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OVER A RY

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUBRNSiBAN D.

———$

VOL. XXII.

PART L

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY

H. POLE & Co.. PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE.
1909.

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Mo foal ta. ts
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— Ropal Society of Queensland.

Pateon :
HIS EXCELLENCY LORD CHELMSFORD.

OFFICERS; (909.

President :
J. ©. BAILEY.

Vice-President :
Dr. ALFRED SUTTON.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary:
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.LC. E. H. GURNEY.

Hon. Librarian :
Cc. T. WHITE.

Members of Council :
COLONEL JOHN THOMSON, M.B., P.M.O.

H. WASTENEYS. W. R. COLLEDGE. ws

J. SHIRLEY. B.Sc. J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.LC. |
Trustees :

JOHN CAMERON, M.L.A. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C.

Cot; JOHN THOMSON, M.B.

Hon. Auditor :
GEO. WATKINS.

Hon. Lanternist :
A. G. JACKSON.

cS S. 694 b At

THE JARDINE EXPEDITION FROM ROCKHAMP-
TON TO CAPE YORK, 1864.—Hon. A. Norton,
M.L.C., March 26th, 1908 ...

THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA.—Rev. J. Goldie,
June 26th, 1908 oe a sala

CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCKS.—F. E. Connah,
November 28th, 1908

NOTES ON BRISBANE POND LIFE—W. R. Colledge,
November 28th, 1908

THE LAND WE LIVE ON (Presipent’s ApprEss).—
J. C. Brimnich, FI.C., January 29th, 1909

PAGE

23

$1

35

37

“THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION FROM
ROCKHAMPTON TO CAPE YORK IN 1864.”

By HON. A. NORTON.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, March 26th,
' 1908.

For the use of Jardines’ Journal, and permission to write
a paper on the subject for the Royal Society of Queensland,
I am indebted to my friend, Alick Jardine. For the tracing
of Cape York Peninsula, showing the course of their journey,
I have to very heartily thank Mr. Spowers, Surveyor-
General of Queensland, who, with his wonted courtesy,
unhesitatingly consented when asked to have a tracing
prepared in his office.

It was during Leichhardt’s expedition from Moreton
Bay to Port Essington, 1844 to 1846, that Gilbert, the
naturalist, a collector for Mr. Gould, was killed by the
blacks on the western side of Cape York Peninsula. Very
little was known of that part of the country at the time
(1845), but the aboriginals had shown a decided disposition
to dispute any claim on the part of the white settlers to
interfere with them, or with the country they occupied.
In 1848, when Kennedy tried to reach Port Albany by
keeping nearer to the eastern side of the Peninsula, the
blacks asserted their rights with equal determination,
and their hostility led to the death of Kennedy himself,
when, with his blackboy Jackey, he had pushed on until
almost within sight of the place at which they had hoped
to arrive in Safety.

Warnings such as these murders conveyed were in
themselves sufficiently suggestive of what others might
expect should they attempt to pass through the country
which these hostile tribes claimed as their own. The
Peninsula blacks had lived for years under conditions

2 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

which forced them to learn the arts of war. Malays, and
other neighbours not less savage than- themselves, had
invaded their country and compelled them to fight for their
rights continually; and what to them were the white
explorers but invaders, who, if they had the opportunity
would tamper with their women, and rob them of what
they treasured most, if indeed they did not take their lives !

The whites who trusted themselves amongst them
soon found this to their cost if they went unprepared.
The dangers to which they might be exposed did not,
however,’ deter some of Australia’s sons from making
their way through the inhospitable and exceptionally
difficult country. which lay between the furthest north
settlements and Cape York; and in 1864 the brothers
Jardine, Frank and Alick, aged respectively 22 and_ 20
years, left Rockhampton with their party, intending to
purchase cattle at the back of Bowen and drive them
through to the newly-formed settlement which the Imperial
authorities, on the recommendation of Sir G. F. Bowen,
had decided to establish at Port Albany. A diary of thou
trip was afterwards compiled by their friend, Mr. F. J.
Byerley, who, however, made some unfortunate errors
in his narrative. It was not a Government expedition
as he desevibes it, but was undertaken by the brothers
as a private speculation, with the view of forming a cattle
station near the new settlement from which they would
be able to supply beef to the officials and their men, as well
as to such trading vessels as might call in for provisions.
‘As a matter of fact; the Government of the day were prepared
to place a sum on the Estimates, after the trip had ended,
to recoup some of the loss which the Jardines had sustained
during their exceptionally difficult journey. This, however,
they respectfully declined, giving as the reason that “ inas-
much as the expedition was a private enterprise, and not
a public undertaking, they did not consider themselves
entitled to any indemnity from the public.” At the outset
the Government had offered, and the Jardines had gratefully
accepted, the services of Mr. A. J. Richardson, District
Surveyor at Rockhampton, and four blackboys with horses,
saddles, and all equipments, to assist in’ the difficult task
they had taken in hand. Mr. Richardson was to act as
geographer, and generally to assist them.

ES ee ee ee ee

BY HON. A. NORTON. 3

Before continuing the narrative, I may explain that
Mr. Jardine, the father of the explorers, was in 1864 Police
Magistrate at Rockhampton, and when the Northern
Settlement was decided upon, it was he who was appointed
to take charge of it. ~The selection was an exceptionally
good one, for Mr. Jardine had not only an extensive official
and military experience, but he was a keen sportsman,
and had a thorough knowledge of Australian bush life.
Before he came to Rockhampton he had lived in the
Wellington district of New South Wales, where he was
the owner of a cattle station, the management of which
was confided to his sons, Frank and Alick. Here it was
they became acquainted with the ways of bush life ; they
looked after the stock, and when cattle were sold, they
travelled with them to Bathurst and other places where
they had to be delivered to the butchers who supplied
beef to residents in the country towns. But, apart from
the experience they. gained in this way, they possessed
in a high degree that instinctive knowledge which enabled
them to travel through the trackless forest without deviating
from the direct course, a feat which to most persons is
impossible. The blacks who lived on the Upper Macquarie
River were comparatively civilized when the Jardines
lived amongst them, but the brothers were quite aliv2
to the necessity of avoiding everything which would bring
them into conflict with the treacherous savages through
whose country they must necessarily pass when travelling
through the unexplored forests of Cape York Peninsula ;
and they had too much discretion to provoke hostility
which would greatly add to the difficulties and dangers
they had to face in their northern journey. Mr. Byerley
was under a misapprehension, therefore, when he spoke
of Frank owning to ‘“‘a feeling of savage delight at the
prospect of having a shine with these wretched savages,
who, without provocation, hung on their footsteps, dogging
them lke hawks all through the thickest of their troubles,
watching with cowardly patience, for a favourable moment
to attack them at a disadvantage.’ Indeed, throughout
the journey, when they were at times compelled to act in
self-defence, they allowed many of the aggressors to escape,
when they might have shot them. down by dozens.

4 THE JARDINES EXPEDITION

The party which it was decided should make a final
start from Carpentaria Downs, the then furthest north-
west station, and which belonged to Mr. J. G. Macdonald,
was composed as follows :—Frank Lascelles Jardine, aged
22 years, leader; Alexander W. Jardine, aged 20 years,
second in command; Archibald J. Richardson, Govern-
ment Surveyor ; C. Scrutton, R. N. Binney, A. Cowderoy,
assistants ; Eulah, Peter, Sambo, and Barney, black-
boys.

On 14th May, 1864, Alick started with some of the
party and a number of horses from Rockhampton, inten-
ding to travel overland by easy stages to Port Denison ;
Frank, with Mr. Richardson, went so far by sea. About
the middle of July they moved forward ; from Reedy Lake
on the Burdekin, Alick, Richardson, Binney, and one of
the boys went on with the horses and equipment to Car-
pentaria Downs, while Frank, with Scrutton, Cowderoy,
and three of the blackboys went to Stenhouse’s Station
on the River Clarke, to collect and take care of the cattle
which had been purchased. With these, 250 head of both
sexes, they arrived at Carpentaria Downs on 6th October,
and at once began to prepare for their arduous journey.

Alick, with his companions and the horses, had
reached this station on 30th August, and, needless to say,
had been cordially welcomed by Macdonald ; but the five
weeks’ interval had not been an idle time for Alick, who,
after a few days’ rest, went off to explore the country
through which they hoped to find a safe route for the
stock, taking with him Eulah, their most trusted blackboy.
Richardson and Binney were left-at the camp. It had been
supposed that the stream on which Macdonald had formed
his station was Leichhardt’s Lynd. It turned out to be
a tributary of the Gilbert River, and Alick named it the
Einasleigh ; following this down, they passed over ex-
ceedingly rough country, but in places met with a good
supply of water, in which were very fine fish. They sighted
the Newcastle Range; and named Pluto Creek; Cana]
Creek ; Parallel Creek; and Warroul Creek. In four days
they travelled, as nearly as they could reckon, about 69
miles, almost all that distance being very stony, and
extremely rough. It was not until they had ridden 180
miles that they concluded the so-called Lynd was not

BY HON. A. NORTON. 5

that stream. During the last few days they had passed
through better country, with plenty of water, and they
-had obtained game of various kinds, but it was not until
14th September, when they were on their return journey, that
they saw any blacks. With these they were able to parley
without any display of hostility on either side ; the blacks
were armed with reed spears and wommerahs. This day
they also saw Leichhardt’s ‘ nonda ” (parinarium) bearing
ripe fruit. On 15th September, they passed some natives
who were fishing; but the meeting was amicable; these
used long heavy four-pronged spears barbed with kangaroo
bones. The following day they camped in good feed for
their horses, and caught some perch and other fish, and in
the evening they hoped to add some ’possums to their
larder, but these were very scarce, and their hopes were
blighted. They, however, before they reached camp at
Carpentaria Downs, were fortunate enough to bag a bus-
tard, some native companions, and other game. They
found all well, and Alick employed himself in mapping
the country which he and Eulah had traversed ; he was
unable, however, to persuade Richardson that they were
not on the Lynd, he trusting to the incorrect map received
from the Surveyor-General’s Office rather than to that
which Alick Jardine had correctly plotted. This difference
of opinion led to some friction between the brothers and
the Surveyor. It is due to Mr. Richardson, however,
to state that he afterwards admitted he had been in error.

Now, however, the arduous part of the Journey was
about to begin, and the exploration of the Einasleigh
watershed gave some idea, though but a faint one, of the
difficulties that must be overcome before the brothers
could shake their father’s hand ; for Mr. Jardine, senior,
and his youngest son, John, had gone to Port Albany
by water, and were at this time busily engaged in forming
the new settlement, the Imperial Government having sent
out a detachment of marines who were to be stationed
there, and assist in the work.

As already shown, the party consisted of six whites
and four blacks (troopers). It had been calculated that
four months’ provisions would be required, and in addition
to this loading, they had to take with them tools, ammu-
nition, and camp necessaries. The boys were armed with

6 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

double-barrziled police carbines,.the whites with. Terry’s
breech-loaders and Tranter’s revolvers. To carry so much
dunnage they had eighteen pack-saddles, and for all pur-.
poses they took with them forty-one horses and one mule,
all of which must be shod before they could start. Then
it was found that only Frank and Alick Jardine knew how
to shoe a horse, and a number of these had not previously
been -shod. However, with the thermometer marking
100 degrees in the shade during most of the day, they set
about the work, and at the close of the third day the last
was finished. On llth October, Cowderoy, with Eulah
(who had been over the country with Alick Jardine) and
Barney were sent off with the cattle; their instructions
were to camp at the swamp at the junction of Pluto Creek,
17: miles from Macdonald station. The rest of the party
were fully occupied in fixing up the packs and getting away
with the horses, a number of which stoutly objected to
carry the burdens which they were required to bear. It
was past noon when they got off, and night had set in
when ‘they arrived at the swamp. Alas, however, neither
Cowderoy and the boys nor the cattle were there! It
afterwards transpired that Eulah, smart as he. generally
was, had led them some miles away from the course they
were to have taken, and, becoming completely “‘ bushed,”
they bad to camp for the night a long distance from the
swamp. By the time the brothers had found them next
morning, and brought them to the camp, it was too late
to make a fresh start. The distance travelled on each of
the ‘two following days was 11 miles, for grass was very
scarce, Jarge patches of it having been burnt by the natives.
Besides this, they had to take the stock over miles of rough,
stony country in which good water was by no means abundant.
They were glad, therefore, on 15th October, after 9 miles
travelling over comparatively good and well-grassed country,
to fix their camp at Cawana Swamp. which is described
as: being about € miles in circumference, and very shallow.
Some natives, who moved away when the cattle approached,
left their camp fires burning. -An observation taken at’
night gave the Jatitude 18 degrees 1 minute 50 seconds.
After they left Cawana Swamp the travellers were
compelled to cross very stony basalt country, which lamed
their cattle and wrenched the heads off the horse-shoe

BY HON. A. NORTON. 7

nails, Alick Jardine shot and brought a welcome addition
to their larder—a rock wallaby, a native companion, and
a young red kangaroo. For a time it seemed probable
that they would have trouble with the blacks, of whom
about 50 men, painted and fully armed, followed on their
track ; when turned upon, however, they hastily retreated.
Next morning al] the horses were missing, having made
back, after the previous day’s weary travelling and_star-
vation, towards the last luxuriantly-grassed camp. Bad,
however, as the country had proved up to this time, it
now became more and more difficult. On 17th October,
one of their best horses had injured a hoof very severely,
and two cows fell from the rocks and were killed. What
grass there was was dry and very poor, even in the bed
of Parallel Creek, where they camped for the night, and on
the western side a basaltic wall 80 feet in height barred all
progress in that direction. Nor was there any improve-
ment next day; perpendicular cliffs on either side com-
pelled them to travel down the bed of the creek, where
there was almost no grass, and in which great blocks of
stone impeded the passage of the stock, the backs and feet
of which were “in a woful plight.”” One horse was lost,
and a bull and s3veral of the cattle completely knocked
‘up. This day they saw a large number of natives, some
of whom were cooking fish, which they left in alarm, and
also therr arms. ‘“‘ These blacks were puny, wretched-
looking creatures, and very thin. They had a great number
of wild dogs with them—over thirty being counted by
the party.”

'On 19th October, they came to the junction of
Parallel Creek and the Einasleigh; and, happily, there
was a slight improvement in the country. The river at the
point where they camped is described as being ‘ about
700 yards wide, with fine waterholes in it, containing plenty
of fish.”? At a blacks’ fire here they made a startling and
gruesome discovery— ‘the fresh remains of a negro were
found roasted, the head and thigh bones were alone com-
plete, all the rest of the body and limbs had been broken
up, and the skull was full of blood.’? One day more, and
for a'time they had done with the stones, and grass and
water were abundant. They now came to the finest country
the cattle had been on since delivery was taken of them,

8 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

230 miles back; they. therefore decided before the good
country was left, to camp for some days. ‘‘ Many of the
cattle were lame, two of the hacks were knocked up, and
several of the pack-horses had very sore backs.” - They
were 120 miles from Macdonald’s, and had averaged 10
mules a day since the start.

While the stock rested, the brothers explored the
country through which they hoped to find an easier route
than they had so far followed. Richardson still adhered
to ns theory about the Lynd, which he placed about 10
miles north-east of their camp. They were even more
satisfied, however, after their 25 miles ride on 24th October,
that he was mistaken. They returned to camp after four
days’ hard riding, having blazed on the last afternoon a line
18 or 20 miles for the cattle to follow. Again they started
with Eulah to explore, leaving instructions that the cattle
were to go forward on 3lst October, following the line they
had blazed for their guidance. They took no meat with
them, trusting to find game and fish by the way. One
delicacy which provided them with ‘‘a good supper and
breakfast ’? was an iguana. After six days’ absence they
rejoined their party at the place appointed, but on neither
of their expeditions had they found even a_ moderately
good route for the stock ; they therefore decided to take
the course which seemed the least unpromising. From
this time their troubles seemed greater than ever. When
they left the camp, as they now had to do daily to blaze
a line for the cattle to follow, 16 horses were missing ; on2

other had died from what appeared to be snakebite. When

night closed in there was no word of the horses, but one of
the boys who brought them rations reported that some
were still missing when he left the camp. Three. more
days passed, and yet no news, but more than 20 of the
cattle were missing, and as matters were getting serious
Alick decided to go back and ascertain what caused the
delay.

The ninth day of November brought disastrous news.
Alick started back in the early morning, and the men
with the horses, which had strayed, met him half-way.
On the afternoon of the day when the brothers moved on
with the cattle (5th November), through want of reason-
able precaution, the grass around the camp had taken fire.

——————

BY HON. A. NORTON. 9

The result was more than serious—420lbs. flour, all the tea
except 10lbs., the mule’s pack which comprised 100lbs.
rice, and jam, apples, and currants, 5lbs. gunpowder, 12lbs
shot, cartridges and caps, two tents, one pack-saddle, 22
pack-bags, 14 surcingles, 12 girths, 6 breechings, 30 ring
pack-straps, 2 bridles, 2 pairs blankets, 2 pairs boots |
most of the blackboys’ and many of the brothers’ clothes,
and 2 bags containing awls, needles, twine, etc., were
burnt. Then, too, a valuable horse died, apparently from
poison. Such was the news which was brought to the
camp on Cockburn Creek, 16 degrees 55 minutes 6 seconds
latitude, on 9th November, 1864! Half their food and
the greater part of their equipment had been burnt, but
the hearts of the brothers never fauled, and they at once
began to make their preparations for a forward move on
the morrow. 7

On the morning of 10th November, the brothers,
taking Eulah with them, started as usual to blaze a line
which the men with the cattle were to follow. The country
was sandy, scrubby, and barren, and at 25 miles they
marked a place for the party to await their return. Some
miles further down Cockburn Creek they struck away
N.N.W., and camped on the head of Maramie Creek, so-
called because of the number of cray-fish caught there.
Hence they ran Maramie Creek down, but without finding
any improvement, nothing but a waste of tea-tree and
spinifex on both sides; the blacks had used the bark of a
small acacia for poisoning the fish in all the waterholes.
They continued to explore until 15th November, during
which time they had travelled through most worthless
country, but discovered that the Staaten of Dutch explorers
was the lower part of Cockburn and Maramie Creeks. The
blacks had threatened, but did not attack them.

The following day the cattle were moved down Cock-
burn Creek on which there was poor grass, whereas else-
where there was no grass. Deaths of cattle and horses
from poisoning were now becoming frequent, and although
water was plentiful the country was execrable, most of it
being flat and thickly covered with tea-tree and other timber
denoting poor country. On 20th November, the blacks
fot the first time attacked the party; they approached
from the west just before the sun set, so that the attack

10 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

could not be easily seen ; none of the party were wounded.
After this they were continually harassed, the most serious
outcome of the interference being the scattering of horses
during the night. This caused a detention of six days
at one camp, and from it eight head of cattle were lost,
and had to be abandoned. For several days they continued
to travel down the river, where the grass was somewhat
better, until they reached saltwater. Here they killed
and jerked a beast, and a shovel-nose shark was similarly
treated. Frank lost his only dog a. few days before this.

By reason of absence of feed for the stock, they were
compelled to keep away from the course they wished to
follow, but necessarily they must now keep the coast.on
their left. And time was very precious, for the wet season
might set in at any time, and after even one storm the
ground became dreadfully boggy. They knew they might
be shut in amongst the anabranches, and for miles the flat
country, showed high flood marks. On 5th December,
they moved forward, this time steering northward across
flat tea-tree country with fairly good grass, but almost
without water. Half the horses were missing next morn-
ing, and the whole day was spent in trying to find them.
Some of them the brothers tracked to their last camp, but
they had to stay there for the night as darkness set in before
the whole of them were found. Without food or blankets
they spent the night battling with myriads of mosquitoes.
When next evening they reached the camp with the nine
horses they had found, only two others had been brought
in, and the mule with his pack had been allowed to stray.
He was never secured, although one of the boys once caught
sight of him. Two of the best horses were lost from the
same camp, one of them, like the mule, having gone mad,
apparently from drinking so much salt water in the absence
of fresh ; the other had died it was thought from the same
cause. At this wretched camp eight days had been lost,
and on 13th December the party had to move on, but, with
the mule’s pack they had lost all that remained of their
tea, currants and raisins, their spade, tomahawks, _AXes,
shoeing tools, etc., and two pairs boots, the only ones the
brothers at this time possessed. This day their route took
them ‘across large marine plains on which were numbers
of birds, of which they shot a few. They camped at night

-

BY HON. A. NORTON. 11

on good fresh water with good grass in the bed of the creek.
Latitude 16 degrees 3 minutes 38 seconds. Next day
the character of the country was still the same, but hot
winds had dried up the grass. Then after a stage of 23
miles, with country somewhat ridgy and a better class of
timber, they camped on Eulah Creek with abundance of
good water and grass. On 16th December, the country
became more difficult; wide stretches of flood-marked
levels and a creek which was so thickly lined with scrub
that the brothers had to clear a track through for the
cattle: While here they were attacked by blacks, who
' made a circle round them and forced a fight, but they were
driven off. When exploring the country ahead in the
afternoon, the brothers came upon the long-sought Mitchell
River. ) ) 4
For some days they travelled down the river, crossing
flood-marked flats and numbers of anabranches; but
18th December was a memorable day, the party having
been attacked by a large body of natives, who at first
showed signs of great courage ; after some trouble and no
small danger they were driven off. Three days later
another mob appeared ; these carried green bushes behind
which they attempted to approach the whites without
being observed. This time they turned and fled, the whites
chasing them without firing a shot, and then carrying off
the spears which in their flight the blacks had dropped.
When the travellers left the Mitchell on 22nd December.
they had decided to begin the straight running for Cape
York. ‘In such country at this particular time of year,
however, those who travel must take such course as is
possible. Their first day did not turn out well; there had
been more rain than they wanted, and their camp at night
is described as ‘‘a puddle without a blade of grass,” for
the verdure which from a ‘distance looked so promising
was nothing but:a dense mass of small green tea-trees about
six inches in height. They had had no meat for three
days, so they killed a steer and feasted ! They jerked the
meat as best they could, for the rain came down heavily,
and they watched the cattle and horses. Notwithstanding
the rain, they had no water at the next camp, for the sand
being exceptionally dry, no water lay on the surface. Nor
was there any grass. Next day there was very little

12 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

improvement, but it rained all night, and on Christmas
Day Frank wished his companions the “ compliments of
the season,’ and pushed on through the downpour.
Christmas Creek was named this day; the country was
somewhat better and they found a place to camp where
there was good water and abundance of blue grass; green
tree-ants were also plentiful, and caused them great dis-
comfort. Up to the end of the month, although the country
was on the whole better, the deluging rain was most trying,
and one thunderstorm was especially violent. The blacks
on 29th December rushed and scattered the cattle and
horses, and chased one of the boys. They were driven
off, but 10 of the cattle were lost on this occasion. They
dare not delay on country the whole of which might be
flooded several feet at any time. On the last day of the
month the stock. and packs were safely conveyed across
Macleod Creek, and they camped on shghtly rising ground
on the bank of Kendall Creek.

The New Year brought little relief to the wayworn
travellers. The cattle and horses had to struggle through
scrubby country, and over the large trees which had been
jaid low by the recent terrific storni; but storms with
heavy thunder and pouring rain were of almost daily
occurrence. The ground was boggy, and the creeks and
watercourses were running strong, but on 2nd January
they had what they describe as the best camp of the journey
on a high plateau. On 5th January, they sighted a range
about 10 miles distant, and between them and it was a
fine valley intersected by a large sandy river which they
named after their friends, the Archers, of Gracemere.
Why the Survey Department should in later maps. call it
the Archer or Peach is to me a mystery. Surely they might
pay the intrepid young explorers the poor compliment
of retaining the name they gave it, and refusing to recognise
it by any other. Mr. Spowers, our present intelligent
Surveyor-General, I hope will correct this. The valley
is described as one of great richness and beauty, the best
country seen since passing Broadsound. They seem to
have crossed the Archer without any exceptional difficulty,
notwithstanding its width and the scrub which lined both
banks. The flowers which grow in abundance in this
valley are referred to as being very beautiful and comprising

BY HON. A. NORTON. 18

a number not previously known to the explorers.
Leichhardt and other handsome trees were numerous.

Unhappily, this pleasant condition did not long con-
tinue, for the country they passed through after getting
clear of the Archer and its anabranches, was comparatively
poor and waterless but for the showers of rain. Its sandy,
porous character is suggested by an extract from the
Journal :—‘“‘ It was strange to see the horses bogging
leg-deep during a thunderstorm, and in five minutes after
unable to get a drink of water.” They had seen many
anthills in this northern land, but here they were in some
instances as high as 18 or 20 feet. As they passed on, .
keeping as nearly as possible a northerly direction, the
country was on the whole better, but at night on 8th
January, after, for three miles, passing through “ wretchedly
bad country like that on the Staaten, they camped on a
‘gilgai,’ and had another night of heavy rain with high
wind.’? No wonder two more of their horses knocked up !
But the difficulties they had so far experienced became
more and more aggravated. They struck the Coen River,
running W.N.W., and had to cut a road for the cattle
through the thick scrub on either bank. This river is
described as being 60 yards wide, sandy, and the home of
crocodiles, the country on the north bank being very bad ;
but worse troubles were ahead of them.

On 10th January the country was comparatively
sound for two miles, at which point a narrow boggy creek
running strongly through a tea-tree flat intercepted their
course. I will here quote the Journal :—‘‘ Athough care
and time were taken in the selection of a proper spot, when
the herd began to cross, the leading cattle, breaking through
the crust, sank to their hips in the boggy spew below, and
in a short time between 30 and 40 were stuck fast, the
remainder ploughing through with great difficulty. Four
beasts refused to face it altogether, and it was found
necessary, after wasting considerable time, and a deal of
horseflesh, to let them go. The greater part of the day
was consumed in dragging out the bogged cattle with
ropes.”? Five head had to be abandoned, their heads and
backs only being visible above the mud. “ The horses
were more easily crossed, but their saddles, packs, and
loads had to be carried over by the party.” They at once

B—Royat Society.

14 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

camped and spent the rest of the day in drying their arms,
saddles, etc., and in jerking the beef of one of the beasts
which they had been unable to rescue from the bog. At
night they again had heavy rain. On the following day
the brothers slushed ahead of the cattle for two miles to the
Batavia River, which was “a banker,” 25 yards across.
By the time the cattle overtook them, they had cut a track
through the scrub on either bank and had also felled a tall
melaleuca acrcss the stream; by means of this impromptu
bridge, above which a guiding rope was fastened, they were
able to carry over the saddles, stores, etc., on their heads.
The cattle they got safely across with the exception of one
cow which was drowned, but in spite of all their efforts,
two horses were also drowned. They were obliged to
abandon their intention to push forward, because of the
bogginess of the country and the continual rain, and they
camped rather higher up the river.. They went on the
following morning after some of the horses which had been
left in the bog. These they brought to the camp where
furth>or misfortunes awaited them. To their dismay they
found that a number of horses had been poisoned ; five
of these died the same evening, and another, supposed
also to have been poisoned, was missing. One effect of
the poison was complete blindness, and the fattest were
the first affected.

Having now oniy 21 horses, and these the poorest and
worst, they buried a number of horseshoes, nails, and
heavy material and redistributed their loading ; the rain
continued aJl day. In spite of all their difficulties they
camped next night 10 miles away from Poison Creek.
The journey was not easily got through, for the horses had
to be driven with the cattle, while the explorers, trouserless
and bootless, had to walk. Some of the horses were unable
to reach the camp, but these were brought on next morning.
They had to exercise the greatest vigilence, for the blacks
were hanging on their tracks. This day was a repetition
of the last, horses having to be dragged out of bogs, packs
removed and carried over the running streams, and at
its close two more horses dying from poison! It poured with
rain as they pitched their camp, and while doing so the
blacks attacked them ; they were easily driven off, however,
only two shots being fired, and they were not further

/

BY HON. A. NORTON. 15

troublesome. Sunday, 15th January, was observed as a
day of rest, and the explorers feasted upon doughboys,
jam, and ‘‘ stodge,’’ made of flour and water in which some
small pieces of raw meat were boiled. Another horse was
poisoned, and a cow lost in the bog; they had more rain
at night. Their spare time while it was light was occupied
in picking pandanus thorns from their feet and legs.
Willingly would the brothers have rested but for the urgent
necessity for getting to the end of their journey. They
had to refuse all appeals to remain longer, and through
a dense undergrowth of vines, zamias, and pandanus they
pressed forward. They had no meat, and it was useless
to kill a beast, because they could carry nothing more.
One more horse died, and two others could scarcely drag
themselves along; they had to unpack only twice this
day, and travelled 16 miles. On 17th January, they
pressed forward through country somewhat better than
they had lately seen; distance 154 miles to their camp
on Skardon Creek. The two weak horses died. At this
point, by their reckoning, they were near Kennedy’s track
on the eastern watershed. The improvement they hoped
for did not last, next day’s march being through loose
white sandy ridges, covered with low bushes thickly matted
together with prickly vines, without trees and without grass.
The creeks crossed, which ran W. and N.W., were full of
water ; they were very boggy, and could only be crossed
at their heads. A foal, whose mother had previously died,
knocked up, so they killed him, and part of his flesh which
was carried on, “‘ was a grateful addition to their food ”’ ;
the distance travelled was 12 miles. The horses were short-
hobbled at night and watched ; still they got away, and
a late start next morning was the consequence. The
country was again execrable in every respect.

On 20th January, the way was blocked by a dense
and extensive scrub through which it was impossible to
cut a track for the cattle ; these had to be driven 2 miles
back and then taken in an easterly direction. This took
them on to the eastern slope from which the sea was dis-
tinctly visible ; after a very arduous day’s work they struck
a patch of better country, well grassed and lightly timbered.
Here they pitched their camp, having travelled 9 miles
to reach a spot 14 miles from their last camp. Plenty

16 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION n

turkeys’ nests were found, but, although they welcomed
foal’s flesh as a delicacy, few of them were equal to turkeys’
eggs in which the young were well advanced! The next
five days were but a repetition of the preceding ones. bad
scrubby country without grass, intersected by deep water-
courses which were then full of rushing streams; dense
vine scrubs through which a track had to be cleared for
the stock; miserable camping places, and pouring showers
of rain day and night. On 26th January, they came upon
a river which they took for the Escape; it was in flood
at the time, and 50 yards wide ; following it down 7 or 8
miles they cams upon an equaily large branch which joims
it from the south-east, and named it the McHenry. This,
too, was in flood, and they camped about a mile above the
junction. This day their sugar was exhausted, buc they
hoped they were not more than 30 miles from the new
settlement, Somerset, and did not mind very much.

On the morning of 27th January, they swam the
cattle over the McHenry without trouble; the saddles,
packs, etc., had to be carried on the heads of the best
swimmers, and the day’s march was exceptionally tedious.
Following the stream down to its junction with what they
mistook for the Escape, they had to swim most of the
creeks for the tain continued without cessation. Below
the junction was a large vine scrub so dense that they had
to skirt it, the combined streams being now 100 yards
in width, and all the creeks and gullies which fell into it
were fringed with scrub; 5 miles was the extent of their
day’s march. Following on down the course of the river,
the flooded creeks and their scrubby lining made traveling
most difficult ; they therefore struck westwards hoping to
find an easier route; but they were again disappointed,
and turning towards the river they struck it in about 7
miles. Further down by about 4 miles, making 12 miles
for the day, they camped on the river bank. It had rained
all day and here the stream was 150 yards wide. They
killed a lame heifer, and cut up the flesh for jerking. Two
horses were left utterly knocked up, but these were brought
in on the next day, which was observed as “a rest day.”
The stores were overhauled, and it was found that the
greater part had rotted from constant exposure to the
damp. Mr. Richardson here plotted up the route, and

\

BY HON. A. NORTON. brs

reported that their camp was on the Escape River, eight
miles in a direct line from where it joins the sea, and sixteen
miles from Somerset. In this case, as in that of the Lynd,
he was altogether mistaken.

| Leaving the rest of the party at this point, the brothers
with Eulah started down the river on 30th January in
search of the settlement. They took with them 25\bs.
flour and 12lbs. meat as rations for a week. The country
for travelling was execrable, and before noon the rain once
more began to pour. Then the river turned sharply to
the west, and they were forced to the unwelcome con-
clusion that it was not the Escape ; for protection from the
incessant rain they ran up a gunyah of tea-tree bark and
decided, in deference to Mr. Richardson, to follow the course
of the river still further on the morrow. When they started
next morning they found no improvement in the country ;
the continual rain had increased the flood waters ; the ground
was more boggy; the swamps, anabranches, and lagoons
were more numerous. After travelling 10 miles, another
large stream from the south-east, which they named the
Eliot, blocked the way. This they waded safely with the
water up to their necks; their saddles and packs they
carried on their heads; 7 miles further on they camped
for the night on the river bank. Next morning they tried
the river for another 7 miles ; then, as it kept turning more
and more towards the west, they felt even more certain
that 1t was not the Escape River, and turned back on the
track by which they had come, camping at night in their
tea-tree bark gunyah; rain, accompanied by cold winds,
had fallen all day. When they reached the camp they found
all well; but the flour was 30lbs. short, and, as always
happens on such occasions, nobody could imagine what
had become of it! Being almost without flour, and having
to depend upon such game as they could secure to supple-
ment the jerked beef, they were most anxious to push
forward, but one day was spent in searching for a practic-
able crossing of the river which was now wide and deep
and rapid. The continual rain flooded it still more and
detained them another day; they therefore killed another
beast for rations. Richardson, after making further
observations, decided that they were 33 miles south of Cape
York. During the day they constructed a small raft,

18 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

the frame being dead Nonda wood, which is light, and across
this they stretched and bound a hide. Although the
water fell considerably in the night, the stream was still
130 yards wide, the current ran swiftly, and the banks
were lined with scrub ; however, they swam 4 horses safely
over and then floated the saddles and rations across on the
raft. The brothers and Eulah, who were to go in search
of the settlement, camped on the north side, Scrutton and
the others remaining with the cattle.

On 6th February the little exploring party pushed
on in a N.N.E. direction, and, after many difficulties, at
20 miles, they looked down on the sea about half-a-mile
distant. This was Newcastle Bay. They went three
miles further on and camped on a palm creek, with very
steep banks. Following along the coast next morning
at 7 or 8 miles, their course was blocked by what proved
to be the Escape River. This they followed up through
country that was indescribably difficult, the saddles at
each of the numerous creeks having to be carried on their
heads and a passage cleared with their tomahawks through
the scrub. At last three of the horses completely knocked
up. and they camped in the open. The brothers walked
on until they came near the river; only near it though,
for on either side there was a dense mass of mangroves
nearly 3 miles in width. Their rations now consisted almost
wholly of jerked beef, and they rejoiced that evening at
finding 13 scrub-turkey’s eggs. ‘“‘ Eating what yolk or
white they contained, they plucked and roasted the chicks
as a bonne-bouche.”” They and their horses were tormented
by March flies and sandflies by day, and by mosquitoes
by mght. This day they travelled 22 miles. Wearisome
as their journey had so far been, it was not less so on the
two following days ; for although they could now see their
destination, there was no hope of getting through the mud
and mangroves which shut them off from the river banks.
It was decided, therefore, to return to the cattle, and take
them by a course which they hoped would lead to a practic-
able crossing higher up the stream. So bad was the country
they now traversed that they made only 12 miles, having
to drive their knocked-up horses before them, and several
times to drag them out of bogs. On the following evening
they got back to camp after another most fatiguing day ;

_

BY HON. A. NORTON. 19

they left their jaded horses and their saddles near the river,
and themselves swam across to their companions.
Another horse had died during their absence.

Two days they now spent in camp and a beast was
killed and the meat jerked; only 10lbs. flour remained,
and this was kept in case of an emergency. The 4 horses,
saddles, and swags were brought across the river, and the
cattle mustered for their next start, which took place on
the morning of 14th February, a weary journey of 11 miles.
Another horse had to be left after he was dragged out of
a bog. On the following day they crossed the Eliot, and
altogether made 10 miles, having had to carry their saddles
over on their heads as usual. From this point they continued
with much difficulty from. flooded streams, bogs, etc., to
follow down the river, uncertain whether or not it would
bend round into the Escape ; but on 21st February, from
a high tree Alick was able to trace it to the sea on the Gulf
side of the Peninsula. By Sir George Bowen’s request,
later on, this stream was named the Jardine River. This
geographical discovery, however, necessitated a retracing
of their steps, and at night they camped 6 miles up the river.
They rested on the following day, and killed and jerked
a beast ; again, on account of the heavy rain, they had
to construct a raft. On 24th February, the horses and
packs were put across the river, and leaving the cattle
with the rest of the party, the brothers with Eulah camped
on the northern side preparatory to starting once more
in search of the settlement. More trouble awaited them,
for at 2 miles from their camping place an immense sheet
of water, the overflow from a heavily flooded creek, blocked
their way, and it was not until after two days that it had
run down enough to enable them to cross, even by swimming.
The horses they swam with the saddles on their backs,
but the rations they slid along a rope which was fixed some
feet above the ground to a tree on one side of the creek
and to the butt of another on the opposite side. In the
evening while Alick was cooking some jerked beef for
supper (they usually eat it raw), Frank and Eulah climbed
a high tree on a small hill, and from this they were able
to pick out Newcastle Bay, and were moreover satisfied
that they had headed the Escape River. At last they were

20 © THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

within a short distance from the goal they had so long
looked forward to reaching.

On Ist March, they started early, the morning being
wet as usual. At 3 o’clock they met with a number of

blacks, who spoke some words of English, and greeted -

them with friendliness. These were made to understand
that they wanted to be guided to the settlement, “ Kaieeby,.”’
they called it, and they led the way for about 7 miles, when
they joined a larger number of natives, all unarmed. \ With
these they camped for the night. Whether the corroboree
that was then held was intended as a welcome, or meant
a rejoicing in anticipation of a repast on human flesh, they
did not then know, but about midnight the din ceased
and thew dusky friends went to rest. About noon their
guides brought them safely to the settlement, and surrend-
ered them to their father who had long expected them,
their younger brother John being with him. With skin
tanned by the sun, coverings of emu feathers on their heads,
greenhide mocassins on their feet, and such remnants of
clothing as would hold together on their bodies—with such
outward but grotesque adornments—they were received
with joy and gladness. Since their father had seen them
they had travelled over 1,600 miles through country the
greater part of which was practically unknown, and they
had brought with them, and in good health, all the men
who were in their care. But their losses of stock had been
great, and the difficulties, hardships, and dangers which
they had encountered and overcome, have scarcely if ever
been surpassed by those of any Australian explorer.

The rest of my story may soon be told. After enjoy-
ing, in the companionship of their father and brother John.
the first decent meal they had had for months, the brothers
manned the Government whaleboat and pulled across the
Straits to Albany Island to get fresh horses. The Straits
are # mile wide, and the current was strong, but they
brought two horses over that evening, and three more
on the following day. They also chose a spot at Bullock
Point, about 3 miles from Somerset, for the head station
of their future run. Then they rested two days, more on
account of their jaded horses than on their own. Taking
these as well as the fresh animals with them, they started
back under the guidance of two of their newly-found dusky

BY HON. A. NORTON. 21

- friends, their brother John also accompanying them. They
were taken by a course which was generally better than

that they had come by, but the last two miles of their day’s
journey were so boggy that even the fresh horses stuck
occasionally. On 6th March, just before dark, they pulled
up on the river opposite the camp, but as soon as they got
out of their own country the new boys were useless as guides,
and the brothers had to pilot themselves. They crossed
to the camp next morning; one horse had died during
their absence, and some of the cattle were missing. This
necessitated further loss of time, and three of the cattle
could not be found. However, they built a raft similar
to that made before, but larger, and they killed a beast
for rations. The river was still 200 yards wide when they
commenced the business of crossing on 9th March; the
cattle with one exception, they got safely over, and also
the horses. The raft answered admirably, but on the
last trip, Cowderoy, who could not swim, was put on board.
Unfortunately, he overturned it, and although he got ashore
safely, the raft and all it carried, went to the bottom, and
was recovered only with difficulty. The Cape York blacks

-decamped during the night. In crossing the creek, which

had blocked the brothers when they started in search of
the settlement, and which they again had to swim, they >
lost yet another horse. Still their iJl-luck followed them,
for it took them two hours on the following day to drive
the cattle through the scrub on Wommerah Creek, and
when they were counted, 30 of them were missing ; of these,
five were not recovered. At last, on 14th March, they
arrived at Bullock Point, where they pitched camp, and
made a home for those of the cattle which were left to them.
When the necessary work of forming the station had been
completed, John was left in charge of it, and Frank and
Alick returned with their father to Brisbane in H.M.S.
Salamander. Mr. Richardson returned by. the same
opportunity, and in the Surveyor-General’s office occupied
himself in compiling a map showing the route they had
followed ; in this the error in connection with the River
Lynd was rectified.

My tale is told, and in conclusion I desire only to add
that when I read of the splendid and fearless achievements

> iy THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION

of such young Australians as Frank and Alick Jardine,
I feel inclined to thank God that I too was born in this
“ fifth quarter ” of the globe, and entered upon the business
of life while the ‘“eight-hours-a-day ’ man was but a
figment of the human brain.

a) dec

THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA,
THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, AND
RELIGIOUS BELIEBS.

By the REV. J. GOLDIE.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 3rd,
1908.

In these days everybody is more or less acquainted with
the islands of the Eastern Pacific, and with the manners
and customs of the people inhabiting those islands. With
the islands of the Western Pacific, however, travellers
are not so familiar, and, perhaps, one- of the least known
of all the groups in that part of the world is the great group
of islands known as the Solomons. This fine group of
islands lies between 5 degrees and 10 degrees 8. Lat., and
154 degrees and 162 degrees E. Long. The length of the
group is well over 600 miles, and many of the larger islands
are very mountainous, some of their peaks rising as high
as 10,000 feet.

The people of this group are pure Melanesians, and
have all the characteristics of this type. It is not for me,
however, to advance my theory as to the peopling of these
islands, or attempt any system of classification. Better
men have failed to agree about these things, and though
intensely interesting, we have not time to discuss them
to-night. What I can speak with authority on, and what
no doubt you will be interested to hear about, is_ the
manners and customs of some of these people, and some-
thing about their religious beliefs. I have lived amongst
the people of New Georgia for the last six years, and there-
fore may fairly claim to know a little about them.

ee
. 7
24 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA :

~

FORM OF GOVERNMENT. ;

The form of Government is that of hereditary chief-
tainship. Over each village is a headman—called by the
natives “‘ Palabatu’’—the same word as is_ used » for
“husband.” The villages are divided into groups, and
over each group is a chief called by the natives ‘na
Bagara’’—a man of much more importance than the
headman or “ Palabatu.’’ Sometimes the man who has
the right to these positions 1s a weakling, and has little
or no influence. Or perhaps a man of no family, but of
very strong character, will overshadow him, and _ will
really exercise a greater influence than the ‘ Palabatu.”’
But though the common people will look upon him as a
kind of leader, the other chiefs will refuse to recognise him
as one of themselves, or will do so very reluctantly. They
speak of him in terms of the greatest contempt as “ having
no father.”” Human nature is much the same all the
world over. Over a big district, or over one of the
islands, reigns the principal chief, or ‘‘ Gati-Bagara.”
““Gati”’ is literally “trunk” or “stem,” and thus this
chief is the real or hereditary chief, and is generally a man
of great importance, and if a man of strong personality
exercises a wide influence, and possesses almost unlimited
power in certain directions. Sometimes the influence
of one of these strong men will extend far beyond the
bounds of his own district, or even of his own island, and
thus his village becomes the political centre of that part.
Such a one was Ingava, the chief of New Georgia, known
to all the naval officers and traders who have been in that
part of the world.

Generally speaking, the communistic system prevails—
land, houses, canoes, and produce all belonging to the
community, and not to any particular individual. Since
the advent of the white trader, however, this system has
been greatly modified. In the way of trade they are often
persuaded to purchase from the trader things that they
don’t really require, and thus a debt is incurred for which
some individual is made responsible. Other individuals
in the same tribe will run into debt also, and to settle these
when the trader asks them to pay up, private claims are
made to what was once public property. Thus cocoanut

BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. ; 25

trees, sago palm plantations, canoes, and even the land
pass into private hands. To protect his property, and
prevent others who think that they have as good a right
to it as he has, a man will trade on the superstitious fears
of his fellow villagers. and put a “tambu’” upon the
property he has claimed. This “‘tambu” takes several
forms. If it is on a piece of land, it is usually a stick split
at the top, with the leaves of a certain tree inserted. If
it is a particular tree they wish to preserve they tie a piece
of the sacred vine round the stem, and a native seeing this
will not touch it, for fear of bringing down upon his head
the wrath of the spirits. But more about this later on.

On most of the larger islands there is unceasing hos-
tility between the “ bushmen ” and the “salt water men,”’
as they are called, as well as between the tribes inhabiting
the different islands. This will show how little ground
there is for fear of anything in the nature of a general
rising, aS was reported by a trader from the group a few
days ago.

The “bushmen’’ protect themselves by building —
their villages on the tops of the hills, and some of their
positions are so well chosen, and the places so skilfully
fortified, that it would be a difficult task even for a force
of well-trained men to take them if properly held. I
visited one of these fortified villages two years ago. It
was situated at a place called “‘ Kumboro,”’ on the S.E.
end of the Island of Choiseul, and at the top of a peak about
twelve hundred feet (1,200ft.) above sea level. I was the
first white man to visit the place, and it was with con-
siderable difficulty that I persuaded the chiefs to allow me
to go. After climbing—sometimes on all fours—up the
mountain side, wading through streams, and getting many
a tumble—losing the skin of my shins and hands in the
process, I at last, after a three hours’ journey, arrived
within hailing distance of the village. It was right above
us, and was a great circular enclosure, taking in the whole
crown of the hill, and entirely surrounded by great stakes,
pointed at the top, about fifteen feet high, and about a
foot or more in diameter. These were placed as closely
as possible together, and at such an angle that anyone
coming up the mountain side would be right underneath
the stockade. Inside were walls of rough stone, forming

66

26 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA

a very effective defence against the attacks of the raiders
from below. Inside the stockade I found about fifty or
more houses. It was with evident reluctance that I was
allowed to enter the village, and only after the guides had
convinced the people that I possessed supernatural powers.

These defences are very necessary on account of the
raids made by the headhunters of Rubiana and other
places. These raids were made in order to secure heads
for the dedication of new houses and new canoes, and to
obtain victims for the cannibal feasts and sacrificial rites
performed from time to time. These people are the slaves
of superstitious fears, and these superstitions were
worked for all they were worth by the old sorcerors and
witch doctors. If a house were built it would be neces-
sary for the preservation of its inmates to propitiate the
spirits by shedding blood, and the obtaining of a number
of human heads. If a new “tomoko” or war canoe were
about to be launched, the sprinkling of human blood and
obtaining of heads would invest it with supernatural power.
Therefore these raids were organised by the sorcerors,
and in their beautiful war-canoes they would travel some-
times over two hundred miles to kill and obtain heads.
Before making a start the chiefs pay a visit to one of their
many sacred places—generally the shrine of some of their
ancestors—and there make sacrifices, and offer prayers
to the spirits for help in their raiding operations. With
great ceremony they then embark—carrying with them in
each of the canoes a sacred relic or charm—as a rule, a
small bone of some once-noted warrior, since deceased. Their
mode of warfare is that usually adopted by natives of
almost any place—taking their enemies by surprise, and
killing them before they have an opportunity of defending
themselves. Their operations, however, are carried out
with an unusual degree of cunning and skill, for they gener-
ally try to create the impression that they intend to raid
a place to which they really have no intention of going,
and after turning all eyes towards that particular place,
they suddenly swoop down upon some other unfortunate
village, and, catching the inhabitants unprepared, kill
and capture to their hearts’ content. On their return to
their own village they are received by the women and girls
singing and dancing to welcome them home. Immediately

,,

BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. oF

they land another visit is paid to the sacred place, and
offerings of food, ornaments, and sometimes of human
flesh, are made to the spirits in return for their assistance
in the raid. Immediately after these religious observances,
a great feast and dance is held—or rather, preparations
are made to hold it, for it generally occurs some days after
—to celebrate the victory over their enemies. These people
are cannibals, and if victims for their feasts could not be
obtained in the raid, then so much the worse for some
unfortunate slave captured in some previous expedition.

With regard to slavery—the lot of the slaves cap-
tured in these raids is not an enviable one. While they
are treated with kindness, and the work they are expected
to do is not. heavy or difficult, they are the absolute property
of their captors. The women, in addition to having to
do the work, are nearly always used for immoral purposes,
and thus become sources of profit to their owners. Then
there is always the dread uncertainty about the tenure of
life. When a head is required to pay for some afiront to
a neighbouring village. or a life to be sacrificed on some
occasion of great ceremony, the unfortunate slaves know
that, without warning of any kind—often after helping to
prepare the feast—their own life may be taken from them
by a sudden blow from the axe of one of their masters.
Still I have known cases where the female slaves have
become the wives of their captors, and have been treated
with as much consideration as the women belonging to the
tribe—which is perhaps not saying much.

The marriage laws of these people are very simple.
The wife is acquired by purchase. When a man makes a
proposal for the hand of the girl of his choice, or when—
as is very often the case—a girl makes a proposal for the
hand of a young man, a meeting of all the friends takes
place, and a price is fixed, which must be paid by the man
before the marriage is allowed to take place. This price
is regulated by the position occupied by the parents of the
bride, and as it is always paid in native money or orna-
ments, it is very hard to say what their value would be in
English money. In the New Georgian Group of Islands
it is not the custom to have more than one wife. though
I have known several cases where a chief has had more
than one. This happened where the first wife was getting

28 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA

old and helpless, and the man required someone to do the
work for him—for the women are always the drudges of
the men. In the Shortlands, and in the Islands of
Bougainville Straits, however, the chiefs and leading men
almost without exception have more than one wife, and
Some aS many as ten or twelve. As a rule, the wishes of
the girl are not consulted in the matter, if her friends decide
that an alliance with a certain young man is desirable,
and if she causes any trouble they get very angry with her.
Sometimes, however, the youth refuses to pay the amount
agreed upon until the girl consents, and sometimes if the
fickle lady changes her mind after the payment, which
sometimes happens, there is a big row, for there is no law
compelling the return of the money. “When everything
runs smoothly they hold the marriage feast, the men
taking charge of the bridegroom and the girls of the
bride, and decked in all their finery they are led to the
bridal feast, and from that time the man becomes a member
of the women’s tribe.

Female chastity is not a very common virtue among
the unmarried women and girls. It is not true, however,
as has often been stated by travellers, that it does not
exist at all. After marriage, however, the severest punish-
ment always follows any unfaithfulness on the part of
the woman—the guilty couple being put to death as soon
as their crime is proved against them. I have never known
a case of exchange of wives, as reported by Dr. Guppy
and others, taking place in the Eastern part of the Group.

The birth customs of the New Georgian people are
very peculiar. When the time of a woman draws near,
she is considered ceremonially unclean. She is taken away
to a little house in the bush, built by the women themselves
—no man being allowed to touch it—there to await the
birth of her child. No man is allowed to come near the
place for at least fourteen days after the birth of the child.
At the birth a sacrifice is made to the spirits, and blood
sprinkled round and on the child, in order to propitiate
the evil spirits, and incline them favourably towards the
infant. Infant mortality is very great, and under the
circumstances it is not to be wondered at. It is rather
the result of carelessness, however, than the custom of

BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. 29

infanticide, which obtains in the Eastern part of the
Solomons.

The burial customs, also, are interesting, as indicating
some of the religious beliefs of these people. The body
of a slave is usually buried in the sea, and no further notice
taken. When one of their own people dies, however,
it is a very different thing. If he is a man of any import-
ance, such as a chief, all his people gather together, and a
time of great feasting takes place. The body is decked out
in all the finery and ornaments which he possessed, with
shield and spear and axe, and fixed in a sitting posture
it remains in the house for about three days. All the time
great wailing and lamentation goes on in the belief that
the spirit of the deceased will hear and be pleased. At
the end of three days, the body is taken away, with great
ceremony, and left on one of the small islands used as a
burial place. After the flesh has left the bones, another
big feast takes place, and with great ceremony the skull
of the late chief is brought back and safely deposited in
a little head house prepared for it at one of the sacred places
near the village. To this place the friends go from time
to time, taking offerings of food and ornaments, which they
leave at the shrine, and make great lamentations in the
belief that they are comforting the spitit of their departed

- friend. The period of mourning generally lasts for about

eighty or one hundred days, and during the whole of that
time the relatives of the deceased will not entera canoe,
or, in some instances, leave the house. They will not
allow a drop of water to touch their bodies, nor a comb
or knife to touch their heads. Their hair grows long,
and is generally whitened with lme, and thus they live
in filth and discomfort for months to express their sorrow.
The head of a leper, or of a man who has met with a sudden
violent death, by accident, they will not bring in for fear
that they will meet with a like fate. On some of the
islands in the group, the wives of important persons who
die are expected to commit suicide, in order to accompany
their lord and master on his last long journey. If they
refuse, which they sometimes do, they are strangled by
their friends, that the departed one may not be lonely.
No one, of course, dies naturally in these islands. When

a man dies his friends all believe thet he must have been
C—Royat Society.

30 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA

bewitched. A witch hunt is organised by the sorcerors,
and generally some unfortunate girl—very probably a
slave—is taken, and is charged with witchcraft. If she
confesses, which sometimes in sheer fright she does, the
poor wretch is put to death at once. If she will not con-
fess, she is hung up by the thumbs or wrists for several
days at a time, until a confession is exorted from her, when
death follows as a matter of course.

Concerning the buildings, canoes, weapons, food,
etc., I have no time to speak in a paper like this. It would
require a book to say all or nearly all about these things.
I must, however, say a few words about the religious beliefs
of these people. They believe in a Great and Good Spirit,
whom they invest with the attributes of omnipotence and
omniscience. This great Being is responsible for all things
that exist. They believe that life is simply a road which
at death is divided in two—the one leading to a place of
happiness, and the other leading to “Sondo,” the place
of departed evil spirits. At the parting of the ways stands
an old woman directing each to his place. They believe
that the Great Spirit is not to be approached by mortals
and hence they pray to the other spirits which control
the destinies of man. To propitiate these they go to the
sacred places and pray, and offer sacrifices—sometimes
of human flesh, and sometimes of food, ornaments, and other
things. Everything in the lives of these very superstitious
people is connected in some way and controlled in some
way by the spirits, hence the old sorcerers and witch
doctors are people of great importance, and make a profit-
able thing out of the fears of the people. However, better
days are dawning for the people of the Western Solomons.
The power of the sorcerer is waning, and heading and
witch hanging is ending, and, with a wise paternal govern-
ment teaching the people agricultural pursuits and giving
them something to employ their time, teaching them to
work for themselves and thus better their condition, they
would be a happy and contented people.

i i,
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,

PAPER ON “ CHILLAGOK GARNET ROCK.”

By FRANK E. CONNAH.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th,
7 1908.

Introductory.—In all reports dealing with the geology
of the Chillagoe District mention is made of the close
association in the ore deposits of garnet rock with the
copper minerals; in fact, Mr. Alexander Stewart, in his
report for the Chillagoe Proprietary Company, in 1898,
referred to it as being “ one of the features of the field.”’

Occurrence.—Garnet rock occurs not only in the lime-
stone country at Chillagoe itself, but also in other parts
of the district, notably at Mount Garnet, where no lim>?-
stone is found in the immediate vicinity. Instances have
come under my notice of garnet rock being found in the
outcrop of lodes which showed no signs of copper or other
valuable metal, but very seldom is copper absent.

Garnet Mineral.—Garnet being a mineral of variable
type, it isa matter of some interest to fix the type of the
mineral of this district. So far as 1 am aware, the only
analysis which has been published is one which was included,
as being of interest, in the report of Mr. Stewart referred
to. As I know that this analysis was made in a bush
laboratory, under extremely adverse conditions, I have
obtained a sample of the mineral from the same locality,
and have submitted it to a careful analysis, the result of
which I now lay before you.

Garnet Rock.—Before going further, I would remind
you of the difference between garnet mineral and garnet
rock, the latter term being applied to rock of which garnet
mineral is a chief constituent.

Analysis of Garnet Mineral.—The analysis presented
here is of the garnet mineral. The sample was obtained

oo CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK

from an outcrop near the Dorothy mine at Chillagoe, and
consisted of a crystalline aggregate, the crystals being of
yellowish brown colour, and consisting mestly of the usual
rhombic dodecahedron. The crystals were carefully sep-
arated from cementing material (which, by the way, ap-
peared to be amorphous garnet), and were obtained
apparently clean. The analysis resulted as follows :—

Silica (S10,) a as se 2 See.
Ferric Oxide (Fe,0;) .. ai .. TBA
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) big i 24 {eQORS
Alumina (A1,03) Ne bas aT
Manganese Oxide (Mn0) ee .» Ogee
Lime (CaO) (other than CaC0,).. .. 81.06%
Magnesia (Mg0) sf Bs it Ni
Combined water Ke uh > OES
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO) ae Oa
Moisture ue Je a |
100.07%

The carbonic acid (0.25%) was evidently due to admixed
calcite which had escaped in the cleaning of the crystals,
and it was therefore calculated to calcium carbonate.

The ferrous iron was determined by the hydrofluoric
acid method. Triplicate assays gave identical results,
and a check made on ferrous ammonium sulphate gave an
accurate result.

The loss on ignition (0.8%) was higher than anticipated
and pointed to the presence of combined water. As thig
was of interest, in view of the generally accepted theory
that the formation of garnet took place under conditions
of moist heat, I determined the combined water in 24
grammes, dried at 100° C., using series of calcium chloride
tubes placed before and after the ignition tube ; the result
was a gain equal to 0.46%, which is reported as combined
water.

The specific gravity was found to be 3.429.

Garnet Rock.—The garnet rock consists of garnet
mineral, either by itself or, as is usually the case, mixed
with one or more other minerals. It is a matter of some
difficulty to say just what minerals are associated in the
Chillagoe district, though it may be said that hand speci-
mens usually show either calcite or amphibolite. When

BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 38

copper minerals also occur above water level they either
are secondary depositions in the accompanying mineral,
or where the garnet itself has suffered decomposition,
the copper is frequently heavily impregnated as oxide
in the altered product. Below water level copper sulphide
minerals frequently accompany the garnet, magnetic
pyrites being often found. At the Dorothy Mine fluorspar
is also found accompanying the garnet.

At Chillagoe the garnet-amphibolite combination is
common, and was referred to as “eklogite”’ by Dr. R. L.
Jack in his report on the field in 1891, and by Professor
Skertchly in his report on the field in 1895, and again
in his Presidential address to this Society in 1899.

At Mount Garnet the garnet mineral occurs mostly
in an amorphous splintery form, closely admixed with
calcite. It appears to form the walls of the enriched
deposit at water level, being adjacent to a series of felsite
dykes. An analysis of this rock resulted as follows :—

For CoMPARISON.

Mt. Garnet. Chillagoe.

Silica (Si0,) aie Sey pag 38.1 38.10
Ferric Oxide (Fe393) eat SU OO 21.5 18.79
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) Pre ee 0.6 1.00
Alumina (A1,03) as Nah» hy LF? 9.75
Manganese Oxide (MnO) eye Ora G 0.4 0.22
Lime (other than CaC03) .. 20.1% 27.2 31.06
Magnesia (Mg0) ¥ 12 Nil —— —
Combined Water... sya! Bs 98 .9 98 .92
Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) 2.5%
Zine Sulphide (ZnS) He Oo
Moisture - se oa ee

99.8%

It was impossible to obtain the garnet in this rock
free from calcite, but the only minerals recognised were
garnet, calcite and zinc blende. The second column above
Shows the figures for the garnet constituents reduced to
the same basis as the figures in the Chillagoe analysis for

34 OHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK

purpose of comparison. While only approximate they
serve the purpose of showing this garnet to be of the same
type as the Chillagoe crystalline variety, both being lime-
iron-alumina garnet.

_ Alteration Products.—As is usual in copper deposits
the lode rocks above water level show signs of intense action
by mineral solutions. The garnet rock is to be found in
all stages of alteration, the initial stages giving usually
more or less magnetic products, and the final product
being of friable nature and yellow to brown colour, having
a characteristic appearance not easily mistaken.

LECTURE ON BRISBANE POND LIFE.

(Summary or Lectvurt.)

By W. R. COLLEDGE.

Before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th. 1908.

THE lecturer, dealing with the subject generally, spoke upon
the adaptation of the creatures to their environment, their
great fertility, and the peculiar provision, by means of
ephyppial eggs in the Entomostraca, for preserving and
propagating their species in unfavourable weather. Fifty
lantern slides made from local subjects were exhibited.
' These comprised :—Actinophrys eichornii, Vorticella,
Epistylis, Desmids, Closterium Lunata and Striolata,
micrasterias denticulata, Spirogyra, with specimens con-
jugating, Batrachospermum Moniliforme, Volvox globator,
Conochilus volvox, a rare Rotifer Brachionis Falcatus,
Limnia ceratophylli, Melicerta Ringens, Utricaria capsules
enclosing larva of Ceratopogon, Tanipus, also Cyclops
Quadricornis, Tubifex rivulorum, Nais, and Nais proboscidea
in the act of dividing, Hydra Fusca, with shde showing
its various organs, Cypris, Pulex Daphnia, and the hyaline
form of carinata, Scapholeberis mucronata, Cyclops quadri-
cornis, male and female, Cetochilis Australiensis, various
larv 2 of the caddis fly, using different materials to form
their cases. The Water measurer, Hydrometra stagnorum,
with parasite on thorax, Naucorides beetles, Notolecta
Glauca, Ranatra linearis, Gyrinus Natator, Larva of the
Dragon fly, the Ephemera, Coretha larva, and _ pupa,
Hydropdilus. Afterwards some living specimens were
placed in glass tanks before the powerful lens of the electric
lantern; their magnification, and the manner in which
various organs were seen, excited much interest as well as
amusement, some of the larva much resembling pre-
historic monsters.

THE LAND WE LIVE ON.
‘Qum Facrat Letas Seceres.’’—Virgil.

By J. C. BRUNNICH, F.IC.

Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of Queens-
land on January 29th, 1909.

So short and yet so comprehensive is the quotation from
Virgil’s immortal Georgic : ‘‘ What makes the crops rejoice % ”’
that no better motto could be found for my address, dealing
with the land we live on, the crops of this land, and the
help which arts and sciences should and must give to agri-
culture, in order to utilise our inheritance of land to -pro-
duce crops, which will rejoice both in quality and in
quantity.

The subject of the address has been, on account of
its importance, the favourite theme of many writers. The
late Victorian Agricultural Chemist, Mr. A. N. Pearson,
read a paper before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science in January, 1900, on “The
Scientific Directing of a Country’s Agriculture,” in which
he chiefly directed attention to the great advantage of
manuring and improved tillage in order to obtain heavier
crops, and drew attention to the necessity of soil survey.
establishment of experimental farms, and the systematic
examination of products.

My friend, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, the Chemist of the New
South Wales Department of Agriculture, delivered in 1906
a lecture on “The Application of Science and Scientific
Methods to Agriculture,’? under the auspices of the Sydney
University Extension Board, in which he gave a short
historical review of the evolution of scientific agriculture,
and the recent results achieved by the aids of science. Mr.
H. W. Potts, the Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural
College, in his address on ‘‘ The Outlook for Agriculture,”

38 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

etc., recently delivered as President of the section for agri-
culture of the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science held in Brisbane, largely touched on the same
question.

Still the question is such an important one that it
cannot be brought too often before the public and before
our legislators, particularly if we bear in mind how much
still remains to be accomplished. Although agriculture
has made great strides during the last 50 years, and
particularly of late, some startling and far-reaching dis-
coveries have been made, yet the Secretary of the United
States Department of Agriculture stated, quite recently,
that farming is still in its infancy, and that the present
productivity of farms is merely a forerunner of the
marvellous results which will be obtained in the future.

If there is any country in the world which strives to
do justice to the scientific advance of agriculture, it is
undoubtedly the United States of America, with its numerous
Agricultural Colleges, Experimenta! Farms, with large
Stafls of scientists spread all over the States, and at their
head the Bureau of Agriculture, with eminent men guiding
and controlling the whole. If agriculture is only in its
infancy there, how does agriculture stand in Australia ?
Is it born at all ?

I myself have been connected with the Queensland
Department of Agriculture and Stock for some considerable
time, and must openly confess that agriculture in genera]
has not made the progress it ought to have made, although
a few branches, dairying for instance, have advanced
considerably. But apparent progress is only toe apt to
make us satisfied and forget that it might have been possible
to do very much better. I cannot do better than quote
some of the remarks made by Mr. J. M. Hunter, M.L.A.,
who recently visited South Australia, and made some
of his impressions public in the Brisbane Courier (Nov. 17,
1908) :—“I do not regard it as part of my duty at this
juncture to blame or explain the acts of administration,
or the want of them, that is responsible for the state of
agriculture in Queensland to-day. I content myself by
stating an unpleasant but pertinent fact, which is that
while in the South and South-west of Queensland we
possess a territory unequalled in any State of the Common-

re

BY J. ©. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 39

wealth for size, quality of soil, and rainfall, we are not

growing one quarter of the food-stuff we consume, while
in South Australia they not only feed themselves, but
after contributing largely to the needs of the Common-
wealth, they sent away to oversea markets last year over
£2,500,000 worth of wheat and flour.”’

An advancement of our agriculture can only be brought
about by encouraging close settlement in agricultural
districts ; by affording financial support to the farmers
in their earliest struggles, by teaching the farmers the
latest methods by practical demonstrations on Experimental
Farms, and in Agricultural Colleges by establishing
research scholarships at these institutions, and finally by
introducing agricultural subjects into our elementary
schools, so as to inculcate into the mind of our children
a love for the noblest of all trades : ‘‘ To dress the earth and
keep the. flocks of it—the first task of man and the final one.”

