Shanghai. There are imperfect charts of some portions of the
coast ; and it is of great importance that the whole coast should be carefully
investigated. As to the Gulf of Tartary — a very important region — we
know little about it ; for when our ships were there in 1856 there was
little time or opportunity for extensive surveys to be made. It was with great
{)leasure I heard the remarks of Captain Osborn as to the increasing trade of
Shanghai. It is astonishing that within fifteen or sixteen years so much
should have been done in that place. When we went there in 1843 there was
nothing on the banks of the river but a few mud-hovels and shipyards. Now
it is an extensive and handsome city of ]3alaces, along the edge of the river for
about a mile or a mile and a half.

This place, with Fu-chow for black tea — Shanghai being for silk and
green tea — and the lar^e town Han-kow, up the Yang-ze-kiang, for the
sale of European goods, will be the three important places for foreign trade
in future. It is true we have access, or shall have access, in the next
year to large portions of China, especially on the northern coast, which we
have hitherto not visited. But the other ports in the north of China are of
little commercial consequence compared with these three places. Fu-chow
was at one time of little importance ; but in consequence of the disturbances
in the south of China, consequent upon the breaking out of the rebellion,
immense quantities of black tea for exportation have been sent to that i)lace.
Shanghai, from the time of our British merchants going there, has ever been

86 NOTES UPON THE GULF OF PECHELI, [Nov. 22, 1858.

of growing Importance. Captain Sherard Osborn's account of the silk trade
there is quite within the limits. These two places, with the addition of Han-
kow, are the three important points of China for foreign trade. Canton may-
regain for some years much of its ancient renown as a place of trade, but it
will never be the important place it was some years ago. Access to Tien-tsin
and Pekin is of great political importance, but the new consular ports of Nun-
chang in Manchuria, Tang- chow in the province of Shantung, Swatow in
Canton province, Kung-chow in Hainan, and Taewin-fu in Formosa, will
probably never have any very great and important trade. There may be one
or two ships go to them occasionally, but the three places I have named
— Shanghai, Fu-chow, and Han-kow — will be the great points of export
from China. Han-kow has not been visited by Captain Osborn, nor by any
foreigner ; but when we get more intercourse with China, it will, I think, be
a most important place. The reason we suppose it to be so important is,
from the accounts we receive from the native merchants, who we know
resort there in large numbers.

One other point that I may allude to is the northern mouth of the Yellow
River. I am glad to hear Captain Osborn bear witness to the truth of some
remarks that 1 made upon this point last session to the Society. It is interest-
ing to find that other observers going to that region have noticed this extra-
ordinary change in the course of the Yellow Kiver — that, instead of flowing
into the Yellow Sea, it goes to the north of the Shangtung promontory, and
falls into the Gulf of Pecheli. As I said before, it is one of the most extra-
ordinary changes that have ever taken place in modern days in so large a river.
It is astonishing that so extensive a stream should be diverted from its course,
and pass two hundred miles to the northward. I think the Chinese will have
to incur great expense in building up the banks of the Yellow Kiver, for it
cannot possibly remain in its present state without great loss to the country.
It is not merely that the stream is diverted, but the consequence is, that much
of the level ground of the provinces of Chi-li and Shantung is under water at
the present time, forming an extensive marsh, and is thrown out of cultivation.
This loss of arable land has been a great loss to the whole of that district.
The district is hilly, and the Yellow River having broken over the plains,
the inhabitants have very little ground left to cultivate. When the present
rebellion is put down, one of the first things that the Chinese will have to
carry out will be a series of engineering works on the banks of this river, so as
to compel it to return to its former course. It cannot be allowed to fill up
the Gulf of Pecheli with its deposits. That gulf being the road to Pekin, the
Chinese themselves will be very anxious to keep it open ; and certainly if the
Yellow River continue to flow into the Gulf, it will shoal it up, and make it
a broad plain. That will be very undesirable for the welfare and prosperity
of Pekin, which depends essentially upon the river for the whole of its rice,
which is brought from the south of China to the north. The voyage from
Shanghai to the mouth of the Peiho is made by sea-going junks ; and in con-
sequence of the Grand Canal being stopped up by the rebels, the, Chinese have
had to send large quantities of grain by sea. They consider this very unde-
sirable ; and no doubt as soon as possible they will reinstate the passage of
the Grand Canal, which has been blocked up in many places, and so prevented
the rice-junks from going along its channel for the last five or six years.
These two circumstances have greatly interfered with the prosperity of northern
China, and the people have been greatly reduced in their circumstances in con-
sequence of the high price of grain. It is true, as Captain Osborn remarks,
that immense quantities are shipped to the north every year, but the expense
of carriage, either by canal as formerly, or by sea as at the present time, is
so great that, instead of costing two dollars, as at Shanghai, a ])icul — wbich is
133 lbs. — it costs from ten to fifteen at Pekin. By and by probably great use

.Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE PEIHO RIVER. 87

will be made of foreign ships in carrying this rice to Pekin as soon as peace is
thoroughly restored. I am very glad to have heard from Captain Osboi'n
that he has ascertained something more aboiTt the northern branch of the
Yellow Kiver than we previously knevv^ I "hope in the course of a little time,
as our ships and men-of-war are eifatled to survey the coast, that we may
gain some exact information as to the point where the mouth of the Yellow
lliver exists. At present we do not know where it falls into the sea, beyond
the mere fact that its present or northern mouth is somewhere between the
outlet of the Pei-ho and the promontory of Shantung.

The President. — The Society has doubtless heard with much satisfaction,
from a person so well acquainted with the resources of China as Mr. Lockhart,
so clear an explanation of what we may expect as the result of our treaty
of commerce with the Chinese. Engineers will really have stout work if
such an operation is to be attempted as the restoration of the ancient course
of the Yellow Piiver, which, owing to the neglect of the government, has
broken its bounds and changed its course by flowing to the north.

In summing up what had been brought forward respecting China, the Pre-
sident stated that, if time had permitted, some very valuable extracts from the
MSS. of the late Captain Parish, r.a., who had accompanied Lord Macartney's
celebrated expedition to Pekin, would have been read. Sir Woodbine Parish
had thoughtfully forwarded these documents of his relative, including illus-
trative sketches, of which Sir G. Staunton had made great use in his well-
known work.

The Second Paper read was —

2. On the Search for Leichhardt, and the Australian Desert. By the
Eev. W. B. Clarke, of Sydney, m.a., f.r.g.s.

The last letter from Leichhardt was dated " Mount Abundance,
April 4th, 1848." Since then two expeditions have found traces which
are considered to have referred to him. The one expedition was that
of Mr. Hely in 1852, and the other that of Mr. Gregory in 1858.

Mr. Hely found two camps 150 miles from Mount Abundance,
each of them marked with the cypher XV. A., enclosed within a
rude border of bent lines that bore some resemblance to a letter L.,
and which he interprets as indicating " Leichhardt, April 15."
He also heard from the natives of the neighbourhood that Leichhardt
was murdered at that very place.

Mr. Gregory found remains that he concluded to be those of
Leichhardt 80 to 100 miles farther towards the interior than Hely's
camps, and, as such, to refute the report of his previous death at
the latter place. The remains consisted of an L cut upon a tree
by a camp ; of the marks of sharp axes ; of some saplings that had
been cut with them ; and of two horses running wild.

The object of Mr. Clarke is to show that neither the discoveries
of Mr. Hely nor those of Mr. Gregory have any reference to the
camps or fate of Leichhardt.

VOL. III. U

*gg ON THE SEARCH FOR LEICHHARDT, [Nov. 22, 1858.

In the first place, lie argues that Leichhardt could not have
reached Hely camp on the 15th of August. The rate of his pre-
vious joumeyings, and that of other travellers in the same country,
as Mitchell, Kennedy, and even Gregory, make it highly impro-
bable that 1 50 miles of direct distance could have been accomplished
by him in 11 days.

Again, the country north-east of Mount Abundance had been
visited as far back as 1847, by many persons on the look out for
cattle runs, and the trees were known to bear marks of an M and
also of an H, and Leichhardt himself speaks of having found an
L on the Balonne. The axe marks are to be accounted for by the
fact of Kennedy having given axes to the natives thereabouts ; and,
if the saplings had not been cut by Kennedy himself, it is to be
remembered that, according to Mitchell, the natives of those parts
use saplings for the construction of their own huts. The loose
horses found by Gregory in Cooper Creek are ascribed by Mr.
Clarke to Captain Sturt's expedition. That explorer relates that he
turned out a roan horse that was unfit for further work " in pity "
at this very spot, and also that, 145 miles farther on, another horse
stole away from his party (as the same animal had often done
before), and Mr. Clarke thinks it must have tracked its way back
to the excellent pasturage where its roan companion had been left
behind.*

Mr. Clarke considers it questionable whether Leichhardt went
to the Victoria at all. His method of travelling, which was cautious,
slow, and persevering, makes it likely enough that when he actually
came to the frightful desert he would have skirted it, looking out for
an opening, rather than have attempted to cross it at once. Mr.
Clarke concludes that it is somewhere between the head of the Yic-
toria and the head of the Clarke that Leichhardt's tracks are to be
looked for, not probably on Mitchell's route, but to the westward of
it, or else that, driven in by drought, Leichliardt may have taken a
course on the 148th meridian, without crossing the Maranoa.

Captain Byron Drury, r.n,, f.r.g.s. — Upon tins subject perhaps I may
be permitted to say that I happened to be present when we took possession of
the whole of that part of the coast of North Australia. We found it was one
of the finest districts in Australia; and I must say that I think PortEssington,
with the exce])tiou of Fort Jackson, the finest harbour in Australia. I was
there during eighteen months, and we never had the slightest disease or illness in
our two ships' companies. I have heard that port cried down, 1 am sorry to
say, by my late friend Captain Stanley and others ; but from what I have
seen of it, I perfectly agree with the late Sir Gordon Bremer, that there is not
a place on the north coast of Australia better adapted for Europeans, in addi-

What were the colours of the horses seen by Mr. Gregory ? — F. G.

Nov. 22, 1858.] AND THE AUSTRALIAN DESERT. 89

tion to the advantage of possessing a perfect harbour, with a peninsula, the
neck of which is only eight miles in width. Why we have not retained pos-
session of that coast is to me extraordinary. I entirely agree with my friend
Sir Charles Nicholson about Cape York ; and, putting the Gulf of Carpentaria
on one side, I must say I think Port Essington the best site along the whole
coast. It is well watered for Australia. Had we not been there in 1838 two
French frigates would probably have taken possession of it. They arrived
two months after us. We held it for twelve years, and then abandoned it.
The proved advantage of Cape York as a place of refuge for the frequent
wrecks among the Barrier Keefs and Torres Straits is, among other considera-
tions, of great importance.

Rear- Admiral FitzRoy, f.r.g.s. — May I venture to remark that this seems
to be one of those great questions that might fairly be taken up by the
Government. I apprehend that the exploration of Australia has never yet
been undertaken in a thoroughly efficient manner. There has been the utmost
daring, energy, perseverance, and good management on the part of those
engaged, but the undertakings have been in detail rather than comprehensive,
and by comparatively private expeditions.

How strange it would appear to an Arabian or an African if we were to ask
him to undertake an excursion across the vast deserts of Africa with ponies or
horses, or even bullocks ! How is it that we have never taken the camel —
"the ship of the desert" — from those countries where it is indigenous, and
transported it to those of our colonies which are in such want of it ? We have
in Australia an enormous extent of country which in all probability is a com-
parative desert. There may be steppes, there may be a great inland sea —
perhaps fresh, perlmps salt — who can say with certainty ? The probability is
that there are no very high ranges of mountains, and no very great rivers, but
a great extent of barren and unfertile country, with perhaps an extent of inland
water. No desert has yet been found in any part of the world in which there
is not an oasis. There may be such a space in the interior of Australia — not
only a fertile and valuable district, but one in which there may be tribes who
have never yet seen the white man. When we consider that we have hundreds
of thousands of our countrymen spread round the borders of that continent
(for such it is), surely it is worth urging the Government to undertake an
expedition into the interior upon a scale worthy of this great country.

It may be naturally asked, how should it be done ? One very simple course
occurs to me — somewhat military it may be — that of first establishing a base
of operations as far within the country as one can yet go with security, and
making there a temporary settlement, perhaps for two or three years ; and
then from that basis working inwards.

One expedition might be set on foot from the eastern coast, another from
the south, another from the west, and another from the north — all carried out
under Government, by experienced colonists, with such aids as I have alluded
to, particularly the camel — emphatically, I repeat, " the ship of the desert."
Apologising for this interruption, I conclude by earnestly pressing for the
introduction of the camel to Australia.

Lord A. Churchill, f.r.g.s. — 1 would venture to make one or two ob-
servations with regard to the great importance which would result to this
country, and to the whole of the Australian continent, from the formation
of a succession of settlements on the north-east coast. I believe the region
in question would be found very favourable for the production of the
cotton-plant. I am told it has been known to flourish there, and can be
produced in sufficient quantities to supply the English market, and from its
peculiar nature likely to bear a high value. It must, therefore, be a matter
of the highest concern to this country to be enabled by means of these
settlements to secure the production of cotton for ourselves, and thus in some

H 2

90 ON'THE SEARCH FOR LEICHHARDT, [Nov. 22, 1858.

measure render us icdependent of the United States. There are other articles
natural to a tropical climate which might be cultivated to great advantage in
these provinces ; and the climate moreover is well adapted to European con-,
stitutions. Therefore I think it is a question which ought to be taken up by
the Imperial Government.

Dr. Hodokin, f.r.g.s. — I do not expect to add anything to tlie interesting
remarks made by gentlemen who have been upon the spot, but I cannot allow
the opportunity to pass without calling attention to one point. I have been
informed by a friend, who spent some time on the northern coast of Australia,
in the vicinity of Cape York, that many wrecks occur in that neighbourhood ;
and his statements have been corroborated this evening by Captain Drury.
Considering the number and value of the shipping in that sea, independently
of the productions to be obtained from the land, it must be highly important
to take advantage of the natural harbours to be found on that part of the
coast, where vessels and th(3ir crews might be saved in case of injury or distress.

Mr. J. Crawford, f.r.g.s. — I believe I can with confidence assert, that the
alleged fertility at Cape York, or at any place in its neighbourhood, is an
impossibility — for this reason : there is no range of mountains, and hence no
fall of rain, and consequently no adequate means of irrigation. Irrigation, or
an abundant supply of water within ten or twelve degrees of the equator, is
indispensable to fertility : the most fertile land is unproductive without water,
and water for perennial irrigation does not exist about Cape York. Horned
cattle may be reared on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, but there is no
market for them. Sheep could not thrive there, and they would produce hair,
or something like it, instead of wool, and that would be unsaleable. Besides,
where are the labourers to cultivate the soil ? No European constitution could
stand the heat so near the equator ; and as to the Chinese, they have too
much good sense to go there as long as they can get to the gold-fields. As
to Port Essington, that was abandoned eight or nine years ago on account of
its insalubrity. The harbour may be good, but the climate is so unhealthy
that no European could live there ; and such being the result of long expe-
rience, the settlement was abandoned by the Government.

Captain Byron Drury. — I do not know where Mr. Crawfurd obtained his
information, but I lived at Port Essington eighteen months, and I can say
that we grew every tropical X)roduction in the greatest luxuriance. We had ponds
of water about there ; and during an excursion of ten days into the interior we
found water wherever we went. I do not mean to say that water is as
abundant as in New Zealand, but we found continuous streams ; and as to
fertility, we raised enough to supply us in two months after we arrived there.
I will give another instance of the productiveness of the country. When Sir
Stamford Raffles left this settlement, Captain Barker turned out some cattle.
In 1838, when we went there, and a party of us penetrated thirty miles into
the country, we found a quantity of oxen wallowing in swamps ; and now
there are wild horses. How could they live without water ? — and yet there they
were living and prospering, especially the cattle.

Mr. Trelawny Saunders. — I think the best answer to Mr. Crawfurd is
the statement of Flinders, who, when he explored the Gulf of Carpentaria,
expressed his surprise at finding an abundance of surface water at the end of
the dry season. Leichhardt also stated that during his long journey around
the Gulf, his cattle, far from being generally in want of water or vegetation,
fattened as they went along the road. A recent traveller has told us that the
country presented a dismal appearance, covered as it was with long dry grass,
burnt here and there by the natives. The gentleman must have forgotten
that the dried grass was once green, and that its growth had been fostered in
the proper season by sufficient moisture. Against the evidence of Flinders,
Leichhardt, and Stokes, I think Mr. Crawfurd's opinions must give way. I

Kov. 22, 1858.] AND THE AUSTRALIAN DESERT. §1

went away from a former meeting grieved to think that Mr. Gregory's report
would tend to hinder the settlement of Northern Australia. This paper of
Mr. Clarke's has revived my hopes as to the early colonisation of the country
round the Gulf of Carpentaria. Let it be recollected that the two expeditions
sent out to connect the northernmost bend of the Barcu Kiver with the
bottom of the Gulf of Carpentaria failed, not from the difficulties of the country,
Tbut from the failure of provisions ; for Sir Thomas Mitchell describes the
country to the northward of the Barcu as the finest he had seen in the whole
of Australia.

The Peesident. — The discussion has somewhat diverged from the point at
which we started — the expedition in search of the remains of Leichhardt.
I rejoice, however, that it has taken this turn, because it has brought
forward my friend Mr. Crawfurd, who, upon certain subjects connected with
North Australia, may be called our " objector-general." His objections are
indeed always of great use, and on this occasion they have elicited from gentle-
men who have lived upon the spot, that this very region, which ipy friend
stigmatises as unfertile, and not fitted for the maintenance of sheep and the
growth of wool, is in the highest degree productive, well- watered, and adapted
for the sustenance of sheep as well as cattle. I regret that Sir John Pakington,
one of Her Majesty's Ministers most interested in this discussion, so far as it
regards the establishment of a great naval depot in the northern part of Aus-
tralia, should have left the room just as we were beginning to debate that
point. To me indeed it is not a new subject. In the years 1844 and 1845,
when I was your President, I argued earnestly for the establishment of a
.great naval entrepot upon that coast ; and I supported with all the energy in
my power the enlightened views of Admiral Sir Gordon Bremer, a most
experienced navigator in those seas. I have long thought that Great Britain
ought not to hold three sides of the great continent of Australia without
having on its northern frontier any one settlement. Provided only a port be
established, it is unimportant to me whether it be at Cape York or Port
Essington ; though, if I were consulted, I should like to see a settlement
established also in Cambridge Gulf, which is well watered by the Victoria
River, navigable for some distance, where our men were encamped for eight
months, enjoying perfect health, and where the wool of the sheep did not
deteriorate; these animals having been pastured up to their knees in gravSS.
Judging from the experience of Gregory's expedition, I feel certain that
Englishmen could live there to their own advantage, as well as to that of the
mother country. I rejoice indeed that gentlemen who have resided in
Australia are ready to enforce the necessity of establishing some great entre-
pots, particularly as ports of refuge, to provide against the possibility of these
seas being swept by a hostile fleet ; for with the knowledge that the French
have now occupied and settled New Caledonia, with its splendid natural bays
and harbours, which were discovered and named by our own Cook, it is abso-
lutely essential that we should be better prepared.

9^ NOTES ON THE RIVER AMCr. [Dec. 13, 1858.

Third Meeting, December loth, 1858.

Sir KODERICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Earl Stanhope, the Rev. N, Lewis, and Messrs.
J. A. Mucker, G. M. M. Esmeade, and Conway M. Shipley, were presented
upon their election.

Elections. — Colonel J. A. Hazelius, Chief of the Topographical Corps
of Sioeden, as a Corresponding Member ; Capt. C. Cornwallis Chesney,
r.e. ; Captain E. MoncMon Jones ; Rev. William J. Edge, m.a. ; James
Allan ; Henry Blackett ; Henry Collinson ; William Davies ; Pascoe St. Leger
GrenfeU I Charles Lewell, Phil. Dr.; Francis Lyne ; A. Henderson
Mac Doug all ; J. Sydney Stopford ; and J. J. W. Watson, Esqrs., were
elected Fellows.

The Papers read were : —

1. Notes on the River Amur and the adjacent Districts. By MM.
Peschurof, Vasilief, Radde, Usoltzof, Pargachefski, &c.

The Paper read before the Society consists of a large collection of
extracts from a series of reports made to the Imperial Geographical
Society of Russia. They were written by the leaders of the various
expeditions which had been despatched to explore the Valley of the
Amur, its tributaries, and adjacent districts.

It will be recollected that the Amur is the most valuable river
of Northern Asia, and the only one that connects its central steppes
with the rest of the world. It is navigable, with trifling interrup-
tions, from the Pacific, by the Sea of Okotsk, to the very foot of the
Yablonnoi range, and it appears that a very small amount of road
and canal would suffice to open a communication between that point
and the Baltic by way of the Selenga River and Lake Baikal. A
certain amount of commerce is already being carried on upon the
waters of the Amiir. American products and manufactures find
their way to Irkutsk, and salted meat from the trans-Baikal provinces
is exported in exchange. Russian immigrants are beginning to
settle along its banks among the ten tribes (some partly settled,
others entirely nomad) that have hitherto occupied the soil.
Taking, as a whole, the accounts of the various travellers whose
communications have been incorporated into the present paper, it
would appear that the Amiir is within — but only just within — a
climate admitting of agricultural fertility and pastoral wealth. The
summer is fine, but winter is extremely rigorous, and the natural
vegetation of the land consists alone of the hardiest plants. Farther

•Dec. 13, 1858.] EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. 93

to the north the climate becomes rapidly more unendurable ; but,
on the other hand, a genial climate and a new flora are soon reached
on travelling to the southward.*

Captain R. Collinson, f.r.g.s. — I have not visited the country watered
by the Amur, and therefore I approach the subject with some degree of
trepidation, for I always like to see a thing before I speak about it. But as
you have called me up, I must say that 1 have perused with a great deal of
pleasure the papers which have been intrusted to me by the Council for pub-
lication in the Transactions of the Society, and I cannot help expressing my
admiration of the able manner in which this exploration of a hitherto unknown
country has been carried out. We may feel some national jealousy at the
acquisition of so large a territory by a power which is already so predominant
in Europe and Asia, but as geographers, in our special capacity, we must
rejoice that this territory is now open to civilised occupation. From what I
have read, and from what I have seen, it offers an admirable position for those
who wish to colonise : it has everything that is required for the making of a
great country. I also may say that although a stern winter visits it, yet it
has undoubted capabilities for the production of corn, the great staple of our
maintenance, and the vine which rejoices us ; so that I think the country
will prove a most valuable acquisition to the world in general. And although
it has not fallen to our province to administer the functions of government
in it, yet I cannot but think that this highway being opened into Central Asia
will afford a great opening to British commerce.

The President. — This subject is so peculiarly interesting to Eussia as
well as to ourselves, that my distinguished friend his Excellency Baron
Brunnow would have been here had he not been prevented by illness. That
circumstance alone may be taken as the expression of a wish on the part of
Russia to co-operate with the interests of British commerce. Without inflicting
on you, gentlemen, any more observations of my own, I will refer those of
you who wish to know more of my sentiments on the Amur question, to
the 2nd volume, page 277, of our Proceedings, where, in my last *' Annual
Address," I endeavoured to bring to your notice the great importance of this
noble river.

The second Paper read was : —

2. Explorations in Ecuador in 1856-7. By Mr. G. J. Pkitchett.

Communicated by W. Bollaert, Esq., f.r.g.s.

The interest lately excited towards Ecuador by the adjudication
of 4 J millions of acres of its land to satisfy the claims of foreign
creditors makes any information about this country the more
acceptable.

The limits of the republic were not accurately defined at the
time of the separation of Old Columbia into the three republics of
Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela ; and, again, the frontier on
the side of Brazil and Peru is at the present moment under dispute.

* See also Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ii. p. 153. — ^Ed.

94 EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. [Dec. 13, 1858.

Ecuador is intersected by the Andes, and, therefore, its centre
division being on a high level, has a comparatively temperate
climate, and is the seat of the piincipal tov^^ns ; v^hile the low east
and west divisions are covered almost entirely by luxuriant forest,
a small part indeed of which has been rescued from the dominion
of the monkey and the wild boar. Guayaquil is the principal port
of Ecuador. The route from it to Quito lies for the first 60 or 60
miles up a river whose mouth is 60 miles from Guayaquil. On
leaving the river at Bodegas the arrangements for land traffic are so
miserable that goods are occasionally detained twelve months in
that town for want of means of transport. The route from Bodegas
to Quito passes the Andes near Ohimborazo, rising by a series of
lower ridges through a beautiful variety of scenery, but the risks
and difficulties of commercial traffic along it are enormous. Quito
has some fine buildings, as a cathedral, churches, convents, and
colonnades, all of the 16th century, and there are noble views of
the snow-topped Andes from the high ground above the city.

As the road from Guayaquil is so circuitous and beset by natural
difficulties, Mr. Pritchett started to explore another straight down
to the sea-coast, and went by the side of the Mira Eiver, through
uncleared forest, and ultimately by canoes along the Cachabi Eiver,
to the port of La Tola, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Pailon. This port has been surveyed and reported on very favour-
ably, and a road to it was actually commenced many years ago, but
afterwards was neglected and allowed to become overgrown.

Mr. Pritchett returned to Quito by another route, and thence
made a trip to the Bark country between the province of Cuenca
and the River Amazon. Lastly, he went from Quito to Canelos by
the north side of the Pastaza River, a tributary of the Amazon,
which is navigable for 300-ton steamers to within 150 miles of
Quito, so that capital may be said to be more accessible on the
Atlantic side than by way of the Pacific. Mr. Pritchett here met
Mr. Spruce, an English botanist, and records his notes upon the
climate, &c., of Canelos. He described the wet and dry seasons as
fused together : thus there is rarely a day all the year round on the
upper Rio Negro without both sunshine and rain. The climate is
remarkably healthy ; he asserted that one may travel all day soaked
with rain, and sleep at night on the damp ground with little pro-
tection without suffering from the exposure. There are traces of
gold everywhere on the lower slopes of the Andes towards the east,
and the mountain Llanganate is especially mentioned as worthy of
exploration. There are many traditions of its wealth.

At present there is a monthly line of Brazilian steamers on the

Dec. 13, 1858.] EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. 95

Amazon to Nauta, a place within the limits of Ecuador ; and Mr.
Pritchett adds, it would be well were it generally known how little
a settler in so mild a climate has to go through before he is in pos-
session of all the requisites of a comfortable home. Mr. Pritchett
lays much stress on the cotton-producing capabilities of Ecuador,
and thinks that this torpid and roadless country, so little known and
almost wholly neglected, is fully as capable of a prosperous develop-
ment as any other on the Pacific shore of South America.

Mr. C. R. Markham, f.r.g.s. — It appears to me that the most important
fact which is mentioned in this paper is with reference to the position of the
city of Quito ; that it is more accessible from the Atlantic, though distant
3000 miles, than it is from the Pacific, which is only about 90 miles from it
in a direct line. The extraordinary productions of the forests of Ecuador —
the gums, resins, wax, sarsaparilla, bark, cotton, cocoa, and numerous other
valuable products — may be brought to the Atlantic, by means of the Amazon,
with the greatest possible ease. These products are now lying waste in the
forests, though so close to the Pacific ; whereas if steamers, which are now
navigating the Amazon from its mouth to Nauta in Peru, were allowed to go
up the Pastaza or Napo to Ecuador, they might bring all these products down
to the Atlantic. I scarcely agree with Mr. Pritchett that Ecuador has more
resources than Peru. I believe that Peru has ten times as many resources
as Ecuador in every way, especially in its mineral productions, all of which
might also be brought down by these rivers. It has abundant supplies of
copper and silver ; and, above all, the alpaca wool, which is grown on the
punas of the Andes, quite within reach of rivers navigable by steamers to the
Atlantic. Nauta, which Mr. Pritchett mentions as being in the republic of
Ecuador, is actually in the republic of Peru. Ecuadorians claim it, but pos-
session is said to be nine points of the law, and it is actually in the possession
of Peru. I know the governor of Nauta, and I hear that there is a war
threatened between Ecuador and Peru about this very boundary. I trust that
the two governments may act amicably, and that both states will combine
to waft their products to the Atlantic by means of that magnificent river —
the Amazon.

Mr. G. J. Pritchett. — The gentleman who has just spoken has alluded
with some surprise to the comparison made between the resources of Ecuador
and those of Peru, and expressed doubts as to the possibility of the products
of the eastern slopes of the Cordillera of those countries being conveyed with
greater facility to the Atlantic, a distance of 3000 miles, than to the Pacific,
which is less than 100. As the experiment has already been made by a line of
Brazilian steamers on the river Amazon, which carry produce from these pro-
vinces, and whether in the upward or downward passage are always full, it may
be inferred that the facilities referred to already exist. These steamers were
expected, when first established by the Brazilian government, to be an annual
expense to the country, but experience has shown that a source of revenue
has been acquired, and a great benefit to the nation obtained. As Peru gained
its independence several years before Ecuador, and has had the advantage of
much more intercourse with foreigners, it is not surprising that it is much
more known and developed. It has benefited immensely also by the efiect
that its different mining districts have had in the formation of roads. Its
mines have also been most extensively worked both before and after the inde-
pendence. All these things have forwarded and assisted in the development
of its resources. Yet enough has been discovered of Ecuador, in spite of the
great difficulties attending research and exploration, to induce the inference

VOL. III. I

96 EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. [Dec. 13, 1858.

that it is a country of surprising wealth as regards the products of its forests.
Cocoa, coffee, cotton, cinnamon, ishpingo, ginger, gums, resins, hark, sarsa-
parilla, vanilla, and indigo, are all indigenous. The timber of large size, and
suitable for all sorts of useful purposes, may be brought to market both from
the eastern and western slopes. With these advantages, all that seems required
to consummate the progress and ultimate civilization of Ecuador are good
ports for the shipment of her products. Guayaquil is her present and prin-
cipal port ; there is another farther north, which has been surveyed by Captain
Kellett, called the Pailon, or Cauldron of Saint Peter (San Pedro). On account
of the want of a good road, it has never been used; but from its perfect
suitability, and greater proximity to the capital, the Pailon will probably in
a few years be the focus of Ecuadorian commerce.

Before I sit down it should be mentioned, that although during the Spanish
rule no mines were worked in this country, yet it may be relied on that
Canelos, the Napo, and Macas (on the eastern slope of the Cordillera), are not
only extensive, but most valuable gold fields. Very fine specimens of ruby
silver have been met with, and also in its native state.

Mb. J. Geestenberg. — The gentleman who doubts the practicability of
making the navigation of the Amazon available, because it would necessitate
transporting the products of Ecuador a distance of three thousand miles, forgets
that the question depends upon the cost of conveyance. Three thousand miles
of navigation may be in itself inexpensive, whilst the short route by land to
the Pacific, recommended by the gentleman, runs over the stupendous
mountain ridges of the Andes, presenting insuperable physical difficulties,
besides an enormous exf»ense. Should a proper road be constructed for tra-
vellers, it may admit of the conveyance of the precious metals, and such other
valuable and light articles in respect of which cheapness of transport is less
important than expedition.* The gentleman has mentioned that Nauta at
present belongs to Peru. It is in its possession, it is true. That gentleman
says possession is nine points of the law, but it appears at the present moment
that Peru claims an immense tract of land northward and westward, even to
Papallacta, almost within sight of the city of Quito. If, then, nine points of
the law consist in possession, it follows that this tract, which is in possession
of Ecuador, belongs to Ecuador. The parts selected for the English bond-
holders by Mr. Pritchett were in possession of Ecuador at the time. Wherever
he travelled he found Ecuadorian authorities, showing that he was within the
territory of Ecuador. It is only justice to Mr. Pritchett to state that this is
the case, because he has been accused of obtaining for the British creditors
lands which were notoriously disputed, whereas he had no means of judging
that Peru was going to dispute them. The claim of Peru was based on an
edict of the King of Spain in 1802, which gave the jurisdiction over these
territories to the Bishop of Lima. The eminent historian Prescott tells us,
that the King of Spain used to let his pen fall on the map of South America,
and divide it into provinces in that fashion, without the slightest understanding
or knowledge of ,the country ; but so impossible was it found to extend even
the clerical jurisdiction of this bishopric over such distant regions, that the
scheme was never carried out. The King of Spain has long ceased to reign in
these districts, and many treaties have been concluded since, cancelling his
preposterous territorial arrangements. Whatever map I have consulted has
shown me that the frontier line of Ecuador and Peru was the Amazon, and in
most maps it is given even below that river. But the hamlet of Zamora, the
most southern point of the lands granted by Ecuador, is still considerably
north of the Amazon. The claim of land on the part of Peru appears to bo

* Mr. Gerstenberg has evidently misunderstood the tenor of Mr. Markham's
remarks. — Ed.

Dec. 13, 1858.] EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. 97

a mere pretext for the purpose of making war upon a peaceful neighbour.
The Peruvian president and generals seem to be animated by the lust of
rapine and conquest, like the first adventurous and unscrupulous cavaliers —
the Pizarros, the Almagros, and the Alvarados. The real causes are said to
be the secret instigation and lavish promises of the Ecuadorian ex-president
Flores, who has been ignominiously expelled as a traitor, and also the allure-
ment of a rich booty in the now wealthy city of Guayaquil. By the last
advices it appears that two steamers of war have appeared before that jjeaceful
and prosperous commercial port, threatening to bombard and bum it unless
the frontier dictated by Peru, and some other humiliating conditions, were
acceded to. In former centuries the reckless and turbulent captains appealed
in their civil conflicts to the King of Spain, but now, his jurisdiction having
ceased, there is that more powerful tribunal of public opinion, before which
both the contending parties seem anxious to appear to be in the right. But,
although from their rash conduct both parties may not be free from all fault,
Ecuador deserves our sympathy, not only as the weaker party, wantonly
attacked by a stronger neighbour, but also from the circumstance that her
loyal conduct towards her British creditors has been made the pretext to
involve her in this present difficulty. I consider this a geographical question,
on which you may by your impartial opinion exercise a powerful moral
influence. It is not merely the object of this Society, I believe, to acquire
and promote abstract geographical knowledge, but it is your noble task to
make practical application thereof for the progress of civilisation and the
welfare of mankind ; and certainly there does not exist a more noble task for
any Society, and particularly the Geographical, than to maintain and promote
the blessings of peace, and to avert the hand of wanton and fratricidal war.

Mr. Markham. — The town of Nauta is on the south bank of the Amazon :
therefore, according to the last speaker's own account, it does belong to Peru.
I should think that legally and properly the true boundary between Ecuador
and Peru would be the line which formerly divided the Viceroyalty of Peru
from the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Quito, and that would certainly give
Peru both banks of the river. However, I think that the most just boundary
would be the line of the Amazon, and that would bring Nauta within the
territory of Peru.

Mr. E. Haslewood. — I believe the real point at issue between Ecuador
and Peru is the possession of the head waters of the Amazon. The object to
be attained by Peru is to close the Amazon against the trade of the world, at
the instigation of Brazil, and to limit it to Brazilian and Peruvian ships. If
Ecuador, as an effluvia! state, has any claim to that river, she has an un-
doubted right that all vessels should pass up into her ports. If, therefore,
Peru, and still more Brazil, can gain their object of depriving Ecuador of
those lands, they can seal the Amazon, and they mean to do it. It is of
the highest importance to the world at large that the Amazon should be con-
sidered as one long port, and that the navigation shall not be restricted to
Peruvian or Brazilian vessels. It has been my lot to reside three years in
Brazil, and a more idle, stupid people on all subjects of political economy does
not exist. It has been my good fate to reside a short time in the IJnited
States, and I say that the Anglo-Saxon state of New York is worth to us the
entire length and breadth of the whole of Brazil. Now, I most respectfully
request a little information. Can you tell us what are the rights of effluvial
states ? Have they the power to close these mighty rivers ? for you may
rely upon it that if Brazil and Peru succeed in shutting out Ecuador, they
will succeed in shutting out England.

The President. — I am happy to find we have had a discussion of a cha-
racter which has thrown light on the advantages to British commerce, and
on the necessity of maintaining the integrity of the republic of Ecuador. But I

98 EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. = [Dec. 13, 1858.

must avow that 'our debate has become rather more political than what we
have been accustomed to in this room. It has deviated somewhat from our
usual geographical discussions, yet not without profit to the community and
satisfaction to myself. So that whilst the Geographical Society should not
step beyond its own lines, we are at the same time happy to give fair play to
a discussion of the political bearings of questions which our science brings into
public notice.

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON.

S:ESSI0N 1858-9.

Fourth Meeting, January 10th, 1859.

Sir EODERICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Francis Lyne and Charles Lewell, Esqrs., were pre-
sented upon their election.

Elections. — Rev. William G. Clarke, m.a. ; Commander R. Boynton
Creyhe, R.N. ; Lieut. Henry Lamb, i.N. ; Sir H. Pollard Willoughhy,
JBart., M.P. ; Thomas H. Alsager, b.a. ; and Edward H. Bramah, James
Brand, William Brown, F. Solly Gosling, Valentine Lahrow, Donald
Larnach, Patrick Leslie, W. Drury Lowe, John Miland, Marc H. Pasteur,
and Charles Ratcliffe, Esqrs., were elected Fellows,

Exhibitions. — Photographic and other views of the Termini and
the proposed Route for the Honduras Inter-Oceanic Railway ; and
specimens of silver and copper ore, &c., brought from Mexico by
Charles Sevin, Esq., f.r.g.s., were exhibited to the meeting.

The Papers read were : —

1. Notes on the Zambesi Expedition. From the Journal of Thomas

Baines, Esq., f.r.g.s., Artist to the Expedition.

Communicated by Dr. Livingstone, f,r.g.s.

With Maps by Mr. Skene, b.n., and Mr, Thornton.

The President read portions of a letter from Dr. Livingstone, in which he
described how he had navigated the lower portion of the Zambesi, the good
quality of the coal which had been obtained on its banks, the affectionate
reception he had met with from his old native adherents, the cordial assistance
of the Portuguese authorities, and the steady and vigorous support of the
different ofiScers of his Expedition, specially mentioning Mr. Thornton for
having constructed a good chart of a portion of the river.

He also noted a peculiarity in this river, that where the ripple on the surface
was most intense, there the water was deepest.

VOL. III. K

100 BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. [Jan. 10, 1859.

Mr. Baines's journal extends from June 25 to September 17, 1858,
and the following is a shoii: abstract of its contents : — June 25. The
last of the luggage was taken from the Pearly put into the launch,
and the iron house on Expedition Island, lat. 18° 24', was partly
set up. The launch was overhauled and examined, deck-house
caulked, &c. — Jitm 30. Dr. Livingstone left in the launch for Tete
or Senna, and the parties left behind were Dr. Kirk, Mr. Living-
stone, three Kroomen, and a dog (besides Mr. Baines).

July 3. Troubles with the rain ; the house leaks. The wind has
been usually south-south-east, and strong. — July 4. Kiver falls
about li inch per diem, and is 8 feet below its highest level. —
July 5. Two canoes passed the island, going seaward, carrying rice
and Kaffir corn, a native, speaking Portuguese, with a gun, bows
4 feet long, reed arrows, iron-headed and stout spears. — July 6.
Another canoe with five or six natives, bringing plantains, eggs, and
firewood for sale. Cloth is the medium of exchange ; a tedious
bargaining is necessary. — July 7. Photography begun. Sudden
sickness of Messrs. Baines and Livingstone ; the two canoes returned,
and some alligator flesh was bought from them. The alligators
are shy, so are the hippopotami. — July 19. Launch returned ; Dr. L.
had to stop five miles short of Senna, owing to the shallowness of
the river, where the stores were landed. The authorities were dis-
posed to be friendly. Mr. Baines is to accompany the launch up in
her next trip. — July 20. Completed the reloading of the launch,
1600 lbs. of beads, &c., and set off in her. The river was broad, but
the channel narrow, tortuous, and shooting from side to side. The
more exposed parts of the banks of the islands are cut away by the
stream at the rate of several feet per diem. Several alligators and
hippopotami were fired at ; none killed. Dr. Livingstone mentions
that he had never seen an hippopotamus on land till within the last
few days. — July 21. Eiver broad and shallow; sounded with the
whale-boat ahead, and got safely through the shallows; further
difficulties. — July 22. Thick fog in the morning ; reached the mouth
of the Mutu, the river formerly laid down on the maps as the main
branch of the Zambesi. It was a gully 10 feet wide and 4 feet
deep, and its bottom was actually 9 or 10 feet above the surface of
the water in the Zambesi. An old capsized canoe lay high and dry
in it, where it must wait till next rainy season. The village of
Mazaro is close by. The head-quarters of the Portuguese army are
here now ; two mutilated corpses were passed, and there was an
attack from some rebel Landeens while the launch was there. The
Portuguese Governor was sick, and given a passage in the launch
to Cipanga, which was reached in the afternoon. Some large

Jan. 10, 1859.] BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. 101

canoes, 30 feet long, 4 deep and 4 wide, were being neatly made
out of single trees ; their cost is estimated at 501. each. Latitude
about 18° 1'. — July 23, Bought some fowls at Cipanga, and went on
in the evening. — 24:th. Numberless small islands ; used sails almost
for the first time. — 2oth. Came to difiiculty in the river, and
grounded. — 26th. Explored for a channel in the whale-boat, and had
a great deal of wading. The native pilot was completely at fault.
In evening, came in full sight of the double hill of Senna. The
launch anchored, as before, some miles short of the town, and the
party went on to it at night, for the first part of the way in the whale-
boat, and for the last seven miles on foot. — 27th. The view from
Senna of the river and distant hills was fine. Some of the Lan-
deens, allies of the Portuguese, were in the town and danced war-
-dances. There is a large stockade of green trees, lately planted,
that have taken root ; 500 people, come from a distance, are living
in it for protection. — 28^/i. Visited the store-house. The launch got
up to within two miles of Senna. There was some diflSculty in
landing a saw-mill that had been brought in tlie vessel ; the natives
had no idea of pulling together. — 29th. Eeturned in the launch and
grounded ; at last got near to Cipanga. The Portuguese and the
rebels were encamped face to face on opposite sides of the river.
Met a black man who spoke some English. — 31st. Eeached Expedi-
tion Island. Captain Bedingfeld, who had previously resigned, but
had volunteered to continue his services as long as needful, is now
relieved from the command of the launch.

,. Aug. 1st. Kirk joins th-e launch, and Baines remains on the island,
.where he is to make magnetic observations, &c. — 2nd. The launch
is reloaded, and starts under the command of Dr. Livingstone ; his
brother is left in command of the island. — 3rd, 4th, and 5fh. Worked
at taking down the iron house. — 6th. The launch returned with
news of a Portuguese brig having arrived at Quillimane. — 7th.
(Mr. Baines) very unwell and weak. Some canoes of runaway natives
came to the island. A heavy squall of rain.— S^A. 111. — 9th. The
launch (including Baines) started up the river. — 10th. Still ill. —
,lU7i. Ditto. Landed at Cipanga; much warlike bustle and some
war-dancing. The stores were landed ; (Baines and) Kirk were left,
and the launch returned to Expedition Island. — 14^/i. Conversed
with some Zulus who had fled in former times from Inhambane
through fear of Dingaan, and now fought in the service of the Portu-
guese. The cause of all this war is not very intelligible. Dr. Liv-
ingstone oifered to mediate, but the Governor did not desire it. —
15th. The people of Cipanga are abominably filthy in their habits.
— 16th, The launch arrived with the remainder of the stores. Cap-

K 2

102 BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. [Jan. 10, 1859.

tain BediR^eld was left with Colonel Nunes for a passage to Quilli-
mane ; Kirk and Thornton remained in charge of the stores, and
Baines goes up river. Rae, the engineer, is sick with excessive
work, and Mr. Livingstone tends the engine. — 11th. Reached Sha-
moeira. Several slaves were on sale for a fathom of cloth each. — l^th.
An accident with the whale boat : she fouled the paddle-wheels and
capsized ; . more than one man was nearly drowned. Several stores
were lost ; part of the sugar-mill, some boiler tubes, spades, &c., but
the boat itself was not hurt. — \^th. Further troubles in navigat-
ing the shallows. — 21st. Dr. Livingstone and his brother landed
and walked to Senna. — 22nd. Began settling with the natives who
had worked at landing the stores ; they asked 100 fathoms of cloth.
The price of the country is one yard of cloth for carrjdng a man's
load one league. The 100 fathoms was a great overcharge. The
decision of the matter was deferred. Left Senna and steamed up
the river. The islands were numerous and the vegetation became
richer. — 23rd Made only about seven miles. — 24:th. Channel very
intricate ; the pinnace drew too much water. The loads were so
adjusted that^oth launch and pinnace drew 2 feet 4 inches. — 2bth.
Launch grounded, and was in serious danger. It was arranged that
Baines should remain behind in the pinnace with one whale-boat
and two Kroomen, and that Dr. Livingstone should go with the
launch and one whale-boat only to Tete. The entire flotilla was too
much for the launch to tow. — 2Qth. The launch was detained for
want of some slight repairs. — 21th. Launch started. Baines rigged
up an awning to the pinnace ; the natives brought food to sell.
There was a good deal of planted ground in the neighbourhood.
Many hippopotamus spears were observed in the village. — 2^th. Ar-
ranged a cooking-place on board the pinnace. — 2^th. Natives rather
troublesome ; their canoes surrounded the pinnace : observed latitude
17° 9' 30". — ^Oth. Moved the pinnace to mid-stream and anchored
there.

Sept. 2nd. Made a tiller to the whale-boat ; shifted anchorage about
a mile. — 4:th. The grass was burning on the hills,, and burnt leaves,
&c., carried upwards by the stream of rarefied air, fell about the boat.
— Uh. Three canoes passed by. — Uh, Sailed a little farther, but the
boat was so heavily laden as hardly to be manageable by the small
crew in this strong current and intricate river except straight
before the wind. The days passed with no particular incident till,
on the 11 thy the launch returned. It had been only three days re-
turning from Tete. Mr. Livingstone was left at Tete. He and
Mr. Rae had both been very ill. Some coal was brought on board.

Jan. 10, 1859.] BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. 103

The President, after returning thanks to Dr. Livingstone, and to MM. Baines
and Thornton, and expressing the gratification which all must feel to hear
that their valued friend, Dr. Livingstone, had been so well supported, invited
remarks upon the subject before the meeting, and suggested that Mr. M'Gregor
Laird, the ingenious designer of the little steamer, the Ma Bobert, might wish
to say something upon the statements made regarding the performances of that
vessel.

Mr. Laird, f.r.g.s., said that the steamer had been overloaded. It was
designed to draw only 16 inches of water, and not 2 feet 6 inches. It
was never intended to carry more than one or two days' coals. When she
was first tried Dr. Livingstone had written to his (Mr. Laird's) brother in
very congratulatory terms of her success* In the account given of the
Zambesi it was interesting to observe the difference between it and the
great river of Western Africa. The great width of the channels of the
Leambiye, in the Delta, was* very remarkable. The difficulty of navigating
where it is- broad and smooth was easy to ■ understand, because the same
body of water in a small narrow channel would be^much deeper. What had
particularly struck him in Dr. Livingstone's letter. and in the journaLof Mr^
Baines was, that whereas in the Niger, up to the bead of the delta, the whole
width of the river,' and the channels by which it is approached, does not
exceed four hundred yards within a hundred miles of the sea, this other great
river seemed -to have a breadth of three miles. That was a characteristic of
the Zambesi, and he thought would prove to be a serious disadvantage. He
was afraid from that, and from the fact of the rapids occurring at such a shoit
distance from the sea, that they could not with much confidence look forward
to the time when the Zambesi would become a great channel of commercial
enterprise. He hoped he might be mistaken in his judgment, but should be
sorry to encourage expectations which he thought there were many reasons
for believing would not be realized. However, it was very satisfactory to-
learn that Dr. Livingstone, whom they all so much admired and so deservedly
esteemed, and his party continued, by the help of Providence, to^ enjoy suchi
excellent health.

Mr. Lyons M'Leod, late Consul at Mozambique, said that- he differed in
opinion from Mr. M'Gregor Laird with regard to. the navigableness of the
river Zambesi, and its importance for- commercial' purposes. From informa-
tion he had received from the Governor- of Tete, and from a Portuguese who
had been up and down it a number of times, he eoncluded the Zambesi to be
navigable for at least eight .months out of ■ the twelve, for vessels drawing
from four to six feet of water. It was well known that many of the rivers in
America had steamers upc«i them with not half that, draught of water. And it
was a most important fact, and full of promise, that the banks of the Zambesi,
from the Luavo mouths up to Senna, and even nearly up to Tete, were covered
with very valuable timber fit for ship-building — a fact specially interesting
to think of at a time when we were looking to every part of the world for
timber fiDr ship-building. A quantity of the timber of the Zambesi was from
forty to sixty feet in length, and from three to six feet in the square. Some of
these trees, from growing forked, would be peculiarly fitted for the futtocks and
knees in ship-building. There were some beautiful woods also for furniture
purposes ; the roots as well as the trunks could be manufactured into hand-
some and useful articles. There were also dye woods used by the natives for
colouring cotton, silk, and tyool ; andithere was one tree which afforded a bark
called in commerce cinchmia bark; andj from the tree, as well as from the
bark, quinine could be extracted, and the timber was adapted for the masts of
ships. He had- brought home with him from Mozambique some twenty-six
specimens of the woods, which were now in the rooms of the Society at White-
hall-place, and might be seen by all who took au interest in the subject. He

104 BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. [Jan. 10, 1859.

had also Lrouglit home specimens of the cotton described by Dr. Livingstone,
which had the appearance of wool ; and he had specimens, moreover, of cotton
growing on the main land, opposite to the island of Mozambique. Oil, ivory,
minerals, hides, as well as cotton, and other useful products, were to be had in
abundance. Wheat could also be grown, and he was of opinion that Tete might
become the granary of Southern Africa. England had always at the Cape a
considerable body of troops, and it was very necessary that they should have a
place whence the Cape could be kept supplied with wheat. In the rear of
the town of Tete there was a mountain called the Caruera, from three to five
thousand feet in height ; here the natives have their plantations of wheat, com,
potatoes, &c., and also round about the town, over an extent of ten miles ; so
that in the event of the crops in the lowlands being destroyed by an inunda-
tion, they have a reserve in the mountain ; and should the mountain crops
suffer for want of rain, they are amply supplied by their plantations in the
lowlands. He had no doubt that wheat could be grown there in sufficient
quantity to supply the whole of Southern Africa at a cost of not more than
^s. a quarter. The subject of the navigation of the Zambesi had only to be
taken up by mercantile men in order to the opening up of the whole interior of
Africa. The whole east coast of Africa was extraordinary for its valuable pro-
ductions ; and in addition to its other commercial features might be mentioned
the existence of a large number of deserted mines ; unworked, simply because
the Portuguese officials did not find it to their interest to open up the country
and show it to foreigners ; because, if they did so, the slave-trade would
inevitably be suppressed. People now make their money and go away ; and if
legitimate commerce were entered into, the occupation of the slave dealer would
be gone. The opening up of Eastern Africa would, without doubt, be a mine
of wealth to this country.

Mr. J. Crawfurd, f.r.g.s., had not intended to say a word upon this
subject, but could not refrain from so doing after what had fallen from Mr.
M'Leod. He was glad that Dr. Livingstone had said nothing whatever on, or
had held out no promising expectations of trade, great or small, with the east
coast of Africa, or the Zambesi river ; and it appeared to him (Mr. Crawfurd)
that there was no prospect of any such trade as that spoken of by Mr. M'Leod.
He agreed entirely with Mr. M'Gregor Laird in thinking that the Zambesi
river was a bad one, and totally unfit for the navigation of vessels of any con-
siderable burden. They had now the diary of Mr. Baines, and it was im-
possible to hear that diary read without coming to the conclusion that the
river was crooked and shallow, and extremely difficult of navigation. Mr.
M'Leod had mentioned the existence of some valuable timber on the banks of
the river, but had not given the meeting the names of any of the valuable
trees. The trees might be large and tall, and yet be good for nothing,
and he did not believe that there was any timber on the Zambesi fit for the
general purposes of ship-building. In fact, in all Europe there was one
tree, in America two only, and but one in India, fit for ship-building : what
those trees were in Africa fit for ship-building it was difficult to say. At
present we had but the teak for India, the oak for England, and the live oak
for America. And then it was stated that a large trade in wheat might be
carried on, and this even grown, in 17° and 18° s. latitude, and nearly on the
level of the sea. Now wheat never grew advantageously in any such latitude,
and never would. Then, regarding cotton, African cotton would not suit the
manufacturers of Manchester and Glasgow ; and those who expected to get a
supply of cotton from thence would be wholly disappointed ; they would
never get it. It was said the native cotton appeared like wool ; that was on
account of its extreme coarseness, and not on account of its feeling like wool
in the hand. The good cotton of Africa appeared to have been imported ; it
was a foreigner. He had not the least doubt but that cotton would grow in

Jan. 10, 1859.] BAINES ON THE ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. 105

Soutliern Africa, but not without the employment of capital, enterprise, and
skill ; and where were these to come from ? England was the only nation,
except the United States, that could enter upon such a work, and it was not*
likely at all events that England would do so, seeing that sh& had enough
territory on her hands already, equally or better fitted.

Mr. M'Queen, f.r.g.s., said that with reference to the existence of coal at
Tete, that was not a discovery now made for the first time ; for twenty-five years ■
ago they were tried at Lisbon, and also at Goa and Mozambique, on board, he
believed, the Nemesis, and found perfectly good. Then with reference to
wheat growing at Tete, he could tell Mr. Crawfurd that it does grow there.
It was said that it could not grow there, because wheat did not grow so
near the equator: now the finest wheat in the world was produced on the
river Webbe, near Brava, close to the equator, and might be bought cheap,
and in any quantity. As to cotton in Africa, it had been known for three
thousand years, and very fine cotton too ; and it was well known that in the
interior the people had for ages manufactured their garments called Tangas •
of that cotton, which is very fine and very strong. Regarding the Zambesi
he was satisfied there were many serious obstructions in its channel ; but with^
some blasting here and there, and the use of other means, which would doubt-
less prove laborious, but not impracticable, there would be no place that a-
vessel fitted for the commerce of the country could not pass. Mr. M'Queen
farther called attention to the efforts that are being made by Portugal tO:
strengthen its position in Eastern Africa, and along the valley of the Zambesi.
They were establishing custom-houses at the mouth of the river, at Senna, at
Tete, and Zumbo, and by a decree in January, 1855, they had defined the
meaning of the government of the rivers of Senna to be and to include the
whole of the Zambesi from the sea upwards, and specially to include all tho"
ancient province of Zumbo, with the districts of country to the northward,
situate on both banks of the river Arroango of the north.

Mr. Crawfurd again rose and said he had never before heard of wheat
growing within the tropics, and at the level of the sea. They must come to
26° latitude before they could grow wheat. It would not grow either at;
Bombay or Madras. He knew that in Java, 6° or 7° south of the equator, it
would not grow until you reached the elevation of 4000 or 5000 feet, and he
could not believe with Mr. M'Queen in the growth of wheat at the equator,
and at the level of the sea^.

Mr. M'Queen referred Mr. Crawfurd for information with regard tp wheat-
growing countries to what was said upon the subject in Krapf s Journals. He-
would also find that wheat gi'ows on the banks of the Coanzo, not one hundred
feet above the level of the sea. And as to cotton, he could testify, after ran-
sacking almost every part of Africa, that there are few places in which the-
finest cotton does not grow all over that continent.

Colonel Sykes, m.p., f.r.g.s., could not suppose that his friend Mr. Craw-
furd was serious in the arguments he had used. For himself he entertained"
very decided hopes regarding the commerce of the Zambesi. Dr. Livingstone
had proposed the employment of engineering skill for the deepening of the
shallow parts of the river, and the removing of obstructions by artificial means.
It was well known that all large rivers formed deltas and branched into shallow
streams as they approached the sea ; the natural result of the deposits which
accumulate as the water comes from higher lands and runs slower. He did
not think there was any obstruction that might not be removed or avoided by
means of human ingenuity, such as confining the whole stream to one channel of
the delta. Mr. Crawfurd asked what can be the use of the timber without a
botanical name, of which Mr. M'Leod had produced specimens fit for ship-
building ; but was not that fact sufficient, whatever the name might be ? Whafe.
did it matter, although it might not be a Tectona grandiSj a Quercusj or a PimiSf,

106 SQUIER'S ACCOUNT OF LAKE YOJOA. [Jan. 10, 1859.

if the wood were of a quality adapted for ship-building ? The argument there-
fore was good for nothing. And then as to Mr. Crawfurd's statement that wheat
could not be produced on the Zambesi because it would not grow within the
tropics ; the fact being, that wheat was extensively cultivated in India, except
south of 13° N. latitude. The finest wheat in the world might be found growing
at the level of the sea, and one of the six species or varieties had long been
imported because of its gluten in the preparation of cotton cloths at Man-
chester. In spite, therefore, of the gloomy prognostications of Mr. Crawfurd,
the public might still live in hopes that East Africa would be opened up to our
advantage in a commercial sense.

The second Paper read was—

2. Account of the Lake Yojoa or Taulehe, in Honduras^ Central ATnerica.
By E. G. Squier, Esq., of the United States.

[The paper will be printed in the Journal.]

The lakes of Central America are among its most interesting fea-
tures, and, next to its volcanoes, are the most likely io arrest the
attention of a traveller. Few of these are more remarkable than
Lake Itra, which receives the copious drainage of a great basin, but
has no apparent outlet, and Lake Yojoa, a sheet of water 25 miles
in length, which has only lately appeared in our maps — a fact suffi-
cient to indicate our very imperfect knowledge of the geography,
of Honduras. The waters of Yojoa escape by no less than nine sub-
terranean outlets ; there is al6o an open one through which enough
water runs to float a canoe when the season is not very dry. The
average depth of the lake is from. 18 to 24 feet, and, its elevation is
2050 feet above the sea-level. It occupies the centre of one of those
singular basins, of which Honduras offers many examples, called
not inappropriately " bolsones," or pockets. These are formed
by the contortions of the mountains, whose spurs frequently coil
round upon themselves, sometimes describing almost complete
circles, and enclosing plains or lakes of varying extent and eleva-
tion. In these, the waters of the surrounding springs and the sur-
face mountain drainage converge and form the commencement of
considerable rivers.

The subterranean outlets of Yojoa traverse the mountain walls of
the lolson£ in which it lies, and its waters reappear to light bursting
through their opposite sides. They consist of limestone, probably
much cracked by volcanic agency, resting upon a sandstone basis,
and the subterranean outlets of the lake exactly coincide with the
line at which this sandstone stratum is found to crop out.

Colonel Sykes, m.p., f.r.g.s., said it appeared to him that a company
would have a great advantage in working a railway, the whole length of which

Jan. 10,1859.] SQUIER'S ACCOUNT OF LAKE YOJOA. 107

would "be under one government, namely, that of Honduras. He would be
glad to know from Mr. Squier what was the greatest elevation that the rail-
way would have to go over ? That might be a serious matter in the successful
working of the railway.

Mr. Squier replied that the steepest gradient would be 1 in 60.

Colonel Sykes said the formation then was • only a question of expense,
and the railway would be exceedingly valuable for international as well as com-
mercial purposes.

Mr. Squier said the gradients, would be quite trifling compared with
those on several of the American lines. The Ohio line, one of the best
paying in the country, had to ascend elevations of 160 feet to the mile,
and 140 and 130 were not uncommon. It was simply a question of engines —
of mechanical power, which was quite within human control.

Mr.W. J. Hamilton, f.r.g.s., asked whether the waters of the lake were ever
observed to diminish or to run off at certain periods by subterranean channels ?
Such a phenomenon was not unusual with lakes in a limestone region, where
there was no apparent outlet. He observed that he was acquainted with
several lakes in Asia Minor which were entirely drained every four or five
years, by the water escaping through subterranean channels. He also asked,
whether any observation had been made respecting the rainfall in tliis- region,
and how the lake was supplied with water ?

Mr. Moore thought it might be interesting to mention, that a survey
had been made by competent engineers, and had been reviewed by Colonel
Stanton, r.e., and a detachment of Royal Engineers, sent out by Her Majesty's
Government, of the route across which Mr. Squier proposed the construction
of a railway ; and the report of the surveyors, recently made, was to the effect
that the making of a railway is perfectly practicablej with no steeper gradients
or sharper curves than exist on the lines- successfully in operation both in
Europe and America. The project moreover would possess this great and
unique advantage, that at either end of the line there existed a first-class
harbour. The Governments of England and France had entered into treaties
with Honduras, guaranteeing the route, and it now only remained for British
enterprise to assist in working it out.

Mr. Moore fully concurred in the remarks of the President, and pronounced
a high eulogium upon the talent and perseverance of Mr. Squier, the import-
ance of whose endeavours could not be over-estimated ; for to him mainly
would have to be attributed, on the completion of the line, the achievement
of one of the greatest enterprises of the age.

The President said that this was a subject which claimed their special
attention. The phenomenon of the escape of water by undergi-ound passages,
on which Mr. Squier had particularly dwelt, was curious, and though not un-
known in other limestone countries, had perhaps never been observed on
such an extensive scale aa in the- case under consideration; in which while
there were ten channels of exit from the lake, one only of these was by an
open river course^ The chief object which Mr. Squier had had in view in his
arduous researches in Central America was to prove the practicability of a
railway across the- territory of Honduras ; and if this great work were com-
pleted, it would certainly be a line of transit highly useful both to the United
States and to England, and also one of the most important undertakings.

The President would not have it forgotten that Mr. Squier was the gentle-
man to whom the world would be indebted for the origin of the project, and for
calling the attention of his own countrymen and the European governments
to the great value of such a line of railroad.

108 SEVIN'S JOURNEY IN MEXICO. [Jan. 24, 1859-

Fifth Meeting, January 2Uh, 1859.

Sir KODEEICK I. MUROHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Tlie Rev. S. W. King; Lieut. H. Lamb, i.n. ; and
James Allan, Valentine Labrow, Joseph Paul, and Tlieodosius Uzielli, Esqrs.,
were officially introduced upon their election.

Elections. — Captain Alexander BlaMey, r.a. ; Captains T. G. Mont-
gomerie, D. Nasmyth, D, G. Robinson, and James Walker, first assistants
G. Trigon. Survey of India ; Captain W. S. Sherwill, Professor of Survey-
ing, Calcutta ; Captain Thomas A, B. Spratt, r.n., c.b. ; Lieut. John
lownsend, R.N. ; Major H. L. Thuillier, Deputy Survey or- General of India;
Captain E. C. S. Williams, officer of the Survey or-GeneraVs Department ;
H. Stanhope Freeman, Vice- Consul Ghadames ; Rev. Alexander Mackay,
A.M. ; Clark A. Ducket, Assistant-Surgeon, r.n. ; and Hovendon Hely, T.
Corby n Janson, T. A. Thompson, and Arthur C. Vesey, Esqrs., were elected
Fellows.

Exhibitions. — The third edition of * Siluria,' by Sir Roderick I.
Murchison ; Sketches of the country and towns of the route of the
Pernambuco Railway, by Colonel Westmacott, f.r.g.s. ; andEindlay's
Chart of the North Atlantic, &c., were exhibited to the meeting.

The Papers read were : — •

1. Journey in Meanco. By Charles Sevin, Esq., f.r.g.s.

[The paper will be printed in the Journal.]

Mr. Sevin left England in May, 1856, with the view of examining
the copper and silver mines of the north-western provinces of
Mexico, and of ascertaining how far the mineral wealth of these
regions might be worked to advantage with English capital. He
was accompanied by Messrs. Hickens and Schahl. The party
reached Mazatlan in July, and started for their destination without
delay. He describes Mazatlan as a cheerful, well-built town, of
12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, with gardens in which the cocoa-nut
and banana thrive, and far in advance of any other place in the
northern and Pacific part of Mexico. Mr. Sevin's first point was
El Fuerte. He took the road that led along the flanks of the Sierra
Madre, travelling with mules, after the manner of the country, at
the rate of 15 to 18 leagues a day, and sleeping at night on rugs
spread on the floors of such ranches as he selected for his night's
quarters. Tliere is another road to El Fuerte, which skirts the
sea-coast and traverses the lowlands of Cinaloa. It is the easier

Jan. 24, l859.] SEVIN'S JOURNEY IN MEXICO. lOS^

road of the two, and tlie country it passes througli is by no means
unhealthy, notwithstanding the apparent insalubrity of its situation,
but at the time Mr. Sevin was leaving Mazatlan, the usual summer
rains had swollen the rivers and it was impassable. He passed
through Culiacan, a town of 7500 inhabitants, and the seat of a
bishop. It contains many private houses that were beautifully
furnished, and belonged to individuals who had enriched them-
selves by means of some one or other of the numberless silver-
mines of the adjoining Sierra. There are large silver amalgamation
works in the place, and a Government mint, whose lessee gave Mr.
Sevin a good deal of information. A considerable trade is carried
on in the so-called Brazil or Nicaragua wood, which grows abund-
antly in the neighbouring Sierra, whence it finds its way to the
little harbour of Altata. The inhabitants of Culiacan are of a less
mixed race than those of Mazatlan, and the Indians of the sur-
rounding country are described as good labourers, whether in the
field or in mines. They are of numerous tribes, who all obey one
single chief; they go almost naked, and carry bows and aiTows.
Mr. Sevin states, that in the mountain-ridges from Mazatlan to
the boundaries of .Chihuahua and Sonora, there are numberless
works for silver amalgamation. By inquiry at every village he
passed through, he invariably heard of some mining operations in
the immediate neighbourhood, but all these undertakings are con-
ducted on a small scale and in a very desultory manner. The miners
can apply but very limited means towards their undertakings, and
as soon as a bonanza, or piece of good luck, arrives, they cease to
labour and begin gambling. Hence the want of wealth of the
inhabitants is no proof of the want of wealth of the country. El
Fuerte was more backward than Culiacan ; it was for a while the
seat of a provincial Government, but since then has fallen into
decay. Extensive fields of maize and sugar-cane in its neighbour-
hood attest the natural fertility of the country, and produce large
returns to those Mexicans who take the trouble to redeem these
lands from their natural state of wildness.

From El Fuerte Mr. Sevin travelled through Chois to the old
mining town of Urique. On his way he ascended the Sierra, and
speaks in great admiration of the prospect from its flanks at an
elevation of 8000 or 9000 feet. The varied tints of vegetation were
peculiarly beautiful ; the flanks of the mountains were embellished
with numerous cultivated vallej^s, dotted over with ranchos, and
the main chain of the Sierra Madre rose in abrupt cliffs above
them.

A great number of silver-mines have been worked near Urique,

110 SEVIN'S JOURNEY IN MEXICO. [Jan. 24, 1859.

but the old mine of S. Rosario is still the richest of all. The
advent of Mr. Sevin's party created quite a sensation, for the want
of a new element to elevate the population from its present miser-
able condition is severely felt among all classes in Mexico, and
Mr. Sevin feels assured that energetic foreigners, with a bona fide
purpose of trade and industry, would be cordially welcomed by the
natives. His next point was Huacaybo, in reaching which he
passed the famous mines of; Jesus Maria, which are now worked in
a most desultory manner by mining squatters ; the richest of them
is flooded with water. The^ copper lode at Huacaybo appears to be
on an immense scale, and its position and capabilities are minutely
described. At this point Mr. Sevin turned back ; his mules were
lamedj his stock of provisions and necessary luxuries were con-
sumed, and h© went back to Mazatlan by another route.

He reports on numerous mining districts, Bastoseagochic, Sen-
tentrion, Ceroeahuic, Monterde, Guadalupe el Calvo, El Parral,
Hydalgo, San Diego, and Santa Eulalia. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the last of these more than 250 mines have been
worked, 60 of which a,re more than 200 yards deep and remarkably
extensive, but the working of all of them has been checked since
the expulsion of the Spaniards. He then passed to Batropilas ;
and, after visiting another group of mining districts as numerous as
the lastj and all of which are minutely described in Mr. Sevin's paper,
that gentleman and his companions reached Mazatlan in November.

Mr. Sevin finds great fault with the cartography of the country
he saw : — *' As for the difi'erent rivers, mountains, and villages laid
down in the diJBferent English and Spanish maps known to me, I
have not seen . one . in which their geographical position was in
accordance with my daily observations, and where the names of the
localities were rightly spelled."

The paper concludes with a minute description of the physical
geography of Chihuahua. .

The President. — Geographers must be well pleased to know that a gentle-
man going to remote parts of Mexico without any mission to carry out our
special objects, has of his own accord, and at his own expense, devoted so
much labour and talent in laying before us a picture of a country, some
parts of which have been visited by various -British miners, but of which we
have not yet had so clear a general sketch. The journey was not performed
without difficulty ; fire-arms having to be employed occasionally in those
parts where the road was beset by robbers. We have, indeed, every reason
to thank Mr. Sevin for having so successfully accomplished the object of his
travels, and for having made the remote parts of Mexico much better known
to us.

Mr. J. Crawfurd, f.r.g.s. — Mr. Sevin, perhaps, will have the goodness to
give us some estimate of the amount of silver produced within the republic of
Mexico. At the same time 1 would ask him, has the price of quicksilver

Jan. 24, 1839.] v REPORTS ON THE DISCOVERY OF LAKE UJIJI. Ill

greatly diminished? Since the discovery of the quicksilver mines of Cali-
fornia, I understand that the amount of silver produced every year depends
almost entirely upon the price of quicksilver.

Mr. Sevin. — It is impossible to state what amount of silver is found in
Mexico, because the silver is exported in dollars, and also in bars, v^^hich are
smuggled out of the country in great quantities ; the exportation of silver in
bars is altogether prohibited by law — therefore no exact statistics can be drawn
up of the actual produce and exports of silver. In the republic of Mexico, in
the year 1856, when I was there, there were thirty-five millions of dollars
coined. By comparing statements, it appears that the silver coined in former
years did not amount to so much ; but whether it is larger this year than last,
I cannot tell. With respect to the price of quicksilver ten years back, it was
one dollar and a-half in California, and two dollars in Mexico. Now, the price
is about half a dollar in California : but at present the mines are involved in
a law-suit, and the price will rise if the American Government .should lay an
injunction upon the working of- the mines.

The second Paper read was — •

2. Extracts from Reports hy Captains Burton md Speke, of the East

African Expedition, on thein discovery of .Lake Ujiji, ^c, in Central Africa.
''Unyanyembe, Central Africa, 24th June, 1858.

Sib, — I'have tire honour to transmit, for the information of the
Koyal Geographical Society, a copy of a field-book, with a map
by Captain Speke. The details contained in the map render all
remarks upon the country superfluous until we may be able to
communicate them in person.

We left the Lake of IJjiji about amonth ago, and are now halted
at this main depot of Arab trade. Captain Speke has volunteered,
when he and the rest of the party are sufficiently recovered from
their present state of universal sickness, to visit the Ukerewe Lake,
of which the Arabs give grand accounts. It lies nearly due north of
Unyanyembe, at a distance of from 12 to 15 marches. Thus we
shall be enabled to bring home authentic details of the four great
waters -which drain Eastern and Central Africa, viz. the Nyassa,
the Ghama, the Ujiji lake, and. the Ukerewe. 0n Captain Speke's
return, we shall lose no time in repairing to the coast, which, if we
pass safely through perilous Ugogo, we may hope (CV.) to reach
about December of this year.

We have both suffered severely from illness. We were com-
pelled to travel from Unyanyembe to Ujiji during the wet
monsoon, and in the same season to embark in- open canoes, exposed
to wind and rain, sun and dew, and, when on shore, sleeping in
mud to explore the lake — a labor of about a month. During this
time we endured great hardships and ran not a few risks. Our
limits of the lake were laid down by the accounts of the tribes.

112 REPORTS BY CAPTAINS BURTON AND SPEKE [Jan. 24, 1859.

Wo are slowly improving, and the thought of finishing our
labors with what we hope will be considered most valuable
results has much diminished the terrible wear and tear of mind
caused by wants during our journey westwards. Our asses, 30 in
number, all died ; our porters ran away ; our goods were left
behind; our black escort became so unmanageable as to require
dismissal ; the weakness of our party invited attacks, and our
wretched Balochi deserted us in the jungle, and throughout have
occasioned an infinity of trouble.

We deeply regret that the arrangements for the expedition were
not upon a more liberal scale. With 5000/. we might, I believe,
without difficulty, have spanned Africa from east to west. How-
ever, the similarity of the two coasts and the accounts of travellers
who have penetrated the western regions lead to the conclusion
that the other half of the great continent just reflects the portions
of which we hope to lay before you exactest details.

H. M. the Prince *' Majid," and his native and Indian officials,
have taken the greatest interest in our progress, and we have
reason to be truly grateful to them. They were also urged on by
the Consul de France, M. Ladislas Cochet, who, after Lieut.-
Colonel Hamerton's unfortunate decease, has proved himself an
active and en.ergetic friend.

Your most obedient servant,

EicHD. F. Burton, Captain Bombay Army,

Commanding E. A. Expedition.
To Dr. Norton Shaw.

Unyanyembe, 2nd July, 1858.

Sir, — I have the honour to request you will lay the accompanying
map and field-book before the President and Council of the Royal
Geographical Society. 1 send a plan of the whole route, as far as
we have gone, on a diminished scale, as it is a safer means of con-
veying our entire work to you than by sending portions at a time,
as I have hitherto been obliged to do. My office-copy, of course, is
kept on the original scale, or the same size as the four sheets I sent
you from the 20th November, 1857,

Whilst at the Lake Ujiji, I paid a visit to Kasenge Island, in the
hopes of procuring an Arab boat, and had then the opportunity of
seeing those two points south of it, Ukungwe and Tembwe, on its
east and west shores. I was informed that the sea broadened a good
deal to the south of these points, and finally turned off" with a tail
to the west. The distance from Kabogo to Kasenge (across the

Jan. 24, 1859.1 ON THEIR DISCOVERY OF LAKE UJIJI. 113

sea) I have set off from the compass-bearings, in conjunction with
the latitudes ; it makes a distance of about 23 miles : the time
occupied in rowing was the same either way — 11 hours incessant.

To diminish the disappointment, caused by the shortcoming of
our cloth, in not seeing the whole of the sea Ujiji, I have proposed
to take a flying trip to the Ukerewe lake, while Captain Burton
prepares for our return homewards. This business must be done
speedily, or the ponds and puddles drying up, will render onr pro-
gress seawards difficult. The only instruments I shall take with
me will be one sextant and horizon for latitudes, one compass, and
one thermometer (boiling).

The year appears evenly divided into two seasons — wet and dry
— each lasting six full months. We have fairly gone through six
of wet, and now know nothing but sun and wind : both elements
are very strong. This is a shocking country for sport; there
appears to be literally nothing but elephants, and they, from con-
stant hunting, are driven from the highways. All I have ever
succeeded in shooting have been a few antelopes and guinea-fowls,
besides hippopotami, near the coast.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your obedient Servant,

To Dr. Norton Shaw, ^' ^^ S^^^' ^J^P^^i^ ^^"g^ ^'"^^y-

The President. — We cannot but gratefully return our thanks to the gallant
authors of these communications. Many of us are well acquainted with the
previous remarkable exploits in foreign travel which Captain Burton has per-
formed, and he is now associated with a man who seems to be his equal.

I beg to call your attention in a very few words to the remarkable journey
that these adventurous men have made. We are not yet acquainted with all
the scientific details, nor able to answer for the exact longitude and latitude
of different places ; for you have heard how the travellers have been exposed
to dire illnesses, and have been rendered almost incapable of making observa-
tions. They estimate, however, the distance of the Lake Ujiji from the
Eastern Ocean, or Zanzibar Coast, to be not less than 500 miles in a straight
line. This progress into the interior of Africa, on so high a parallel, is a
geographical feat second only to that which our illustrious friend Livingstone
has performed. Their observations made in traversing this tract of country
may lead us to doubt the approximate estimate made by the eye of the mis-
sionaries, who had seen very lofty mountains, on a more northern parallel, and
which, though under the equator, were said to be covered with perpetual
snow, and consequently at least 22,500 feet high. Upon these statements, it
has been supposed that these mountains might be an extension of the Moun-
tains of the Moon.

I call your attention to a section, now exhibited, representing the altitudes of
the region which Burton and Speke have traversed. The highest point they
ascended, as I understand from their observations, is not more than 3,500 feet
above the level of the sea. Consequently, if the mountains seen and approached
by the Missionaries on the north, should be found to occupy the lofty heights

114 REPORTS BY CAPTAINS BURTON AND SPEKE [Jan. 24, 1859.

assigned, they must subside from 22,500 feet to the low altitude of this, the
leading coast range.

The lake which the travellers reached is stated to be 1800 feet only above
the Eastern Ocean. This is pro tanto a corroboration of the speculation into
which I entered in the year 1852, and which was first ascertained to be true by
the important observations of Dr. Livingstone — that the interior of Africa is a
great watery plateau occupied by different lakes, which send off rivers, which
find their issue to the sea through gorges formed in the subtending coast
ranges. The ridge traversed by Burton and Speke is, I presume, merely a
continuation of the range of which Dr. Livingstone gave us such an admirable
account, andAvhich, in the country he examined on the parallel of the Zambesi,
is simply a prolongation of the great coast ridge subtending that watery interior
plateau to which I called your attention. God grant that Captain Speke may re-
turn from the hazardous expedition he is making to try and reach the more north-
erly and greater lake called Ukerewe. Hitherto there has been much mystery
respecting the so-called interior sea, laid down under the name of Uniamesi,
marked as 600 miles long, and represented as infinitely larger than the smaller
lake of Ujiji. The northernmost lake of the two, lying as it does in a
country of higher altitude, where the mountains reach, it is said, to heights of
six or seven thousand feet, may after all prove to contain the chief sources of
the Nile. We, have, therefore, still before us for determination some of the
most important problems that can engage the attention of geographers.

Mr. M'Queen. — There is not, much room for any observations regarding
this route, except, perhaps, with reference to the position of the lake. The
latter point is the only i30sition that has been determined by astronomical ob-
servations. Every other position in the .journey is fixed by bearings and esti-
mated distances, and even those estimated under confessed difficulties. The lake
I consider is too far to the west. You will remember that at the time Captains
Burton and Speke were there, it was at the close of the wet season : they
have given us no information of its depth, therefore we can form no idea how
much it may diminish in the dry season. It may be that the whole is dried
up. In a very curious account, the most curious I have ever seen, of the
journey from the sea coast to the interior, to the coast of that lake, the Arabs
stated that where they crossed the lake, it was twenty-four miles across — the
distance now given. With respect to the position of the other lake, it will be
found, should Captain Speke ever reach it, that it lies more to the east than
west, and runs w.n.w. and e.s.e. The old maps of De Lisle, prepared by
authority of the King of France 150 years ago, then the best, and even now
good maps, show a large lake in the position indicated, with islands in it.

With regard ,to its connexion with the Nile, we need not, with the clear in-
formation we have, go there to ascertain that point. We have a clear and em-
phatic account of the Egyptian expedition sent by the late Mohammed Ali
twenty years ago to exptore the sources of the White Nile. The expedition
reached 3*^ 22" n. latitude, in the meridian of Cairo, or about 31i° e.
longitude. Where the last astronomical observation was made was in
3° 30^ N. lat., and 31° 20' e. long. The general bearing of the river from
thence to its source was given as s.e., distant owe month's journey,- ox -ohout 20
days, say 200 miles actual travelling. Its course upwards, from the point men-
tioned, was through high mountains, rising in height as these approached the
Equator, and where around the source they rose far above the limit of perpe-
tual snow. Dr. Krapf saw those mountains from the banks of the Dana to the
east of them. The cold, he was told, was exceedingly severe, and from them
ran a river northward to the country of the whites. The Egyptian expedition
collected many particulars, deciding that in those parts were the sources of
the White Nile, say in about 35° e. long., and 0° 30' n. lat. All accounts,
ancient and modern, place high snowy mountains .round .the sources of the

Jan. 24, 1859.] ON THEIR DISCOVERY OF LAKE UJIJf. 115

western brancli of the Nile. The river was then in 3" 30' n. lat., about 1370
feet broad, and falling very fast. Now I beg the President's attention to this
fact. It was falling very fast on the 26th of January — so fast that the expedi-
tion did not venture to proceed any farther, for fear they should not be able to
get back. The chief who resided there told them it would rise again in two
months, at the end of March, which would exactly correspond with the sun
coming to the north, becoming vertical near the equator. The river, therefore,
can have no connexion with the lake, nor with any lake south of the equator,
or it would not fall in the month of January : it would be rising at that time
by the rains which fall from the beginning of November to the end of May.

With regard to the high lands spoken of, there cannot be the slightest doubt
about it. The mountain must be at least 21,000 feet high to have three
or four thousand feet of snow on the summit. It is utterly impossible an
European could be mistaken, with his eyes, his ears, his feet, his hands, when
crossing the base of the mountain, looking up to the top, and seeing the
snow upon it. Mr. Rebmann saw the mountain in his second journey for weeks
together. Two days before he reached Madjame, he encamped about 5 miles
from it, in a cold almost insupportable. Even by moonlight he could clearly
discern the snow. Next day he was not more than three miles from the
summit, then traversing the lower part of the mountain over numerous defiles
and chasms from 1500 to 2000 feet deep, with a great many streams of very
cold water. Madjame is situated near the south-west base of the mountain.
There, in the chief's residence, he saw the deep snow clad dome towering above
him for days together. North-east of it, about 10 miles, is a lower mountain,
which generally in the morning was white with snow, but which melted during
the day. Mr. Rebmann took the bearing n.w., from the Taita hills. The
distance from Mombas is at least 180 geographical miles. In two journeys
from Mombas to Ukembane, Dr. Krapf in each saw the mountain daily for
weeks together, and crossed rivers which descended from it. He could clearly
discern and distinguish the snow from clouds which occasionally covered it.
The height can hardly be less than 21,000 feet above the level of the sea;
17,000 feet above that level being the line of perpetual congelation, so near
the equator, and immediately under it.

I also may observe with reference to the journey of Captains Burton and
Speke, that they could not have travelled more than ten miles a day on the
average. I am sorry that Speke is attempting to go away on an expedition to
the north, for I thitik it is very doubtful whether he will ever reach this
country again. I know something of the nature of tropical countries, and I
cannot conceive anything so wild — his sad state of health considered, I think
it is almost insanity — as this attempt to venture into an unknown country,
perhaps worse than the country he has traversed.

With regard to the accounts given by the Arabs, I pay no attention to them ;
the Arabs make such gross mistakes about lakes of water. For instance,
where rivers run into a lake, they often say they run out of it, and it requires
great care and attention in examining their accounts in order to be correct.

I beg that it may not be supposed for a moment that I wish to under-rate
in any way what Captains Burton and Speke have done. I have no hesitation
in saying that theirs is the most correct route we have, but I think there are
some parts of it that are not quite accurate, especially those portions on the
first high lands from the sea coast.

To the west of the Kilimanjaro mountain, it was stated to the missionaries
that there was a large lake, which flooded the country to a great extent during
the rains, and when it receded left the whole country so covered with salt that
it formed an article of trade in the interior. It was also stated that a large
river ran into it from the north. With regard to the position of the lake in

VOL. III. L

116 REPORTS BY CAPTAINS BURTON AND SPEKE [Jan. 24, 1859.

question, it will be found considerably to the south of the equator, in 3° of
south latitude.

Mr. F. Galton, f.r.g.s. — I trust I may be excused if I draw a conclusion
adverse to the suggestion of some geographers upon the manner in which the
discoveries before us affect the probability of Kilimanjaro and Kenia being of
that remarkable height which the German missionaries, Messrs. Krapf,
Rebmann, and Erhhardt, have assigned to them. It must be recollected that
in the view of these gentlemen Kilimanjaro and Kenia had 7w southern pro-
longations ; they were in fact the southern abutments of a mountainous district,
from whose feet an elevated plateau extended southwards with hardly a hill
upon its face, but having a watershed on either hand. The only exception to
this uniformity of surface consisted in the Nqu Mountains, which Mr. Erhhardt
had seen from the neighbourhood of Mboa-Maji, and which Captains Burton
and Speke have crossed and described. It must further be recollected that the
missionaries' assertion of an elevated plateau running parallel to the coast with
an interior waterparting, was opposed to an opinion current among geographers
of that day.

Now, Captains Burton and Speke have, as you well know, made two expedi-
tions ; the one in the latitude of Kilimanjaro, up the Pangani river, where
they came among hills and experienced mists and chilly rains and a climate
that was literally unendurable to the natives who had accompanied them from
the heated coast. Here, then, were signs of a mountainous country, and
although circumstances prevented them from penetrating far enough to be able
to give any positive testimony, or even to collect information upon Kiliman-
jaro, I gather from Captain Burton's writings that their opinion was in no way
opposed to the statements of the missionaries.

The second journey of Captains Burton and Speke was the present one.
They started from the coast two hundred miles south of Kilimanjaro, exactly
where the missionaries had assured them they would find no hills at all, except
the before-mentioned one of Nqu, and that, precisely, was the only hill they
found.

I therefore maintain that Captains Burton and Speke's discoveries, so far as
they affect in any way the question of these mountains, lend considerable weight
to the testimony of the missionaries ; and I consider that we are even less
justified now than we were before in denying the probability of Kilimanjaro
and Kenia being capped with snow. I fear this much vexed question must
remain at rest until some traveller can give us positive testimony.

Consul M'Leod. — As every thing connected with that inland sea must be
interesting, I would venture to state what I have already communicated to the
Government, that, when at Mozambique, I learned from the Arabs that the
river Conducia, which discharges itself into the north-west end of the harbour
of Mozambique, takes its rise in a lake, which, in the rainy season, communi-
cates with an inland sea, and that the sea takes three days to cross.

Mr. M'Queen. — That lake that you allude to is the Lake Maravi.

The President. — ^In endeavouring to give to the Society a general view of
the efforts of our adventurous and gallant friends, I held it of some importance
to call your attention to the fact, that whilst these supposed snowy mountains
must be 22,500 feet high, if they really existed, under the equator, at all
events they had no southern lofty prolongation ; that in the parallel of Zanzibar
the coast chain was low, and thus resembled the other coast ridges that sub-
tend the interior of Southern Africa. The height of loftier mountains to the
north, as Mr. Galton has properly stated to you, is still a matter for inquiry.

Leaving this point, however, to be determined by future explorations, let us
advert alone to what our gallant countrymen have determined, and let us not
mix up their exploits with our theories. The question now before us is, what

Jan. 24, 1859.«] ON THEIR DISCOVERY OF LAKE UJIJI. 117

Captains Burton and Speke have done ; and I repeat that they have confirmed
the important observations of Livingstone — that the coast range that they
traversed is much of the same height and composition as that which he
traversed, and that like him they found in the interior that, great watery
plateau, the existence of which he demonstrated.*

In concluding the business of this evening, I may announce that I no
longer have any hesitation in addressing my associates as Fellows of the Eoyal
Geographical Society. For, in consequence of the application which I made,
by the authority of the Council, Her Majesty the Queen has been graciously
pleased to grant us Her Charter, and the Eoyal Geographical Society is now,
therefore, placed on the same footing as the older scientific bodies of the
country.

Sixth Meeting, February 14f^, 1859.

Sir RODERICK I. MUROHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — The Duke of Wellington; Captain F, M. Jones;
Alderman Bottertll, of Leeds ; and T, H, Alsager, Joseph Mayer, J. Miland,
M. H. [Pasteur, L. E. R. Rees, W. C. Thomson, Arthur Vesey, and
Theodore Walrond, Esqrs., were presented upon their election.

Elections. — Captain Andrew Clarh, r.e. ; Fieut.- Colonel William
Pottinger ; Captain Louis Tindal, r.n. ; Samuel Clarke, c.E. ; C. Went-
worth Dilke ; Anthony L. Fisher , m.d. ; and John W. Ogle, m.d., Fsqrs.,
were elected Fellows,

The Papers read were —
1. On the ^^ Aurora Borealis" in Greenland, By J. W. Tayler, Esq.
Communicated by Sir W. C. Teevelyan, Bart., f.r.g.s.

The fame of the Aurora's beauty is well known. Travellers in the
Arctic regions have written pages describing its fairy brilliance —
how it enlivens the frozen solitudes of the north, and makes kind
amends for the lost sun. An extended series of observations of the
aurora would doubtless be of great interest and service. The few
following observations have been made in Greenland as a small
instalment.

The distant glimmer of the aurora, as sometimes seen in our

* The Lake of Ujiji lies, according to the route-maps sent by Captains Burton
and Speke, between the meridians of 26^*^ and 28° E. long. Its breadth, where
crossed between Kabogo and Kasenge, is about 23 miles. From this, crossing to
Uvira, near its north end, is 135 miles; the entire lake being 330 miles in length,
between latitudes 3° 10' and 8° 30' S., and is there made to be about 700 miles
from the eastern coast of Africa. Lake Ukerewe, south end, is estimated to be in
about latitude 2° 40' S., longitude 31° 30'. But the observations for longitude,
made by Captain Speke at Ujiji, on the E. shore of the lake, which have since
been roughly computed by Mr. George, place it in longitude 30° 23' E. Should
this position prove to be correct, the distance of the lake from the coast will be
only 520 miles.— A. F.

L 2

118 TAYLER ON THE [Feb. 14, 1859.

northern horizon, can give no idea of its appearance in the Arctic
regions, where for hours continuously the whole heavens from
horizon to horizon is brilliantly illuminated with bands, rays, and
clouds of luminous matter, waving, darting, and flickering its rays
to and fro, and changing its hues from a faint phosphorescent gleam
to golden, green, and rose — neither do any of the sketches I have
hitherto seen give its true appearance, and are mostly confined to
views of it when hardly above the horizon.

I have observed it most frequently over the zenith, and there-
from half-way down to the horizon, the latter having been hid from
my view by mountains varying in distance from 1 to 10 miles; the
height and distance of these being pretty accurately known, have
served as some guide in estimating the extent, height, and speed of
motion of the aurora, the latter hereafter described as " Auroral
motion."

The aurora, as it has appeared at Arksut, lat. 61° 14' N., long.
48° 10', has been of the following description : —

Long streams of light or luminous matter travelling at times
with currents of air, but having within itself independent motions,
such as —

1. Shooting rays downwards, never visibly reaching the earth or
even extending long below the main body.

2. Rolling horizontally and doubling itself up in waves, pre-
cisely as if a long fringed ribbon were held at both extremities,
edges up and down, and a waving and serpentine motion communi-
cated to it.

3. Parts brightening by doubling of the band; becoming so
opaque that stars of the first magnitude cannot be seen through it.

4. Rapid and changeable motion to and fro, with and against the
current of air.

5. Parts of the aurora, without travelling elsewhere, gradually
disappearing, and again becoming apparent in the same place with-
out having visibly come from the main body.

6. Bands forming circles and spirals, and rarely into hemispheres,
like an enormous parachute over the zenith, with rays projecting
all round towards the earth.

The aurora, or its downward rays, do not appear to be attracted
or influenced by high mountains, or icebergs, or water, appearing
equally over them all, although the long projecting rays shooting
downwards would seem to indicate attraction ; but this action is not
increased when passing over high mountains.

Fitful and changeable as are its motions, one at least appears to be
a law, viz. its long bands always occur at or nearly at right angles

Feb. 14, 1859.] . "AURORA BORE ALIS" IN GREENLAND. 110

witli the magnetic poles. These "bands almost invariably stretch
east and west, or a point or two on each side, never going beyond
north-west and south-east or south-west and north-east. This is
the case whether the wind be north, south, east, or west. "With
north and south winds the bands still hold their east and west
direction, but are curved to leeward, like any long, yielding body
would be if secured at both ends.

With regard to height, extent, and density of the aurora, I
have observed as follows: — 1st, as to height, about 10 miles west
from my place of observation is a mountain 4000 ft. high ; I have
never seen the aurora or its rays descend below this, and consider
it never occurs nearer the earth than between 4000 and 5000 feet,
though its altitude is extremely varying, ranging probably from
that distance to 10 or more miles in height. The most certain
means of estimating the height I found was to observe the effect of
the aurora on clouds, and vice versa. I have seen it with the cumuli.
When the aurora is above these, the clouds appear as dark masses
on it, and hide the light ; but when the aurora is under the clouds
(that is, nearer the earth than the clouds), the light is reflected by
the clouds, and passing through the aurora makes the latter appear
more bright in that part ; the whole under surface of the cloud is
also completely illuminated.

The splendid red and green colours of the aurora are in general
only seen when the air is clear and free from vapour and clouds ;
these colours are not quite so intense as the solar iris, but con-
siderably brighter than the lunar.

Eegarding the speed of " auroral " motion (by which I mean
the transmission of a wave in the band of light from one part of the
band to another, independent of wind), I have remarked on several
occasions, when the aurora was partly above and partly below the
clouds (which I estimated 10,000 ft. high), that a wave moved from
a part of the band, crossing the summit of a mountain to the zenith,
in periods of from 4 to 8 seconds, rarely half a minute. The moun-
tain was 4000 ft. high, distant 10 miles, height of eye of observer
24 ft. Supposing the height of the clouds to be judged with mode-
rate accuracy, we could calculate approximately the speed of the
** auroral " motion. The wind has no influence on this motion,
since the waves of light run equally rapid and frequent to windward
or leeward.

By reference to the journal it will be seen when the aurora was
above or below the clouds : the temperature, barometer, and weather
being given, will enable any one interested in this subject to judge
of the nature of the clouds, and estimate nearly their height.

120 TAYLER ON THE [Feb. 14, 1859.

From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the aurora is
confined to certain spaces at no very great altitude, and is not, as
has been supposed, a luminous or electric vapour reaching to the
earth, and encircling the beholder ; that by doubling on itself it
becomes more opaque, showing a certain amount of density, inferior
however to clouds ; that its light is independent, and not a reflec-
tion of light from the sun, since its low altitude precludes it ; that
this vapour or luminous matter has a motion independent of currents
of air, and that it has diamagnetic properties ; that whatever may
be the cause of luminosity, it is composed of matter capable of de-
composing rays of light, since the under edge of the aurora exhibits
the prismatic colours ; that it has within itself a strong cohesion or
attraction amongst its parts, holding itself entire in strong winds,
and not being scattered abroad like smoke or vapour, yet showing
the force of the wind upon it by being curved more or less to
leeward.

Since these few facts are insufficient to draw conclusions from,
or even to prove definitively the invariableness of any of the
appearances I have described, I content myself with the above
remarks.

J. W. Tayler.

Arksut, Greenland, August, 1858.

Explanation of Figures.

Fig. 1. Appearance of the aurora, when above the clouds.
„ 2. Ditto, below the clouds.
„ 3. General aspect of an auroral band.
„ 4. Aurora, in the form of a parachute, observed only once.

The President. — I beg to return the thanks of the Society to the author
of this notice, and also to our friend Sir Walter Trevelyan for having com-
municated it. As there is no gentleman present who can throw more light
upon this subject than that distinguished Arctic explorer, Sir George Back, I
call upon him to give us a condensed account of his own observations upon
the aurora borealis.

Rear-Admibal Sir George Back, Vice-President. — A condensed view of
a phenomenon always moving is not an easy thing. I think great credit is
due to Mr. Tayler for having given a condensed and graphic description of the
aurora borealis, as seen by him at Arksut, in Greenland. I may as well say
that Arksut is near Cape Farewell, in lat. 61° 14' n., long. 48° 18' w. ; and
as, according to Sir John Franklin and others, the 65th degree of latitude is
the most favourable for the observation of the aurora borealis, Mr. Tayler
was well situated for that purpose. The aurora generally commences some-
where about w. by n., or a little more northerly, and shoots up in rays or
beams, but frequently in arches, extending across the zenith to the opposite
horizon ; sometimes returning in a counter-motion, and being met by rays
of almost prismatic colours in the shape of a V, completing the semi-circle ;

Feb. 14, 1859.] "AURORA BOREALIS" IN GREENLAND. 121

at other times with upright pencilled rays, until they appear again to shoot
to and fro, and gradually disappear in the southern sky. Streamers, too,
frequently shoot, as he has described them, from perhaps an altitude of 50 to
60 degrees, more or less, and are visible in various places almost at the same
moment of time. They vanish at their northern faces, and reappear afresh at
their southern, being again projected downwards until they disappear in the
southern horizon ; lost to sight for a brief interval, and bursting instan-
taneously into view ; once more drooping and expiring when the southern
fringe had reached 30 degrees south of the zenith. I have seen at Fort
Keliance, two years in succession, many such appearances ; but on one parti-
cular occasion the sky was generally diffused with the aurora, which quickly
separated into arches, beams, and rays, and darted to and from the opposite
horizons ; then as suddenly opened up into bands or curves. It speedily rushed
across the zenith, nearly to the opjjosite horizon; became broken up in
different forms ; darted upwards anew and formed near the zenith a beautiful
corona borealis ; then, dispersing in an instant of time, it formed itself into
six distinct figures, representing the letter S, and moved with incredible velo-
city, thus presenting the strange appearance of so many huge snakes whirling
and twisting in every direction, until exhausted, as it were, by excess of
motion, the beautiful phenomenon again receded and dissolved in the south,
leaving in the spectator a sense of extreme loneliness, almost painful. As for
the colours of the aurora, they appear nearly, as Mr. Tayler has stated, from
steel grey to pale yellow, orange, red, «fec., varying in lustre according to circum-
stances. The aurora is seldom seen at a lower angle than 4 degrees from the
horizon. I may say, in the first instance, that there are two motions, the direct
and the lateral. The direct motion of the aurora is usually in a plane, seldom
varying more than 22 degrees from the magnetic meridian ; while the lateral
motion is at right angles to the magnetic meridian. Thus, an arch of the
aurora will sometimes move from the zenith 60 or 70 degrees towards the
southern horizon, whilst its extremities east and west remain nearly stationary.
Beams and flashes, contrary to the others, are generally inclined in the direction
of the dipping needle. Near the magnetic meridian they assume a position
perpendicular to the horizon ; but at some distance east and west they decline
towards the perpendicular, at different angles, having occasionally a small
deviation of parallelism among themselves. I think Mr. Tayler says that
the aurora, according to his observation, is not a luminous or electric vapour
reaching to the earth. It is true that in seven winters I never saw the
common cork-ball electrometer charged ; but with a more delicate instrument
— more susceptible — I have seen it drawn away 25 minutes, and afterwards
to upwards of 30 degrees. As regards magnetism, which is always interesting,
I may mention, that Professor Christie, who was then Secretary of the Eoyal
Society, had a needle 8| inches in length made expressly for me. It was sus-
pended so delicately that the slightest cause of disturbance affected it. This
needle was frequently disturbed by the aurora. On one occasion it was
deflected to 7° 50', consequently nearly to 8° on one side of its zero, at a
temperature of 20" minus zero. The arc of the instrument was only graduated
to 10°, thus putting at rest for ever the question of the aurora affecting the
needle. I may also mention in connexion with the same instrument, that
when the arches have been urged with a counter-motion from one horizon
to another, across the magnetic meridian, the needle has vibrated to and fro,
east and west of its zero, and then again suddenly stopped ; and at one time
actually dipped at one end of the needle 8 minutes. As to the height of the
aurora there are various opinions. One philosopher thought it to be 800
miles high. Another, Mr. Dalton, considered it to be 100 miles ; but that
was deemed to be erroneous. In our more recent journeys and voyages to
the northern regions, it was the general opinion, founded on observation, that

122 DISCOVERY BY PALLISER AND HECTOR [Feb. 14, 1859.

the aurora varied between a height of two to four miles, but very frequently
much lower, as described by Mr. Tayler. Indeed, it was very common to
see the lower surface of nebulous clouds illuminated by polar light, thus
showing its proximity to the earth. I remember Sir Edward Parry, when in
a different latitude observing the aurora, saw a bright ray shoot suddenly
down between him and the land, distant at that time only 3000 yards. 1
have frequently seen it nearly — that is to say, apparently — touching the tops
of the pine-trees, situated on a slight elevation, about a mile and a half from
my observatory. And I may take this opportunity of mentioning, for it will
not be devoid of interest to some in this meeting connected with the old
North- West Company, now the Hudson Bay Company, that as Mr. Clark,
one of its officers, was passing over a portage of the river Maligne, the
coruscations of the aurora were so low and vivid that the Canadian voyageurs
threw from them their knives, axes, or whatever metallic things they were
carrying, and actually fell with their faces to the earth. Lastly, 1 would
remark, that many have thought — old travellers especially — that there was
a noise caused by the aurora resembling the rustling of a flag in a strong
breeze. We almost thought so too, I mean Franklin, Kichardson, and myself,
for a long time ; but we discovered that it was simply the effect of severe cold
after a comparatively warm day ; that is to say, when the snow had been
thawed during the day, and a cold of 30 to 42 degrees minus zero had suc-
ceeded at night. On those occasions we heard a hissing sound, and when the
aurora was in rapid motion, it was natural to associate that motion with the
sound. However, that was not the case. Nevertheless, the Indians and
many of the old residents in the Hudson Bay Company's territories are of
unanimous opinion that its motions are sometimes audible.

The Pkesident. — Sir George Back has left very little more to be said
respecting this remarkable phenomenon. I am happy, however, to see near me
Admiral van Dockum, the Minister of Denmark, that power to which Green-
land belongs ; the country in which Mr. Tayler made his observations. It
gives me pleasure to remind you that the Danish Captain Graah, a distin-
guished maritime explorer, has admirably described the phenomena of the
aurora borealis in a work which has been translated into English at the
expense of this Society.*

The second Paper read was —

2. Discovery by Captain John Palliser, f.r.g.s., and Dr. Hector, of
Practicable Passes through the Itocky Mountains within the British

Communicated by the Right Hon. Sir E. Bulwer Lytton, Bart., m.p.,
Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Colonies.

Captain Palliser's despatch is dated from Fort Edmonton, his
winter quarters on the Saskatchewan river, and narrates the pro-
ceedings of himself and his party about the east flanks of the Kocky
Mountains and the upper course and tributaries of that river during
the previous summer.

The chief results before us lie in the discovery and mapping of
the following numerous passes : —

* See Graah's Greenland. J. W. Parker, Strand, 1837.— Ed.

Feb, 14, 1859.] OF PASSES THROUGH THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 123

Two from the S. branch of the Saskatchewan to the Kntanie river,
viz., the Kananaski and Vermilion.

Two from the Kutanie river to the Columbia river, viz. the Lake
and the Beaver Fork.

One between the S. and the N. branches of the Saskatchewan, viz.
the Little Fork.

One from the S. branch of the Saskatchewan to the Columbia,
viz. the Kicking Horse.

In addition to these, the Northern Kutanie Pass has been laid
down, and found to be within British territory.

The most promising of all the routes, for the purpose of crossing
the Rocky Mountains, appears to be that laid down by Dr. Hector.
He followed the Bow River tributary up to the water-parting of
the continent ; then continued forward until he reached a transverse
water-parting, which divided the waters of the Columbia and N.
Saskatchewan on the one hand from those of the Kutanie and S.
Saskatchewan on the other. There he found the facilities for
crossing the mountains to be so great as to leave little doubt in his
mind of the practicability of connecting the plains of the Saskat-
chewan with the opposite side of the main chain of the Rocky
Mountains, even by means of a railroad.

As regards the scenery of the Rocky Mountains, there is a re-
markable absence of peaks. Fine glaciers fill the upper hollows of
the range ; and from different arms of the same large glacier pro-
ceed the N. and S. branches of the Saskatchewan. The snow-line
appears to have been between 6000 and 7000 feet above the sea.
In lat. 51° 40', at a height of 6300 feet, snow was lying in patches
under the shade of trees, notwithstanding a clear midday sun.

There is very little game about the mountains ; the most remark-
able animal of those that exist is the white goat. It lives on the
highest parts of the range, and seldom descends. As a consequence
of the absence of game, Indians are rarely met with, and none of
them possess other than very vague knowledge about the passes.
The Kutanie Indians are a wretched set, though rich in horses.