The carrying out of this policy is largely one of expense,
and it is a very bad sign, and shows great shortsightedness,
that our legislators during bad_ times, necessitating
retrenchments, put the pruning knife into the Department
of Agriculture. In times of drought, our proverbial lean
years, so far from retrenchment being set in motion, a
young country should increase its expenditure, even at
the cost of borrowing, just as the gardener waters his plants
in dry weather to ensure future bloom. Such expenditure
means Prosperity to Posterity. Nations are immortal,
individuals are only mortal. I will give an instance of
the fallacy of the present policy : A former principal of our
Agricultural College was severely criticised for purchasing

machinery and implements for the institution which were

found to be of little or no value, and had to be replaced
by other ones. Is it not much wiser that such implements
should be tried once for all at a college, in order to let
students see the advantages and disadvantages of each,
than that useless or inefficient implements should be
purchased by farmers, who have nobody to guide and
advise, and have to rely upon the glowing testimonials
displayed by the agents ; testimonials which perhaps are
genuine enough, but not applicable to local conditions ?

But why this singling out of Agriculture, for Soe et
wherein lies its importance ?

40 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

Of all the primeval instincts hunger—the craving for
food—is the most powerful and far-reaching one, and
the supply of the necessary food to mankind is the principal
object of agriculture. Nothing perhaps emphasises this
necessity better than the humble prayer of every Christian :
“Give us this day our daily bread.’’ We do not ask for
clothes, or habitation, or other needs of life, but beg for
bread only.

How beautifully Ruskin, in his immortal work “ Unto
This Last,” shows us the importance of agriculture and the
intimate connection of it with the wealth and welfare of
a nation :—

“So long as men live by bread, the far away valleys
must laugh as they are covered with the Gold of GOD.”

“The wealth of a nation is only to be estimated by
what it consumes.”’

“There is no wealth but Life, Life including all its
powers of love, of joy, and of admiration. That country
is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble
and happy beings,” and finally,

“There are two kinds of true production always going
on in an active State: one of seed, and one of food; or
production for the ground, and for the mouth.”’

The great importance of the food supply of the world
was the leading feature of the epoch-making lecture
delivered by Sir William Crookes ten years ago, at Bristol,
in his inaugural address as President of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, in which he
clearly showed that the world’s consumption of wheat is
rapidly overtaking the supply.

Professor Sylvanus P. Thompson, again, declared
about two years ago that a shortage of the wheat supply
is already imminent, and that in 1910 the demand will
be barely covered by the production.

Sir William Crookes’ lecture is particularly interesting
to us, as Queensland is specially mentioned in the address,
and the extracts of a few of the data will be of value. The
world’s wheat crop for 1897-8 was about 2,000 million
bushels, to which Australia, with its very vast areas, only
contributes 33 million bushels, or about 12%; the United
States produced 510 million bushels or 27%, and the two
countries Italy and Spain together 178 million bushels

- BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 41

or nearly 10%, corresponding to the annual import of wheat
into the United Kingdom. I specially mention these two
countries, as their climate somewhat resembles our own.
The two States together are about one-half the area of
Queensland, but whereas Queensland has only in all 600,000
acres or about .14% of its total area under crop, the land
cultivated in Italy and Spain amounts to 47 and 39%
respectively, which accounts for the Jarge production of
cereals.

Professor E. M. Shelton made years ago a rough estimate
of our lands suitable for wheat culture, and considered
about 50 million acres were fit for the cultivation of wheat.
At present our area under wheat amounts to only 150,000
acres. The great drawbacks to wheat culture in Australia
are the climatic vicissitudes, as is clearly shown by the
variation in the annual average yield. In Queensland
the average yield for twenty years is 14.7 bushels per acre,
which in the drought year 1902 dropped to 3.3 bushels,
whereas the crops of last year will go well over the average.
Victoria shows similar fluctuation, two years ago the crop
was only 6.6 bushels, whereas last year (1908-9) an area
of 1,885,000 acres yielded 12.8 bushels per acre. But,
in spite of dry weather, good crops of wheat may be grown
by improved methods of cultivation and the selection
of healthy rust-resisting varieties. In 1907, on the Roma
State Farm, a crop of 14 bushels per acre was obtained
with only 3% inches of rain between seed time and harvesting.
Last year the crops were very much heavier, averaging
well over 20 bushels per acre, but several varieties of wheat
yielded up to 38 bushels.

The United Kingdom with an average yield of 29.5
bushels is only able to grow 25% of its required wheat
and has to import 75% from abroad, and rarely holds
more than 14 weeks of supply on hand. What help it
would be not only to us, but also to the Mother country,
if we could cultivate part of our 50 million acres and supply
Great Britain’s demand of 180 miilion bushels.

Agriculture 13 the most ancient of all arts, coeval with
the first dawn of civilisation. Agriculture flourished in
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The ancient Romans
highly esteemed husbandry, and spread the knowledge of
agriculture all over Europe. In the early times the Anglo-

42 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

Saxon races much neglected agriculture, which indeed
could not flourish under the feudal system. In the middle
ages the best land belonged to the church, and the monks
not only carefully cultivated their lands themselves, but
supervised the cultivation of such lands which were leased
to farmers.

The development of agriculture in England may be
traced from some of the old writings on agricultural sub-
jects. One of the earliest works is the “ Books of Hus-
bandry,” written in 1539, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert,
followed by Tusser’s ‘‘ Five Hundred Points of Good Hus-
bandry,” and Googe’s ‘‘ Whole Art of Husbandry.” Of
particular note was the work of Sir Richard Weston, pub-
lished in 1645, ‘‘ Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant
and Flanders,” which largely induced the introduction of
some of the methods of the justly-celebrated Flemish.
agriculture into England. A very marked influence was
also affected by Jethro Tull’s “ Horse-Hoeing Husbandry,”
which appeared in 1731.

The value of the application of Chemistry to agri-
culture was very soon recognised, and already in 1795 the
Earl of Dundonald, an ancestor of our late Governor Lord
Lamington, published a treatise showing the intimate
connection which existed between agriculture and chemistry.
Unfortunately, the work did not receive the attention from
the farmers of Great Britain and Ireland which it actually
deserved. A much greater practical effect followed a
series of lectures delivered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1812
before the Board of Agriculture. The greatest advance
in agricultural Chemistry was. however, due to the efforts
of Dr. Justus von Liebig, whose first complete work was
published in 1840. By the help of his teachings many
operations and methods of cultivation carried out instinct-
ively by farmers, methods transmitted from father to son,
or accidentally discovered, were explained by scientific
reasoning, and thus rendered more eminently and con-
sistently useful. The work of Liebig was eagerly taken
up, and used as a foundation for the scientific building up
of agriculture by men like Anderson, Berzelius, Bousingault,
Johnston, Voelker, Wolff, and carried on at the present
day by Hall, Mitcherlich, Schloesing, Wiley, and many
others.

. —
a .

pie.

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 43

The foundation of all agriculture is unquestionably
the Soil, a layer of more or less weathered, crumbled rock,
which covers the surface of Mother Earth, and is absolutely
necessary to support any growth of plants. Only by the
aid of the mineral matters obtained from the soil are plants
able to grow and assimilate the organic plantfoods existing
as an inexhaustable supply in the ocean of air. The con-
stitution of the soil is very intricate and ever changing,
and both the mineral ingredients, and the organic sub-
stances, Humus, formed by the decay of vegetable matter,
together with the host of micro-organisms living in the soil,
are of vital importance.

The importance of bacterial life has only of late years
been properly recognised, and when we are told that one
grain of soil may contain millions of micro-organisms, one
cannot wonder at their far-reaching influence on the fertility
of a soil.

The skeleton of the soil is formed by mineral matters,
and Geology is the science which will teach the agriculturadist
the influence and importance of certain rocks on the com-
position of soils. Geological maps of countries, illustrating
the underlying strata, are of immense value to the scientific
farmer, particularly those known as drift maps, which show
the mineral matters actually existing on the surface. In
some countries accurate soil maps are now available, which
indicate the class of soil in each locality. These can only
be produced by an exhaustive special examination. The
United States Bureau of Agriculture has undertaken such
a complete soil survey, a truly gigantic undertaking which
will employ a large staff of experts for years.

But for the study of the soil, other factors besides
geology have to be taken’ into consideration ; they are its
chemistry, physics, and, as already indicated, its biology,
all which go hand in hand for the elucidation of the
character of a soil. For years the fertility of a soil was
chiefly judged by its chemical composition, paying, of
course, due regard to the mechanical and physical con-
dition, but of recent years the American school, as repre-

sented by M. Whitney and F. K. Cameron, declare that the

chemical composition of a soil has little to do with or to

tell about the fertility of a soil, and that manures, if they

44 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

have any effect of increasing the crops, do so by altering
the physical texture of the soil.

But other investigators, hke R. D. Hall, the present
director of the celebrated Rothamstead Experimental
Station, clearly demonstrate from numerous and ¢on-
tinuous manuring experiments that the views of the Amert-
can scientists cannot be considered as generally applicable.
A good many factors unquestionably combine to produce
fertility, and the duty of every farmer is to maintain, and if
possible increase, the fertility of the soil, so as to get
maximum crops from his ground.

Not only the actual amounts of available mineral
matters in the soil are of importance, but also the proportion
between them, and it has been shown quite recently by
Japanese scientists, Loew, Aso, Daikuhara, and others,
who have done a large amount of experimental work, that
the ratio of Lime and Magnesia are of particular importance.

Whitney’s theory that soil becomes unfertile by tne
accumulation of toxic substances excreted by the roots of
crops, and that the fertilizer act, not as a direct plantfood,
but by destroying these substances and putting them out
of action, has been supported by the results of investigations
carried out in India. F. Fletcher proved by field experi-
ments that there is an actual excretion of alkaloidice sub-
stances by the roots of plants, which are toxic both to the
parent plant and to other species. The sensitiveness of
crops to the excreted toxins varies considerably. The
results are of great importance with regard to the rotation
of crops, and explain the advantages of certain rotations,
showing for example why cotton grows feebly near sorghum,
vet thrives at least as well, if not better, after sorghum than
after cotton. !

Each crop fouls the soil for a succession of the same
variety. The toxic substances can be precipitated by
mineral manures, and also by certain vegetable refuse
(leaves, etc.) containing tannic acid. Even before Fletcher
published the results of his investigations several African
Chemists showed that the sterility of certain soils was caused
by the presence of toxic organic substances, the effects
of which could be corrected by the use of stable manure,
green manure, leaves of sumach, oak, ete., tannic acid and

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.1.C. _ 45

pyrogallol, calclum carbonate, ferric hydrate and carbon
black.

Experiments on these lines would ke of particular
value in our State to such crops as sugar cane, pine apples,
which are continuously grown on the same soil for years.

On the whole, soil chemistry has shown that exceedingly
small amounts of mineral matters dissolved in the water
within the soil are necessary for plant life, aided perhaps
to some extent by a direct solving action of the roots upon
the solid mineral matters. This theory had its foundation
in the classical experiments of Sachs (1860) in which plant-
roots were allowed to attack a slab of marble. Many
investigators adhered to the notion that the rootlets excrete
acids which help in the solution of the mineral matters, and
on this theory the determination of available piantfoods

in a soil by treatment with dilute watery solution of citric

acid, as originally proposed by Dr. B. Dyer, in 1894, is based.
The excretion of acids is, however, not necessary to account
for the solvent action of roots, as is proved by the fact
that soils maintain their neutral reaction under cultivation,
although continually removing small amounts of bases
from the soil. Instead of the acidity increasing under
cultivation the watery soil solutions tend to get more
alkaline. The slow solvent action of water on the soil
particles is materially aided by the ever-present carbonic
acid, given off continually by the growing roots, and indeed
the determination of the available mineral plantfoods
in a soul by one of the most recent methods, consists in
treatment with water charged with Carbonic acid gas.

One of the most wonderful aspects of nature is its
dealing on the one hand with infinitely large quantities
and distances quite beyond the range of human conception,
and on the other hand with infinitesimal minute quantities ,
while still hoitding a true balance between all.

We know that Carbon is the principal constituent
of all organic tissue, and that plants obtain all their carbon
from the minute quantities found in the atmosphere. The
air contains approximately about three parts of carbonic
acid in 10,000 parts, or in a cubic yard of air, weighing a
little over 2 pounds (2.28lbs.) we find only 7 grains of
Carbonic acid. The amount of carbonic acid varies with
the altitude, and at a height of 18 miles, according to

D—Rovyat Society.

46 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

Hinrichs, all carbonic acid has disappeared. Boussingault
was the first to prove conclusively that the carbonic acid
in the air is used for the assimilation of carbon by plants,
and that other sources of carbonic acid, as from soil and
water, are of little consequence.

A crop of wheat will remove one ton of carbon from
an acre of ground in four months, or as much as is contained
in a column of air 3 miles in height, and a crop of maize
removes in the same time about three times as much.

Now the actual work done by the sun in the plant
tissue to produce this assimilation amounts to at least
3,000 horse power per day per acre, corresponding to the
work of 15,000 men. We can now understand what an
enormous amount of energy is wasted and lost for every
acre we leave even partially uncultivated. George Ville,
in lectures delivered in 1883 at the Academy of Brussels,
puts this case very clearly. These lectures were translated
and edited by Sir William Crookes under the title “‘ The
Perplexed Farmer,” and they should be read by every one
interested in agriculture.

Another essential constituent of plant food is Nitrogen,
one of the most inert of elements, in this respect approach-
ing to the argon group. Although an inexhaustible supply
exists in the atmosphere, 4-5ths being pure nitrogen, the
higher plants cannot use it directly. It would be almost
true to assert that the whole question of successful agri-
culture centres about the fixiation of nitrogen. This
essential of life is largely supplied to plants in the form of
that ‘‘ villainous saltpetre’’ which, as gunpowder, we use
for the destruction of hfe. Nitrogen, indeed, performs
so important a role that one might almost christen agri-
culture ‘‘ Azotism.’’ Yet, I would remind you the very
word Azote, still used in France, was given to it for the
very reason that, per se, it 1s incapable of supporting life —
so involved are the processes of Dame Nature.

Only some few of the micro-organisms are able to
assimilate atmospheric nitrogen directly ; all higher plants
must get their nitrogen in form of nitrates, and the prin-
cipal source of this combined nitrogen is the small amount
produced when organic substances are burned in air, and
by the direct union of oxygen and nitrogen in the air under
the influence of electric discharges. The extremely minute

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 47

amounts of ammonia salts nitrates and nitrates in the air
are collected by the rain. The amount of rainwater in
nitrogen has for years been carefully ascertained at
Rothamstead, and it was found that the average rainfall
of 29 inches supplies yearly 3.84lbs. of nitrogen per acre,
although the rainwater itself contains in an average only
4-10ths part of nitrogen per million in the form of ammonia,
and 1-l0th part per million as nitrate nitrogen. Similar
determinations were carried out elsewhere, and the pre-
valent idea that the amount of nitrogen in the water of
tropical countries is much higher has not been sustained
by the records pubhshed by Leather for the rainfall collected
in India, at Dehra Dun and Cawnpore. They give almost
identical amounts of nitrogen obtained in England, namely,
3.25 and 3.4lbs. per acre, although the rainfall was 86 and
49 inches per annum. Ingle made similar experiments
in Pretoria, and found that a rainfall of 24 inches supplied
6.58lbs. of nitrogen per acre aS ammonia, and 1.08lbs.
as nitrate nitrogen. I arranged for collection of rain-
water at our Roma State Farm, at the tropical Experimental
Station at Kamerunga, near Cairns, and at Brisbane, for
the past year, and the results so far seem to indicate that
our rain is not very rich in nitrogen compounds.

One of the principal objects of agricultural chemistry
is to teach the farmer how he can best maintain the
fertility of his soil. Fertility can only be maintained
by giving back to the ground that which the crops them-
selves take away. and this is easily done by the application
of artificial fertilizers supplying the essential plantfoods :
nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid.

A continual process of gain and loss of all the plant-
foods, more particularly of nitrogen, is taking place in
every soil, and it is one of the main objects of the agri-
culturist to encourage every increase of nitrogen, and at
the same time reduce its waste to a minimum. A crop of
wheat removes from the soil, in the grain alone, from 30
to 50lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Of all the fertilizing con-
stituents, nitrogen, although so abundant in the air, is the
most expensive to obtain, and consequently one of the
great aims of experimental chemistry has been to devise
-a means of utilizing the atmospheric nitrogen.

48 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

‘An increase of nitrogen in soil is derived, as already
mentioned, from the small amounts of nitrogen compounds
dissolved in the rain water.

As shown by the now historical researches of Hell-
riegal, leguminous plants make direct use of the atmos-
pheric nitrogen by the aid of micro-organisms, living in
the root nodules, and green-manuring, with leguminous
crops, can therefore to some extent supersede the direct
application of nitrogenous manures. Bacterial cultures
under the name of ‘‘ Nitragin,” to be added to the soil or
for the direct treatment of the seed itself, to encourage the
activity of the nitro-kacteria, were prepared by Nobbe,
of Tharand, and Hiltner, in 1896, but did not prove a
great success. Such cultures have been improved by G.
Moore, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Another gain of nitrogen is finally obtained by the
action of bacteria and micro-organisms living free in the
soil, which are capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen.
Winogradsky has already years ago proved such assimi-
lation of nitrogen by certain forms of Clostridiwm ; Beijer-
inck, Heinze, and others, by certain blue-green algae,
Cyanophyceae.

Of more recent date are the investigations of Kruger,
Schneidewind, Mazé, Gerloch, Vogel, Heinze, and others,
proving fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by so-called
Azoto-bacteria. The presence of these bacterial forms
was detected in the soils of cultivated fields and of meadows,
in sand of dunes, and also in seawater. Azoto-bacteria
require for their growth not only certain amounts of easily
available mineral substances, chiefly phosphoric acid and
potash salts, but also organic compounds for the supply
of carbon, as these low forms of life cannot assimilate
carbonic acid. These compounds are furnished by the
higher plants, and by the decay of vegetable matters.
The bacteria further require suitable temperature,
mositure, and finally, plenty of air, so that they thrive
best in loose, moist, deeply cultivated soil. |

The farmer has it, therefore, in his own hands to
improve the nitrogen contents of his land by encouraging
the growth of these organisms by thorough cultivation.

Dr. R. Greig-Smith, the Macleay Bacteriologist - of
the Linnean Society of New South Wales, in his studies

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 49

of slime producing bacteria, proved the fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen by Azotobacter, and summarised the work
of such friendly bacteria (proceedings of the Linnean
Society of N.S.W., vol. XXXI., p. 615), by stating : “‘ We
are now certain of the kind of help which the bacterium
gives the plants. There exists a symbiosis; the plant

supplies saline and saccharine matters, the latter of which

the bacterium converts into gum, and at the same time
elaborates atmaspheric nitrogen into constituents which
are partly contained within the bacterial cell, and partly
diffused in the gum, which by virtue of their presence,
appears as a slime. Both the nitrogenous and the carbo-
hydrate constituents of the slime are then elaborated by
the plant-cells into tissue elements.”

A further supply of nitrogen in the form of artificial
fertilizer is frequently absolutely necessary, and hitherto
farmers of the whole world have been depending largely
on the supply of saltpetre fields of Chili. With an annual
output amounting to 1,740,000 tons in 1907, a depletion
of these mines is expected within 50 years, and the neces-
sity of some other source of mitrogen becomes very
apparent

Birkeland and Eyre are now producing nitrates from
the atmospheric air at their factory at Nottoden, Norway,
by electric discharges, thus reproducing one of Nature’s
processes. An enormous supply of water produces the
cheap electric power necessary for heating the special
electric furnaces through which air is passed, and the
nitric acid oktained by the direct combination of nitrogen
and oxygen is absorbed by milk of lime, to form calcium
nitrate. |

Another new nitrogenous manure is the calcium
cyanamide, produced by the action of atmospheric nitrogen
on calcium carbide, the well-known compound used fot
the production of acetylene gas, or on a mixture of lime
and charcoal, heated to 2000 degrees C. The product
Cyanamide, or Kalkstickstoff, contains from 14 to 22%
of nitrogen, which is given off in form of ammonia, when
water acts on the substance in the ground. Experiments
carried out with the fertilizer seem to give excellent results.

Another very important line of investigation in agri-
cultural chemistry and physiological chemistry is the study

50 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

of animal nutrition, and the composition of foddercrops,
and food-stuffs in general. A large amount of experi-
mental work has been done in this respect in Europe and
in the United States, yet many esssential points are still
shrouded in mystery. Wolff was the first to publish a
special work on “ farm foods,” in 1864, chiefly based on
the researches of von Voit, and Pettenkofer, carried out
at Munich, and his own work at the Agricultural College
at Hohenheim.

In the analysis of fodders very little progress has
been made, and the original “‘ Wende ”’ method, introduced
by Henneberg in 1864, is: still largely used, although the
results can be hardly called satisfactory.

Of particular importance are the analyses of our
stapte foods, wheat and wheaten flour. As most of the
wheat is used in the form of flour, the milling and bread-
making qualities are of chief value. With the introduction
of improved methods of milling, many of our old popular
ideas have been exploded, and the notion that dark-
looking and whole-meal bread are more nutritious than white
bread is proved tobe a fallacy. Our modern millers pro-
duce not only a whiter but a more nutritious and more
easily digested flour than their predecessors. Professor
Snyder, of the University of Minnesota. has clearly shown
that from nearly every class of wheat the white flour of
commerce yielded more nutriment than the whole-meal,
and that the addition of bran made flour more indiges-
tible. The value of flour is practically judged by
bakers by its strength, or the capacity to produce a bold,
large-volumed, and well-risen loaf. We do not know yet
what really constitutes the strength of flour, or how many:
factors take part in its production. Quantity, composition
and character of the insoluble proteins—Gluten—of the
flour are some of the principal factors, but others are of
equal importance, and the new fact made known by A. D.
Hall that, although individual flours may be of poor
strength and produce poor loaves, a blending of such flour
nevertheless produced an excellent loaf; but only a mix-
ture of the flours in certain proportions gave results equal
to a sample of strong Manitoka flour. Again, it was shown
that the strength varied if the wheats were harvested half
ripe or, dead ripe. These investigations prove the practical

BY J. C, BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 51

value of the methods in practice by all millers to blend

their wheats, and also shows that the results of milling and
anaylses alone are not at all sufficient by which to judge
the value of any wheat. As a matter of fact, experi-
mental milling should be carried out on a far larger scale,
and a few bags of each of the flours produced, so as to

enable different blends to be made and bread from the

Separate and blended flours to be tested.

A further important research is the detection of
injurious and poisonous compounds in fodder plants, and
with regard to this an enormous amount of work will
have to be done in Australia. Of particular interest has
been the discovery of a hydrocyanic acid-yielding glucoside
in the fodders belonging to the Sorghum family. Already,
in 1803, Schrader had proved the toxic principle of bitter
almonds to be hydrocyanic acid, since when investigators
have shown the presence of free prussic acid and of
cyanogenetic glucosides in many seeds and plants. Most
hkely they play an important réle in the synthesis of the
Proteins. Treub asserts that these bodies are the first
recognisable product of the assimilation of the nitrogen
of mtrates by plants. How the hydrocyanic acid itself
is first formed is still a mystery, although Gautier’s sug-
gestion that it may be formed by a reduction of nitrates
by formaldehyde is a very feasible one.

I cannot leave the application of chemistry to agri-
culture without mentioning the great value which chemical
methods of analysis have been in the develoment of the
dairying industry. The introduction of simple methods
for the determination of fat in milk and cream has put
the industry on a sound scientific basis.

I shall now pass on to the consideration of some of
the other sciences influencing the development of agri-
culture, and of necessity can only give bare outlines in
some cases.

Botany has always been of recognised importance in
the search for new plants suitable for food, or of
other commercial value. But perhaps one of the chief
functions of the application of this science is the improve-
ment of plants by breeding and cross-fertilization.

As early as the beginning of last century Lamarck
revolted against the dogma of the immutability of species.

52 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

By Darwin’s work—* considered a decidedly dangerous
book to old ladies of both sexes ’’—the mystery of hereditary
was somewhat cleared up by experiments in cross fer-
tilization. The improvement of cereal grain, more par-
ticularly of wheat by hybridising, 1s a matter of utmoitt
importance, and a good deal of work has been done already
in this direction. A large number of hybrids of wheats
have been raised at the Minnesota Experiment Station,
and in New South Wales the late Mr. W. Farrer
produced a large number of cross-bred wheats, some of
which proved of considerable value. Similar work with
regard to fruits in particular has been done by others.

Still the matter of breeding lacked a_ thorough
scientific basis, and the work was, as stated by Lindley
half a century ago, “a game of chance played between
man and plant,” which, as a matter of fact, was always
largely in favour of the plants.

The mystery has been solved by the exceedingly valuable
work of a monk, Gregor Mendel, of the Abbey of Brinn, in
Austria, who, as the result of eight years’ painstaking experi-
ments, communicated to the Briinn Natural History
Society a paper on ‘“‘ Hxperiments in Plant Hybridisation.”
This work was completely overlooked, and lay for 35
years in the archives of the Society, only to ke re-discovered
in 1901, almost simultaneously by three scientists, de
Vries, Correns, and Tschermak. It was shown that the
work of the amateur botanist gave a clear and complete
theory with regard to the working of heredity, and based
on his researches and theories cross-fertilization reaches
almost the accuracy of mathematical science. Briefly
his theory is, that inheritance consists in the transmission
of independent characters—the Constant Characters—otf
which each species possesses a certain definite number.
These characters form pairs of opposites or alternatives.
The characters are distributed among the germ cells in
systematic manner, so that no germ cell will carry both
numbers of a pair. Biffen, of the Agricultural Depart-
ment of the Cambridge University, has taken the work up,
and has already obtained very interesting results in the
cross-fertilization of wheats and _ barleys.

Botany is also of importance in the study of many
plant diseases. Smut and rust are very prevalent diseases

+ ee

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 53

caused by fungi. The infection frequently takes place
in the seedling stage, and the germs of the disease may
also be lying dormant in the seed itself. In the case of
wheat and barley, the seedling is not attacked by the
smut spores, but during the flowering stage attacks the
plants, settling on the ripening grain. Fungicides, rotation
of crops, obtaining seed from healthy crops, and -the
breeding of disease-resisting varieties are the principal
remedies.

Perhaps no science has made such great progress,
and has been of such far-reaching influence in every-day
life as Bacteriology. The influence of bacteria on agri-
culture is of utmost importance. We have already men-
tioned that by the aid of bacteria leguminous plants may
directly assimilate nitrogen from the air. In nearly all
cases reaction and changes going on continually in soil
micro-organisms are the principal factors. The change
of the nitrogenous matters into ammonia compounds,
and finally into nitrates, generally called the process of
nitrification, is caused by certain bacteria. A reversal
of the process-denitrification—by which from nitrates
and ammonia salts free nitrogen is liberated, and thereby
lost—is lhkewise caused by bacteria. Soil Biology is quite
a science of its own, and some observers attribute the
assimilation of all inorganic and organic plantfoods, by
the roots from the soil, to the action and help of bacteria.
Bacteriology is of equal importance to dairying; the
ripening of cream and cheese are both caused by bacteria,
and so are souring of milk, development of bad flavours
in butter and cheese. Desired results can only be obtained
by thorough sterilisation of milk and cream, and the sub-
sequent use of pure cultures of certain bacteria as starters.

The great and principal objects of sciences of
Engineering and Mechanics are to harness the forces of
Nature to the service of agriculture, and to improve the
various implements and machines used in its various
branches. These sciences are of further importance in
the carrying out of schemes of water conservation, and in
the preparing and laying out of land for draining and
irrigation. This branch of engineering is of particular
value to our State, and just at present, when the Govern-
ment are anxious to carry out such schemes, the want of

54 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

trained men is acutely felt. Engineering is of fuatonee
great importance in the dairying industry for the con-
struction of milking machines, separators, pasteurisers,
churns, butter workers, refrigerating machines, etc.

With reference to implements, let me give a short
history of the Plough, one of the most necessary implements
of a farm, used for the breaking up and turning over of the
soil, to replace the slow and laborious hand digging. The
use of the plough dates back almost to the earliest history
of mankind, but the implements used in early times were,
as a rule, primitive and clumsy, chiefly constructed of
wood. Ploughing with shares shod with iron and bronze
is mentioned in the Old Testament. Ploughs with wheels
were also used by the ancient Greeks, but none of the old
ploughs actually turned over a furrow. The modern
plough. with a mould-board to turn over the soil, seems to
have been invented in the Netherlands in the 17th century.
Up to the middle of the 19th century the mould-boards
were generally made of wood. Since that time great
improvements in the construction of ploughs have been
made, and different types are used for specific purposes.
A particularly great advance was the introduction of the
American Gang and Sulky plough, and the newest type
of disc plough, so admirably suited for many of our classes
of soil. In other implements, such as harrows, rollers,
cultivators, etc., the ingenuity of the mechanic has made
many improvements. As early as the year 1858, in an
article in the Journal of Agriculture, th> necessity of the
application of steam ploughs to agriculture was strongly
advocated in Great Britain. Paradoxical as it seems,
Ruskin in his id2ahstic social democracy emphatically
condemns the employment of steam in agriculture. In
the year 1618 patents for engines to plough the ground
without horses or oxen were taken out by David Ramsay
and Thomas Wildgoose, followed by. other patents for
the depositing of seeds and manures, which, however,
the wags of that time considered regular “‘ wild-goose
schemes.”

Towards the close of the 17th century, Francis Moore
took out patents for a machine to go without horses, to
be applicable to ploughing and harrowing, and to all
branches of husbandry. So sanguine was he of his results

BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 55

that he sold all his horses. and induced many of his friends
to do likewise. His work was improved upon by Richard
L. Edgeworth, who took out patents in 1770. Since that
time numerous other patents have been taken out, all of
which helped to perfect the modern steam plough. I
ean only mention the names of Major Pratt, Heathcote,
Alex. McRae, John Tulloch, Osborn, Boydell, H. Hannam,
James Usher, Hoskyns, Williams, and Fisken, who, during
the middle of the 19th century, patented various schemes
for steam cultivation, which are the fore-runners of the
system of John Fowler, the principal system used at the

present day.

For harvesting, machines were also found a necessity
as labour-savers, and as early as 1829 a reaping machine
was invented by the Rev. Mr. Bell, of Carmylie, Forfarshire,
whose struggles in this regards are almost pathetic. For
trials he had to plant stalks of straw one by one in sand
in his back yard, in order to find out how his machine
would cut the straw. His machine, in an improved form,
is still in use. Mowing and reaping machines have now
been greatly improved, and not only cut the crops, but bind
the straw up into sheaves. Cyrus McCormick is_ the
inventor of the most modern reaping machine. One of
his first machines, shown in the Crystal Palace Exhibition
in 1851, was called by the Times “a cross between an
Astley chariot, a wheel barrow and a flying machine,”
but afterwards was considered worth the whole of the
exhibition.

At the present day one of our chief wants is a good
cane-cutting machine, and it is interesting to note, just
now, that here in Brisbane an engineer has patented and
constructed such a machine, which will soon make its first
practical trial, and which from appearance seems to have

solved the problem, and if so will be of enormous value to

the sugar industry.

Other machines in which the ingenuity of the mechanic
and engineer has been exercised are implements for sowing
of seed, distribution of fertilizers, planting and harvesting
of tubers, etc., and finally implements to improve cultiva-
tion, so as to conserve the soil moisture as much as possible.

A good deal remains to be done in the invention of
machines directly utilising the light and heat of the sun

56 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

as a motive power, to take the place of the expensive steam
power. Wind and water power are already largely utilised.
The production of a cheap alcohol has made enormous
progress on the Continent, and no doubt the time will come
when we Shall utilise some part of our crops, and more
particularly the millions of gallons of Molasses, the bye-
product of our sugar mills, which now almost entirely
go to waste, to be manufactured into alcohol, a liquid fuel
which can completely replace petroleum and petroleum
Spirit, imported in large quantities from America, for the
driving of motor cars, launches, farm engines, and also for
hghting and cooking.

Electricity itself is now used as a direct aid as a plant
producer. I can only mention the Thwaite system of
Klectro-culture, a system using direct light and heat pro-
duced by powerful arc-lamps to plants, to stimulate their
growth. Sir Oliver Lodge’s large-scale experiments of
electro-culture, by passing electric currents through wires
and cross wires stretched across the fields on poles, are
giving according to recent reports up to 40% increase in
the yield of grain. Professor Lemstrom’s experiments
to apply electric currents to cultivated fields, and the
French system of utilismg atmospheric electricity for
agriculture, and the direct treatment of seeds with electricity
are further attempts in this direction.

Veterinary science will help in the breeding of stock,
in the treatment of diseases, and in this respect a good
deal of work has to be done in our State, chiefly in the
investigation of Redwater and other diseases.

The Entemologist and Vegetable Pathologist have to
investigate insect pests, plant diseases, and find remedies
for all, particularly to seek the most successful and practical
methods of combating insect pests by the introduction
of parasites, requires careful and painstaking labour and
research. One of our great problems is the destruction
of noxious weeds, lantana and prickly pear ; for the former
a natural check by insects has already been found in Hawai,
and whether it is possible to find a similar remedy for the
prickly pear will be seen in the future. |

There are other sciences which have a more or less
direct bearing on agriculture, but time permits me _ to
mention only one more, and that is Education. Consider-

~ BY J. CG.’ BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 57

4 ing the importance of agriculture it is always to be wondered

at how completely agricultural education has been neglected
for years, and how farmers have been left to shift for them-
selves and battle with adverse circumstances. How to
educate the farmer has always been a question open to
different views and serious discussions. It has of late
years been seriously taken up and the teaching of the
elements of agricultural sciences have been even introduced,
as it should be, in the lower schools.

The first Chair of Agriculture in the University of
Edinburgh was instituted by Sir Wilham Pulteney, in
1791, with Dr. Coventry as its first professor. An agri-
cultural College was founded in Cirencester in 1839, which
is still in a very flourishing condition. In Ireland, an
agricultural school was established in 1821, which was

followed by the establishment of agricultural training

schools, and the introduction of the teaching of agriculture
in the national schools, which has proved a very successful
and economic system.

Of great educational value are the numerous agri-
cultural societies existing everywhere. As early as 1723,
a ‘* Society for the improvement in the knowledge of Agrt-
culture,’ was established in Scotland, followed by a similar
Society in Dublin in 1737. The << Bath and West of
England Society”? was founded in 1777, the “ Highland
Soctety”’ in 1784, the “ Board of Agriculture’? was formed
in 1793, and controlled by Sir John Sinelair, and the
“ Royal Society for the improvement of Agriculture” was
established in 1847.

At the present day we must consider the United States
of America to stand at the top of all countries with regard
to agricultural education, their system of Agricultural
Colleges, Experiment Stations, Agricultural Universities,

-and the teaching of agriculture in lower schools is well nigh

perfect, no labour or expense appears to be spared.

Let us hope that. our country will soon be in a position
to spend a proportionate amount of money for the develop-
ment of agriculture, just as it is done elsewhere. We
must never forget that farming is not only the most difficult
of professions, but the only profession which is absolutely
indispensable to mankind. For this reason agriculture

58 THE LAND WE LIVE ON

should be recruited from the most intelligent and persevéring
of workers.
In “ Time and Tide’? Ruskin says :—

‘A labourer serves his country with his spade just .

as a man in the middle ranks of life serves it with sword,
pen or lancet,”’ and finally ‘“‘ Now the fulfilment: of all
human liberty is the peaceful inheritanc> of the earth,
with its herb yielding seed, and fruit tree yielding fruit
after his kind, the pasture, or arable land, and the blossom-
ing or wooded and fruited land uniting the final elements
of life and peace, for body and soul.” .

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Annual Meeting of Members,

HELD ON JANUARY 29th, 1909.

The Annual Meeting was held at the Technical College,
Ann Street, on January 29th, 1909.

The President (J. C, Brinnich, F.1.C., F.C.8., occupied
the chair.
Minutes of last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Report of Council and Financial Statement for 1908
were read and adopted.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

The Council of the Royal Society of Queensland have
pleasure in presenting the Annual Report for the year ending
31st December, 1908.

Nine ordinary meetings were held during the year, when
the following papers were read :—

March 26th.—‘ The Jardine Expedition from Rockhampton
to Cape York, 1864,’ Hon. A,
Norton, M.L.C.
‘‘ Recent Results of Astronomical Photo-
graphy,’ W. #. Gale, F.R.A.S.
April 24th.—*‘‘ The Origin of Australia,” Professor S. B. J.
Skertchly.
May 30th.—‘‘ Nature Studies in Queensland, New South
Wales, and Fiji,” Hon. A. Norton.
‘‘Men of Colour—Women also,’ ‘ Three
Colour Pictures,” W. Saville Kent.
June 26th.—‘‘ The People of New Georgia,” Rev. J. Goldie.

August 1st.—‘‘ Palms of the Brisbane Botanical Gardens,”’
J. F. Bailey.

August 29th.—‘‘ Geology of Tambourine Mountains,”
J. Shirley, B. Se.

September 25th.— Brisbane Tertiaries,’’ Professor 8. B. J.
Shertchly.

li. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

October 31st.—‘‘ Queensland Grasses,’’ Dr. A. Sutton.

November 28th.—‘‘ Chillagoe Garnet Rocks,” F. FE. Connah.

‘‘ Notes on Brisbane Pond Life,” W. R,
— Colledge.

A special meeting was also held on March 28th, at which
Mr. W. F. Gale, F.R.A.S., gave a lecture entitled ‘‘ Astronomy
and Photography.”’

The Council greatly regrets to have to report the death of
four prominent members :—Messrs. L. A. Bernays, C.M.G.,
W. Saville Kent, W. Collins, and Hon. John Leahy.

Eight new members were elected and thirteen resigned
or left, leaving the membership at 103.

The following names are those of the new members elected
since the last report for 1907: Messrs. &. Dodd, F.R.C.V.S.,
D. Eglinton, Miss Eglinton, Messrs. EK. H. Gurney, EK. R.
Gore Jones, G. Tucker, M.R.C.V.S., C. T. White, Major J.

Johnston. ;

Ten Council meetings were held during the year, and the
attendance of Councillors was as follows:—J. F. Bailey, 8 ;
W. J. Byram,4; J. C. Brinnich,9; H. M. Challinor, 3;
E. H. Gurney, 6; J. B. Henderson, 7; Hon. A. Norton, 9;
J. Shirley, 1; F. Smith, 2; Dr. A. Sutton, 4; Dr. J.
Thomson, 4.

Mr. C. T. White wa3 appointed Hon. Librarian in succes- |

sion to Mr. Frank Smith, who resigned; and Mr. H. M.
Challinor having resigned from the position of Hon. Secretary,
Mr. E. H. Gurney was appointed to the position.

During the year, upon the recommendation of the Library
Sub-Committee, the Library has been put in order, being
classified and catalogued by Mr. and Miss Eglinton.

The financial statement, which is hereto annexed, shews
that the monetary affairs of the Society are on a sound basis.

Signed on behalf of the Council,—

J. C. BRUNNICH,
President.
E. H. GURNEY,
Hon. Secretary.

Brisbane, January, 29th, 1909.

iii.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

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iv. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Mr. Briinnich read his Presidential Address, entitled, ‘‘ The
Land we Live on,’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by
the meeting.

The following office-bearers for 1909 were then elected :—
President: J. F. Bailey; Vice-President: Dr. Alfred Sutton ;
Hon. Treasurer: J.C. Briinnich, F.1.C.; Hon. Secretary: E.
H. Gurney ; Hon. Librarian: C.'T. White; Members of Cownetl :
Colonel John Thomson, M.B., P.M.O., J. Brownlie Henderson,
F.I.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., H. Wasteneys, W. R. Colledge: Hon.
Auditor : Geo. Watkins; Hon. Lanternist: A. G. Jackson.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Archer, R. 8.

Badger, J. S.

Bailey, J. F. (Life)

Bailey, F. M. (Life)
Bennett, F.

Bernays, L. A., C.M.G.
Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C.
Bundock, C. W.

Bundock, Miss Alice
Byram, W. J.

Cameron, J., M.L.A. (Life)
Cameron, W. E.

Carter, Hon. A. J., M.L.C.
Challinor, H. M.

Colledge, W. R.

Collins, J. C.

Collius, R. M.

Collins, Wm.

Collins, Miss Jane
Connah, Frank E.

Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J.
Cory, A. H., M.R.C.V.S.L.
Costin, C. W.

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L.
Dunstan, Benjamin
Eglinton, D.

Eglinton, Miss

Forrest, Hon. E. B., M.L.A.

Fox, Geo., M.L.A.
Gailey, R. (Life)
Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C.
Gore, Gerard R.
Gore-Jones, E. R.

Gray, Hon. G. W., M.L.C.
Greenfield, A. P.
Griffith, Sir S. W. (Life)
Gurney, E. H.

Hedley, C.

Henderson, J. B., F.1.C.
Henderson, Mrs. J. B.
Hirschfeld, Dr.
Hockings, P. F.
Hogarth, Mrs,

Holland C. W.

Hood, W. W.

Hopkins, Dr.

lllidge, T.

Illidge, Rowland

Irving, J., M.R.C.V.S.L.
Jack, Dr. R. L. (Life)
Jackson, A. G.
Johnston, Major J.

Jones, P. W.

Jones, A. Raymond

Kent, W., Saville (Life)
Leahy, p. J., M.L.A.
Leahy, John, M.L.A.
Lord, Frederick

Love, Dr. W.

Lucas, Dr.

Marks, Hon. Dr.

Marks, E. O.

May, Dr.

McCall, T.

McConnel, Eric W.
McConnel, James H.
McConnel, Edward J.
Mackie, R. Cliffe

Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C.
Millar, T. W.
Murray-Prior, Mrs.
Norton, Hon. Albert (Life)
Parker, W. R., L.D.S

Plant, Lieut. -Col. Cz F,
Plant, Hon EH. T.;, MA:
Pound, C. J.

Power, Hon. F. I., M.L.C.
Pritchard, C.

Raff, Hon. Alex. (Life)
Reid, Major D. E.

Roe, R. H., M.A. (Life)
Ryan, Dr. J. P.

Sankey, Major J. R.
Schneider, Henry (Life)
Shirley, J., B.Sc.

Smith, Frank, B.Sc.
Stevens, Hon. E. J. (Life)
Steele, T. F.L.S., F.E.S. (Life)
Sutton, Dr. A.

Sutton, J. W. (Life)
Taylor, Hon. Dr.
Thomson, Dr. John (Life)
Thynne, Hon. A. J.
Tonks, T.

Townley, Capt. W.
Tucker, G., M.RC.V.S.L.
Turner, Dr. A. Jefferis
Walsh, Rev. W. M. (Life)
Wasteneys, H.
Watkins, Geo.
Weedon, Warren (Life)
White, C. T.
Willcocks, G. C.
Zoeller, C.

i
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY

H. POLE & Co., ExizaseTH STREET, BRISBANE.

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PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
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1910,

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Royal Society of Queensland

Patron:

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR,
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Ere.

QEERICERS,,. 1910.

President :
W. R. COLLEDGE.

Vice-President :
IK. H. GURNEY, F.C.S.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :
. C. BRUNNICT,, F.LC. Fr. BENNETT.

Hon. Librarian :
Cc. T: WHITE:

Members of Council :

J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. W. RR. PARKER, L.D.S.
J. SHIRLEY, B.Sc. P. L. WESTON, B.A., B.Sc.
Trustees :
JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C.

Hon. Auditor :
GEO. WATKINS.

Hon. Lanternist :
A, G. JACKSON.

CONTENTS.

THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST.—
H. J. Jensen, D.Sc., September 25th, 1909 ...

NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES
BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM FERROCYANIDE.
Frank EF. Connah, September 25th, 1909

THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE
ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING
PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALIA.—4H.
J. Jensen, D.Sc., October 30th, 1909...

INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO
QUEENSLAND.—/J. F. Bailey, February 26th, 1910

PAGE

59

65

69

77

¢

:
é
,

~

THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST.

By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September,
1909.

The important discovery of the Shackelton Antarctic
Expedition of coal seams, within a few degrees of the
South Pole, at an elevation of 10.000 feet, is another piece
of evidence that this elevated and frozen region was once
situated near sea level, and was enjoying a warm or tem-
perate climate.

The cause of an “Ice Age,” and the cause of a warm
cycle such as may produce a luxuriant tropical vege-
tation in Arctic regions, are subjects which have given
rise to more controversy than perhaps any other scientific
question, excepting the modern problems. of radio-activity.

Although no single theory has been tound adequate
to account for an ice-age, still we get closer to the soluticn
of the problem as the years roll on. The American Schcol
cf Geologists, by their lucid reasoning, have done much
to help clear up the question.

The ice-ages of greatest geological significance, that
is, producing the most widespread effects, were the
Cambrian Ice Age in the dawn of life on earth, the Permo-
Carboniferous ice age in the period when ccal measures
were laid down, and the late Tertiary when Eurcpe was
covcred with extensive glaciers, and an ice age prevailed
on Mourt Kesciusko and Tasmania.

The early Cambrian Era was a period of great con.
tinental extension and uplift. Either the continents rose
and crew larger at the expense of the sea—or what really
amounts to the same thing—the oceans grew deeper so that
the waters sank or became confined to smaller areas. One
of the results of this continental extension was that arms
of the pre-Cambrian seas became isolated, and were turned
into lakes situated at comparatively high altitudes.

E—Royat Society.

GO sacnne THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST
\

During the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods,
which followed the Cambrian, the continents became largely
worn down and resubmerged. This was the effect of
the cessation of those uplifts of continents and subsidences
of ocean basins that characterised the previous cycle.
The continents would be worn down by rivers, and the
oceans would tend to silt up, causing the waters to rise.

The carboniferous and early Permo-Carboniferous,
which followed the Devonian, were periods of fluctuating
conditions, as shown by the intercalation of land and
swamp deposits, like coal beds, between marine sediments.
The late Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic were periods
of elevation or continental extension, and the most marked
result of the inequalities in level produced was that scme
areas became cold and arid (like the Thibet and Gobi
to-day), and other areas became ccld and humid (like the
west coast of Scotland to-day).

At the end of the Triassic, uplifts ceased, and the
following periods, the Cretaceous and Eocene, saw the
centinents worn down and largely resubmerged. Absence
of high mountains and the prevalence of marshy conditions
naturally produced warm climates.

In the middle and late Tertiary pericds which followed
the Eocene, particularly in the Miocene and Pliocene,
great uplifts again took place. This resulted in the pro-
duction of high altitudes and cold climates. The Alps
and the Himalayas, and many of our highest tablelands
of to-day, were formed during these periods.

It is clear that the three greatest Ice Ages, the Cam-
brian, the Per:o-Carboniferous, and the late Teritary,
correspond with periods of uplift or “ continental
extension.’ 3

The researches of Professors Hull and Spenser show
that Europe and North America stood many thousand
feet higher in the period of the Great Ice Age than at
present. The drowned valleys off the Victorian coast,
and the rugged coastline of south-eastern Australia, show
that this part of our continent was much higher when an
ice-age prevailed on Mount Koscuisko, the Australian Alps.
and in Tasmania.

It is therefore quite possible that the Ice Ages of
geological history have all seen produced essentially by the

BY H. Je JENSEN, D.SC. 61

existence of much greater inequalities of level during these
periods than exist at the present day. An average high
altitude for the continents is, per sé, quite capable of pro-
ducing an ice age.

The periods of submergence, when continents were
low and oceans were silting up, were periods of warm
temperatures ; they witnessed great organic evolution,
and produced a rich flora in Arctic regicns. Heer has
shown that a bounteous plant life existed in Spitzbergen,
and other far northern regions, in the Carboniferous, and
again in the Cretaceous and Eocene, that is:in the periods
of continental submergence or oceanic exten.ion. No
such flora existed there in the Permian, or in the Triassic,
which were periods of continental extensicn.

Professor Chamberlin, of Chicago, has ably shown
that these periods of Arctic warmth can easily be accounted
for if we assume that a reversal of deep-sea circulation
has repeatedly taken place. Instead of, as at present,
the surface currents running towards the pole-, and the
deep-sea drift moving towards the Equator, the surface
currents flowed towards the Equator, and the deep-sea
drift was polewards.

The drift of warm equatorial deep sea waters towards
the poles would ameliorate the climate there, and produce
conditions suitable for luxuriant vegetation. Professor
Chamberlin has shown, beth by mathematical and
experimental investigation, that a slight increase in the
amount of salt in the sea would reverse oceanic circulation
in this way, and that an increase of evaporation in the
tropics could easily produce the required increase in
salinity of the ocean. Warm dense waters from equatcrial
parts would then rise in polar latitudes, and impart their
heat to the atmosphere.

The total evaporation over the earth’s surface is
roughly proportionate to the area covered with water,
and evaporation is greatest in the torrid zone. There-
fore, the greatest evaporation in the tropics would take
place when this part of the earth is almost wholly sub-
merged. Such a condition obtained in the Carboniferous,
Cretaceous, and Eocene periods, which, as mentioned above,
were periods of a rich Arctic flora.

62 | THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST

Enormous evaporation in equatorial regions led to
salinity obtaining a greater influence than temperature
over the specific gravity of sea water, hence the salinity
controlled the manner of circulaticn. Heavy salt waters
sank and drifted polewards from the equator, and lighter,
fresher and cold waters formed surface currents from the
poles to the equator.

Submarine eruptions, by pouring hot lavas into the
sea, would cause increased evaporation and _ increased
salinity, and would saturate deep-sea waters with carbonic
acid, liberated partly from the lava itself, and partly from
the decomposition of corals and coral limestone by the hot
lava. The carbenic acid carried poleward in solution
under pressure would be liberated as the waters rose to
the surface. Carbonic acid thus liberated would be of
great value to plant life, both because it is a plant food,
and because it renders the climate warm and equable.

It is therefore clear that both the facts of an ice age
and the phenomenon of a rich polar flora can be explained
on very simple assuraptions, and that there is no need to
suppose those vast astronomical and physical revolutions
which many theories have hypothesi.ed.

M. Eugene Dubois, in a celebrated essay, tried to
explain climatic variations on the earth, and also ice ages,
on the assumption that the sun is a variable star. The
objection to this view is that variability of the sun implies
a harmonicus periodicity, and indeed, we _ possess no
evidence to show that intervals between warm and cold
periods of geological history were of equal duration. In
fact, most of our data tend to disprove any regular periodi-
city. On Dubois’s assumption, glaciation shculd also
have been universal in the cold cycles, and simultaneous
in the two hemispheres. This was not the case. Besides,
M. Dubois’s theory is unnecessary, far-fetched, and un-
proved.

There may be some variability in the amount of heat
obtained from the sun in different epochs, but as the
evidence which we possess, proves it to be of an irr gular
nature, it must be due to extra-solar or accidental causes.
Effective causes of such fluctuation in solar heat might be
either (1) the passing of our sun and planetary system
through an excessively cold cr hot region in space; or (2)

>, ae

as “ay
ois
~ ~~

BY H, J. JENSEN, D.C. 638

the entrance of the system into a region studded with
meteorites. The first is of deubtful possibility, as there
seems to be no reason why some regions of space should
be hotter than others. The second is a more likely cause:
It is easy to understand that if the sun entered a region
of space particularly crowded with meteorites or cosmic
dust, the first eifect cn the earth would be a cooling cf
climates, due to the meteorites intercepting much of the
sun’s heat before it reached the earth. The second effect
would be a rise in the temperature of the sun consequent
upon the meteorites falling into it. The cbjection to the
second view is that some of the larger meteorites of such
a pericd should remain fossilised in the geological record,
which we cannot state to be the case.

If there should be any variability in the sun. the
pericds of hot sun would correspond with periods of slow
contracticn of cur planet and warm climates, like the
Cretaceous. Few or no great up-lifts or down-throws such
as produce great inequalities cn the earth’s surface would
take place in a period of slow, secular contraction, but the
continents would be worn down by rivers, and sedimentx
would be piled up in the ocean, and the waters would rise
and submerge the lowlands.

Cold sun periods would accelerate the process of secular
contraction. Great wrinkliney of the earth’s crust would
take place. Continent building (epeirogenic) and mountain

~ building (orogenic) uplifts would occur. The super-elevated

regions become subject to cold and arid climates, whereas
the lowlands acquire moist and cold climates, the
diminished intensity of atmospheric circulation causing
the atmospheric water to be precipitated excessively on
the coastal plains.

An interesting view on the cause of an ice-age was
recently advanced by Professor David. He showed that
a drop of 40° in the earth’s temperature would move the
isotherm of permanent glaciaticn (cr snow-line) into the
tropics, and would preduce just those conditions which
are essential for the production of an ice-age in tropical
and sub-tropical regions. Such a cold period might not
necessarily be accompanied by severe glaciation in polar
and temperate regions, for these parts would suffer from
drought. There would be no evaporation outside tropical

64 THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST

regions, and all the vapour formed in the warm zone would
be precipitated at the snow-line, where a great and con-
tinucus ice-barrier would-form. North of the ice-barrier
of the northern hemisphere, and south of that of the
scuthern hemisphere, no snow would fall, and the ground
might be perfectly free from sncw and ice.

Croll’s theory and Adhemar’s hypothesis, and many
other speculations are scientific curiosities of great interest,
ard are well known. Croll’s hypothesis, theugh spurned
by many, has such merits that even to-day it must be
ranked as one of the best attempts ever put forward to
explain the cause of an ice-age.

er a ee

NOTE ON THE CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGES
FROM VOLUMETRIC WORK.

By FRANK E. CONNAH.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September,
1909.

NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER
ORES BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM
FERROCYANTDE.

By FRANK E. CONNAH.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September,
| 1909.

The accurate estimation of zinc in copper ores by
means of Potassirm Ferrocyanide as usually recommended
is ore which is liable to give trouble, especially if the zinc
is only present in small quantity. One is justified in
feeling dubious as to the accuracy of results when a blue
colour makes its appearance in the solution during the
titration, it being almost a certainty that more ferrocyanide
is being run in than is required for the zine ions present ;
and while this trouble can usually be averted by intro-
ducing a small crystal of sodium sulphide into the solution,
one can feel more confidence in the result obtained when
the zinc is previously separated from the main sclution
and dissolved in a measured quantity of acid. Such a
soluticn is free from oxidising agents and interfering salts,
and approaches more nearly to the conditions of the
standard.

The author has been using a process for several years
for determining the zinc in copper cres which has invariably
given excellent results. The precipitates obtained all
allcw of quick filtraticn, and when cne is used to the details
of manipulation the process can be quickly carried cut.
Briefly, it consists of the separation of manganese by
nitric acid and chlorate of petash, iron by ammonia, copper
by potassium thiocyanate, and the zinc then is thrown
out as a phosphate to be dissolved in a measured quantity
of acid, and titrated under standard conditions.

) There are no new reacticns in this, but the combi-
nation does not appear to have found a place in the
journals and text bocks.

66 ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES

Process.—The ore is treated in a casserole with strong
nitric acid, which has been saturated with chlorate of
potash, and the sclution is evaporated to dryness without
baking. Solid ammonium chloride is pow introduced
(abcut 10 grammes) and then about 25cc hot water, and the
assay kept warm till the mass is disintegrated, then excess
of ammonia is added, and the solution is filtered. Boiling
should be avoided, as there is a tendency tc form insoluble
basic compounds of zinc. The precipitate is well washed
with hot water containing ammonium chloride and
ammonia. If the precipitate is bulky it is advisable to
assist the washing by bringing the precipitate back into
the casserole with the wash bottle (a cone of platinum
in the filter is of great assistance).

The main lot of zinc and copper is now in the filtrate.
but it is necessary to retreat the precipitate. If the
process has been carefully carried out, only one retreat-
ment will be necessary.

The ammoniacal filtrate (about 100cc) is rendered
just acid with hydrochloric acid, boiled with a little
sulphurous acid, and the copper is thrown out with a ten
per cent. solution of pctassium thiocyanate and sodium
sulphite, added drop by drop to the solution at about
60° C. If only a little ccpper is present, the addition of a
little cold water assi.ts the formation of the precipitate.

To the filtrate a few drops of methyl orange are added
and then 5 E bydrochloric acid till the neutral point is
indicated, and then one drop more of the 5 E hydrochloric
acid. The solution is now heated to boiling, and the zine
precipitated by addition of ammonium phosphate. the
solution being kept warm for a few mirutes till the precipi-
tate becomes granular. Care must be taken here te avcid
bumping.

The precipitate is readily filtered off, and is then
treated, with the filter paper, in a beaker with 15dcc hot
water and 5cc strong hydrcchloric acid, and titiated at
60° C. with standard potassium ferrocyanide as usual.

In dealing with ores which contain under cne per
cent. of copper, a very good alternative method is to take
the ammoniacal filtrate from the iron, and after adding
the required excess of acid add a small crystal of sodium

BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 67

sulphide, and titrate with the copper sulphide precipitate
present. If the sodium sulphide be used in the form of
crystal, the ccpper sulphide forms a dark precipitate,
whereas if a solution were used a brown coloration of the
liquid would result, which would interfere with the sub-
sequent titraticn.

VrRsit has

3 ie a
*

THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE
ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING
PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN: AUSTRALIA.

By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc.

Read before the RoyalfSociety of Queensland, 30th October, 1909.

&- Phosphoric Acid, which is an important plant food, is
constantly being extracted from the soil wherever intense
grazing or cultivation is practised. In our native scrubs,
where the plants and animals on dying leave their remains
on the ground, most of the phosphoric acid is returned to
the soil, but when the beasts and plants of the field are
taken to the cities for consumption no such restitution of
phosphoric acid takes place ; and to prevent the land from
becoming absolutely exhausted the addition of mineral
fertilisers containing phosphate is essential. It is therefore
clear that from a national and economic — standpoint
prospecting for phosphoric acid is a more useful occupation
than hunting for gold.

SOURCE OF PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS.

Most of the phosphate deposits of commercial value
throughout the world occur in sedimentary rocks, but
occasionally large bodies cf mineral phosphate (Apatite)
are directly the product of igneous activity, as in Canada,
Norway, and Estremadura in Spain.

Primarily all the phosphate of sedimentary rocks was
derived from igneous rock. All igneous rocks contain
phosphoric acid in small amounts, varying from .01 0 5.00
%-. It occurs in the form of apatite phosphate of lime wivh
fluoride or chloride of lime), in smallneedles which crystallised
out in an early stage of the consolidation of the rock. As
apatite is generally one of the most soluble of the minerals
of igneous rocks, it readily passes into the soil, where it is
taken up by plants and into the animals which live on the
plants, or it passes into the rivers in solution and thence to
_ the sea, where it is taken in by fishes, corals, molluscs, and

70 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

other organisms. These latter are again eaten by sea birds,
which excrete much of the phosphoric acid in their droppings.
Phosphates in sedimentary rocks may therefore be derived
from (1) bird, seal or fish excrements ; (2) bones of fishes
and other animals; (3) shells of molluscs, molluscoids,
crustacea, corals, foraminifera, etc. ; (4) remnants of swamp
vegetation. Phosphoric acid, like carbon, is constantly
changing its place between the organic and inorganic world.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN.

Apatite occurs in all rocks in small amount, and, being
the most soluble mineral in igneous rocks, it easily passes
away into sedimentary formations and the sea to be absorbed
into organic life when the rock decomposes. But apatite
of this kind is of no commercial value, the percentage in
igneous rocks being too small for profitable separation. In
some cases, however, large dykes and sheets of pure apatite
occur in igneous rocks and in metamorphic sedimentary
rocks in proximity to great plutonic intrusions. The most
notable instances are the Canadian and Norway occurences.
In such cases profitable mining is possible. The origin of
these dykes and intrusive sheets is due to vapour action in
the period of cooling of the great igneous masses with which
they are conected. Vapours or hot waters containing
phosphoric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids have
circulated in the cracks and joints formed by the cooling of
the magma, or formed in the adjoining sedimentary forma-
tions by the thrust of the intrusion. In these passages the
phosphoric acid has been precipitated in combination with
calcium.

Phosphorite occurs associated both with igneous and
sedimentary rocks. It may occur either as veins in igneous
rock, or bedded in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks, or
in lenticular bodies infilling former caverns in limestones,
or as an alteration product of limestone underlying guano
deposits. In igneous rocks it may be either a primary
product of vapour action like the apatite described above,
or a secondary product formed by the alteration of calcite
veins by solutions containing phoshporic acid from over-
lying guano beds.

Secondary phosphorite owes its phosphoric acid to the
decomposition of organic remaius. Guano, bone breccia,
decaying animal and vegetable matters have the soluble

BY H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc. Th

phosphates of lime (dicalcic phosphate), magnesium, and
ammonium leached out by meteoric water containing carbon
dioxide. The soluble phosphate solution filtering down
come into contact with carbonate of lime, either in the form
of limestone or calcite, and alters it to the phosphate,
liberating at the same time carbon dioxide.

The origin and mode of occurrence of guano has
already been referred to.

High grade apatite and phosphorite should contain
from 70 % to 80 % tricalcic lime phosphate.

The occurence of phosphorite deposits at the junction
of two formations of a dierent character is not unusual,
especially when the lower rock is fossiliferous limestone ;
- and its occurrence where there is an unconformity
between two formations or a thinning out of a fossiliferous
stratum is also well known. It is very often associated
with arragonite and not seldom with calamine.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

From the foregoing description of occurrences of
phosphate rocks (not considering the apatite and guano
deposits), it will be seen that phosphorite may originate

(1) from the insoluble residue of leached guano ;

(2) from the action of ammonium phosphate
derived from guano beds on limestone :

(3) as a breccia from the erosion of partly pnos-
phatised limestone ;

(4) from the leaching a bone beds ;

(5) from the decompcsition of plant remains in
dried up swamps ;

(6) from the leaching of coral limestone, forami-
niferal limestone, molluscan limestone, and
brachiopod limestone. In such cases the phos-
phate deposits may be in pockets either on the
surface of the limestone under the soil, or under-
laying the limestone on its junction with the
subjacent formation.

Aluminous phosphates originate by the action of
ammonium phosphate from guano, decomposing organic
matter, bones, etc., on trachytic or basaltic rocks or kaolin.

A notable observation is that phosphates often occur
at the unconformable junction between two different
geological horizons. Thus phosphates occur at the junction

72 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

of the Cambrian and Silurian at Nerike in Westergotland,
Sweden. The overlying Silurian limestone is rich in
phosphatic nodules and glauconite, and almost everywhere
in Sweden it has been observed that the Lower Silurian
begins with a glauconitic bed with phosphatic concretions.
The phosphatic nodules are probably derived by the con-
cretionary action of water charged with phosphoric acid
from the decomposition of brachiopod beds containing
obolus and acrothele. There is always a break in the faunal
sequence where phosphatic nodules occur. The matrix
contains a mixture of two fanuas, due in part to weathering
by suberial denudation. In the Cambrian Bala Beds of
North Wales it is trilobite remains which have given rise
to phosphatic concretions. In the New Brunswick deposits
we have sand and glauconite cemented by phosphate of
lime, and the nodules always contain trilobite remains,
sponge spicules, and protozoan tests.

In the Liassic strata of Lorraine and of the Mendip
Hills, and in the Oxford clays phosphatic nodules occur. In
the latter stratum they contain casts of cephalopods,
lamellibranchs, echinoderms, phosphatised sponges and
wood, concretionary masses, bones, teeth, coprolites of fishes
and saurians, and pebbles of phosphatised sandstone, and
compact phosphate.

In the Devonian of Tennesse above the Chatanooga
Black Shale, there is also a nodular deposit containing
glauconite.

These nodular deposits have been almost universally
ormed along former shore lines, where erosion of coral,’
trilobite, molluscan and brachiopod limestone was going on
by subaerial agencies and phosphatic concretions were
washed out into the coastal muds just at or below low tide
limit. For this reason, too, the phosphate beds always
occur where beds thin out as well as where an unconformity
occurs. Thus the phosphatic bed overlying the Chatanooga
shales in Tennessee is only seven to eight feet thick, but in
Virginia the same bed is 400 feet thick and contains no
phosphatic nodules. |

Phosphates may also form by direct deposition in deep
water in association with glauconite. Some of the palceozoic
and mesozoic beds of phosphatic nodules and glauconite
may have their origin.

X BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 73

The Challenger soundings off the Cape Agulhas Bank
brought up phosphatic nodules and glauconite sand from a
depth of 1,900 fathoms. Murray and Renard show that
such deposits form particularly off continental borders and
where currents of different temperatures meet, and where
consequently great destruction of organic life is going on.

GUANO DEPOSITS.

Guano may often occur unleached on rainless islands
or in rainless coast districts, as on or off the west coast of
South America. It may also cccur in caves, as at Olsen’s
Caves near Rockhampton, Queensland. It is composed
chiefly of the excrement of seabirds when found on islands
or on the coast, and when found in caves it is usually the
dung of bats.

WHERE PHOSPHATES MIGHT BE EXPECTED IN
AUSTRALIA.

(A) Apatite—In many parts of Australia we have
Archean, Cambrian and ancient palceozoic schists and
gneisses intruded by gabbroic plutonic rocks. In the Mount
Lofty Ranges and Yorke Peninsula of South Australia, the
Australian Alps of New South Wales and Victoria, in the
Broken Hill district, in both Southern and Northern Queens-
land, very ancient schist formations are met with, and
where such formations are intruded by highly titaniferous
gabbros and norites apatite veins might be expected. In
the Northern Territory of South Australia and Western
Australia it is hkewise possible that apatite veins of commer-
cial value may yet be found.

The country lying to the west of the D’Aguilar Range
in Southern Queensland consists largely of gneisses, amphi-
bolites, and schists, having an older appearance than any
other met with in Australia. In many localities in this
area the schist formations are intruded by gabbross. and
the entire area being a titaniferous province, the chances
of finding payable apatite here are not’ bad. This is the
only likely locality with whose detailed geology I am
persenally acquainted.

(B) Phosphorites.—These minerals might be met with
in pockets in any of the Palceozoic limestones of Australia,
and possibly as beds in such limestone. Many of our
Cambrian, «Silurian and Devonian limestones were re-

J

74 ORIGIN’ AND» OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

markably rich in life—molluscan, pteropod, brachiopod,
trilobite, coral and foraminiferal remains constituting large
limestone formations. Thus the beds of the Devonian lime-
stone of the Currockbilly Range of New South Wales are
almost wholly composed of brachiopods. Where such
formations are followed by an unconformity, and con-
temporaneous erosion of the deposit has taken place, rich
pockets of phosphorite are possible. An unconformity
would be recognised by the prospector if he sees a change in
the dip of the overlying strata from that of the limestone,
and notices at the same time that immediately above the
latter formation comes a bed of coarse shingle.

In these palceozoic limestones glauconitic phosphate rock
of deep-sea deposition might be met with. Such deposits
would probably be of a dark colour, due to manganese
staining and might contain remains of deep-sea trilobites
(blind forms), cephalopods, pteropods, and sponges with
micro-organisms belonging to the foraminifera, radiolaria,
infusoria, and diatoms.

It now behoves us to consider if in Australia we may
anywhere expect a counterpart of the Florida phosphates.
In Florida we had an elevation of Tertiary limestone depcsits
accompanied by drying up of salt marshes and by an inroad

of mammals driven south by the great Ice Age. As the

marshes dried up and the cold increased the animals died
in large numbers of starvation and left their bones in caves
and solution fissures of the limestone. Bats and_ birds
preying upon the carrion left their guano in caves and
fissures. The limestone, itself rich in phosphoric acid from
the high proportion of foraminifera in it, was further enriched
in that ingredient by leaching out of carbonate of lime.

In Australia we have had no great universal Ice Age
in Tertiary times, but for all that we have had an almost
equal extermination of animal life by the desiccation of the
now arid interior. It is believed by Australian geologists
that until the Pliocene or early Pleistocene, large stretches of
the desert interior were covered with vast lakes. Where
the land now lies scorched and parched the rain then fell
in copious amount. Vast herds of giant marsupials lived
around these lakes and along the streams that watered them.
Granually the climate got drier and drier. The animals of
the Australian Interior would as a result be scattered in

BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 75

two opposite directions. As the lakes diminished in size
and the damp zone around them grew smaller, great herds
of animals would draw together around their waters and
die of thirst when finally a drought dried up their drinking
supplies. In many parts of our interior great masses of
bones of extinct animals are found, and where such is the
case the neighbouring rock is likely to be a phosphatic
limestone, as we remember that limestone in particular
has a preservative action on bones.

While some of the animals of the interior migrated
inwards towards the drying up lakes, other troupes migrated
outwards towards the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Great Aus-
tralian Bight. In both of these areas a considerable eleva-
tion has taken place in Pleistocene times, and Tertiary
deposits, essentially limestone rich in foraminifera, have been
raised high and dry, just as the Pleistocene of Florida has
been elevated. These troupes of animals always hugging
the moist coastal regions would in droughty years die in
great numbers, and their remains, when falling upon fora-
miniferal limestone or in cracks and crevices of such a forma-
tion, would give rise to phosphatic limestone or secondary
phosphorite. It is therefore possible that in the Tertiary
limestones, both of the Australian Bight and of the Gulf of
Capentaria, pockets of rich phosphatic rock, similar to that
of Florida, might be met with.

(C) Bone Beds in Limestone Caves.—Several years.
ago when rambling through some of the Chillagoe Caves of
Northern Queensland, I came upon some caves which
contained on the floor a bone bed at least several feet in
thickness. This occurrence is probably not an isolated one,
but common in our Northern limestone country. In such
bone caves phosphate rock of commercial value is possibly
to be found.

(D) Guano.—In our limetsone formations, and especially
near the coast of Tropical Australia, where luxuriant shrubs
provide abundant feed for all varieties of animals, large
caves containing great thicknesses of bat guano are commonly
met with. A notable example is the occurrence of guano
at Olsen’s Caves, near Rockhampton, in Central Queensland.

To summarise, phosphate deposits may occur in Aus-

tralia,
F—Royat Socirry.

76

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

(a) as apatite in very old schist and gneiss formations
that have been intruded by basic igneous rocks.
(6) as phosphorite in palceozoic limestones, where
unconformities occur above them, and leaching
by subaerial agencies may have taken place.
(c) as phosphorite in Tertiary limestones, where
animals have died in large numbers on the
desiccation of our interior in Pleistocene times.
Such occurrences might be met with in Central
Australia, and round the shores of the Aus-
tralian Bight and the Gulf of Carpentaria.

(d) as bone breccia in limestone caves.

(e) as guano deposits in limestone caves.

ES ag a age ae ee a oe

wer tet ee

fins oi e

INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO
QUEENSLAND.

By J. F. BAILEY.

Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of
Queensland, February 26, 1910.

From my position as Director of the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, it may be expected that my presidential
address would deal with scme subject appertaining to plant
life, and it has occurred to me that it would be well to
freshen the memory by a few notes as to whom we are
indebted for the introduction and distribution of many of
the economic plants now being largely cultivated in this
State, as well as others of which trials have been made.
The majority of these benefactors have passed away, but
their good work for the State is largely in evidence around
us at the present day. To many the names of the
introducers of the plants, or the first cultivators of them,
are unknown, therefcre it is hoped that these notes will
furnish a useful record for future reference.

Queensland stands pre-eminent among the States of
the Commonwealth of Australia with regard to _ the
number and variety of economic plants found in cul-
tivation within her boundaries, the great diversity of
climate experienced enabling plants from all parts of the
world to find a home in one or another part of her large
territory.

Unfortunately, a number of those responsible for the
introduction of plants in the early days kept little or no
record of their work, a circumstance which has rendered
it difficult in compiling information.

So far as I am able to gather, the Brisbane Botanic

Gardens, an institution formed in 1854, is responsi,

78 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

for the introduction and distribution of a very large
number of the economic plants grown at the present day,
and in the early days of settlement it assumed the
functions now performed by the State Farms. The name
of Walter Hill, who was the first Director. and occupied
the position until 1880, will ever be remembered, for it
was due, in a large measure. to his efforts that such
successful work was done in this direction.

The Acclimatisation Seciety, which was formed in
1862. has also been instrumental in forwarding this good
work, and worked side by side with the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens. Indeed, during the first year or two. plants
introduced by the Society were intrusted to the keeping
of the Gardens, until Bowen Park, the home of the Society,
was ready for their reception. In connection with the
work of the Acclimatisation Society, the name of L. A.
Bernays, C.M.G., who, by the way. was a past president
of our Society, will always be closely associated, for it was
principally due to his indefatigable energies that the Society
has earned such a world-wide reputation. The Society
was fortunate that the mantle of this worthy gentleman
fell on another enthusiastic worker. I refer to Leslie
G. Corrie, who, since he succeeded Mr. Bernays in 1896, has
interested himself in continuing the good work previously
performed, especially with regard to sugar cane, pineapples,
and bananas. Valuable assistance has also been rendered
by W. H. Parker, the Vice-President of the Society.

Among those who gave practical demonstration of
their interest in the work under notice, J. G. Cribb stood
in the front rank. he being the introducer of many of the
kinds of American fruits now being grown in the State.

One of the early introducers of economics was J. C.
Bidwill who, between the time of his appointment as
Lands’ Commissioner in 1848 and his death early in 1853,
is said to have imported quite a number of interesting
plants, the best of which were removed, after his death,
to the Sydney Botanic Gardens, and although I can find
no list of those taken away, I believe they were included
in the economics sent from that institution in 1854 to M.
C. O‘Connell, at Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane,
and mentioned in the annual report of the Sydney Botanic
Gardens for that year. G. W. Dart, a very old resident

ae

_——S>

BY J. F. BAILEY. 79

of Maryborough, in a letter recently written to C. H.
Hughes, of the same town, states that most of the kinds
of fruits now grown about Maryborough were growing in
Mr. Bidwill’s garden at Tinana, . . . . and that the
large tree of Hovenia dulcis growing at Tinana was planted
by that gentleman.

While Government Resident during the middle fifties,
Captain Wickham was instrumental in introducing quite
a large number of useful plants, which he cultivated at
Newstead. For information as to the kinds grown, I am
indebted to Robert Lane, now of the Parliament House
staff, but who in those days was gardener to Captain
Wickham. Mr. Lane also informed me that about the
same time R. R. McKenzie had a good collection of
fruits, etc., in his garden near the Bulimba point. About
the same time the Hon. Louis Hope, of Cleveland, imported
quite a number of useful plants, many of which he shared
with the Brisbane Botanic Gardens.

With regard to the cultivation of fruits, etc., on the
Darling Downs, I cannot obtain definite information on
the subject, but Benjamin Crow, a well-known and
very able horticulturist of Toowoomba, informs me that
when he went as gardener to Dr. Nelson (father of Sir Hugh
Nelson, K.C.M.G.), at Gabbinba, in the sixties, that gentle-
man had growing apples, peaches, figs, grapes, which
appeared to be about 10 years old, and Mr. Crow planted
oranges. Dr. Nelson was interested in experimenting
with various plants likely to become useful, and at the
time mentioned had hops and raspberries thriving. During
the early sixties Mr. Penticost planted a small orangery
near Toowoomba, and Messrs. Bushnell and Molde, in
addition to the above mentioned fruits, had nectarines
in their orchards. About this time, Mr. Crow states, good
collections of fruits were grown at the following stations :—
Gowrie (Mr. King’s), Glengallan (Mr. Deucher’s), Talgai,
Eaton Vale. and others.

Dr. Joseph Bancroft, another of our past presidents,
must also be included among those who worked in this
direction, especially with regard to vines and Indian
wheats.

The different nurserymen of Queensland have not
been forgetful of the advantages to be derived by the intro-

80 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

duction of economics. Among the early ones we must
record the names of A. J. Hockings, 8. H. Eaves, E. Way,
— Magill, Alfred Williams, of Brisbane, and C. H. Hart-
mann, of Toowoomba. Mr. A. T. MHockings informed
me that in one of his father’s letter-books is a copy of a
letter dated 3lst January, 1857, addressed to the Curator
Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, in which he ordered the
following plants:—Sweet Sop, Sour Sop, Mangosteen,
Mango, Litchi, Longan, Wampee, Jack Fruit, Avocado
Pear, Durian, and Boehmeria nivea.

On several occasions attempts have been made to
introduce economic plants on the islands within the Barrier
Reef. In the early seventies, Captain Bedwell, of H.M.
Surveying Schooner “ Pearl,’ on behalf of the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation Society, planted
Jack Fruit and Pandanus utilis. In the early nineties,
cocoanuts, mangoes, peaches, and other fruit trees were
planted at the instance of the Department of Agriculture.

It is to be regretted that very few, comparatively
speaking, of the many good things introduced in the early
days, could be traced in any gardens in the State twenty
years since, although thousands were distributed. How-
ever, on the formation of the Department of Agriculture,
in 1888, the work of re-introducing many of the most
desirable kinds was taken up, with the result that the State
farms and nurseries at the present are stocked with a fine
collection of economic plants of every description.

The statistics quoted herein are taken from the
Annual Reports of the Queensland Government Statistician
(Thornhill Weedon, F.S.S.). I also found A. Meston’s
Geographical History of Queensland useful in obtaining
information concerning crops cultivated in the early days.

The following must not be taken as a complete list
of the economic plants which have been introduced, but
only those which have been given a trial in cultivation,
for it must be borne in mind that very many cf the kinds
introduced did not progress further than the pot stage.

RUBBER.
InpiA RUBBER (Ficus elastica).

Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867.
InpiA RupBBeR VINE (Cryptostegia grandiflora).

Intreduced during the early seventies by Brisbane

Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society.

BY J. F. BAILEY. 81

Para RuBBER (Hevea brasiliensis).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877.
Seeds imported by the Department of Agriculture,
in 1889, and plants now growing at Kamerunga.

PaNnaMA.RUBBER (Castilloa elastica).
Planted cut in the Acclimatisaticn Society’s ‘hor ta?
in 1882.

CEARA RUBBER (Manthot glaziovit).
Planted in Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1882. A
plantation grcwing at Mourilyan Harbour early in
the nineties.

AFRICAN RUBBER (Funtumia elastica).
Planted at Kga, S8.N., about 12 years ago. » Raised
at Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1906.

EDIBLE NUTS.
QUERCUS CORNEA.

Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1876.
BrAzILiAN Nut (Bertholletia excelsu).

Intreduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873,

and again in 1883, and distributed to establishments

in the North in 1887. One of the plants introduced
in 1883 is growing in the Gardens, but has made slow
progress.

SPANISH CHESTNUT (Castanea sativa).

Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at

Bowen Park in 1866, and _ distributed from last

mentioned place in 1875.

Preccan Nut (Carya olivaeformis), and
Hickory Nour (C. alba).

Distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in

1874. and one of the trees of the former raised by Mr.

Aldridge, of Marybcrough, has borne good nuts for

some years past.

WALNout (Juglans regia).
Plants distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
in 1874.
CULINARY VEGETABLES.

Many of the well-known culinary vegetables were
grown in the year 1826, when a convict settlement was
established here.

In 1828, Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were grown
at the penal establishment at Ipswich, and Backhouse

82 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

and Walker saw Sweet Potatoes (Ipomaca batatas) growing
at Brisbane in 1836. The following are some of the
varieties since introduced :—
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus).
By A. J. Hockings in the early sixties.
Tree Tomato (Cyphomandra_ betacea)
! By the Acclimatisation Society in 1885.
CHocHo (Sechium edule)
By L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., at suggestion of Sir
Anthony Musgrave, in 188%.
SWEET Corn (Zea Mays, vars.)
Several varieties were introduced and_ distributed
by :the Department of Agriculture in 1891.
Sweet Porators (/pomaea batatas).
Most of the best varieties owe their presence in this
State to the efforts of the Acclimatisation Society.
In 1907 the produce frem 2770 acres was 15.888 tons.
Yam (Dioscorea sativa).
Grown by T. Petrie at North Pine, prior te 1869, in
which year the Acclimatisation Society imported
several varieties from the South Sea Islands.

GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS.

PERENNIAL Rye (Loliwm perenne).
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1865.
PRAIRIE GRASS (Bromus unioloides).
Seeds received by Acclimatisation Society in 1865 from
Hon. W. H. Groom, Toowoomba, who stated that
it had proved successful on the Darling Downs.
BuFFALO GRass (Stenotaphrum americanum).
Growing at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at Bowen
Park in 1868. Distributed from first-mentioned place
in 1874 for binding railway embankments.
GUINEA GRass (Panicum maximum).
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867.
Rep Natau Grass (Tricholaena rosea).
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society through Dr.
Schomburgh of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens in 1876,
and now become naturalised in many parts of the
State.
SoraHuM (Sorghum vulgare).
Varieties introduced by the Acclimatisation Society
in 1865. Numerous varieties have been introduced

BY J. F. BAILEY. 838

by the Department of Agriculture during the past
twenty years. James Henderson, of Tambourine,
is said to have imported Kaffir Corn during the eighties.

Panicum (Setaria italica).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to
1871.

Kentucky BLurE Grass (Poa pratense).
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1877.

TEOsIntTE (Huchlaena luxrurians).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and
Acclimatisation Society in 1878.

CATERPILLAR GRAss (Paspalum dilatatum).
Introduced by John Mahon, Principal, Queensland
Agricultural College, who brought it from New South
Wales, in 1897.

Oats (Avena sativa).
Oats were grown at the penal settlement at Ipswich
in 1828. Grown extensively since the fifties, about
17,000 acres being under cultivation in 19/8.

Rye (Secale cereale).
In 1877, the Acclimatisation Society distributed
seed which had been received from Angas Mackay.
It is said that Dr. Joseph Bancroft first cultivated
this about Brisbane for fodder.

WoNDER GRASS

or (Panicum. muticum),

Giant CoucH |
Obtained by Dr. Joseph. Bancroft in the seventies,
from, I believe, Dr. Schomburgh, the Director of the
Adelaide Botanic Gardens.

CaNARY Grass (Phalaris nodosa).
Growing at Toowoomba Botanic Gardens in E. Way’s
time, in the seventies.

CLovers—-THE Rep Criover (Trifolium pratense), and the

WHuiteE CLOVER (7. repens).
Were introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in
1865, and the latter has become naturalised on many
of our pasture lands.
LucERNE (Medicago sativa).
Growing about Brisbane in the early sixties.
The following have been introduced on account of
their reputation in other countris for bearing pods suitable

84 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

for fodder, but, so far as I am aware, no satisfactory results
have been attained.
CaRoB BEAN (Ceratonia siliqua).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at
Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the last-
mentioned place in 1871. In 1890, seeds gathered
from trees growing at the Park were distributed.
ALGAROBA BEAN (Prosopis juliflora) and
Mesguit (P. pubescens)
Were intrcduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
and Acclimatisation Society in 1877. Received from
Honolulu.
RaAIn TREE (Pithecolobium Saman).
Distributed by Acclimatisation Society in 1880.

OLLS,

Castor Orn (Ricinus communis).
Growing at Botanic Gardens in 1861, and since become
a great weed on our waste lands.

CITRONELLA O1IL (Andropogon Schoenanthus).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1872.

Croton Om (Croton tiglium).
Growing in the Brisbane Bcetanic Gardens and at
Bowen Park in 1866.

GINGELEY (Sesamum indicum).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871,
and introduced in 1889 by the Department of Agri-
culture.

OLIvE (Olea europea).
According to L. A. Bernays, in “The Olive in
Queensland,’ it would appear that W. Cairncross was
the first to grow this plant, having set out eight trees
at Bulimba in 1858. Importations were made by
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation
Society and F. M. Bailey, in the sixties, and by the
Department of Agriculture in 1889.

Ort Paum (Elaeis guineensis).
Planted in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861,
and still alive, but does not appear as if it would last
much longer. Those planted at Kamerunga State
Nursery in about 1880 have fruited during several
years past.

Grounp Nor (Arachis hypogaea).

? Two thousand ‘ nuts’’ were distributed from the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875.

RusstaN SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus).
Introduced and distributed by the Department of
Agriculture in 1888.

BY J F. BAILEY. 85

Cocoa Nut (Cocos nucifera).
Although the Cocoanut was early introduced, it was
not until about 1867 that a proper plantation was
formed, and that by a Mr. Barnes in 1867, at Mackay.
In 1880, the Acclimatisation Society distributed 800
nuts, received from Singapore, among the northern
planters. Shortly after its formation, 10,250 nuts were
planted by the Department of Agriculture on the
islands within the Barrier Reef. The North Queensland
planters are evidently not fully alive to the value
of this useful palm, otherwise they would follow the
example of others in New Guinea, Solomon Islands etc.

DYES.

Loawoop (Haematoxylon campeachianum).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861,
and there are three of the original trees now standing.
Inpico (Indigofera tinctoria).
Introduced about 1861 by the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens. Distributed by the Acclimatisation Society
in 1872, and by the Department of Agriculture in 1890.
ANNATTO (Bixa orellana).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
Mapper (Rubia tinctoria).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior
to 1871.
SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctorius).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871,
and at the Mackay and Kamerunga State Nurseries
in 1889.
NOPALEA COCCINELLIFERA.
This plant and the cochineal insect were, according
to Walter Hill, thriving in the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens in 1871.

86 INTRODUCTICN OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

FIBRES. ’
Cotton (Gossypium spp.)

Cotton was one of the earliest crops grown, for we
find that in the year 1827, thirty acres were under
cultivation at a branch penal settlement at Strad-
broke Island. After this settlement was broken up,
a lapse of some years occurred before resumption.
In 1861, the following varieties were growing in the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens :—

SEA Istann (G. barbadense). Chester, New Orleans,
Honduras, Boyd’s Prolific and Dean’s.

UPLAND (G. hirsutum). Patte’s Gulf and Peruvian.
In 1862, samples grown in various localities from
Cleveland to Rockhampton were sent to the Inter-
national Exhibition, Londen. In 1869, 14.000 acres
were being cultivated. For several years prior to
1889, very little was grown, but the industry was
again revived in that year. when the Department of
Agriculture imported and distributed a large quantity
of American seed to farmers in the West Moreton
District. In 1908, the production from 540 acres
was 17,521Ibs.

Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862.
During 1876 and 1877 the Acclimatisation Society
endeavoured to start this industry by distributing
about half-a-cwt. of seed to growers in localities from
Brisbane to Mackay.

New ZEALAND FuLax (Phormium tenazx).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in
the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleveland, in
1861.

ManitA Hemp (Musa textilis).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in the
gardens of Mr. Warner, Brisbane, and Hon. Louis”
Hope at Cleveland, prior to 1862.

Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871.

Screw Pine (Pandanus utilis). |
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens ir 1871.

FLAx (Linum usitatissimum).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1$71.

j

BY J. F. BAILEY.

BowstrRinc Hemp (Sansevieria zeylanica), and

ArricaAN Hempes (S. cylindrica and S. guineensis).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862.

Broom Corn (Sorghum saccharatum, var.)
Has been grown extensively during the past twenty
years.

Mauritius Hemp (Furcraea gigantea).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens during
the sixties.

SisAL Hemp (Agave rigida v. sisalana).
Introduced by the Department of Agriculture, one
thousand plants having been received from Yucatan
in 1892.

ABUTILON PERIPLOCIFOLIUM.
Introduced by the Department of Agriculture from
Trinidad in 1850. ‘

RaMIE (Boehmeria nivea).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens about
1860, and ten thousand plants were distributed from
there in 1873.

MucserrRyY (Morus alba, and other species).
Introduced for purpeses of silk-culture by Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society and
F. M. Bailey, about 1865. 4,500 cuttings were dis-
tributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873.

Heme (Cannabis sativa).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873.

SPICES, CONDIMENTS, PERFUMES, Ete.

CLove (Caryophyllus aromaticus).
Plants were sent to M. ©. O’Connell, Port Curtis,
and te a gardener in Brisbane frem the Sydney
Botanic Gardens in 1854. Plants were growing in
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and a distribu-
tion was made from there and from Bowen Park in
1867 and 1874.

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum officinalis).
Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connel, Port Curtis, and
to a gardener in Brisbane, from the Sydney Botanic
Gardens in 1854. Growing in Captain Wickham’s
garden in 1856, and in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens
in 186], 30 plants being distributed from there in 1867

as
88 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

and 1874, and a number from Bowen Park in 1866,
1867, and 1874.
GINGER (Zingiber officinale).
Was grown at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and by
A. J. Heckings prior tc 1862. 160 rhizomes were
distributed from the Gardens during the year mentioned.
ALLSPICE (Pimenta communis).
Plants sent to M. ©. O’Ccnnell, Port Curtis, and a
gardener in Brisbane from the Svdney Botanic Gardens
in 1854. In Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead,
and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1856 and 1861
respectively.
Buiack PEPPER (Piper nigrum).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
Nurmec (Myristica fragrans).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
and at Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the
latter place during same year.
CAPER (Capparis spinosa).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
CAYENNE PEPPER (Capsicum spp.)
Pepper made from fruits grown by Mr. Giles, of Widgee
Widgee, Wide Bay District, was shown at Inter-
national Exhibition, Lordon, in 1862.
VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at
Bowen Park in 1866. Distributed to north rn
localities in 1866, 1872, 1874 and 1885.
PatTcHouLi (Pogostemon Patchoulr’.
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior
to 1872.
TURMERIC (Curcuma longa).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871.
CaRDAMON (Elettaria cardamomum).
Plants and seeds were distributed by the Acclimatisa-
tion Society in 1885.
Tonquin Bean (Dipteryx odorata).
Plants growing in Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1871,
and a number received from Royal Gardens, Kew,
in 1873. Some recently raised at Gardens from seed
imported by Department of Agrculture.

x

BY J. F. BAILEY. 89

MEDICINAL.
CamMPHOR (Cinnamomum Camphora).
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead
in 1856. and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in
1861. Was introduced for the sake of the valuable
product obtainable from the tree, but is only grown
as a shade tree, it being one of the best exotics suitable
for this purpese. In other parts of the world it is
being extensively grown for the production of camphor.
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871.
Noux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica).
Introduced prior to 1871 by the Brisbane Bctaniec
Gardens, and one of the trees now in the Gardens
fruits freely every year.
PERUVIAN BaRK (Cinchona spp.)
In 1862, C. Calisaya, the “ Yellow Bark” was growing
in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens, and in 1867, C.
succirubra, the “ Red Bark,” and C. officinalis, the
‘“ Brewn Bark,’ were received from Java. Plants
of the two last-mentioned species were distributed
by the Acclimatisation Scciety in 1889.
SENNA (Cassia spp.)
Plants of several species were growing in the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens in 1865, and distributed from there
in 1874.
IpEecACUANHA (Cephazlis ipecacuanha).
Plants were sent to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
from the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1873.
Opium Poppy (Papaver somnijerum).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875.
Coca (Erythroxylon Coca).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877.

TANS.
Divi Divi (Caesalpinia coriaria).
One of the plants introduced in 1870 is still growing
in the Gardens. I have not observed any others about
Brisbane.
CANAIGRE (Rumex hymenocephalus).

Introduced and distributed by the Department of
Agriculture in 1890.

90 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

TIMBER.

Very few exotic timber trees have been tried, and
those introduced have been used for shade purposes, fer,
as is well-known, timber suitable for almost any kind of
work requiring this material abounds within our State.

The following trees were introduced by the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens :—
Trak (T'ectona grandis),

India, in 1856, and distributed in 1875.

ReEpwoop (Sequoia gigantea),

California, in 1859. One of the original plants

« still standing, but has not made good growth.

BRITISH Oak (Quercus pedunculata),
In 1855. One of the original plants has now formed
a handsome specimen in the Gardens.

Rosewoono (Jacaranda mimosaefolia),

Brazil, in 1856, and has since become a_ favourite

subject for planting fcr shade and flowering purposes.
DeoparR CEDAR (Cedrus Deodara),

India, in 1861.

Biack WALNuT (Juglans nigra),

North America, in 1855, and plants distributed in

1875.
WeymoutH Pine (Pinus Strobus),
North America, in 1858.
Pencit Cepar (Juniperus Bermudiana),
Bermuda, in 1862.
Huon Prine (Dacrydiuwm Franklins),
Tasmania, in 1863.
Kauri Pine (Agathis australis),
New Zealand, in 1863.
Biackwoop (Dalbergia latifolia),
India, in 1868. ~
Locust TREE (Hymenaza Courbuaril),
West Indies, in 1863. One of the original plants
has formed a fine specimen in the Gardens.
Satinwoop (Chloroxylon Swietenia),
India, in 1867. One of those originally planted
has formed a fine tree in the Gardens.
Masocany (Swietena Mahogani),
West Indies, in 1870, and again in 1907, and seed
distributed to localities from Maryborough to Cook-
town in 1887.

BY J. F. BAILEY. 91

Epony (Diospyros Ebenwm),
Sumatra, in 1870.

Lignum Vivant. (Guiacum officinale),
West Indies, in 1871.

TOBACCO.

Tornacco (Nicotiana Tabacum).

Many of the squatters of the early days grew tobacco
for the sake of the dried leaf, which they used in the
preparation of a sheep dip. Exhibits of prepared
leaf were made at the International Exhibition, London,
in 182, by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and M.
Thozet, of Rockhampton. Ten varieties were under
trial at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1870, and 400
packets cf seed were distributed in 1873, and 15
varieties in 1876. In 1876, the Acclimatisatiocn
Society distributed seed of the varieties ‘“‘ Maryland,”
“ Latakia,’ and ‘ Virginia.” Since then, other
varieties have been distributed by the Botanic Gardens,
the Acclimatisation Society, and the Department of
Agriculture. The produce of dried leaf in 1908 was
5389 ewt. obtained from 669 acres.

SUGAR.

Suear (Saccharum officinarum).
We have records of sugar cane having been grown
as far back as 1828, when it was used as a fence round
the vegetable gardens attached to the penal settlement
at Brisbane. Backhouse and Walker observed it
being used for the same purpose in 1836. It was
not until the year 1862 that any sugar was manu-
factured, and then only on a very small scale by Mr.
Buhot, from canes obtained from the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens. During this year the Hon. Louis Hope,
of Ormiston, had the largest area under cultivation,
viz., 20 acres, and 2,000 cuttings were distributed
from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. During the
seventies, a nursery was established at Oxley by the
Government, and 78 varieties were represented there
in 1879. <A distribution of 42 varieties was made
in 1882 to 70 applicants, the weight of canes sent out
amounting to 40 tons. About the year 1863, the

Acclimatisation Society introduced some of the best
G—RovyaL Society,

92 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

varieties then growing at Mauritius, and subsequently
distributed various kinds of canes. In 1878, the Society
entered into an exchange of canes with the Southern
United States of America. Several importations have
been made by the Department of Agriculture,
notably scme good varieties from New Guinea and
Mauritius in the early nineties. Official returns show
that in 1867 the 6 sugar mills then in existence produced
168 tons of sugar, and 13,100 gallons of molasses,
while in 1907, 48 mills produced 188.307 tons of sugar,
and 5,980,433 gallons of molasses were obtained in
1908.
BEVERAGES.

ARABIAN CoFFEE (Coffea arabica).
Backhouse and Walker record having seen a few
strong coffee plants near Brisbane in 1836. In 1862,
a plantation was formed in the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens, the plants having been raised from seed
obtained from plants growing in Captain Wickham’s
garden, at Newstead, in 1858. In the year 1873,
6,400 plants were sent out frem the gardens, and in
1882, there were 5,000 distributed. The Acclimatisa-
tion Society, which, by the way also distributed
plants at the same time. introduced the variety
** Mocha” in 1880. In 1908, 285 acres under cultiva-
tion produced 116,293lbs. of parchment coffee.

[LiBERIAN CoFFEE (Coffea liberica). |
This species, which came with a great reputation
from other coffee-growing countries, in the year 1882,
was distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
and Bowen Park, but has not come up to expectations
in this State.

Tea (Camellia theifera).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior
to 1861, and 1,000@ plants distributed from there in
1§62, 2,000 in 1873. Early in 1880, 3,500 plants
were ready for distribution, in addition to 200 plants
of the Assam variety, and there was a distribution in
1888. So far, these efforts have not resulted in any
of this commodity being placed on the market.

v
Tea, Paraguay, or Mate (Jlex paraguayensis),
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior

4
BY J. F. BAILEY. 98

to 1861, but as its product did not meet with the
taste of Queenslanders, it has not been grown other-

. wise than for shade purposes.

Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao).
Plants were introduced by the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1866, and were
distributed by the Society in the same year, and also
in 1872 and 1883, and by the Botanic Gardens in 1874.
A plant (under glass) fruited at Bowen Park in 1885.
I saw a fine plant in fruit at Hambledon, near Cairns,
in 1899, and was informed that it had been received
from the Acclimatisation Society.

Cota Nur (Cola acuminata).
Intreduced by the Department of Agriculture in the
early nineties, and sent to the State Nursery at
Kamerunga.

Cuicory (Cichorum intybus).
Grown by G. Grimes, at Coomera, in the seventies,
and at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1890.

Hor Prant (Humulus lupulus).
During the year 1883 experiments were made with
the Hop plant at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The
results were exceedingly good, the crop being equal
to 10 ewt. per acre. It is said that in England 4 cwt.
per acre for the first year is a good return. During
James Pink’s time (1885), 1,000 sets were imported
by the Gardens, and distributed to farmers on the
Downs. Another trial to start the industry was made
in 1889, when the Department of Agriculture imported
a number of sets from Victoria, and distributed them
to farmers in the Killarney district.

FARINAS anp CEREALS.
ARROWROOT.
Both kinds of Arrowroot, viz., the White (Maranta
arundinacea) and the Purple (Canna edulis) were
introduced and distributed by the Brisbane Betanic
Gardens about 1861. The latter species is reccrded
as having been grown near Ipswich, in 1844. The
The purple variety has for many years been extensively
cultivated in South Queensland, 480,620]bs. of com-
mercial arrowroot having been preduced in 1908.
The recipients in the early distribution of the

94 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

Maranta evidently did not carry on the work of
growing it commercially, for we find that the Depart
ment of Agriculture found it necessary to import it
again when the Kamerunga State Nursery was formed
about twenty years ago.

Cassava (Manihot Aipi, the Sweet, and M. utilissima, the
Bitter).

J. Archer presented plants to the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens in 1864, and they were growing at Bowen
Park in 1866.

Wueat (Triticum vulgare).
In the year 1828 there was an area under this crop
at Ipswich, and in the year 1856, Mr. Childs had a
good crop from about 50 acres at Bulimba. In the
year 1859, M. Thozet obtained some seed from wheat-
straw found floating in the Fitzroy River, and culti-
vated some excellent wheat from it near Rcckhamp-
ton. For several years prior to 1862, J. Fleming
and a few others cultivated wheat near Ipswich. It
was well on in the fifties before wheat was grown on
the Downs, and according tc a record of 1862, “ At
Warwick, a flour-mill to be driven by steam power
is in course of erection.”’ In 1877, the Acclimatisation
Society distributed several varieties of Mexican
wheats received from Angas Mackay, and in 1880
intreduced a number of Indian varieties on the
suggestion of Dr. Joseph Bancroft. Since 1889 the
Department of Agriculture has made _ frequent
importations of new varieties. The average area
under cultivation for the ten years ended 1908 was
90,729 acres, and the average production 1,223,599
bushels.

Maize (Zea Mays).
Maize has always been our principal cereal crop, and
was one of the earliest grown, for we find that about
1827 there was a good area under cultivation at the
penal settlements about New Farm, Bulimba, and
also at Ipswich in 1828. In 1867, a trial was
made at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens with a large
number of imported varieties, but none equalled
those already growing in the Colony. The
Department of Agriculture, since 1889, has made

BY J. F. BAILEY. 95

frequent importations of the best varieties obtainable
from maize-growing countries. The preduce in 1908
from 127,655 acres was 2,767,600 bushels.

Rice (Oryza sativa).
Rice was growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
and in the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleve-
land, in 1861. In 1878, 3 cwt. in 17 varieties was
imported by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens from
India. The Acclimatisation Society grew some good
samples in 1871, and distributed seed. and during
the early nineties, the Department of Agriculture
made several importations of seed. The area
under cultivation in 1908 was only 7 acres against
319 acres in 1899.

BarRLey (Hordeum vulgare).
Samples of barley grown by M. Thozet, at Rock-
hampton, were exhibited at the International Exhibi-
tion, Londen, in 1862.

BucKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum).
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867.

CANARY SEED (Phalaris canariensis).
Has been growing on the Darling Downs during the
past twenty years.

FRUITS.

Apple (Pyrus Malus).
Collections were introduced by the Acclimatisation
Seciety in 1868, 1869 and 1870. In 1871, J. G. Cribb
presented a_ collection of American apples to the

Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The area in bearing in
1908 was 390 acres, and the production 31,121
bushels.

Paar (Pyrus communis).
Dr. Lang cbserved trees growing at Brisbane in 1845.
A collection of American varieties was presented to
the Brisbane Botanic Gardens by J. G. Cribb. 1,730
bushels of fruit were produced from 41 acres in 1908.
PrEacu (Prunus persica).
Trees of this fruit were seen near Brisbane by Dr.
Lang in 1845, and were growing in the _ Brisbane
Botanic Gardens prior to 1865. In 1871, J. G. Cribb
donated a collecticn of American varieties to the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and the Gardens introduced

96 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

four Chinese varieties in 1876. 26,563 bushels of
fruit were produced from 444 acres in 1908.

ALLIGATOR PEAR (Persia gratissima).
Sent by Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854 tc M. C,
O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane,
and was grewing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens,
and three plants were distributed from there in 1862.
Fruited for the first time in 1867. Plants were intro-
duced from the Mauritius by the Acclimatisation
Scciety in 1867. So far as [ am aware, the only
fruiting plant growing about Brisbane is in W. H.
Parker’s garden at Enoggera.

AVERRHOA (ARAMBOLA.
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in the
eighties.

BLACKBERRY (Rubus fruticosus).
J. G. Cribb introduced several American varieties
from America during the seventies, one of the most
fruitful being Lawton’s Blackberry.

Banana (Musa spp.)
Backhouse records having seen bananas growing at
Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had
the Cavendish (M. Cavendishi) and the Sugar Banana
(M_ sapientum, var.) growing at Newstead, and eight
varieties, including the twc mentioned, were growing
in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The
Acclimatisation Society from the first also interested
itself in the intrcduction of good varieties, notably»
nine from Singapore, in 1874, and several from Fiji,
in 1875. Since its inauguration in 1888, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has been active in securing good
varieties from ccuntries where this fruit is success-
fully grown. During the year 1908, the produce
from 4,647 acres under cultivation amounted to
1,651,163 bunches.

BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus incisa).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens at the
end of the fifties. In 1860, Hon. H. Hood presented
plants to the gardens, and plants were distributed
from there and from Bowen Park on quite a number
of occasions during the sixties and seventies. Plants
introduced from Fiji were distributed by the Depart-

BY J. F. BAILEY, 97

ment of Agriculture in 1892. I[ saw a plant in fruit
at the Botanic Gardens. Townsville, in 1899.

JAcK oR JAcA Fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia).
Introduced from India by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
in 1856.

Cuina QuINncE (Cydonia sinensis).
Plants received by F. M. Bailey from South Australia,
and distributed in 1866, and plants worked from these

were presented to the Acclimatisation Society in 1870
by C. W. Jarrott.
CHERRY (Prunus Cerasus)
Several varieties have been cultivated in the Stan-
thorpe District during the past twenty years.
CHINESE Raisin (Hovenia dulcis).
Introduced by J. C Bidwill in 1850. Was growing
in Captain Wickham’s garden, Newstead, in 1856,
and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.

ORANGE (Citrus aurantium).
Dr. Lang records having seen oranges growing at
Brisbane in 1845. They were grown by Captain
Wickham. at Newstead, in 1856. Ten varieties were
represented in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1861,
those doing best being St. Michael, Mandarin, Bahia,
Siletta. Blood and Parramatta. Forty-six varieties
were growing in the Gardens in 1870. The Bahia
Navel and Jaifa varieties were introduced by the
Department of Agriculture in 1888. In 1908, 440,312
bushels of fruit were produced on 3,121 acres.

Lemons (C. medica var. limonum); Crrrons (C. medica),

and SHappocks (C. decumana)

Were seen by Backhouse and Walker in 1836, and
Lemons, Citrons, and Limes (C. medica var. limetta)
were growing in the Botanic Gardens prior to 1870.
4,366 bushels of lemons were produced from 47 acres
in 1908.

Pometo (C. decumana var.) was growing at Bowen Park
in 1866.

CustaRD APPLES (Anona spp.)

A. squamosa (Sweet Sop).
Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to
a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854, from the Sydney

98

INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
Botanic Gardens. Growing in Captain Wickham’s
garden, at Newstead, in 1856, and in the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens in 1861.

A. muricata (Sour Sop), and C. Cherimolia (Cherimoyer).

A.

Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden in 1856, and
at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The last-
mentioned fruited at the Gardens for the first time in
1867.

reticulata (Bullock's Heart).

Growing at Bowen Bark in 1866.

Thirty-four custard apples were distributed from the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862, but the species
are not recorded. 557 bushels of custard apples
were produced from thirteen acres in 1908.

Date (Phenix dactylifera).

Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newsbaea:
in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867.
Some years ago the Acclimatisation Society distributed
plants of good varieties to some western localities,
and good fruit has recently been received in Brisbane
from some plants growing near Charleville. The
first plantation was one formed by Mr. Barnes, at
Mackay, prior to 1868.

Durian (Durio Zibethinus).

Fie

Received by M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a
gardener in Brisbane in 1854, from the Sydney
Botanic Gardens. and intrcduced by the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1867.
Distributed in that year, and also in 1874, but has
not thriven for the same reason as that given in the
case cf the Mangosteen.

(Ficus carica).

The follewmg varieties were growing in the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens in 1871, viz.:—Smyrna. Black,
Brown and Green Iszhia. Several other varieties
have been introduced by the Department of Agri-
culture since 1888. 741 bushels of fruit were pro-
duced from ten acres in 1908.

GRAPE, CURRANT AND Raisin (Vitis vinifera).

Backhouse and Walker saw grapes growing near
Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had
vines growing at Newstead, and twenty varieties

BY J. F. BAILEY. 99

were to be seen in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
in 1861, those doing best being the varieties Black
Hamburgh, Black Prince, White Sweetwater, Wantage,
Xeres, and Muscatel Gordo Blanco. In 187], a num-
ber of wine-producing varieties were introduced from
South Australia, and in the same year J. G. Cribb
presented the Gardens with thirty European and
thirty American varieties; the latter were distributed
to growers in Toowocmba, Warwick and Stanthorpe
a year or two afterwards. In 1908, the area under
vines was 1,554 acres which produced 4,229,980|bs.
of fruit ; 77,698 gallons of wine made, ; and 619 gallons
of brandy distilled. In 1865, thirty plants of the Zante
currant were received from Victoria by the Acclimatisa-
tion Society, and in the same year, F. M. Bailey
presented 300 cuttings of this variety to the Society,
200 of which were at once distributed. In 187],
the Sultana raisin was growing in the Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, and in 1892 and 1893. forty thousand
cuttings of raisin and currant grapes were distributed
by the Department of Agriculture.

Guava (Psidium spp.)
Recorded by Backhouse as growing in Brisbane in
1826. but kinds not stated. P. Cattleyanum, the
Strawberry Guava; P. Guava, the Apple Guava; and
P. littorale, the Gooseberry Guava, were growing in the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.

JuJUBE (Zizyphus jujuba).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1864,
and distributed to growers in the North, where it has
taken such a hold of the lands in some localities as to
be regarded as quite a nuisance.

Ket Appie (Aberia Caffra).
Introduced and distributed by the Acclimatisation
Society in 1876. My grandfather probably was the
first to introduce this plant into Australia, he having
taken plants to South Australia in 1839.

Lircnt (Nephelium Lntchi).
M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a gardener in Bris-
bane, each received a plant from the Sydney Botanic
Gardens in 1854, and it was represented in Captain
Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, and in the Brisbane

100 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

Botanic Gardens at the end of the fifties. The tree
now in the Gardens fruits regularly. Another species
of this genus, viz., N. Longana, the Longan, was
also received by the same recipients above-mentioned
from the Svdney Botanic Gardens in 1854. It was
in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, but is a far
inferior fruit to that of its ally, the Litchi.

Loguat (Photinia japonica).
Growing at Bowen Park in 18»6.

Manoo (Mangifera indica).
The Mange, which has become one of the most common
fruits along the whole coast line of Queensland, is
said to have been introduced by J. C. Bidwill at the
end of the forties. Plants were sent from the Sydney
Botanie Gardens in 1854 to M. C. O'Connell. at Port
Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane. A plant was
growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861,
and fruited for the first time in 1867, and four plants
were distributed from there in 1862, and also a number
of grafted plants to likely growers in the North in 1883.
The well-known varieties Alphonse and Raspberry
were introduced from Bombay by the Acclimatisation
Society in 1869, and the first-mentioned with the
varieties Strawberry and Goa by the Botanic Gardens
about the same time. Since then importations have
been made by the institutions named. the Department
of Agriculture, and privately. The production of fruit
in 1998 was nearly 100,000 bushels. Crops from
private gardens, however, are not included in this
total.

MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostanda).
M. C. O’Connell, of Port Curtis, and a gardener in
Brishane received plants of this fruit, which is
described as the most delicious in existence, from the
Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854. Although it has
since been distributed on numerous occasions by the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation
Society, so far has not met with success, owing no
doubt tc the intense humidity required for perfecting
its growth not being obtainable even in our northern
localities. Several other species of the genus have
been introduced and have fruited here, but their fruits
have been of a very inferior quality.

BY J. F. BAILEY. 101

MOoNSTERA DELICIOSA.
Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1874,
and fruited in 1876.

Paraw (Carica papaya).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
Since then good varieties have been frequently intro-
duced by the Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society
and the Department of Agriculture. 9,845 doz. fruit
from 55 acres was the production in 1908.

Passton Fruit (Passiflora edulis) and the

GRANADILLA (P. guadrangularis)
Were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.

PEeRSIMMON (Diospyros kaki).
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead,
in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and
Bowen Park in 1885. In 1875. the Acclimatisation
Society imported ten varieties, and in 1889, the
Department of Agriculture twenty varieties, from
Japan. In 1908, seventeen acres produced 670 bushels
of fruit.

PINEAPPLE (Ananas sativa).
Backhouse records having seen pineapples growing
at Brisbane in 1836. They were grown by Captain
Wickham, at Newstead, in 1856, and in 1861, twelve
varieties were represented in the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens, those doing best being Cayenne, Enville,
Black Jamaica, Queen, Ripley Queen, and Moscow
Queen. Good varieties have also been introduced
from time to time by the Acclimatisation Society,
James Pink and others. The 2,171 acres under cul-
tivation produced 598.794 dozen fruit in 1908.

Rose AppiLe (Hugenia jambos).
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior
to 1861, and growing at Bowen Park in 1866.
Another species of Hugenia, viz., E. uniflora, the
Brazilian Cherry, was growing at Bowen Park in 1869.

Rosetta (Hibiscus sabdariffa).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875.

SAPODILLA Prium (Achras sapota).
Growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861,
and distributed in 1875.

102 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

Star AppiLe (Chrysophyllum Cainito).
Sent by Sydney$Botanic Gardens to M. C. O’ cone
Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854,
and was growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
in 1861.

STRAWBERRY (Fragaria vesca).
Early in the seventies the Brisbane Botanic Gardens
experimented with about a dozen varieties of straw-
berry. two of which are now extensively grown in
South Queensland, viz., Marguerite and _ ‘Trollop’s
Victoria. The production from 157 acres was
338,9C3 quarts in 1998.

TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica).
Plants sent by the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854
to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and tc a gardener
in Brisbane. Grown by Captain Wickham, at New-
stead, in 1856, and also at the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens in 186]. Twenty plants were distributed
from the Gardens in 1862.

Vi1-ApPLE (Spondias dulcis).
Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1876.
Growing at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1891.

GREEN MANURES.

CowPEa (Vigna sinensis).
Introduced by the Devartment of Agriculture in the
early nineties.

VELVET Bean (Mucuna pruriens var.).
Was introduced in the early nineties by the Depart-

ment of Agriculture and Colonial Sugar Refining

0. Ae

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Annual Meeting of JStembers,

Held on Saturday, February 26th, 1910.

The Annual Meeting was held in the Technical
College, Ann Street, on February 26th, 1910.

The President (Mr. J. F. Bailey) occupied the
chair.

The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read and
confirmed.

The Annual Report and Balance Sheet being handed to the
members were then read and adopted.

To.the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report
for the year 1909.

Ordinary meetings have been held as in Appendix B.

Fourteen Council meetings were held during the year,
at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A.

Part I. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings has been
published and issued.

The number of new members proposed during 1909
has scarcely been up to the usual mark, and we have been
unfortunate in losing by death, removal, and other causes,
@ number of members. The deaths have included Dr.
J. Thomson and Capt. Townley. In the case of Coun-
cillor and Past-President Dr. J. Thomson, a letter of con-
dolence was forwarded to his family.

There are now on our roll 88 members ; 14 life members ;
73 ordinary members; besides corresponding members,
and 1 Associate member. See Appendix D.

Some difficulty has been experienced in_ getting
original contributions for the monthly meetings. Many
of our members who are best in a position to contribute
original research papers and exhibits plead that their

ii; REPORF OF COUNCIE.

published results are needed for their several Government
scientific journals.

It is confidently expected, however, that the forth-
coming University, with its bent towards scientific research,
will increase our membership and our list of original
papers.

In July, Professor Laby was welcomed by our
Society, in conjunction with the South Brisbane Tech-
nical College. A trip to One-Tree Hill was organized,
and the Professor lectured in the evening under the joint
auspices in each case.

In November, Messrs. Henderson and Brtinnich gave
an exhibition of modern scientific chemical apparatus.
A most enjoyable and educative meeting was the result.

The Library is rapidly growing, and is, in fact, too
large for the new room to which it was shifted early in
January, 1910. When funds permit, it will be well to bind
such matter as is still unbound.

The Premier, during the year, took steps to facilitate
the possibility of our joint occupancy of the room at present
occupied by the Royal Geographical Society in the Public
Library, but, as the Minister for Education (the Hon.
W. H. Barnes) had just granted us a continued tenancy
in the Technical College at a nominal rental, our Library
to be open to the students under the supervision of the
College Librarian, we decided to remain in our present
quarters.

As will be seen by Appendix C, there is a satisfactory
credit balance so far as the ordinary working expenses
of the Society are concerned, but there still remains the
binding of much of the matter in the Library when funds
permit.

During the year the Hon. Secretary (Mr. E. H. Gurney)
resigned, but was appointed to the Council. Mr. F.
Bennett took his place as Hon. Secretary. The place of
Dr. J. Thomson on the Council was filled by Mr. W. R.
Parker, and Mr. Wasteneys was succeeded by Mr. Gurney.

F. BENNETT, J. F. BAILEY,
Hon. Secretary. President.

Brisbane, February 26th, 1919.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. lil.

APPENDIX A.

| S| = ;
| a1 local
| Office. Name. Sb | 9% ae
: 83 | 83
i) SO
President .| J. F. Bailey 11 2
| Vice-President ..| Dr. A. Sutton .. 2 1
Hon. Treasurer..| J. C. Briinnich, F,1.C. .. 6 1
E. H. Gurney Ph tet be. 2 Resigned May
Hon. Secretary F. Bennett 6 1 Appointed June
Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White es as 7 L
/| J. B. Henderson, F.I.C... if 2
| J. Shirley, B.Sc... her 0
ect || W.R. Colledge havi 2
meee ~| E.H. Gurney .. -| See | above! Appointed june
V. R, Parker, L.D.S. : 3 0 Appointed July
Dr. J. Thomson . eel 0 | Died
) H. Wasteneys : ie 1 | Leftim May

iv.

10

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

APPENDIX B.

List or Papers Reap Durine 1909.

Date. | Title.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

May
July

July

Aug.

| Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

29 | The Land We Live On (Presi-
| dential Address)

27 Some Aspects of Savage Life .. |

(1) Life History of the Filaria |
Mosquito

(2) Effects and Methods of
Eradication

Queensland Vegetation (Lecture)

3 | Scientific Jottings in Remote
| Parts of Queensland |

10 | The Atomic Theory of Chem- |
istry (Lecture)
| |

28 | The Life History of a Mollusc |
| (Lecture)

25 | Climates of the Geological Past |

30 | (1) Phosphatic Rocks and their
| Occurrence in Australia )

(2) Estimation of Zine by
means of Potassium Ferro-
cyanide

(3) Calculation of Percentages
| from Volumetric Work

|

|

30 | Exhibition of Modern Chemi- (|
cal Apparatus |

Notes on an Artesian Water
Analysis

Author.

J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C.

Rev. B. Danks.
W. RB. Colledge.
A. Jefferis-Turner,

J. F. Bailey

F. Bennett

Prof. Laby.

J. F. Shirley, B.Sc.

H. I. Jensen, D.Sc
H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.

F. E. Connah.

F. E. Connah

J. B. Henderson, F.1.C.
J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C.

J. B. Henderson, F.I.C

——
SS

Vv.

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

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vi.

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

APPENDIX D.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Archer, R. §S.

Badger, J. 8.

Barton, E. C.

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S.
+Bailey, J. F.

Bennett, F.

Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C.
Bundock, Miss Alice
Bundock, C. W.
Byram, W. J.
Cameron, W. E., B.A.
Colledge, W. R.
Collins, Miss Jane
Collins, J. George
Collins, R. M.

Connah, F. E.

Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J.
Costin, C. W.
Dempsey, J. J.

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L.
Dunstan, Benj.
Eglinton, Dudley
Eglinton, Miss Hilda
Forrest, E. B., M.L.A.
+Gailey, Richard
Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C.
Gore-Jones, E. R.
Greenfield. A. P.
*+Griffith, Sir S. W.
Gurney, E. H.

Hedley, C., F.L.S.
Henderson, J.B., F.I.C.

Hirschfield, Eugen, M.D.

Holland C. W.

Hopkins, G., M.D.

Hunt, G. W.

Illidge, Rowland

Illidge, T.

Irving, J.. M.R.C.V.S.L.

+ Jack, R. fag Ds
F.R.G.S.

. Jackson, A. G.
Jefferis-Turner, A., M.D.

Johnston, Jas.
Jones, P. W.
Leahy, P. J.

*Members of Philosophical Society.

OrpiInARY MEMBERS.

BAG:

Lindsay, W.

Lord, F.

Love, Wilton, M.B.

Lucas, T. P., L.R.C.P.

His Excellency Sir
Macgregor,
C.B., D:Sc., de:

Mackie, R. Cliffe

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.

Marks, Edward O., B.A., B.E.
May; Ty 2. M.D.
Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C.
McCall, T., F.1.C.
McConnel, Eric W.
McConnel, KE. J.
McConnel, J. H.
+Norton, Hon. A. M.L.C.
Parker, W. R., L.D.S.
Plant, C.F.
Plant, Hon, E. H. T., M,L.C.
Pound, C .J., F.R.M.S.
Pritchard, C.
Pulsford, F. E.
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.
Rands, W. H., F.G.S.
Reid, D. E.
Riddell, R. M.
+Roe, R. H., M.A.
Ryan, J. P., M.D.
Sankey, J. R.
+Schreider, H., M.A.
Shirley, J., B.Sc.
Silcock, P.
Smith, F., B.Sc.
+Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S.
+Stevens, Hon. E. sr M.L.C.
Sutton, A., M.D.
+Sutton, 7: W.
Taylor, Hon. W., M.D., M.L.C.
Thynne, Hon. A. J., M. Day
Tonks, T.
Watkins, G. C.
+Weedon, Warren
Willcocks, G. C.

AssocIATE MEMBER.
White, C. T.

+Life Members.

William
M.D., C.M.G.S.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vil.

The President then delivered his address (illustrated by
many fine slides) on the ‘Introduction of Economic Plants
Into Queensland,”’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by
the meeting.

The following office-bearers for 1910 were then elected :—
Presidents W. R. Colledge; Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich,
F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, C. T.
White ; Members of Council: E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson,
E.1.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., W. R. Parker, L.D.S.

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SOCIETY _
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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

GO ee BN Sb A ND.

VOR CX TTT.

PART I.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY

BY
H. POLE & Co., PRINTERS, GEORGE ST., BRISBANE.

19tt¢

ee a a oe eee iti

M6 < Gl =

Royal Society of Queensland

Patron:

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR,
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.Sc., Etc.

CRrMCt Rs, 19l.

OO

President :
J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C.

Vice-President :
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.

Hon. Librarian :
Cc. T. WHITE.

Members of Council :

W. R. COLLEDGE. EK. H. GURNEY.
H. RICHARDS, M.Sc.

Trustees :
JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C.
Hon. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.

Hon. Auditor :
GEO. WATKINS.

Hon. Lanternist :
A. G. JACKSON.

CONTENTS.

“ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED
FISHES.—J. Douglas Ogilby, July 30th, 1910

QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.—Dr. Karel
Domin, April 9th, 1910 eke ren ti

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS IN
QUEENSLAND.—Dr. J. V. Danes, July 28rd, 1910

‘ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE QUEENSLAND
COAST.—J. Douglas Ogilby, November 20th, 1910...

NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMA-
CUL OF BRISBANE.—JV. R. Colledge, May 28th,
1910 : x? vas

ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA °OF
QUEENSLAND.—John Shirley, B.Sc., September
24th, 1910 ie =e nae i ;

A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY.—John
Shirley, B.Se., September 24th, 1910...

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO.—
R. Cliffe Mackie, November 26th, 1910

NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO.—W. &.
Colledge, February 25th, 1911... ies

PAGE’

57

85

87

93:

.. L03-

. 107

. 121

ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED
FISHES.

By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland,
July 30th, 1910.

The following paper contains the descriptions of 2
new genera and 24 new species of fishes and of 10 species
which either have not previously been recorded from Aus-
tralian Seas or of which the criginal descriptions were
insufficient or erroneous. Of the 34 species described,
all but 7 belong to the Queensland Fauna, the exceptions
being

Dobo, Aru Iss. Croker I:., N.T.
Sphyrena altipinnis Hemipimelodus colcloughi
Cherodon vitta Brachirus aspilos

Valenciennea aruensis Cynoglossus sindensis
Coryzichthys guttulatus
With the exception of 5, the types of the new species
are in the A.F.A.Q.* Museum, these being Xystodus ban-
ficldi, Megaprotodon maculiceps, Brachirus salinarum, and
B. breviceps in the Queensland Museum, and Spheroides
squamicauda in the collection of Mr. J. T. Jameson, of
Woody Point.
The new genera here proposed are as follows :—
i. Xystopus; fam. Synodidet ; type X. banfieldi.
li. Cuit1as; fam. Pteropsaride; type Percis stricticeps
De Vis.
The new species are :—
1. CARCHARIAS SPENCERI; fam. Carchariide; Brisbane
River.

* Amateur Fishermen’s Association of Queensland.

+ By Art. 4 of “‘ The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ”
we learn that ‘‘ the name of a family is found by adding the ending ide to
the root of the name of its type genus.” Plainly therefore the family name
should be written as above, not Synodontide, as it is usually given. The
same rule applies to all similar generic names ending in such Greek deri-
vatives as odus, stoma, etc.

ie.2)

10.

ai:

iZ.

13.

14.
15

16.

ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

. ANCHOVIA ZSTUARIA; fam. EHngraulide; Brisbane

River.

. XYSTODUS BANFIELDI; fam. Synodide; Dunk Island.
. HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI; fam. Srluride; Croker

Island.

. SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS ; fam. Sphyrenide ; Aru Islands.
. PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS; fam. Ambasside; Creeks round

Brisbane.

. PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS ; fam. Ambasside@ ; Creeks at Kilcoy.
. CH@RODON viTTa; fam. Labride; Aru Islands.
. MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS ; fam. Chetodide ; Moreton

Bay.

TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS ; fam. J'riacanthide ; Moreton
Bay.

SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA ; fam. J'etraodide ; Moreton |
Bay.

DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI; fam. Diodidew; Brisbane
Rive.

CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS; fam. Diodide; More-
-ton Bay. ne

VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS; fam. Gobiidew; Aru Islands.

RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI; fam. Gobiide ; Great Sandy
Strait.

ScoRPNOPSIS PALMERI; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton
Bay. ,

. ScORPHNOPSIS MACROCHIR ; fam. Scorpenide ; Moreton

Bay.

. APISTUS BALNEARUM; fam. Scorpenide; Brisbane

River.
EROSA FRATRUM; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton Bay.

. EBISINUS PROCNE ; fam. Dactylopteride ; Moreton Bay.
. BRACHIRUS SALINARUM; fam. Soletd@; Kimberley,

N.Q.

2 BRACHIRUS BREVICEPS; fam. Soleide ; Rockhampton.
. CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS ; fam. Batrachoidide ; Aru

Islands.

“CALLIONYMUS GROSSI; fam. Callionymide; Moreton

Bay.
The redescribed species are :—

. DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis) ; fam. Carangide ;

insufficiently described.
Burris LONGICAUDA (De Vis); fam. Gobside ; insuffi-
ciently described.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILRY. 8

‘'3. AMBLYGOBIUS ‘GOBIOIDES (Ogilby)=Gobius cristatus
Macleay ; fam. Gobiide; description insufficient.

4. BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker); fam. Soleide; new to
Australia.

.5. CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS (Day); fam. Soleide; new to
Australia.

‘6. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis); fam. Pteropsaride ;
insufficiently described.

‘7. DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Bennett); fam. Calliony-
mide; new to Australia.

8. PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis); fam. Blenniide;
descriptions insufficient.

9. PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS (Bleeker); fam. Blenniide.

10. PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes) ; fam.
Blenniide.

CARCHARIID &.
‘CARCHARIAS SPENCERI sp. nov.

Depth of body 6-5, length of head 5-6, predorsal length
3.35, length of caudal 3-6 in length of body. Width of
head 1-3, depth of head 1-55, length of snout (preoral
length) 3, diameter of eye 11-5, width of interocular 1-6,
of internasal 3, of mouth 2 in length of head.

Body robust ; length of head 1-8 in that of the trunk.
‘Snout short and blunt 1-8 in the space between the eye
and the Ist gill-opening ; inner angle of nostril nearer to
the mouth than to the tip of the snout; ramal length of
‘upper jaw 1-25, length of snout 1:5 in the width of the
‘mouth. Tip of mandible rounded, extending forward to
the vertical from the front margin of the eye ; labial folds
‘short, the upper sometimes absent. Teeth oe
erect and fully serrated in both jaws ; those of the upper
jaw triangular and without a trace of notch on the outer
edge, of the lower much narrower with a broad evenly
convex serrated base; a small smooth symphysial tooth
in each jaw. Space between eye and snout 1-4 in its dis-
tance from the Ist gill-opening ; interocular region convex.
Head and trunk as long as the tail.

First dorsal inserted a little nearer to the pectoral
than to the ventral, its anterior border slightly convex
with the outer angle obtusely pointed ; posterior angle
produced and acute, not nearly reaching to the vertical

4 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

from the ventral; base of fin rather more than its vertical
height. Second dorsal small, inserted a little nearer to
the origin of the Ist than to the tip of the tail. Anal
originating somewhat behind the 2nd dorsal, its length
1:6 in its distance from the caudal, which is equal to that
from the ventral. Caudal long with the upper angle obtusely
pointed. Pectoral extending to below or beyond the end
of the Ist dorsal, the anterior and posterior borders convex
with more or less rounded angles, the outer border emarginate.
Space between ventral and anal 1-75 in its distance from.
the pectoral.

Last gill-opening not much smaller than the 8rd,
which is rather more than twice the eye-diameter.

Above ashy or lead blue, below white; tips of 2nd
dorsal, caudal, and pectorals darker. (Named for my
friend and colleague Adkins Robert Spencer, to whom I
am indebted for the specimen above described).

Seas and estuaries of Eastern Australia, ascending
rivers to, and it is said even beyond, the furthest limit
of tidal influence, attaining a length of 2-5 mm. It is the
common “‘ blue shark ”’ of the Brisbane River.

Described from a specimen 122 cm. long; the jaws of
which are in the A.F.A.Q. collection; Cat. No. 290.

ENGRAULID &.
ANCHOVIA AZSTUARIA sp. nov.

D. :13-0r 14; A. 31 to 34; P.. 12; V. 7; Se: 40 ordi
9 or 10. Depth of body 3-55, length of head 3-75, of
maxillary 4, of anal fin 3-65, of caudal fin 3-75 in the length.
of the body. Length of snout 4-4, diameter of eye 4, width
of interorbit 4, height of dorsal 1-4, depth of peduncle 2-4,
length of pectoral 1-25, of ventral 2-35 in the length of the
head.

Upper surface of head linear and oblique, with a well-
marked fronto-occipital ridge, the nape anteriorly with a
slight but. distinct acclivity ; snout vertically rounded in
front and projecting beyond the lower jaw to a distance
equaling three fourths of the diameter of the eye ; inter-
orbital region strongly convex. Premaxillary, maxillary,
and mandible each with a series. of minute teeth ; tongue
toothed. Maxillary extending slightly beyond the
mandibular articulation. Scales thin and easily detached ;-
ventral profile cultrate and rather strongly serrated.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 5

Dorsal fin originating a little behind the ventral and
one fifth nearer to the tip of the snout than to the root of
the caudal, its length 1-55 in its height ; outer border linear,
the last ray not produced. Anterior rays of anal about
thrice as long as the middle rays and 1-4 in the height of
the dorsal. Middle caudal rays 2 in the lower and longer
lobe. Pectoral fin long and pointed, extending to or
slightly beyond the base of the ventral. Space between
origin of ventral and tip of snout 1-45 in its distance from
the root of the caudal.

Gill-rakers long and slender, 24 on the lower branch
of the anterior arch, the longest 1-25 in the diameter of the
eye. Vertebre 42.

Pale green above; sides and belly silvery; usually
a dusky shoulder spot. Longer dorsal rays and caudal
lobes narrowly tipped with blackish.

Total length 150 millim.

Rivers of South-Eastern Queensland. Abundant in
the Brisbane River, where it is taken commonly in the
prawn nets. but is not used as food.

Described from numerous specimens measuring from
72 to 150 millimeters. |

Allied to A. nasuta (Castelnau)* from the Norman
River, Carpentaria, from which it may be distinguished
by the following characters :—

Depth of body rather more than 3-00, length of head
4.50 in length of body ; dorsal originating midway between
tip of snout and base of caudal .. i nasuta

Depth of body rather less than 3- 50, length of head
3.75 in length of body; dorsal originating one fifth nearer

to tip of snout than to base of caudal .. .. estuaria

Type in the Museum of the A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 496.

SYNODID.
XYSTODUS7 gen. nov.

Body depressed. No lateral line. Teeth in the jaws
unequal and uniserial, consisting of long compressed w idely
separated sagittate fangs, having between each pair one
or two much shorter obtusely pointed teeth ; palatine teeth

ee ee a enna e EIDE snes
*Engraulus nasutus Castlenau, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, iii,
1879, p. 5).
tévarov, & spear ; ddovs, a tooth.

6 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

of equal size, acicular and biserial, forming a long narrow
band; hyoid bones with two series of strong teeth; a
multiserial patch anteriorly on the tongue. Nostrils well
separated, the anterior circular and cirrigerous, the posterior
an oblique slit below the level of the anterior. Eye rather
small, the adipose lid rudimentary. Dorsal fin inserted
midway between the tip of the snout and the root of the
caudal ; no adipose fin; anal fin similar to but longer than:
the dorsal ; pectorals small and rounded ; ventrals 8-rayed.
Vent much nearer to the ventral than to the anal. Other-
wise as in Saurida.
Coast of North Queensland (Dunk Island).

XYSTODUS BANFIELDI sp. nov.

D. rl; A. 14; P..13; Se. 61-13. Depth of body 77)
length of head 3-6, of caudal fin 5-5 in length of body.
Length of snout 4-25, diameter of eye 6-8, width of inter-
orbit 8-5, cleft of mouth 1-6, height of dorsal 1-9, length
of pectoral 2-25, of ventral 1-1 in length of head.

Body slender, a little wider than deep. Frontal groove
smooth in front, profusely pierced by small pores behind,
continuous with the occipital groove. Diameter of eye
1°6 in the length of the snout ; adipose lid vestigial ; inter-
orbital region concave, its width 1:25 in the eye-diameter.