The country of the Upper Saskatchewan was found to be far less
fertile and well timbered than had been supposed. There are large
tracts of worthless soil, and constant prairie fires have utterly
destroyed the greater part of the timber — so much so, that the
travellers were usually in difficulty owing to the want of firewood.

About Fort Edmonton wheat is raised, and cattle remain out of
doors the whole winter. Potatoes grow excellently.

The President. — In retumiug thanks to Captain Palliser, Dr. Hector,
Lieut. Blakiston, Mr. Sullivan, and the other gentlemen employed in this

124 DISCOVERY BY PALLISER AND HECTOR [Feb. 14, 1859.

expedition, and particularly to Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton for his kindness
in communicating this despatch to us, we ought to be proud of this im-
portant communication, for I venture to say that without the stimulus of the
Eoyal Geographical Society the expedition never would have been under-
taken. The object we geographers had at heart was to ascertain whether
practicable passes through the Eocky Mountains could be found within the
British territory. On the other hand, Her Majesty's Government very wisely
determined, as a prelude to such explorations, that Captain Palliser should
occupy a large portion of his time in determining the possibility of a com-
mercial route being established between Canada and the important possessions
of the Hudson Bay Company, and through the last to our now important
colony of British Columbia, and so on to Vancouver Island. The result of
the observations of our travellers as to the nature of the easternmost of their
explorations, and the relative altitudes of the ground, and the difficulties of
the portages, has been already laid before you. As your President, I would
rather wish to restrict the discussion to the nature of that great region to the
west of Lake Winnipeg, the region, in short, of the affluents of the North and
South Saskatchewan rivers, which, we are told, is capable of becoming a
great and important colony. Captain Palliser describes this region as being
fertile, capable of producing anything, and good crops of grain.

The chief geographical feature to which I would call your attention is
the remarkable fact that where the Eocky Mountains rise to their highest
altitude, there are to be found the lowest depressions or passes ; so that while
the Americans in travelling to the central parts of California have to encounter
passes at 7000 feet above the sea, Englishmen may on their own ground
travel through gorges only 5000 feet above the sea.

Gentlemen, there are several persons present who can give you much
information on this subject. For example, I see Mr. Ball, the Under Secre-
tary for the Colonies, who in the late Government was a most active organiser
of this expedition. Then we have a gentleman (Mr. Edward Ellice), a dis-
tinguished member of the Legislature, who has a large stake in the Hudson
Bay Company, which has for so many years governed the region with great
benefit to the poor Indians ; then we have also Lord Bury, who has recently
returned from America, and has earnestly studied this subject, and who is
emulating his noble father in his zeal for geographical science. Sir George Back
is also present, who is familiar with the eastern waterparting of the Eocky
Mountains ; whilst I hope that from the discussion which may ensue, the
Bishop designate of British Columbia, who has honoured us by his attendance,
may gain some useful knowledge preparatory to the important mission on
which, thanks to the liberality of one of the noblest and kindest of our country-
women, he is about to proceed.

Mr. John Ball. — I feel that I can say but very little. It happened to be
my duty to assist in sending out this expedition, an expedition not due to the
Government, but to this Society. I must say that I feel great satisfaction
in the intelligence which we have recently received from them. For the first
time since nearly forty years they have traversed a district which has borne
a very ill name among white men, I mean the country of the Black Foot and
Blood Indians. That they have done so in safety is due in some degree to
favourable circumstances, but also to the great tact and skill of Mr. Palliser
in conciliating their affections. Arrived at the foot of the Eocky Mountains,
their expectations have been far more than realised. Not one pass, as they
supposed, but three practicable passes have been discovered. Two of them
seem to merit, in an especial degree, the attention of the public in this country;
because, since that expedition was sent out, great national interests have
become involved in the communication with the west coast of America, in
consequence of the gold discoveries in that far distant region. The new

Feb. 14, 1859.] OF PASSES THROUGH THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 125

•
soutliern pass, wliich was discovered by Mr. Palliser, leads into tlie valley of
the Kutanie river, and carries you down the course of that river into American
territory. The two more northerly passes are entirely upon British ground.
One of^them, the Vermilion Pass, leads to the Kutanie river, near to its
source ; and a second accessory pass presents itself immediately you have
crossed the dividing ridge of the Kocky Mountains. Turning to the right,
with scarcely any perceptible elevation, you pass from the head waters of
the Kutanie river to a branch of the Columbia river. Northward of that is
another pass, a little higher, called the Kicking Horse Pass, of which I have
not been able to hear the full details. It remains to be decided which of
these two passes — both of them very eligible in point of geographical position
— will be the more available for use, subject to the condition that for a great
part of the year the mountain range must be covered deep in snow. One
word, however, as to the mode of getting to this country. The real difBculty
appears to me to be in traversing that small portion which lies between the
corner of Lake Superior and Rainy Lake. It does appear, from information I
have received from Mr. Palliser, that there is no insurmountable obstacle in
carrying a land-road, for a certain distance to the westward, parallel to the
course of the White Fish River, which falls into the Kammistaquoia some-
what below the Kakabeka Falls. But then there comes a region of swamps
and rocks, so intricate that you never seem to remain long on either land or
water ; and without some enormous outlay, there seems no practicable mode
of making a land-road in the direction which they took. Nor is there any
convenient way of travelling by water, except by the tedious one of small
canoes and crossing portages, of which 26 were found in the lower course of
the White Fish River. Why I allude to this matter is, because the small
space of 50 or 60 miles from Pigeon River to the Kammistaquoia, so far as I
know, has never yet been explored by white men ; and if it should be found
that there is a sufficient amount of dry and solid land on which a road can be
made, it will throw open to British enterprise, in the valley of the Saskat-
chewan, a tract of territory of greater extent than the whole of France and
England put together. Before sitting down I may allude to one peculiar
feature of this country, and that is the extraordinary nature of the water-
shed in the Rocky Mountains. Except in the Carpathian chain, we have
nowhere in the old world anything exactly like it. The rivers seem to
pass across the axis of greatest elevation. The two main branches of the
Saskatchewan river pass to the westward of the highest mountains in the
chain. Mount Murchison and Mount Hooker ; and on the western side of the
chain we have this extraordinary fact — two rivers flowing parallel to each
other a few miles apart for a long distance, the Columbia and the Kutanie,
one running to the n.w., and the other to the s.e. It appears to me one of
the most singular facts that we know of in physical geography.

Lord Bury, m.p., f.r.g.s. — I shall certainly make it a point to follow in the
general direction which you. Sir, have pointed out ; but, like the last speaker,
I, too, cast rather a longing eye to that corner of the country to which he has
alluded. With regard to the present expedition. Captain Palliser has had the
advantage, which he shares only with the explorers of some parts of Africa and
Australia, of dealing with an almost unknown subject. The reason why we
are ignorant of this country is, that it has been to a certain extent shut up by
the Hudson Bay Company. That Company holds territorial sway and exclu-
sive right of trade over the whole of the country. The importance of the dis-
covery of these three passes must depend in a great measure upon the value of
the land on each side of the Rocky Mountains. If the land to the eastward
between Lake Winnipeg and the Rocky Mountains, and the land to the west-
ward near to the new colony of Columbia, be valueless, then the discoveries
which Captain Palliser has made will be equally valueless. But if we can

126 DISCOVERY BY PALLISER AND HECT9R [Feb. U, 1859.

show that on the development of the country which lies between Lake Win-
nipeg and the Rocky Mountains the future greatness of British North America
almost exclusively depends, then we shall be able to realise the full importance
of these discoveries. We have in British territory two of the greatest harbours
in the world, — on the Atlantic shore the harbour of Halifax in Nova Scotia,
and on the Pacific shore that of Esquimault in Vancouver Island. I cannot
resist expressing a hope that at no distant day we shall see these two con-
nected ; and then it will be that the importance of this discovery will come
into play. And now, if you will allow me, one word about this corner of the
country which has been alhided to by Mr. Ball. He intimated that in the
hauteur des terres separating the waters running towards Hudson and James
Bay, and the waters running towards Lake Sui)erior, lay the greatest difficulty
which had been as yet encountered. I suppose that the gentlemen present
know that for the last two years the Canadian Government, as well as the
Home Government, has had an exploring party between Lake Superior and
the Red River. I have seen the result of their explorations, and I do not think
there exists such an insuperable objection to the formation of a land road as he
supposes. I have myself been over that height of land, and the greatest
obstacle is a swamp called the Savanne. In that swamp, in the space of three-
quarters of a mile, there is a fall of thirty-one feet. Except in isolated places,
that swamp is nowhere more than three or four feet deep ; and at the bottom
you get a strong clay. I venture to say, on the authority of greater men than
myself, that it is one of the easiest parts to form a road. An American would
cut down the brushwood and pile it on the top of the swamp, then cut down
a few trees and pile them on the top of the brushwood, and that would form a
temporary road ; and when a better road was wanted it could easily be made
on the top of the substratum thus laid. With respect to the remainder of the
country between Lake Superior and Red River, I think no great difficulty
exists, I am one of what would in old times be called a company of adven-
turers who have contracted with the Canadian Government to carry their mails
from Canada to the Red River. We do that, with our present small means
and inefficient organisation, twice a-month without difficulty. That fact is a
sufficient argument to the objection that the Savanne swamp is an insuperable
obstacle to road-making. With respect to the value and extent of the culti-
vable land between Lake Winnipeg and the Rocky Mountains, Mr. Blogget,
the distinguished American climatologist, estimates that it contains altogether
about 500,000 square miles fully adapted for the operations of agriculture in
every way. Assuming that estimate to be correct, about 437,000 square miles,
or more than 717 millions of acres, would be in the British territory. Although
but a small part of the territory of North America, it would be enough to
support all Great Britain and her dependencies. W'e know that the buffalo
can winter on the Upper Athabasca just as easily as they can in Minnesota.
We know, too, that on the two branches of the Saskatchewan all the grain
grown in temperate latitudes can be easily raised. Just south of the boundary-
line the great equestrian tribes of the Indians winter their horses, and it is
not to be supposed that that boundary, a mere astronomical line, separates
the fertile regions of the United States from a sterile region beyond. Experi-
ence has proved that that is not fact. Buffalo and wild cattle can live perfectly
well there ; and wherever grain is tried it has succeeded almost beyond the
hopes of those who have undertaken it. The want of a market has been the
great thing which has stopped them.

The noble Lord then entered at some length into the climatology of the
territory in question, to show that it was highly favourable for colonisation as
far north as Lake Athabasca and Peace River, and even in some places on the
Mackenzie River as high as 60° N. latitude.

The President. — I again congratulate the Society upon the value of the

Feb. 14,1859.] OF PASSES THROUGH THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 127

Eeports which have been read, and also upon having heard from Lord Bury
such an able exposition of the physical capabilities of this great country. I
have also great pleasure in announcing that, in reply to an a})plication which I
made to obtain permission for Captain Palliser and his associates to return to
England by crossing the Rocky Mountains into British Columbia, Sir E. B.
Lytton has acceded to that request, which had indeed been preferred by the
travellers themselves ; and thus many most important and interesting additions
will doubtlessly be made to those discoveries the nature of which we have
been considering this evening.

Seventh Meeting, February 2Sthj 1859.

Sir RODERICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Lieut. -General P. Cannon; Viscount Strangford ;
James Brand, Pascoe St. Leger Grenfell^ T. Corhyn Janson, and xhomas
Sopwith, C.E., Esqrs., were presented upon their election.

Elections. — Major A. C. Coohe, r.e. ; Lord De Blaquiere ; Com-
mander W. N. W. Hewett, r.n. ; Pev. Evan Lewis, b.a. ; Captain Kenneth
Murchison ; Captain Robert Havard Price; Lieut.- Colonel J. F. D,
Crichton Stuart, m.p. ; Pev. F. W. Tremlett, m.a. ; and Henry Hulse
Berens ; William F wart, m.f. ; Henry Hansard ; William Mitchell ; Thomas
Phinn, Q.c. ; Edward Rawdon Power, and Henry William Willoughby,
Esqrs., were elected Fellows.

Auditors. — Thomas H. Brooking and E. Osborne Smith, Esqrs.,
on the part of the Council, and Thomas Lee, Esq., and the Eev. J.
Worthington, d.d., on the part of the Society, were appointed
Auditors.

Exhibitions. — Two large paintings by Mr. Atkinson, showing the
character of mountain scenery at the source of the Bascan, and the
snowy chain of the Ac-tu, were exhibited.

The Papers read were : —
1. A Journey through some of the Highest Passes in the Ala-tu and
Ac-tu Mountains in Chinese Tartary. By T. W. Atkinson, Esq.,
F.R.G.s. and G.s.

During my wanderings in Central Asia I came upon several large
river-beds, in some of which there was no water, in others the
streams Were so small that it was difficult to account for the forma-
tion of such enormous water-courses. I shall therefore attempt to
describe a phenomenon caused by a terrible earthquake at some
distant period, which rent the mountains asunder, letting out the
water of a large Alpine lake, which has formed one of those vast
channels across the plain. I also hope that my description will

128 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

convey some idea of the physical geography of this extraordinary
region.

As it was necessary to await the arrival of the tribes, I deter-
mined to extend my ramble to a pass about twelve hours' ride to
the eastward. For the first mile the steppe was covered with good
grass, after this we came upon a tract of sand and pebbles, with
occasional tufts of steppe grass, extending over about three miles ;
this led to a sandy plain entirely deprived of vegetation. Far to
the north we could see some green patches of verdure surrounding
a lake ; but with this exception, the entire country appeared an
arid desert. In about an hour and a half we reached the brink of
one of the dry river-beds frequently found in these regions. This
was a large one, not less than a mile and a half in width, and
130 feet deep, and the banks being nearly perpendicular, it formed
a complete barrier to our progress in this direction. I sent two
men along the bank, and took my only other companion upwards,
searching for a place by which we could descend. After a long
and fruitless ride, the report of a gun and the waving of a hand-
kerchief by the two men brought me to a spot where they had dis-
covered a track made by deer and other animals descending for
water.

We rode over the brink and began to descend slowly, crossing a
broken part of the path with great difficulty ; at length the first man
and myself reached the bottom. As we stood watching the other two
the sand suddenly gave way under the feet of the last horse, and both
man and animal rolled down apart from each other from a height
of about 40 feet. We thought both killed, but on hastening to their
aid, they rose to their feet ; the horse gave himself a shake, and
began to kick and plunge furiously, and the man burst into a fit of
laughter.

All hope of returning by this track was now at an end, and we
rode on making vain guesses as to what had become of the stream
which had scooped out this formidable hollow. Sand and pebbles
covered the greater part of the surface, interspersed with patches
of fine grass ; but near the middle we found several pools of fresh
water, with a small stream uniting them. They were surrounded
by beds of fine sand on which were the foot-prints of several animals
of the deer tribe. Near one pool other foot-marks attracted the
attention of my men, one of whom called out that the barse (tiger)
had been there. On reaching the spot I saw distinctly the prints
of huge feline paws, though not recent : most probably this tiger
had followed the other animals into the mountains, whither they
had gone in search of food.

Feb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 129

A little farther we found a broad bed covered witb large stones
and coarse gravel, over whicb a stream of water was running
rapidly, making it very difficult to ford ; and the opposite bank
proved as higb and abrupt as the one we bad descended. It was
now past midday, and the pass in the mountains appeared still far
distant. Questioning the Kirghis guide, I ascertained that he
bad never crossed this country before, and could tell me nothing
reliable about the pass. Quickening our pace over the sandy
steppe, at five o'clock we turned into the great ravine we had been
seeking. The first few hundred yards was between grassy slopes
with a little rivulet in the centre ; having passed some rocky masses,
the rugged mountain jaws opened upon us in all their grandeur.
This was a terrific rent ; the dark purple slaty rocks had been
riven asunder by the granite, and heaved up into craggy precipices
of enormous height. In some parts the rocks were broken into
sharp points, in others they were piled up like huge towers over-
hanging the base of these mighty cliffs. To add to the wildness
of the view, three large eagles were soaring far above our heads,
and several were perched upon the crags.

The Kirghis imagined from this that some of his countrymen
were encamped in the pass, and, riding forward, found unmistake-
able evidence that horses and other animals had recently passed on
the other side of the stream. Presently we came upon three
Kirghis, who, after a ride of little more than an hour, brought us
to a wide part of the pass, where they had pitched their yourts on
some grassy slopes, at a point where the gorge branched off in two
directions. The tribe was taking advantage of the rich grass for a
day or two before proceeding to the pastures in the Ala-tu.

All the camels, horses, oxen, and sheep had been assembled close
about the yourts, as the space on which these had been pitched was
so limited by the precipices around. Various were the sounds that
greeted my ears on waking the next morning : the sharp cry of
the camels and the bellowing of the bulls echoing among the rocks
increased the confusion. As day dawned I turned out and stood
at the door of the yourt, gazing in silent wonder at the scene
before me.

The spot on which I stood was a green gi'assy mound in the
middle of the gorge, and three yourts were placed upon it. A little
below, on the bank of a small torrent, there were seven other
yourts ; while immediately opposite, and at about 300 yards from
me, rose up a mighty mass of dark basaltic rocks to a much greater
height than the distance from me to them. They were pillared and
split into most curious fpmis — some of them like watch-towers

130 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

guarding the pass. These rocks divided the gorge, which branched
off to the south and east : looking up the southern branch, the eye
rested on the snowy crests near the source of the Ac-tu, and up the
other were seen the dazzling peaks in which the Bascan has its
source, while near me shrubs and flowers were hanging from the
clefts, showing that spring was adorning these rugged foims with
all her beauty. The whole space around the base of these rocks
was filled with living animals, prominent among which I discovered
the curved neck and shaggy head of the camel above the horses
and oxen, while the goats and sheep were climbing almost inacces-
sible rocks in search of food.

Two of the sons of my hostess offered to provide horses, and
accompany me part of the way, hoping to see our rifles used. I
found great difficulty in obtaining a guide ; the dangers that lay
in the route I purposed taking were so great that the only man
who knew the country refused to go with me ; but on showing as a
reward a flask of gunpowder and a few balls, his eyes sparkled with
delight, and his objections vanished. All arrangements for our
ascent having been completed, and a party sent back with our
horses to the great water course, we left the Aoul, and turning
towards the southern branch of the pass, we rode up to the base of
the basaltic cliffs, whence the view down the gorge was savagely
grand.

While looking on this scene I could not avoid contrasting the
puny efforts of man with these stupendous works of nature. How
marvellously small the pyramids and temples of the Egyptians, and
the great works of the Romans, would appear if placed at the foot
of these towers of basalt; or near the shelving masses of trap,
forming mighty stairs leading into the great recesses of the moun-
tains, which in some parts are riven asunder, and horrible chasms
seem to penetrate far towards their centre !

Our little band consisted of the two young chiefs, the old guide,
three Kirghis, myself, and my two men.

After riding two hours, sometimes between high precipices, at
others rocky slopes, we arrived at a part of the pass so abrupt that
we could not ascend on horseback. Even on foot, we found it no
easy matter to scramble up. At last we reached a small level space,
about twenty yards in length and four in width, when a scene lay
before us that few could look down upon without a shudder. We
were standing on the brink of a precipice, and looking into a fearful
chasm, into which no man could descend. The rocks were of dark
purple slate, with a few shrubs hanging from the clefts ; yellow and
green moss covered the upper ledges, and at the bottom was a small

Fbb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 131

lake, the water appearing of inky blackness. To the north, crags
rose up far above us, while to the south the mountain was so steep
that it appeared impossible to find a path in that direction. This,
however, was our only chance.

We began our ascent by going in slanting lines, gaining but little
at each tack, and turning our horses with great difficulty. As we
ascended higher, each turning gave us a deeper view into the terrible
abyss, with nothing to stop man or horse should either slip. After
extraordinary toil and no little anxiety we reached a part more easy
to ascend, over which we rode. In due time we reached the crest of
the mountain, when we turned towards the west, and saw that the
day was fast declining. The old guide rode by my side, pointing out
the peaks and crags near which we were to pass.

I inquired how he became so well acquainted with this wild
region, and after a few questions to ascertain whence I came, and
finding he had nothing to fear from me, he acknowledged that he
once belonged to a strong band of robbers, commanded by a cele-
brated chief, " Kinsara." This man was the scourge of all the tribes,
whom he often plundered, carrying ofi" their horses, camels, men,
women and children. His daring acts filled the Kirghis with so
much dread that they dared not follow him into the mountains
amidst scenes where they believed was the veritable residence of
Shaitan.

Our route was along a mountain ridge, sometimes at the base of
high igneous crags, at others over parts covered with moss and short
grass. Then we came into a labyrinth of rocks, through which it
appeared impossible to find our way ; but our robber-guide led on
without once being at fault. We presently obtained a splendid view of
the snowy chain of the Ac-tu stretching to the east and west. Its vast
glaciers and high peaks were sparkling like rubies in the setting sun;
while beneath, several bold rocky ridges rose out of the haze, and
nearer to us a lower chain of mountains and valleys covered with
vegetation. This is the region in which the Kirghis find their
summer pastures.

A short ride brought us to the bank of a small and rapid stream,
which we followed down into the valley, where we found a fine clump
of birch and picta trees, under which we took up our lodgings. It was
indeed a quiet spot, for not a sound could be heard save the mur-
muring of the stream and our own voices. Near to our encampment
another narrow valley branched off to the southward, running up
between high mountains and rugged precipices. At the end of the
ravine some high cliffs rose up, and far beyond it one of the highest
peaks of the Ac-tu reared his mighty head, on which the last rays

VOL. III. M

132 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

of the Sim were shining, lighting it up like a crimson beacon, while
a gloomy twilight was creeping over us.

The effect was singularly beautiful. Around us luxuriant summer
vegetation was growing, intermingled with flowers, blooming in all
their glory. As the valley ascended, both flowers and vegetation
gi*adually diminished thi'ough every grade, till the moss on the rocks
disappeared. Then came a scene of utter desolation, where the
effects of the thundering avalanches are palpably visible, the wreck
of wliich cut off the view of the glaciers ; while the high peak,
clothed in his cold wintry garb, looked inexpressibly ghastly and
chilling. Wishing to get a peep at my companions, I walked to a
shoi-t distance, and beheld the group sitting around our camp fire.
As the valley was shrouded in deep gloom, the bright-red flame gave
a peculiar character to the scene. Having jotted down a few notes,
I joined my companions, when our saddle-cloths were spread on the
ground, and very soon all except the sentinel were fast asleep.

Just as day dawned I was awoke by the neighing of one of the
horses close to my ear. On looking round I observed the sun's rays
had not yet touched the snowy peaks, and all the chain below was
enveloped in a grey misty haze. Presently the people were roused
and each man attending to his duties ; the young chiefs spread their
kalats on the grass and offered up their devotions ; their example
was followed by the other Kirghis and my men, each in his own
peculiar way. In a short time we were in our saddles and riding
up the valley, which was covered with rich grass and flowers, while
shrubs and dwarf-cedars were growing and hanging from the
clefts. In parts the precipices rose from 800 to 1000 feet, their
summits split into various-shaped turi'ets and pinnacles. At one
point huge buttresses jutted out into the valley, appearing as we
approached to close up the ravine and stop all further progress ;
having passed these, we had a beautiful view of the snowy chain.

Near the source of the Bascan there was one very high peak, which
had evidently been conical in form, and this had been torn asunder.
One half only was standing ; the rent was curved, and the upper
part overhanging considerably. No snow could rest on this pre-
cipitous face, and the rocks appeared of a dark purple. The snow
that had been accumulating on this mountain, probably for thousands
of ages, was riven into perpendicular cliffs 700 or 800 feet high,
appearing like Pentelic marble. This was a stupendous precipice,
but the whole height could not be seen from our position; my
impression, however, is, that it cannot be less than 2000 feet.

Having reached a point where the guide changed our route, we
turned towards the west, up a narrow and abrupt ravine, by which we

Feb. 28, 1859.], IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 133

were to ascend to tlie topof the cliffs. Here we had to dismount and lead
our horses over places even difficult to pass on foot, and in about an
hour we stood on the mountain slope, about 500 yards from the
brink of the precipices. We had now ascended to about 1000
feet above the valley, and this small difference in elevation had
effected a wonderful change. Instead of fine grass and luxuriant
herbage, short mossy turf and stunted plants covered the surface.
Among them I found' the rhododendron chrj^santhemum creeping
among the rocks, with its dark shining green leaves and large
bunches of beautiful yellow flowers. Even in sheltered situations,
this plant never exceeds three feet in height. I have often found it
spreading over a large space, and covering the rocks with its ever-
green foliage. A dwarf-cedar was also trailing its branches among
the masses of granite, extending to the length of fifty paces. The
stems and branches were twisted about the rocks, like huge serpents
coiling round them.

Our guide now led the way towards the crest of the ridge. After
riding more than an hour we left vegetation behind us, and began
to pick our slow and toilsome way over a rough and stony region.
At length we reached enormous masses of green slate, shooting up
into high pinnacles, so smooth and perpendicular that they can
never be ascended. Passing round to the southward of these, we
came upon a scene of terrible disruption and desolation, where rocks
had been uprooted and hurled down into one chaotic mass of a most
fearful effect, extending to the brink of a vast rent that had cut the
mountain asunder. A terrible convulsion must have taken place
here, rending the mountains in twain and forming chasms into
which the boldest man cannot look without feelings of dread.

Having spent a short time contemplating this wonderful scene,
we left the spot and rode along the edge of the fallen rocks for about
two miles. At length we arrived on the brink of the ravine where
it descended in a series of deep precipices ; bej^ond this point our
horses could not go, and here we had to part with our friends.
Before separating we sat down at a little spring and eat our simple
dinner — a few small pieces of hard Kirghis cheese washed down by
water from the rill. Game is not abundant in this region ; during the
whole of our ride we had only seen two small herds of argali, and in
both instances they were far out of the range of our rifles.

Our guide did not permit us to sit long — he urged our speedy
departure, knowing the difficulties we had to encounter. The way
was downward in an oblique direction for about 200 paces, after
which we turned the steep rocks, clinging as well as we could
to the projecting points. Having gained a narrow ledge, extending

M 2

134 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

along the top of a higli precipice, the Kirghis led the way till we
came to a break in the rocks. Here a part of the precipice had
fallen, forming a stony slope both steep and dangerous, with
another precipice at its base, where huge masses were over-hanging
which appeared ready to topple into the gulf at the slightest touch.
We stood for a few minutes looking at this rugged spot with dread,
fearing, if we attempted to descend, the stones would give way and
carry us into the depths below. As there was no other path, the
Kirghis stepped on to the stony track, when all followed. After
several slips and some bruises we reached the terrace, which I found
ten to fifteen paces wide, and covered with bushes and plants.
From this point I could discern the fearful depth beneath us.

We proceeded along the terrace, which descended to the west,
narrowing to a mere ledge, forming a most rugged staircase not
more than three feet wide, and in some parts even less. This had a
very ugly appearance, but by the aid of the bushes we let ourselves
down over many fearful places, and reached a steep part covered
with fallen rocks, where poplar and birch trees were growing, with
numerous shrubs concealing the cavities, and rendering our progress
both slow and dangerous. We next came upon another narrow
terrace covered with luxuriant vegetation, in some parts reaching
above our heads. From the edge of this nearly level space a slope
descended to a great depth, so abruptly that it was impossible to find
a footing there.

The guide led us along through beds of plants, in which we lost
sight of each other. We had not, however, gone far when we dis-
covered a well trodden track made by a large animal, that the Kirghis
at once pronounced to be a tiger. Creeping cautiously along, we
reached the lair of the beast, where we found evidence that a
tiger had recently been, the place being still warm. We followed the
animal's track along the terrace about 200 yards, and then found he
had turned down into the gorge among rocks and thick bushes,
through which we could not penetrate. Leaving his path, we pushed
on through the thick vegetation, and came to] a point beyond which
it seemed almost impossible to proceed. The place was formed by
granite rocks nearly perpendicular, with a few bushes growing in
the clefts, the mass presenting jutting points, our only aids in over-
coming the difficulties of our descent. At length we arrived in
safety on another grassy slope, which led us to the brink of the last
precipice.

Having reached this place, we stood looking at the wild scene before
us. The opposite side of the gorge was equally rugged and abrupt
with that we had descended. We beheld stupendous precipices with

Feb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 135

large trees growing at their base ; shrubs and creeping plants were
hanging from the fissures, which gave a softer, but a more sublime
character to the scene than when viewed from above. At one part
a line of stony turrets were standing on this vast wall, receding
into hazy distance ; in another, a huge mass 700 or 800 feet high
was quite isolated from the precipice by a great chasm, having
around its base huge trees covered with green and yellow foliage,
contrasting beautifully with the red and purple rocks. Beneath
these was a slope composed of debris fallen from the cliffs above,
now covered with moss of almost every hue, and extending to the
bottom of the pass. The ground appeared covered with grass, but the
great depth made it look intensely gloomy. Looking up the gorge
towards the south, I saw several of the snowy peaks of the Ac-tu
gleaming in the sun, while all around us was in deep shade.

Having transferred this scene to my sketch-book, we continued
our march downward, scrambling over many difficult spots, and
reached the bottom to our great delight. Close to the foot of the
rocks we found the bed of a torrent, in which a small stream was
leaping and bubbling over the large stones heaped up in its channel.
Following the stream down this tremendous defile for about half a
mile, we saw a track by which the wild animals come down to drink.
Proceeding onward, we presently came to a part where the water
disappeared among the rocks. The defile here became narrower,
while down one of its- sides a small waterfall was pouring ; its upper
part was invisible, but the last leap was from a cliff between 500 and
600 feet high. Soon after bounding over the edge of the rock, the
stream was wafted about by the breeze, like fine gauze floating in the
air. As it descended lower, the water was dispersed in white spray,
which fell upon us as we passed like a Scotch mist, and quickly
producing a similar effect.

The gorge became narrower, till we could not see a hundred
paces before us. At length it became a mere fissure, in some parts
only twenty-two paces wide, in others twenty-five — with precipices
varying from 1000 to 1200 feet in height. On one side the rocks
were overhanging, on the other receding, having all the appearance
of being able to fit into each other, could any power be found to press
them together. The bottom was strewn with huge blocks of granite,
slate, and jasper, which had been rolled on and rounded by the
torrent. Sometimes the water rushes down this place, filling it to
the height of thirty-five feet, as clearly shown by the lines on the face
of the rocks. At these times no pencil could delineate the impetu-
osity of the water, or pen describe the thundering of the flood, as it
rushes through this fearful chasm.

136 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

After proceeding about lialf a mile, whicli occupied us an hour,
climbing over stones strewn in our path, we emerged from the terrible
cleft into an enormous oval-shaped valley, scrambling up the side of
a channel cut by the torrent to the depth of sixty feet. On reaching
the top of the bank, I found we were on pastures, covered with rich
grass and flowers. As our guide * recognised the spot, his eyes
sparkled with delight, — we were on one of the encamping grounds of
Kinsara, and no doubt it recalled to the old man's mind many scenes
of festal enjoyment after successful barrantas. He pointed to a
place under some precipices on the north-west side as the locality of
the Sultan's yourts ; farther to the west he indicated the position of
the Aoul of his band, and directed our attention right across the
valley to a point near the bank of a torrent, as the spot where a party
had always been stationed to guard the pass.

We were now in a deep valley about four miles wide and fifteen
long, surrounded by mountains varying from five to seven thousand
feet in height, from which there appeared to be no outlet. The sun
was shining brightly, and we found it intensely hot ; still the grass
was green, and the flowers blooming beautifully, proving that they
received plenty of moisture. So great was the change on leaving
the deep and gloomy gorge, and entering into this sunny spot, that
it entirely removed a sense of oppression created by the rugged
scenes I had passed. Standing for a short time on one of the heaps
of stones, which the torrent had piled up, I examined the view
around, and clearly perceived that this had once been a mountain
lake of vast depth.

Going towards the base of the cliffs on the eastward, I passed
several scattered heaps of large rounded blocks of granite, with
patches of sand around them, in which I found many broken shells.
Had I possessed the necessary implements for excavation, I should
no doubt have found perfect ones. On reaching the cliffs I saw large
masses of light green slate, washed down from the strata 'above,
which had been thrown up at this point nearly perpendicular. The
line was also distinctly visible where the action of the water had
smoothed the rocks. Having with much difficulty climbed the pre-
cipice about 560 feet, I found great cavities formed by the water,
and the slate broken away and rounded. Above this line there
were no cavities, and all the rocks were angular and sharp. Thus
a line was distinctly marked along the face of the cliffs indicating
the water level.

Having descended, I ordered our march to be resumed, when we
proceeded over a thick grassy turf, with occasional large patches of
Sand and pebbles, among which I found several beautiful agates.

Feb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 137

Here I again discovered mimeroiis shells, and after digging up a few
inch.^ of sand with my dagger found a bed of several kinds.
Having gone about three miles, we came upon another deep channel
coming from the south-west, in which a rapid stream was running
over a rocky bed. The guide led the Avay up the bank to a point
where we could ford without difficulty. Here the stream was about
twenty yards wide, and deeper than agreeable, for in one part it was
up to our middle and exceedingly cold, proving that it had come
from a snowy source at no great distance. Our guide informed me
that this river ran into a cavern in the mountain, and that no one
dare approach, as Shaitan had his dwelling there.

Just at dark we reached our resting place, where we found a
comfortable berth under some overhanging masses of granite, which
had been scooped out by water, and here we lost no time in taking
our glass of tea with a few scraps of soaked hyran. When darkness
spread his mantle over the valley, shutting out of view the moun-
tains to the south, we had nothing to look upon except the riven
and serrated cliffs rising above us. These were partly lit up by the
flickering light of our fire, giving a spectral appearance to their
singular forms. This was the place on which Kinsara had lived,
and my guide told me that no one of the band ever dared to disobey
his orders, as doing so was certain death. He had acquired un-
bounded power over the mind of his followers by his bravery. If a
desperate attack had to be made against fearful odds, he led the
band, and was ever first in the fight, shouting his cry with uplifted
battle-axe, and plunging his fiery steed into the thickest of the
battle. This gave confidence to his men and was the secret of his
success, but the Kirghis thought he was in league with Shaitan, and
that no steel could touch him.

At the foot of these rocks many a man had rested before being
sold into slavery, often seeing his wives and children divided among
his captors. As we sat around our little fire watching the red glare
upon the rocks, we were suddenly startled by a vivid flash of lightning
which for a moment illumined the whole valley and adjacent moun-
tains with a pale blue light. We were almost blinded, and the next
instant left in thick darkness. A heavy roll of thunder now echoed
among the mountains on the opposite side of the ridge under which
we were encamped, several other flashes followed, all equally grand,
but the storm passed along the chain and did not reach us.

The night passed over and the day dawned without our being
disturbed, and long before the sun cast his rays into the valley we
were up. While tea was preparing I rambled along the base of the
cliifs, and found additional indications of tliis basin having once been

138 ATKINSONS JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

a lake. About half a mile to the west of our encampment there
were heaps of rounded gi-anite blocks strewn over a sandy shore ;
also several isolated masses varying from 100 to 300 feet in height,
and standing about 60 yards from the cliffs. The sharp angles had
all been worn off by water, and the precipices at this part were
much undermined, in some places forming recesses 40 and 60 feet
deep.

At one place I found a great triangular shaped mass, 130 yards on
its sides, and about 450 feet high. This was pierced through by
natural arches formed on each face 32 yards wide and of greater
height, leaving the upper part standing on three great abutments.
The scene was strikingly grand, and while sketching this beautiful
object the sun rose, when I beheld part of his crimson orb through one
of the natural arches, giving quite a magical effect to the landscape.

We continued our march to the eastward along the base of the
cliffs, in some places over patches of sand and broken shells, till we
reached a deep circular indentation extending into the mountain
about a mile. The bottom was strewn over with blocks of granite,
and the precipices rose to an enormous height ; some to more than
1000 feet. Crossing this bay we reached the opposite headland, and
then beheld the rent in the mountain through which we expected to
make our exit and join our friends on the steppe.

After a walk of nearly two hours we came to the bank of the
torrent which we forded yesterday, and not far from its entrance
into the great ravine. The guide informed me that there were two
tracks by which we could cross to the steppe. One was much
shorter and down the gorge, but this was most difficult and dan-
gerous ; the other was a little way to the east and over the mountains :
by this route Kinsara's band always rode their horses. I at once
decided to follow the ravine, as it would take me to the cavern so
much dreaded by the Kirghis, and into which the torrent plunged.
We shortly entered the chasm, which I found was about 120 yards
wide, covered with fallen rocks, among which the torrent went
leaping and foaming with great fury. Our way was a rough and
dangerous one over the fallen rocks, sometimes 200 and 300 feet above
the stream, and then descending nearly to the level of the water.
At last we reached a spot beyond which to all appearance we could
not proceed. We were now a little above the torrent, which was
hidden from our view, and close in front of us the rocks rose up like
a wall to an enormous height, with their tops riven into pinnacles,
some of them leaning so far over the brink as to excite our wonder
at their stability. A loud roaring of the water was heard, which
induced me to suppose it was rolling over a deep fall.

Feb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 139

I was now led on over huge blocks straight towards the base of
the cli^s, where I came to some vast masses over which it was im-
possible to climb. After scrambling round the end of these we
entered a cleft formed in the fallen mass, which was almost dark.
The old man, however, groped his way on, I followed close at his
heels, and our companions were immediately behind me. Having
threaded our way through this fissure for about 50 yards, we emerged
into daylight, upon a narrow ledge overhanging the torrent. In
front a dark jutting precipice almost closed the chasm, rising nearly
perpendicular, not less than 1800 feet. A few small bushes were
growing in the crevices near the pass, with scattered plants on the
upper ledges, and in this Cyclopean mass was the yawning mouth of
the cavern swallowing up the river. We stood silent with astonish-
ment watching the torrent rush on into the fearful abyss, producing
a sound that created such a feeling of dread, I ceased to wonder that
the Kirghis thought Shaitan had his dwelling here.

The mouth of the cavern was formed by a rugged arch about 50
feet wide and 70 feet high : the river entered this opening in a
channel cut into the solid rock — it was about 30 feet wide and appa-
rently 10 feet deep. A ledge of rocks about 12 feet wide formed a
terrace along the edge of the stream and just above the level of the
water. When my astonishment had somewhat subsided, I prepared
to explore the cavern by placing my packet of baggage and my rifle
on the rocks, and the two Cossacks followed my example. The
guide watched these proceedings with great interest, but when he
beheld us enter the cavern he was horrified. Having proceeded
about twenty paces the noise caused by the falling water was fearful,
and a damp, cold, chilling blast met us. From this point the cavern
extended both in width and height, but I could form no idea of its
dimensions. We cautiously groped our way on in the gloom for
about 80 yards from the entrance, when we could see the river
bound into a terrific abyss " black as Erebus," while some white
vapour came wreathing up, giving the spot a most supernatural
appearance.

Few persons could stand on the brink of this gulf without a
shudder : the roaring of the water was dreadful as it echoed in the
lofty dome. It was impossible to hear a word spoken, nor could
this scene be contemplated long : there was something too fearful
for the strongest nerves when trying to peer into these horrible
depths. We turned away and looked towards the opening through
which we had entered : for a short distance the sides and arch were
lighted up, but the great space and vast dome were lost in darkness.

On leaving the cavern we passed round the jutting rocks and

140 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

entered the narrow chasm beyond. Its bed was covered with large
and small rounded stones, proving that water had once flowed
through this part of the gorge, and I have no doubt it does still
during the great storms in the mountains. As we proceeded onward
the ravine narrowed into a mere rent with over-hanging rocks,
rendering the place dark and gloomy. Through this part our
progress was slow and tedious, but in about an hour we came to a
place where the gorge divided into two branches, one going towards
the north and the other to the north-east. The guide said the latter,
which was the widest, did not extend far into the mountains, but I
found it a very picturesque ravine. Many flowering shrubs and
bushes were growing from the crevices, and a small torrent was
rushing down its centre. The high overhanging cliffs at this part
of the gorge were dolomite.

We continued our march by the side of the torrent : sometimes
it was bridged by huge masses which had been hurled from their
beds above ; in one place our passage seemed completely stopped,
the whole gorge being filled with fallen rocks to the height of 200
feet, over which we found it no easy matter to climb. This mass
of debris extended about 500 yards, and had recently fallen, apparent
by the shrubs with their withered green leaves strewn over the
rocks. We crossed this chaos with much difficulty and no very
agreeable sensations, caused by several huge blocks which were
hanging on the cliffs as if ready to fall with the slightest shake, and
in about an hour arrived at another rent in the mountain. This
chasm extended to the westward, down which came a rushing
stream hissing and boiling on its course.

From the loud roaring in the great fissure I was certain there was
a waterfall at no great distance. The guide could not be induced
to enter this dark and gloomy cleft, so one Cossack remained with
him, and the other accompanied me into the chasm. It was not
more than 50 feet wide, with precipices rising 1000 to 1200 feet
above us. Having proceeded about 100 yards, I came to a sudden
turn in the cleft where the rocks overhung so much that the sky
could not be seen. It was indeed a gloomy twilight and a dismal
looking place, in which all objects were but dimly shadowed forth
— even the sparkling water, which was dashed into spray as it
broke over the rocks, had a most Tartarean appearance. It now
required care in stepping over the green and slippery stones, which
rendered our progress slow, but the roaring of the fall became louder
every few minutes, adding much to the fearful effects of the place.

After groping our way on about 300 yards without getting a
gleam of daylight, we entered a wider part of the chasm, and

Feb.;28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 141

beheld the sun shining on the crags. They were fringed with
bushes and plants that were swinging about with the breeze more
than 1200 feet over our heads. Looking up at these from the dark
and dismal depth, their foliage appeared bathed in glorious light :
this, and the glowing sky above, almost made me fancy that I was
gazing from the shades of death into Elysium. From this point we
hurried onward, and the noise of the waterfall became deafening.
Presently we caught a glimpse of white vapour, and in a few
minutes we stood before a sheet of falling water, which came
bounding from a rocky ledge, 300 feet above us. It fell into a
deep basin, out of which it came seething as from a caldron.

Looking upwards, the scene was sublime. Three successive falls
were visible, leaping from rock to rock, and flinging their white
spray into mid-air. The precipices have been worn by water into
pillars and columns, round which the spray and vapour curled in
wreaths as the wind wafted them upwards. In front of the middle
fall there stood an enormous mass of dark rocks, quite isolated, and
from sixty to seventy feet in height. The falling water strikes
upon the head of this, and is thrown off in innumerable jets, forming
a crystalline crown for the stony monarch of the chasm, while
thin sheets of water descend over his sides, clothing him with a
liquid garment, through which his gigantic form was indistinctly
visible. From behind this mass a cloud of vapour rises which
covers the rugged crags above as with a veil gently wafted by the
breeze. Still higher there were other falls, but invisible to us, and
unfortunately we could discover no part by which it was possible
to climb these tremendous precipices.

Here was a fine study for a geologist, the rocks having been riven
asunder, and their formation exposed to the depth of 1500 feet. In
some places they are nearly perpendicular, in others overhanging
masses appear ready to crush the intruder. After retracing my
steps, the Kirghis led the way down the gorge.

Our march was now by the side of a roaring torrent, over which
we were compelled to pass several times, which could only be
accomplished with great difficulty. On one side of the ravine dark,
frowning precipices rise up to a great height, from which prodigious
buttresses jut out, crowned with huge pinnacles. Facing these are
deep recesses in the cliffs, clearly indicating that these enormous
masses have been torn asunder by some colossal power. After
leaving the waterfall, a walk of an hour brought us to a wider part
of the chasm, less abrupt on one side. Farther down I perceived
the rocks rose from the edge of the torrent, without a ledge on
which to set our feet. To proceed onward down the ravine was

142 ATKINSON'S JOURNEY THROUGH PASSES [Feb. 28, 1859.

impossible, and to climb the rocks before us appeared equally so ;
but the old man led on to a mass of debris — up tbis we clambered
to a ledge, by wbicb we gradually ascended to the base of some
perpendicular rocks rising to a great height. On reaching these, I
found some were torn from the precipices, and standing quite
isolated ; in other parts fissures were rent in their sides, and in one
of these we began to scale the towering cliffs.

We had not ascended far when I had proof that the Kirghis was
on the right track, for some pieces of wood had been driven into
the beds of the rocks, by which to hold on in this perilous path.
Our progi'ess was slow and laborious ; as each new point was gained
•we scanned the crags above, to which it seemed almost impossible
to climb. At length we reached a grassy ledge about 500 feet
above the torrent, whence we could look down and see where the
water filled the whole breadth of the gorge. After resting a short
time we began toiling our way up in many a zigzag line, often
swinging ourselves past jutting rocks by the aid of bushes which
we found growing in the clefts. Having reached the base of
some rocks, which formed a complete bar to our farther progress,
our guide for a moment looked bewildered. He soon, however,
discovered that we had taken a wrong track, and quickly descended
about fifty feet, and found the right one. We joined him, and then
proceeded onward to the foot of some lofty slate crags of a deep red
colour, round which we had to creep along a narrow ledge with a per-
pendicular wall of rocks near 600 feet beneath us. Our little pack
and rifles were taken from our shoulders and pushed on before us ; and
after crawling in this way for about thirty yards, we turned round the
rocks and reached a grassy terrace twenty feet wide, greatly comforted
with the assurance that we had passed the worst part of the ascent.

Looking down into the dark and yawning chasm with the
roaring torrent 1200 feet beneath tried the nerves severely. A
little farther down I perceived the chasm became a mere fissure — in
one place the upper rocks projecting so far, that a stone dropped from
their edge would have struck the opposite precipice before reaching
mid- way down. So little had the hand of time affected these masses,
that each projection would have fitted into the opposite recess.
After resting a short time to breathe, we began our last ascent with
fresh vigour. As we turned away, the precipices seemed to unite,
forming a most stupendous archway that would have been a fit
entrance to the regions of darkness. The path even now was suffi-
ciently abrupt : sometimes we had to climb the cliffs clinging to the
bushes, by the aid of which we reached the small terraces that led
us upwards.

Feb. 28, 1859.] IN THE ALA-TU AND AC-TU MOUNTAINS. 143

At length, after much, toil, we stood on the summit, having been
two hours and forty minutes in making the ascent. What a savage
and desolate scene was now before us ! To the south, the crest of the
mountain rose up riven into lofty crags — enormous rocks were lying
at their base, tumbled about and forming a fearful ruin, extending
from the brink of the gorge several miles to the westward. To the
east were similar confused masses, and the ridge terminated in a
lofty peak. The view to the northward was over the vast steppe,
but no signs of men or animals were visible. It was a dreary soli-
tude over which the last rays of the sun were fading away. From
this point the chasm turned slightly toward the east for about 500
yards, and then it ran in a northerly direction till lost to my view.
• After carefully examining the precipices along the whole of our
two days' march and during the last ascent, I became fully convinced
that this gorge had been formed at once, by a great and terrible
earthquake, which rent the mountain asunder, and let out the water
of the lake, and this had formed the great water-course across the
plain.

Proceeding in a north-westerly direction, and leaving the gorge
considerably to our right, we soon gained a grassy turf, among which
were growing numerous flowers, some of great beauty, particularly
a deep crimson variety, which was trailing its delicate branches
along the grass. In little more than an hour we attained a very-
abrupt part of the mountain, from which we looked down on the
last low ridge. This appeared about three miles across, and at a
short distance beyond we saw the fire of our companions blazing
brightly. From this place the descent was steep, but we proceeded
at a good speed, as night was rapidly advancing, and shortly after-
wards I was sitting comfortably at our camp, not sorry at having^
safely concluded an adventurous day's journey of sixteen hours.

T.W.A.

The President. — ^I am glad, gentlemen, that you have cordially returned
thanks to Mr. Atkinson, of whom I may say that he is the only Englishman
who has ever approached that great region, a portion of which he has described
to-night ; I may add, that no Russian, except a few Cossacks, certainly no
naturalist and no competent geographer, has ever been over the larger part of
these wild tracts of Mongolia and Central Asia. He might well say that
geologists must wish to visit these scenes ; and, certainly, after many parts of
his description, I deeply regret that I am becoming too old to follow his footsteps.

The point to which he calls your attention towards the close of his paper is
the remarkable outlet of a large body of water, due as he supposes to an earth-
quake which caused a rent in the mountains. At what period, he does not
attempt to define ; he leaves it to future geologists to examine into the nature
of the rocks, and determine if they can the character of the rocks and glaciers
at the upper end of this deep valley, and to say at what period this rent took
place.

144 STRACHEY'S DESPATCH RESPECTING THE [Feb. 28, 1859.

Apart from his ability as a water-colour artist Mr. Atkinson is an excellent
word-painter ; for he so delineates the physical features of a country, that you
seem actually to travel through a region which very few of us can ever hope
to visit.

The second Paper read was —

2. Despatch from Captain Henry Strachey, Gold Medallist r.g.s., re-
specting the fate of Adolphe Schlagintweit.

Communicated by the Eight Hon. Lord Stanley, m.p., f.r.g.s., Secretary of State

for India.

Adolphe Schlagintweit crossed the Para-Lassa Pass from India to
Thibet on the 31st May, 1857. The last documentary evidence
consists of his letter to Harkishu from Chang-Chenmo of Ladak,
dated the 14th June, with a postscript, stating that it was not sent
till the 24th of June, and one or two notes, for sundry payments, of
the latter date. These documents were brought from Ladak by the
Chuprassies who joined Harkishu at Khardong of Garzha on the
20th of July, from whose statements it appears that before they left
the moonshee, Mohamed Hasan, had deserted, taking the ponies,
some money, and other articles belonging to M. Schlagintweit, but
was overtaken, and the property recovered. Harkishu gathered
from Captain Montgomerie, f.r.g.s., of the Trigonometrical Survey,
and his native doctor, that they were in Ladak during the summer
when he had left. From the locality of his last despatch, Chang-
Chenmo, it is inferred that he crossed the Turkish waterparting to
the east of the Kara-Korum Pass, perhaps to Sugat on the head of
the Kara-Kash, and thence followed the route taken by his brothers
the previous year towards Kiliam and Khoten. It seems that he
had laid in a stock of merchandise to facilitate his journey by trading.
From another source, the Bholiyas of Jwar, the information serves
to show that he had reached the margin of an inhabited countiy at
the foot of the mountains ; left his camp to reconnoitre, and, in his
absence, the guide absconded with most of the baggage and cattle
towards Yarkand. Being thus left helpless, M. Schlagintweit sent
to the Yanadar of Le for assistance in men, cattle, provisions, &c.,
whether for the purpose of penetrating into Turkistan, or returning
to Ladak, remains undetermined. The next accounts are derived
from merchant travellers from Ladak, from whom it appears that he
had passed the winter of 1857-58 on the border of Khoten, and that
on his arrival the provinces of Kashgar and Yarkand were in a
disturbed state from one of the periodical invasions of the Turks.
It is unlikely that he would remain more than one winter here, or
that if still in the locality he would not have opened communication

Feb. 28, 1859.] FATE OF ADOLPIIE SCHLAGINTWEIT. 146

with L^dak and India : probably, therefore, he took the opportunity
of the temporary subversion of Chinese authority to enter Khoten or
Yarkand. To go far or remain there, he could hardly avoid the
notice of the insurgent Turks, who, though contrary to their natural
impulse, might, in the actual conjuncture, welcome him as an
enemy to the Chinese, and the love of travel and enterprise might
prompt M. Schlagintweit to offer himself in that capacity. In either
case, when the Chinese got the upper hand, they would first regain
possession of their southern frontier towards Ladak, and he would
probably retire with the invading Turks through Kashgar into
Khokan, with which our relations have been very slight, although
wholly amicable, and on the strength of them, he might meet a
friendly reception there ; on the other hand, the Khokanis are on
bad terms with all their neighbours, including the Eussians, who
are steadily encroaching on their north-west frontier, and this would
add to his difficulties in leaving their country again.

The ways out of Khokan are e. to Hi and s.e. to Kashgar, both
completely stopped by the Chinese ; s. to Badakshan and Cabul, but
physically and politically most difficult ; s.w. to Samarkand and
Bukhara, and w. to Khiva, both probably hostile to Khokan, and
certainly so to the British. A European, and especially an English
traveller, would find safety there only from Eussian protection.
Lastly, to the Eussian outposts on the n.w. and North Fort Aralsk,
near the Araland Ak-majed on the Sir (Jaxartes), where most pro-
bably he has proceeded, as he would then be in the civilised world
again. It would be futile to discuss the chances of his ultimate
escape, hanging as they do on the caprices of the vilest barbarians
of Central Asia.

The President. — You will recollect that the three brothers Schlagintweit
proceeded over Thibet and the chains of the Himalaya, Kara-Korum, and
Kuen Lun to Khoten, and the descriptions of two of the brothers, Hermann and
Robert, have been made known to the Society. The third brother, Adolphe,
went to Yarkand, where it was currently reported and generally believed that
he had been killed in an affray between the Chinese and the Turcomans.

Eeports have indeed since been gathered by our medallist, Captain Henry
Strachey, so well known, and he having sent them to the Secretary of State
for India, Lord Stanley has been so kind as to communicate them to this
Society.

Sib C. Murray. — I have never been able to visit the country so far east,
but I can say this with complete confidence, that, from my own experience,
however we may differ from Russia politicall}^, if any English traveller falls
into the hands of the Russian commanders, I am perfectly convinced that
his safety and his honour will be respected in every way ; that I can bear my
own testimony to from personal experience.

Mr. T. W. Atkinson, f.r.g.s. — I do not take the same gloomy view with
regard to the fate of Schlagintweit that many jjcople have entertained. Having
had some experience among the tribes in those regions, I can state that a man

146 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [Feb. 28, 1859.

is of too great a value for them to kill him. It is very rare that such a thing
happens ; it is under extraordinary circumstances if they resort to murder.
Schlagintweit has two or three routes by which he may turn up yet. One is
towards the Kirghis steppes and the Jaxartes, and if he comes upon the Russian
pickets in that country he is certain to be safe. Another route is towards
Persia, and I think he has a great chance of reaching that country and of
passing through^it.

Sib C. MufiRAY. — The Persians are very hostile to the tribes that he is
with.

Mr. Atkinson. — But not to him.

Sir G. Murray. — Not to him, but to the tribes.

Mr. Atkinson. — I can give you an instance of the possibility of his being
yet alive. While I was absent I was lost for near eighteen months, and my
friends in Siberia gave me up for dead. The gentleman with whom I had
left what little property I had there, was about to make application to our
minister in St. Petersburg, to know how it was to be disposed of. Fortunately,
I returned and claimed it ; and so, I think, Schlagintweit may turn up yet.

ADDITIONAL NOTICES.

Letter from Isaac /. Hayes, Esq.^ to the President, on the Arctic Expedition
under the late Dr. E. K. Kane, Sfc.

To Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, President of the Eoydl Geographical
Society of London.

Philadelphia, May 23, 1858.
Sir, — I have learned that at a late meeting of the Royal Geographical Society
a discussion arose upon the discoveries made by the American expedition to
the Arctic Seas under the command of Dr. E. K. Kane of the U. S. navy.

By one of the London journals which reported the proceedings of the meet-
ing, it appears that Dr. Rink of Copenhagen submitted some remarks touching
the correctness of certain observations made by one of the exploring parties
(William Morton, and Hans, an Esquimaux hunter) from the brig Advance,
viz. the geographical position of the lands to the northward of the 80th
parallel, and the open water reported to have been seen beyond it.*

The fidelity of Morton is vouched for by Dr. Kane to the extent of his
means of knowledge as commander, in circumstances ajBfording peculiar oppor-
tunities for ascertainment of character. His material was worked up by Mr.
Charles A. Schott, an accomplished assistant of the U. S. Coast Survey Corps.
Whatever error is assignable must therefore fall within one of these three
descriptions, viz. imperfect instrumental observations, imperfect dead reckon-
ing, and the mean adopted by Dr. Kane between the two.

I do full justice to the candour of Dr. Rink, and his desire to promote the
accuracy of geographical records ; but since he has announced his conclusions
before the distinguished Society over which you presided, and his criti-
cisms attracted the special attention of members so well instructed as your-
self. Sir George Back, Captain Collinson, and Dr. Armstrong, it seems to
be a duty incumbent upon myself at the earliest moment to invite the renewed

♦ For Dr. Rink's Paper sc<? "Proceedings" R.G.S., vol. ii., p. 19.5, &c. ; also
** Journal" K.G.S., vol. xxviii. — Ed.

FfiB. 28, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 147

interest of your Society in some considerations to which due weight appears
not to have been given in the published report of Dr. Rink's remarks, and of
the discussion to which they led.

The reader of Dr. Kane's narrative cannot fail to have perceived that he
parefully guards against the supposition that he claims more for his materials
than they deserved at the hands of geographers, and his map is expressly
stated to be the result of a mean between Morton's solar observations and his
dead reckoning. At the same time each kind of evidence is separately given,
so as to enable every one to draw his own conclusions. The reasons which
led Dr. Kane to adopt the. method of mean position I do not propose here to
discuss ; but it appears to- me obvious that if we reject them, and also the
reckoning of Morton, there is nothing left upon which Dr. Rink can have any
exception to the latitude assigned, unless he objects to the meridional obser-
vations as inaccurately made or reported. I happen to know that before
Morton set out he was placed under the instruction of Mr. Sonntag, the
astronomer to the expedition, who carefully trained him in the use of the
sextant, and who afterwards expressed satisfaction with the skill attained by
his pupil. I. never heard the astronomer express the least doubt of the
observations made by Morton on this special duty, nor were they ever ques-
tioned on ship-board to my knowledge. On the contrary, I have good reason
to believe that Mr. Sonntag attributed entirely to the scrupulousness of Dr;
Kane's caution in so important an affair, that the possibility of error in the
use of the instrument was assumed by the latter gentleman in preparing his
report for the press. Entertaining these views, I have thought proper, with
the aid of Professor A. D. Bache and his assistant Mr. Schott, to consider
what will be the effect upon the chart if we confine ourselves to the solar
observations alone. At page 388 of vol. ii. of Dr. Kane's work, in Appendix
vi., it will be seen that there are three important capes astronomically deter-
mined, viz. Gapes Jackson, Madison, and Jefferson. At page 384, lat. 80° is
given for Cape Madison, but as the same latitude is given for several other
capes which, are certainly not in the same parallel, it is obvious that a typo-
graphical error has^eseaped notice. At page 388, Gape Jackson is placed at
80° 1' 5" (astronomically), Gap& Madison at 80° 20' 2", and Gai^e . Jefferson
at 80° 41' 2". Beyond the last-mentioned Gape, Morton reports that he
travelled northward according to his dead reckoning about 20 miles, which,
as appears by the chart, Dr. Kane values as 12 minutes of northing ; making
for Gape Independence a latitude of 80° 53' and for Gape Gonstitutitm about
80° 56'.

Dr. Rink assigns to Gape Independence the latitude 80° 41', the same as
given to Gape Jefferson by the unmixed solar observations of Morton. Now,
it will occur to you that, before Dr. Rink's position can be maintained, Mor-
ton's observations must be discredited, which they have not yet been, nor can
they properly be before fresh ones shall have been made at the same pwnts.
His commander was always reluctant to assume the responsibility of final
announcements to the scientific world unless the data had been collected
within reach of his own use of the ordinary means of correction of error ; and
it was therefore natural for him to-endeavour to make all of Morton's estimates
of position concur as far as practicable to the determination of the truth. I
ought to add, that several persons familiar with the making and calculating
of solar observations have expressed the opinion that, if any inference can be
drawn from the face of Morton's report, it will be that his results are in
defect and not in excess of latitude. This may have been one of the many
considerations which induced Dr. Kane to use all the material for a mean.
It may prove that in this way a very slight additional northing has been
made ; but this cannot be now assumed' to be as great as it would appear by

VOL. m. N

148 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [Feb. 28, 1859.

Dr. Kink's method, and besides, as the elements and process are all fully
stated in the printed report of the expedition, no one need be misled.

I say this much in justice to Dr. Kane, and I beg you to believe without
any purpose or desire in an unfriendly manner to question the procedure of
Dr. Eink, who I hope will see in this letter, if it should come to his notice,
only a proof on my own part of the same disposition which he manifests to
guard against erroneous apprehension of all the details of so important an
expedition. I think he will agree with me, that it would be an excess of
requisition to hold Dr. Kane in the strictest scientific sense responsible for
an inaccuracy, if it should hereafter be found, upon fresh obsei-vations, that a
few miles of error appear upon a chart which was constructed from materials
obtained with great difficulty, in peculiar circumstances, and which he has
published with full notice of all the known sources of possible error.

What is probably of more present importance is the question of the open
Polar Sea. If we assume that the latitudes of the capes above-mentioned are
as suggested by Dr. Rink, then the only consequence will be that the open
sea, if it exists, will be so much nearer to us, and of course proportionately
easier of access.

You are already familiar with the evidence which inspection of the explora-
tions of Dr. Kane renders probable that during at least a part of the year
the Polar Sea is free from ice. The approximate coincidence of the poles of
magnetic and frigorific force, the tendency of all isothermal projections in the
Arctic regions, the observations of Russian navigators, and of Sir Edward
Parry and others, had made it probable, according to established rules of
scientific deduction, that, after passing the belt of ice which encloses the cir-
cumjacencies of the Pole, there would be found open water during at least a
portion of the Arctic summer of every year. To these accumulative proofs,
what was added by the report of Dr. Kane ? Precisely the kind of evidence
that was needed, viz. positive testimony. Morton avers that in the high lati-
tude reached by him (and it is of little moment for the present question
whether the latitude was 80° 41', 80° 56', or 81° 12') he saw open water with
very little ice, although a gale of wind had blown for two days from the
north-east; also flocks of birds and two bears. We know that he went
beyond any parallel determined by Dr. Kane. Cape Frazer, the highest point
reached on the west side of the channel, was determined by my own observa-
tion at latitude 79° 42' 9" ; and by none of the ship's company, except
Morton and Hans, was any open water seen. Is there any reason to distrust
the statement of these two persons ? In the first place, their report corresponds
with the previous proofs and probabilities above briefly cited, which were
already in the possession of scientific men : secondly, Morton had always the
confidence of his commander, as he has my own, in his veracity as a subordi-
nate observer : thirdly, he brought with him to the ship bear-skins, in attest-
ation of one part of his report,— and it is well known to Arctic navigators that
the polar bear is usually found in the neighbourhood of open water : fourthly,
the Esquimaux Hans was not capable of entering into any conspiracy to
deceive ; he was with difficulty understood, except through an interpreter ;
and upon his return to the brig I learned from him with such aid that he had
seen much water, with pieces of ice and many birds. In such circumstances,
to deny the report of Morton seems to require a scepticism scarcely warranted
by the state of the evidence.

You will find various corroborative data in the narrative of his commander.
If we assume the greatest intensity of cold is in the neighbourhood of the
magnetic pole, then either that degree of cold continues to the Pole, or the
increase of temperature is so slow that the freezing-point of sea-water is not
passed before reaching the Pole,4f the opinion attributed by the press to Dr.

Feb. 28, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 149

Rink is well founded. But what data are there upon which to assert posi-
tively either of these alternatives, or upon which to contradict the positive
testimony of the Russians, and of Morton and his companion? What is
hnown of the Arctic regions which can warrant an a priori conclusion so sure
as to justify the impeachment of witnesses otherwise without impeachment ?
To my own judgment the antecedent probabilities are so great, that if Mor-
ton's report were questioned at all, it would be upon the ground that he sought
to adjust his account to scientific probability — a supposition which, to those
who know the man, would be impossible.'

To the enthusiastic reasoner upon Arctic explorations there are many tempt-
ations offered by the literature of my subject. I beg to refer you to the
American Journal of Science, of May, 1858 (vol. xxv.), for an exemplification
of the reserve with which I have permitted myself to consider antecedent
reports : a copy of that article, which was hastily written at the friendly sug-
gestion of Professor Dana, is herewith mailed to you. I beg your acceptance
of it, as an humble, though, in its transmission, most hearty manifestation of
personal respect. Through the kind offices of Professor Henry I was enabled
to present my views at the Smithsonian Institution. An abstract of my lec-
tures published in the National Intelligencer of Washington is also herewith
mailed to you. At the last meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science I presented my reasons more at large. I enclose a
newspaper report, which, though imperfectly made, will serve to exhibit the
aspect in which I have adopted the evidence.

In the interests of science, and especially of the future development of the
great Polar problem, which with the aid of my countrymen I hope ere long to
solve, may I beg you to present to the Royal Geographical Society such of the
foregoing remarks as you may deem pertinent to the discussion upon Dr.
Rink's paper ?

I have ventured to hope that your interest in the subject will extend so far
as to procure your indulgence for this letter.

Believe me, with sincere respect,

Your obedient servant,

Isaac J. Hayes,

Late Surgeon to the American Arctic Expedition^
E. K, Kane, U, 8. N., commanding.

PEOOEEDINGS

OP

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON.

SESSION 1858-9.

Eighth Meeting, March 14th, 1859.

Sir EODEKICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Major A. C. Cooke, r.e. ; Captain A. Clarke, r.e. ;
t?te Rev. F. W. Tremlett ; A. L. Fisher, m.d. ; /. W. Ogle, m.d. ; and
H. W. Willoughhy, Esqrs., were presented upon their election.

Elections. — Captain Henry Harris; Hohert Baikie, Esq., m.d. ;
H. Diedrich Jencken, Henry Loch, and Arthur B. Warre, Esqrs., were
elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — A large nugget of gold, and a model of the largest
found in Australia, were exhibited by Professor Tennant, f.r.g.s.

Accessions. — Among the numerous accessions to the Library and
Map Eooms since the last Meeting were : — Page's La Plata ; Explora-
tions and Surveys for a Pailroad Eoute from the Mississippi to the
Pacific (vols. 5, 6, and 7) ; Hitchcock's Ichnology of New England ;
Cave's Algeria; Emory's United States and Mexican • Boundary
Survey ; Sir Macdonald Stephenson's Map of Turkey, showing the
railways ; Yan de Velde's Map of the Holy Land, &c.

The Papers read were : —

1. Explorations in South Australia. By Messrs. B abb age, Warburton,
Stuart, and others.

Comnmnicated by the Eight Hon. Sir E. Bulwer Lytton, Bart., Her Majesty's
Secretary for the Colonies.

The papers submitted to the Society contain the results of numerous
explorations made in Southern Australia during the season of 1858.
In order to obtain a general idea of their extent, it will be sufficient
to refer to a map inserted at page 194 in Vol. II. of the Proceedings,
which contains all that had been discovered up to the close of the

VOL. III. 0

152 EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [March 14, 1859.

preceding year. Not only has the large vacant space corresponding
to the western and northern portions of that map been traversed in
several directions, but the path of one explorer, Mr. Stuart, has
attained even to about lat. 30^ 30', long. 137° 30', according to his
careful dead reckoning. The horse-shoe bed hitherto ascribed to
Lake Torrens, has now given place to a representation of a chain
of lakes, between two of which a well-grassed and well- watered
country has been found to exist : a communication has been made
across it by Major Warburton from the neighbourhood of Mount
Serle to the district lying to the north-west of the lakes. But the
most important discovery is that of Mr. Stuart, who traced a line of
water parting from the division between the above-mentioned lakes,
extending as far as he was able to follow it in a north-westerly direc-
tion, and having its slopes towards the interim' of the continent, of a far
more grassy and more promising character than those to the seaward.

A large expedition had been started under the charge of Mr.
Babbage at a great expense to the colony, but it was hampered by
its own weight, and did not attain any very considerable distance,
although the country it passed over was thoroughly examined,
both to the right and to the left of the line of route, and carefully
mapped by its leader. The minor explorations of Mr. Parry to the
N.N.W. of Mount Serle, of Corporal Burtt to the W.N.W. of the
same place, and of police-trooper Geharty to the N. and N.W. of
Streaky Bay, have helped in a considerable degree to fill up the
space within the curve of Lake Torrens, or rather of the chain of
lakes by which its course is now represented.

The whole of the country that has been explored affords numerous
districts capable of supporting sheep. Its character is thus described
by Major Warburton at the close of his numerous journeys, during
which he traversed the principal part : —

*' Most of the country I have visited seems admirably adapted for
pastoral occupation. It is one that would be greatly improved by
being stocked, the surface would become firmer, and the thin coating
of small stones would be just sufficient to prevent rapid evaporation,
but not to interfere with the growth of grass, which would soon
spring up under sheep. There is no scrub. I saw very few wild
dogs, no kangaroos, and no natives. Sheep might be run in flocks
of several thousands ; and I believe that for every single sheep the
country could carry the first year, three might be put upon it the
third season. The ground is high, would be dry under foot when
made firmer by the treading of sheep, and it is clean for the wool.
A little rain would leave plenty of temporary surface water. The
water-holes are generally good, and would last all the year if that

MaeCh 14, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 153

country were blessed with periodical rain ; but it is doubtful whether
it is so or not. Then there is an abundant and sure supply of water
from the springs. The country generally is very deficient in
useful timber, but the reeds and mud would make good huts."

The following extract of a despatch from Governor Sir K. G. Mac-
donnell to Sir E. B. Lytton shows in a prominent manner the
remarkable extent of the discoveries of Mr. Stuart : —

" Unfortunately for Mr. Babbage it became more than ever evident
thgit exploration should precede the mapping of a country, when a
private explorer, Mr. John Macdougall Stuart, returned only in Sep-
tember from a very extensive and successful exploring expedition,
conducted entirely at the expense of private parties. Mr. Stuart,
who had been with Captain Sturt as draughtsman in his second
great expedition, and who was accompanied by only one white com-
panion and a black — with five horses, and a scanty supply of pro-
visions, but with a moral courage and hardihood of the highest
description — managed literally to describe an immense circle round
the contracted movements of Mr. Babbage and his party ; having
penetrated in a straight line nearly 240 miles to the north-west of*
Mr. Babbage's camp at the Elizabeth, and having traversed in
various routes nearly four degrees of longitude west, and three of
latitude north of that position.

" These points will be more evident to you on examining a map
which I have caused to be compiled for your information, and which
not merely gives Mr. Stuart's track as in the chart attached to the
enclosed Council paper, but also shows the position of Mr. Babbage's
camp, together with the general aspect of the country in the vicinity
of Lake Gairdner, as laid down by Major Warburton, Mr. Babbage,
and others. You will thus see at a glance the great extent of Mr.
Stuart's discoveries, and the importance of their character, as it
seems probable that at least from 12,000 to 18,000 square miles of
country, available hereafter for pastoral purposes, have been opened
by Mr. Stuart's exertions ; and I am glad to say the House of
Assembly have presented an address to me, requesting me to take
the necessary steps for giving Mr. Stuart a fourteen years' lease of
1500 square miles of the new country, to be rent free for the first
seven years.

" I would suggest that the labours and discoveries of Mr. Stuart
might with propriety be brought under notice of the Eoyal Geogra-
phical Society, on account of the extreme interest attaching to some
of them. I allude more especially to his discovery of the range
which I have called Stuart Eange, and which appears to have been
traced in a N.W. direction ; broken more or less here and there, but

0 2

154 EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [March 14, 1859.

still forming on the whole a continnons dividing water-parting
from along the west shore of Lake Torrens (about lat. 30^^ 30',
long. IS?'' 30') to lat. 28° south and long. 133'' east, being the
farthest point on Mr. Stuart's map. The fact of the waters flowing
from that range to the north-east and north, together with the ap-
parently feasible tale of the natives of large bodies of water existing
still farther to the north and north-west, as well as the improved
country generally existing at the north side of that range, con-
trasted as it is with the extremely barren and desert country
south of it towards Lake Gairdner and the sea — to which region
the journeys of former explorers were principally confined — all
form a strong body of evidence tending to invest the hitherto
supposed interior desert of Australia with a character at once novel,
important, and interesting.

" At the same time, whilst admitting the great results attained by
Mr. Stuart with comparatively insignificant means, but by the
exertion of a courage, energy, and judgment scarcely paralleled in
the previous history of Australian explorations, it is necessary to
bear in mind that the chart of his track has been constructed with
the aid only of a compass, and the dead reckoning which he kept.
Under such circumstances I shall not be surprised to learn here-
after that his distances are over-stated, as is so often the case when
travellers rely entirely on dead reckoning. Nevertheless, although
there may be considerable room for improvement of his chart in this
respect, it will under all circumstances be a great monument of
what can be achieved by the indomitable pluck of one man, imbued
with a thorough spirit of self-reliance."

The President. — We return our thanks to the Secretary of the Colonies
for sending to us these voluminous and interesting communications, and also
to the gallant explorers of these hitherto unknown tracts of South Australia..
The gentleman who in the tirst instance most distinguished himself in these
researches, and to whose merits I adverted last session, is Mr. Herschel Bab-
hage, who had undertaken his journey with a fair prospect of success. He
had zealously prepared all the requisites to enable him to get through the
southern saline district from Port Augusta, and 1 give him credit for the enter-
prise, zeal, and talent he exhibited in getting out of a most difficult position.
No sooner was he free of his heavy drays, than, taking to horses, he went
forward to the north, and fixed with more accuracy than any other person
the latitude and longitude of various places, giving us a clear account of the
chief fresh springs, the nature of the rocks, and of the natural productions of
the country, and delineating the form of the saline sheet of water named by
him Lake Gregory as separated from Lake Torrens. It was when he reached
his northernmost point on Lake Gregory that he was recalled, Major War-
burton taking the command of the expedition. All that tract of country
which extends 100 miles inland has now been determined, first by the dis-
coveries of Mr. Babbage, and secondly by those of Major Warburton and
others ; and the results quite coincide with the original observations of that

March 14, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 155

most adventurous traveller Eyre, in proving that all this zone is more or less
saline. This salt country has been crossed by that remarkable man, Mac-
dougall Stuart, who beyond it explored a vast fertile and well-watered region,
with a great many watercourses descending from a chain of hills, to which the
Governor of the colony has very properly assigned the name of the " Stuart
Range." This new geographical discovery is indeed one which we might
have expected from the former observations of that most distinguished explorer
of Australia who now sits on my left hand, Captain Sturt. This gentleman,
let me remind you, was truly the discoverer of South Australia. It was he
who, advancing from the north-east, discovered the course and embouchure of
the Murray Kiver, and who indicated what South Australia was likely to
become. Kevisiting that tract at a later period, and after a colony had
been established there under the government of Sir George Grey, Captain
Sturt went boldly northward into the interior — much farther than any traveller
who preceded him or has followed him — his progress being arrested by
that great saline desert. Now Mr. Macdougall Stuart was one of Sturt' s
men, and learned from him that, whilst all was saline to the north, yet that
probably towards the north-west there would be found a fertile country — a con-
clusion partly based on the flight of birds from that quarter.

Captain Sturt has come this day from Cheltenham to attend our meeting,
and I rejoice to welcome him ; whilst I am peculiarly gratified to see amongst
us the Bishop of Perth in Western Australia, who has just arrived from that
colony, and who previously to his becoming a dignitary of the Church
was for some years at the head of an educational establishment in Western
Australia.

Captain Sturt, f.r.g.s. — You may suppose that I have read with very
great interest the different accoimts which have been recently sent home with
regard to the discoveries in South Australia, more particularly that which
refers to my old follower Macdougall Stuart, of whose courage and perseve-
rance I was well assured. He attended me on my second attempt to cross the
stony desert ; and it was on that occasion that he and his companion expressed
their readiness to follow me wherever I should lead them, when (after having
been two days and a half without water, our farther advance into the desert
would almost inevitably have cost us our lives) I left it to them to decide
whether to push on or not — " Sir," said Stuart to me, " we will do as you
please ; we will go on or turn back as you may direct us," thus showing their
devotion to the service on which they were employed. I turned back, how-
ever, and in doing so gave up every hope of further success. I may state that
in retreating we lost three horses, and that on arriving at the little water-
hole we had last quitted (on which I had calculated for relief), we found it
had dried up !

The effect of such a discovery may be imagined, where life or death hung
on our procuring water. We had not at that time seen a living animal of,
any kind in those fearful solitudes for days, but suddenly a pigeon passed us,
and pitched for a moment only on the stony plain beyond us. Knowing from
his flight that he was going to water, we went to the spot, and there found a
supply of it that lasted us for two days, and which we should never have dis-
covered but for the timely appearance of this bird. This was one of the many
instances we had on that journey of the goodness of Providence, which can
only be appreciated by those who have been placed in similar circumstances.
So unexpected a deliverance melted my companions into tears. The kind of
country which Stuart has discovered in his recent journey, and which he
describes, is similar to some portions of that which I passed over myself,
particularly near Cooper Creek, where there are slightly elevated ironstone
ranges, with a certain portion of good land on each side of the creek which

15$ EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [March 14, 1859;

flows between the ranges, and whicli gives a value to this locality as to thai?
which Stuart has discovered.

In reference to Mr. Babbage's journey, I have been much surprised at
the altitude he gives to the lakes which he discovered, because I take the
interior to be much lower. At my depot, whence I started into the interior,
and which was only 340 feet above the sea-level, I descended very consider-
ably as I neared the great stony desert, which I consider to be the lowest
part of Central Australia, since the rivers, so far as I could judge, fall into it
both from the south and from the north, and appear to meet in it as a centra)
channel, for the main channel of Cooper Creek on the one side, and Eyre
Creek on the other, certainly do run into it ; but Mr. Gregory having traced
the western arm of Cooper Creek (which, after overflowing a large plain, re-
forms as my Strzelecki Creek) into Lake Torrens, 1 have now no doubt but
that the other creeks which I crossed, equally owing their existence to that
arm of Cooper Creek, water the country immediately to the north of the lately-
discovered lakes, and ultimately flow into them.

I think the most important part of Stuart's discoveries, independently of the
available country which he has opened out, is the key which his large creek
opens to the farther penetration of Central Australia. If the ranges he
mentions continue to the north-west, as we have every reason to hope, water
may be found near them, so as to enable explorers to go farther into the interior
with every prospect of success from so advanced a position. Stuart, at his
farthest point, was 700 miles from the position which I occupied in the centre,
in lat. 24° and long. 138°. Mr. Gregory, at his farthest distance south from the
Victoria of Stokes, was 4° of latitude higher to the north and 11° of longitude
farther to the west than I was, and, therefore, he was about 700 miles to the
west-north-west of my central position. At that point the country was exactly
the same as the country which I had traversed — the same kind of sand-ridges
and the same kind of vegetation ; but there was this remarkable difference in
the two localities, that where Mr. Gregory was, the sand-ridges ran east and
west ; and where I was, they ran north and south. How far the same kind of
country may continue to the westward of his point, which would be nearly
due north of Stuart's farthest point, and about 700 miles distant (our positions
thus forming an equilateral triangle), it is impossible to say. I still believe that
there is a large basin of water in the interior, and that there may be a good
country yet found round about it. A black, who came to our depot, certainly
described water and fish as being to the west of us in so energetic a manner
that we were all convinced there must be a mass of water in the direction to
which he pointed. The motions he made and the indications which he gave'
naturally led every one of us to believe and to hope that we were within 50 or
60 miles of an inland sea. I believe now, when the country is farther ex-
plored, that the central channel will be found to lead into or be connected with
some large basin of water.

The President (addressing Captain Sturt). — How far from west to east do
you suppose the region containing fresh water may extend ?

Captain Sturt. — I should say it would run to the meridian of 138°.

The President. — I apprehend that Captain Sturt does not wish you to
infer that any part of the region between his farthest north and Gregory's
farthest south when he proceeded from Tropical Australia can be occupied by
fresh water lakes, rivers, or springs.

Captain Sturt. — No, no.

The President. — You see, gentlemen, that all that low region is considered
by Captain Sturt to be sterile.

Captain Sturt. — That must necessarily be a dry and barren country. It is
to the westward altogether that my observations point — to tJie great western half

March 14, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 157

(f the unexplored portion of the country ; and my view is rendered still
further probable by tlie flights of fowls which Stuart mentions as going to the
westward over his head.

Mr. Trelawny Saunders. — The discovery of the interval between Lake
Torrens and Lake Gregory should teach us to beware of assuming, from a
similarity of country at distant points, that the intervening space presents a
continuation of the same nature. But for a deduction of this kind, the dis-
coveries of Babbage and Stuart on the west of Lake Torrens might have been
forestalled by Eyre nearly 20 years ago. In penetrating at that time into the
country at the head of Spencer Gulf, Mr. Eyre found his course stopped at
four different points by the impenetrable basin of a salt lake ; and having
been thus repeatedly obstructed by identical features at no great distance apart,
he concluded that these features were continuoxis. Consequently a long lake
of horseshoe shape has ever since invariably appeared on maps under the name
of Lake Torrens. Mr. Herschel Babbage has, however, now discovered a
tract of practicable country extending nearly the whole distance between two
of the points reached by Mr. Eyre ; so that the length of Lake Torrens has
to be curtailed, and a separate basin has to be recognised under the name of
Lake Gregory. Into Lake Gregory falls a permanent stream containing fish,
and some others which Mr. Macdougall Stuart discovered during the admirable
exploration which he has just accomplished with such remarkable success.
A well-watered country was therefore opened to Eyre's research, if he had
steadily persisted in tracing the limits of the muddy barrier which had barred
his progress three times in this direction, instead of trusting to a tempting
generalization.

The mode of argument which led to the horseshoe extension so long attri-
buted to Lake Torrens, on the basis of four distinct observations not very wide
apart, is now proposed to be adopted in the following case — one of equal or
greater importance. Captain Sturt was stopped by desert at the northernmost
point of his famous expedition into the interior from the south. Augustus
Gregory also found a similar desert at the southernmost point of his recent
journey from the mouth of the Victoria. Therefore it is supposed that the
interval of about 700 miles is also desert. It must be kept in mind, however,
that a few ranges of no greater height than that discovered by Stuart, and
named after him, would probably suffice to attract and retain the moisture which
the arid air of a stony or sandy plain might absorb before it could descend to
moisten the parched ground. Such ranges would render the connection be-
tween the north and south coasts practicable ; and Stuart has indicated the
extension northward and westward of those which he has lately made known,
while it may be considered highly probable that similar, features, like the
Stanley and Grey ranges, exist between the waters terminating in Cooper Creek
and the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Mr. John Crawfurd, f.r.g.s. — I have been charged here more than once with
being a kind of objector-general ; to-night I have not a word to say in the sliape
of objection. I approve of the conduct of all the gentlemen who make these
most important discoveries ; the greatest praise is due to all of them. They
have conferred great obligations upon the colony itself, obligations upon
us who have been listening to what they have done, and obligations upon
the country at large. They are true Englishmen, countrymen of the dis-
coverers of the steam-engine, the locomotive, the electric telegraph, and of
the only people who could have performed the feats they have done. Cap-
tain Sturt, now here, but with whom I have not the good fortune to be
acquainted, is, according to my judgment, the greatest of all Australian dis-
coverers. We are heartily obhged to him for coming up here in his rather
delicate state of health : at the same time I am sorry to see him- here, for
another reason, that he ought to be employed in some high office elsewhere,

158 EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [March 14, 1859.

as, for example, governor of South Australia or of Victoria, or some equally-
important office, for he is assuredly most eminently qualified. I have in my
time read several books on Australia, and fear I have forgotten most of them.
Not so those of Captain Sturt, which no one that has perused them can ever
forget, for they make truth more interesting than fiction.

The President. — These despatches are full of interesting anecdotes, which,
when published, will be read with great interest.

(Here the President read two passages ; one regarding the natives, another
describing the habits of the emu.)

Captain Stdrt. — I quite agree with our worthy President that such is the
case. The features of the country are such as to lead to that conclusion. I
cannot but think that the desert extended for hundreds of miles beyond where
I was at my extreme north. Its features were altogether on too large a scale
for me to suppose that they would speedily terminate or change, for notwithstand-
ing that the distance between Mr. Gregory's position and my own is so great as
700 miles, not only is the character of the country the same at both points,
but the vegetation is precisely the same also. Probably a better country than
either I or Gregory found, exists in the central portion of the great western
half of the continent, which has never yet been approached. 1 was in great
hopes that Mr. Gregory would have found that Sturt Creek, the creek he
traced south, either ran farther to the south, or that it terminated in a basin ;
but he found that, like all the central rivers of Australia, falling into a level
interior, it gradually lost its current, then assumed a chain of ponds, and was
ultimately lost by evaporation and absorption. Such is the general fate of
all the inland waters of the continent ; for which reason there is so much
difficulty in making sure of a supply of water in it. When I went into the
interior I never allowed my party to go on until I had made a day's journey
in advance and found water. Yet with all this caution I was cut off from
the possibility of a retreat at the depot, where I was locked up for six
months, and saw the water diminish day by day, from twelve feet to eleven
inches, when in ten days more, if rain had not fallen, there would not have
been a man of us alive ; fortunately, however, a fall of rain came from the
north-east, as in Stuart's case, like a dense fog, and in less than twenty-four
hours filled the creek to overflowing, which it liad taken six months to exhaust.
This drizzling rain lasted two days, and it was on the surface-water left by
it that I ventured to push on farther into the interior, drinking from shallow
puddles that the wind made as thick as mud, and sometimes water that was
perfectly loathsome.

Professor Owen. — I would ask your permission to say a few words,
because I am in hopes that they may help a little towards increasing our
knowledge of the peculiar animals, especially the quadrupeds, which inhabit
the continent of Australia, respecting which we have just heard such new and
interesting information. By me, of course, the narrative of the remarkable
geographical discoveries in South Australia has been listened to chiefly in
anticipation of novel facts in zoology, and I will not disguise my disappoint-
ment at hearing mention made of only one small kangaroo-mouse. But your
estimable President has consoled me by intimating that the papers of Mr.
Macdougall Stuart contain a few other observations upon natural history sub-
jects. And yet one ought not to be surprised to hear so little about the native
quadrupeds from an Australian traveller, who was not expressly bent on
zoological collections.

All the marsupial quadrupeds, and it is one of their curious peculiarities,
are nocturnal. Even the kangaroo, which is the least so, is scarcely ever seen
feeding out on the plains in broad daylight ; it prefers the early morning
dawn or the short twilight, and, above all, the Ijright moonlight nights. With
regard to most of the other Australian forms of marsupial animals, they are

March 14, 1859.] EXPLORATlOiTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 159

more strictly nocturnal. So that, if a traveller were not aware of that pecu-
liarity, he might fancy himself traversing a country destitute of the mam-
malian grade of animal life. If, however, after a weary day's journey he
could be awakened, and were to look out upon the moonlit glade or scrub, or
if he were to set traps by night, he would probably be surprised to find how
^reat a number of interesting forms of mammalian animals were to be met
with in places where there was not the slightest appearance of them in the
day-time.

It is most interesting, with regard to the very peculiar characteristics of the
prevalent mammalian forms in this enormous continent, to look back into
times past — of untold antiquity — and to find, from the evidences that have
been lately coming over rapidly, of the fossil remains of mammalian animals
that are obtained from formations in Australia of the same general cha-
racter and geological age as those brick-fields and other lacustrine deposits in
our own country, where our old elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, and
other large quadrupeds are found ; to find, I say, that in Australia there are
evidences of creatures of equal bulk, but of marsupial nature, "which have also
passed away and become extinct. We can now show in the British Museum,
for example, the fossil skull of a kangaroo — that is to say, of an animal with
the peculiar cranial structure and dentition of the genus Macropus — tooth
for tooth, in kind, in shape, in number and position, like no other creature but
a kangaroo; and yet this fossil cranium is more than three feet in length.
The governor of New South Wales, Sir William Denison, has transmitted,
and through your excellent President has distributed to those who can best
appreciate the evidences afibrded by a happy application of the photographic
art, excellent photographs of other singular fossils that have lately been disco-
vered in Darling Downs in Australia. Those evidences have brought to our
knowledge the skull of a quadruped not so large as the one I have referred to,
but the most extraordinary in its proportions and characters that the pala3on-
tologist has ever before seen, and which, in reference to its afGnities, finds its
nearest analogue in that rare marsupial animal called the koala. The Nofo-
therium was as gigantic, in reference to that recent marsupial, as the Dipro-
todon with a head three feet long is to the existing kangaroo. These great
herbivorous marsupials were preyed upon by an equally marsupial carnivore
of the size of a lion. Thus we learn that marsupialia enjoyed existence ill
Australia in times long past, and under forms as gigantic and remarkable as
those Placentalia discovered in the European and Asiatic continents, which
have revealed the former existence there of hairy elephants and rhinoceroses,
of huge deer and bisons, of bears and hysenas, illustrating the same geographical
restriction of certain mammalian forms in the pre-historic and present times.

In regard to the relation of marsupial quadrupeds to Australia, the adapta-
tion of their peculiar characteristic to that country has been impressed upon
me to-night more than on any other occasion, while listening to the graphic
and thrilling account of the difficulties which the highest form of mammalian
life finds in maintaining his existence in that continent, in consequence of the
great scarcity of water. I have always connected with the long droughts in
Australia, with the extensive tracts where there are no waters, with the difficulty
of obtaining that necessary element of life, — the singular peculiarity of orga-
nisation which prevails among the mammalian quadrupeds of Australia. The
carnivorous species and the insectivorous ones, the frugivorous ; the root-eating
and the leaf-eating quadrupeds — no matter what their diet, whatever be their
powers of locomotion and spheres of action ; whether they burrow like the
wombat, climb like the phalanger, jump like the kangaroo, trot like the
bandicoot, or fly like the petaurist, — no matter what their mode of motion or
kind of food, — all these creatures are marsupial. I may be asked, What do
you mean by marsupial ? I mean that they are creatures having the power of

160 MILLIARD'S NOTES ON THE MANACUSI. [March 14, 1859.

carrying their delicate prematurely-Lorn young about with them wherever they
go. They have this condition, viz., a sott, warm, well-lined portable nursery-
pocket or " perambulator." Take the case of one of our wild quadrupeds,
suppose a fox or wild cat ; they make their nest, they have their litter. Sup-
pose it should happen that they must travel one or two hundred miles to get
a drink of water, impelled by the peculiar thirsty condition of a nursing-
mother, but obliged to leave the little family at home, — where would that
family be when the parent returned from its hundj^ed miles journey, the
poor, little, blind, deserted litter? Why, starved to death. In order that
quadrupeds should be fitted to exist in a great continent like Australia, where
the meteoric conditions are such as to f)roduce the dilemma I have instanced,
those quadrui^eds must possess an organisation suited to such peculiar
climatal conditions. And so it is ; that form of mammahan quadruped
in this great continent, native to it, and born so as to make these migrations
to obtain that necessity of life, has the superadded pouch and genetic pecu-
liarities enabling them to carry their young ones wherever they go. And
since we find that marsupial animals have lived in Australia from a very
remote period, so we may infer that its peculiar climate has prevailed during
as vast a lapse of time. Permit me to conclude by repeating that the peculiar
mammalian forms of Australia hide themselves by day, and must be sought
for by night, or early dawn, or twilight. The scientific traveller, bearing in
mind that the marsupialia are nocturnal and keep out of view, would do well
to let no night pass without setting and baiting traps for them. He would
probably thus be able greatly to enrich our catalogues of these most curious
and interesting quadrupeds.

The Second Paper read was : —

2. Notes on the Manacusi, or River King George. !By Charles H.
HiLLiARD, Mate of the Cutter Herald. 1857.

Communicated by J. Lyons M'Leod, Esq., f.r.g,s., late H. M. Consul
at Mozambique.

The Herald sailed on a trading expedition up the Manacusi River.

Wlien she had attained a distance of from 100 to 140 miles from its

moutli, the Portuguese authorities forbad farther progress, and the

vessel was ordered to return. Mr. Hilliard gives an account of

what was observed during the three weeks the Herald was in the

river. Tlie bar at its mouth is described as the scene of a fearful

surf, dangerous to a boat, but offering no difficulty to the vessel : —

*' Opposite to the passage by which we entered are several large,

low islands, densely covered with the finest red mangrove poles I

ever saw, on which the archil grows in great abundance, and on the

bush by the banks of the river. For some miles up the river the

"banks are more or less covered with bush, mangrove jungles, and

trees, generally a species of banian, and others, indicating a wet

soil, the most of which I have seen growing in swamps in Natal.

On the first night, by where we anchored, the large bush-buck

(Inconcha) appeared to be plentiful from the number we heard

barking like small dogs.

March 14, 1859.] HILLIARD'S NOTES ON THE MANACUSI. 161

*' On the west side of the river a ridge of high land, apparently-
continuous, but very irregular in its direction and elevation, ex-
tended the whole length of our journey ; at a few points it approached
the river, but generally a flat, marshy tract of countrj^, many miles
in width, and densely covered with a coarse kind of Guinea-grass
five or six feet high, lay between it and the river ; on the opposite
side flats of the same description reached from the river to the sea,
and from the highest point we reached they were only bounded to
the northward by the horizon. The lower part of the river, as far
as we felt the influence of the tide, was of good width, and much
more straight than it was farther up, ihe banks in its whole length
generally fringed with a thick border of tall reeds a few yards in
width. The banks here were frequently studded with trees or
small patches of wood, the trees of the same kinds as those near the
mouth of the river ; and two of our party having landed in one of
them, in pursuit of some guinea-fowls, were soon glad to retreat, as
they found no ground to walk on, but were half way up their legs
in soft clayey mud. Near the head of the tide-water the river
became narrower, but continued the same uniform depth the whole
distance we traversed, having from 6 feet to 9 feet by the banks,
and from two to three fathoms in the channel ; only one shallow
spot was found in the whole distance (from 100 to 140 miles),
where the water suddenly shoaled to 6 feet, and we frequently
shaved the banks so close that our little craft brushed the reeda
down with her mainsail, with plenty of water under foot. For
many miles of the upper part of our journey it was wholly without
wood, except here and there a straggling fig-tree, generally on the
edge of the bank, and bent over the river by the force of the south-
easterly winds (several times much to our annoyance), and all of
them destitute of branches on the weather side, and appearing as
if swept down by a hurricane, from the efi'ects of which they had
never recovered.

*' We landed several times with the idea of searching for game,
but, wherever the grass had not been burnt we found it impossible
to penetrate it even for a few yards, and in most parts of it a buffalo
might have been started within 3 yards of a person without his
being able to see the animal. The course of the river is one of the
most serpentine that can well be imagined, and I believe that in
passing its interminable bends we headed to almost every point of
the compass ; but the same uniform depth and monotonous appear-
ance throughout, and our view generally bounded on all sides by
a wall of tall reeds and grass, from which myriads of musquitoes
issued and tormented us all night."

162 OLIPHANT'S NOTES OF A VOYAGE [March 28, 1859^

The banks of the river were found in some places to be honey-
combed with pitfalls for hippopotami and other animals. There
were large numbers and many varieties of birds, but only one kind
of fish, and that was a species of barbel, which occasionally attained
a great size. The natives caught them and sold them in bundles,
split, skewered open, and dried in the smoke.

In adjourning the meeting, the President said that he must
remark that the communications made to this meeting, and the
observations which had been made on them, had given him as much
satisfaction as he had ever experienced on any former occasion since
he had occupied the chair. He then reminded the assembly that
he had directed cards to be sent to every Fellow of the Society, in-
viting them to soirees on the 16th and 30th of March; and that if
any Fellow had, through accident, not received the card, he hoped
that the omission would be overlooked.

Ninth Meeting, March 2Sth, 1859. '

Sm EODEEICK I. MUKOHISON, President, in the Chair. ^

Presentations. — Captain L. S. Tindal, r.n. ; Captain H. Harris;
Captain John Walker ; H. D. Jencken ; David Kay ; and Thomas Phinn,
Q.C., Esqrs. ; were presented upon their election.

Elections. — Colonel Henry F. Ainslie ; Lieut. -Colond A. Lam Fox;
the Rev. G. Crake Rowden ; L. P. Delves Broughton ; John H. Gurney, m.p. ;
C. H. Rogers Harrison ; and C. Orby Womhwell, Esqrs. ; were elected
Fellows.

Exhibitions. — Several Chinese Maps and Drawings of the Yang-
tse-Keang, and a magnetic variation Chart of the World, by F. J.
Evans, Esq., r.n., f.r.g.s., were exhibited.

The Papers read were : — ■
1. Notes of a Voyage up the Yang-tse-Keang , from Wosung to Han-Kow.
By Laurence Oliphant, Esq., f.r.g.s.. Secretary to the Earl of
Elgin. With a Chart of the River; by Capt. Sherard Osborn,
R.N., C.B., r.R.G.s., in command of Her Majesty's Ship Furious.

The squadron consisted of the Retribution, Cruiser, and Furious, with
the gunboats Dove and Lee, and started from near Shanghae on Nov.
9th, 1858. The Retribution was found to draw too much water, and
was ultimately left 90 miles above Nankin ; the remaining vessels
attained to the far-famed Chinese mart Han-Kow, which is upwards

March 28, 1859.1 UP THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 163

of 500 miles from the mouth of the river. Immediately on com-
mencing the voyage, extraordinary changes in the soundings of the
jriver, since the time of CoUinson's survey, became manifest — shoals
had been converted into islands, and spots formerly avoided as
dangerous were now in the course of the deep and safe channel.
There were numerous delays from groundings, especially at the
outset, but all dangers from first to last were surmounted without
accident. Many forts, usually of a small size, had to be passed in
the course of the expedition, those in the district adjacent to Nankin
being in the hands of the rebels. They frequently opened fire
upon the squadron during its upward voyage, but in no case was
any damage sustained worth speaking of, and all attacks were
speedily silenced. With these isolated exceptions, the reception of
the squadron was sufficiently friendly. The character of the river
banks is described minutely and with great detail in the paper :
it is very varied ; all kinds of scenery appear to alternate. In some
parts it is level and monotonous, in others highly picturesque and
rocky. The river is often filled with islands, and in all places it
shows signs of great alterations of level. The well-known pro-
vince of Lakes, with the waters of most of which the river is con-
nected, appeared truly remarkable for its extent. There was not
much sign of life along the river. The cities were sadly desolated
by civil war. Han-Kow was the only place visited that had any
pretension to commercial activity. There is no other spot in
the empire more suited than it to be the centre whence foreign
trade might radiate. But " although there was every appearance
of a denser population (in its neighbourhood) than had characterised
many sections of the lower portion of the river, we were not im-
pressed with the idea either of the fertility of the soil or the wealth
and abundance of the inhabitants, which the meagre accounts that
had previously reached us led us to form. The peasantry, where
the country is not harassed by civil war, are contented and com-
fortable ; but there is a total absence of anything like a display of
wealth or luxury either in the towns or country. It is difficult to
judge of the trading capabilities of a country so internally convulsed
as China is at this juncture, but there seems a great danger of over-
estimating them. Even between the Poyang Lake and Han-Kow,
where the river is perfectly free from rebels, hardly any trading
junks are to be seen ; and until we reach the latter city there is no
spot at which any considerable head of population is collected, or
any indication of an extensive internal traffic apparent."

The mode in which European commerce appears likely to find its
way lip the river is by means of. small. river vessels starting from

164 DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. [March 28, 1859:

Shanghae, and it remains to be seen whether or no the inexpensive
but slow Chinese junk will hold its own in competition against
river steamers. No chart will supply the requirements of a navi-
gation of the river, for the remarkable and rapid changes in its bed
defy all such facilities. It is only by a succession of native pilots
— one for every 80 or 90 miles— that it is ever likely to be ascended
with speed and safety. When the expeditionary squadron returned
great changes in the hydrography of the river had already become
apparent. All the vessels had safely arrived in the neighbourhood
of Shanghae by the middle of January, 1859.

The President. — In asking you, gentlemen, to return thanks to Mr.
Oliphant, Captain Sherard Osborn, and the officers of Lord Elgin's expedition,
who prepared the excellent chart now before us, I may state that this valuable
communication contains a variety of illustrations of the state of the country
since the rebels have taken possession of large portions of it, which the Secre-
tar}-- has not had time to read. I am jjersuaded that when you peruse this
memoir in our Journal you will render every justice to Mr. Oliphant, not
merely for his description of the physical geography of the country, but also for
giving you an exact picture of the impoverished condition of very large tracts
which were formerly in a very flourishing state. Fortunately, on this occa-
sion a gentleman is present who has known the river and has visited the differ-
ent stations on it when the whole population was in a most prosperous con-
dition. This is Sir John Davis, whose paper is announced as second upon the
list. He will give you a description of the interior of China as it was before
the rebellion, as contrasted with the present miserable state of every tract
which has been invaded by the rebels.

The Second Paper read was —

2. View of the Great Valley of the Yang-tse-Keang before arid since its
occupation h/ the Rebels, By Sir J. F. Davis, Bart., k.c.b., f.r.g.s.

Sir John Davis observed that, had not the recent expedition of
Lord Elgin up the great river of China rendered such farther
details superfluous, he might have occupied the time of the meeting
with more of his own personal experiences on that river, as high as
the Poyang Lake, within no great distance of Han-Kow, the present
ultima Thule of English investigation. But, after the interesting
memoir just read, he should confine himself to a brief view of the
high state of prosperity, population, and trade existing at the time
of his own visit as contrasted with the utter desolation since
perpetrated by the rebels ; and the abundant depth of w^ater
in 1816 as compared vrith the low ebb of the river, which
had formed the chief impediment to the progress of our steamers
in 1858. They had been about eleven days from Golden Island
to the Poyang Lake, and this, for them, was justly considered

March 28, 1859.] DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 165

as slow work ; but what was it compared with the twenty-six
days which were occupied in the same transit by the chimsy
Chinese boats in which he had journeyed against the full stream
and a generally contrary wind ? This delay, however, gave
ample time for inland excursions and observation, to which the
Chinese, after a time, made no opposition. The high, sandy, and
barren nature of the banks, remarked on by the late expedition,
was a disadvantage resulting from the low state of the river ; while
the aspect of the country on the previous occasion, as viewed from
the surface of the greatly-raised waters (estimated by some at 40 to
50 feet), gave a much more favourable impression of the region. In
fact, his companion, the late Sir Henry Ellis, justly remarked that,
however absurd the pretensions of the Emperor of China to uni-
versal supremacy, he certainly possessed the most magnificent terri-
tory, within an imperial ring-fence, in the world.

The enormous estimates of population, as given by Du Halde and
M. Hue, for the central position of Han-Kow and the two adjoining
towns, were manifestly exaggerated ; but, if taken at less than half
the amount, they proved the value of the position as a commercial
mart. It was not so easy to over-estimate the amount of desolation
caused by the rebels in those rich and populous districts. But
Lord Elgin's suite had observed the rapid restorations already
effected since the retirement of the barbarous hordes. Any one
who had witnessed the celerity with which the indomitable in-
dustry of the Chinese has repaired the effects of a conflagration in a
large town, might feel sanguine as to the speedy revival of com-
merce and population, as soon as there was renewed safety to
property and person. The Keang would soon again be covered
by the Chinaman's argosies : —

" Mox reficit rates
Quassas, indocilis paiiperiem pati."

Indeed, a well-known couplet of our own poet might (with slight
variation) be applied to the Chinese : —

" You break his web of industry in vain,
The creature's at his husy work again."

It is impossible to anticipate any other than the best results from
this well-timed expedition of Lord Elgin. It seems to have tested
with success the good intentions of the Peking Government, if we
may judge by the conduct of their representative, the Viceroy of
Hukwang. But if it had produced no other result than to establish
a proper understanding with the insurgents, and show them the
folly of aggressive measures towards our ships, this was well worth

166 DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE^KEANG. [March 28, 1859.

having. The Court of Peking probably hopes from us something
better for itself than perfect neutrality as regards the rebels, and
may have been confirmed in this hope by what our squadron, in
mere self-defence, was compelled to do against them up the river.
Should this tend to secure good faith and practical sincerity in the
observance of the new treaty, we may accept the results with satis-
faction, without troubling ourselves about the disinterestedness or
puiity of the motives. If they are encouraged to strenuous exer-
tions, and put an end to this chronic civil war, which has desolated
the country and paralysed trade, this will be a great common
benefit.