Dorsal fin nearly as high as long, the tip of the longest
ray, when depressed, barely reaching to the base of the
last. Anal fin originating midway between the root of
the caudal and the origin of the ventral, about thrice as
long as high, and one-fourth longer than the dorsal. Middle
caudal rays 2-5 in the lower lobe ; caudal peduncle as deep
as wide, without trace of lateral ridge. Pectoral fin extends.
to above the end of the base of the ventral, which is inserted
a little nearer to the anal than to the tip of the mandible
and well in advance of the dorsal, the 6th ray longest,.
not reaching to the vent.

Lilac, each scale of the back with a dark median
stripe, which is often forked distally and form together
narrow longitudinal pencillings, of which there are about
nine ; a purplish lateral band about half a scale wide from
the upper part of the opercle to the root of the caudal,
dividing the lilac of the back from the yellowish white
of the lower half of the body; anteriorly, to above the
pectoral the band is black, and from its lower edge it throws

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. cs

off twelve short subcruciform bars to enroach on the
lighter color below ; these bars are much larger and darker
in front and gradually fade away behind. Head spotted
with violet and with transverse dark-edged bands between
the eyes and three similar bands directed forwerd and
downward from the eye to and upon the premaxillary.
Base and middle rays of caudal and base of pectoral yellow.
(Named for Edward James Banfield, Honorary Govern-
ment Ranger of Dunk Island and the neighboring islets,
to whose acute observation Queensland science is greatly
indebted for its knowledge of the biology of the district).

Described from a specimen in the Queensland Museum
collected by Mr. Banficld, near Dunk Island, and measuring
142 millim.

SILURID &.
HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI SP. Nov.

D. 16,0; A. 17; P.112. Depth of body 4-55, length
of head 3-25, predorsal length 2-35, interdorsal space 3-4,
upper caudal lobe 4-2 in length of body. Width of head
1-45, length of snout 2-5, diameter of eye 5-45, width of
interorbit 2-9, length of maxillary barbel 1:25, of dorsal
spine 1-65, of anal fin 2-25, of pectoral spine 1-8, of ventray
fin 2 in length of head.

Upper profile of head linear and but little oblique ;
diameter of eye 2-2 in the snout, which is feebly rounded
and one fourth wider than long ; interorbital region gently
convex, its width equal to that of the mouth. Pre-
maxillary teeth in a continuous band, which is somewhat
undulous posteriorly, pointed at the extremities, and
nearly 4 times as long as wide; mandibular band divided
mesially, of nearly equal width throughout, but narrowing
rather abruptly to a point externally. Barbels slender,
the maxillary extending to the origin of the pectoral fin;
postmental barbel 1-5 in the maxillary barbel, inserted
but little behind and outside the mental barbel, which
scarcely reaches the gill-opening. Cranial shield mostly
smooth, with a patch of small granules on either side, and
a more crowded mesial patch posteriorly, from which two
or three rapidly diminishing series extend forward along
each side of the occipital groove. Nuchal shield sparsely
granular anteriorly, with a well-marked median ridge,
on either side of which is a lower and slightly divergent

8 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

ridge, its greatest width 1:4 in its length, which is 2-6 in
its distance from the tip of the snout ; outer border deeply,
posterior feebly emarginate. Dorsal buckler moderate,
saddle-shaped, smooth. Humeral process smooth and
broadly triangular, terminating in an acute point, and
extending along the proximal third of the pectoral spine.

Dorsal spine slender, serrated in front and behind,
the sides striated; adipose fin moderate, inserted above
the middle of the anal, one third higher than long, its base
1-65 in that of the rayed dorsal. Anal fin as high as long.
with the outer border fecbly emarginate. Least depth
of caudal peduncle 2 in its length behind the adipose fin.
Pectoral spine curved, similar to but more strongly serrated
than that of the dorsal. Ventral fin obtusely pointed,
not reaching to the anal. Vent a little nearer to the anal
than to the ventral.

Gill-membranes meeting at a very obtuse angle, the
free margin moderate ; axillary pore minute.

Upper surface of body pale leaden blue, of head and
nape brown, darkest on the latter; a bluish patch above
the eye; checks, preorbitals, edges of mandibular rami,
and humeral processes strongly tinged with yellow ; lower
surface of head lilac, of body bluish white. Dorsal fin
pale blue, the basal portion and the spine gray; adipose
fin with a narrow whitish border; lobes of caudal and
bases of anal and ventrals yellow, the middle rays of the
former and the tips of the two latter pale blue; pectorals
pale blue, the spine gray. (Named for its discoverer,
Mr. John Colclough).

Described from a specimen, measuring 202 millim.,
taken at Croker Island, N.T., and presented by its collector
to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 993.

SPHYRAINID A.

SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS sp. nov.

D. v-19; P. 15: Se. 1812824. Depth of oeae
7-15, of caudal peduncle 14-4, length of head, 3-2,
of caudal fin 4:55, of pectoral 8-75, predorsal length 2-45
in length of body. Length of snout 2-15, diameter of eye
5-15, width of interorbit 6-85 in length of body.

Body robust, its width 1-4 in its depth. Depth of
head subequal to the postorbital region ; diameter of eye

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 9

2-4 in the snout; interorbital region feobly convex.
Maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the
eye, its distance from which is 3, its greatest width 2-2
in the eye-diameter ; lower jaw without fleshy appendage.
Premaxillary teoth about 54 on each ramus; posterior
canine much the larger; 4 enlarged palatine teeth, the
second the strongest ; mandible with 9 lateral teeth, the
canine sinistral. Operclo with a weak spine. Cheeks
and opercles scaly ; upper surface of head naked.

Dorsal fin originating well in advance of the tip of
the appressed pectoral ; dorsal spines flexible, the second
the longest, 1:35 in the length of the snout; soft dorsal
higher than the spinous, its last ray produced. Anal
originating below the middle of, terminating well behind,
and similar in size and shape to the soft dorsal. Middle
caudal rays 3 in the upper and longer lobe ; depth of ped-
uncle one and one sixth time the diameter of the eye.
Pectoral fin 1:25 in the length of the snout and extending
well beyond the origin of the ventral. Ventral inserted
below the origin of the spinous dorsal and midway between
the tip of the mandible and the middle of the anal, its
length 1:45 in the snout.

Ne elongate gill-raker.

Above purple, each of the scales with a light centre ;
sides silvery, crossed by fourteen vertical purple bars,
the first behind the tip of the pectoral, the last above the
end of the anal; lower surface pearly white; dcrsal fins
blackish ; caudal grayish brown, darkest above; aral,
ventrals, and pectorals gray, the anterior rays of the former
and the outer rays of the two latter dusky.

Total length 405 millimeters.

Described from a single specimen obtained at the
Aru Islands by Mr. John Colclough.

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum., Cat. No. 1066.

CARANGID &.

DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis).*
Peete. 1 28 iP. 21: Sc. 1245 E186.
Depth of body 4°30, length of head 3°65, height of soft
dorsal 8°90, of anal 9°30, length of pectoral 3°75 in

*Caranz ecclipsifer De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 1884,
p. 541: Cape York.

10 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

length of body. Length of snout 2°80 diameter of eye
3°15, width of interorbit 4:20, length of maxillary 2°66,
of mandible 2°10, height of spinous dorsal 1°80, length of
ventral 2°00 in length of head.

Body elongate-elliptical, somewhat compressed, its
width 1:50 in its depth, the dorsal and ventral profiles
about equally convex. Depth of head 1:50 in its length ;
snout pointed, longer than the eye-diameter, which con-
siderably exceeds the feebly convex interorbital width ;
adipose lid greatly developed, extending well over the
preorbital and opercular regions, and leaving uncovered
only a narrow vertical slit, of which the pupil is the centre ;
cranio-nuchal ridge moderate, extending forward on the
snout ; lower jaw the longer; maxillary scarcely extending
to the level of the eye, the width of its emarginate distal
extremity 2°50 in the eye-diameter. A narrow band of
fine teeth in the jaws; vomer, palate, ptergyoids, and
tongue smooth.

Scales smooth, in regular series; throat and breast
scaly ; occiput, posterior half of interorbit, inner half of
opercle and subopercle, interopercle, and cheeks scaly ;
head elsewhere naked ; soft dorsal and anal fins with a
low basal scaly sheath. Lateral line straight to above
the middle of the appressed pectoral, thence gently curved
to below the anterior third of the soft dorsal, beyond which
it is again straight ; posterior portion 1-40 in the anterior,
bearing 31 plates, which are well developed posteriorly,
where each is armed with a strong sharp spine ; anteriorly
the line is continued in a wide loop over the nape, meeting
its fellow immediately behind the nuchal ridge, and forming
a definite boundary between the minute occipital and the
larger body scales ; the loop itself is bisected by a short
supplementary line, which passes forwerd along the
interorbit and backward over about 7 scales. Caudal
peduncle withcut subsidiary keels.

Spinous dorsal originating behind the base of the
pectoral, the 3rd spine longest, two fifths longer than the
2nd ray, which reaches, when depressed, to the base of the
9th ray ; origin of soft dorsal above the vent. Detached
anal spines strong and subequal, 2-25 in the eye-diameter,
united basally by membrane to one another and to
3rd spine, which is inserted below the 6th dorsal ray ; anal

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. Til
fin one third longer than the abdomen, its*anterior lobe-
about as high as the soft dorsal. Caudal fin forked, the
middle rays shorter than the eye; caudal peduncle wider
than deep. Pectoral fin slightly curved, extending to below
the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral small, reaching
midway to the base of the 2nd anal spine.

Gill-rakers long and slender, 13-35, the longest 1-80:
in the eye-diameter, but not quite so long as the middle
fringes.

Above olive green, lightest on the head, below pearly
white ; a blackish opercular spot ; base of pectoral dark ;
fins colorless.

Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, 230 millim.
long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1134.

AMBASSID &.
PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS sp. nov. ,

DP vali, * i. 7 Al a 8s -Pal2 + Se.:23-15 » LALO t0-4::
Depth of body 2-55, of caudal peduncle 6-6, length of head
2°85, of caudal fin 2-85 in length of body. Length of
snout 4:1, diameter of eye 3, width of interorbit 4:35,
longest dorsal spine 1-65, longest anal 2-15, length of
pectoral 1-25, of ventral 1-4 in length of head.

Upper profile of head linear, the nape convex with
an appreciable median ridge ; interorbital region convex ;
maxillary scarcely extending to below the anterior border
of the eye. Preopercle with 5 or 6 strong spines at and
below the angle. Head scales as large as those of the body.

Procumbent dorsal spine well developed; spinous
dorsal originating above the 4th body-scale, the 3rd spine
longest and strongest, a little higher than the rayed dorsal ;
spine of soft dorsal 1-35 in the height of the spinous dorsal.
Anal fin originating below the 12th body-scale ; 3rd spine
longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a little longer
than the base of the fin, and 1-35 in the Ist ray, which is
as high as that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked,
the middle rays about half as long as the lobes. Third
and 4th pectoral rays longest, extending to the 10th body-
scale. Ventral shorter than the pectoral, the two outer
rays longest, reaching to the vent, the spine as long as the
3rd anal spine.

Green above, yellowish white below; a black line,

* The procumbent spine included.

12 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

‘which is feebly curved anteriorly, from the upper angle
of the opercle to the root of the caudal ; the scales forming
the series through which this line runs are profusely dotted
with black, as also are the edges of all the scales above
the line, and antericrly the surface of the scales is similarly
but more sparsely dotted; two or three series of body-
‘scales below the line and the scales of the tail with a single
marginal series of black dots. Upper surface of head and
nape and the opercles so profusely dotted as almost to
obscure the ground color; cheeks and lower surface of
head less closely dotted. Al] the fins similarly marked, —
the dots b2ing most crowded on the membrane of the
second dorsal spine, the tips of the anterior anal rays,
and the middle ventral rays.

Abundant in all creeks and waterholes in the Brisbane
district. Description taken from a 50 millim. example
in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was presented by
Mr. W. E. Weatherill ; Cat. No. 463.

PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS sp. nov.

D. vi, i8; A.i11.8; P. 10; Sc. 25-12; L. 0 to6,. Depan
of body 2-85, of caudal peduncle 7-9, length of head 2°9,
of caudal fin 2:8 in length of body. Length of snout 3:8,
diameter of eye 2:8, width of intcrorbit 4-05, longest dorsal
spine 1-5, longest anal 1-95, length of pectoral 1:3, of
ventral 1:45 in length of head.

Upper profile of head linear, the nape feebly convex
and with a well defined median ridge ; interorbital region
convex ; maxillary extending to below the anterior border
of the eye. Preopercle with a few streng spines at the
angle. Head scales as large as those of the body.

No procumbent dorsal spine ; spinous dorsal fin origin-
ating above the 7th body scale, the Ist spine longest and
‘strongest, somewhat higher than the rayed dorsal; spine
of soft dorsal 1-3 in the height of the spinous dorsal. Anal
fin originating below the 14th body-scale, the 3rd _ spine
longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a trifle longer
than the base of the fin, and equal to the Ist ray, which
is higher than that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked,
the middle rays about two fifths of the length of the lobes.
Fourth pectoral ray longest, extending to the llth body
scale. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral, the two

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 18

outer rays longest, reaching slightly beyond the vent, the
spine as long as the 8rd anal spine.

Uniform violaceous brown, somewhat lighter bclow ;
edges of all the upper scales clouded with numerous black
dots; lower scales and those of the head with scattered
dots ; a narrow black line from the tip of the appressed
pectoral to the root of the caudal. Fins dusky; mem-
brane of first dorsal spine densely powdered with blackish
spots ; tips of the anterior soft dorsal and anal rays black.

Inland creeks in the Moreton District. Description
taken from a 45 millim. example in the A.F.A.Q. Museum,
obtained in Kilecy Creek by Dr. T. Bancroft, and presented.
by him to the Association. Cat. No. 1342.

LABRID.
CH@RODON VITTA sp. nov.

D. xii 7; A. ti 10; P. 16: Se. 3-27-2-10. Depth
of body 2-9, of caudal peduncle 7-7, length of head 3-15,
of middle caudal rays 5-9, of pectoral and ventral fins 4:5
in length of body. Length of snout 2:45, diameter of eye
4-1, width of interorbit 3-5, last dorsal spine 3-05, last anal.
spine 2-9 in length of head.

Dorsal profile of body evenly and gently rounded,.
not appreciably higher than the ventral profile, its highest
point above the middle of the appressed pectoral. Head
about one sixth longer than deep; upper profile of snout.
gently rounded and moderately declivous ; eye moderate,
its diameter rather less than the depth of the preorbital..
Cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior nostril..
Anterior canines large ; lateral mandibular teeth without
prominent tips; no posterior canine. Preopercle finely
serrated. Cheeks with eight series of small subimbricate
scales ; some of the opercular scales larger than the breast-
scales ; scales at the base of the caudal angulated and but
little enlarged.

Soft dorsal and anal fins low, rounded and subequal
in height posteriorly, scarcely extending to the caudal fin,
and with a low scaly sheath. Caudal fin emarginate.
Fourth pectoral ray slightly longer than the third, reaching
to below the tenth scale of the lateral line. Outer ventral
ray the longest, extending to the vent.

Reddish brown, darkest above; two to four narrow,
sometimes anastomosing, silvery lines on the cheeks and

14 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

preorbitals ; a broad blackish band along the middle of
the body from behind the eye to the caudal peduncle,
separated by a short interspace from a large oval black
‘spot in front of the root of the caudal; fins uniform pale
rufous.

Total length (of type) 190 millim.

Aru Islands.

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1394.

In company with the West Australian C. rubescens
and the East Australian C. macleayi this Tuskfish forms
a well-marked group, characterized by the smaller size,
more slender habit, and uniform or nearly uniform colora-
tion, which in the species mentioned is rufous brown in
marked contrast to the more brilliant livery of the larger
species. With these three should also be associated De
Vis’ C. olivaceus.

CHATODID.
MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS sp. nov. \

D. xiv 18; A. iv. 15: Se. 6-46-15; Ll. 36. Depth
-of body 1-75, length of head 3-15, of pectoral fin 3-4, of
ventral 3-4 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2-4, width
-of interorbit 2.75, longest dorsal spine 1.35, longest anal
1-25, length of caudal J-5, depth of peduncle 2-75 in length
of head.

Upper profile of head moderately steep and undulous
owing to a slight protuberance above the posterior half
of the eye. Snout slightly produced and obtusely pointed,
1:25 in the eye-diameter ; interorbital regicn convex ; jaws
equal; maxillary extending to below the anterior nostri’.
Preopercle serrated. Scales mcderate, those on the middle
of the trunk somewhat larger than the anterior scales and
much larger than those on the tail, which rapidly decrease
‘in size posteriorly : lateral line but little arched in front,
not extending to the caudal peduncle.

Dorsal fin broadly anal narrowly rounded behind,
the spinous portion of the former twice as long as the soft
portion; 4th and 5th dorsal spines equal and longest, a
little longer than the soft rays. Second anal spine longest
and strongest, somewhat longer than the dorsal spines
and one fourth longer than the rays, which are slightly
shorter than those of the dorsal. Caudal fin feebly
rounded. Pectoral pointed, the 4th ray longest, reaching

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 1d

to the 12th body-scale. Ventral as long as the pectoral,
extending to the vent.

Colors (after long immersion in alcohol). Pale rufous,
with five rather wide dark longitudinal bands following
the curvature of the back above the lateral line and twelve
much narrower linear bars below ; a large black elliptical
spot covers the upper middle portion of the side from
above the middle of the pectoral fin to below the anterior
third of the soft dorsal; about two thirds of it are below
the rest above the lateral line, and the twe lower longi-
tudinal bands and three upper bars are lost in it ; a large
oval black spot on the side of the tail, partly below the
end of the soft dorsal and partly on the peduncle, across
the upper edge of which it extends but does not reach
the lower border. Ocular band running from a short
distance in front of the dorsal through the eye to the inter-
opercle, darkest superiorly, and somewhat interrupted
by a lighter spot where it leaves the nape; opercle with
several large dark brown spots. Soft dorsal and anal
fins each with a narrow dark inframarginal band, which
extends forward on the former to the posterior raysf;
caudal fin with a wide pale brown basal and a dark brown
subarcuate median band.

Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, measuring
‘75 millimeters, in the collection of the Queensland Museum.

Closely allied to Megaprotodon plebius*, from which
it differs chiefly in the color markings. The lateral blotch
bears a close resemblance to that of Chetodon speculumt
as figured by Bleeker{, but is more pointed at either end.

TRIACANTHIDA.
TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS sp. nov.

D. v or vi—22 or 23; A.18; P. 16. Depth of body
2-75, length of head 3-35, of snout 4.85, of first dorsal spine
3°55, of ventral spine 4:3, of pelvic bone 5-, of soft dorsal
3°55, of anal 5-5, of caudal 3-85, of caudal peduncle 5-1
in length of body. Diameter of eye 3-85, width of inter-

“Chetodon plebeius Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1789, i, p. 1269... In Turton’s
transjation, 1806, no mention is made of this species.

t Chetodon speculum (Kuhl & v. Hasselt) Cuvier & Valenciennes,
Hist. Nat. Poiss, vii, 1831, p. 73,

t Atlas Ichth, pl. cccuxxy, fig. 3.

16 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISdES

orbit 3-65, of gill-opening 4-6, height of soft dorsal 3-55,
of anal 2-5 length of pectoral 2-3 in length of head.

Upper profile of snout linear, its length 1:45 in that
cf the head and 1-35 in the space between the eye and the
soft dorsal. Distance of eye from gill-opening 1:15 in the
diameter of the eye, which is 1-5 in its distance from the
dorsal spine; interorbital region concave (nearly flat in
large examples), without indication of a median ridge.
Gill-opening entirely behind the eye, commoncing in front
of the lower third of the pectoral.

Dorsal spine feebly curved or straight, tapering to
an acute point, inserted abcve the base of the pectoral,
and entirely covered with coarse granules, which ere some-
what more cnlarged and pointed in front and behind, its
distance from the soft dorsal 2:3 in that from the tip of
the snout; soft dorsal with rounded outline, the highest
part about the end of its first third, where it is 3-4 in its
length. Anal fin much higher than the soft dorsal, below
the eleventh or twelfth ray of which it originates and with
which it is conterminous ; its outline is deeply emarginate,
the anterior rays being produced and falciform, 1-5 in the
base of the fin, which is 1°55 in that of the soft dorsal.
Caudal fin deeply forked, the middle rays 3-25 in that of
the outer; caudal peduncle distally cylindrical. Base
of pectoral fin 1-5 in the width of the gill-opening. Ventral
spines reaching to or not quite to the vent. Pelvic bone.
tapering to a point behind.

Silvery, washed with bronze above; two large oval
dark blotches on the back, one below each dorsal fin
anteriorly ; two similar blotches on the side, the one above
the other behind the pectoral; bese, lower half of mem-
brane, and outer half of dorsal spine except the extreme
tip blackish.

Total length 260 millim.

Coast of Southern Queensland. Brisbane River and.
Moreton Bay, common.

Described from six examples, measuring from 150 to.
256 milimeters.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. ie.

TETRAODID &.
SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA Sp. nov.
SCALY-TAILED TOAD-FISH.

D. 9; A. 7; P. 15. Depth of body (at the vent) 4-2,
length of head 3 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2:6,
width of interocular region 6-25, height of dorsal 1-45,
length of caudal 1:15, of pectoral 1-5 in length of head.

Body robust, evenly and gently rounded to above
the middle of the pectoral fins, beyond which it slopes
downward to the caudal. Anterior profile of head linear
and slightly oblique, the mouth below the level of the eye ;
length of head a little less than that of the trunk. Eye
large, narrowly free below, its diameter about equal to the
length of the snout ; interocular region narrow and concave,
its width 2-4 in the eye. Nostrils pierced in a conspicuous
rounded tentacle. A narrow band round the lips and an
ovate gular patch naked; rest of head and trunk closely
studded with flexible spintles, which do not quite extend
to the dorsal fin above nor to the vent below, but are con-
tinued backward on the upper side to below the origin of
the dorsal where it meets the lateral line, the intervening
border concave; between the lateral line and the vent
there is also a naked embayment stretching forward to the
tips of the appressed pectoral rays; tail spineless, with
a low ridge on either side of the lateral line, each of which
bears a series of unarmed squamiform processes. Latera}
line forming a gentle curve to below the orgin of the dorsal,
thence straight to the caudal fin; a linear connecting line
across the nape, beyond which the main line curves
gradually downward to behind the lower third of the eye
where it trifurcates, the middle branch passing directly
forward to the angle of the mouth, the others branching
off at right angles, the upper eventually curving forward
above the eye to between the nostrils, the lower ceasing in
front of the inferior angle of the gill-opening. Sides of
tail with a well-developed ridge. Width of gill-opening
rather more than the base of the pectoral, and extending
well above it, the inner flap not protruding, the outer
with a flat tentacular process on its lower half.

Dorsal fin falcate, with the extreme tip rounded, its
length 2-85 in its height. Anal rounded, originating

B—Royau Socrery.

18 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

below the middle of the dorsal, than which it is much
shorter and lower. Caudal fin elongate and rounded,
as long as the peduncle. Outer edge of pectoral linear
above rounded below.

Upper surface lilaceous with numerous small blackish
spots; sides gray, profusely dotted with darker; a
moderately wide dusky band separates the two colors
on the tail running just below the lateral line ; under surface
immaculate white: fins colorless.

Total length 80 millim.

Coast of Southern Queensland.

Described from the single example known.

DIODONTID.
DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI sp. nov.

D. 12; A. 11; P. 20. Width of body 2°85, depth of
body 2:85, length of head 2-70 in the length of the body.
Length of snout 3:50, diameter of eye 3-05, width of inter-
orbit 2:00, height of dorsal and anal fins 2-00, length of
caudal 1:50, of pectoral 2-00 in the length of the head.

Snout linear, rest of head convex above ; mouth below
the level of the eye. Head much longer and a little deeper
than wide, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye moderate,
without free lid; interorbital region concave. Nasal
tentacle bifurcate. Spines of head and lower surface
erectile, of back and sides fixed, the abdominal and sub-
caudal spines much smaller than the others, which are
of about equal size throughout, the longest pair being on
each side of the caudal peduncle and not so long as the
diameter of the eye; no turbinal nor preorbital spines ;
frontal region with a conspicuous median spine, out-
side and behind which is a pair of rather smaller lateral
spines; inside and behind these are yet another pair,
the inner roots of which overlap one another; beyond
these again are three other pairs similarly arranged, while
the hinder border of the occiput is armed with a single
spine corresponding to the frontal spine ; two short, widely
separated supraorbital spines, followed by a series of eight
spines, the first three belonging to the temporal region,
the last below the dorsal; cheeks and opercles with short
sharp spines; caudal peduncle with two pairs, the bases
of the upper far overlapping above. Gill-opening narrower
than the base of the pectoral.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 19

Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal some-
what more than that cf the anal, which is inserted almost
wholly behind the dorsal, and about 2-50 in their respective

heights ; caudal fin rounded, the peduncle deeper than
wide : pectoral undulous, the upper angle slightly produced,
the lower broadly rounded, the width of its base more than
the eye-diameter.

Uniform olive-brown, shading into lavender or dull
white below ; lower part of the sides and entire under surface
of the body, with small black spots ; a black vertical band
below the eye, a second in front of the gill-opening, and a
third below the tip of the appressed pectoral. Fins
uniform gray.

Total length 290 millim.

Coast of South-Eastern Queensland.

Described from three Moreton Bay _ specimens,
measuring from 200 to 290 millimeters.

Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was pre-
sented by Mr. Harry Myers, of Brisbane, after whom I
have great pleasure in naming it.

This species is easily distinguishable from D. punc-
tulatus* by the small size of the abdominal spines, which
are much shorter than those of the back and sides, and
from D. jaculiferust by the conspicuous mid-frontal spines,
the absence of the elongate pectoral spines, and _ the
formula of the vertical fins.

CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS sp. nov.

D. 12; A. 11; P. 21. Width of body 2:25, depth of
‘body, 2-50, length of head 2-60 in the length of the body.
Length of snout 2-85, diameter of eye 2-20, width of inter-
orbit 1-85, height of dorsal fin 1-80, of anal 1-95, length of
caudal 1-35, of pectoral 1-80 in the length of the head.

Snout linear, rest of head convex; mouth below the
level of the eye ; head as wide as long and two fifths wider
than deep, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye large,
without free lid; interorbital region flat, the supraciliary
edges slightly raised. Nasal tentacle compressed and
simple. A short strong turbinal spine; a much smaller
preorbital spine ; frontal region with a single median spine,
its point reduced to a blunt tubercle, or more rarely a pair

* Kaup, Arch. f. Nat., 1885, p. 230: Cape Seas and Mauritius.
+ Diodon jaculiferus Cuvier, Mém. Mus., 1818, p. 130.

20 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

of similar spines arranged transversely ; three supraorbital
spines, the last pair close together and well separated from
the first, followed by a similarly arranged temporal series
of three, the last above the base of the pectoral ; cheek-
spines not piercing the skin ; a few small opercular spines :
spines of body strong and fixed, those in front short,
quickly increasing in length backward the tip of the
appressed pectoral ; four spines in an irregular row behind
the temporal series; a single greatly produced movable
spine behind the middle of the base of the pectoral, its
length equaling the interorbital width; a similar but
somewhat shorter spine behind the lower angle of the
pectoral ; middle series of abdominal spines short and blunt ;
pedurcle naked. Gill-opening much narrower than the
base of the pectoral.

Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal 2-20,
that of the anal, which is inserted behind the dorsal, 2-85
in their respective heights: caudal fin rounded, the
peduncle deeper than wide; pectoral emarginate, the
width of its base equal to the eye-diameter.

Dull violet or olive-green above, the tips of some of
the spines darker, below white; sides with three usually
circular black spots, the first in front of the lower angle
of the gill-opening, with often a smaller spot above it;
the second below or just behind the middle of the border
of the appressed pectoral, sometimes with a smaller spot
below and behind it ; the third midway between the origins
of the vertical fins ; all these spots surround the base of a
spine, and occasionally the third temporal spine is similarly
favored. Fins pale brown, the caudal with a darker tip.

Total length 250 millim.

Coast of Southern Queensland (Brisbane River and
Moreton Bay).

Four examples, measuring from 130 to 250 millimeters
have been examined in the preparation of this article.

This species, the common “ Porcupine-Fish” of the
Moreton Bay Fishermen is easily distinguishable from all
the other Chilomyctert not orly by the size of the eyes,
but especially by the two erectile dagger-like spines, which
protect the pectoral region on each side.

Type in the collection of the A.F.A.Q., to which it
was presented by Mr. Charles Sigley ; Cat. Ne. 41.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 91

GOBITD.
VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS sp. nov.

D. vi, i12; A. i112; P. 19: Se. 92-42. Depth of body
5:1, of caudal peduncle 9-1, length of head 3:5, of soft
dorsal, 3:35, of caudal fin 2-5 in length of body. Length
of snout 2-7, diameter of eye 5-1, width of interorbit 5:5,
length of. maxillary 2-6, longest dorsal spine 1:25, last.
dorsal ray 1:55 (¢) 1-9 (Q), length of pectoral 1:25, of
ventral 1-8 in length of head.

Depth of head 1-65, width of head 1:4 in its length.
Snout evenly rounded above, nearly twice as long as the
diameter of the eye; interorbital region flat; maxillary
extending to below the anterior border of the eye.

Spinous dorsal originating above the base of the pec-
toral, the 3rd spine produced; last dorsal ray longest,
extending well on the rudimentary caudal rays, 1:2 (¢@)
1-6 (Q) in the 3rd spine. Anal fin originating midway be-
tween the root of the caudal and the vertical limb of the
preopercle and below the 2nd ray of the soft dorsal, with
which it is conterminous, the last ray much shorter than
(g¢) or as long as (9) that of the dorsal. Caudal fincuneate :
caudal peduncle short and stout, as deep as long. Pectoral
reaching to below the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral
extending more than half way to the vent, the 3rd or 4th
ray longest.

Width of gill-opening twice the diameter of the eye ;
7 gill-rakers on the lower branch of the anterior arch, the
longest 2-5 in the eye.

Pale olive-green, the back with ten broad darker
cross-bands, of which two are on the nape, two below the
spinous dorsal, four below the soft dorsal, and two on the
peduncle ; these bands are much darker, sometimes almost
black, marginally than mesially, the middle portion being
but little darker than the ground color; sides of head and
body with two chestnut stripes, the upper from the tip of
the snout to the below middle of the soft dorsal, the lower
from behind the eye to the upper third of the caudal, the
- former bisecting, the latter forming the lower border of the
cross-bands ; below these again is a series of six dark spots,
which are connected with one another inferiorly, so as to
form a third rather obscure stripe between the base of the

22 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

pectoral and the lower third of the caudal, and transversely
with the median stripe by narrow cross-bars, which may be
interrupted or even absent. Head without spots; snout
and opercles dull violaceous brown; two narrow silvery
undulous bands from and above the corner of the mouth
to the opercle, upon which the lower curves upward and
forms a junction with the upper; they are also united by
a narrow bar along the edge of the preopercie, and the
upper bar is occasionally produced forward across the lip ;
there are sometimes two similar short bars in front of the
eye. Spinous dorsal with a black terminal spot on the
membrane of the third spine and with six narrow undulous
bars running obliquely upward and backward from its
base; anal with an indistinct infrabasal band; caudal
colorless, or with several obscure cross-bands, or with small
but distinct purple spots on its basal half inferiorly, and
always with a wide terminal silver-edged violet band.
Described from 4 Aru Island specimens in the A.F.A.Q.
Museum, the largest and type 120 millim.: Cat. No. 986.

BuTIs LONGICAUDA (De Vis).

BD. vi, 97: A: 9; P18 or 19: Sc: 29 or 30-10°or Te
Depth of body 4-7, of caudal peduncle 8-4, length of head
2-9, of caudal fin 4 in length of body. Depth of head 2:5,
width of head 1-66, length of snout 2-66, diameter of eye 5-75,
width of interorbit 4-25, length of maxillary 2-66, longest
dorsal ray 2-2, longest anal 2, length of pectoral 1:45 in
length of head.

Snout greatly depressed, more than twice the diameter
of the eye; interorbital region flat, broader in the male
than in the female or young* ; supraciliary ridge crenulate ;
maxillary varying much with age and sex, extending nearly
to or slightly beyond the anterior border of the eye.

Head almost whelly scaly, the scales on the upper
surface small; lower surface of head, extremity of snout,
nasal region, maxillaries, and a pair of narrow channels
extending from the snout along the frontal region, inside
the supraciliary ridges, to and beyond the postero-superior
border of the eye, and thence to the upper angle of the

*In a fine male measuring 140 millim. the width of the interorbital
region is 3°75 in the length of the head, ina female of 135 millim. the
same measurement is 4°35.

BY J. DOUGLAS CGILBY. 293

opercle naked. Most of the scales of the body and opercles
with from 1 to 4 subsidiary squamule.

Third dorsal spine longest a little shorter than the
snout and 1:35 in the longest ray.* Anal fin originating
below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous with the soft
dorsal, its last ray in both sexes longest but not reaching
to the caudal. Caudal fin rounded, the peduncle long,
2-2 times as long as deep.t Pectoral fin reaching to the
origin of the 2nd dorsal. Ventral rather more than midway
to the anal.

Dark chestnut brown or purple, uniform or with the
scales of the lower sides and tail narrowly edged with
yellow. Dorsal, anal, caudal, and ventral fins purple, the
anterior borders and the tips of the dorsals, the upper
berder and tips of the upper rays of the caudal, and the
tips of the anal and ventral rays crimson, fading into saffron
or white after brief immersion in a preservative ; occa-
sionally the whole 2nd dorsal is crimson with the exception
of a basal purple band ornamented with a few clear spots ;
caudal and sometimes the last anal rays also with clear
spots, which may be large and few in number, but are more
commonly small and crcwded; pectorals uniform yellow,
with a large black white-edged basal ocellus.

The ‘‘ Crimson-tip Gudgeon”’ attains a length of 200
millim. and is one of the most common estuary fishes of
our southern Queensland Rivers, ard its presence may
always be anticipated in any ccllection from the streams
running into Mcreton Bay. Personally I have examined
specimens from the Tweed River, t Nerang Creek, the
Logan, Brisbane, and Pine River., Nocsa Creek, ard the
Mary River, and its range probably extends well beyond
these limits. IS may always be reccgnised by the crimson
(white) tips to the fins and by the squamule which cover
the anterior portion of the scaies, and which are absent in
ail our other eleotrins. The only substance found in the
stomach of the specimen dissected was the head of a small

*In the male fish the last dorsal ray is the longest and is considerably
produced beyond the others, in the female the 2nd or 3rd ray is the longest,
1‘5 time the length of the last ray.

+ The peduncle is more slender in the immature than in the adult.

t Thus adding another genus and species of eleotrin to the fauna of
New South Wales.

24 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

fish, apparently some species of goby. These little fishes
are said to be excellent eating.

Described from 5 recent examples from the Brisbane
River, and 1 each from the Tweed and Mary Rivers and
Noosa Creek, the measurements of the 8 specimens being
from 75 to 140 millim. I have also examined De Vis’
types from the Brisbane River, as also a specimen from
the same source, to which is attached the Museum label
‘* Eleotris papa De Vis”; and yet another, without locality,
labeled ‘‘ Hleotris aporos.”?’ From this species, which
belongs to the allied genus Ophiocara, it may easily be
distinguished by the small size of the occipital scales, which
in O. aporos are as large as those of the body.

RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI sp. nov.

D. vi, 10;. A..10.; P. 16: Sc. 30 to 32-10. _ Depths
body 4:6, of caudal peduncle 8-85, length of head 3-5, of
caudal fin 3-6 in length of body. Length of snout 2-95,
diameter of eye 3°85, longest dorsal spine 1-5, length of anal
1:25, of pectoral 1:15, of ventral 1-2 in length of head.

Depth of head 1-5, width of head 1-45 in its length.
Diameter of eye 1-3 in the length of the snout ; width of
concave interorbital region less than one third of the dia-
meter of the eye; cleft of mouth ne to below the
posterior nostril.

Third dorsal spine longest, rather less than the space
between its base and the preopercle ; soft dorsal and anal
fins but little lower than the spinous dorsal. Anal origi-
nating below the 8rd dorsal ray and conterminous with
the soft dorsal. Base of pectoral 2-6 in its length. Ventral
not reaching to the vent.

Pale yellowish brown, all the scales, except those
along the ventral profile, edged with dark brown; in half
grown examples there is a row of darker blotches along the
middle of the sides, with sometimes a second row near the
dorsal profile, the anterior spots often meeting across the
nape. Upper surface of head and nape spotted and ver-
miculated with brown; an indistinct violaceous band
curves downward from the eye to the angle of the mouth,
behind which are two parrallel bands, which extend upon
the base of the pectoral; opercles dull purplish. Fins
hyaline, closely powdered with dusky dots; dorsals with a
basal row of dark spots; last two dorsal and anal rays

BY J. DOUGLaS OGILBY. 95

‘with alternate darker and lighter bars, sometimes absent
in the anal; caudal with a dark basal band. (Named for
Mr. R. W. Leftwich, Junr., of Maryborough, to whom I
am indebted for many kindnesses).

Described from 6 specimens in the A.F.A.Q. Museum,
collected in Great Sandy Strait, and measuring from 58
to 75 millimeters; Cat. No. 1132.

This pretty little goby abounds in the pools left by
the receding tide on the oyster banks in the Great Sandy
Strait, and I have also seen specimens obtained in the
vicinity of Woody Point, Moreton Bay. Along the edges of
these pools when undisturbed they lie motionless, basking
in the shallow water, but if alarmed by the approach of
an enemy they dart away with great rapidity, and seek
refuge in the deeper water below or within the bunches
of oysters, adjusting their bodies with great nicety to the
inequalities of the surface cn which they have found a
haven. Here their colors assimilate so closely with their
surroundings that it requires a keen eye to locate their
position even though one may have been but a few feet
from them when they scught concealment ; they ale very
quick in their movements, and even with a hand net it is
most difficult te catch them. I have never observed one
of thess fishes to take refuge in a hole as is the usual habit
ef Amblygobius gobioides, which is equally common on the
oyster beds. The stomach of thes example dissected was
packed with green weed regularly cus into lengths of about
an inch, with which also was a shrimp-like crustacean of
about the same size.

AMBLYGOBIUS GOBIOIDES (Ogilby).

D. vil3; A.12; P.16. Depth of body 6°25, of caudal
peduncle 9, length of head 4, of caudal fin 3°8 in length
of body. Diameter of eye 5°5, length of pectoral 1°3 in
length of head.

Depth of head 1°65, width of head 1°35 in its length.
Diameter of eye 1:4 in the length of the snout; width of
interorbital region less than half the eye-diameter ; cleft of
mouth reaching to below the anterior border of the eye.

Third dorsal spine longest about one fourth longer
than the head, and as long as the distance between its
base and the anterior border of the eye; second dorsal
and anal fins low, their longest rays 2 in the 3rd spine.

26 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous
with the soft dorsal, its base one fifth more than the head.
Base of pectoral 2°6 in its length. Ventral fin 1°25 in the
pectoral, reaching midway to the anal,

Purplish or reddish brown above, gradually fading
into lilac below, the sides with from 40 to 50 alternate
darker and lighter transverse bands, which in large examples
are usually broken up into vertical bars. Upper surface
and sides of head and nape with numerous round blackish
spots. Fins vinous; anterior border of first dorsal white ;
sometimes a dark marginal spot between the fourth and
tfth spines and some oblique dusky streaks basally ; second
dorsal with three series of darl: spots: caudal sometimes
with a few scattered spots. When newly caught, the
lateral transverse bars are brilliant blue and gold. (Gobi-
oides: a genus of Gobies to which this species bears some
resemblance in its strengthened dentition and the obliquity
of its mouth.)

Total length 120 millim.

Type in the Macleay Museum, Sydney University.

Kast Coast of Australia. I have seen and examined
numerous specimens from Port Jackson, the Richmond
River, various parts of Moreton Bay, and Great Sandy
Strait, in all of which places it is abundant wherever suitable
ground exists. It may therefore be safely predicted that
its range, both southward and northward, extends well
beyond the limits here given.

This species is essentially a ‘mud goby.” In the
Wide Bay District I had many admirable opportunities
of observing its habits on the vast flats left bare by each
recurring tide The fish either excavates for itself a burrow
in the mud or takes possession of the deserted burrow of
&@ worm or crab, and enlarges it to suit its own convenience.*
The burrow is invariably provided with two openings,
which may be at the bottom of a small pool, but as often
a$ not open upon the bare mud. Here, if one approaches
cautiously, the little creature may be seen iying—regardless
of or perhaps enjoying the fierce rays of a semi-tropical
Summer sun—close to the burrow, bent into the shape of
a U with one of the sides shortened, its head turned to-

* When digging these fishes out I have never found any other animab
occupying the burrow along with them.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. yr is

wards the entrance, through which it disappears like a
flash on any incautious movement of the spectator. If,
however, perfect quiet be maintained the head will shortly
be seen to emerge from the other entrance, intently scruti
nizing its surroundings to ascertain whether the danger be
past. When they take refuge at the bottom of their retreat
it is not an easy matter to dig them out.

Described from five specimens collected in Great
Sandy Strait by myself and a much larger example obtained.
at Woody Point by Mr. J. T. Jamison.

Gobius cristatus Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Waies,.
v, 1880, p. 610 (20 May, 1881): Port Jackson.

Gobius yobioides Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N. S. Wakes, 1886,
p. 35. Substitute for G. cristatus Macleay, pre-
occupied—Stead, Eggs and Breed. Hab. Fish,
1907, p. 60.

SCORP ANID i.
SCORPZNOPSIS PALMERI Sp. nov.

D.-xii 10; A. iti 5; P. 17 (1+ 5 + 11): Se. 8-45 to:
47-13*; L. lat. 22 or 23. Depth of body 3, of caudal
peduncle 8-75, length of head 2-6, of caudal fin 4, of pectoral
3°55, of ventral 4 in length of body. Length of snout 2°85,
diameter of eye 4:5, width of interorbit 6:55, length of
maxillary 1:9, of longest dorsal spine 271, of longest anal 1:8
in length of head.

Snout long, its upper profile strongly convex, the
preocular groove deep; lateral interorbital ridge low, not
ending in a spine; an anterior median ridge, bisecting
the preocular groove ; lower jaw the longer, without sym-
physial protuberance; maxillary extending to below the
middle of the eye, the width of its distal extremity equal
to or a trifle more than that of the interorbit. Nasal,
preocular, postocular (2), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic,
and parietal (3) spines present. Preorbital with a strong
median hooked spine, from which radiate four smooth
ridges, only the lower anterior of which terminates in a
spine; the posterior ridge is continuous with that of the
suborbital, which is armed with three strong spines ; behind
these, but separated from them by a groove, is a stout double
preopercular spine, below which are four graduated ridges,

* Above first anal spine.

‘28 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

the two upper ending in more or less conspicuous spinous
points ; opercle with two strong spines at the end of diver-
gent ridges, the upper spine the longer. Occipital groove
deep and transversely oblong, bordered anteriorly by a
sharp ridge, which is highest externally. Two or three
small cirri on the head of the maxillary and a much larger
fringed one behind the anterior nostril ; supraorbital ridge
sometimes with a small cirrus; a large fringed cirrus near
the distal end of the preorbital and a series of six smaller
ones round the chin, behind which are a still smaller pair
on the median line; some well developed fringed cirri on
the body, principally along the lateral line, which is without
spinous plates anteriorly. Scales in fairly regular series ;
fins naked.

Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 1:9 in that of the
spinous portion; first dorsal spine a trifle longer than the
eleventh and 2°5 in the fourth, which is a little longer than
the third or fifth; last spine 1°4 in the height of the soft
dorsal, which is equal to that of the spinous. Second anal
spine much stronger and longer than the third, as long as
the anterior rays, and higher than the spinous dorsal.
Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral extending to a little beyond
the vertical from the vent, the width of its base 1°85 in the
fifth anc longest ray. Ventral reaching to the vent, which
is an eye-diameter in front of the anal fin.

Gill-rakers 5 + 11, all but the pair at the angle tuber-
cular.

Pale brown blotched with blackish brown, the most
pronounced markings being across the nape, between the
middle of the spinous dorsal and the lateral line, and between
the soft dorsal and the anal ; in addition to these the ground
color is profusely freckled with darker; a small whitish
spot at the base of the last dorsal ray and a second some-
times at the root of the caudal; throat and abdomen ~
pearly white: head somewhat darker than the back and
sides, the blotches, however, being replaced by dark brown
spots, the lower surface dirty white, anteriorly freckled or
stained with yellowish brown, the mental cirri and a few
scattered spots darker brown; a vertical black bar between
the eye and the suborbital ridge; a silvery spot on and
behind the interorbital region present or absent. Spinous
dorsal blackish, with an irregular suprabasal and infra-

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 29°

marginal silvery or lilac band, the spines with alternating
bars of dark brown and pearly white; soft dorsal lilac,
profusely freckled with rufous, the base, an obliquely oval
anterior spot, and the last rays blackish: anal fin gray,
spotted and freckled with dark brown: anteriorly with
two pairs of broad alternate white and brown bands: caudal
lilac, with a dusky base and a broad submarginal black
band, the marginal band also freckled with black : pectoral
gray, with two broad dark cross bands on the upper half,
the lower haif with ocellated violet dark-edged spots, the
base fuscous spotted with lilac: outer half of ventrals
with two black cross-bands or irregularly spotted and

- lined with black; an oval blackish spot on the base anteriorly.

Total anath 200 millim.

Coast cf Southern Queensland intoreuon Bay).

Described from two examples measuring respectively
165 (type) and 202 millimeters.

SCORPAINOPSIS MACROCHIR Sp. nov.

D. xii 10; A.mi5; P.16(1+4-+11): Se. 6-41-14;
Ll. 22. Depth of body 2°35, length of head 2°35, of caudal’
fin 4°15, of pectoral 2°7, of ventral 3°85 in length of body.
Length of snout 3, diameter of eye 4°75, width of interorbit
3°9, length of maxillary 1°9, Icngest dorsal spine 2°85,
longest anal 2 in length of head.

A deep naked pit below the anterior border of the
eye; lateral interorbital ridge inconspicuous ; no median
ridge; lower jaw the longer, without symphysial pro-
tuberance ; maxillary extending to below the hinder border
of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 1°5 in that of
the interorbit. Nasal, preocular, supraocular(2, the posterior
large with a serrated upper edge), postocular (2 small and
erect), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic, and parietal (4,
the last 3 united by a sharp continuous ridge) spines present.
Preorbital with a small median spinous point, from which.
radiate three low ridges, one directed downward, one for-
ward, and one backward, each terminating in a short stout
spine ; suborbital ridge with 3 strong spines; preopercle
with 4 spines, the upper strongest and double; opercle

with 2 widely divergent ridges, each terminating in a smalk

spine. Occipital groove deep and transversely oblong,
bordered anteriorly by a low arcuate ridge. Head and body
without cirri, except a pair of small ones anteriorly on the

30 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

preopercle. Postocular region and upper half of opercle
scaly ; body scales rather irregularly arranged ; fins naked,
except the upper half of the base of the pectoral; lateral
line without spinous plates anteriorly.

Length of soft dorsal fin 2°6 in that of the spinous ;
Ist dorsal spine 1°3 in the 11th, and 1°75 in the 4th, which
scarcely exceeds the 3rd and 5th: last spine 1°25 in the
height of the soft dorsal, which is less than that of the
spinous. Second anal spine stronger and longer than the
3rd, scarcely as long as the anterior rays, and two fifths
higher than the spinous dorsal. Caudal fin rounded.
Pectoral very large, extending to above the 2nd anal spine,
the width of its base 2.25 in the 5th and longest ray. Ventral
reaching to the vent, which is an eye-diameter in front of
the anal fin.

Gill-rakers 5 + 9, all but the last lower one tubercular.

Head and body uniform brown, the abdominal region
tinged with yellow. Dorsal fin rather lighter than the
body, the soft portion with an anterior and posterior
median dusky spot; caudal with a broad submarginal
dark and a narrow marginal yellowish band, the basal half
pale brown; soft rays of anal similar to the caudal, the
spines with strongly contrasted alternate blackish and
yellow bars; base and terminal border of the pectoral
blackish, the intervening portion and the free tips of the
rays yellowish; ventral blackish with a yellow tip, the
spine similar to those of the anal.

Described from a specimen, 124 millim. long, taken by
Mr. James Palmer at Bulwer, and now in the A.F.A.Q.
Museum; Cat. No. 1305.

APISTUS BALNEARUM sp. nov.
ATKINSON’S FORTESCUE.

D. -xv. 95. A. UiL).6 of 75, P..11 + 12 Bese
‘L.l. 25. Depth of body 3°35, length of head 2°4, of caudal
fin 3, of pectoral 2°3, of ventral 2°85 in length of body.
Length of snout 3°25, diameter of eye 5°5, width of inter-
orbit 5°45, length of maxillary 2°5, longest dorsal spine
2°65, longest anal 2°7, detached pectoral ray 2°55 in length
of head.

Posterior border of eye nearer to tip of snout than to
end of opercular flap; masillary scarcely reaching to

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 831

below anterior border of eye ; lower jaw broadly rounded,
not fitting into the rostral notch; tip of mandible with a
small barbel, from either side of the base of which rises a
much shorter one directed outwards ; beyond these on each
side is a much longer barbel, nearly as long as the eye-
diameter. Interorbital region as wide as the eye-diameter,
with a short median and two longer and higher lateral
ridges in addition to the low supraciliary ridges ; occiput
with a pair of high sharp arcuate ridges, approaching
mesialiy, and terminating in a spine ; preorbital anteriorly
with two blunt points, posteriorly with a sharp curved
spine ; suborbital ridge well developed, smooth but divided
into continuous sections, commencing above the base
of the preorbital spine and terminating in front of that of
the upper preopercular spine ; preopercle with a long sharp
spine at the angle, and 3 others, which grow increasingly
shorter and blunter, below; opercle with three low diver-
gent ridges, the upper of which ends in a small spine at the
base of the flap: parietal ridge smooth divided mesially.
Head and breast naked; body-scales in regular series ;
fins naked ; lateral line straight.

Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°4 in that of the
spinous ; Ist dorsal spine equal to or longer than the 14th,
which is 1°35 in the 7th and longest; last spine 1:15 in the
height of the soft rays, which exceed that of the spinous,
and do not extend beyond the base of the caudal. Anal
fin as high as the soft dorsal, the 1st spine much shorter
than the 2nd, which almost equals the 3rd, and is 1-2 in
the longest rays. Caudal fin rounded, the tips of the rays
slightly protruding. Pectoral reaching to below the middle
of the soft dorsal, the 2nd ray longest ; the 2 lower rays
simple, the outer of these wholly detached, the inner sepa-
rated from the branched rays by a broad membranous
interspace. Ventrals extending to the base of the 3rd
anal spine.

When alive or newly captured these fishes are every-
where black except the caudal and a marginal band of
variable width on the soft dorsal and anal fins, which are
pure white. Shortly after immersion in formalin solution
the black commences to fade, and now, at the expiration
of twelve months, the bodies have become pale olive green,
only the upper surface and sides of.the head and the tubular

32 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

scales of the lateral line retaining any semblance of the

living colors. The basal portion of the dorsal and anal
fins have alse faded like the body, but the outer portion,
the caudal, the pectorals and the ventrals remain as before.

LI am inclined to think that the white fin-markings.

are a token of immaturity,* since in the largest of my speci-
mens the marginal dorsal and anal bands are greatly re-
duced in width, and the purity of the caudal fin is marred
by black lines and spots, which are more closely segregated
near the base and tip.

Described from three examples, measuring from 36
to 40 millim., obtained in the Metropolitan Baths, Bris-
bane, during May, 1909, by Mr. Richard Atkinson, and

kindly presented by him to the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. No. 1105-6..

EROSA FRATRUM Sp. nov.
D. xiv. 7; A. m.-65 P. 16: LL 10. Depth ofhaas
2°25, length of head 2°15, of caudal fin 4:2, predorsal length
2°25 in length of body. Length of snout 3.2, diameter of

eye 4:1, width of interorbit 2°25, length of maxillary 2°15,.

last dorsal spine 3°2, last anal 4°75, length of pectoral 1°55,
of ventral 2°15 in length of head.

Head about as wide as deep. Upper profile of snout

feebly complex and strongly declivous; diameter of eye

1°25 in the snout and 1°8 in the interorbital region, which
is flat ; maxillary extending to a little beyond the anterior
border of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 2°7 in
that of the interorbit. Bones of the head deeply pitted

and ridged; preorbital with three blunt points on its.

anterior border; supraorbitals wider forming the lateral
margins of a deep fossa, which contains the distal extre-

mities of the premaxillary processes: they are united

opposite the hinder half of the eyes by a much
narrower bony bridge, which separates the frontal fossa
from the occipital pit, which is bordered behind by a similar
but lower ridge; parietal armature ending in 3 strong
blunt processes, the middle much the largest ; suberbital
and preopercular regicns very rough, the former with a

conspicuous hump, behind which the bony area is greatly

*As is the case with Huelatichthys niger (Mertens)—Diagramma

crassispinum Riipp.—D. affine Gthr., in which the caudal fin remains pure-

white until the fish has attained a length of at least six inches.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 88

expanded and fan-like; preopercular border with two
series of blunt spines, the inner 3 the outer 5 in number ;
a similar spine behind the angle of the mouth; opercle
with 2 high smooth edges, which do net terminate in spines ;
frontal and occipital pits, cheeks, a small temporal patch,
and the upper angle of the opercle covered with smooth
naked skin. Upper part of body with a few smali papille.
Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°25 in that of the
spinous ; Ist dorsal spine lower than the 4 succeeding and equal
to the middle spines, beyond which they again increase
gradually in height to the last spine, which is the longest
and 1-2 in the 5th ray, which extends when depressed
well beyond the base of the caudal. Third anal spine
longest, 1.5 in the middle rays, which just reach the caudal ;
the membrane of the last dorsal ray extends to the caudal,
that of the anal not so far. Caudal small and rounded ;
depth of caudal peduncle equal to the eye-diameter. _Pec-
toral fin wide, its basal width 1:4 in its length; 5th ray
longest, reaching to the vertical from the vent, the lower
rays unbranched. Middle ventral rays equal and longest,
extending rather more than midway to the anal.

Uniform dark brown above, pale brown below. Upper
surface and sides of head with some scattered pearly spots.
Spinous dorsal pale brown with one or two lighter blotches ;
soft dorsal dark brown with an oblique lighter band directed
downwards on its anterior half; anal and caudal yellowish
brown with black cross-bars, which frequently branch and
cross one another so as to form a lattice-work pattern, the
latter also with a dusky base; pectoral with the basal
half pale lavender, beyond which superiorly is a blackish
blotch, its distal half golden crossed by three narrow black
bars, the last of which is marginal; inferiorly the two
inner bars anastomose like those of the caudal.* (Named
for the Brothers Crouch, to whom I am indebted for this
unique specimen.)

Described from a Moreton Bay example, 120 millim.
in length, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat, No. 4.

*In life the upper surface is rufous brown, shading into pink below.

C—Royau Soctery.

34 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

DACTYLOPTERID~.
EBISINUS PROCNE sp. nov.

D.. 43, wy St CAS 6: (OC 67-3 “Piss eee
V. 5; Sc. 49-28. Depth of body 4:85, width of body
4:35, length of head 3-8, of nuchal spine 2°65, of pectoral
fin 1:15 in length of body. Width of head 1°85, length of
snout 2°75, diameter of eye 3:2, width of interorhit 2, length
of maxillary 2°5, of preopercular spine 2 (ad.) to 1°35 (juz.),*
longest dorsal spine 1:4, middle caudal rays 1:3, length of
peduncle 1°25, of ventral fin 1:15 in length of head.

Depth of head 1:3 in its width. Snout subvertical
and convex, one sixth longer than the eye-diameter ; depth
of interorbital region 4:85 in its width; maxillary extending
to below the anterior border of the pupil. Preopercular
spine reaching to above the base of the ventrals in the
adult, considerably further in the young. Humeral pro-
cesses produced to or nearly to the level of the spinous
dorsal, the distance between their apices 1:3 in the depth
of the intervening notch, which is narrowly rounded an-
teriorly. Lower edge of posterior part of body with three
of the keeled scales enlarged and mobile, the first below
the last dorsal rays, the others on the peduncle. Lateral
line conspicuous, extending directly} backward to below
the middle of the spinous dorsal, thence sweeping down-
ward in a gentle curve to below the origin of the soft dorsal,
and finally continuing to the base of the caudal below the
8th series of scaly keels.

Nuchal spine extending to a little behind the spinous
dorsal; 2nd detached spine inserted midway between
the nuchal spine and the 3rd ray of the spinous dorsal.
to the base of which it reaches when depressed ; its length
is 3-9 in the nuchal spine and 1:4 in the second and longest
dorsal spine, which is subequal to the height of the soft
dorsal. Anal originating below the 3rd ray of the soft
dorsal and much nearer to the roct of the caudal than to
the gill-opening. Caudal fin subtruncate with the outer
rays produced. Width of peduncle immediately behind
the dorsal fin 1-4 in its length. Pectoral fin reaching to
the middle of the caudal, the tips of all the rays filamentous.

*In an example 100 millim. long.

+ According to the figure given by Jordan and Richardson (Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus., xxxiii, 1908, p. 665) the lateral line is strongly curved upward
behind the humeral process in Ebisinus macracanthus.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 35

Upper surface pale violet with two broad darker cross
bands descending on the sides to the ventral edge; these
bands are much mere pronounced in the young, growing
gradually fainter with advancing age and becoming in
large examples merged in the darker tone of the ground
color; back prettily blotched and lined with deeper violet
and purple; under surface uniform pinkish white or fawn
color. Upper surtace and sides of head pale yellowish
brown spotted with violet ; preopercular spine sandy yellow.
Free nuchal spine black; detached spine and Ist dorsal
dusky ; 2nd dorsal and caudal hyaline, the rays with alter-
nate dark and light bands; anal and ventrals like the
lower surface, the former with a dark basal blotch between
the 4th and 6th rays; pectorals violet, profusely spotted
with purple, some of the terminal spots united to form
transverse bars. (zpoxvy, a swallow.)

Coast of Eastern Australia, not uncommon.

Described from five specimens, 100 to 390 millim.
long, taken in Moreton Bay ; type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ;
Cat. No. 248. -

This species differs greatly from Hbisinus macracanthus,*
from which it may always be distinguished by the want of
the pectoral ocellus.

SOLEID At.
BRACHIRUS SALINARUM Sp. Nov.

D. 66; A. 53: Sc. 84. Depth of body 2°90, length
of head 5-00 in the length of the body. Length of snout
3°00, diameter of eye 8:00, length of right pectoral 2°50 in
the length of the body.

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper
eye fully one half its diameter before the front of the lower ;
width of interorbital region one sixth more than the dia-
meter of the eye. Scales on both sides finely ctenoid; no
enlarged nuchal scales; lips and under surfaces of snout
and interopercle profusely papillose.

—7

* Jordan and Richardson (loc. cit.) wrongly name this species Ebisinus
eheiropthalmus, the synonymy being as follows :—
Dactylopterus macracanthus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., vii, 1854, p.
449: Celebes.
Dactylopterus cheirophthalmus Bleeker, ibid., p. 494, Banda.
The month’s mentioned by those authors refer to the date of writing
not of publication, and have, therefore, no scientific value.

86 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

Left pectoral nearly as long as the right; ventrals.
symmetrical, separate from the anal.

The color is now bright green above and below, but
there are a few small patches of dark violaceous gray on
the eyed side, which may be the true color of the fish in its
natural state: outer half of right pectoral black.

Tctal length of type to base of caudal 123 millim.

Salt pans at Kimberley, North Queensland.

Type in the Queensland Muesum; two mutilated
specimens. the caudals and ends of the dorsal and anal fins
being broken off.

BRACHIRUS BREVICEFS sp. nov.

D. 72; A. 56: Sc. 75. Depth of bedy 3-00, length
of head 5:50 in the length of the body. Length of snout
3°50, diameter ot eye 7:00, length of last dorsal and anal
rays 1:15, of caudal fin 1:00, of right pectoral 6-00 in the
length of the head.

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper
eye about one third of its diameter before the front of the
lower ; width of interorbital region equal to the diameter
of the eye. Scales on both sides ctenoid; no enlarged
nuchal scales; lips smooth; a few minute hair-like cirri
on the edges of the snout and chin.

Last rays of dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching to
the end of the caudal; caudal fin rounded; left pectoral
1:25 in the right; right ventral well separated from the
anal; left ventral atrophied.

The specimen appears to have been cf a light reddish
brown or fawn color, possibly with some lighter spots.

Total length of type 157 millim.

Coast of Queensland at Rockhampton.

Type in the Queensland Museum; a single specimen.
in bad condition.

BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker).

D. 67; A. 52: Sc. 105... Depth of body 2°25, length:
of head 4:80 in the length of the body. Length of snout
3:00, diameter of eye 7-00, length of last dorsal and anal
rays 1:60, of caudal fin 1:50, cf right pectoral 2°60 in the
length of the head.

Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper
eye about one third of its diameter before the tront of the

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 37

lower; width of interorbital region 1:30 in the diameter
of the eye. Scales on the right side ctenoid, on the left
side cycloid; no enlarged nuchal scales; many of the
scales on the colored side with an elongate cutaneous ap-
pendage, some of which may be longer than the eye; lips
and entire lower surface of head profusely papillose.

Last rays of the dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching
to the end of the caudal; caudal fin broadly rounded ;
left pectoral 1:60 in the right; ventrals asymmetrical,
the left much the smaller, separate from the anal.

Uniform blackish, ; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins nar-
rowly, right ventral broadly tipped with yellow; right
pectoral black.

Total length 360 millim.

Malay Archipelago, from Singapore eastward to
North Australia.

Described from a specimen measuring 230 millimeters,
and taken at Croker Island, Northern Territory, by Mr.
John Colclough, who presented it to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ;
Cat. No. 1029. The body of this example is much muti-
lated as if by repeated stabs of a knife or spear.

Synaptura aspilos Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind.,
iii, 1852, p. 74: Singapore—id., Verh. Batav.
Gen., xxiv, 1852, Pleuron., p. 29—Giinther,
B. M. Catal. Fish., iv, 1862. p. 482.
Synaptura marmorata Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind.,
v., 1853, p. 90: Solor—Ginther, ibid.
Synaptura heterolepis Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind.
Neerl., i, 1856, Amboina, p. 65—Giinther, ibid.
Brachirus heterolepis Bleeker, Atlas Ichth., vi, 18, p. 20,
pl. eexxxvi, fig. 2 (juv.) and ccxxxvili (ad) : Timor ;
Batchian; Ceram. .
Notr.—Synaptura cinerea (De Vis) is identical with
S. nigra Macleay. This species rarely shows a few. small
cutaneous appendages on the back.

CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS Day.

Cynoglossus sindensis Day, Fish, India, 1877, p. 434:
Sind.—Jordan and Richardson, Bull. Bur. Fish., xxvii,
1907, p. 281: Manila.

le ee oe CO. 18 VL 4: Be. 9102.57) Da. tr. 7-9-
24=50. Depth of body 3:75; length of head 4°65 in

38 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

length of body. Length of snout 2°80, diameter of eye
9:00. length of caudal fin 2-25 in length of head.

Head as deep as long; cleft of mouth extending to
below the hinder border of the lower eye, its angle midway
between the tip of the snout and the margin of the opercle
lips smooth ; rostral hook reaching well beyond the max-
illary symphysis. Lower nostril tubular, situated close
in front of the inferior border of the lower eye; upper
nostril an open longitudinal slit between the eyes. Eyes
equal, the upper about half a diameter in advance of the
lower ; interocular region 1°75 in the eye-diameter.

Seales of colored side ctenoid, those of the head and
along the bases of the vertical fins more strongly so than
elsewhere ; scales of blind side smooth; postocular scales
not or scarcely smaller than those of the body. Two
lateral lines on each side, the lower straight, along the
middle of the body, forking in front of the caudal fin, along
which both branches extend; the upper following the
curvature of the back almost to the base of the caudal on
the colored, not nearly so far on the blind side: both lines
extend forward on the head nearly to the end of the snout,
where they meet at a rounded angle, thence passing down-
ward to the level of the mouth, where it bends inward and
again divides, one branch being continued on to the rostral
hook, the other curving abruptly upward and ceasing in
front of the interorbital region: the two main lines are also
united by a transverse line above the opercle, and a short
distance beyond this branch a second subsidiary branch
disconnects from the lower line and extends downward
to the upper angle of the precpercle, from whence it bends
abruptly backward to the border of the opercle, along the
outer edge of which it passes to within a short distance of
the ventral profile, where it recurves forward to the lower
limb of the preopercle, and from thence, forming a rectangle,
sweeps downward and forward to the lower lip.

Dorsal fin originating on the snout in front of the
upper eye. Caudal fin pointed. Ventral higher than
long, not continuous with the anal.

Blue-gray, shading into pale brown posteriorly ; oper-
cular region darkest; edges of body above and below
yellowish. Dorsal, anal, and ventral fins pale blue tipped
with gray; caudal pale brown.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 89

Total length 210 millim.

From the coast of Sind to the Philippines and Northern
Australia.

Described from a specimen, 195 millim. long, taken
by Mr. John Colclough at Croker Island, Northern Terri-
tory, and presented by him to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ;
Cat. No. 994.

Of the 46 species of Cynoglossus, the descriptions of
which I have been able to consult,* six only are provided
with a pair of lateral lines on each side. These are as fol-
lows :—.

a. Scales ctenoid on both sides.

1. kaupit Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind. Neerl., viii,
1860, Sumatra 8, p. 73.
aa. Scales ctenoid on the eyed, cycloid on the blind side.

2. diplasios Jordan & Evermann, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., xxv, 1902, p. 367: Formosa—Interlinear
scales 14.

3. bilineatus Lacepede,t Hist. Nat. Poiss., iv., 1802,
pp. 659 and 663: Indian Seas—Interlinear scales
14 or 15.

4. dispar Day, Fish. India, pt. 3, 1877, p. 434:
Bombay—Interlinear scales 18 or 19.

5. sindensis Day, ibid.: Sind—Interlinear scales 19
or 20.
aaa. Scales cycloid on both sides.