It is only prudent, however, to note the extreme difficulty of
predicating anything of a people whose ways are so diametrically
opposite, in almost everything, to our own ; who designate the
compass as a " south-pointing needle," and who call the north-west
the west-north, and the south-east the east-south ; who mount a horse
on the off side, and mourn for their relations in a complete suit of
white ; with whom the left hand is the place of honour, and who
keep the head covered out of civility ; who begin a book exactly
where we end one, and read vertically from top to bottom, instead
of horizontally from left to right ; whose men wear petticoats and
necklaces of beads, and carry fans, and whose women smoke pipes
of tobacco,': but do not wear crinolines ; whose old men fly paper
kites, while their little boys study philosophy; and who, pour
renfort de potage, place the seat of the human intellect in the
stomach !

The President. — You will return your thanks to Sir John Davis for his
lucid description both of the geographical features of this river and of the
character of the Chinese.

Then, pointing to a long Chinese proclamation which was suspended in the
meeting-room,- Sir Roderick said : —

There is here a proclamation or something of that kind in Chinese, taken by
two English sailors, the sons of Mr. John Cleghorn, of Wick, who took it in
warfare in the neighbourhood of Canton.

Sir John Davis, f.r.g.s. — The red letters are used indiscriminately, except
in the autograph of the Emperor himself to public documents. There is no
particular distinction attached to red letters among the Chinese on other
occasions. That appears to me to be a notice from the general of some body
of men, I think not Imperialists, but probably the braves at Canton.

The President. — I entirely coincide with Sir John Davis in his eulogium
upon Lord Elgin's expedition. There is no Englishman who does not feel
that the efforts of Lord Elgin to open out China to British commerce are
deserving of all praise. Now, at present, however, I must call upon gen-
tlemen to speak to the geographical points of the paper, particularly to those
extraordinary physical changes that have taken place in the bed of this great
river, the longest in the Old World, and the only one that I have ever heard of
up which a squadron of armed vessels, one drawing sixteen feet of water, has

March 28, 1859.] DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 167

proceeded 600 miles into the interior of the country. When we know that this
was accomplished through the energy of Lord Elgin and the naval officers who
accompanied him, our attention is necessarily drawn again to the great diffi-
culties which are presented every year to the navigator in ascending this
river. Captain Collinson, who surveyed it a few years ago, will, I hope,
explain to us the remarkable changes that have occurred since his time.
In fact, from a letter which I hold in my hand from Mr. Blackney, of the
Acteon, it appears that to navigate this river safely it will be necessary to have a
fresh survey every year and a pilot for every fifty or sixty miles, so rapid are the
changes. They depend, doubtless, upon this great feature of the interior of
China, that as this large river, which is 3300 miles long, descends, it is fed by
vast affluents that flow from snowy mountains. The sudden melting of the
snow brings with it a quantity of boulder, sand, and mud, which encumber
the bed of the river. On the other hand, the force of the current, so suddenly
swollen, excavates deep passages for vessels in places which were formerly
sandbanks. Besides Captain Collinson, we have also here Mr. Lockhart, who
has already explained to us the great advantages of opening up the Yang-tse-
Keang, and who has been so long resident in Shanghae. There is also present
an American gentleman, Mr. Carr, who has ascended this river for some dis-
tance in a frigate of the United States. I call, therefore, upon these gentlemen
and others who are interested in this most important subject to favour the
Society with observations.

Captain K. Collinson, f.r.g.s. — Having taken a part in the opening of
this great river, I look upon this exploration with great interest ; and, with
your permission, I will point out the progress of its examination. During the
first year of the opium war, 1840, the entrance, as far as the north end of
the island of Tsungming, was surveyed by Captain Bethune. Lord Amherst
in returning from Peking in 1815, as Sir J. Davis has just acquainted us,
came upon the river at Chenkeangfoo, and proceeded up it to the Poyang lake
in Chinese boats. The fleet, under the command of Sir W. Parker, consisting
of 75 sail, some of which drew more than 22 feet water, ascended the river
to Nankin. The present expedition has proved that it is navigable for seaborne
vessels beyond that city to Han Kow, and the portion between the Poyang lake
and the latter city must be considered as entirely new, not having been
explored before by Europeans. This opening of 600 miles of river navigation
reflects the highest credit upon all who have been engaged in it, and it is a
great pleasure to many of us here to reflect that there are several officers with
whom we have been associated in other enterprises who have taken so pro-
minent a part in this great expedition of Lord Elgin's into the interior of
China.

With respect to the geographical point of the paper which relates to the
change in the channel of the river between Nankin and the sea, I would
observe, that it is a very difficult thing to fix the exact position of a ship
where there are few or no landmarks, which is the case in the lower part of
this river. It was, however, triangulated down by Captain Kellett and myself,
and we are responsible for the soundings laid down on the chart of '42, all
of which are correctly fixed. That changes will continually take place in the
channels between Kushan and the sea must be expected, as up to this point
the tide is felt; but I think above the Kushan crossing the navigation of
the river will be more simple, though still liable to changes during the period
of inundation.

The uncertainty of the navigation of the lower part of the river cannot
be better proved than by the fact that we took the fleet up by one channel
and were obliged to bring them down by another.

The chart of '42 will, however, be useful, to show the changes that have
taken place, and afford a good foundation for reasoning upon the system of

VOL. III. P

163 DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. [March 28, 1859.

rivers, which can never be better exemplified than by the Yang-tse-keang ; and
I hope future navigators will continue to make ©bservations upon the changes
which take place, as they will prove highly interesting to geographers.

Mr. Lewis Carr, of the United States, and recently Assistant-Secretary
of the American Legation in China. — I feol very highly complimented, Sir,
at being called upon to participate in this discussion, but can scarcely hope to
impart anything either of interest or novelty to the paj^er by Mr. Oliphant
which has been read this evening. Nor am I unaware that there are present
here this evening many distinguished officers of H. M.'s service and others,
whose opportunities of observation in those waters have been much greater
than my own, and who are prepared to address the Society. I am also
"without any notes of our trip up the river, having only been apprised this day
of the subject that was to occupy your attention, and am therefore quite
unprepared to speak otherwise than in a very desultory manner. It would be
difficult to eulogise too highly the recent very successful expedition up this
splendid river, an enterprise that reflects so much credit upon Lord Elgin, as
also upon the officers of H. M.'s Navy.

It was my good fortune in the year 1854 to ascend the Yang-tse in a
very large American man-of-war, under the command of Captain Franklin
Buchannan, of the U. S. Navy. We are sometimes called a boastful people,
and, perhaps, it is something to boast of, that the largest ship that ever
ascended the Yang-tse-keang as far as Hu-hu was the U. S. steam-frigate
Siisquehannay of 3000 tons, and drawing, I believe, 23 feet water. She was
also the first vessel that ever disturbed the waters of this noble stream above
Nanking.

I was attached to the American embassy in China in the year 1854, with
His Excellency' Robert M. M'Lane, and the Susquehanna having been placed
at his disposal by our Government, he availed himself of the opportunity to
ascend the river, more especially to ascertain something of the rebels who
then held possession of it at Nanking and above. It was not the good fortune
of Mr. M'Lane to have placed at his disposal such a squadron as accompanied
Lord Elgin, nor to have had from his Government such entire carte-Uanclie,
or perhaps the recent explorations of this river might have been anticipated.
It was, in fact, with much apprehension that Captain Buchannan made the
attempt at all ; he feared the shallowness of the stream would embarrass him,
as well he might, with a ship of that size, and all her armament on board.
But after some little time he procured such information as could be obtained
at Shanghae, and we left that place on May 22, 1854. Our experience in
ascending the river may be made useful, inasmuch as the water was then
almost at its highest. In entering the mouth, I have particular occasion to
remember and to verify the truth of the remarks made by Captain Collinson,
that it is almost impossible to get any bearings whatever ; therefore, a
nautical man must depend a great deal upon his good judgment. We were
accompanied by a small steam-tender, which was of course of very great aid.
After passing the mouth of the stream, the first difficulty we encountered was
at a place called Blonde Shoal, which, if there are any officers in the expedi-
tion of 1842 present, they will remember. That was the most serious diffi-
culty that we encountered. I believe it was so called from the name of an
English vessel of war that ascended the river. This shoal, I think, is about
10 or 15 miles from the mouth. As we passed there very careful soundings
were made, and the Susquehanna just touched as she passed over the shoal.
The result was deemed very gratifying, for that was supposed to be one of
the most serious difficulties. We encountered very little trouble after that
until we came to the Langshaug crossing, at a very large bend in the river.
U|X)n approaching " Silver Island " we met the Imperial fleet. The ship was
saluted by the entire squadron, which was promptly returned by the Susque-

March 28, 1859.] DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 169

hanna ; and the Admiral in command came on board, and in a long con-
sultation earnestly impressed upon Mr. M'Lane the propriety of the Susque-
hanna taking part in the contest that was then raging. The rebels had
possession of the forts at Chih-kiang-fu, and the Admiral was very anxious
that we should bring the ship up and aid the Imperialists in silencing those
batteries. This was, of course, declined ; he was assured that the Government
of the States would be entirely neutral in the civil strife now extending itself
over the empire. We encountered no other difficulty so far as the navigation
of the river itself was concerned, and from that moment we went on with as
much ease and safety as a ship of that size could go into any river in the
world. The waters were very high, and, as has been observed by Sir John.
Davis this evening, it enabled us to see the surrounding country for miles. It
seemed to be teeming with luxuriance — that is, before we reached the directions
of the rebels. Upon approaching the forts of 6hin-kiang-fu, a shot was fired
at the vessel. She was stopped immediately abreast of the batteries, and
orders were given to clear the ship for action ; and a deputation was sent to
inquire into the circumstances. The officers in command assured us that
it was an accident, but at the same time they stated that it was very unwise
to attempt going up the river, as their party had possession of it. They
rather expostulated with us, but we intimated that the ship would go on.
Notice was accordingly sent on to Nanking. No other hostile proceedings
towards us were shown at Nanking : we anchored off the city, and remained
there a few days. I remember going on shore, and making a visit to the far
famed city. All was ruin and dilapidation, and it bore no resemblance to
what one could have supposed Nanking to be. The appearance of the place
was melancholy indeed ; such desolation and misery everywhere observable,
sufficiently told the tale of the recent disturbances. A more perfect burlesque
on a military organisation can scarcely be imagined than the troops within
the works presented ; a motley crowd of men and half-grown boys had entire
possession of all the water batteries that command the river at this point. I
saw nothing that a company of marines could not have disposed of in half
an hour.

After a few days at Nanking we proceeded as far as Wu-hu, one of the
largest market-towns on the river, about 100 miles above Nanking. The city
was visited by many of the officers ; it is enclosed by a wall, and is said to
have had, before the rebellion, a half million of inhabitants. Its trade at
that time was entirely interrupted by the revolution, and the same scene of
desolation was observed as at Chin-kiang and Nanking. This city is par-
ticularly alluded to by Sir John Davis in his work. We felt anxious to go
thus far, inasmuch as it was described to be a place of some commercial im-
portance. At this point the river was some 4 or 5 miles wide, and the stream
deep, and there seemed to be no obstacle to going on as far as we thought
proper. But upon a consultation it was deemed wise to return, and we did so.
In descending the river, as we had no obstacles to apprehend, the ship made 14
knots an hour a good part of the way down, which shows how bold the river
was and how readily it may be navigated. Whilst at Wu-hu we discovered
coal in considerable abundance, obtained from a mountain 20 miles distant.
It was a kind of semi-bituminous coal. From its appearance it occurred to
me that it might be made very serviceable in the navigation of the river.
We descended and reached Shanghae in safety, having been absent a fortnight.
I would venture to make an additional remark touching the very great im-
portance we should attach to these recent explorations in opening up the com-
mercial advantages of the river. I am fully impressed with the belief that
the river can be navigated as easily and as readily by steamers such as we
use on the Mississippi, as the Mississippi itself. All it needs is steamers of that
build, drawing 3 or 4 feet of water, and propelled by side- wheels. The state

P 2

170 DAVIS ON THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. [March 28, 1859.

of the water even at the period that Lord Elgin ascended would be quite
enough for steamers of that character.

Mb. Lockhart, f.r.g.s. — I believe that the hinderance to the navigation of
the Yang-tse-Keang during Lord Elgin's expedition was caused solely by want
of water. I think Captain Collinson's observation is quite correct with
regard to the state of the river when he was on it in 1842, as it was then
the month of July, when the river was full of water, in consequence of the
heavy rain that falls on the immense extent of country drained by the principal
branches of the Yang-tse-Keang, which causes the river to rise many feet in
the summer months. At Shanghae we know very well that in the summer
months an immense flood of water comes down the river, so that very fre-
quently vessels anchoring out of sight of land can draw their water from
alongside. The extent of fresh water is so great that captains of vessels know
when they are approaching the coast, as they get into fresh water long before
they see the land. In the winter, on the contrary, the salt water comes
directly up to the mouth of the Shanghae river. From these circumstances it
is clearly seen that the difference in the state of the river between the
summer and the winter months is very great. The banks, which were
exposed when Lord Elgin went up, are completely submerged in summer.
From what has been observed of the sand-banks at the mouth of the Yang-
tse-Keang we know that these banks are continually shifting, owing to the
great body of water which comes down the channel, and pilots are consequently
obliged to pay very great attention to the changes in these banks.

Although Captain Collinson's remark was perfectly correct regarding the
state of the river at the time he visited it, I think if he were to survey it over
again that he would find many of the sand-banks have considerably changed
since 1842. The various landmarks on the banks of the river would of course
be found to be correctly laid down, but the sand-banks in the stream itself
would be found very much altered since the time when his survey was
made.

I am not willing to detain the meeting at this late hour, but I wish to make
one or two remarks regarding the Yang-tse-Keang. When I had the privilege of
reading a paper on this river a year ago I stated,* on native authority, various cir-
cumstances regarding the city of Han-Kow, and the probability there was that the
whole course of the river to that place would be found navigable by sea-going
steamers. I am happy to find that those remarks have been confirmed by
the experience of the expedition of Lord Elgin. The Furious^ a large vessel
drawing sixteen feet of water, reached this great town. Not only is this river
valuable because of its being the great road between Shanghae, our most
important port in all China, and Han-Kow, which is now our most westerly
consular port, and which will be a place of great trade in future years, but
because of the advantages which seem likely to arise from the access which we
shall get through the upper branches of the Yang-tse-Keang to the interior of
the country. The river has been surveyed up to Han-Kow, which is, indeed,
only a small portion of its course. There are 2500 miles yet to be surveyed,
extending up to Tibet; and I hope it will not be long before British tra-
vellers endeavour to trace up this mighty river to its sources. Beyond one
point on the borders of the province of Sze-chuen we know there is no possi-
bility of European vessels of any kind passing. There are great rapids in the
river for many miles, which compel the Chinese to use portages at those
places. Above Han-Kow the river divides into two branches — one, the Han-
Keang or Han river, goes north, and penetrates into the provinces of Shensiand
Honan, the gold regions of China ; while the other, the main stream of the
Yang-tse-Keang, traverses the western provinces and Tibet, and passes into the

♦ Journal of R. G. S., vol. xxviii.

April 11, 1859.] FATE OF ADOLPHE SCHLAGINTWEIT. 171'

border land between China and India, across which the caravans for ages have
passed between those two countries. In former times and in the days of the
commercial prosperit}'- of Venice, and before ships went to India by the Cap&
of Good Hope, all Chinese goods that were imported into Europe were carried
by caravans through the passes of the Himalaya mountains across the frontier
into India, and these caravans follow the same route at the present day for the
supply of Nepaul. I have seen drawings of these caravans and the passes
through the mountains in the Chinese magistrates' office at Shanghae. Our
travellers from India endeavour to pass into Tibet by the route across the
Himalayas ; but I think the Yang-tse-Keang is the route by which they may
hope to reach that country. I would call the attention of geographers to this,
because here is a navigable stream by which they can travel through the
whole of its course of 3000 miles into the border-land between China and
India, and thence would be able to proceed to Calcutta. I look forward
to the time when we shall have the course of the river open to us all the
way up to the mountains of Tibet. Long have we endeavoured to find
such a route, and now I think one has been opened by which we can pass
from China into India with less difficulty than has hitherto been expe-
rienced in the repeated endeavours made by various travellers to enter China
from our Indian territories.

Tenth Meeting, April llth, 1859.

Sir RODERICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — The Rev. G. C RowcUn; Colonel W. Pottinger ;
Captain R. H. Price ; Colonel A, Lane Fox ; and C. A, Ducket y
R.N., and A, H. Macdougallj Esqrs* ; were presented upon their election.

Elections. — The Hon. George Barrington ; Captain Thomas Birch, r.n. ;
Rev. James Booth, ll.d. ; Viscount Emlyn ; the Hon. and Rev. F. S,
Grimston ; Consul W. T. Pritchard; and Edward C. Bvx)Jiland ; H. D. P.
Cunningham, r.n. ; Thomas W. L. Mackean ; W. Walter Mantell ; and
William Wheelwright, Esqrs. ; were elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — A very rare French Atlas of Egypt, published by
the Depot de la Gnerre in 1807, presented by Mr. Robert Stephen-
son, M.P., F.R.G.s. ; and a diagram of Captain Selwyn's apparatus for
paying out electric telegraph cables, were exhibited.

In opening the business of the evening the President announced
that Lord Stanley, Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India, had
communicated to the Society copies of despatches, which completely
set at rest the anxiety so long entertained respecting the fate of
Adolphe Schlagintweit, who had proceeded into Turkistan from the
Upper Punjab by a route considerably to the west of that followed
by his brothers Hermann and Robert, and had advanced far to
the north-west of their ultimate station, Elchi, before he met with

172 FATE OF ADOLPHE SCHLAGINTWEIT. [April 11, 1859.

his fate. By tlio return of one of Ms attendants (Abdullah) to
Peshawr, vid Bokhara and Cabul, as well as by a letter of another
of them, Mahomed Amir, addressed to Colonel Edwardes, it appears
that Adolphe Schlagintweit was well received at Yarkand, though
he encountered great difficulties in reaching that city. On moving
to the north-west, or towards Kokan, he fell in with a horde of
fanatic Mussulmans, at Kashgar (which lies in about 41° N. lat.
and 72i° E. long.), and in front of the walls of which place he was
beheaded by orders of a ferocious Synd named WuUi Khan. After
giving a sketch of the details, the President observed that, as great
interest has been taken by all the British authorities in Upper India
in the fate of this enterprising explorer — probably the only scientific
European who has ever visited this wild and remote region since
the days of Marco Polo— so it is hoped that some of his note-books
and observations may eventually be recovered from the natives.

The Papers read were : —

1. Captain H. Strachey (Gold Medallist) on the Death of M. Adolphe

Schlagintweit,

Communicated by the Right Hon. Lord Stanley, m.p., f.r.g.s., Secretary for

India.

Extrojct of a Military Letter from India, dated 2Qth January^ 1859.

In continuation of our separate letter, dated 22nd Dec, 1858, we
have the honour to submit a farther communication received from
the Foreign Department regarding the fate of the late Adolphe Schla-
gintweit, who, it now appears, was barbarously murdered at Kash-
gar by a fanatic Synd, named WuUi Khan.

From Lieutenant-Colmel H. B. Edwardes, c.b., Commissioner and Super-
intendent at Peshawr Division, to E. Temple, jKsg., Secretary to the
Chief Commissioner of the Punjab Political Department.

Sir, — I am not aware whether the Chief Commissioner has yet
received a reliable account of the circumstances attending the death
of M. Adolphe Schlagintweit ; but at any rate it will be satisfactory
to Government and to his friends to be able to compare the enclosed
narratives of the sad event. No. 1 is the verbal statement of a
Cashmir follower of M. Schlagintweit, named Abdullah, who
arrived here vid Bokhara and Cabiil three days ago. No. 2 is
the written report of a native of Ladak, named Mahomed Amir,
who appears to have been provided by Lord William Hay as a kind
of courier to M. Schlagintweit. He writes from Kokan, and Ab-

April 11, 1859.] FATE OF ADOLPHE SCHLAGINTWEIT. 173

dullah is the bearer of his letter. From these statements, which
appeared to me substantially trustful, it seems that M. Schlagint-
weit was impelled by a desire to find a road to Yarkand which need
not pass through Ladak ; that he reached Yarkand — found that
country harried by Crescentaders (sic) from Kokan, and passed on
to Kashgar, where the same fanatical raids were going on ; and the
leader of one of them, a Synd, named Wulli Khan, seized M.
Schlagintweit, and barbarously caused him to be beheaded, without
any other offence apparently than that of being a foreigner. If any-
thing could soothe the distress of M. Schlagintweit's friends in
Europe, it would surely be the noble contrast between the en-
lightened purpose and humane search for knowledge which bore
him into those wilds with his life in his open hand, and the bar-
barian's frenzy for the propagation of error by the blood of his
fellow men. I have sent by separate parcel a slip of paper and a
broken pocket-telescope, which were the only relics Abdullah could
bring away with him.

I have, &c.,

Peshawr, Dec. 1858. Herbert B. Edwardes.

The statement of Abdullah Mahomed, an attendant of M.
Adolphe Schlagintweit, is to the following effect : —

. . . He then, with the informant and four others, resumed
his journey, and, at a distance of three days' journey from Yarkand,
turned towards Sokut, and thence to Shumla Khoja. From this place
he sent a servant to Yarkand to obtain information of the wars that
were then going on, and learnt on his return that it was the Khan
of Kokan who had been the aggressor, consequently he set out for
Yarkand without hesitation. Passing Kirgan and Kuigluk, he
arrived at the camp of one Tilla Khan, Synd of Kokan, who had
come with an armed multitude to make a religious war with Yar-
kand. A sortie was made from the city against Tilla Khan, and
obliged him to fly. M. Schlagintweit left his baggage, and fled with
his followers to Kashgar. Here he found that another Synd of Kokan,
called Wulli Khan, was then the king. He had himself just come
on a religious war, and had conquered the place. M. Schlagintweit
desired an interview with him, but he was refused, and was carried
as a prisoner to the Khan, who, without any questioning or any
apparent reason, ordered him to be beheaded. The execution took
place immediately, outside the city of Kashgar. The informant
was sold as a slave, but after various difficulties contrived to reach
India.

Mahomed Amir of Yarkand, one of the above-mentioned four

174 HERSCHEL'S NEW PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. [April It, 1859.

attendants, describes how the messenger was sent to Yarkand, and
how, contrary to his own advice, M. Schlagintweit determined on
going there. He says that on their approach to Yarkand they were
treated with courtesy, receiving and giving presents. Thence they
went to Kashgar, which was occupied by a Khojah of Kokan, who
had installed himself in the city with his Mussulman troops ; but
the army of Khutta was in the field, besieging him, and every day
there was a fight. The Khojah's people " asked who we were ?
M. Schlagintweit replied, that he was the Hon. East India Com-
pany's envoy, and was going to the Khan of Kokan ; upon this
they got into a rage, and ordered M. Schlagintweit to be beheaded,
and I, with my followers, to be thrown into prison, and plundered
of all our property." After thirty-five days the army of Khutta
overpowered the Khojah and forced him to fly, and the informant
was released.

The Second Paper read was ; —

2. On a New Projection of the Sphere.
By Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., d.c.l., f.r.s., &c.

My dear Sir Roderick, — As President of the Eoyal Geographical
Society, the Paper which I herewith send, may interest you. It
contains an account of a projection of the sphere, so far as I am
aware new, which offers several peculiar advantages for geo-
graphical purposes when the whole, or at least the whole accessible
part of the globe has to be mapped down on one sheet. For, 1st,
it gets rid of the extravagant distension in high latitudes, at least
on one side of the equator, which the Mercator projection neces-
sitates. 2nd. Like that and the stereographic projection, it exhibits
all small portions of the sphere in their true forms without distor-
tion of figure. 3rd. It exhibits large portions (as whole continents)
with very much less variation of scale where great amplitudes are
concerned than the stereographic, and for the whole of one hemi-
sphere than the Mercator ; while for the other, as far as the 50th deg.
of latitude, it is no way offensive. 4th. It takes in at one view the
whole accessible surface; and, what no other circular projection
can do, it allows on one and the same plate a repetition of the map,
or of any portion of it continuously right and left ; so that, take
what meridian you will for a prime meridian, it will, by merely
placing that meridian upright before the spectator, give an equally
convenient and natural coup-d'ceil of at least 90"^, or if it be preferred

April 11, 1859.] HERSCHEL'S NEW PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. 175

180° on either side of it, and thus affords, what no other projection
does, an equally clear and perspicuous representation, not only of
the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, and the whole of the old
and new Continents and Australia, but also of the North Polar basin
— somewhat unduly enlarged, it is true, but exhibiting the whole
coast-line infinitely less disfigured than in the Mercator charts.

The projection in question having been the direct result of a
general mathematical inquiry into the subject, suggested by the
consideration of Colonel James's recent projection, which takes in
more than a hemisphere, I subjoin the steps of the investigation
which led to it. Colonel James's projection takes in at the very
extreme theoretical limit only about 132"^ of amplitude from the
centre to the circumference of the. map, or five-sixths of the face
of the sphere; and even when restricted to 110° of amplitude, or
two-thirds of the sphere, though very elegant and pleasing in effect
as a picture, yet gives a very considerable amount of distortion of
shape at the borders. The sketch marked (A) includes an ampli-
tude of 160° of North Polar distance, or 97-lOOths of the whole
surface of the globe, and exhibits no distortion, and on the whole no
more variation in the scale in the representation of areas for areas,
than can very well be tolerated.

Should you consider this a fitting communication for the Geo-
graphical Society, I will beg the favour of your laying it before them ;
and meanwhile permit me to remain, my dear Sir Koderick,

Very faithfully yours,

J. F. W. Herschel.

In this paper the author investigates the general mathematical
expression for the co-ordinates of any point in the projection
in terms of the co-ordinates of the corresponding point on the
sphere. The condition, that any infinitesimal rectangle on the
sphere and its projection must be similar, leads to a differential
partial equation of the second order, the solution of which gives
rise to two arbitrary functions, entering into the expressions for
the co-ordinates of the projected point.

These functions " being subject to no restriction, it is evident
that we may superadd to the general conditions of the problem any
which will suffice either to determine altogether or to limit the
generality of the arbitrary functions in the view of obtaining con-
venient forms of projected representation. Suppose, for instance,
we assume, as a condition, that the projected representations of all
circles about a fixed pole on the sphere shall be concentric circles

17G HERSCHEL'S NEW PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. [April 11, 1859.

about a fixed centre on the plane." The author then shows, that
on such a supposition, " if j9 be the polar distance of any parallel of
latitude, and 6 the radius of the circular segment representing that
parallel, we have (taking 1 for the equatorial radius in the pro-
jection) d = ( tan ^ j , from which it is easy to calculate 6 for each

polar distance from 0° to 180^. This expression, it will be observed,
still contains one arbitrary quantity, n. By giving specific values
to w, we have various projections including and analogous to the
stereographic. The author then calculates a table of values for the
radii in the projection for the polar distances 0^, 10^, 20^, &c. — 160^ ;
for the values of n, 1, f , -|, ^.

" The first series of numbei:s," he concludes, " exhibits the pro-
gression of the radii of the successive projected parallels in the
stereographic projection. The second, in that which occupies a
section of 240°, such as by cutting out the unoccupied portion,
would roll into a cone, well adapted for a transparent map on a
lamp-shade. The third is that which occupies a semicircle — a con-
venient form for a reference-chart, but which becomes too much
dilated beyond the 55th parallel of south latitude ; and the last,
that comprised in a sector of 120°, which is preferable to either,
and seems to me not unlikely to supersede all other projections for
a general chart."

Numerical Values of 6 in the above Equation, when »i = ^.

JP=

o
0

o
10

o
20

o
30

o
40

o
50

60

o
70

o
80

e=

O'OO

0-444

0-561

0»645

0-714

0*776

0-833

0-888

0-943

p=

o
90

o
100

o
110

o
120

o
130

o
140

o
150

160

e =

*

I -000

1-060

1»126

1-201

1-290

1-401

1-551

1-783

* The general question has been also discussed by Gauss in an answer to the prize
question proposed by the Royal Society of Copenhagen in 1822. His method is, in some
respects, still more general than that of the present paper ; but, although he arrives at,
amongst others, an equivalent to the formula given above, or, rather, to that from which

it was obtained, viz., r = 2.^2 . 1 tan — ^ j, he does not particularly specify the " lamp-
shade" projection, nor those represented by the third and the fourth cases.

In two memoirs, published in the Comm. Gott., vols. ii. and iii., the same author
examines in considerable detail the projection of a spheroid on a sphere. — Note communi-
cated by F.G. .,

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 177

The President. — The Society must appreciate highly any communication
upon physical geography from so eminent an authority as Sir John Herschel.
On this occasion he shows that this projection presents a more accurate repre-
sentation of the world in one sphere than any other stereographic projection.
It is not only more accurate than that of Mercator, but is, he suggests, more
correct than the ingenious projection prepared by our associate Col. James,
with which you may now compare it.

(The diagrams prepared by Sir John Herschel and those of Col. James were
then exhibited to the Meeting.)

The Third Paper read was : —

3. Hemarks on the Isthmus of Suez, with Special Reference to the proposed
Canal. By Commander Bedford Pim, r.n., f.r.g.s.

DtTRiNG a visit to Egypt in December last, my attention was forcibly
drawn to a subject that has for the past few years engaged a con-
siderable amount of public interest — the cutting a canal across the
Isthmus of Suez.

While in Cairo I had the advantage of making the acquaintance
of gentlemen well qualified, both from local and professional know-
ledge, to form a dispassionate opinion on this much-vexed question,
and I now propose to review the subject in its various bearings, so
as to enable the Society to form an independent judgment of its
merits.

I shall begin with describing the geographical position and phy-
sical features of the country, then detail the attempts of the Ancients
at canalization, and conclude with a narration of the various plans
and projects which have been proposed in modem times. •

Egypt, of which the Isthmus of Suez is a component part, lies
between the 29th and 33rd degrees of E. long., and in both these
meridians is bounded by sandy deserts. On the north is the
Mediterranean, in the 31st parallel of north latitude, while to
the south of parallel 23° is the boundary line. On the south-east
the waters of the Ked Sea wash the coast and form the roadstead
of Suez, whence to Pelusium, namely the *' Isthmus," the dis-
tance is only 65 geographical or 74 statute miles; Suez being
situated in 29° 58' 37" N. lat., Tineh, the ancient Pelusium, in
31° 3' 37" N. lat.

The northern or Mediterranean coast presents a barren appear-
ance, and consists of low sandy hillocks and swamps. Except-
ing Alexandria, no sort of harbour for vessels of any size exists.
The water in the vicinity of the land is shallow, the bottom shelv-
ing very gradually towards the beach, especially so in the Bay of
Tineh or Pelusium, where the depth of 25 feet averages a distance

lis PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

from the shore of more than 3 miles. The current has a constant
easterly set, the velocity of which is much influenced by the strength
of the wind. The tides have a very inconsiderable rise and fall,
and are more or less dependent on the winds ; the maximum height
ever recorded being only 2 feet 8 inches.

The prevailing winds are westerly and north-westerly in July,
August, and September, and continue to blow very much in the
same direction, with the exception of an occasional gale from the
south-west, until March; the southerly winds then prevail until
June, during which month easterly winds with thick weather and
northers at night may be expected. Thus, during the greater
part of the year westerly and north-westerly winds cause a constant
swell and surf to roll into the exposed Bay of Pelusium, which is
open to sixteen points of the compass ; and, when to this is added
the extreme lowness of the coast, without a single feature by which
any part can be recognized, some idea may be formed of the difficulty
and danger of the navigation.

The south-east or Ked Sea coast-line is also extremely arid and
sandy, but unlike the Mediterranean shores, which are flat, parts of
it, such as Gebel Awebel and Gebel Attaka, may be called mountain-
ous. In the immediate vicinity of Suez the land is low, and the
roadstead encumbered with shoals and sandbanks, the latter of con-
siderable extent, jutting far into the sea, and susceptible of move-
ment in heavy winds.

The harbour of Suez is only accessible to the small native coasters,
and even the roadstead has only a depth of 25 feet at about 3 miles
from the quay. The currents in the Red Sea are influenced by the
winds, and according to their strength attain a velocity of from 1 5
to 20 miles in the 24 hours. The tides have a much greater rise
and fall than in the Mediterranean, the maximum height being 7 feet
2 inches, and the minimum observed 2 feet, showing a difierence of
4 feet 6 inches between the highest tide of the Mediterranean and
that of the Eed Sea. The prevailing winds from March to Novem-
ber are northerly, but during the remaining three months, December,
January, and February, southerly winds blow, though by no means
steadily. This law is subject to some variation down to the Red
Sea, but as a general rule it holds good as far as the straits of Babel
Mandeb. The Red Sea runs about north-west and south-east 1308
miles from Suez to Aden, with a varying breadth of from 30 to
200 miles. The navigation is rendered very unsafe by the numerous
rocks, shoals, and coral banks which fringe the shore on either side,
but the centre is deep and free from any dangers ; this has been
abundantly proved by the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental

April 11, 1859,] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 179

Company, which have navigated that part of the sea for many years
without accident. On the other hand, sailing ships beating against
the northerly wind are obliged to approach the shore on either side,
and often become hopelessly involved in the perils just alluded to :
in fact, the average loss of shipping during the last year was 1 in
10 — not clumsy colliers, but fine ships, English and American,
some of them upwards of 1000 tons.

Of 12 vessels which have lately reached the port of Suez from
Aden, the average passage has been 52 days, which is rapid to what
it used to be, and is the result of employing first-class ships. The
passages from England to Alexandria and from Aden to Suez are the
most tedious in the world ; the first averages 55 miles per day, the
latter 25 miles, while other ocean routes average 100 ; therefore, in
making a comparison, the distance between England and Egypt
must be multiplied by 2 at least, and between Suez and Aden by
4. Thus it is certain that neither in the Eed Sea nor the Mediter-
ranean navigation can safety or certainty of passage be looked for by
sailing ships, and the captain of a merchant ship would think twice
before he adopted such a route.

The physical features of Egypt are unique; it has been well
named the " Eiver Land." In its pristine state it was doubt-
less a complete desert, but the Nile, overtopping its banks, flooded
the sandy surface, and, depositing its rich alluvium, soon reclaimed
by its fertilizing eff'ect a large portion of the adjacent wilderness.

The Kile has a total length of 1320 miles from source to mouth,
but taking the windings into consideration it is nearly twice as
long — viz. 2240 miles. The depth is most irregular : 50, 60, and
even 70 feet often occur ; but shoals, stretching from bank to bank,
and having only 2 or 3 feet water on them, are frequently met with,
so that the river is not navigable for vessels larger than our Thames
boats. At nearly 100 miles from the sea the waters divide into the
Damietta and Eosetta branches, and form the far-famed Delta,
which is an immense triangular plain, well cultivated by means of
a most elaborate and pains-taking system of irrigation. It has been
calculated that the Nile valley, as far as the apex of the Delta,
averages a breadth of about 7 miles ; namely, in the widest part
10 or 11, and in the narrowest 2 miles across, being, as already
observed, entirely due to the alluvium deposited at each high Nile
to the depth of 0*004 inches, and which, according to Eeynault, in
his ' Memoires sur I'Egypte,' contains 11 water, 9 carbon, 6 oxide of
iron, 4 silica, 4 carbonate of magnesia, 18 carbonate of lime, 48
alumina = 100.

Besides the amount of alluvium deposited, millions of tons are

180 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

annually discharged into tlie Mediterranean, and meet an east-going
current which carries the mass towards the Bay of Pelusium. The
effect of this mud-carrying current would be to silt up any harbour
or channel which came in its way. A striking instance of the
quantity of mud discharged by the Nile is related in Dr. Clarke's
' Travels.' He says : —

" July IQth. — This day, being Sunday, we accompanied Captain
Culverhouse, H.M.S. Romulus^ to the gun-room, to dine with his
officers, according to his weekly custom ; as we were sitting down
to dinner the voice of a sailor employed in heaving the lead was
suddenly heard calling * half four.' The captain starting up reached
the deck in an instant, and almost as quickly putting the ship in
stays she went about. Every seaman on board thought she would
be stranded. As she came about, the surface of the water exhibited
a thick black mud. This extended so widely that the appearance
resembled an island, at the same time no land was really visible,
not even from the mast-head, nor was there any notice of such a
shallow in any chart on board. The fact is (as we learnt afterwards)
that a stream of mud, extending for many leagues off the mouths of
the Nile, exists in a moveable deposit on the coast of Egypt."

During the periodical overflow of the Nile, its waters attain in
Upper Egypt the height of from 30 to 35 feet ; at Cairo about 23
feet ; and in the northern part of the Delta only 4 feet. It begins
to rise at Cairo about the beginning of July, increases during 100
days till the middle of October, then subsides, and arrives at its
lowest point near the end of April. During the period of inunda-
tion the current is very powerful, so much so that fresh water may
be skimmed off the surface two or three miles at sea. The average
force of the current throughout the year may be considered 2^ miles
per hour. The minimum discharge has been estimated at 54,000,000
cubic feet of water per hour. The amount of alluvium deposit is
0-004 inches. At the mouth of both the Damietta and Eosetta
branches there is a bar in the form of a horse-shoe, with an average
depth of 5 feet water. During high Nile the great velocity of
the stream drives this bar some distance to seaward, but, as the
strength of the current diminishes, it returns to its original position
in the old form.

The entire supply of sweet water for the whole of Egypt is de-
rived from the Nile ; there are wells, it is true, dug in the sands,
but the water they contain is generally salt, and even under the
most favourable circumstances brackish.

The stratification of Lower Egypt belongs entirely to the tertiary
formation.

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 181

The eastern longitudinal Tains of tlie Libyan Desert, forming the
western boundary line of the Nile Valley, is composed of parallel
layers of more or less argillaceous and arenaceous limestone, alter-
nating with beds of shale of variable thickness, the dryness of the
soil imparting hardness to the layers of clay. On the eastern side
of the valley, the part we have to do with, the surface consists of
loose sand. Sand-hills of some height frequently occnr, and the sand
on these hills is so extremely fine that it is put in motion by a very
slight wind, and wells 7 or 8 feet deep are filled up in one storm.
The highest part of the isthmus is about 40 feet, and is near the
Bitter Lake Basin, which is 37 feet below the level of the sea.
There are several depressions covered with salt, into one of which
(that is to say Lake Timsah) the Nile during inundations some-
times finds its way. The basin of Lake Timsah is 2 feet below the
level of the Bed Sea.

To the northward nothing but flat sand- plains present themselves
as far as Lake Mensalah, which bears the character of a quicksand,
and, consequently, is dangerous to travel near. Below the surface
of the isthmus, at a mean depth of 13 feet, water is met with, and
most probably the subsoil would partake very much of the " quick"
character of Lake Mensalah.

Such a soil as that just described would be difficult enough to
excavate, the sand having a tendency to fall in as fast as thrown
out ; and when the watery subsoil is reached, how much greater
would be the difficulty ! — in fact it is problematical if a cutting could
be made at all. Then, as regards Lake Mensalah, no one can tell
to what depth the walls must be sunk before the excavations could
be commenced.

It would seem that when Egypt (780 B.C.) had attained a maritime
supremacy, and its commerce began to extend to Arabia and India,
the project naturally arose of opening out an easy mode of access to
the Nile by means of a canal connecting that river with the Bed Sea.
According to Strabo, Pliny, and Aristotle, the attempt to cut a canal
to the Bed Sea was first made by Sesostris, about the time of the
Trojan war, b.c. 1184. This canal, however, appears to have been
intended for irrigating purposes only. Herodotus informs us that
the work was commenced in the reign of Nico, b.c. 600, who failed
to accomplish his object in consequence of being warned against it
by an oracle. The next attempt was made during the Persian
occupation by Darius, who is said to have cut from the Bitter Lakes
to the sea, but no account can be found of the opening of this canal ;
indeed Aristotle asserts that the work was stopped in consequence
of the different level of the Bed Sea.

182 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 254, has the credit of completing this
great undertaking ; but I am of opinion, after a careful examination
of the ground, that it was not by cutting a canal, but rather by the
construction of a good road, the remains of which are very distinct,
and over which, no doubt, the " ships of the Desert," as the camels
are called in the Arabian language, passed to and fro. The am-
biguity of this phrase has most probably led to the belief of a ship-
canal through the Desert— a mistake easily made by writers who de-
pended on the viva voce statements of the natives. The Caliph Omar
removed the point of junction from Bubastis, higher up the Nile, by
which means he obtained 6 feet more rise, and, consequently, the
navigation of the canal was much prolonged ; before that time it
had only been navigable two months in the year.

Besides the usefulness of this canal as a means of transit, vast
tracts of desert were reclaimed by its fertilising influence, and
flourishing cities sprung up on its banks and decayed on its dis-
appearance, the ruins of which are still to be seen. Its original
course was as follows : — Commencing at Bubastis, on the Pelusiac
or eastern arm of the Nile, now completely filled up, it was con-
ducted to Lake Timsah on the Crocodile Lakes, and thence to the
Bitter Lakes, where, as I said before, I suspect the canal ended.
The cutting was altogether about 60 miles, averaging a breadth of
150 feet and a depth of 20 feet.

This circuitous communication was probably preferred both for
local and political reasons, but, unfortunately, there is no informa-
tion regarding the effect this great undertaking produced on the
commercial prosperity -of the country. Under the Eomans it was
little used, but the Saracens found it of importance in their commu-
nication with Mecca. It is probable that the great amount of time
and labour required to keep the canal in working order, and the
fact that, in practice, the primitive mode of transit by caravan was
cheaper and better adapted to the requirements of the country, were
the reasons it so repeatedly fell into disuse. With some little trouble
the extent and direction of both road and canal can still be made
out.

I have now given as brief an account as possible of the geogra-
phical and physical features of Lower Egypt, and the attempts
made by the ancients to unite the Mediterranean and Eed Sea.
Certainly, both natural causes and the antecedents of the country
seem to sound a note of warning against the idea of canalization.
Indeed, the geographical position of the isthmus, its exposed and
dangerous northern coast, as well as barren and impracticable soil,
offer obstacles of so grave a nature to the successful accomplishment

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 183

of such a project that, if ever carried out, the other marvels of Egypt
would dwindle into insignificance before it.

Every one must be struck with the grandeur of the idea of dividing
two continents so as to enable large ships to proceed direct from the
ports of Europe to ports of the East. The realization of such an
idea would certainly be quite in accordance with the spirit of an
age in which so much has been done to annihilate time and space ;
and, doubtless, neither talent, energy, nor wealth would be wanting
to make the attempt, could even a chance of success be shown.

At the close of the last century the great Napoleon attempted to
conquer the " Land of Egypt," then, as now, the key to our Indian
Empire ; and he was convinced that the permanent possession of
that land was the key to universal empire. The measures adopted
by him to retain it in his grasp were worthy his genius. To him is
due the conception of the canalization of the Isthmus of Suez, and
he argued, if a direct means of communication with India could be
effected, not even England, with all her wealth and manufacturing
powers, could compete commercially with Marseilles, or any of the
Italian, Greek, or Austrian ports of the Mediterranean, each of
which would have the advantage of being nearly half the voyage in
advance of this country, as the following table will show : —

Distances to Bombay.

Vid Suez. ' Via Cape.

Miles. Miles.

Constantinople 5,400 .... 18,300

Trieste 7,020 .... 17,880

Marseilles..' 7,122 .... 16,950

Cadiz 6,672 .. .. 15,600

London 9,300 .. .. 17,850

No doubt the attempt to unite the two seas would have been made
had Napoleon been left in quiet possession of the country, but the
British, in those old-fashioned days, strongly objected to the occu-
pation of a road to their possessions, and therefore summarily ejected
the French from Egypt. The idea of joining the Mediterranean and"
Eed Sea by means of a canal received, as already observed, its first
impulse from the great Napoleon, and, since that period, various
plans have been devised to carry out such an undertaking, all of
them, however, based on the result of the levellings of the French
Savans in 1799, who reported that the Mediterranean was 30 feet
below the level of the Eed Sea at Suez. It appears to have been a
received opinion of the ancients that a difference of level must exist
between any two neighbouring seas.

The Egyptians no doubt assumed a difference of level, which was

VOL. III. Q

184 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

tlie more extraordinary as they were sucli excellent hydraulic engi-
neers : even the French fell into the same error ; in short, snch a
notion prevailed until very lately : — for instance, the Mediterranean
was conceived to be higher than the Atlantic; the Euxine as
much as 40 feet above the ^gean ; and, still more strange, the gulfs
of Egina and Corinth were supposed to have a very great difference
of level. Even as late as the commencement of this century few
dared call this theory in question, but it is worth noting that La-
place and Fourier came to the conclusion that a difference of level

In the present day it is received as an axiom that no matter how
narrow the separation between the two seas, both of them belong
essentially to that vast expanse of ocean, and are therefore subject
to the same levelling law.

This fact was not proved till 1846 : in that year M. Talabot, an
eminent engineer, M. de Negrelli, an Austrian, and Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson entered into a formal agreement to share the labour and cost
of a preliminary investigation, with a view to test the practicability
of a project suggested to M. Talabot by Linant Bey, a French engi-
neer, resident many years in Egypt, — namely, cutting a canal across
the Isthmus of Suez.

A corps of scientific engineers was accordingly sent out, and
reported in January, 1847, that, after the most careful series of levels,
they had ascertained beyond question that no difference of level
whatever existed between the two seas, and that consequently a
canal, capable of being scoured by the waters of either sea, was im-
practicable, especially as both may be said to b'e nearly tideless.

The arrangements made by the three gentlemen just named were
as follows : — M. Talabot was to superintend the levelling operations,
M. de Negrelli to undertake the hydrographical inspection of the
Bay of Tineh or Pelusium, while Mr. Robert Stephenson examined
the Red Sea outlet of the proposed canal in the vicinity of Suez.

Circumstances prevented Messrs. Talabot and Negrelli from visit-
ing Egypt, although they were represented by carefully selected
employees, but Mr. R. Stephenson made a personal inspection of the
ground, and thoroughly mastered all the scientific and technical
details of the project. The result of these admirable arrangements
was a complete exhaustive survey of the locality, which led to the
unanimous conviction that the construction of a direct canal between
Suez and Tineh was a difficulty insurmountable.

A comprehensive report of these proceedings was drawn up by
M. Talabot, and is one of the most lucid documents ever written on
the subject. The evidence just detailed appeared so conclusive that

April 11, 1859.] .PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 185

all idea of joining the two seas by an open cut was abandoned. It
may be interesting to state that the cost of the investigation
amounted to no less a sum than 4500?., which was paid by the
gentlemen I have named, to whom doubtless the credit is due of
setting at rest the much-vexed question of difference of level be-
tween the Mediterranean and Ked Sea. Since 1847 the Isthmus
has been twice re-levelled, each time with the same result as at
first.

For several years the Suez Canal project remained closed and
abandoned, but the idea of overcoming a barrier apparently so in-
significant as the Isthmus was not permitted to rest. M. Talabot
himself suggested a plan by which he hoped to lessen some of the
diificulties. Messrs. Barrault likewise submitted proposals, and
both these projects I shall briefly detail.

M. Talabot proposed to start from a point about 6 miles below
Suez, where deep water is found near the shore; to follow the
" Ouadee Toumilat," and proceed to within a short distance of Cairo,
to cross the Nile above the Barrage without making use of the stream
itself; thence to take the direction of Alexandria, where the canal
would terminate in the old harbour. The length of the canal would
be about 250 miles, breadth 328 feet, and depth 26 feet, and it would
be fed from the Nile.

M. Talabot proposed to cross the Nile b}^ an aqueduct, the surface
of the water in which was to be raised 40 feet above the level of the
high water of the Nile, and 60 feet above the low water level. It
was to be 3500 feet in length, and reached by four locks at each end,
by which the summit level could be attained by the largest ships.

This aqueduct would indeed be one of the wonders of the world.
M. Talabot was quite alive to the difiiculties of the scheme, but he
off'ers the proposal as preferable to a direct canal from Suez to
Pelusium.

The plan of Messrs. Barrault is to proceed from Suez to Lake
Mensalah in a direct line, then to turn in a direction parallel to the
sea for a distance of more than 100 miles, into the neio harbour at
Alexandria. Instead of crossing the Nile above the Barrage, it will
be seen that they prefer carrying their canal across the mouths of
the Damietta and Eosetta branches. Neither of these schemes offers
a solution of the problem, for independently of the enormous expense
and many engineering difficulties frankly admitted by the projectors,
local and political causes present such serious impediments as to be
of themselves decisive against either proposal.

In spite of the conclusions arrived at, after the most careful inves-
tigations of the eminent engineers mentioned above, that the direct

Q 2

186 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

canal from Suez to Tineh was impracticable, the project has been
again revived.

M. Lesseps, a gentleman who formerly held a diplomatic appoint-
ment in Egypt, has taken up the question with an energy and zeal
worthy of success.

In November, 1854, he presented to Said Pasha, the present
Viceroy of Egypt, a memorial on the subject, which sets forth : —

*' That the utility of a navigable canal joining the Mediterranean
and Eed Sea has always been recognised.

" That Napoleon when leaving Egypt said, ' It is an important
affair; it is not now in my power to accomplish it, but the Turkish
Government will perhaps one day owe its preservation and its glory
to the execution of this project.'

" That the moment has now arrived to realise Napoleon's pre- '
diction.

" That M. Lepere (50 years ago), Linant Bey, Gallici Bey, and
Maugel Bey, agree in the possibility of a direct cutting.

" That the cost of the canal of Suez is not out of proportion with
the utility and profits of this important work, which would curtail
by more than one half the distance of India from the principal
countries of Europe and America.

" That the pilgrimage to Mecca will henceforth be assured and
facilitated to all Mussulmans ; an immense impulse given to steam
navigation and to distant voyages ; the countries on the coasts of the
Eed Sea and the Gulf of Persia, the eastern coast of Africa, India,
the kingdom of Siam, Cochin China, Japan, the vast Empire of China
with its more than 300,000,000 of inhabitants, the Philippine Islands,
Australia and that immense archipelago towards which the emigra-
tion from old Europe is directed, brought nearer by nearly 3000
leagues to the Mediterranean Sea and the north of Europe, — such are
the sudden and immediate effects of cutting through the Isthmus of
Suez.

** That the yearly European and American traffic round Cape
Horn and the Cape of Good Hope is 6,000,000 tons, and the world's
commerce would realize 6,000,000?. annually by sending the ships
via the Gulf of Arabia.

*' That if only 3,000,000 tons passed through the canal, there
would be an annual produce of 1,200,000/. by collecting 10 francs
per ton.

*' That the political advantages are equally incontestable. To
England — mistress of Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, Aden,
important stations on the east coast of Africa, India, Singapore, and
Australia ; to France ; to German}^, — for Prince Mettemich and

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 187

Baron de Bnick have long seen that in the question lay the aggran-
dizement of Trieste and Venice ; to Russia, United States, Spain,
Holland, all the towns of Italy, and ports and islands of Greece."

In consequence of the above representations the present Viceroy
of Egypt, Said Pasha, granted a firman of concession to M. Lesseps,
subject of course to the approval of the Sultan. M. Lesseps' first
step was to cause MM. Linant Bey and Maugel Bey to examine
the ground, and submit to him a plan of operations and an estimate
of expenses. Their report, which formed the groundwork of future
proceedings, may be briefly summed up as follows : —

The canal starts from the eastern portion of the Gulf of Suez : it
traverses, taking a direction almost due north, about 15^ miles,
which separate Suez from the basin of the Bitter Lakes. It traverses
also these lakes unembanked, and from the northern extremity of
the Bitter Lakes it proceeds, cutting through the plateau of Serapeum
towards Lake Timsah. This lake it also traverses, and, winding
round the plateau of El Guisr, it skirts the eastern border of Lake
Mensalah, and falls into the inner part of the Bay of Pelusium,
whence it is prolonged into the sea until it reaches a depth of 24
feet. The width proposed was 330 feet, and the minimum depth 21
feet below low water of the Mediterranean. The locks, two in
number, were to be 330 feet long, 70 feet broad, with a minimum
depth of 21 feet. The estimated cost for the entire undertaking
amounts to 162,550,000 francs, or about 6,500,000/. sterling, and it
was calculated that six years would be required for the completion
of the work. It has been proposed to modify this plan by removing
the point of junction with the Mediterranean 18 miles to the west-
ward, and to do away with the locks altogether ; the canal will
therefore be 92 miles in length without a single lock. M. Lesseps
now proceeded to make his scheme public, and followed up that act
by appointing in the name of the Pasha an international commission,
composed of 13 gentlemen well qualified to give an opinion on the
subject. The diifereht countries were represented as follows : —
England, 4 ; France, 4 ; Holland, 1 ; Germany, 2 ; Spain, 1 ; Italy, 1.
Their published report, which is an extremely able document, con-
firms that of MM. Linant Bey and Maugel Bey in every essential
particular, but does not mention the mode of constructing the ship
canal, or supplying it with water, and not a word is said of the
difference of opinion which existed among the members. A differ-
ence of opinion, however, did exist, and one of no mean im-
portance, inasmuch as one party pronounced in favour of M.
Lesseps' scheme, while the other declared it impossible to dredge
or cut a channel through Lake Mensalah at a depth of 24 feet

188 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

below the Mediterranean, and thence across the Isthmus of Suez
to the Red Sea. M. Lesseps, however, was naturally anxious to
insure unanimity at Alexandria, and himself suggested that every
word relating to the mode of construction and supplying with
water should be omitted in the report and reserved for discus-
sion in Europe. At the discussion the majority of the commission
voted in favour of the open cut without locks ; the minority proposed
another plan, which might be considered feasible, while they re-
garded the open cut as impracticable : their project is to construct
a ship canal in nearly a direct line between Suez and Port Said, the
level of top water throughout the whole length (93 miles) to be 23
feet above the low water of the Mediterranean Sea ; the embankment
to be carried into the deep water of the sea at each extremity, so as
to avoid the necessity of dredging, and the locks to be constructed
similar to the sea lock of the Caledonian Canal. The canal to be
supplied with water from the Nile, at a point below the Barrage
suitable for that purpose.

This, then, is the present condition of the scheme ; opinions are
divided as to its practicability, and M. Lesseps now only waits the
formal permission of the Sultan and the Pasha of Egypt to commence
operations. I shall now endeavour, as briefly as possible, divesting
the question of all technicalities, to show cause why the cutting a
canal across the Isthmus of Suez is a hopeless undertaking.

Commencing with the Mediterranean outlet of the proposed canal,
vi^. Port Said, we find that a harbour has to be built which is in
itself a colossal work ; the piers composing which would aggregate
at the very least seven miles in total length, of an uniform depth,
certainly not under thirty feet, with parapets and lighthouses of
considerable height.

The material for the rubble-work alone can only be obtained at a
distance of a hundred miles, while the stone for the finishing-work
is much farther off, in the islands of the Mediterranean ; thus, then,
the building operations would assume gigantic proportions. To
bring a case in point familiar to all, this part of the undertaking
would demand twice the labour and material required for the con-
struction of the Breakwater at Plymouth. But when, in addition
to this, it is known that the site of the proposed harbour is on an
exposed and shallow coast, subject to violent gales, a lee-shore a
great part of the year, and with the bottom of the sea uncertain as
a foundation for the piers ; and, lastly, when it is borne in mind
that the well-known prevailing mud-carrying current must soon silt
up the entrance and channel, and that dredging can only be re-
sorted to under favourable circumstances, the most unthinking must

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 189

see that the success of this undertaking is involved in the greatest
uncertainty. Before leaving this part of the subject, I will briefly
allude to the cost of such a work. Take the Breakwater at Plymouth
for example, which cost 1,500,000/., and was twenty-eight years in
finishing : surely a work of twice its magnitude and labouring under
much greater disadvantages would cost twice as much ; but, instead
of the estimate of Port Said being 3,000,000/., it is only put down at
842,362/. in M. Lesseps' scheme. We now come to the canal itself,
an open cut without locks, of 92 miles in length. To dredge such
a cut 26 feet below low water of the Mediterranean has been pro-
nounced impracticable by the very highest authority.

I shall not touch on the technical points of objection, but merely
ask you to picture to yourselves the cutting a trench 92 miles in
length, 330 feet broad, and 26 feet below the low- water level of the
Mediterranean ; for though it is true that certain depressions occur
on the route, viz. Lakes Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, yet one is
only two feet below the Mediterranean, and the other would require
embankments ; and when the cutting through the elevated ground
is taken into calculation, it will be quite evident that the gain is
balanced by the loss. The mere labour of such a work is enor-
mous ; but when the nature of the soil is considered, it indeed
assumes a hopeless appearance; the sand to an average depth of 13
feet might be removed, but at that depth water is met with. Lake
Mensalah has the character of being like a quicksand, and most
probably the entire subsoil will prove more or less the same. Yet
for this gigantic undertaking the estimate is only 3,500,000/.
As a check to this estimate, I will remind you of the dimen-
sions and cost of the Caledonian Canal, one of the largest ship
canals in the world: its cuttings are about 25 miles, its depth
15 feet, width 50 feet, and cost about 1,000,000/. The Suez Canal
in actual length only is nearly four times as long, but when the
breadth and depth are considered it cannot be calculated at less
than eight times the size. To be within the mark in making a
comparison of cost, always supposing no greater difficulties than
those met with in the construction of the Caledonian Canal, I
consider 6,000,000/. the least sum that can be required.

We now arrive at the Red Sea outlet of the canal, viz. the Port
of Suez, and here again difficulties are met with. Piers of scarcely
less aggregate length are proposed, which traverse a sandshoal ;
lighthouses, &c., have to be constructed; but as the material is
close at hand, these difficulties may be overcome ; the estimate,
however, of 345,982/. 9s. Id, seems out of proportion to the nature

190 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

of the works, and, judging by the cost of similar undertakings,
1,500,000/. would at least be required.

Thus it appears that, supposing only ordinary difficulties occur,
the sum of 10,600,000/. would be requisite for the mere construction
of Port Said, 92 miles of canal, and Port Suez. M. Lesseps himself
fixed the contingent work and other expenditure at 3,500,000/.,
therefore the grand total for works would amount to 14,000,000/.;
when, however, the serious obstacles I have detailed, and which
will inevitably be met with, are taken into consideration, it must
be evident that the 14,000,000/. I have named may be increased ad
infinitum ; in fact, from the outset the utmost uncertainty regarding
expenses must prevail. At first sight it seems difficult to under-
stand how such a small estimate as 8,000,000/. could have been
supposed sufficient. But it is probable that Messrs. Linant Bey
and Mangel Bey have been dealing with forced labour, and the
expenditure of money of which no account has been given. This
forced labour is slavery in its worst form. The Fellahs are com-
pelled to leave their homes at the will of the Pasha : the Mamau-
dieh is a melancholy instance of this ; 20,000 of the workmen are
said to have perished during its construction. Males of all ages,
from children ten years old and upwards to old age, are taken from
their native villages and made to work. I have myself often seen
the poor wretches in gangs of hundreds, surrounded by overseers
with sticks, whose duty it was to beat any symptoms of laziness out
of them. The Fellahs naturally look upon the canal scheme as the
certain grave of thousands; they know the locality is entirely
destitute of water, and they have vividly in remembrance the late
disasters in the vicinity of Suez, when so many of their numbers
perished. The Fellahs, it is true, make excellent navvies — ^witness
the railway they have constructed ; but in that instance they entered
into the spirit of the work and appreciated its importance, in proof
of which they lately volunteered to make the embankment, if the
rails were provided, from the main line to Samanhour, and also to
Zagazig, both of which branch lines are now in course of construc-
tion, and when finished will open up the richest part of the Delta.

Having now disposed of the question of practicability, let us
examine whether, under different circumstances, the Suez Canal
would have been a paying concern. The facts I am about to quote
are of the latest date, and have been in the kindest manner furnished
by the Peninsular and Oriental Company and the Board of Trade.
In the first place, the distance from England to the East Indies
(say Calcutta, for instance) is 13,000 miles via the Cape of Good

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 191

Hope"; while, by way of Gibraltar, throTigh the proposed canal, and
down the Eed Sea, the distance is 8000, showing a diiFerence of
6000 miles in favour of the canal route. This is apparently a great
gain; but, upon reference to the difficult navigation of both the
Mediterranean and Eed Sea, it will be found that the average
passage of twenty fine ships last year to Alexandria was 54 miles
per day, and of twelve ships to Suez 25 miles per day. Now a
small average, by way of the Cape of Good Hope, is 130 miles per
day ; therefore, basing the length of voyage on that calculation,
the distance from England to Calcutta by way of Suez would be
16,000 miles, without taking into consideration the length of the
canal or the delay in passing through it. This is conclusive as
showing that the voyage round the Cape of Good Hope can be made
in a shorter time than by the proposed canal, to say nothing of the
dangers of the Eed Sea, which occasion the loss of one ship in ten
traversing its waters. We will now glance at the financial pros-
pects. The arrivals in the United Kingdom of English and foreign
vessels from ports of the East Indies, by way of the Cape of Good
Hope, amounted last year to 718,992 tons. Supposing all these
ships used the canal, the revenue, at 10 francs per ton, would not
amount to 300,000Z. per annum, not quite 4 per cent, on the low
estimate of 8,000,000?. ; but, as shown above, the canal route would
never be chosen by sailing ships ; and, as the transport of goods of
little value compared with their bulk must, from the small stowage
in steamers, be forwarded in sailing vessels, therefore a very large
number will ever continue to make the voyage round the Cape of
Good Hope, even if the canal were completed. As the proportion
of sailing-vessels to steamers in England is 13 to 1, the largest steam
mercantile marine in the world, it will be seen at a glance how few
vessels there will be calculated to benefit by the proposed canal.

Eeviewing all the circumstances I have detailed, it seems clear
that the direct open cut from Pelusium to Suez is impracticable ;
that any canal would be useless except for steamers ; that the pro-
portion of that class of vessel is so small that the tolls collected
upon the whole number would not maintain the proposed gigantic
works ; and, finally, that the opening of a direct cut across the
Isthmus of Suez would be merely adding 100 miles to the delays
and difficulties of Mediterranean and Eed Sea navigation.

While I have not hesitated to denounce the union of the two seas
by a direct cut across the Isthmus of Suez as hopeless and impracti-
cable, I have not lost sight of the necessity of diminishing by every
possible means the time occupied in the voyage between the mother
country and her colonies. The importance of maintaining a rapid

192 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

moans of communication with India has "been abundantly demon-
strated by the late stirring events in that country, and, although it
is true that the "Overland Eoute" is indeed a stride in the right
direction, and calculated 1 believe to maintain a supremacy over
any other route, yet it is still in its infancy. At Alexandria itself,
for instance, difficulties and delays are met with in consequence of
the harbour being open to the prevailing winds, which often blow
with great violence.

The management of the railway from Alexandria to Cairo is most
faulty, while the continuation of the line to Suez is positively
dangerous, and the roadstead at that terminus inconvenient and
tedious for the transhipment of goods and passengers ; but, before
entering more fully on that subject, I will briefly detail the rise
and progress of the present mode of transit from Europe to the
East Indies.

Very early in the present century attention was directed towards
an overland route to India, but it was not until 1823 that any
movement of consequence was made. Certain members of the
Indian Government proposed to the home authorities to forward
mails and passengers by way of the Eed Sea, across the Isthmus of
Suez, and thence through France or by sea to England ; but this
proposition did not meet with favour.

After allowing the above proposal to germinate for three years
it was again brought forward, but still did not produce fruit. The
Government advanced a host of objections against the plan, and it
is doubtful how long this state of affairs might have lafeted had not
an individual cut the Gordian knot. In 1 827 Lieutenant Waghorn,
R.N., turned his attention to the establishment of a "steam com-
munication between our Eastern possessions and their mother-
country, England," and to his exertions is mainly due the present
overland route. Years elapsed before its practicability was ac-
knowledged : Lieutenant Waghorn was obliged to test his plan by
repeated journeys to and fro, at his own risk and expense, and in
the teeth of a determined opposition. A parliamentary committee
condemned the project, and the Chairman of the India Company
declared " that they required no steam to the East at all." Never-
theless, Lieutenant Waghorn at last succeeded in making the feasi-
bility of his route to India apparent to the meanest capacities. The
following despatch, sent by the Indian Government in September,
1836, will show the estimation in which a comparatively rapid
means of communication with the mother-country was held in
India : —

" We beg to offer to your Honourable Court our congratulations

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 193

on the rapidity with which your wishes have of late been conveyed
to all parts of your Indian possessions. The three last overland
mails have brought despatches from London to Bombay in 58, 45,
and 64 days, and those intended for Calcutta have been forwarded
in 10 days. We have witnessed the energetic impulse this early
intelligence has given to the mercantile interest, and the unbounded
satisfaction it has diffused throughout all classes of the community.
It is, indeed, undeniable that a quick interchange of information is
of the first advantage in commerce, and in the conduct of all public
business ; while it is equally true that its effect on the minds of
those who serve the Honourable Company long and faithfully in
this distant land, is to deprive the painful feeling of separation
from their homes and country of half its bitterness. We beg respect-
fully to press these reflections on the notice of your Honourable
Court, with our earnest prayer that you will, ere long, grant to
India the much desired boon of frequent and regular communication
with Europe by the employment of a sufficient number of steam-
vessels for that purpose." — Porters Progress of the Nation, p. 320.

The "Overland Eoute" being an established fact, attention was
soon directed towards its improvement, which has since been surely,
though slowly, progressing. At first, the mails from India to Suez
were brought by the ships of the East India Company, but in
1841 a contract was made with the Peninsular and Oriental Com-
pany, and since that period no expense or exertion has been
spared by them to exceed even the terms of their contract. The
next improvement which superseded the tedious and painful journey
by Nile-boat, van, and camel, was the completion of a railway, first
from Alexandria to Cairo, and then from Cairo to Suez.

This great work has considerably shortened the journey, and,
what is more, has found favour even in the eyes of the ignorant
Mohammedan inhabitants. It will be interesting to detail briefly
the history of these two railways, for, though they form one great
line, yet the one is as different from the other as it is possible to
conceive.

The construction of the line from Alexandria to Cairo was
undertaken by Mr. Eobert Stephenson ; it was commenced on the
9th of February, 1852; reached the Nile at Kafr Azzayat, exactly
half-way between Alexandria and Cairo, on the 4th of July, 1854 ;
and finally entered Cairo on the 1st of December, 1855, having
been three years ten months in completing.

There are eight stations ; the line is perfectly level the whole
way, with only one cutting through the mound of a deserted village,
and its entire length is 131 miles. Iron sleepers are used, supported

194 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

on bells of the same metal, a plan adopted by Mr. Stephenson,
as admirably adapted to sustain the rails on the peculiar soil of
Egypt.

The difficulty in crossing the Nile was obviated by means of a
steam ferry, the striking peculiarity of which arises from the neces-
sity to adapt the floor and rails to the exact level of the railway at
each side, under the extreme variation of level to which the waters
of the Nile are subject. By an ingenious mechanical contrivance,
the platform is raised or depressed as the waters of the Nile require,
and this, together with an exact adjustment of the rails and the
most perfect facility of access to and egress from the framework, is
ingeniously provided for. The entire cost of this ferry amounted
to 15,000/.

A handsome iron bridge, which will supersede the ferry, is in
course of construction, under the direction of Mr. Eouse, c.e., and
will be opened for traffic in June next.

The entire cost of the railway-works from Alexandria to Cairo is
under 1,000,000/., or less than 7500/. per mile. At present, the
time occupied in the journey from Alexandria to Cairo is seven
hours, but when the bridge at Kafr Azzayat is opened to traffic a
great reduction will take place.

The completion of this half of the transit line was hailed with
great rejoicing; every difficulty had been triumphantly grappled
with: the native Fellahs, owing to excellent arrangements made
for their comfort and welfare, had escaped the disasters usually
attendant upon the construction of public works in Egypt, and,
what is more, so thoroughly understood the utility of the work they
were employed upon that, as already mentioned, they actually
volunteered to make the embankments for two branch lines, one of
which was completed in a year, and will open up the richest part
of the Delta. It is the Pasha's intention to employ no one but
Arabs upon these branch lines.

It now remained to perfect the transit route by a railway to Suez,
and the obvious course the line should take was indicated, viz., to
branch off from Benha, by way of Zagazig, through the Ouadee
Toumilat (Land of Goshen) and past the Bitter Lakes to Suez.
This route possessed two great advantages — a level country the
whole way, and the means of obtaining abundance of water. It
was, however, urged upon the Pasha that the English had enjoyed
the emoluments resulting from the construction of the first half of
the railway, and, therefore, to the French the remaining half ought
to be devoted ; accordingly, the continuation of the line to Suez
was intrusted to a French engineer, M. Mouchelet. This gentleman

Apkil 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 195

evidently did not consider the route I have just alluded to as the
best, for he has carried his line from Cairo due east over the Desert,
straight to Suez. Although several cuttings had to be made, no
great difficulty was experienced except from the total absence of
water, until reaching Gebel Awebel ; but after passing that elevated
ridge the obstacles met with in the descent to Suez became most
serious, the curves which have been made are astonishing, requiring
extreme caution to travel over safely, and instead of 90 or 100
miles, the line has in consequence attained a length of 130 miles.
Much danger is incurred and unnecessary loss of time occasioned,
there is daily expectation of a fearful accident, and last, though not
least, owing to the lack of water, the train mileage for water traffic
will always be five-elevenths of the train mileage for all other
traffic, which will add immensely to the expense of working the
line.

Dreadful disasters have taken place in consequence of the want of
water, hundreds of Fellahs unable to obtain it have been seized
with a panic, and missing their way to the Ouadee Toumilat in
search of it, have perished miserably in the Desert. The line from
Cairo to Suez was completed on the 7th of December, 1858. It is
difficult to make an estimate of the cost, but it cannot be put down
at less than 10,000Z. per mile.

The time occupied on the journey from Cairo to Suez is from
6 to 8 or 9 hours, but the great expenses of working and the risk
render it probable that the line will only be used as a temporary
means of conveyance. We will now consider the means by which
so desirable an end as shortening the road to India may be accom-
plished.

A passenger leaving Southampton by the " Overland Eoute," on
the 4th of the month, arrives at Alexandria on the 17th. He leaves
Suez on the 19th, and arrives at Aden on the 25th ; thus, including
the 2 days crossing the Isthmus, he is 21 days on the road from
Southampton to Aden. Now it is most desirable that the passage
of the Eed Sea should be shortened, and I propose to do it by con-
tinuing the railway along the banks of the Nile as far as Assouan,
and thence across the country to Berenice ; the total line from
Alexandria to Berenice would be 690 miles. At present the journey
by railway is 260 miles, and the question is simply whether the
remaining 430 can be better performed by steamboat or by rail.

Every one who has travelled on the Eed Sea knows full well the
suffering occasioned by the intense heat. The inconvenience of the
Port of Suez is also well known, the steamers being obliged to lie
at least 3 miles off the landing-place. Suez itself is simply a large

t^ft PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

inn in the midst of the Desert, of use only as an entrepot for
goods.

The delays and difficulties met with on the present line from Cairo
to Suez have already been alluded to.

Regarding the present proposition of a railroad from Alexandria
to Berenice, if the speed of only 20 miles per hour was maintained,
the journey could be performed in 35 hours ; add to which 12 hours'
rest at Thebes, and it will be seen that the entire passage will only
occupy the same time now taken up between Alexandria and Suez :
that is to say, the steamer will arrive as usual on the 17th, and the
mails and passengers will be at Berenice, which is one third of the
way down the Red Sea, instead of at Suez by the 19th, thus saving
two clear days in our communications with India.

At Berenice there is a good and safe harbour, with sufficient
water to allow the largest steamers to come alongside, and quays made
for that purpose ; therefore passengers, mails, and cargo could be
transferred without the least difficulty or delay from railway to
steamer.

The advantages are therefore a gain of two days in time, one
third of the Red Sea passage avoided, and a convenient harbour at
the end of the line, instead of the miserable Port of Suez.

The time of transit might still further be reduced by the con-,
struction of a pier at Alexandria, alongside which the steamers
might go in all weathers, and thus avoid the usual delays.

The above advantages apply only to the improvement of the
present Overland Route, but Egypt and the entire commercial
world would share largely in the benefits of such improvements.
For instance, the entire Nile Valley belonging to Egypt would be
opened up, and a high road formed conducting to the heart of Africa,
the inexhaustible riches of which country remain yet untouched.

Finally, the port of Berenice would be admirably situated for
developing the Red Sea trade, which is at present slumbering for
want of such an entrep5t.*

The maintenance of our Indian empire in its integrity is of vast
importance, and nothing can so surely consolidate the rule of the
mother country as a speedy means of communication with her

Shortening the route to India by two days is, doubtless, a great
gain ; and, as the time is past when the authorities can assert that
"they require no steam to the East at all," it is to be hoped that

* Sir Gardner Wilkinson differs entirely from these views, and says that the
" Port of Berenice has long since been filled up with sand, and has only a small
quantity of water in it, even at high tide." — Ed.

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 197

the attention of those most interested in the matter will be given to
the attainment of so desirable an object.

The President. — We have known Captain Pirn on various occasions. We
recollect him as the gallant Arctic officer v^ho offered to go in search of
Franklin across Siberia, and we have known him, indeed, in various expe-
ditions in search of our lost friend and his companions. Again, he is the indi-
vidual who walked across that great mass of ice to Banks Land, to rescue
M'Clure and his companions; for, had not Captain Pirn performed that
journey, Sir Robert M'Clure might never have revisited this country. We
farther know that Captain Pim distinguished himself in the Baltic and in
the late war in China, in which he was severely wounded and honourably won
his promotion, and now he appears before us as a geographical statist. The
paper has a very modest title, but it embraces a variety of important topics.
He has analysed the different lines of route across Egypt, whether by railroad
or canal, and has laid before us a plan of his own. I do not pretend to
compare the merits of these various plans, but I am bound to say that Captain
Pim has ably developed the observations and deductions of our very dis-
tinguished associate Mr. Robert Stephenson, whose surveys in Egypt are well
known to geographers and the public, and who in his last visit was accom-
panied by the author of this memoir.

General W. Monteith, f.r.g.s. — It is great presumption in me to offer an
opinion regarding a great work after the statement made by the able engineer who
has lately been engaged expressly in the examination of the proposed Suez Canal.
It has always been a subject which I had taken great interest in, and I was
convinced of its practicability till I heard from Mr. Stephenson that no differ-
ence existed between the levels of the Red Sea and Mediterranean, which I
had understood would afford a sufficient current to keep the Canal open.
That not being the case, I at once ceased to consider the work practicable, so
as to allow large vessels to pass through either loaded or empty. Excavating
a canal of any dimensions might be accomplished, but it would lead to no
result when it came out on a shallow coast, which would render the Canal
inaccessible. It appears from history that at two different periods a com-
munication did exist, and on both occasions the Canal did not go direct to the
sea, but joined the Nile ; but neither was intended or required for large
vessels. This I think offers no considerable difficulty even at present. I have
three times been at Suez, and on one occasion I visited a wall or embank-
ment about three miles from Suez (to the east), which was said to have been
built by a sultan of Egypt, to shut up the mouth of the canal, to prevent an
Arab invasion. Whether this is correct or not I do not pretend to say. The
question of a great ship canal is I think set at rest from the deposits left by
the Nile to the east of Alexandria. But a small canal, joining one of the
branches of that river, though it would not answer as a great point of
transit for the world in general, would be a vast advantage to Egypt and
the small vessels navigating the Mediterranean, but be certainly no advantage
to the trade of England. Any plan which does not inchide bringing water to
Suez will be imperfect, whether by canal or railway, as proposed by Mr.
Stephenson. I again apologise for offering an opinion in presence of several
so much better able to judge.

Mr. George Rennie, f.r.g.s. — As one of those who dissent somewhat from
the opinions of Captain Pim regarding the canal, perhaps I may be allowed to
look at the subject in an engineering point of view. I have read the state-
ments of M. Lesseps, and I find nothing in them to justify the assertion that
the canal is impracticable. In the first place, that canal is on the most direct
line between Suez and the Mediterranean, and, with one or two small excep-
tions, it is nearly upon the level. Next, with regard to the alleged unfavour-

198 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

able character of the soil, what says M. Lesseps, and what say the horinf!;s
taken by the Commission ? They show a light coat of sand, and below that
clay — the very article wanted for the canal. Then, as to the probability of
the canal filling up by the flowing of the sand, M. Lesseps and the Commis-
sion found the remains of a Eoman camp, and a camp of considerable anti-
quity, also the vestiges of the ancient canal of the Pharaohs, none of which
works have been covered by the shifting sands of the desert. As to the
expense of the harbours of Pelusium and Suez, the Plymouth Breakwater
had been quoted as the datum for the probable cost of the jiiers at those
harbours ; but the case did not hold, as the Breakwater at Plymouth was
an isolated Breakwater built in the sea, in which every stone had to be taken
out in barges and deposited. The cost of that work was about 190/. per foot
run. But the Portland Breakwater, of a similar area of section, consisting
of jetties of stone projected from the shore, cost only 150/. per foot lineal.
The Marseilles Breakwater, also of a similar area of section, built partly
of stone and partly of beton or concrete, cost only 80/. per foot lineal ; and, as
this was the system proposed for the piers of the harbours of Pelusium and
Suez, the cost would be less than one half of the Plymouth Breakwater,
the circumstances being different in both cases.

The cost of the piers at Pelusium, one 3800 metres in length, the other
2700 metres in length, would, if carried out as proposed, not exceed
2,000,000/., while the piers at Suez, of 2700 metres and 2500 metres in
length respectively, would be proportionately less, or say 4,000,000/. for the
harbours and 4,000,000/. for the canal, making 8,000,000/., as estimated. But-,
supposing the cost of the whole project to exceed that silm, the object to be
accomplished is worth it.

The greatest objection that I have heard is the report of Captain Spratt as to
the formation of the Delta of the Nile. He states that the winds prevail from
the north-west, and set in such a current upon the Pelusium shore, together
with the muddy bottom, as to make it untenable for vessels to anchor in
those roads. He also states that the piers would run out into the mud brought
to the eastward by the current from the Nile, and thus render the works next
to impracticable.* There are always two statements of a case, and I hold
in my hand a pamphlet entitled ' Observations on the Bay of Pelusium,'
by Captain Philigret,t who commanded a corvette in the service of the
Viceroy of Egypt, and anchored it in that very bay for the jnirpose of testing
in every respect the objections of Captain Spratt ; and the results are totally
at variance with what has been stated against the bay of Pelusium, — that, on
the contrary, the anchorage is good, and that the, bottom is sandy, and con-
tinues so to a depth of 10 metres or 32 feet. With regard to the question of
distance, M. Lesseps shows that it is not more than half the distance that it is
by the Cape route ; and he states that he is quite satisfied that a toll of ten
francs per ton upon ships passing through is quite enough to pay the interest
of the capital. Part of Captain Pim's argument was founded upon the
dangerous navigation of the Ked Sea. But the time is coming when sailing-
ships will be superseded by steam-ships, and the interests of the commercial
world will tell you how advantageous it is to take a steam-ship directly
through the canal, and convey its unbroken bulk all the way to Bombay
or Calcutta, instead of having to take the cargo out of the ship at Alexandria,
land it, carry it across to Suez on the railway, and ship it again on the
Ked Sea. I do not pretend to know anything of the commercial part of the

* The International Commission propose that the Pelusium entrance should be
placed^20 miles nearer to the Nile, and thus to shorten the piers.

t Observations Hydrographiques dans la Baie de Peluse, par M. le Capitaine
Philigret, Commander of his Highness the Viceroy's steam frigate Feez Djahd.

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 199

question. I take these statements of M. Lesseps, and I find his scheme has
met with unanimous approval at Liverpool, Leeds, Manchester, Glasgow,
Dublin, and all the great commercial towns of England. Again, I cannot
understand why this project should be pronounced impracticable after it has
undergone the investigations of a Commission consisting of the first autho-
rities in Europe. It is not likely these men would compromise their cha-
racters by asserting the possibility of a scheme which is now declared by the
author of this paper to be impossible. I therefore think that simply as
an engineering question the statements of Captain Pim, as to the imprac-
ticability of that canal, are at variance with the facts stated by M. Lesseps
and verified by the Commission.

Mr. S. Sidney said, — The question was one which could not be settled
without the consent of England. British exports and imports in the port of
Alexandria averaged nearly 4,000,000?., or more than those of all the other
nations trading there put together. British passengers paid for transit across
the Isthmus upwards of 200,000?. per annum. British merchandise and
specie were sent across here to the value of upwards of 28,000,000?.* England
is the only country that received duty free the whole produce of Egypt — grain,
pulse, and cotton. Egypt was the road to India. The "gate of our house"
old Mehemed Ali called it, and the Isthmus "the key of our gate."

It did not require arguments to prove that if it were possible to cut a real
Bosphorus across the Isthmus, through which our great ships could sail
or steam without interruption, it would be an enomious advantage to our
commerce, putting out of sight the political and military consideration that
it would be an additional strait for us to watch and defend.

But, if a deep and open Bosphorus would be a commercial advantage,
a shallow ditch, open only to flat-bottomed boats, useless for trade, but avail-
able for the cou'p de main of an invading army, was a thing to be resisted with
all our strength. The piercing of the Isthmus of Suez was essentially a geo-
graphical question, and therefore eminently fitted to be discussed by the
Society. It was not new; it had been discussed for sixty years, and, accord-
ing to all the reliable evidence, it was impracticable. He also (Mr. Sidney)
was prepared, but would not add to the picture drawn by his friend Captain
Pim, of the Mediterranean, driven by north-eastern winds for nine months of
the year on the long, low, flat, shallow, surf-beaten shores of the Delta ; for
ages on ages barren, treeless, devoid of every kind of material needed for con-
struction by an engineer. But, in reference to the scheme of running out on
the soft sand of the Pelusium shore two stone breakwaters of a united length
of between six and seven miles, every stone to be brought either by sea from
Valencia in Spain, or from Rhodes in Egypt, or 90 miles inland, with neither
railroad nor common road for conveyance, he would remind the Society that
at Plymouth, with stone close at hand, a breakwater 1^ mile had taken
twenty-eight years to construct, and cost 1,500,000?. sterling ; Cherbourg,
2\ miles, had cost 3,000,000?. ; Portland, years in progress, was still proceed-
ing bit by bit. And these works were executed with all the advantages of
labour, fuel, food, and all the appliances of machinery to be had close at hand
for money. At Pelusium every labourer, every ounce of food, every stick,
every stone would have to be imported, and money loved not either labour or
time. But, leaving the difficulties of founding a port on a delta to be dealt
with by engineers, leaving them to treat of the Sisyphyan task of dredging a
deep channel in a soft flat, in the face of a never-ceasing current, he would
step on shore and tell them what was the experience of the celebrated Frank-
Egyptian engineers in cutting canals through such swamps as Lake Mero-
zalah — the swamp through which was proposed to dredge twenty-five feet
below the level of the Mediterranean. They say, in their Avant Propos,
reporting to the Viceroy : — *' It appears to them impossible to maintain iu

VOL. III. R

^(^ PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [Apkil 11, 1859.

proper repair a canal, the bottom of which was below the line of low water in
the Nile, otherwise than by an enormous expenditure ; and even if incurring
this cost, it was uncertain whether the desired result would be obtained. In
all cases where an attempt has been made to dig a canal below the low-water
level, and more especially on the outskirts of the desert, in the Ghattat-Bey,
for instance, it invariably happens that at about the level of low water a bed of
loose sand is met with, as was the case at Masteroud on the Zafranieh. This
constitutes an enormous difficulty and a source of expense, of which it is
hardly possible to form any previous estimate. When even it is not sought to
obtain any great depth below the level, 0*50 metre (1' Ts") for instance,
annual dredgings of a really formidable nature are required. Thus in the
Ghattat-Bey, the labour of 30,000 or 40,000 men is required for the space of a
month to clear out the feeder at the point of junction ; in the Chibin, from
20,000 to 30,000 men are employed ; and from 15,000 to 20,000 for the
Chercaouieh. In the case of the Moeze, all attempt to dredge it has been
given up. To justify the withdrawal of so considerable a number of hands
from the ordinary employments of agriculture, nothing short of absolute
necessity can be admitted — a great damage to the resources of the country is
thus occasioned, and so serious a result should, if possible, be avoided."

But it was not given to every one interested in this question to visit Egypt,
to travel on foot or by camel over the disputed land, and see the sands, the
swamps, and the flat Pelusian shores with their own eyes. The general
public must form their opinion on evidence, and not by the number but the
quality and the qualifications of the witnesses. The feasibility of the route
originally rested on the theory of the Ked Sea being thirty feet above the
Mediterranean, and thus affording a headwater sluicing power to wash out a
channel and keep a clear way through the artificial harbour proposed to be
built at Pelusium. While that theory prevailed in 1835, General Chesney in
1843, Captain Vetch, and Mr. Anderson, of the Post-office, a successful mer-
chant, but no engineer, all three supported the proposal for cutting through
the Isthmus. But, as Captain Pim had related in 1847, M. Talabot, Mr.
Eobert Stephenson, and Mr. Negrelli, an Austrian engineer, having contem-
plated embarking in an undertaking for cutting a canal between the two seas,
began by examining and levelling the route. Then, before this exact exami-
nation, the myth of the Red Sea headwaters disappeared, and the scheme of the
canal naturally disappeared with it. M. Negrelli appeared convinced, for he
was silent for nine years ; M. Talabot printed a report, in which he exhausted
every branch of the subject in an historical, geographical, and engineering
point of view, and decided that the idea of a salt-water canal, since proposed
by M. de Lesseps, was an absolute absurdity. And it was his (Mr. Sidney's)
firm opinion that, if M. Talabot's work had been circulated in a popular form
in the three leading European languages, the project of the Isthmus of Suez
Bosphorus would long since have been consigned to the limbo of iinfortunate
projects. In 1851 Mr. Stephenson, before the Institute of Civil Engineers,
publicly pronounced the canal scheme impracticable.

In 1856 the Suez Bosphorus scheme was again examined by two of the
International Commissioners, Mr. M'Clean, who was living, and his (Mr.
Sidney's) late lamented friend Mr. Rendel, one of the Presidents of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Consulting Engineer to the Admiralty, and
Engineer of several Breakwaters and Harbours of Eefuge. Mr. M'Clean
visited Egypt, and, conjointly with Mr. Rendel, x^repared a detailed report on
the Lesseps plan, and concluded in the following words as to the harbour of
Said ; — ■" No dredging can take place until a temporary harbour has been con-
structed, as it is a lee shore for nine months of the year. There will be no
breakwater to keep the channel open ; on the contrary, there will be a gradual
flow into the canal, which will tend to form a new beach in the harbour and

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 201

canal. There will be no certainty that the work will ever he finished. It will
altogether depend on contingencies, over which the engineer has no control,
and which cannot be estimated. Therefore the construction (under M.
Lesseps' system) may he regarded as impracticahle."

Thus, then, in 1847, a French, an English, and an Italian-Austrian engineer
abandoned the scheme as impossible when they discovered the mistake on
which Napoleon's scheme was founded ; and thus in 1856 M'Clean and
Rendel, after mature examination, fortified by the local evidence of the
Egyptian engineers, agreed with Talabot and Stephenson. But Mr. Stephen-
son was present, and would doubtless give the result of his repeated personal
examinations. He would speak with all the force of high scientific acquire-
ments and more than thirty years' labour on public works on lands, on rivers,
and on seas, the greatest, the most novel, extraordinary, and successful that
had ever been attempted in ancient or modern times.

Mb. Daniel A. Lange, f.r.g.s. — The discussion this evening on the sub-
ject of the -Suez Canal cannot fail to be of the highest importance, as express-
ing in how far the feelings and opinions of Captain Pirn and some Fellows of
this enlightened Society are in accord with the Academy of Science in Paris,
and other eminent engineers, on the subject of the Suez Canal. Appreciating
as I do the full weight and learning which is brought to bear upon all questions
submitted to its discussion, and aware also of the interest, I may almost say
excitement, which is felt in Europe on all matters connected with it, I hope
the few observations I have to make may not be considered unworthy of your
consideration. There is one point I would rather not have touched upon —
it is the engineering question. I am aware that there has been much warm
feeling and controversy about the different opinions held by the engineers ;
but it is one which, having been gone into this evening, I cannot well pass
over, and as Mr. Stephenson is here, he will correct me if I fall into any
unintentional misstatements. I have no wish to entangle myself in any
scientific controversy between the eminent engineers who now take part in
this discussion, and will leave to those competent to deal with such matters
the task of enlightening the public on this important question ; but, for the
benefit of the uninitiated and those who may not have had time or inclination
to wade through the different opinions held by opposite parties, I have deemed
it not ill-timed to place the point at issue as simply and clearly as I can before
you. Mr. Kobert Stephenson holds the opinion — and, whether rightly or
wrongly, it is not for me to decide — that after it had been ascertained beyond
a douljt that no difference of level existed between the Mediterranean and the
Red Seas, the project for cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Suez became
impracticable. On the other hand, engineers of equal eminence state just the
reverse, and view the non-existence of any difference in the level between the
two seas as the very circumstance which will render its construction perfectly
feasible. Now the question arises, who is right ? And you will have to deal
with the evidence before you. You must either pin your faith to one or other
party, and make your choice between the opinion held by Mr. Robert Stephen-
son and that held by other engineers. Either Mr. Stephenson is right and
they are wrong, or their collective opinions are of greater value than that of
Mr. Stephenson. You will have to judge for yourselves, and my object in
bringing this matter before you is, with an earnest desire for truth, to endea-
vour to state, as impartially as possible, the full value of the evidence with
which you have to deal. The lateness of the evening prevents me from en-
tering fully into the objections raised, and which have been so ably met by
Mr. Rennie ; but I wish to hand in the following condensed statement of the
opinions already alluded to,* and I think I cannot do better than refer to

* See p. 203.

202 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

the " Beport" itself of the "International Scientific Commission," copies of
which, together with an atlas showing the configurations of the Isthmus, have
been presented to the Society. From these elaborate works it will he seen
that every possible contingency likely to occur, and every objection likely to
be raised, has been fully anticipated and met. I may farther mention that,
since the period of its publication, increased labour and study has been de-
voted to this important undertaking ; that specimens of the borings along
the whole track through which the canal will have to be made can be seen
at the Geological Museum at Paris. 1 beg it will be distinctly understood by
the present meeting that, although I represent the Company in this country,
I have not taken part in this discussion with the object of making proselytes
with a view of engaging their financial co-operation. The time for this has
passed, and the list for subscriptions was closed on the 30th of November last
year. The capital subscribed, and the amount of calls required, have been
paid up. I think this statement due to myself in order to dispel any notions,
which I do not believe exist here, that 1 have entered into this ■ discussion
with any other motives than to endeavour, however inefficiently, to refute oii
purely scientific grounds the arguments which have been put forward against
the execution of the canal. In conclusion, I can only say that I believe
all arguments respecting the feasibility of the undertaking have been placed
beyond the pale of controversy ; nevertheless I shall be happy at all times to
aft'ord any information which it is in my power to give to this Society. I
consider that we have now arrived at the time for practical operations. Mr.
Ferdinand de Lesseps, accompanied by the contractor of the works and a
staff of engineers, is at present in Egypt, employed in staking out the ground
through which the canal will have to be cut. Ship-loads of timber and other
materials have already left the port of Marseilles for Egypt, and all the pre-
liminary steps are being taken for commencing the works ; and I earnestly
trust that, before six years have elapsed, this great problem, which has occu-
pied the minds of men for centuries, may be finally and successfully solved
for the benefit of all nations.

Mr. Robert Stephenson, m.p., f.r.g.s. — I entered this room with a firm
determination to avoid all controversial points, and with a sincere intention of
conveying to you the impressions I received as to the physical geography of
the country, after having twice walked over it, which I conceive render the
completion and maintenance of this undertaking absolutely beyond the power of
man. Now, the most remarkable statement I ever heard of was the one urged
just now, that there being no difference of level between the two seas really
rendered the thing more practicable than ever. Negrelli, Talabot, and I were
induced to begin the investigation, from its being stated as a positive fact that
there was a difference of 30 feet in the level — a circumstance which would
have offered the only chance of the scheme being practicable. Now, we hear
to-night that there is no difference of level at all, and that this makes it more
practicable than ever. Can you conceive anything more absurd ? I cannot.
1 was astonished at the assertion of my friend Mr. George Eennie as to the
breakwater at Pelusium, and comparing it with the Portland breakwater.
Why, at Portland the stones are carried out from the shore and thrown into
the sea ; but at Pelusium there is no shore, and all the stones must be brought
a hundred miles. Is there any comparison between a breakwater at Portland
and a breakwater in the Mediterranean on a lee-shore, where there is no stone
and no foundation whatever ? It is nothing but the silt of the Nile. The
Nile brings down millions of tons of mud, and in course of time had thus
formed the delta at its mouth. This delta has protruded itself a long way
into the sea, owing to the contrary action of the current of the Nile and its
branches on one side, and of the current of the Mediterranean along the shores
of Africa on the other. The moment, then, that you construct a harbour at

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 203

Port Said, and project piers out into the sea, you immediately arrest the course
of the mud, and you will never be able to keep the port open. It is the most
extraordinary thing in the world to project two jetties into an open sea on a
lee-shore, which has for almost three-parts of the year a north-west wind
blowing upon it. A steamer even, in a rough sea, dare not enter between two
piers 300 feet apart ; there is no seaman, except in fine weather, who would
venture to approach such a place. To render it at all accessible and safe, there
must be a harbour of refuge made, and we know from experience in our own
country what a large question this would open up. Really, the physical diffi-
culties are as I believe insurmountable. Supposing the harbour were made, it
must be a mere mud trap. The current carried the mud of the Nile in an
easterly direction, and if you erect a harbour of refuge, which means a quiescent
harbour, it will become a mud trap. That is the peculiarity of all deltas.
I believe it to be nearly true, if not absolutely true, that there is no large
harbour in the world maintained on the delta of a large river. I know the
delta of the Rhone, the delta of the Po, and the delta of the Danube, and I
know the delta of the Nile. Thej^ are all alike incapable of maintaining a
harbour of refuge, or even a good harbour of entrance ; the harbour would
absolutely be filled up in a few years. And with respect to the canal itself,
now that it is proved there is no difference of level, it would really remain a
stagnant ditch, and must ever remain so. Whoever has travelled over that
district, and seen the moving sands, must see that it would be necessary to
dredge, not only the harbour, but the canal itself.

Mr. Lange's Statement. See ip. 201.

*' The very existence of Holland depends upon the engineering skill dis-
played in works of this description, and M. Conrad, after devoting a whole life-
time to them, holds under the Dutch Government the office of chief engineer of
the Water Staat. Surely the opinion of such a man must be of value, and we
are naturally curious to ascertain what views this gentleman entertains as to
the feasibility of making the canal. It appears that M. Conrad, after bestowing
more than two months of his valuable time to a very elaborate personal survey
of the entire tract, returned from Egypt with views diametrically opposite to
those expressed by Mr. Stephenson, and considers the non-existence of any
difference of level between the two seas as a circumstance which will greatly
facilitate its construction, and render it easy of execution. But if there could
exist any wavering or hesitation in the mind of the public, I apprehend that
the opinion of another engineer, not less eminent than M. Conrad, would in a
great measure tend to remove it. I am alluding to M. de Negrelli, who holds
the highest functions in Austria as an engineer. M. de Negrelli shares uncon-
ditionally the views held by M. Conrad. But the evidence does not end here ;
we have on record the opinion of Signor Paleocapa, Minister of Public Works in
the kingdom of Sardinia, whose experience in the construction of jetties and
canals leaves no doubt as to the value of his testimony.

" But lest all this should not be considered sufficient, the opinion of M.
Lentze, Chief Engineer of the Works of the Vistula, backed by that of the late
M. Lieusson, Hydrpgraphical Engineer to the Imi)erial Marine of France,
endorsed by M. Renaud, Inspector-General and member of the Council for
Ponts et Chaussees of France, and supported by M. Rigault deGenouilly, Rear-
Admiral of the Imperial Marine of France, and Captain Taures, of the Imperial
Marine, and member of the Council of the Admiralty of France, will, I think,
in the opinion of this impartial tribunal, be considered sufficient to induce
you to pause ere you surrender judgment to the views entertained by Mn
Stephenson, in opposition to those shared by the eminent engineers I have
mentioned.

j2ftA PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, ;859.

" The opinions of the late Mr. Renclel and Mr. M'Clean are opposed to Mr.
Robert Stephenson's plan.

" Messrs. Rendel and M'Clean proposed to construct a ship canal in nearly
a direct line between Suez and Port Said. The level of top-water throughout
the whole length (93 miles) to be 23 feet above low-water of the Medi-
terranean Sea. The embankment to be carried into the deep water of the sea
at each extremity, so as to avoid the necessity of dredging, and the locks to be
constructed similar to the sea lock of the Caledonian Canal. Mr. George
Eennie considers the cutting of the canal, as proposed by the engineers of the
International Commission, perfectly prr.cticable. It will therefore be seen
that there exists in this country a great variety of opinion as to the precise
mode in which the cutting should be effected.

*' Captain Pim alluded in his paper to the great mortality caused by the
making of the Mahmoudieh Canal, with what I considered questionable
policy, seeing that if the argument holds good against the canal, it must neces-
sarily do so with equal force against his own plan for a railway ; but lest the
example he has so prominently brought forward should cause the construction
of canals or railways in Egypt to be viewed with disfavour, I willingly, in
our joint justification, come forward with a few facts which, I hope, will effec-
tually tend to dispel the fears his paper may have engendered on these points,
and I shall do so with reference to the very Mahmoudieh Canal in question.

" On the 10th of April, 1856, 115,000 men commenced the work of cleans-
ing, and the canal was re-opened for navigation on the 5 th of May. The
cleansing of the great Mahmoudieh Canal has been accomplished in less than
three weeks. For some time back it had been getting choked up with mud,
and although the traffic upon it was extremely active, it was becoming some-
what difficult. It was reported that his Highness the Viceroy would appear
personally on the scene of action ; and the work, confided to almost innumer-
able multitudes, was carried through with marvellous rapidity. Neverthe-
less the canal is not under twenty leagues in length and very wide ; but the
work had been systematically apportioned, and each working party was
allowed to withdraw as soon as the portion of the task assigned to it was
completed. The food, moreover, was good, and all passed off for the best.

" There was no less than 3,000,000 of cubic metres of muddy sediment to
remove from the bed of the canal, which used to form a carriage road, 10
metres in breadth, between Alexandria and the Nile. The work had to be
completed in haste in order that the workmen might return to their villages
and reap the harvest, which becomes ripe towards the end of April. The time
to be taken up in the work was accordingly fixed at one month, and the number
of workmen to be employed at 67,000. The governors of the various provinces,
appreciating the necessity for saving time, supplied more than 100,000 work-
men, who had to be prevented from working through the night.

" The work was completed in twenty-two days, notwithstanding the number
of subterraneous springs, and the difficult nature of the material to be dealt
vs'ith, and notwithstanding, moreover, the falling in of a considerable part of
the walls of the canal. The great Mahmoudieh Canal may be looked upon as
an entirely new work from its increased width and greater draught of water,
and the excellent road running beside it.

" Although the task came quite unexpectedly, and the workmen toiled with
ardour in the midst of water and mud, the number of sick did not amount ^o
more than five in a thousand, and the workmen were always well supplied
with necessaries, a circumstance which forms a striking contrast with what
occurred at the first digging of the canal, when more than 20,000 men perished
through the deficiency of provisions, water, and proper tools, and the unskilful
distribution of the work.

" The Fellahs possess a positive talent for all descriptions of earthwork ; for

April 11, 1859.] PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 205

centuries past they have displayed this peculiar aptitude, and ther6 is a good
reason for it, for without canals Egypt would be nothing, and neglect of them
would condemn her to barrenness, poverty, and famine. No Europeans
could get through work of this description in such a climate. Although
they are stronger and better skilled than the Fellahs, it is an undoubted and
established fact that a European population could not continue to exist here ;
the first generation of foreign settlers manage to adapt themselves tolerably
well at first, but they languish in the end, the second becomes very nearly
exhausted, and the third dies out altogether. This is an incontestable fact.

" Captain Pim states ' that towards the Bay of Pelusium the depth of 25
feet of water extends for a distance of more than three miles from the shore.
That the prevailing winds, exposure of the Bay of Pelusium, the lowness of
the coast, and the absence of land-marks, increase the danger of navigation.'

" ' That the quantity of alluvium carried by the easterly current in the
Mediterranean, towards the Bay of Pelusium, would have the effect of choking
up any harbour or channel which might be made.'

*' Now I beg to observe that in 1857 the Commission of Engineers fixed the
outlet of the canal at 28^ kilometres (17 miles 6^ furlongs) westward of the
point adopted in the project ; the shore being there less exposed to the pre-
vailing winds, while it is steeper, and projects farther towards the open sea.
Nearer to the n.w., in the Bay of Dibeh, and under the point of Damietta,
a vessel could not right herself by a n.e. wind. Moreover, the length of the
canal would be uselessly extended. The projection formed by the shore
opposite Said, between the Bays of Pelusium and Dibeh, evidently offers the
most favourable site ; it will be easy to stand out, whatever wind is blowing,
and a vessel caught suddenly in a gale of wind from the offing, at this part of
the coast, can always right herself and get out into the open sea again.

" The local winds are extremely regular, and the anchorage on the coast of
Egypt is better than any one to be found throughout the entire coast of Syria,
which is directly exposed to the prevailing winds from the n.w., whereas the
Egyptian coast is partially sheltered from them. The holding ground is every-
where excellent.

" M. Larousse, during his sojourn in the roadstead of the Bay of Pelusium,
frequently observed the ship's position at intervals, and found no difference,
although it had been blowing all night. If it were desired to bring a vessel to
anchor previous to entering the canal, there would be no fear of her dragging
her anchors. The native coasters declare that in rough weather they easily
obtain shelter eastward of Damietta, in the very locality where the canal is to
terminate. It should, moreover, be remarked, that previous to the establish-
ment of Austrian and French companies for steam navigation, the coasting
vessels engaged in what was called the Caravan Trade, on the coast of Egypt
and Syria, frequently sought shelter in the western part of the Gulf of Pelu-
sium. This is sufficient proof that these coasts are far from being so formidable
as they were imagined to be in the absence of any positive knowledge of the
facts ; and it may be taken for certain that a vessel, sheltered from the w.n.w.
winds, could keep her moorings with long cables during all weathers in water
of 12 metres (39 feet) depth.

" In farther confirmation of these facts, I beg to call the attention of the
meeting to the report of Captain Philigret, entitled ' Observations Hydro-
graphiques dans la Baie de Peluse.' Captain Philigret was purposely stationed
on board a corvette, belonging to his Highness the Viceroy of Egypt, during
three of the worst months in the year, in the Bay of Pelusium, in order to
ascertain the safety of this roadstead and make observations respecting the
winds and currents.

" At Port Said the western or northern jetty would be 3500 metres (3827
yards) long, in order to reach a depth of 10 metres (32 feet). That on the

206 PIM ON THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. [April 11, 1859.

eastern or southern side would only be extended to a depth of 8*50 metres
(28 feet). Its length would be 2500 metres (2734 yards). Their general direc-
tion will be from s.w. ^ s. to n.e. z n., and the extremity of one will be
slightly deflected, so that the tangent of the two heads should lie exactly s.s.w.
and N.N.E., and be exactly 1000 metres in length (1093^ yards).

" Subsequent investigations have, however, induced the engineers to dis-
pense in a great measure with the length of these jetties, the nature of the
sand being sufficiently firm to admit of dredging operations being successfully
performed.

** By this means a sheltered roadstead, or outer port, would be formed, em-
bracing a superficies of 40 hectares (98 acres), perfectly sheltered from the k.w.
winds which prevail along this coast, and bring with them the greatest part of
the storms. Vessels will be enabled to enter in all weathers, which is the
essential point ; and there will, besides, be a sort of inner road formed by the
roadstead betv*-een the jetties. The length of this roadstead will be 1800
metres (1968^ yards), measuring from the extremity of the southern jetty, by
400 metres (4372 yards). This would form an additional space of 72 hectares
(177 acres 3 roods), in which vessels would find shelter and smooth water.

*' With regard to what Captain Pim states as to the mud of the Nile, I
have to say that is a question to which the attention of the engineers was directed
with more than usual care. One fact is perfectly certain, no traces of mud are
to be found along the shore, and the sand upon it is as pure as it is fine. This
sand extends along the bottom, without any admixture, to a depth ranging
from 8 to 9 metres (26 to 29^ feet). The mud does not commence until
beyond this range, and it is only at a depth of 10 metres (32 feet 8 inches)
that pure mud is found, and from thence it stretches out to an indefinite
distance in the depths of the Mediterranean. Though here and there a few
patches of mud may occur at a less depth, they are of insignificant dimensions,
not exceeding 10 to 15 metres (32 to 49 feet) in diameter, and 0*25 to 0*40
metres (10 to 15 inches) in thickness. Such deposits are recent and superficial,
and have not been subjected to the effects of a storm ; they are of piirely
accidental occurrence, and the first gale of wind from the north would entirely
disperse them."

Eleventh Meeting, May 9th, 1859.

Sir KODERICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — Capt. C. C. Chesney, r.e. ; Capt. K E. Murchison ;
Consul W. T. Pritchard ; and K Rawdon Power, Esq. ; were presented
upon their election.

Elections. — X. C. Bailey, r.n. ; R. Fisher, m.d. ; and John Reeve,
Esqrs. ; were elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — Several Maps and Plans of fortified towns, &c., in
Italy, presented by the Government of Eome ; and Maps of United
States Harbour Improvements on Lake Michigan; were exhibited.

The Papers read were : —

1. Notes on the Lower Danube. By Major Stokes, r.e.

Communicated by Capt. R. Collinson, r.n., f.r.g.s.

The "lower" portion of the Danube begins at the Iron Gates, and

has an entirely different character to that of its upper course. It

May 9, 1859.J STOKES ON THE LOWER DANUBE. 207

spreads into many channels whose banks and beds change yearly
and even monthly, — a cause that renders charts of little value to its
navigators. The vessels used in the river seldom draw more than
4 feet, and even that is too much for the Iron Gates in autumn.
Sea-going vessels rarely, if ever, pass Oltenitza.

The final subdivisions of the Danube are as follows : 1st, the
Kilia branch, which contains |^f ths of the whole river. It forms a delta
of its own, and enters the sea in five principal channels ; 2nd, the
St. George's branch, which contains aV^hs ; and, thirdly, the Sulina
branch, which contains the remaining ^2_,ths. The Sulina is the
only navigable outlet; but the St. George would be a far better
one if the bar that obstructs its mouth were removed or turned by
a canal. For the St. George is broad and deep up to its very-
mouth, while the Sulina is narrow and obstructed by shoals.

The land between Galatz and the head of the delta is marshy
and reed-grown, and decidedly lower than the banks of the river,
except at those points where spurs of the Dobrudscha mountains or
portions of the steppe extend to them. Inundations occur every
five or six years. The Delta itself is rarely, if ever, flooded ; it is
covered with a dense mass of reeds, and on its higher parts with
forests of ash and stunted oak. There are data by which the rate of
increase of the Delta may be measured, for a map is in existence, of
the date 1769, in which the Kilia branch is made to enter the sea at
the point where we now find the Wilkowi Basin — that is to say, at
five miles from its present mouths. Again, there is another Eussian
plan, without date, but giving the city of Odessa, which was founded
in 1796, and which represents the mouth of the Kilia at the same
place, but indicates the commencement of a formation of islands in
front of it, which seem to be the ground-work of the present Kilia
delta. There was an actual survey made in 1829-30 by the Eussian
Government, and another by H.M.S. Medina, under Captain Spratt,
in 1857. The delta had increased 4000 feet in that interval of time,
and the line of 4-feet sounding had advanced in a still greater pro-
portion. Many statistical details are appended to the paper, and
arguments in favour of the various plans proposed for improving
the navigability of the river are discussed.

Mr. Hamilton, f.r.g.s., said : In rising to address a few words to you, Sir,
upon this subject, 1 do so with the view of recommending those who have
heard the paper read not to place too much confidence in that brown dotted
line which has been stretched across that map as the limit of the sea-shore in
the year 1769 ; because it is absolutely impossible, when we look at the
amount of matter brought down by other rivers, and which has tended to the
formation of the deltas of other rivers, that we can look upon this movement —
this new matter which has been added to the coast during the period in ques-

208 MACQUEEN ON THE GEOGRAPHY [May 9, 1859.

lion (since 1769) — as in any way giving us a rule respecting the question of
increase in the deltas of rivers under ordinary circumstances. Looking at it in
that point of view, therefore, the impression which has been left on my own
mind is this : — that, either the maps that give us the coast-line in the year 1769,
.as exhibited by that dotted line, are exceedingly faulty, or that, if that really were
the line of coast at that period, it must have been owing to some abnormal
state of things ; and that, owing to a change of currents, or to earthquakes, or
to other causes, into which we are not at present capable of entering, the line
of coast was not then in its normal state ; and that subsequently it has
returned to that which may be considered its normal state. This may be the
result of two causes : first, the matter brought down by the Danube ; secondly,
the prevailing winds of the Black Sea, which during the summer are from the
eastward, and would, therefore, tend to collect a great amount of matter along
that coast during a given period. I think that the increment given during
this period of 80 or 90 years is somewhere about 18 or 20 miles. If we
look at the increase of the deltas of other great rivers — such, for instance, as the
Ganges, the Mississippi, and rivers of that class — we find that the increase
here stated is altogether out of proportion to anything we are acquainted with
in those rivers ; so much so, indeed, that I can only look upon it as altogether
erroneous. I dare say that those gentlemen who are acquainted with the old
writers will recollect the oracular verses quoted by Strabo with respect to the
Pyramus, one of the rivers in Asia Minor, which brought down such an
enormous quantity of sand and mud that its delta was expected to increase to
an enormous extent : —

"Ecrfferai iovo/xevois ore Uvpaij.os evpvodiurjs
'H'iSua irpoxetiiv Up^v iis Kv-rrpov 'iKrjTai.

The meaning of which was, that a time should come in future generations when
the delta of the Pyramus should be increased to so large an extent by the mud
brought down from the interior, that it should stretch along the sacred land of
Cyprus. Now we know that the delta of the Pyramus has not increased one
mile since that was \vritten. Therefore, I must warn those who have heard
this paper read against looking upon this increment as anything like the
normal state of increment which is to be expected as resulting from the matter
brought down by any of the great rivers of the globe during the period that
has been referred to.

The Second Paper read was : —

2. Observations on the Geography of Central Africa, By James
Macqueen, Esq., f.e.g.s.

Mr. Macqueen cites in his paper the authorities that exist on the
subject of the Upper White Nile, and on Kilimandjaro, with a view
of proving that the latter mountain is undoubtedly snow-covered ;
and that, on the other hand, it has no connection with the river.
He repeats the well-known description of Eebmann, wht3, during a
period of two months that he spent in its neighbourhood, saw
Kilimandjaro every day that it was clear, and even passed some
time within five or six miles of the snow-covered part ; and who, in
further corroboration of the existence of snow, mentions how the

May 9, 1859.] OF CENTRAL AFRICA. 209

natives described the melting of the white material before the fire,
&c., &c. Krapf, who also saw the snow, speaks of the river issuing
from it as running to the eastward : he also gives the report of a
large river lying far to the N. W. of the mountain, and presumed to
be the Nile.

Turning to the White Nile, we have the accounts of the two
Egyptian expeditions, the first of which appears to Mr. Macqueen
to give the most reliable latitudes : it reached 3^* 30' N. lat. and
31° E. long, from Greenwich, where it was stopped for want of water
on Jan. 26, 1840. At that time the breadth was 1370 feet, and the
greatest depth from 3 feet to 6 feet. Here the country had begun to
be rocky, and the vegetation to be European in its character. Werne's
information of the second Egyptian expedition is sufficiently cor-
roborative. Dr. Knoblicher finds the river at Loquek to be 650
feet broad in the dry season, and from 5 to 8 feet deep. From
Loquek to the farthest known point, that of Don Angelo is the best
account : he was there in 1852. He describes the cataract of Garbo
in presumably N. lat. 2° 40'. Sixty miles beyond this is Eobingo,
and then Lokoya, where an affluent runs in from the east. Beyond
Lokoya the White Nile is a small rocky river.

The reports collected by travellers, such as Bruce and Harris,
are then discussed, and afterwards those of Ptolemy. The paper
concludes with the following account of the recent statements of
M. Leon : —

*' Some very curious and important information connected with the
countries near the sources of the Nile has just been received from a
French missionary (Pere B. P. Leon), dated at Zanzibar, August,
last year. This missionary had been in Enerea. He states that
there is a frequented road from Brava on the sea-coast to Kaffa, the
journey occupying 24 days. This, by mature estimation, is about
15 miles daily, but they never actually travel more than 10 miles
on an average. The estimated distance is 360 geographical miles,
which is tolerably accurate. Twelve days' journey south of Kaffa,
he states, dwell a people called Amara, nearly white : they have
written books, and a language different from either the Ethiopic or
Arabic. They build houses and villages, and cultivate the ground.
They are rightly conjectured to be the remains of Christian nations
which in early times spread far to the south of Abyssinia, till they
were overrun, massacred or scattered, by the savage Galla. It has
been repeatedly asserted that such remnants of Eastern Christian
Churches were scattered over this portion of Africa. Four days'
journey from the Amara M. Leon says there is a lake, from which
an affluent of the "White Nile is seen to flow. M. Leon supposes

210 MACQUEEN ON THE GEOGRAPHY [May 9, 1859.

this to be the source of the Sabact, but it is more probable that it is
the main stream of the Kile.

The Amara, he says, dwell between 2° and 3° N. lat., and have
some tribes of copper-coloured people, who dwell near the equator,
subject to them. No Mussulman can venture to enter this country.".

The President introduced Captain Speke to the Meeting, and explained
that he had within the last two days only returned from the place to which
Mr. Macqueen's paper more particularly had reference ; and could therefore
supply some useful information.

Captain Speke, f.k.g.s., said : After arriving at Zanzibar, we had to wait
a considerable time, some months, until the masika, or rainy season, would be
over, before we could j^enetrate into the interior. It was generally advised
that we should do so. During the interim Captain Burton and myself made
a short coast tour, first to Mombas, and then proceeded down the coast to
Pangani. Leaving that place, we ascended the Pangani river, and arrived at
Chongwe, a small miUtary station belonging to Prince Majid. Here we were
supplied with a small escort of Belooch soldiers, who accompanied us across
some hills, by an upper route, toFuga, the capital of Usambara, where we were
hospitably entertained by King Kimwere, a great despot reigning there.
After visiting him for one day, the shortness of our supplies compelled us to
retrace our steps by a forced and rapid march, following down close along the
banks of the same river until we again arrived at Pangani. Thus ended our
initiatory tour in Eastern Africa. The rainy season or masika was spent by
us at Zanzibar, in constructing the equipment of a caravan. There is a
singular tribe of negroes in the interior of Africa, called Wanyamuezi — the
literal translation of which signifies people of the moon. These strange people
are professionally voluntary porters : they annually bring down ivory to the
coast in barter for themselves, or otherwise for the Arabs. At the close of
the rainy season Captain Burton and myself left Zanzibar, with a caravan
mustering about eighty men ; having jDreviously sent on some supplies in
anticipation of our arrival. Unable to collect a sufiicient caravan for the con-
veyance of our kit, we purchased a number of donkeys (about thirty). Thus
completed, and with an escort of twelve Belooch soldiers, given us by Prince
Majid, we commenced our journey westward, and arrived (by slow degrees
travelling over a low alluvial plain, up the course of the Kingani river) at
Zungomero, a village situated under the coast range, which struck us as bear-
ing a good comparison with the western ghauts of India. We might call this
range the Eastern Ghauts of Africa. There we were detained by severe
illness a considerable time. Afterwards we crossed these eastern ghauts, the
maximum altitude of which I ascertained to be about 6000 feet. On the
western side of this longitudinal chain of hills we alighted on an elevated
plateau, an almost dead flat, ranging in level from 3000 to 4000 feet above the
sea. Here we had cold easterly winds, continuing through the entire year.
Proceeding onwards, we arrived at the Tanganyika Lake, called by the Arabs
Sea Ujiji, a local name taken from the country on the eastern margin of the
lake, whither they go to traffic for ivory and slaves. This lake is in a
singular synclinal depression ; I found its elevation to be only 1800 feet ;
whereas the surrounding country (the plateau), as I said before, averaged from
3000 to 4000 feet. The lake is encircled at its northern extremity by a half-
moon shaped range of hills, the height of which I estimated (for I could not
reach its summit) to be at least 6000 feet. They may extend to a height much
greater than that ; however, we could not take any observations for deter-
mining it. After exploring this lake we returned by the former route to
Unyanyembe, an Arab depot, situated in latitude 5° south, and about SS*^

May 9, 1859.] " OF CENTRAL AFRICA. 211

east longitude. My companion, Captain Burton, unable to proceed farther,
remained here ; whilst I, taking just sufficient provisions for a period of six
weelvs, made a rapid march due north, to latitude 2^ 30' south ; and there dis-
covered the southern extremity of the Nyanza, a Lake, called by the Arabs
Ukerewe, a local name for an island on it, to which the merchants go in quest
of ivory. The altitude of this Lake is equal to the general plateau (4000 feet),
even more than the average height of all the plateau land we traversed. In
reverting to the question asked, why I consider the Lake Nyanza to be the great
reservoir to the Nile, my answer is this : I find, by observation, that its southern
extremity lies in east longitude 33°, and south latitude 2° 30'. By Arab informa-
tion, in which I place implicit confidence, I have heard that the waters extend
thence, in a northerly direction, certainly from five to six degrees. Notwith-
standing they can account for a continuous line of water to this extent, no one
ever heard of any limit or boundary to the northern end of the Lake. A
respectable Sowahili merchant assured me that, when engaged in traffic some
years previously to the northward of the Line and the westward of this lake,
he had heard it commonly reported that large vessels frequented the northern
extremity of these waters, in which the officers engaged in navigating them
used sextants and kept a log, precisely similar to what is found in vessels on
the Ocean. Query, Gould this be in allusion to the expedition sent by Maha-
mad Ali up the Nile in former years ? Concerning the rains which flood the
Nile, the argument is simple, as 1 have said before : a group of mountains over-
hang the northern bed of t)ie Tanganyika Lake. The Arabs assure lis that
from the north and north-eastern slopes of these hills during the rainy season
immense volumes of water pour down in a north-easterly direction, traversing
a flat marshy land, intersected by some very large, and many (they say 180)
smaller streams. Again, on the western side, we hear from Dr. Krapf, that the
snow-clad mountain, Koenia, is drained by rivers on its western slopes in a
direction tending to my Lake.

During the rainy season, which I know, by inspection, commences in that
region on the 15th of November, and ends on the 15th of May, the down-pour
is pretty continuous. Super-saturation, I should imagine, takes place later on
the northern than on the southern side of the aforesaid moon-shaped mountain,
systematically in accordance to the ratio of seasonal progression ; but this, in
so mean a distance, could not be very great. Suffice it to say, that I saw the
Malagarazi river, which emanates from near the axis of these hills, to be in a
highly flooded state on the 5th of June. The Nile at Cairo regularly swells on
the 18th of June.

Farther, it would be highly erroneous to suppose that the Nile could have
any great fluctuations from any other source than periodical rains. Were the
Nile supplied by snow, as some theorists suppose, its perennial volume would
ever be the same. Tljere would be no material fluctuations observable in it,
in consequence of its constant and near approximation to the path of the sun.

By these discoveries, the old and erroneous hypothesis of a high latitudinal
range of mountains extending across the continent of Africa from east to west,
in the vicinity of the Line, and known as the Mountains of the Moon, is there-
fore now annihilated. However, it is worthy of remark, that the crescent-
shaped mountain, which we visited to the northward of the Tanganyika,
lies in the centre of the continent of Africa, immediately due west of the
snowy peaks Kilimanjaro and Kcenia, and is west beyond the Unyamuezi, or
Country of the Moon. The Wanyamuezi tribe has from time immemorial
been addicted to journeyingj^nd at all periods has constantly visited the
eastern coast of Africa. It wmild not be beyond legitimate and logical sup-
position, to imagine that these hills, lying beyond their Moon Country, should
have given rise to the term Mountains of the Moon, and from misunderstand-
ing their relative position with the snowy Koenia and Kilimanjaro, should

212 MACQUEEN ON THE GEOGRAPHY [May 9, 1859.

have been the means of misguiding all ancient inquirers about that mysterious'
mountain.

My positions were fixed by astronomical observations, certainly under
painful and considerable difficulties, owing to my constantly impaired
general state of health : weakness and blindness not being the least of these
difficulties which I had to contend with. My latitudes were taken by the
altitude of stars, at nearly every stage, on an average from ten to fifteen miles
apart. I also fixed some crucial stations, the principal points for delineating
the country by lunars, on which I place great reliance, as the means of the
masses of them which 1 took show so little deviation. The intermediate
distances I compassed very closely ; the altitudes of the country I traversed I
determined by boiling thermometer ; on which I also place very great reli-
ance. We had a thermometer and pedometer, and several chronometers. The
performance of these instruments was anything but satisfactory : indeed,
finally, I had to rig up a string and bullet pendulum to beat time whilst
taking my lunars in the latter stage of the journey. There now can be no
doubt that this great lake, the Nyanza (Captain Speke now pointing to the
map), is the great reservoir of the Nile, and that its waters indubitably extend
northwards from the position visited by me on its southern extremity to
85° north-latitude, lying across the equator, and washes out that supposed line
of mountains, called the Mountains of the Moon, which stands so conspicu-
ously in all our atlases.

The President (to Mr. Macqueen). — In short he carries his lake through
your mountains.

Dr. Bigsby, F.R.G.S., desired some farther information concerning the
people, their civility, numbers, and mode of subsistence.

The President thought such matter foreign to the subject of the paper.

Mr. Macqueen, f.r.g.s., said the question of the sources of the Nile had
cost him much trouble and research, and he was sure there was no material
error either in longitude or latitude in the position he had ascribed to them,
namely, a little to the eastward of the meridian of 35°, and a little northward
of the equator. That was the principal source of the White Nile. The
mountains there were exceedingly high, from the equator north to Kaffa
Cnarea. All the authorities, from east, west, north, or south, now perfectly
comi)etent to form judgments upon such a matter, agreed with him ; and
among them were the officers commanding the Egyptian commission. It was
impossible they could all be mistaken. Dr. Krapf had been within a very
short distance of it ; he was more than 180 miles from Mombas, and he saw
snow upon the mountains. He conversed with the people who came from
them, and who told him of the snow and exceeding coldness of the tempera-
ture. The line of perpetual congelation, it was well known, was 17,000 feet
above the sea. He had an account of the navigation of the White Nile by
the Egyptian expedition. It was then given as 3° 30' N. lat. and 31° S.
lat. At this point the expedition turned back for want of a sufficient depth
of water. Here the river was 1370 feet broad, and the velocity of the current
one-quarter of a mile per hour. The journals also gave a specific and daily
current, the depth and width of the river, and everything, indeed, connected
with it. Surely, looking at the current of the river, the height of the Cartoom
above the level of the sea, and the distance thence up to the equator, the
sources of the Nile must be 6000 or 8000 feet above the level of the sea, and
still much below the line of the snow, which was 6000 or 8000 feet farther
above them. He deeply regretted he was un^le to complete the diagram
for the rest of the papers he had given to the Society, for it was more import-
ant than any others he had previously given. It contained the journey over
Africa from sea to sea, second only to that of Dr. Livingstone. But all the.
rivers coming down from the mountains in question, and running south east-

May 9, 1859.] OF CENTRAL AFRICA. 213

ward, had been clearly stated by Dr. Krapf, who gave every particular con-
cerning them. He should like to know whaj; the natives had said was to the
northward of the large lake ; did they say the rivers ran out from or into
the lake ? How could the Egyptian officers be mistaken ?

Captain Speke replied. They were not mistaken ; and if they had pur-
sued their journey 50 miles farther, they would undoubtedly have found
themselves at the northern borders of this lake.

Mr. Macqueen said that other travellers, Don Angelo for instance, had
been within one and a half degree of the Equator, and saw the mountain of
Kimborat under the Line, and persisted in the statement, adding, that travellers
had been up the river until they found it a mere brook. He felt convinced
that the large lake alluded to by Captain Speke was not the source of the
Nile : it was impossible it could be so, for it was not at a sufficiently high
altitude.

The paper presented to the Society, when fully read in conjunction with
the map, will clearly show that the Bahr-el-Abred has no connection with Kili-
manjaro, that it has no connection whatever with any lake or river to the
south of the Equator, and that the sw^elliug of the river Nile proceeds from
the tropical rains of the northern torrid zone, as was stated emphatically to
Julius Cassar by the chief Egyptian priest Amoreis 2000 years ago.

In nearly 3° N. lat. there is a great cataract, which boats cannot pass. It
is called Gherba. About half-way (50 miles) above, and between this cataract
and Robego, the capital of Kuenda, the river becomes so narrow as to be
crossed by a bridge formed by a tree thrown across it. Above Gherba no
stream joins the river either from the south or south-west.

Colonel Sykes, f.r.g.s., thought the difficulties raised by Mr. Macqueen
quite reconcileable with the facts stated by Captain Speke, as resulting
from his and Captain Burton's explorations, for every great river had more
than one source. He illustrated his observation by a practical reference to
the human hand and arm ; supposing the latter to be the main stream, the
fingers might form the sources, all converging at the wrist to one great whole.
The only question, therefore, was, which of those branches should be con-
sidered the chief source of the river ? But each might be equal in size and of
equal distance from the point of junction. The fact was, they were all sources.
Captain Speke described a range of mountains running, not from east to west,
but from north to south across the Equator. This range had necessarily a
double watershed to the east and to the west. The rivers observed by Krapf
and Rebmann ran down to the eastward, but other rivers (describing them on
the map) ran down to the westward. Consequently there were two directions
in which the waters run from exactly the same locality. What, therefore, could
be more reasonable than to suppose that the water parting to the westward
should run into the lake mentioned by Captain Speke ? And as this lake
was at an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea, and the depression of the
country was from the lake towards the north generally, as indicated by the
course of the Nile, which had been traced up to within 3J° of the Equator,
it is more than probable that the lake was one of the chief sources of the
Nile, and that other neighbouring sources would be found in the snow-peaks
of Kilimanjaro and Kaania, forming parts of the range of mountains spoken of
by Captain Speke. Mr. Macqueen spoke of the improbability of there being
snow-capped mountains upon the Equator, as their elevation must necessarily
be above 1 7,000 feet ; but we are not justified in impugning the accuracy of
the statements of Krapf and Rebmann. Under religious impulses, their
vocation as missionaries was the promulgation of truth, and we cannot sup-
pose them capable of inventions for which there w^as not any motive.

The origin of Pliny's associating the source of the Nile with the Moun-
tains of the Moon, would seem to find an explanation in the name of the

214: MACQUEEN ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AFRICA. [May 9, 1859.

nation or tribe living in the neighbourhood of the lake being the same with
that of the moon : mistakes in mpdern times are traceable to associations much
weaker than this.

But a full discussion of Captains Burton and Speke's labours must be
reserved for a future occasion; meanwhile we are satisfied that important
geogi'aphical discoveries have been made.

Mr. Macqueen said that if the Nile or its sources were to the south of the
Equator, it would not fall where the Egyptian expedition had left? it, viz.
at 3^ 30' north on the 26th of January, but it then fell so fast that the
expedition did not proceed. As a proof that the Nile did not rise to the south
of the Equator, it was only necessary to mention the fact that the rains on the
south of the Line commenced in December and in January and February, and
became very strong; the river would be flooded, therefore, in January, in
place of falling : this he thought settled the point beyond question. He ad-
mitted the Nile must have more sources than one, but not one of them
went so far south ; if it did, the principal branch would have certainly been
flooded in January, whereas in that month it fell;: but at the end of March,
exactly as the sun came back towards the Equator and the rains fell to the
north, it would rise again.

Colonel Sykes observed that tropical rains north of the Equator com-
menced in June.

Mr. Macqueen said he had been speaking of the south.

Captain Speke obtained his information of the countries tending north-
wards, along the western borders of the Lake, from highly intelligent Arab
merchants, from whom he had previously received some excellent and trust-
worthy information, and he felt he might rely on what they had stated, in
regard to the ground under dispute, more especially as it corroborated his
own observations made on the Malagarazi River.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON.

SESSION 1858-9.

Twelfth Meeting (Anniversary), 1 p.m., May 23rd, 1859.

Sir RODEEICK I. MURCHISON, President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting having been confirmed, the
regulations respecting the Anniversary Meetings were next read,
"when the President appointed A. Gr. Findlay and John Lyons
M'Leod, Esqrs., Scrutineers for the Ballot.

Lieut.-General Peter de la Motte, c.b. ; Capt. Eichard F. Burton ;
Capt. William F. Tytler; and Stephen W. SHver; Frederick B.
Montgomerie ; Coleridge Kennard ; Walter F. Leslie, of New South
Wales ; Edward W. Stafford, Colonial Secretary of New Zealand ;
and Christian Hellmann, Esqrs., were proposed as Candidates for
election at the next Meeting.

The Eeport of the Council, with the Balance Sheet for 1858 and
the Estimate for 1859, was then read and adopted.

The President next delivered the Founder's Gold Medal to Capt.
Eichard F. Burton, for his various exploratory enterprises, and
especially for his perilous expedition, in company with Capt. J. H.
Speke, to the great Lakes in Eastern Central Africa.

The Patron's or Victoria Gold Medal was delivered to the Earl
of Carnarvon, on behalf of Captain John Palliser, for the valuable
results of his explorations in British North America and the Eocky
Mountains.

A Gold Watch, awarded to Mr. J. Macdougall Stuart, for his dis-
coveries in South and Central Australia, was delivered to Count
P. E. de Strzelecki for transmission to him.

The President then read his Anniversary Address, for which a
unanimous Vote of Thanks was passed, with a request that he
would allow it to be printed.

At the conclusion of the Ballot, the Scrutineers reported that the

VOL. III. s

216 ANNIVERSARY. [May 23, 1859.

changes advised by the Council had been adopted ; Sir Roderick I.
Murchison, the President, retiring at the expiration of his second
year of office, to be succeeded by the Earl of Ripon ; the vacancy
among the Vice-Presidents, occasioned by the retirement of Rear-
Admiral Sir George Back, to be supplied by Sir Roderick I. Mur-
chison ; and those among the Ordinary Councillors, caused by the
retirement of Lord Broughton, Lord Dufferin, Lieut.-General C. R.
Fox, Colonel J. H. Lefroy, R.A., the Bishop of Oxford, Sir Henry
Rawlinson, and Colonel T. M. Steele, to be filled by Sir Benjamin
Brodie, Bart., the Hon. F, H. G. Calthorpe, m.p., Captain the Hon.
J. Denman, r.n., Laurence Oliphant, Esq., Major-General J. E.
Portlock, R.E., and J. A. Warre, Esq., m.p.

Thanks having been voted to the President, Vice-Presidents,
Members of the Council, Auditors, and Scrutineers, the President
finally directed attention to the usual Anniversary Dinner, and the
Meeting adjourned.

PKESENTATION

OF THE

ROYAL AWARDS

To Captain R. F. BURTON and Captain JOHN PALLISER.

The President read the following statements explanatory of the
grounds on which the Council had awarded the Eoyal Medals re-
spectively : —

The Founder's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society has been
adjudicated to Captain R. F. Burton, of the Bombay Army, who has
explored a vast region of Eastern and Central Africa never before
traversed by any geographer ; and for the discovery of the great in-
ternal lake of Tanganyika — the more northern lake of Nyanza being
discovered by his coadjutor, Captain Speke.

Captain Burton is well known for his most interesting journey,
under the auspices of this Society, as an Afghan pilgrim, to the
Holy places in Arabia in the autumn of 1853, as recorded in our
Journal, vols. xxiv. and xxv., and in the popular account of it
published by himself. These volumes showed Captain Burton to
be an accomplished Orientalist, and admirably fitted for a traveller
among the difficulties of Eastern countries.

In the ensuing year he volunteered to explore Eastern Africa
from Berbera to Zanzibar, accompanied by Lieutenant Stroyan and
Lieutenant Speke, the latter of whom had been for several years
collecting the fauna of Little Tibet and the Himalaya Mountains.
In a preliminary journey, Captain Burton, alone, succeeded in
reaching and describing Harar, never before visited by Europeans.
Lieutenant Speke, on his part, also alone, explored the interior of
the Somali country, made extensive collections and many observa-
tions, and produced a map of those tracts. The farther prosecution
of that expedition, when these officers were united with Stroyan
and Heme, was frustrated by an attack of the Somalis, in which
Lieutenant Stroyan was killed, and Lieutenants Burton and Speke
were both severely wounded. These occurrences are recorded in

218 CAPT. R. F. BURTON— ROYAL AWARDS. [May 23, 1859.

our Journal, vol. xxv., and also in the work ' First Footsteps in
Eastern Africa.*

In 1856 Captain Burton proceeded with Captain Speke, under
the auspices of our Society, and assisted by the Foreign Office and
the Hon. East India Company, to Zanzibar ; and in January, 1857,
made a tentative journey to Fuga, the account of which, by Captain
Burton, with a map constructed from Captain Speke's field-book,
is given in our Proceedings, and will appear in a more extended
form in the next volume of the Journal.

On June 26th, 1857, Captains Burton and Speke started from
Zanzibar for the interior, and succeeded in reaching the great
Lake Tanganyika, 300 miles long and 30 broad, and about 700
miles from the coast ; having travelled, at a rough estimate, from
1200 to 1500 miles. Their very careful and complete itineraries,
maps and field-books, have been received ; Captain Speke having
made astronomical observations which determine the latitude and
longitude of the places they visited. These results, as well as the
determination of the principal altitudes, were obtained in spite of
severe hardships, privations, and illnesses.

A marked feature of the expedition is the journey of Captain
Speke from Unyanyembe to the vast inland fresh- water lake called
Nyanza, the south end of which was fixed by him at 2° 30' S. lat.
and 33° 30' E. long., which, being estimated to have a width of about
90 miles, is said to extend northwards for upwards of 300 miles.

For the very important results of the expedition — of which
Captain Burton was the leader — as well as for his former bold and
adventurous researches, the Council have considered him to be
highly entitled to the honour conferred on him.

The President then addressed Captain Burton in these words : —

*' Captain Burton, — I have now to request you to accept this
Medal, with the assurance that, as the geographers of England
have watched your various and most adventurous explorations with
the deepest interest, so I rejoice that the Council of this Society has
had it in their power thus to recompense your highly distinguished
services.

"I must also take this opportunity of expressing to you my
hearty approbation of the very important part which your col-
league. Captain Speke, has played in the course of the African ex-
pedition headed by yourself. In the Address to the Society,
which is to follow, when I further advert to your meritorious ser-
vices, I shall dwell upon the discovery of the vast interior Lake
of Nyanza, made by your associate when you were prostrated by

May 23, 1859.] CAPT. J. PALLISER—ROYAL AWARDS. 219

illness, — a discovery which in itself is also, in my opinion, well
worthy of the highest honour this Society can bestow."

Captain Burton replied : —

"Mr. President, — I thank you. Sir, most sincerely for this
honour, and for the kind and flattering expressions by which you
have enhanced its value. Allow me, at the same time, to embrace
the opportunity of expressing my gratitude to this powerful and
influential Society for the favours of past years. When compara-
tively unknown I was enabled, by the generous support of the
Koyal Geographical Society, to enter upon the field of Arabian
exploration. At a subsequent period their interest forwarded me
into the Somali country ; and, on the present occasion, to them —
and to them only — do I ascribe the success which has attended my
last expedition. This valuable gift will remain with me a lasting
memorial of my debt of gratitude.

" You have alluded. Sir, to the success of the last expedition.
Justice compels me to state the circumstances under which it
attained that success. To Captain J. H. Speke are due those
geographical results to which you have alluded in such flattering
terms. Whilst I undertook the history and ethnography, the
languages and the peculiarities of the people, to Captain Speke
fell the arduous task of delineating an exact topography, and of
laying down our positions by astronomical observations — a labour
to which at times even the undaunted Livingstone found himself
unequal. I conclude with the warmest wishes for the prosperity
of the Eoyal Geographical Society, and with expressing my desire
that we may have a further opportunity of prosecuting our labours
in this good cause."

The Patron's or Victoria Gold Medal has been awarded to
Captain John Palliser, for the successful results of the explora-
tion of large tracts in British North America by the expedition
under his command during the years 1857-8 ; and more par-
ticularly for the determination of the existence of practicable passes
across the Eocky Mountains within the British territories.

This expedition — as is well known — originated in the pressing
recommendation of the Eoyal Geographical Society; and the
officers appointed by Her Majesty's Government to serve under
Captain Palliser were. Dr. Hector, naturalist and geologist;
Lieutenant Blakiston, magnetician ; Mr. Sullivan, secretary ; and
M. Bourgeau, botanist.

One of the chief geographical features of the first year's survey
was the discovery of a low waterparting, hitherto unknown to us,
near the "Qui Appelle Lakes," where the water flows eastwards
into the Assiniboine Eiver, and westwards into the Saskatchewan.

220 CAPT. J. PALLISER— ROYAL AWARDS. [May 23, 1859.

Along and rapid winter journey, with sledges and dogs, from
Fort Carlton, by Forts Pitt and Edmonton, to Mountain House, on
the eastern flank of the Eocky Mountains, was accomplished by
Dr. Hector to procure men and horses, and during which he obtained
valuable preliminary information. Numerous astronomical and
physical observations were made by Dr. Hector and Mr. Sullivan
at Fort Carlton ; the former of these sending home a clear sketch
of the geological structure of the vast region of the Prairie country,
with its horizontal strata of cretaceous and tertiary formations,
as contrasted with the rocky eastern country traversed by the canoe
route between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg. In the same period,
Lieutenant (now Captain) Blakiston made, as we are informed by
General Sabine, many important observations in Terrestrial Mag-
netism.

In the last summer — leaving Fort Carlton, and approaching the
Rocky Mountains midway between the north and south branches
of the Saskatchewan — Captain Palliser divided his force into three
parties. Accompanied by Mr. Sullivan, he traversed the Eocky
Mountains himself by the Kananaski Pass to the south of Old Bow
Fort, the summit level of the route being fixed at 5985 feet above
the sea. Eeaching the drainage of the Pacific, he descended the
Kutanie Eiver till he met with north-flowing lakes, which are
the real sources of the great Columbia ; and thence, following the
Kutanie Eiver southward along the Tobacco Plains to near the
American boundary, he recrossed the chain by the Kutanie Pass,
nearly 6000 feet above the sea, in lat. 49° 30'. Captain Blakiston,
also (as since reported), traversed and levelled this pass, which is
in British territory, and returned to the plains of the Saskatchewan
by the Boundary Pass, the greater part of which is in American
territory.

Whilst M. Bourgeau remained to collect plants in a favourable
spot amid the Eocky Mountains, in lat. 51°, Dr. Hector traversed
the chain by the Vermilion Pass, in 51° 10', emerging into the
Pacific drainage on the banks of the Kutanie Eiver. The height of
this pass was determined to be 4944 feet, and it is therefore much
lower than the other passes, which were examined. Thread-
ing his way to the north around two lofty mountains, which he
named Mount Goodsir and Mount Yaux, he travelled over high
land to the N.N.W. until he passed round the flanks of the highest
mountain in this part of the range, 15,789 feet high, in lat. 52°,
which he named Mount Murchison ; and then following the north

May 23, 1859.] CAPT. J. PALLISER— ROYAL AWARDS. 22t

Saskatchewan from its glacial sources, he descended to Mountain
House on the east, and regained Fort Edmonton, charged with
numerous geological as well as astronomical and physical ob-
servations.

For the vigorous execution of his duties, the judicious distri-
bution of the parties under his command, and particularly for
having successfully carried out the wishes of the Eoyal Geo-
graphical Society and the instructions of Her Majesty's Govern-
ment, in determining the existence of several practicable passes
across the Kocky Mountains of British North America (hitherto
not laid down on any published map), between the American boun-
dary, or 49°, and 52° N. lat., the Council have awarded the Patron's
Medal to Captain John Palliser.

The President then addressed the Earl of Carnarvon in these
words : —

"Lord Carnarvon, — It gives me great satisfaction to place in
your hands, as the representative of the Secretary for the Colonies,
this the Patron's or Victoria Medal of the Eoyal Geographical
Society.

" Knowing as I do that the deepest interest in the Palliser
Expedition has been felt by the Secretaries for the Colonies of the
last and present Administration, I also know that neither Mr.
Labouchere, under whose auspices these researches were organised,
nor Sir Edward B. Lytton, who has vigorously supported them,
can attach more importance to their issue than your Lordship does
in coming here to receive this Medal.

*' Pray, therefore, preserve it until Captain Palliser, after travers-
ing the Eocky Mountains and British Columbia, shall arrive in
England ; and then beg him to consider it as the best reward the
geographers can offer to him, in honour of the important services
performed by the expedition under his command."

The Earl of Carnarvon replied : —

" Sir, — In accepting, on behalf of Captain Palliser, the Medal
which, by the award of the Geographical Society and yourself,
has been assigned to him for the conduct of the expedition in
British North America, I greatly regret the absence of Sir
Edward Lytton, who has from the first taken a deep interest
in the success of the expedition, and to whom the task which
I have now undertaken more properly belongs. At the same
time I may, from the information to which I have had access at
the Colonial Ofiice, safely endorse the praise which you have given
to Captain Palliser for the skill and perseverance, the practical
energy and discrimination which he has evinced — essential qualities
in any officer situated as he has been.

" The expedition which he has conducted has already achieved

222 CAPT. J. PALLISER— ROYAL AWARDS. [May 23, 1859-

considerable results. Whilst the tide of emigration in the United
States rolls westward some 200 or 300 miles every year, we have
not been altogether idle north of the 49th parallel. It may now
almost be said that three links have been forged in the great chain
of regular communication from the Atlantic to the Pacific, stretch-
ing across some 3000 miles of continent.

*' Within the last two years an expedition has been sent out by
the Canadian Government to explore the country which lies be-
tween Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver settlement. The reports
of the expedition are in print, are accessible to every one, and
deserve an attentive consideration.

" From the Eed Eiver settlement to the base of the Eocky Moun-
tains Captain Palliser has conducted his inquiries ; and in the
wonderful rise of the new colony of British Columbia, may be traced
the completion, in outline at least, of the long line of communication.

" It is not now unreasonable to look forward to the establishment
of a regular system of transit, commencing from Nova Scotia and
the shores of New Brunswick, passing through Canada, touching
upon the Eed Eiver settlement, crossing the prairies of the Sas-
katchewan, passing through the Vermilion Pass, where we know
that the inclination is so moderate that nature has placed no in-
surmountable obstacles to the construction of a railway, till it
reaches the gold-bearing colony of British Columbia, creating fresh
centres of civilisation, and consolidating British interests and
feelings.

" It only remains for me to undertake that the Medal which
you have placed in my hands shall be duly conveyed to Captain
Palliser; and I feel sure that this tribute of praise on the part
of the Geographical Society will be held by him as the most
valuable memorial of his long, arduous, and successful expedition."

A Gold Watch having been adjudicated by the Council to Mr.
John Macdougall Stuart " for his remarkable exploration in South
Australia, undertaken at his own expense, and which led to the
signal discovery of 18,000 square miles of valuable and well-
watered pastoral country, far to the north of the western saline region
of that colony " —

The President, in delivering the watch to Count Strzelecki, thus
spoke : —

"To you. Count Strzelecki, who, at your own expense, and
animated solely by the love of discovery, explored many years ago
the water-parting of Eastern Australia, I confide this watch. In
requesting you to have it conveyed to Mr. Macdougall Stuart (who
was well trained in Australian adventure by our medallist Sturt),
I beg you to assure him, that I have read the modest account of
his gp'eat success with true gratification, and have rejoiced in the

May 23, 1859.] MR. J. M. STUART— ROYAL AWARDS. 223

hearty commendation bestowed upon his conduct by the Governor
of South Australia, Sir K. G. Macdonnell. The bold explorer will,
I have no doubt, consider this memento of our esteem to be much
enhanced by receiving it through the hands of so distinguished an
Australian traveller as yourself."

Count Strzelecki replied : —

" Sir Roderick, — I am deeply indebted to you, not only for the
flattering choice which you have made of me as the medium of
transmitting this award of the Council to Mr. Macdougall Stuart,
but also for the kind and courteous manner in which you have
commented upon the services rendered to geography by my fellow
Australian explorer.

" I need not assure you, Sir, that this mark of the approbation of
the Eoyal Geographical Society, whilst it stamps the value of the
journeys and important discoveries of Mr. Stuart, will be to him
both a proud memorial of those services, and a fresh stimulus to his
further exertions in the cause of geography."

( 224 ) [May 23, 1859.

ADDRESS

TO THE

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON;

Delivered at the Anniversary Meeting on the 2Srd May, 1859,
By Sir Roderick Impey Murchison,

G.'c.St.S., D.C.L., M.A., F.R.S., &C.,
PEESIDENT.

In mourning for the loss of the most illustrious geographer and
traveller of our age, I naturally open the Address to this Society by
laying before you a brief sketch of the career of Baron Alexander
von Humboldt, and by an effort, inadequate as it must be, to pay a
due tribute to the memory of him who, in the course of a long, well-
spent, and glorious life, has justly obtained the admiration of
mankind.

William and Alexander von Humboldt, the sons of a Major in the
Prussian service, were two as remarkable men as the last century
has produced ; the one a profound scholar and celebrated statesman,
the other our deceased associate.

Alexander, or, rather, Frederick Henry Alexander von Humboldt
was bom in the year 1769, so famous for the births of Napoleon,
Walter Scott, and Wellington. He owed his early sound educa-
tion to his mother, a relative of Princess Blticher. Being of
a weakly constitution when young, it appears, to use his own
words, that, with an improvement in his health, his mind was
suddenly illuminated, and that he was roused to endeavour to keep
pace with his brother William, who was two years older than
himself. The youths were first instructed at Berlin, in phi-
losophy, law, and statesmanship, by Engel, Klein, and Wohn ; and

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HUMBOLDT. 225

tlie eminent Willdenow, observing the love of the study of nature
in Alexander, initiated him in botany. Thus prepared, the two
brothers entered the University of Frankfort on the Oder, and
subsequently that of Gottingen, where they were taught by Heyne
and Eichhom, and where Alexander specially profited by the
lectures of that great zoologist, the striking and original Blumen-
bach. He next repaired to the Mining School of Freiberg, in 1791,
to complete that education which should qualify him for examin-
ing the earth, its constituent parts and superficial products. There
he met with Leopold von Buch, also a disciple of Werner, the
great geologist of the day, who, by his eloquent lectures, had given
an European character to that small but justly celebrated mining
school.

The friendship then formed between Humboldt and Von Buch was
kept up through life ; and it is highly to the credit of Werner and
his little mining school of Saxony, that he should have launched
two such men, — the one to become the greatest geologist which
Germany has produced, the other the most universal geographer,
traveller, and natural philosopher of this century. In their obser-
vations of nature, they both, however, soon emancipated themselves
from some of the untenable dogmas of their master. Honoured
as I have been in my humble career by the encouragement of both
these great men, I may be permitted to state that, as Von Buch
was the senior scholar at the Mining Academy of Freiberg, so he
seemed to preserve through life a commanding influence over his
illustrious friend on all those subjects connected with the structure
of the earth in which I have been most occupied. No two men
could be more dissimilar in character. Possessing a warm tem-
perament and a somewhat abrupt address, Leopold von Buch con-
trasted strongly with the bland and captivating Humboldt ; yet each
of these Freiberg scholars secured the sincere afiection as well as
admiration of their contemporaries in their respective careers
through life.

Whilst he held official appointments in the department of mines of
Prussia, and at Bayreuth and Anspach, Humboldt prepared his works
on the Fossil Flora, viz., the ' Flora Subterranea Freibergensis et
Aphorismi ex Physiologia Chemica Plantarum,' and the 'Floras
Freibergensis Prodromus.' Even as early as 1797 he showed the
great versatility of his powers by another work, on a very different
subject, ' The Nervous and Muscular Irritation of Animal Fibre,' due
to his intercourse with Galvani.

226 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

After the death of his accomplished mother, Humboldt began
to arrange the scheme of his future travels. His strong desire to
undertake these travels was, as he himself assures us, raised into a
passion by Forster, one of the companions of Cook in his voyage
round the world, and whose acquaintance the young Prussian scholar
had made at Gottingen, and with whom he made geological excur-
sions both in England and on the Ehine. And here I may state
that it is the opinion of the eminent geographer, Carl Eitter, as
expressed to me in a letter just received, that the whole of the
future life of Humboldt was powerfully influenced by the voyager
Forster, whose well-told tales of adventure first excited in his breast
that ardour for travel and research in the domains of nature which
characterised him ever after.

Studying meteorology in Paris, and collecting materials for the
purpose of explorations, he formed the acquaintance of his future
companion Aime Bonpland, with whom he was to have proceeded
in the expedition of Baudin, destined to survey South America.
But, impatient of the delays attendant on that French expedition,
he went to Madrid with his young botanical friend, to obtain
the royal Spanish authority for their exploration of South
America. After a short excursion to Egypt, they sailed in the
Spanish frigate Pizarro, which fortunately reached Cumana in
July, 1791 ; having visited Teneriffe and examined its wonders
by the way, and having almost miraculously escaped the British
cruisers.

I will not occupy your time by alluding to all the tracts in
South and Central America successively visited and explored by
Humboldt. Suffice it to say that, during four years of indefatigable
surveys and researches, including his daring voyages up the great
rivers Orinoco, Negro, and Amazon, he enriched science by his
numerous astronomical determinations, and observations on the
meteorological, botanical, zoological, mineralogical, geological, and
ethnological phenomena. The exploration of the course of the
Amazon was followed by his ascent of Chimborazo, where, at the
height of 19,300 feet, he and Bonpland made observations, not-
withstanding their great sufferings, caused by the rarefaction of
the atmosphere and the intensity of the cold. From Quito
and Peru he repaired to Mexico, making by the way obser-
vations on the narrowest portion of the isthmus which connects Cen-
tral with South America, which led him to entertain those ideas
on the practicability of an Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal in that paral-

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HUMBOLDT. 227

lei, to which the attention of this Society has been called on a
former occasion.

Returning to France from the United States in 1804, Paris was
his chief home from that year to 1827. Arranging there his splendid
collections, and surrounded and honoured by all the leading mem-
bers of the Academy of Sciences, he published successively that
series of volumes which, showing his mastery over all the kingdoms
of nature, have rendered his name famous for all ages. Although
in these efforts he was assisted by Arago, Gay Lussac, Cuvier,
Klaproth, Valenciennes, and Latreille, his grand generalizations
have drawn from his contemporaries the admission, that since Aris-
totle, Humboldt is almost the only example of such achievements.

In 1829, on the invitation of the Emperor Nicholas, who defrayed
the expenses of the journey, Humboldt, being then in his sixtieth
year, undertook his memorable expedition into Siberia, accompanied
by the eminent mineralogist Gustav Rose and the profound micro-
scopist Ehrenberg. This journey, hurried as it was — for he tra-
velled 11,500 miles — was not only fertile in those results which are
recorded in his * Asie Centrale,' and in the excellent mineralogical
work of his companion Eos6, but was also productive of many
important data relating to terrestrial magnetism.

We know, indeed, that his Siberian travels gave rise to that
influence, which was constantly exerted by him in succeeding years
in urging the various European Governments to establish magnetic
observations in distant lands, and particularly over wide regions in
Russia, America, and England. When the British Association inau-
gurated the formation of the Physical Observatory at Kew, which
has put forth such good fruits, we well know the strength we
obtained when we appealed to him; for then it was that he
vigorously maintained the necessity of rendering physical observa-
tories independent of astronomical observatories. We also know
how such physical observatories, both here and abroad, have enabled
our associate Sabine to investigate the laws of the magnetical
phenomena.

It is unnecessary that I should here mention all the publications
of Humboldt which have been prized by our generation. It is
enough to say that the same marvellous man, who made such
gigantic journeys in distant lands, and published splendid works
in illustration of them, has also produced, both in the French and
German languages, a variety of works on astronomy, on geology
(' Classification des Roches '), on the geographical distribution of

228 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRP^SS. [May 23, 1859.

plants, on the distribution of lieat in the globe, on electrical fishes,
and even on the political condition of Cuba.

His great work, 'Kosmos,' which it had been the main object
of his life to produce, shows what a profusion of clear recollections
of natural phenomena was stored up in his capacious mind, and with
what eloquence he could put forth that extraordinary knowledge.
To the first part of the last volume I specially called your atten-
tion at the preceding Anniversary, as in it the author had descended
from the heavens and atmosphere as treated of in his earlier
volumes, and dealt more specially with that planet to which my
own occupations have been restricted.

We have yet to receive the final instalment of the veteran philo-
sopher, and doubtless the veiy last words he wrote will be treasured
up and given to the world exactly as he left them. And if the pen
fell from his hand, leaving that last sentence unfinished, let no one
endeavour to complete it ; for the true peroration of this great work
will be found in the eulogiums which will everywhere be recited in
honour of its author.

As one of the first acts of the Council of this Society was to place
Humboldt at the head of our Honorary members, so he lost no
opportunity of testifying the deep interest which he took in our
welfare, often speaking of our volumes in terms of strong approba-
tion. Always regretting that his travels had not extended to Hin-
dostan and the Himalyan Mountains on the one hand, and to Africa
on the other, he ever strove to promote researches in both these
regions.

In his ' Asie Centrale ' we perceive how sedulously he had studied
the works of every geographer and traveller which had shed light
upon the configuration, direction, and altitude of the great chains
which traverse Asia; the labours of all our English authors and
explorers of the great Himalya range being thoroughly well known
to him. Panting to obtain an insight into the regions lying to the
north of that chain, it was through his stimulus that the expedition
of the brothers Schlagintweit was organized, and through his influ-
ence that these young men, whose scientific acquirements he highly
valued, were sent to push their researches farther to the north than
previous explorers. The delight which he took in their progress
was seen in the warm and aifectionate commendation he bestowed on
them for traversing the Kuen Lun and reaching the Trans-Himalyan
region of Yarkand. I can also well imagine the profound sorrow
he must have felt when Adolphe Schlagintweit, the one of these

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HUMBOLDT. 229

three brothers who has fallen a victim to his zeal, was assassinated
before the walls of Kashgar ; all his valuable observations and papers
being lost with the death of the courageous traveller.

Keenly intent upon every exploration of the interior of Africa,
Humboldt was naturally proud that his countrymen Overweg and
Barth should successively have distinguished themselves in the
British expedition which commenced under the guidance of Eichard-
son, and it was mainly through his exertions that the accomplished
young astronomer Vogel was added to the list of those who were
endeavouring to define the geography and condition of inner Africa.

That Humboldt lived unto his ninetieth year is chronicled ; but
knowing well his habits, I may be permitted to say that in reality he
lived upwards of a century : for, whilst the average daily amount of
sleep of man is seven or eight hours, the rest he took from his
earliest youth never exceeded four hours ; all his waking moments
being so vigorously and profitably employed as virtually to constitute
a century of highly-strung mental existence.

Though he was a good listener, and a clear questioner whenever
he sought to obtain knowledge from others (which, by the bye, he
never forgot), it may be also said of him that in his long career he
talked more than any one of his contemporaries with whom I
have been acquainted. His correspondence was particularly ex-
tensive, and the piles of letters which he had to answer almost
overpowered him. And yet a few months before his death he not
only took the trouble of replying to many of his old scientific cor-
respondents, but I have before me the copy of a long and kind letter
which he wrote last year to our worthy associate Mr. John Brown,
with whom he was personally unacquainted, thanking him for the
present of his volume on ' Arctic Discoveries.'

Nor is it to be forgotten that he took particular delight in con-
versing with women, and that he was a great favourite with them ;
his soft voice and persuasive diction, in which he conveyed instruc-
tion without hard words or ostentation, being peculiarly grateful
to the gentler sex, to say nothing of that piquant and good-
humoured irony in which lie frequently indulged.

But it was not merely by his kind courtesy and correspondence
that Humboldt won the affectionate attachment of mankind. He
was invariably the ardent and disinterested promoter of merit
and desert, under whatever form they were presented to him.
Every young man struggling with difficulties, who had shown
signs of energy in the cause of science, was sure to find in him a zeal-

230 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

OTIS and generous protector.* Thus, as it was the constant practice
of his life to spare no trouble in sustaining those who had need of
support, his loss will be deeply felt by men of science, art, and
letters, not only in Germany, but throughout the civilized world.

During the career of the illustrious traveller, we know that he
paid many visits to England, one of the first of which was in
1799, when he became acquainted with Eobert Brown, and to this
event I shall allude in speaking of that great botanist, for whom
he had the sincerest regard. It was, indeed, one of his many
good acts, that he induced the King of Prussia to bestow on that
Robert Brown, so little known to public men in England, the high
honour of the Order of Merit.

When in England in 1826, though then only fifty-seven, he
had been before the world as a celebrated author during so many
years that he was already looked upon as becoming old. But
from that date he was destined to play for thirty-three years a new
and, in many respects, a more important part. In 1827 he took up
his residence in Berlin, and soon became a favourite of Frederick
William III., and afterwards of the present Sovereign of Prussia.
There are those, I know, who have regretted that the philo-
sopher was thus converted into the courtier, but this opinion
has no good foundation. In truth, he found in King Fre-
derick William IV. a reciprocity of sentiment and a love of
knowledge which might, with his influence, be turned to great
advantage in the encouragement of all those who were busily
engaged in the pursuit of scientific researches, and most efficaciously
and warmly did Humboldt work on in this praiseworthy career.
Impressed with the strong desire to aid every meritorious man
of science, he was indeed fortunate in being the bosom friend of a
warm-hearted Monarch, who invariably responded to his call. No
one who has witnessed the free and unreserved converse between
Humboldt and his Sovereign could fail to be convinced, that he

* Whilst these pages were passing through the press, I perused in the * Boston Weekly-
Courier ' of the 26th May the eulogy of Humboldt, read before the American Academy of
Sciences by my eminent friend Agassiz, informing the* public how, at a critical period in
his youthful days, when fi-om want of means he was about to leave Paris, the young natu-
ralist was unexpectedly relieved by a liberal donative from the great traveller, sent to him
in the most delicate manner, and was thus enabled to continue studies without which his
career might have been nipped in the bud. After an eloquent analysis of the various works
and generalisations of the deceased, and a warm encomium of his deep-searching volume,
the ' Views of Nature,' Agassiz says with truth, — " Every child in our schools has his
mind fed from the labours of Humboldt's brain wherever geography is no longer taught in
the old routine." — June 15, 1859.

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HUMBOLDT. 231-

never played the courtier's part but in the hearty desire of attaining-
some good and noble end. His liberal opinions were indeed so well
known, that an occasional witty sarcasm on any monarchical abuse
was tolerated in him as coming from one who, he himself said,
was styled a French Jacobin.

Visiting Prussia in 1840, eleven years after the Siberian journey
of Humboldt, and repeating my visits in each following year whilst.
I was exploring a great part of the empire of Eussia, I invariably
received from him the most important suggestions, as well as the
most marked attentions. The great traveller, having performed his
long journey in an incredibly short time, was well aware that he
had done little more than sketch out broad views of the geography,
natural history, ethnography, and terrestrial magnetism of the vast
regions over which he had passed, and consequently he much de-
sired that other men should solve various problems which he had
only time to touch. One of the largest of these problems that re-
mained to be worked out was the geological structure of Eussia ;
and when he saw the determination of my associate, De Verneuil,
and myself to endeavour to elaborate the true geological succession
of Eussia in Europe and the Ural Mountains, he took especial
pleasure in assisting us. In saying to me, " You will now be abla
to tell us the true age in the geological series of those sandstones
which occupy so vast a region in the ancient kingdom of Permia,"
he gave me the first impulse to pursue researches in several of the
distant provinces of Eussia which ended in the establishment of
the Permian group of rocks, as the youngest of the palaeozoic for-
mations, and in my attaching to it a name which has now become
current in science.

Again, in his luminous conversation and writings on the great
Aralo-Caspian depression of the earth's surface, he stimulated me to
those endeavours which showed how in that vast low region, the
physical geography of which he had described so well, the geologist
could bring forth evidences of a transition from a lacustrine con-
dition, through a brackish water period, into one of purely marine
conditions.

With his views on the grandeur of the phenomena by which many
ancient igneous rocks, differing from the eruptions of mere volcanos,
have been extruded from fissures in the crust of the earth, and have
been spread out over vast spaces, I agree, in common with his
eminent friend M. Elie de Beaumont, as shown in my last Anniver-
sary Address. Assuredly no man of his generation had seen more of

VOL. III. T

232^ SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

volcanic rocks tlian Humboldt, and his judgment on this point
must be viewed with profound respect.

During my last conversation with him at Potsdam, in Sep-
tember, 1857, I grieved to see that his physical powers had
become much feebler in the lapse of a year, and that he was under
the necessity of leaning on his servant as he walked. And when to
my sorrow I also perceived that the health of the Sovereign of all
others who so heartily cherished the cultivators of science and
letters was failing, and that this change was making a deep impres-
sion on Humboldt, I feared that I might never more converse with
the illustrious man. But whilst the frame was gradually bending
and giving way, the bright intellect continued clear to the last ; and
one of his letters, which was written to me only a few weeks ago,
exhibited the same suggestive mind and active interest in obtaining
knowledge as in the best days of his bodily vigour.

One of these precious letters received last summer displays that love
of youthful persons by which Humboldt was always characterized.
The joy which the veteran philosopher experienced on possessing
" cette patience de vivre " (as he termed his long life) which had
enabled him to witness the happy union of the eldest daughter of
our beloved Sovereign with the heir to the crown of Prussia, and
to join in welcoming the accomplished Princess Royal to Prussia,
is expressed in terms which showed how justly he estimated the
influence which her graceful and captivating manners, and her
good sense and right feeling, must produce upon the nation of her
adoption. Even in the very last letter which I received from my
illustrious friend, dated the 15th of last March, though it chiefly
related to the means of facilitating the investigations of a Prussian
traveller, from Tunis southwards, into the wilds of North Africa,
there is a strong and warm expression of the gratification which he
had felt in having lived to be present at the baptism of the first child
of the Prince and Princess Frederick William, and of his conviction
that his happiness was shared by all good Prussians.

This was, I apprehend, the last public ceremony ^t which Hum-
boldt assisted. The lines with which he concludes his letter are
penned with a tremulous hand, and in reply to my inquiry after his
health he writes : " Mes forces musculaires reviennent tr^s lente-
*' ment, et je souff're sous le poids d'une correspondance de 1800
" a 2000 lettres et paquets par an. Une sorte de cel^brite qui
" se repand avec I'age, et s'augmente a mesure que Ton devient
V imbecile."

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HUMBOLDT. 233

.' Valuing the knowledge I obtained personally from him, and
the hearty kindness and zeal with which he uniformly aided me,
I would that it were in my power to render ampler justice to so
great and so good a man. But many of the works of Humboldt,
particularly his records of the physical phenomena of the universe,
lie beyond the critical scope of a geologist like myself. These
works will doubtless be crowned with appropriate laurels by those
who can duly scan their lofty merits. My humble offering comes
from one who, profoundly admiring the works of this great philo-
sopher which lie in his own line of research, will ever be proud of
the recollection that he was encouraged in his career by the truly
illustrious Humboldt.*

All praise to the gallant and intellectual nation to which he
belonged for the respect and love which they bore to him through
life, and for the profound sorrow which they testified on his decease.
Never probably was the body of any man followed to the grave with
deeper and more touching respect, nor by a larger number of people
of all classes, from the Regent and Prince Royal of Prussia and the
other members of the Royal Family to the humblest citizen.
And when the account of his last moments was conveyed to the
Monarch whom he had so long and so faithfully served, I feel con-
vinced that the oppression of mind caused by a severe malady would
be dissipated, and that all the affectionate recollections of the bene-
volent Sovereign were revived, as he wailed over the death of his
bosom friend.

When presiding over this Society in the year 1853, I opened my
Address by lamenting the death of the great Prussian palaeontologist
and geographical geologist, Leopold von Buch, and said that " in
losing him we were left almost alone with Humboldt as the last of
that race of philosophical generalizers who are capable of placing
before us in one work all the natural features and contents of a vast
region."

It was on that occasion that the deepest feelings of Humboldt were
poured forth in a letter in which he announced to me his irrepar-
able loss. " Suis je destine," he wrote, '*moi vieillard de 83 ans,

* Among the numerous portraits of Humboldt, there is no one which comes so home to
the geographer as that little sketch of the veteran who, seated in his cabinet, is surrounded
by his books, packets of correspondence, and the map of the world which he had so illus-
trated. In the corner of this coloured lithograph is his own affirmation that this is " Ein
treues Bild meines Arbeits Zimmers als ich den zweiten Theil der Kosmos schrieb." A
very striking little photograph of him, the last likeness which was taken, has been sent me
by the brothers Schlagintweit, who were with him just before his last illness, and to whom
he granted this favour.

T 2

234 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

de vous annoncer, clier Chevalier, la plus affligeante des nouvelles, a
vous pour lequel M. de Buch. professait une si tendre amitie, k ce
grand nombre d'admirateurs de son genie, de ses immenses travaux,
de son noble caractere." Then, after describing tbe course of tbe
malady wliich caused the death of the great geologist, and recapi-
tulating their long and unvarying intimacy during 63 years, Hum-
boldt adds : —

" Ce n'etait pas seulement une des grandes illustrations de notre
^poque, c'etait aussi une ^me noble et belle ! II a laisse une trace
lumineuse partout oii il a passe. Lui pourroit se vanter d'avoir enor-
mement etendu les limites de la science geologique, toujours en
contact avec la Nature meme. Ma douleur est profonde : sans lui je
me crois bien isole ; je le consultai comme un maitre, et son affection
m'a soutenu dans mes travaux."

Expanding the term " geological science " into " all science," let
these his own lines, penned in the moment of grief for the loss of
his most valued friend, be applied by geographers to the memory of
the great man himself, whom we all consulted as a master, and we •
then have in his own emphatic words the true characteristics of the
universal Humboldt.

The Archduke John of Austria. — The last surviving brother of
the Emperor Francis, the beloved " Unser Franz " of every Austrian,
has paid the debt of nature at the good old age of seventy-seven.
One of nine brothers, most of whom were distinguished for their
acquaintance with the sciences, and one of whom — the Archduke
Charles — was the able opponent of Napoleon in the art of war, our
deceased foreign member may, without any flattery, be singled cut-
as a Prince who, loving geographical science, was at the same time
an accomplished mineralogist and botanist, and who has passed a
life so full of good deeds, that his memory will ever be cherished
throughout Germany.

Brought up as a soldier to oppose the armies of revolutionary
France, the Archduke was eminently successful when, leading the
faithful Tyrolese, he commanded the army of Italy, which, in'
1809, defeated the Yiceroy Eugene Beauharnais at Sacile, on the;
Licenza (n.n.e. of Venice), and forced him back to the Adige, after
a heavy loss. Then followed a short period of glory for Austria ; for
though Napoleon was master of the city of Vienna, he lost his
prestige in the sanguinary repulse which the Archduke Charles in-
flicted on him at Aspem ; and the Austrian capital was so crowded
with wounded and dying French soldiers, that, if not reinforced

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— ARCHDUKE JOHN OF AUSTRIA. 235

by some extraordinary intervention, it is quite possible that Vienna
in 1809 might have been to the great captain what Moscow was to
him in 1813. Unfortunately for the Austrian cause, the Archduke
John had before this been ordered to retire from the north of
Italy, and to unite with the main army near the metropolis.

Every old soldier knows what must have been the effect of such a
command on a hitherto successful army, which was ordered to
retreat over the parched plains of Italy, and then through moun-
tainous tracts, for a vast distance.

Losing the heavy train and guns of a noble army of 40,000 to
50,000 men, he eventually reached Presburg on the Danube with
scarcely the half of that number. But whilst this was the poor
relief brought to the left flank of the Austrian army, what was the
reinforcement which the Emperor of the French received in Vienna ?
Why, that of the very generals and soldiers who had been held
at bay by the Austrians in Italy. These were now converted into a
triumphant advancing force, which, when led by Macdonald,
enabled Napoleon to win the hard-fought day of Wagram.

Singularly modest, he never spoke of his own conduct; but,
extracting information from those who had been his companions
during those terrible campaigns, I firmly believe that when the
truth is ascertained, the deceased Archduke will be entirely exo-
nerated from the blame, attributed to him by historians, of not
having promptly aided his brother Charles in the battle of Wagram ;
the fact being that the counter-orders sent to him prevented his
coming up till the main Austrian army was in full retreat.

Naturally disappointed and disgusted at the results of a war
which had humbled Austria after her heroic efforts, the Archduke
betook himself to those mountains of the Styrian Alps where I first
made his acquaintance, when exploring their defiles in 1829 in com-
pany with Professor Sedgwick. At his favourite Bad-Gastein he
welcomed us with frankness and cordiality, and after a table d'hote
dinner at mid-day, where ministers, generals, and geologists, were
all commingled, we made a most enjoyable excursion to the foot of
the snow-covered peaks which the Prince had ascended, and of which
he gave us minute mineral descriptions. Never shall I forget the
joyous conversation he maintained, always full of noble and liberal
sentiments, until late in a fine starry, moonlight night we regained
our hostelry. Nor can I be oblivious of the kindness with which
on another day, just after sunrise, he laid out upon the floor of
his little bed-room at the curate's house a large and detailed map
of all parts of the Austrian Alps, and how we went upon ouij

236 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

knees with himself whilst we examined upon the map every recess
of those mountains.

In the following year, being at Vienna when the present Emperor
was born, I met with marked attention from the Archduke John,
who was the chief of the Engineer corps ; but it was on revisiting
Gratz, where I had been in the previous year, that I best learnt
how to admire him. There it was that he had already established
that scientific institution, the Johanneum, in which the natural
history productions of the Austrian Alps were so admirably dis-
played, and where able men, attracted thither by the good Prince,
expounded the truths of geography, botany, mineralogy, and mining.

It is enough to say that here taught and wrote my eminent
and valued friend Haidinger, now worthily at the head of the
geologists of Austria, who took a leading part in founding the
Imperial Geographical Society, and who is constantly affording us
valuable information. It was by visiting the valleys of those
Alps in these and subsequent years, where the industry of the
honest and trusty Styrian works the iron-mines, that I could still
better estimate the noble and disinterested character of this true-
hearted Austrian Prince.

Visiting him at Frankfort in 1848, when he was Eeichs-verweser
of the German Confederation, and calling on him at his first and
only hour of leisure, six in the morning, I learnt from himself
that he sighed to regain those mountains amidst which I had known
him to be so happy. Thither he did return, and there ended his days
in the society of the wife of his choice, and blessed with an accom-
plished and promising son, the Count de Meran, now in the Aus-
trian army.

The Archduke John, who had visited England and remained some
time in the year 1816, had a true regard for many of our country-
men with whom he associated ; and of those now living, I have
especially heard him speak in affectionate terms of that pattern of
an English gentleman, our associate. Sir Thomas Dyke Acland.

As not only Austria but all Germany mourns his loss, so your
President, who was honoured with his friendship, has striven to
do honour to this virtuous and distinguished member of the Imperial
house of Hapsburg.

M. Gerold Meyer, of Knonau, the noted Swiss historian and
geographer, who died recently, was one of our foreign Corre-
spondents. Being the keeper of the archives of Zurich, so rich
in the original documents relating to the history of Switzerland
from the ninth to the fifteenth centuiy, he detected letters which

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— MEYER— BROWN. 237

Some English readers will find an interest in perusing, viz., the
correspondence of our Elizabethan divines with the Swiss reformers,
which will, I understand, be published by the Parker Society under
the name of Zurich Letters. M. Meyer was the author of the
* Erdkunde der Schweiz,' and the projector of, as well as largely a
contributor to, that instructive work the 'Gemalde der Schweiz,*
of which nineteen volumes have been published.

Egbert Brown. — At the head of the men of British science who
have been taken from us since the last Anniversary, I at once place
the name of that eminent Scotchman, Eobert Brown, who, having
earned for himself the title of the " Prince of Botanists," had won,
at the same time, our kindest remembrance for having taken an
active part in the foundation of this Society.

Born at Montrose in 1773 (his father being the Episcopalian
minister of that place), young Brown there received his early
education, which was completed by a course of studies in the
Universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. From 1795 to 1799 he
served as assistant-surgeon, with the rank of ensign, in a Eegiment
of Scottish Fencibles ; and it was in the last-mentioned year (after
the Irish Eebellion was quelled) that, during a leave of absence,
he was kindly befriended by Sir Joseph Banks, who shortly after
proposed to him to become the naturalist of that world-wide
scientific expedition which, sailing in 1801, and returning in
1805, enabled our deceased member to make collections, dis-
coveries, and comparisons in Australia and other distant lands,
which threw an entirely new light on the geographical distribu-
tion of vegetable life.

As the late President of the Eoyal Society has already pointed the
attention of men of science to the chief works of Eobert Brown,
and as, doubtless, his memory will be still more minutely scanned
by the President of the Linnean Society, of which body he was the
main-stay for many years — whether as Librarian, Secretary, Vice-
President, or President — it is unnecessary that I should on this
occasion enumerate all those publications on which his fame rests.
For these works he received numerous distinctions, having been
elected an honorary member of every academy in Europe, including
that eminent scientific honour, of being one of the eight Foreign
Associates of the French Academy of Sciences ; whilst he had also
received from the Eoyal Society the highest distinction of that body
— the Copley Medal.

In reference to our own Society, let me say that, in 1830,

238 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Eobei-t Brown, who was a constant attendant at tlie Ealeigh
Club of Travellers, united with Sir John Barrow, Mr. Hobhouse
(now Lord Broughton), Mr. Bartholomew Frere, myself, and
other members of that club, in drawing out rules and a plan
for the establishment of a projected Eoyal Geographical Society.
For this purpose we held several meetings as a provisional com-
mittee, at all of which Mr. Brown was present. We also printed
documents explanatory of our project, which were duly circulated,
including the laws which still regulate the Society, and which, on
my own proposal, were essentially those of the Geological Society.*
As no words of mine can do sufficient justice to the merits of a
man whose eulogy has been, or will be, chaunted by all the eminent
botanists of the age, I willingly extract some sentences of a letter
which I received a few months ago from Baron Humboldt, who,
after alluding in feeling terms to the death of his former companion
Bonpland, and to the oldest of the three (himself) being left alone,
thus speaks of our deceased member : — " The enormous loss of
" Eobert Brown is perhaps more deeply felt in Germany and
" other countries than in England. It was the protection af-
" forded to me as early as 1799 by Sir Joseph Banks which first
*' made me acquainted with that Eobert Brown who afterwards
*' gave so vast an impulse to the three great objects which must for
" ever remain attached to his name — the minute development of
** the relations of organization in natural families, the geography
*' of plants, and the estimate of their numerical proportions. The
*' physiology of plants, and an elaborate dissection of them, con-
*' stituted invariably with him the foundation of all systematic
*' botany. In short, Bonpland, Kiinth, and my self had the happiness
*' in 1822 thus to dedicate to him our ' Synopsis of the Equinoctial
»' Plants of the New World : '—

"Roberto Brownio

Britanniarum Glorise atque Ornamento

Totam Botanices Scientiam

Ingenio mirifico complectenti."

These remarkable words, coming from such a source, and consti-
tuting an epitaph which should be inscribed on the tomb of the

* It is here my duty to state that of which I was unaware when the Society was founded,
that another individual had early in 1830 not only sketched out the establishment of a Geogra-
phical Society like our own, but had enrolled in it many names. That person was my esteemed
and distinguished predecessor, Admiral W, H. Smyth, whose services to us were afterwards
tested by the skill and zeal with which he administered our affairs ; and who, by giving a new
impetus to us when we were in a declining state (1849), was really the renovator of our body.

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— BROWN. 239

great botanist, were written seventeen years before be received tbe
highest honour of the Royal Society, and thirty-six years before his
decease.

The truth of the above-mentioned remark of Humboldt, that the
loss of Eobert Brown has been more felt in Germany and other
countries than in England, has very recently been realised by the
publication of an eloquent eloge of the deceased by his great
German botanical contemporary, our associate Dr. Ch. von Martius,
of Munich, who opens his essay by declaring that, next to Linnaeus,
the three other names ever to be memorable in the history of botany
are those of Jussieu, De Candolle, and Brown.

Eeferring my hearers to the full translation of this treatise * for the
clearest definitions of the researches and discoveries of the deceased,
in establishing the surest foundations of phytogeography, as de-
pendent on the morphology, development, geography, statistics,
and history of plants, let me cite one or two sentences from the
essay of the eminent Bavarian : —

** Not one of those essential parts of the plant on whose manifold
forms and combinations depends the glorious wealth of the vege-
table kingdom was passed over by the searching eye of Eobert
Brown. From the microscopic germ of the moss and the vegetable
ovule to the flower ; from the stamen and its pollen to the carpel
and the fruit, he examined and compared all the organs in plants, of
the most diverse orders, and in all stages of development.

" Governed by the deepest sense of natural truth and natural
relations, he established the soundest views upon the nature and
developmental history of these organs. Thus he vastly contributed
to the consolidation of that theory (morphology) which gives to
systematic botany its true claim to rank among the sciences.

" In these morphological researches of Eobert Brown there was a
peculiar affinity to the spirit of the Germans, and thus this is a
deep-rooted cause of the powerful influence which he has exerted
upon botany in our country."

After a lucid and critical review of his scientific labours. Dr. von
Martius passes to the consideration of what he justly terms the
fairest and most glorious aspect of the man — his moral nature.
And here, together with all my countrymen who knew Eobert
Brown, I can bear witness that our foreign contemporary has
struck the right note when he thus speaks : —

* See * Annals, of Natui-al History,' vol. iii. p. 231.

240 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

*' Robert Brown was a truly great and good man. Love of truth
above all things, calmness, sincerity, modesty, tender sensibility,
and goodness of heart — these features of his character stood con-
stantly under the government of a penetrating and massive judg-
ment. So energetically did these characteristics regulate his
activity as inquirer and author, that we may affirm that every
act of his investigations, and every assertion in his writings, bear
the stamp of this perfectly-balanced character.

"It is indeed often the case that an extraordinary intellect rests,
like a column, upon a slender moral foundation ; but Robert Brown's
rose, like a pyramid, from a broad and strong base. In recognition
of this worthy combination, all naturalists offered admiration to his
intellect — to his character, reverence and love."

" It has been thought strange," continues Dr. von Martins, " that
a man of such extraordinary scientific importance, to whom the
homage of the world was offered, played no prominent part in
public life, or in the brilliant society of London."

On this last point I may, however, say that, although my deceased
friend communicated much pleasure to others when surrounded by
a small social circle, he had little relish for fashionable or political
society. Still it is deeply to be regretted, that those who occupy
lofty stations in our land should not have better appreciated so re-
markable a countryman. Indeed, I cannot forget the remark made
to me by Humboldt when, in 1842, in accompanying the King
of Prussia to England, he honoured me by meeting the " Princeps
Botanicorum" at my own house, "that it was painful to him to find
that a man of such true eminence as Robert Brown was almost
ignored among the higher circles of English society."

I may state that, in the latter years of his life, this great bo-
tanist devoted much of his time to the minute examination of
those fossil plants, the structure of which is admirably exhibited
by having been preserved in crystalline matrices, siliceous or calca-
reous ; and he spared no expense in having these specimens so cut
and polished as to facilitate the endeavours of his successors to
follow up a line of research in which he modestly styled himself
only a pioneer.* For, although he had established some of the

* His highly instructive collection of fossil plants has been bequeathed by Mr. Brown
to the British Museum, on the condition of the Trustees allowing it to form part of the
Botanical Exhibition, under the charge of the Keeper of Botany. This provision has been
complied with ; and the collection, as well as the inimitable portfolios of the drawings of
Ferdinand R. Bauer, also left to the Trustees, are now under the charge of Robert Brown's
valued friend, Mr. John Bennett, his successor as Keeper of Botany in the British Museum.

•May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— BROWN-HALLAM. " " 241

noblest generalizationB in the relations and classification of living
plants, he was much too sagacious and circumspect to pronounce
hastily on the affinities between the lapidified, extinct groups of vege-
tables and those which now prevail.

Those persons who, like myself, were intimately acquainted with
this distinguished and benevolent man, can testify that in every
action of his life he preserved the most scrupulous rectitude of
conduct, dictated by the sincerest love of truth ; * and that, when-
ever occasion required, he gave ample proofs of a lofty and inde-
pendent spirit. No event within my recollection called forth, in a
more marked manner, his love of independence, than when, in the
year 1830, a great majority of the men of science having publicly
expressed a wish that Sir John Herschel should become the Presi-
dent of the Eoyal Society, a Prince of the blood royal was proposed
in opposition to the man of our choice. Then it was that, co-
operating with my deceased friend, I saw the influence produced
upon my associates by the honest and unflinching exertions of this
respected leader in science. The result of that struggle, as is well
known, was the election of the Duke of Sussex by a small majority ;
whilst it is a fact highly creditable to the memory of that kind-
hearted and accomplished Prince, that he subsequently lost no
opportunity of paying marked attention to those Fellows of the
Society who had conscientiously supported his opponent, at the head
of whom stood Robert Brown. In truth, his Eoyal Highness, to his
great honour, farther distinguished himself, in the year 1838, by
welcoming Herschel on his return from the Cape, and by presid-
ing over the entertainment given to that great astronomer by 400
men of science, at which I had the honour of acting as a vice-presi-
dent in union with Eobert Brown.

As an attached friend of the dying philosopher, it was my privi-
lege to witness how his noble, calm, and unruffled spirit was
preserved to the last ebb of life ; and it was a sad but gratifying
solace to me, that I was one of those of his scientific associates who,
well knowing how to estimate the value of the man, had the privi-
lege of following to the grave the remains of the truly illustrious
Eobert Brown.

Hallam. — The celebrated historian, Henry Hallam, has gone
from among us, full of years and of honour. Many an abler pen than

* My friend Dr. Fitton also possesses a letter from Baron Humboldt to himself, in which
the gi-eat traveller, besides an enumeration of the works of Robert Brown, also dilates on
his many private virtues, as well as on the simplicity of his character.

242 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

mine will, doubtless, pay just tributes to bis memory, tbougb no
one of his friends entertained a deeper regard for him than myself.

Disdaining to court popularity, and dealing sternly with those
whose writings or conduct savoured of untruthfulness, he possessed
at the same time as kind and as genial a nature as it was ever my
good fortune to estimate. Admiring his character throughout no
short space of time, I can fairly say that with everj' year my respect
for him increased. Whether I watched him and felt for him when
his strong mind was bowed down by those domestic afflictions which
succeeded each other in so lamentable a manner, or when, rising out
of his sorrows, he poured forth his terse and forcible conversation,
and was the charm of that social circle in which he shone, even
amidst such contemporaries as Sydney Smith or Samuel Eogers ; in
every trait of his life he won my regard, and invariably impressed
me with the sincerest esteem for his whole character.

Having gained a wide renown as a man of letters, Mr. Hallam
had a real pleasure during the last quarter of a century in upholding
and supporting all those branches of knowledge, whether in science
or in art, which elevate humanity. Thus reverting to the mathe-
matical pursuits he had cultivated at Cambridge, he was elected
a Fellow of the Eoyal Society in 1821 ; and seeing how the then
new science of geology was opening out great and fundamental truths
of nature, he also willingly joined the Geological Society. In 1830
he was one of those who founded the Eoyal Geographical Society,
and having been more than once upon our Council, he invariably
afforded us his warmest support, and has often spoken to me in
commendation of our Journal.

Among the numerous honours which were deservedly heaped
upon him by the various academies of Europe, there was no disr
tinction which Mr. Hallam justly valued more, than that of being
selected as the Historiographer of the Eoyal Academy of Arts of
this metropolis. Succeeded as he has worthily been in that post by my
eminent friend Mr. Grote, I may here be permitted to quote a few
words of the eloquent eulogium which at the last anniversary fes-
tival of the Eoyal Academy fell from the lips of the author of the
' History of Greece,' as illustrative of the character of his great
predecessor : —

" There lives in his chapters a conscientious sense of the almost
judicial obligation of an historian, the obligation of studying with
care original and contemporary authorities, but at the same time of
rising above contemporary prejudices, and of judging with equitable

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— HALL AM— THE EARL OF RIPON. 243

independence the ever-renewed and ever- varying party-conflicts in
history. I know no compositions in which these first conditions
of historical worth, copious original research, and equitable cri-
ticism, are more constantly combined than in those of Mr. Hallam.
And it is, in my judgment, an additional merit that his History is
devoted to the gown rather than to the sword ; that he has left to
others the exciting tales of battles and sieges, of exhibitions of
armed force, either in strategic movement or tumultuous outbreak —
pugnas et exactos tyrannos — which have always charmed the popular
mind in description, however distressing they may have been, in
the reality, to the generations that underwent them. Mr. Hallam
has set before us the energies of the unarmed citizen ; the pacific
manifestations of the human mind, in its legal and institutional
development ; in philosophy, literature, and poetry ; and though
last, not least, in those Fine Arts which form the collective bond of
sympathy among the present company. To succeed to an historian
who to these literary accomplishments added all the social excel-
lences of an English gentleman, is a distinction of which any living
author may be proud."

As a Trustee of the British Museum, Mr. Hallam 's just apprecia-
tion of works of ancient art, and his thorough acquaintance with the
rarest books, were combined in him with the soundest judgment in
the management of the establishment ; and when his last illness fell
upon him, and deprived the Board of his solid advice, every trustee
felt that he had lost the invaluable support of a just and enlightened
associate.

The chronicler who may endeavour to render justice to the
memory of the deceased will necessarily dwell upon those records
of the Middle Ages which demonstrate how our liberties arose, and
then follow out the processes by which our freedom was consoli-
dated and maintained, as put forth in that noble work ' The Con-
stitutional History of England,' which breathes such a racy love of
free and well-balanced institutions.

It is my humbler province only to indite these few lines expressive
of my admiration of the scholar and historian who was an honour
to our age, and to record with just pride that I had the privilege of
enjoying the personal friendship of the great, good, and virtuous
Henry Hallam.

The Earl of Eipon. — In continuing this Address as usual with
some allusions to the Fellows of our Society who have been taken
from us in the past year, I will not endeavour to put before you a

244 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859,

chronicle of the progress of each person through life, but simply
dwell on those circumstances which connect that individual with
our geogi-aphical pursuits, accompanied by a very brief sketch of
his public character.

In alluding to public men, I naturally first notice the career of
the patriotic and accomplished nobleman, our first President, the
Earl of Eipon, who, having reached his seventy-seventh year, died
in January last. Entering into public life in 1804, and into Par-
liament in 1806, Lord Eipon was connected by official duties with
the successive Governments of the Duke of Portland, Lord Liver-
pool, Lord Castlereagh, and Mr. Canning, and on the death of the
last of these statesmen was, when Yiscount Goderich, for a brief
space the Premier. Subsequently he joined the Ministry of Earl
Grey, and was Secretary for the Colonies at the time when, at the
request of some of the founders of this Society, he became our first
President. During the period of his Presidency he never failed to
take a lively interest in our welfare ; but feeling that the duties
attached to an important office in the State were incompatible with
a due attendance to our concerns, he relinquished the office into the
hands of his friend Sir John Barrow, who had, in fact, taken an
active part in inducing his Lordship to become our leader.

Though the late Lord Eipon retired from office in 1834, yet on
the return of Sir Eobert Peel in 1841 he undertook first the Presi-
dency of the Board of Trade, and afterwards that of the Board of
Control, which last place he held until the dissolution of Peel's
Government in 1846, when he retired from public life.

In this last official post Lord Eipon showed an anxious desire to
promote, by every means in his power, the advancement of scientific
and useful researches in the interior of India, as I can testify ; for
upon my representing to him the great advantage which would
accrue from selecting by preference those medical students who had
received a good scientific education for Indian service, he willingly
nominated as an assistant-surgeon the son of my venerated friend
Dr. John Fleming the celebrated Scottish naturalist, and Dr. Andrew
Fleming has since well requited his Lordship's aid by arduous geo-^
logical and other researches.

Though it is not within my province to trace the public life of
the late Lord Eipon, still it is very gratifying to me to be able
to say that he was invariably and intimately connected with all
the liberal parliamentary measures which were passed during his
official career. Thus, whether we turn to the long debates which

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— THE EARL OF RIPON— WARBURTON. , 24j5

.led to the emancipation of tlie Catholics, the abolition of the Slave
Trade, the repeal of the Corn Laws and of the Test and Corporation
Acts, and even to the Eeform Bill itself — to one and all of these
national enactments he gave his steady support. He was, indeed,
mainly instrumental in propounding one of those great questions —
a change of the Corn Laws — to the House of Commons, and finally
he carried another (the Abolition of Slavery) through the House of
Peers.

Of our first President let me also say, that in the last years of his
life he was specially exempt from that failing — the passion for
worldly distinctions — which, usually increasing with advancing
years, has of late prodigiously increased. For although he might
surely have obtained the honourable distinction of a broad riband
at the hands of his Sovereign for his long public services, he never
sought it, but lived on unostentatiously and happily in the bosom
of his attached family, and surrounded by friends who best knew
how to appreciate his private worth and public virtue.

Warburton. — In the decease of Mr. Henry Warburton I have
lost one of my earliest geological friends, to whom I was indebted
for much sound advice and assistance when I first wielded the
hammer of the geologist, and became an author.

Mr. Warburton, who had received a good classical and mathe-
matical education at Cambridge, where he was distinguished, de-
voted himself much to the pursuits of physical science. At the
early age of twenty-four, and in the year 1809, he became a member
of the Royal Society. Joining the Geological Society in 1803, or
soon after its foundation, we find that in the year 1814 he was
already one of its secretaries, his friend WoUaston being then also
upon the Council, and in 1816 he became a Vice-President of the same
body. When the Geological Society acquired a Eoyal Charter, the
name of Henry Warburton was associated with the names of William
Buckland and George Bellas Greenough in the deed of incorporation.
The progress and welfare of that Society were, indeed, ever dear
to Mr. Warburton ; and although his name appears rarely in the
Geological Transactions (his principal memoir being on the Bag-
shot Sands),* I can appeal to all his surviving geological contempo-
raries for a confirmation of the fact, that his literary labours were un-
ceasing, whether in drawing up those rules and regulations where-
by the rising Society was held together, or in assiduously preparing

* Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. 1., 2nd series, p. 48.

246 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

for the press any memoir which was communicated by an unprac-
tised writer.

In subsequent years, and when he sat in Parliament (i. e., from
1826 to 1848), Mr. Warburton was placed during the years 1843-4
at the head of that Geological Society for which he had so long and
so zealously laboured ; but regardless of his own reputation, and
occupied with public affairs and close committee work in the House
of Commons, he neglected to write out and print his Anniversary
Addresses, though he delivered them extempore and with much
effect from the chair in Somerset House.

It will ever be remembered to the honour of our deceased mem-
ber, that he was the intimate friend of the illustrious Wollaston, of
whose writings and discoveries he was well qualified to judge ; for
Henry Warburton was never superficial, and every subject with
which he grappled was thoroughly mastered. As in commencing my
scientific career I looked up to him as a guide, so shall I never
forget my last interview with Wollaston a few days before his death,
when Warburton, in watching over his friend, was taking down the
words of that bequest which the great philosopher made to the cul-
tivators of the science of geology.

The unwillingness of Warburton to appear as an author in his
own name, founded, I believe, on his keen sense of the necessity
of rendering every phrase precisely accurate, soon after proved of
signal disadvantage to the memory of the man who of all others
he most truly loved and respected. The biography of the great Dr.
Wollaston had to be written, and Warburton undertook the task ;
and though I have reason to think that he had made some progress
in the work, he never completed it. That this delay prevented
the feloge of Wollaston being penned by Cuvier himself, is, indeed,
too true, inasmuch as that great man, then Perpetual Secretary of
the French Academy of Sciences, urged me (during one of my
visits to Paris) to induce Mr. Warburton to delay no longer, and
furnish him with the necessary materials to do justice to our deceased
countryman, as one of the eight Foreign Members of the Institute.
Yet with all this procrastination as respected the publication of
any work in his own name, Mr. Warburton, I repeat, afforded con-
stant literary aid to all those who were struggling on to advance
science, and was, in truth, a terse and lucid writer.

In like manner his Parliamentary contemporaries will, I am sure,
bear me out when I say, that if a bill had to be accurately and per-
spicuously drawn, or the Keport of a Committee to be well put

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— WARBURTON. 247

together, Mr. Warburton would spend days and nights in the
laborious work, which was to him a labour of love. The voluminous
Eeport on the Coal Trade of England, published by order of the
Houses of Parliament, is one of the most pregnant proofs of his assi-
duity as a compiler, and, at the same time, of his knowledge as a
geologist.

His Anatomy Bill, in the carrying out of which he laboured many
years, is also to be specially mentioned in dwelling upon his scien-
tific merits ; whilst those who contend for the advantages flowing
from such a thoroughly liberal system of education as has been sus-
tained by the eloquence of a Brougham, a Mackintosh, a Eomilly,
and others, will never cease to respect the memoiy of Henry War-
burton as one of the founders of the University of London, and a
most zealous champion of its rights and liberties.

Eetiring from public life in 1847, he returned to his early relish
for mathematical studies, and produced two papers " On the Par-
tition of Numbers," and " On Permutations and Combinations,"
which were printed by the Cambridge Philosophical Society. A
scientific contemporary has said, that " both these papers show a
great command over the German factorial notation, and add several
curious theorems to their subjects."*

In private life Mr. Warburton had many attached friends, among
whom I was one, in common with Wollaston, Chantrey, and many
of vthose cultivators of science and art who, setting aside some
peculiarities of manner, esteemed him for his strong mind, sincerity,
and worth.

Those who, like myself, truly valued the man, and who visited
him in his house in Cadogan Place, had to pick their way through
piles of books and bottles of acid, with which every room, and even
the passages, were encumbered, until they reached the attic, into
which the philosopher was driven. But this singular mode of life
was not caused by parsimony ; for Mr. Warburton was most liberal
in his donations for the advancement of knowledge, and in addi-
tion to large sums contributed in many other ways, I may state
that he gave 1,000Z. towards the publication of the first geological
map of England, as prepared by his distinguished associate, one
of our former Presidents, the late Mr. Greenongh, like whom he
was one of the earliest members and supporters of the Eoyal Geo-
graphical Society.

* President's Address to the Royal Society, * Proceedings R. S.,' 1858, p. 556,
VOL. Ill, U

248 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Lieutenant Henry Eaper,* eldest son of the late Admiral Eaper,
so well known for his improvements in maritime signals, was born
in the year 1799, and entered the navy at the early age of twelve,
on board the Mars, of 74 guns, commanded by his father. Shortly
afterwards he went to the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth,
where he won the silver medal for his acquirements in mathe-
matics.

Having passed a distinguished examination at the College,
Mr. Eaper returned to service afloat, and was some months in the
Nymphen frigate. In October, 1816, he joined the Alceste, of
38 guns ; which ship, after conveying Lord Amherst as ambassador
to China, was lost on her homeward voyage, by striking on a sunken
rock in the Strait of Caspar, on the 18th of February, 1817. Here
he participated in all the hardships experienced on the rocky islet,
Pulo Leat, to which the crew escaped ; there they were in danger
of death from thirst, and constantly threatened by ferocious Malay
pirates, whose proas, to the number of sixty, completely blockaded
them. After being relieved from this critical situation by vessels
despatched from Batavia, Mr. Eaper served successively on various
stations in the Tyne and Seringapatam, till, at his father's express
wish, he joined the Adventure, sloop of war, commanded by Captain
W. H. Smyth. The service which this ship was then employed
upon in the Mediterranean gave him an opportunity of improving
his talents in navigation, surveying, and nautical astronomy ; and
he was placed in charge of the chronometers, in conjunction with
his former college-associate the late unfortunate Captain Graves,
who was murdered at Malta in August, 1856. Having been pro-
moted to the rank of Lieutenant on board the Eurydlus, from which
frigate he was shortly afterwards removed into the Dispatch, Eaper
remained in that brig until she was paid off, in 1824. When the late
Admiral Beechey, who had been one of the Adventurers officers, was
commissioned to the Blossom in January, 1825, for his interesting
voyage to Behring Strait xdd Cape Horn, he placed the filling
up* of three vacancies in the hands of his former commander,
Captain (now Admiral) Smyth. One of these being the post of First
Lieutenant, the Captain pressed its acceptance upon Eaper, and had
nearly prevailed ; but an erroneous notion that a slight which the
Admiralty had shown to his father might be visited on him, made
him at last decline.

* This sketch of the career of Lieut. Raper is contributed by my eminent friend Adminil
Smyth.

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— RAPER. 249

Having tlins virtually abandoned the active line of bis profession,
he betook himself very assiduously to the cultivation of its scientific
departments ; and his efforts were crowned with such success that
his name must ever be enrolled among the improvers of hydro-
geographical knowledge. In 1 832 he was selected by the Admiralty
to form one of a committee to improve the method of measuring the
tonnage of ships ; and the Report, which was principally drawn up
by him, was equally clear and convincing.

In connexion with this Society, of which he was one of the earliest
members, has Lieutenant Eaper repeatedly served on our Council.
In 1840 he published his * Practice of Navigation,' a book of sterling
merit, for which we awarded him the Gold Medal in the fol-
lowing year. That this prompt appreciation of the work was a
just one, was evidenced by its being soon afterwards adopted in the
Eoyal Navy, and by the ships of the East India Company. More-
over the third edition of it was noticed from this chair by Admiral
Smyth, in 1850, as well generally for the useful additions engrafted
on* its pages, as particularly for its admirable and well-organized
table of ' Geographical Positions ' of all the places on the globe ;
and which, with infinite skill and labour, he increased from 2 ,.300
to no fewer than 8,800. In this edition he also introduced those
significant symbols for the admission of great local information in
a limited space, which promise to render chorographic details of
readier reference than under any other form ; and the whole is so
stamped with worth as to prove unequivocally the industry, method,
and varied attainments of the author.

This highly useful book was to have been followed by a second
volume containing a theoretical discussion of all the data and details
contained in the first — in fact, to prove analytically what he had
expounded synthetically. As this work advanced it assumed in-
creased importance, from combining astronomy, geodesy, mechanics,
geometry, and physics ; but, unfortunately, he did not live to com-
plete it. His manuscripts are left, but from their unarranged state
and nature, their publication is rendered very unlikely.

Lieutenant Raper became a Fellow of the Eoyal Astronomical
Society in 1829, and not only served upon its Council repeatedly,
but for several years filled the important post of Secretary, with
credit to himself and advantage to the Society. He maintained
his habitual cheerfulness and continued his labours to the last;
insomuch that in July, 1858, he communicated to the Astronomical
Society his improved method of * Clearing a Lunar Distance-.*

u 2

250 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Meantime his malady increased, and he died at Torquay, in Jan-
uary last, in the 60th year of his age. His death has occasioned
a blank in pursuits which require a mind of no common order, and
hi i loss will be severely felt by his widow and a numerous circle
of friends.

Sir Arthur de Capell Brooke, who died recently at his seat of
Oakley in Northamptonshire, like several other associates who have
been recently taken from us, was also one of our earliest members.
Though a person of retiring and unostentatious habits, who seemed
to have no desire to take that part in public life for which his
descent, property, and station befitted him. Sir Arthur had all the
spirit of an adventurous traveller. In truth, it was he who had the
merit of establishing the Raleigh Club, which has now merged into
the Club of the Royal Geographical Society. An original member
of the Travellers' Club, which bore in the first instance a geo-
graphical character, our deceased associate felt so strongly that
many of the newly elected members did not sufficiently represent the
spirit of foreign exploration, that in the year 1821 he induced a cer-
tain number of his qualified associates to unite with him in setting
up a Dinner Club which should bear the name of the illustrious
Walter Raleigh. Of this club, which contained the names of most
of our leading travellers, including men who had explored Africa,
the Indies, America, and the Polar Regions, Sir Arthur Brooke con-
tinued to be President for many years, and during all that period,
when dinner clubs were more in vogue than at present, I can
testify that it was considered a feather in any man's cap to be
elected a member of the Raleigh.

Sir Arthur Brooke was also a Fellow of the Royal Society, and
was favourably known to the public as the author of ' Travels
in Norway,' a work which gives a striking picture of the physical
features and natural history of that rugged land of glaciers and deep
fiords.

Mr. William Weir, who was suddenly cut off in the midst of his
active and useful career as a man of letters, and who had distin-
guished himself by numerous contributions to the periodical and
daily press (latterly as Editor of the 'Daily News'), was a sound
geographer.

Reared in the Scottish and German universities, and entering
into the profession of the law, his strong and cultivated mind
could unquestionably have secured for him a high position in
public life, had not an incurable deafness compelled him to abandon

.May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— WEIR— EARL OF HADDINGTON— SMITH. 251

the long robe and take to journalism. At one time this Society
'Was so fortunate as to secure his services as the Editor of its volume ;
and having then formed his acquaintance, it gives me pleasure to
state that I esteemed him as a sensible, right-minded, and truly
'learned geographer, as well as a man of the kindliest disposition.

It has been well said of Mr. William Weir that he was master of
the library of Europe ; for he was in himself an encyclopa3dia of
law, history, literature, biography, and bibliography, as well as of
geography. Eightly did some of his surviving friends and admirers
endeavour to raise a sum of money as a testimonial to his varied
merits, in order to assuage the lot and enlarge the narrow means of
those with whom Mr. Weir hoped to spend the tranquil evening of his
days. Although the appeal has not yet been adequately responded
to, I sincerely trust that those who admired his lofty integrity will
still unite to eifect the praiseworthy object of thus honouring the
memory of William Weir.

The Earl of Haddington", who died at the age of 78, was edu-
cated at Christ Church, Oxford, and, as Lord Binning, represented
Eochester in the House of Commons from 1818 to 1826. On the
formation of the late Sir Robert Peel's first administration, in
December, 1834, he was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, a post
which he held up to the dissolution of the Government. When
Sir Robert Peel again took office, in the autumn of 1841, his Lord-
ship was selected for the post of First Lord of the Admiralty, with
a seat in the Cabinet ; and seeing the usefulness of our Society in
the advancement of nautical science, he joined us in that year. He
lield the chief naval office up to January, 1846, when he was made
Lord Privy Seal, and retained that position until the final dissolu-
tion of the Peel Government.

His Lordship, although opposed to the Reform Bill and other
measures of the Governments of Earl Grey and Viscount Melbourne,
adopted the enlarged views of Sir Robert Peel on the repeal of the
com laws and the commercial reforms which followed. After the
retirement of Sir Robert from office, the late Earl rarely inter-
fered in politics. In 1 814 his Lordship was made a Privy Councillor,
and in 1853 he was installed a Knight of the Order of the Thistle*
He was Hereditary Keeper of Holyrood Palace, one of the Elder
Brethren of the Trinity House, a Trustee of the British and Hunterian
Museums, and Deputy-Lieutenant of Haddingtonshire.

Lieut.- General Sir C. Felix Smith, k.c.b. — This distinguished
officer, who died at Worthing in August last, aged 71, served, in.

252 sm RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [Mat 23, 1859.

1807 at the capture of the Danish islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas,
and St. John; and in 1809 at the siege of Fort Bourbon and the
capture of Martinique, where he was wounded. He was senior
engineer in charge of Cadiz and its environs, in the operations con-
nected with the battle of Barrosa in 1811, and commanding engineer
at Cadiz prior to, and at the raising of, the siege in the following
year. He was subsequently present at the combat of Osma, the
battle of Vittoria, the actions of Yilla Franca and Tolosa, and at
the siege of St. Sebastian, in the earlier part of which he acted as
commanding engineer. He was afterwards present at the capitu-
lation of Paris, and remained there for some time with the army of
occupation.

Sir Felix became a LieutenantrGeneral in November, 1851, and
Colonel-Commandant of the Eoyal Engineers in 1856. He re-
ceived a medal and one clasp for his services at Yittoria and at St.
Sebastian. In 1814 he was nominated a Knight of the Order of
Charles III. for his skill in the gallant defence of Tarifa in 1811.
He was Commander of the British military force in Syria, and
was severely wounded at St. Jean d'Acre, for which last services he
received in 1841 the thanks of both Houses of Parliament.

Sir Belford Hinton Wilson, who was bom in 1804, entered the
military service of the republic of Columbia in 1822, and attained
the rank of Colonel; served as aide-de-camp to General Bolivar
from 1822 to December, 1830; became British Consul-General in
Peru, April, 1832; Charge d' Affaires in Peru and in Bolivia,
November, 1837; and was Charge d' Affaires to Venezuela from
November, 1842, to November, 1852. He received the Order of
the Bath for his diplomatic services.

Major Henry Seymour Montagu, a school-fellow and brother-
officer of our respected associate Lieut.-General Sir George Pollock,
went to India in 1801, and served in the same regiment as the late
Sir William Nott. He was afterwards appointed aide-de-camp to
the Earl of Minto, and held several high appointments in India.
Having returned to England, he travelled extensively on the con-
tinent, and was much attached to geographical pursuits. He was
also a warm promoter of various charitable societies.

Major-General Sir William Eeid, k.c.b. — This highly distin-
guished officer of Engineers was a man of so observant a mind, and
was so possessed of sound sense united with a calm but resolute
temperament, that he was by nature destined to succeed in any em-
ployment he undertook.

Way 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— KEID, 253

Joining tlie army of Wellington in 1810, lie was present as a
subaltern officer of engineers at all the great sieges and battles in
the Peninsula, from that date until the close of the war, when he
obtained his company. He was afterwards present at the bombard-
ment of Algiers in 1816, and commanded the Engineers under Sir
De Lacy Evans in Spain.

In 1832, when employed at Bermuda, and when devising the
reconstruction of extensive Government buildings destroyed by a
hurricane, he was led to follow out that series of inquiries into the
causes of such storms, and collected numerous data to work out their
giratory character, which had been shortly before put forth by Mr.
Eedfield of New York. These effects resulted in ' Eeid's Laws of
Storms,' which work, published in 1838, has passed through several
editions, and has been translated into various foreign languages,
even into Chinese. By the law which he evolved, he taught the
mariner that the old method of running before the wind in such
storms might lead to destruction, and that true safety was to be
sought by veering to the one side or the other, and thus escaping
from the whirlwind.

It was infinitely to the credit of my old friend Lord Glenelg, then
Colonial Secretary, that in consequence of the talent displayed in
that work, his Lordship appointed Colonel Eeid to the Government
of the Windward Islands ; and I mention this circumstance because
science is not often so appositely rewarded.

As an administrator. Sir William Eeid was never more distinguished
than in methodizing and controlling the proceedings of the Great
National Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, with which our
Vice Patron the Prince Consort has so eminently identified his
name ; and His Eoyal Highness never better demonstrated his right
appreciation of true merit than in warmly acknowledging the value
of the services of the Chairman of the Executive Committee of that
great undertaking, and in procuring for William Eeid the honour-
able distinction of a Knight Commandership of the Order of the
Bath, and the Government of Malta.

Possessing a genuine enthusiasm under a calm and tranquil ex-
terior, Sir William not only thoroughly performed his arduous
duties at Malta during the Crimean war, but lost no opportunity
of improving the estate committed to his charge, by ameliorating
its agriculture, replenishing the old library of the knights, and by
founding a botanical school for the working classes.