6. dubius Day, Journ. Linn., Soc., xi., p. 525.

* Eleven species are described in works not available tome. Of these
& South African species has been named C. brachycephalus by Dr. Gilchrist,
but this name, having been previously utilized by Bleeker for a Sumatran
species, is inadmissible, and may appropriately be altered to C. gilchristi,
after its discoverer.

+ Lacépéde’s name was altered by Bleeker to quadrilineatus, presum-
ably to avoid confusion with Plagusia bilineata, and his example has been
followed by Giinther, Day, and others; this course, however, is not
only unnecessary but absolutely subversive of the code of zoological
nomenclature, since Lacépéde described the fish which is here called
C. bilineatus as Achirus bilineatus, and, there being no other species of that
name, his specific name passes unquestionably on to the Cynoglossus.

40 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

PTEROPSARID&.
CHILIAS* gen. nov.

Body elongate and fusiform. Scales with longitu-
dinal striae. Tubes of lateral line short and simple, occu-
pying the basal half of the exposed surface of the scale.
Herd depressed; cleft of mouth small; lips very thick
and wide. Lower jaw without villiform teeth, with two
strong hooked canines at the outer angle on either side.
Eyes superior, close together. Dorsal fin continuous, with
5 spines, the 4th longest : ventrals inserted below the base
of the pectorals. Otherwise as in Parapercis.

Coast of Southern Queensland.

Type Percis stricticéps De Vis.

The most notable characters in this proposed new genus
are the depressed head, approximate orbits, and position
of the ventrals.

Up to the present time only three species of ptero-
psarids have been captured in the seas of Queensland. but
it can only be a matter of time before four other species
are recorded; they are as follows :—

1, PARAPERCIS NEBULOSA (Quoy and Gaimard), Voy.
Uranie, Zoo]., 1824, p. 349 = Percis emeryana
Richardson, 1842 = Percis coxii Ramsay. 1883 =
P. concinna De Vis, 1884. Coasts of intertro-
pical and juxtatropical Australia, ranging south-
ward at least as far as Port Jackson.

2. PARAPERCIS CYLINDRICA (Bloch), Ausl. Fisch., vi,
1792, p. 42, pl. cexcix, fig. 1. China Seas to North-
Eastern Queensland (Murray Island, ‘Torres
Straits and Dunk Island),+ and Lord Howe Island.

3. Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg) Cuvier and
Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., iii, 1829, p. 271.
Red Sea to the Louisiade Archipelago.

4. Parapercis tetracanthat (Lacépéde), Poiss., iii, 1802,

a xétAos, lip, with the affix las, ; in allusion to the abnormal develop-
ment of the lips.

7 Since writing the above, I have received a fine specimen from
Moreton Bay.

{The name is misleading since the species has, as is usual in the
genus, 5 spines in the Ist dorsal fin; nevertheless Lacépéde’s failure to
enumerate the spines correctly does not confer on any subsequent author,
any more than on himself, authority to change the name; much less does
it permit of the use of the same name for a distinct species.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 4]

pp. 473 and 488=Percis cancellata Cuvier and Valen-
ciennes, ibid., p. 268. East Indian and Louisiade
Archipelagos.

5. Parapercis clathrata; nom. subst. for Percis tetra-
canthus Lacépéde, ibid., iv. 1803, pp. 285 and 302 :
inadmissible on account of the preceding species.

6. Parapercis ocularis Waite, Mem. Austr. Mus., ii,
1899, p. 109, pl. xxiv : Coast of New South Wales
in from 30 to 84 fathoms.

7. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis), Proc. Linn. Soc.,
N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p. 545. Southern Queens-
Jand (Southport ; Peel Island and Bulwer, More-
ton Bay).

CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis).

Diy 2s A1 teers 17: Sc. 6-62-13." Depth ‘of
body 6-1, of caudal peduncle 11-4, Jength of head 3-4 in
length of body. Length of snout 2-65, diameter of eye 5,
width of interorbit 3, height of soft dorsal 2-35, of anal
2-65, length of middle caudal rays 1-8, of pectoral fin 1-45
in length of head.

Snout broadly rounded, its upper profile flat ; upper
lip very wide, more than half the eye-diameter ; maxillary
not extending to the vertical from the eye; lower jaw
bluntly pointed, much longer than the upper. Upper jaw
with a broad band of villiform teeth and an outer series
of strong conical teeth; a patch of conical teeth on the
head of the vomer.’ Eye superior, well elevated above the
surface of the head, its diameter rather more than the
width of the preorbital; interorbital region flat. Pre-
opercle entire; opercular spine small and sharp; tip of
subopercle serrated.

Spinous dorsal originating a little behind the base of
the pectoral; 4th spine longest, as long as the eye; Ist
spine minute; membrane of last spine fully attached to
the lst ray; last ray not differentiated. Anal originating
below the 5th dorsal ray. Caudal rounded, the upper rays
slightly produced. Pectoral extending to above the origin
of the anal. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral ;
4th ray longest, reaching to the anal.

Lilac, clouded above with brown, so as to form about
seven broad blotches indistinctly separated by lighter
interspaces ; a lilaceous band bordered below by a dark

42 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

brown bar and crossed at regular intervals by eight similar —
bars from the base of the pectcral to the caudal ; lower half
of the sides with nine vertical brown bands, as wide as the
interspaces and gradually fading into the lemon yellow
of the lower surface ; each of these bands is divided mesially
by a narrow black bar, which is continued across the inter-
spaces by dusky spots. Nape and upper surface of the
head lilac spetted with brown; a violaceous bar from the
middle of the eye, through the nostrils to the edge of the
snout, which is spotted throughout with lilac ; middle of
snout with five spots arranged like an arrowhead, the shaft
being formed by two spots on the interorbital region; a
vertical violet bar preceded by a triangular spot below
the eye; lips with broad violet bars, those of the lower
continued across the chin by a pair of large violet spots ;
opercles brown-spotted ; subopercular and branchiostegal
regions crossed by two wide violet bands; a series of six
violet spots across the throat immediately behind the gill-
Openings. Dorsal and anal fins hyaline; spinous dorsal
with the base dark brown and with a few smoky brown
spots on the membrane above ; soft dorsal with three smali
black spots between each ray; anal with a much larger
black basal spot similarly placed; base of caudal
dark brown; rest of fin partly pale brown partly hyaline,
black-spotted, the middle rays tipped with black ; pectorals
and ventrals lilac, the former with a violaceous base (strictus
constricted ; ceps, head).

Type in the Queensland Museum.

Length to 180 millim.

Moreton Bay District, Queensland.

Described from a fine example, captured off Peel
Island by Mr. T. Welsby, and now in the collection of the
A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 870.

Percis stricticeps, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,
ix, 1884, p.. 545.

BATRACHOIDID &.

CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS sp. nov.

D. iti, 20 or 21; A. 15 ‘or 16: ‘ Length’ of; headeaea,

of caudal fin 4:5, of pectoral 5-2 in length of body.

Diameter of eye 3-9, width of interorbit 7, length of ventral
1-85 in length of head.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 43

Head as wide as long. Snout short 1-35, interorbital
width 1-75 in the eye-diameter. Teeth as in C. diemensis,
but without the enlarged ones on the vomer. Two opercular
and two subopercular spines, the upper in each being
much the larger. Skin of head and body, except the throat
and abdomen, covered with more or less reticulated folds.
Tentacles moderately developed, those surrounding the
jaws simple or bifid in front, much longer and fringed
behind, ; a series of broad simple or fringed tentacles round
the edges of the opercular bones ; 3 well developed, usually
fringed, supraciliary tentacles, the middle the largest ;
a small fringed frontonasal tentacle ; 6 longitudinal series.
of small tentacles on the occiput, extending backward
to below the Ist dorsal; tentacles of the lateral lines very
small or absent.

Caudal and pectoral fins rounded; outer ventral ray
scarcely longer than the pectoral.

Brown above, more or less blotched with lighter
posteriorly, the lighter parts profusely dotted; tail with
two broad dark transverse bands more or less freckled
with lighter ; lower surface light yellowish brown closely
dappled with dark brown. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins
dark brown, variously streaked with lighter; pectorals
brown with darker dots ; ventrals brown edged with lighter
spots.

Described from three Aru Island examples, 110 to 160
millim. long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 991.

CALLIONYMID .

CALLIONYMUS GROSSI sp. nov.

D. iv, 9; A. 8; P..17. Depth of body 9-6, width ot
body 5-5, length of head 4:5, of Ist dorsal spine 1:7, of
caudal fin 2-66 to 3-5, of pectoral 4-25, of ventral 3:45 in
length of body. Depth of head 2-2, width of head 1:15,
diameter of eye 3, length of snout 2-6, of preopercular
spine 2.5, of last dorsal ray 1:1, of last anal 1-5 in length
of head.

Body gently rounded above, its greatest depth below
the anterior dorsal rays. Snout about as wide as deep,
pointed, its depth 1:15 in it length; eyes close together
directed upward, prominent, 1-2 in the snout, and 2°6 in
the width of the head. Preopercular spine straight, the

44 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

inner edge with 7 to 9 subequal antrorse serrlue,* the
outer with a strong denvicle directed forward near its base.
Occiput covered with smooth skin. Lateral line median
and conspicuous.

Origin of spinous dorsal somewhat nearer to soft dorsal
than to tip of snout; spinous dorsal high, the first spine
terminating in e filament, which extends to the last ray
of the soft dorsal; the other spines not filamentous, the
membrane of the last, which equeds the last ray, not quite
reaching the soft dorsal, the base of which is somewhat
Jonger than its distance from the tip of the snout; last
ray longest, extending slightly beyond or not quite to the
base of the caudal. Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal
ray, its base less than its distance from the tip of the
mandible ; last ray not nearly reaching so far back as that
of the soft dorsal. Caudal peduncle distally fusiform,
its least depth 1-3 in the eye-diameter. Pectoral inserted
below the posterior half of the spinous dorsal, the middle
rays longest, extending to below the 3rd or 4th dorsal
ray. Ventral reaching beyond or not quite to the origin
of the anal.

Gill-openings superior, opposite to the origin of the
dorsal, further apart than the outer borders of the eyes,
and midway between the eye and the pectoral fin.

Golden brown above, dull yellow below, the throat
and ventral region silvery ; back end sides above the lateral
line with numerous lilac annuli about as large as the gill-
opening, and often crowded together so as to form clusters
of considerable size; some of the annuli have a blackish
central dot; a broad dusky band across the peduncle ;
an irregular series of dark brown spots along the middle
of the side just below the lateral line. Upper eyelids and
occiput blackish. Spinous dorsal violet, with oblique
wavy lilac dark-edged cross-bands, the anterior spine and
its filament blackish ; soft dorsal and anal yellowish gray,
the former with three series of oblong violet spots, the
membrane of the last ray of the latter clouded; upper

* The armature of the preopercular spine is so imperceptibly graduated
between a single strong recurved spinule and fine serrule that I cannot see
my way, in the absence of additional characters, to admit Calliurichthys
Jordan & Fowler (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 941) as_a valid genus
or even a well marked subgenus.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 45

portion of caudal yellow spotted with brown, lower portion
violet with a paler margin; pectorals dull yellow,
immaculate ; ventrals yellowish, the ground color almost
wholly obscured by violet dots, emong which are scattered
numerous white dark-edged ocelli, and, near the tip, a few
blackish spots. A second specimen (? 9) differs in being
of a general darker coloration above, the clear golden brown
being replaced by violaceous brown, which color extends
further down the sides, somewhat obscuring the lateral
series of spots and terminating inferiorly in 12 or 13 short
blunt processes, which encroach upon the pure white of
the under parts. The fins correspond in general pattern
with those of the larger example, but the cross-bands on
the spinous dorsal are indistinct, and the pectorals are gray,
their rays alternately banded with gray and lilac. (Named
for my friend and colleague, the late Major George Gross,
one of the leading conchologists of Queensland.)

Described from two Moreton Bay specimens,. measuring
respectively 128 and 112 millim., in the collection of the
A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 958.

CALLIONYMID i.
DACTYLOPUS, Gill.

Body subcylindrical. Lateral line single, superior,
straight. Head triangular, not depressed, the ~ snout
moderate and anteriorly declivous. Mouth small and
subinferior ; upper jaw the longer; lower lip expanded
to form a small lobe on each side. Teeth long, slender,.
and slightly recurved anteriorly, shorter, stouter and
hooked laterally. Eyes well separated, superolateral.
Preopercular spine well developed, strongly armed above
and below. Spinous dorsal originating well in advance
of the gill-opening, the last spine without membrane ; soft
dorsal high, all the rays except the first branched ; caudal
fin graduated above, rounded below ; pectoral fin angular,
with 18 rays, the two outer above and below simple : ventral
much longer than the pectoral, with i 1+4 rays, the last *
the longest, the spine and the outer ray free. Branchial.
foramen moderate, lateral.

From the Molucca Seas to the East Coast of Australia..
Monotypic.

There is a remarkable resemblance in some of the
generic characters between Dactylopus and the rare Japanese:

46 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

Callionymus altivelis Schlegel. In both the branchial
foramen is lateral and below the first dorsal, the last dorsal
spine is unattached by membrane to the back, and the soft
dorsal is very high and has all the rays except the first
branched. Dactylopws, however, differs materially in the
increased armature of the preopercular spine and in the
presence of a free ventral ray.

Dactylopus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, p. 130

(bennetti =dactylopus).

Vulsus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p. 15 (dac-
tylopus).

DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes).

D. iv,—8; A. 7; P. 18. Depth of body 6°20; wadth
of body 4:50, length of head 3-50, of first dorsal spine 1-15
to 1:50, of caudal fin 2-15 to 2-60, of ventral 2-00 to 2-50
in length of body. Depth of head 1-70, width of head
1:15, diameter of eye 3-60, interorbital width 8-85, length
of snout 2-90, of preopercular spine 3-30, of last dorsal
ray 1-05, of last anal ray 1-20 in length of head.

Body rounded above, its greatest depth below the
anterior dorsal rays. Snout as wide as deep, obtusely
pointed, its depth 1-25 in its length. Eyes separated by a deep
concavity, the supraorbital ridges high and sharp, extending
forward on the snout, the diameter 1-30 in the snout and
3:00 in the width of the head. Maxillary extending to
below the anterior border of the eye. Preopercular spine
strong and acute, its distal extremity slightly curved
inward; outer border with four graduated barbs, the
anterior median, very strong, and directed forward, the
posterior reduced to a mere tubercle rising from the base
of the curve; inner border with three curved subequal
antrorse barbs. Occiput with a pair of raised bony bucklers,
covered with reticulated sculpture, and separated by a
smooth fossa, which is a continuation of the interorbital
groove. Gill-openings lateral, opposite the middle of the
spinous dorsal, as far apart as the head in front cf the hinder
margin of the eye, and about twice as far from the eye as
from the pectoral fin. Lateral line well defined in front,
less so behind, terminating well above the middle of the
base of the caudal.

Origin of spinous dorsal a little nearer to the soft
dorsal than to the tip of the snout; spinous dorsal high,

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 47

the three anterior spines terminating in long slender filaments,
which extend backward to well beyond the base of the
caudal (¢) or to the peduncle (Q); last spine without
membrane, much shorter than the rays ; interdorsal space
as long as the spinous dorsal: soft dorsal high, the rays
but little graduated to the last, which reaches to or slightly
beyond the base of the caudal; base of soft dorsal equal
to its distance from the anterior border of the eye. Anal
originating below the membrane of the third dorsal ray,
similar to and nearly as high as the second dorsal, its base
about half its distance from the tip of the mandible, its ias¢
tay reaching as far back as that of the soft dorsal. Caudal
fin with rounded tip ; caudal peduncle distally compressed,
its least depth equaling the eye. Pectoral fin inserted
below the end of the spinous dorsal, the middle rays the
longest, extending to below the fourth dorsal ray. Free
ventral ray as long as the head without the snout, much
longer than the succeeding ray ; continuous rays graduated,
the last very large, reaching beyond the pectoral, its mem-
brane attached superiorly to the base of the eighth pectoral
ray.

Olive-or violet-brown above, with six large blackish
blotches across the back, the interspaces with darker
freckles and sometimes with blue black-edged ocelli of
variable size; sides with a similar number of somewhat
stellate blotches, more or less corresponding to the spaces
between the dorsal blotches, the interspaces chestnut or
violet, with or without golden or pearly spots and reticu-
lated lines ; lower surface white, faintly tinged with bluish ;
under surface of head pale brown. Iris silvery, with an
inner golden rim. Spinous dorsal and its filaments blackish,
the membrane of the second ray with numerous small
pearly spots on its outer half, that of the third with a wide
lighter marginal band; second dorsal lilac, the ground
color well nigh obliterated by crowded oblique purplish
bars: base of anal rufous brown, deepening to purple at
the margin: caudal fin golden, the rays brown, speckled
with pale blue ; posterior margin with wavy blue transverse
streaks, the rest of the fin except the two lower rays which
are smoky brown, with elongate blue lines, which are oblique
above and horizontal below ; pectorals hyaline, the basal
half of the upper and middle rays with alternate lilac and

48 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

rufous rings ; free ventral ray with alternating rings of gold
and purple, the united rays blackish or dark olive-green,
with one or two large pearly basal spots.

In the female the membrane of the spinous dorsal is
golden brown, with darker marblings and irregular light
blue spots and short bands ; basal two thirds cf soft dorsal
with elongate dark brown blue-edged spots between the
rays, the marginal third more faintly banded but profusely
freckled with blue: inner third ot anal golden brown with
elongate pearly spots, the rest of the fin smoky, with dark
blue black-edged spots and lines.

Total length 156 millim.

From the Molucca Seas to South-Eastern Queensland
(Stradbroke Island and Wynnum).

Described from a fine Moreton Bay example in the
A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 684.

Callionymus dactylopus (Bennett) Cuvier and Valenciennes,
Hist. Nat. Poiss., xii, 1837, p. 310—Bleeker, Nat.
Tijds. Ned. Ind., iii, 1852, p. 559: Amboina.

Dactylopus bennetti Gill, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859,
p. 130. Name only.

Vulsus dactylopus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861,
p- 152: Amboina ; Celebes.

Dactylopus dactylopus Ogilby, Ann. Queensl. Mus., No. 9,
1908, p. 38: Moreton Bay.

Note.—Callionymus achates De Vis (Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S. Wales), is founded on a female cf C. calawropomus.

BLENNIID &.
PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis).

D. xii; 21 or 22> Ava'23t0'25;. C. 13; P. daea eee
Depth of body 5-6, length of head 5, of anal fin 2, of middle
caudal rays 5-75, of pectoral fin 5-1, of ventral 5-1 in
length of body. Length of snout 3-75, diameter of eye 3-85,
width of interorbit 9-5, longest dorsal ray 1-35, longest anal
1-85, depth of peduncle 2-3 in length of head.

Head obtusely rounded in front, its width 1-5, its.
depth 1-15 in its length; snout short and blunt; upper
jaw the longer ; interorbital region convex ; cleft of mouth
extending to below the anterior border of the eye.
24. C:

34? a upper canine strongly hooked,

Dentition—l. 5 i

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 49

about half tne length of the lower. Lateral line consisting
of 2 short tubes.
Dorsal fin originating slightly in advance of the gill-
opening, the rays gradually increasing in length to the
middle of the soft portion, the longest articulated ray
1-25 time the height of the last spinous ray ; membrane
of last ray reaching to the base of the caudal fin. Anal
originating below the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal fin rounded,
the 3rd to 5th and 9th to 11th rays in the male terminating
in a filament. Pectoral fin rounded, the 8th and 9th rays
longest, not reaching to the vertical from the vent.
Ventral fin long, the inner ray as long as the pectoral.

Gill-opening directed forward from above the base
of the pectoral, its width 5 in the head. Vertebre 11+
31 =42.

Yellow closely powdered with dusky dots; a broad
dark blue band from the eye to the gill-opening, continued
along the middle of the body as a much paler and rather
ill defined band, which becomes forked below the middle
of the soft dorsal, the lower branch being usually broken
up into a series of spots, and both being continued well
on to the caudal fin; behind the pectoral fin the lateral
band throws off 6 or 7 conspicuously darker offshoots,
which are directed downward and slightly backward ;
a row of blue spots along the base of the dorsal fin;
abdominal region sometimes crossed by a few narrow
dark lines. Head pale olivaceous brown, the cheeks with
2 or 3 darker vertical bars ; lower portion of the opercular,
the branchiostegal, and the jugular regions closely spotted
with blue. Teeth tipped with tawny yellow. Dorsal fin
violet, the spinous portion the darker and with two series
of pale spots, the soft portion with several narrow dark
lines commencing at the base and running obliquely back-
ward; free tips -of soft dorsal and anal rays white; an
oblong blackish inframarginal spot on the 4 middle rays
of the soft dorsal in the adult; anal lilac; pectoral and
ventral pale yellow, the former with a few small round spots
on or near the base.

Female.*—Differs in having the lateral band more

*The female bears a remarkable resemblance to the Japanese
Petroskirtes elegans as figured by Jordan and Snyder (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
xyv, 1903, p. 454, fig. 6).

D—Royat Socirery.

50 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

indistinct and ceasing altogether before the middle of the
tail, the posterior half of which is adorned with numerous
small blue spots ; the dark band behind the eye is usually
broken up in two oval or lunate spots; all the fins are
uniform gray except the spinous dorsal, which has a basal
series of dusky spots.

This pretty little blenny is an inhabitant of the East
Coast of Australia from Port Jackson to the Wide Bay
District, beyond which points it has not yet been traced
though it doubtless occurs. It is exceedingly abundant
on all the rocky sections of the foreshores and islands of
Moreton Bay, where it is one of the most common objects
of the rock-pool fauna. In the Great Sandy Strait I found
it scarce, the environment probably being unsuitable to its
habits.

Described from 10 specimens, 45 to 85 millim. long,
in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. Nos. 71 and 1145.

Petroscirtes fasciolatus Macleay, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.
Wales, vi, 1881, p. 8: Port Jackson (male). Not
Omobranchus fasciolatus Ehrenberg = Blennechis
fasciolatus Valenciennes, 1836.

Salarias furtivus De Vis,* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,
iv, 1884, p. 697 : St. Helena, Moreton Bay.

Petrdscirtes macleayt Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N.S. Wales, p. 38,
1886. Substitute for P. fasciolatus Macleay preoccupied.

PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS Bleeker.

D. xii 22; A.1223° C293; P: 13; V. 2. Depth of fags
6-25, length of head 5-35, of anal fin 2-1, of caudal 6-2, of
pectoral 5:4 in length of body. Length of snout 3,
diameter of eye 4-25, width of interorbit 9-25, longest
dorsal ray 1-45, of ventral 9-35, longest anal 2-05, depth
of peduncle 2-15 in length of head.

Head rounded in front, its width 1-5, its depth 1-25
in its length; no nasal nor orbital tentacles ; male with a
low cutaneous occipital crest; cheeks swollen. Snout
short and blunt ; upper jaw the longer ; beth lips posteriorly
with pendent flaps ; eye small ; interorbital region convex ,

*The author cannot, without demur, admit the accuracy of some of
Mr. De Vis’ earlier deseriptions, and finds himself compelled to class most
of the species of Salarias described by Mr. De Vis, as belonging to the
genus Petroskirtes.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 51

cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior border of

ae 28 to 36* 2 ;
the eye. Dentition—l. Va C. 5) lower canines

much the longer. Lateral line incomplete, consisting of
about 6 tubes, and ceasing nearly above the tip of the
appressed pectoral.

Dorsal fin originating above the base of the pectoral,
the rays increasing in length to the 38rd, beyond which
they are subequal,; longest articulated rays behind the
middle of the soft fin and 1-5 time the height of the last
spinous ray : membrane of last dorsal ray extending slightly
beyond the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below
the 2nd dorsal ray. Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral
rounded, the 8th ray longest, not nearly reaching to the
vertical from the vent. Ventral short, the inner ray
slightly the longer.

Gill-opening in front of and above the base ot the
pectoral, its width 5-5 in the head. Vertebre 1] +29—40.

Olive-green, darkest anteriorly, the lower surface
tinged with yellow; trunk with 3 to 5 horizontal bars,
which disappear above the vent; the upper, however,
is continued as a series of distant spots to below the middle
of the soft dorsal, and along the middle of the tail there
is a series of spots or vertical bars extending to the caudal
fin. Head with 3 faint vertical bands, which meet across
the under surface, where they show distinctly on the lighter
ground. Fins violaceous, the tips of the anal rays white.

This blenny has been recorded from the coasts of
Eastern Australia and Southern Japan, and attains a length
of 110 millim. The remarks under the preceding species
apply with equal force to this, which is not, however, so
numerous. I obtained one specimen only in Great Sandy
Strait, and one, an exceptionally fine example, at Woody
Point, Moreton Bay.

Described from 6 specimens measuring from 62 to 110
millim., among these being Mr. De Vis.’ types. Cat. Nos.
in A.F.A.Q., 907 and 1123.

Petroskirtes japonicus Bleeker, Versl. en Med. Kon. Akad.
Wetens., iii, 1869, p. 246, c. fig. : Jedo Bay, 8.E. Japan.

* The incisors increase in number with the age of the fish; Jordan
and Snyder give “‘ 26 to 28” as the formula of P. dasson, Bleeker ‘ 36 to
40” as that of P. japonicus.

52 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

Salarias helene De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix,
1884, p. 697: St. Helena, Moreton Bay.

Aspidontus dasson Jordan and Snyder, Proc. U.S. Nat-
Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 456, fig. 8: Wakanoura and Shima,
S. Japan.

Aspidontus japonicus idd., ibid., p. 458.

PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

Dexa Uyoe 18": A. i 20 or 21; Cal’; Pas
Depth of body 4:85, length of head 4:66, longest dorsal
ray 2-8, length of anal fin 1-9, of caudal 4-65, of pectoral
4-6, of ventral 4:5 in length of body. Length of snout
3°75, diameter of eye 4, width of interorbit 8, longest anal
ray 2, depth of peduncle 2-65 in length of head.

Head subvertical in front, its width 2, its depth
(without crest) 1-20 in its length;°no nasal nor orbital
tentacles; an elevated rounded cutaneous crest extends.
from before the upper border of the eye nearly to the
dorsal fin, its height equal to the eye-diameter ; cheeks.
not swollen. Snout short and somewhat pointed; jaws
subequal ; lower lip posteriorly lobate ; eyes small ; inter-
orbital region convex; cleft of mouth extending to below
the posterior border of the eye. Dentition—l. 34; C. 3;
lower canines much the larger. Lateral line curved upward
anteriorly, consisting of from 8 to 10 tubes, and ceasing
below or before the last spinous dorsal ray.

Dorsal fin originating a little in advance of the base
of the pectoral, the spinous rays subequal in length, the
soft gradually increasing in length to the 6th; 7th to 13th
rays preduced and filamentous, about 4 times as long as
the last spinous ray ; membrane of last ray scarcely extend-
ing to the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below
the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal rounded. Pectoral rounded,
the 9th ray longest. Ventral well developed, the inner
ray the longer.

Gill-opening in front of and above the base of the
pectoral, its width about 6 in the head.

* In his description of F. wilsoni Macleay gives the dorsal fin formula
as ‘© 26” (i.e. xii, 14); of the score or so of specimens which I have examined
from different localities none showed a greater variation than that given
above; it would therefore be well for one of my Sydney co-workers to.
yecount the dorsal rays in the type.

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 53

Head and body chestnut brown or olive-green, the
latter with numerous indistinct darker angulated transverse
bars, which cease below the middle of the soft dorsal ; rest
of tail with 3 darker longitudinal bars and some scattered
black spots. Head sometimes with one or two vertical
silvery streaks and a dusky cheek-spot. Dorsal fin brownish
olive, darkest anteriorly, the spinous portion with 3 or 4
oblique darker bars, the soft immaculate ; anal fin orange
brown, each ray with a basal, median, and terminal sky-
blue spot; caudal orange; pectoral greenish olive with
a large round dusky spot on its muscular base; ventrals
sky-blue. After immersion in formalin solution for some
time these fishes become uniform blackish brown.
(Anolius ; a genus of American lizards, the head of which
suggests a resemblance*).

The ‘‘ Crested Blenny” or ‘‘ Oyster Blenny,” as it
may with propriety be called, is a resident of the coasts
of New South Wales and Southern Queensland, and grows
to a length of 70 millim.

The life history of this little creature, so far as it has
been determined, is both curious and interesting. Appar-
ently they mate at a very early age, since in no other way
can we account for their presence in places which it is
impossible for them either to enter or leave in their adult
state. Having paired, the young couple immediately
proceed to the choice of a residence ; this almost invariably
takes the form of a dead oyster-shell, between the valves
of which they are able at this stage easily to insert their
slim and delicate bodies. In the safe seclusion of this
retreat they live out their peaceful lives, undisturbed by
the strenuous and ceaseless war of Nature, which rages
ever around and above them. Here they are dependent
for food upon such small animals as may find their way
between the valves of their prison and such flotsam as the
tide may drift therein. Here too they breed, the female
attaching her eggs by means of some glutinous substance
to the upper wall of the shell, and it is remarkable that in
all the cases which have come under my notice the ova
were deposited not in a single mass but in scattered groups
of some half-dozen eggs each; this arrangement may

*<T] reléve sa petite téte comme ses petits sauriens nommés anolis
dans nos iles.”” (Cuvier & Valenciennes, loc. cit.).

54 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES

possibly be selected in order to ensure a freer play of water
on each egg. The young, on their emergence from the ova
are quickly driven out from the parents’ domicile to make
their own way in the great world beyond. On one occasion
only have I known of a specimen having been discovered
otherwise than in an oyster-shell; this individual, which
was in a greatly contorted condition, had when young
insinuated itself into a rock-crevice so small that, as it
increased in size, its body was compelled to adapt itself
to the form of its cell, of which it was in fact an animated
cast ; notwithstanding this disability the fish was in perfect
condition, not seemingly having suffered any inconvenience
from the distortion of its body. This little blenny has
contracted a curious habit, possibly due to inherited instinct
consequent on the restricted nature of its normal home
environment ; when kept alive in a tumbler or even in a
basin, it never willingly moves forward in the usual manner
of its class, but invariably retrogrades, pushing itself
backward by means of its pectoral and ventral fins.

Described from 3 Moreton Bay and one Great Sandy
Strait specimens, measuring from 52 to 70 millim., in the
collection of the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. Noo. 871 and 1237.
Blennechis anolius Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat.

Poiss:, xi, 1836, p. 288: Port Jackson.
Petroscirtes anolis Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p.

238.
Petroscirtes cristiceps Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,

vi, 1881 : Port Jackson.
Petroscirtes wilsoni id., ibid, ix, 1884, p. 171 : Port Jackson.

Note.—The Giintherian genus Petroscirtes has very
properly been broken up in sections by various authors,
and with the object of facilitating the identification of
species may with advantage be still further subdivided
as follows :—
a. Canine teeth in both jaws.

6. Dorsal fin free cr just touching the caudal
a ae i PETROSKIRTES*
ec. Anterior dorsal rays produced (Petroskirtes).
ci. Anterior dorsal rays not produced.

* Petroskirtes Riippell, Atlas Fisch. Roth. Meer., 1828, p. 110
(mitratus).

BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 55

d. Soft dorsal rays subequal; occiput smooth or
nearly so (Aspidontus*).

dt. Some of the soft dorsal rays filamentous ;
occiput with an elevated crest (Cyneichthyst).

61. Dorsal fin more or less continuous with the caudal
ss or ii. ENCHELYURUS{
a1. Canine teeth in the lower jaw only ; mouth inferior
| lil. MACRURRHYNCHUS§
a. No canine teeth.
e. Mouth terminal se be RUNULA||
e1, Mouth inferior .. a .. RUNULOPST

* Aspidontus Quoy & Gaimard

+ Cyneichthys ; nom. nov. ; (anolius). Kvvén, a helmet ; ixOus, a fish.

t Enchelyurus Peters, Mon. Akad. Berlin, 1868, p. 268 (davipes).

§ Macrurrhynchus Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S Wales, xxi, 1896, p.
136 (maroubre).

|| Runula Jordan.

{| Runulops; nom. noyv.; founded on two Scuth American species
described by Jenyns.

Ries ane tix thus yu oH

papts

QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
‘Some Problems of Queensland’s Botanogeography).

By Dr. KAREL DOMIN
(PRacuE, Ozecn University),

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland,
April 9th, 1910.

There are two stages in our knowledge of the flora
of every country. First, of course, it is necessary to know
the elements of the flora, to identify and classify all the
plants and to ascertain their affinities. All these are found
in a flora where in natural system (according to their affini-
ties) all plants occurring in the country are mentioned,
accompanied with descriptions and their localities, show-
ing the geographical distribution.

This first step, however, is not sufficient for a complete
knowledge of the flora. There are hundreds of questions
about the life of single plants and their surrounding cir-
cumstances and conditions, which cause the plants to be
found in special associations. The material worked, out
in a flora makes a foundation for all these questions, which
penetrate deeper into the study of plant-life, being a part
of a science called Botanogeography or Phytogeography.

Botanogeography deals with the adaptation of plants
to different surrounding circumstances; it explains which
are the plant-associations of the country, and it tries to
find out all the reasons which cause the unequal distribu-
tion of the different plant-associations. The geographical
distribution of single plants is, of course, given in a flora,
but without any explanation.

These reasons mentioned above are partly due to cir-
cumstances now existing, and partly they are the result
of the historical development of the flora. Therefore, the
botanogeography must deal not only with the climate,

58 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

soil, etc., of the country, but it must also study the evolution
of the country and its flora during the past geological periods.

A special part of botanogeography—so-called ecology—
tries to explain the different adaptations of the plants
according to the so-called ecological factors, 7.e., especially
the soil and the climate (the influence of warmth, water, air).

The flora of Australia (except in some Northern and
Central parts) is in its rough outlines fairly well known,
although there is an immense field for future botanists.
But there is very little done in botanogeography, except
a recent work by Dr. L. Diels, dealing with the botano-
geography of extra-tropical Western Australia. In Queens-
land however, until the present time, very little was known
about the factors which cause the different plant-associa-
tions of the State. We know the elements of the flora
(and fairly well the geographical distribution of single
plants), due in part to Bentham, the author of the “ Flora
Australiensis,’’ who unfortunately never was in Australia,
and was therefore unable to deal with the botanogeography
of the country, although his flora—considering all circum-
stances—is wonderful; further due to the numerous works
of Baron Ferd. von Mueller, and of F. M. Bailey, who devoted
his whole life to the study of Queensland’s flora, and also
due to some other authors, who published valuable special
papers and works, as J. Shirley (the Lichen-flora of Queens-
land), Brotherus and K. Mueller (Mosses), Cooke (Fungi), etc.

Knowing all these circumstances, | made a plan for
a visit to Queensland, intending to study the botanogeogra-
phy of the State, as there is no other part of Australia
which would be so interesting from the botanical standpoint,
and which offers simultaneously marvellous prospects for agri-
cultural development, combining the possibilities of tropical
agriculture in the North and especially in the coastal region,
and of growing different plants of temperate region in
Southern parts. Besides these there is a large area with
splendid timbers; many of them are used at the present
time, but still more of them are wasted in a manner, which
is understood by everybody familiar with the conditions
of this wonderful virgin country, but which nobody from
Europe can understand.

But let me begin with a short description of the chiei
plant-associations in Queensland. I cannot afiord to speak

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 59

in detail, but the result of my studies in different districts
of the State will be found in a book, which I hope to publish
soon after my return to Bohemia.

The most favourable conditions occur in the so-called
vine scrubs. They are found in those portions where there
is sufficient moisture in the soil and sufficient rainfall.
In the North of Queensland, and especially in the coastal
region, the conditions for vine-scrubs are much more fav-
ourable than in other parts of Queensland, and they extend
over larger areas on different soils. They prefer, of course,
always a rich, deep soil, especially alluvial and _ basaltic,
but in those portions where the rainfall reaches a very high
range, we find them often on a very poor, almost innutri-
tious soil, as on Bellenden Ker or Bartle Frere, on a poor
granitic soil.

Where the conditions are less suitable, the vine-scrubs
are restricted, to narrow belts along the creeks and rivers.
These so-called “‘ gallery vine-scrubs” are often found far
in the dry open-forest country, which is usually unable to
bear this plant-association, requiring better soil and especi-
ally much more moisture, both in the soil and in the air.

In the Southern part of Queensland the vine-scrubs
are usually only on good nutritious soil or near watercourses.
The largest area of vine-scrubs is found in the Gympie
district (Eumundi, Yandina, etc.), but they are besides
this nearly everywhere on the basaltic mountains as far as
the Macpherson Range, the border of New South Wales.
Here we usually find that the distribution of vine-scrubs
coincides with the distribution of basalt. Sometimes the
scrubs extend from the basaltic plateaux along the creeks
down into the open forest country. In some places, where
the basaltic strata are too thin or the moisture insufficient,
we find forest instead of scrub. On the rich alluvial soil
along the creeks and rivers are also often narrow belts of
vine-scrubs. But most of them (at least in Southern Queens-
land) have disappeared, as they occupied the best agricul-
tural country, and have been cut down.

In the far North of Queensland (as Cape York Fenin-
sula), there are no vine-scrubs extending over big areas,
but notwithstanding there are along the creeks and rivers
spiendid vine-scrubs, some of them very little known,
but possessing a rich beautiful flora with many relations to

60 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

the Papuan and Malayan regions (I may mention that
all Queensland’s pitcher-plants are found here, as Nepenthes
Kennedyi, F. v. M., and seven new species described by
F. M. Bailey, 1.e., N. albo-lineata, Alicae, Bernaysii, Chol-
mondeleyt, Jardinei, Moorei, Rowanae).

The biggest and most marvellous vine-scrubs are found
in the coastal districts from Cooktown in the North to
Ingham in the South. Townsville itself lies in open forest
country, but there are interesting vine-scrubs on Mount
Elliot and in many places along the coast southwards.

The vine-scrubs mentioned above reach their best
evolution in the Cairns-Geraidton districts, where are
the two highest mountains of Queensland, Bellenden Ker
and Bartle Frere, both covered with thick jungles. This
part of Queensland has a truly tropical character. We find
here wonderful scenery, really unrivalled in its glory and
its magnificent variations. There are not only the well-
known Barron Falls, which with their unique gorge excel
in the rainy season, and especially during the floods, the
best scenery of the world, but there are everywhere land-
scapes of such beauty, that I never saw better ones, either
in the Malayan Peninsula or in Java or elsewhere in the
tropics. This fact is worthy to be mentioned, as there are
people in Queensland itself who do not guess the wonders
of this virgin country, and who visit other tropics for the
same purpose. Besides, this is the district the best
suited for tropical agriculture, and a sugar cane district par
excellence. ‘Ihe climate here, though tropical, is by far
more supportable than in the wet tropics, where the tem-
perature in the night often only slightly differs from the
disagreeable wet heat during the day.

It would be superfluous in Queensland to give a detailed
description of a vine-scrub, besides it was given years ago
by Pettigrew and some time ago by Ph. MacMahon. Vine-
scrubs presents always a dense and thick forest association,
with very little grass in undergrowth, but with plenty of
creepers (vines) and any amount of epiphytic plants on the
trunks and branches of the trees. Orchids and ferns are
the most numerous among them. There are many pecu-
liarities in the vine-scrubs: the trees attain usually an
enormous height, but their bark is regularly thin and their
top not too dense. They are sometimes cauliflor (producing

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 61

the flowers and fruit directly on the trunk or from old leaf-
less branches), and they have on the base of the trunk
dilatated flanks.

There are different types of vine-scrubs, as for instance
in the biggest scrub district near Cairns there are (except
the coastal scrubs) five different types, which appear always
under the same (or very similar) conditions and show approxi-
mately the same composition. The richest and most mar-
vellous are the vine-scrubs in flats on deep alluvium; this
is the proper home of the lawyer cane and the climbing
bamboo (Bambusa Moreheadiana), the only one known in
Queensland. Nearly the whole space between the trees
is filled with magnificent creepers climbing from top to top
and drooping in wonderful festoons. The trees are here of
great size, but their timber is not of such good quality
as in the higher positions, for the growth in these warm
parts is too quick.

Further on there are three types of vine-scrubs on non-
basaltic soil. Each type has its special trees and different
characters, but it would take too much time to deal with
them. The last type is represented by the splendid vine-
scrubs on the basaltic plateaux, as for instance near Ather-
ton, Tolga, Aloomba, and all around both volcanic lakes
(Lake EKacham and Lake Barein). The scrubs are here not
so crowded with creepers and epiphytic plants, but the trees
attain an immense height. Here is without doubt the best
timber district, which excels all that I saw in other scrubs
of Queensland.

Due to the careful investigations of J. F. Bailey, we are
familiar with most of the trees in this district. Many of
them are just at present used in different sawmills, but
there are many others with valuable timbers neglected so
far. We find in the sawmills especially the following
trees represented :—

Tarrietia argyrodendron and trifoliata, very plentiful
everywhere in this scrub, known as Crowsfoot Elm.

Hlaecocarpus sp. div., known as Quondong.

Melia composita or White Cedar is anelegant tree with
soft, light-red wood. It is usually a smaller tree, but plenti-
ful, especially along the clearings.

Synoum glandulosum or Rosewood is a moderate sized
tree belonging to the same family (Meliaceae) and very

62 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

plentiful. It is well known also from the scrubs in Southern
Queensland.

Cedrela Toona or Red Cedar, known near Herberton as
‘“ Wanga,” is a tall tree of the same family. Its red col-
oured wood of a beautiful grain is very valuable and much
required. This tree is getting scarce.

Flindersia Chatawaiana or Maple, again a representative
of the Meliaceous plants, is very plentiful and has a nice
wood, which is extensively used.

Flindersia Schottiana or Ash is also plentiful; it is
known under the native name, ‘“‘Bunji Bunji.”

Castanospermum Australe is the well-known Bean Tree ;
it is plentiful in different types of vine-scrub.

Xanthostemon chrysanthus or Pender is very plentiful.

Eugenia hemilampra or Mahogany is rather scarce.

Alstonia scholaris or White Pine, which is very common
in the scrubs on alluvium, is not too plentiful on the basaltic
plateau.

Gmelina fasciculiflora or White Beech is plentiful, as is

Daphnandra aromatica, the so called Sassafras.

Cryptocarya Palmerstoni or Walnut is very plentiful.
Its characteristic nuts are to be found everywhere in these
scrubs. |

Under the name of Silky Oak (or Silky Wood), there are
known 4 different trees, which are more or less plentiful.
They are :—

Darlingia spectatissima

Cardwellia sublimis.

Slenocarpus sinuatus.
Embothriuam Wickhami. j

Agathis Palmerstont or Kauri Pine is rather plentiful
and attains an immense size.

Podocarpus pedunculata or so called Black Pine is
scarce.

Darlingia araliifolia or Bull Oak is a very plentiful
tree.

Blepharocarya involucrigera or Bally Gum is very plenti-
ful also.

A different type of vine-scrub is often found in a belt
along the coast. I use only for these scrubs the name,
‘* Coastal Scrubs.” The trees growing here are not only
botanically different, but differ also in their ecology, as

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 68

they are in harmony with the special conditions on the
sea-coast. A strong wind usually blows here, the trees are
richly branched, with very hard horizontal branches and
often with a dense top. The leaves are usually very coria-
ceous, and epiphytic plants are not too numerous. We find
this type of scrub both in North and South Queensland.

Dealing with the sea-coast we may mention the other
plant-associations found here. On the salt-water swamps
along the coast, but only in sheltered positions, and along
the rivers as far as the tide reaches, are usually found
Mangrove Swamps, which show a most wonderful adapta-
tion for these extraordinary localities.

On sand and sand-hill (dunes) near the coast there is
in many places a special association consisting of very
scattered plants, which are creeping, with long, deeply
rooting stolons. It is wonderful how the members of dif-
ferent orders growing here under the same surrounding
circumstances assume the same appearance. We find here
grasses (Spinifex, Zoysia, etc), nut grasses, pea-flowering
plants (Papilionaceae) and especially one convolvulaceous
plant—Ipomoea Pes Caprae or the so-called Goat’s-foot.
‘The last-mentioned plant is very common in the same plant
association in different tropics, and provides a good name
for the whole association (Pes-caprae-association). Later
on plenty of other herbs and especially shrubs appear on
these sandy localities near the sea-coast. This shrubby
association is splendidly developed in the Southern portion
of Queensland, from Frazer’s Island to the islands of More-
ton Bay, also on some of the Reef Islands. We find here
a great number of different shrubs, most of them of the same
mode of growth, but belonging to different families. At
the time when most of its component members are in flower
(August and September), this association is the most wonder-
ful in the whole State, as no other offers such a quantity
-of showy flowers as this. The difierent Epacridacee,
Myrtaceae, Papilionaceae, etc., are at this season covered
with thousands of blossoms.

In fresh-water swamps, especially near the sea, there
is usually found a most remarkable association, which de-
serves the name of T'ea Treé Swamps, as the prevailing trees
and shrubs are usually called ‘‘ Tea-tree.”’ There are
many different Myrtaceae, often with she-oaks (Casuarina),

64 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

which make on some localities a special sub-type of this
formation (She oak swamps). We find the adaptation of
this association again very interesting. The plants growing
here must at one period of the year resist the effects of floods,
at another season again they must bear dry weather,
Neither the vine-scrub nor the open forest is able to grow
under these circumstances. In the first stage the tea-tree
swamps have hardly any undergrowth, the water at the end
of the wet season being full of splendid water lilies (Nym-
phaea gigantea and others), which seem to disappear in the
dry season. No other association gives us such splendid
opportunity to study the changes in the vegetation as this,
for the conditions change often in a comparatively short
time. We can observe in many localities how the tea-tree
swamps take, by and by, the character of forests and at last
become permanently so. On the other hand I saw in the
district of Cairns different transitions between tea-tree
Swamps and vine-scrubs. Tea-tree swamps have in the
North of Queensland often beside their own plants elements
both of the forest and scrub floras. With the change of
conditions one of them becomes more plentiful. In Southern
Queensland we see regularly slow transitions into forests ;
in Northern Queensland, however, where the conditions are
more favourable for the scrub plants, sometimes into vine-
scrubs.

A special association is the flora of salt and fresh water.
On marshy, muddy ground near the sea and often in the
neighbourhood of mangrove swamps we find sometimes a
special association of salsolaceous plants. Near the inlet
opposite to Cairns this association is very well developed.

On many small islands along the Eastern coast of
Queensland we observe a strange phenomenon, as some parts
of these islands are barren or covered only with grass or
other low vegetation, while some other parts are timbered
with open forest or sometimes with vine-scrubs. The
reason for this strange and very irregular distribution of
forest cannot be found in the dierent character of soil, as
it is to be seen on perfectly identical strata and apparently
under quite congruent circumstances. I think, however,
that the prevailing winds give us the correct explanation
for this phenomenon, as we may observe that the exposed
parts of islands, where the air is drier and the decomposed

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 65.

parts of rocks easily carried away by means of wind, are
barren (or nearly so), the protected parts are timbered.
This everybody can observe in cases where the direction
of the prevailing winds has not been disturbed. In many
cases, however, there are groups of islands and then the
direction of wind changes according to their position,
and it seems at first sight impossible to find a plausible
explanation for the phenomenon mentioned above. I hope
in a special paper to deal in detail with this interesting
question.

The other type of forest is the very well known open
forest, with close undergrowth of grasses and scattered
trees, mostly from the genus Hucalyptus, known under
different names as gums, box, stringy bark, ironbark,.
Moreton Bay ash, coolibah, bloodwood, etc., etc. The
other trees growing in the open forest are not only botani-
cally but also in their ecology very different from scrub
trees, and these two forest associations have no similiarity
at all. Forest grows under conditions insufficient for vine-
scrub, either from the character of the soil or the small
rainfall. Most interesting is the contact between the open
forests and vine-scrubs in the Northern and Central
portion of Queensland. The line of demarcation between
them is most distinct, a phenomenon which is unique in the
whole world. I had opportunities to examine these rela-
tions in many places and found that the reasons for this
most decided demarcation are different on different locali-
ties.

Sometimes it is simply the question of water. Along
the creeks (where there is usually better humus) there are
vine-scrubs ; further on there is open forest country. In
some localities a forest pocket occupies a circular slightly
elevated ground between rich alluvial soil timbered with
vine-scrub. In other places, however, the reasons are
insufficient to explain this sharp line. Besides the con-
ditions stated, I found these factors of great importance.

1. The forest flora consists of true Australian types ;
the scrub flora for the greatest part of Malayan and Papuan
types. The historic evolution of these elements has been
quite diverse, and we find always that they never come into
a friendly contact. They are of quite different character,
and on localities where the conditions are not decidedly

E—Royat Socrery.

66 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

in the favour of one of them, there results a strong struggle
between them. They do not enter into a special association
with the representatives of both types (as it is usual in
other countries with forest associations), but each one tries
to get the upper hand. Therefore we cannot expect a
mixture of types and slow transitions from one forest type
into the other.

2. But all these reasons would not be sufficient, if
one factor were not here, and that is the regular bush fire,
which kills all the scrub plants springing up on the border
of the forest.

3. Last we must deal with so-called ‘‘ forest pockets,”
in which the phenomenon mentioned above attains its
highest evolution. In some few cases there is no difficulty
in explaining these forest pockets. On the slopes of Grant
Hill, near Cape Grafton, in the North of Queensland, is
for instance a system of creeks running mostly through
open forest, but accompanied by a dense narrow belt of
vine-scrub. In some places, however, the creeks are close
together, and besides they often change their course, as is
usual on the granite hills and mountains in this country,
The result of it is that a bigger area is sufficiently watered,
and this enables the vine-scrub to occupy the whole ground.
But in one case the bordering creek was too distant from
the next current. In the middle of this part, which was
evidently drier, was a forest pocket of nearly circular shape
enclosed on all sides by dense vine-scrub.

But there are in the Atherton scrubs forest pockets
of a circular shape, some of them not broader than one mile ;
the line of demarcation is here most distinct. It is very
hard to explain this most extraordinary contact between
forest and scrub. My opinion is that there are again two
different reasons :— -

a. Sometimes the stratum of basalt is in some places
very thin, and the soil consequently poor, insufficient for
@ vine-scrub.

6. In other cases I regard the forest pockets as a re-
mainder of a former bigger open forest, which has been
obliged to give way to the scrub. But on very small areas,
where the scrub land had not so great possibilities, there
remained forest pockets, which, I think, would disappear

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 67

if the bush fires did not protect them against the invasion
of scrub.

There are again very different and distinct types of
open forest. In the North must be specially mentioned
the Eucalyptus forest with close undergrowth of high grass
(as the typical form of the open forest), further with plenty
of grass trees (Zanthorrhoea) or Cycads (or sometimes both
together), or with plenty of she-oaks, etc.

Most interesting is the open forest country in the far
West, for instance near Cloncurry. We find along the
Northern Railway on the Rolling Downs formation every-
where open grassy plains, but with the beginning of the
Silurian strata they disappear at once and give way to a
special type of open forest with plenty of so-called “‘ Spini-
fex”’ (Triodia) in undergrowth. This country is usuallly
called ‘“‘ desert country,” but it is a true open forest. It
is an interesting fact that very far West the open forest
has so wide an area; its character is, of course, according
to the soil and climate, very poor.

A special type of open forest is to be found on the
sandy soil in some places. near the Main Dividing Range in
Northern and Central Queensland. The undergrowth is
not close, and consists, instead of grass, of different shrubs.
‘This type recalls another forest association slightly developed
in Queensland (for instance in some places in the rough
-country between Stanthorpe and Wallangarra), but ex-
tending over large areas in New South Wales, where
the whole country from Newcastle and Sydney to the
Blue Mountains (except the gullies) are the best known
localities for this forest with plenty of shrubs and grass
‘in undergrowth.

In some parts of North Queensland there is on the ranges
near the coast another type of open forest, consisting
mostly of she-oaks (Casuarina) with tall grass trees between,
the grass being less dense than in the true gum forest.

A quite different type of forest—and perhaps not a
true forest—is seen in the different wattle-scrubs, which
are spread over areas between the open forest and the Rolling
Downs formation, larger than those of any other plant
formation in South West Queensland. A wattle called
brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) makes large irregular scrubs.
In the neighbourhood of Clermont, and in many places

68 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

between Clermont and Rockhampton, are in patches in the
open forest and on many ridges rosewood scrubs. Further
westwards, everywhere in the Central and Northern districts,
we find mostly boree and gidya scrub; both are species of
Acacia. Boree prefers good, nutritious soil, and is often.
found in smaller or larger patches on Rolling Downs. Gidya
grows more on ranges and on poor, often rocky soil. Most
of the Table Mountains are covered with gidya scrub, but-
on their top we find regularly “‘ Spinifex”’ (7'riodia) and a set-
of xerophilous shrubs. All these trees, although of small.
size, give a splendid hardwood, one of the best Lever saw. I
am perfectly satisfied that they will be used to a great extent.
in the future. As an interesting fact I may mention that
this wattle scrub has spread in historical time over open
grassy country, as I observed it in Central Queensland, and_
Inspector J. Shirley informed me that he had noted it
between Roma and Taroom in Southern Queensland.

The trees (boree and gidya) grow very slowly. Many
of the trees killed in the big drought of 1802, which I met
on the Rolling Downs, must have been surely 100 years old.
I regard it as a good testimony that at least during the
past century there was in Queensland no drought of such
frightful extent.

On the Main Dividing Range, between the Northern
and Central Railway there is everywhere a quite different
forest association, not mentioned until now. The prevalent
tree is an Acacia called lancewood. It grows very high,
has long straight branches and a flat top. The stems are
not very thick and the wood splits easily, but the trees are
very tall, so that these lancewood scrubs are of quite different
character from all other wattle scrubs, which never grow in
tall closed forests. Besides these, there are plenty of shrubs
in the undergrowth, so that this forest association is closely
allied to the forest of New South Wales mentioned above.

These lancewood scrubs are on the rough Desert Sand--
stone country, where the conditions are, of course, different
from those of the flat country. In some places between
Jericho and Alpha, I found forest pockets enclosed by the
the lancewood scrub with a most decided line of demarcation.
This phenomenon, unobserved until now, is of the same strik-
ing nature as the pockets mentioned above. Here is, how-
ever, a different reason; it is the question of soil. The

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 69

sandstones are broken and the lower strata are coming on
the surface. Sometimes it is in the form of a gully, and
then the greater moisture is in favour of forest. It would
be superfluous to mention that in these forest pockets are
regular bush fires, while in the lancewood scrubs there are
none.

From Jericho eastwards we find again a different type
of wattle scrub, very closed and dense, with prevalent
Acacia and Eucalyptus. Bottle trees (Sterculia rupestris)
are very abundant, but are not clustered together.

Great areas in the Central and Western districts of
‘Queensland are occupied by the Rolling Downs forma-
tion, and. covered with open grassy plains ; in the Northern
part with prevalent Mitchell grass (Astrebla pectinata and
others) and Flinders grass (Anthistiria membranacea) ; in
the Southern more with blue grass (Andropagon sericeus).

These open plains possess an association, which has
no parallel in any other part of the world. It is usually not
a dense vegetation. The predominant grass is the deeply
rooting, perennial Mitchell grass, really a marvellous fodder.
Between its tufts there grow after the rain plenty of annual
plants, of which the Flinders and Button grasses are the most
valuable. In the Eastern parts we often find patches of
scrub, especially boree. But further Westwards there are
miles and miles of open plains, and only near the water-
courses are scattered gums (especially the so-called coolibah)
and tea trees (Melaleuca sp.). Some few shrubs are growing
in small gullies; very common is a thorny Acacia called
‘‘ Mimosa,’ and regarded as a sign of water underneath.
Fuchsia bush—a species of Eremophila—is scattered here
and there. Of the taller treees there are found some few
““emu-apples,” whitewood, Myoporum, etc.

Rolling Downs give the best possible grazing land.
If in the future the system of conserving hay may become
general, there will be no such catastrophes as after the big
drought. But Ido not think that there is a possibility for
close agricultural settlement. This part is a splendid
grazing country, and gives besides opportunity for growing
fruit and some vegetation to a smaller extent along the
bigger watercourses. It is a pity that this is until now
in hands of Chinese, who make good profit, but do not spend
+heir money in Queensland. It would be a great advantage

70 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

to promote the immigration of skilful people from Europe,
who could stand the competition with the Chinese, as the
English people are usually not fond of this branch of agri-
culture.

| As there is not much time left, I will mention only
some of the other plant associations of Queensland :—

1. On. the very top of Bellenden Ker there is a most
extraordinary form of low mountain scrub, consisting of
different -shrubs with extermely hard branches. It is
nearly impossible to penetrate through this thicket, which
is in many respects of high importance, as there are found
‘several plants (for instance Agapetes Meiniana, Rhodo-
dendron Lochae), which have their affinities in the Malayan
and Papuan mountains. This association covers only the
narrow top of the mountains and the slopes some 80 feet
below. _ Except this, the whole mountain is covered with
dense tropical vine-scrub, of course of different types at
different heights. The soil is everywhere on _ the
eastern side granitic and poor. The ascent of the
central highest peak is certainly not so difficult as
one would suppose after reading the travels of Mr.
Arch. Meston. The eastern side of the mountain
is not such good timber country as the scrubs on the
basaltic plateau. There are comparatively few trees,
which are sufficiently numerous and are of a high mercantile
value. Meston’s Mangostoen (Garcinia Mestoni), botani-
cally an extremely interesting type of the flora of Bellenden
Ker, described and discovered by F. M. Bailey, is very plenti-
ful in the eastern slopes in an elevation between 2,500-
4,000 feet. But the value of the fruit was exaggerated by
Mr. Meston, and I regard all experiments with this tree as
useless. First, it will not do well in the low land; and sec-
ond, its fruit is of no special taste; naturally it cannot be
compared with the true mangosteen (Garcinia Mango-
slang).

2. Shrubby plant association, consisting of plenty of
low shrubs with little grass and few small trees, is often
found on loose sand in the inland country. It is a
Xerophilous association.

3. On the islands of Moreton Bay, and also near Sunny-
bank, in the vicinity of Brisbane (and surely in several
other localities), is to be found an extremely interesting

~

BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 71

association, not identified until now. It is a true turf
in different stages and with a very rich flora, consisting
chiefly of Restiaceae, Cyperaceae, etc., with some Exa-
cridaceae, Dilleniaceae, small Myrtaceae, Burmannia disticha,
Utricularia, Drosera, etc. Turf-moss (Sphagnum) is usually
not present, but sometimes it is present in large quantities
(f.1., Stradbroke Island).

4. Limestone flora. 1 had opportunity to examine the
limestone country near Chillagoe, where on the limestone
blufis is a type of flora quite different from all associations
mentioned above. There are many plants peculiar to these
parts. The flora consists of many shrubs and small trees,
and has so many peculiarities that it would require a special
lecture to give only the rough outlines of its general char-
acter. I was glad to make the first botanical investigations
of great extent in this very interesting country.

5. There is a special flora on the rocks along the coast
of Queensland, but it is not much developed. In the Glass-
houses this association has some interesting members
(Micraira subulifolia, Hriostemon myoporoides, Grevillea
leiophylla, Dodonaea vestita, Melaleuca Luehmanni, besides the
commoner rock plants, as Cheilanthes, Polypodium rigi-
dulum, Peperomia, Plectranthus, etc.)

In the North there are hardly more than 20 character-
istic species accompanying the rocks.

Let me now say some few words about the evolution
of the flora of Queensland. We find,in Australia three dif-
ferent elements represented in a very unequal degree in
the flora of the different States. There is, first, the true
Australian element ; second, the so-called Antarctic element
(named so by Hooker) ; and, last, the Malayan (including the
Papuan) element. The second element, which is of such
great importance for the flora of New Zealand and the moun-
tains in the south-east corner of Australia, is (with a few
exceptions, as for instance, Dracophyllum Sayeri on the
top of Bellenden Ker), not represented in Queensland.
Both the other elements are in Queensland well represented,
and the Malayan element is in no other State so rich as
here. The Australian element, which attains its highest
evolution in Western Australia, must be regarded as the
true old Australian flora; in Queensland it is spread over
the drier districts and is especially rich in Southern Queens-

72 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

land (islands of Moreton Bay). The Malayan element
makes the base for the flora of the vine-scrubs. The wet
tropical part of Queensland has altogether a true Malayan-
Papuan flora, which shows that there was formerly a land
or island connection and an easy way for propagation of
this equatorial tropical flora southwards. But it would not
be correct to regard Queensland’s tropical flora only as a
new comer and a recent branch of the regions mentioned
above. All that we know seems to testify that :—

1. The tropical “‘ Malayan” flora of Queensland is only
a small remainder of a flora spread formerly over large
areas, which are now mostly sunken into the sea. Accord-
ingly,

2. The flora does not consist only of the original Malayan
types. ‘Lhese made only a base, but it has been transformed
in the great number of genera and species, which are known
only from the Australian Tropics (endemic in Australia).
It seems that the separation took place at a very early
epoch, so that the ancestors of the present tropical flora
in Australia developed themselves quite independent of
the Malayan flora, and originated a large number of new
forms.

Now we understand the difference between the Malayan
and the Australian elements, and we can imagine the struggle
which certainly took place after the best and largest localities
for the tropical flora disappeared under the sea level. In
the Southern part of Queensland there are some differences,
as the true Australian type is represented in a few special
forms in the vine scrub flora. I may mention for instance
the gigantic water gums (Eucalyptus botryoides) (besides
some other gums, as Huc. resinifera) in the vine-scrubs
on the basaltic mountains in Southern Queensland. Here
the contrast is not so great, and we find sometimes diferent
transitions, especially in the brushes, which have in sone
places quite a mixed character. But we must not forget
that just here most of the Malayan types, which require
the most favourable conditions, are not so plentiful.
Antarctic elements are, of course, missing, the most curious
Fagus Mooret in the Macpherson Range being an interest-
ing exception.

My studies in different parts of Queensland brought
me to the conclusion that the open forests in all parts of

BY DR KAREL DOMIN. 73

Queensland are not a natural association, but a secondary
one, changed through the influence of their aboriginal
inhabitants, mostly by means of bushfires. It seems rather
strange to regard such immense areas in a virgin country
covered with open forest as a secondary association, but
I hope to bring in another place sufficient proof for it, and
I will try to give a reconstruction of their ‘original form,
which differs substantially from their present character.

Last, but not least, I will make a few remarks regarding
the agricultural prospects for the future, which are closely
connected with the botany of the State. Everybody
who is familiar with the different plant associations of a
country must know thoroughly all the conditions of soil,
climate, etc., for the distribution of plants in special
associations shows it in a most striking manner. There-
fore, it is not useless to go deeper into all these questions
and to try to understand the conditions of the plant-life
as much as possible. I think everybody who took a keen
interest in the connection between the plant-life and its
surrounding circumstances, could easily recognize from
the character of the vegetation the nature of the country.

No doubt, in Queensland is opened a field for tropical
agriculture as well as for cultivation of subtropical plants,
and some from temperate regions. It is, of course, necessary
to choose the right plant.

I think, there would be a possibility of cultivating a
great variety of tropical plants in North Queensland, but
just these, which would be of special value, are not fitted
for it, as the rates for white labour are so high, that it would
not pay to cultivate such plants as coffee, tea, rubber, etc.,
which must be looked after the whole year round. Sugar-
cane will surely remain the most important plant for the
future. In smaller quantities it would be, of course,
possible to cultivate plenty of tropical plants, but that
is not of great importance for the rich coastal scrub
districts. Only a few of the true tropical plants do not
grow here well, and these are plants which must have rain
the whole year round. That is the case with the pale
rubber (Hevia Brasiliensis), with the true mangosteen
(Garcinia Mangostana), etc.

It seems to me much more important to cultivate
a greater variety of plants in the central drier districts.

74 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

At least as far as Charters Towers, along the Northern
Railway, and as far as Barcaldine around the Central
Railway, it would be possible to cultivate sufficient fruit
not only for the settlers’ own use, but for a supply to the
far West. There is a possibility for much more fruit and
vegetable growing; there could be grown many plants.
hardly cultivated as yet. Arochis hypogaea, date palm,
and plenty others would be worth trying.

It seems strange for a visitor to see how European
fruits are cultivated in Queensland on localities where
they cannot do well, but where it is easy to grow any amount
of excellent tropical fruit. Once being in the tropics,
it is best to adapt ourselves to them, to take tropical fruit,
to adapt the houses to the tropical climate, etc. I was
always wondering how little are estimated the yams,
which can be grown to perfection, and which are surely
more valuable than pumpkins.

Notwithstanding all this; marvellous progress can be
observed in agriculture, and no doubt, with the increasing
population, we may expect still more improvement.

And last I must express my thanks, not only to the
authorities who helped me in a most efiective and kind
way to carry out my plans, but to everybody whom I had
the pleasure to meet, and whose hospitality was oiten a
great help in rather rough conditions of climate and country.
I regard it, with my friend, Dr. Danes, as a pleasant duty
to give our own people good information about the
possibilities for immigrants in Queensland, and it would
be only a pleasure to me if many of our agricultural people
would come to your prosperous and hospitable State.

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS
IN QUEENSLAND.

By DR. J. VY. DANES
(Pracun, Czecu University).

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland,
July 23, 1910.

During my stay in Queensland I had occasion to pay
more or less hurried visits to three important limestone
areas within the limits of the State, and I was able to make
some observations about the present state and the develop-
ment of some prominent and generally interesting features,
which distinguish the pure limestone from most other
common country rocks.

Pure limestone differs conspicuously from many
other rocks by its comparatively easy solubility through
the action of water charged with a slight quantity of
carbonic acid. The water widens the joints and clefts
in the rock structure, and tries to force a passage vertically
into the depths. Where the vertical progress is impossible,
the water proceeds more or less horizontally, or follows
the inclination of the beds, and starts again in the vertical
direction if possible, until it reaches the base of the
previous rock or the upper level of the underground water.
The disintegrating action of the water upon the neighbour-
ing rock is slow in the beginning and purely chemical ;
but later on the cavities become so wide that the running
water starts on the mechanical work, grinding the rocks
with sand and gravel set into rotatory movement by
vertical whirls, or scratching the surface with the same
material, where the passage is more or less horizontal and
unobstructed. Subterraneous passages, extended systems
of caves, are results of that process, and their presence is
the most characteristic feature of the limestone areas,

76 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND

especially to an untrained eye. Almost all famous caves
of the world occur in limestone.