254 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

He died in his sixty-sixth year, sincerely regretted by every
one who knew him.

Admiral Sir Charles Ogle, Bart., who died in June last, at the age
of 83, was the eldest son of Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle, who, like
his deceased son, died the senior Admiral in the British navy. Sir
Charles Ogle took deep interest in, and was a munificent contributor
to, the different charitable institutions connected with the naval
service, and had been for many years President of the Royal Naval
Benevolent Society.

Vice- Admiral Percy Grace, a distinguished officer of the old war
time, was the brother of Sir W. Grace, Bart.

He began his naval career in 1801 on board the Ganges^ 74, and
was present at the battle of Copenhagen. He next served on the
East and West India and North American stations ; and when in
the Greyhound^ distinguished himself at the capture of the Pallas
French frigate and two armed Indiamen. He was then wrecked,
and became a prisoner at Manilla and Batavia. Being in the com-
mand of some boats as a Lieutenant, he captured two Malays, after
a shai-p fight, and was wounded. In the boats of the Semiramis
frigate, he contributed to the capture of five French vessels, four
miles up the Gironde; and about March, 1810, he received the well-
merited thanks of his captain for the part he took in the capture
of Le Pluvier of 16 guns. It was not till June, 1814, after having
seen more service on the coast of North America, that he was re-
warded with the rank of Commander. In command of the Cyrene
he displayed much activity on the coast of Africa and in the Medi-
terranean ; and subsequently he became senior officer in the Levant.
He was made Post Captain in 1825, and had been an Admiral a few
years when he died, to the regret of numerous friends.

Captain Sir William Peel, r.n. — Of all the naval worthies who
have recently been taken from us, no one has been so mourned for by
the nation as that chivalrous and noble seaman William Peel, the
third son of the late illustrious statesman. It is not for me to
attempt to detail his daring exploits in the Black Sea, or when in
heading the Naval Brigade in the late Indian warfare he showed
what efficient services could be rendered to the army by his hearty
and devoted co-operation.

Serving at St. Jean d'Acre as a midshipman, under Admiral Sir
E. Stbpford, he obtained the rank of Commander in 1846. After
distinguishing himself in the Black Sea and Crimea, where he was

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— PEEL— MECHAM. 265

wounded, lie was employed in the Chinese seas, when, providentially
for our Indian empire, he was sent directly with troops by Lord
Elgin to Bengal, to aid in quelling the mutiny. Ascending the
Hoogly in the Shannon to Allahabad and Cawnpore, we all know
how, by his energy, heavy guns were brought into action, and how
materially he contributed to the capture of Lucknow, in which ope-
ration he was again wounded. Alas ! that after these triumphs he
should have been cut off by smallpox at the early age of thirty-
three !

In truth, every Englishman who looks mainly to our navy for
the preservation of our independence as a nation must deplore the
loss of such a hero at a critical period in our history, when the
defences of the country so seriously occupy the thoughts of all per-
sons, and particularly of all old soldiers and sailors.*

Apart from his glorious but too short naval career, Captain Sir
William Peel had the true spirit and capacity of an explorer, and
had indeed already proved that he was a real working Fellow of the
Eoyal Geographical Society. His journey across Nubia f under the
severest privations convinced us that into whatever part of the
world he roamed, whether as a traveller in search of the truths
of Nature or in following the path of duty, he was unquestionably
one of those who, had he been spared, would have materially en-
riched geographical science.

In short, whether we appeal to his brave messmates of both ser-
vices by whom he was sincerely beloved, to the explorers of distant
lands among whom he had enrolled himself, or to the public at large,
most certain is it that few men have ever fallen in the country's
cause who have been more affectionately remembered than William
Peel.

Commander George Frederick Mecham, r.n., one of our Arctic
heroes, has been taken from us at the early age of thirty.

He was promoted for his valuable Arctic services in the expedi-
tions of Captains Austin and Belcher, 1850-4, during which he made
the longest overland search on record. On his return he was ap-
pointed to the command of the Vixen, and, whilst in command of that
vessel, died suddenly at Honolulu of bronchitis. Shortly before
his decease he sent to this Society a paper on the different spe-

* See the able work on our National Defences, by that distinguished strategist of
the days of the Peninsula and Waterloo, my valued friend Lieut.-General Shaw Kennedy,
C.B. (Murray, 1859.)

f « Ride through the Nubian Desert.' (Longman.)

256 SIR RODjERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

oimens of sulphur, boracic acid, &c., collected by him at the volcano
of Kilanea.

Commander Paulson, r.n., closes the list of naval officers who
have been taken from us. He served in the Burmese war as a
Lieutenant, and attained the rank of Commander in 1842, when the
Royal George yacht was placed under his orders.

Sir James Eamsay, Bart., of Banff House, Perthshire, and the
eighth Baronet of the name, who died in January last, was a lover
of scientific pursuits and a respected country gentleman.

Sir Edward North Buxton, Bart., who died at the early age of
forty- five, was son of the justly respected Sir Thomas Powell Bux-
ton, whose name is for ever associated with the emancipation
of the African negro. He was bom in 1812, succeeded to the
Baronetcy on his father's death in 1845, and in 1847 was elected
as representative for South Essex. In 1855 he was obliged to go
abroad with his family on account of his health, and he spent the
winters of 1856 and 1857 chiefly at Nice. His visit to Piedmont
will long be particularly remembered, on account of the beneficent
influence which he exercised in calming down that unseemly strife
which had divided the Italian from the Vaudois Protestants. In
this good work he persevered, and he deemed it so important that
the true character of the Italians should be clearly known, that he
took a journey from Cromer last September purposely to state his
views to the religious conference assembled at Berlin.

Kev. Dr. Jenkyn. — The late Rev. Dr. Jenkyn displayed in
early age a thirst for knowledge, which distinguished him
through life. Placed under the able tuition of the late Rev. Dr. Pye
Sijaith, he formed a friendship with him which lasted till death ; and
from that excellent man he doubtless derived that love of natural
science which was so marked a feature of his intellectual character.

His ardent attachment to geological science is well known, and his
'Elementary Lectures on Geology' in a popular educational perio-
dical were characterised by a leading member of the Geological
Society as being the best work of the kind for the masses that he
had seen. In 1853 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. He died at Rochester, deeply and deservedly
regretted by those who knew him, in the sixty-fourth year of
his age.

He published works on religious subjects to which it is not my
province to advert, and was for some years President of Coward
College, London.

>IAY 23, 1859.] 'OBITUARY.— TAYLOR. :257

Mr. Richard Taylor, the well-known printer and accomplished
naturalist and scholar, was born at Norwich in 1781. In the year
1807 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society, and in 1810
was elected its nnder-secretary, an office which he retained for
nearl}^ half a century, and in which he earned for himself the cor-
dial esteem and good-'wdll of every member of the Society. In his
diary, under date of the anniversary of 1849, he notes that he had
" served with the naturalists M'Leay, Bicheno, Boott, and Bennett,
under the successive Presidencies of the founder, Sir J. E. Smith,
of the late Earl of Derby, the Duke of Somerset, and Dr. Stanley
Bishop of Norwich." To the names of these Presidents he might
subsequently have added those of Robert Brown and of Thomas
Bell, the actual President of the Linnean Society, by both of whom
he was highly esteemed for his strict sense of honour, his amiable
disposition, and his entire devotion to the interests of the Linnean
Society.

Among the numerous other learned bodies of which he was a
member, the Society of Antiquaries, the Astronomical Society, and
the Philological were those bodies in which he took the deepest in-
terest. He also attached himself from its commencement to the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, many of
the meetings of which he regularly attended, and at which he
was always cordially welcomed by numerous friends, including
myself.

In 1822 he joined Dr. Tilloch as editor of the 'Philosophical
Magazine,' with which Dr. Thomson's 'Annals of Philosophy'
were subsequently incorporated. In 1838 he established the
* Annals of Natural History,' and united with it, in 1841, Loudon
and Charlesworth's ' Magazine of Natural History.' He subse-
quently (at the suggestion and with the assistance of some of the
most eminent members of the British Association) issued several
volumes of a work intended especially to contain foreign papers of
a high order of merit, translated into English, under the title
of ' Taylor's Scientific Memoirs.' But his own principal literary
labours were in the field of Philological research. In 1829 he pre-
pared a new edition of Home Tooke's ' Diversions of Purley,'
which he enriched with many valuable notes, and which he re-
edited in 1840. In the same year (1840) Warton's ' History of
English Poetry ' having been placed in his hands by Mr. Tegg the
publisher, he contributed largely, in conjunction with his friends
Sir F. Madden, Benjamin Thorpe, J. M. Kemble, and others, to

25^ SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1850.

improve the valuable edition published in 1824 by the late Mr.
Eichard Price.

Early in the summer of 1852 bis health gave way, and he found
it necessary to withdraw from the excitement of active life. In-
creasing years brought increasing feebleness ; and the severe weather
of November last brought on an attack of bronchitis, of which he
died.

Mr. Abel Smith was one of those men of calm, retired character
who, in the very centre of the busiest capital in the world, and
engaged in the most important transactions, pursued his tranquil
way in performing good works.

Born in 1788, he early in life became possessed of ample fortune,
bequeathed to him by an uncle ; and after the death of his father,
he became chief of the banking-house in Lombard Street, known
as that of Smith, Payne, and Smith. He took great interest in all
the scientific discoveries and inventions of late years, and carried
out his views of the importance of education by promoting the im-
provement of the poor. Opulence never affected the simplicity
of his character and habits. Careful and discriminating in all his
transactions, and weighing with much consideration the claims made
upon him, he was princely in his charities and also in his acts of
pecuniary generosity. Appeals were seldom made to him in vain ;
both his sense of duty and the gratification of a most benevolent
disposition leading him to give bountifully in cases of real distress
and difficulty.

Mr. Abel Smith entered Parliament in 1809 and continued until
1 846, during the last fourteen years of which he was returned for
the county of Herts.

Richard Holmes Laurie, the well-known publisher of nautical
works, was bom in 1777. From the year 1818 he relinquished all
other collateral branches of publication, and contented himself with
maintaining the character of his nautical works for excellence and
minute accuracy. These works, unattractive, and not much known
to the general public, have high claims to consideration from their
wide-spread circulation and great general utility among geographers.
Mr. Laurie was very highly respected for his strict integrity. He
was one of the oldest members of the trade, and almost the last
connecting link between the old and new systems of publication.*

* In addition to the above the Society has to regret the loss of the following Fellows,
viz. : — Alexander Gumming, M.D. ; H. Stewart Dykes ; Sir Isaac L. (Baron) Goldsmidt,
Bart, (whose liberal support of science and letters was widely felt) ; the Rev. J. W.
Martin, ll.B. ; James Morison ; Aristides Franklin Momay ; and Thomas Lister Parker.

May 23, 1859.] OBITUARY.— LOFTUS—SCHLAGINTWEIT. 259'

William Kennett Loftus, who, thougli not a Fellow of this
Society, had contributed some important papers to its Journal,*
comprising Notes of a Journey from Busrah to Bagdad, and on the
Determination of the Eiver Eulseus of the Greek Historians, died
in November last, at the age of thirty-seven, on board the Ty-
burnia, on his way home from India. Mr. Loftus was a good
scholar, and had passed much of his life in the East. He served
four years in Mesopotamia under Colonel Williams (now Sir W. F.
Williams of Kars), as naturalist and geologist to the expedition sent
out for the settlement of the Persian frontiers. On his term of
service expiring, he was sent by the Assyrian Society to investigate
the ruins of Babylon and other ancient Biblical cities. The results
were published in a book entitled ' Travels and Eesearches in
Chaldaea and Susiana,' which reflected much credit on this young
geographer and archaeologist. Afterwards appointed as a geological
surveyor on the Great Survey of India, he laboured zealously at his
work till he was struck down by a sun- stroke. He went to Ean-
goon to recruit his health, and not succeeding, was ordered home>
and died on the voyage.

Adolphe Schlagintaveit. — In closing this obituary, it is my melan-
choly duty to state that the event which was foreshadowed in the
Address of last year has been realized; and that the bold and
accomplished explorer, Adolphe Schlagintweit, is no more !

The documents which attest that he was assassinated before
the walls of Kashgar (midway between Ydrkand and Kokan)
were officially transmitted by Lord Stanley, the Secretary for
India in Council, and laid before the Society."]' It appears that
Adolphe Schlagintweit, who took a route farther to the west than
his brothers Hermann and Eobert, had succeeded in penetrating
farther than they did into Central Asia ; for he not only reached
Yarkand, where he was well received, but was on his route to
Kokan, when, in one of those religious forays made by the
fanatical Turks or Crescentaders from Kokan against the Chinese,
he was killed in August, 1857, by order of a savage Mohammedan
chief, named Wulli Khan.

When we know that the deceased had overcome the greatest
difficulties of his perilous journey, had traversed the western pro-

* See vols. xxvi. and xxvii.

f These papers have since been printed by his brothers Hermann and Robert for private
distribution.

260 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859;

longation of the Kara-Korum chain, and that noi*thenimost ridge of
those vast mountains which his brothers consider to be the Kuen
Lun of Humboldt, it is deeply to be deplored that the great
amount of knowledge he had accumulated should thus have been
lost.

Although it is known that the adventurous Conolly did, when at
Bokhara, penetrate from that place to Kokan, no European of
modem times has succeeded in passing from India over the snowy
chains of the Kara-Korum and Kuen Lun, to descend into Turk-
istan, except the Schlagintweits ; and it is most distressing to have
to record that he of the three brothers who pushed his adventure
the farthest should have been cut off at a time when his note-books
and observations must have been of the highest value.

As Englishmen, we have, however, the consolation of reflecting,
that our authorities who gave the warmest support to the deceased
traveller whilst in life, have never ceased to endeavour to trace
the history of his last days, and are even now energetically en-
deavouring to recover his lost papers.

No individual has taken a more lively interest in these lastr
mentioned researches than our distinguished associate, Captain
Eichard Strachey, who, with his brother, one of our medallists, is
so well known to us by his explorations in the Himalayan Moun-
tains and Thibet. Seeing what has also been done by Lord W,
Hay, Colonel Edwardes, and Mr. Knox, as well as by the Russian
Consul at Chiiquchak, M. Yardouguine, we may rest assured that
every effort will be still made to recover the lost records of the
zealous and intrepid Adolphe Schlagintweit.

Geographical Progress in the Past Year.

In proceeding, as on former occasions, to bring before you a
review of the progress of geography during the past year, I must
claim your indulgence when I say that, from my 'numerous avoca-
tions, I have found it impossible to prepare a more complete
retrospect than that which I now offer.

In truth, the field of exploration and discovery is becoming too
Tast to permit any one man — however zealous and laborioui — to
accomplish such a task without many omissions ; to say nothing of
the difficulty of condensing into one Eeport the merest outline of
all the geographical literature of the year.

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— ENGLAND. 261'

The account of the progress of the British Admiralty Surveys,
which — as usual — is first given, is indeed as perfect as at any
former period ; for, in continuation of the practice of Admiral Sir
F. Beaufort, his revered predecessor. Captain Washington, the
hydrographer, has prepared this document with his well-known
and acknowledged skill.

Let us, therefore, begin with this National Maritime Survey,
after the reading of which I will endeavour to pass in review the.
most important geographical discoveries in various parts of the
globe, as well as to note the progress of publication in various
countries.

Admiralty Surveys.

The Coast surveys in course of execution under the orders of the
Admiralty, both at home and abroad, have made fair progress
during the past year. - They are conducted by twenty different
surveying parties — one half of which are employed on portions
of the coasts of the United Kingdom, the remainder in the colonies
of Australia, Cape of Good Hope, West Indies, Nova Scotia, Canada,
and British Columbia ; also in the Mediterranean, in Banca Strait,
and on the coasts of China and Japan.

England. — On the east coast of England, the only work of im-
portance has been the re-examination of Hartlepool bay by Captain
Bedford and Lieutenant Homer, with a special view to discover if
any silting up had taken place since the first detailed survey of the
bay was made by Commander Slater in the year 1829, and re-
peated by Mr. E. K. Calver in 1843. The new plan is drawn on a
scale of eight inches to the nautic mile, and is sufficiently minute
to have enabled Captain Bedford to furnish the Eefuge Harbours
Commission (at whose instance the survey was made) with a de-
cided opinion, or rather proof, that no perceptible change had
taken place in the depths within the last thirty years. Fortified
by this result, the Commissioners have recommended Hartlepool
bay as one of the sites for a refuge harbour on the east coast of
England.

On the south coast. Commander Cox and Messrs. Usbome and
Davis are continuing the survey of Hamoaze, and have completed
St. J©hn Lake and St. Germans River, including 33 miles of river
bank line and 13 square miles of soundings. In the Channel
Islands, Commander Sidney has re-examined the harbour of Braye,
in Aldemey, and the Great Bank off Guernsey. A valuable addi^

262 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

tion to the navigation of the Channel has been made in the publica-
tion by the Admiralty of the 2nd volume of the ' Channel Pilot,*
containing Sailing Directions for the north coast of France, from
Dunkirk on the east to Ushant on the west, comprising the
Channel Islands. The work has been carefully compiled by Mr.
J. W. King, of the Hydrographic Office, from the * Pilote rran9ais,*
the labours of Rear- Admiral Martin White, Mr. C. Bumey, r.n.,
and others.

In Cornwall, Captain Williams and Mr. Wells have surveyed
eight miles of open coast from the Eame Head westward to St.
Germans beacon, including Whitesand bay and Port Wrinkle, sound-
ing over an area of 230 square .miles between the Beacon and Fal-
mouth, with plans of the small harbours of Boscastle and Port Isaac,
on the north coast of the county ; they have also executed a
very detailed plan, on the scale of 100 feet to an inch, of the
Eddystone rocks off Plymouth, showing the exact outline of the
granite mass that forms the base for that wonderful structure, the
Eddystone Lighthouse, erected by Smeaton in 1760, and which
has hitherto withstood the force of the Atlantic waves. A similar
structure, in a still more exposed situation, has just been completed,
under the direction of the Trinity Board, by their skilful engineer,
Mr. James Walker, ably seconded by Mr. Douglas, on the Bishop
rock, six miles south-west of the Scilly Isles. These noble light-
towers, like the two similar buildings on the Bell rock on the
east coast of Scotland, and of Skerry vore on the west, are national
works in the cause of humanity, and for the safety of our shipping,
of which the country may be justly proud ; and they will transmit
to distant posterity the names of the eminent engineers Smeaton,
Walker, and the Stevensons, father and sons.

In the Bristol Channel an^ its approaches, Commander AUdridge
and Mr. Hall, in the Asp, have made a survey of Swansea Bay and
its immediate neighbourhood, which has revealed some patches of
hard ground — probably oyster beds, not before known. This plan,
which shows sixteen miles of coast line and 20,000 casts of the
lead, is drawn on the scale of nine inches to a statute mile, and
proved very useful to the Refuge Harbours Commission in its
examination of Swansea Bay and the Mumbles, which had been
mentioned as a site for a refuge harbour ; and, although the Com-
mission has not recommended it as such, there seems a fair proba-
bility that the shelter afforded by the Mumbles Head, the abundance
of stone for construction, and the increasing want of some shelter

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— SCOTLAND. 263

for the ricli copper ore ships, which are frequently obliged to ride
out southwesterly gales in this exposed roadstead, will lead the enter-
prising merchants of Swansea to consider whether, notwithstanding
their recent spirited outlay on docks, they cannot construct a suffi-
cient breakwater out of their own resources. The requirements of
the Harbours Commission have also led to the publication of a
chart of Lundy Isle, on the scale of 4^ inches to a mile, and of the
two sheets of the upper portion of the Bristol Channel, on the scale
of two inches to a mile, which are rapidly advancing to completion.

Scotland. — In Argyleshire, Commanders Bedford, f.r.g.s., and
Creyke, and Mr. Bourchier, r.n., have been employed on the coasts
of Mull, and an useful Chart of the Sound of lona from their survey
has been published on the scale of 3 inches to a mile. In this
immediate neighbourhood the geographical features of the country
have suffered some change from the breaking down of the reser-
voirs of the Crinan Canal, caused by the heavy rains. In restoring
this navigation, we may express a hope that the dimensions of the
locks of this canal will be placed more on a par with those of the
Caledonian Canal, so that the greater part of the vessels that navi-
gate the one should also be enabled to pass through the other ; seven
out of the fifteen locks might also be dispensed with, and an unin-
terrupted level be carried from the top of the rise near Loch Gilp
Head on Loch Fyne, to the descent into Loch Crinan on the north.
This event, too, has again opened the question of the Argyle Canal, to
connect by a short link of about one mile East and West Tarbert lochs.

In Skye, Commander Wood and Mr. Forbes have surveyed twelve
miles of the open coast on the south-west face of the island from
Loch Bhreatal northwards to Loch Bracadale, including the smaller
inlets known by the names of Lochs Eynort and Harport, and the
district of Minginish, with its magnificent mural cliffs, rising 800
feet almost precipitously from the sea. On the coast of Inverness-
shire, Mr. Jeffery has completed the shore line and outlying rocks
and soundings as far south as Eu Arisaig.

In the Hebrides, Captain Otter, in H.M.S. Porcupine, with her
tender the Seagull, Lieutenant Chimmo, aided by his staff of
Lieutenants Dent and Hawes, and Messrs. Stanley and Cramer,*

* It is with extreme regret that I mention that the preparing and colouring the sheets
containing the survey of Loch Roag was Mr. Cramer's last work: over-anxiety on
account of domestic illness, with the rigorous climate of the Hebrides, brought on
an attack of disease from which he could not rally, and at the early age of thirty -tive an
accomplished artist and an honest, hard-working man was lost to his country.

VOL. III. X

264 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

has surveyed Locli Eoag on the west side of Lewis, and made
a beginning on Loch Maddy on the east shore of North Uist ; he
has also examined the dangerous rocks the Haskier, seven miles to
the westward of that island, an outlying group, on which it is
proposed to place a light for the safer navigation of those seas, and
to lead up to the northern entrance of the Sound of Harris. In
connection with the Skye survey, the Seagull was employed in
sounding over an area of several square miles between the south
of the island and the detached islets of Canora, Eum, and Eig. In
the island of Harris, Lieutenant Thomas has surveyed West Loch
Tarbert, and connected it with the eastern loch, which he com-
pleted last season. All these plans are projected on the scale of
six inches to a mile. Some of the original drawings have been
exhibited at our evening meetings, and have justly elicited much
admiration.*

Some of the results of these and former surveys of the west coast
of Scotland have been published by the Admiralty since our last
Anniversary; among others I may mention charts of Lochs
Torridon and Shieldag, and of Lochs Carron and Kishorn on
the west coast of Eoss-shire, both engraved on the scale of three
inches to a mile ; Loch Tuadh and the isles on four inches ; and
the sound of Harris on a scale of rather less than two inches to a
mile, but sufficiently large for all the requirements of the mariner.
Besides these, there is a general chart of the coast from the Mull of
Kan tyre to Cape Wrath, on the scale of a quarter of an inch to a
mile, which for the first time represents with tolerable accuracy
the western shore of Scotland with its numerous islands. The
intricacy of this coast has hardly its parallel on the globe, unless
it be some portions of the west coast of Norway, Tierra del Fuego,
and the west coast of Patagonia. It has occupied more than twenty
years to survey; and, with the off-shore soundings, will require
five years more to complete it. Its cost when finished will not
have been less than 250,000/.

Ireland. — On the east coast of Ireland Messrs. Hoskyn, Aird, and
Yule have surveyed Dundalk bay and harbour, and broken ground
at the Strangford narrows. In the course of their work they have
sounded over an area of 70 miles ; but the chief service rendered by
this party of surveyors is the boring of Carlingford Bar, preparatory

* Lieutenants Thomas and Chimmo have made a series of meteorological observations
during the past season in the Hebrides, which are very creditable to these officers, and
will, no doubt, prove valuable to meteorologists.

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— IRELAND— MEDITERRANEAN. 265

to rendering that fine longh a harbour of refuge. It is gratifying to
know that the result of their examination proves that there is no
obstacle that may not be easily overcome, and that there is a fair
probability that within three years we shall see a refuge harbour in
this portion of the Irish Sea, where it is so much needed.

In Donegal, on the north coast, Captain Bedford and Lieut.
Horner have completed that portion of the shore which was re-
quired to fill up the gap in our charts ; all that now remains is to
carry the soundings oif shore to a depth of 100 fathoms. In addition
to his usual labours, Captain Bedford, at the request of the Eefuge
Harbours Commission, prepared a report on the want of lights and
buoys on the north-west coast of Ireland, from Galway round to
Londonderry, a valuable document, being the result of his 20 years'
experience, which is printed in the Appendix to the Eeport of that
Commission.

In Kerry, on the south-west coast, Commander Edye, with Messrs.
Macdougall and W. B. Calver, have been employed on the Blasket
Isles round from Dingle Bay to the Skerries, in the course of which
they have sounded over an area of several square miles. This com-
pletes the survey of the shores of Ireland : it only remains to carry
the soundings off shore to the depth of 100 fathoms.

In the course of the past year the charts published of the coast of
Ireland are Dunmanus Bay in Cork on the scale of 3 inches. Loughs
Swilly and Foyle and the river and harbour of Londonderry on the
scale of If inches to a mile, the latter showing ihe new quays, and
the admirable lighting and beaconing of the river and lough, which
have been carried out by the enterprise of the Harbour Commis-
sioners of Derry, seconded by the skill of their engineers the Messrs.
D. and T. Stevenson of Edinburgh.

Mediterranean. — The channel between Malta and Gozo has been
re-examined by Captain Spratt, f.r.g.s., and Lieut. Wilkinson, in
H.M.S. Medina, and a second Eeport has been written by the
former, showing how the Nile continues to bring down its deposits,
and how the advance of the delta is checked by the littoral drift
from the west ; a subject on which I shall dwell in the sequel.
Captain Spratt has also presented to the Society a dissertation on
the site of Pelusium, which he does not believe to have been at
the ruins of Tineh as has been generally supposed, but at some
place rather farther inland.

Lieut. Wilkinson, under the direction of Captain Spratt, has made a
general chart, showing at one view his surveys of the delta of the

X 2

26G SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Danube in the Black Sea, to wliicli I referred last year, forming a
beautiful drawing, wliich lias been exhibited at one of our evening
meetings, and justly elicited warm commendation.

On the coast of Syria Commander Mansell, with his assistants
Lieut. Brooker and Mr. Frederick Skead, have surveyed the gulf of
Tskanderun, and made plans of the roadsteads of Ayas on the north
and Alexandretta on the south. They will now proceed systema-
tically to . the southward along the coast by Beirut, Akkah, and
Yaffa, and so join their former survey of the coast of Egypt at El
Arish.

South Africa. — In the Cape Colony Mr. Francis Skead has com-
pleted the survey of Table Bay, which has been published by the
Admiralty. He also accompanied Dr. Livingstone to the mouth
of the Zambesi, and has made a sketch survey of the delta of that
river, as far up as Expedition Island. It is gratifying to be
enabled to report that, thanks to the energy of Eear-Admiral the
Hon. Sir Fred. W. Grey, and the ready aid of Mr. Maclear, Astro-
nomer at the Cape, a transit clock and a time signal ball have
been erected in Simons Bay, and that henceforward vessels will
be able to rate their chronometers in Simons as well as Table
Bay, in each of which the time signal ball drops at the instant of
one o'clock Cape mean time, to which I shall have occasion to
revei*t a little farther on.

Red Sea. — Captain Pullen, in H.M.S. Cyclops, has completed a line
of soundings in the Eed Sea, to which I referred last year, and it
proves that the greatest depth does not exceed 1050 fathoms : he
has also carried a line of soundings from Aden to Kurrdchi, in which
the general depth at 12 miles off shore is about 500 fathoms, and
the deepest 2000 fathoms in crossing the entrance to the Persian
Gulf. Not improbably at the moment I am speaking, the submarine
telegraph cable has been laid down that will unite England via
Constantinople with Aden.

In Ceylon a new survey of the harbour of Point de Galle, by Mr.
J. Power Eoyston, has been just published by the Admiralty on the
scale of 15 inches to a mile; it is, we believe, preparatory to the
erection of a breakwater in that much frequented but exposed bay.
Mr. Stanton, who has succeeded Mr. Eichards in command of the
Saracen, with his assistant Mr. Eeed, is employed in the survey
of Banca Strait and its immediate neighbourhood which forms the
highway to China, and is still but imperfectly known.

China. — Commander Ward, who has succeeded the late lamented

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— JAPAN— AUSTRALIA— INDIA. 267

Captain Bate in command of the Actceon, with her tender the
Dove, Lieut. Bullock, and his staff of surveyors, Messrs. Kerr and
Blackney, has greatly improved the chart of the Chu Kiang, or
Canton river, and Lieut. Bullock has recently explored the western
river for about 150 miles. In the Yang-tse-keang the surveyors
accompanied Lord Elgin in his exploratory voyage by Nankin to
Han-Kow, and availed themselves of the opportunity to make a good
eye sketch of the river for 150 miles as far as the city of Han-
Kow, an account of which the Society has received from Captain
Sherard Osborn, and on which I shall dilate in the sequel. Captain
Ward and his staff have also re-siirveyed the river from Wusung
to Shanghae, which will shortly be published. In the Gulf of
Pechili the Pei-ho has been ascended as far as Tien-sin, and a
survey, made by Monsieur E. Ploix, ingenieur-hydrographe of the
French nav}^, has been published by the Admiralty in two sheets,
on the scale of about 2^ inches to a mile.

Japan. — Some additions to the United States' Survey of Yedo
bay have been made by Captain Sherard Osborn and Commander
Ward, and plans of this bay, of Simoda and of Hakodadi, have been
published by the Admiralty.

Australia. — Captain Denham, with Lieutenant Hutchison and the
officers of H.M.S. Herald, have made a partial survey of Shark Bay
on the west coast ; they have also sounded the approaches to Port
Jackson, carried a track through the Coral Sea, correcting the sites
of the Cato and other banks, and discovered a dangerous rock at the
entrance to More ton Bay. The plan of Port Jackson, completed last
year, has been published, on the scale of 3t inches to a mile, also
the 2nd volume of the Australian Directory, compiled by Commander
C. B. Yule, comprising the east coast and Torres Strait, a valuable
boon to the mariner. Captain Sir Edward Belcher has re-examined
all the longitudes in the Eastern Archipelago, from Madras east-
ward, and has endeavoured to reconcile the discrepancies which
exist, not, however, such as to affect navigation, but far too great
for the present state of hydrography in other parts of the globe.

Indian Survey. — The transfer of the government of India from
the East India Company to the Crown, and the opening up of a
trade to China and Japan, seems to be an occasion calling for a more
extended notice than usual of the state of the surveys in the East,
which have been made by the officers of the Indian Navy. Whether
these surveys will remain under the present direction, or be placed
more immediately under the Crown, is unknown to me ; but I am

2G8 . SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

satisfied that I shall render good service by placing on record the
present state of the coast survey in the East Indies and China ; at
the same time expressing our thankfulness as geographers for what
the East India Company has already done. It is proposed to
extend this brief notice from Suez in the West throughout India,
China, and the Asiatic Archipelago, to New Guinea and New
Zealand in the East.

The Ked Sea, Gulf of Aden, Socotra, and the south-east coast of
Arabia, have been sufficiently surveyed for the purposes of naviga-
tion by the officers of the Indian Navy, as also the coasts of Belu-
chistan, Scinde, and Kattiwar, as far south as Cambay. The Gulf
of Persia, however, requires some re-examination, which, it is
understood, is in progress.

From Cambay southward, along the entire coast of Malabar to
Cape Comorin, and thence northward by Madras to Calcutta, the
whole of the peninsula of India has been triangulated. The nautical
survey of the west coast, and of the east coast between Madras and
Santipilly, have also been completed. From the Gulf of Manaar
northward to Madras, and from Santipilly to Point Palmyra, is in
course of progress by the officers of the Indian Navy. The Sun-
derbunds, or mouths of the Ganges, up to Calcutta and to Chittagong,
have been completely surveyed.

In Ceylon the west-coast is also surveyed, but the south and east
coasts only very partially, and require early attention, especially in
the neighbourhood of the dangerous rocks — the Basses — off the
south-east side of the island. The plans of Trincomalee and Point
de Galle are passable ; that of Colombo is still wanting. The
Maldivas, Laccadivas, and Chagos Archipelago, have been carefully
surveyed, and published on a large scale by the East India Company.
The coast of Chittagong and Aracan, southward to Cape Negrais,
has been partially surveyed, but requires further examination. The
river up to Aracan, the Negrais up to Persaim, with its outlying
dangers to Preparis, and the Eangoon River, have been sufficiently
surveyed. The coasts of Martaban and Tenasserim, as far as St.
Matthew Island, including the Mergui Archipelago, have been
partially surveyed, but require more examination. From Isle St.
Matthew southwards to within ten miles of Pulo Penang, the
Malacca coast is all but unknown, though a survey is in progress.
The same with the Andaman and Nicobar groups, of which we
hardly know anything. Keeling Island has been completely sur-
veyed. The eastern shore of the Strait of Malacca as far as Singa-

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— INDIA. 269

pore, and that harbour, have been well surveyed, the latter by
Mr. J. Eichards, r.n. The western shore of the strait has been
very loosely examined. The straits of Durian and Ehio have been
partially surveyed, but are very incomplete. The same with the
straits of Banca, Gaspar, Macclesfield, and Stolze, the Carimata
channel, the west coast of Sumatra, and the islands of Banca and
Billiton. The strait of Sunda is fairly known, but not completely
surveyed. The island of Java, with the outlying islets and the
whole of the Java Sea, have been partially examined by the Dutch,
but are still very far from being complete. The same with the
islands to the eastward ; as Baly, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores,
and Timor.

The east, south, and west coasts of Borneo, with the exception of
a few spots, as Pantai and Bulungan rivers. Cape Kani-iingan, and
Sambar Point, are quite unknown. The north-west coast, from
Tanjong Api by Sarawak and Labiian to Balambangan, is suf-
ficiently surveyed. Of the Natunas north group little is known ;
the south group has been surveyed, and connected with the coast of
Borneo. Of the Anambas and Tambelan groups, and of the isles
just to the eastward of Singapore strait, we are quite ignorant ; with
the islands and dangers south-east of Singapore, as Bintang, Battam,
Linga, Sinkep, &c., we are better acquainted, although our know-
ledge of them is still very defective. The east coast of the Malay
peninsula from Singapore northwards has been passably surveyed.
The Gulf of Siam has been better surveyed by Mr. John Eichards,
R.N., but some detached portions on the west coast still require
examination, and new soundings are wanted all over the gulf.

On the south coast of Cambodia, from Pulo Obi to Cape Padaran,
we know nothing. From Cape Padaran northwards, along the coast
of Cochin China, has been partially explored, but requires more
examination. Turon Bay is surveyed and published. The Gulf of
Tong-kin is utterly unknown. The south-east coast of the island of
Hainan has been partially explored, but not sufficiently. The rest
of the island is unknown.

Pulo Condore, Pulo Sapata, with all the dangerous rocks and
shoals in the southern part of the China Sea, across to the coasts of
Borneo and Palawan, require examination more urgently than any
portion of these seas. Farther north the group of the Paracels
and the Macclesfield Bank have been explored, but require more
careful examination. The island of Palawan has been completely
surveyed, and the charts published. A map of Luzon exists, but

270 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

no coast-survey, with the exception of the port of Manila, which is
complete.

In China Proper the coast from Hainan Island to Macao has been
partially surveyed. From Macao to Canton the river is fairly sur-
veyed, but the group of islets to the south-west of Hong-kong,
fronting the entrance of the Chu Kiang, requires further examina-
tion. From Hong-kong the east coast of China, as far as the
entrance of the Yang-tse-keang, has been sufficiently surveyed for
the general purposes of navigation, but as it is not a work in detail,
vessels must use caution in approaching the different anchorages.

The Pescadores group and the Chusan isles are also surveyed,
but of Ta'i-wan or Formosa the survey is very partial and detached.
The Bashi and Balingtang channels, between Formosa and Luzon,
have been explored, but are not at all sufficiently known, and espe-
cially the meridian distance is wanted between the Babuyan and
the Bashi groups.

The Yang-tse-keang has been explored up to Nan-king, but is far
from being properly surveyed ; and, indeed, the shifting nature of
some of the banks renders it very difficult to make a correct chart
of it. From Nan-king upwards to Han-Kow is only known from
the track of the expedition in November, 1858.

From the Yang-tse-keang northwards by the Hwang-ho, or Yellow
River, as far as the Shantung promontory, being the eastern ex-
treme of that province, the coast has not even been explored, if ever
seen, by any European navigator. The Gulf of Pechili is a little
better known, especially about the mouth of the Pei-ho. That river
is also laid down as far up as Tien-sin ; thence to Pekin is only
known from the embassies of Macartney and Amherst. The Gulf
of Leao-tong is almost unknown. So also with the western coast
of Korea, except a few detached capes, the position of which has
been fairly determined.

The island of Quelpaert and Port Hamilton have been surveyed.
The east coast of Korea has been explored by the French and Rus-
sians, as also the coast of Manchuria, as far northwards as the mouth
of the Amur. In this extent Victoria Bay, Port Michael-Seymour,
Barracouta Harbour, and Castries Bay, are the only spots passably
surveyed.

The Gulf of Tartary also has only been explored. Perouse Strait,
between the south end of Saghalien and Yezo, has not been ex-
amined. Of Yezo Island in Japan nothing accurate is known,
except the south-west extreme, which forms the northern limit of

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— AUSTRALIA. 271

the Strait of Tsugar. This latter strait, including the north side of
Niphon, has been surveyed. Of the rest of Niphon, with Kin-sin
and Sikok, we know nothing, except the position of a few points at
its western extreme. There are, however, fair surveys of the bays
of Naga-saki, Simoda, and Yedo. Of the islets of Fatchin and
Tsu-sima in the Strait of Korea, and of Argonaut and Dugelet islets,
we know nothing accurate.

The Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, and the Sea of Okhotsk, have
been explored by the French and Kussians ; the harbour of Petro-
pavlovski has been completely surveyed by the English. Proceeding
southward from Japan, the Linschoten Islands are very imperfectly
known. The Loo-choo group has been better explored, but still
is very incomplete. The Meiaco-sima group has been surveyed.

The Philippine Islands, including Luzon, Mindoro, and Minda-
nao, have been explored by the Spaniards, but are not surveyed ;
it is understood that a survey, which is much wanted, is in progress.
The same may be said of the Celebes Sea, and of the east coast
of Borneo, and west coast of Celebes Island, forming the Strait
of Macassar, which is also unsurveyed. Of the Island of Celebes
little is known except the western part of the Gulf of Boni, which
has been surveyed by the Dutch, and Macassar roadstead by the
English. Of the Flores Sea, Banda Sea, Arafura Sea, and the
group of islands forming the eastern passages to China, although
greatly frequented by shipping, no survey exists.

Of the north-western side of Papua or New Guinea nothing accu-
rate is known. On the north side there is a track-survey, and a few
points are fixed, otherwise it is unexplored. The same may be said
of the group of the Solomon Islands. The south coast of New
Guinea, from the Louisiade Islands westward to Torres Strait, has
been surveyed by the English ; so also has been Torres Strait.

In Australia, the eastern coast from Torres Strait southward to
Halifax Bay, in lat. 19j° South, has been well surveyed; the re-
mainder to Bass Strait has been only partially examined, but some
of the harbours, as Port Bo wen. Port Curtis, Sandy Island Sound,
Moreton Bay, Port Macquarie, Newcastle, Port Jackson, and Two-
fold Bay, have been completely surveyed. The Coral Sea to the
eastward of Australia, a very frequented track between Sydney and
China, has been partially explored, but urgently requires a more
complete examination.

Bass Strait has been partly, but not sufficiently, surveyed. The
east, south, and west coasts of Tasmania have never been sur-

272 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

veyed, nor even the harbour of Hobarton. From Bass Strait west-
ward to the Gulf of St. Vincent has only been explored. St. Yin-
cent and Spencer Gulfs were partially surveyed by Flinders. From
Spencer Gulf to Cape Leeuwin, the coast of the great Australian
bight, there is only a track-exploration. King George Sound has
been partially surveyed.

From Cape Leeuwin to Swan Eiver is only explored. Swan
Eiver has been surveyed ; thence to Shark Bay, and round the north-
west coast to Port Essington, has been sufficiently surveyed for the ■
purposes of navigation, yet hardly, perhaps, enough to please
geographers. The islets and shoals lying between Timor and the
north-west coast of Australia require to be examined. Port Essing-
ton is completely surveyed. Thence to Cape York, including the
Gulf of Carpentaria, the coast has been explored, and portions of
it partially surveyed, but all of it requires further examination.
It will thus be seen that there is ample employment in these eastern
seas not only for three surveying vessels, but for double that number
if we wish that hydrography should keep pace with the rapid
advance of civilization and population.

America, — Crossing the Pacific Ocean to the north-western shores
of America, we learn that Captain George H. Richards, with his staff
of zealous assistants, Messrs. Bull, Binder, Mayne, and Bedwell, has
completed an admirable survey of Eosario and Haro Straits, and of
the numerous islets that lie between the mainland and Vancouver
Island, an extent of about 800 miles of coast line, sounding over an
area of about 700 square miles— the largest amount of hydrographic
work, we believe, ever accomplished in one season by a party of
five surveyors. The general chart of these straits engraved on a
scale of i an inch to a mile is on the eve of publication at the
Admiralty. A sketch survey of the Frazer Eiver, in British
Columbia, showing the several gold reefs, by Lieut. Mayne, r.n.,
and Mr. Begbie, Colonial Judge, on the scale of 1 inch to a mile, has
already appeared.

liova Scotia, — On the east side of the North American continent.
Commander Orlebar, with his assistants Commander Hancock and
Messrs. Desbrisay, Clifton, and Carey, have surveyed 46 miles of
the open coast of Cape Breton Island, from Cape Hinchinbroke to
Port Nova, including Louisburg Harbour. Some plans also have
been published of harbours on the coast of Nova Scotia, as Ship,
Guysboro', and Beaver harbours, each on the scale of about 4 inches
to a mile. In Newfoundland advantage was taken of the laying

May 23, 1859.] ADMIRALTY SURVEYS— VARIATION CHART. 273

down the Atlantic submarine cable, to make a plan of Bull Arm,
Trinity Bay, by Captain Otter and the officers of the Porcupine.
In the Bay of Fundy Captain Shortland, with his staif, Messrs. Scott,
Pike, Scarnell, and Mourilyan, have surveyed the coast of New
Brunswick from St. Martin Head easterly to Wolf Eiver, part
of Chignecto Bay, and the Bay of Mines, sounding over an area of
400 square miles.

In the West Indies Mr. Parsons, with his assistants Messrs. Dillon
and W. B. Calver, are engaged on the island of Grenada. The 2nd
volume of a new edition of the ' West India Pilot,' compiled by
Captain E. Barnett, has been published at the Admiralty, and is a
great boon to the mariner. After bearing his part in the successful
laying down of the Atlantic submarine cable, Commander Dayman
on his passage home carried a line of soundings from the Azores to
England, showing a depth of 2500 fathoms to within 60 miles of
the edge of the 100 fathoms shelf which extends from the Land's
End, thus indicating that a more sudden dip in the bed of the
ocean exists here than was found to the westward of Valentia, in
Ireland,,

Variation Chart. — I had occasion to mention last year that a
Variation Chart of the world, showing at a glance the curves of
equal magnetic variation, was in preparation at the Admiralty by
Mr. Fred. T, Evans, e.n., chief of the Compass Department. This
chart has since been published ; and judging from the testimony to
its value borne from all quarters, it has proved even a more accurate
and useful document than was anticipated. I^he whole of the curves
are reduced to the epoch of 1858; the chart gives also the annual
change of variation which is constantly in progress, and this in places
exceeds seven minutes yearly. This may appear a small amount,
but when we consider that in the greater part of the charts by
which our merchant ships are navigated, the variation has not been
corrected for thirty, forty, and even fifty years, the practical sailor
will at once see a fearful source of error that may, unsuspected,
exist. The error of a quarter of a point of the compass in a mn of
500 miles would amount to 25 miles, and this, in navigating a long
narrow sea or strait, as the Adriatic or Eed Sea, might readily lead
into dangers, and this error has doubtless been one of the many
causes of shipwreck. By this chart the means of correcting the
variation in all charts are now within the reach of every one for a
few shillings, and we trust it will be largely circulated. It is
gratifying to know that a strong expression of the approbation of

274 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

tlie Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty lias been officially com-
municated to Mr. Evans for the labour and scientific skill he has
bestowed upon this beautiful and useful production.

Besides the surveys above enumerated as in progress in different
parts of the world, the labours of the Hydrographic Office during
the past year have consisted in the publication of upwards of 80
new and corrected charts of various coasts and plans of harbours.
It may enable my hearers to form some idea of the activity that
prevails in this department if I mention a fact just made known to
me — that during this very month of May the large number of
20,000 Admiralty Charts have been printed and the greater part
sold to the public. In addition to these works the usual annual
lists of lights, of notices to mariners, of tide-tables, have been pub-
lished ; and lastly I may conclude this portion of my Address with an
announcement which cannot but deeply interest all geographers,
namely, that it has been determined that the Table of Maritime
Positions, giving the latitude and longitude of 8000 places on the
globe, compiled with great care by our late lamented Member
Henry Raper, shall be annually corrected and kept on a par with the
latest information at the Admiralty, as the best tribute that hydro-
graphy can offer to the memory of our deeply regretted friend and
medallist.

Land Surveys.

Ordnance Survey. — The reduction of plans on larger scales to the
size of maps by means of photography has been brought into
efficient public practice by Colonel James, the able Superintendent of
the Ordnance Survey Office and Topographical Department, and a
report of a committee, appointed by the Secretary of State for War,
of which I was the Chairman, has entirely approved of the process.

When it is known that the largest of the British surveys as now
sanctioned are on the scale of 25*344 inches to a mile, or the scale
of one square inch to one acre, and that the expense of reducing
that enormous scale down to six inch and one inch scales by means
of any mechanical contrivance such as a pentagraph must be very-
considerable, the employment of photography to effect this purpose
rapidly, accurately, and economically, reflects the highest credit on
Colonel James.

A full and detailed account of the progress of the Ordnance
Survey of the British Isles, and of the preparation of the plans and
maps upon four different scales, will be found in the last Report

May 23, 1859.] GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 275

presented to the Houses of Parliament. The account of the prin-
cipal tri angulation embodying the scientific results of ihe survey
was published in the beginning of last year, and has been received
with satisfaction by the scientific men of all countries.

Geological Survey of Great Britain. — Fully aware that the physical
geography of a country can never be perfected until we are acquainted
with the structure of the sub-soil, on which the outlines of the land
depend, it is my duty to inform geographers of the progress
which has been made in this branch of the Government surveys
of which I am the director. In fact, the geographer has only to
inspect the horizontal sections which we publish on the scale of
six inches to a mile, to see how intimate is the connexion between
geography and geology. Whilst coloured maps on the one inch
scale have been published over a considerable portion of England,
Wales, and Ireland, six sheets on a smaller scale have been issued,
comprising all Wales and the bordering English counties. Lest any
one should suppose that the production of this beautiful and com-
pendious map had been favoured by myself because it includes the
" Silurian Eegion," let me say that it was ordered by my predecessor,
Sir Henry De la Beche, on account of the striking physical features
of that region, and was far advanced towards completion when I
took ofiice.

Seeing the rapid progress which is made in England and Ireland,
it is a subject of deep regret to me that two surveyors only are as
yet allotted to Scotland. Knowing the extraordinary value of the
great coal tract between the Firths of Clyde and Forth on the one
hand, and on the other the great interest which geologists attach to
the acquirement of true knowledge respecting the broken and
mountainous parts of Scotland, it is manifest that the surveying force
there ought to be much augmented ; the more so as the Ordnance
Survey, under the direction of Colonel James, is now issuing rapidly
sheets on the six inch scale, relating to nearly the whole of the
south of Scotland. The maps on this scale are of the greatest
service to the field geologist, who registers upon them all his
detailed data previously to a reduction for the- one inch or pub-
lished map. And although the six inch maps will not be published,
copies of them will be registered in the public museum of Edinburgh
ready to be consulted by all proprietors who seek for accurate
details. I apprehend, indeed, that even when the one- inch sheet,
exhibiting the geological structure of the country around Edinburgh,

276 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

is brought out (as will very shortly be the case), the public will be
much struck with the value of maps in which every bed of coal is
marked with precision; and I therefore trust that in the coming
year the number of surveyors in Scotland will be so increased as to
place that country on the footing of the English and Irish surveys.
Commencing their labours in the mountainous regions of the
west of England and Wales, my coadjutors in England are now
extending their works to the south-east ; and seeing the great
desirableness of completing as soon as possible the survey around
the metropolis, I have brought about a concentration of work,
which will ensure a speedy settlement of all questions respecting
the subterranean drainage, sewerage, and water supply of this
densely peopled tract.

Geological Survey of the West Indies. — Whilst the Government of the
United States causes geological surveys to be made not only of their
long settled territories, but also of tracts beginning only to be peopled,
the mother country still proceeds on the old principle of never stirring
till her colonists call out for scientific aid. Following the good
example of their neighbours of the United States, our North American
colonies of Canada appointed their own geologist, Sir William Logan,
and every one versed in the sister science knows how well that
able man is conducting the survey of that country. After this, the
legislatures of India, the Cape of Good Hope, the Australian
Colonies, and lastly, of Tasmania, have each asked for and obtained
geological surveyors, most of whom had either been brought up in
the establishment which I direct, or recommended by my predecessor
or self: already geological maps and surveys of large portions of
these countries have been constructed.

Two years ago the legislatures of the principal West India islands
under British rule, requested the Government to send out geological
surveyors, the half of whose expenses were to be borne by the
colony explored, the other moiety by the Imperial Government.

The island of Trinidad was the first to be examined, and Mr.
G. P. Wall, a distinguished pupil of the Government School of Mines,
and Mr. Sawkins, were selected for that purpose. As their survey
is completed, and has been placed in my hands for publication, I
have no hesitation in saying that it is a work which will be of signal
advantage to the inhabitants, and will be much approved by men of
science.

Seeing that the only map of the island was very inaccurate, the

May 23, 1859.] PHYSICAL ENQUIRIES. 277

geologists were compelled to survey topograpHcally to some extent
for themselves before they could prepare the map now in my
possession, which is very creditably executed. Though it is out of
place here to expatiate upon the succession of the various rocks and
fossils of this great island, still the public will be glad to learn that
these geologists discovered several beds of coal which, though of
tertiary age, has been found to be of good quality and available for
steam navigation ; and as these strata crop out upon the shore, the
discovery is one of considerable importance. The work will be
illustrated not only by maps and sections, but also by a multitude of
beautiful sketches of the country as prepared by Mr. Sawkins.

Geological Survey of India, — Professor Oldham, the superintendent
of this survey, and formerly Local Director of the Geological Survey
of Ireland, has lately issued a map of part of Central India, including
the districts of Nerbudda and Saugor, which is important in a geo-
graphical as well as in a geological point of view ; much of it being
from original surveys made by the geologists. The memoirs of the
survey, of which Part II. of Volume I. has just appeared in Eng-
land, comprise matters also of importance to geographers. Such
for instance is the description of the curiously flat-topped plateaux
of the range of the Khasi Hills, forming long swelling grassy
plains, marked here and there by small out-standing hillocks which
scarcely interfere with the general level. These suggest the action
of long continued denuding forces at tolerably fixed levels. Deep
and narrow gorges or valleys form another peculiar feature in the
Khasi Hills. In these the rivers in the northern portion find their
courses to the plains, the level of the stream being 3000 feet below
one of the hill stations.

Remarkable evidences are adduced of the power of water in
translating huge masses of rock during great floods ; and altogether
the manner in which Professor Oldham has interspersed the descrip-
tion of physical and dynamical phenomena with his geological data
must commend this memoir and the accompanying maps and sections
to the attentive consideration of geographers.

Physical Enquiries.

Progress of Meteorology. — Meteorological science, as resting on
ascertained facts rather than on theoretical assumptions, has ad-
vanced steadily in this country, and also in France and other parts
of Europe.

278 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Volumes have also been widely circulated abounding in interest-
ing speculative ideas, and conjectural explanations, wbicli, so far as
they contain a great deal of nautical information, have been ex-
tremely useful. But I am assured by my distinguished friend Admiral
FitzKoy, now at the head of the Meteorological Survey of our
country, that many of these works are not to be depended upon,
and are not approved so cordially by the critical few as they have
been by general readers.

In Europe, the works of Humboldt, Herschel, and Dov^, grounded
on sound induction, constitute, indeed, a safe basis on which the
numerous class of observers may rest their meteorological facts,
preparing, reducing, and classifying them, for the combination of
master-hands. Thus, many extensive series of good observations,
at sea as well as on land, have been made. Much is already gar-
nered up ; but the winnowing of the grain from the chaff, and the
ultimate adaptation of the results, must be a work of time, labour,
and ability.

At the observatories of Greenwich, Kew, and Oxford, photography
has been brought to aid in the registration of all atmospherical
changes. Self-registering anemometers have been used for some
years successfully in England, and at the Cape of Good Hope.
Such an instrument is on its way to Australia, and similar valuable
machines, showing every variation of wind, recording accurately,
and requiring attention only once in twenty-four hours, are already
erected at Halifax and Bermuda by Her Majesty's Government.

Arrangements are made by the Board of Trade and by the
Admiralty — in correspondence and co-operation with the various
authorities around the seaboard of the Northern Atlantic — for col-
lecting simultaneous observations, at least once a-day, all round our
nearest ocean, and upon its surface, during one year — beginning this
summer. By such an investigation, as devised by Admiral FitzEoy,
a complete understanding and consequent explanation of the order,
sequence, causes, and consequences of atmospherical changes and
conditions over a large section of the world's surface may be gained
in less time than, perhaps, by any other mode of operation. The
effects of atmospherical phenomena on climate and on all waters,
and even on tidal action (including currents affecting the configura-
tion of land by abrasion or deposit) — these and the bearing of such
phenomena on geological or ancient conditions of the earth are only
appreciated by the comparatively few who have studied them.

The immense absorption or extrication of latent heat, the un-

May 23, 1859.] PHYSICAL ENQUIRIES— EARTHQUAKES. 279

known amount of electrical action, as well as the chemical and
mechanical combinations which occur during changes of weather
(among which the presence or absence of ozone is an interesting
subject of investigation) ; the formation and effects of ice, with the
characteristics of ocean itself — are all phenomena that have been
lately studied by meteorologists.

The number of meteorological observers and their dispersion over
the world is now considerable. Besides Russia, Prussia, and Europe
generally — India and Australia* have many well fitted stations —
while the United States have spread them over a vast portion of the
continent of America ; a point to which I shall hereafter allude.

In Scotland, the instructive compilations of Mr. A. Keith Johnston
have indoctrinated his countrymen with the desire to establish and
keep up a well-ordered Meteorological Society, which is worthy
of national encouragement. Following out this plan, Dr. Stark has
produced a memoir, the result of two years' observations, on ' The
Temperature of the Sea around the Coasts of Scotland.' f Whilst
we must admit with this author, that the mild climate of Britain
is, in great part, due to the prevalence of the south-westerly winds,
I find that his opposition to the views of Commander Maury re-
specting the course and influence of the Gulf Stream is not accepted
by some of our leaders in physical science.

Earthquakes and their Study (or Seismology). — In a work recently
completed on the earthquakes of Switzerland, Dr. Volger has given
a chronological account of all recorded earthquakes in that country
from the year 562 to 1855. Illustrating his observations by an
account of the geological structure of the Valais, he further describes
in detail the shock of 1855, and lastly endeavours to explain the
relations and causes of earthquake phenomena in general. Col-
lating a quantity of curious data, this author attributes these
paroxysms of the earth's surface in great measure to the changes
and peculiar combinations of atmospheric and meteorological condi-
tions. He combats the theory adopted by most geologists of a central
heat, and also disallows the intimate connexion between volcanos
and earthquakes; suggesting the falling of mountain masses into
cavities, and the consequent production of shocks accompanied by
much development of electricity. Not doubting that the records

* See particularly the Third Meteorological Report, with a diagram, of Barometric
Pressure (for the years 1857-8), prepared by Mr. R. Brough Smyth, the director of the
Meteorological Observatories of Victoria, and presented to both Houses of Parliament.

f Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 3rd January, 1859.

VOL. III.

280 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

of Dr. Volger are faitlifal, and that tliey will afford materials for
the elucidation of the phenomena of earthquakes, I must say, as a geo-
logist, that I differ from his views, and adhere to the prevalent belief
that the chief cause of all earthquakes is the effort of heat and gas to
burst through the cerements composing the crust of the earth. I do
so, because I every where trace the most intimate relations between
earthquakes and volcanicity, both in those tracts where that force is
at present in action, and in those where it has formerly shown
signs of emission through fissures in the older rocks. On the other
hand, the large regions like Eussia in Europe which, as I have else-
where shown,* have never been affected by eruptive rocks (or in
other words where the crust of sedimentary matter has never been
broken through in ancient periods), are just those countries in
which earthquakes have been and are unknown.

All those great movements of the earth's crust which have been
so instrumental in producing and modifying from time to time the
geographical features of our planet belong, I conceive, to the same
class of phenomena as ordinary earthquakes, and are to be referred
to similar causes acting with different degrees of intensity. Every
great movement must, in fact, have been attended, towards the
boundaries of the regions to which it extended, by those smaller
movements, reduced for the most part to vibrations, to which the
term earthquake has been usually restricted. Hence the theory of
earthquakes can only be regarded as a subordinate part of any more
general theory which may deal with all those movements, great or
small, to which the superficial portion of the globe has been sub-
jected, and which constitute, in fact, the basis of geological science.
The smaller movements are those alone which man has had
actual opportunities of observing, and hence the investigations of the
phenomena attending them, and the causes to which they are assign-
able, have been separated from those of the allied phenomena some-
what more perhaps than some geologists might think desirable, and
have been erected into a separate branch of science, under the
name of Seismology. Dr. Young and Gay Lussac had suggested that
earthquake shocks were propagated in a way analogous to the
vibrations of sonorous bodies, but no attempt had been made to
unite into a whole the mass of heterogeneous and other apparently
conflicting facts, and account for them by the application of one
consistent theory.

In February, 1846, Mr. Eobert Mallet read to the Eoyal Irish

* See * Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains,' chapters first and last.

May 23, 1859.] PHYSICAL ENQUIRIES— EARTHQUAKES. 281

Academy his Memoir on the Dynamics of Earthquakes,* in which
his object was to show that all observed earthquake phenomena
might be reduced to the direct motions (in accordance with the
acknowledged laws of physics and mechanics) of three distinct
classes of waves, all produced simultaneously by a single impulse,
and originating at a single point, namely : — 1st. The earth wave
or shock through the elastic crust of the earth: 2nd. The sound
waves through the same, or through the sea and through the
atmosphere : 3rd. The great sea waves — or fluid wave of translation
which rolls in shore after the shock — to which should be added the
liquid wave, which he has denominated the " forced sea wave." He
showed that the nature and sequence of the phenomena would differ
as the centre of impulse was beneath the land or under the sea ; and
in the subsequent parts of his paper, illustrated by diagrams and
maps, he indicated the bearings of his theory upon future research
and its important connection with vulcanology and terrestrial phy-
sics, and thus laid the foimdation for those methods of observation
of earthquake phenomena which have since been very widely
adopted. He pointed out the necessity for self-registering seismo-
meters, and in the same volume of Transactions describes and figures
the first completely self-registering seismometer proposed, whose
functions were, by the aid of electro-chronographic arrangements, to
determine the direction of motion, the moment of transit, and
dimensions of the earth wave or shock. Mr. Mallet's views being
founded on the admitted laws of exact science, and also distin-
guished by their simplicity, received the approbation of many
competent judges throughout Europe. f

In 1850, at the request of the British Association, Mr. Mallet drew
up a first Eeport upon the Facts of Earthquakes, J in which he dis-
cusses all anterior views, and with the guidance of his theory
classifies and separates imder distinct propositions the facts found
scattered in multifarious confusion through earthquake narratives.
He concludes by enunciating certain desiderata, amongst which
were the formation and discussion of a complete catalogue of earth-
quakes for all time and all countries, and by submitting to the
actual test of experiment the views which he had theoretically an-
nounced as to the elastic transit of the earth wave.

Funds were placed at his disposal for the purpose by the British

♦ Trans. R. I. A., vol. xxi. p. 1.

t See Mrs. Somerville's ' Physical Geography/ Humboldt's * Kosmos,' &c.

X Trans. Brit. Assoc. 1850. ,

Y 2

282 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

Association, and by means of a new instrument (the seismoscope) and
the creation of small but real earthquakes at pleasure by mines of gun-
powder filed galvanically at the distance of a mile, he was enabled
to ascertain the actual relative rate of transit of the earth wave or
shock in loose sand, in shattered as well as in solid unbroken
granite ; * it being thus determined that an earthquake cannot
move slower than in sand, nor probably faster in any known rock
than in granite. These experiments Mr. Mallet, with the joint aid
of the British Association and of the Eoyal Society, has since ex-
tended to some stratified rocks. Mr. Mallet has also condensed his
views into the form of instructions for earthquake observation in
the Admiralty Manual, and the Article has been translated into
French by Mons. Perrey, at the desire of his Government.

The laborious compilation of the vast catalogue, comprising be-
tween six and seven thousand earthquake narratives, thus early
projected, had been steadily pursued by Mr. Mallet, ably assisted
by his eldest son, Dr. John William Mallet, of the University of
Alabama, U.S., from 1852 to 1858, and last year the 'British Asso-
ciation Earthquake Catalogue,' by these authors, appeared in print,
with the most complete discussion by curves and seismic maps ever
made, and giving, so far as human knowledge goes, the facts of
seismic distribution in time and in space. f Several deductions of
interest and importance have resulted from this extensive labour,
the most important of which is probably the now ascertained fact,
that mere farther cataloguing is useless as regards the advance of
science ; since Mr. Mallet considers that no great generalization can be
thus elicited. Looking to the true direction in which the efforts of
seismologists are to operate, he recommends observation at self-
registering seismometrical establishments at suitable localities in
certain earthquake regions. The latter portion of his final Report
is devoted to the description of the various forms of seismo-
meters proposed by divers authors, and he has figured the pre-
ferable forms of seismometric apparatus to be adopted, which have
resulted from the labours and experimental investigations of several
years. The electro-seismic trigon, as his arrangement may be
called, as well as the various simpler and ruder methods of approxi-
mate observation pointed out to the traveller in the Admiralty

* Second Report, Trans, Brit. Assoc. 1851.

t Mr. Mallet and his son acknowledge the important lightening of their labours by the
previous large and valuable catalogues of Von HofF, and especially of Professor Perrey of
Dijon, to whose collaboration in the seismic field they give the highest praise. {See Mem.
Acad. Roy. deBelgique, torn, vii., in oct.)

May 23, 1859.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 283

Manual, should be known to every geographer who devotes a portion
of his time to observations on terrestrial physics.

Lastly, Mr. Mallet under great privations re-explored, almost im-
mediately after the recent occurrence of the great earthquake, the
provinces of the kingdom of Naples, nearly from Bari to Calabria,
and has collected many striking particulars, including great topo-
graphical changes of the surface, an account of which will be laid
before the Eoyal Society of London, at the desire of which learned
body he made his journey, and I look forward with deep interest to
the publication of his results.

New Publications, Maps, Surveys, etc.

The ' Manual of Geographical Science ' (Parker and Son), the
first part of which appeared in 1852, having been completed this
year by the addition of a well digested volume, can now be recom-
mended to the public as a most useful and instructive work. The
first portion embraced mathematical geography, physical geography,
cartography, and geographical terminology. The new volume con-
tains a learned and interesting history of ancient or comparative
geography, by the Eev. W. L. Bevan ; whilst the last 400 pages of
the book, which are written by our indefatigable associate the Eev.
C. G. Nicolay, are devoted to the progress of maritime discovery,
and a description of the surface of the earth as now known to us.
The lucid manner in which this author explains the relations of
land and water, as well as all the leading physical outlines and
waterpartings of continents, must have a most beneficial influence
in impressing upon students the elements and principles of geogra-
phical science.

Among the communications to our Society I was much gratified to
find the eminent astronomer. Sir John Herschel, coming before us
in the last session with a new and ingenious projection of the sphere.
The author shows that his projection offers several peculiar advan-
tages for geographical purposes, particularly when the whole, or at
least the whole accessible part of the globe, has to be mapped down
on one sheet.

The astronomical experiment on the Peak of Teneriffe, which
was carried out in 1856, under the sanction of the Admiralty, by
Professor C. Piazzi Smyth,* is chiefly of interest to this Society

* Parts of this work were published in the ' Philosophical Transactions ;' but the
whole work, as now brought out by the Admiralty, 1859, contains three additional

284 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

from the observations of tlie Astronomer Eoyal of Scotland on
the optical, atmospheric, astronomical, and physical phenomena, made
at great altitudes on this volcanic mountain. We have particularly
to thank him for his topographical descriptions, and for producing a
striking relief map taken from a model prepared by Mr. Nasmyth,
after determinations of the author, which reminds us of maps of the
surface of the moon.

The works produced during the past year by our excellent car-
tographer, Arrowsmith, are : — 1st, A Map of the Provinces of British
Columbia and Vancouver Island, with Portions of the United States
and Hudson Bay Territories, compiled from original documents,
showing also the various Passes across the Eocky Mountains ; 2ndly,
a Map, in eight sheets, of the Island of Ceylon, constructed from a
base of Triangulations and corresponding Astronomical Observa-
tions, during his employment on the staff of the colony, by Major-
General John Eraser, late Deputy Quartermaster-General, recon-
structed, incorporating a great number of original documents, and
connected with the Great Survey of India ; 3rdly, a Map of the
Eastern Half of Australia, constructed from official and other
original documents, adjusted to the Maritime Surveys of Flinders,
King, Wickham, Stokes, Blackwood, Stanley, &c. This map,
which is on six sheets, will show the route of many Australian
travellers.

Mr. Arrowsmith is also about to publish other Maps, including
a Map of the World, on two sheets, showing by repetition the con-
nection between England and the Australian Colonies, both by
the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn.

Having called your attention in days gone by to the improve-
ments made in cartography by Mr. A. Keith Johnston, and to
his zealous and successful endeavours to lay before his country-
men, on maps, all the chief data of physical science, I have now
the satisfaction of adverting to his last important work — a new
General Atlas. Fifteen years having elapsed since he published
his National Atlas, the author felt that the time was come for the
production of an entirely new work, which should embrace all the
recent discoveries and all the territorial changes. In accomplishing
this task, Mr. Johnston has succeeded in placing before the public
a series of sheets of each region on a very convenient scale, and

chapters — Geology and General Topography, Botany, and Miscellaneous Observations,
including the author's ingenious method of eliminating the angular motions of a ship
at sea, to which I alluded last year.

May 23, 1859.] NEW PUBLICATIONS—ATLASES. 285

by a judicious selection of names, arranged on a special index
accompanying each map, lie at once directs tiie observer to the
position of any place through the medium of letters of reference.
But that which most pleases the eye and instructs the looker on
is the remarkable distinctness which is given to every water-
course, lake, canal, or railroad by the use of " light blue ink." By
this process the orography and skeleton of each country stand out
in clear relief, the coast-lines never confusing the student. In
short, this atlas, of which two parts out of ten are now issued, will,
I have no doubt, be generally approved, and its sale will, I trust,
reward the author for his long and arduous labours.

Nelson's Atlas, of which one portion has been published, is an
excellent and carefully executed work, of that class which reflects
so much credit on our Scottish geographers, and is an evidence of
the great and increasing interest taken by the general public in
geography. This atlas gives the distances and measurements in
English miles, a mode better adapted for length and area than for
angular measurements, and which is to be elucidated by an index
which will give the distance of each place from London in English
miles. By consulting this index the position of any place on the
map can be at once found, whilst its geographical position on the
globe is told off in the language of common life. As I am informed
that the calculations for the index involved several months of labour,
I hope that the efforts of the publisher may be recompensed by a
good sale.

I must also call attention to the ' WeeUy Dispatch Atlas,' com-
prising a series of excellent maps (issued one every week) with that
paper. These maps include the English counties, as well as general
maps, — some of them on a very large scale (India, for instance,
being in 8 sheets). The maps are compiled from the latest authori-
ties, and chiefly by Fellows of this Society, including Mr. Weller,
Mr. Lowry, Mr. Dower, &c. The atlas will contain about 250
maps, of which 90 are already published.

Owing to the changes that have taken place since the ' Gazetteer
of the World,' by FuUarton and Co. of Edinburgh, was first issued,
a new edition of the first volume of that work, bringing up the
geographical and statistical information to the present period, is in
course of publication. The ' Royal Illustrated Atlas,' by the same
publishers, and to which allusion was made in my Address of last
3^ear, has been continued, and will, it is said, be completed during
the present year.

286 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— EUROPE. [May 23, 1859.

The * Imperial Atlas,' by Blackie and Son, the compilers and
publishers of the ♦ Imperial Gazetteer,' is now finished, and consists
of 31 parts, containing 78 beautifully engraved sheets, and com-
prising upwards of 100 useful maps. An index to the work is, I
understand, in course of preparation.

Continent of Europe.

Germany. — Among the larger cartographic works published by
the establishment of Justus Perthes at Gotha, which are now
attracting particular attention, is Mayr's Atlas of the Alpine
Countries. Three sheets have appeared, and the remainder will,
it is said, be completed this year. It is on the scale of i~5 o-.Wo-j
consists of nine sheets, and extends from the valley of the Ehone
on the west to Vienna on the east, from Strasburg on the north to
Nice, Leghorn, and Ancona on the south ; thus comprising the seat
of the present war. No map of this extensive region has been
published on so large a scale. Of the usefulness of this work a
proof has recently been given by the fact, that 45,000 copies of the
part which refers to the seat of war were, I am told, recently sold
in a fortnight.

A condensed edition of Dr. Earth's Travels in two small volumes,
commenced in parts, will be finished before the close of the year,
and will be a welcome edition to many readers, for whom the five
volumes of the first edition are too bulky and tedious.

A large Historical Map of Europe by K. von Spruner, the well-
known author of the large Historical Atlas, is nearly ready for
publication. It is executed at the instance of the King of Bavaria,
consists of nine sheets, and is drawn on the scale of ^-g-g-L-__..
It is very elaborately printed, and represents in three principal
colours the three epochs — of ancient geography, of the middle
ages, and of modern time. An Historical Atlas of the Austrian
Empire, by the same author, is also nearly ready.

An important work on the glaciers of the Tyrol by the Austrian
Major Karl von Sonklar is in preparation, and will soon be pub-
lished. This officer has made most extensive observations, not
only of the theory of glacial development, but more particularly of
their connexion with meteorological phenomena in general. His
beautiful surveys, plans, and illustrations of the glaciers can
scarcely fail to command attention.

I nm happy to learn that a work illustrative of the geolpgy of

May 23, 1859.] GERMAN WORKS ON PALESTINE. 287

Bavaria, surveyed and described under the direction of C. W.
Giimbel, will be published in the establishment of Justus Perthes,
by authority of the Bavarian. Government. Another geological
work by Von Richshofen, member of the Austrian Imperial " Eeichs
anstalt," will also soon be published. One volume of ' Travels in
Palestine,' made by Dr. Titus Tobler during the year 1857, is, I am
told, nearly ready for publication.

Lastly, from what I know of their usefulness, I can well under-
stand that the ' Geographische Mittheilungen ' should have been
so generally encouraged and approved of, that they are to be
greatly extended in the form of extra numbers, the publication of
which will commence this summer. Like the fifth part of last
year's numbers, which gave a resume of the geography of South
Africa, including the remarkable journeys and discoveries of
Livingstone, each of these extra parts will contain one subject
only.

In mentioning the works of German writers, I must specially
allude to the last travels in Palestine of the late Dr. Eoth. This
able and well-known traveller, a Professor of Munich, whose hj^pso-
metrical measurements in the Wadi Araba were mentioned in my
previous Address, died, I lament to say, of fever last summer at
Hasbeiya in Anti-Lebanon, after making several tours, the results
of which have not yet been published. Thus, in exploring the
countries east of the Jordan, he reached (March, 1858) Kerek and
Tafileh, remained at both places for some time, and investigated the
natural history and meteorology of that little-known region. Sub-
sequently he returned to Jerusalem, and thence went northwards
to the upper basin of the Jordan and the range of Anti-Lebanon.
Some of the last points visited by him were Mount Hermon, Lake
Phiala, Baneas, and Hasbeiya ; having previously obtained many
valuable scientific results. Among his former labours it will be
remembered that he accompanied Schubert and Erdl in 1836 and
1837 to Palestine, as well as Major Harris in his mission to Shoa
in 1841-1843. Just as in his preceding tours through the Wadi
Araba and other parts of the Holy countries, Dr. Eoth bestowed
great pains in fixing the altitudes of his route and of the chief
points visited, and his observations will be found to be among the
most trustworthy hitherto made in Palestine. These altitudes,
together with various meteorological observations and the last
papers of Dr. Eoth, having been put into the hands of Dr. Peter-

288 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— EUROPE. [May 23, 1859.

maun for publication in the ' Mittheiluugen,' that gentleman
has obligingly sent me the subjoined list of heights in French
feet.*

Hussia. — The accomplished Secretary of the Imperial Geographical
Society, M. Lamansky, has transmitted to me his clear and well con-
densed * Compte Eendu ' of the progress of that body, and has this
year prepared an Appendix, which the geographical reader will
find most instructive and useful, since it enumerates all the works
bearing on our subject which have been published in the Empire of
Eussia.

But besides the important expeditions in operation and the pro-
duction of works, to some of which I called your attention last year,
and others which are mentioned in the last resume of M. Lamansky,
our correspondent has recently made me acquainted with informa-
tion which I hasten to communicate.

The Geographical Society of St. Petersburg has this year sent
forth M. Schmidt, an able geologist of the University of Dorpat,
well known to me by his valuable researches among the Silurian
and Devonian rocks of the Baltic provinces of Eussia, to study the
structure of the great basin of the river Amur and of the island of
Sakhalin, and to report upon the geological relation and mineral
wealth of this vast region. Following the judicious plan of
thoroughly working out the details in every examination of a new
country, the Imperial Government, counselled by the Grand Duke
Constantine and the Geographical Society, have ordained that this
expedition of M. Schmidt shall be employed for three or four years,
during which time the explorers will not confine their researches
to the banks of the great river, but will push up its affluents,
into the large mountain chains from which those streams descend.
The great chain of Khin Jhan and the large island of Sakhalin, both
highly interesting in a geological point of view, will be specially
explored, and, looking to the unquestioned talents of the leader of
the expedition, we may hope, with great success.

Another expedition has been sent into the heart of Central Asia
to beyond the river Hi and the Lake Balkhash in the Kirghis

* Mount Hermon, 6975 (according to Major Scott's observations, 8798); Hasbeiya,
2;}54; Baneas, bridge over the Jordan, 1194; Lake Phiala, 3100; Lake Merora, 265
(according to Bertou, 322); Safed, 2619 (according to Symonds, 2604); Tiberias, near
the Castle, 523; Mount Tabor, 1754; Nazareth, 1187; Mt. of Olives, 2596; Zion,
Christian Cemetery, 2530; Hebron, 2738 ; Kerek, 3318; Tafileh (Lower), 3363.

May 23, 1859.] RUSSIAN EXPEDITIONS. 289

steppes, to the confines of Chinese Turkestan. The chief object
of this survey, which is conducted by Capt. Jolubeff, is to deter-
mine the geographical position of the principal points, so as to lead
to the construction of an exact map of those wild countries which
so many Kussian travellers, including M. Semenoff, have already
explored, and whose labours will thus be brought together and
registered on accurate maps.

An important expedition to Khorassan has returned from Herat,
and the general resume of its labours, which has been alone as yet
made known, is highly satisfactory. This vast region has hitherto
been slightly examined only by accurate topographers, and the
Eussian geographers have therefore been able to make many cor-
rections in the pre-existing maps. Among other errata M. Khanikoff
cites in his report, that the town of Tebes of the old maps must
change position to the extent of 1*^ 30' of long, to the west, and 1°
of lat. to the south ; whilst numerous corrections are applied to the
general configuration and orography of the country as laid down on
previous maps. Other data, which have been got together respect-
ing the geology, botany, zoology, ethnography, and historical
monuments of this little explored region, give to this expedition to
Khorassan the scientific importance of a general survey.

The river Ussuri, one of the affluents of the great Amur, and
which constitutes the boundary between Eussia and China, was
last year examined by Captain Veniukoff, and for the first time its
banks were examined in their whole length. The French mis-
sionaries De la Brunniere and Venant had indeed explored this
river partially, but, unfortunately, the assassination of M. de la
Brunniere was accompanied by the loss of all his papers. Starting
from the mouth of the river, M. Yeniukoff ascended the chain of
mountains from which it flows, and descended to the sea in the
Gulf of Yladimir ; and the description of his journey, with two maps,
which is published in the Journal of the Imperial Geographical
Society, which we are about to receive, will no doubt be viewed
with deep interest by all true geographers.

The geographical science of the empire is about to receive a great
addition in a general admeasurement of the levels of Eussia in
Europe, on a plan laid before the Government by Professor Otto
Struve, of the Imperial Observatory of Pulkowa, and on the basis
of preliminary observations carried on by him in the environs of
St. Petersburg. This operation will doubtless prove of immense
advantage in all industrial and engineering works. Professor

290 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— EUROPE. [May 23, 1859.

Struve has farther instructed and organized two parties intended
to make astronomical observations on the frontiers of Eussia
and China, and particularly with the view of determining the carto-
graphy of the country adjacent to the great internal lake of Issyk-
kul.*

Switzerlayid. — Our indefatigable correspondent, M. Ziegler, ac-
quaints us, that through the energy of General Dufour, who directs
the survey, the great map of Switzerland is tending rapidly to
completion, six sheets only remaining to be finished; three of
which have been plotted. M. Ziegler has also forwarded to us a
map which he has prepared to show the positions of all the Celtic
remains found in Switzerland up to last year.

In alluding to the progress of geography in a country of such
striking configuration, and in exploring the structure of which
I have spent many eujoyable days, I commend to your notice a
beautiful work just published, entitled ' The Peaks, Passes, and
Glaciers of Switzerland.' This work is the produce of the Alpine
Club, an association already numbering more than 100 members
(many of them Fellows of our Society and friends of my own),
who, instigated by the writings of Agassiz, James Forbes, Studer,
and others, have devoted their energies to the special object of ex-
ploring and making better known the highest and most inaccessible
portions of the Alps.

In the last five years these Alpine volunteers have succeeded
in ascending the highest point of Monte Eosa, the Dom, the
Great Combin, the Alleleinhorn, the Wetterhorn Proper, and
several other peaks never before scaled. The narratives of the
adventurous undertakings set forth in this volume contain evi-
dences of perseverance and personal endurance under difSculties
which make us rejoice that our enterprising countrymen should

* Amoncr various other geographical operations of which I have just received notice
from Mr. Petermann, the following may be mentioned : — Trigonometrical surveys have
been made in the last year in the Governments of Kostroma, Voronesk, &c., and on the
" right bank of the Volga from Saratov to Volsk. Astronomical operations have been
axrried on in Viatka and Vologda. Travelling over 10,000 versts in five months, the two
astronomers employed fixed 38 points in the first, and 37 in the second of these large
Governments, which, from personal experience, I can testify are not easily traversed.
Topographical surveys are being executed in the Governments of St. Petersburg, Esthonia,
Kharkov, &c., including enlarged plans of various towns. Beyond the limits of Russia in
Europe a vast region, extending from the country of the Cossacks of the Ural (including
the Ust-Urt) to the Bay of Kara Boghas, as well as on the east side of the Aral Sea,
have been surveyed. The results of the survey of the boundary-line between Turkey and
Persia, executed by a Commission composed of Russian, English, Persian, and Turkish
surveyors, are now being laid down in the Depot de la Guerre at St. Petersburg, on the
scale of 1 : 73,500.— /une, 1859.

May 23, 1859.] SWITZERLAND— FRANCE. 291

have collected a mass of information of great interest to the lovers
of adventure whom I now address.

Knowing the ability with which my friend Mr. John Ball can
master any branch of natural history science, I congratulate the
Alpine Club on having secured his services as their editor. With
such contributors as those whose names appear in this volume, we
may feel sure that many other Alpine scenes will be racily and
faithfully delineated. One of the most interesting communications
in the estimation of a geologist like myself is the comparison by
Professor Eamsay of the former and very ancient glaciers of
Snowdon in Wales (which come into the category of geological
djTiamics) with the less ancient glaciers of Switzerland, from the
moraines of which the ice has shrunk away within the historic
period.

The lively descriptions of the tourists, and the chromo-litho-
graphic sketches of the chief scenes, will attract many a traveller to
the Alps ; whilst the accompanying little maps will be found clear
and useful.

France and other Continental Countries. — As our Library contains the
full Report of the Proceedings of the Geographical Society of
France, it is unnecessary that 1 should swell this Address by giving
extracts from that useful and meritorious publication ; and as I have
not this year been favoured with the official Eeport of the progress
of the surveys by land and by sea in France, Spain, or Italy, 1 am
unable to allude to them. It is, however, gratifying to me to learn
that the geographers of France have recompensed the brothers Schla-
gintweit, on whose discoveries I dilated last year, with the gold
medal of the French Society.

Asia.

Persia. — W^e have been indebted to the Hon. C. Murray, H. M.
Minister at the Court of Teheran, for communicating to us an interest-
ing account of the ascent of Mount Demavend by Mr. Thomson and
Lord Schomburg Kerr, who are attached to his mission. Besides travel-
ling over and describing an extensive portion of the mountainous
region between Teheran and the depression which extends to the
Caspian Sea, these zealous diplomatists made three ascents of Dema-
vend, and, measuring its altitude by boiling water, came to the con-
clusion that the summit (which is composed of volcanic and sul-
phureous materials) was 21,600 feet above the sea. In support of
the measurement of our countrymen, I learn by a letter recently

292 SIR RODERICK I. MURGHISON'S ADDRESS— ASIA. [May 23, 1859.

received from M. Otto Struve, of the Imperial Observatory of Pul-
kowa, that by his deductions, calculated in 1851, from M. Lenne's
geodetic observations, made in 1838 (see 'Memoirs of the Imp.
Acad, of Science,' 1851), Demavend had the height of 20,085
French feet assigned to it. This independent testimony is of
great value ; the approach to agreement being the more remarkable,
considering the comparatively feeble instruments employed both by
the Kussian and English parties.

Hence is it certain that Demavend is much loftier than the Ararat
of geographers, which lies at the south end of the Caucasus, and
has an altitude of 17,112 feet only. But if that name is to be
applied to the highest summit in Western Asia, we are assured
by Sir Henry Rawlinson that Mount Jiidi, overhanging the plain
of Assyria, is much higher than Demavend, and is actually con-
sidered by the inhabitants to be the mountain on which the Ark of
Noah rested. As our eminent medallist Sir Henry is about to
proceed to Persia, there to represent our Sovereign, we may feel
assured that, with his love of research, he will not quit his post
until he has taken steps to clear up these points, and also to make
us better acquainted with the geography of the interior of Persia,
particularly that portion of the kingdom which lies adjacent to the
Caspian Sea.

In the observations I offer on the progress of geography among
the Eussians, the reader will find that the recent expedition of
M. Khanikoff has produced a greater rectification in the positions
of some important places.

China, Japan, and New Guinea. — The additions to our acquaint-
ance with the coasts, ports, and interior of the vast Empire of
China, which have been made during the last year, are very con-
siderable. By the judicious and decisive measures of Her Majesty's
Ambassador, the Earl of Elgin, and the skill and energy of our
naval armaments, commanded by that excellent officer Admiral Sir
Michael Seymour, combined with those of our allies, the river
Peiho has been ascended, the great port of the capital occupied, and
a treaty prescribed to the Imperial Court — the first example of
equal diplomatic relations between China, Japan, and the com-
mercial nations of Europe and America.

Our zealous and enlightened associate. Captain Sherard Osbom,
commanding the Furious steam-frigate (in which Lord Elgin sailed),
has furnished us with vivid descriptions of the nature of the coast.

May 23, 1859.] CHINA— ASCENT OF THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 293

soundings, and anchorages between Shangae and the Gulf of Pecheli,
as well as with accounts of that gulf and of the river Feiho.* This
officer has not only the talent of clearly developing the geographical
features of a country, as well as the characteristic habits, trades,
and occupations of its inhabitants, but he does this in such lively
and attractive language, that the reader of our Proceedings can now
precisely picture to his mind's eye how Shangae has risen to its
present state of opulence, can fancy himself lying at anchor in the
Gulf of Pecheli, sounding the bar of the Peiho, or disembarking
among shoals of canoes while pressed upon by curious Chinese, as he
wends his way through Tien-sin, the populous and filthy great port
of the capital.

But of all the operations which have been carried on in China, no
one has proved so truly surprising to the geographer as the recent
ascent of the great river Yang-tse-Keang by the Earl of Elgin. On
this remarkable occasion we are again in company with Captain
Sherard Osbom, who, together with his excellent officers, has given
us a detailed chart of the river. We have been also furnished
with an admirable description of the operations of this successful
voyage by our Associate Mr. L. Oliphant, the Secretary of Lord
Elgin — already well known in the literary world; so that from
the combination of the talents of these gentlemen, documents
relating to the course of the mighty stream have been laid before
us which are of the deepest interest to the geographer, the statist,
and the merchant.

It may fairly be said that never was an expedition of this nature
carried out under such strange and striking circumstances; for
never before did a squadron of armed steamers, one of them draw-
ing 1 6 feet of water, penetrate into the interior of a great continent
for between 600 and 700 miles — a distance equal to the length
of the Danube in a straight line from its mouths to near Vienna.
Again, when we consider that large portions of the banks of the
river were occupied by a hostile rebel force, the batteries of which
offered resistance at two critical points of the voyage, and that the
whole tract was more or less in a state of ruthless civil war, our
astonishment increases. Such an achievement it may safely be said
would have been impossible in any other age than the one we live
in. On referring to the chart of Sherard Osbom and his naval asso-
ciates, we find that this wonderful voyage to and fro, i. e. for a dis-

* See the account of the statistics of the port of Shanghae. — Proc. Geogr. Soc.,to1. iii., p. 57,

294 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— ASIA. [May 23, 1859.

tance of about 1250 miles, was performed in the short space of 46
days, exclusive of 12 days spent off the city of Kew-Keang; and,
when we peruse the livel}'' and clear description of Mr. Oliphant,
our surprise rises to admiration. It is then that we find what
difficulties our gallant seamen encountered and overcame, caused by
the extraordinary changes which are continually going on in the
banks and bottom of the great river. Seeing that in the year
1844 the river had been already and accurately surveyed, as far as
Nankin, by those excellent officers Kellett and Collinson, it might
have been expected that up to that point at least, the charts might
to some extent be depended on; but, as Oliphant narrates, "24
hours had scarcely elapsed before every ship in the squadron had
discovered a new sandbank by feeling it with her bottom. Shoals
had been converted into islands, or had disappeared altogether, and
the spot formerly avoided as a danger was now discovered to be the
deep and safe channel. But this entire transformation was not con-
fined to the bed of the river alone. In some places its banks were
similarly affected, former landmarks having disappeared or become
so altered as to be no longer distinguishable." Farther up the
stream, as the voyagers neared Nankin (and where landmarks have
not changed), 6 feet of water only were sounded where Collinson
had found 6 fathoms. These remarkable variations, common to all
rivers having a long course over alluvial tracts, although not to the
same extent, show that if a steady commerce is hereafter to be
carried on, the re -surveys of the stream must be frequent.

A few observations on these striking natural phenomena may here
be permissible. Descending in two main streams from the Pering
mountains, which divide China proper from the unknown regions of
Tartary, the Yang-tse-Keang, which is estimated to have a length
of 3300 miles, is thus remarkable in being navigable by large
ships for upwards of a fifth part of its whole length ! Being the
largest river in the Old World of geographers, and exceeded only
by the Mississippi and the Amazon in the New World, this long
body of water is swelled by numerous affluents, chiefly from the
north, but also by some on its southern shore. The former, flowing
from lofty snow-covered mountains, and consequently rushing forth
with great vehemence in the early summer season, necessarily carry
down with them vast quantities of sand and detritus, thus explaining
how, in its course seawards, the trunk-stream is either rapidly ob-
structed in one part of its bed, or deepened in another by new and
powerful currents. Thus it is that in no part of the civilized world

May 23, 1859.] CHINA— ASCENT OF THE YANG-TSE-KEANG. 295

has man been more stimulated than along large portions of the
banks of the Yang-tse-Keang, where the moveable surrounding
objects have compelled him to apply his industrial and inventive
talents. For, after the floods of the rainy season have retired from
the lagoons and temporary shallow lakes which spread out from the
great central river of China, wherever its banks are low, the
inhabitants flock rapidly to the desiccated soil, cultivate it zealously,
and inhabit temporary dwellings until the next approaching inunda-
tions drive them into higher grounds.

The accumulations and excavations occasioned by the Yang-tse-
Keang are indeed good illustrations of certain geological pheno-
mena. They teach us to be cautious in inferring that much time
has necessarily elapsed in forming masses of ancient sediment which
have since been converted into stone. For example, the geologist
who has drawn his conclusions mainly from countries watered
by rivers that rise in low hills, carry with them little detritus,
and exercise a small degree of degrading power, might naturally
suppose that a cliff of sandstone, of 30 feet in height, composed of
layer over layer, must necessarily have occupied many years in its
formation ; whilst the Yang-tse-Keang, fed by affluents descending
from lofty snowy mountains, accomplishes such a deposit or exca-
vates a deep channel in a single season ! Hence we see the impos-
sibility of inferring, from physical features alone, that thick accu-
mulations of sediment or the deep denudation of lands have neces-
sarily been periods of great duration, and hence it follows that the
evidences obtained of the entombment of different animals in the
successive accumulations which under pristine physical conditions
have enveloped the globe and thickened its crust, when combined
with the signs of their order of superposition, are by far the surest
proofs of the vast antiquity of our planet.

Apart from such natural phenomena, the voyage up the Yang-tse-
Keang has made known to us many circumstances deeply exciting to
the political and mercantile communities ; though the sketch of Mr.
Oliphant would lead us to modify to some extent the alluring
picture of wealth and prosperity of the interior which some writers
have drawn. The rebellion has, however, caused a wide-spread
desolation, which is feelingly narrated. Opulent cities have been
razed to the ground and converted into jungles, where wild animals
have occupied the resorts of man.

Independently, indeed, of the rebel devastation, Mr. Oliphant
seems to be of opinion that the views formerly entertained of the

VOL. III. z

296 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— ASIA. [May 23, 1859.

teeming population and extreme cultivation of the region watered
by the great stream have been exaggerated. He is disposed to think
that even prior to rebel invasion the cities never could have equalled
in number or extent the accounts which have been current respecting
them. Thus, instead of a population of 8,000,000, ascribed to the
three cities of which Han-Kow is the chief, he is disposed to reduce
the cipher to an eighth part of that number. On this head, however,
we have the authority of the great Chinese scholar. Sir John Davis,
who, with my lamented friend Sir Henry Ellis, partially ascended
the Yang-tse-Keang in 1816, to prove how very abundant and
flourishing was the population before the country was cursed with a
pestiferous rebellion, which, under the false pretence of Christianity
and religion, has enabled a collection of lawless and destructive
freebooters to paralyse the industry of a great country. I would
indeed fain hope, that the Imperial Government of China may be
aided by foreign states in suppressing this noxious and devastating
insurrection ; for there can be little doubt that the nations interested
in establishing a steady commerce with China could, if they willed
it, re-establish the Imperial Government in full possession of the
country, and thus strengthen the union which has happily at last
been effected.

Let us, then, turn with hope to the picture of the internal
commerce sketched out by our associate, Mr. Lockhart, who last
year placed before us those data on Chinese authority respecting
the importance of the great interior port of Han-Kow, which have
been entirely confirmed by the exploration of Lord Elgin. We may,
indeed, feel certain that when commercial relations are estabUshed
with that port, to which Mr. Lockhart specially directed attention,
smaller vessels will soon pass still farther up the river to new and
important stations of intercourse with the natives ; whilst daring
travellers, no longer experiencing the difficulties which beset them
of old, will penetrate towards the very sources of this mighty stream,*

* I learn from Mr. Joseph Edkins, the associate of Mr. W. Lockhart in China, that the
Chinese possess written records of all the enormous changes which the great river Yang-tse-
Keang as well as other streams have undergone for many ages back. The fertilizing of large
tracts by fresh water floods — the barring out of the tides by which the salt water would
have sterilized good lands — the regulation of the system of canals and embankments, are
explained in works mentioned in the brief but pregnant announcement of Mr, Edkins,
which will be read before the Society, and printed in our Proceedings. Some of these works
are among the oldest geographical documents. Thus, the Section of the Shocking (Book of
History) called Yu-Kung consists of a geographical description of China in the time of the
famous Emperor Yu, who, about 2000 years before Christ, restored the country to a condition
fit for agriculture after a great local deluge. On his return to China, Mr. Edkins will work
out many curious data of the comparative geography of this singular and learned people.

May 23, 1859.] JAPAN. 29^7

and eventually make ns acquainted with that vast interior which
separates China from Hindostan. In the mean time let me commend
to the perusal of all those who desire to become acquainted with the
internal resources of China and its trade a most instructive short
pamphlet of my friend Mr. John Crawfurd. That paper, which was
given as a popular lecture before the Philosophical and Literary
Society of Leeds, is the clearest and best condensed account of the
people and productions of this remarkable empire which has fallen
under my notice.

Japan. — Although Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, first
brought to Europe the intelligence of the existence of the chain of
volcanic islands now known as Japan, this empire — one island of
which is as large as Britain — has remained to a great extent un-
known to us. Early in the fifteenth century, and for the brief
space of ten years, a British factory existed at Firando, but that
intercourse was abandoned for more profitable ventures.

To the Dutch, who have contrived, in spite of much opposition,
to maintain their commercial intercourse with Japan, we are chiefly
indebted for any knowledge we possess of its inhabitants. Eamp-
fer, indeed, opined that owing to the dangerous access to their
shores, and to the prolific nature of the soil, nature seemed to have
destined these islands to constitute a secluded world within them-
selves. Yet, the barriers have now been broken down, and the fer-
tile Japan is opened to the commerce of the West.

As our kinsmen of the United States had the merit of leading the
way in obtaining this result, we also may now rejoice that through
the sagacious conduct of Lord Elgin, aided by the vigorous naval
movement of Sherard Osbom, Britain has obtained that full share
in the commercial advantages which are likely to flow from the
new treaty.

In the treaty concluded by Lord Elgin at Yedo, or, as it is usually
written by us, Jeddo, several of the restrictions enforced upon the
Dutch are not applied. Hitherto, the intercourse of Europeans
with Japan being confined exclusively to the small Dutch factory
at the extreme point of the empire, has exercised no influence
whatever upon the mass of the population. They have been as
effectually secluded from the rest of the world as if the great
island of Desima did not exist, nor have the products and manu-
factures of the West penetrated as yet into the cities and villages of
Dai Nipon. Doubtless, it may require time to create wants in a
population hitherto so independent of the rest of the world, but the

z 2

298 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— ASIA. [May 23, 1859,

acquisitive and imitative instinct of the native of Japan is so remark^
able that he will rapidly discover the merits of Western arts and ma-
nufactures, and apply them to his own uses. Already, as Mr. Lau-
rence Oliphant informs me, the Japanese is a sufficiently experi-
enced navigator and scientific engineer to dispense with the assist-^
ance of foreigners in steaming from Nagasaki to Yedo— a voyage
which usually occupies a week. Again, as the same informant
tells me, one of the most enlightened princes has laid down an electric
telegraph between his palace and the chief cities of his province,
whilst a diving-bell and Nasmyth's hammer are in full operation,
under Dutch supervision, in the harbour of Nagasaki. There is,
therefore, no reason to doubt that these people will be less ready
to adopt our manufactures than oiir scientific inventions. With six
ports open to the unrestricted transmission of imports into the
interior, our home products will, in all probability, penetrate into
every corner of the empire. In the winter, the furs and cloaks
padded with cotton will be replaced by woollens, a production
unknown in Japan, where sheep have not yet been introduced.
Again, sugar, one of the few articles for which they depend largely
on China, though now a luxury, may easily be rendered a neces-
sary of life ; for it can be far more cheaply furnished by our
merchants from such countries as Java, Siam, and Bengal than from
densely -peopled China, which itself receives supplies from some of
these countries.

Situated in a temperate latitude, and with an industrious, in-
genious, and docile population, which is probably not overestimated
at 40,000,000, Japan is marked by productions not very dissimilar
from those of the south of Europe. One of the most remarkable of
these is insect wax, a cargo of which has already reached this
country and proved a most profitable investment. Camphor, silk,
and tea of a superior quality are produced in great quantities, as
also hemp, flax, and tobacco. In their manufactures of iron, copper,
glass, wood lacquering, China paper, steel, &c., the Japanese have at-
tained such great perfection that the Western manufacturers may even
gain some useful hints from them. Without, however, entering into
farther details, or venturing upon an oversanguine estimate of the
capabilities of this new field for the energy and enterprise of Europe,
we may augur well from this fact, that between thirty and forty
millions of such customers have been added to our list. Nor while
we appreciate the advantages of this new market are we unmindful
of the benefits to geographical inquiry which are likely to result

May 23, 1859.] INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 299

from this most interesting field of exploration. We know at present
but little of the topographical configuration of the country beyond
the meagre accounts we have received from the Dutch. The
Japanese themselves have, indeed, graphically illustrated some
of the most striking features of the natural scenery and customs
of their country, and in a manner which shows no small proficiency
in art. Ere long the singular scenes around the great volcano of
Fusi jama will doubtless be visited by our travellers, as Lord
Elgin's treaty secures for the British Consul-General and all gentle-
men connected with him the right to visit every part of the
empire.

Let us hope, however, that the intercourse of other nations with
this peculiarly ceremonious race— in which woman occupies a
higher station than in any other Asiatic country ; where the habits
of the people are neat, clean, and orderly; where the laws are
short and clear, and where professional lawyers are unknown — may
not bring upon these hitherto secluded lands those curses of de-
moralization which too often attend upon the influx of a higher
civilization.

Indian Archipelago. — The additions to our knowledge of the Indian
Archipelago for the year are confined to two papers, supplied by
Mr. Alfred E. Wallace and Mr. John Yeats. These relate to New
Guinea, after Borneo the greatest island in the world, and, at
the same time, the least known. Both papers furnish the largest
and most authentic contributions to our knowledge of this tropical,
forest-clad land, little less than double the extent of Britain,
and inhabited by austral negroes in a social condition incom-
parably lower than that of any of the negro tribes of Eastern or
Western Africa ; but, rude as it is, destined, T have no doubt, in
time to rise to importance in relation to the adjacent Australian
continent, where wool, gold, and British enterprise are rapidly
creating a mighty empire.

Mr. Wallace, who last year furnished us with an authentic
and valuable description of the neighbouring and curious group of
the Arru Islands, was, as he himself truly observes, the sole
European inhabitant, and we may safely add, the sole civilised being,
of New Guinea for three months. The researches of this skilful
naturalist were necessarily confined to a small portion of the island,
Doree, which lies at the western extremity of the great bay which
indents its northern coast. Mr. Wallace's paper supplies us with by
far the best account of the geology and geography of the place he

300 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS- ASIA. [May 23, 1859.

visited, while other Societies have properly received his contributions
to botany and zoology.

The paper for which we are indebted to Mr. Yeats is a translation
from the Dntch of Dr. Salomon Miiller, the learned and judicious
naturalist of one of the expeditions which the Dutch Government
sent out for the exploration of New Guinea in the years 1826, 1828,
and 1835. It describes a considerable portion of the south-western
coast of this hitherto unknown country, and is itself a small portion
of the great work on the people, languages, natural history, and re-
sources of the Dutch possessions in India, composed and published
under the auspices of the Netherland Government. Should the
enlightened recommendation of Sir William Denison, alluded to
under the heading of Australia, and backed as it has been by the
Council of this Society, meet with the approbation of our own
Government, we may hope to see the worthy example of the Dutch
Government followed on a still larger scale.

In speaking of the Indian Archipelago, it may not be out of
place to mention that by a recent and practical examination of the
coal-fields of Borneo, those of the British island of Labuan have
been found to be incomparably the best as to quality, extent, and
facility of working. Our capitalists have not been slow to take
advantage of this, and are about to work the mines. It would be
superfluous to dwell on the vast advantages of a cheap supply of
coal in our present enlarged intercourse with Australia, China,
Japan, Siam, and the islands of the Archipelago.

Mr. H. Wise, a gentleman long familiar with the question of
Indian navigation, has furnished the Society with an ingenious
Memorandum (accompanied by a map) on the means of shortening
the route from the Western world to China and Japan by cutting
a ship canal through the narrow isthmus which divides the Gulfs of
Bengal and Siam. Communications on the subject have also been
received from Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, our Consul in Siam. The
subject is not, however, ripe for discussion, and all that I need
observe upon it at present is, that it is one which comes eminently
within the province of the Geographical Society, and is well entitled
to our best consideration.

Admiring and respecting as I do our eminent Medallist Sir
James Brooke, whose skill, perseverance, and courage laid the
foundation of an important settlement in the Eastern Archipelago,
I cannot close this brief referencfe to that region without expressing
my gratification that at a period when the health of this dis-

May 23, 1859.] AFRICA^DISCOVERIES OF BURTON AND SPEKE. 301

tinguished man has been materially affected, he should have met
with that generous sympathy and support of a large body of his
enlightened countrymen, which will, I trust, act as the best restor-
ative of a frame which has been overworked in the great endeavour ^j a
with which his name will ever be associated, ^??fx,

Africa.

Discoveries of Burton and Speke. — The last discoveries in the interior
of the eastern side of this great continent have already been adverted
to in the adjudication of our Founder's Gold Medal to Captain
Burton.

In the few words I addressed to that distinguished explorer in
presenting to him that Medal, a brief but pregnant allusion was
made to the labours and researches of his associate Captain Speke ;
and in now expatiating on the results of their remarkable and suc-
cessful explorations, the chief of the expedition, who is already well
known by his bold peregrinations and publications, will, I am sure,
be happy that I should offer in the annexed note * a slight sketch
of the antecedents as well as of the special duties executed by his
companion.

Eeturning to Europe from Aden, both Captains Burton and Speke
sought and obtained employment in the Turkish contingent of the
allied armies operating in the Crimea. Thrown out of their military
career by the peace, they returned to the east coast of Africa, with
the view of exploring the country from the coast of Zanzibar as far
inland as might enable them to ascertain the real geography of the
interior in that latitude.