But the existence of caves is not the only result of the
‘ssubterraneous passage of the waters. The rocks below
the surface diminish gradually in volume, and concentric
depressionsform. Many ofsuch depressions are formed by a
slow gradual process, but others are the result of violent,
although only localised, processes, being caused by sudden col-
lapse of the roof of some cave. The shapes of such sinkholes*
explain generally the way in which they originated, and
very often the deep, abrupt sinkholes form entrances to
the subterraneous passages. On a limestone area con-
taining caves and sinkholes the rain water falling upon
the surface does not flow away in streams, but disappears
underground. No regular graded valleys are formed.
Running water flowing in creeks or rivers from areas of
impervious rocks seldom succeed in eroding an open valley
through a limestone area. It generally disappears in
fissures or sinkholes, and continues its way in subterraneous
passages, reappearing again on the surface where the
limestone area ends, or flows often subterraneously to the
sea.

Many of such subterraneous watercourses can be
followed on the surface, deep sinkholes marking the
direction of the caves, but many of them are completely
lost to the human eye. It seems probable that in some
limestone areas the cave systems are not yet fully
developed, and that the waters after some progress in
defined streams lose their individuality, and become a
part of a general ground water basin, which fills all cavities
and fissures to a certain level throughout some limestone
areas. Such conditions seem to prevail in limestone areas,
which are morphologically young, and which have not been
long (geologically speaking) exposed to the disinte-
grating agencies.

During the further evolution, the defined underground
watercourses become more and more general, and, prevail
completely in morphologically old areas.

The caves in their young stage show everywhere
unmistakable proofs of violent mechanical work performed

—_—

* For sinkholes the Servian term ‘‘ doline”’ is most extensively used in
scientific literature

BY DR. J. V. DANES. aT:

by water, by help of sand, gravel and rock debris, and are
full of potholes of very diversified size and aspect. In
old caves, the traces of the mechanical action are generally
obliterated ; the old channels are filled by loam, sand and
secondary limestone, the walls covered by secondary
limestone, and numerous, often beautiful and picturesque
stalactites and stalagmites give the most attractive appear-
ance to old caves. Gradually the roofs give way to pressure,
and. often in old limestone areas there occur long, narrow,
precipitous gorges, which were caves before the collapse
of upper layers of rocks. Blind valleys are the result of
such a process, and also broad level basins* occur in some
extensive limestone areas with rivers and creeks, which
on one side leave the subterraneous passage, and on the
other side disappear once more under the continuous.
barrier of rocky ridges.

Many limestone mountains represent rocky deserts,
whose passage is very difficult, there being no definite
valleys, which generally form the most important ways of
communication in rugged mountainous countries.

Where the limestone rocks are devoid of vegetation,.
the chemical and mechanical action of the falling rain-
waters affects the surface in a peculiar way.

The edges and; corners of limestone blocks look as if
worked by a fine chisel, and later develop deep correlated
forms; extremely sharp and fine ridges fall abruptly
into miniature valleys or basins, which generally end at
a fissure or a cavity, where the water disappears into the
underground depths.

This phenomenon is very well developed, especially
on many barren limestone ridges and plateaus in the Alps,
and is known under the name of “‘ Karren ”’ to the Germans,
and ‘“ Lapiaz’’ to the southern Frenchmen.t All those
forms of terrain, which form the peculiarity of the
physiographical character of the limestones, are known
as the ‘* Karst phaenomena,” ‘“‘ Karst”? or “‘ Kras” is a
South Slavish word designating a barren, rocky
country, and was originally applied to the vast limestone

—— a

*Such basins are called ‘‘ poljes,” and occur along the Adriatic coast,
in the French Jura, and in Jamaica. The greatest ‘‘ Livanjskopolji” in
Western Bosnia covers about 180 square miles.

+ In the Adriatic Karst.

‘78 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND

plateaux and mountain ranges along the north and north-
western margin of the Adriatic Sea in the southern countries
of Austria-Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula. I¢
became a generally acknowledged scientific term for the
‘forms of terrain of soluble rocks.

The caves, although they are one of the most important
“Karst phaenomena,” are known also from other forma-
tions, especially from basaltic rocks, from sandstones,
and conglomerates with soluble concrete, but the true
development of “ Karst’ is characteristic only of the
limestone among the very important country rocks.
Rocksalt, gypsum and glacier ice develop also the
characteristic features of the “Karst,” but their
significance is minimal, as they occur rarely in great
continuous masses.

With the hope that the somewhat extensive explana-
tion of the characteristic features of limestone
physiography will give you an idea sufficient to under-
stand, my further remarks, I shall proceed to a description
of the chief features of the limestone areas I saw in
Queensland.

A long and narrow belt of limestone ridges extends
in the surroundings of Chillagoe from Almaden in a north-
westerly direction, about 20 miles beyond Mungana.
The geological character of the country has been described
several times by prominent geologists as Dr. Jack, Prof.
Skertchly, Mr. Dunstan, and also some descriptions of
the caves have been given. The limestones were
deposited in the Silurian period, and their position has
been violently disturbed through tectonic processes.

The Chillagoe caves are famous as one of the
picturesque attractions of North Queensland, and they
deserve their fame, although the general extent and size
of the principal caves cannot compete with many others
of world’s fame. The limestone ridges are low, only 100
to 150ft. high above the valley level. The floors of the
principal caves are generally on a level corresponding with
the surrounding country, and so the elevation of the roof
seldom exceeds 60ft. from the floor. The stalactites and
stalagmites are not so numerous as in other caves with a
more humid climate, but the secondary deposits cover
the walls and the floor so thickly that traces of erosion are

BY DR, Je Vs DANES. 79

almost completely obliterated. The great development
of secondary deposits is an unmistakable proof of the old
age of the caverns ; another proof is, that many roofs have
collapsed, and open sinkholes with almost perpendicular
walls are met with in rambles through the subterranean
labyrinth. Waters which eroded those caves left them
some time ago, and thick layers of “‘ cave-earth ”’ cover the
floor of horizontal passages. The outer appearance of the
limestone bluffs perforated by caverns in the interior is
very rugged, and the bluffs are very inacessible.

The Karren phenomena is developed on most of them
in very bold and sharp forms. A climb to the top of a bluff
reveals a really stupendous labyrinth of sharp correlated
rocks, deep perpendicular chasms, miniature caves and
recesses, but further progress is very slow and tiresome,
and the edges of the rocks, sharp as a knife, leave dis-
agreeable traces on the dress and skin.

Most of the bluffs in the Chillagoe district are of such
rugged appearance, with the exception of one group south-
east from Chillagoe. A peculiarly shaped, smooth-faced
limestone bluff, called generally ‘“‘ The Lion’s Head,” is
known to everybody who has been in Chillagoe. The
base of the bluff is full of potholes leading underground,
and one narrow passage opens into the centre of the Lion’s
Head Bluff, ending with a deep sinkhole. All surrounding
rocks are smooth on the surface, and differ very conspicuously
from most of the others. There can be no doubt that the
Lion’s Head and its surroundings owe their shape to the
vigorous action of running water in some remote period.
The bed of the short ancient river was at a considerable eleva-
tion above the present creek beds in the environs. The
base of the Lion’s Head is about 100ft. about the present
creeks. The Lion’s Head Bluff is an unmistakable
remnant of the old landscape, and, I can recommend it to
the attention of future investigators, who will be
certainly able to say more about the former direction
of the drainage at much higher level than the present, and
the subsequent evolution of the landscape.

From Rockhampton, I visited the Olsen Caves, which
occur in a limestone ridge about 16 miles in an almost
northerly direction from Rockhampton. ‘here are several
ridges and bluffs to the east and south-east of Mount Etna,

80 LIMESTONE AREAS IN. QUEENSLAND

a conspicuous conical landmark. The limestone is of
Devonian age, as proved by corals determined by Mr.
Rands. Mr. Rands gives in his report a very good
description of the Olsen Caves, and also of a second group,
the Johansen Caves, is another mass of limestone.

The Olsen Caves, which perforate in several passages.
the narrow limestone ridge, are in size and height very much
like the Chillagoe caves. The rivers or creeks which once
eroded them left them long ago, but the secondary lime
deposits, and especially stalactites and stalagmites, are ~
much less conspicuous than in the Chillagoe caves. The
lack of this picturesque and ornamental element makes
them less interesting for an ordinary tourist, but for a
student of physiography, the work of the running and
whirling waters is well preserved and very interesting.
‘he small amount of secondary limestone, and also the
better preservation of the caves, although the ridge is only
of the same elevation as over the Chillagoe Caves, shows.
that they are in a younger stage of development.
Innumerable bats have their refuge in these caves, and the
deposit on the floor is a magnificent guano preserved by
nature for the use of future agriculturists. The top of
the ridge shows a most beautiful and diversified develop-
ment of the “‘ Karren phenomena,” and is more accessible
than the tops of the Chillagoe bluffs, the disintegration
being not so far advanced, and the roofs of the caves
solid.

Many other limestone areas are met among the
paloeozoic rocks in the mountainous eastern parts of the
State, and their morphological development will be of
great help to a student of the geological changes in the
latest periods, since limestone more than other rocks
preserves the old landscape and reveals many details,
which serve as unmistakable proofs of older stages of the
drainage system.

In the farthest north-west of tae State a high level
plateau called Barkly Tableland extends and continues.
very far into the Northern ‘Territory. The age of the
limestones is yet unknown, but the depth of the continuous
limestone strata is so enormous that it is quite possible
that they consist of layers deposited in very difierent
geological periods. Their extent is better known in the

BY DR. J. V. DANES. 81

Northern Territory by the explorations of Mr. Brown,
the Government Geologist of Southern Australia.

That limestone area, so far as it is known, differs in
many respects from the limestone-outcrops in the very
disturbed mountain ranges along the eastern coast. The
beds are in almost undisturbed horizontal positions, except
in some places along the eastern edge, as Mr. Ball kindly
informed me. ‘They fill out a vast basin of unknown deyth.
The bores, of which the deepest is on Alexandra Downs
Station, 1,700ft. deep, did not reach the base of the lime-
stone formation. The surface of the Barkly Tableland,
and also of the connected plateaux in the Northern
Territory, represent a very good grazing country wherever
the limestones form the surface, but gravelly ridges consisting
of jasperised boulders and pebbles are in places very
extended, and covered by poor open forest and spinifex
crass. The water on the surface is scarce, and only the
Georgina River contains some permanent water holes,
called lakes. Two of them were the refuge of Landsborough’s
exploring party. One of them, Lake Francis, supplies
Camooweal, the thriving economical centre of the ‘able-
land; near the other, ‘“‘ Lake Morry,”’ the homestead of
Rocklands Cattle Station is situated.

The lack of a superficial water supply would be a great
drawback to the future development of the good grazing
country, but the limestone basin contains in the under-
ground depths a magnificent supply of water, which can
be reached by bores and pumped in unlimited quantities.
The eastern part of the Tableland is formed by an impure
limestone, where the underground water supply is very
limited and not sufficient for practical purposes, but that
area is luckily only an insignificant part of the Tableland,
which, so far as the limestone extends continuously, can
be sure of an unlimited water supply in bores reaching
not below 4-500 feet. The extent of that basin in Queens-
land is not yet known, but reaches more than a hundred
miles further south than suggested until the present. The
value of that water supply will be of immense significance
for the future development of the farthest West of Queensland
and of more extended areas within the Northern Territory.
One good quality of it is that pumping is necessary, and so the
wasting of superfluous water as in the case of artesian bores

F—Rovyat Society.

.

82 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND

can never become dangerous to the very existence of the
water supply for the future generations. Now almost all
of the stations on the Tableland and in the South-eastern
part of the Northern Territory use that subterranean water,
and in the future a practically unlimited number of bores.
will make the extensive use of that Territory for stock one
of the most important resources of the interior. I shall
be very glad indeed if the present remarks reach the
State Governments concerned, and if a thorough geological
survey from both sides prove to what extent my
Suggestions are of practical value for the development of
that, until the present, very little known and neglected
country.

The subterranean basin in the limestone formation
gives a permanent: water supply to many magnificent
rivers and creeks, whose surrounding areas can be the basis
of closer settlement in the future. On the Queensland
side, the Gregory River derives her splendid stream from
numerous springs in the limestone, the lime suspended
in the water is deposited in some places. in the form of
travertin and calcareous conglomerate, forming natural.
dams across the river bed, which the stream leaps in a number
of picturesque cataracts and rapids. In the Northern
Territory the McArthur, the Roper, the Victoria, the Daly
and many other streams get their permanent, splendid
quantity of water out of the subterranean limestone basin.

The surface of the plateau is very level and the strata
almost undisturbed, and there are extensive patches of
country covered by a sandstone formation corresponding
very probably with the so-called desert sandstone formation
in age and aspect.*

The caves are not very numerous, but they are ex-
tremely interesting from the very young stage of develop-
ment they represent. They seem mostly to be due to
fissures crossing the country in an almost north-south
direction, and several groups of caves and sinkholes are
known in the environs of Camooweal. I visited most of
them. ‘lhe best known are the Nowranie Caves, about
10 miles South-South-East from Camooweal, accessible
over a precipice and extending in two levels for some hundred.

* On the Queensland side a small desert sandstone plateau forms the:
divide about 30 miles east from Camooweal, near Wooroona Creek.

BY DR. J. V. DANES. 83

yards. The development of secondary limestone is insig-
nificant, and stalactites and stalagmites very scarce. ‘lhe
water level is about 240 feet below the surface. Another
very intererting group of caves and sinkholes is one about
44 miles north from the Rocklands Station. I named that
eroup after Mr. A. H. Glissan, the manager of the
Rocklands Station, who has a very deep interest in the
scientific and economical development of the Tableland,
and has gathered most valuable information about the char-
acter of the subterranean water basin.. Further to the West
the Happy Creek sends a great part of its waters to the sub-
terranean basin through a sinkhole. The ‘“ Karren phae-
nomen ”’ is only in its beginning—everywhere on the out-
cropping rocks.

a

Proc, Roy. Soc. Q’uanp, Vou. XXIII. Prats J,

Laprar (KaRREN PHAENOMEN) Ocran Caves RipGE,

”

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Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’nanp, Vou. XXIII. Puare II.

WATERHOLE IN THE Wooroona CrEEK, Hast rrom CaMoowEAL
(IMPURE LIMESTONE).

A. H. Guissan’s Group or SINK-HOLES AND CAVES.
Barkity TABLELAND,.

‘‘ ENDEAVOUR Series No. 1.”’

ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE
QUEENSLAND COAST.

By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 20th,
1910.

4 —_—__—__.

Since the delivery of the above Paper and the issue of
the Author’s Copies, the Council of the Royal Society has
been informed by the Commonwealth Authorities that the
Australian Museum in Sydney had, before the expedition
sailed, been officially entrusted with the scientific descrip-
tion of all the Fishes secured, a fact of which the Council
was not aware until March, 1911. As most of the fishes
described in the Paper have been forwarded to the
Australian Museum, the Council has decided to withhold
the Paper from publication in the Proceedings.

G Royat Sociery,

NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL
ANIMACULA OF BRISBANE.

By W. R. COLLEDGE.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 28, 1910.

According to Gosse, “a rotifer is a microscopic animal
found in fresh or salt water, which swims by means of
cilia on its head, possessing jaws, stomach, and digestive
glands, muscles, a well-developed vascular system, and
nerve ganglions with fibres passing to the organ of sense.”
825 species are known, 300 are found in America, double
that number in England ; other countries contribute their
quota ; even Shackleton caught some in his latest expedi-
tion to the Southern Pole. Canada is the only place from
which we have no record, probably because no student
has searched its waters.

A little work was done in Queensland in 1887 and 1889
by a Naval Officer, Surgeon Gunson Thorpe. Two
papers, with a list of 23 species are found contributed by
him to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Queensland
about that period. Seeing that this branch of science
would repay a little study, I have devoted the most of my
spare time for the last two or three years, and have been
able to increase the number of these interesting creatures
known in Queensland to 102 species.

Those mentioned in Surgeon Thorpe’s papers are
marked by an asterisk, the rest have all been found in the
neighbourhood of Brisbane. —

ORDER I. BDELLOIDA.—Creeping like a leech usually,
but able to swim freely when they choose to do so.

Famity 1.— Philodina citrina.*
Rotifer neptunius.*
Rotifer vulgaris.*

88 ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE.

ORDER IV. RHIZOTA, or rooted ones. These are fixed
in one place and rarely move from it during life.

Famity IV.— Floscularia coronetta.*
es longicaudata.
+ ornata.*
a campanulata.

Famity VI. — Melicerta conifera.*
: ringens.*
Limnias ceratophylli.*
bs annulatus.*
Aicystes brachycera.

és crystallina.
Conochilus dossuaris.
. unicornis.

ie volvox.

Stephanoceris eichornii.

ORDER V. PLOIMA, or free swimmers.

SUB-ORDER 1.—Illoricate.

Famity 7. — Microcodidus chloena.

Famity 8.— Asplanchna amphora, male.
99 46 female.
= brightwelli.

Sacculus viridus.

Famity 9.— Syncheta stylata.
| ‘f ovalis.
of tremula.
Famity 10. —Triarthra longiseta.
Polyarthra platyptera.*

Famity 1]. —Cyrtonia tuba.
Notops brachionis.

Famity 12.—Copias copias.
ig cerberis.
- pachyurus.
Coelopus brachyurus.
Diglena grandis.
Eosphora aurita.
a digitata.

BY W. R. COLLEDGE.

Faminy 12. —Furcularia equales.
longiseta.
melandicus.
micropus.

99
99

Notammada aurita.

m] clavulata.
Proales sordida.
Taphrocampa annulosa.

Triopthalmus longiseta.

SUB-ORDER 9.—Loricata.

Famity 13. —Mastigocerca bicornis.
bicristata.
birostris.
carinata.
ae elongata.

Rattulus tigris.

“ mucosus.
Calopus porcellus.

29
bP)

99

Famity 14. —Dinocharis collinsii.
pocillum.
tetractis.

99

29

Scaridium eudodactylotum.

longicaudatum.*

99

Famity 15.—Salpina brevispina.
eustala.*
3 macracantha.
Diaschiza peta.
ie semiaperta.
Diplax trigona.
Diplois davesii.*

99

Famity 16.—Euchlanis dilatata.
oropha.
triquetra.*

99

9?

Famity 17.—Cathypna luna.*
, J leontina.
Monostyla bulla.
cornuta.
lunaris.*

quadridentata.

99

99

93

89

90 ON THE ROTIFERS 9R WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE.

Famity 18.—Colurus amblytelus.*
dactylotus.
i deflexus.
Metopidia, acuminata.
Pr lepadella.
oxysternum.
Es solidus.
~ triptera.
Cochlearis turbo.

Famity 19. —-Pterodina patina.*

Famity 20. —Brachionis angularis.
sp bakerii.*
“ falcatus.
cy militaris.*
‘fl pale.
oe ,, var. amphiceros.
+ rubens.
“0 urceolus.
Noteus quadricornis.

Famity 21.—Anurea aculeata.*
» ps var., no ventral spines.
fe cochlearis.

Faminy 22. —Pleosoma lenticulares.

Famity 23. —Gastropus minor.
= stylifer.

Famity 24. —Anapus ovalis.

ORDER VI. SCIRTOPODA.—Skipping by means of
jointed appendages.

Famty 25. —Pedalion mirum:*

This peculiar species was found at Dunk Island
by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, but I have found
them in the city and suburbs occasionally.

Another species so peculiar in structure, that its position
in the group is uncertain, is Trochosphera cquatorialis.
First found in the Philippine rice fields in 1859 by Professor
Semper. It was next observed in Brisbane after the lapse

BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 91

w{ thirty years by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, who also dis-
covered the male. It does not appear to have been noticed
anywhere but in these two localities, and contrary to the
usual wide distribution of rotifers, I have only caught
them in two pools for a very limited time in the year. At
‘the request of F. Rousselet—the great authority on these
microscopic fauna—I forwarded a batch, and some of these
were shown, for the first time to a London audience, and
‘specimens supplied to the museums of the Quecket Club
and the Royal Society.

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ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA
OF QUEENSLAND.

By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc.
(Senior Inspector or ScHooxs).

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September,
1910.

At the meeting of the Australasian Association, held in
Brisbane in January, 1909, the first list of the known
Marine Mollusca of Queensland was published by Mr.
Charles Hedley, Assistant Curator, Australian Museum,.
Sydney. This list forms part of the Presidential Address
to Section D., Biology, comprised in pp. 343-371, of
Volume xii., of the Proceedings of the Association. Pages
809-810 of the same volume contain a supplement to the
main list. In all, some 1900 species are catalogued.

The following additions are drawn. from a review of
the cabinets of my son, Mr. Ray Shirley, who has been
collecting for the past six years, and whom I have helped
in every possible way. Owing to the greatly increased
interest in natural history, many teachers of schools in the
coastal towns have made collections of [marine shells, and
from these I have received many parcels for naming. This
has given me an opportunity to study the mollusca from
a very wide stretch of coast. I take this opportunity to
thank Mr. F. Barrett, of Cairns; Mr. John Fewtrell,.
formerly of Townsville West, now District Inspector of
Schools ; Mr. Ivie Murchie and Mr. Long, of Normanton ;
Mr. E. Saunders, of Bowen; Mr. C. Kemp, formerly of
Gladstone ; Mr. Joseph Hirst, formerly of Bulwer, Moreton
Island; Mr. W. Noon, Yeppoon; and Mr. James Bruce,
of Murray Island, Torres Straits, whose collections have
enabled me to add many species to the Queensland list.

94 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND

I wish also to put on record the assistance I have had
from my friend, Mr. Charles Hedley, who has named many
parcels of shells sent down to him, and also from Mr. E. A.
Smith, of the British Museum; Mr. C. J. Wild, of the
Brisbane Museum; Messrs. C. Gabriel and J. H. Gatliff,

of Melbourne; and Mr. A. Simson, of Launceston,

mania.
PELECYPODA.

Leda lata Hinds, Bundaberg.
Arca bicors Jonas, Moreton Bay.
,, Carpenteri Dunker, Moreton Bay.
», Helblingi Chemnitz, Yeppoon.
» lima Reeve, Gladstone.
,, pusilla Sowerby, Caloundra.
Byssarea zebra Sowerby, Townsville.
Glycimeris australis Q. and G.
i i v. Greyana Dunker, Moreton Bay.
holoserica Reeve, Caloundra.
mn striatularis Lamark, Bundaberg.
Pinna angustata Lamark, Torres Straits.
Perna ephippium Linneus, Torres Straits.
» fimbriatum Reeve, Torres Straits.
Pteria marmorata Reeve, Yeppoon.
Meleagrina vulgaris Schwmacher, Moreton Bay.
Ostrea circumsuta Gould, Moreton Bay.
glomerata Gould, Moreton Bay.
mordax Gould, Bundaberg.

5 rf v. cornucopioides Lamark.
Pecten gloriosus Reeve, Yeppoon.
leopardus Reeve, Yeppoon.

» medius Lamark, Normanton, Yeppoon.
Amusiuim japonicum Lamark, Moreton Bay.
Spondylus coccineus Lamark, Moreton Bay.
imperialis Chemnitz, Cardwell, Yeppoon.

ag tenellus Reeve, Caloundra.
Limopsis multistriata Sowerby, Moreton Bay.
Anomia acheus Gray, Thursday Island.
Modiola elongata Swainson, Yeppoon.
Fortunei Dunker, Caloundra.

2 vagina Lamark, South Passage.
Chamostrea albida Lamark, Bundaberg.

99

99

39

29

93

. BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC.

Myodora ovata Reeve, Caloundra.
cs striata Deshayes, Caloundra.

Crassatellites Cumingiana A. Adams, Caloundra.

Batissa violacea Lamark, Cairns.
Austriella sordida T’enison Woods, Bowen.
Codakia punctata L,, Capricorn Islands.
Cryptodon globosum Férskal, Tweed Heads.
Corbis Sowerbyi Reeve, Torres Straits.
Cardium cardissa Linneus, Torres Straits.

ss latum Born, Moreton Bay.

a munda Reeve, Bundaberg.

» oxygonum Sowerby, Burnett River.

, philippinensis Desh,, Normanton.
Dosinia corrugata Chem., Gulf of Carpentaria.

_ lamellata Reeve, Yeppoon

3 subrosea Lamark, Keppel Bay.

% turgida Reeve, Bundaberg.
Gafrarium divaricatum Gmelin, Bundaberg. '
‘Cytherea dysera Chemnitz, Moreton Bay.

ey impudica, Sowerby, Normanton.

“j isabellina Phillipt, Moreton Bay.
xl lacerata Hanley, Bundaberg.
‘3 puerpera v. Gladstonensis Angas.
Macrocallista lilacina Lamark, Cardwell.
as lusoria Chemnitz, Normanton.
vy pellucida Lamark, Torres Strait.
‘Chione Yerburyi, H. A. Smith, Caioundra.
Paphia analis Phillippi, Burketown.

» inflata Desh, Moreton Bay

» semirugata Philippi, Fraser Island.

,, tumida Sowerby, Moreton Bay.

,, turgida Lamark, Yeppoon.

‘Tellina deltoidalis Lamark, Moreton Bay.

» lnbellis Hanley, Eliot River.

,» rostrata Linneus, Murray Island.
Donax australis Lamark, Caloundra.

» tinctus Gould, Yeppoon.
Anapella cuneata Lamark, Caloundra.
Mactra contraria Deshayes, Noosa.

» Cuvieri Deshayes, Bowen.

», depressa Lamark, Bundaberg.

»» luzonica Deshayes, Caloundra.

95

96 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND

Mactra meretriciformis Deshayes, Eliot River.
,, polita Deshayes, Moreton Bay.
Solen vaginoides Lamark, Yeppoon.

CEPHALOPODA.

Nautilus macromphalus Sowerby, Torres Straits.
= umbilicatus Lister, Torres Straits.
stenomphalus, Sowerby, Torres Straits.

Sepia rostrata D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay.

» Rouxii D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay.

Argonanta argo Jinneus, Torres Straits.

AMPHINEURA.

Acanthopleura spiniger Sowerby, Townsville.
Cryptoplax striatus Lamark.
Ischnochiton fruticosus Gould.

GASTEROPODA.
Scutus anatinus Donavon, Moreton Bay.
Subemarginula australis Q. and G., Cairns.
SS parmophoroides Q. and G., Caloundra.
Haliotis coccoradiata Reeve, Caloundra.
ss Cunninghamii Gray, Torres Straits.
sf Roei Gray, Cairns.
Trochus concinnus Dunker, Murray Island.
incarnatus Philippi, Torres Straits.
os mauritianus Gmelin, Caloundra.
z noduliferus Lamark, Caloundra.
radiatus Gmelin, Murray Island.
@issculus Lischkeanus Pilsbry, Murray Island.
Monodonta zebra Menke, Moreton Bay.
Cantharidus (Elenchus) leucostigma Menke, Murray Islande
Gibbula magus Linneus, Torres Straits.
ie Strangei A. Adams, Gladstone.
A Coxi Angas, Gladstone.
Calliostoma picturata H. and A. Adams, Murray Island.
7. oberwimmeri Preston, Murray Island.
Euchelus baccatus Menke, Murray Island.
7 instrictus Gould, Murray Island.
fr mysticus Pilsbry, Caloundra.
Bankivia fasciata Menke, Moreton Bay.
Angaria laciniatus Lamark, Normanton.
Ethalia costata Valenc., Murray Island.
vestiarium LZ., Murray Island.

39

_ BY. JOHN SHIRLEY, B SC. . 97

“Turbo pulcher Reeve, Bowen.

setosus Gmelin, Gladstone. —
stamineus Martyn, Bowen.

Astralium asteriscus Reeve, Normanton.

e fimbriatum Lamark, Caloundra.

Liotia cidaris Reeve, Murray Island.
Nerita chrysostoma Recluz, Murray Island.

» patula Sowerby, Caloundra.

» polita v. antiqua Recluz, Yeppoon, Wide Bay.
* ,, signata Macleay, Murray Island.
+ = 4, squamulata Le Guillou, Murray Island.
Neritina pulligera Linneus, Cairns.

a Rangiana Recluz, Murray Island.

a variegata Lesson, Bowen.
‘Tectarius bullatus Martyn, Cape York.
Phenacolepas granocostatus Pease, Murray Island.
Helcioniscus eucosmia Pilsbry, Caloundra.

a tramosericus Montrouzer, Moreton Bay.
Rissoina deformis Sowerby, Murray Island.
‘Tatea rufilabris A. Adams, Tweed River.
Truncatella valida Pfr., Murray Island.
Hipponix antiquatus Linneus, Burleigh Head.
Calyptraea calyptreformis Lamark.

Cerithium Hanleyi Sowerby, Murray Island.

re inflatum Quoy, Townsville.

o3 lacteum Kiener, Murray Island.

* tenellum Sowerby, Murray Island.

" tuberculatum Linneus, Moreton Bay.

*s tessellatum Sowerby, Murray Island.
‘Cerithidea Fortunei A. Adams, Yeppoon.

Ss obtusata Lamark, Moreton Bay.
Pyrazus zonalis Bruguiere, Burleigh Head.
Siliquaria australis Quoy and Gaimard, Caloundra.
Strombus dilatatus Swainson, Torres Straits.

a epidromis Linneus, Cardwell.

ie floridus Lamark, Murray Island.

be Isabella Lamark, Murray Island.

a latissimus Linneus, Torres Straits.

99

*Given as a synonym of N. reticulata Karsten, but separated by E.
A. Smith.

+ Given as a synonym of N. chameleon Linneus, but separated by E.
_A. Smith.

98 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND

Strombus labiosus Gray, Torres Straits.
Struthiolaria scutellata Martyn, Yeppoon.
Pteroceras aurantium Lamark, Torres Straits.
“ chiragra Lamark, Thursday Island.
3 rugosum Sowerby, Torres Straits.
Pyramidella sulcata 4. Adams, Murray Island.
i variegata A. Adams, Murray Island.
g: ventricosa Guerin, Cardwell.
Fusus colus Linneus, Torres Straits.

2 ,, Vv. nove-hollandize Reeve, Normanton.

» spectrum Adams and Reeve, Yeppoon.
Architectonica areolata Lamark, Murray Island.

wi modesta Phillippi, Caloundra.
RS Reevei Hanley, Normanton.
Torinia infundibuliformis Gmelin, Caloundra.
Cymatium caudatum Gmelin, Caloundra.
doliarium Linneus, Torres Straits.
* nodiferum Lamark, Bowen.
Distortrix anus Linneus, Burketown.
4 cancellatus Deshayes, Yeppoon.
Melongena pugilina Born, Yeppoon.
Bursa pulchra Gray, Caloundra.
Cassidea achatina Lamark, Caloundra.
Angasi Brazier, Caloundra.
= rufa Linneus, Murray Island.
Tonna costata Meuke, Torres Straits.

a fimbriata Sowerby, Murray Island.
Harpa conoidalis Lamark, Torres Straits.
minor Martyn, Torres Straits.

5, nobilis Martyn, Burketown.

Natica maroceana Chemnitz, Murray Island.
+ ,, marochiensis Recluz, Moreton Bay.
Polinices citrinus Philippi, Torres Straits.
lactea Sowerby, Torres Straits.
maura Lamark, Murray Island.
rufa Born, Cape York.

a Strangei Reeve, Bowen.
Sigaretus incisus Reeve, Moreton Bay.

» papillus Gmelin, Moreton Bay.
Cypraea annulata Gray, Torres Straits.
brevidentata Sowerby, Caloundra.

9?

99

9?

39

+ Joined to the preceding by Tyron, but separated by E. A. Smith.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 99

-Cypraea caput-anguis Phil., Caloundra.
cicercula Gmelin, Murray Island.
(Amphiperas) concinna Adams and Reeve, Caloundra.
cribraria Linneus, Moreton Bay.
cruenta Gmelin, Torres Straits.
histrio Linneus, Cairns.
+ interrupta Gray, Murray Island.
Gy mappa Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria.
a neglecta Sowerby, Caloundra.
nucleus Linneus, Murray Island.
ee obvelata Lamark, Cairns.
5 onyx Linneus, Burketown.
y pantherina Solander, Torres Straits.
=a poraria Linneus, Wide Bay.
-: pyriformis Gray, Townsville.
= reticulata Martyn, Cairns.
ae scurra Chemnitz, Torres Straits.
stolida Linneus, Caloundra.
pe tabescens Solander, Murray Island.
talpa Linneus, Torres Straits.
1 teres Gmelin, Murray Island.
rz testudinaria Linneus, Torres Straits.
ventriculus Lamark, Torres Straits.
ifein Childreni Gray, Wide Bay.
Ovulum Angasi Adams, Caloundra.
» angulosum Lamark, Murray Island.
“ birostris Lamark, Caloundra.
‘“ lacteum Lamark, Yeppoon.
a pyriformis Sowerby, Murray Island.
fs verrucosum Lamark, Caloundra.
Radius nr. seminulum Sowerby, Caloundra.
Scaphella Norrissi Sowerby, Cape York.
7 » V. Sophie Brazier, Cape York.
a pallida Gray, Barrier Reef, Bowen.
se piperita Sowerby, Cardwell.
x reticulata Reeve, Gulf of Carpentaria.
_ Turneri Gray, Gulf of Carpentaria.
vespertilio Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria.
Cylindra nucea Meuschen, Bowen.
Oliva bicolor Lamark, Normanton.
,, bulbiformis Ducloz, Murray Island.
,, carneola Lamark, Murray Island.

399

>]

100 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND

‘Oliva elegans Martyn, Murray Island.
, erythrostoma Lamark, Cape York.
, tfunebralis Lamark, Murray Island.
» guttula Martyn, Torres Straits.
, inflata Lamark, Trinity Bay.
» irisans v. fulgetrum, Murray Island.
, mustellina Lamark, Normanton.
,, sanguinolenta Lamark, Torres Straits.
,, tessellata Lamark, Torres Straits.
, tremulina Lamark, Murray Island.
‘Marginella compressa Reeve, Murray Island.
u triplicata Gaskoin, Murray Island.
‘Terebra babylonia Lamark, Murray Island
i cerithina Lamark, Cairns.
as Dussumieri, Kiener, Bowen and Normanton.
* mera, Hinds, Bowen.
* monilis Quoy, Cape York.
my nitida Hinds, Murray Island.
i subtextile Smith, Bowen.
iG trochlea Deshayes, Normanton.
‘Conus aureus Hwass, Moreton Bay.
» bullatus Linneus, Burketown.
, catus Hwass, Murray Island.
,» cinereus Hwass, Caloundra.
, generalis Linneus, Torres Straits.
, gubernator Hwass, Yeppoon.
,, lithoglyphus Meuschen, Torres Straits.
. luteus, Brod., Burketown
,» miles Linneus, Torres Straits.
“* , minimus Linneus, Murray Island.
5 monile Bruguiere, Yeppoon.
“+ ., ochroleuca Gmelin, Port Douglas.
» omaria Hwass, Torres Straits.
» rattus Hwass, Caloundra.
,, Sstillatus Reeve, Dunk Island.
,, stramineus Lamark v. zebra, Torres Straits.
» suturatus Reeve, Murray Island
» tulipa Linneus, Normanton.
» vexillum Gmelin, Torres Straits.
, virgo Linneus, Torres Straits.

*s. Conus coronatus Dillwyn.
t+ s. Conus fasciatus Martyn.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 10}

Glyphostoma tribulationis Hedley, Hope Island.
Mangilia gracilenta Reeve, Hope Island
Pleurotoma babylonica Lamark, Cairns.

39

ba J

cognata Smith, Burleigh Head.
grandis Gray, Burketown.

' Fasciolaria fimbriata Linneus, Torres Straits.
Peristernia australiensis Reeve, Tweed Heads.

99

93

spinosa Martyn, Keppel Bay.
ustulata Reeve, Normanton.

Mitra adusta Lamark, Cairns.

aurantiaca Chemnitz, Moreton Bay.

» cadervosa Reeve, Bowen.

cardinalis Gmelin, Murray Island.
discoloria Reeve, Murray Island.

» Hainillei Petit, Cardwell.
» luculenta Reeve, Murray Island.

papalis Linneus, Torres Straits.
pontificalis Lamark, Torres Straits.
procissa Reeve, Moreton Bay.

Tritonidea australis Pease, Tweed Heads.
Engina zonata Reeve, Murray Island.
Arcularia australis A. Adams, Murray Island.

cancellata A. Adams, Murray Island.
concinna Solander, Townsville.
ecstilba Mell. and Stand., Murray Island.
glans v. elegans Reeve, Caloundra.
globosa Reeve, Torres Straits.
Jacksoniana Q. and G., Caloundra.
Jonasi Dunker, Moreton Bay.

monile Kilvzr, Cape York.

labecula A. Adams, Bowen.
subspinosa Lamark, Normanton.
tiarula Kilver, Townsville.

Pyrene discors Gmelin, Bowen.

H Koya

Filmer Sowerby, Murray Island.

fulgurans v. punctata Lamark, Murray Island.
jaspidea Sowerby, Murray Island.

pulchella Sowerby, Murray Island.

marie Brazier, Murray Island.

‘mercatoria Linneus, Bowen.

Tavloriana Reeve, Murray Island.

Tyleri Gray, Moreton Island.

Soerrrty.

102 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND

*Pyrene zelina Ducloz, Caloundra.
Murex acanthostephes Watson, Normanton.

i Bednalli Brazier, Normanton.

4 haustellum Linneus, Torres Straits.
. monodon Sowerby, Burketown.

a osseus Reeve, Normanton.

54 pyrum L., Cardwell,

- torrefactus Sby., Gulf of Carpentaria
Afer Blosvillei Deshayes, Caloundra.

, carinifera Lamark, Normanton.
Thais ambustulatus Hedley, Moreton Bay.

,, bufo Lamark, Yeppoon.

,» haemostoma Linneus, Moreton Bay.

,, intermedia Kiener, Keppel Bay.

» pica Blainville, Torres Straits.

,, succincta v. textiliosa Lameark, Caloundra.
Drupa biconica Blainville, Murray Island.

, grossularius Bolten, Torres Straits.

, horrida Lamark, Torres Straits.
Plecotrema lirata H. and A. Adams, Burleigh Head.
Ophicardelus australis A. Adams, Brisbane River.
Melampus castaneus Muhl., Bowen.

Bullina lineata Gmelin, Caloundra.
Bullaria ampulla Linneus, Bowen.
a » v. bifasciata Menke, Bowen.
>, australis Q. and G., Caloundra.
‘Haminea galba Pease, Murray Island.
Hydatina albo-cincta, v. d. Hoeven, Stradbroke Island.
Hexabranchus marginatus v. Griff, Hope Island.

SCAPHOPODA.
Dentalium elephantinum Linneus, Torres Straits.
ee katowense Hedley, Murray Island.
BRACHIOPODA.

Lingula hians Swainson, Moreton Bay.

* Considered by Tryon to be a form of P. discors Gmelin.

A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY,

——o——

By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc.
(Sentor Inspector oF ScHoots).

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September,
1910.

In my experience of thirty-three years, during which I
have held the office of Inspector of Schools, it has been
my duty to travel over the whole of the inhabited portion
of Queensland. For twenty years this work was done
almost solely on horseback, with long periods during which |
it was necessary to carry packs, tent, and provisions, and
thus an intimate knowledge was obtained of that part of
Queensland sufficiently inhabited to require schools. It
has often been my good fortune to discover and examine
the so-called kipper or bora rings. In each instance these
comprised two earthen rings, whose diameters were in
the ratio of 3:8, or 1:2, connected by a path, generally
5 feet wide and 4-600 yards long. ;

In the South-east Moreton District | know of four of
these bora rings; one at the junction of the Mudgeraba
and Gilston Roads, not far from the Nerang railway station ;
the second at Munninba, between the selections of Hon.
J. G. Appel and Mr. Alexander Duncan; the third about
a mile east of the Canungera Mill, at the junction of the
Pine Creek and Coomera River Roads. The fourth,
which is one of the largest I have ever seen, and differs
from all others examined in several important particulars,
is the subject of this paper.

It is on the eastern bank of the Albert River, at
‘Tambourine Village, on Mr. Henderson’s farm, and about
a quarter of a mile from his house.

The site is in sandy soil, on a flat ridge rising 30-40
feet above the Albert River. The first ring is 80 feet in

104 A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY

« diameter, looking like an immense circus ring, with walls:
which are now two to three feet above the surrounding
level, and almost uniformly five feet thick at the base.
In this ring trees of nine inches in diameter are growing,
showing that it has not been used for some years past.

Leading out of the large ring at its southern side is
a path, now partly overgrown with grass, and varying in
width from 2 to 5 feet. This path is 400 yards long, and
is in a north and south direction.

The path ends in a second ring, 30 feet in diameter,
resembling the first, but with rather less solid earthen
walls. So far this “ kipper ring’’ resembles in plan alk
others yet visited ; but guided by Mr. Henderson and Mr.
B. Geissmann, of Capo di Monte, Tambourine Mountain,
it was seen that from the southern side of the small ring
the path continued for another 400 yards, where it ended
in a third wall of earth, this time of an oval shape.

This oval enclosure measures 80 feet long by 30 feet
in its widest part. The long axis lies in the same directicn
as the paths, almost exactly north and south.

Mr. Thos. Petrie in his “ Reminiscences of Early
Queensland,’ has given a graphic account of the Bora
ceremony, as practiced by the tribes in the neighbourhood
of Brisbane, pp. 44-57, with a plan of one of the rings on
p. 49. But neither in his book, nor in any other work on
Queensland aborigines, have I found mention of the third
earthen enclosure to which I have referred.

Round the third or oval earthen rampart is a semi-
circular track or path, roughly shown in the plan.
Unfortunately in the Albert Valley to-day there are only
a few half-castes remaining, and from these it is difficult
to obtain any information as to tribal customs.

All writers on the “ kipper”’ initiation ceremony
describe the tribal fights that took place at its close ; first
the fights between the initiated boys, then the melée in
which parties of tried warriors distinguished themselves,.
and finally the single combats between tribal champions.
It is the general belief in the Tambourine neighbourhood
that the oval enclosure was the scene of these Homeric
contests, and that the semi-circular track surrounding it
was beaten by the feet of the tribesmen of combatants
when cheering on the champion of their tribe.

_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 105

When one considers the tools used in raising these
‘structures were merely pointed sticks and stone tomahawks,
and that the earth was carried on sheets of bark, one
marvels at the energy and persistence of a race generally
megarded as one of the Inwest in the scale of humanity.

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Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’nanv. Vou. XXIII. Prater III.

30 FEET

400 YARDS

400 YARDS

50 FEET

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO.

By R. CLIFFE MACKIE.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 26th,
1910.

ee

As an old colonist and one whose occupation brought him
in contact with the blacks while they were still numerous
and while they still retained their original customs, I have
thought it might be interesting and useful if I placed on
record what I observed among them. This will soon be
impossible for men of the present day, for the blacks are now
few in number, and it hard to find a district where the blacks
retain their old customs unaltered by contact with the
white man.

My memory dates back nearly sixty-six years. From
the year 1850 up to 1867 I lived principally upon the out-
skirts of civilization, engaged with others in establishing
cattle stations on suitable areas of recently explored country,
and thus necessarily came in contact with the blacks while
yet unaltered by contact with the whites in the settled
districts. Being young and impressionable I took a deep
interest in their ways and customs. As soon as new “runs ”’
were occupied, the blacks began dimly to grasp the new
situation. They appointed one of their tribe, who had
passed through the usual “‘ Bora’’ ceremonies, to investi-
gate as to the “ whitefellow” and his ways. This the
black did by volunteering to assist in droving the first lot
of fat stock sent from the neighbourhood to market. His
services as tracker were most useful in following up cattle
that had strayed o:i the camp during the night or had
‘“‘ rushed’? owing to a thunderstorm or any other cause of
fright. Having thus made himself indispensable to the
camp, he, during a trip of some hundreds of miles in length
and of some months in duration, allowed nothing to escape
him which was of consequence to his race.

108 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 5O YEARS AGO

Some of their inferences were very amusing. A
Moonie River “ boy,’ who accompanied a drover to Sydney,
was taken by him to the theatre. The piece was a tragedy,
and as a finale the heroine was stabbed by an assassin.
The dagger used was of the usual “ telescoping’ kind,
and liquid, representing blood, dripped from the blade.
Combo stood up in great excitement, and amid the dense
silence, cried out in broken English, *‘ Well, well! Stupid
white-fellow, to kill that budgeree (i.e., good) young
woman! I want to go home!” On my telling him it
was not real, he replied, “‘ I saw the blood on his knife.”
The curtain fell with the drover, Combo and myself the
cynosure of all eyes. I saw this same man about five
years afterwards on the Balonne River. He told me he
had just returned from North-west Queensland, having
spent the whole intervening period fulfilling his mission.
Knowing the interest I took in blacks’ ways, he told me
his adventures, and, as was the custom in those days, I
took him on as a sort of “* Man Friday.”’

The account he gave me was, as near as I can now
remember, as follows :—The news of his return from Sydney
had soon spread far and wide, and he was required at all
corrobborees in order to recount to the other blacks what he
had learned.

The listening blacks carried the tale to more distant
tribes, who wished corroborative evidence. Their etiquette
ran thus : —

A general meeting was convened at some rendezvous,
and at dusk the fires were set blazing. The narrator left
the circle and took up a position directly opposite to wltere
the leading men of the community are stationed. One
of the “‘ elders’? then calls out to him, ‘“‘ Where did you
come from?’ He replies by naming the last place at
which he spoke. ‘‘ Where are you going?” To this he
replies that he is going all about with news because he has
seen the white-fellows’ camp and the “big waterhole”
{t.e., the sea). A general request is then made for him to
unfold his tale. Choosing a position so that his voice can
be heard through all the camp, and addressing himself to
the leading men, he tells all he knows. As this is the univer-
sal practice among them, and as in this way the news of
Governor Phillip’s landing and the outbreak of the gold

BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 109

diggings would be carried over the Continent, all tales of
men who speak of having met tribes that never had heard
of or seen white men must be received with extreme caution.
I myself met, 40 years ago, blacks who declared that they
were a ‘‘ moon’s journey’ from their own “ towrie”’ or
hunting-ground. It is very hard to get reliable information
as to their ways. They distrust and stand in awe of adult
whites and will not reveal much to them. They are more
free with young white boy and girls, but the latter are not
prone to ask for information of the kind indicated nor to
understand it when given. Besides, blacks would be very
unlikely to discuss such topics with children too young to
be told of such matters. It might be a matter of wonder
why those white men who have lived among the blacks for
years can or will tell so little about them. As a matter of
fast, such whites are merely kept as curiosities by the blacks,
just as we keep a strange animalina‘“‘ Zoo.” As the novelty
wears off, the prisoner is relegated to the society of the
‘gins ’’ and “* piccanninies,”’ and he is allowed no part in
tribal discussions or initiations. This humiliating treat-
ment, which is very keenly felt, makes the white prisoner
on his return to civilization unwilling even to talk of matters
which revive the galling memories of his past treatment.
Such men are never allowed to learn anything of the matters
and ceremonies afiecting adult blacks, nor would they be
very likely to tell if they did know. They resent any
inquiries which would lead to the disclosure of how com-
pletely they had been ignored.

It is probable that the race at one time were of a
higher intelligence and civilization than now. Those who
instituted their social and marriage rules must have been
of a higher type than the savages that Captain Cook met.
‘The present natives could scarcely invent the laws relating
to marrriage and consanguinity nor those relating to their
socialeconomy. There are many of their rules which remind
one of the ancient Hindu and Thibetan rules. Whether
similarity of social rules implies a similar racial origin is
unsettled.

With regard to their origin they have no theories to
offer. Even with regard to their own individual existence,
all they can suggest is that their ‘‘ totem” in some way
influences the circumstance. With regard to their charac-

“110 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO

teristics, it may be remarked that treachery is so common.
among them that they, from fear of an attack from an enemy,
are habitually light sleepers. ‘Lhe circumstances of their
lives make them keen observers, though this charae-
teristic diminishes after long residence with white men.

Most of the young men are vain, and like to decorate
themselves with gaudy feathers, shells, pipe-clay, ochre,.
or anything of a showy nature. The “ gins” (except when
being young they are given to these decorations) rarely
indulge in such frivolities.

The men have no conception of feminine beauty in the:
sense in which we understand such a feeling ; and have no
sense of conjugal love. They treat their children in-
dulgently till the age of puberty, after which they abandon.
them to their own resources.

Taken generally, they are a laughter-loving people,
and generous to a fault. The narrow rance of their ideas.
is, no doubt, responsible for their taciturnity, and this may
account for their limited vocabulary, which makes
them represent by a _ diiterence in emphasis rather
than by a different word any diferent shade _ of
meaning. This :s especially the case with the
“gins *? when excited. Their language is pronounced with
a marked nasal intonation. They had no recognised chief..
Each man had influence according to his force of character..
There were no tribal boundaries beyond the usual habits of
remaining on a known hunting ground. An illegitimate
could go to the next tribe, select a wife and marry. He
would not be killed as an alien. Wounds were healed by
an application of mud, and their flesh heals rapidly. They
survive wounds which would end white men. For bowel
troubles they use “‘ apple-tree ”’ gum, or the gum from some
other eucalypt.

When forced to go hungry they gradually tighten a
belt of opossum hair round their stomachs, and this mod-
erates the pain of hunger, or, at any rate, makes it less.
keenly felt.

The mothers are very fond of their sons, and on the
return of a son after a long absence, the mother sits in front
of him, puts her hand on his knees, and, looking pleadingly
up in his face, says, “‘ Ti on naa, nia berahli’”’ (Come to me,.
my child).

BY R. CLIFFE MACKIF. 111

A messenger carrying news to other tribes, Lefore he
camps for the night, will cross the top end of the water-
course, follow down to the lower end, and re-cross. ‘Lhis
latter manceuvre is supposed to leave behind any malignant
spirit which may have dogged their footsteps.

A myall (wild black) will not follow walking behind a
white whom he loves lest his savage instincts should lead
him to take a treacherous advantage.

They are not cruel, but, like children, are incapable of
mental sympathy. They will not drown or kill puppies,
but will put a whole litter into a hollow stump and abandon
them to show starvation without compunction. They
seem to form no mental conception of pain which they do
not actually see or hear.

It is not true that they abandon their aged or infirm
to die of starvation. In all cases such victims were volun-
tary martyrs, who, owing to senile decay, became despon-
dent, and, at their own request, were taken to the neigh-
bourhood where they wished to die, the whole camp demon-
strating in various ways their sympathy.

Upon arriving there, the patient was laid on his sleep-
ing apparel with all his worldly goods. His friends then
departed, and the patient, by the mere exertion of his
will-power, died off in a sort of stupor or sleep, because
he had willed to cease living. It was only those from
other tribes, who, unable to brook the restrictions of the
white invaders, left their own hunting-grounds and sought
an asylum along their neighbour tribes that were left to
die neglected. As they had no blood relations, they were
left to meet their end as best they could, a tribal law for-
bidding sympathy to one who was not of their tribe. But
those of the same “‘ totem ”’ might, by consent of the tribe,
bury the stranger. No other blacks would venture to do
so, lest some evil might befall them. ‘Lhe stranger was
generally buried, it may be remarked.

A man or woman might only marry according to certain
prescribed “ groups.” If a young gin were the destined
mate for a certain black, he allowed her to run about as
she pleased just as any mere animal might do till such time
as he felt inclined to claim her. From this time on, she was
for him alone. Should there be a piccaninny which, owing
to this prior freedom of conduct, he did not consider his,.

112 ANTHROPOLGGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO

he refused the midwife all countenance for the child. The
midwife then went to the mother who had gone through her
confinement at a spot some distance away, and intimated
that the child was unwelcome. The little stranger
then disappeared as not wanted; so generally did one of
twins. It is worthy of remark that the old midwife gener-
ally pleaded hard for the child till the blackfellow indicated
by an angry reaching for a nulla-nulla that he was weary
of the subject, and would knock on the head perhaps her,
the piccaninny, or both if she worried him much longer.
Sometimes a black through jealousy refused to have the
child saved. Crippled or deformed babies might be killed.

It is not true, on the Darling and Murray waters, at
any rate, that piccaninnies were killed when food was scarce
or when the tribe had a journey to go. I do not presume
to speak for districts unknown to me in this connection.
The husband might have one or two wives, but they must
be of the prescribed ‘“‘ group.”’ He would lend one for any
time, short or long, to a visitor from another tribe, provided
the visitor were not of the wrong “ group ’’—this to avoid
consanguinity. There is a remarkable similarity to Maho-
metan customs as regards divorce. They can divorce a
wife, and, if all parties are agreeable, make them eligible
to re-marry. First cousins may not marry. The children
of such marriages and of marriages in prescribed “ groups ”
are treated as illegitimates are with us. A front tooth is
knocked out as a brand, and the outcast may marry in
another tribe, or, if a gin, may become the property of a
low white or a Chinaman. The low white or Chinaman
prefers such a gin, as no blackfellow is likely to come and
dispute possesion with him, nor is any visiting black likely
to coax her away for a_ wife, as the tribe to which she
belongs would favour the white man or Chinaman.

No “‘ illegitimate ’’ may marry in his or her own tribe.
The parents marry their girl to a suitable man. She is not
consulted. Two men may exchange wives or barter them.

Grown-up sons are expected to provide for their mother,
and according to their lights they do so. The old men are
kept in the camp with the gins, who carry them if necessary.

Should any infant die, the mother must carry the corpse
about with her for a certain time, according to the social
order, before she buries it. The succeeding menstrual

BY R CLIFFE MACKIE. 113

period frees her from the obligation. The burial rites differ
according to the several “‘ castes” of consanguinity. Some
are put into a hollow tree which is still standing. Others
are tied neck and heels and placed face downwards in a
moderately deep hole, or they are laid in a shallow trench
and covered over with leaves, earth, and long heavy saplings
to save them from carrion birds. Dingoes, it is not generally
known, will not eat human flesh. A grave was indicated
by a single “ blaze ’’ on each tree in a circle round the grave.
They had neither fear nor reverence with regard to such
burial spots, but would not walk over a grave. One obser-
vance is purely religious. A dead warrior is put on a
wooden frame and placed over a smouldering smoking fire.
The mourners rush up to the corpse and rub the oozing grease
from the corpse over their own breasts and limbs. This is
done to set free and send his soul away so that it will no
longer follow them.

In no instance on the inland waters did cannibalism
obtain. The blacks would, however, eat stale eggs, putrid
flesh, loathsome insects, etc.

Like the ancient Egyptians, as seen in hieroglyphs,
they used “ message sticks.’ Certain characters were cut
into the message stick to assist the memory of a tribal dele-
gate visiting another tribe on public affairs.

They made effigies—such as a miniature snake—and
these were used from the Condamine River to the Murrum-
bidgee River at all religious ceremonies. The “‘ Thoroo
Mullion”? or ‘“ bull-roarer’”? was only used at “ bora”
ceremonies.

They do not eat the animal whose “ totem” they wear,
but the rest of the tribe may, as it is only a social “‘ taboo ’—
of breaking which they would feel greatly ashamed if
detected.

They ate the grubs from the wattle trees, also the
little yellow “ hypoxis’? yam. They would not eat the
lily root as it made them sick, but they did eat the seed pod
of a big lily in the ‘‘ Nangram’”’ waterhole. This is a big
lily, sometimes blue and sometimes red, which grows about
6 miles below Fairy Meadow on the Condamine River.
This pod when ripe bursts with a great “‘ pop.” They ate
a big yam—the “ Weeah’’—which has a running vine.
The cattle “ate this yam out” by eating the vine down

114 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO

persistently. It was found by tapping with the foot on
the ground. It grew about 12 inches below the surface,
and was best when from a year to eighteen months old.
It was so juicy as to be as good as a drink on a hot day.
They ate white ants, bee larve, and bee bread.

A ‘ possum-belt’’ or loin cloth was worn, but by the
young gins only. The males wore nothing. A stranger
guest at a ceremony was distinguished by a few strips of
kangaroo tail before and behind.

The septum of the nose was gradually dug through
with the little finger nail, and a quill inserted. This was
considered a great decoration.

The ‘‘ humpies ”’ were called “‘ gundis,”’ and were made
of bark. Goondiwindi (the town) simply means “ the hut
on the water hole.”

They used no ‘“‘ woomerah.”’ ‘They had the ordinary
light currajong “ heelaman,” also a special “ heelaman”
for warding off boomerangs. Certain blacks were the recog-
nised weapon-makers. The stone tomahawks were sharp-
pened by water and friction. One of their “ grounds ”
where these were prepared lies about 100 yards below the
old house at Cobboreena, on the west of the Creek. The
‘* dilly-bags ’’ were made of Xerotes, which the gins scorched
while it was green, and, after a month, they pulled it up,
dried it, and used it.

Currajong fibre was beaten out, steeped in water and
mud, and made into “ dilly-bags.’”> Kangaroo sinew was
used for sewing opossum rugs. The “ reed-spear’’ was
unknown, brigalow being used.

The ‘‘ weet-weet ’’—a sort of torpedo-shaped stick—
was used in play. One man held a small green twig or
branchlet about three feet above the ground. Another
jerked the weet-weet through this, and the toy often flew
300 yards, the tail controlling its flight. They are
guided in making their appointments as to religious cere-
monies, etc., by the movements of the more conspicuous
heavenly bodies, as Orion’s Belt, but a moonless night is
always chosen for such ceremonies. The Milky Way and
Magellan’s Clouds are watched, but the Moon and Orion’s
Belt are, in that order, their chief guides as to times and
seasons for social functions. They take interest in Venus
as an evening star, but fail to recognise her in the morning.

>

BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 115

‘They are afraid when an eclipse occurs, and include it with
meteors and whirlwinds among the malignant spirits which
they propitiate by making a peculiar kind of noise. When

a blood relation dies, they note the position of some planet,

and when that planet again returns in its annual course
they renew their mourning and cry without shedding a tear:
They think all the stars, planets, etc., are alive. They had
several religious and social ceremonies. The “ corrob-
boree ’’ was more of a social character, and a great ‘‘ Borah ”’
was their great religious ceremony. The word “ Bora”
means a place where religious functions common to the com-

.munity may be carried out. On the Murray River basin

and all its tributaries a grand bora was held about every
10 years. The time and place were arranged according to
conditions of weather. No hunting is carried on in that
place for at least a year, that there may be game enough to
supply the assembled tribes while the bora lasts. As the
time draws near, all the tribesmen within a reasonable
distance visit the spot and help in the excavation. They
use yam-sticks to loosen the soil, and, commencing from the
centre of the ring with flat pieces of wood or tough bark
for shovels, they throw the dirt between their legs behind
them towards the outer rim of the circle which is to encom-
pas the sacred ground. They usually excavate about six
inches of the surface soil, which they ultimately form into
a mound to represent and define the ring. Within speaking
distance is a much smaller circle, where the neophytes
must wait till called by the elders.

The Kamiloroi tongue is used in these functions as
being commonly understood by all the Western tribes of
whatsoever dialect they be.

The Neophytes are taught how to throw bundies,
boomerangs, weet-weets, nulla-nullas and spears. They
are taught weapon-making and rude blacksmithing. They
get a secret family name, which, however, eventually leaks
out by accident. The indispensable knack of quivering
the muscles of the arms and thighs as shown at corrobkorees
is taught here.

Weapons were bartered. Marriage disputes were
settled and questions of consanguinity. Jllegitimates had
a tooth knocked out. All private and public disputes were
argued out. No tribe had a chief. Each man’s opinion

116 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO

carried weight according to his earnestness on the question
and his force of character. These outings sometimes lasted
for months, each tribe inviting the other to its “‘ towrie’’
or hunting ground. Idolatry was unknown either at boras.
or at any other time. Effigies were used, but not wor-
shipped. The ‘‘ mysterious observances’ talked about.
have no foundation in fact. They have no theories as to a
future life. The ‘“ die blackfellow, jump up white-fellow ’*
is a white man’s importation. They believe in the presence
of departed spirits and do not like to name a deceased person.
Their grief at a death is very demonstrative and noisy,
and is accompanied by their cutting themselves with mussel
shells and sharp flints. They have no idea of God. All
their ‘“‘ theology ”’ is associated with evil spirits supposed
to inhabit the heavenly bodies, thunder, lightning, meteors,
shooting stars, etc.

Their ideas and ceremonies vary somewhat in different
tribes, just as do our own religious sects. In the North the
bora ring is an area like a rabbit-warren ; the large and small
circles of one tribe and the two equal circles of another
being merely differences in matters of form. The root prin-
ciples are the same.

The extraordinary lengths to which these bora practices.
sometimes run have a parallel in the religious frenzies seen
among our own race at times.

The ‘“‘ Yo-Yo” bora ceremonies of the Barwon River
are almost identical with the ‘‘ Wom-nay-narah-narah ”’
of Cooper’s Creek.

The cutting off the top joint of the little finger and the
piercing the septum of the nose are of social and not of
religious significance. Pipe-clay marks on a gin had a
medico-sexual import, not a religious one. The corrob-
boree serves as a history or record of political and domestic
events, and is an easy way of spreading local gossip to the
other tribes. To send unwelcome rain away, all the men
gathered kneeling in a ring round a “ charm ”’—a water-
worn stone—and for half-an-hour repeated “ Wee yan
Burran’”’ (Go away, rain). If the rain went, faith in the
‘““stone’’ increased; if not, some other tribe was praying
for the rain to continue. With the advent of the whites,
and the dying out of the blacks, boras and corrobborees are
neglected and forgotten. The marriage and other laws

BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. Li7

of the blacks are becoming confused and forgotten. ‘heir
“group ”’ distinctions are dying out, and they no longer
take the chance of learning the arts peculiar to themselves,
as these are fast becoming needless with the advent of white
man’s food, weapons and laws.

Only the low-class whites will fraternise with the
blacks, who, therefore, learn nothing of us but our vices.
The contact with the lowest stratum of our race has not
been a benefit to the aboriginals. All honour to those who
have endeavoured to preserve, help and teach them. As
their visual and other sense organs are the faculties most
developed in them, any attempt at teaching them should be
directed to an appeal through these channels rather than
through mental processes beyond their grasp.

I append a list of native words with their meanings,
as these are often of interest to present day readers.

Billa ee x0) .. = Waterhole, as Wallum-
billa, Bogrambilla,
Yulabilla

Dilla J, 2 .. = Waterhole, Manandilla,

= Armadilla, Muckadilla.

Kobble sie a .. = Waterhole, Kobble, Kob-
ble, Cobblegun.

Bumba a ed .. == An angle in a creek

Cooroora.. be .. = Big waterhole with rocks
in.

Euroka a He oe. TTL,

Goodar ve as .. = Pine on one side of the

water and box and
coolibah on the other.
Ba sf s- ..° == ‘Waterhole, =<‘ Whyen-
bah, Tarawinnabah,
Ibbinbah, Wallanbah.
Whyenbah = Water-
hole between two
high ridges.

Wallan = Bendee
country.
Ba = Water.
Quey Bunda % .. = Red Kangaroo.
Denown = Kmu.
Yeppi = ~ Carpet: Snake:

I Koyau Soerery.

118

Mundowie
Mil

Binna

Numba
Banjamin
Meranjan
Beerahli
Goleer

Geer
Kamel

Waal
Boie
Thaluma
Boorae
Collie
Collie Mungul
Ki-i
Goona
Keel
Andillo
Bogal
Myall

Beer ..
Bullah
Cooleebah :
Tallah Inneu Ti Annowin

Tallah Innen Yan Nowie..
Tanno Qui Qui Arrathy ..

Auga Mundi

Niah Inneu Bunnaguy
Bundagie ..

‘A. black who

ANTHROPCLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO

Foot.

Kye. (Innu-gomille =
you see).

Ear (Innu-binna = you
hear).

Mother.

Husband.

Wife or woman.

Picanninny, child.

Borrowed wife, sweet-
heart, or rejected wife.

Yes.

No (in Kamilaroi ton-
gue).

No (in Wallaroi tongue)

Die.

Thunder.

Fire or Lightning.

Water (Umbercollie).

Big waterhole.

Excessively amorous.

Excrement

Urine.

Blackfellow

Stranger blackfellow.

knows
nothing of white men.

One.

Two.

Three.

Where have you come
from 2

Where are you going to ?

The other side of some

red ground.

Gather round. The
** bora’”’ ground of the
white writers.

(“‘ Bora ” is not a blacks’
word.)

I and you go.

Fall down.

BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 119

Innu Kunmullie Let go, you.

Kuckill 7 7" -. = No good (anything
objectionable).

Weaarree willijoe .. -- = _ we'll sit down.

‘Ti Una = Come here.

MARRIAGE CODE AND LAWS.

Brothers : Sisters :
Cubbee Cubbatha
Hippi Hippatha
Murri Matha

~ Combo _ Bootha

Cubbee Marries Matha

Hippi Marries Bootha

Murri Marries Cubbatha

Combo Marries Hippatha

Children take their parents’ names according to their

‘group; and also their totem appellation, which is
exchanged for their group name, when they obtain
puberty.

alt

. é oo ie EP
P s* be e ce
ey F A 4 yet! aia te | a
2 .
éxi8 ar &
" , 2. “7a vs “eT iY ‘
1 : ’ na
:
‘
Ll ae
,
we te
4 ' ‘
sy én
: eo"
rs : 4, at .
; jo bp i bai ate
j
? o
} 4 « 7
>
‘
be ’
1 é
,
a.
i *
’
: :
" v

NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO,

By W. R. COLLEDGE.

Presidential Address, read before the Royal Society of
Queensland, 25th February, 1911.

Ladies and Gentlemen,—

You have heard from the Report that the year has
not been unfruitful. Our late Premier was reported to
have asked if the Royal Society was alive. The best
answer to that will be the substantial volume of the pro-
ceedings which will soon issue from the press. It will be
found more bulky than some of its predecessors. This
is partly the result of kind contributors, the efforts of our
very energetic Secretary, supplemented by members of
the Council. But if the half of those who have been
appealed to had responded in the affirmative, the result
would have been a still more bulky volume as the evidence
of our existence.