* Quitting England at the age of seventeen as an officer of the Indian army, Captain
Speke was engaged in four general actions under Sir Colin Campbell. Peace being esta-
blished in the Punjaub, he obtained leave on several occasions to indulge his natural taste
for field sports, and the collection of specimens of the animals of Tibet, the Himklyas,
and Upper India. In those remote and snowy mountains he made himself a geographer,
and with a simple compass and watch plotted out tracks for the benefit of future explorers.
In 1854, obtaining three years' furlough, he started with a large outfit at his own expense
to explore Central Africa, and collect its fauna. Arrived at Aden, General Outram per-
mitted Lieut. Speke to be embodied in the expedition under Captain Burton, destined to
explore the Somauli country from Berbera. Whilst this expedition was waiting to proceed
with the usual annual caravan to Ugadin, Lieut. Speke, with his chiefs permission, entered
the Somauli countiy as far as Ras Kori, and crossed the coast range into the interior plateau
ground. In the space of six months he constructed a sketch plan of thpse tracts,
and made large collections of their flora and fauna. After his return to Aden,
he again started alone for the Somauli coast at Karam, purchased camels, and proceeded to
Berbera, the rendezvous of Burton's party. When the British officers had there established
themselves, their camp, as is recorded in your Jounial, was attacked by the Somauli, who,
seizing all the stores, killed Captain Stroyan, wounded Captains Burton and Heme, and
wounded and captured Speke. But escapmg, as he says, miraculously, he rejoined Burton
and the survivors, and returned to Aden,

302 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

Aided by the late Colonel Hamerton, our meritorious Consul at
Zanzibar, and by Seyd Majid, the second son of the Imaum of
Muscat, now the Prince of Zanzibar, the travellers made an
experimental journey from that place on the coast to Fuga in the
mountain country of Usambara. In tbeir last and great expedition
they again proceeded from Zanzibar. Their party consisted of
twelve Beloochees furnished by the kindness of the Sultan, some
negroes who had been slaves, and asses for the transport of goods
and for riding. Passing over the delta and low hilly country
called M'rima, they entered the mountainous coast range at about
120 miles from the coast. This range, which rises to a maximum
altitude of 6,000 feet, with a width of about 90 miles, is chiefly
composed of sandstone and crystalline rocks, the true character of
which will be ascertained when Captain Burton's specimens arrive.

Descending from the coast range to the great interior plateau
land, at a lower level, and travelling over some poor lands, they
reached a rich country in which knolls or bosses of granite and
basalt rise up like rocks in an ocean. This country is exclusively
peopled by negroes, none of whom are Mahomedans, as are the
Somaulis and trading Arabs of the coast.

Like the Negroes described by Livingstone, they have no special
religion, trusting solely to good and evil spirits. Such of them
as have sultans are on the whole peaceable, fire-arms being
rare among them. Their country produces cotton, tobacco, maize,
sweet potatoes, a great variety of pulses, manioc, yams, plantains,
and melons : they manufacture iron, cotton fabrics, have abundance
of cows and goats, and live in comparative comfort.

From Kaze, in Unyanyembe, a spot where the Arab traders have
established a sort of mart, and where articles from the coast are
bartered for ivory and slaves, the travellers moved westerly until
they reached the long inland mass of water trending from S. to N.,
which has been styled Uniamesi and Ujiji, but the real name of
which is Tanganyika.

This lake was found to be 1,800 feet only above the sea, or about
half the average height of the plateau land west of the coast range.
It has a length of about 300 and a breadth of from 30 to 40 miles.

This great internal mass of water was determined to be an insu-
lated depression into which streams flow on all sides. It was
crossed by Speke in the centre, and navigated conjointly with
Burton to near its northern end , where it is subtended by mountains
which were estimated to have a height of from 6,000 to 7,000 feet

May 23, 1859.] DISCOVERIES OF BURTON AND SPEKE. 303

within the range of the eye.* Its waters are perfectly fresh and
peculiarly agreeable to drink, and it abounds in delicious fish, whilst
its banks are grazed by red oxen of large size, some of them having
stupendously long horns. Oxen are indeed common over nearly
all the region examined, for the tsetse fly, the scourge of the more
southern African countries, in which Livingstone travelled, is
unknown.

A singular phenomenon of blindness affected for some time both
the travellers. Whilst exposed in the arid, hilly coast range, and
also in the plateau land, to a fierce and glaring sun, their sight was
unaffected ; but on descending into the verdant, well watered, and
rich lacustrine expanse of Tanganyika their sight was dimmed, and
gradually they became almost blind — their recovery being slow and
imperfect. It was this calamity alone which diminished the number
of astronomical observations made by Captain Speke, who lost no op-
portunity of fixing the latitude and longitude of numerous positions.

When returned to their chief central station in Unyanyembe,
Speke, thriving upon hard field work, left his invalid companion in
order to reach the great lake Nyanza, the position of which had
been pointed out to him by the Arabs, who asserted that it was
much longer and larger than Tanganyika, from which it is separated
by about 200 miles. In this journey Captain Speke, accompanied
by his faithful Beloochees, passed through the district where the
chief iron works of the country are carried on ; the native black-
smiths smelting the ore with charcoal.

The great lake Nyanza was found to occupy the position assigned
to it by the Arabs, and the E. longitude being very nearly that
of Kaze, viz., 32° 47',t its southern end was fixed at 2" 30' S.
lat. Ascending a hill and looking northwards, the enterprising

* Since this Address was delivered, the British Muse am has acquired a curious, large,
old Portuguese MS. map of the world, on the Mercator's projection, made by
Antonio Sances, in 1623, which shows how much general knowledge of the interior of
Africa was possessed at that period by the Portuguese. On this vellum map, the author
distinctly places one large body of water in the centre of Africa, and in the parallel of
Zanzibar. Although all the details are inaccurate, and he makes the Congo flow out
of this lake to the West, and another river (representing probably the Zambesi), which is
called R. de St. Yurzes, from the same to the S.E., still the general notion of great internal
waters is there put forth.

Chevalier Pertz has recently discovered in an old MS. in the Royal Library at Berlin
that, even in the year 1291, two Genoese navigators, Teodosio Doria and Ugolino Vivaldi,
sailed for a certain distance down the West Coast of Africa. Their ships were called Sanf
Antonio and Allegranza, and the last- mentioned name has, indeed, remained attached to
the most northern of the Canary Islands. It has been en'oneously stated in some journals
that these Genoese navigators sailed roi\nd the Cape of Good Hope. — June 20, 1859.

•f Lunar observations were made at this station.

304 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

traveller could discern nothing beyond the islands termed Ukerewe,
but a vast interior sheet of water, which, according to those Arabs,
whose information had hitherto proved correct, extended north-
wards for upwards of 300 miles. Captain Speke, who estimates the
breadth of this internal sea at 90 miles near its southern end, further
ascertained that it is fed not only by streams flowing from the
mountains which separate it from Lake Tanganyika, but also by
other streams, many of which, meandering in the lower plateau
to the west of the lake, constitute, like the internal rivers described
by Livingstone, a watery network which when supersaturated by
the rains burst and overflow the country.

Seeing that this vast sheet of water extends due northwards,
ascertaining by his thermometer that it was nearly 4,000 feet above
the sea, and knowing that its meridian was nearly that of the main
course of the White Nile, Captain Speke naturally concludes that
his Nyanza is the chief source of that mighty stream on the origin
of which speculation has been so rife. This view seems to coin-
cide with the theoretical speculation laid before this Society by myself
in preceding years, and is in accordance with the data worked out by
Livingstone, of a great interior watery plateau subtended on its
flanks by higher lands, and from which interior plateau the waters
escape to the sea by favouring depressions.

The physical configuration cf the land to the east of the great
Nyanza Lake is indeed strongly in favour of this view. On that
side, and at a distance of about 200 miles from its banks, the eastern
coast range of Africa rises from 6000 feet in the latitude of Zan-
zibar (where it was passed by our travellers) into a lofty range or
cluster, of which Kilimanjaro forms the southern and Kenia a
northern peak.

If the assertion of Rebmann and Krapf be accepted, that perpetual
snow lies on those mountains, though the able critical essay of Cooley*
had induced me to suppose that these missionaries might have
been somewhat misled, the summits of these mountains must have an
altitude of upwards of 18,000 feet. At all events it is granted that
they are the highest points of this coast range. Now, whilst streams
descending from the western flank of Kenia (Kilimanjaro is too far
to the south) may probably be feeders of the great Nyanza Lake,
which occupies a long lateral north and south depression in the
plateau on the west, we know from its meridian as now fixed, that the

* See Cooley's * Inner Africa laid Open,' p. 126.

May 23, 1859.] DISCOVERIES OF BURTON AND SPEKE. 305

direction of this fresh-water sea points directly to Garbo, the spot
in latitude 3° north reached by M. Ulivi, as related by Brun-Rollet,
a Sardinian, who had established a trading post at Belenia in lati-
tude 4P 50' north, on the White Nile in 1851. The north and south
direction of the Nyanza, which Speke believes to reach from south
latitude 2i^ to 3° 30' north latitude, brings us in fact beyond the
Garbo of Ulivi and Brun-Rollet.*

The variations which occur in the height of the waters at different
seasons, in the interior plateau-country surrounding the great lake,
were strikingly described to Captain Speke by the Arabs, when they
assured him that at one season of the year the water lilies were so
abundant as to enable the traveller to pass over a wide river by
treading on their broad and thick floating leaves, showing how flat
the country must be, and how sluggish are the streams.

Let us hope that when re-invigorated by a year's rest, the un-
daunted Speke may receive every encouragement to proceed from
Zanzibar to his old station, and thence carry out to demonstration
the view which he now maintains, that the Lake Nyanza is the
main source of the Nile. Considering the vast difficulties which beset
the traveller who attempts to penetrate southwards by ascending
the Nile, it seems to be preferable that the effort should be made
from Zanzibar, where Captain Speke is sure of being heartily sup-
ported by the Sultan, and whence, taking men on whom he could
rely, he can certainly calculate on reaching the Lake Nyanza in
good plight, for that zone of Africa which he has passed through is
now ascertained to be occupied by a much more tranquil people
than those of the countries north and south of it.

On former occasions I contended that the periodical overflow of
the waters from the internal fresh-water lakes was explicable by the
fact, that at certain periods of the year, differing of course in
different latitudes, the rain-fall of several months would at last so
supersaturate the interior plateau-lands and lakes as to produce
periodical annual discharges. That the lofty mountains of the coast-
range, of which Kenia is the chief peak, may throw off certain
feeders of the White Nile, just as the mountains of Abyssinia feed
the Blue Nile, must probably be the case ; but whilst it may be
admitted that little snow may occupy the peaks or summits of

* M. Jomard has analysed and compared the discoveries of M. Brun-Rollet, who gives
some information derived from De Angelis, who resided at Belenia in 1851, which is
worthy of attention. But speculations founded on such uncertain data are of no great
value.

306 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

Kilimanjaro and Kenia, I am of opinion with the learned Cooley *
that the elevation and mass of these mountains are not such as
would sustain a vast range of snow and ice, the melting of which
would account for the annual rise of the Nile. Even if it be
assumed that this is really a snowy chain, the exact periodical rise
of the Nile could never be caused by a periodical melting of its
snows, since the power of the sun under the Equator is so nearly
equable throughout the year, that it must operate in filling the
streams which descend from the mountains with pretty much the
same amount of water at all seasons. The great phenomenon of the
periodic rise of the Nile is, it seems to me, much more satisfactorily
explained by the annual overflow of a vast interior watery plateau,
which, is, thanks to Captain Speke, ascertained to have an altitude
much more than adequate to carry the stream down to Khartum,
where the Nile is believed to flow at a height of less than 1500 feet
above the sea ; and as the river below that point passes through an
arid country, and is fed by no lateral streams, it is to. the southern,
central, and well- watered regions that we must look for the periodic
supply.

On consulting Captain Speke respecting the rainy season of that
part of the interior of Africa which lies between Ujiji and Unyan-
yembe, I find that in about east longitude 30° and south latitude 5°
the rains commence on the 15th November and end on the 15th
May, during which period of six months they fall in an almost
continuous downpour. Farther northward, where the Lake Nyanza
lies, the rainy season, in the common order of events, would com-
mence, he supposes,' somewhat later, and probably at a time which
will account for the periodical rise of the Nile at Cairo on the 18th
June. In support of this view, Captain Speke states that the river
Malagarazi, which drains the surplus waters from the south-east
slope of the mountains between the Lakes Nyanza and Tanganyika,
when first crossed by the expedition, was within its banks, but on
the 5th June it had quite overflowed them and constituted a stream
100 yards broad, running westwards into the depressed lake of
Tanganyika. Now, as according to the Arabs, and other intelligent

* This acute scholar has shown his power as a comparative geographer by a close
analysis of the qucestio vexata respecting the !Nile of the ancients, and shows that the true
Nile of Ptolemy was the Blue Nile, which descends from the mountains of Abyssinia. He
also shows that the great lakes of the Nile of Ptolemy are at the Equator — a view now
confirmed by the researches of Speke. As to Kilimanjaro, he says it is " an insulated
mountain in a sea-like plain, and on a fifth scale of the magnitude required for maintaining
perpetual snow near the Equator." See also his work * Inner Africa Laid Open,' in which
he explains the existence of a gieat sea or lake in the interior of Eastern Africa.

May 23, 1859.] DISCOVERIES OF BURTON AND SPEKE. 307

men with whom he conversed, the whole region to the northward
of the mountain in question, i. e. beneath and to the north of the
Equator, is an extensive marshy plateau, intersected by some large
and innumerable smaller streams, all feeders of Lake Nyanza, we
have only to suppose that at the close of the rainy season the great
discharge occurs, and we then have in these data strong grounds
for believing, that the theory which I ventured to propound to this
Society as the best explanation of the overflow of the Zambesi of
Livingstone, as well as of the Congo and other African rivers, will
also be found to be applicable to the Nile.

In concluding this notice of the labours destined to clear up the
problem of the real sources of the Nile, I must express my thanks
to Mr. Macqueen for his eiforts to collate all the data concerning the
ascents of the White Nile from the expedition sent by Mahomed AH
in 1839 to that of Don Angelis, which Bnm-EoUet accompanied in
1851, and when the party reached 3° 50' north latitude, 31° east lon-
gitude. Adding to information obtained from natives and Arabs,
and citing Lucan and other ancient authors to the same effect, Mr.
Macqueen contends that a lofty mountain to the south-east of the
cataracts of Garbo, the last station of Brun-Eollet and his com-
panions, which must be Kenia, is the chief feeder of the "White
Nile, and that the river Tubesi, spoken of by the African King of
Bari, is really the Tumbiri heard of by Dr. Krapf.

Now, even if this view be sustained, it seems to me to be quite
compatible with the fresh knowledge obtained by Captain Speke,
and his inference, that the Nyanza is the chief feeder of the White
Nile. For the southern extremity of this great inland lake is but
2i^ south of the Equator, whilst its western shore is probably not more
than 1 50 miles from the lofty mountain of Kenia. Hence, seeing that
Nyanza is about 4000 feet only above the sea, and that the eastern
mountains, under the Equator, are much higher, there is every
probability that this vast sheet of water may be fed from the east
by streams flowing from Kenia, as it is ascertained to be supplied
from the south-west and west by other rivers flowing from the
mountains, which separate this high sheet of water from the
depressed Lake Tanganyika.*

If then it should eventually be proved, that the Lake Nyanza

* Mr. Edw. Heneage informs me that Botero, in his ' Relationi Universali * (Venice,
1640), says that the eastern Nile flows out of a lake 220 miles long, situated under the
Equator ; and he places the sources of the western branch of that river about S. lat. 9^,
close to the sources of the Zaire or Congo, and what may also be intended for the origin of
the Zambesi.

308 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

contributes its annual surplus waters to the White Nile, so may it
then be fairly considered as the main source of the great river ; the
more so when we see that its southern end is farther to the south,
or more remote from the embouchure, than any other portion of the
Nilotic water-parting.* On the other hand, the high mountains
which flank the great stream on the east, and probably supply it with
some of its waters, may by other geographers be rather viewed as
the main and original source. These are the only remaining portions
of the great problem which have to be worked out — a problem
which it has been the desideratum of all ages to unravel, and one
which, according to Lucan, made Julius Caesar exclaim, that to gain
this knowledge he would even abandon the civil war f — a problem
which Nero sent his centurions to determine, and which, by the last
discovery of Captain Speke, seems certainly now to approach
nearly to a satisfactory solution.

Before we descend to the mouth of the Nile, and consider the
nature of its delta, I must say that our excellent Swiss corre-
spondent, M. Ziegler, has communicated to us some ybtj interesting
further details respecting the people who inhabit the northern
declivities of the mountains of Abyssinia, as transmitted by his
countryman, M. Werner Munzinger. The historical sketch of the
affairs which have taken place of late years in Abyssinia, and
particularly in the region bordering on the land of the Bogos, is
accompanied by a map and dialects of that curious people. African
scholars, as well as geographers, will anxiously look to the publica-
tion of the manuscripts of M. Munzinger : his map extends from
15° to 17° north latitude, and east longitude 33° to 38° east of
Paris.

Delta of the Nile. Suez Canal — Whilst Captain Speke was deter-
mining the position of the great lake which may prove to be
the main source of the Nile, the distinguished Surveyor of the
Mediterranean, Captain Spratt, was working out the interesting
problem of the effect of the prevailing wave influence on the deposits
discharged at the mouth of the greatest of the African streams, and

* Although both White Nile and Blue Nile are fed by many affluents, the remarkable
physical feature of the great stream below their junction is that in a course of 1 200 miles
it is not increased by the addition of any lateral waters. On this feature, as well as on the
parallelism of its course to the great N. and S. depression of the Red Sea, on the fertilizing
powers of its waters, and on the periodicity of its flood, the reader will do well to consult
the article ** Mediterranean Sea," Edinburgh Review, vol. cvi., which is from the pen
of our accomplished associate Sir Henry Holland,
f " Spes sit mihi certa videndi

Niliacos fontes bellum civile relinquam." — Lucan, Book 10.
(As quoted by Mr. Macqueen.)

May 23, 1859.] DELTA OF THE NILE— SUEZ CANAL. 309

his results have just been published by Her Majesty's Government.
Examining the sea shore and sea bottom at different depths along
the whole coast of Egypt, and distinguishing the real composition
of the detritus brought down by the river from other adjacent
deposits, he distinctly shows, that the wave stroke from the west,
influenced by the prevailing north-westerly winds, has for ages
been impeding the transport of any Nile deposits either to the west,
or into the depths of the Mediterranean on the north, but has con-
stantly driven them to the east.

Through this unvarying natural process, Alexandria, which is on
the west of the Nile mouth, has been kept free from silt, whilst the
deltoid accumulations of the river have in the historic era succes-
sively choked up and ruined the harbours of Eosetta and Damietta,
and have formed a broader zone in the bay of Pelusium than on any
part of the coast. Again, he shows that the prevailing north-
westerly wind has produced precisely the same effect upon those
dunes and blown sands on the coast lands which, destroying habita-
tions and fertile fields, fill up depressions ; all these dunes being
derived from those sands which have originally been carried out by
the Nile from the interior of Africa, then thrown up on the shore,
and afterwards transported eastwards by the prevailing winds.

With the establishment of such data, the result of many soundings
at sea and much close observation on land, illustrated in three maps
and two plates of sections, Captain Spratt contends, in the spirit of
a fair inductive reasoner, that the proposal of M. Lesseps to form a
large ship canal in the low countries between Suez and the Bay of
Pelusium is wholly unwarranted. — 1st. Because that bay of the
Mediterranean, into which the canal is to open, is so continuously
and regularly silting up, that no amount of dredging could contend
against a great local law of nature, and hence that no permanent
port could be formed there. 2ndly. That the blown sands drifted
from the west would be constantly filling up the canal. 3rdly,
That the very incoherent condition of the ground in which the
canal has to be cut (being nothing more than the Nilotic sands
accumulated in former days) would not sustain a steady body of
water, and that all attempts to clear out its unceasing infiUings of
matter would be impracticable.

In this powerfully-argued paper. Captain Spratt quotes the
authority of the French savant, M. Lepire, who accompanied the
First Consul to Egypt in 1800, as a sanction to his conclusions.

With an extended and accurate acquaintance as a maritime sur-
veyor of the deltas which the Danube and various rivers throw out

310 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

into the Mediterranean, Captain Spratt proves, that the argu-
ments used by M. Lesseps, as drawn from other localities in
favour of his project, are, in fact, directly hostile to it. Thus, the
Malamocco entrance to Venice is to the windward side of the river
Po, and therefore freed from its deltoid deposits, just as Alexandria
is exempted from those of the Nile. Again, in the Black Sea the
deltoid accumulations of the mouth of the Danube are chiefly to the
leeward of its mouth, whilst in both these cases powerful currents
tend to keep open channels which do not exist in the sluggish water
of the bay of Pelusium.

~ In corroboration of his statements, numerous specimens of sand
and mud, brought up by the dredgings of Captain Spratt, are de-
posited in the Museum of Practical Geology; and his pregnant
words which follow may well be commended to the attentive con-
sideration of the French Government and nation, before they get
further involved in carrying out the project of a great ship canal : —

" In a gigantic engineering project, involving such an enormous
outlay for its construction as well as its annua] maintenance, as these
facts suggest, it is necessary that the commercial interests invited
to speculate in it should thoroughly understand it, so as to form an
opinion whether millions of money will not be fruitlessly lost in the
depths of the sea, as I must believe will be the case. The experience
of the past in the difficulties of engineering against similar hydraulic
and physical conditions elsewhere should not be forgotten, and to
none are such facts as are here stated of more value and of more
real importance than to M. Lesseps and the International Commis-
sion. At least, such is the humble opinion of one whose only object
is to arrive at the truth of nature's laws, and to suggest to others
the consideration of those truths, before blindly engineering against
them, and thence to be certain of the cost and results before under-
taking a work that will have to contend against so vast an amount
of physical difficulties in perpetuity."

These conclusions of Captain Spratt are entirely in unison with
the observations of my gallant friend Commander Pim, communi-
cated to our Society at one of our recent meetings, as resulting from
a visit to Egypt, which he made when he was the companion of our
associate, Mr. Eobert Stephenson. That eminent civil engineer has
for some time, indeed, arrived at a similar opinion, and has put
forth other arguments which seem to me to be as unanswerable as
those of Captain Spratt.

The Niger Expedition. — The unfortunate shipwreck of the Pleiad on
the rocks near Eabba, and the check given to the expedition under

May 23, 1859.] NIGER EXPEDITION. 311

Dr. W. B. Baikie, which left England early in 1857, were alluded to
in my last year's Address. I now learn from Mr. D. T. May, r.n.,
who has returned to England, that less than twenty miles above
Eabba the River Niger, or Quorra, divides into several rocky, intri-
cate channels. Consul Beecroft in the Ethiope, in 1845, safely navi-
gated the most available of these passages; but the voyagers of
1857 were not so fortunate, and the steamer was totally lost on
the rocks. Most of the property was, however, saved, and the
neighbouring bank became the head-quarters of the expedition for
a whole year. The rocks forming the banks of the river where the
shipwreck took place are composed of highly-inclined strata of hard
sandstone. All the specimens of this rock which I have examined,
whether brought home by Mr. May or sent by the Admiralty,
belong to the same light-coloured, hard, sub-crystalline, pinkish
sandstone, with very fine flakes of white mica ; the successive layers
(which are much foliated) being strikingly covered by thin elon-
gated crystals of black tourmaline.* The rock has altogether the
appearance of having undergone considerable metamorphosis, and
much elevation and disturbance. Geodes of pure white quartz,
with large micaceous coatings, also occur. As soon as the party had
become somewhat settled, it was determined to make a direct over-
land communication by Yoruba with Lagos, and Mr. May offering
himself for this service, accomplished it satisfactorily, as ex-
plained in a notice laid before the Society. In the mean time
Lieut. Glover made journeys up the river, visiting Wawa and Busa,
and definitely ascertained the impracticability of navigating the
river for a few miles beyond the spot of the encampment, a water-
fall at Warn being an impassable barrier even for canoes in any
season.

Mr. May having waited on the sea-coast, expecting another
steamer from England, at last returned to the encampment through
Yoruba, and then set out on a more extended journey, with a
view to exploring the country, and of establishing postal com-
munication in a line from Lagos to the confluence. Having first
travelled to Hadan (the road between Lagos and Hadan being well
known and used), he passed eastward, and journeyed for many
weeks through the previously unvisited districts of Ife, Tjesha,
Igbouma, Yagha, &c., being warmly received, and observing every-
where that the people were quiet, orderly, and industrious ; though

* I reiterate the expression of my deep regret (^see vol. xxvii. President's Address,
p. clxvi.), that no member of this expedition is versed in geology or mineralogy.

VOL. III. 2 A

312 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

these good qualities are here and there broken in upon by maraud-
ing or slave- catching armies, sent into the Yoruban country by
powerful neighbours. The details of this journey were communi-
cated to the Foreign Office in January last, and will, I presume, soon
reach the Society.

Approaching to within fifty or sixty miles of the confluences of
the Quorra and Chadda Eivers, Mr. May was compelled to alter his
route, and proceed northwards, visiting the ruined famous town
Ladi, crossing the Quorra at Shaw, and journeying thence on the
north side of the river through Niipe to Eabba.

Lieutenant Glover had during this time also visited the coast by
Mr. May's first route, and was now there waiting to pilot up the
river the steamer which was at last coming to the relief of the
party. Dr. Baikie and the other ^ members of the expedition had
been chiefly employed during the year in cultivating a good under-
standing with their neighbours, reducing their language, &c., whilst
the energies of Mr. Barton were amply occupied on the botany of
this part of Africa. In October, 1858, just a twelvemonth after the
settlement of the expedition at the spot in question, the Sunbeam
steamer arrived, the whole party were then embarked, and pro-
ceeded down the river to Fernando Po, there to recruit the health
of the officers and men, and make arrangements for farther explora-
tion. During the twelvemonth's residence in Niipe the most friendly
relations were maintained with the king, his brother, and chiefs,
and the natives generally ; supplies being often received overland
from Lagos.

At Fernando Po (November, 1858), a re-organisation having taken
place, and the preparations being completed, the party again set
out, now in the steamer Rainbow, built and sent for the purpose, and
endeavoured to re-ascend the river. But it was then found that this
vessel, which draws four feet of water, could not ascend the Niger
even in the month of January ; the waters subsiding until June,
when they increase. . In consequence, the party was obliged again
to return to the sea, and since have set out upon the land-journey
from Lagos to Eabba (upon the route opened up by Mr. May),
whence it is purposed to proceed with an expedition the friendly
objects of which must by this time have made a due impression
on the native chiefs, and from which we may anticipate the gain of
much knowledge when all the acquisitions of Dr. Baikie and his
associates are unfolded.

Livingstone or Zambesi Expedition. — With the exception of the

May 23, 1859.] LIVINGSTONE OR ZAMBESI EXPEDITION. 313

accounts we received last autumn of tlie arrival of the great
South African explorer in the Zambesi, of his ascent of the river in
the little Ma-Robert to a great distance above Tete, of his again meet-
ing with his old friends the Makololo, and his subsequent descent
of the stream — data with which the public are already well ac-
quainted— we have no news respecting the ulterior progress of this
important expedition. If no new geographical discovery should be
speedily communicated, let us recollect that the main object of
Livingstone, who is now one of Her Majesty's Consuls, is to establish
entrepots for trade and commerce high up the river ; and, as a pre-
lude to such arrangements, it was most cheering to us all to learn that
his stanch friends, the Makololo, had persevered in waiting for his
return in a tract distant from their native land. The charts and
maps of the river-banks, executed by my young geological friend
Mr. Thornton, are very creditable performances. Mr. Baines, the
artist, has laid before us a clear statement of the difficulties over-
come in navigating the river, through rocks and shoals, with little
depth of water, and the skill of Livingstone himself has been put
to the test in acting, as he terms it, the part of *' skipper" in the
absence of Commander Bedingfeld. Whatever may be the other
products derived from this region of Africa, there is a fair proba-
bility that its splendid hard trees of vast dimensions may afford
fine supplies for ship building ; and there are persons — including
Mr. Lyons M'Leod, lately our Consul at Mozambique — who, looking
to the general luxuriance of the vegetation, are of opinion that the
territory on the Zambesi may be made a corn- exporting country.

The Seychelles. — In his ' Notes on the Seychelles,' we learn from
Mr. Lyons M'Leod that these islands, twenty-nine in number,
form an archipelago, which is the most considerable of the depen-
dencies of the island of Mauritius. Extending from 3° 33' to 5° 35'
south latitude, and from 55° 15' to 56° 10' east longitude, they lie
at a distance of 915 miles from Mauritius, 566 from Madagascar,
and 1470 miles from the continent of India. First discovered by
Vasco di Gama during his second voyage to India in„1502, they
were explored, in 1742, by Captain Lazare Picault, who took pos-
session of them in the name of the King of France, since which date
they have been called by their present name, after the then French
Marine Minister. Mahe, the principal island, is about 17 miles
long and 4 miles broad : it attains an elevation of 2000 feet in
height, and may be seen at a distance of 12 to 15 leagues. The
.chief mass consists of hard granitic rock, the soil varied and pro-

2 A 2

314 SIR RODEKICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

ductive, watered with niimerous rivulets, and being well wooded,
the scenery is very picturesque.

On the east side of the island the magnificent bay or road-
stead, Port Victoria, about 4 miles deep and 3^ miles wide, could
contain from 300 to 400 vessels, while in the harbour five or six
sail of the line might be safely moored, with sufficient room for
smaller vessels.

Hurricanes and gales of wind are never known there. From
1817 to 1827 a flourishing and lucrative cotton trade was carried on
at the Seychelles ; though the plant, which is of fine quality, has
not yet been placed in competition with sea-island quality of Georgia,
in the United States.

The sugar-cane grows luxuriantly, and no tobacco is superior to
that raised at the Seychelles. Timber, for shipbuilding, furniture,
and all domestic purposes, is to be found in abundance. The
sperm whale is fished near the Seychelles, and turtle abound. The
working population, however, is scant, and during the last year
two-thirds of the cloves which are produced by the remains of
the spice gardens were left on the ground for want of labour to save
them.

" This love of the ocean," says Mr. M'Leod, "might be turned
to advantage by encouraging maritime pursuits and commercial
relations between these islands, Madagascar, and the whole of the
east seaboard of Africa." Specimens of cotton, woods for building
purposes, orchilla weed, the Coco-de-Mer (found only on these
islands), and specimens of the woods may be seen at the rooms of our
Society, all brought home by the author of that Memoir from which
I have extracted the preceding matter.

The same zealous officer wrote to me in 1857 from Mozam-
bique, advocating the establishment of steam-postal communication
between Aden, Katal, and the Cape of Good Hope. From England
via Aden letters are delivered at Mauritius in 29 days. By the
same route, i. e. by Aden, a letter might reach Natal in 25 days, and
the Cape of Good Hope in 30 days, the steamer calling by the way
at Zanzibar and Mozambique. Already it appears that endeavours
are making at the Cape to carry out partially the suggestion of Mr.
M'Leod by advertisements for tenders to carry on a monthly steam
communication between the Cape and Mozambique, and between
the former place and Natal steam vessels have plied once a fortnight
for more than two years.

So rapid is the demand for advancement in these parts that the

May 23, 1859.] GROWTH OF COTTON. 315

inhabitants of Natal and Mauritius contemplate the establishment
of a telegraphic cable between these settlements.

Cotton. — In concluding the observations on Africa and the adjacent
countries, I may not inappositely introduce a short notice of the
countries from which we may expect to import cotton. The supply
of cotton for our own manufactures is a subject which, in the
course of the present year, has been frequently discussed at the
meetings of the Society ; and when I state that the yearly value
of raw cotton consumed by our manufactures in 1857 was no less
than 26,000,000/., while the value of the fabrics which we exported,
to say nothing of our own immense domestic consumption, amounted
fully to 46,000,000/., it is obvious that the importance of the ques-
tion cannot easily be over-rated.

Besides British India, various other localities, including large
tracts of Africa, have been pointed out as suited to the growth of
cotton. In fact this plant has such a wide geographical extension,
reaching to 35° north and south of the Equator, that it will thrive
wherever it is not liable to be cut off by frost. It may be success-
fully cultivated for exportation wherever the soil is of adequate
fertility, wherever the government is strong enough for the protec-
tion of life and property, wherever the country is not so crowded
with inhabitants as to be itself the best market for its own produce
(such being the case in China and the valley of the Ganges) — in
short, wherever there exists a cheap transport to a foreign market,
and, in so far as the finer qualities are concerned, wherever an ade-
quate share of skill in culture and preparation prevails.

The southern States of the American Union are the parts of
the world that have hitherto been found to possess in an eminent
degree all the necessary qualifications now enumerated, and hence
they are still the chief places from which we derive our finer
varieties of the material. They do, in fact, yield 70 parts in 100
of the value of our whole consumption of cotton. Some parts only
of our Indian dominions possess a few of the enumerated advan-
tages, and they furnish us with about one-fourth in quantity and one-
fifth in value of all that we consume ; for the quality in this case,
let it be observed, is the poorest of any that is found in our markets,
and this simply from the absence of European care, which has never
been exercised in the growth, curing, or inland transport of Indian
cotton.

Many parts of Africa are, in so far as regards soil and climate,
also obviously well adapted to the growth of cotton, which, if not an

316 SIR RODERICK I. MUKCHISON'S ADDRESS— AFRICA. [May 23, 1859.

indigenous plant, has at all events been long acclimated. The
Cotton-Supply Association, formed at Manchester, has not only-
been made up of those persons who look to a future increase of
produce, but has been liberally supported by many philanthropists,
who hope that the cultivation of the plant by the natives of Africa
may produce a salutary change in putting an end to the slave-trade.
One of the active supporters of this institution is Miss Burdett
Coutts — a lady eminently distinguished by the kind, judicious, and
practical application of her wealth. Among other efforts, this
Association has caused a map on a large scale to be published,
pointing out with much sagacity in colours the localities which
appear, from fertility and means of transport, to be most eligible
for the "growth of cotton. Already a small supply of fair cotton
has been brought to England from the Western Coast of Africa ;
and it is also asserted that the plant flourishes in abundance in the
Fiji Islands.

Although it is not unlikely that Africa may hereafter supply our
manufactures with a much larger amount of cotton than at present,
the probability is that in such a country other articles better suited to
the rude condition of the people will be preferred to it. We have a
remarkable instance of this in the supply of the strong and useful
oil which we import, the produce of a palm, Elais Guiniensis, a
native of the Western Coast, and which, although the trade is of
barely forty years' standing, we imported in 1857, as Mr. John
Crawfurd informs me, to the extraordinary value of more than
1,800,000L The same country is, without a doubt, well calculated
to produce other oil-yielding vegetables like those we have been of
late years receiving from India, such as linseed, rape, mustard, and
sesame ; all of them plants easily raised when compared with
cotton. Already there has been imported from the Western Coast
of Africa a still more valuable oil, which goes under the name
of shea butter. This is the produce of one of the plants of the
natural order Sapotaceae, as is also the vegetable tallow which
we have recently imported from the Malay Islands. The veget-
able wax of Japan, of which, as already mentioned, a cargo has
been imported within the last three weeks from that empire, is
the produce of the Ehus succedaneum. I may add, that the voyagers
up the Yang-tse-Keang have brought with them specimens of a more
valuable article than any of these, insect-wax, the product of an
insect which feeds and forms its nidus on a species of ash, Fraxinus
HanburU. This was obtained at the mart of Han-Kow, where it

May 23, 1859.] BEITISH NORTH AMERICA. 317

abounds, and is largely used in the manufacture of candles. It
will be curious and instructive if we should find that as animal
oils .become scarce and dear in the progress of society, their place
can be supplied from remote and opposite quarters of the world
by oils derived from vegetables.

America.

British North America. — The important results of the exploring
expedition under Captain J. Palliser, as communicated by the Colo-
nial Office, and as dwelt upon in awarding the Founder's Gold
Medal to that officer, have necessarily given great satisfaction to us,
proceeding as they do from men who were especially recommended
for this public service to Her Majesty's Government by our. Society
as well as by the Royal Society.

When Captain Palliser first proposed to make this exploration,
one of the main points of interest to geographers was a survey of
that part of the Rocky Mountains to the north of the United States
boundary which separates the great tracts now named British
Columbia from the eastern mass of British North America. Her
Majesty's Government deemed it, however, of paramount import-
ance that, in the first instance, the nature of the ground between
Lakes Superior and Winnipeg should be accurately surveyed, in
order to set at rest all questions of colonization as dependent on
the possibility of making practicable routes of communication. For
example, whether the Canadas might be brought into profitable
communication with the Red River Settlement. The remoter or
more western explorations were destined to develop the true
nature of the great Prairie region, as watered by the Xorth and
South Saskatchewan rivers and their affluents. Collaterally, it
was resolved, if possible — and mainly at the instance of this
Society — to determine the elevation of the Rocky Mountains in
those parallels of latitude, and to point out the passes in them by
which communication might be opened out between the vast country
occupied by the Hudson Bay Company and the great British sea-
board on the Pacific.

In the award of the Patron's Medal to Captain Palliser, allusions
have been made to some of the principal results obtained by the
researches of the expedition under his orders. But I should not do
justice to the leader and his associates, nor to my own feelings, were
I not to add a few words of explanation and comment. The first
year's labours were necessarily of more importance to the Govern-

318 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS- AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

ment than they could be to geographers and naturalists. The
great object was to determine the capabiJity of establishing an
intercourse between the rocky region of Lakes Superior and Winni-
peg on the east and the rich prairie countries on the west ; and
though astronomical, physical, and magnetical observations of con-
siderable importance were made — these countries being to a great
extent known before, and their outlines being monotonous — that
portion of the survey created but slight interest among us.

Not so when the Eocky Mountains, to which we had specially
directed attention, came to be surveyed.* On proceeding from Fort
Carlton, Palliser showed his good sense in approaching these moun-
tains from the rich Buffalo prairies midway between the Korth and
South Saskatchewan. An experienced buffalo-hunter himself, he
knew that if his men were not well supplied, by no efforts, how-
ever well directed, could they succeed. Accordingly, having esta-
blished a good base, and having secured abundant provisions at
Slaughter Creek, he divided his force into three parties. Leading
one of these himself across the Kananaski Pass, and returning by
the Kutanie Pass in north latitude 49J°, and directing Captain
Blakiston to explore the still more southerly or Boundary Pass, he
sent Dr. Hector to traverse the chain by the Vermilion Pass, and to
explore, as a geologist and naturalist, the much loftier mountains
into which the chain rises in its trend to the n.n.w. This division
of his forces well merited, therefore, the expressions used in the
award which has been sanctioned by the Council.

The marked success of the survey accomplished by my young
friend Dr. Hector has been peculiarly gratifying to me, inasmuch as
I had answered for the capacity he would exhibit in applying his
scientific knowledge. Thus, in addition to the determination of
latitude, longitude, and the altitude of the mountains and two of
their passes. Dr. Hector presents us with a sketch of the physical
and geological structure of the chain, with its axis of slaty subcrys-
talline rocks, overlaid by limestones of Devonian and carboniferous
age, and flanked on the eastern face by carboniferous sandstone,
representing, probably, our ov^ti coal-fields, the whole followed by
those cretaceous and tertiary deposits which constitute the subsoil
of the vast and rich prairies watered by the North and South Sas-
katchewan and their affluents. His observations on the erratic or
drift phenomena are also curious and valuable.

* Dr. Hector had, by directions of his chief, made a successful foray in dog-sledges
to the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains during the winter, in which he procured
men and horses.

May 23, 1859.] PALLISER EXPEDITION. 319

Prevented by his instructions from descending into the valleys
of the Columbia, and there to ascertain practicable routes to the
far West, which he will look out for during the present summer,
Dr. Hector, though so severely injured by the kick of a horse as to
be incapacitated from moving for some days, contrived so to travel
northwards as to round the base of the loftiest mountains of the
chain before he returned to his winter- quarters in October, after
an absence of eighteen weeks from his chief, but laden with
valuable geographical and geological knowledge.

In this survey he had the merit of showing that the Vermilion Pass
— which is less than 5000 feet high, and therefore 1000 feet lower
than any other known pass of the Eocky Mountains — had another
decided advantage over them, inasmuch as its western slope, from the
summit level of the horse-path, is so little steep that its explorer
has no doubt that even a road for carts may be there established.
The descents westward, or into the drainage of the Columbia, in
the other passes are exceedingly steep ; and according to Captain
Blakiston, the Kutanie Pass can only have a railroad made along
it by the formation of tunnels of several miles in length, and by
encountering the difficulty of the steep western gradient of 194 feet
per mile.

Another singular natural feature of comparison is, that whilst
the Vermilion Pass is less than 5000 feet above the sea, the
adjacent mountains on the north rise to near 16,000 feet, showing
the great depth of the gorge. On the other hand, in the range beyond
the British boundary, to the south, and where no peak (not even
that of Fremont) exceeds 13,000 feet, the passes range from 6000
to 7000 feet high.*

* In anticipation of what may hereafter be puWished in the * Journal of the Royal
Geographical tJociety,' the reader is referred to the papers presented to Parliament in
April, relative to the " Exploration by Captain Palliser of that portion of British North
America which lies between the northern branch of the River Saskatchewan and the
frontier of the United States, and between the Red River and Rocky Mountains." These
printed documents are accompanied by a map, executed by Arrowsmith, from the surveys
of the Palliser expedition, together with despatches of the leader and officers under his
command, and tables giving the calculations of latitude and longitude by which the posi-
tions of places were tixed. An additional paper and map on the southern part of the
Rocky Mountains near the American boundary, as prepared by Captain Blakiston, who
had quitted the expedition, has very recently been sent to the Society, with the
notice from the Secretary of the Colonies that it was not to be looked upon as an official
communication until sanctioned by Captain Palliser. These last-mentioned documents,
which seem to me to be also ably prepared, have not yet been laid before the Society.
The public will soon possess an excellent map by Arrowsmith, in which all the new
discoveries are inserted. This map is entitled ' The Provinces of British Columbia, Van-
couver Island, with portions of the United States and Hudson Bay Tenitories.*

I was i-ecently inforaied by my fijend the Right Hon. Edward EUice that the geographical

320 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

Whether one of the heights called Mounts Brown * and Hooker
by Mr. Douglas, in honour of our eminent botanical contemporaries,
be still higher than the Mount Murchison of Palliser and Hector, it
is certain that the chain diminishes rapidly in its trend from this
lofty cluster to the north. We know, indeed, that Mackenzie, the
first great explorer of those regions, passed through the range in
north latitude 66°, at a comparatively lower level. Again, we
further know that in proceeding northwards these mountains dwindle
into insignificance before they reach the Arctic Ocean.

It will be recollected that seven years ago Captain M. H. Synge of
the Royal Engineers, who had been quartered in the Canadas and had
made excursions into the adjacent western territories, being deeply
imbued with the importance of the original observations of Macken-
zie, and attracted by his glowing description, made a warm appeal
in favour of the establishment of a line of communication between
the Atlantic and Pacific, by passing from Lake Athabasca and the
Peace Eiver, thence traversing the Rocky Mountains on the parallel
followed by Mackenzie. But that scheme must now, I apprehend,
give way before the shorter passages across the mountains in a more
southern parallel, and which will, it is hoped, bring a rich prairie
country on the east into intercourse with our newly-discovered gold
region on the west, as well as with Vancouver Island, the natural
resources of which were brought before us by Colonel W. C. Grant.f

position of these passes was laid down many years ago upon a MS. map, at the instance of the
Hudson Bay Company, by Mr. David Thompson. I have further learnt from Mr. Arrow-
smith, with whom he corresponded, that Mr. Thompson explored the vast regions of the
Hudson Bay Company in all directions during twenty-eight years, and projected the con-
struction of a geneial map of the whole country between Hudson Bay and Lake Superior
on the east, and the Pacific on the west! It appears that the last six years of his labours
were spent on the west side of the Rocky Mountains ; it being important to note that his
MS. maps were all made from actual survey, corrected by numerous astronomical obser-
vations. The largest affluent of the Frazer River in British Columbia, " the Thompson,"
justly bears the name of this great but little-known geographical explorer ; and I therefore
trust that there is no foundation for a report which has been spread, that it is proposed to
substitute some other appellation for the name of this meritorious man. Beginning his
astronomical observations in 1792, Mr. David Thompson was in 1817 appointed the Astro-
nomer of the North American Boundary Commission, and was upwards of eighty years of
age when he died in Canada. In the words of Mr. Arrowsmith, " he has left no one be-
hind him who is possessed of a tenth part of his acquaintance with the territories of the
Hudson Bay Company, whose directors were duly sensible of his great merits." What-
ever may be the fate of that remarkable corporation, we must all admit that it has not
only maintained British rights over wide tracts of North America, but has also, in
addition to Thompson, produced some of the best geographical explorers of snow-clad Arctic
counti-ies, including our medallist Rae ; whilst its dealings with the various fur-hunting
tribes of Indians have been so equitable as to have maintained the attachment of these
poor people, who under such influence have been preserved, instead of falling before the
white man as in other parts of America.

* Mount Brown is said to be 16,000 feet high.

f See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxvii.

May 23, 1859.] PALLISER EXPEDITION—BRITISH COLUMBIA. 321

During the animated discussion wMcli took place among us in the
year 1851, Mr. Asa Whitney, of the United States, in proposing his
gigantic plan of an inter-oceanic railway, candidly told us that the
best line of intercourse between the two oceans would be found
within the British territories, and the Palliser expedition has
already gone far to demonstrate the truth and value of his sug-
gestion.

With a knowledge of the data acquired by the Palliser expedition,
men of ardent minds already contemplate the formation of a
railroad, or, if not, of a practicable route, which, traversing British
possessions only, shall connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. But
when we reflect that the length of this line is above 2000 English
miles, and that the greater part of the route on the east will have
to traverse wild and unpeopled regions, we cannot rush to hasty
conclusions as to the practicability of such an enterprise. Neither
ought we to deride a plan which may be ultimately called for when
British Columbia and Vancouver Island shall have risen into that
importance which they must attain as British colonies. For, it is
now ascertained, that the tract lying between the North and South
Saskatchewan on the east is one of great fertility, where no
intense cold prevails, and that, once through the Eocky Mountains,
the traveller enters a country of cedars and rich vegetation, in
which even wheat may be grown at heights exceeding 2000 feet
above the sea. In the mean time we need, at all events, have no
hesitation in assuming that the electric telegraph will, ere long,
be at work across British North America.

Believing it to be of the deepest geographical importance, that
men who have so distinguished themselves as Palliser and his asso-
ciates, should not, through a misplaced economy, be held to their
original instructions, and be forced to return homewards by re-
tracing their steps from Fort Edmonton, over the previously beaten
tracts of North America and the United States, I have had great
pleasure in supporting the request of the gallant leader of this ex-
pedition and of his associate Dr. Hector, that they might be allowed
to wend their way home next summer by again traversing the passes
in the Rocky Mountains, and thence to explore the great intervening
tracts of British Columbia, including the auriferous region of Frazer
Eiver. I am happy to say that Sir Edward B, Lytton readily com-
plied with this request, and that the Palliser expedition is thus
about to establish fresh claims upon our approbation.

British Columbia. — Of the vast region to which our Sovereign re-

322 SIR RODERICK T. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [Mat 23, 1859.

cently attached the name of British ColTimbia, geographers have as
yet but a scant and very imperfect account. Its first great explorer
was my honoured countryman Mackenzie, who, traversing the Eocky
Mountains, and reaching the sea after incredible labour, left us an
excellent record of his exploits. Since that time agents of the
Hudson Bay Company, including its Governor, Sir G. Simpson,
have passed through this region ; Mr. D. Thompson having partially
surveyed it.

In our own volumes we find first, a slight sketch of the Columbia
Eiver, or notes made by Dr. Gardner at Vancouver Island and Fort
William in the year 1835 ; then a few observations by Dr. Scouler
on the indigenous tribes of the country, distinguishing the fish- eat-
ing and well-fed race of the coast from the hunters of the interior.
In later years Mr. Douglas, one of the able men brought up by
the Hudson Bay Company, and who has recently been appointed
Governor of British Columbia, gave us the first sketch of the east
side of the island discovered by Vancouver, and also of the Straits of
Juan de Fuca ; and Colonel Grant described that island much more
in detail, giving also an account of its natural history and geological
structure.* Then, again, the bold exploring botanist, the late
D. Douglas, who fell a victim to his zeal, visited parts of the Eocky
Mountains, collecting many fine plants, including the noble Douglasia
pine, and assigning, as before said, the names of his eminent friends
Brown and Hooker to the highest parts of that chain.

With the exception, however, of the description of Mackenzie, t we
still remained very ignorant of the greater part of the region now
known as British Columbia, and probably would have so remained
many years longer, but for the accidental discovery of gold in the
bed and on the banks of the Frazer Eiver. So many diggers and
speculators soon rushed to the tract, that it became necessary to raise
the whole country into the rank of a colony, by separating it altogether
from the influence of the Hudson Bay Company.

The printed papers communicated to Parliament in the last year,
being accompanied by a map of the gold region, give us a fresh
insight into the progress which has already been made in establish-
ing this new colony. In these documents we are pleased to find,

♦ Whilst this Address is going through the press, a geological description of a part of
Vancouver Island by Mr. Bauermann has been transmitted to me. It now appears
that the coal before spoken of, like that of New Zealand, is of tertiary age.

t Avoch, the property and birthplace of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, who was knighted
for his grand explorations in North America, like my own birthplace, Taradale, is in the
Black Isle of Ross-shire.

May 23, 1859.] BRITISH COLUMBIA. 323

that whilst such clear and statesmanlike instructions have been for_
warded by the Secretary for the Colonies, for the guidance of Gover-
nor Douglas, the latter has admirably fulfilled his duties in the
management of a set of wild and untrammelled gold-diggers, chiefly
wanderers from California, from whose lawless deeds and outrages
he has taken the best measures to protect the poor Indians.

A despatch to the Colonial Secretary from the Governor's Secretary
of the Colony, Mr. F. W. Chesson,* after particularizing the cha-
racter and habits of the Indians, eloquently and manfully points out
the necessity of establishing a thorough British protection of these
natives, and some reasonable adjustment of their claims, if the peace
of the colony is to be maintained. "The present case (Mr. F. W.
Chesson observes) resembles no common instance of white men
encroaching on the lands or rights of aborigines for hunting or set-
tlement. It more than realizes the fabulous feuds of Gryphons and
Arimaspians, and no ordinary measures can be expected to overcome
the difficulty which duty and interest require to be removed, if
British Columbia is to become an honourable or advantageous por-
tion of the British dominions." Advocating the adoption of a treaty
between the British authorities and the chiefs and their people as
legal, just, and pacific as that made by William Penn with the In-
dians of the eastern sea-bord of America, he rightly adds, that
" Nothing short of realizing lawful payment of that which it may
be necessary to acquire, and the proper administration of laws
framed in a spirit of justice and equality, can really be of service."

Whilst the civil government is thus acting, it will, doubtless, be
largely supported in its beneficent scope by the co-operation and
aid of the mild influence of religious instruction. In addition to the
efforts of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, it is, indeed,
most gratifying to know that the benevolent Miss Burdett Coutts,
who annually distributes aid with boundless liberality in foster-
ing numberless charities and the spread of true religion, has fur-
nished the means for the endowment of the bishopric of British
Columbia ; so that, thanks to the munificence of this good English-
woman, the poor native Indians will find an instructor and pro-
tector in Bishop Hale.

Judging from the information already sent home, the gold region
of the new colony presents a broad and general resemblance to that

* Parliamentary Papers relating to British Columbia, p. 59,

324 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

of California. Thus, as in the latter the ore has not yet been found
in the coast-range which bounds the Pacific, but sets on at Fort
Yale on the Eiver Frazer, in long. 121^° — extending northwards
from 50° to beyond 51° North lat., the gold detritus has been found
to ramify largely to the E. and N.E., along the various affluents of
the Frazer; the Anderson, Thompson,* and various smaller streams,
being found charged with golden debris. Specimens of gold from
different parts of the region having been recently presented to the
Museum of Practical Geology by Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, I am
led to infer that the original sites or quartz reefs in the slaty rocks,
whence all this detrital matter has doubtless been derived, are
ridges which lie in the N.N.W. prolongation of the auriferous
ridges of California, and are separated from the Eocky Mountains
on the east, and from the coast-ridges of the Pacific on the west. At
present it is impossible to conjecture, with any approach to accu-
racy, what may be the probable length of this auriferous region ;
but there is every reason to think that it may extend far to the
N.N.W. ; so that the Emperor of Russia may possibly possess in his
distant North American dominions a Dorado as well as in his own
Ural Mountains. Again, even restricting our inquiry to the auri-
ferous tract of British Columbia, we as yet know little or nothing
of its breadth. It has been, indeed, said that gold has been detected
on the eastern shore of the great Okanagan Lake, in E. long. 119°,
a statement which seems by no means improbable, seeing that the
precious metal has been found as far eastward in the United States
as Fort Colville on the Columbia.

This brief allusion to the want of knowledge respecting the
eastern extension of the gold fields of British Columbia may lead us
to hope that Dr. Hector, the geologist and naturalist, who is even
now about to traverse these tracts, will bring us home accounts
which will, to a great extent, dispel our ignorance. He will, at all
events, offer to us for the first time a true account of the lithological
character of the Rocky Mountains, as distinguished from the au-
riferous chains on the West ; and when his accounts are combined
with those of Mr. Bauermann, the geologist of the Boundary Survey
conducted by Colonel Hawkins, and these are co-ordinated with the
data obtained by Palliser in more northern parallels, we shall, indeed,

♦ The Duke of Newcastle, now Colonial Secretary, has just deposited in the Museum of
Practical Geology a nugget from the head waters of the Thompson River, weighing nearly
8 oz.— July 12, 1859.

May 23, 1859.] . ARCTIC RESEARCHES. 325

possess a valuable instalment of contributions towards a better
acquaintance with a vast country which is, doubtlessly, destined
to play a most important part in the annals of British history.*

Arctic Researches. — It will be remembered that Captain M'Clintock
failed to accomplish the middle passage across Baffin Bay in the
season of 1857. The Fox, therefore, was forced to pass the
winter in the pack, drifting with it helplessly to the south until set
free in April of last year. No evil consequences beyond the irre-
parable loss of an entire year were experienced, the efficiency of the
expedition being unimpaired, and after a short stay in the ports of
Greenland, where supplies of fresh meat, &c., were obtained, as also
from several vessels of the whaling fleet, Captain M'Clintock made
a successful passage across the middle ice, and entered Pond Bay
on the 29th of July. Our latest intelligence is dated from this inlet,
whither he had gone for the purpose of investigating some very
remarkable reports, which for the last few years have been perse-
veringly made by the natives to the whaling ships frequenting this
quarter.

The statements made by the Esquimaux with respect to fugitive
parties of white men in distress, point unequivocally to portions of
the crew of the Erebus and Terror, and their conjecture is corrobo-
rated by the fact, that the sledges of these tribes are found to be
constructed of oak and mahogany belonging to British ships, and by
the existence of other articles in their possession, which could have
been derived only from such a source. When last seen, the Fox was
steering into the very centre of the area from which these reports
proceeded, and to which Captain M'Clintock attached the utmost
importance. Having cleared up this important point, it was his
intention to proceed to Beechey Island to examine into the state of
provisions there deposited, and then to make his way southerly to-
wards the bight of the Back or Great Fish Eiver, where it is earnestly
hoped the object of his voyage will be attained.

Although it would be premature to express any immediate anxiety
respecting the safety of this isolated vessel, commanded as she is by
an officer of so much ability and experience, with so many dep6ts of
provision to fall back upon in the event of any casualty occurring
previous to her reaching the American continent, yet it cannot be
denied that if the close of the present year should have brought us

♦ An instructive map of the region lying immediately to the south of British Columbia,
and extending southwards to California Proper, and which has been occupied and settled
by the American Government, has been recently published by Mr. Trutch.

326 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

no intelligence, there will be grave cause for solicitude and for regret
that Captain M'Clintock should have been left without that support
from the west which I have invariably advocated.

Even now we must deplore that the representations made to Her
Majesty's Government to induce them to cooperate in this national
undertaking by sending or by aiding to send a second vessel to meet
the Fox through the route of Behring Strait, which was proved
by Collinson to be so sure and safe for ships of any size, have not
been attended to, and that the Fox^ equipped and maintained as she
is almost entirely at the expense of Lady Franklin, should have
been permitted to go forth unaided on her holy errand. This con-
sideration receives additional force from the fact that an Arctic ves-
sel, especially presented by the United States Government, remains
unemployed in our own waters ; and when, in addition to the primary
object of following up the traces of our missing countrymen, she
could have been employed in making those magnetical observations
on the north coast of the American continent, which the President
and Council of the Eoyal Society have pointed out as being of great
importance. Upon this subject it remains only to be remarked, that
when Captain M'Clintock sailed from Aberdeen on the 30th of June,
1857, there was still a well-founded hope that the Government would
make this concession in the interests of humanity and science, since
there was ample time for the fitting out of a second ship before the
month of December following, the season of departure for Behring
Strait. In anticipation of such assistance, the far-sighted and expe-
rienced commander of the Fox communicated to Captain Maguire,
whose knowledge of the western route rendered him peculiarly fitted
to receive such confidence, the views he entertained as to the manner
in which two ships, thus converging to the same specified field of
search, might act in concert for the common object. It is painful
to reflect upon what must be the feeling of disappointment of Cap-
tain M'Clintock, when, on reachiug near to his goal, he finds none
of those preconcerted marks or signals indicative of the approaching
succour and cooperation of which he may stand in need.

While the spirit of Arctic enterprise seems almost to have departed
from among us, our kindred nation on the opposite side of the
Atlantic, entering upon it in the first instance with the kind feeling
of succouring our missing countrymen, appear inclined to pursue a
path from which so much honour has redounded, and we have
received notices of their intention to equip from that country another
expedition, having for its object the further examination of Smith

May 23, 1859.] PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED STATES. 327

Sound. The settlement of that great physical question, the open
Polar Sea, so desired by all geographers, will add a new lustre to
the country that sent forth Dr. Kane. Those recent advices have also
infoi-med us that Mr. K. Kennicott, of Chicago, has started on
a journey overland to the Arctic Ocean. He purposes to pro-
ceed to Fort Garry, on the Eed Eiver, and thence, with the
agents of the Hudson Bay Company, to the valley of the Sas-
katchewan, the Athabasca, and the Peace Eivers, to the Great Slave
Lake. Arriving at the Mackenzie River in the spring of 1860, the
summer of that year he will devote to the exploration of the shores
of the Arctic Ocean, returning home the following year. It is,
therefore, not at all improbable that Captain M'Clintock, should
God prosper him, may be welcomed to the shores of British America
by a citizen oithe United States !*

Progress of Geography in the United States. — At our last Anniversary
we justly awarded one of our Gold Medals to Professor Bache, for
his highly important coast surveys ; and I have now to advert to
some other works of our kinsmen of the West that have come under
my notice, and which reflect high credit upon them.

The large quarto publications which illustrate the tracks best
suited for a railway between the Mississippi and the Pacific have
now advanced to the eighth volume. This volume is occupied
by a clear and able description, by Mr. Spencer F. Baird, of all the
mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes of those regions, preceded by a
lucid introduction, the whole comprising 756 pages of letter-press
and 40 plates. This publication and the volumes which preceded
it have completely carried out the object of the American statesmen,
who directed that their railroad surveys of unknown regions should
be illustrated in so complete a manner.

In alluding to this Report, I must repeat what I have said on
former occasions, in respect to analogous publications, that the

* The last journals of Captain Fitzjames, the associate of Sir John Franklin, as ad-
dressed to Mrs. Coningham, which have just been printed by that lady's husband,
Mr. William Coningham, M.P., are deeply interesting. The picture sketched by this gal-
lant officer, of the perfect happiness and good order of the crews under the influence of
their beloved commander, revives all our grief for the loss of such noble fellows. There
is one expression (p. 8) which, had it been made known when the searching expeditions were
sent out in quest of Franklin, might have saved some unnecessary orders of the Admiralty,
and much fruitless speculation on the part of geographers, including myself, in favour of
tentative efforts being made to the north of Beechey Island. " At dinner to-day (Captain
Fitzjames writes) Sir John gave us a pleasant account of his expectation of being able to
get through the ice on the coast of America, and his disbelief in the idea that there is open
sea to the northward." See also Sir John Richardson's able comments, article < Polar
Regions,' new edition * Encyclopaedia Britannica.'

VOL. III. 2 B

328 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

Government of the United States has set an example which
might certainly be imitated by the mother country. In treating
of Australia, I have directed your attention to a proposal of the
enlightened Governor of New South Wales, who has endeavoured to
rouse the British Government to a sense of the importance of pursu-
ing a similar conduct in our vast colonies.

In the first volume of this remarkable series of ' Explorations and
Sui-veys for a Eailroad Route from the Mississippi to the Pacific,'
the reader will be much struck with the introductory State paper
by Mr. Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War, and addressed to the
Speaker of the House of Eepresentatives. The explorers are therein
directed to observe and note all those objects and phenomena which
have an immediate or remote bearing on the railway, or which
might seem to develop the resources, peculiarities, -and climate of
the country. They were, in fact, ordered to determine all geo-
graphical positions, to lay down the topography of the lands, to
observe the meteorology, including data for barometric profiles, and
two of the party were to determine the direction and intensity of
the magnetic force. Other individuals were ordered to make geo-
logical surveys and to collect all the plants and animals of the
country, as well as to obtain the statistics of the tribes of aborigines.
Now that these directions have been well and efficiently worked out
by zealous and able men, let us render all honour to the nation which
contributes such a great amount of fresh knowledge to the world of
science.

Another of these very important documents recently issued by the
American Government is the Report on the United States and
Mexican Boundary Survey, by Major Emory and his assistants,
whose descriptions of the natural appearances of the country are
vivid, and its features pictorially delineated ; the fossil remains hav-
ing been collected and partially described by Mr. Parry. Besides
many woodcuts representing various landscapes, the work is further
embellished by a profusion of lithographic views, as well as by
tinted and coloured sketches of the inliabitants. The geological
desciiption of the country was prepared by Mr. Arthur Schott,
and specimens of the fossil remains having been brought to New
York, have been described in this volume by the celebrated pa-
laBontologist Mr. James Hall. The accompanying map, embracing
all the region included between the British boundary on the north
and 23° north latitude on the south, and between 84° and 126° east
longitude, is a great addition to our previous cartography.

May 23, 1859.] PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED STATES. 329

In alluding to other works connected with the geography of
America, I am glad to have the high authority of my friend Admiral
FitzEoy for saying, that one of the most valuable meteorological
works which has yet been produced is Lorin Blodget's ' Climatology
of the United States.' This large octavo volume, amply illustrated
with the best class of maps, is well written, and treats the subject in
a masterly and comprehensive manner ; the author having strictly
followed Humboldt, and largely referred to Dove. In estimating such
works as this, and the still more extensive Eeports of Espy, we are
reminded that they proceed from a country where one language, one
system of measurement, one postal arrangement, and one govern-
ment, coextend over a vast portion of the continent of America.*

If I were now presiding over my brother geologists, I might
dilate upon the very important work recently published by Pro-
fessor Henry Eogers on the ' Geology of Pennsylvania;' for truly
the two thick quarto volumes replete with numerous illustra-
tions which have been prepared by this geologist are to be viewed
as masterpieces of correct delineation of the structure of his native
country. Independently of the intrinsic value of these details
to the geologist, miner, and proprietor, the maps and sections have
in themselves a most important bearing on physical geography.
In tracing the boundaries of the different geological formations,
Professor Rogers has shown the intimate connexion between the
complicated geological folds or replication and the geographical out-
lines of the land, and with an ability which proves him to be as good

* Since this Address was read, I have had the satisfaction to receive from our associate,
Commander Maury, the second volume of the eighth edition of his ' Explanations and
Sailing Directions to accompany his Wind and Current Charts.' This invaluable work,
which has justly acquired a world-wide reputation, is another of the striking proofs of the
wisdom of the Government of the United States in their encouragement of science.

More recently our medallist. Professor Bache, has obligingly sent to me a list of all the
principal American geographical explorations and publications since 1857. In addition to
no less than thirty-nine such works, most of them executed by direction of the Government
(and of which a list will be given in a subseqvient number of the * Proceedings'), Professor
Bache informs me that the following four expeditions are either starting oi are already in
the field : — Exploration of the San Juan and Colorado Rivers, and of a route from New-
Mexico to Utah Territory, commanded by Captain John Macomb, Topographical Engineers
U. S. A., under the Office of Explorations, War Department. — Exploration of the head
Tributaries of the Yellow-stone and Missouri Rivers, and the region in which their sources
lie, commanded by Captain W. F. Raynolds, Topographical Engineers U. S. A., under the
Office of Explorations, War Department. — Construction of a Military Road from Fort
Benton on the Missouri to Fort Walla Walla on the Columbia, commanded by Lieut.
John Mullan, U. S. A., under the Office of Explorations, War Department. — Exploration
of a route for a Railroad on a new line, across the Great Basin, by Captain J. H. Simpson,
Topographical Engineers U. S. A., Utah Expedition, Brigadier-Geneial Albert Johnston^
U. S. A., commanding, under the War Department.

2 B 2

330 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AMERICA. [May 23, 1859.

a physical geographer as he is an eminent geologist. Liberal as the
State of Pennsylvania has been in contributing to the payment of
the cost of this elaborate work, I happen to know that in addition
to years of labour, the author has spent some of his private means
in bringing it out ; and I therefore sincerely hope, for the honour of
science, that these volumes may meet with such a sale as will in-
demnify the writer, who has shown that he can combine such a pro-
fusion of details with broad and ingenious philosophical views.

Many are the subjects connected with our science on which, in
honour of the United States, I might expatiate. Even whilst I write,
the newspapers of Boston announce the proposal to erect a vast
Conservatory of Art and Science. Now, whether this idea be car-
ried out in the public gardens of that city, or, as my illustrious
friend Professor Agassiz wishes, in the precincts of the adjacent
University of Cambridge, with which the names of Everett, Prescott,
and other eminent men are associated, a subscription for that
noble object, as furnished by thousands of citizens, is the best proof
which can be afforded of an enlightened patriotism.*

Central America. — Every year brings us some new information
regarding those portions of Central America which seem to offer
the best lines for opening a direct communication, either by rail-
roads or canals, between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

The proposed railroad through Honduras has led to surveys across
that territory, of very great interest in their actual as well as an-
ticipated results. They will be invaluable to our mapmakers for
the new data which they add to our geographical knowledge of a
country never before so carefully explored. I have on previous oc-
casions adverted to the mass of valuable information on Central
America collected and published by Mr. Squier, the intelligent
promoter of the Honduras Interoceanic Railway, which he has since
followed up by further details, amongst others a corrected account
of the great lake of Yojoa, which has recently been printed in the
Proceedings of our Society.

M. Belly, who has obtained from the Governments of Nicaragua
and Costa Rica the exclusive privilege and right to open an inter-
oceanic communication, by water, through the territories of those

* The great work of Agassiz, to the completion of which that eminent naturalist is de-
voting his life, and which has been subscribed for in the various Slates of America to the
amount of 60,000/. sterling, is an additional proof of the encouragement of science in
the United States.

May 23, 1859.] SOUTH AMERICA— ASCENT OF THE PARANA. 331

states, has presented to me a copy of the map and sections of his
proposed line, which have been laid before the Society. No one
can doubt the great interest attached to such an undertaking ; it
remains, however, to be seen whether it is possible to raise the
funds necessary for the completion of so gigantic an enterprise.

South America. — In my Address of 1857 1 noticed the preliminary
account, all that had then appeared, of Lieutenant Page's ' Explo-
ration and Survey of the Eio de la Plata and its Tributaries,' the
full Report of which has now been published at the expense of the
Government of the United States.

It forms an important contribution to the geography of South
America, and may be well classed with the works of his brother-
officers, Herndon, Gibbon, and Gilliss, whose travels were also un-
dertaken under the liberal auspices and at the cost of the Govern-
ment of the United States. The number of positions which have
been for the first time determined and brought together by these
officers will leave our mapmakers but little excuse for not correct-
ing in the maps of South America the positions of many towns and
places of importance, the true sites of which were never before,
perhaps, fixed by observation.

The uninterrupted ascent of the Parana by an American steamer
through 13 degrees of latitude as high as 19 degrees, fully corrobo-
rates the belief, founded on the old Spanish accounts, that the higher
waters of this mighty river are navigable for vessels of quite as
large a burthen as are requisite for carrying on a commercial inter-
course with the rich provinces of Matto Grosso and Cuyaba, in
the very heart of the continent. The observations, however, of
Lieutenant Page (like those made in the case of the Yang-tse-Keang
in China) show how little reliance is to be placed, even from
year to year, on the most careful surveys and soundings of a great
river liable to such alterations from periodical floodings. He says
— " On comparing the charts of Captain Sullivan, made in 1847,
with his own surveys made in 1853 and 1854, it appeared not only
that the channels but the appearance of the river was in some places
materially changed ; islands have been enlarged, others reduced in
size, some have disappeared altogether, and their positions as marked
upon his chart are now, in some instances, the channel of the river."
The track of the Waterwitch, at the lower pass of St. Juan (in
lat. 30^ 36'), passes directly over the position of an island marked
on Sullivan's charts. This, as Lieutenant Page observes, proves
nothing wrong in his surveys, but it is an interesting factj showing

332 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— WEST INDIES. [May 23, 1859.

the remarkable physical changes constantly produced by the action
of the currents. The historical portion of Lieutenant Page's book
has been drawn up apparently from the best authorities ; the work
of one of our former Vice-Presidents, Sir Woodbine Parish, having
been amongst others very freely used.

I take this opportunity of recording with satisfaction that wo
have received a translation of Sir Woodbine Parish's work into
Spanish, which has been published at Buenos Ayres, containing
some later statistics and additional information respecting the
interior provinces of La Plata, and collected by order of the local
governments. This translation will add to the A^alue of the work
as the best book of reference on those countries.

West Indies.

Phosphatic Eocks of the AnguUla Islands. — A curious and important
discovery has been made in the Anguilla Islands, which lie to the
north of St. Kitts. The captain of an American trader being becalmed
off a rock called " Sombrero," which lies between the British
possessions of the Anguillas on the east and Anegada on the west,
took away certain specimens of the rock, apparently a bone-breccia.
On analysis, these proved to be richly impregnated with phosphate
of lime, and a cargo subsequently imported was sold at New York
at from 3Z. 10s. to 6Z. IO5. per ton, to renovate the worn out soils of
Virginia.

Seeing that 30,000 tons of material removed from a little rock in
the wide ocean, which no one had cared to claim, had realized
100,000Z. in the New York market, the inhabitants of the Anguillas
were led to believe that some of the detached rocks or " keys," which
lie to the north of the chief island, and at no great distance from
Sombrero, might be of the same composition as that rock. They
accordingly induced the Governor of St. Kitts, Mr.* Hercules
Eobinson, to transmit specimens for analysis to London. These
specimens having been sent to me by my eminent friend Sir
William Hooker have been analysed in the laboratory of the School
of Mines, and have been found to contain a notable quantity of
phosphate of lime. Hence, when they are properly surveyed and
opened out, there is every reason to hope, that these rocky islets
will afford a supply of renovating material which may render the

* Now Sir Hercules Robinson. — June 30, 1859.

May 23, 1859.] AUSTRALIA— GREGORY'S EXPEI>I-TION. 333

British fanner, to a great extent, independent of the gnano of
Peru.*

Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.

Journey from Moreton Bay to South Australia, — The recent accessions
to our knowledge respecting the interior of Australia haTe been
large. Our medallist, Mr. Augustus Gregory, has performed a
most remarkable inland journey from Moreton Bay, in which,
though unsuccessful in discovering any relics of Leichhardt and his
party (the first object of the expedition), he was enabled to define
the nature of the interior of the continent from N.E. to S.W., and
to reach Adelaide in South Australia. Taking a north-westerly
course to the W.N.W. and N.W., he at first found abundance of
green grass, though he fears that in seasons of drought few of the
water-holes even at a moderate distance from the colony of Moreton
Bay, recently named " Queen's-land," are permanent. Tabular
sandstone ridges, basaltic peaks, or finely-timbered valleys succeed ;
but on passing from the Eiver Nare to the N.N.W., it was found
that the drought had been of such long continuance, that the whole
of the vegetable surface had been swept away by the wind, leaving
the country an absolute desert ; a few widely-scattered tufts of grass
being the only food discoverable for the support of the horses.
When on the route to the N.W., which it is known that Leich-
hardt had intended to follow, Gregory found that high floods had
obliterated all tracks of previous explorers, and that the very
districts described by Mitchell as covered by a rich vegetation were
parched and barren clays ! In lat. 24:^ 55', long. 146"^ 6', a tree
was, however, discovered, on which the letter L was cut, indi-
cating very probably that Leichhardt had encamped there.

Continuing the search towards the north-west, Gregory then en-
countered tremendously heavy rains, and was entangled among
numerous and deep channels and boggy gullies, from which the
party was only extricated by extraordinary exertions. Such are the
frightful vicissitudes abounding in this low region of alternate flood
and drought which separates the fertile hilly country of the east
coast from the great interior saline desert. In this region they met
with occasional small parties of natives, who, as usual, w*re shy and

* The richest of the specimens is from the rock or key called the Little Scrub. I have
sent an account of these keys and a detailed analysis of the specimens, as prepared in
the Government School of Mines, to the Royal Agricultural Society for publication in their
volume, and have there expressed a hope that a geological sui-veyor may be sent to the
Anguillas to define the extent and relations of these phosphatic rocks.

334 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AUSTRALIA. [May 23, 1859.

treaclierous, but easily intimidated. Despite of all impediments and
much privation, the adventurers pushed on up Thompson River,
through a desolate and arid, red-coloured, sandy country, until they
reached lat. 23° 47', when the total cessation of water and grass put
an end to all efforts to penetrate farther to the north-west. Compelled
most unwillingly to abandon the principal object of their travels by
continuing to follow the route probably taken by Leichhardt, Gregory
and his companions then turned to the south-west, and ascertained
the nature of the country between his remote position and Kennedy's
farthest explorations, proceeding through more southern latitudes to
reach the settled country of South Australia. The vicissitudes and
privations experienced in this route to the south-east are succinctly
related, and the outlines of ground, whether stony desert, plains
with low ridges of red drift- sand, or sandstone table-lands, are well
defined. Advancing by Cooper Creek, and that branch of it named
by Sturt, Strzelecki Creek, the travellers finally reached Adelaide.

Respecting the fate of Leichhardt, Mr. A. Gregory thinks
it probable that the adventurous traveller, advancing from the
Yictoria, was lured on to the north-west by favouring thunder-
showers, until, on the cessation of the rains, he was arrested in the
parched and waterless tract, and, unable to advance or retreat, he
perished in the wilderness.* Gregory also informs us, that west of
the meridian of 147° E. long, most of the country is unfit for occu-
pation, until the boundary of the colony of South Australia, or 141°
E. long., is reached in more southern parallels.

Our medallist is, indeed, well borne out in saying that the results
of his expedition are most important with reference to the physical
geography of Australia ; for when combined with the researches of
Sturt, they seem to demonstrate that, whether as examined from
the north-east or south, a very large portion indeed of the interior
is a worthless saline desert, very little above the level of the sea.

Explorations westward and north-westward from South Australia. —
"Whilst the last journey of Augustus Gregory has served to confirm
the view established by the researches of Sturt, that a vast interior
and sterile low region lies to the north of South Australia, and
extends to the higher lands which form the western limits of
New Sout^ Wales on the east, and to the elevations south of
Cambridge Gulf on the north, the surveys set on foot at Adelaide

* My friend the Rev. W. C. Clarke has written able notices in the * Sydney Morning
Herald,' in which he differs in opinion from Mr. A. Gregory as to the track followed by
Leichhardt.

May 23, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS W. AND N.W. FROM S. AUSTRALIA. 335

have demonstrated that a vast tract of well-watered and fertile
lands exists to the north-west of that colony.

The efforts of Mr. Herschel Babbage, to which I last year di-
rected yonr attention, were for some time unsuccessful, owing to the
intensely saline condition of the country through which he had to
pass, and the difficulty of transporting the apparatus he had ingeni-
ously contrived for the conversion of salt water into fresh. As
soon, however, as the heavy teams and drays were dispensed
with, and that, joined by Mr. C. Gregory, riding and pack-horses
were substituted, this explorer showed how capable he was of
defining with precision a considerable portion of new country in
which fresh water was reached. Fixing with accuracy the latitude
and longitude of several points, he proved the existence of dry
land between the masses of water which had been previously united
upon our maps under the name of Lake Torrens, while he defined
their outlines, distinguishing the northernmost of them by the
name of Lake Gregory.

Various other documents and sketch-maps relating to South
Australia, which have been forwarded to the Society by Her Ma-
jesty's Colonial Secretary, demonstrate what vigorous exertions
have been made by other explorers. Thus, Major Warburton
defined large tracts of country north of the Gawler Eanges, i. e.,
between Streaky Bay on the south-west, and the saline country
occupied by Lake Gairdner and its adjacent lagoons. The larger
part of this country seems to be incapable of supporting colonists,
from the want of fresh water, and its prevalent saline character.
This active officer also shows that, in many parts, the saline con-
dition of the surface of the country is due to the existence of
saliferous rocks beneath, being in this respect analogous to the
saline steppes of Kussia. Police trooper Geharty, in a separate
tour, proved the extension of lands equally sterile with those
explored by Major Warburton, which was to be expected, as the
tract lies contiguous to the sterile coast-range of Eyre. To
the east of Lakes Torrens and Gregory the explorations of Mr.
Samuel Parry and Corporal Burt are worthy of notice ; the former
having determined several points of latitude and longitude, and
having given us information respecting the nature of the rocks
which occupy the region intermediate between Lake Torrens and
Angepena, near the settled parts of the colony.

In the mean time, whilst Mr. Babbage was occupied with his
^rlier difficulties, and other explorers were determining the real

336 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AUSTRALIA. [May 23, 185?.

condition of the saline tracts l^ang between 32° 30' and 31° of lati-
tude, an -unaided colonist, Mr. M'Dougall Stuart, a former companion
of Sturt, passed rapidly beyond all these saline tracts and discovered a
large, well-watered, and more elevated region to the north-west. As
soon as he ascertained the existence of a permanent supply of fresh
water at Andamoka, in south latitude 30 J°, and had thus secured a
retreat, he dashed on to the north and north-west, and soon fell in
with numerous gum-creeks, containing streams which flowed from
hills ranging from south-east to north-west, and further ascertained
that large portions of this region were well grassed and admirably
adapted for settlement !

The Governor of South Australia, Sir E. G. Macdonnell, states
that the extent of this newly discovered available land amounts to
from 1200 to 1800 square miles, and has rightly named the principal
waterparting, Stuart Eange. His Excellency then adds that the
House of Assembly of South Australia had presented an address
to him, requesting that the necessary steps should be taken for
granting Mr. Stuart a fourteen years' lease of 1500 square miles
of the new country.

When we look to the fact, that this explorer had, in the first in-
stance, to get through the southern saline desert between the
sea and those interior lands — that he was accompanied by one
white man, Foster, and a black man only, and that his compass
and watch were his only instruments, we cannot too highly applaud
his success, and the Council of this Society has, therefore, well
judged in awarding to him a gold watch in honour of such highly
valuable discoveries.

Not only did Mr. M'Dougall Stuart define the northern portion of
this new and fertile region, but before he returned by a most daring
and perilous route to the coast on a meridian far to the west of his
line of advance, he also ascertained the southern limit of all the
available land.

Nothing which I have read of in Australian travel more strikingly
displays the bold and undaunted spirit of adventure, than when
Mr. Stuart had reached the southern limit of the fresh-watered
country, and ascended a hill near Mount Espy to look south-
ward over the country between him and the sea, he descried
nothing but a vast saline desert through which (his provisions
being almost exhausted) he must pass. Nothing daunted by that
dismal prospect, or the great privations he would have to suffer,
he regained the seashore, and travelling along it, once more found

May 23, 1859.] M 'DOUG ALL STUART'S EXPEDITION. ' 337

himself on the threshold of colonization. From the 7th of August,
when he entered on this desert country, he and his companion
Foster had to suffer from huDger and thirst during a fortnight
before they reached the settlement of Mr. Gibson, in Streaky Bay.
There, both the explorers nearly died, in consequence of the sudden
change from a state of want to good diet. Kecovering, however,
they reached the regularly settled districts of the colony, and were
hailed with acclamation in Adelaide.

Now, had the brave M'Dougall Stuart perished like Leichhardt in
this last dreadful march to the sea-bord, all notion of a well- watered,
rich interior country on the north-west might have been for ages
unknown, and his success being ignored, his fate would have checked
all further enterprise in that direction.

Whilst it is pleasing to reflect on this happy result, it is also
well to know, that the newly discovered fertile lands may be ap-
proaciied from the settled and central portions of the colony without
touching upon any part of the sterile saline coast-tract. For,
as above said, it has been ascertained that the Lake Torrens of
earlier days is divided into at least two bodies of water, and that
the mass of land dividing them, which has since been traversed,
may serve as the line of route to Stuart Range.

Through the researches of the Government surveyor, Mr. Samuel
Parry, and of Corporal Burt, as well as by a return journey of
Major Warburton, it has also been ascertained that practicable
routes exist from Angepena, on the north-west of the settled countiy
of Adelaide, to the region of Lake Torrens, by which (there being a
sufficiency of water-holes) a communication may, it is hoped, be
maintained between the settled districts and the new country.

At the same time this discovery of the local watei-parting of Stuart
Range must not be supposed to clash with the clear determinations
of Sturt, that the great mass of the continent directly to the north
of Victoria and South Australia is a vast saline depression. In fact
the fresh waters descend from the Stuart Range on the north-east
into that great sterile depression, and are there absorbed or evapo-
rated. As far, therefore, as our present knowledge goes, we learn
that the hilly grounds of Stuart Range, extending from south-east
to north-west, constitute a zone of no- great width, which pours
oif its waters both to the north-east and south-west into lower and
saline deserts.

Navigation of the Murray^ Murrumbidgee, ^c. — Whilst such have been
the discoveries of travellers overland, an object of paramount im-

338 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AUSTRALIA. [May 23, 1850.

portance to Australia has been accomplished by water. The
opening of the river Murray to navigation was first accomplished
by Captain Francis Cadell, in 1853, as narrated by that enterprising
seaman in a letter published in volume xxv. of our Journal.
Steadily persevering, with augmented resources and additional
steamers, the same individual and other parties have been recently
plying on this river from its mouth, near Adelaide, in South
Australia, to Albury, a distance of nearly 1800 miles. Tho
channel of the Wakool has also been tested for 50 miles, and
Captain Cadell has passed up the Murrumbidgee in a steamboat for
800 miles ! Thus, a region in which six years ago no internal traffic
existed, has been opened out to water carriage over a distance of
2650 miles, it being estimated that 1150 miles more may eventually
be accomplished in the rivers Wakool, Edward, and Darling. The
Murray and Murrumbidgee are now ascertained to be navigable
from May to the end of December in every year, and for the whole
twelve months in those years when more than the average amount
of snow and rain falls in the Alpine country in which they take
their rise. The Darling, not having its sources in mountains of
such altitude, cannot be similarly reckoned upon, though probably
it might also be rendered navigable in ordinary seasons if the drift
timber, which at present encumbers it, were removed. Referring
my readers to the clear and searching Eeport of a Committee on
the navigation of the Murray and its affluents, printed by order of
the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales (29th Oct., 1858),
as signed by its chairman, that good explorer, Mr. George Macleay,
and brought to my notice by my friend Mr. Stuart Donaldson, also
one of the Committee,* it is enough for me to cull from that able
document the astounding fact, that twenty towns, some of them of
considerable size, such as Albury, Deniliquin, Gundagai, Tumut,
and Wagga-Wagga, have been called into existence, and that seven
more are about to be proclaimed. Already, 71,000 acres of land in
this vicinity have been sold ; and if, by Artesian borings, fresh
water should be obtained in the vast salt-bush countries yet un-
occupied, prodigious additional quantities of sheep and cattle may
be supported in the adjacent regions.

Descending from the lofty Australian Alps of Strzelecki (Mount
Kosciusko), the Murray traverses tracts, some of which, as well as
portions of the basin of the Murrumbidgee, have been ascertained by

* Recently Minister of Finance of that colony.

May 23, 1859.] NEW ZEALAND. 339"

my friend the Rev. J. M. Clarke to be highly auriferous, and in
other respects also metalliferous. One of these gold tracts,
Adelong, has indeed already been reached within 16 miles by
one of the steamers. When we consider that this internal water
carriage is already very serviceable for a vast distance to the
colony of South Australia, in which the Murray debouches ; that
higher up the same stream is contiguous to the rich gold-bearing
and rapidly rising tracts of the northern parts of Victoria ; and that,
out of the 1800 miles now proved to be navigable, 1300 lie within
the territory of New South Wales, we must rejoice in the reflection
that British industry and science have brought into activity a line
of intercourse and traffic which must for ever unite in mutual in-
terest the three largest of our Australian colonies.

Again requesting you to consult the well-considered and effective
Eeport of the Committee, appointed by the Legislative Assembly of
New South Wales, for the large and statesmanlike views which it
embodies, I also specially commend to your notice the clear de-
scriptions given in it by various colonists of the physical condition
of the interior, the peculiarities and changes of the rivers, and the
very ingenious and effective method employed by Captain Cadell of
clearing away those masses of drift timber which formerly impeded
navigation. Considerable additional expenditure will, indeed, be
required to complete this grand operation of extracting the " snags ;'*
but, looking to the spirit with which the Murray has been cleared
for 700 miles, there can be little doubt of the ultimate result, and
that in a few years, to use the words of the Committee, " the cheap
transmission of the comforts and conveniences heretofore unattain-
able will give a fixed and civilized character to the society of vast
pastoral districts, which has up to the present time been com-
paratively rude and nomadic."

New Zealand. — Among the good results of the scientific voyage
round the world of the Austrian frigate Novara, under the command
of Commodore W' illenstorf, we have now before us a report of Dr.
Hochstetter, the geologist of the party, on the coal of New Zealand.
Although this coal is of tertiary age, as seen in the districts of
Papakura and Drury, in the province of Auckland, it is stated to
be abundant, and of such good quality as to be of great importance
both for steam navigation and manufacturing purposes.*

As all the geological details will be laid before the Imperial and

* See ' New Zealand Gazette,* January 1859, for the Report of Dr. Hochstetter commu-
nicjited by the Governor, Thomas Gore Browne, and transmitted to the Royal Geographical
Society by Sir E. B. Lytton.

340 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— TASMANIA. [May 23, 1859.

Royal Geological Institute of Austria by my accomplished friend Dr.
Hochstetter as soon as the men of science reach their native land, I
rejoiced when I heard that the Emperor Louis Napoleon had given
orders that the vessel freighted with such large collections and so
much knowledge should not be interfered with by any French
cruisers on her way home. I formerly spoke of my anticipa-
tions of the successful issue of this scientific voyage, and having
recommended these Austrian explorers to the goodwill of Sir W.
Denison, the Governor-General of East Australia, it was most satis-
factory to learn that his Excellency had been enabled to assist
them materially ; whilst on their part they have well repaid the
kindness shown to them by giving us the first reliable sketch
which has been sent home of the true nature of the coal formations
of New Zealand.

Tasmania. — Hitherto we have not yet been made sufficiently
acquainted with the phj^sical geography and natural history of this
large colony. In former years, my valued friend the late Sir John
Franklin, when Governor, strove hard to set on foot various
scientific inquiries, and of late years the Tasmanian Society has pub-
lished some good memoirs on various scientific subjects. Eecently,
however, the Local Government having resolved to have the whole
isla,nd correctly surveyed by a competent geologist. Her Majesty's
Secretary of the Colonies applied to me to recommend a proper
person, and Mr. Charles Gould, formerly a distinguished student
of the Government School of Mines, has, in consequence, been
appointed geological surveyor of this important and little ex-
plored region. Whether we look to the correct delineation of the
coal deposits which are already knovm to exist there, to the dis-
covery of gold, or to the general advancement of science, I feel
certain that the researches of Mr. C. Gould (son of the eminent
ornithologist) will prove of signal value to the colony, and be well
appreciated in the mother country.

General Observations on the Australian Colonies. — A project for the
establishment of a system of observation in various branches of
natural history sciences throughout the British Colonies, and of
publishing the same, has been transmitted by the enlightened
Governor-General of New South Wales to Her Majesty's Secretary
for the Colonies, who has submitted the plan to the consideration
of the Council of this Society.*

* The project has been also submitted to the President and Council of the Royal Society,
who, as well as the Council of the Royal Geographical Society and myself, have reported
favourably upon the scheme. — July 1, 1859.

May 23, 1859.] GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON AUSTRALIAN COLONIES. 341"

Being much impressed with the value of the publications on
the structure and natural history of the several states of North
America, and particularly by a work in 22 volumes on the State
of Chile, of which 16 are devoted to the zoology and botany
of that country (the portion on geology being still in progress).
Sir William Denison has suggested that works on a similar plan,
descriptive of the natural history of the British colonial empire,
should be set on foot.

Agreeing with Sir W. Denison that such an undertaking is well
worthy of the nation whose oifshoots have taken root so extensively,
I trust that due encouragement will be given to the proposal, and
that it may not be checked by the difficulties which at first sight
present themselves in bringing it into an effective working state.
Sir William feels certain that the different colonies, if called upon,
would gladly contribute largely to the work, whilst he looks
to the Imperial Government to take upon itself the task of
arranging and publishing these contributions upon one uniform
system.

The practicability of realizing some such plan as this for our
Australian colonies, is illustrated in part by the mode of publica-
tion proposed of the geological survey of Trinidad and other West
India Islands, to which I have alluded. Works like these, the
cost of which is to be divided between the colony and the mother
country, must tend to unite by closer bonds all parts of our empire.
The practical difficulties will lie first in the selection of per-
sons competent to execute the task, and, next, to organise such
a home staff as may efficiently carry the publications through the
press.

In reference to Australia, it may indeed be said that parts
of the scheme of Sir W. Denison are already advanced. Thus,
it is certain that there are few animals or plants of New South
Wales which are not known to the eminent naturalists Mr. W.
Macleay, and Dr. John Bennett, who reside at Sydney ; whilst the
geology of large tracts has been accurately laid down since those
days when Strzelecki first opened out to us its structure, by Clarke,
Jukes, Stuchbury, and others.

Again, from Victoria, now under the enlightened auspices of
Sir H. Barkly, we are constantly receiving proofs of the zeal and
ability with which Mr. A. Selwyn is describing and laying down
accurately upon maps the geological features of that rich auriferous.

342 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— AUSTRALIA. [May 23, 1859.

region ; whilst Dr. Mueller, on whose shoulders as an Australian
botanist has fallen the mantle of Eobert Brown, is continually
issuing new works on the plants of the continent, whether those
which he collected in tropical or northern Australia, when he was
the companion of Gregory, or those of Victoria.

These, then, are excellent materials, ready to be used in the
publication of the Opus Magnum of our colonial empire which is
projected by Sir W. Denison. Let us hope, therefore, that the Old
Country may willingly respond to this demand for knowledge made
by her children in the colonies. Let us follow the admirable ex-
ample in this respect set to us by our kinsmen in the United States
as well as by our fellow countrymen in Canada, where the publica-
tions on geography and geology have already demonstrated how
much can be done by the hearty goodwill of the several states
of the American Union and by one great colony of the British
empire.

Before, however, I quit the consideration of Australia and the
adjacent lands, let me remind you of the endeavour which I made
as early as the year 1844 (see Address, vol. xiv. p. xcvii) to rouse
the attention of the public to the necessity of keeping up the esta-
blishment we then possessed at Port Essington, whether as a port
of refuge for our merchantmen in peace, or as a roadstead during
war, in which a fleet could assemble, to protect the northern and
eastern coasts of this vast continent. In the absence of such, it
was clear that an enemy might sweep the eastern archipelago on
the one side, or attack the slightly protected colony of New South
Wales on the other.

In the mean time, although we have long ago abandoned the soli-
tary station of Port Essington on the north coast of Australia— con-
trary to the entreaty of that excellent naval officer the late Sir
Gordon Bremer and his associates now living, Captafhs Stokes and
Drury, as well as in the face of a protest on the part of this Society
— not only has no substitute for it been obtained by occupying
Cape York or any other station, but we seem to have been heedless
of the efforts made in the interim by the French to establish other
ports in these seas, and to fill them with a naval force. Thus,
whilst the picture of New Caledonia, as discovered by Captain
Cook, still hangs in the rooms of the First Lord of our Admiralty,
that great island has been taken possession of by the French, and
is now their "Nouvelle Caledonie." Now, if our allies (and may

May 23, 1859.] CONCLUSION. 343

they long continue such) were merely occupying these islands for
purposes of trade and commerce, little notice might be taken of the
event ; but when it is known that they possess in those seas and
bays a much larger force of ships of war than Britain, the prospect
is, I am bound to say, most unsatisfactory as regards the long un-
defended coast-line of Eastern and Southern Australia.

In vain has your old President insisted on this point for many
years, in virtue of the advice of naval officers of experience in
those seas, on whose opinion he could rely; but he trusts that
a sufficient naval protection of Australia — no less than af the British
isles — will now seriously occupy the attention of the Government,
the Parliament, and the country.

Conclusion.

Entreating your pardon, Gentlemen, for the many imperfections
in the preceding sketch of the progress of geographical science
during the past year, I will now conclude with a few general re-
marks connected with the immediate interests of the body over which
I have the honour to preside.

Our twenty-eighth volume, shortly to be issued, contains me-
moirs of high interest, which will fully sustain the reputation we
had acquired ; and our Proceedings, containing records of the con-
versations which followed the reading of the various memoirs,
have in the mean time put our absent and travelling associates in
possession of the zest with which our affairs are carried on.

Whilst a true '* esprit du corps " has animated us on all occasions,
never did it shine forth in a manner so congenial to my feelings as
when the mass of the Society rose to bid farewell to my dear friend
Livingstone, and at a few days' notice filled to repletion the largest
festive hall of this metropolis to wish all success to the undaunted
traveller who was about to reexplore the interior of South Africa.

So steadily have our numbers augmented, that although the
Society seemed to have reached its climax last year, when I spoke
of its having rapidly increased from 600 to nearly 1100 members,
I have now the happiness to know that it actually possesses 1200
members, a number far exceeding that of any other scientific body
in London.

Looking to the composition of this body, I rejoice to observe
that it is made up of men of so influential and yet of such very
different classes and' walks in life as to ensure a long continuation

VOL. III. 2 c

344 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS. [May 23, 1859.

of prosperity. In addition to the efforts of geographers, including
eminent astronomers and physical philosophers, as well as ardent
explorers of distant lands, this Association also flourishes through
the good will and hearty support of statesmen, members of both
Houses of Parliament, officers of the army and navy, residents in
our colonies, , and the merchant-traders of this great metropolis.
All these, as well as many proprietors and professional gentlemen,
take a deep interest in our progress, because they see and feel
that in the diffusion of fresh knowledge, and in grappling with
questions of physical geograph}'-, natural history, and the produc-
tions of distant countries, we are continually advancing the material
interests of the nation.

It is for such reasons that the Secretaries of the Foreign and
Colonial Departments, as well as the Board of Admiralty, never fail
to supply us with materials which sustain the interest and character
of our evening meetings.

Considering that a larger number of votaries attend these
assemblies than those of any other scientific Society, the only
drawback which seems to weigh upon us at the present moment
is the difficulty of obtaining a meeting-room capacious enough to
receive our great numbers. For the last two years the Council of
the Royal Society and the Senate of the University of London have
kindly permitted us to hold our meetings in the great hall at
Burlington House ; but if that room and all the beautiful adjacent
buildings are to be removed in order to give place to colossal
edifices, in which the cultivators of art and science are to have
their meeting-places, galleries, and museums, let us confidently
hope that a Society so useful and so popular as our own will
receive some share of the patronage of the Government.

Let my associates be assured that their President has been
quite awake on a subject so important to their interests. Ample
care has been taken that the Council should not lose a moment in
memorializing the Government and in strongly urging our ji;ist
claims ; but up to the present time no assurance has been obtained
that we shall be provided with apartments on the site of Burlington
House, and thus be affiliated, as I ardently wished, with the Eoyal,
Chemical, Linnean, and Geological Societies.*

* In issuing this Address I hare the satisfaction to announce that the President and
Council of the Royal Society have, on my application, consented to continue to the Royal
Geographical Society the use of the Great Hall in Burlington House for the meetings of
the ensuing Session. — July 15.

May 23, 1859.;] CONCLUSION. 345

,. I must here express my sincere satisfaction, that one of the
results to which I have looked with deep interest for many years has
been attained since I last addressed you. We have obtained a Royal
Charter, which secures to us all those claims upon the State to which
our works had already well entitled us ; and, as we are now placed
in precisely the same public condition as any of the older scientific
Societies of the metropolis, it enables me with truth to take leave of
my dear friends, as the really good " Fellows of the Eoyal Geo-
graphical Society." The use of my name as your President in this
Eoyal Charter will indeed be to me a source of pleasing reflection
through life, whilst it will acquaint those who follow us that I
have been bound up with your rise and progress.

Lastly, as the moment has now arrived when, in accordance with
our rules, it is my duty to bid you farewell in the capacity of Presi-
dent, let me assure you that I should do so with infinite pain, if
the act were to be accompanied by any severance of those ties of
reciprocal esteem and aff'ection which I am proud to say have
united us in close relationship during many years. Believe me,
that in whatever post I may be placed, my heart is too firmly fixed
in the prosperity of this Society not to strain every nerve to aid
its advancement. I shall, indeed, ever look back with the truest
satisfaction to the happy days I have passed among you, and shall
never cease to be grateful for the warm support you have in-
variably afforded me when occupying this chair; thus securing
that unanimity and cordiality with which we have all pulled
together.

As our meetings are now so numerously attended, and partake
so essentially of a popular character, I deem it most fortunate that
at this stage of our progress we have been enabled to secure the
services of the Earl of Eipon, the son of our first President, who,
inheriting the engaging manners and enlightened purposes of his
parent, has already shown, both in the Senate and amid large bodies
of his countrymen, that he possesses all the qualities which will
enable him to maintain our Society in harmonious action. At the
same time I also feel confident, that with his attainments and liberal
views, he will essentially promote the higher objects of our
science.

In handing over to his care the interests of a body so dear to me,
you must permit me to say, that as every Eoman citizen who had
more than once served as Consul was assured that a notice of this

2 c 2

346 SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON'S ADDRESS— CONCLUSION. [May 23, 1859.

honour would be inscribed upon his monument, so do I hope, that
those who survive me will not fail to have engraved on my tomb-
stone the record of which I may well be proud — that by the good-
will of my associates I served for twenty-seven years as a Member
of their Council, and was during seven of those years the President
of the Eoyal Geographical Society.

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF LONDON.

SESSION 1868-9.

Thirteenth Meeting, June 13^A, 1859.

The earl OF RIPON, President, in the Chair.

Elections. — Captain Richard F. Burton {Bombay Army) ; Lieutenant-
General Peter De la Motte, c.b. ; Professor Hind {of Canada) ; Captain
W. Fraser Tytler ; John F. Bateman^ c.e. ; A. Benson Dickson ;
Christian Hellmann ; Henry Johnson; Coleridge J. Kennard ; Daniel A.
Lange ; Walter D. Leslie ; F. Butler Montgom^rie ; W. Moon ; Stephen
W, Silver ; and Edward W. Stafford^ Esqrs. ; were elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — Specimens of the weapons, manufactures, and
natural productions brought by Captains Burton and Speke from
Eastern Africa, and of woods from the Zambesi brought home by
J. Lyons M'Leod, Esq., f.r.g.s., late Consul at Mozambique ; also
several maps of the seat of war in Italy, &c., were exhibited.

The President. — Ladies and Gentlemen : I understand that it is not the
custom on these occasions to offer any general observations, except such as may
be connected with the Papers immediately in hand, otherwise I should have
felt it my duty to express my thanks to you at greater length than I shall now
do, because I am most anxious to preserve intact the ancient practices of this
Society. I should have felt it my duty to express my warmest thanks to the
Fellows of the Eoyal Geographical Society for placing me in this Chair. But I
apprehend a more fitting opportunity for so doing will be afiorded me on a future
occasion, of which I shall most gladly avail myself. It will, therefore, be
hardly necessary that I should detain you a minute from listening to the Papers
which will he read on that most interesting expedition, the exploration of
Central Africa, by Captains Burton and Speke. Their steps during that
arduous undertaking have been watched with interest by every person in this
country attached to geographical science, and every Fellow of this Society is
aware of the importance of the inquiries which they went out to institute.
What we shall hear from them will give us an idea of the difficulties, disasters,
and privations they endured, and I think we shall be able to draw from their
narratives — though they will not dwell on it themselves — with how much
spirit, courage, English pluck, and enterprise, they overcame those difficulties.
Captain Speke, who penetrated in a different direction somewhat farther than
Captain Burton, who was prevented by illness from following him, is decidedly
of opinion that he has established the point whence the Nile takes its rise.

VOL. III. 2 D

348 EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. [June 13, 1859.

You will hear what he has to say on this subject, and no doubt there will be
some discussion upon it afterwards ; but I feel quite convinced that whatever
differences of opinion may arise on that particular point, though I think the
arguments which Captain Speke adduces are of very great weight and import-
ance, every one who hears the accounts to-night will feel that most valuable
and important information has been obtained — information not only important
in a geographical point of view, but valuable also as having no small t3earing
on commercial and industrial questions. I think we should never lose sight
of the importance which the labours of this Society possess in respect of the
industry, manufactures, and commerce of this country. I will not detain you
any longer from the extremely interesting narrative of Captain Burton, who
will now proceed to read his Paper.

The Papers read were —

Explorations in Eastern Africa. By Captains E. F. Burton, f.r.g.s.,
and J. H. Speke, f.r.g.s.

1. Captain Burton, late Commandant of the East African Expedition,
read out a general account of his proceedings subsequent to the
tentative journey to Fuga and Usumbara, v^hich appeared in the
28th Vol. of the Journal of the Society.

The Paper contained a description of the personnel of the
East African Expedition when leaving the coast for the purpose
of exploring the " Sea of Ujiji." The difficulties of departure
and the severe trials of patience on the road were then dwelt
upon. At length, however, the travellers reached Unyanyembe,
the capital of the " Land of the Moon," and experienced from the
kindhearted Arabs the warmest welcome, for which, however, they
were not a little indebted to the introductory firman furnished by
H.H. Sayyid Majid, Sultan of Zanzibar and the Sawahil. Captain
Burton then briefly described the trying and dangerous march
during the rainy monsoon from Unyanyembe to Ujiji upon the
Tanganyika Lake, and his exploration in company with Captain
Speke of the northern waters of that sweet sea, which saw for
the first time the union jack floating over its dark bosom. Want
of supplies prevented the travellers penetrating farther into the
interior, and concluding the Periplus of the Lake ; they reluctantly
bade adieu to Ujiji, and on the 19th of June, 1868, re-entered
Unyanyembe.

After about six weeks, during which Captain Speke, having tra-
versed the unexplored length of Usukuma, laid down the southern
limit of the Nyanza or Ukerewe Lake, which had been heard of
from the Arabs of Unyanyembe, the expedition marched eastward,
intending to make the coast via Kilwa. Again, however, they were
doomed to disappointment. The African Pagazi, or porters, could
not be persuaded to deviate from their normal line. The explorers

JuxE 13, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. 349

were not less determined, and the consequence was that they were
abandoned by their men en masse. The necessity of awaiting the
arrival of some down-caravan that would convey their collections to
the coast delayed them for some time at Zungomero, a province
lying at the foot of the East African Ghauts, known by the name of
Usagara. They did not arrive before early in February, 1859, after
a journey of four months from Unyanyembe, at the little maritime
village of Konduchi. There they dismissed their guides, porters,
and Beloch guard ; and having been supplied from Zanzibar, by
Captain G. P. Rigby, H.B.M.'s Gonsul, with stores and a Battela or
native craft, they sailed for Kilwa (Quiloa) with the intention of
exploring the yet unvisited Delta of the Great Rufiji River. Once
more they were thwarted by circumstances. The cholera, which
had travelled slowly down the eastern coast of Arabia and Africa,
had committed such ravages at Kilwa that the people stunned by
their imminent danger would offer no assistance. In the short
space of three days the travellers lost half their crew, and of their
private servants one died and a second was rendered useless. After
a cruize to Kilwa Kisiwani, or the ancient settlement upon Kilwa
island, they returned to the mouth of the Rufiji, found the stream
in flood, and were soon made aware of the fact that the Hindu
traders would, unless controlled by an especial firman from Zanzibar,
oppose indirectly, by means of the savage tribes on the river-banks,
an exploration of the rich and copal-bearing lands lying along its
course. The rainy monsoon being imminent, and scant prospects
of overcoming the scruples of the Banyans presenting themselves,
the travellers turned the head of their Battela northward, and on
the 4th of March, 1859, landed, after an absence of nineteen months,
upon the island of Zanzibar.

The Paper concluded with an allusion to the political difficulties
which have beset the little state since the division of property con-
sequent upon the decease, in 1857, of our old and valued ally H.H.
Sayyid Said, popularly known as the Imaum of Muscat. He had
bequeathed his Arabian territories to his eldest son Sayyid Suwayni,
and the island of Zanzibar and that portion of the East African
coast which has acquired the name of " Sawahil " or " the shores " to
a cadet, Sayyid Majid. The former prince, under pretext of re-
covering a subsidy or tribute from his younger brother, had prepared
a semi-piratical expedition, with which he threatened the coast and
island of Zanzibar. The report spread terror among the wealthy
Arab clove-growers, and the European houses established in the
island suffered severely from stagnation of business : the representa-
tives of the different governments were divided in opinion concern-

2 D 2

350 EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. [June 13, 1859.

ing the justice of the claim ; the slaves were all armed, and the
town of Zanzibar was thrown into a state of excitement and suspense.
After a fortnight of confusion, it was officially reported that H.B.M.'s
steamer Punjaub, under orders from H.E. the Governor of Bombay,
had met Sayyid Suwayni's fleet off the eastern coast of Arabia and
had persuaded it to return.

After a courteous dismissal on the part of H.H. Sayyid Majid, to
whom the travellers had every reason to be grateful. Captains
Burton and Speke bade farewell to Zanzibar. Having engaged a
passage in a clipper-built barque, the Dragon of Salem, they quitted
East Africa on the 22nd of March, and arrived at Aden in the
middle of April, 1859. Their explorations, dating from the time of
their leaving Bombay, had been carried on for two years and about
three months ; and their discoveries will appear in detail at a
future time in the Journal of the Society. — E. F. B.

The President. — As tlie two Papers are intimately connected with each
other, I will call upon Captain Speke before inviting discussion on the Paper
you have just heard.

2. The region traversed by Captain Burton and myself is divisible
into five bands. They all run parallel to the coast, and each of them
is characterised by special geographical features. The first is the low
land between the coast range and the sea. Its breadth is about 120
miles, and its average slope not more than 2 feet per mile. Forests
of gigantic trees, and tall grasses, cover its surface. The second
band is the coast range of mountains. These are hills in lines and
in masses, intersected by valleys, through which the rivers of the
east coast find their way. This range is easily crossed, and nowhere
exceeded 6000 feet, adjacent to the line of road taken by our
travellers. It is capable of cultivation, though neglected, because
the slaving forays to which it is subjected drive away the inhabi-
tants. The third band reaches to Unyanyembe. It is a dry plateau,
with a slight inclination toward the interior, and ranging in height
between 3000 and 4400 feet. Tributary streams, running south-
wards to the Euaha, intersect it. The fourth zone is a continuation
of the above, but it is better watered, and is studded with granite
hills. Here is the water-parting between the streams that run
eastward to the Indian Ocean, and westward to the Tangan3dka
Lake. The Nyanza Lake is situated in this band. The fifth band
is a remarkable slope, that inclines to the shores of the Tanganyika.
It sinks no less than 1800 feet in 45 miles ; it is exceedingly fertile,
but harassed by marauders of the Watuta tribe.

JUNB 13, 1859.] KXPLOUATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. 351

On arriving at Ujiji, the party found tliat the only boats to be
had were wretched canoes ; while the troubled state of the country
rendered it unsafe to explore the lake unaccompanied by a large
escort. There was, however, a small sailing craft belonging to
an Arab, on the other side of the lake, which would be large
enough to contain the entire party ; and Captain Speke started
with seventeen savages, as a crew, and four of his own men, to
hire her. He first coasted to Kabogo, a bold promontory usually
selected as the starting point, when the lake has to be crossed,
and reached it in five days. He describes the shore as wild and
beautiful, affording many convenient harbours, and requiring but
a little art to make it quite a fairy abode. There were no
inhabitants, but an abundance of game, — hippopotami, buffaloes,
elephants, antelopes, and crocodiles. The passage across the lake,
a distance of 26 miles, was made rapidly and safely, and Captain
Speke was cordially welcomed by the Sultan of the country on the
opposite side. The owner of the sailing boat was there also, and
was ready to afford every assistance ; but he himself was on the
point of starting on an ivory expedition 100 miles into the interior,
and the crew of his sailing boat were, at the same time, his armed
escort : he could not therefore spare them. What made the disap-
pointment doubly vexatious, was that this Arab desired Captain
Speke's companionship in his intended journey, and he promised
the boat on his return. Had Captain Speke been unfettered by
time, this would have been an excellent opportunity of farther
travel. As it was, he was obliged to go back to Ujiji without the
sailing boat, and proceeded with Captain Burton to a more extended
exploration of the Tanganyika Lake, which lasted a whole month.
The mapping of its southern portion depends on information given
by this Arab.

On returning to Unyanyembe, Captain Burton's continued illness
again made it necessary for Captain Speke to proceed alone to the
northward to explore the Lake Nyanza. He went with 33 men,
through a line of populous country, less visited by strangers than
that which he had hitherto travelled on. There were numerous
petty sovereigns who were hospitable enough, but very troublesome.
The view of Lake Nyanza, with its numerous islands, reminded
Captain Speke of the Greek archipelago. The islands were pre-
cisely like the tops of the same hills that studded the plains he had
just travelled over. In fact, the lake had the features of a flooded
country rather than those of a sheet of permanent water, with well
marked banks. Its water is sweet and good : those who live near
it drink no other.

352 EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA, [June 13, 1859.

Captain Speke's explorations did not extend beyond its son them
shores. The more northern- part of his map is based on native in-
formation, especially on that of a very intelligent Arab, whom he
had previously met with in Unyanyembe, and whose data, so far as
the shores of the lake, were found by Captain Speke to be remark-
ably correct. This Arab had travelled far along its western shores.
In 35 long marches he reached the Kitangnra river, and in 20 more
marches, Kibuga, the capital of a native despot. Between these
two places he crossed about 180 rivers, of which the Kitangura and
the Katanga were the largest. The former is crossed in large
canoes ; the latter, though much larger and broader, is crossed
during the dry season by walking over lily leaves ; but in the wet
season it spreads out to an enormous size, and is quite unmanage-
able. The rainy season is very severe in these parts. No merchants
have gone farther than Kibuga j but, at that place, they hear
reports of a large and distant river, the Kivira, upon the banks of
which the Bari people live. This river is believed by Captain
Speke to be the White Nile.

The President. — Gentlemen, I am sure you will agree with me that the
Papers we have just heard are full of the greatest possible interesr. The country
which has been explored by Captains Burton and Speke is a most important
one in a geograjDliical point of view, being connected with what I trust may be
ultimately established to be the solution of that most ancient problem of the
sources of the Nile. The arguments adduced by Captain Speke, I think all
will admit, are of very great weight, although probably some gentlemen here
may be inclined to question them. No doubt his conclusion cannot be taken
as absolutely established until farther explorations have been made, which I
hope will be carried on under the same excellent explorers : and I trust such
fresh discoveries will bring forward complete evidence of the fact, or rather
support that which is now only a matter of opinion. This, at least, is clear.
These gentlemen have obtained for this country the great scientific honour of
having been the first to explore these regions, and they have also been the
means of clearing up many questions relating to lakes and mountains in that
district about which there has been a large amount of controversy hitherto. So
important a subject as this certainly invites discussion, and I will, therefore,
take this opportunity of requesting Sir Roderick Murchison to give us his
opinion upon the Papers which have been read. It will be in the recollection
of most present that Sir Roderick had a great deal to do with the origin and
fitting out of this expedition — one of the most important, I think, ever con-
ducted under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, and I am sure it
is most fitting that he should open this discussion.

Sir Roderick Murchison, v.p.r.g.s., etc. — My Lordj: In the first place allow
me to congratulate your Lordship on occupying the Chair which I have recently
vacated, upon the occasion of the reading of a Paper of as great importance as
any that has been communicated to this Society since Dr. Livingstone emerged
from Africa, and described the southern portion of the continent from
shore to shore. It is only necessary to point to the two large maps before you to
see what Captains Burton and Speke accomplished. There was our know-
ledge (pointing to the old map) a year ago — there is our knowledge now
(l)ointing to the new map). They have, by means of astronomical observations,

June 13, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. ' 868

fixed the position, the longitude and latitude of these two great lakes, and have
shown you that whilst one is like other lakes, of which we had previously-
heard, situated on a great plateau, the other is situated at such an elevation
that, as Captain Speke has explained to you, it may very possibly be found to
feed the chief sources of the Nile. I will not now argue that difficult question,
because I am quite sure there is one gentleman here, if not others, who may
dispute that inference. I will, therefore, first call attention generally to the
great importance of these discoveries. My friends here have not only traversed
the district and furnished us with a good picture of the manners and customs
of the inhabitants, but have also brought home rock specimens which enlighten
us as to the fundamental features of this country ; and to these rocks I will for
a moment advert. Captain Burton placed before me this morning certain sj)eci-
mens which show me that at an elevation of upwards of 3000 feet above the
sea and towards the interior there are fossilized land shells, showing that from
very ancient periods the lands have maintained their present configuration.
These deposits, whether purely terrestrial or lacustrine, have been consolidated
into stone, and show that the existing internal condition of Africa is that
of ages long gone by, as I took the liberty of pointing out to the Society some
years ago, when treating of Livingstone's first explorations. Another striking
feature in connection with this great zone of country is this. You will observe
that our friends spoke of remarkable herds of oxen on the banks of the lake
Tanganyika, and tribes of people between that vast lake and the coast range,
who are a thriving, peaceful, agricultural population, whilst the adjacent districts
in the north and south are frequently disturbed by wars for slave-hunting
purposes. This is a great fact as indicating a broad line of route by which we
may hope hereafter to establish intercourse with the interior country. 1 here
is another important fact, though I do not think Captain Speke alluded to it,
namely, the absence of that great scourge of parts of Southern Africa, the Tsetse
fly. With regard to the physical geography of the country, it is remarkable
that all the adjacent rivers fall into the great Tanganyika lake, which was
formerly supposed, on the contrary, to aflbrd the sources of the Zambesi river.
All theory, therefore, on this subject is now set at rest. Lastly, we come to
the subject which is likely, as I said, to give rise to much discussion, and that
is the theory upon which I think my friend Captain Speke may rest his claim
to our most decided approbation. On my own part I am disposed to think that
he has indicated the true southernmost source of the Nile. Now, in saying
this 1 do not mean to deny that the great mountains flanking the lake on the
east, of which a point or two only is marked on the map before us, do not afford
the streams which flow into this great lake. That must probably be the case
on the east, just as Captain Speke ascertained from the Arabs that the so-called
" Mountains of the Moon" feed the same lake from the west by other streams.
You must here recollect that the same Arab sheik who gave him the informa-
tion which turned out to be correct concerning the existence of the lake Tan-
ganyika also told him of the existence of the Nyanza, which lake was found
to be exactly in the position indicated. As Captain Speke has determined that
this great lake Nyanza is nearly 4000 feet above the sea, it may well, indeed,
be the main source of the White Nile. Everything (as far as theory goes) being
in its favour, this view is farther supported when we reflect on the fact that
the tropical rains cause these upland lakes and rivers to swell and burst their
banks at a period which tallies very well with the rise of the Nile at Cairo.
These, then, are grounds which I think must go to strengthen the belief of
Captain Speke, and I may, therefore, repeat what I stated at the Anniversary,
that highly worthy as Captain Burton was to receive a gold medal, not only on
account of this great expedition which he led, but also for his former gallant
and distinguished expeditions. Captain Speke, who now sits at your Lordship's
left hand, is also entitled to a gold medal of the Koyal Geographical Society.

354 EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. [June 13, 1859.

Mr. Macqueen, f.r.g.s., said he rose with great reluctance to express an
opinion contrary to the views propounded by (Japtain Speke as to the sources
of the Nile. He did so with more hesitation, because he had listened with the
greatest pleasure to the Papers which had been read, and which he considered,
in other respects, to be most interesting and valuable. He had really felt
much edified by the documents read by both gentlemen, and he hoped they
would not feel offended with him if he differed with them as to that lake being
the source of the Nile. Mr. Macqueen then, interrogating Captain Speke,
wished to know whether the vegetation on the south of the Nyanza was
Tropical or not ?

Captain Speke, in answer, asked Mr. Macqueen to specify what he meant by
the difference of vegetation ? — We are now engaged within the Tropics. There
are palm-trees, acacias, and forest-trees — the forest ones are tall and slender,
and are well branched on their upper extremities, like young oaks or elms.
There are also large lays of tall grass, of a very rank order ; but at the time I
was travelling there it was the dry season, and consequently all herbage had
dried up, and was otherwise, in most places, burnt.

Mr. Macqueen had referred specifically to the Paper on that subject previously
given to the Society. He concluded by requesting the President to oblige the
Society by using his personal influence to obtain accurate accounts of the two
Egyptian expeditions ordered by Mahomet Ali, the ruler of Egypt, in 1839-40
and 1840-41, to explore the White Nile, conducted by very able officers, in
several sailing vessels, and which they on the first voyage effected as far as
3° 30' N. lat. and 31*^ E. long. These exploratory voyages were certainly the
most important of the kind that had ever been undertaken. The Egyptian
Government would no doubt readily give them through the influence of our
Foreign-Office and our Consul in Egypt. Care, however, must be taken that
the whole are carefully and correctly copied from the originals, and not from
mutilated and garbled documents that may have been made.

The President said he was well aware of the importance of having
authentic information on the subject, and he would give his best attention to
the point. He then called upon Colonel Sykes, who was the Chairaian of the
Court of Directors when this expedition was sent out, to make a few remarks.

CoL. Sykes, v.p.r.g.s., said that he was scarcely prepared to respond to the
noble President's call, as he had already commented upon the discoveries
of Captains Burton and Speke at the last meeting of the Society, and had
little to add. He might say, however, that the views enunciated by Capts.
Burton and Speke are those which he had ventured to put forward some
years ago, in a Paper on Zanzibar, published by the Society, as likely to
result from an inquiry as to the sources of the Nile. It seemed quite natural
that the Nile should issue from the Nyanza Lake, and that the lake itself
should be supplied from the chain of mountains which runs parallel to the
east coast, through several degrees of latitude ; also that the lake itself
might have its outlet to the north. We have analogous cases in our Euro-
pean system of rivers. For instance, the Rhone, which has its origin on
one ' side of the Furca in Switzerland, runs down into the Lake of Geneva,
and out of the Lake of Geneva to the Mediterranean Sea — a precisely
similar instance. We have also the Rhine rising on the other side of the
Furca, and running into Lake Constance, and thence into the North Sea.
The Ticino flows from the Lago Maggiore down to the Po, and the Adda runs
out of the Lake of Como ; but the real sources of the two Italian rivers are
not in either of the lakes, but in the water-parting of the Alps, which
supplies the water with which the lakes are fed. The Nile and the Nyanza
Lake may be in the same category. The elevation of the Nile at the highest
point to which it was ascended by the French expedition, and the greater
altitude of the lake, strengthen the supposition that the river flows from the

June 13, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. 355

lake. A difficulty, no doubt, presents itself in the fact that the Nile, in
Lower Egypt, begins to rise in June, and continues rising until September,
the water being supplied therefore by a summer monsoon coincident with that
of Western India ; whereas Captains Burton and Speke represent the monsoon
they experienced to have commenced in the autumn — a monsoon that could
not produce a rise of the Nile in June. However, it has to be determined
whether or not the monsoon of the north of the Equator, in Eastern Africa, is
or is not simultaneous with that of the Malabar coast ; and the monsoon of the
south of the Equator similar to the N.E. monsoon of the Coromandel coast,
which begins in October. These questions now become of high interest, as
touching the connexion between Captain Speke's lake and the Nile. We
know that the Nile begins to rise in June, and that that rise must either be
owing to a monsoon supply of water, or to the melting of snows. We know
that in the case of the Blue Nile, in Abyssinia, the rising there is not occa-
sioned by the melting of snows, but by the monsoon, which is coincident with
that of Western India in the months of June and July. The question is,
does that monsoon extend southward as far as Captain Speke's lake, and con-
tribute to the rise of the White Nile as it does to the rise of the Blue Nile, in
Abyssinia ? The solution of this question alone is worthy of the labours of
another expedition ; but a great many other questions also suggest themselves.
The work is only half accomplished, and the reputation of our country demands
that it should be completed. My own opinion is, that independently of
any commercial advantages or sordid considerations, the Society ought, for
the simple investigation and verification of physical truths, to use its best
endeavours to induce the Government to send out a second expedition. For
the good name of England, let us have the doubt before us removed. We
have an inkling of the truth ; let us have the whole truth. Pliny was aware
of the western source of the Nile, and said that it issued from lakes lying below
the Mountains of the Moon. Now it is a singular fact, that the people in the
neighbourhood of Captain Speke's lake call themselves Mnyamuezi — men of
the moon ; muezi also signifying the moon. And this association may have
given rise to Pliny's account, that the Nile took its origin from the Mountains
of the Moon. Colonel Sykes concluded with again urging the Society to
address Government in the strongest manner to renew the geographical re-
searches in Eastern Africa.

Mr. Galton, f.e.g.s. — Before making a few observations that occur to me
on the subject of the papers before us, allow me to remark how closely analogous
the gallant exploration of Captains Burton and Speke is to that which was
undertaken thirty-seven years ago in the north of this same continent. It was
in 1822, when Lake Chad, the populous Sudan, and the course of the Niger
were only known to the European world through unsatisfactory and conflict-
ing testimony of pilgrims and traders, that Captains Denham and Clapperton
made their famous descent from the north, right through the Sahara, to the
populous regions of Negroland, and the shores of Lake Chad, and by their
momentous journey we reaped the first fruits of that considerable knowledge
that is now possessed of those extensive regions. It is no small credit to our
associates Captains Burton and Speke that they should henceforth take rank
as the Denham and Clapperton of Eastern Africa.

However, in that part of the map before us which has been filled in from
native testimony, there are some serious anomalies, which make me hesitate in
accepting it on the evidence we now possess. In the first place, the Lake
Tanganyika is represented as having no outlet, but as receiving more than one
considerable river, and the drainage of a highly inclined basin, whose area can
hardly be less than eight times its own. Not only this, but I am also assured
by both Captains Burton and Speke, that its level is reported to be unchange-

356 EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. [June 13, 1859.

able, and that it appeared to them to be so. On the other hand, the rainy
season experienced by our travellers on its shores was one of remarkable vio-
lence. The sky was perpetually overcast, drenching rains were constantly
occurring, evaporation was nil, nothing could be kept dry, and a green mould
settled upon almost every article. I cannot see any reason for estimating this
rain-fall at less than the tropical average of 8 feet ; and it is scarcely possible
to imagine that less than four times the amount of what fell on the lake itself was
added to its waters by drainage. We thus obtain a probable access to its contents
of no less than 40 feet in altitude during the wet season, yet no alteration of level
is found to exist. Again, a drought that would evaporate 40 feet of water during
the six dry months of the year would assuredly reduce the land to aridity,
but the country is thickly inhabited by peasant negroes, who are scattered
widely over its face. I can see no way of explaining these matters from the
information before us, except by concluding that our travellers were misin-
formed, and that the Lake Tanganyika has an outlet. I should remark that the
drought of the desert of Ugogo is in no way incompatible with the fact of heavy
rains visiting the lake district. It appears that the rain-bearing wind of these
quarters is the east wind, and it is obvious that the moisture of its lower
strata must be condensed against the eastern face of the plateau of Ugogo,
which faces the sea like a wall, and consequently that the wind which passes
over the plateau will be a dry wind. But as it passes on to the west, the
upper undrained strata of the air will have time to mix with the lower ones,
and to supply fresh material for the formation of rain-clouds.

Next, as regards the Lake Nyanza. I will pass over the strange fact that
the boiling-water observations of Captain Speke gire a constant rise from
Unyanyembe to the surface of this lake amounting to no less than 300 feet, be-
cause that altitude is within the limits of possible error of observation ; but I am
particularly struck with the difficulty of accounting for the escape of the large
quantity of water which is said to be poured from the lake into that river, which
is commonly accepted as the true White Nile. We hear from M. Brun KoUet
of its being crossed by means .of a fallen trunk of a tree, at about 60 miles
distance from the point to which he ascended, while the Lake Nyanza is de-
scribed as receiving in that one small part of its circumference of which we
have any information no less than 180 streams, of which two are considerable
rivers. Mr. Findlay has suggested — and I quite concur in his view — that the
waters of the lake may, in truth, be the head-waters of the Nile, but by
means of some other channel than that of which I have just spoken, and for
which there is an abundance of room, and also the existence of a native report,
to the westward of M. Brun Rollet's river. Be this as it may, it is quite clear
that Captains Burton and Speke have not only brought back a vast amount
of solid fact, and given us a sound geographical basis upon which we can fit
such native testimony as may reach us, but they have also opened out a most
extensive field for future research — where future explorers, and I hope them-
selves, may proceed in various directions with the certainty of bringing back
a rich harvest of geographical results.

Mr. H. Danby Seymour, f.r.g.s., was understood to ask whether there
were any rivers on the eastern side of the Nyanza Lake to account for the
passage of the water ?

Captain Speke replied that he knew of none ; but that at the northern
extremity of the lake the Usoga people talk of one, the Kivira Kiver, the
right bank of which is occupied by the Ban people. These people were evi-
dently the tribe among whom Mr. F. Werne arrived only a few years since.
When communicating with their King Lakono, Werne was assured that the
branch of the Nile which he was exploring came from a distance of 300 miles
due south of Bari : a point directing him to the exact position in which he,

June 13, 1859.] EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA. 357

Capt. Speke, had discovered the Nyanza ; at any rate the rising of the Nile is
very considerable at the Mission Station, Gondokoro, in lat. 4° 40' N., and is
very broad. These waters must come from some considerable source. He con-
sidered the Nyanza to be the true source of the Nile, and the point at which he
reached it to be the most extreme from the debouchure of the Nile at Alexandria.
Even supposing that there does not exist any overflow of the lake at the
northern end, which might probably be the case in the dry season, he believed
that it will bear the same relation with the Nile at Gondokoro that the Parung
La Tso (River) does with the Sutlej. There is no ovei-flow from the surface
of the Tso Moriri (Lake), yet it is the principal source of that branch of the
Sutlej River which the Tibetans call the tributary Parung La Tso, after the
Parung La (Pass), which also receives the Tso Moriri waters by percolation.
The Tso Moriri waters filter through spongy bogs for a short distance, and then
collecting, taper oif in small channels to the Parung La Tso.

The President then invited Captain Burton to give some information re-
specting the native manufactures and productions.

Captain Burton, f.r.g.s. — The finest copal in the world is exported from
the Coast. These regions also supply the largest, whitest, and softest ivory.
The other ex|X)rts are chiefly rhinoceros horns and hippopotamus teeth.
Cotton is found in every part of the country where the water is near the soil
and where the country is marshy ; it grows in great abundance round the
Lake Tanganyika. Here is a specimen of cloth made in Unyamwezi, the
"Land of the Moon" [the cloth was produced.] The natives, however,
prefer the American fabrics on account of their being closer and lighter.
Iron is found throughout the country in great abundance. Coal may exist
[the Captain exhibited specimens of native iron]. Copper is only to be found
in the country of the Kazembe, so frequently visited by the Portuguese traders.
Coffee is not cultivated, and therefore is not of use in commerce. There is a
particular kind of frankincense found in all the countries about the dry table-
lands beyond the mountains. The palm-oil tree grows almost wild ; I have
brought home a specimen used by the inhabitants. The great want of the
country is the facility for carriage. A tramroad from the coast to the Lake
would materially increase the commerce, and it could be laid down at com-
paratively very little expense. Hides are procurable in any quantity, and there
are many other sources of wealth which are comjmratively useless on account
of the difficulty of transport. Rice and grain might be grown in great quan-
tities. Horses will not live eight months in the country. Asses are found to
be of very little service ; they are not strong, and people will load them too
much. Independently of their load, we found that one died simply from the
fatigue of walking down to the coast. Oxen do not thrive in some parts
of the country, owing, it is supposed, to a poisonous grass. In some
parts, especially in Karagwah, Ujiji, and the whole of that district, there
is a large dun-coloured animal ; the nuro.erous wars, however, tend greatly to
diminish the cattle. Almost all the wars are on account of cattle or of slaves.
Generally speaking, a tribe does not sell its own children, except for powerful
reasons. The usual course is to obtain supplies for the trader by attacking
and plundering their neighbours. There are two kinds of slave-trade : the
external domestic slave-trade, carried on by Arabs with great difficulty (this
will be in the course of time put down), and also the internal slave-trade,
which demands still more strongly the attention of Europe, for nothing but
the development of the commercial resources of the land can affect it.

The President. — As the usual time for adjournment has arrived, there is
only one other duty which remains for us to perform this evening, namely, to
vote our cordial thanks to the gentlemen who have submitted their papers to
us. After the very full discussion which has taken place, I will not detain
you with any farther observations of my own. I would merely say that,

358 WALLACE'S NOTES ON A [June 27, 1859.

while we must admit the very great importance of the information we have
received from these papers, we cannot hut contrast the knowledge which we
now possess with that which we enjoyed before this expedition went forth.

Fourteenth Meeting ^ June 21th, 1859.

The earl OF RIPON, President, in the Chair.

Presentations. — S. W. Silver and Christian Hellmann, Esqrs., were
presented upon their election.

Elections. — The Earl of Airlie ; Major Henry Cracroft ; the Eaii of
Elgin ; Captain Philip D. Margesson, r.a. ; the Hon. Robert Marsham ;
the Duke of Newcastle ; Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson (^Governor of Hong
Kong) ; and George Barclay ; Frederick W. Bigge ; H. Austin Bruce, m.p. ;
R, A. Osborn Daly ell ( Consul at Erzerum) ; George H. Fitzroy ; William
Fryer; Charles P. Grenfell, m.p.; W, Vernon Harcourt ; and William
H. Smith, Esqrs. ; were elected Fellows.

Exhibitions. — Several drawings and photo-lithographs illustrating
the scenery and physical geography of the highest parts of the
Himalayas, by the Messrs. Sclilagintweit ; and a Mechanical and
Magnetic Compass, invented by Mr. N. D. Maillard, were exhibited.

Accessions. — Sir John Rennie's work on the ' Plymouth Break-
water,' presented by the author ; Humboldt's ' Travels,' * Cosmos,'
and ' Aspects of Nature, etc.,' presented by H. G. Bohn, Esq., f.r.g.s. ;
Dr. Lange's Map of the Mediterranean, and Stanford's Library Map
of Australasia, were among the late accessions to the Library and
Map Rooms.

The Papers read were —

1. Notes on a Voyage to New Guinea. By Alfred R. Wallace, Esq.,

F.R.G.S.

There is only one place in New Guinea where the natives have
become accustomed to the presence of European and Mohammedan
traders. This place is Dorey, and it was there that Mr. AVallace has
been residing for three months. He describes the whole northern
peninsula of New Guinea as exceedingly rugged and mountainous.
A continued succession of jagged and angular ranges stretches away
far into the interior ; while an unvarying forest of somewhat stunted
appearance spreads over the whole country. He considers there are
absolutely no other inhabitants than Papuans in the main island.
During Mr. Wallace's stay at Dorey there was almost continual

June 27, 1859.] VOYAGE TO NEW GUINEA. 359

rain or drizzle. When these were absent there was often a dull
haziness in the air, very different from onr usual notions of the sun-
shine of the tropics. The last month of his stay was nominally in
the dry season, but the rain-fall was in reality increased. The winds
also were abnormal. According to theory, he would have gone to
the island in the west monsoon and returned in the east ; but, each
way, the winds were contrary, and interspersed with dead calms.
Dorey is not a good station for starting on excursions into the
interior. It is also very unhealthy : Mr. Wallace and his servants
suffered constantly from fever and dysentery, and one of them died.
The Dutch Government has taken possession of New Guinea up to
141° E. long, from Greenwich. An active and exclusive trade is
carried on between that coast and the Moluccas, under their flag.
The beautiful series of maps of the Dutch possessions in the East, by
Baron Melville von Carnbee, are particularly remarked by Mr.
Wallace. A Dutch steamer was surveying the coast of New Guinea
while Mr. Wallace was there, in search of a good place for a settle-
ment. He understood that Dorey would, probably, be preferred on
account of its harbour and naval position, though in other respects
unsuitable.

Mr. J. Crawfurd, f.r.g.s. — I have never visited the island of New
Guinea, but I have paid much attention to the subject, and ought to know
something about it. It is a monster island, and, although beyond doubt God
created nothing in vain, it appears to our narrow view that New Guinea was
created for no earthly good purpose. It is nearly twice the size of the United
Kingdom, is universally covered with forest, and inhabited throughout by a
peculiar negro race — a race which commences at that island and extends all
the way to New Caledonia and thence up to the Fiji Group, where it ceases.
This race strongly resembles the African negro, but still it is not the African
negro : it differs very materially from it. It has the general African features,
but the hair, especially in its texture, differs in a very singular manner. In-
stead of being woolly, like the head of the ordinary African, it grows in tufts so
long that it stretches out to an enormous extent — two or three feet right across
— a circumstance which has obtained for the Papuans the name of " mop-headed
Indians." Everywhere this race is intellectually inferior to the hrown-com-
plexioned people, as I am afraid it must be said of the negroes of Africa, that they
are inferior to all the fairer people in their neighbourhood, even those on the
continent of Africa itself. A remarkable example of this inferiority is given in
Dorey Harbour and a considerable part of the coast in its neighbourhood. The
people are subject to the government of a very small island, a mere rock in the
sea — the island of Temate, containing a comparatively active and industrious
population of the Malay race, who, in consequence, have been put in early
possession of some wealth and power, and been enabled to conquer and
hold in subjection a considerable portion of the population of New Guinea.
The inhabitants of New Guinea are in a very low social condition, in-
ferior, indeed, to that of any other people that I know of, except perhaps
the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. New Guinea produces some very
remarkable objects. It produces the true aromatic nutmeg, some very
singular birds, and, among these, the Birds of Paradise, which are peculiar

360 WALLACE'S NOTES ON A [June 27, 1859.

to that country, and which seem to be good for nothing except to produce
fine feathers to adorn European ladies and Chinese mandarins. There are
ten or twelve different species of this beautiful bird, which, after all, is
but a kind of crow. The island also produces a monster pigeon, almost as
big as a turkey — a most beautiful bird, of which there are, I believe, two
species. Living specimens of these are to be seen in the Zoological Gardens.
Dampier gave an exceedingly good description of New Guinea about 170
years ago.

Dr. G. Kinkel, f.r.g.s. — I should not address this meeting if there were any
gentlemen present who had visited New Guinea, but since it is a country
which we know almost exclusively from books, I may be allowed to say a few
words on some new points in the report before the meeting. The first point
is — and I think it is an entirely new one — that there is only one race of
people in this island. We have been accustomed to believe that there were
two different races : a Malay race in the interior, and a black race skirting the
coasts. This relation of the two races would indeed make the island an exception
to all maritime countries in that quarter of the world. It appears, however,
from the paper of Mr. Wallace, that there is in the interior an agricultural
race, whose dwelling-places would seem to be somewhat different in construc-
tion from the huts of the outlying tribes along the coast, who bear the especial
name of Arfaki ; and although Mr. Wallace does not enter fully into the
subject, it yet appears that this theory of two races — one black, a trading
class, and another more agricultural, in the interior — is not entirely exploded
by his observations. The second point seems to me to be of some importance :
it is that this island is not favoured with the clear tropical sunshine which we
might expect. The very height of the mountains of New Guinea, which in some
parts near the coast attain an altitude of 9500 feet, must, in a warm
climate, and in the midst of a really steaming ocean, of necessity cause
heavy rains ; still more the amount of vegetation in this large and wonderful
island, although stunted in its growth, must of necessity produce a vast
amount of precipitation. The great point, however, to which I would call
attention is the irregularity of the monsoons mentioned by Mr. Wallace,
which, I think, is very important to navigators. This irregularity is not diffi-
cult to explain. New Guinea lies at the outskirts of the Indian monsoons ;
the monsoons are produced, as every wind upon the globe is, by the heating of
certain parts of the great continents. The enormous heating in the central
I^arts of Asia during our summer causes a stream of air from cooler and more
southern latitudes to flow over them, producing the south-west monsoon ; and
the north-east monsoon is attracted in the same way by. the great heating of
Southern Africa in the contrary season ; consequently, these eastern islands,
like New Guinea, can only be considered as lying on the outskirts of the moa-
soons, and the absence of great continents around them will account for the
greater irregularity of their periodical winds. The influence of the monsoons by
this different heating of great continents is no longer powerful enough to keep
off a current of cooler air from the ocean in these parts. This, I believe,
will explain Mr. Wallace's observation, which, as I said, is of very great im-
j)ortance to navigation. As to the discovery of New Guinea, the Dutch cer-
tainly are the principal investigators of this island. They were the first to
discover the existence of a narrow channel between the small island to the
south-west, called "Prince Frederick Island," and the main land. They
were also the first discoverers of the great bay, and, finding a quantity of
yellowfinches there, they called it "Geelvink," or "Yellow Finches' Bay ;" a
name that has been given to it since in all our charts. The Dutch claim half
the island up to the meridian of 141°, and it is under their flag and from their
dominions in Dutch India that the principal trade is carried on in these
islands. And as we owe to them almost all we know about this island, it

June 27, 1859.] VOYAGE TO NEW GUINEA. 361

seems but fair that they should obtain the credit and also the profit (if there
be a profit, which I much doubt) of its possession.

Mb. Crawfurd. — I should like to say a few words in reply to the gentleman
who has just spoken. Perhaps he is not aware that there are two distinct
classes of monsoons. The south-east monsoon and the north-west monsoon,
which blow to the south of the equator, are totally difierent from the monsoons
with which we are better acquainted, namely, the north-east or monsoon of
the winter solstice, and the south-west or monsoon of the summer solstice.
The first are the monsoons that prevail in New Guinea, and I believe that they
are perfectly regular : there is no irregularity at all that I have heard of, any
more than in those which prevail north of the equator. With respect to an
agricultural people inhabiting New Guinea, I have never heard of them or of
any kind of agriculture beyond the poor one described by Mr. Wallace. I
believe no agricultural people to exist in the island, and that its inhabitants
throughout are rank barbarians and savages. Dr. Kinkel must not suppose
that New Guinea is the only island inhabited by negroes : there are several
others exclusively inhabited by this race. New Caledonia, for example, is
entirely inhabited by a robust race of negroes ; New Ireland is inhabited solely
by them. With respect to the discoveries of the Dutch, I ought to mention
that they have in recent times made very considerable ones. The original
discoverers of New Guinea, however, were not the Dutch : the island was dis-
covered nearly 100 years before the Dutch had even made their appearance in
India. The original discoverers were the Portuguese, and a very considerable
portion of the island was after them discovered by our own truly illustrious
countryman Dampier. The more modern discoverers are certainly the Dutch ;
they made three distinct voyages to that country. They discovered Prince
Frederick Island, which had previously been supposed to be a headland. Their
first voyage was made, I think, in 1828, and their last in 1835, when they
attempted to form a settlement ; but they found the country so unhealthy, so
rude, and so sterile, that they were obliged to give up the settlement. With
respect to their claim to half the island, the Dutch are perfectly welcome to every
inch of it. No Englishman would dispute it with them or think of forming a
settlement in a land so unpromising : 1 wish the Dutch well, and therefore I
wish them safe away from New Guinea.

Mr. T. Saunders. — The discussion having been directed to New Guinea at
large, I think allusion should be made to the recent discovery on this island of
the great river Rechussen or Ambernoh entering the sea by an immense deltoid
mouth on the north-east of Geelvink Bay, nor in speaking of recent discoveries
ought we to forget the share the English have had in them towards the south-
east, where mountains, rising in some cases more than 13,000 feet above the
sea, have been measured in altitude by our own nautical surveyors.

It may be added that the north coast of New Guinea was not long since
examined by Sir Edward Belcher, in H.M.S. ScQnarang^ and the present
Curator of the Society, Mr. George, was in charge of tlie observatory. The
proximity of New Guinea to Northern Australia, and the extension of the
Australian settlements in that direction, may also be alluded to as a probable
means of increasing our knowledge of the unknown interior of New Guinea.

The President. — In proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Wallace for his very
interesting Paper, I would only say that I think the glimpse which we have
had of the geography and natural features of New Guinea must leave an im-
pression upon our minds that it is very desirable to have more information in
reference to that island ; and I venture to express a hope that Mr. Wallace
will renew his explorations in that country, and may be able to favour us at
some future period with further information respecting it.

362 MACQUEEN'S REMARKS ON CENTRAL AFRICA. [June 27, 1859.

The second Paper read was —

2. Eemarks on Portuguese Journeys in Central Africa. By James
Macqueen, Esq., f.r.g.s.

SiLVA Porto is a Portuguese trader, who has written an account of
three journeys that he undertook in Southern and Central Africa,
starting from Benguela. In the first he reached Castange, in his
second he travelled still farther, and in his third he crossed the
entire continent on a parallel to the north of Livingstone's route.

He emerged at Mozambique, having journeyed in the company of
some Zanzibar Arab traders, who had themselves previously crossed
the continent, and were then returning homeward. He was on the
road from June, 1853, to November, 1854, of which time he employed
190 days in actual travel.

Silva Porto's itinerary is little more than a statement of days'
marches and of their directions, recorded very roughly, together with
a mention of the rivers he crossed and an estimate of their breadth.
From these materials, and from an occasional similarity of names,
Mr. Macqueen endeavours to bring Silva Porto's geographical facts
into comparison with those of Livingstone and other travellers, and
has exhibited the result in a diagram which accompanies the present
paper. Without the aid of this diagram it is wholly impossible to
do justice to Mr. Macqueen's minute analysis. It will be published
in the Journal of next year, together with his paper in full.

With the exception of three culminating points, Silva Porto's
route usually lay through fertile plains, subject to heavy rains, and
cut up with rivers in many places.

At the close of his paper Mr. Macqueen makes the following
remarks on the commercial value of South Central Africa : —

'* In taking a general survey of Africa, it is at once evident and undeniable
that the Portuguese possessions or dominions in South Africa are the most
valuable and most important and useful portion of that vast and hitherto neg-
lected continent. Expanding along the East Coast 1000 geographical miles,
and along the West Coast 700, they command the entrance into every part of
the interior, well known to be comparatively wealthy and all fertile, capable
of producing every article of agricultural produce that is known in the
tropical world. Their claim also to most of the interior is preferable and
well known. More than one river, especially the Zambesi, opens up to some
distance a communication with more remote countries in the interior. It is
also in many places very populous, but these people are generally engaged in
internal wars. The greatest misfortune that ever befel Portugal was the
withdrawal of her attention from Africa to the Brazils, and the removing of
such multitudes of her population from the fonuer to the latter. In Africa
itself her population can be best and most profitably employed, and that em-
ployment only can regenerate Africa and raise her to wealth, independence,
and civilization, so as to become useful to herself and to the rest of the world.

Junk 27, 1859.] MACQUEEN'S REMARKS ON CENTRAL AFRICA. 363

The ablest Portuguese statesmen now clearly understand this truth, and their
exertions will shortly produce in Southern Africa as great a revolution in the
commerce of the world as the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope did soon
after it was made."

The President. — I see a great African explorer here, Captain Burton, and ask
him if he has any observations to make upon this part of Central Africa ?

Captain Burton, f.r.g.s. — My experience of Central Africa is more in the
eastern than in the western country. Perhaps some little account of the A rabs,
to whom Mr. Macqueen has just alluded, may be permitted, especially as Dr.
Livingstone met them in the very centre of the African continent. They left
Zanzibar about 1842, and travelled over the Unyamwezi country. They crossed
the Tanganyika Lake, via Ujiji, and from that point they went to the south-
western country of Marungu : thei'e they fell into trouble in consequence of a
blood feud with the people. Their boats were burned, and they found them-
selves unable to return to Ujiji. They were almost the first traders that crossed
the Tanganyika Lake. They were compelled to go on from Marungu again to
the soutTi, and, as well as I remember, Dr. Livingstone met one or more of them
at Linyanti.

Mr. Macqueen stated this was not the party of Arabs to which he had alluded.

Captain Burton. — I understood Mr. Macqueen to allude to the party of
Arabs who crossed over from Zanzibar. I left Zanzibar in February last, and
no other party had gone from Zanzibar to the western coast.

Mr. Macqueen said it was another party.

Captain Burton. — Mr. Macqueen seems to allude to some other party, but
I have never heard of any except those Arabs who left in 1842. Another point
which strikes me in Mr. Macqueen's account is the immense length of the
marches — IH geographical miles in Central Africa. I believe that hitherto
such marching in the country in which I have been is quite unknown ; 10
statute miles, or about 6 geographical rectilinear miles, would be a high
average.

The President. — I am sure we are much indebted to Mr. Macqueen for his
Paper, and particularly for that interesting and remarkable sketch with which
it concluded of some of the general geographical features of the region of Central
Africa, and especially of the character of its rivers. The whole subject is one
which has occupied the attention of this Society and of the public so very
much of late years, since the explorations of Dr. Livingstone and of Captains
Burton and Speke, that we are always glad to receive any addition to our stock
of knowledge. The history of the journey of these Portuguese Arabs from one
coast of Africa to the other is full of interest, and I have no doubt that, when
the Paper is printed in full, we shall find that many points of importance have
unavoidably been omitted this evening. Mr. Macqueen will fully understand
that it is impossible to read the entire Paper this evening.

The third Paper read was —

3. Notes on the Island of St. Helena ; to accompany/ his new Map of that
Island. By Major Edmund Palmer, r.a., f.r.g.s.

Captain Palmer's map of St. Helena was executed during a residence
of nearly six years on that island. It is shortly to be published, on
the reduced scale of -^r^-oo, by the Topographical Department of the
War Office. The present paper is a concise memoir of the history.
VOL. in. 2 E

364 PALMER'S NOTES ON ST. HELENA. [Junk 27, 1859.

and of the present condition of the island, — its geology, fauna, and
statistics, — and may be considered as an accompaniment to the map.

He remarks, — " St. Helena lies in the strength of the s.e. trade
wind, and is usually sighted by ships at a distance of 20 leagues,
rising like a huge fortress from the bosom of the ocean. It is sur-
rounded by a wall of precipitous cliffs from 1000 to 1800 feet in
height, intersected by chasms, serving as an outlet for the water-
courses of the islan(^and terminating in small coves more or less
exposed to the fury of the waves. There are no less than twenty-
three of these openings around the coast ; but landing is almost
impracticable except on the north-western or leeward side, and at
Prosperous and Sandy Bays to windward, and even then only in
favourable weather. The most singular phenomenon connected
with this part of the ocean is the setting in of very heavy con-
tinuous swells, called ' Rollers,' from the n.n.w., particularly
during the month of February, when the waves burst on the lee-
ward shore with astonishing grandeur and impetuosity. During
their continuance landing is extremely dangerous, and can only be
effected by watching the intervals between the swells. In February
184&, thirteen vessels moored at half a mile from the shore were
totally wrecked, and the wharves and batteries suffered considerable
damage. Ko satisfactory solution appears to be given for this phe-
nomenon ; and the suggestion by Colonel Smythe, r.a., f.r.g.s., that
simultaneous observations should be carried on during the period of
* Rollers ' at Ascension, Tristan d'Acunha, and St. Helena, appears
to offer the most practical method of arriving at anything like an
explanation of the cause."

The rain-fall of the island is about 27 inches. Its temperature
varies according to the altitude and exposure of the locality. At
High Knoll, 1900 feet above the sea, it is from 65^ to 70^ Fahr. ; at
Ladder Hill, 600 feet, 70° to 80^; and in James Town, 75° to 85o

Statistics, 1857. — Acreage, 30,030; of which, uncultivated, 22,160;
pasture, 7652 ; Crops, 482.

Live Stock.— Cattle, 1625; sheep, 4230; horses, 230; goats, 670.

Inhabitants.— Males, 2973 ; females, 2517. Total, 5490.

Finance. — Revenues, 19,837^. ; expenditure, 19,079?.

The President, — If no gentleman wishes to say anything concerning this
paper, I would state, in moving a vote of thanks to Major Palmer, what the
circumstances were under which his map was made. Major Palmer was
quartered in St. Helena, and he made that survey himself as a labour of love,
not by any orders of his military superiors. Under these circumstances, 1 am
sure you will most readily vote your thanks to him, not merely for the inter-
esting details which he has given us of the history of the island, but also for
the valuable information he has been the means of providing for this Society
and the world at large.

June 27, 1859.] KING'S TRAVELS IN SIAM AND CAMBODIA. 365

The foui-th Paper read was —

4. Travels in Siam and Cambodia, By D. O. King, Esq.

Mr. King's Paper is accompanied by a map, and- contains the result
of a year's travel through the hitherto imperfectly known lands of
Eastern Siam and the modern remnant of the old kingdom of
Cambodia. He travelled fiom Bankok to the Bang-ta-kong river
by a canal. This is a line of route in extensive use by tiavellers,
who would otherwise have to skirt the rocky and mountainous coast.
It passes through a flat alluvial country, entirely covered with rice
fields, and swarming with musquitoes. The Bang-ta-kong river was
then ascended : it is about 40 yards broad and winding, and there
is a broken strip of cultivation on either bank, while large tracts of
good land are allowed to remain waste. The Siamese have intro-
duced some coolie labour, though they are averse to its general
adoption.

A military road was constructed, twenty years ago, from this
river to the Tasawai. Its bridges are now broken down, and the
road is a mere wreck ; nevertheless it is the only existing route
across the country, and Mr. King travelled by it. All travellers in
Eastern Siam use elephants : these beasts are in general employment
as far as Cochin China, and are remarkably cheap. A full grown
one costs only from 50 to 70 dollars^ But elephant riding in Siam
is very tedious. The roads are almost impassable by floods in
the wet season, and are parched with drought during the dry;
while the animals become sick and footsore if pushed beyond twenty
miles a day.

No trace was found of the ancient capital of Cambodia, excepting
only its temple, with its immense quadrangle. It stands sur-
rounded by jungle, and is still considered a shrine : a few Buddhist
priests live there. Mr. King extended his travels to within the
frontiers of Cochin China, having visited a Eoman Catholic mission
establishment on the Oodoong river.

He considers there is little new or strange in the fauna or in the
mineral produce of Eastern Siam. Wild animals are far from
numerous. The pest of insects and other creatures seems almost
unendurable ; the worst of them all being the ground leeches, which
fasten greedily on men and animals, and make sleeping in the open
air an impossibility.

The President. — This, gentlemen, as you are aware, is the last meeting of
the present session. Before we part, I would make one observation. This
beautiful room in which we are now assembled has been lent to us by the
kindness of the University of London and the Koyal Society, I am sure you

2 E 2

366 KING'S TRAVELS IN SIAM AND CAMBODIA. [June 27, 1859.

will readily a.i];ree with me that we are much indebted to these Bodies tor having
allowed us to meet here. The Council of this Society have this day agreed
to request these two distinguished Institutions to permit us to continue the use
of this room — that is, if the building itself should be permitted to remain in
existence. We hear rumours that it will not — rumours which, upon public
grounds, as well as in regard to the interests of this Society, I trust may not
be true. While we feel grateful to the Royal Society and to the University
of Loudon, I am sure I shall be only expressing the feelings of the Society
at large, if I indulge in the hope that this may not be the last occasion upon
which the Ro^'-al Geographical Society may assemble here.

Sir Roderick Mukchison. — Before the meeting adjourns, allow me to call
its attention for one moment to some beautiful photographic sketches that are
now laid upon the table. On the occasion of the last Anniversary it was my
duty to notice the merits of those distinguished explorers of the distant parts
of Asia, the brothers Schlagintweit, one of whom, Adolphe, has unfortunately
fallen a victim to his zeal. The other brothers, Hermann and Robert, after
their various exploits, have now placed before us a number of illustrations
which they have prepared. These are chromo-lithograj^h sketches of those
very elevated mountains of the Himalayan range which thes6 gentlemen ex-
plored, and which now for the first time are made known to geographers. As
I find that one of my friends, Mr. Hermann Schlagintweit, is present, I take
the liberty of requesting that he be permitted to offer one or two observations
to the meeting in explanation of these sketches.

Mr. H. Schlagintweit. — One of these drawings on the table represents
Kunchinjinga, one of the highest mountains in the Himalayan range, whose
altitude is 28,150 feet, and which is also interesting from the great analogy of its
geological formation to the higher summits of the Alps. It is not true granite,
but mica schist and gneiss ; the true granite is met with in the Himalayas,
but it forms a narrow zone at the southern foot of the Bhutan Himalayas.
Another plate represents, in similar execution, Gaurisankar, or Mount Everest,
till now the highest known mountain on the globe, found by Colonel AVaugh
to exceed 29,000 feet. I may mention in a few words the interesting significa-
tion of its native name, the meaning of which very nearly coincides with the
meaning of that which is given in the Bhutan to the highest of its Himalayan
summits, videlicet to Chamalari. In the name Gaurisankar, Gauri is the
name of a female deity, Siva's wife. In Chamalari Chama has the same
signification. Sankar, as well as Lha, is the respective name of Siva. In the
Bhutia name the word " ri," meaning mountain, is added, which is dropped
in the Nepalese name. A third plate represents one of the largest groups of
glaciers we have met with on our journey. It is a glacier of the first order —
considerably longer than any of the glaciers of the Alps, and interesting also
as showing, like all the great glaciers in the Himalayan and Tibetan ranges,
a much greater decrease than the glaciers do, generally speaking, in the Alps.
In the Alps we had occasion to measure a great number of glaciers with refer-
ence to their distance from the extreme m.oraines, and we found, as specified in
our '* Untersuchungen," to our surprise, that by far the greater part show a
small decrease — that is to say, the greater part of the Alpine glaciers was found
considerably distant from those moraines which could be considered as the
marks of their greatest extent in the recent periods of oscillations. But in the
Himalaj^as, there is not one glacier reaching its extreme moraine ; all of them
are decreasing. The cause of this general decrease is a very curious one.
The average depth to which the rivers have cut in the Alps does not exceed,
generally speaking, and rarely ever reaches 200 feet. In the Himalayas it
frequently occurs that this erosion reaches a depth of 1200 feet, and the con-
sequence is a very important one as regards the physical geography of the
country. The physical result, in reference to a glacier, is that not only a

June 27, 1859.] KING'S TRAVELS IN SIAM AND CAMBODIA. 367

place is generated which is 1200 feet deep, and which in consequence is much
warmer than the spot which existed at the same locahty before ; but also that,
on account of the formation of the erosion, a current of heated air is going up
as through a funnel, which acts most effectually in reducing the size of the
glacier, and which gradually increases as the erosion extends. Another curious
fact, which, we think, finds its explanation by the erosion, is the absence of
waterfalls in the mountain systems of High Asia, and more especially in the
Himalayas, where this want of waterfalls often has been mentioned without
any attempt at explanation. The opinion about this remarkable want of
waterfalls which we allow ourselves to present is this : The lateral rivers,
during the rainy season, have such an increase of water that they act nearly
as powerfully as the large rivers do, since at the same time they have a much
steeper descent. The consequence is that generally the large and small rivers
unite at about the same angle of inclination. Consequently waterfalls which
formerly existed, and of which traces are yet seen, have been entirely elimi-
nated from the Himalayas.

Another consequence of the erosion is the gradual drainage of fresh water
lakes, or their conversion into salt water lakes. It is very characteristic for the
Himalayas, and in this respect they differ essentially from most other mountain
systems in the world, that hardly any fresh-water lakes now occur. The only
few lakes of any considerable extent which have been made known by Captain
Strachey, Captain Speke, and Major Cunningham, as well as those we visited
besides, are all salt water. But the explanation we think we must give of
this phenomenon is different from the explanation formerly given. Some have
thought that a raising of the country might have caused a general drainage.
We think that supposition rather improbable, from the recent strata round
these salt lakes being all horizontal, and the outlets of these salt lakes being
in a .different direction in reference to the horizon. If any raising of the
country had effected the drainage of the salt lakes, the effect would have been
a perfectly different one, according to the position the outlet of these lakes had
in reference to the points of the horizon, a modification which is nowhere met
with.

The Tso mo Ri ri and the Tso mo Gnalari, the two great salt lakes of Eupchu
and Pankong, of which drawings are presented, happen to be a good example
of two large lakes, being about equally salt, with differently directed former
outlets, and with quite horizontal banks of detritus and of watermarks along
their circumferences. The gradual progress of the erosion of the valleys seems
to us to be also the chief cause of the gradual transformation of freshwater
lakes into saltwater lakes in Tibet.

By this progressive excavation thousands of square miles, still marked as
former lakes by the form of the surface, have been emptied, and the consequence
is that the local evaporation could no more keep the equilibrium with the pre-
cipitation ; in consequence the lakes, of which parts remained undrained on
account of their greater depth, now gradually became more and more salt. I
could add still many observations about the various characteristic features of
the physical geography of the tropical and high land and glacial regions, which
we have tried to represent in our drawings, amounting, as the catalogue pre-
sented shows, to 700 ; but 1 conclude with repeating my apologies for having
already passed the hour allowed to discussion.

Sir Roderick Murchison. — A very great subject which has been brought
before you by my friend Mr. Hermann Schlagintwcit— one which would lead
us into the consideration of the physical geography of the Himalayan and
Karakorum chains, and even beyond the latter across the Kuen Lun — subjects
too vast to be entered upon at this hour of the night. The observations which
my friend has just addressed to you respecting the lakes, drainage, and the
ancient configuration of this country, are obviously matters of such magnitude,

368 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

that if we had begim the evening with them we might have descanted upon
them for a good hour with great satisfaction. Let me, however, state that the
brothers Schlagintweit were selected to perform these services in the East by
my iUustrious friend the late Baron Humboldt. And why ? These gentlemen
had ascended peaks of the Alps which no other persons had climbed, and had
made themselves acquainted with phenomena with reference to the mountain
system of that country which were before that unknown to geographers. It
was, therefore, felt that they were especially capable of undertaking the exami-
nation of the range. I think we have reason to thank them for bringing before
us such natural features as are indicated in the beautiful drawings on our table,
and I am sure that the Geographical Society does well in recognizing the merits
of these distinguished German explorers.

The President. — It is too late to enter into any discussion. We are much
indebted to Sir Roderick Murchison for bringing these drawings under your
notice, and our thanks are eminently due to the Messrs. Schlagintweit.

ADDITIONAL NOTICES,

1« Geognostic Sketch of the Western portion of Timor. By Dr. Satx)MON

MiJLLER.

Commnnicated by John Yeats, Esq., ll.d., f.r.g.s., &c.

The exterior of the western portion of Timor is very mountainous. Countless
streams of various size springing from a central elevated ridge, traverse the
island in a northerly or southerly direction. Their beds are mostly strewn
with boulders and sandy gravel from different species of rocks.

The principal mountains of Timor^s western half are of the older Neptunian
formation, systematically designated the greywacke group.

a. The greywacke limestone, forming in Timor huge piles of rock and
steep mountains, some of them rising 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea-level,
consists of a thick mass, with flat shelly fracture, commonly of a grey, but
sometimes of a red colour, and intersected in all directions with veins of white
calcareous spar, often in quantities so large that the original mass almost dis-
appears, and the rock assumes a crystalline aspect. Large or small hollows
or fissures, covered with pointed rhomboidal crystals of calcareous spar, are
not unfrequently found in it.

The hills and higher elevations composed of this limestone may be easily
distinguished, even at a considerable distance, by their characteristic forms,
from the rest of the island. Their outlines are mostly very angular, often
serrated, and not unfrequently exhibit needle-like and turreted tops, that rise
to an imposing altitude.

h. T'he greywacke sandstone connecting itself immediately with the pre-
ceding species of rock, forms mountains less strongly marked by rude and
sharp outlines ; yet some of them with conical tops belong to the highest
peaks (6000 to 7000 feet) of the island. To them, besides, rounder and more
softly swelling lines are peculiar, not unfrequently consisting of long backs :
while their declivities are commonly covered with grass, bushes, or trees,
through which the naked cliff glistens at intervals. The rock itself is of a
grey or ye-Uow-brown colour. The granular specks imbedded in a scarcely

June 27, 1859.] ^ ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 369

distinguishable paste, are irregular in size, varying from a line to infinitesimal
minuteness.

c. The clayslate exhibits a homogeneous mass of very scaly properties.
The colour varies from a light grey to a dark black. As the carboniferous
particles increase, the rock possesses less cohesion and solidity, which pecu-
liarity in the black variety increases to such an extent, that it is transformed
into a true drawing-slate, the so-termed black chalk.

The greywacke group is at Timor the principal formation, and it really con-
tributes to the peculiar character of the country. Including the highest
mountains, it extends from close to the bay of Koepang, in a north-easterly-
direction, through the middle of the island to almost equal distances from
both sides of the sea-coast, and thus forms as it were the core of the country
to which the other formations attach themselves. The richest gold-bearing
rivers, as well as those in the beds of which pieces of pure copper and copper
ores are found, have their sources within its limits, and flow through it for
a considerable distance.

At the southern foot of the mountain Mieomaffo, near to the place where
the clay-slate forms a vast deposit, the sandstone of the above-named group
is broken through by serpentine.

Along with the serpentine, and closely related to it, appears a conglomerate
containing angular pieces of common serpentine and ophites, mixed with more
or less altered remnants of greywacke sandstone, which pieces of stone are
united into one solid mass by means of a pitchstone-like paste.

To judge from what we have seen and heard respecting gold and copper
at Koepang, we think it must be maintained that the eastern parts of the
island under Portuguese sovereignty are much more richly endowed than the
western districts, belonging to the territory of the Netherlands. Almost all
the copper, as well as most of the golddust, obtainable at Koepang, and
brought chiefly by Chinese merchants, is derived from the Belonese countries.
Mines, however, properly speaking, are nowhere to be found ; those metals
are mostly obtained by washing from the beds of rivers, and from other
places, out of a sandy or clayish soil. The value of the Timor gold is com-
monly 20 to 21^ carats in fineness. Copper often appears in a pure state.
Amongst others we have received at Koepang, from the Portuguese territory,
a pure piece of the w^eight of 2*68 kilogrammes, and of a fig-like form. Other
similar pieces of pure copper were seen by us there of different sizes. Pro-
fessor Keinwaardt makes mention further, in a report concerning the appear-
ance and the quality of the metal in the island of Timor in the year 1827,
furnished by him to the Minister of Marine and the Colonies, of a very rich
copper ore containing nearly 85 per cent, of pure metal, which may easily
be obtained from it by proper smelting. With this ore derived from the
Dutch territory, are mixed, moreover, says this savant, single pieces of pure
copper.

Our reports differ in more than one respect very considerably from those
of our predecessors, among whom Peron, for instance, maintains that Tin or
is indebted for its existence to the slow but ceaseless labours of the coral
insect ; while Quoy, Guachichaud, Freycinet, and other later travelleis,
ascribe it chiefly to volcanic action. There are no volcanic mountains, nor
were even the slightest traces of true volcanic rocks found by us.

Pulo Kambing, in the strait Samauw, is composed of the greywacke sand-
stone, and contains mud volcanoes.

Pulo Samauw has mineral springs.

370 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

2. Journey in Asia Minor. By M. P. de Tchihatchef, Hon. f.r.g.s.

Communicated by Sir R. I. Murchison, v.p.r.g.s., &c. &c. &c.

Samsun, Sept. 15, 1858.
My deah Sir Roderick, — I am at last returned to Samsun, whence I started
four months ago in order to explore those tracts of Pontus and Armenia which
had not been visited before by any naturalist. My peculiar object was to fill
up those empty white patches which are very numerous and more or less ex-
tensive on the best maps. The first, which I met with almost at the doors
of Samsun, was the tract between the river Iris (hodie Yezil Irmal?) and
the line which marks the great road from Tokat to Amasia, and from tlie
last city to Samsun. After having explored this tract, which I found full
of lofty mountains, the passage of which was rather difficult at the end of
May, I went to Niksar, and followed the Germeli-tchai (Lycus of Strabo, a
large affluent of the Iris) to Chabhana-Karahissar, where I had an opportunity
of examining very interesting alum mines, which, were they worked in a less
barbarous way, and particularly on a larger scale, might provide Europe with
most valuable alum, for almost all the trachytic mountains of the country
(there is no trace of cretaceous deposits, as marked on your geological map of
Europe, and that of Dumont) are full of this useful mineral, which forms
nests or patches in the trachyte very easily to be worked without any com-
plicated subterraneous labour.

As all the extensive country between Chabhana-Karahissar and the shore
of the Black Sea is left blank on the map of Mr. Kiepert, and was, in fact,
until my present exploration, a true terra-incognita where the geographers
place arbitrarily the chain of the Paryadres, mentioned by Strabo as being
situated somewhere between Trapezunt and Amisus (Samsun) ; in conse-
quence, I determined to march northward from Chabhana-Karahissar, and to
advance in that direction till I descried the sea. I spent ten days in crossing
the high trachytic mountains (between 9000 and 10,000 feet approximatively),
and I descended by rapid declivities to Kerasun. I shall be able to give the
true altitudes when my numerous hypsometrical measures are calculated.
From this city, the mother country of the cherry-tree, which Lucullus trans-
ported for the first time to Europe, I went to Tripolis (liodie Tireboli),
whence I ascended the river Marchottchai (which falls into the Black Sea
near Tripolis) to Gumuchhane, and pushed on to the south to the town of
Erzindjan (called equally Erzingian), situated on the Euphrates, in order to
get an uninterrupted section from that classic river to the Black Sea, a section
running almost from s. to n., and having a length of near two degrees. From
Erzindjan I ascended the Euphrates to its sources near Erzerum. After a stay
of ten days in the capital of Armenia, I undertook the exploration of the lofty
and perfectly unknown chain (at least to geologists, botanists, and zoolo-
gists) which borders to the south the valley of the Euphrates between the
meridians of Erzerum and Erzindjan. At any other time the visit to these
mountains would have been less difficult than at the present moment, on
account of the alarming progress which the predatory Knrdisch tribes are
making every day in the whole eastern part of the peninsula ; so that, if the
Turkish Government does not succeed in stopping their encroachments and in
checking their boldness, in a very short time the whole valley of the Euphrates
will be in the hands of those classic robbers whose undaunted spirit and
ferocity were experienced more than 2000 years ago by Xenophon, when, in
his famous retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, he had to cross the country of the
CardacM. There is no doubt that one of the reasons which favour their
extension and depredations is the increasing weakness of the sick man of the

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 371

Emperor Nicholas ; a man so truly sick indeed that, according to all I had
opportunity of observing during ten years, he is certainly very near his last
moments, in spite of the galvanic skill of those who pretend to re-animate
dead bodies. Independently of this reason, there is at the present moment
another, which revealed itself during the last year by the unusual boldness
not only of the Kurds of Armenia, but also of their brothers and of the Arabs
of Mesopotamia, Bagdad, &c. I have the strongest reason to believe that the
Indian insurrection produced an electric impression upon the whole of the
Mahometan family ; so that, if this insurrection had really succeeded, the
consequences of this triumph over England would have been most alarming
to Christendom and to the future civilization of the whole continent of Asia.
Instead, therefore, of reducing the Indian catastrophe to the petty proportions
of the affair of a single nation, and looking at it with the eyes of national
jealousy and rivalry, if we consider this important event from a higher and
more philosophical point of view, we must necessarily come to the conclusion
that all civilized Europe is deeply interested in the success of the British
arms in India.

In spite of the great difficulties which the Kurds opposed to my exploration
of the large chains of Bingoldagh (literally, " mountain of thousand lacks "),
I was, however, so fortunate as to succeed in my enterprise. Nevertheless, I
regret very much not to have been able to make the interesting researches you
pointed out to me in your last letter (six months ago) at the moment of my
departure from Paris for Constantinople, viz., the researches after the remnants
of fossil elephants in the country of Mush. When on the Bingoldagh I was
certainly very near Mush, and could have descended into that tract by
the direct road which goes from Erzerum through the Bingoldagh ; but,
according to my custom, I always avoid a public road, and prefer finding out
a new one for my private and exclusive use. Therefore I intended to turn
towards Mush by descending from the Dudjukdagh. Unfortunately, there
was no possibility of crossing the country in that direction, for two Kurdish
tribes were squabbling there, and waging one against the other a most bloody
war. Consequently I should have been obliged to return to the Bingoldagh
in order to take there the direct road to Mush. This would have caused me
a great loss of time, and, moreover, it would have forced me to cross twice
the same dangerous country ; whereas before me I had still a large tract of
terra-incognita. In consequence, I descended the northern declivity of the
lofty ridge which forms the southern boundary of the valley of Euphrates,
and returned to Erzindjan, which two months ago I had reached when coming
from the opposite side. From Erzindjan I turned eastward, in order to explore
the superior course of the river Iris (which, as a glance on my map or on that
of Mr. Kiepert will show you, is equally a perfectly unknown region) ; there,
also, I had the unexpected pleasure to meet large parties of my old friends
the Kurds. Their presence is by no means calculated to facilitate scientific
explorations, and explains the reason why a country situated not very far
from the town of Tokat, which is so frequently and so easily visited by
European travellers, should have remained till now almost entirely unknown.
The valley where the Iris has its sources, and which this river crosses from e.
to W.N.W., is one of the most picturesque and fertile tracts of Asia Minor —
beautiful forests of the rare species of Quercus aegilops covering a large part of
it. The number of villages, however, is very considerable (suffering more or
less from the depredations of the Kurds). The valley is bordered on both
sides by lofty trachytic mountains, except certain tracts where the declivities
of those ridges are covered by large masses of limestone charged with num-
mulites (generally stratified, arid having the strata more or less disturbed). I
followed the Iris to Tokat, after having examined the ruins of the celebrated
Camana Pontica (near the miserable village Gunck), and then proceeded by

372 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

Amasia to Samsun. Now, for the first time in four months, I am comfortably
settled under a roof (till this moment my tent was my only house), for 1 am
in the house of the English Consul, my old friend, whose hospitality I was
accustomed to enjoy during the ten years J rambled through Asia Minor. I
had the pleasure to find at Samsun all the ponderous boxes (no less than
fourteen, full of minerals, plants, &c.) which I had sent from different points
of the countries I had crossed, and I am now occupied in investigating and
packing up these glorious trophies, painfully conquered during my adven-
turous expedition. As soon as this business is finished, and my treasures
embarked for Marseilles, I will remount my horse, in order to proceed to Con-
stantinople, following all the zig-zag of the shore. Though this journey will
require a ride of at least twenty-five days, I consider it quite a " parti de
plaisir," compared with my raml:)les through the inhospitable countries 1 have
crossed.

Believe me, my dear friend, yours most faithfully,

P. DE TCHIHATCHEF.

3. Sudden Rise of the Sea at Heligoland. By Dr. E. Haemsen, m.d.

Communicated by Sir Roderick I. Mdrchison, &c. &c. &c.

Heligoland, June 16th, 1858.
Eequested by the Governor, Major Pattinson, I send a description of a phe-
nomenon that took place in the island of Heligoland, in lat. 54^ 145' n., long.
7° 53' E. of Greenwich, on the 5th of June.

At 4'20 P.M. of the above date, during the finest and mildest spring weather,
a cloudless sky and the warmest sunshine, the thermometer at 73° F., with a
slight breeze from the E.ii.E., the sea around this island in the short time of
one quarter of a minute rose 6 feet, remaining about 3 minutes at this eleva-
tion, and during 10 minutes receded gradually to its former level ; no noise or
sudden gust of wind accompanied this phenomenon, nor was a wave formed
whilst it lasted.

On Sandy Island, situate about a mile from this, the main island, and where
the beach rises very gradually, the phenomenon took place under somewhat
different circumstances ; there the sea did not rise in so unusual a manner,
but a large wave approaching from s.e. rolled with great force and speed, as
if driven by a gale, towards the shore, where breaking, it ran up the beach a
distance of 70 feet. This first large wave was followed by three smaller ones,
which meeting each other in the course up and down the beach, created a surf
which principally on the reefs of rock was very strong, covering them with
foam in a manner as it is seen only during a storm.

At about i j)ast 4 the wind changed to the s.e., and increased to a mo-
derate breeze till 5 o'clock, the time of high-water, the horizon became
clouded, and the oppressive heat towards evening made a thunderstorm very
probable.

At 8'35 and 8*50 p.m. the phenomenon re-occurred in a similar manner as
in the afternoon ; in both instances a wave of the height of 5 feet rolled from
west to east with great rapidity and noise towards the island; in both instances
the large wave was followed by three or four smaller ones. The approaching
of all these waves could be observed for two or three minutes, as they, rolling
over the far extending reefs of rock, covered them with foam ; the wind still
blowing a fresh breeze from s.e.

During this, the water rose about 4 feet at th^ beach of this land, remained so
for two minutes, and then in a time of four minutes receded to its former level.

In the course of the night there were no repetitions of the phenomenon, but

JuxVE 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 373

from 11 p M, till 3 a.m. a moderate thimderstorm took place, accompanied by
some violent gusts of wind, but little rain.

Finally, I have to remark that the barometer stood at 29° 98', and did not
show any fluctuation during the phenomenon. The narrative of the phe-
nomenon taking place on the afternoon I have drawn up from materials fur-
nished by pilots and otlier people at this time on the beach, several of whom
were exposed to considerable danger by the sudden, unexpected rising of the

water ; but of the repe

myself an eye-witness.

E. Harmsen, m.d.

4. Journey from Origstadt to Delagoa Bay, ^c. By Mr. Coqxjl

Communicated by Thomas Baines, Esq., f.r.g.s.

March 4, 1846. — I left Origstadt with two waggons, our party consisting of
five white persons and three Kafirs. We passed at first through a bold
mountainous country, with little or no game, and on the 10th began the descent
of the Drakensberg, which, running nearly parallel to the coast, stretches from
the south to an unknown di^ance in a northerly direction. From the land
there is no perceptible ascent, but the face toward the sea is exceedingly steep
and bushy, and though we commenced early, the day was spent before we
reached the bottom.

We crossed a fine river, name unknown, flowing n.n.e. along the base of th-e
range, and the next day reached the kraal of the Kafir chief " Mysole," a fine,
intelligent-looking man, who for a couple of heifers supplied us with three
guides, directing them to point out a path whioh he said was not infested by
the poisonous fly tsetse.

We followed an old track of the emigrant farmers a day farther, and then
turned to the right or south. In three or four days more w^e crossed the
" Omguini," a stream 400 yards wide, rising in the Drakensberg and flowing
sluggishly to the north-east : its current, indeed, was almost imperceptible.
Numbers of canoes were plying on its surface.

We now passed through a hilly and thickly- wooded country, through which
we had to cut our way with the axe — in one jjlace particularly for about five
miles without intermission. In four days we crossed the second source of the
Kamati, which rising also in the Drakensberg, joins the Omgnini at the same
place where another river flows into it from the northward, and the three then
bending south, empty their waters into Delagoa Bay under the name of the
Manice, which is not, as Captain Harris supposed, the Limpopo, nor has it any
connexion either with that or with the Elephant River. The broad river of
Triechard was very probably the junction of these three. Here some of the
Kafirs caught the tsetse or fly, and as the guides had evidently failed in
finding us a safe passage, we pushed on as speedily as possible to save our
cattle from its deadly sting. The country became now more open, the flats
were diversified with clumps of bush and a few hills, and tenanted by troops
of elephants, one of which we shot, and multitudes of buffaloes, quaggas, gnoos,
and nearly every other species of game that in all probability had never before
been fired at.

About the 27th we found a large timber forest, with several beautiful springs
of clear water, the first we had seen from Origstadt. On the 3ist we arrived
in the vicinity of Delagoa Bay, somewhat to the southward of the settlement
of Lorenzo Marques, and after crossing the Mattel, a stagnant muddy marsh
rather than a river, we reached the settlement on the 2nd of April and out-
spanned on the beach opposite.,

The village and fort are situated on a sandy hillock, surrounded at spring-

374 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

tides by the sea. The fort is only calculated for protection against the natives,
and the village contains about 20 houses, inhabited by Portuguese Arabs and
Creoles from Goa.

We were well received, and the 4th of April being the birthday of Her Portu-
guese Majesty, were invited by the Governor to the fete and review. The
troops were all black natives of Delagoa, commanded by two European officers :
they were in uniform, but seemed to have little notion of military movements.

At the Governor's housa I saw a map showing the three rivers flowing from
the Drakensberg, then joining and forming the Manice, navigable for 40
miles from its mouth, being marked from 2 to 5 fathoms.

I tried to obtain permission to go up it in a boat ; but the Governor seemed
to be unfavourable to my doing so, and sickness breaking out among us, 1 was
obliged to give it up. An Englishman, a very skeleton of a man, came to the
waggons : he was a deserter, who with five more like himself had left Orig-
stadt for Delagoa, where they were obliged to give up their guns to the Govern-
ment. His companions had all died of the fever, and he was slowly recovering.
Eations were allowed him by the Governor.

On the 7th of April we started on our homeward journey, taking the shorter
and more usual road to the eastward of our former route. One of our oxen had
already died from the sting of the fly and the effect of the climate. In seven
days we reached the Kamati River, having lost half our oxen on the road, and
the remaining twelve were too weak to draw the waggons across. The next
day three of our number were sick, and the oxen unable to rise. We pitched
our tent by the river and sent forward one of our own Kafirs and some natives
with a letter to Origstadt for assistance. In two days all the party, Kafirs as
well as whites, were sick, except myself ; in six days one of the Kafirs died,
and was buried. In nine days, when w» were expecting help, our letter was
brought back by the natives, who said our Kafir had died on the road. Our
situation was now truly deplorable : our interpreter was dead, and I was obliged
to tend the whole of my helpless companions. The carcases of our oxen (all
being now dead) lay round the waggons, emitting an intolerable stench, while
wolves howled round us by night and thousands of vultures hovered over us by
day, or sat gorged upon our tent after their loathsome banquet — the wolves
coming out in open day to join their feast, undisturbed by our feeble efforts to
drive them off. We despaired now of ever receiving assistance : yet another
Kafir was despatched with the letter, and I did my best to cheer my sinking
comrades. In a few days Cobus Snyman died, and I became ill ; but as the
fever was only violent at night, I was still able, though daily growing weaker,
to tend my companions by day. In another week I found Van Helsingden
sitting upright in his waggon a corpse, his son sleeping beside him unconscious
of his death. Poor fellow ! he only survived him one day, and both were
buried together.

My father-in-law (Van Breda) and I were now the only survivors. My
strength was rapidly failing. The natives could not understand our wants,
and were too apathetic to tend us in cur sufferings. Our tent had fallen down
and we were not able to raise it again, and despairing of other help, I succeeded
in hiring about twenty Kafirs to carry us, lying each upon a kadel or waggon-
cot frame.

We were carried about four hours when the Kafirs set us down and made
a fire for themselves. Scarcely was it kindled when it was extinguished by a
flood of rain. Our blankets were drenched, and the water streamed around and
beneath us during the wliole of this dreadful night. Mr. Preda never s]ioke
afterward. The Kafirs carried us next day about an hour, when they set us
down in an open flat with a few stunted bushes, and, though ten pieces of linen
and ten of check had been distributed among them, refused to carry us faitlier.
With difficulty they were at length persuaded to resume their burden, and in

•June 27, 1859.] . ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 375

half an hour brought us to a Kafir kraal, where, for six pieces of linen and
some beads, I obtained permission to occupy an old hut, and considered myself
fortunate in obtaining a dry and sheltered spot wherein to die. 1'he same
afternoon Mr. Breda ceased to breathe, and in the evening the long-expected
help arrived. Two young Boers, relatives of one of my deceased companions,
brought oxen from Origstadt, and the next morning brought one of the waggons
from the Kamati River, leaving the other in charge of a Kafir chief. I'hey
committed the remains of my father-in-law to the earth and made all possible
haste to Origstadt, which we reached in the beginning of May. I was then
unable to walk, stand, or sit, having lived for twenty days upon sugar and
water alone.

In the course of two months, by the Divine blessing upon a naturally good
constitution, 1 was able to walk without assistance and without having under-
gone any regular course of medicine ; but it was nearly a year before 1 fully
recovered from my illness. My experience will deter me from ever visiting
Delagoa again, and I trust that this narrative will have the effect of dissuading
others.

5. Abstract of Notes on the Limpopo. By Dr. W. Way, m.d.

Dr. Way states the result of inquiries made at Zout Pans Berg, about the
lower course of the Limpopo. This village is the emporium of a considerable
commerce, and is also a kind of Alsatia for refugees from the laws of the Cape
Colonies and the adjoining territories. There are many inhabitants who have
means of obtaining considerable knowledge of distant localities. Dr. Way's
conclusions are based upon the information given by one of these men, com-
bined with that of two Portuguese traders from Delagoa Bay : they are to the
effect that the Limpopo reaches the sea at a point midway between Delagoa
Bay and Inhambane, and is there called the " Bembe." Its position corresponds
with that marked Inhampura on the maps. — F. G.

6. On Chinese Notices of their own Great Rivers. By Joseph

Edkins, Esq.

Communicated by Sir Roderick I. Murchison, &c. &c. &c.

The Chinese have accounts in their books of the changes that have occurred
in their great rivers for many ages back. They have in modern times made
minute researches into the topography of ancient China to illustrate the books
of the classical period. The sites of old cities and the old boundaries of
kingdoms and provinces, with alterations in the course of rivers, have all been
carefully investigated for the better understanding of the classics.

The alluvial plain in which Shanghae and Suchow are situated is represented
in maps by native scholars as an extensive delta, through which the Yang-
tse-keang formerly poured its waters by three mouths to the sea. One mouth
was at Hangchow, the southernmost point in the plain. Another arm of the
river, passing through the lake Taehu, proceeded along the Wusung-keang
from Suchow to Shanghae, and Entered the sea at Wusung. The third was
identical with the present embouchure. The old Wusung river, that always
led from Suchow to Shanghae, is now become shallow and narrow in many
parts. It was formerly a river of much greater magnitude than at present.

Much of the carrying trade in boats between Suchow and Shanghae is now
done by the Hwang-pu river, a stream that passes the city of Shanghae from
the south, and immediately afterwards enters the Wusung river. Before

376 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. ^ [June 27, 1859.

bending north to Shangbae the Hwang-pu river has an easterly course, and it
assists in carrying the superfluous waters of the Taehu, with which it is con-
nected by other streams and by lakes, to the sea. Changes in the water
channels in this delta have been studied by native scholars, not only for the
illustration of ancient topogi-aphy, but for the assistance of government
officers in regulating the system of embankments and canals, and generally
in comprehending the physical features of the country. I have no oppor-
tunity, while in England, of referring to such native works as would mark
out the course taken by the two old branches of the Yang-tse-keang before
reaching the Taehu and Hangchow. There is a strong stone breakwater and
embankment constructed along the north coast of the Hangchow Bay nearly to
Shanghae to keep out the sea. No streams are allowed to enter the ocean
through this embankment, because a salt-water tide would force its way up
the channels by which they flowed, to the injury of the rich plain behind.
All the waters of this district enter the sea ultimately by the Yang-tse-keang,
whose vast volume of water causes a fresh-water tide to flow into all its tri-
butaries^ even those nearest the sea. If the communication between the
Hangchow Bay and the Yang-tse-keang had been allowed to remain, the agri-
culture of that rich district would have been affected by the intrusion of sea
water. To prevent this was the object of the system of embankments, which
helped to bring the river and the country adjoining it to their present state.

The channel of the Yellow River, or Hwang-ho, which has been recently
left dry, was formerly the bed of another river, the Hwei, flowing by Fung-
yang-fu into the sea, between the Yang tse and the Hwang-ho. This latter
river has always been accustomed to change its embouchure once in two or
three centuries. In recently seeking a path to the sea in a more northerly
latitude, it has been making an effort to return to its original course. I have
seen, in a critical work on the Yu-kung, five or six maps representing the
path pursued by the river at as many epochs from the Han dynasty, coeval
with the Christian era, till the present time. Sometimes it reached the sea
to the north of Shantung promontory, at other times to the south of it. The
section of the Shoo-king (Book of History) called Yu-kung consists of a
geographical description of China in the time of the Emperor Yu. It details
what was done by that famous ruler, about two thousand years before Christ,
in restoring the country to a condition fit for agriculture after a local deluge.
In this remarkable fragment the names are extremely antique, and there is
room for much research in discovering the localities of ancient towns and the
foi-mer courses of the rivers. Many works have been published on this subject;
for example, the one just referred to.

The most remarkable feature in the Shoo-king is the scientific character of
its commencing chapters. It is a book made up of fragments written in dif-
ferent periods. Its principal divisions are the respective histories of the five
dynasties, Tang, Yu, Hea, Shang, and Chow. The most important portions
for science are that of Tang, containing the early Chinese astronomy, and the
commencement of the history of the Hea dynasty, viz. Y^u-kung, the very
valuable fragment on Chinese geography just referred to.

Note. — Mr. Edkins, in his paper on the ancient courses of the great rivers of
China, has touched upon a point of great importance to physical geography.

There is probably no other part of the world where records of so early a date
and such good authority are to be obtained with reference to the detritus of large
rivers as in the annals of the Chinese empire. It is therefore to be hoped that
Mr. Edkins will pursue his inquiries on his return to China, and forward to the
Society the result of his labours upon so important a subject.— R. C.

JONE 27, 1859.J ADDITIONAL NOTICES. ' 377

7. Account of a Visit to the King of Btir Sin, 64 miles to the North of the
Gambia. By Col. Luke Smyth O'Connor, c.b., f.r.g.s.

Communicated by the Colonial Office.

Government House, Bathurst, Gambia, 24th January, 1856.
Sir, — I have the honour to transmit a treaty of amity and commerce entered
into by me with " Bucarie Chillas," King of " Bur Sin," at his Majesty's
seaport " Joal," on the 22nd instant.

The 23rd of December special messengers arrived at Bathnrst bearing a
letter from the King of " Bur Sin," and a request that I would meet him at
Joal, " where he would wait my arrival."

I arranged to leave in her Majesty's colonial steamer Dover the 3rd of
January, i)ut a report of the Mahometans of Combo assembling at the King of
Jambool's induced me to tarry until the 23rd instant, when I proceeded to
Joal, situated 64 miles north of Bathurst, and about 26 south of Goree.

A deep shallow bay indents the coast from the Red Bank (fatal to so
many vessels) to Joal, which cannot be approached nearer than 3 miles by
ships drawing more than 8 feet of water.

At particular seasons of the year, and when the wind blows on shore,
the fearful rollers and a heavy surf render either disembarking or embarking
impossible, and any unlucky craft once embayed becomes a wreck, which the
natives seize upon, plunder the cargo, break up the vessel, even to the last
copper bolt, and carry away the crew into the interior, no matter of what
nation or complexion they may be.

In January, 1853, Captain Barron, of the United States sloop of war
Jermytown, visited me at Bathurst, having been at Joal to demand restitution
of an American ship which had been wrecked and thus summarily treated ; but
as he quaintly remarked, " ' A pretty demand ! ' the king and chiefs said ;
" God had sent them the vessel and cargo ; the white ])eople were at some
short distance, and, being useless, would be given up to their countrymen."

Captain Barron's view was correct ; you might land an army at Joal,
and, unless the natives chose to accede to your request, " all demands "
would be futile, for they have only to withdraw to the desert, and leave
climate, fatigue, and drought to combat for them.

I therefore deemed it a very desirable object to meet half-way the king's
propositions —

'• To open trade between Sin and Gambia, to secure and protect all
vessels and persons wrecked on his shores :" and I have had the satisfaction of
being the first English, if not European Governor, who ever visited this wild
and singular people ; but, what is of far more importance to the cause of
humanity and civilization, accomplished every object 1 desired in making the
treaty.

Having anchored off Joal on the evening of the 21st instant, I despatched
the king's messengers, my own interpreter, and Massara, the chief of the
Gambia Mahometans, and a native of Bur Sin, to pay my respects to the king,
who returned his " compliments and thanks for my visit, he having stood on
the beach five weeks to receive me, and that three canoes would be with me in
the morning for my people."

I landed on the 22nd at 10 o'clock, accompanied by Mr. Fenton, Acting
Chief Justice; Mr. Chown, a Bathurst merchant ; Lieutenant O'Shaughnessy,
and 14 men of the 2nd and 3rd West India regiments as a guard, more for
display than necessity.

A shelving shore of rocks and thick fetid mud covered with seaweed
trefids inwards. The strand was covered with natives of all ages, perfectly

378 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

astonished at our appearance, but quiet and orderly ; certain headmen received
me in the most friendly manner and led the way to Joal.

The king sent word " he was not yet dressed — he did not expect me so
early." After some delay his Majesty came with drums, singing men pro-
claiming his power, and surrounded by a numerous body of followers arnjed
with French and foreign guns, spears, and swords ; a large circle of densely-
packed natives sat on the ground, and the palaver commenced.

Bucarie Chillas is not more than 22 years of age, fully 6 feet 4 in height,
of powerful, athletic frame, independent, haughty manner, of a pleasing coun-
tenance, and seemingly enlightened and decided disposition. He spoke entirely
for himself, made no appeal to his headmen, and discussed with very singular
clearness and acuteness the several clauses of the proposed treaty. His Majesty
remarked, " the main object was to have traders accredited from me to his
country ; all with ' my book ' claimed his protection ; but wanderers (vaga-
bonds) and people who came to Joal, paid no custom, and sold their goods
to whoever chose to purchase, had no right to demand redress from the king if
insulted." He objected to a fixed tariff, as is the case with Demba Sonko,
King of Barra, because " the trader bringing a can of rum ought not to pay
to the king the same duty as another man bringing a hogshead, or one bringing
a few heads of tobacco pay the same as the man with a cargo of goods, but the
king required custom in proportion to the stock for sale."

" Our vessels and mariners wrecked to receive protection, notice being sent
to me or to the Governor of Goree."

The clause, " All traders to behave orderly and respect the laws of Bur
Sin," met with general approbation.

His Majesty was vastly pleased with the soldiers — the first regular troops
he had ever seen — particularly with the firelock exercise, marching, a few
simple movements, and the firing. He requested " I would sufler my men
to sit down, as they must be tired standing ;" which I informed him was
never permitted on duty. When he accompanied me to the beach (a mark of
especial favour) his Majesty presented the guard with two bullocks.

Prior to embarking I called on three French Missionaries who lead a
dreary, precarious life, tolerated, but not encouraged ; the king " requested I
would not visit the French until I had seen him," and subsequently informed
me that they wanted a grant of land as a right, but this he was resolved not
to concede to them. His Majesty is evidently keenly jealous of any foreign
settlement being made in his territory.

After sunset a salute from heavy buccaneer (elephant) guns was fired
from the shore in honour of the treaty, and returned by the Dover with seven
carronades. When the last boat came off, three bullocks, presents, were left
on the strand : but I had not time, nor, indeed, the means, to fetch them to
the steamer.

" Bur Sin," the northern boundary of the extensive kingdom of " Bur
Sallum " (visited by me in May, 1854), divides it from the wild tribes of
" Bowals,' " Syrias," and " Lebous." There is no correct survey or any
accurate knowledge of the interior of the country, its extent or resources, but
the natives always have been, and are, a source of terror to all mariners and
traders coasting from Senegal to the south.

The Syrias (or Sarreres) frequenting Bathurst, many of whom engaged,
in my irregular contingent, against the Mahometan rebels of Combo in July
and August last, acknowledge Bucarie Chillas as their king.

The men of Bur Sin are tall, muscular, warlike in appearance, manner,
and gait, of a deep black colour, not marked or tattooed ; they wear gre-gris,
and believe in the " fetish." To me they seemed a finer and more civilised
race than the people of " Bur Sallum."

The women are tall, full, well made, with small high features, thin

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 379

lips, and sparkling eyes, and, judging from the swarms of children, most
prolific ; they performed a native dance in compliment to me, wild enough,
and with gestures and movements most obscene and indecent, exceeding any
I had ever witnessed before in Africa. The " Sin " women, like their " Sallum "
neighbours, are celebrated for their good looks and licentiousness.

The exports from *' Bur Sin " are gum, corn, rice, ground-nuts in small
quantities, lime, cattle, hides, ivory. A Bathurst merchant received recently
from Joal two elephants' teeth, each weighing 56 lbs. ; but commerce might
be vastly increased if a friendly feeling was cultivated and secured.

Cattle, so much wanted in Bathurst, could be conveyed in droghers or
canoes, or driven overland through Sallum and Barra. African kings require
their produce to be sent for ; they say, " We have no time or people to
spare."

The king resides in the interior, and pays a brief annual visit to Joal
to regulate the trade and customs ; on leaving for his capital, the huts occu-
pied by his Majesty and followers are burned, as no subject is worthy to
occupy them.

One superstitious custom seems worthy of mention : in a group of trees
on the shore, 3 miles from Joal, stands a gigantic " baobab," or monkey bread-
tree (a landmark seen many miles at sea, which, if we credit Humboldt and
other savans, may be coeval with those ancient denizens of the Senegal forests,
upwards of five thousand years old). If the effigy, or a portion of the
garment, of any obnoxious person is put in this tree, and certain heathen
rites perfoi-med, the individual bewitched wastes away by slow degrees, and
finally perishes.

Nor is this absurd idea confined to the Africans, but implicitly believed
by many French and British Jolloff families, who employ a messenger to
undo the incantation and remove the curse. I was gravely assured, with
every appearance of reliance in the truth of the story, a family named Vin-
cent, of " Goree," died one after another from the influence of the great gre-
gris-tree.

I will no longer trespass on your time or attention by entering into
any more diffuse detail of this very interesting and, I love to hope, beneficial
expedition ; still, permit me to observe, the treaty I have made in no way
compromises her Majesty's Government, or involves more or less any responsi-
bility ; it is purely and solely a commercial and humane convention, one I
trust likely to insure protection and security to all traders, European or
American, who may be unfortunately driven on the shores of " Bur Sin."

TJie Bight Bon. H. Lahouchere, ^ ^^^^' <^^-'

&c. &c. L. Smyth O'Connor.

8. Notes m an Expedition down the Western Coast of Africa to the
'' Bijuga Islands," and the recently discovered river Kittafiny, By-
Colonel L. Smyth O'Connor, c.b., f.e.g.s.

Communicated by the Colonial Office.

Government House, Bathurst, Gambia,
25th January, 1858.
Sib, — In connexion with my Despatch, 22nd December, 1857, I have now
the honour to transmit herewith a detailed Report of my recent Geogra-
phical Expedition down the coast to the " Bijuga Islands," and to a certain
extent up the " Kittafiny River," the supposed stronghold of a large slave-
dealing establishment.

VOL. III. 2 F

380 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859-

The second day after leaving Bathurst, the 16th November, I ran up the
" Jeba river " to *' Bissao," to call on the Governor, M. Honorio Barretto, and
thank him for the support -and protection he recently afforded to a British
trader who died at " Bissao :" his Excellency subsequently securing his elFects,
pajxirs, and goods, and forwarding them to the owners at Bathurst.

" Bissao," declining when I visited it last in April, 1855, has since then
greatly deteriorated in trade and appearance. The old buildings, totally
neglected, are sinking into ruins, the troops without barracks living in miser-
able mud huts, the port occupied by only a few colonial and coasting vessels,
the market scantily sup])lied with the commonest necessaries of life, are
indubitable evidences that the power and prestige of Portugal are rapidly on
the wane in this part of the world.

Passing the island of" Bulama," I reached the entrance of the " Rio Grande,"
which well deserves its name as the finest stream between the " Gambia " and
the " Bight of Benin," capable of being made a great highway to the interior,
and the means of opening a trade with the natives.

On the right-hand bank, called " Bessassema," are two settlements ; one
cultivated by a Frenchman, M. Henrique Orteau ; the other a small location
belonging to a vagrant English subject named Lawrence.

The bank and grounds at " Bessassema " are cleared to a considerable
distance ; of a rich alluvial soil, they produce corn, kus, rice, ground-nuts,
sugar-cane, yams, potatoes, vegetables, tropical and European fruits, flowers
in abundance.

M. Henrique Orteau employs about 300 natives ; has a well-built open town ;
the huts, very lofty, with thick mud walls, and broad piazzas, are admirably
calculated for the climate. He represented the place as healthy, and that even
in the rainy season fevers seldom or never prevailed.

Having mentioned my intention to revisit " Kanabac," attempt to reach and
land at " Orango," and then try for and explore the " Kittaiiny river," M.
Orteau, who has wandered about in the adjacent countries, the " Bijugas," and
in the neighbourhood of the *' Kittafiny " for years, most courteously offered to
accompany me and afford his valuable experience in piloting the steamer.

We ascended the " Eio Grande " to a considerable distance : the banks are
in many places very lofty, open, and the coimtry adjacent to them fertile,
undulating and picturesque, presenting numerous well adapted situations to
establish factories where now are only a few solitary huts of the ivory hunters
and small traders. The " Biafaras " inhabit the north side of the " Rio Grande,"
and possess the districts of " Ginhala " and " Bijuba."

Resembling the " Balantes " of the river " Geves," they are industrious,
active, warlike, trade with their neighbours in rice, maize, poultry, oxen, but
never traffic in slaves. They never contract marriages out of their own
country or permit strangers to enter it. Gold-mines are said to exist in this
territory, about twelve leagues in length ; but the most simple, available, and
certain opening for commerce would be ivory, wax, hides, corn, ground-nuts,
and the various productions of the interior portion of the country, in exchange
for British manufactures. Crossing the " Jambeer " channel to " Kanabac," I
found that the king with his people were at a neighbouring island collecting
rice. I sent my chief interpreter, Mr. Daniel Sleight, and his Majesty with a
few chiefs and old men came on board the steamer at 4 o'clock in the morning,
and waited patiently for me until daylight. He expressed great satisfaction
at seeing me again, and exhibited the military chaco I gave him in 1855, which
with a native pagne or cloth round his loins constituted the royal apparel. I
landed at noon and walked three miles to the king's chief town, accom-
panied bv my wife, the first European female that ever trod the land of
*' Kanabac."

It is needless for me to enter into a detailed statement of " Kanabac," its

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 381

appearance, productions, resources, inhabitants, having been fully described in
my despatch, 22nd May, 1855, which, with other communications, was read
before the Royal Geographical Society. I remained two days with the king,
and attended a great torchlight meeting on an adjacent island, given by the
king, chiefs, and natives, in honour of my visit to them.

These are the people described by travellers as " theBissagos or Bijugas, tall,
resolute, robust — and adorn their houses with the scalps of their enemies.
Impatient of slavery, they murder themselves on receiving an affront ; intrepid
in war, they are believed to be sprung from the terrible Giagas or lagas." At
daylight next morijing, the 22nd November, we ran along the picturesque
shores of " Kanabac," steering in the direction of ** Orango." Great caution
was necessary, as this portion of the channel remains unsurveyed. Looking
at the charts it will be found that this part presents a blank ; and although a
few haphazard soundings are laid down near *' Orango," the way to it, the
depth of the channel, the shoals, the soundings are unknown, — in fact, an
American priviateer, quasi pirate, and a French schooner, quasi slaver, are the
only vessels stated to have approached the island, both anchoring at a safe and
civil distance from fear of the natives. The channel is surrounded by several
of the" Bijuga" island s,"Boulack" or" Bawack," "Islede Chiouga," "Chiouga
Endoulicq," " Houran," " Hune," on which no white man has as yet ventured
to land, nor would it be prudent to attempt it. Although the steamer was
conducted with the greatest circumspection, and at half sjjeed, the lead con-
stantly sounding, we grounded on a bank, the depth having varied from eleven
to one fathom.

The tide falling, we saw nothing but extensive banks of thick blue slimy
mud, and the real channel not 100 feet from us. A large portion of the shores
and bluffs of " Orango " looming in the distance, I consulted with M. Orteau,
and I despatched him, my interpreter, two natives of " Rio Grande " that had
before been at " Orango," and two of my own crew, in a whale-boat, giving
them a small present for the king. After an absence of twenty-four hours
they returned bringing the king's head pilot, with a bullock and most friendly
message from his Majesty, and the steamer hove off and afloat in eleven
fathoms. We pushed on throu2;h a most tortuous channel to " Point Orango "
along the south-west coast, and towards evening anchored in a spacious harbour
opposite the landing place to the king's town, in 11° 12" north latitude, and
16° 08" west longitude, in three fathom^water with soft mud bottom. We
disembarked the following forenoon amidst an immense crowd of the natives,
tall, muscular, finely formed men, of handsome feature and jet black complexion,
their only clothing a clout of deer or goat skin, passing between the fork and
round the loins. A few were armed with rude spears having one, two, and
three blades, — the last like the ancient tridents ; the chiefs carried swords, the
blade Portuguese make, with the words engi-aved on it, " Draw me with honour,
and sheath me not in disgrace ;" but clumsy wooden handles studded with nails,
and coarse skin or leather scabbards, showed they had been for a long time in
the islanders' possession.

We marched on surrounded by a wild, motley, but most orderly escort,
who seemed lost in amazement at our appearance. The ascent was gradual
along a broad path, passing through extensive prairies, rice and maize farms,
pasture lands, crowded, literally crowded, with herds of the finest, fattest, and
handsomest cattle I have seen in Africa. A numerous party of women in
Indian file, carrying baskets of rice and com towards the town, encountering
us, appeared paralyzed, but soon recovered and came dancing towards the white
females, who evidently engrossed their admiration and attention more than we
did ; they examined particularly my wife's hair and gloves, considering the
latter a second skin. After a walk of two miles the king's town was visible
on a comparatively lofty hill. Passing through a narrow path slightly fenced

2 F 2

382 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

in, we came to the principal street, whicli, lil^e those we saw afterwards, was
broad, clean., and open ; the houses or huts very large and lofty, some fully
seventy feet in length, others double that dimension in circumference, with
conical roofs. A rude battery of ship's cannon, of various nations, calibres,
and dates, — many very old ; a singular building, having a tower or turret at
each end, — the king's warehouse ; and a loopholed building, the common prison,
attracted our attention.

We were told that a sorceress was confined in the last for having bewitched
one of the king's sons (his Majesty enjoys the reputation of being the father of
sixty), and caused an alligator to bite off the prince's leg .while bathing, from
which he died.

At last we reached an open square, shaded by fine trees, and were conducted
to the king's house, or rather a spacious piazza, rudely made and covered with
palmetto leaves, in front of the royal residence. The walls were of wood,
singularly carved, perforated and painted ; the roof of tilts ; and strewed about
in wild confusion, or piled in heaps, lay relics of vessels, figure-heads, anchors,
tackle, chains, ropes, furniture, pictures, European implements; among other
strange articles a life-buoy of the latest improved construction, — melancholy
tell-tales of shipwreck, bloodshed, and plunder.

The king holds absolute power over the properties, liberties, and lives of all
his subjects, from the highest chief to the lowest slave. No one can receive a
present, trade, cultivate ground, move to any distance, or leave the island
without the royal permission : there is no appeal from it, and he ordered his
eldest son, " O'Toommea," to be confined and shot for coming intoxicated with
palm wine and creating a disturbance in his father's presence before the " white
faces." King Neeocesar is an unqualified miser, hoards up all his plunder and
presents in a depot full of merchandise, wines, liquors, confectionery, gold and
silver coins of various nations, jjlate silver and gold, cloths, uniforms, many
going to destruction from not being used ; so that at his death a great civil
war is likely to take place among the several claimants to the royal treasure.
At the king's demise his eldest wife is killed and buried in the same grave
with her husband, and a large supply of corn, rice, oil, palm wine, and fruit to
feed them on their journey to the next world.

Chairs were prepared for us under the verandah, the chiefs, king's sons and
wives forming a wondering circle round. The women, immensely gross, heavy,
and handsome, wear a girdle of grjps or palm fibre round their loins, and
occasionally another on their necks, which when it falls down conceals the
upper part of their persons ; their thighs and legs are finely formed and turned,
but of dimensions unknown in Europe, and such as fully entitle them to bear
off the palm of African beauty. Their children are goodlooking, but sadly
disfigured with red or yellow paint on the foreheads and over their heads.

The king came to the palaver without the usual noise of tomtoms, singing
men, and barbarous music ; he shook us by the hand and sat down on a small
stool opposite to me. Neeocesar in appearance is old, infirm, filthy, and crafty
looking ; in manner peremptory, decided, overbearing, but cautious, cool, and
cunning. He opened the palaver by bemoaning his poverty : " That he was a
very poor man (the miser's usual cant) ; that he was a child to me (he meant
in worldly affairs) ; that I was a great and rich king (all governors are styled
kings);" and speaking, as the Africans are wont, in parables, said, "A river
of sweet waters, flowing from a distant country, fertilizes the desert and the
plain ; it makes the corn, rice, maize, ground-nuts, yams, plantains, fruit, grass
to grow ; so a man with a good name, the messengers of the winds carry it far
and wide, and the people are glad to get the heat of his face. I heard of you
that you were at * Kanabac ' many moons ago, and I am glad to see you, and
let us open trade." Speaking of various other matters, he said, " When I lie
down in the night I think there must be a great God over the Morld, who

June 27, 1859.] . ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 383

makes the small grain planted in the ground to yield a vast increase." I was
esjjecially struck with this remark. Various figures of singular and disgusting
appearance were carried before, in rear, and about the king ; four images
resembling monkeys, dressed in a brazen bowl, were placed always at his side ;
and a favourite slave with a bag of gre-gres sat at the king's back. To have
touched any of these idols would have been death.

Intimating a wish to end the palaver and give my presents, the king ordered
the old men to make the gre-gre to ensure that all should prove fortunate for
us. We were collected in a circle in front of a building that turned out to be
the temple. A white cock was brought in by an old chief and handed to the
priest in the temple, who returned the bird. Another chief caused the cock to
peck the idols, particularly the monkey images, and then cut off his head and
flung the body on the ground, which, struggling and fluttering round, at last
died at my wife's feet, sprinkling her dress with blood ; this was universally
hailed as a most fortunate omen. We adjourned to another palaver-place and
distributed the presents. The cost of these paid to the merchant by govern-
ment might amount to about 20?., but if used in trade at " Orango " would
have fetched from 500Z. to 600Z.

After almost endless expressions of friendship, we took our leave of King
Neeocesar, who, feeble as he was, accompanied us to the boundary of his town,
the highest mark of friendship and respect. Escorted by a multitude of the
natives we reached the beach, and were received and welcomed by " Oronto,"
the prince next in succession to the crown, which does not descend from father
to son.

The following forenoon the king and chiefs came on board the steamer in
large war canoes, capable of carrying one hundred paddlers. Each canoe had
a large carved figure-head of a sea-horse, an ox, or a bull with immense horns,
and an ornamental wheel at the stern. The " Orango " islanders use their
paddles like oars, spring up and sink on the bench at each stroke, and appeared
to me the most skilful rowers on the coast. Although the king and chiefs had
never seen, much less been on board a steamer, little surprise was exhibited by
them, but their followers were astonished with the machinery, and the paddle
wheels were evidently a source of vast wonder — " the big canoe's feet." The
king went over the steamer, examining minutely every portion of it, and
measured the deck with a spear. His Majesty sang the old song of poverty,
was most anxious I should stay for four or five days, repeatedly promised me
to protect all white men who were wrecked on his shores or came to trade^ pre-
sented me with a white bullock as the emblem of peace, and my wife with a
singular cow, not forty inches high. His Majesty took his departure under a
salute of seven guns. Next morning five bullocks were sent on board as a
present, and we cleared the dangerous channel and anchored before sunset.