Only those who have sought to secure such work as
is desired by the Royal Society know the difficulty that
exists in obtaining original contributions. A trouble that
is not peculiar to our State; for I note in the last report
of that old-established Microscopic Society of London,
the “ Quekett Club’? (of which our Bacteriologist, Mr,
Pound, is a member), that they complain of the same
difficulty ; and regretfully say that if more original papers
are not forthcoming, then the usefulness of their valuable
magazine will be much curtailed. This is somewhat sur-
prising, considering that the age is one of intense activity.
There has never been as much scientific work done, in the
same time, in any previous age, as in the present. All
the world over, more men are occupied, who possess wider
‘knowledge and more finished equipment than they ever
had before. New fields of work are continually opening

122) NOTES ON A BRUSH TONGUED MOSQUITO

up; many of these are occupied ; the work is being done,.
but a great deal of it does not seem to come to the Societies.
which exist for its furtherance and development. We
are sometimes tempted to ask are these bodies getting
out of touch, or sympathy, with their mission, so that.
the workers do not receive from them a warm hand grip,.
and an encouraging word, and for want of them, keep.
aloof. That at least is not the case with the Society here.
Its Council are only too glad to welcome all work that bears.
on it the stamp of originality. We have suffered some-
what from our inability to present, what we do get, in a
better illustrated form. In bygone days a Government
grant enabled us to secure engravings to _ illustrate
adequately some of the subjects read at our meetings.
But when, in darker times than these, the knife of retrench-
ment ruthlessly lopped off that source of revenue, and we:
had to depend only on members’ subscriptions, then as
honest men, making the Society pay its way, we did
our best to keep the flag flying, but could not afford
expensive engravings for the illustration of papers, and.
on that account some work done in this State is said to-
have gone to others who were able to furnish them in a.
superior style. That has told against us, and other States
have gained credit for work which otherwise might have
appeared in our pages. But we believe that better times
are coming. The establishment of the University in.
Queensland ; the gathering of the most gifted of our youths.
from all parts of the land must give an impetus to
scientific work.

The presence of Professors and teachers, who having”
won laurels in other lands, and now make this fair city
their home, cannot but have a powerful uplifting force.
Their sympathies must be with us. And as, amid their
onerous duties, some at least occasionally will be able
to grace this platform, they will give the Royal Society
a deeper inspiration, and make it a mightier force than it.
has ever been before.

To-night I wish to bring before you some interesting
features of one of the species of mosquitoes found in our
neighbourhood. Certain kinds of these insects are knowm
to carry very serious diseases, and the whole family are re-

BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 1238

garded with suspicion. But the one I refer to is of a blame-
less character, and probably the whole of the group to
which it belongs are likewise harmless to humankind.
They belong to the genus Megarrhina (R. Desvoidy), and
are distinguished from others by their generally large size,
brilliant coloration, peculiar shape of proboscis, and the
possession of a caudal fan. Tropical and subtropical regions
are their homes. Giles in his book enumerates fifteen species.
They have been found in the Argentine, Brazil, Sikkim
and Central Asia, Java, Batavia, Island of Formosa. Alfred
Wallace notes them from Singapore, the Celebes Islands,
New Guinea and Queensland. So far only one of the species
has been reported from this State. They range from
Thursday Island, Port Denison. Mr. Tryon found them
on Percy Island, Dr. Bancroft at Caboolture; and I
have got larva from North Pine and Milton.

Sufficient material to make complete dissections of
all parts of the body have not been available, but the little
I have done is both interesting and instructive. This
particular species was called Megarrhina speciosa, but
Mr. Theobald, the authority at the British Museum on
the Diptera, has rechristened it T'oxorynchites speciosa,
so that it is now known by that name.

On the 8th March, 1910, Dr. Parry (whose recent
decease we greatly lament) brought down to me a living
female specimen caught ten miles from Brisbane. This
was the first living one I had seen. The next night it
deposited on the water in its prison house a few eggs. These
were laid, not in a raft like the house mosquito, but sep-
arately on the water. They are oval, measuring the 50th
of an inch in length by the 42nd in breadth. The micro-
pyle is at the centre of one end, and the shell splits cen-
trally through its long axis for the emergence of the larva.
The eggs are pale in colour, do not darken by exposure
to the air, like some species, and the surface is finely granu-
lated. In two days they hatched, and the larva, pale and
transparent, lay on the surface of the water. I thought
from their appearance and absence of motion that they
were cast off skins, until on touching one with the point
of a needle, it gave a twitch, and I found that they were
the new born larva of this particular species.

The larva of many species are characteristic, so that

124 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO

they can be recognised by anyone who has studied thire
peculiarities. In the Toxorynchites speciosa the head is
small, rectangular in shape, with a short unjointed palp
projecting from either cheek. The thorax is about twice
the length and breadth of the head. Three sets of short
feathered balancing hairs spring from stout conical papilla
on the sides. These bend towards the head. On the
abdominal segments are similar papilla bearing much
longer tufts of bristles. The terminal segment in the new
born larva is longer and carries four very long seta, which
are replaced in the next moult by a different form of appen-
dage. In three or four days the colour becomes yellow.
I found to my sorrow they were cannabilistic in practice.

I placed in clean water so that there should be no
insects to do them hurt. But they preyed on one another,
and it became a question of the survival of the fittest.
On returning from business at night, I found only two alive,
one seriously injured. He had received a bite through
the chest which severed one of the main tracheal tubes,
and notwithstanding careful nursing he died in three days.

The survivor was much more robust, and as the effect
of his orgies, grew so as to require a new suit of clothes,
for he moulted on the fourth day. This did not make
any alteration in his appearance excepting in the tail
appendages. In some species the difference is much
marked, so that before and after the moult they look like
two different species. Here the only change was in size
and the tail fan. On the fifth day, granules of dark pig-
ment began to appear, turning the general colour reddish
brown, though the abdomen remained much paler. I
regularly fed it on the larva of other mosquitoes, which
it seized in characteristic style. First it displayed an
aspect of perfect indifference to their presence. Not a
muscle moved nor a balancing hair turned. It might
be a floating splinter of wood for any sign of life. The
other larva might swim round and almost touch it, but
there was no sign of anxiety to cultivate a closer acquaint-
ance. Thus all fear they might at first have at its
presence subsided. By-and-bye, however, it would sidle
up with a slow motion, watching intently with the head
sloping downwards, the tail being attached to the surface
film. Remaining motionless, it) measured the striking

BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 125

distance. If not quite near enough, then there was no
muscular motion of the front part of the body, but the
three last segments of the abdomen were quietly telescoped
into each other, then outhrust, thus bringing him a little
nearer. This generally took some time. And as ordinary
larva are of an active nature they frequently moved to
another place. But, with indomitable patience, the same
process was repeated, again and again. Until at last the
chance came, there was a flash from the seemingly inanimate
body, and the larva struggled in his grip. Seized some-
times by the middle, occasionally by one of the palps on
the head, there was no escape from those relentless jaws.
Gradually it was drawn in, chewed bit by bit, until all the
juices were extracted. Skin and crushed organs were then
thrown aside, and in an hour or two the same process was
repeated, and so several larva were disposed of every day.
It did not entirely confine itself to mosquito larva, for
a moth accidentally singing its wings at the lamp fell on
the water of its preserve. Likea trout at a fly it rose, seized
and dragged it down. I regularly fed it with mosquito
larva obtained from various sources for the succeeding
months, but the cooler weather retarded its development,
and it was not until the 27th of August that it threw off
its larval skin and entered into the pupa stage. Then it
was 24 weeks old.

The pupa, or next stage of the insect, is distinguished
from others of the family by its comparative size. They
are veritable giants. Mr. D. O’Connor showed me one
which had been sent to him as a curiosity some months
ago. They are heavily built, chocolate brown in colour,
and chiefly spend their time lying on the surface of the water.
The cephalothorax is at first triangular in side view, but
as the insect develops within, the lower portion grows as
far as the third segment of the abdomen.

On the nape is a large tuft of palmate hairs, which,
by laying hold of the surface film, helps to steady its body
‘on the surface of the water.

It now breathes from the head, instead of the tail,
as in the larval state, and the two spiracles or Lreathing
organs are placed one on each side of the head. They
are of the same dark chocolate colour as the body, but the
internal surface is golden, contrasting beautifully with
the darker background.

126 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO

The connecting membrane of the segments, as in the
case of the larva, is of a pale and flexible character. At
the end is the telson or swimming appendage, composed
of two broad fans. These diverge from each other more
decidedly than they do in the pupa of other species with
which I am acquainted. A stout rib passes down the centre
of each leaf, and they are studded with minute hairs. The
pupa stage continued for fifteen days; the perfect insect
emerged on September 8th; the period from egglaying
to perfect insect, being six months. This is probably
much longer than it would have been in a natural state.
In artificial conditions, mosquitoes require a much longer
time to pass through their life changes than if they were
placed in natural conditions. But this is the only instance
where I have been able to breed from the egg to the perfect.
insect.

The adult insect is the largest and most handsome
of all the species. The body measures three-quarters of
an inch in length, and when the legs are extended from the
sides, they cover a space of an inch and a half. So that
it is a veritable giant in its tribe.

Not only is it distingiushed for size, but likewise for
beauty. The black eyes are bordered by silvery scales.
The proboscis, palpi, and antenne, have blue and gold
reflections. The pleura, or sides of the chest, are plated
with flat gold scales with a pale lustre. The legs are dark
brown, ornamented with scattered scales of silver and
gold. While from the terminal segment of the body
extends a miniature peacock’s tail, termed the caudal
fan; it is black with patches of gold. Thus, though our
prejudices are strongly against the order, yet we cannot
deny that this species possesses beauty.

One thing that strikes us is the shape of the proboscis.
In most mosquitoes this organ is straight or slightly curved.
This is an exception. The first half—a stout conical por-
tion—projects straight from the head, but at the middle:
it bends abruptly downwards, tapering at the same time,
like the lash of a whip.

An engineer, or a mechanic, examining that instru-
ment would say that it was not meant for thrusting into
flesh. It would be absurd to make a bayonet fora soldier
with a curve in it like that. The hypodermic needle of

BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 127

the surgeon must be made straight for its special purpose.
If it were given a curvature, such as we have there, it
would bend or break at the first thrust.

These considerations led me to dissect the organ
with a good deal of interest, and I was rewarded by an
interesting discovery, which, so far as I know, has not
been noticed before. We are familiar with the statement
that the female mosquito has neatly packed in her proboscis
an armoury of six lancets. Some of these have minute
teeth on their tips for deepening and enlarging the cut.

In the Toxorynchites, however, I found all the lancets,
except two, much degenerated, seemingly comparatively
useless for thrusting into flesh. Two, however, were well
developed. One, the largest, is a hollow channel, open
on its upper side, and bent to the curve of the proboscis,
and represents the organ through which the blood is
pumped in the biting species. The other was a long slender
rod, which near its end expanded into a long club-like
form, the swelling being covered with fine hairs, growing
larger and curving outwardly as they approached the
tip, so that you have a long curved channel, and lying
in the inside a long handled brush, not very unlike, in
miniature, to that long brush called a ‘‘ turk’s head,” used
by housewives in clearing cobwebs from the corners of a
ceiling. This formation is quite unusual in the mosquito,
and is analagous to some of the insects, whose chief food
is the nectar of flowers and juices of fruit. The tongue
of the honey bee is a ringed flexible organ, capable of con-
siderable retraction and extension, and its food is lapped
up in this way, the other mouth organs forming a tube
up which the juices ascend by the action of the tongue.
In the Mining Bee (which bores holes in the ground {for the
reception of its eggs), you have a tongue which is clothed
with hairs in the same way as this mosquito.

The bee’s tongue is not so long as this mosquitoe’s
proboscis, and the drooping shape certainly points to the
idea that it is intended not for piercing flesh, but dipping
into the nectaries of flowers and juices of fruits.

Another point of confirmation is that the flabella,
or lips of the proboscis, are clothed on the inside also with
fine hairs of a similar character, which by capillary attrac-
tion, would tend to suck up and retain floral juices, near

128 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO

the tip of the channel of the larger lancet. In the head
of the insect is found the pump, or aesophagial bulb, by
which blood is drawn in other kinds of mosquitoes from
their victims, but its size and muscular force might be
insufficient to raise denser fluids, such as nectar, without
the help of the hairy expansion on the end of the repre-
sentative of the lancet. The probability is, therefore,
this species, and most likely the group, are purely vegetable
feeders, obtaining their food in apis modo, and are therefore
harmless to man.

The cornea of the eye is of a denser structure than
usual. The halteres are small in size, pale yellow; near
the base on the anterior side, there is a triangular space
filled with oval cells, united at their longer axis; above this,
near the knob, is a stiff oval ring protecting a softer mass,
which divides into two elongated lobes by a deep central
fissure, the rim being bordered by minute hairs. These
organs are richly supplied with nerves, and are doubtless
organs of some special sense not yet understood. There
are strong grounds for thinking that insects have senses
differing widely from those possessed by man.

The terminal segment of the male body terminates
in two ‘slender hooks, and they are tipped by a straight
moveable rod arising out of a shallow trench.

I take the following description of the male insect
from Skuse :—Antennze brown, a little more than half
the length of the palpi; basal joint black, with horny
reflections ; second joint more than twice the length of
the third, ornamented with some beautifully iridiscent
scales, the whorl of very long hairs situated about one-third
from the apex. Head covered with brilliant margaritaceous
scales, chiefly reflecting green ; in a certain light appearing
brown, with a bright pale greenish line round the hinder
border of the eyes. Proboscis somewhat longer than the
palpi, deep metallic blue, with a purplish reflection before
the bend, brown beyond. Palpi deep metallic blue, with
purplish reflections, the third joint ringed with golden
yellow at the apex, and the fourth joint with a broader.
ring of the same beyond the middle. Thorax brown, the
lateral margins and prothorax densely covered with pale
greenish scales, the latter with long brown hairs ; hinder
margin and secutellum richly adorned with brilliantly

BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 129:

iridescent scales, and long brown hairs; pleura with a
naked brown stripe from the origin of the wings to the scale
like prothoracie projection, below this densely covered
with silvery scales; metanotum brown naked. Halteres,
ochre yellow. Abdomen about twice the length of but
narrower than the thorax, flat, deep metallic blue, except
the first segment, the latter green with a yellow patch
on each side; fifth segment shows some golden yellow
laterally, sixth and eighth segments ornamented with
a strong tuft of golden hair laterally, the seventh with
black tufts ; all the segments slightly bordered with golden
hairs laterally ; the first to the third and fifth to seventh
golden yellow beneath with a metallic blue longitudinal
stripe down the centre; fourth entirely metallic blue, and
the terminal one brilliant pale green. Coxe clothed with
silvery scales. Femora and tibiz metallic violet, the
-former golden yellow beneath. In the intermediate and
fore legs, the first joint of the tarsi white except at the base,
and the second also except at the apex; the rest metallic
violet. Wings longer than the abdomen, with a pale
brownish tint anteriorly and along the fifth longitudinal
vein, veins pale brown, cilia pale and short, weak renections.
Auxilliary vein joining the costa almost opposite, but some-
what beyond the posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal ;
sub-costal cross vein distinct, situated about midway
between the origin of the anterior branch of the fifth
longitudinal vein, and the origin of the second longitudinal ;
fork of the latter very small, the tips of the branches slightly
bent anteriorly ; supernumerary cross-vein equal in length
to the middle cross vein; posterior cross-vein more than
twice the length of the latter, rather sinuose, tip of the
anterior branch of the fifth longitudinal vein joining the
margin opposite the middle of the second posterior cell,
a very prominent wing fold running close to the posterior
side of the fifth longitudinal for the whole of its length,
and another on the anterior side in the anal cell.

The question arises, as we are anxious to destroy
the noxious kinds of mosquitoes, and there are unquestion-
ably difficulties in the way, would it not be a wise thing
to use this particular insect for that purpose? It is not
the only mosquito possessing cannabilistic habits. There
are two in our neighbourhood which in their larval state

130 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO

are unmitigated cannibals. One of these is Culex Tigripes
a number of these bred in a tub in the yard attached to
my place of business last year. I have a slide here of one
which has killed one of the yellow fever mosquitoes larva.
The Scotch Grey larva also kill all those within reach.
But both of these are also blood suckers, so that they only
kill to leave the ground clearer for their own depredations.
But in the T'oxorychites we believe we have a vegetarian,
which does no harm to any human being, and is at the
same time a deadly foe to the young of other kinds of the
genus. It can be hired on very reasonable terms. Its
working hours are not limited, and it is very unlikely ever
to go on strike. It works in the very places where it is
needed. All the specimens of larva I have seen have been
got in old tanks about human habitations, just the working
ground where it is of greatest use. So that we have in it
an ally, which, if used, may be the means of greatly
reducing the numbers of those which are not only a
nuisance, but a danger to the health of the community. |
No attempt has ever been made in any country to use
them for this purpose, so that Queensland might have the
honour of leading the van in the contest.

Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIII. Puate LV.

1.—ToxoRYNCHITES SPECIOSA, X 334.

2.—ToxoryNcHITEs sPEciosA Eaa,

x 70.

3.—ToxORYNCHITES SPECIOSA, PROBOSCIS TIP
WITH BRUSH LANCET x Ql.

4,—FULL-GROWN LARVA 41,

‘cane
Rae

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Anmal Meeting of Members,

Held on Saturday, February 25th, 1911.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Satur-
-day, February 25th, 1911. The President (Mr. W. RB.
- Colledge}, occupied the chair. The minutes of the previous

Annual Meeting were read and adopted.

The Hon. Secretary (Mr. F. Bennett), read the follow-

ing Report of the Council for the year 1910 :—

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report
for the year 1910.
The ordinary monthly meetings have been held as
_ shown in Appendix B.
Eleven Council meetings have been held during the
_ year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A.
During the year 11 new members and nine honorary
and corresponding members were admitted, and we lost
by death, removal, or resignation, 8 members. We have
to regret the loss of J. G. Collins, Esq., of Mundoolan.
A letter of condolence was sent to the surviving relatives
- of this worthy pioneer. On Lord Chelmsford’s departure
to New South Wales, His Excellency Sir Wm. MacGregor
was chosen Patron. There are now on our roll 91 ordinary
members, 13 corresponding members, and 1 associate
_ member, a total of 105. See Appendix D.
Of the corresponding members, J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. ;
H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.; Rev. G. Brown, D.D.;~A. Gibb-
_ Maitland, Drs. Domin and Danes, and Professors Skeats,
Rennie, and Pollock were enrolled during the past year.
The Hon. A. J. Thynne was elected Trustee in the
_ place of Dr. John Thomson, deceased. Mr. E. H. Gurney

ve REPORT OF COUNCIL.

was elected Vice-President in March, and Mr. Weston took
Mr. Gurney’s place on the Council; Mr. G. Watkins again
accepting the position of Hon. Auditor.

The Council notes with pleasure the honour accorded
to one of our members, F. M. Bailey, Esq., F.L.S., in creating
him C.M.G. This appreciation of a life time of devotion
to Botanical Science must be viewed with satisfaction by
all scientists.

Part Il. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings was issued
during the year.

The papers for last year have added largely to our
record of original research, and the forthcoming volume
of Proceedings will be one of the bulkiest and most valuable,
scientifically, that we have issued.

An attempt was made to let authors have their author’s.
copies as soon as possible after the delivery of their papers,
and our printers have done their best to help.

The early inception of the University should give a
decided impetus to scientific research.

Our Library is almost too large for the space at our
disposal, and keeps growing. Some interesting publica-
tions on Malaria Prevention were received, in answer to-
our requests, from the Health Departments and experts
of the world. When the permanent location of the Library
is fixed, it will be wise to bind a large mass of valuable —
matter still unbound.

By Appendix C, it will be seen that receipts for the
year exceeded expenditure by £27 0s. 5d. The credit
balance at the end of 1908 was £9 2s. 6d.; at the end of,
1909, £22 12s. 4d.; and at the end of 1910, £49 12s. 9d.

F. BENNETT, W. R. COLLEDGEH,
Hon. Secretary. President.

Brisbane, February 25th, 1911.

u

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

—T
—y
—_e
.

APPENDIX A.
= ° hol oe
= Wing ee
On S op
Oftice. Name. Se | 98 Remarks
Ce Qo ;
2 Ro
eS. eS ale :
President ..| W. R. College... BF 8
Vice-President ..; E. H. Gurney 7 ;
Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 6
Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett 11 ?
Hon. Librarian | C. T. White 10
J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. .. 8
Members of J. Shirley, B.Sc. .. Babee?
Council. W. R. Parker, L.D.S. 4
| P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E. 4 Appointed in

March.

J Rovyat Sociery.

lv.

Author.

J. F. Bailey

Revd. G. Brown, D.D.

Prof. K. Domin (Univ.,
Prague)

W. R. Colledge
Prof.

Danes (Univ.,

Prague)
H. C. Richards, M.Sc.
J. Shirley, B.Sc.
J. Shirley, B.Sc.

Prof. 8. B. J. Skertchly

R. Cliffe-Mackie

REPORT OF COUNCIL.
APPENDIX BB.
List or Papers Reap Durine 1910.
No Date. Title.
—_—_ % _— Se —_
1 | Feb. 26 | Introduction of Economic Plants
| into Queensland (Presi- |
_ dential Address) |
2| Mar. 3) ‘Melanesians and Poly- |
nesians.” Lecture. |
3 | April 9 | Notes on the Phyto-Geography |
of Queensland |
4 May 28 | Rotifers of Queensland |
5 | July 23 | The Physiography of Certain
Limestone Areas in Queens-
land
6 | Aug. 26 | ‘* The Weathering of Building |
| Stone and its Prevention ”’
7 | Sept. 24 | (1) Additions to the List of |
| Marine Mollusca in Queens- |
land
| (2) A Bora Ring in the Albert
| | River Valley
8 | Oct. 29 | Geological and Biological Notes
of the Nerang District, illus- |
trated with Diagrams and
Specimens
9 | Nov. 26 | Anthropological Observations
among the Blacks of 60

years ago

V.

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

P

19

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Vi. REPORT OF COUNCIL.

APPENDIX D.
LIST OF MEMBERS

Honorary AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Dr. Cockle; Rev. Robt. Harley, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; A. Liver-

sidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.;
Rev. G Brown, D.D.;
Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor KE. H. Rennie;

H. J. Jensen, D.Sc ;
ment Geologist, W.A. ;

rod

A. Gibb-Maitland, Govern-

Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, University, Prague; Dr. Danes,

Prague University.

OrDINARY MEMBERS.

Archer, R. 8S.

Badger, J. S.

Ball, L.C., B.E.

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G.

+Bailey, J. F.

Bennett, F.

Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C.

Brydon, Mrs.

Bundock, Miss Alice

Bundock, C. W.

Byram, W. J.

Cameron, John

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Colledge, W. R.

Collins, Miss Jane

Collins, R. M.

Connah, F. E., F.1.C.

Cooper, Sit Pope A., C.J.

Costin, C. W.

Cowley, R. C.

Dempsey, J. J.

Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L.

Dunstan, Benj.

Eglinton, Dudley

Eglinton, Miss Hilda

Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H.

Forrest, E. B., M.L.A.

Fraser, C. 8S.

+Gailey, Richard

Gibson, Hon. A., M.-L. C.

Gore- Jones, E. R.

Greenfield. A. P.

*+Griffith, Sir S. W.

Gurney, E. H.

Hedley, C., F.L.S.

Henderson, J.B., F.I.C.

Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D.

Holland C. W.

Hopkins, G., M.D.

Hiilsen, R.

Hunt, G. W.

Illidge, Rowland

Tack, Re G3) L.bDs
F.R.G.S.

Jackson, A. G.

Johnston, Jas.

Jones, P. W., A.I.C.

Lindsay, W.

F.G.S.,

Lord, F.

Love, Wilton, M.B.

Lucas, fT. P., ick Oe

His Excellency Sir William
MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc.,
G.C.M.G. C.B., &e

Mackie, R. Cliffe

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.

Marks, E. O., B.A, B.E.

May, W., 5.5:

May, T. H., M.D.

Miles, Hon. E. D, M.L.C.

Murray-Prior, Mrs.

McCali, T., F.I.C.

McConnel, Eric W.

McConnel, E. J.

McConnel, J. H.

Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng.
tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C.
Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

Plant, Hon. E. H. T., Mec
Pound, C. J., 7.1%. M.B.
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.
Rands, W. H., F.G.S.

Reid, D. E.

Richards. H. C., M.Sc.
Riddell, R. M.

+Roe, R. H., MA:

Ryan, J. P., M.D.

Sankey, J. R.

+Schreider, H., M.A.
Shirley, J., B.Sc.

Silcock, P.

Smith, F., B.Sc., A.1.C.
+Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S.
+Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C.
Sutton, A., M.D.

tSutton, J. W.

Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C.
Thynne, Hon. A. J., M.L.C.
Tonks, T.

Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D.
Watkins, Geo.

+Weedon, Warren

Weston, P. L., B.Sc., B.E
Willcocks, G. C.

AssocIATE MEMBER.
White, C. T.

*Members of Philosophical Society. +Life Members.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. vii.

The adoption of the Report was moved by the Hon.
A. Norton, seconded by Mr. J. F. Bailey, and carried.

The Financial Report was moved by the Hon. Treasurer
(Mr. J. C. Briinnich), seconded by the Hon. W. Taylor,
and carried.

The following office-bearers for 1911 were elected :—
President, J. Brownlie Henderson F.I.C.; Vice-President,
Poth Weston, -b-ce., B.E.;> Hon. . Treasurer, J. C.
Briinnich, F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon.
Librarian, C. T. White; Council, Messrs. W. R. Colledge,
K. H., Gurney, and H. C. Richards, M.Sc.; Hon.
Lanternist, A. G. Jackson; Hon. Auditor, Geo. Watkins.

The retiring President (Mr. W. R. Colledge) then
installed Mr. Henderson in office. Mr. Henderson called
on Mr. W. R. Colledge to deliver his Presidential Address.
Mr. Colledge, in his prefatory remarks, announced the issue
of a bulky volume of Proceedings, and commented on the
indefatigable industry of the Hon. Secretary in obtaining
Papers.

The Lecture was illustrated by many fine slides, the
lantern being ably operated by Mr. A. G. Jackson.

Professor Skertchly moved, Mr. F. Bennett seconded,
and Prof. Watson, of Adelaide, supported a vote of
thanks to Mr. Colledge for his Presidential Address.

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STAR

EAS re!

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

oF

QUBEBNSLAND.

VOL. XXIII.
PART II.
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY
H. POLE & CO,, PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE.
1912,

PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL SOCIETY
QU HHNSLAN D.

Sennen

We. XXITI.

PART II.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY

HH. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE.

1912.

.
“0 4

«

of es:

Royal Society of Queensland

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR.
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B.. Erc.

PerAaCERS,. 1912,

President:
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.

Vice-President:
H. C. RICHARUWS, M Sc.

Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Secretary:
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.

Hon. Librarian:
T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.

Members of Council:

J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. E. H. GURNEY
J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY
J. F. BAILEY.
Trustees :
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON

HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.

Hon. Auditor:
GEO. WATKINS.

\

CONTENTS.

ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE.—Lionel C. Ball,
b.E., 14th March, 1911 eg

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EaST QUEENSLAND.—
E. O. Marks, B.4., B.E., 24th June, 1911 ...

THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.—H. I.
Jensen, D.Sc. (Sydney), 29th July, 1911

THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHE-
DRAL, BRISBANE.-— Henry C. Richards M.Se.,, 26th
August, 1911

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘“‘WORM-NODULES” IN
CATTLE.—T. Harvey Johnston,’ M.A., D.Sc., ete.,
28th October, 1911 ms

A CENSUS OFAUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA.
—T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., etc., 28th October,
1911 Po +

ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF
NEOCERATODUS FORESTERI KREFFT.—
Thomas L. Bancroft, M.B., Edin., 2nd December, 1911

PAGE,

131

139

149

199

207

233

ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE.

By LIONEL C. BALL, B.E.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 14th March, 1911.

———S— es

INTRODUCTION.

Ir is desirable that an almost unique geological occur-
rence—that of coal as gangue in a lead-zinc fissure lode, the
discovery of which was among the more interesting results
of my visit to the Mended Hill Mineral Field in June last—
should be brought to your notice and so_ recorded.
Economically the association of the coal and metallic ores
is likely to be of some importance, for timber is very scarce
in the district ; and it may be possible, in milling and
concentrating the ore, to save the coaly slime and use it
in briquette form as fuel. Further, the certainty of there
being a high class coal here should induce prospectors to
be on the lookout for a workable seam in this part of the
State; notwithstanding that if it is of inorganic origin,
the possibility of which is shown below, no quantity of coal
is likely to be discovered away from fissure formations.

STRATIGRAPHY.

The basal rocks of this field have generally been referred
to the Silurian on the evidence of certain fossils from the
Cairns Range, which lies 300 miles to the south. They
consist of grits and shales seldom much altered except at the
surface where they are silicified and bleached, but Dr.
Jack,* who visited the field two and a half-years ago,
discovered carbonaceous shales at the Lilydale mine, and
the work done since his visit is indicative of similar, if not
the same, shales occurring over an area of many square
miles.

*Report on the Lawn Hill Mines, Queensland. By R. Logan Jack,
L.L.D., M.I.M.M., late Government Geologist. Sydney, 1908.

A

182 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE

From a stratigraphical standpoint the indication that
these supposedly Silurian strata are coal measures is of
great interest ; but unfortunately the carbonaceous shales
rapidly disintegrate on exposure to the atmosphere, render-
ing search for fossils in the material of the waste dumps
hopeless; and we are consequently without palaeonto-
logical assistance in correlating them with the sedimentaries
outside of the district. Mr. Brown, the Government
Geologist of South Australia, has, it may be mentioned,
referred* the carbonaceous shales of the McArthur River,
which may be an extension of the Queensland area, to the
Permo-carboniferous system, on account of their resem-
blance to the productive coal measures on the north-western
coast of the Northern Territory. Further field work
in this quarter of Australia is thus likely to have very
interesting results, and it may even yet be shown that the
strata belong to some of the older palaeozoic formations,
as Lower Silurian shales—black from diffused anthracite—
are not unknown in other parts of the wor.d.f

OCCURRENCE AND NATURE OF THE COAL.

The lodes of this field are in general composite fissure
veins. The Silver King lode formation in particular has
a width of over 60 ft., and, while looking into its capabilities
as a lead and zinc producer, I noticed in many parts the
gangue associated with crystalline blende and galena was
very dark in colour. Specimens were collected and subse-
quently examined in the laboratory, where pyrognostic
tests indicated the presence of carbonaceous matter, which
it may be taken was probably effective in precipitating
the sulphides of the ore body, although the average amount
of fixed carbon over the whole width of the formation does
not exceed | or 2 units per cent. Some of the less crushed
matrix having the physical characters of coal, a fragment
was handed to the Government Analyst, who found it
(when separated from the attached ore) to have the com-
position tabulated below. This result agrees fairly well
with the partial analysis of an ordinary commercial
anthracite,t though the vok.ile matter is rather lower

*Geological Reconnaissance from Van Diemen’s Gulf to the McArthur
River, 1907.

+See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 3rd Edition, p. 145.

tSee Economic Geology, Vol. 4, p. 657.

BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.E. 138

than in Welsh anthracite and yet at the same time con-
siderably above that of anthraxolite as shown in the
subjoined tables :—

Burketown, M.F.| Anthracite.*

Constituent. Anthraxolite. +

i. Analytical Result (at 100° C.).

Moisture ot a 15% eecosere 4-0%
Volatile Matter é3 3°1% 580% 1-8%,
Fixed Carbon .. me 85-:9% 92-64% 90-19%,
Ash ay A so 9-5% 1-56% 4-1%

ii. Recalculated composition of water—and ash—free coal.

Volatile Matter .. wi 35% 5-9% 1-9%
Fixed Carbon .. 3. 96:5% 941% 98-1%,

ORIGIN OF THE COAL.

It seemed at first that the question of orgin would not
be difficult to settle and that the coal, during movements
of the wall rock, must have been dragged into the forma-
tion from a bed traversed by the fissure, the carbonaceous
character of some of the country rocks lending support
to this view; but subsequent study of the available
literature of the subject has convinced me that the evidence
is not altogether conclusive, and that there is a possibility
of the hydrogen and carbon having been derived from a
deep-seated magmatic source. That is to say that the coal
has been produced like the Canadian anthraxolite (the
proximate analysis of which does not differ greatly from
the above) from bitumen or petroleum, the case for the
magmatic origin of which, long urged by French and
Russian geologists and chemists, has been very ably stated
by Mr. Eugene Coste, of Toronto.t Even if it is allowed
that some petroleums may be of organic derivation the
inorganic origin of others seems almost certain.

* Analyses of British Coals and Coke, p, 369.
+ Ann. Report Bureau of Mines, Ont., 1896, p. 159.
t See Journal of the Canadian Mining Institute, Vol. 12, p. 274.

184 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE

APPENDIX I.

PARALLEL CASES.
It may be as well to here refer to the few other cases
known to me of coal accompanying metallic sulphides in
fissure lodes.

GERMANY.
Ulrich has stated* that mineral coal occurs in ore
lodes in several mining districts in Germany, but I have
been unable to discover his original authority.

UNITED STATES.

The association of coal with lead and zinc sulphides
has been noted} in Missouri, but, from the brief descrip-
tions written, it would seem that the ores there occur not
in lodes but in coal seams; and that the metals were
precipitated by the carbonaceous matter from percolating
meteoric waters.

CANADA.

A carbonaceous material similar to non-caking bitum-
inous coal has been said{ to occur in a mica vein in
Quebec, but confirmation of this is needed.

TASMANIA.

Anthracite has been reported from several mines in
Tasmania. Mr. W. F. Petterd quoteds Ulrich in
reference to an occurrence of anthracite “in irregular
veins up to }-inch in size enclosed in calcite and siderite
in the abandoned lead mine North Valley, Mt. Bischoff.”

In the same work Mr. F. Danvers Power is credited
with having identified anthracite ‘“‘in the workings of
various quartz reefs in the Beaconsfield Goldfield,” but
the substance had already been determined|| by Messrs.
A. Montgomery, the then Government Geologist, and W. F.
Ward, the Government Analyst, to be a variety of lignite,

*See Catalogue of the Minerals of Tasmania. By W. F. Petterd-
Hobart. By Auth., 1910, p. 51.

yLead and Zine Deposits of Missouri. By Arthur Winslow and J. D.
Robertson, 1894, p. 157.

t J. Can., M.I., Vol. 7, p. 245.

§ Op. cit. (8).

|| See Aus. Ass. Adv. of Sci., Vol. 4 (18).

BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 135

being brownish black in hue and having the following
composition :—

C. 38:91; H., 3:03; O. and N., 21-60; S., 2-36; Ash,

12:00 ; Moisture (at 100° C.), 22-10% —100.

They show that it is mostly found in sandy layers between
hard beds of grit (of Silurian age) and also penetrating
into cracks and joints in the beds where much shattered.
Some years later Mr. Twelvetrees, the present Government
Geologist, found on the 800 ft. level in the Moonlight-cum-
Wonder mine, lying between grits and limestone; “‘ a peculiar
brown earthy carbonaceous (compact bedded) deposit
(nine feet wide on one side of the drive) approaching in
character to semilignite or brown coal,’ of which the
following proximate analysis is given :—

Moisture (loss at 212° F.) .. st Be mit nh Ow Leroy
Gases, &c. (lost at red heat) ae Ne ey BN
Fixed Carbon aN ah “t a8 .. - 13:9%
Mineral Matter (ash) is ¥ é2 2 "21.0%

100.0%

To account for the origin of the lignite Messrs. Montgomery
and Ward suggested that it had been deposited from
percolating swamp waters, that with the organic matter
in suspension descended in quite recent geological times
from the surface wherever the much shattered strata
offered a ready passage. I do not suppose that when they
wrote their paper the possibility of the magmatic origin
of hydrocarbons had been seriously considered outside of
Europe, but the theory has now many staunch supporters
in all parts of the world and would seem to fit this case
perfectly. The reference* of Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees
to recent timber among boulders of conglomerate, 370 ft.
beneath the surface in the Eureka Claim, points to former
open communication with the surface at that place, but it
need not have any bearing on the origin of the lignites.
APPENDIX Il.
- SoLtip HyDROCARBONS IN FISSURES.

That various solid hydrocarbons and carbo-hydrates
fill extensive fissures is well known. Such are those of
asphalt in Utah, Cuba}+ and Peru,{ of albertite in

* See Report on the Moonlight-cum-Wonder Mine at Beaconsfield,
Launceston. By Authority, 1902.

+ Economic Geology, Vol. 1, p. 437.

t Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers
Bulletin, No. 27, p. 291.

136 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE

Nova Scotia, and of grahamite in Western Virginia. Their
associations with metalliferous minerals is much rarer,
but Dana records* elaterite (with lead ore and calcite)
from the Odin lead mine in Derbyshire, resin (with calcite
and pearlspar) from the Settling Stones lead mine in
Northumberland, and idrialite (mixed with cinnibar, clay,
pyrite and gypsum, in brown-black earthy material) from
the Idrian mercury mines, Austria; and certain of the
asphalite veins of Peru include lenses of sulphides and are
mined for vanadium.t

APPENDIX ITI.

GRAPHITE.

Graphite is believed to be in certain cases an end
product in the destructive distillation of petroleum that
has risen from below.{ Besides occurring disseminated
in some of the older rocks of the earth’s crust it is known
in fissure veins in Quebec (in gneiss), Ceylon (in granite
rock), Cumberland (in greenstone porphyry) and Siberia
(in granite and limestone).§

Associated with iron ores it is found at a number of
localities ; but Cirkel, the Canadian authority, mentions.
only one occurrence with gold (in quartz at the Sunnyside
Extension mine, San Juan), although it occurs in several
silver veins in Ontario,|| including the Silver Islet,
La Rose and Cobalt Hill). Liversidge mentions $ its
occurrence with quartz, iron pyrites, and pyromorphite
at the head of the Abercrombie River.

In our own State, Mr. Dunstan has shown that
the granites of Croydon are graphitic and contain iron
pyrites, copper pyrites, galena and arsenical pyrites in
small quantities, and though he does not actually affirm
it, the carbon appears to have been the precipitating agent-

* System of Mineralogy.

+ Op. cit. (15).

+ See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 4th Edition, p. 186.

§ Graphite. By Fritz Cirkel, Dept. of Mines, Canada, 1907.
|| J. Can., M.I., Vol. 10, p. 55.

$ Minerals of New South Wales. London, 1888.

q G.S.Q. Pub., Nos. 202 and 212.

BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 1287
APPENDIX IV.

GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS IN METALLIFEROUS MINES.

Some passing mention should be made of the occurr-
’ ence—unusual but by no means non-existent—of gaseous
hydrocarbons in metalliferous mines; but time has not
permitted of my looking up the bibliography of the subject
and I can refer to but one case, that of the Silver Islet
mine, Ontario, in which gases were met at 1,000 ft. beneath
the surface. This was mentioned in a discussion* on
the ore deposits of the Cobalt district, when a member,
Mr. Hixon, suggested the possibility of the hydrocarbons
being magmatic and incidentally the cause of the silver
of the lodes being in the metallic state.

‘Op. cit. (20)

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

By E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th June, 1911.

TuHeE following notes have been compiled in the desire
of interesting members of this Society in a question on
which, in the past as well as in the present, very divergent
‘views have been held—namely, the question of the
geological ages of volcanic activity in this corner of
Queensland. :

A problem of this. nature is always, to a geologist,
one of exceptional interest; in this case, affecting as it
does extensive areas of coal measures, it is one which in
the future will possibly possess considerable economic
importance in addition to its scientific interest.

A by no means small attraction is added by the fact
that to the varied volcanic rocks are due, entirely or in
part, so many of the physical features characterising the
landscapes with which we are familiar, such, for instance,
.as the Glass House Mountains, the rugged scenery of Mt.
Barney and its neighbours, or of Cunningham’s Gap, the
broad rich valleys of the Darling Downs and the beauties of
the Toowoomba Range, or the richly beautiful scrubclad
valleys, gorges and lofty plateaux which render the head-
waters of the Logan, Albert, Coomera and Nerang rivers,
a region destined to become the pleasure resort of our
metropolis.

Voleanic rocks attain a very considerable develop-
ment in the south-eastern corner of this State, and consist
of widely varying types. The petrological characteristics
of many of the rocks have received a good deal of attention,
chiefly from Dr. H. J. Jensen, and further study in this
direction is much to be desired. It is not intended here,

140 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

however, to discuss the petrology, except in so far as it
concerns the determination of the geological age.

The rocks may be divided for field purposes into the
two main types, trachytic and basaltic, though each of
these contain widely differing rocks. Many of them have
been determined by Dr. Jensen to belong to the alkaline
types. Both tuffs, lavas and dykes are met with.

All Brisbane residents are familiar with the trachytic
tuff, or so-called “‘ porphyry,” on the streets and in build-
ings, as well as with the rock in situ in Kangaroo Point,
Leichhardt Street, and other places in and near the city.
Trachytic rocks also occur in or form the Glass House
Mountains and other mountains in East Moreton, Flinders
Peak, Mts. Lindsay and Barney, Cunningham’s Gap, the
Little Liverpool Range, and near Esk, besides many other
localities known, and many, probably, not) yet recorded.

Rocks of the basaltic type are even more extensively
developed, occupying, as they do, so much larger an area
than the more acid lavas, due probably to their more
mobile condition when extruded. They partake in the
formation of the Blackall Range, Tambourine Mt., portions
of the Macpherson Range, Little Liverpool and Main Range,
as well as large part of the Darling Downs. They are
found besides at lesser elevations, and in the neighbourhood
of Brisbane and Ipswich, from such comparatively low-
lying areas as Cooper’s Flains, Manly, Redbank Plains,
Bundamba, etc.

The first observer to offer an opinion as to the ages
of the voleanic rocks was the late Sir A. C. Gregory, who,
in his capacity of Geological Surveyor for Southern
Queensland, between the years 1875 and 1879, traversed
much of the country in which they occur. In his report
on the south-eastern districts of the Colony of Queensland,
he says that the basaltic rock “‘ may be referred to a very
recent date in the Tertiary era.” He refers, both in this
report and in one on the coal deposits of West Moreton
and Darling Downs, to the fact that at Clifton coal mine,
under 30ft. of basalt, large pieces of fossil wood were found.
so little altered that it split and warped several inches on
being exposed to the air. It was associated with woody
seed vessels (Conchotheca Turgida). ‘The latter were
referred for determination to Baron von Mueller, who

BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 141

mentions their having been obtained beneath basalt—
a record to which the writer’s attention was kindly drawn
by Mr. E. C. Andrews.

In describing the “ porphyritic’’ rocks, Sir A. C.
Gregory considered them to be older than the basaltic,
which have cut through and overlie them. He also con-
sidered them to be later than the “ carbonaceous series,”
which had not then been classed as of Trias-Jura age, but
included with them the Brisbane rock.

In 1887 and 1889, Mr. W. H. Rands, working in
Brisbane and in the Logan and Albert districts, determined
the Brisbane “ porphyry” to be a trachytic tuff, lying at
the base in this locality at any rate, of the Trias-Jura
system. He encountered at Walton (now Woodhill),
a trachyte which he considered to be contemporaneous
with the coal measures in which it occurs. The basalt of
Tambourine Mt. and the Macpherson Range, found both
on the Trias-Jura beds, and on the underlying schists.
Mr. Rands considered to be later than the coal measures
and Woodhill trachyte, but older than the desert sandstone
(Upper Cretaceous), to which age he ascribed a sandstone
resting on the basalt and containing pebbles thereof, at the
head of Nerang River.

Dr. Jack, in his Geology of Queensland, pointed out
that it is a mistake to suppose that the volcanic rocks
consist of only one continuous series, but expressed the
opinion that the basalt of Tambourine is not necessarily
of later age than the Woodhill trachyte, since it lies on
strata considerably lower in the ‘Trias-Jura system than
the horizon at Woodhill. Dr. Jack considered that the
basalt of the lloowoomba Range is contemporaneous,
though locally uncomformable with the ‘lrias-Jura rocks,
beneath the upper portion of which he supposed them to
dip to the west, thus accounting for the absence of an
escarpment in that direction to correspond with that forming
the Main Range. The basalt at Ipswich he also thought
to be contemporaneous with the coal measures there, but
this has since been shown of more recent origin. The
basalt of Clifton and elsewhere appearing to occupy local
hollows in the stratified rocks, he himself considered to be
later age than the Trias-Jura.

142 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Mr. S. B. J. Skertchly, in a report on the geology of
the country round Stanthorpe and Warwick, refers to the
basalt of the Toowoomba Range as Tertiary, but does not
record the sections which lead him to that conclusion.

Dr. H.J. Jensen has made several important contribu-
tions, to the study of South-East Queensland igneous rocks,
chiefly in papers read before the Linnean Society of N.S.W.
The rocks described are in the East Moreton as well as in
the Fassifern districts, and he refers all of the volcanic
rocks he found on Trias-Jura areas to a post-Trias-Jura age.
He records, in the Fassifern district, trachyte dykes in the
Trias-Jura sandstone, a basalt injected in and overlying
the trachyte, but gives no actual section proving, in our
present ignorance as to the horizon occupied by the sand-
stones intruded, that the volcanic rocks are post Trias-Jura.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, of the New South Wales Geological
Survey, in working near the Queensland border, referred
the trachytes and basalts of the Macpherson Range to the
Trias-Jura age, but subsequent work has, the writer under-
stands, led him to regard them as of Tertiary age, corres-
ponding presumably with the undoubted Tertiary basalts
of New England, described by Prof. David, as well as by
himself.

The present writer, in examining the coal measures
south of Brisbane, came to the conclusion that the volcanic
rocks met with—almost entirely of the basaltic type—
belong to two ages, Trias-Jura, and late or post-tertiary.
Several sections were observed, including Mr. Rand’s
Woodhill trachyte, of interbedded volcanic rocks amongst
the upper or Walloon coal measures, in the neighbourhood
of Beaudesert. These occurrences, however, are possibly
merely sills or dykes parallel to the bedding, though an
examination of them does not give one that impression.
In a flying visit to the coal seams outcropping in the Upper
Logan district, a site was pointed out by Mr. J. Buchanan,
where an outcrop of carbonaceous shale or weathered coal
had been covered by a recent slip in the bank of Christmas
Creek. Mr. Buchanan remarked on the outcrop- having
been perpendicular, and the writer observed that sandstone
in juxtaposition with the fallen ground was also perpen-
dicular, and that this sandstone contained rounded pebbles
of basalt similar microscopically to the andestic basalt

/

BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., BE. 148

of the neighbourhood. Some distance further down the
- creek, a similar sandstone is seen resting on basalt. Owing
to circumstances, a detailed examination could not then
be made, but the section thoroughly convinced the writer
of the Trias-Jura age of the basalt in that locality. The
absence of detailed examination or of fossil evidence regard-
ing the sandstone and carbonaceous beds forms but a slight
flaw in the otherwise absolute proof, since undoubted
Trias-Jura strata occur, with coal seams, on Widgee Creek,
less than two miles away, and the same formation appears
to extend throughout the intervening ground. The
vertical position of the strata, moreover, does not accord
with the comparatively undisturbed character of the
Tertiary formations elsewhere.

The sandstone and included basalt is presumably on
the same horizon as that observed by Mr. Rands, and
ascribed by him to the Desert sandstone. Since the time
of Mr. Rand’s observations several areas which had been
attributed to the Desert sandstone on physical grounds—
the only data available—have since proved to be of greater
age. It is more than probable, there being no evidence
to the contrary, that the sandstone observed by Mr. Rands
is of Trias-Jura age, like the remainder of the sandstone
in its neighbourhood.

A paper on the Volcanic Kruptives of West Moreton,
by R. A. Wearne and W. G. Woolnough, to the former
of whom the field work was due, was read before the
Sydney meeting of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science in January this year, but has
not yet been published. The authors consider that there
are, in all probability, two volcanic series :—

(1) Of Trias-Jura age, contemporaneous with the

Walloon stage of the Trias-Jura ;

(2) Of Tertiary age.

The former of these includes the normal trachytes,
andesites and basalts of the Main Range ; the latter includes
the more alkaline trachytes (comendite and grorundite) of
Mt. French, Mt. Greville, etc., the rhyolites of Mts. Maroon
and Barney, and the basalts of the Toowoomba Range.

Proof of the Trias-Jura series lay in the discovery of—

(1) Trachyte tuff containing T'aeniopteris Daintreet,

found in the Lockyer district, near the Main
Dividing Range (near Mt. Mistake) ;

144 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

(2) A number of trachyte pebbles found in conglom-
erate in the upper portion of the Walloon coal
measures, in the Fassifern and Lockyer districts.

The authors thus ascribe the trachytic as well as

basaltic rocks to two distinct ages. The Toowoomba
basalt, an olivine basalt, is considered to be Tertiary,
being distinct petrologically from the basalt referred to as
Trias-Jura age, which appears to be of a similar character
to that of the Upper Logan districts.

It is interesting to note that the numerous areas of
basaltic Java which occur in the neighbourhood of Brisbane,
still occupying in places the valleys in which it originally
flowed, and nowhere attaining any noteworthy elevation,
consist of an ophitic dolerite varying very slightly in
character in any of the localities from which the writer
has examined specimens. This rock, which is_ of
undoubted Tertiary or post-Tertiary age, is equally distinct
petrologically from either the Toowoomba basalt or the
andesitic basalt of the Macpherson Range.

This dolerite is familiar to us as the “ blue metal”
of the streets, for which purpose its great toughness is
somewhat discounted by its defective binding power—
a defect due to its fine and uniform texture. At Redbank
Plains, Cooper’s Plains and Runcorn, and probably else-
where, this rock lies on strata, bearing, in certain localities,
a plentiful dicotyledonous flora as well as fish and reptilian
remains, the age of which have not yet been definitely
determined.

From the foregoing list of observations and opinions,
. we may summarise the present state of our knowledge
of the ages of vulcanicity as follows :—

Undoubted post Trias-Jura basaltic rocks occur near
Brisbane, and at Clifton, on the Darling Downs. These
rocks are probably of late Tertiary if not of post-Tertiary
age.

From opinions formed in the fleld, though not sup-
ported up to the present by any positive proof, several
observers are persuaded also of the post-Trias-Jura age
of some (or most) of the trachytic rocks, a diversity of
opinion existing as to whether the main body of these are
Trias-Jura or post-Trias-Jura. There can be no reasonable

BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 145

doubt that some are Trias-Jura, excluding the Brisbane
tuff, the age of which has long been beyond question.

There is little if any room for doubt also as to the
‘Trias-Jura age of much of the basaltic rock, more especially
in the eastern portion of the Macpherson Range.

Opinion is divided in regard to the Toowoomba basalt,
no definite proof having been recorded up to the present
in favour of either view.

Intimately associated as the volcanic rocks are with
the Trias-Jura system, it is essential to realise how much
or how little we know about that system before we refer
rocks to any particular stage of it. Up to the present time,
the only connected or in any way detailed examination
made covers a comparatively small area in the neighbour-
hood of Ipswich and Brisbane, and from there south to
Beaudesert—a total area of roughly some 1,000 square
miles of the strata. The whole formation covers at least
15,000 square miles, so our knowledge must be regarded
as very incomplete. Inside our limited area we are aware
of three divisions—in ascending order:—The Ipswich
coal measures, the Bundamba sandstones, and the Walloon
coal measures. We are, however, in no way justified in
supposing that the Walloon coal measures form the summit
of the formation, Just as the Ipswich coal measures are
not necessarily the lowest division, though certainly so
locally. ;

In the greater part of the areas in which the volcanic
rocks occur, the sedimentaries have been the subject of
only few and disconnected observations, and it is highly
desirable to realise that, in the absence of connected and
reasonably detailed work, we are practically in complete
ignorance as to the stratigraphical position of these
sedimentaries in the ‘Trias-Jura system. For instance,
it is a pure assumption, but one that is often made, that
the coal measures of the Darling Downs are on the same
horizon as those of Walloon. Except for a _ certain
similarity in their coals, there is really not the slightest
reason in our present knowledge to suppose this to be the
case, though there is every likelihood of it being so.

The basalt of Tambourine Mountain is similar to, and,
except for denudation, continuous with that of the
Macpherson Range, which is almost certainly of ‘lrias-

146 - THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Jura age. Yet the Tambourine rock rests uncomfortably
on beds low in the system, as well as on the underlying
schist.

The unconformability is interesting, for it shows
elevation during Trias-Jura times; it also serves to
accentuate the fact that the mere superposition of lava
on portion of the system is no evidence, the horizon being
unknown, that the lava is of post Trias-Jura age.

Should contemporaneous volcanic rocks prove of
wide extension, their study is likely to be of great assistance
to the stratigraphy of a system, that otherwise appears
to offer few sharply-defined limits on which to base the
divisions. The study may thus be of no small aid in the
intelligent prospecting of the coal measures.

In those districts where volcanic rocks of both ages
occur, or where the age has not been definitely determined,
it will be necessary to preserve an entirely open mind
regarding the age of any particular rock met with, remem-
bering always that neither the contemporaneous nor the
later rocks necessarily belong to only one brief period of
vulcanicity. We know that elsewhere in Australia there
were two periods of volcanic activity in Tertiary times,
and it is not unlikely that representatives of both these
occur in our area.

Volcanic materials, chiefly tuffs of no considerable
development, occur in MesoZoic rocks elsewhere in Australia,
but voleanic activity is considered to have been the excep-
tion, in Mesozoic times, throughout the world, a fact
conferring greater interest on such rocks as do belong to
that period. Where, as seems likely in this present case,
the volcanic activity was extensive, the interest is consider-
ably increased.

It is hoped that these few notes, in drawing the atten-
tion of members of this Society to the question will help
towards its study by reducing the greatest difficulty—the
lack of observers where so much is to be observed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Andrews, E. C.—
An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England.

A Preliminary Note on the Structure of Mt. Lindsay.
Records Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part ITI.

BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 147

David, T. W. EL —
Presidential Address, Section C., Australasian Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Hobart, 1892.
Contribution to the Study of Volcanic Action in
Eastern Australia. A:A.A.S., 1893.
sv Vegetable Creek Tin Mining Field.
Memoirs, Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Geology No. I.

‘Gregory, A. C.—
Coal Deposits of West Moreton and Darling Downs
Districts, 1876. (Council and Assembly Paper).
Geological Features of the South Eastern Districts
of the Colony of Queensland, 1879. (Legislative
Assembly Paper).

Jack, BR. L.—
Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New
Guinea (Jack and Etheridge), 1892.

Jensen, H. J.—

Geology of Glass House Mountains.
Proceedings, Linnean Society of New South Wales,
1906.

Geology of the Volcanic Area of the East Moreton and
Wide Bay Districts.
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906.

Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline
Rocks.
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908.

Geology of Mt. Flinders and the Fassifern District.
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1909.

The Alkaline Rocks of Southern Queensland.
A.A.A.S., Brisbane, 1909.

Marks, E. O.— :
Coal Measures of South-East Moreton.
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 225.

Rands, W. H.—

Geological Map of the City of Brisbane and its
Environs, accompanied by a Report.
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 34.

Geology of and Minerals occurring in the Neighbour-
hood of Beenleigh, and of the Logan and Albert
Rivers, 1887.
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 36.

148 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Rands, W. H.—
The Albert and Logan Districts, 1889.
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 51.

Skertchly, 8. B. J.—
Geology of the Country Round Stanthorpe and
Warwick.
Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 120.

THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.

—

By H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. (Sydney).

—_—_—_

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 29th, 1911.

eo

I INTRODUCTION.
SCOPE OF PAPER.

THE object of this paper is not to offer the reader
any really new material, but rather to present the know-
ledge we already possess in a concise form, and to point
out which of the very many more or less conflicting
theories of earth mechanics are most capable of explain-
ing the facts observed in Australia.

The books and papers referred to in the compilation
of these notes are so numerous that they are separately
entered up in Appendix I. The maps illustrating the
growth of Eastern Australia in geological time are based
on those issued by Professor David to his tectonic
geology class.

It shall be my endeavour first of all to show how
the geography of Australia has changed during geo-
logical time. After these changes have been described
we will try to enquire what meaning can be assigned
to them, and what kind of earth movements produced
them. We will then further discuss the ‘eae
unity of Eastern Australia. The Petrological Unity
of Eastern Australia will then be discussed and at the
same time some remarks will be made on the origin of
some leading Australian ore deposits.

We shall then pass on to the treatment of faulting
and folding, the causes of these movements and their
effects on topography. The origin of some-of our most
important land forms and scenery will then be briefly
dealt with.

150 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PALZOGEOGRAPHY.

Just as the historian and the antiquarian in their
discussions on events prior to the exact historical period
speak of the stone age, the bronze age, and so forth,
dividing early historical time according to the nature
of the debris characterising the age, so the geologist,
who has no exact conception of the duration of his periods,
divides geological time into the age of fishes, the age of
reptiles, the age of Brachiopods, and so forth.

Just as the historian divides time into periods and
his periods into dynasties, so the geologist divides his
geological time into periods, and his periods into epochs.
In the same way as the historian speaks of the Heroic
Age or Era, so the geologist speaks of the Palxozoic
Age or Era. The historian has his shepherd king period,
Plantagenet period, andso on; the geologist, likewise,
has his Devonian Period, Miocene period, and so on.
Just as the historian speaks of the dynasty of the
Ptolemys, Hanover dynasty, &c., so the geologist has
geological horizons based on the predominance of some
particular dynasty of animal or plant life.

Our knowledge of the geography of past geological
ages is ga-hered from the study of the fossilised remains
of plants and animals. Of all petrifactions, none are
so important to the geologist as shallow water marine
organisms ; because of their abundance in the fossil
state, and their uninterrupted sway during the long ages.
they afford us landmarks, not only for the division of
geological time into periods, but also into horizons and
stages. The long persistency of each genus allowed
it to differentiate into sub-genera and species, which,
besides being very absorbing studies for the evolutionist,
are also of great value in delimiting the minor divisions
of geological time.

In the following pages it is taken as an axiom that
a great accumulation in any place of marine fossils
indicates close proximity to the shore line at the time
of deposition. This follows from two considerations.
In the first place the waters of the continental shelf
are better adapted, both as regards temperature and
food supplies, for plant and animal life. In the second
place, the opportunities for organisms to be preserved

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 151

are better near the shore where sediments may bury
them, and where the high pressure of deeper levels does
not exist and exert great solvent power on the objects
deposited. It is, therefore, axiomatic that the greatest
thickness of sediments and the greatest profusion of
fossil remains occur within 150 miles of the coast.

The nature and distribution of sediments of various
ages, therefore, gives us a clue as to the position of the
shorelines of these ages. A glance at the maps on the
following pages should convince anyone that prior to the
Tertiary period, Australia had a much different outline
from that of to-day, and that the geographical unity of
Australia begins with the Tertiary. [1]

Il. PALAZOGEOGRAPHIC STUDIKS.

(A) PRE-CAMBRIAN.

By referring to the map (fig. 1) we see that the
known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia are all grouped
in the western portions of the continent and Tasmania.
A curve drawn from the north-east corner of Tasmania
to the Kimberley district of West Australia, with a
slight convexity to the north-east embraces all the
best known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia. Such a
curve, it is interesting to note, would have its centre near
Kerguelen Island, in the Southern Ocean. But, as the
Pre-Cambrian is a geological scrap-heap for all the for-
mations which antedate the appearance of life on the
earth, rocks of that age must underlie all later formations,
and they cannot be utilised in the reconstruction
of Pre-Cambrian geography. All that we can say is
that both sea and land were in existence in this great
epoch, for the Pre-Cambrian rocks are largely of sedi-
mentary origin.

The principal Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia
are (1) the West Tasmanian area; (2) Yorke’s Peninsula,
West of Adelaide; (3) the Musgrave Ranges and part
of the Victoria Desert, South Australia; (4) an area
near Broken Hill; (5) the Macdonnell Ranges, South
Australia ; (6) the Kimberley Area, West Australia,
and (7) the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie areas, W.A. The
igneous rocks of this early period comprise both acid
and basic varieties. The acid rocks consisted of granites,

ee

152 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

felsites, graphic granites, gneiss, augen gneiss, basalt,
andesite and gabbro.

The sedimentary rocks comprise quartzites, mica
schists, andalusite schists, marbles and limestones.

The western portions of Australia, which are so
largely of Pre-Cambrian age, have probably in the main,
escaped heavy sedimentation in all subsequent geological
periods, for otherwise a heavy coat of later sediments
would frequently hide the Pre-Cambrian rocks. Western
Australia was, therefore, uplifted at an early period.
It formed part of a Pre-Cambrian landmass which ex-
tended in a north-west direction to Arabia and Abys-
sinia and south-wards to Antarctica. This great landmass
was probably fairly persistent throughout Paleozoic
times, since Africa, India and Australia had a similar
flora up to the end of the Paleozoic, namely the Lepi-
dodendron flora of the Carboniferous and the Glossopteris
flora of the Permo-Carboniferous.

The absence of sediments newer than Pre-Cambrian
over large areas of Western Australia, is not the sole
evidence for supposing this area to have been essentially
a continental mass from that remote geological age to
the present. A strip of the west coast of W.A. was sub-
jected to several marine transgressions in late Paleozoic
and Mesozoic times, but sedimentation was neither
prolonged nor heavy, for practically all deposits later
than Pre-Cambrian are almost undisturbed by any
compressional forces, their dip seldom exceeding 20°.
The sediments of various later geogolical ages are deposited
upon highly folded, inclined and contorted rocks, con-
sisting of schists, conglomerates, gneisses and igneous
rocks of the Pre-Cambrian complex. Even the Cam-
brian rocks, such as the Nullagine series of Pilbarra,
are little disturbed. The WNullagine, Carboniferous,
Permian and Mesozoic rocks, where in juxtaposition,
are not easily separable by such criteria as hardness,
metamorphism, difference in angle of dip, and so forth,
but mainly by the occurrence of unconformities between
them. Consequently the transgressions of the ocean
in these periods did not interfere with the geological
unity or plateau character of Western Australia.

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 158

Another point of interest in this connection is the
fact that artesian water, which occurs in Queensland only
in rocks of late Mesozoic age, has been obtained in
Western Australia in rocks of Permian, Carboniferous,
and even older ages. This shows still more forcibly
that since the early Paleozoic, Western Australia has
been a unit or block of the earth’s crust in which no
compression of strata has occurred, and in which the
only earth movements (faults and fractures) have been
the result of tangential strain.

In {Bull. 33, Geol. Surv. of W.A., Mr. A. Gibb-
Maitland [2] shows that at Pelican Hill artesian water
was obtained at a depth of about 3,000 feet in the lowest
bed of the Carboniferous series, a sandstone stratum
about 448 feet thick. In the Collie Coalfield mining
is greatly handicapped by the constant soakage of
artesian water into the workings.

In the Irwin Coalfield (Bull. 38, Geol. Surv. of W.A.),
the coal is hydrous, and the carboniferous rocks are
water bearing. [3]

Clearly, from this the post-Cambrian rocks of the
Western Australian block are porous by virtue of being
uncompressed, and in many Cases they are in a state
of strain or tension. We may therefore conclude
that West Australia has been a relatively rising mass |
from the beginning of the Cambrian. :

In Eastern Australia, all rocks of pre-Triassic age
have undergone such compression that their original
water content has been expelled, and they have become
too impervious to take up water again.

CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTATION.

Examination of the Cambrian areas of sedimenta-
tion shows (Fig. 2) us that they are all situated to the
east of the main Pre-Cambrian massive, already referred
to. They lie on a definite band about 300 miles wide,
running in a crude north-westerly direction from
Tasmania to Kimberley, in W.A. This band then
corresponds to the Cambrian area of intense sedimenta-
tion, including the continental shelf of the period.

The chief localities for Cambrian rocks are the
Caroline Creek district in Tasmania; the Heathcote

154 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

district, Victoria; the Mt. Lofty Range, north of Peters—
burg, Kangaroo Island, Vincent’s Gulf, and thence

north to the Queensland border, in South Australia; and.

the Kimberley district in Western Australia. These
beds are in many places rich in the forms of life character-
istic of the period—such as the coral Archeocyathine ;
sponge spicules; the trilobites Conocephalites, Micro-
discus, Olenellus, Dikellocephalus ; the pteropods Salterella.
and Tentaculites, and the Gastropod Ophileta.

While the belt referred to was probably the con-
tinental shelf and region of heavy sedimentation in
Cambrian times, it is probable that the Cambrian ocean
extended eastwards over the whole of Eastern Australia.
The remarkable crystalline and wholly unfossiliferous
rocks, which are known to us as the Brisbane Schists,
the Byron Bay Schists and Cofi’s Harbour Schists, are
probably deep sea deposits of Paleozoic age, which
accumulated in the profound and lifeless ocean during
the periods ranging from Cambrian to Devonian. At
great depths life would be scarce, and any remains of
skeletons of organisms which may have dropped to the
bottom would speedily go into solution.

During the Lower Cambrian period, a glacial age
was experienced in Australia, boulder beds of iceworn
nature outcropping in many places on the belt {of
Cambrian sediments, right from Adelaide north to the
Queensland-South Australian border, and in the north
of Western Australia. [4]

ORDOVICIAN SEDIMENTATION.
The region of the heaviest Ordovician Sedimenta-

tion lies east of the region of heaviest Cambrian deposition.

The latter had been uplifted and largely converted into
dry land before the Ordovician period. The continent
had therefore taken a step in the direction of the rising
sun. A strip, two or three hundred miles wide, lying
east of the Cambrian continent, had been converted.
into land. (f1g. 3).

The Ordovician in the Australian region was truly
an age of graptolites, which were in many parts, particu-
larly in Victoria, buried in such numbers as to give a
graphitic character to the shales and slates of this period.
These graphitic shales have acted as precipitants for gold,

BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 155

so that they stand in the same relation to the goldbearing
quartz reefs of Victoria as the plumbago beds of the
Gympie Goldfield stand to the reefs there.