In n\y humble opinion this visit to " Orango " may hereafter be productive
of some importance. It pioneers a channel hitherto not attempted, disabuses
the long and universally circulated report of all travellers, — " That the
Bissagoes were the most ferocious savages, cannibals not to be approached or
trusted ; that no social intercourse could be held with them ; and as to com-
mercial reciprocity, such a desperate and hazardous proceeding could never be
attempted." It proved to the most powerful king of the " Bijuga " islands
(for " Orango " is double in extent, population, and influence any of the other
numerous clusters) that the white man did not fear him or his people.

Last, not least, by exhibiting articles of civilized society attainable frequently
and easily by the means of fair barter, instead of the sometimes difficult and
precarious chances arising from shipwreck and plunder, it induced the belief it
woidd be his interest and the interest of his subjects to exchange with the
white traders the various superfluous productions of their fertile and fruitful
island — ivory, oxen, hides, wax, corn, maize, ground-nuts, poultry, and a

384 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

long catalogue of various other native articles — instead of having them useless,
rotting, or hoarded up in the general receiving-house of their avaricious and
tyrannical sovereign.

There is clay well suited for making bricks or tiles, and the gurglets for
water — rude, but porous — are better adapted to tropical countries than those
manufactured in England. Carving in bone and ivory, dressing leather, are
already practised by the " Orangoes." Palm-trees for oil and forests of
valuable tirajDer abound all over the island. The finest oxen are wild in innu-
merable herds, but, singular enough, horses and asses are not known to the
" Bissagoes."

Eice could be purchased at about 3/. a ton (I mean in trade), which would
sell at Gambia or at Sierra Leone at from 16^. to 251. In fine, I have no doubt
but the following passage in the Travels of that extraordinary, enterprising,
and high-minded man Dr. Livingstone, related of the " Batuana "' on the Lake
Ngami, is equally applicable to the " Bijuga" islanders and many other tribes
of Western Africa : " A trader who accompanied us was then purchasing
ivory at the rate of ten good large tusks for a musk(3t worth thirteen shillings.
They were called ' bones,' and I myself saw eight instances in which the tusks
had been left to rot with the other bones where the elephant fell. The
Batuana never had a chance of a market before, hut in less than two years after
our discovery not a man of them could be found who was not keenly alive to the
great value of the article."

The teeth of the elephant in South Africa are considerably larger than those
of Western Africa, and the ten teeth may be fairly averaged at 901bs. each,
or 900 dollars : equal to 187?. 10s. " for a musket worth 13s." Give the
" Bissagoes " and other tribes " the chance of a market, and they will soon be
found keenly alive to the great value of the article."

In a despatch, reporting my geographical expedition down the coast in 1855,
I stated, " to ensure British power, to increase British commerce, to secure
British interests, to make some substantial advance in that so long desired but
still so unfulfilled object, the civilization of Western Africa, a chain of settle-
ments must be established along the coast." Subsequent expeditions and
increased experience have confirmed me in this opinion.

Bulama, in n. lat. 11°, and w. long. 15°, is admirably situated to form a
settlement from its central position, proximity to the Gambia, Jeba, Rio Grande,
Nunez Rivers, Bijuga islands, and commanding the entrance to the Orange
and Jambeer channels. The island is about 18 miles in length and, in some
places, the same in breadth. The land, trending gradually from the shore
towards the centre of the island, rises to about 110 feet above the level of the
sea. The soil is rich, and capable of yielding every kind of tropical produc-
tion. Fine timber grows in forests ; but since 1792, when the unfortunate
but indefatigable Captain Beaver made his first and last attempt to establish a
colony on it, until he was forced to abandon the undertaking in 1793, Bulama
seems to have been almost forgotten or totally neglected by its lawful owners,
the British Government, to whom it was ceded "/or ever by the King of
Kanabac, the 29th of June, 1792 ; the island of Areas and the land on the
adjacent continent being obtained from the Kings of Shinla the 3rd of August,
1792."

Abandoned by the British, the Portuguese availed themselves of the oppor-
tunity to convert Bulama into a depot for slaves ; and even after the abolition
of that infamous and unholy traffic, the few desperate adventurers who still
perseveringly continued surreptitiously, or with the secret connivance of their
Government, to carry on the slave-trade, used Bulama to facilitate their pur-
pose. The residence and barracoons of the last of this band, Kittan, still
remain, and when I visited Bulama in 1855 a Portuguese Jew resided there
as agent for Kittan's widow, trading in rice and ground-nuts. From time to

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 385

time the Portuguese Government have set forth a claim to Bulama. In 1843
the Governor of Bissao landed a party of soldiers on the island, and hauled
down the British flag. The island having heen taken formal possession of for the
Crown of England by Lieutenant Lapidge, of Her Majesty's brig Pantaloon,
on the 24th of May, 1842, several naval officers reported a strong military force
would be necessary to protect British settlers at Bulama and to resist the
attacks of the Kanabac islanders. It is manifest, from my several despatches,
that the latter danger is no longer to be apprehended. The Bissagoes have no
disposition to enter into hostihties with the British : on the contrary, they are
most desirous to be on friendly terms with us ; the King of Orango anxiously
wishes to have the British flag in his harbour. They ^^ only require a
market,'" the opportunity to get rid of their su[)erfluous productions in exchange
for the common necessaries of European existence, and, in the words of Living-
stone, " they will be found keenly alive to the great value of every article of
eommerce."

I have, &c.,

The Right Hon. H. Lahouchere,
&c, &c.

L. Smyth O'Connor, Governor.

9. Asie Mineure : Description Physique, Statistique, et Archeologique de
cette Contree. Par P. de Tchihatchef, Hon. f.r.g.s. First and
Second Parts. 8vo. Paris: Gide et J. Bandry, 1853;

This work, which is quoted in several places by Eitter, consists of two large
volumes, and is illustrated by a map, which is very copious in its physical
geography, and for the accuracy of which the author professes himself to be
greatly indebted to the astronomical observations of M. Wroutchenko, that
have enabled him to correct the positions of M. Kiepert. In the first volume,
or part, after a disquisition on the origin of the terms Asia, Asia Minor, and
Anatolia, M. de Tchihatchef treats of the general configuration of the peninsula,
and successively of its coasts and seas, capes and gulfs, lakes, rivers, mineral
springs, mountains, and plains. From this part of the work the following
passage is extracted, which relates to a region amongst the most famous on
the earth, and which has a perpetual interest for the student of history and
antiquity : —

" The learned researches of M. Chevalier, to whom belongs the incontestable
merit of having discovered the true position of the Ilium of Homer, have
proved that in the time of Strabo the names of Scamander and Simois had
completely lost the signification which they had had in Homer's time, for
Strabo places the Simois to the east of the Scamander, which proves that it
was one of the branches of the Dumbrek or the Kalifatly-chai of the present
day, which he designates by that name, notwithstanding that he makes the
Scamander come from Mount Ida, whence Homer states that the Simois
descends, placing, on the contrary, the Scamander to the south of the Simois,
and its origin in the warm springs close to the side of the ancient Troy. It is
evident that the Scamander of Homer can only be the Bunarbashi-su of
modem time, and his Simois the Mendere-su. The modem name of the
Mendere, which is obviously only a comiption of the word Scamander, or
Scamandre, proves that the Simois of Homer had become generally known
under the erroneous name given to it by Strabo. The confusion seems to have
increased more and more, since Vibius Sequester even stated that the Meander
and the Simois fell into the Propontis. The geographer Plutarch, who wrote
in the second century of our era, employs the two names in the same sense as

386 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

Strabo, for he places Mount Ida beside the Scamander, which proves that he
meant to speak of the Mendere-su of our day, or the Simois of Homer." —
p. 223.

It will be recollected that in the twelfth volume of the Journal of the Society-
is an elaborate Paper on the Topography of Troy, by Dr, Forchhammer, ac-
companied by a map of the rivers of its plain, made by Mr. (now Capt.) Spratt,
R.N. It may be remarked in limine, that, on a careful comparison of the
maps and descriptions in the two separate sources of information, it appears
that the views and opinions of the two authors, with respect to the identity
of the rivers so celebrated in the immortal work of Homer, are strikingly
consistent.

The second portion of the work of M. Tchihatchef is devoted to the cli-
matology and zoology ; and in the preface we are promised two succeeding
parts — on the geology, and on the statistics, political history, and archaeology of
Asia Minor. The work, so far as already published, is enriched with en-
gravings, displaying striking natural features of the country, and the animals
native in the peninsula. The writing is elevated in its tone, close and correct
as to style, and there can be no doubt that this will take its place as a standard
work of literature.

10. The Indus and its Provinces : their Political Importance considered in
conneanon with improved means of Communication, By W. P. Andrew,
Esq., F.R.G.s. 8vo. London : Allen.

This book is written with a view to advocate the interests of the Company-
engaged in the formation of the Scinde and Punjab Railways ; and it explains
the directions which those lines of transit are to take, and the benefits capable
of being derived from their completion. It is illustrated by a very good map.
The scheme for effecting railway and steam communication between the
countries on the Indus is the following : — A railway, 110 miles in length, is
stated to be in course of formation between Kurrachee and Hyderabad, a
contract for its construction having been concluded in December 1858. It is
also stated that the Company has been requested by the local authorities " to
survey two branch lines — the one from Sukkur by Shikar[ioor to Jacobabad,
southward from Hyderabad, by Omercote to Deesa, so as to effect a direct
communication between Kurrachee and Bombay by a junction with the in-
tended extension of the Bombay and Baroda line to Deesa." From Hyderabad
there is a permanently open navigation of the Indus, the Pungund, and the
Chenab rivers for 570 miles up to Mooltan, on which waters it is proposed to
establish a steam flotilla ; and from Mooltan the Punjab railway, 248 miles
in length, would proceed to Lahore and Umritsir. From Lahore a branch is
projected to sweep across the upper portion of the Punjab to Peshawer, on the
frontier of Afghanistan. We learn that on Jan, 27th last the East India
Company sanctioned the raising of a million and a half sterling for the com-
mencement of the Punjab railway.

The book is full of quotations of both official and non-official character,
indicating the commercial and military advantages which would arise from the
construction of the foregoing works. The Indus is certainly the key to
Central Asia west of the Himalaya mountains, and the possession of commercial
superiority there is adapted materially to counterbalance the commercial traffic
carried on inland between the upper Indus and the Bosphorus and southern ter-
ritories of Russia. Such railways as are projected on the Indus are, as the author
argues, necessary in order to enable us to compete with the facilities of transit
about to be afforded by the extension of railways in the southern provinces of

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 387

the Kussian empire. On the continuous advance of Russia into Central Asia
the author quotes Mr. Ferrier, to the effect that, after having descended the
Ural River to the Caspian Sea, and reached the mouth of the Embah, the
Russians ascended that river to the point at which, turning south, it approaches
the Aral Sea. " Here they have established a military colony, and dug v^^ells
at short distances in the desert between the Embah and the sea ; they have
also placed around these wells settlements of Cossacks, who cultivate the soil
in the neighbourhood, so that in a few years an army will be able to obtain
sufficient food and forage in all their encampments, and will reach the Aral
without serious difficulty. Two other lines of wells have been also dug by
the Russians — one on leaving the river Ourloo Irghiz, tending towards the
northern end of the Aral Sea ; the other commences from two points, Ming-
Kishlak and Dash-Killeh, on the eastern shore of the Caspian, which unite
half way in one line thence, laid down in the direction of Khiva." — p. 16.

Further on he adds, from the Warsaw journal the ' Czar,' of Nov. 30th,
1856 : — " The Orenburg corps d'armee has been considerably reinforced. The
outposts of this corps extend to the very limits of the country of Turan, upon
the rivers Oxua- and Jaxartes ; and the military flotilla of the Lake of Aral,
placed under the orders of the same general, is brought by the above-mentioned
rivers to the frontiers of India. On another side great activity reigns upon
the Caspian Sea and in the army of the Caucasus. Transport vessels, having
troops and war materiel on board, pass incessantly between Astrakan and
the port of Baku. The new lieutenant-general of the Caucasian provinces,
Prince Bariatinski, has received fuller powers than his predecessors. He has
lately inspected, on its way to its destination, the flotilla of the Caspian Sea,
which has been considerably increased. Meanwhile the Russian Government
neglects nothing in replacing the war materiel consumed during the late war,
and continues to refill the exhausted magazines." — p. 26.

And—

" Without undertaking to decide the large question at issue (the invasion of
India by Russia), I shall assume the feasibility of invasion to be established,
and merely observe that now more than ever should we be on the watch, for
the Russian and Indian dominions are twelve hundred miles nearer to each
other than v/hen the invasion of Afghanistan took place."

11. Esquisse Geographique du Bassin de la Mer d^Aral, ^c. Lue a la Societe
de Geographie de Paris, Par M. Eugene Lamansky, Secretaire de
la Societe Imperiale Geographique de Eussie. Paris : Martinet.
1858.

From such a source as M. Lamansky we ought to expect the most correct
information respecting the subject here treated of, since, as he himself informs
us at p. 13 of his pamphlet, " Most of the narratives of the travellers who
have recently visited the khanats adjoining the Russian territories have been
published by the Geographical Society of St. Petersburg." The author first
points out that little or nothing was known of the Sea of Aral in Western
Europe down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, when Peter the
Great, then a resident in Paris, made known to the Academy of Sciences some
important details concerning the hydrography of Central Asia which had pre-
viously been acquired by his countrymen. In 1741 Mouravine was sent by
the Russian government to survey the shores of the Sea of Aral, of which he
subsequently produced a chart ; since which time the extension of colonization
from Russia, and multiplied journeys of travellers in that direction, have

388 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

materially added to our knowledge of the inland sea in question. Colonel
Berg in 1825-6 ascertained the existence of an elevated region on its western
side, continuous with the spurs of the Ural on the north, the height of which
has rendered it very improbable that the Aral and Caspian Seas have ever
been united during the historic period — at any rate toward their northern por-
tions. M. Lamansky aftbrds us a general description of the great basin named
Turan, in which the Sea of Aral lies — bounded as it is by the chain of heights
already mentioned on the west, by the Hindu Kush and its offsets on the
south, the Bolor Tagh on the east, and finally on the north by the southern
slope of the Ural Mountains, and being identical with the greater portion of
what is called Independent Tartary. His description of the Sea of Aral itself
is the following : — " The Sea of Aral is situated between lat. 43" 42' 41" and
46° 44' 42" N., and long. 58° 18' 47" and 61° 46' 4" e. (of Greenwich). It is
almost equal in length and breadth, excepting a part of it on the north-east,
which stretches deep into the country, forming a large bay nearly surrounded
by land, and bearing the name of the * Little Sea/ to distinguish it from the
principal body of water called the ' Great Sea.' The superficies of the latter
is about 1000 square geographical miles. Its depth in its centre is fifteen
fathoms, and goes on augmenting towards its western shore ; near its islands,
as well as towards its north, east, and south shores, the depth gradually dimi-
nishes. The borders of this sea present the appearance of a gloomy desert :
in summer, except in some places on the eastern and southern sides, they are
uninhabited ; in winter the Kirghises encamp especially on the northern and
eastern sides, and on some of the islands. The northern coast is composed in
a great part of argillaceous and saline formations (terrain salin), which rise
100 to 300 English feet above the level of the sea, and, declining to the north,
sink into the great sandy plain of Barsonki. The western coast is sharply
defined by the limits of the Oust-Oust plateau. Under the name of Oust-
Oust is known the isthmus which separates the Caspian from the Sea of Aral.
This isthmus has the form of a level plain, the height of which is nearly 600
feet above the surface of the two (?) seas. It is limited by abrupt and lofty
banks. The officers attached to the expedition of Colonel Berg, Messrs, Anjou,
Lagoskine, and Duhamel, determined barometrically the difference of level
between the Caspian Sea at Mertvoi-Koultouk and the Sea of Aral, the dis-
tance between the two being 245 kilometres (152 miles) direct east, in the
latitude of 42° n. The result established that the level of the Sea of Aral is
117*6 English feet above that of the Caspian. The level of the latter sea, as
decided by the labours of the astronomers Fuss, Sawitsch, and Sabler, of the
Academy of St. Petersburg, is 84 English feet below that of the Black Sea.
The respective differences in the level of the three seas are, — Black Sea, 0 ; Cas-
pian Sea, —84 feet ; Sea of Aral, -h 37* 6 feet. On the south and east of the Sea
of Aral the shores are low, sandy, and covered in parts with reeds and briers "
(pp. 19-21). The great rivers flowing into the Sea of Aral, the Syr-Daria
(Jaxartes) and its affluents, and the Amon-Daria or Jyhoon (Oxus), are next
described ; and the rest of the treatise is occupied with descriptions of the
khanats of Kokan, Khiva, and Bukhara, their inhabitants, state of civilization,
and political organization. In this portion the following passage occurs : — " In
1850 the Khan of Khiva formed a battalion of regular troops with a certain
number of pieces of cannon. Eye-witnesses who have seen the artillery at
practice, have said that, out of a hundred artillerymen, not one could hit a
mark fifty paces distant ; and it was not an ordinary target that was used,
but an isolated height. The Khivans are, however, pretty tolerable marks-
men with their long muskets. As to the total number of troops, it is said
that the Khan of Khiva can bring into the field nearly 25,000 horsemen
armed with sabres and lances : of this number, however, not more than 5000
are furnished with muskets. The bravery of the Khivans, as of all other

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 389

Asiatic people, depends on the success of their first charge ; but a single
Congreve-rocket is sufficient to put the whole army to flight " (p. 35). Such
being the character of the force of a leading state of Independent Tartary, it
can scarcely he expected to resist with success the advance of Russian domi-
nation into that region, which has long been steady and progressive.

12. Die Erdkunde von Asien von Carl Hitter. Vol. IX. Part I. Asia
Minor. Berlin, 1858.

The sixth division of the third book (Western Asia) of the eighteenth part
of Hitter's copious Geography of Asia — a tome consisting of 1024 closely-
printed pages — is appropriated to Asia Minor; but even this abundance of
letterpress does not exhaust the subject in the hands of the Prussian geo-
grapher, since the work before us constitutes only the first of three volumes,
the rest of which are to follow. It treats of little more than the northern
shores and declivity of the peninsula of Asia Minor, after a general descrip-
tion of the central table-land, and of its great streams, the 'J'choruk, Yezil
Irmak (Iris), Kizil Irmak (Halys), Sakaria (Sangarias), the river of Trebizond,
&c. ; and its twenty-third and last chapter is devoted to a consideration of the
chief towns and trade of the southern coast of the Black Sea. In addition
to full descriptions of the physical geography and commercial resources of this
region, the archa3ology of the northern part of Asia Minor receives its full
share of notice in accounts of the troglodytic caves and sculptures on the south
bank of the Halys and elsewhere, the ruins of Boghaz, those of the ancient
Pessinus (Bala Hissar) with the temple of Cybele, the Greek colony of the
ancient Trapezus (Trebizond), &c. ; and digressions are introduced on the
Angora wool and goats' hair, the culture of saffron around Zafaran-boly, and
the tunny fishery of Sinope. At the end are an appendix from the pen of
Kiepert, and engravings of Assyrian monuments in Asia Minor with explana-
tory notes. The work is continued after the same plan which has charac-
terised it throughout ; and it is not too much to say that when terminated it
will be a complete encyciopsedia of all that is known concerning the great con-
tinent that has been the storehouse of all the nations which have peopled the
earth.

13. Vespuce et son Premier Voyage. Par M. F. A. de Varnhagen,
Memb. de la Society de Geographie. Paris : Martinet, 1858.

The author remarks that since the publication of the illustrious Humboldt's
Examen Critique de VHiatoire Oeographique du Nouveau Continent, the con-
sideration due to Amerigo Vespucci has been restored to his memory. His
claims to the applause of posterity rest upon four recorded voyages — two
made in the service of Portugal, and the other two (which were previous) in
that of Spain ; but the first of the latter named has been frequently regarded
as apocryphal. The author is, however, convinced of its certainty. He says
it cannot be doubted " that Vespucci left Spain on the 10th of May, 1497 ;
and having sailed a thousand leagues west-south-west, passing consequently
across the Antilles, found himself after 37 days in lat. IQP n., and long. 75^ w.,
of the Canaries. He then discovered the new continent some days before
Cabot. He had attained the Bay of Honduras. . . . Thence he followed, in
sight of land, the coast of Yucatan, towards the north-east, for two days, and
at length, on discovering a safe anchorage for vessels, cast anchor half a league
from land. He disembarked 40 men, who made some barter with the natives.

390 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

He continued to sail for some days, frequently landing, and at length
arrived at a port, in the midst of which was seen an assemblage of houses
built in the water, and defended with drawbridges. According to the relation
of Vespucci, this port was 80 leagues south of that where the fleet subsequently
arrived, and which was placed under the Tropic of Cancer. We are inclined
to think that this port with its dwellings built in the water was no other than
Vera Cruz, with the Isle of Sacrifices, and that which Erijalva called San Juan
de Ulua, and of which Herrera gives an idea in no wise contradicting the
impression that Vespucci had received in likening it to Venice. Thence he
sailed to another port 80 leagues distant, well watered, abounding in fish and
in birds, amongst which Vespucci mentions parroquets. This port was
situated in a country which, according to the Italian text by Bandini and
Canovai, is designated by the name of Lariab."

This Lariab, M. Varnhagen contends, is Caria or Cariah, disfigured by the
transcriber, and is the port of Tampico. From this point, he says, Vespucci
proceeded northward, " coasting along an extent estimated at 870 leagues.
By a comparison of his narrative with other documents, it would appear that
he well recognised the Mississippi, and that he pursued his course to Florida,
the southern extremity of which peninsula he reached towards the end of
April, 1498. From this point he must have passed through the Bahama
channel, and continued to coast along the shores of the United States for more
than thirty days, until after a navigation of thirteen months, consequently in
the month of June, we find him not far from the port called by Vespucci the
best in the world. This port could be nowhere except in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. After thirty-seven days it was decided to leave it ; but the natives
having a feud with certain others who inhabited an island a hundred leagues
distant, the navigators considered themselves obliged to take part with the
former in return for the treatment they had received. After a sail of seven
days east-north-east they arrived at an island named Iti. They took some
prisoners there, a part of whom were given over to the natives of the Gulf,
who returned to their own country. Notwithstanding the resemblance of the
names, we must be careful not to confound, as has been done, this isle of Iti,
surrounded by other islands, inhabited or desert, with that of Haiti or His-
paniola. This expedition did not return to Cadiz until the month of October,
1498, after a voyage of eighteen months."

The author cites various proofs in favour of the authenticity of the first
voyage of Vespucci ; he afterwards directs his attention to overthrow objec-
tions made against it ; and he quotes an important document in support of
his positions, in the shape of a letter, dated in 1506, which was discovered by
Ranke at Vienna, and published by Humboldt at p. 157 of the fifth volume
of his Examert Critique. In addition, he affords us at the end of his pamphlet
facsimiles of three notes attributed to Columbus, and bearing closely on the
subject. The ultimate conclusion to which M. Varnhagen arrives is, that
Vespucci undoubtedly accompanied Pinzon and Solis, and with a fleet of four
ships, between 1497 and August, 1498, discovered and explored all the eastern
coast of North America from Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico to the most
northern parts of the United States.

14. Notes an Ghilan.* By Keith E. Abbott, Esq., H.M. Consul,

Tehran.

Ghilan is a narrow strip of country situated on the south-western side ot
the Caspian, and enclosed by a lofty range of mountains, measuring from 6000

* See Paper by General Monteith, vol, iii. Journal R.G.S. — Ed.

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 391

to 9000 feet above the sea's level. It is, I believe, about 32 agatches, or 144
miles, in length, including that portion of Talish which still belongs to Persia ;
in the broadest part it is called about 11 agatches, or 50 miles, in width ; but
in some of the parts I visited, the mountains, which occupy probably half the
superficies of the province, approach to within 5 or 6 miles of the sea, and I
believe still nearer in the northernmost portion of the country. The whole
province, with the exception of the summits of the loftiest mountains and
such parts as have been cleared away for cultivation, appears to be covered
with wood. The immense quantity of rain which falls, the want of drainage,
the dense forests and luxuriant vegetation, render the whole of the level
country a morass. The climate, under such circumstances and in such a low
latitude, must inevitably be unhealthy, and to strangers it is almost fatal
during the hot months.

The natives of other provinces of Persia can seldom be tempted to expose
themselves to it at that season ; in winter and in spring and autumn fatal
diseases are not so common, but the exceeding dampness and relaxing nature
of the atmosphere render a sojourn there far from desirable from the frequency
of colds and rheumatisms, and from the pains in the limbs and knees, which
a prolonged residence entails. From the beginning of June to the end of
September the flat country is reputed to be almost uninhabitable by a
European or other stranger to the climate. The neighbouring mountains,
however, offer a salubrious refuge during this period ; but a person is there in
complete seclusion, and cut oft' from intercourse with the neighbourhood by
the distance and the badness of the roads. Few of the inhabitants of the flat
country can take advantage of these fine retreats in the unhealthy season,
because all hands are then occupied with the production of silk. The natives
of the low country have almost all a sickly appearance ; a healthy countenance
was a rarity, of which, even in winter, I saw but few examples. The moun-
taineers are less sallow, but the fine, hardy, and healthy look of the Azerbi-
janee of the opposite side of the mountains is seldom seen amongst them.

The language of Ghilan proper is the Ghilaik, a dialect of the Persian,
which is spoken with great rapidity, and is less sonorous than the Persian of
other parts. The Talish district, of which the Russians now possess the
largest division, bounds Ghilan on the north. The inhabitants are repre-
sented as rude and brutal, much given to plunder and murder, but are a
hardy and active race, especially those who live in the highlands. _ Their lan-
guage is another dialect of the Persian, and I am informed that it has been
ascertained to contain much more of the Pehlivi than either the Ghilaik or
the language of Mazanderan. Of twenty substantives which I noted of the
Ghilaik, only two varied from the modern Persian ; in the same number
of words, and of the same meaning, in the Talish language, there were only
nine which corresponded with the Persian either exactly or approximately ; the
great difference in the former dialect appears to be in the verbs and in the
pronunciation.

The principal places in Ghilan are Resht (its capital), Euzilli, Fornen, and
Lahijan. I did not visit either of the latter two, but I believe that Lahijan is the
largest, and not greatlyi inferior in size to Resht itself, which contains probably
ab(nit 3000 houses and 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. Resht may be called a
clean town ; its bazaars are extensive, though not showy ; the chief display
in them consists of Russian hardware, glassware, and earthenware, and some
English manufactures. The streets are paved with small stones ; in wet
weather, however, they are rendered very disagreeable to passengers, owing to
the great and unequal projection of the roofs, from which the drippings de-
scend in torrents, and which it is difficult to avoid. The jungle which covers
Ghilan reaches to the very houses of Resht ; these are generally of burnt
brick and tiled, and are usually composed of a ground floor and upper story.

392 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

The caravanserais are numerous, but are not fit places for a European; in
fact, tliere is only one set apart for Christians, into which I fancy a European
would be admitted, and that is of a wretched description.

The houses in the country are much scattered, and seldom, as far as I saw,
present the appearance of regular villages, and they are generally so much
screened from view by the jungle that one is frequently not aware of their
neighbourhood. They are usually neat and clean within, and instead of
carpeting the inhabitants have beautiful mats, the re^ds for which they obtain
in abundance all over the flat country.

The population of Ghilan is at present small ; I have heard it estimated as
low as 100,000, but this appears to me to be an undervaluation. It is very
difficult, however, to form an idea of its probable amount from the peculiar
nature of the country. The dense forest which covers it, by concealing from
the view of the traveller the habitations of the people, except such as are
immediately on his line of route, precludes his forming any estimate from
what comes under his observation, and there are no public records to which
to refer. Previous to the dreadful plague of 1830 the province was well
peopled, but full two-thirds of the population would appear to have been
carried off by that calamity, from which the country has never recovered.
A ])erson with whom I was conversing on the subject told me that of 40 indi-
viduals of his own family and relations living here, 36 fell victims to the
scourge ; the remaining four had fled from the country.

Many thousand labourers from the Khalkhal districts of the western side of
the Talish mountains find employment here during winter in the clearing and
cultivation of land, hewing of wood, felling of timber, building, and other
em]>loyments requiring Ixidily strength and great exertion, for which their
weak and sickly constitution seems to incapacitate the natives of Ghilan.
These labourer return to their homes in spring, for they cannot endure in
summer the fatal climate of this low and swampy country.

The natives of Ghilan are notorious for their bigotry, ignorance, and pre-
judice ; they have seldom seen Evuopeans, and those they are most acquainted
with have generally been Russians. The care these prejudiced people take to
avoid contact with a Christian as he passes them in the streets in rainy
weather (where he is looked upon as particularly unclean) is perfectly ridi-
culous, in Azerbijan this prejudice is now almost effaced, but the Ghilaiks
liave yet to learn a lesson which a visit from their Russian neighbours may
one day teach them.

The food of the people is very simple and light. Eice and fish are the
principal articles ; both are the ])roduce of the province, the latter lieing foimd
in abundance in all the numerous streams which intersect the country, as well
as in the lake or l>ackwater of Enzilli, and in the sea. These fisheries are
all rented, but much of the pnxluce is doubtless taken without being paid for.
Besides these the people have abundance of fine poultry, and horned cattle,
like the Indian species; with a hump over the shoulder, but mutton is not
commonly to be met with, except in autumn, I believe, when all classes are in
the habit of consuming meat. The sheep are brought from the mountains,
where they are i>astured, and from the plains of Mogan. Wild fruit grows
everywhere in abundance, but none is cultivated, which is, I believe, the
reason of its l>eing extremely unwholesome. I should except oranges, lemons,
and limes, which were once extensively cultivated until a few years ago,
when nearly all tlie trees were destroyed by an extraordinarily severe winter,
and the fruit is now scarce and dear. The vines are allowed to climb up the
trees of the forest, as in some parts of Turkey : the juice of the grape aftbrds
a delicious kind of treacle, called dowshawb, which is eaten with dry boiled
rice. Neither fat nor butter is used in cookery, nor is any sort of bread
eaten except in tiie towns, the people generally believing it to be injurious to

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 398

their health in this climate. Wheat and barley are cultivated only in trifling
quantities, near the mountains; almost all that is required for consumption in
the towns is brought from other provinces. The poorer classes give their horses
rice in the husk, but those who can afford it procure barley, and rice-straw is
used instead of barley-straw. Almost every provision is dear when compared
with its value in other parts of Persia, except the few^ articles which are raised
in the province.

The soil of Ghilan appears in some parts to be a rich vegetable stratum
on one of sandstones and pebbles ; it is probable, from this circumstance, and
from marine shells being frequently found underground, that at some period
the low country has been covered by the sea.

The flora of the province is exceedingly rich. Amongst the trees the oak
and birch are in abundance, but the former is seldom of great girth. A
species of ver}^ thorny acacia grows also all over the country. The pome-
granate and other wild fruit-trees which abound must give to the forest a
charming appearance at certain seasons.

I am informed that in the woods the tiger, panther, wild boar, jackal, and
marten are found, and probably there are many other animals which 1 was
not informed of. In the rivers is found the otter.

There is a great variety of birds in the woods. The pheasant is very plen-
tiful, also the woodcock in its season ; and the lake and its reedy islands,
and the marshes, harbour myriads of wild-fowl of many kinds. In summer
the swarmg of gnats and flies render a residence in the country far from
agreeable.

'J'he complaints common in Ghilan are fevers and agues, rheumatisms,
small-pox, leprosy, and other cutaneous diseases. The latter are said to have
been much more common a few years since than at present, a circumstance
which I have not heard accounted for. The dreadful plague which visited the
province some years ago may perhaps have purged the country of many of
these disorders by carrying off tliose who were afiQicted with them ; but this is
a mere conjecture.

The road^ throughout Ghilan are perhaps the worst it is possible to con-
ceive ; those around Resht have been left in the most extraordinary state of
neglect and disorganization purposely and avowedly with the object of keeping
off invasion. It was once suggested to one of the governors by the agent of a
neighbouring power that great advantage would result from the repair of the
roads and cleansing of the bed of a small stream which flows near Resht.
Both these were undertaken, but so great was the jealousy of the people, that
the governor's conduct was immediately represented at court, and he was
reprimanded. Since then the roads and river have again become as imprac-
ticable as before, and the former can scarce be termed roads, as it is with the
utmost difficulty that any beast of burthen can pass them. They are, how-
ever, the best defences which such a country can possess whilst in the hands
of a semi-barbarons people, and they on one occasion many years since i)roved
the safety of the capital of Ghilan. A Russian force attempted to reach that
town by the Peeree Bazaar road. It would appear that with infinite difficulty
they succeeded in getting half-way between Peeree Bazaar and Resht, a dis-
tance of five or six miles, dragging along some artillery ; but here they encoun-
tered a brisk fire from irregular troo])8 sent against them. Entangled in the
thickets, and retarded by the wretchedness of the roads, the invaders were deli-
berately i)icked off by the ambush into which they had fallen ; and they are
said to have lost about 500 men, were forced to retreat, and have never since
repeated the attempt.

The Caspian appears to be very shallow on tlie south-western side for many
furlongs from the shore, and I observed several single-masted vessels riding at
anchor securely at about 10 or 15 miles out at sea. The Russian Government

394 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

sends a vessel every year to survey the coasts of the Caspian, as the soundings
are continually altering ; their sailors are made to serve alternately in this sea
and in the Baltic.

The Caspian is considered a stormy sea ; and there is no doubt that a great
deal of the rain and snow with which Ghilan is at certain seasons deluged
comes from seawards ; but to such vessels as navigate the Caspian almost any
boisterous weather must be perilous. 1 understand that some Russian officers,
who a short time since were employed to ascertain the relative heights of
the Caspian and Black Seas, found that the former was 96 French feet lower
than the level of the latter. The observations which I took of the baro-
meter at the Caspian did not give this result, but the instrument had got
out of order on the journey, and, though 1 repaired it, there was not much
dependence to be placed on the observations made with it. The waters of
this sea, which I tasted at various parts of the coast, appeared to contain
very little salt. This may have arisen in part from the vicinity of many
small streams, but I believe that it is not in any part very briny.

Enzilli contains 300 to 400 houses and shops, and is the only seaport on
the coast of Ghilan. It is situated on the extreme point of a singularly
narrow and long strip of sand, which, with one of similar shape advancing
from the east and nearly joining it, almost separates the lake or backwater
of Enzilli from the Caspian, leaving a passage between them of about 200
yards wide. The western tongue on which Enzilli stands is about 15 miles
in length, of various widths, but in some parts not above 150 yards across ;
it is covered with swamp and jungle. The anchorage is within this tongue
of land, and between it and a long island in the lake, the intermediate channel
being deep enough to admit of ships of 250 tons burden, when partly laden,
lying close to the shore, and people can step from it on board. There is
ample accommodation for all the vessels which visit this port, but the larger
class are obliged to discharge part of their cargoes into boats at sea before
they can cross the bar at the entrance of the lake. Many sandbanks reaching
almost to the water's surface very much obstruct the passage to the anchorage.
There appears to be very little depth of water in the lake, and probably not
in any part above 6 fathoms. The surface is not often much ruffled by storms,
but the boats of Enzilli, being of slight build and small beam, do not ven-
ture on it in blowing weather. The extent of the lake is called 6 agatches
by 4, or 27 by 18 miles, but I should think it was more. Its saltness is
scarce perceptible, and indeed the boatmen commonly drink it. It swarms
with fish of various kinds, particularly the mahee selfeed (a species of carp, I
believe).

Enzilli, the seaport of Ghilan, through which a considerable traffic is
carried on, possesses not a single caravanserai or other fit place of accommoda-
tion either for goods or passengers. A stranger arriving there without friends
or recommendations to people would be exceedingly ill off", particularly in
winter, where he might be detained by stress of weather (if on his way to
Besht) ; for several days he would scarce find a shelter for himself, and pro-
bably none for his horses.

I could not obtain an exact account of the vessels which frequent the port
of Enzilli. Of the largest, measuring from 100 to 250 or 300 tons, there are
said to be about 10 or 12 annually from Astrakan. From B4ku, Salian, and
Lankeran, the greater part are large boats of various rigs ; and I was told that
from 50 to 60 of these visit Enzilli during the year. I should have thought,
however, the number would have been greater ; for when I was at Enzilli
there were between 20 and 30 vessels of all descriptions in the harbour ; and many
may be supposed to make more than one trip in the year to this port, though
there is no account kept of them, and the people seemed to have no exact
notion of their real number. The greater part come from Baku, laden with

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 395

naphtha, of which there is an extensive consumption in the countries Lordering
on the Caspian, the lower classes commonly burning it in their lamps. It is
extremely cheap, a maun shakee, or 13 lbs., being worth at Enzilli 12 to 14
shahees, or about 8d. sterling.

The Russian mercantile marine in the Caspian is said to amount to about
1000 vessels of all descriptions : the limited trade of this sea not requiring so
many, freights are exceedingly low.

The village of Peeree Bazaar, the shipping-place of all goods passing
between Resht and Enzilli, is situated on a small river at about 3 miles from
the lake. It possesses neither stores for goods nor accommodation for tia-
vellers ; the only shelter to be obtained for the former is an open shed, which
hardly screens them from the weather. Here they have to await the chance
arrival of boats from Enzilli, which come generally only when they have
obtained a lading. The road from Peeree Bazaar to Resht lies through the
jungle, and, if road it may be called, can scarce be exceeded in badness by
anything with such a name. Though the actual distance is perhaps not more
than 5 or 6 miles, such is the extreme difficulty of the road, that it requires
3 to 4 hours to perform it with a horse lightly burthened. The river of Man-
gaudeh, a small stream about 12 yards wide, which passes near Resht, and
falls into the lake, offers an easy channel of communication with Enzilli ; but
the same reasons which induce the government to neglect the repairs of the
Peeree Bazaar road, render it also their policy to impede the free navigation of
this little stream, which, from want of attention, has its course blocked up in
various parts by fallen trees and mudbanks. In summer, when the water is
low, on account of these obstructions beats cannot ascend the stream, I
believe ; and in winter the current is so strong, that it takes a day to ascend
from the lake to near Resht, a distance of about 10 miles.

In conclusion, I would observe that Ghilan, though in wretched hands and
kept in the most shameful state of neglect, is, in proportion to its extent, the
richest province of Persia. Its inhabitants appear to jjossess a great deal of
wealth. Among the highest classes there are large fortunes, and traders with
2000 to 5000 tomauns capital are very numerous. The lowest class, though
not supposed generally to possess more in coin than they require to purchase
necessaries with, appear to live comfortably on half their crops of rice (the
other half being the property of the landlord), their poultry, and the produce
of their cows, together with the wild fruits which grow everywhere, and the
fish of the numerous streams, the lake, and sea. The govermnent derives a
yearly revenue of 200,000 tomauns, or about 100,OOOZ. sterling, from the pro-
vince, including the customs and rent of the fisheries, which together amount
to 45,000 tomauns, or about 22,500Z. ; but probably half as much again is
paid in voluntary contributions by the principal people of the province to the
court for objects of self-interest, and there are many pensioners in the province
who have grants of lands and villages made them by government in return for
services.

15. Remarks on the Undulatory Motion of the Sea and its Currents* By
Commendatore Alessandro Cialdi.

Five principal propositions form the subject of the present notice : —

1st. The translation of the liquid mass in the undulating motion of the

waves on the open sea when the wind is violent.

2nd. The absence of any notable translation in the said undulating mass

when the velocity of the wind is not more than 7 or 8 metres per second.f

* Cenni sul Moto ondoso del Mare, e suUe Correnti di Esse. 4°. Roma, 1856.

t M^tre = 39-37 inches.
VOL. III. 2 G

396 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

3rd. The translation of tlie mass of the waves when tliey have not free
scope underneath, although the wind is moderate.

4th. The number of metres in depth to which the action of the waves is
communicated.

5th. The superiority of the effects of the real motion of the waves over the
littoral and tidal currents, with respect to the translation of detritus or ob-
structive materials.

From the general system of ideas developed by the author we gather that
to attribute a motion to the liquid mass of waves is not conformable to the
hydrodynamic principles generally established. Thus the propositions con-
tained in his first, third, and fifth questions cannot be explained by the me-
chanical theory of fluids, but he demonstrates that this theory, often contra-
dicted by experience, leaves much to be desired if applied to the undulating
motion of the sea. To this effect the author has, in his Introduction^ given a
description of the hypotheses or theories promulgated by the distinguished
authors who have preceded him, whence results such a variety of views as to
give confidence in his own opinion. However, the author appears thoroughly
convinced that the above theory is based upon truth. Thus, when extraor-
dinary causes do not intervene, the elements established by that theory in the
phenomenon are not altered, and consequently the latter acts according to the
law established by the theory.

But when a cause like that of a violent and long-continued wind alters the
pre-established system in the undulatory motion, the author cannot but admit
a notable motion in the liquid mass. He holds it to be indisputable that the
wind can communicate to the waves a real motion of translation on the sur-
face of the water, and his conclusions are not deduced from experiments made
in the quiet of the stud}^ but from facts verified in the immensity of the
sea. The author has therefore adduced a great number of such facts in the
twelfth paragraph. Besides which, reason suggests to him that a liquid mass
in equilibrium on one side, receiving continuous or intermittent impulses,
must also receive continuous motions of translation from the opposite part.
Now, if this argument and the whole series of facts collected are not sufficient
to convince any one of the important influence that a given force of wind has
upon the liquid mass, the author requires explanations of those extraordinary
translations experienced by ships in certain latitudes where the current is
known or where none exists (§ 13). The facts subsist ; we feel the necessity
of explaining them in order to prevent their fatal effects. But hitherto, as
far as the author knows, no one has occupied himself sufficiently with this
matter.

In consequence of the materials gathered in the twelfth paragraph, it was
easy for the author to compile the contents of the thirteenth section ; and the
example of the English vessel Winchester and that of the French frigate
Venus, adduced in the above paragraph, are for him a clear explanation of the
sought-for cause of that extraordinary translation or drifting. The number
of examples, says the author, might be considerably increased, but, in a paper
bearing the simple title of ' Hints,' he thinks that what he has said on the
subject in §§ 12 and 13 may prove sufficient. Now, if this proposition,
which embraces the first question, somewhat differs from the theoretical law
of the undulatory motion, seeing that the powerful causes in certain cases
produce an alteration, he believes that, in these exceptional cases, the said
proposition may be admitted among those which are tolerably proved, and
therefore deserve to be seriously examined. When such exceptional causes
do not exist, namely, when the wave is not struck by a wind stronger than seven
metres of velocity in a second of time, the author agrees with the theory, and
therefore, in the second question, he does not admit a notable motion of trans-
lation in the waves, and he combats the contrary opinion of De Tessan, Alan

June 27, 1859.] ADDITIONAL NOTICES. 397

Stevenson, Faoli, and De Coligny ; and, in the 15th paragraph, he adduces a
great number of facts to prove the mistake under which they labour. The author
therefore drawing a marked distinction between the state of a wave driven by
an impetuous wind and that of a wave acted on by a slight breeze, equally
combats the views of those authors who deny that there is any motion of
the particles of the liquid mass in waves, and those who always admit its
-existence.

Let us now pass on to the proposition which forms the subject of the third
question. In the 19th paragraph the author begins to treat of the phenomena
which must occur when the wave strikes the bottom of the sea with its base.
The 20th paragraph describes this phenomenon, and the 21st shows its exist-
ence, deduced from a series of facts which he considers veiy conclusive. The
hypothesis that in the wave raised by the wind near the shore the same thing
may arise that occurs in the tidal wave (§ 21), seems to the author to have so
much analogy and probability that he believes himself obliged to admit one of
the following consequences : either that such hypothesis is the expression of
what actually takes place in nature, or that the reality, whatever it may be,
must be so nearly parallel to tiie truth as to admit of one mode of expression
common to both.

It results therefore from what precedes, that if his proposition be not sus-
ceptible of any other explanation, it must be taken into consideration, other-
wise we should form a very restricted idea (on the authority of Sir J. F. W.
Herschel, says the author) of the merit and importance of the hypothesis ; but
following the relation of facts, he gathers his conviction that the hypothesis
by him presented amounts to a certainty. Nevertheless, he himself concludes
that it would not be useless to collect a greater number of proofs in order to
obtain universal assent to his convictions.

From the remaining part of the 21st paragraph the author prepares the
arguments which are to serve him in supporting the proposition which forms
the fifth and last question.

But before proceeding to it he stops to prove the volume and velocity of
the waves, the depth to which their action is communicated, and what their
power may be.

1'he coasts of islands and continents receive their configuration from the
mass of waters in motion. Some distinguished authors assert that it results
from the littoral or tidal currents ; Avhereas Mr. Cialdi believes that such
configuration is the work of the waves. The paragraphs 22, 23, and 24, re-
ferring to a long series of analogous proofs, treat of the volume of the waves,
their vigorous footing proving their immense power at depths hitherto not
acknowledged by the learned, and induce the author to conclude that the
waves are the principal instruments employed by nature in excavating and
filling up the shores of the sea.* With this important series of facts the

* From the facts gathered by Mr. Cialdi it results that the waves can attain
11 metres (.36 feet English) in height, 20 metres (66 feet) of velocity in one
second of time, and 300 metres (984 fe et) of amplitude from crest to crest. Their
power near the surface of the sea is of 30,000 kilogrammes per square metre
(6145 lbs. per square foot English) ; their action is communicated still perceptibly
at the depth of 200 metres (656 feet) ; and when arrived at a bottom of 34 metres
(111 feet) of water they break.

In the Mediterranean the waves attain only 9 metres (29*5 feet) in height,
10 (32 8 feet) metres of velocity in a second, and their power has been found,
7 metres above the surface of the sea, to amount to 16,000 kilogrammes per
square metre (3265 lbs. per square foot), which is still perceptible at a depth of
60 metres (197 feet). They begin in that sea to break when they meet the bottom
at a depth less than 12 metres (39 feet).

2 G 2

398 ADDITIONAL NOTICES. [June 27, 1859.

author undertakes to examine the doctrine of Montanari, and thus passes on
to the second part of his work.

According to Mr. Cialdi, Montanari 's doctrine considered per se is far from
solid, and a small number of facts adduced would suffice to prove it erroneous.
But that doctrine being supported by the most celebrated men who have
treated the subject of the motion of waters, he feels the necessity of extreme
circumspection in his deductions while unhesitatingly refuting the same.
He therefore endeavours to enter gradually into the development of the
question in hand, with the paragraphs from 25 to 35, and as he proceeds he
gathers in new facts against the defenders of the said doctrine ; so that at the
37th paragraph he seems to think that he has annihilated it by weight of the
facts and by dictates of reason, and he sees rising on its ruins the new law of
sand-shift ings, the principles of which were already indicated by Castelli,
Boscowich, and De Fazio, but remained neglected on account of the prevailing
theory of Montanari. This new law of sand-shifting is held by the author as
an axiom.

The author was under this conviction when he became acquainted with the
excellent * Considerations on the Protrusion of Shores and on the Sand Ac-
cumulations in the Ports of the Adriatic, applied to the Establishment of a
Port in the Pelusian Bay,' by the celebrated Paleocapa.

It is easy to perceive that, those ' Considerations ' contradicting the two
principal propositions which form the basis of almost the whole edifice raised
by Captain Cialdi, he saw himself placed under the necessity either of re-
nouncing the authority of all the facts adduced in his work, or of making an
appendix to the same, which, based on the same facts and on others omitted
for brevity's sake, should prove the exactness of his arguments. After mature
reflection he adopted the second alternative ; and we gather from the Ap-
pendix he has published that a more thorough examination of the question
has given, according to his opinion, still greater evidence to all that he had
previously enunciated.

In this Appendix he besides avails himself of the opportunity of adverting
to the intended Pelusian port ; he applies there his theory, and suggests a few
modifications in the piers which are to form that harbour.

( 399 )

INDEX

VOLUME THE THIED.

Abbott, Keith E., 390 et seq.

Abyssinia, 308, 355.

Ac-tu Mountains, 127 et seq,

Adda, 354.

Adelaide, 29.

Adelong, 339.

Aden, 179, 195, 266, 268, 314.

Admiralty Surveys, 261 et seq.

^gean, 184.

Afghanistan, 387.

Africa, 301 et seq.

, Central, 111, 208, 217, 362, 363.

, East, 104, 111 et seq., 186,210,217,

301 et seq., 348 et seq.

, South, 99 et seq., 266.

, West Coast, 377, 379 et seq.

Agassiz, Prof., 330.

Ahar, 5.

Aird, Mr., 264

Akyab, 77.

Ala-tu Mountains, 127 et seq.

Alceste Island, 59.

Aldemey, 261.

Alexandretta, 266.

Alexandria, 177 et seq., 309.

Alice River, 22, 30.

Alldridge, Commr., 262.

Alleleinhorn, 290.

Alma River, 46, 53.

Alps, 286, 290, 366, 368.

Altata, 109.

Amara, 209, 210.

Amasia, 370, 372.

Amazon, 94 et seq.

Ambernoh, 361.

America, 104, 272, 317 et seq.

, British North, 122 et seq., 219 et

seq., 317 et seq.

, Central, 106, 107, 330.

. , North, 390.

-, South, 93 et seq., 331.

Amherst, Lord, 167, 270.

Rocks, 58.

Amisus, 370.
Amon-Daria, 388.
Amoy, 58, 71.
Amiil, 4, 12.

Amur, 62, 92, 93, 288, 289,

Anambas, 269.

Anatolia, 385.

Andaman Islands, 268, 359.

Andamoka, 336.

Anderson, Mr., 200.

River, 324.

Andes, 94, 95, 96.

Andrew, W. P., 386, 387.

Angepena, 337.

Angora, 389.

Anguilla Islands, 332.

Anjou, M., 388.

Anniversary, 215 et seq.

Address, 224 et seq.

Anti-Lebanon, 287.

Antilles, 389.

Arabia, 217, 268.

Aracan, 268.

Arafura Sea, 271.

Aral Sea, 290, 387, 388.

Araland Ak-majed, 145,

Ararat, 292.

Araxes, 18.

Areas Island, 384.

Arctic Regions, 117 et seq., 146 et seq., 325
et seq.

Ardabet, 18.

Arfaki, 360.

Argonaut Islet, 271.

Argyleshire, 263.

Argyle Canal, 263.

Aristotle, 181.

Arksut, 118, 120.

Armenia, 370.

Armstrong, Dr., 146.

Arroango Jiiver, 105.

Arrowsmith, J., 64, 78, 284, 319, 320.

Arru Islands, 299.

Asia, 291 et seq., 371.

, Central, 93, 127 et seq., 288, 386, 387.

Mmor, 107, 208, 370, 385, 389.

Ask, 12.

Assiniboine River, 219.
Assouan, 195.
Astrakan, 387, 394.
Athabasca, 126.

400

INDEX.

Atkinson, T. W., 127 et seq., 145.

Atlantic, 273, 278.

Auckland, 339.

Aurora Borealis, 117 et seq.

Austin, Mr., 35, 54.

Australia, 186,267, 271,270,284, 333 e^se^.

■, Central, 156.

, East, 222.

, North, 91, 342, 361.

, South, 28 et seq., 151 et seq., 222,

334 et seq.

Western, 34 et seq.

Australian Desert, 87 et seq.
Austi-ia, 286.

, Archduke John of, 234.

Ayas, 266.
Azerbijan, 3, 5, 392.

Babbage, H., 151 et seq., 335.

Island, 43, 44.

Babel Mandeb, Straits of, 178.
Babuyan, 270.
Bache, Prof., 147, 329.
Back, Sir G., 120, 124, 146.

River, 325.

Badakshan, 145.

Baffin Bay, 325.

Bagdad, 371.

Bahama Channel, 390.

Bahr-el-Abiad, 213.

Baikie, Dr. W.B., 311,312.

^ines, Thos., 99 et seq., 313.

Baird, S. F., 327.

Baku, 387, 394.

Bala Hissar, 389.

Balantes, 380.

Balingtang Channel, 270.

Ball, J., 124,126, 291.

Balonne River, 88.

Bamshf Bend, 15, 16, 17.

Banca Strait, 266, 269.

Banda Sea, 271.

Baneas, 287, 288.

Bang-ta-kong, 365.

Bankok, 365.

Barcu River, 25, 91.

Bari, 352, 356.

Barker, Capt., 90.

Barkly, Sir H., 341.

Barnett, Capt. E., 273.

Baroda, 386.

Barra, 379.

Barracouta Harbour, 270.

Barrault, Messrs., 185.

Barretto, M. H., 380.

Barrier Reefs, 89.

Barron, Capt., 377.

Barrow, Sir G., 72.

Barsonki, 388.

Barth, Dr., 286.

Barton, Mr., 312.

Bascan, 130, 132.
Bashi Channel, 270.
Bass Strait, 271.
Basses, 268.
Bathurst, 377, 379.
Batiopilas, 110.
Batuana, 384.
Bauermann, Mr., 322, 324.
Bavaria, 287.
Beaver, Capt., 384.

Fork Pass, 123.

Harbour, 272.

Bedford, Capt., 261, 263, 2(^5.

Bedingfeld, Capt., 101, 102.

Bedwell, Mr., 272.

Beechey Island, 325.

Beecroft, Consul, 311.

Begbie, Mr., 272.

Belcher, Sir E., 267, 361.

Beledeh, 9.

Belenia, 305.

Belly, M., 330.

Belonese countries, 369.

Beluchistan, 268.

Belyando River, 25.

Bentibe, 375.

Benguela, 362.

Benha, 194.

Bennett, Dr. J,, 341.

Berbera, 217.

Berenice, 195, 196.

Berg, Col., 388.

Bessassema, 380.

Bethune, Capt., 167.

Bevan, Rev. W. L., 283.

Bhutan Himalayas, 366.

Biafaras, 380.

Bigsby, Dr., 212.

Bijuba, 380.

Bijuga Islands, 379 et seq.

Billiton, 269.

Bingoldagh, 371.

Bishop Rock, 262.

Bissagos, 381, 383, 385.

Bissao, 380.

Bitter Lakes, 181, 182, 187, 189, 194.

Black Sea, 184, 208, 370, 389.

Blackie and Son, 286.

Blackney, Mr., 167, 267.

Blakiston, Capt., 123, 219, 220, 318, 319,

Blasket Isles, 265.

Blodget, L., 126, 329.

Blonde Shoal, 168.

Blue Nile, 305, 306, 355.

Bodegas, 94.

Boghaz, 389.

Bogos, 308.

Bolor Tagh, 388.

Bolton, Mr., 19.

Bombay, 105, 386.

Boni, Gulf of, 271.

Borneo, 269, 271, 300.

INDEX.

401

Boscastle; 262.

Boscowich, 398.

Botero, 307.

Boundary Pass, 220.

Bourchier, Mr., 263.

Bourgeau, M., 219, 220.

Bow River, 123.

Biava, 105, 209.

Braye, 26L

Brazil, 93, 95, 97, 362.

Breda, Mr., 374.

Bremer, Sir G., 88, 91, 342.

Brisbane Waters, 33.

Bristol Channel, 262.

British Columbia, 124, 222, 272, 284, 321,
et seq.

British Isles, 274. ,

Brooke, Sir A. de Capell, 250.

Brooke, Sir J., 300.

Brooker, Lieut., 266.
Brown, Robert, 54, 237 et seq.
Bruce, 209.
Bru ck,. Baron de, 186.
Brun-Rollet, M., 305, 307, 356.
Brunnow, Baron, 93.
Bubastis, 182.
Bucarie Chillas, 378.
Buchannan, Capt. F., 168.
Bukhara, 145, 388.
Bulama, 380, 384, 385.
Bull, Mr., 272.
Bullock, Lieut., 267.
Bunarbashi-su, 385.
Burgoyne, S., 19.
Bur Sallum, 378.

Sin, 377 et seq.

Burt, Corporal, 152, 335, 337.

Burton, Capt., HI et seq., 210 et seq., 217

et seq., 301 et seq., 348 et seq., 363.
Bury, Lord, 124 et seq.
Busa, 311.
Bush Island, 59.
Buxton, Sir.E. N., 256.

Cabot, 389.
Cabul, 145.
Cachabi River, 94.
Cadell, Capt. F., 338, 339.
Cairo, 180, 185, 192 et seq., 306.
Caledonian Canal, 188, 189, 263,
California, 111, 124, 324.
Calver, E. K., 261.

, W. B., 265, 273,

Camana Pontica, 371.

Cambodia, 269, 365.

Cambridge Gulf, 91.

Canada, 124, 126, 222, 276,317, 342.

Canelos, 94, 96.

Canton, 58, 86, 267, 270.

Cape Breton Island, 272.

Constitution, 147.

Cape Farewell, 120.

Eraser, 148.

of Good Hope, 104, 186, 191, 266,

276, 314.

Horn, 186.

Independence, 147.

Jackson, 147.

Jefferson, 147. .

Lao-thie-shan, 65.

Madison, l47.

York, 89, 90, 91, 342.

Carduchi, 370.

Carey, Mr., 272.

Carimata Channel, 269.

Carlingford Bar, 264.

Carnarvon, Earl of, 221.

Carpentaria, Gulf of, 32, 89, 90, 91, 157,
272.

Carr, Lewis, 168, 169.

Caruera Mountain, 104.

Casella's hypsometrical apparatus, 4, 16.

Caspian, 3, 7, 18, 387, 388, 393, 394, 395.

Castange, 362.

Castelli, M., 15, 398.

Castries Bay, 270.

Cato Bank, 267.

Caucasus, 3, 387.

Cazvin, Plain of, 3, 6.

Celebes Sea and Island, 271.

Ceylon, 266, 268, 284.

Chabhana-Karahissar, 370.

Chadda, 312.

Chagos Archipelago, 268.

Chama Lake, 111.

Chamalari, 366.

Champion Bay, 34, 53.

Chang-Chenmo, 144.

Chang-shan Island, 61, 64.

Channel Islands, 261.

Charter, 117, 345.

Che-chow-fu, 59.

Che-fow, 59.

Chehel Cheshmeh, 10, 11.

Che-keang Mountains, 63.

Chenab, 386.

Cherbourg, 19^.

Chercaouieh, 200.

Chesney, Col., 200.

Chesson, F. W., 323.

Chevalier, M., 385.

Chibin, 200.

Chignecto Bay, 273.

Chihuahua, 109, 110.

Chile, 341.

Chili, China, 63 et seq.

Chimborazo, 94.

Chimmo, Lieut., 263, 264.

China, 55 et ^eq., 162, 186, 270, 289, 292,

375.
China Sea, 269.
Chinese Tartary, 127 et seq.
Turkestan, 289.

402

INDEX.

Ching-kiang-fu, 57, 167, 169.
Chittagong, 268.
Chois, 109.
Chongwe, 210.
Chown, Mr., 377.
Christie, Pi'of., 121.
Chu Kiang, 267, 270.
Churchill, Lord A., 89.
Ohusan, 270.

• Archipelago, 56.

Oaldi, Comm. A., 395 et seq.
Cinaloa, 108.
Cipanga, 100, 101.
Clapperton, Capt., 355.
Claik, Mr., 122.
Clarke, Dr., 180.

, Rev. J. M., 339.

, Rev. W. B., 87 et seq.

River, 88.

Clifton, Mr., 272.

Clyde, Firth of, 275.

Goanzo River, 105.

Cochet, M. Ladislas, 112.

Cochin China, 186, 269, 365.

Collinson, Capt., 93, 146, 167, 170, 294, 326.

Columbia River, 123, 125, 220, 222, 319.

Colombo, 268.

Columbus, 390.

Combo, 377.

Compass, mechanical and magnetical, 358.

Conducia River, 116.

Congo, 307.

Conrad, M., 203.

Cooley, W. D., 304.

Cooper Creek, 25 et seq., 88, 155, 156, 334.

Coqui, Mr., 373 et seq.

Coral Sea, 267, 271.

Corea, 63, 65, 80.

Corinth, Gulf of, 184.

Cornwall, 262.

Coromandel, 355.

Costa Rica, 330.

Cotton, 315, 316.

Council, changes in, 216.

Court, S., 67, 84, 85.

Coutts, Miss B., 316, 323.

Cox, Commr., 261.

Cramer, Mr., 263.

Crawfurd, J., 54, 90, 91, 104, 105, 110,

157, 297, 316, 359, 361.
Creyke, Commr., 263.
Crinan Canal, 263.
Crocodile Lakes, 182.
Cuenca, 94.
Culiacan, 109.
Cunningham, Major, 867.
Currents, undulatory motion of, 395 e# seq.
Cuyaba, 331.
Cyprus, 208.

Dalton, Mr., 121.

Damietta, 179, 180, 185, 205, 309.
Dampier, 360, 361.
Dandaragan, 51.
Danube, 203, 266.

, Lower, 206, 207, 208.

Darling Downs, 31, 159.

River, 25, 338.

Dash-Killeh, 387.

Davis, Sir J. F., 164 et seq., 296.

, Jefferson, 328.

, Mr., 261.

Dawson River, 18, 19, 20, 30.

Dayman, Commr., 273.

De Coligny, 397.

Deesa, 386.

De Fazio, 398.

De la Beche, Sir H., 275.

De la Brunnifere, M., 289.

Delagoa Bay, 373 e^ seq.

De Lisle, 114.

Demavend, 2 et seq., 291, 292.

Denham, Capt., 267, 355.

Denison, Sir W., 159, 300, 340 et seq.

Dent, Lieut., 263.

Depuch Island, 53.

Derbend, 4.

Desbrisay, Mr., 272.

De Tessan, 396.

Dibeh, Bay of, 205.

Dillon, Mr., 273.

Doab, 5, 6.

Dobrudscha, 207.

Dom, 290.

Donaldson, Stuart, 338»

Don Angelo, 209, 213, 307.

Donegal, 265.

Dorey, 299, 358, 359.

Douglas, Mr., 262, 320, 322, 323.

Dove, 278.

Dower, Mr., 285.

Drakensberg, Mr., 373.

Di-ummond, Mr., 37.

Drury, Capt. Byron, 88, 90, 342.

, 339.

Dudjukdagh, 371.
Dufour, Gen., 290.
Dugelet Islet, 271.
Du Halde, M., 165.
Duhamel, M., 388.
Dumbrek, 385.
Dumont, 370.
Ddna, Valley of, 7.
Dundalk Bay, 264.
Dunmanus Bay, 265.
Durian Strait, 269.
Dutch India, 360, 361.

Earthquakes, 279 et seq.
East Indies, 191.
Eastern Archipelago, 267.
Ecuador, 93 ef seq.

index;

403

Eddystone Rocks, 262.

Edinburgh, 275.

Edkins, J., 296, 375, 376.

Edward River, 338.

Edwardes, Col. H. B., 172.

Edye, Commr., 265.

Egina, Gulf of, 184.

Egypt, 177 et seq., 266, 309, 355.

Elbiirz, 2 et seq.

Elchi, 171.

Elephant River, 373.

El Fuerte, 108, 109.

Elgin, Earl of, 56 et seq., 1 64 et seq.,292 etseq.

Ei Guisr, 187.

Elizabeth, 153.

Ellice, E., 124.

Ellis, Sir H., 72, 165.

Embah, 387.

Emory, Major, 328.

Enerea, 209.

England, 183, 186,261,275.

EnziUi, 391, 392, 394.

Erdl, 287.

Erhardt, Mr., 116.

Erzerum, 370, 371.

Erzindjan, 370, 371.

Espy, Prof., 329.

Esquimault, 126.

Esthonia, 290.

Euphrates, 370, 371. .

* Euroomba,' 19.

Europe, 104, 286 et seq,

Evans, F. J., 273.

Exmouth Gulf, 53.

Expedition Island, 100, 101.

Eyre, Mr., 31, 155, 157.

Creek, 31, 156.

Fatchin Island, 271.
Fenton, Mr., 377.
Fernando Po, 312.
Ferrier, Mr., 387.
Fiji Islands, 316, 359.
Findlay, A. G., 356.
Firando, 297.
Fitz Roy, Adm., 89, 278.
Fitzjames, Capt., 327.
Flinders, Capt., 90.
Flores, Ex-President, 97.
Flores Sea, 271.
Florida, 390.
Fokien, 75.
Forbes, Mr., 263.
Forchhammer, Dr., 386,
Formosa, 86, 270.
Fomen, 391.
Fort Aralsk, 145.

Carlton, 220, 318.

ColviUe, 324.

Edmonton, 122, 123, 220, 221.

Pitt, 220.

Fort Reliance, 121.

Yale, 324.

Forth, Firth of, 275.

Foster, 336, 337.

Fourier, 184.

France, 186, 262, 291.

Fi-auklin. Sir J., 120, 325, 326, 340.

Eraser, M.-Gen. J., 284. ^ ■

Frazer River, 272, 322, 324.

Fu-chow-fu, 58, 71, 85.

Fuga, 210, 218, 302,348.

Fullarton and Co., 285.

Fundy, Bay of, 273.

Fung-yang-fu, 376.

Fusi-jama, 299.

Fuss, M., 388.

Galatz, 207.
Gallici Bey, 186.
Galton, F., 116, 355, 356.
Gambia, 377 et seq.
Ganges, 20B, 268.
Garbo, a09, %>S, 307.
Gardner. Dr., 322.
Garzha, 144.

Gascoyne River, 34 et seq.
Gaspar Strait, 269.
Gaurisankar, 366.
Gauss, 176.
Gawler Range, 335.
Gay Lussac, 280.
Gebel Attaka, 178.

Awebel, 178, 194.

GeelvinkBay, 360,361.

Geharty, Mr., 152, 335.

Genouilly, M. R. de, 203.

Geographical Progress, 260 et seq.

Geological Survey, 275.

George, Mr., 361.

€eraldine Mine, 34, 50.

•Germali-tchai, 370.

Germany, 186, 187, 286, 287.

Gerstenberg, J., 96.

Getchiscr, 6.

Geves, 380.

Ghattat Bey, 200.

Gherba, 213.

Ghilaiks, 391, 392.

Ghilan, 390 et seq.

Gibraltar, 186.

Ginhala, 380.

Glover, Lieut., 311, 312.

Golden Island, 164.

Gondokoro, 357.

<joree, 377, 378.

€ould, C, 340.

€ozo, 265.

Graah, Captain, 122.

Grace, Vice-Admiral Per<^, 254.

Grant, Colonel, 320, 322.

Gray, H,, 48.

404

INDEX.

Great Britain, 275.

Combin, 290.

Fish River, 325. ■

Greece, 186.
Greenland, 117 et seq.
Greenough River, 47.

Gregory, A. C, 18 et seq., 87 et seq., 156,
157, 158, 333, 334.

, C. F., 19, 23, 335.

, F. T., 34 et seq.

, H., 20. .

Grenada, 273.

Grey, Sir G., 53, 155.

, Admiral Sir F. W., 266.

Guayaquil, 94, 96, 97.
Guernsey, 261.
Gulabek, 4.
Gulf Stream, 279.
Gumbel, C. W., 287.
Gumuchhane, 370.
Gunck, 371.
Guysboro Harbour, 272.

Hadan, 311.

Haddington, Earl of, 251.
Hainan, 86, 269.
Haiti, 390.
Hakodadi, 267.
Hale, Bishop, 323.
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 126.
Hall, Captain W. H., 85.
Hall, Mr., 262.

, James, 328.

Hallam, Henry, 241 et seq.

Hallowes, Lieut., 72.

Halys, 389.

Hamerton, Colonel, 112, 302.

Hamilton, W. J., 107, 207, 208.

Hamoaze, 261.

Hancodc, Commr., 272.

Hangchow, 375, 376.

Han-Keang, 170.

Han-Kow, 85, 86, 162 etseq., 267, 296, 316.

Hans, 146, 148.

Harar, 217.

Harkishu, 144.

Harmsen, Dr. E., 372, 373.

Haro Strait, 272.

Harris, Major, 209, 287.

, Captain, 373.

, Sound of, 264.

Hartlepool Bay, 261.
Hasbeiya, 287, 288.
Haskier, 264.
Haslewood, E., 97.
Hassanekber, 6.
Hawes, Lieut., 263.
Hawkins, Colonel, 324.
Hay, Lord W., 173.
Hayes, I. J., 146 et seq.

Hebrides, 263.

Hebron, 288.

Hector, Dr., 122 etseq., 219, 220,318 et seq.

Heligoland, 372,

Hely, Mr., 20, 30, 87, 88.

Heneage, E., 307.

Heraz River, 4, 11, 12.

Herodotus, 181.

Herschel, Sir J. F. W., 174 et seq., 278, 283,

397.
Hilliard, C. H., 160, 161, 162.
Himalayas, 145, 171, 217, 366, 367.
Hindoo Kosh, 388.
Hbbarton, 272.
Hochstetter, Dr., 339, 340.
Hodgkin, Dr., 90.
Holland, 186, 187, 203.
Homer, 385.
Honan, 170.

Honduras, 99, 106, 107, 330, 389.
Hong-Kong, 56, 270.
Hooker, Sir W., 332.
Homer, Lieut., 261, 265.
Hoskyn, Mr., 264.
Huacaybo, 110.
Hue, M., 165.
Hudson Bay, 126.
Hudson Bay Company, 122, 124, 125, 284,

317, 320, 322.
Hu-hu, 168.

Humboldt, 1 8, 224 et seq.,278, 368, 389, 390.
Hutchison, Lieut., 267.
Hwang-ho, 57, 59, 63, 76, 86, 87, 270, 376.
Hwang-pu River, 375, 376.
Hwei River, 376.
Hyderabad, 386.

Hi, 145, 288.

Ilium, 385.

Impey River, 35.

India, 104, 106, 171, 183, 186, 196, 210,

267 et seq., 276, 277, 315, 387.
Indian Archipelago, 299 et seq.
Indus, 386, 387.
Inhambane, 101, 375.
Inhampura, 375.
Inverness-shire, 263.
lona, Sound of, 263.
Ionian Islands, 186.
Ipswich, Moreton Bay, 18.
Irak, 3.

Ireland, 264, 265, 275.
Iris, 370, 371, 389.
Irkutsk, 92.
Iron Gates, 206, 207.
Irwin River, 34, 51.
Iskanderiin, Gulf of, 266.
Issykkul Lake, 290.
Italy, 186, 187, 291.
Iti, 390.

INDEX.

405

Jacobabad, 386.
Jajriid, River of, 4, 5, 11.
Jambeer Channel, 380, 384.
James, Colonel, 175, 274.

Bay, 126.

Town, 364.

Japan, 186, 267, 270, 297 et seq., 316.

Java, 105, 269.

Jaxartes, 146, 387, 388.

Jeba River, 380.

Jeffrey, Mr., 263.

Jenkyn, Rev. Dr., 256.

Jerusalem, 2B7.

Jesus Maria Mines, 110.

Joal, 377, 379.

Johnston, A. K., 279, 285.

Jolubeff, Captain, 289.

Jordan, 287.

Juan de Fuca, Straits of, 322.

* Juanda,' 19.

Jyhoon, 388.

Kabogo, 112, 351.
Kaffa, 209.

Cnarea, 212.

Kafr Azzayat, 193, 194.

Kakabeka Falls, 125.

Kalifatly-chai, 385.

Kamati River, 373, 374.

Kamchatka, 271.

Kammistaquoia, 125.

Kampfer, 297.

Kamrman, 7, 8.

Kanabac, 380, 381.

Kananaski Pass, 123, 220, 318,

Kane, Dr., 146 et seq.

Kara Boghas, Bay of, 290.

Karagwah, 357.

Kara-Kash, 144.

Karakorum, 144, 145, 367.

Kasenge Island, 112.

Kashgar, 144, 145, 172, 173, 174,

Katanga, 352.

Kattiwar, 268.

Kaze, 302, 303.

Kazembe, 357.

Keeling Island, 268.

Kellett, Capt., 96, 167, 294.

Kenia, 116, 211, 213, 304 et seq.

Kennedy, Mr., 22, 26, 31, 88.

. Range, 42, 44.

Kennicott, R., 327.

Kerasun, 370.

Kerek, 287, 288.

Kerr, Lord Schomberg, 2 et seq., 291.

, Mr., 267.

Kei'retclr, River of, 4, 5, 6.
Kerry, 265.
Kertch Peninsula, 60.
Kew-Keang, 294.
Khalkhal, 392.

Khanikoff, M., 289, 292,

Khardong, 144.

Khaikov, 290.

Khartum, 306.

Khasi Hills, 277.

Khin Jhan, 288.

Khiva, 145, 387, 388.

Khokan, 145.

Khoor, 18.

Khorassan, 3, 289.

Khoten, 144, 145.

Kiang-si Mountains, 63.

Klbuga, 352.

Kicking Horse Pass, 123, 125.

Kiepert, M., 370, 371, 385, 389.

Kilia, 207.

Kiliam, 144.

Kilimanjaro, 115, 116, 208, 211, 213, 304,

306.
Kilwa, 348, 349.

. Kisiwani, 349.

Kiraborat, 213.
King, D. 0., 365.

, J. W., 262.

George River, 160, 161, 162.

George Sound, 272.

Kingani, 210.

Kinkel, Dr., 360.

Kin-sin, 271.

Kirgan, 173.

Kirk, Dr., 100 et seq.

Kitangura, 352.

Kittafiny River, 379 et seq.

Kittan, 384.

Kivira, 352, 356.

Kizil Irmak, 389.

Knoblicher, Dr., 209.

Kobi, Desert of, 80.

Koepang, 369.

Kokan, 172, 173, 174,388.

Kolaina Flat, 43.

Konduchi, 349.

Koobijawanna, 34.

Korea, 270.

Kostroma, 290.

Krapf, Rev. Mr., 105, 114, 115, 209 et seq.,

304, 307.
Kuenda, 213.
Kuen-lun, 145, 367.
Kuigluk, 173.
Kiijjiir, 8.
Kunchinjinga, 366.
Kung-chow, 86.
Kurds, 370, 371.
Kuril Islands, 271.
Kurrachi, 266, 386.
Kushan, 167.
Kutanie River and Pass, 123, 125, 220,318,

319.

Labuan, 300.

406

INDEX;

Laccadivas, 268.
Ladak, 144, 145, 173.
Ladi, 312.
Lagos, 311, 312.
Lagoskine, M., 388.
Lahijan, 391.
Lahore, 386.

Laird, M'Gregor, 103, 104.
Lake Athabasca, 126, 320,

Baikal, 92.

Balkhash, 288.

Chad, 355.

Gairdner, 153, 154, 335.

Gregory, 154, 157, 335.

Itra, 106.

Maravi, 116.

Mensaleh, 181, 185, 187.

Merom, 288.

Merozalah, 199.

'Ngami, 384.

Pass, 123.

Phiala, 287, 288.

Superior, 125, 126, 220, 222, 317.

Tanganyika ; see Tanganyika.

Timsah, 181, 182, 187, 189.

Torrens, 28, 29, 31, 32, 152 et seq.,

335, 336, 337.

Ujiji ; see Ujiji.

Winnipeg, 124, 125, 126, 220, 317.

. Yojoa or Taulebe, 106, 107, 330.

Lamansky, M., 288, 387 et seq.

Land Surveys, 274 et seq.

Lange, D. A., 201 et seq.

Langshang, 168.

Lankeran, 394.

Lapidge, Lieut., 385.

Laplace, 184.

La Plata, 332.

Lariab, 390.

Larousse, M., 205.

La Tola, 94.

Laur River, 4, 8, 9, 16, 17.

Laura Valley, 5, 6.

Laurie, R. H., 258.

Laurijan, 4, 12.

Leambiye, 103.

Leichhardt, 18 et seq., 87 et seq., 333, 334.

Lenne, M., 292.

Lentze, M., 203.

Leon, M., 209.

Leo-tung, Gulf of, 65, 80, 270.

Lepere, M., 186, 309.

Lesseps, M., 186 et seq., 309, 310.

Leu-cung Island, 59.

Lewis, 264.

Libyan Desert, 181.

Lieusson, M., 203.

^.impopo, 375.

Linant Bey, 184, 186, 187, 190.

Linschoten Islands, 271.

Linyanti, 363.

Little Fork Pass, 123.

Livingstone, Dr., 99 et seq., 114, 304, 312>
343, 353, 362, 363, 3«4.

, Mr., 100, 102.

Llanganate, 94.
Loch Canon, 264.

Crinan, 263.

Eynort, 263.

Fyne, 263.

Gilp Head, 263.

Harport, 263.

Kishorn, 264.

Maddy, 264.

Roag, 263, 264.

Shieldag, 264

Torridon, 264.

Tuadh, 264.

Lockhart, W., 85 et seq.^ 170, 296.

Lockier Range, 39, 49.

Loftus, W. K., 259.

Logan, Sir W., 276.

Lokoya, 209.

Londonderry, 265.

Loo-choo Islands, 271,

Loquek, 209.

Lough Foyle, 265.

• Swilly, 265.

Louisburg Harbour, 272.

Louisiade Islands, 271.

Lowry, Mr., 285.

Luavo, 103.

Lucan, 307, 308.

Lutai, 79.

Luzon, 269.

Lundy Isle, 263.

Lycus, 370. ^

Lyons River, 34 et seq.

Lytton, Sir E. B., 124, 127, 221, 321.

Mac A dam Plains, 38.
Macartney, Lord, 60, 73, 87, 270.
Macas, 96.

Macassar, Strait of, 271.
M'CIean, Mr., 200, 204.
Macclesfield Bank, 269.

Strait, 269.

M'Clintock, Capt., 325, 326.
M'Clure, Sir R., 197.
Macdonald, Sir R., 29.
Macdonnell, Sir R. G., 223, 336.
Macdougall, Mr., 265.
Mackenzie, 320, 322.

River, 126.

M'Lane, R. M., 168.
Maclear, T., 266.
Macleay, George, 338.

W., 341.

M'Leod, Lyons, 103, 104, 106, 116, 160> 313.
M'Queen, J., 105, 114, 115, 116, 208 et seq.,

307, 354, 362, 363.
Madagascar, 314.
Ma^jame, 115.

INDEX.

407

Madras, 105.
Maguire, Capt., 326.
Mahe, 313.

Mahmoudieh Canal, 204.
Maillard, N. D., 358.
Malabar, 268, 355.
Malacca Coast, 268, 269.

, Straits of, 75.

Malagarazi River, 211, 214^306.
Malay Islands, 316.
Maldivas, 268.
Maligne River, 122.
Mallet, R., 280 et seq.

■ , Dr. J. W., 282.

Malta, 186, 265.

Manacusi River, 160, 161, 162,

Manchuria, 64, 65, 86,. 270.

Mdngaudeh, 395.

Manice, 373.

Manila, 270.

Mansell, Commr., 266,

Manual of Geographical Science, 283,

Maranoa River, 20, 88.

March, 9.

Marchottchai, 370.

Maritime positions, 274.

Markham, C. R., 95, 97.

Marseilles, 183, 198.

Martaban, 268.

Marungu, 363.

Masteroud, 200.

Matto Grosso, 331.

Mattol, 373.

Maugel Bey, 186, 187, 190.

Mauritius, 313, 314.

Maury, Commr., 279.

May, D. J., 311, 312.

Mayne, Lieut., 272.

Mayr's Atlas, 286.

Mazanderan, 7, 11, 16, 391.

Mazaro, 100.

Mazatlan, 108, 109.

Mboa-Maji, 116.

Meander, 385.

Mecca, 182, 186.

Mecham, Commr. G. F., 255.

Mediterranean, 177 et seq., 265, 309.

Meekhsay, 8, 9.

Meiaco-sima Islands, 271.

Meidsmek, 6.

Melville von Cambee, Baron, 359.

Mendere-su, 385, 386.

Mercator projection, 174.

Mergui Archipelago, 268.

Merivale River, 20.

Mertvoi-Koultouk, 388.

Mesopotamia, 371.

Meteorology, 277 e* seq.

Metternich, Prince, 186.

Mexico, 99, 108 et seq., 328.

, Gulf of, 390.

Meyer, M. Ceroid, 236.

Mia-tao Islands, 61, 62, 64.

, Straits of, 59, 61, 62, 64, 84.

Mieomaffo, 369.

Mines, Bay of, 273.

Minginish, 263.

Ming-Kishlak, 387.

Minnesota, 126.

Mira River, 94.

Mississippi, 208, 327, 390.

Mitchell, Sir T., 21, 22, 31, 88, 91.

Moeze, 200.

Mogan, 392.

Moluccas, 359.

Mombas, 115, 210.

Mongolia, 65, 143.

Montagu, Major H. S., 252.

Montanari, 398.

Monteith, General, 18, 197.

Monte Rosa, 290.

Montgomerie, Capt., 144.

Mooltan, 386.

Moon Mts., 113, 211, 212, 213, 353 et seq,

Moore, Mr., 53, 107.

Moreton Bay, 18, 33, 267, 333.

Morton, W., 146 et seq.

Mouchelet, M., 194.

Moukden, 64.

Mountain House, 220, 221.

Mount Abundance, 87, 88.

Ararat, 2, 18.

Augustus, 46, 47, 48, 49.

Brown, 320.

Dalgetty, 41.

Espy, 336.

Everest, 366.

■ Gascoyne, 38.

Goodsir, 220.

Gould, 37, 50.

■ Hale, 37, 50, 53.

Hermon, 287, 288.

Hooker, 125, 320.

■ Hope, 44.

Hopeless, 29, 31.

Ida, 385, 386.

James, 39.

Judi, 292.

Kosciusko, 338.

Matthew, 37.

Murchison, 35, 125, 220, 320.

Narryer, 35.

. of Olives, 288.

Owen, 20.

Phillips, 39.

Playfair, 20.

. Puckford, 38, 39.

Samuel, 39.

■ Sandiman, 45.

Serle, 152.

Tabor, 288.

' Thomson, 46, 48.

Vaux, 220.

Mouravine, 387.

408

INDEX.

Mourilyan, Mr., 273.

Mozambique, 103, 104, 116, 314, 362.

M'rima, 302.

Mueller, Dr., 342.

Mull, 263.

MiiUer, Dr. S., 300, 368.

Mumbles, 262.

Munzinger, M. Werner, 308.

Murchison, Sir R., 33, 53, 87, 91, 93, 97,
113, 116, 123, 143, 154, 156, 162, 166,
197, 224 et scq., 352, 366, 367, 370.

■ River, 34 et seq.

Murray, Sir C, 2, 10, 145, 291.

. River, 155, 337 et seq.

Murrumbidgee, 338.

Mush, 371.

Mutu River, 100.

Nagasaki, 271, 298.

Nairne, C, 53.

Nankin, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 267, 294.

Naples, 283.

Napo River, 95, 96.

Napoleon, 183,186..

Nai-e River, 333.

Nasmyth, Mr., 284.

Natal, 160, 314.

Natunas, 269.

Nauta, 95, 96, 97.

Nazareth, 288.

Neeocesar, 382.

Negrais, 268.

Negrelli, M., 184, 200, 202, 203.

Nelson's Atlas, 285.

Nepaul, 171.

Nerbudda, 277.

Neu-chong, 64.

New Brunswick, 222, 273.

Caledonia, 91, 342, 359, 361.

Newfoundland, 272.

New Granada, 93.

Guinea, 271, 299, 300, 358 et seq.

Ireland, 361.

South Wales, 339, 341.

• Zealand, 339, 340.

Ngu Mountains, 116.
Nicaragua, 330.

Nicobar Islands, 268.
Nicolay, Hev. C. G., 283.
Nicolson, Sir C, 89.

, Capt. Sir F., 56, 66.

Niger, 103, 355.

Expedition, 310 e^ seq.

Nijni-Novgorod, 74.

Niksar, 370.

Nile, 114, 179 et seq., 208 et seq., 265, 304

et seq., 352 et seq.
Niphon, 271.
Ni'ssa, 6.
Nive Hiver, 20.
Norsworthy, Mr., 67.

North Island, 59.

• Uist, 264.

Nova Scotia, 222, 272.

Nunchung, 86.

Niipe, 312.

Niir, 4, 7, 8, 9.

Nyanza Lake, 211, 212, 218, 303 et seq.,

348 et seq.
Nyassa Lake, 111.

Obituary, 224 et seq.

O'Connor, Col. Smyth, 377, 379 et seq.

Odessa, 207.

Ogle, Admiral Sir C, 254.

Okanagan Lake, 324.

Okhotsk, Sea of, 92, 271.

Old Bow Foit, 220.

Old Columbia, 93.

Oldham, Prof., 277.

Oliphant, L., 162 etseq., 293, 294, 298.

Oltenitza, 207.

Omercote, 386.

Omguini, 373.

Oodoong River, 365.

Orango, 381 et seq.

Ordnance Survey, 274.

Orenburg, 387.

Origstadt, 373 et seq.

Orlebai-, Commr., 272.

Orteau, M. H., 380, 381.

Osborn, Capt. S., 55 et seq., 162, 267, 292,

293, 297.
O'Shaughnessy, Lieut., 377.
Otter, Capt., 263, 273.
Ouadee Toumilat, 185, 194, 195.
Oiij, 9.

Ourloo Irghiz, 387.
Oust Oust, 388.
Overland Route, 192 et seq.
OwSti, Prof., 158 et seq.
Oxus, 387, 388.

Pagfe, Lieut., 331.

Pailon, 94, 96.

Pakington, Sir J., 91.

Palawan, 269.

Paleocapa, Signer, 203, 398.

Palestine, 287.

Palliser, Capt., 122 et seq., 219 et seq., 317

et seq.
Palmer, Major E., 363, 364.
Panching, 78.
Pangani River, 116, 210.
Pankong, 367.
Pan-ting, 78.
Paoli, 397.
Papakura, 339.
Papallacta, 96.
Papua, 271.
Paracels, 269.

INDEX.

409

Parana, 331.
Pargachefski, M., 92.
Parish, Sir W., 87, 332.

. , Capt., 87.

Parker, Sir W., 167.
Parry, Sir E., 122, 148.

, Mr., 152, 328, 335, 337.

Parsons, Mr., 273.

Parung La Tso (River), 357.

Paryadrfes, 370.

Pastaza River, 94, 95.

Pattinson, Major, 372.

Paulson, Commr., 256.

Peace River, 126, 320.

Pecheli, Gulf of, 55 etseq., 78, 267, 270, 293.

Peel, Capt. Sir VV., 254, 255.

Peeree Bazaar, 393, 395.

Peiho, 56, 61, 62, 64 et seq., 267, 270, 292,

293.
Pekin, 57, 63, 76 et seq., 86, 87, 167.
Pelusium, 177 etseq., 265, 309, 398.
Pennsylvania, 329.
Pering Mountains, 294.
Peron, 369.
l^erouse Strait, 270.
Perrey, M., 282.
Persia, 2 et seq., 146, 290, 291, 292, 391

et seq.
Persia, Gulf of, 186, 266, 268.
Perth, 34.
Perthes, J., 286.
Peru, 93, 95 et seq.
Pescadores, 270.
Peschurof, M., 92.
Peshawer, 386.
Pessinus, 389.
Pess Kalaa, 4.
Petermann, Mr., 288, 290.
Petiopaulovski, 271.
Phibbs, G., 19.
Philigret, Capt., 198, 205.
Phihppine Islands, 186, 271.
Physical Enquiries, 277 et seq.
Pigeon River, 125.
Pike, Mr., 273.

Pim, Commr., 177 et seq., 310.
Pinder, Mr., 272.
Pinzon, 390.
Pliny, 181, 213, 355.
Ploix, M. E., 267.
Plutarch, 385.

Plymouth Breakwater, 188, 198, 199.
Po, 203, 310.
Point de Galle, 266, 268.
Polar Sea, 148.
Polo, Marco, 297.
Pond Bay, 325.
Pontus, 370.
Port Augusta, 154.

Essington, 33, 88, 89, 90, 91, 272, 342.

Gregory, 53.

Hamilton, 270.

Port Isaac, 262.

Jackson, 267.

Michael Seymour, 270.

Said, 188, 189, 190, 203, 204, 205.

Suez, 190.

Victoria, 314.

Wrinkle, 262.

Portland Breakwater, 198, 199, 202.

Porto, Silva, 362.

Portugal, 105.

Portuguese Journeys, 362, 363.

Poyang Lake, 163, 164, 167.

Prescott, Mr., 96.

Prince Frederick Island, 360, 361.

Pritchett, G. J., 93 et seq.

Projection of the Sphere, 174 et seq.

Propontis, 385.

Prosperous Bay, 364.

Ptolemy, 209, 306.

PuUen, Capt., 266.

Pulo Condore, 269.

Kambing, 369.

Samauw, 369.

Sapata, 269.

Pulvek, 9.

Pungund, 386.

Punjab, 171, 386.

Putiatin, Count, 66, 68. ]

Pyramus, 208.

Qaam-yin, 79.
Quantung, 75.
Queensland, 333.
Quelpaert, 270.
Qui Appelle Lakes, 219.
Quillimane, 101, 102.
Quiloa, 349.
Quito, 94, 95.-
Quorra, 311, 312.

Rabba, 311, 312.
Radde, M., 92.
Rae, Mr., 102. ;

Raffles, Sir S., 90.
Rainy Lake, 125.
Ramsay, Prof., 291.

, Sir J., 256.

Rangoon River, 268.

Ranke, 390.

Raper, Lieut., 248 et seq., 274.

Rason, Lieut., 79.

Rawlinson, Sir H., 292.

Rebraann, Mr., 115, 208, 213, 304.

Rechussen, 361.

Red Bank, 377.

River, 126, 222, 317.

Sea, 178 et seq., 266, 268.

Reed, Mr., 266.

Reid, Major-Gen. Sir W., 252, 253.

Reinah, 12, 17.

410

INDEX.

Reinwaai-dt, Prof^ 36&.
Renaud, M., 203.
Rendel, J. M., 200, 204.
Rennie, G., 197, 204.
Resht, 4, 391,393, 395.
Reynault, 179.
Rhine, 354.
Rhio Strait, 269.
Rhone, 203, 354.
Richanis, Capt. G. H., 272.

, Mr. J., 269.

Rigby, Capt., 349.
Rink, Dr., 146 et seq.
Rio Grande, 380.

Negro, 94.

de la Plata, 331.

Ripon, Earl of, 243, 345, 347, 354, 355,

361, 363, 364, 365.
Ritter, C, 389.
Robego, 213.
Robingo, 209.
Robinson, Sir H., 332.
Rocky Mountains, 122 et seq., 219 et seq.,

284, 317 et seq.
Roderick River, 35.
Roe, Jas., 34, 53.
Rogers, Prof., 329.
" Rollers," 364.
Rosario Strait, 272.
Rosetta, 179, 180, 185, 309.
Ross, Lieut. D., 59.
Ross-shire, 264.
Roth, Dr., 287.
Rouse, Mr., 194.
Royal Awards, 217 et seq.
Royston, J. P., 266.
Ruaha, 350.
Rudb^r, Valley of, 17.
Rufiji River, 349.
Rupchu, 367.
Russia, 74, 145, 186, 280, 288, 289, 386,

387, 389, 393.

Sabact, 210.

Sabine, General, 220.

Sabler, M., 388.

Safed, 288.

Sahara, 355.

Said Pasha, 186, 187.

St. George branch of Danube, 207.

— Germans River, 261.

— Helena, 363, 364.

— John Lake, 261.

— Juan, 331.

— Kitts, 332.

— Lawrence, Gulf of, 390.

— Petersburg, 290.

— Quentin, M. de, 1 5.

— Vincent Gulf, 272.
Sakaria, 389.
Sakhalin, 288.

Salian, 394.

Sallum, 379.

Samanhour, 190.

Samarkand, 145.

Samauw Strait, 369.

Samsun, 370, 372.

San Pedro, 96. 1

Rosario Mine, 110.

Satdy Bay, 364.

■ Island, 372.

Sangarias, 389.

Santa Eulalia, 110.

Saskatchewan, 122 et seq., 219, 220, 222,

317, 318, 321.
Saugor, 277.

Saunders, T., 90, 157, 361.
Savanne, 126.
Sawahil, 349.
Sawitsch, M., 388.
Sawkins, Mr., 276, 277.
Scamander, 385, 386.
Scarnell, Mr., 273.
Schlagintweit, Messrs., 144 et seq,, 171

et seq., 259, 291, 366.
Schmidt, M., 288.
Schomburgk, Sir R. H., 300.
Schott, A., 328.

, C. A., 146, 147.

Schubert, 287.
Scinde, 268, 386.
Scotland, 263, 264, 275, 279.
Scott, Mr., 273.

Creek, 19.

Scouler, Dr., 322.

Sea, Sudden Rise of the, 372.

— , Undulatory Motion of, 395 et seq.

Sefid Aub, 9.

Rud, 4, 11.

Seismology, 279 et seq.
Selenga River, 92.
Selwyn, A., 341.
Semenoff, M., 289.
Senegal, 378, 379.
Senna, 101, 102, 103, 105.
Serapeura, 187.
Sevin, C, 99, 108 et seq.
Seychelles, 313, 314.
Seymour, H. D., 356.

, Sir M., 292.

Shahzadeh Kuh, 4, 8.

Sha-lin-tien Shoals, 65, 67, 84.

Shalis River, 8.

Shamoeira, 102.

Shanghai, 55 et seq., 71, 75, 76, 85, 86, 162,

164, 168, 169, 170, 171, 293, 375, 376.
Shangking, 60.
Shansi, 63.

Shantung,58 etseq., 62 etseq.,71,8G,270,376,
Shark Bay, 34, 43, 267.
Shaw, 312.
Shehristanek, 5.
Shemlian, Pass of the, 6.

INDEX.

411

Shensi, 63, 170.
Shikarpoor, 386.
Shingking, 64.
Shinla, 384.
Ship Harbour, 272.
Shoa, 287.

Shortland, Capt., 273.
Shumla Khoja, 173.
Siam, 77, 186, 300, 365.

, Gulf of, 269.

Siberia, 74.

Sidney, Commr,, 261.

, S., 199.

SieiTa Madre, 108, 109.
Sikok, 271.
Silver Island, 168.
Simoda, 267, 271.
Simois, 385, 386.
Simons Bay, 266.
Simpson, Sir G., 322.
Sin, 377.

Singapore, 186, 268, 269.
Sinope, 389.
Sir, 145.

Skead, Messrs., 266.
Skye, 263, 264.
Slater, Commr., 261.
Slaughter Creek, 318.
Sleight, Mr. D., 380.
Smith, Abel, 258.

, Lieut.-Gen. Sir C. F., 251, 252.

Sound, 326.

Smyth, Prof. C. P., 283.

■ , R. B., 279.

Smythe, Colonel, 364.

Snowdon, 291.

Socotra, 268.

Sokut, 173.

Soils, 390.

Solomon Islands, 271.

Somali Country, 217, 219.

Sombrero, 332.

Sonklar, Major K. von, 286.

Sonntag, Mr., 147.

Sonora, 109.

Spain, 186, 187.

Speke, Capt., Ill et seq., 210 et seq., 217

ct seq., 301 et seq., 348 et seq., 367.
Spencer Gulf, 31, 157, 272.
Sphere, Projection of the, 174 et seq.
Spratt, Capt., 198, 265, 308 et seq., 386.
Spi-uce, Mr., 94.
Spruner, K. von, 286.
Squier, E. G., 106, 107, 330.
Stanley, Capt., 88.

— -, Mr., 263.

SiSnton, Colonel, 107.

, Mr., 266.

Stark, Dr., 279.

Staunton, Sir G., 87.

Stephenson, R., 184, 193, 200 et seq., 310.

Stevenson, Messrs., 262, 265.

VOL. III.

Stevenson, A., 397.
Stokes, Capt., 90, 342.

, Major, 206, 207.

Stolze Strait, 269.

'Stony Desert,' 31.

Strabo, 181, 208, 370, 385.

Strachey, Capt. H., 144, 145, 172, 367.

Strangford Narrows, 264.

Streaky Bay, 152, 335.

Stroyan, Lieut., 217.

Struve, Prof. 0., 289, 292.

Strzelecki, Count, 33, 222, 223.

Creek, 28, 29, 31, 156, 334.

Stuart, J. M., 151 et seq., 222, 336, 337.

Range, 153, 155, 157, 336, 337.

Sturt, Capt., 27, 28, 31, 88, 153, 155 et seq.,
334.

Creek, 158.

Suchow, 375.

Sudan, 355.

Suez, Isthmus of, 177 et seq., 308 et seq.

Sugat, 144.

Sukkur, 386.

Sulina, 207.

Sullivan, Capt., 331.

, Mr., 123, 219, 220.

Sumatra, 269.

Sunda, 269.

Sunderbunds, 268.

Sutlej, 357.

Swan River, 34, 54, 272.

Swansea Bay, 262, 263.

Swatow, 86.

Switzerland, 279, 290.

Sykes, Col., 105, 106, 107, 213, 214, 354.

Synge, Capt. M. H., 320.

Syr-Daria, 388.

Syria, 205, 266.

Syrias, 378.

Sze-chuen, 170.

Table Bay, 266.

Taehu Lake, 375, 376.

Taewin-fu, 86.

Tafileh, 287, 288.

Ta-he-san Island, 61.

Tai-wan, 270. '

Tajn'sh, 4.

Taku, 66, 70.

Talabot, M., 184, 185, 200, 202.

Talighan River, 4.

■ Mountains, 6.

Talish, 391.

Taman Peninsula, 60.

Tambelan Islands, 269.

Tampico, 390.

Tanganyika Lake, 111 ^ seq., 210, 211, 218,

348 et seq., 302, 306, 363.
Tang-chow, 86.
Tarbert Lochs, 263.
Tartary, Independent, 388, 389.

2h

412

INDEX.

Tartary, Gulf of, 85, 270.

Tasawai, 365.

Tasmania, 271, 276, 340.

Taurus, Capt., 203.

Tayler, J.W.,in et seq.

Taylor, R., 257.

Tchihatchef, M., 370 et seq,, 385, 386.

Tchoruk, 389.

Tebes, 289.

Tehran, 3 et seq., 16, 17.

Terabwe, 112.

Tenasserim, 268.

Tenerifte, 283.

Teng-chow-fn, 59 et seq.

Ternate, 359.

Tete, 103, 104, 105, 313.

Thebes, 196.

Thomas, Lieut., 264.

Thompson, D., 320, 322.

River, 23, 24, 25, 324, 334,

Thomson, R. F., 2 et seq., 291.

Thornton, Mr,, 99 et seq., 313.

Tiberias, 288.

Tibet, 145, 170, 171, 217, 366, 367.

Ticino, 354.

Tientsin, 56, 69 et seq., 86, 293,

Timor, 368, 369.

Tineh, 177, 184, 186, 265.

Tireboli, 370.

Tobacco Plains, 220.

Tobler, Dr. T., 287.

Tokat, 370, 371.

Tong-kin, Gulf of, 269.

Toodyay, 34, 51.

Torres Straits, 89, 267, 271.

Trapezunt, 370.

Trapezus, 389.

Trebizond, 389.

Trevelyan, Sir W., 120.

Trieste, 186.

Trincomalee, 268.

Trinidad, 276.

Trinity Bay, 273.

Tripolis, 370.

Tristan d'Acunha, 364.

Troy, 385, 386.

Tso mo Gnalari, 367.

Tso mo Riri, 357, 367.

Tsugar Strait, 271.

Tsung-ming, 59, 167.

Tsu-sima Island, 271.

Tubesi, 307.

Tumbiri, 307.

Tung-chow, 79.

Tiiran, 387, 388.

Turkey, 290, 392.

Turkistan, 144, 171.

Turon Bay, 269.

Tyrol, 286.

Ugogo, 111,356.

Ujiji, m et seq., 210, 302, 348 et seq., 357,

363.
Ukembane, 115.
Ukerewe Lake, 111, 113, 114, 117, 211,

304, 348.
Ukungwe, 112.
Ulivi, M., 305.
Umritsir, 386.
Uniamesi, 114, 302.
United States, 97, 186, 222, 276, 284, 315,

327 et seq., 342, 390.
Unyamwezi, 211, 357, 363.
Unyanyembe, 111, 210, 218, 302-, 303, 348,

350.
Ural, 290, 387, 388.
Urique, 109.
Usagara, 349.

Usambara, 210, 302. ^

Usbome, Mr., 261.
Usoga, 356.
Usoltzof, M., 92.
Ussuri, 289.
Ust Urt, 290.
Usukuma, 348.
Usumbara, 348.

Valais 279.

Vancouver Island, 124, 126, 272, 284, 320

et seq.
Variation Chart, 273.
Vamhagen, M., 389, 390.
Vasilief, M., 92.
-Venant, M., 289.
Venezuela, 93.
Venice, 186,310.
Veniukoif, Capt., 289.
Vera Cruz, 390.
Veramin, Plain of, 4.
Vermilion Pass, 123, 125, 220, 222, 319.
Vespucci, 389, 390.
Vetch, Capt., 200.
Viatka, 290.
Vibius Sequester, 885.
Victoria, 339, 341.

Bay, 270.

River, 20, 21, 22, 25, 30, 88, 91,

156, 157.
Vine, Mr., 68.
Vladimir, Gulf of, 289.
Volga, 290.
Volger, Dr., 279, 280.
Vologda, 290.
Von Richshofen, 287.
Voronesk, 290.

Wadi Araba, 287.
Waghom, Lieut., 192.
Wakool, 338.
Wales, 275.
Walker, Jas., 262.

INDEX.

413

Wall, Mr. G. P., 276.

Wallace, A. R., 299, 358 et seq.

Wanyamuezi, 210, 211.

Warburton, Major, 151 et seq., 335, 337.

, H., 245 et seq.

Ward, Commr., 266, 267.
Warrego River, 20, 30.
Waru, 311.

Washington, Capt., 261.
Watson, Commodore, 56.
Watuta tribe, 350.
Waugh, Col., 366.
Wawa, 311.
Way, Dr. W., 375.
Webbe River, 105.
Weekly Dispatch Atlas, 285.
Wei-hai-wei Harbour, 59.
Weir, W., 250.
Weller, Mr., 285.
Wells, Mr., 262.
Werne, F., 209, 356.
West Indies, 273, 276, 332.
Wetterhorn, 290.
When-ho River, 78, 79.
White Fish River, 125.

Nile, 114, 208 et seq., 304 et seq.

352 et seq.
Whitesand Bay, 262.
Whitney, A., 321.
Wilkinson, Sir G., 196.

, Lieut., 265.

Wilkowi Basin, 207.
Willenstorf, Commodore, 339.
Williams, Capt., 262.

, jyjj.. 64.

Wilson, Sir B.'h.,' 252.
Wise, H., 300.
Wood, Commr., 263.
Wroutchenko, M., 385.
Wu-hu, 169.
Wusung, 162, 375.

Wusung-keang, 375.

Xenophon, 370.

Yablonnoi Range, 92.
YaM, 9.
Yanganooka, 34.

Yang.tse-kiang, 56 et seq., 80, 85, 162 et
seq., 267, 270, 293 et seq., 316,375, 376.
Yarkand, 144, 145, 172, 173, 174.
Yeats, J., 299, 300, 368.
Yedo, 267, 271.
Yellow River, 57, 86, 87, 270, 376.

Sea, 59, 65.

Yezil Irmak, 370, 389.
Yezo Island, 270.
Yojoa Lake, 106, 330.
Yoruba, 311.
Young, Dr., 280.
Yoush, 9.
Yucatan, 389.
Yu-kung, 376.
Yule, Commr., 267.

, Mr., 264.

Yunnan, 75.

Zaffaran-boly, 389.

Zafranieh, 200.

Zagazig, 190, 194.

Zambesi, 99 et seq., 266, 307, 312, 353, 362.

Zamora, 96.

Zanus, 8.

Zanzibar, 113,210,217,218, 302,314, 349,

350, 363.
Ziegler, M., 290, 308.
Zion, 288.

Zout Fans Berg, 375.
Zumbo, 105.
Zungomero, 210, 349.

LONDOK: PRIlftEl) By W. CLOWBS and S0*!6, STAifFORt) STREET, AND CHARmO CROSS.