The main areas of Ordovician Sedimentation in
Australia were the Cephalopodan limestone of Tasmania,
the Victorian graphitic shales at Sandhurst, etc., the
black graptolite slates of the Victorian and Snowy Alps,
the Myall Reefs, N.S.W., the graptolite slates at Dubbo
and Cadia (near Orange), N.S.W., the Mandurama
graptolite and radiolarian rocks (N.S.W.), and the
Larapintine system of the MacDonald Ranges of S.A.

The Ordovician rocks of N. 8. Wales, Victoria and
Tasmania were probably deposited in very deep water,
radiolaria being very abundant in them in the Snowy
Alps, at Mandurama and elsewhere.

Contemporaneous tufis and lavas were erupted
and occur in the series at Mandurama and Cadia, N.S.W.
These volcanic extrusions were of an andesitic nature.

SILURIAN SEDIMENTATION.

Silurian sediments occur over wide areas of Eastern
Australia. In Victoria, Tasmania and Southern N. 8S.
Wales, where the Ordovician sea was deep, the Silurian |
sediments follow the Ordovician, and largely overlie
them. Further north, however, the areas of most
intense Silurian sedimentation are several hundred miles
east of the main Ordovician belt. (Fig. 4).

The Silurian Sea was an extensive one, and a
moderately shallow one. Corals played an important
part in the life of the time.

Silurian rocks occur at Yass and Bowning, the
Jenolan Caves, Wellington, Molong, etc., in N. S. Wales ;
at Chillagoe in Queensland ; at Lilydale in Victoria, etc. ;
and at Yass (N.S.W.) they contain banded rhyolites and
tuffs of a dacitic nature, and submarine tuffs at Wel-
lington (N.S.W.)

The shallow nature of the Silurian Sea, together
with the slow uplift of the sea bottom, caused a rapid
advance of the coastline towards the east, so that
it is doubtful that the various Silurian areas of Australie
are contemporaneous. They are homotaxial, and belong
to the same great period—but may have become elevated
into dry land at different times in that period.

156 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Most of the important cave-limestones of Australia
belong to the Silurian—as for example, those of Chillagoe
and Mungana in North Queensland, and those of Jenolan,
Wellington and Yarang-obilly in New South Wales. The
Trugose and tabulate corals of that age apparently did not
build ona subsiding sea-floor as the madrepore and millepore
fauna of the Pacific to-day, but were building on a slowly
rising seabottom, gradually extending their domain as
successive portions of the ocean floor were raised to the
zone of shallow water.

THE DEVONIAN.

In the Devonian Period, the ocean which in the early
Paleozoic covered Eastern Australia was much reduced.
Here and there basins remained in which Devonian sedi-
ments were planked. These basins were probably trough
subsidence areas (senkungs-feldter) in the Silurian plat-
form. One such basin extended along the south-coast of
New South Wales, from the neighbourhood of Tilba-Tilba,
through Yalwal and Sassafras, then dipping under the
Permo-Carboniferous coal measures of the Sydney basin,
it reappears at Tamworth, on the flanks of the New England.
Another Devonian basin now forms the Buchan and Bindi
limestones of Victoria; another depression is represented
by the Murrumbidgee limestones of N.S.W., and extended
westwards to Canowindra and Wilcannia. Another great
area of Devonian sedimentation was that of the Burdekin
beds of Queensland. (fig. 5).

Upper Devonian rocks also occur at Mount Lambie,
N.S.W., at Back Creek and Clyde Mountains near Braid-
wood, N.S.W., and also between Orange and Wellington,
N.S. W.

The earliest rocks of the Lower Devonian period were
of an igneous nature, namely, the Snowy River porphyries
of N.S.W.

Generally speaking, most of the igneous rocks of the
Devonian period were of an acid character.

The nature of Devonian sediments (largely limestones
and coarse sandstones) indicates shallow water and
derivation from the denudation of and igneous rocks. The
Devonian sediments therefore suggest that the volcanic
ejacamentea and the igneous intrusions of the late Silurian

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 157

and Early Devonian were of granitic magma: by the
same course of argument, we can suggest from the fine
grained and dark nature of the slates of the early Silurian
that the eruptions of that age and of the Ordovician
were of basic magma.

CARBONIFEROUS.

In the Carboniferous period, the movement of the
shoreline to the east was further accentuated. Along
great stretches the area of maximum sedimentation lay
far to the east of the present Continent. (fig. 6). Isolated
or semi-detached seas covered the New England area of
New South Wales, and the Gympie area of Queensland.
Great upliits, accompanied by granitic intrusions, took
place in the areas of maximum Silurian and Devonian
sedimentation. Mountain building was in this period
the result of earth folding processes, as instanced by the
gigantic earthfolds in the Devonian beds underlying
horizontal Upper Marine, near Braidwood, New South
Wales.

A north and south running strip of the West Australian
Continental mass was lowered sufficiently to become the
depository of marine sediments.

During this period and the following, it is not ‘istieely
that portions of Australia were connected with New Zealand,
Fiji, and New Caledonia.

PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS.

In the Permo-Carboniferous a shallow sea developed
to the east of the main Devonian areas (Fig. 7), running
north and south from the Sydney basin to the Dawson
River in Queensland. This elongated basin was probably
produced by folding, accompanied by faulting. In it
were deposited the Permo-Carboniferous beds. This basin
lay between the Gondwana land proper and the island
continent between Australia and Fiji and New Zealand.
It stood to these two landmasses in the same relation as
the Sea of Japan does to Japan and China. It afforded
a means for floating ice to be carried far to the north. [4]

Mighty upheavals took place in the Carboniferous
and Permo-Carboniferous periods. Such elevated lands
were built up that mammoth glaciers shed icefloes, which
not only found their way far to the north in the South

158 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Australian area, but even as far as Bowen in Queensland
The climate was so cooled that the rich flora of the coal
measures was driven north, and likewise the mollusca
and corals migrated to the north. Of corals only the hardy
zaphrentis remained when the cooling of the climate set in.
During the Permo-Carboniferous cataclysms com-
menced the break up of the great Gondwana continent
and the separation of Australia from India and South Africa
was commenced.

At the close of this period, the New England area of
N.S.W. became compressed between the adjoining segments
of the earth’s crust, so that the Permo-Carboniferous strata
of this region were folded as intensely as the Silurian in
other parts of Australia. [6]

To summarise the geological history of Paleozoic
Australia, we may say :—

(1) The Pre-Cambrian is a conglomeration of forma-
tions—both acid and basic igneous rocks were intruded. _

(2) The Cambrian was an era of uplift, Continental
extension, and mountain building. Whether the Cambrian
ice age was caused by earth movements having super-
elevated many mountains and produced glaciers, or whether
the cause of the ice age is due to any astronomical factors.
is hard to say. Eruptions and intrusions were of an acid
nature.

(3) The Ordovician was a period of quiet subsidence
over most of Eastern Australia; a great thickness of
sediments accumulated. Vulcanicity was at a minimum,
and the igneous masses which have been proved of this age:
were of an intermediate (andesitic) to basic character.

(4) The Silurian was a period of slow elevation of the
sea floor over Eastern Australia, and of Continental exten-
sion by the piling up in the seas of the weathering products
of the Continents. Vulcanicity became more and more
marked towards the end of the period, and the intrusions.
and lavas became more and more acid in character.

(5) The Early Devonian was an era of rapid elevation
in some parts, downthrow in others. Great folds and
great faults were produced. The lavas, tufis and intrusive
rocks of the period were very acid in character.

The Devonian uplifts must have caused the isolation
of many seas, for the Devonian sandstones of some parts

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 159

care like our Triassic rocks, very poor in fossils, and indicate
deposition in a semi-brackish sea. The Devonian sediments,
where not of organic origin, point to acidic eruptions and
intrusions in this and the previous period.

(6) The late Carboniferous was a period of most
intense folding and faulting, accompanied by igneous
intrusions and volcanic eruptions of strongly acidic
character.

(7) The Permo-Carboniferous was a period of general
subsidence, accompanied by erosion of the lands and the
piling up of sediments in the ocean. Volcanic eruptions
took place far and wide in the regions of heavy sedimenta-
tion, and the lavas were all of an intermediate to basic
nature.

Towards the end of this period the super-elevation of
some landmass lying to the south-west of Tasmania, caused
an Australian ice age. Evidences obtain at Bacchus
Marsh, Victoria; Hallett’s Cove, and other places in §.A.,
Lochinvar and Branxton in N.S.W., Bowen in Queensland,
and the Irwin and Gascoyne Coalfields in W.A. [4 and 5]

In the foregoing notes, the following two points are of
special interest :—

(1) The Continent moved in an easterly direction
throughout the Paleozoic, and by the end of the Permo-
Carboniferous, had captured more than the whole of the
present continent, including many deep ocean parts. This
is satisfactory evidence that Penck’s theory of the
—— ehh
permanency of ocean basins does not hold.
~~) Andesite indicates a subsiding and rhyolite .
rising area. :

THE Mesozoic.

The Mediterranean Sea of Australia, shown on Figs.
7, 8, 9, commenced in the Permo-Carboniferous period,
during which it was probably connected with the ocean
by a south passage. Its oceanic connection to the south
ceased with the dawn of the Mesozoic.

In the Triassic and in the Trias-Jura, it is probable
that the main mountain ranges of Australia lay some
distance out in the present Pacific Ocean, in the direction
of New Zealand. Regional uplift took place over most
of the coal-basin (Permo-Carboniferous) area. The
upward movement was not of equal intensity in all parts.

160: THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

During the Triassic, the Sydney basin not only lagged
behind in the uplift, but was subsiding at intervals, so that
during this period it was a shallow sea in which the
Narrabeen shales, the Hawkesbury sandstones, and the
Wianamatta shales were laid down. During the Narrabeen
interval volcanic eruptions of an andesitic nature showered
out ashes, which helped to build up the chocolate shales.
The abundance of fossil leaves and wood in this formation
indicates shallowness, proximity to land, and possibly
nearly fresh water conditions, indicating that this area
had participated for a time in the uplift of the late Permo-
Carboniferous. The Hawkesbury sandstone system consists
of coarse-grained sandstones, which, evidently, must have
been deposited in a storm-tossed brackish sea, for the sedi-
ments carry no fossils except a few Macroteeniopteris leaves
and fragments of fossil wood. Brackish water affords the
most suitable habitat for thinshelled molluscs, and a shallow
storm-tossed sea gives the best conditions for the complete
destruction of shell remains by the grinding action of the
sands. The frequency in the Hawkesbury system of false
bedding is also indicative of changing currents and shallow
water.

The Hawkesbury period was followed by an uplift
which inaugurated a lake period in the Sydney area. In
the lake then formed the Wianamatta shales were laid
down. Mr. F. Chapman, F.L.S., concludes from his study
of the fossil microzoa of the series that the Wianamatta
shales were deposited in fresh or brackish water. [7]
(Records Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Part IV.)
The other fossils of the formation, comprising thin-shelled
mollusca and labyrinthodont remains, support this con.
clusion.

The Hawkesbury sandstone sea was at the start
considerably larger than the area now covered by its forma-
tion.

Mr. W. 8. Dun [8] has described fossil leaves in Lower
Trias rocks from Benolong, in the Dubbo district. The
sea gradually dwindled in size as elevation proceeded, and
at last only the Wianamatta lake remained.

The elevation of the whole of the eastern belt of the
present Australian Continent led to a relative depression
of the interior, and in later Triassic times (the Trias-Jura

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 161

of Jack) an epicontinental sea formed in which the Trias-
Jura rocks were laid down. This sea extended from the
New England and Central tablelands in New South Wales
west into Central Australia, thence north to the Gulf of Car-
pentaria. It reached the eastern margin of the present
Continent in the Moreton Bay district of Queensland,
whence a stretch of water extended south over the Clarence
and Richmond districts of New South Wales.

The Trias-Jura sea is coextensive (Fig. 8) with the
artesian areas of New South Wales and Queensland, and
included also the Ipswich and Clarence coal-measures.

The bulk of the sediments deposited in this period
consisted of coarse, silicious sandstones, distinguished by
current bedding and scarcity of fossils. In parts, as on
the Maroochy Beach of Queensland, fossil wood is plentiful.
In isolated places leaves and thin-shelled mollusca are
found. Evidently, the conditions prevailing in this expanse
of water were similar to those prevailing in the Hawkesbury
period over the Sydney basin.

The area subject to sedimentation in the Cretaceous
period was almost identical with the Trias-Jura basin.
(Fig. 9).

In the Cretaceous Mediterranean Sea of Australia
were deposited the Rolling Downs formations, consisting
of sandstones, marls and limestones, with marine fossils.
The Cretaceous sea was probably connected with the ocean,
both to the south and to the north.

The Rolling Downs are capped by the Upper Cretaceous
or Cretaceo-Tertiary Desert Sandstones, fine-grained,
magnesian sandstones—this formation often lies uncon-

-formably, and occurs in the form of broken ridges with

flat summits and precipitous sides. The Rev. Mr. Tennison
Woods, F.L.S. [9], considered the Desert Sandstone to be
an early Tertiary volcanic tuff deposit, formed under
terrestrial conditions, the false bedding being due, in his
opinion, to wind changes (Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W.,
Vol. XXII., p. 290). He considers also, that in the period
of the Desert Sandstone, Australia was more elevated than
to-day.

The theory of the volcanic origin of the magnesite
of the Desert Sandstone is probably correct. Although
the main trachytic eruptions of Eastern Australia were

162 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

older than the great basic flows, there is strong evidence
in the Moreton and Fassifern districts of Queensland, and
in the Canoblas, Nandewars, and Mittagong trachyte
series in New South Wales, that the trachytic eruptive
rocks were preceded by basic and ultrabasic intrusives, and
flows quite distinct from the Miocene and Pliocene basalts.
The age of this post-Jurassic volcanic period is probably
not older than late Cretaceous, nor newer than Eocene.

The Cretaceous was a period of relative quiet, and
the great continental rim elevated in the late Permian,
Triassic and Trias-Jura periods was being worn down to
base level. The formation of the Bolivia and Mole pene-
plains was completed in this period. (Andrews—Tertiary
History of New England). An early Tertiary uplift followed,
and this was accompanied by renewed degradation until
the great Miocene peneplain of Eastern Australia was
formed (Sandon and Stannifer peneplain of Andrews op.
cit. [10], Monaro peneplain of Sussmilch [11] ).

The first great basalt demonstration of the Tertiary
occurred before the completion of Miocene peneplanation,
and the alkaline lavas of Eastern Australia are usually
regarded as early extrusives of that eruptive cycle, a view
that assigns them to the Eocene or early Miocene periods.
The later basalts succeeded, and are best regarded as late
Pliocene. Their extrusion was followed or accompanied
by great upheavals in some areas, such as New England.

The igneous activity of the Mesozoic periods has not
left such striking evidence as the Tertiary volcanic action
just referred to. The following clues are, however, afforded :

(a) The chocolate shales of early Trias (Narrabeen)
age contain augite, and are probably andesitic tuffs.

(6) The Wianamatta shales do in many places near
Penrith pass into tuffy shales. The nature of the shales
themselves is indicative of derivation from basic volcanic
rock. Some shaly beds in the Clarence series are likewise
tufiy. |

(c) The alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia were
preceded by basic eruptions from which they are separated
by at least one geological period. The magnesites of the
Desert Sandstone may be related to these basic eruptives.

(12]

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 163

From the nature of the Mesozoic sediments generally,
we may conclude that the Mesozoic period was not
characterised by intense vulcanicity, but some eruptions
probably took place, such as the andesitic ejacamenta
of the Narrabeen period, the basic tufis of Wianamatta
age, and others mentioned above. If any eruptions took
place in the Hawkesbury period, they must have been of
an acid nature. The Trias-Jura of the Clarence River
district of New South Wales contains basic tufis probably
contemporaneous, and this is also the case with the
Mesozoic rocks between Nambour and Yandina, Queens-
land. [13] The latter also contain rhyolites and associated
tuffs, some of which show close resemblance to the felsitic
tuffs at the base of the Trias-Jura in Brisbane. None of
the rocks igneous definitely assignable to the Trias-Jura
have an alkaline facies.

The points of major interest in connection with the
Mesozoic rocks of Eastern Australia are :—

(1) Our Mesozoic sediments show no folding of conse-
quence. Generally speaking, they show only slight dips,
and have never been under the influence of tangential
pressure like the Mesozoic sediments of the Alps, Himalayas,
Java, etc.

(2) Even our Permo-Carboniferous rocks are only
strongly contorted in the area of the New England district.
‘Since the Permo-Carboniferous, Eastern Australia has been
a stable unit of the earth’s crust; if not actually rising,
so that any sedimentation of late Permo-Carboniferous,
and later age, is due to marine transgressions and epi-con-
tinental seas invading the landmass.

(3) Mountain building from the Permo-Carboniferous
on has been by plateau uplift, not by folding, except in the
New England, where tangential thrusts must have taken
place in the Mesozoic. Faulting has aided in the formation
of our mountains, but intense folding of this age has only
occurred in the Northern Tableland of New South Wales.

(4) The most folded rocks of late Permo-Carboniferous
and Mesozoic age are in a few small subsidence areas, among
which the Gympie Goldfield [14], the New England, and
the Ipswich Coalfield are prominent.

(5) The discovery by R. A. Wearne, of Fenestella
in horizontal sandstones resembling Ipswich coal-measures,

c

164 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

near Mt. Barney, shows that the idea that the formations
become progressively more and more folded as we go north
towards New Guinea is not without limitations. [15]

(6) So little compression has there been since the
ushering in of the Mesozoic in Eastern Australia, that artesian
water is obtainable in Mezosoic rocks, but not in oider rocks.

(7) The Desert Sandstone is a volcanic ash deposit,
probably partly of late Cretaceous, partly of Tertiary age,
as suggested by Tennyson Woods. [9]

THE BRISBANE AND THE GYMPIE ROCKS.

The veteran geologist of Queensland, Dr. Jack, classed
most of the unfossiliferous schists of Queensland with
the Gympie formation. In my paper, ‘“‘ The Metamorphic
Rocks of Southern Queensland” [14], read before the
A.A.A.8., Brisbane Meeting, 1909, I gave some weighty
reasons for regarding the Gympie area as a small subsidence
area, in which, by reason of depression and compression
between adjoining blocks of the earth’s crust, more recent
formations were metamorphosed than in the more elevated
blocks. Mr. Wearne’s interesting discovery of Fenestella,
near Mt. Barney, in almost horizontal sandstones confirms
this view. [15]

I am inclined to regard the unfossiliferous Paleozoic
beds between Brisbane and Coff’s Harbour, and also those
north of Brisbane in the D’Aguilar Ranges, and further
north in the Yabba Ranges, etc., as a paleozoic complex
of deep sea deposits, ranging from, perhaps, Pre-Cambrian to
Devonian or Carboniferous in age. These beds were
elevated in late Carboniferous or Permian times, and
portions of the area which they covered were submerged
again by an epicontinental sea, when the great Mesozoic
uplift of New England took place. The Clarence basin
sandstones and Ipswich coal-measures were laid down in
this epicontinental sea.

The Gympie beds of Gympie proper have been proved
by their fossil contents to be equivalent with the Lower
Marine beds of New South Wales, therefore Permo-Carboni-
ferous. While it is not only possible, but probable, that
large areas of Queensland were under shallow water in
Permo-Carboniferous times, the beds laid down in that
period have only been preserved in cases where they have
been downthrown by trough faulting. [14]

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 165

The progressive increase of folding in Permo-Car-
boniferous rocks observed on going north from the Vic-
torian to the Queensland border, reaches its climax in the
Macleay-Manning and Southern New England districts
of New South Wales. North of the Macpherson Range,
the Permo-Carboniferous have only been materially dis-
turbed in certain senkungsfeldt areas of small extent.

At Bega, in N.S.W. (see Fig. 11), we have the Ordovician
rocks and igneous rocks of granite composition. Further
north, in the Cobargo district, lightly folded Silurian shales
(Narira schists) rest on the Ordovician. Still further
north, not far from the Narrigundah goldfields, Devonian
rocks appear, according to Anderson [16], sitting horizon-
tally on top of folded Silurian. These Devonian rocks
are seen at Braidwood and Ettrema, folded into huge
anticlines and synclines. At Sassafras, horizontal Greta
and Upper Marine rocks rest on them. That is the case
in the Turpentine Range, Sassafras, the headwaters of
the Clyde, Endrick and Danjera rivers. [17]

Still further north, as at Sydney and Maitland, the
Permo-Carboniferous is lightly folded, and _ horizontal
Triassic caps it. Still further north, on the Macleay and
Manning Rivers, the Permo-Carboniferous is greatly folded.
After that the intensity of fold movements diminishes
progressively as we go north into Southern Queensland.

These facts may be stated in geological parlance in
this wey—

Sydney was the centre of a great geosyncline, the
Bega-Monaro district and the Macpherson Range were
the stable and resistant hinges [13] during all periods
up to the Permo-Carboniferous. As sedimentation con-
tinued in the New England subsidence area during the
Permo-Carboniferous, the uplift of this province took place
in the Triassic. During the coalmeasures period, therefore,
the centre of the geosyncline was near Sydney. East and
west folding has taken place in the same way, Sydney
being the centre of the depression. (See Fig. 11).

During the subsequent Triassic period, the Permo-
Carboniferous sediments were folded in subsiding areas,
and eroded away in other areas.

The synclinal nature of the Sydney basin closed with
the Triassic period of sedimentation.

. 166 THE BUILDING NF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Prior to the Permo-Carboniferous, the whole of the
East Australian Coast was a synclinal. The formation of
the Bega-Monaro ge-anticline commenced in the early
Paleozoic, and that of the Macpherson Range commenced
in the Permo-Carboniferous.

To make the position clear, we may regard the move-
ment along the whole Australian coast as either a move-
ment upwards or a sinking.

From the point of view of uplift without tangential
pressure, the Kosciusko mass has continuously risen since
Ordovician times; proceeding northwards, uplift came
later and later, post-Devonian at Narrigundah, post-
Carboniferous at Nelligen and Braidwood, post Permo-
Carboniferous at Yalwal, Ettrema, etc., post Triassic at
Sydney. Inthe country stretching from Armidale on New
England tothe mouth of the Macleay and Manning Rivers
uplift, accompanied by tangential compression, took
place prior to the elevation of the Sydney area, namely
in the Triassic period. This uplift was also experienced
in Northern New England and the Macpherson Range,
but was there only accompanied by tangential pressure in
localised subsidence areas.

Compression is, generally speaking, the outcome of
subsidence. When subsidence ceases, earth segments rise
without being folded. Small areas lagging behind in the
general uplift may undergo compression. Viewing the
Kast Australian earth movements in the sense of downward
movements, we see from the above that the maximum
subsidence took place in the New England-Manning belt
prior to early Triassic, when elevation commenced in this
region.

The Sydney area remained submerged longer—in fact
until the Triassic sediments had been laid down, when
regional uplift set in; and south of Sydney the cessation
of subsidence came earlier and earlier in geological time.

The Macpherson Range became a stable or rising area
in late Permo-Cabroniferous.

During Mesozoic times, as well as Tertiary, the general
tendency has been towards uplift and tension along the
whole east coast of Australia, for the horizontal disposition
of a formation of a given geological age may be considered
as indicating that subsidence had ceased, or did cease, in

BY A. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 167

that period, though the area may have remained sub-
merged for a while after.

Hence I deduce from the horizontal nature of Permo-
Carboniferous beds at Mt. Barney [15], that in this period,
or just before it, subsidence came to an end in this region ;
it does not follow that sedimentation must cease at the
same time. It may persist for a whole geological period
longer. |

Queensland underwent the same general types of
movement as New South Wales during the Palxozoic era.
In the early Triassic, the super-elevation of some earth
segments, such as New England, caused down warpings
of slight amplitude, and in the depressions thus formed
were the Triassic and Cretaceous rocks deposited.

CAUSES OF FOLDING.

It has been argued that throughout the Palzozoic
periods the ancestral Australian Continent was continually
adding to itself on the eastern side. Adopting Kelvin’s
hypothesis of the origin of the continents, we may regard
this original Australia or Gondwana Land as a floater, that
is a portion of the earth’s crust, which consisted of acid
magma, and was specifically light, and therefore raised
by flotation above the heavier magmas, or buoyed up by
the heavier basic magmas beneath. As erosion was con-
tinually making it specifically lighter, and the detritus
resulting from erosion was being piled up in adjoining seas,
the process of erosion had the effect of causing continued
elevation of the continental area and subsidence for a long
period at least in the adjoining basins.

The elevation of the continental area would cease
when the underlying basic portions of the earth’s crust had
consolidated and fallen under the influence of secular
contraction.

The subsidence of the seabasins would cease when
sufficient sediments had been heaped together for the
depressed isogeotherms to reassert themselves.

The gradual rise of temperature in this great mass
of cool sediments would cause first a general uplift, and,
later, if upward expansion did not afford sufficient relief
of pressure, folding of the sediments would ensue.

168 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

In this way the great accumulation of sediments round
the margin of the old continent would be raised into
mountain ranges, the continent advancing a few hundred
miles in the direction of the former sea in each geological
period.

The sediments of one geological period in this way
became raised into a marginal buttress of mountain ranges
in the next geological period. These mountain ranges in
their turn would become subject to denudation, and the
material derived from them would accumulate on the
new continental shelf and in the adjoining deep; in its
turn this new area of sedimentation would become a
continental margin.

This view is opposed to the doctrine of Permanency
of Ocean Basins advanced by that eminent geologist,
Penck, but it derives strong support from the geological
history of Eastern Australia. [For further discussion see
12}.

Ocean basis are subsiding segments of the earth’s
crust, whose downward movement is probably due to
rigid connection with the shrinking interior of the crust.
In their downward sag, these segments sink from levels
of lower earth temperature to those of higher temperature,
with the result that such segments are fused below, and by
reason of their expansion exert a lateral pressure on
adjoining segments. In this way is produced a creep in
the zone of rock flowage from the subsiding segments
towards the rising segments. The displaced magmas become
injected into cavities (macule), zones of no strain, and
fractures in the continental margins, the rocks in which
become heated by the injected magmas and consequently
expand. A period of mountain building and folding, due
to igneous injection as outlined by Reg. A. Daly [18],
may therefore succeed or accompany the uplift and folding,
due to rise of isogeotherms.

Mountain building by igneous injection, seems to have
gone on extensively in the late Paleozoic and _ early
Mesozoic in the New England area of New South Wales.

Folding only takes place in the superficial strata of
a rising area (undergoing expansion due to rise of
isogeotherms) under particular conditions, namely, when
the area is a sunken fault block relatively left behind in the

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 169

general uplift, and so pinched in between two other blocks,
and when the area is underlying mountain building by
igneous injection.

Thus the elevated Triassic Hawkesbury sandstones
of New South Wales are not superficially folded, nor are
the Permo-Carboniferous sandstones of the Shoalhaven
district (Nowra Grits). There have been no _ abyssal
injections of magnitude introduced into them since their
deposition. They have never been intruded by granites
or diorites, or gabbros. This is also true for the Ipswich
Coal Measures in Southern Queensland.

But the Ipswich Coal Measures are locally disturbed
to a considerable degree at Ipswich in proximity to a fault
which suggests that this portion of the area is a Senkungs-
feldt. They are also slightly folded in the D’ Aguilar Range,
near the Glass House Mountains, the uplift here having
probably igneous injection as the immediate causal agent.

Those portions of a continental margin which have
their cracks and macule infilled by magmas creeping
along the zone of flowage became cemented together, and
persist as land for many periods, while those portions which
are not affected by igneous injections are weakened and
tend to become downfaulted areas (Senkungsfeldter).

In illustration of this statement, it might be pointed
out that the Kosciusko fault block, the Central Tableland,
and the Northern Tableland in N.S.W., abound in huge
granitic intrusions, as is also the case with the Stanley
River block of South Queensland (Woodford Peneplain).

In his presidential address to the Linnean Society
this year, Mr. C. Hedley gave further particulars of his
view that the Tasman deep is a pressure trough, and
endeavoured to show that the physiographic features of
New South Wales are due to a pressure emanating from
the Tasman deep [19 and 20}.

There is no doubt about the existence of a great fold
in the Mesozoic rocks of this part of Australia. The
Hawkesbury sandstones and the Nowra Grits have in general
a gentle dip towards the sea, and the Peneplains formed
by the truncation of the original fold in middle Tertiary
times have their eastern margins depressed beneath the
sea by a further accentuation of the fold movement.

170 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

But this fold is of such a gentle nature, and the dips
produced so slight, that the movement may be more aptly
described as Andrews has done as plateau uplift
[Andrews, 1].

No superheated magmas have yet worked their way
up in these sediments and caused expansion and intense
folding, but very late Tertiary faults have produced
Senkungsfeldt areas (as described by Sussmilch, 11], some
of which may, perhaps, in a future period, become so
squeezed as to be intensely folded. Up to the present,
the uplift has affected the superficial strata only so far
as to produce in them faults and great masterjoints. As
shown by Sussmilch (op cit) and T. G. Taylor [21], the
direction of the rivers of Southern N.S.W. is induced by
these faults, while in the present writer’s opinion, the great
canons which dissect the Southern coastal tablelands and
Blue Mountains of N.S.W. follow principally great joint
cracks of the sandstones. TheSe joint cracks, aS Seen by
the writer at Ettrema Canon, often coincide in poSition
with Paleozoic faults, and may owe their origin to Slight
displacements along these old fault lines. Joints and
faults in a homogeneous formation conStitute the lines of
weakness, along which streams are able to work down and
dissect a plateau.

Folding of a compressive nature in an area like that
of the Blue Mountains of N.S.W., is very deepseated, and,
in the writer’s opinion, pressure is exerted in the deeper
portions of the earth’s crust from the sea, towards the land,.
from the great subsiding basin of the Tasman Sea towards.
the Continent. In this respect, the writer agrees with
Hedley, and disagrees with Andrews, who believes that:
the continent exerts a pressure in the direction of the
ocean. The contour of the east coast of Australia would
seem to lend colour to Andrews’ hypothesis, but, as
pointed out by Hedley, in an interesting discussion, the
apparent convex curve of the East Australian coast becomes
two concave curves if we analyse the soundings in the
adjoining Pacific Ocean, for a bar of shallow water runs
from Point Danger eastwards in the direction of Fiji.

The deepseated landward pressure in itself largely
accounts for the buoying-up of the Continent.

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 171

THe BREAK-UP OF GONDWANA LAND.—FAULTING.

The coasts of Western Australia, India, Arabia, and
East Africa are unmistakably faulted coast lines [Atlantic
type, see 12].

Recent faulting is still enlarging the Indian Ocean.
Madagascar is a horst, and the Mozambique channel is a
Senkungsfeldt, the fault which separated the former from
Africa having taken place in Pleistocene times.

The faulting in progress at the present time in the
Rift Valley of Africa—a region of great modern earth-
quakes—is a later instalment of the same process of
disruption.

Gondwana Land existed from the early Paleozoic
(Cambrian) to the Permo-Carboniferous as a compact
landmass. In the Carboniferous, subsidence areas of the
nature of trough-faults had already commenced, and over
some of them passed transgressive arms of the sea: thus
not only in Africa are almost horizontal Carboniferous
marine sediments met with, put in West Australia a long
strip, occupying mainly the west coast of modern W.A.,
was submerged in the Carboniferous, and during part of the
Permo-Carboniferous, and again at intervals in the Mesozoic.
The land connection between Australia, Africa and
Antarctica began to break down during these periods, though
island bridges probably remained until the end of the
Mesozoic, these accounting for the African affinities of
the West Australia flora.

This disruption was, no doubt, due to secular con-
traction. The interior of the old Continent became
unstable, and was downthrown as soon as the cooling of
the deeper portions of the earth’s crust commenced to make
them contract. Portions of the upper crust became
separated from the cooling, lower portions by the forma-
tion of shrinkage cavities (macule), some of which were
not reached by igneous invasions from the zone of flowage.
Thus the upper shell become unsupported, and fell in.
The rim of the old Continent was largely strengthened
by igneous injections, and thus escaped the general
collapse. In this way the old complex of Western
Australia, and that of Western Tasmania consist very
largely of igneous materials.

172 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

It has been suggested that in the Permo-Carboniferous
and early Mesozoic periods the Continent extended far
into the present Pacific Ocean, and may have been con-
nected both with Fiji and Antarctica or New Zealand.
[22, C. Hedley, A.A.A.S., 1909.]

These extensions have been taken away again by
faulting.

It should be here mentioned in explanation of the
distinctive nature of the West Australian flora, that
although all our late Permian and Mesozoic sediments
are of a epi-continental nature that is formed in epi-con-
tinental seas, Western Australia had, prior to the Tertiary
period, very little land connection with eastern portions
of the Continent.

The present appearance of the eastern coast of
Australia is in many parts that of a strongly faulted coast-
line. As shown by Sussmilch, the Southern Tablelands
of N.S.W. [11] constitute a blockfaulted peneplain. I
have myself corroborated faulting of this kind by
describing instances in the country west of Jervis Bay. [17]

A further and more striking example was seen on a
later visit to the Bega district. The Bega coastal district
is separated from the Monaro Tableland by a linear though
facetted fault -scarp, which has downthrown the eastern
block about 1,500 feet relative to the Monaro block. The
topography is identical on the coastal plain and Monaro
Tableland. This fault scarp runs parallel with the Con-
tinental shelf, and it is more than likely that some of our
steep declivities on the Continental shelf are similar, but
submerged, fault scarps.

E. C. Andrews has given a very complete account of
Tertiary faulting [1].

MounTAIN RANGES AND DIRECTION OF FOLDING.

As already stated, Andrews has tegarded the con-
vexity of the Australian coast towards the Pacific as
evidence of folding towards that deep. The veteran
geologist, Suess, has drawn similar conclusions from the
curvature of mountain ranges, arguing that the East Asiatic
mountain festoons and island festoons indicate folding
towards the Pacific. Mr. C. Hedley has argued against
this view, and I think with ample justification that fold
mountains will tend to form a girdle round buffers or

_ +

‘ BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC, 173

bulwarks in the shape of compact and resisting earth
segments, the more pliable rocks being moulded against the
resisting object.

There are, no doubt, cases of surface folding, in which
the fold movement is exerted from the land in the direction
of the sea, as in Fig. 13 (a), where two earth segments, a rising
one, A’, and a subsiding one, B1, are in contact. At their
junction the beds will be in some cases overfolded towards B?;
in some places fractured and overthrust faults may develop.
This type of earth structure is in evidence at Penrith, in
the Blue Mountains, N.S.W., and in the Main Range;
Fassifern district, Q. In such cases, we always have a
broken plateau, different parts of which are rising or sub-
siding at different rates.

More usually, we have surface folding conforming
tothe type illustrated in Fig. 13 (6). A synclinal area under-
going expansion B? is folded up against the hard-resisting
Paleozoic rocks, A+. It is clear that folding of this kind
may form either a concave or convex range in the direction
of thrust depending on the configuration of the opposing
mass. (See Fig. (6), (c) and (d).)

In my paper on the Geology of the East Moreton and
Wide Bay Districts, I presented the view that the folding
of the Mesozoic rocks of the D’Aguilar Range and the
Blackall Range was caused by pressure from the East.
This view I still adhere to, and these ranges have a slight
convexity to the Kast. As shown in Fig. 12, the south spur
of Mt. Mee has small cappings of Trias-Jura rocks elevated
high above the surface of the coastal plain. The pressure
from the East must have been rather deep seated, the
surface formations being at the time in a state of tension.

In discussing the merits of the theories advanced
by Hedley, Andrews and others on the direction of pressure,
it is the deepseated and not superficial pressures that count,
for as already shown, the surface formations of Eastern
Australia have throughout Tertiary times been in a state
of tension, and plateau uplift has been the main cause
of mountain building. Plateau dissection accounts for
the curvature of our ranges.

For this very reason it seems absurd to draw inferences
as to the direction of existing and Tertiary pressure dis-
tribution from the configuration of existing mountain

174 THE BUILDING OF FKFASTERN AUSTRALIA

ranges: Bends concave to the east occur where areas
of soft Mesozoic sediments or Permo-Carboniferous rocks
have offered an easy task to the forces of erosion. The
ranges consist largely of barriers of hard palzozoic rock,
whose directions of folding offer no clue to the tertiary
direction of pressure.

It seems, therefore, that in the East Australian area
we cannot deduce the direction of earth pressures from
either the curvature of mountain ranges or from the fold
lines in the Paleozoic rocks, but only from the differential
movements of fault blocks.

The existence of the high plateaux along the eastern
rim of the Continent seems to the writer evidence for
believing that the pressure came from the east. The greatest
uplift would be in the blocks in closest proximity to the
source of pressure. Experimentally this may be verified
by pushing a piece of paper away from you while the other
end of the paper is clamped under your inkpot. At first
it will fold upwards at the end from which the thrust is
exerted, then another fold appears near the object offering
resistence to the thrust and finally the whole sheet is
uplifted. If you try to fold a slightly elastic yet brittle
object in the same way, it will fracture before the first
fold (that near the source of thrust) is complete. Con-
sequently the block faulting in Eastern Australia, along
the Pacific rim, is further evidence for deepseated pres-
sure from the Kast.

Where least resistance was offered to the thrust by
Paleozoic massives, the main uplift was further from the
source of pressure. This will account for the wide expanse
of lowland country between the Darling Downs and Moreton
Bay.

The writer is, therefore, not in agreement with Mr.
Andrews’ deductions regarding lines of pressure. Prob-
ably his lines of pressure from the Southern Ocean towards
the interior of Australia are correct, but his lines of pressure
from Eastern Australia towards the Tasman Sea should
probably be reversed. [23]

In 1802 [23], Andrews attributed the rugged nature
of the North Queensland coast to recent faulting. In
the writer’s opinion, this view is corroborated by the fact
that the Barrier line of reef is separated from the coast

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 175

by deep water, and not by a sea of coral islands. This
implies fast movement such as would be produced by fault-
ing. If the movement had been slow the corals would
have been able to keep building up at the same pace as the
the downward sag, and islands would be scattered through
the whole expanse between the reef and the mainland.

Fig. 13 gives the writer’s idea of this block. In it
we have a repetition of the processes which build up
mountain folds and caused the gradual easterly aggrandise-
ment of Gondwana land.

In North Queensland, in the Tertiary period, a plateau
uplift gave rise to a plain extending as far as the present
Barrier Reef. This plain was faulted, and the seaward
portion sagged downward. During this process, volcanic
extravasation took place. The subsiding block is getting
heavily sedimented, and its western portions are at the
same time having their isogeotherms raised by the intrusion
of basic magmas as indicated by the recent basalt flows and
hot springs of N.Q. The conditions are, therefore, favour-
able to the productions of great folds in this block, which
in due course will become uplifted and a part of the con-
tinent. The down movement of the block will continue
until rise of isogeotherms in the sediments is able to over-
come the pressure of the sediments.

It strikes the student of geology that folding move-
ments were more intense in the Paleozoic periods than
later in the earth’s history. This, if so, would seem to
corroborate Kelvin’s theory of the origin of the earth,
for it would indicate that in the Paleozoic, the earth’s
crust was more plastic and the zone of flowage nearer to
the surface than at present.

VULCANICITY AND PETROLOGY.

The petrology of the sedimentary rocks of each of
the great Palzozoic periods is naturally very similar through-
out Eastern Australia. Though similar rocks are not
always contemporaneous, and sometimes one series, some-
times another, is missing in various parts of the continent,
still a general resemblance exists between the sedimentary
formations of each period for all parts on the same belt
of sedimentation, and this lithological similarity can often
be verified by the discovery of fossils.

176 THE BUIEDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

As there was a steady displacement of the shoreline
in an easterly direction, we should expect the more easterly
portions of Eastern Australia to have deep sea deposits,
characterising the early Paleozoic and shallow sea deposits
typical of late Paleozoic. The late Paleozoic rocks of
the eastern part of N.S. Wales and Queensland should,
therefore, be lithologically similar to the Cambrian of
Central Australia ; thus, conglomerates formed a dominant
series in the Cambrian of South Australia and Western
N.S. Wales, and conglomerates are typical of Permo-
Carboniferous and Carboniferous in more eastlying parts.

Volcanic rocks because of their want of fossils are
more difficult to study, but their study also leads to
important deductions.

It appears that intermediate igneous rocks, that is
to say, those which are allied to diorite and andesite in
magmatic character, are characteristic of any era of
subsidence. We see such rocks at the present day extruded
from the active volcanoes of the New Hebrides, the Tongan
Islands and the Kermadecs in the great Pacific subsidence
area. Rhyolites and Granites are more typical of an
era of quiet uplift and of mountain building by rise of
isogeotherms. Alkaline rocks, both basic and acid, are
typical of a period of general uplift accompanied by
faulting and Senkungsfeldt formation over portions of the
area. Basic lavas belong chiefly to periods of plateau uplift.
To illustrate by modern examples—we have in the North
Island of New Zealand, an area of post-tertiary elevation,
where many volcanoes are even to-day disseminating
acid lavas. Alkaline rocks are poured out by the Antarctic
active volcanoes on the troughfaulted perimeter of a
plateau which has undergone very recent uplifts. [24]
We have them under similar conditions in Italy and East
Africa.

Basalts of an alkaline facies are to-day emitted
from the volcanoes of Tonga and Samoa, in which there
is probably a present tendency to general uplift, but calcic
and magnesic basalts are often poured over subsidence areas
in the period preceding their re-elevation.

Let us now consider igneous action in the history of
Australia, investigating period; after period, commencing
with the Cambrian..-

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 177

CAMBRIAN.

Acidic igneous rocks supposed to be of this age exist
in Western and Central Australia. Similar rocks were
not intruded in Eastern Australia till many periods later.
They belong mainly to the Upper Silurian period in Central
New South Wales, to the Carboniferous in Eastern New
South Wales, south of the Sydney basin, and in part at
least to the late Permo-Carboniferous or early Mesozoic
in New England and Southern Queensland.

ORDOVICIAN.

In Victoria, Professor Skeats [25] has referred the
Heathcotian Series to this period. The igneous rocks
of this series were of an intermediate to basic nature, and
chemically rich in magnesia. From this, one would expect
the Victorian area to have been undergoing subsidence
during Ordovician times. The evidence of the associated
sediments confirm such a_ supposition.

In Central New South Wales we have contemporane-
ously interbedded andesites in the Ordovician near Orange,
Forbes and Mandurama. Here, too, the sedimentary
rocks would seem to indicate a period of subsidence.

Upper SILURIAN.

In Victoria some of the Snowy River porphyries and
felsites (all very acid rocks) may belong to this period.

In New South Wales we have acid submarine tufts of
this age at Wellington, and banded rhyolites and dacite
tuffs at Yass.

The sedimentary rocks of the Upper Silurian
in Victoria and Central New South Wales show that a
shallowing of the sea had commenced.

In North Queensland too, in the Chillagoe district,
we have granites and felsites of this age.

In the New England district and the north coast of
N.S. Wales, where subsidence was still in progress, the
intrusive rocks being dioritic (blue) granites.

DEVONIAN.

Professor Skeats has demonstrated that some of the
Snowy River porphyry series of Victoria were erupted
in the Devonian.

Many granite intrusions in N.S. Wales are supposed
to be of this age, to which, as well, the Snowy River
porphyries of N.S. Wales are referred.

178 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Professor Skeats has assigned to the Lower Devonian,
the dacite and quartz porphyrite series of Dandenong
Hills ; to the Middle Devonian, the felsite series of Buchan.

Upper PALZXOZOIC.

To the Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous,
Professor Skeats has assigned great areas of rhyolite, quartz
porphyry and basalt at Mount Wellington, and in the

Grampians. [25]

Many of the N.S. Wales granite intrusions have been
referred to the Devonian, as have also many of the
granites of Southern Queensland.

By far the most of the granites of N.S. Wales are con-
nected with the folding of the Devonian beds, and took
place prior to the deposition of the Upper Marine. The
granites of Yalwal, Sassafras, Narriga, Moruya, Moonbi
Ranges and many more, have proved to be post-Devonian
and pre-Greta, and the probability is that they are all of
Carboniferous age.

Carboniferous rhyolites occur associated with con-
glomerate formation to the west of the New England,
in the Nandewar Range.

Melaphyres (basaltic) were at this time poured out
in the Avon River district of Victoria.

The north-eastern portions of New South Wales were
still subsiding under a load of sediments, and the andesitic
eruptions of the Clarence town series were extruded over
the Stroud district and eastern New England.

In the Permo-Carboniferous period, the south coast
district of N.S. Wales was subjected to eruptions of Alkaline,
sub-alkaline and basic rocks. [26] These eruptions
initiated the period of uplift.

MESOZOIC.

The chocolate shales of the Narrabeen series contain
volcanic minerals, and are probably to a great extent of
tuffaceous origin.

Generally speaking, the Mesozoic period was in Eastern
Australia notable for the rareness of indications of volcanic
action.

Some of the acid granites of the New England may
perhaps be of late Permo-Carb. or of early Mesozoic age.

Some of the upper beds of the Clarence (Ipswich)
Series seem to have been tufis.

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 179

Marks has demonstrated the existence of dolerites
of Triassic age in more or less isolated patches of the
Ipswich coalfield. [27] Further, we have the period of
Trias Jura sedimentation in Southern Queensland ushered
in by eruptions of felsite (Brisbane tuffs), dacite, quartz
porphyry and andesite (Eumundi series).

Yet Mesozoic eruptions were extremely localised.
Volcanic debris or lava is seldom met within boring in Trias
Jura or Hawkesbury formations.

It was only in the late Cretaceous that vulcanicity
became more intense, as evidenced by tuffy material in
the Desert Sandstone, the trachytic tuffs in the Upper
Cretaceous of the Mackay district (Q.). [For references
see 9 and 12.]

It has only been shown that in the areas distinguished
by Alkaline eruptives in Tertiary time, monchiquites,
essexites, picrites and teschenites were erupted during
late Mesozoic times [12]; the Alkaline rock being frequently
preceded by ultrabasic eruptions which were separated
from the main period of Alkatine effusions by a short period
of erosion.

In Tasmania the Mesozoic, or at ail events a portion
of it, probably the Jurassic, was characterised by extensive
volcanic extravasation. The great diabase sills of that
State are usually assigned to the Jurassic.

TERTIARY VULCANICITY.

The absence, except in very few cases of fossiliferous
aqueous rocks in the regions of tertiary volcanic action,
makes it extremely difficult to assign exact ages to Tertiary
igneous rocks.

The Kainozoic eruptions may be roughly divided into
the Older Basalts, the Alkaline Rocks and the Newer
Basalts.

(A) THe OLDER Basatts. In many cases the exact
ages of these rocks cannot be determined on stratigraphical
evidence. In some cases an age can be assigned to them
on physiographic evidence.

E. C. Andrews [1] states that the Leads of the
«“Qlder Volcanics” are characterised by the presence of
abundant plant leaves, lauraceous types predominating.
Fruits and seeds, he says, are characteristically absent.

Their geographic position is above the level of the

D

180 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

great Tertiary peneplain of Eastern Australia, this pene-
plain having been excavated out of ‘ Older Volcanics,’’
palzozoic and mesozoic rocks indifferently. They, there-
fore, lie on basalt capped hills dotting the peneplain.

As examples, Andrews mentions Dargo High Plains,
Vic. ; Kiandra, Older Macquarie and Hawkesbury Leads
[Mount King George (?), Bald Hills, Hill End, etc.], Older
Tingha and Emmaville Leads (N.S.W.)

Skeats [25] describes numerous occurrences of Older
Volcanics in Eastern Victoria. According to this author
older basalts are not petrologically distinguishable from
the newer, except by their finer grainsize and greater
_ decomposition.

In New South Wales, the basalt of the Sydney basin,
found in dykes around Sydney, as necks at Hornsby, Pros-
pect, Minchinbury, Dundas, etc., and as more extensive
cappings on Mount Hay, Mt. Tomah, and Mount King George
in the Blue Mountains, are in part referable to this series.
These basalts have decidedly alkaline affinities, contain-
ing variously sodalite, analcite and hauyne.

The Orange basalts underlying the alkaline pile of the
Canoblas must also be put in this class. They were
erroneously mapped by Mr. Sussmilch and myself as later
than the alkaline eruptions, but Mr. E. C. Andrews dis-
covered, by physiographic methods, that we must have
made a mistake, which was confirmed by Messrs. Andrews
and Sussmilch in subsequent studies in the field. These
basalts are in some instances characterised by the presence
of melilite and fayalite. Probably the melilite basalts
and the tufis of Hobart and the Alkaline basalts of Shannon
Tier, Tasmania, are roughly contemporaneous.

It has been demonstrated by Andrews [1], that many
of the New England basalts and much of the Darling
Downs basalts of Queensland belong to the Older Volcanics.
Mr. R. A. Wearne, B.A., and the writer have also seen
evidence in the Fassifern district of extensive intrusives
of basic magma in very late Mesozoic, or more probably
Early Tertiary time, before the Alkaline rocks of that dis-
trict were poured out.

The Rhyolites of the Macpherson Ranges, between
Queensland and New South Wales, antedate in part at
least the extrusion of the Alkaline rocks. [15] From

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 181

physiographic considerations it seems likely that an early
Tertiary age must be assigned to them.

(B). THE ALKALINE Rocks. [29] It is quite possible
that the lavas of this series were in part at least contem-
poraneous with the Older Volcanics. Although petro-
logical analogies have tempted the writer in the past to
consider all the Alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia to be
of identical age, their more detailed physiographic study
renders this view questionable.

Alkaline rocks of Tertiary age exist in Victoria, at
Mount Macedon, and detailed investigations in this
important type district have led Skeats to the conclusion
that their age is Middle Tertiary. They are certainly
mountains of accumulation and not residules.

In Queensland, the writer has investigated the Glass
House Mountains and the Yandina district volcanoes,
all of which have been satisfactorily shown to be true
mountains of accumulation. Their age, probably, ante-
dates the formation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain,
which is represented, in this district by the Woodford
peneplain, for although dykes of alkaline rocks occur on
the peneplain surface, no true lavas and tufis of an alkaline
nature have been detected on this level. A monoclinal
fold, along the D’Aguilar and Blackall Ranges, broken by
occasional faults, has depressed the coastal region so as to
preserve it in the volcanic representatives of the alkaline
rocks. This fold must have been forming at the time
when the alkaline rocks were erupted, and if some of these
eruptions were not actually submarine, as maintained
by J. Malcolm Newman, B.E., there can be little doubt
that the whole present broad coastal belt was submerged
in late Tertiary times, and has only recently been re-elevated.
The late uplift can date back only to the Pleistocene, as
far as can be judged by the evidence of the marine shells
of the raised beach deposits.

The Mount Flinders and Fassifern Alkaline rocks,
studied by Mr. Wearne and myself, are probably also in
part of early Tertiary age, slightly antedating the for-
mation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain. There is, however,
strong evidence that in this region the eruptions lasted
long enough to leave some of their accumulations on the
peneplain surface. They were, therefore, partly of Middle

182 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Tertiary age. In this case, as in that of the Glass House
region, a monoclinal fold accompanied by _ extensive
fractures was produced in the Main Range, parallel to,
and in part, along the line of igneous activity after the
period of vulcanicity.

The Nandewars, the Warrumbungles, and the Canoblas
in New South Wales, are probably also of Lower-Middle
Tertiary age, though the Canoblas appear rather younger
than the others. These mountains post-date the formation
a peneplain carved in the Nandewars out of Palzozoic and
Trias Jura rocks, in the Warrumbungles out of the Trias
Jura rocks, and in the Canoblas out of the metamorphic
rocks and Older Volcanics. The peneplain was under-
going re-elevation at the time of the eruptions, for both in
the Nandewars and in the Warrumbungles, the volcanic
ejacamenta frequently infill erosion hollows in the pene-
plain surface. The age of this peneplain was probably
Late Cretaceous or Lower Tertiary age, like the Mole
peneplain; there being no indications in these regions of
an older peneplain surface, the writer has always hesitated
to consider this peneplain the equivalent of the Stannifer
(Miocene). If the writer is right in this interpretation,
it follows that during the great early Tertiary elevation
of New England and Middle Tertiary peneplanation, these
volcanic groups escaped wholesale degradation by being
situated in the Central Australian trough, which was a
local baselevel (probably largely lacustrine, as hinted by
abundant gypsum deposits in the west), for the erosion
of regions which participated in the Pliocene uplift.

The fossil leaves collected in the Warrumbungle tuffs
by the writer are most closely allied to those of the Older
Voleanics.

Andrews has suggested to the writer that more or
less dissected peneplain underlying the volcanic pile of the
Warrumbungles is the equivalent of the Stannifer. This
view would place a post Miocene age on the volcanic rocks,
and assign them to the newer volcanics. Fossil evidence,
as well as. physiographic, discountenance this view.

The alkaline rocks of the Mittagong district, N.S.W.
[30], and the tinguaites of Kosiusko [31], and of Barrigan
[12]. are probably of an early Tertiary age.

BY H. I. JENSEN, DSC. 183:

Tor NEWER VOLCANIC.

The rocks are mainly basalé of a more or less por-
phyritic nature. They cover enormous areas of Eastern
Australia. In age they postdate the formation of the
Middle Tertiary peneplain, and the eruptions were in
progress during the great Pliocene uplift. The leads of
newer volcanics are consequently buried channels below
the peneplain level or resting immediately upon it: their
fossil contents are characterised by an abundance of fruits
and seeds similar -to those of tropical Australia to-day.
Lauraceous types are characteristically absent.

The whole of the extensive basaltic plain of Western
Victoria, and many areas in Eastern Victoria belong to
the Newer Basalts. In this state eruptive activity con-
tinued, as inthe Mount Gambier District of South Australia,
into late Pleistocene and recent times. Remains of the
Dingo (an animal presumed to have been introduced by
man) have been found in the tuff.

On the Monaro in N.S. Wales andin the New Englaud
extensive eruptions took place in late Pliocene or early
Pleistocene. Most of the Darling Downs basalts were
probably erupted at the same time. At the same time
extensive sheets were poured out in North Queensland
(as at Cairns, Atherton, Geraldton, &c.).

Pleistocene and recent erosion has only had time
to slightly modify the original surface. There has been
no peneplain formed since these volcanic extravasations.
The very level nature of the Darling Downs, and of the
tableland on the Blackall Range and of the tablelands on
similar ranges is due to the fact that the lavas flowed over
a peneplain surface only, slightly dissected, and being of
a liquid nature, the lava outpourings made a level surface.
The eruptions were dominantly fissure eruptions.

Early Tertiary peneplanation was followed by the
eruption of the Older Basalts, which usually cap deep
leads of this age.

THE VALUABLE MINERALS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.

Closely connected with the petrology of our continent
is the study of our mineral deposits of economic value.
The genesis of ore deposits is also intimately bound up
with structural geology.

‘184 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

It is convenient to consider separately the groups
of non-metallic minerals and metallic minerals or ores.

I. Non-MeEtTAuuic MINERALS.

The principal non-metallic mineral is coal. Of less
importance are oil shale, phosphatic rock, opal, diatomaceous
earth and graphite.

(a.) The occurrence of coal depends on the burial in
some bygone epoch of the requisite thickness of plant re-
mains, considerable subsidence following so as to allow
a great thickness of sediments to accumulate on top of
the seam. Under these conditions, the weight of the
superincumbent strata, together with the heat appertaining
to the depth to which the organic bed was depressed, have
produced the necessary pressure and heat to compact
and dehydrate the deposit.

Folding and metamorphism in the zone of flowage
have not affected the coalfields, for these processes or
even a moderate amount of igneous intrusion would com-
pletely turn coal into graphite. The moderate folding
and the measure of igneous intrusion that have affected
the Gympie goldfield, have turned several coal seams into
plumbago, which, as is well known, occurs interbedded
with Pheenix slates.

Faulting, especially block or trough faulting, is the
process most frequently leaving its mark in the coal measures.

Coal occurs in Eastern Australia in the Permo-Carbon-
iferous (Newcastle and Wlawarra districts of .N.S.W.;
Bowen, Little River, Oakey Ck. and Dawson River in Q.) ;
in the Triassic (in the Ipswich and Barrum districts of Q.,
the Clarence district of N.S.W., and in the Otway and
Wannon and Gippsland districts of Vic.; Leigh’s Ck.,
S.A.; Fingal and Jerusalem, Tas.) ; and in the Tertiary
rocks we have hydrous coals, the best of which are the
lignites of Morwell, Vic. There are numerous other localities
of considerable economic importance, but the main point
for us to recollect that vast areas of Eastern Australia
represented by our coalfields have undergone no con-
tortion since the deposition of the coal. The western half
of the Australian continent has been free from such forces
even longer. Indeed there is no reason why Carboniferous
and Devonian coals should not be found in Western Aus-
tralia.

BY H, I. JENSEN, D.SC. 185

The Australian coalfields were probably in most cases
formed by the decay of plant life in swampy freshwater
areas.

There is strong evidence that considerable plant life,
sufficient to give thick coal deposits, existed in parts of
Eastern Australia, as far back as the Silurian period ; but
the deposits then formed have been changed to graphite
by subsequent regional metamorphism.

The writer had occasion some time ago to visit a
deserted turquoise mine, near Bodalla, on the South Coast
of N.S.W. He observed that the turquoise (AIPO,:Al
(HO),+H,0), existed in the form of small segregations,
together with pyrites in a graphite bed, associated with
quartzites above, and black slate below, of Silurian age.
The copper and iron (in part) had evidently been introduced
during the metamorphic processes, and the former had
chemically combined with the phosphoric acid present
in the organic matter, which probably was a coal bed at
the time. The same metamorphic processes that produced
the mineralisation changed the coal to graphite.

The association of the graphite with quartzite, like
coal with sandstone, renders it more probable that the
carboniferous matter was of plant, than of graptolitic
origin.

(b.) Oil Shale. In N.S.W., the chief oil shale deposits
consist of algal remains [32] (Reinschia Australis), and
were probably a freshwater deposit.

The Tasmanian ‘‘tasmanite ” deposits are supposed
to have formed in salt or brackish water.

The conditions for the preservation of oil shales are
the same as for coal.

Petroleum oils have not yet been tapped in Australia,
but there are strong possibilities that such will yet be
found.

The conditions for the formation of petroleum oils
are (a) the existence of beds of coal, oil shale or other organic
remains ; (b) regional metamorphism of just sufficient
intensity to give rise to folds and suff.cient heat to sublime
the oils into the anticlinal maculae, or (c) volcanic intrusions
causing the distillation of organic rocks.

In south-eastern Queensland oil may yet be found
in the Triassic Walloon coal measures under the Birnam

186 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Range, in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks at a depth under
the Eastern Darling Downs, and in the Triassic rocks of
the Kast Moreton and Wide Bay districts. _

In New South Wales the Carboniferous and Permo-
Carboniferous rocks of the Stroud and Taree districts
offer most promise.

(c.) Opal, being a product of mineral spring action,
has no great geological importance, so will be dismissed
in this paper.

(d.) Phosphatic rocks have been discussed in another
paper by the writer. (These preceedings, 1909.)

(e.) Diatomaceous earth of ecohomic value occurs
chiefly in direct association with our late Tertiary basalts.
It is a deposit formed of the test of organisms which lived
in siliceous hot springs. The writer has had excellent
opportunities to verify this by his studies in the Warrum-
bungle Mountains, where petrified wood and hyalite (water
opal) are invariably associated with the rocks surrounding
the diatomaceous earths.

Il. Orgs.

The following points are of importance in connectio
with the study of our ore deposits : —

1. Mineral lodes are mainly confined to folded areas.
This is why coal and gold are seldom found together.

2. The minerals were introduced during a period of
igneous intrusion.

3. The intrusions take place chiefly in the portions
of the folded earth segment, which are most remote from
the source of the folding force.

4. Well defined fissure lodes have the same general
direction as the trend lines of folding in the same regions.
In the immediate proximity of great igneous intrusions,
they may take varied directions, diverging from the
intrusion. (See L. K. Ward, ‘‘ Geology of the Heemskirk
Massive,” A.A.A.S., 1911, Sydney.)

5. The direction of the zone of mineralisation is that
of the fold lines and major faults.

Considering Australian ore deposits, it is interesting
to note that in the eastern half of the continent, most were
formed during the great abyssal injections of the Carbon-
iferous and early Mesozoic periods.

{
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 187

To the Carboniferous belong the Tasmanian ore
deposits ; the Victorian goldfields ; the Yalwal, Braidwood,
and other southern goldfields of N.S.W.; the Moruya,
Ettrema and Colerado mineral fields of the south coast
of N.S.W.; the Grafton Copper Mine (?), Cloncurry, Chil-
lagoe, the Etheridge, Hodgkinson, Palmer and ‘“ Towers ”’
fields.

To the early Mesozoic period belong the ore deposits
of Gympie, Q., and most of the New England deposits.

The deep leads of Eastern Australia show us that
it was not until the early Tertiary uplifts that the con-
tinent was sufficiently dissected for the reefs to shed their
gold on the surface.

In Western Australia, the igneous injections giving
rise to ore bodies were of very early Paleozoic age. Con-
sequently there are sedimentary rocks as old as Cambrian
in W.A. with alluvial gold. The silver lead deposits of
Broken Hill also belong to an earlier era than those of
Eastern Australia.

Certain facts in connection with ore deposits in
Australia are of interest without being quite apropos in
this paper, such as:

1. The association of complex ore (lead, zinc, copper,
silver, arsenic) with limestone as at Mungana, Q., Ettrema,
&c., N.S.W., and with garnet rock (metamorphosed
limestone), at Broken Hill.

2. The possibility that Gympie gold is due to chemical
precipitation of gold in magmatic water, by the carbon-
aceous Phoenix slates and graphite beds; that Chillagoe
is a contact deposit ; that the Towers gold is probably
due to physical changes undergone by magmatic waters, &c.

BriEF REVIEW OF THE TERTIARY.

K. C. Andrews in his “ Tertiary History of New Eng-
land,’’ and inthe “ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,’
has given a very detailed and complete history of the
Tertiary, and full description of the processes whereby
land and sea forms were shaped. No complete description
will, therefore, be essayed here.

It is sufficient to say that most Australian geologists
are converging to the belief that there are definitely two
Tertiary peneplains represented in our scenery.

188 THE BUILDING OF FASTERN AUSTRALIA

The first existed in early Eocene times, during which
a warm climate existed throughout Australia.

The Cretaceous sea had vanished, all but a gulf extend-
ing over Western Victoria and Riverina. (7g. 10.) . The
Central Sea had become silted up or slightly elevated,
so that a desert or a series of salt lakes resulted. There
were no mountains in Australia, for all elevations had been
base levelled during the Cretaceous period of sedimentation.
In the waters, about Table Cape, Tasmania, the fora-
minifera exhibited tropical affinities, and resembled those
now found around Torres Straits. The plant life was
of a tropical or semi-tropical character, as shown by their
remains in the older leads, and _ so essentially similar a
flora existed throughout the eastern part of the continent
that it is safe to suppose that geographical barriers, such
as high mountains or deserts, were not in existence.

Then followed the early Tertiary uplift which affected
the whole rim of the continent. The more central portions
of Australia participated only to a minor extent.

A long period of stability then came, during whic
the uplifted peneplain was dissected and worn down ag
to the form of a peneplain. This stage was reached pro-
bably in the Miocene.

Then followed an other great uplift, probably Pliocene,
and at the same time were erupted the Newer Basalts.

The period of the Newer Basalts was probably very
wet, and the Australian interior was experiencing a wet
climate at the same time, and during most of the Fleistocene
period as well. As evidence of the lacustrine state of the
interior during late Tertiary and Fost-Tertiary times,
one might quote the widespread existence of gypsum
deposits formed in former lakes, and the great extents of
Black Soil Plain, which were formed largely from volcanic
detritus, carried down by mightier streams than those
which hold sway to-day.

Following the Pliocene uplift and the great basic
outpourings of lava, came a period of contracting, fractur-
ing and block-faulting of the surface strata of the earth’s
crust in the newly uplifted regions. Numerous downthrows
(senkungsfeldter) occured as a result. The block-faulting
in the southern tablelands of N.S.W. has been ably de-
scribed by Sussmilch [11], a long list of probable faults

BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 189

belonging to this late geological age has been prepared by
Mr. E. €. Andrews. [1]

: It is the writer’s opinion, as enunciated in’ one of his
papers [29 (a)], that an arid climate was experienced in
Central Australia, immediately after the uplift of the
Cretaceous basin in the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary
times. During most of the Tertiary period, however,
conditions were extremely wet, a fact borne of it by the
sedimentary banding of clays and sands of fluviatile and
lacustrine deposition, under the great Red Soil Plain, as
well as by the Black Soil Plains and gypsum beds. The
writer has had an opportunity to study these deposits
at Nyngan, on the eastern flank of the Cobar massive, as
well as on the western slopes of the Warrumbungles.

The cause of the aridity of the Cretaceo- Eocene and the
present periods is undoubtedly, in part, a geographic one,
connected with the uplift of a girdle of tablelands round
the margin of the continent at the end of the Mesozoic,
and again at the close of the Tertiary period. Partly, too,
the cause is meteorological. During the two arid periods,
the climate of the Australian zone has been dominated
by entirely different atmospheric movements to those
prevailing in the Middle Tertiary. As shown in a paper
by the present writer to this Society, it is likely that this
wet period and the Pleistocene glaciation of Kosciusko
was, in all probability, a cosmic one, the nature of which
is still doubtful, though it must be admitted that peculi-
arities in physical geography alone could have ogee
about the result.

The effect of Tertiary changes on the life of this con-
tinent have been most pronounced.

The disappearance of the Cretaceous basin caused
a migration of those hardy forms of plant life, which had
developed on the barren soils of Western Australia into
the Eastern parts, where they expelled and subdued the
Indo-Malaysian type of flora. The latter has only succeeded
in maintaining its predominance on rich scrub soil in
leached basalt and alluvial areas.

The invaders probably consisted of eucalyptus,
casuarine, acacias, proteaceous plants, zamias, and epac-
ridee. The eucalyptus may possibly have originated
in south-eastern Australia, and this may also be the case

190 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

with the casuarine, but the others are almost certainly
invaders from the west.

The plants which they drove back were largely lauracee,,
as is well demonstrated by the fossil leaves of the older
deep leads and the trachytic tuffs of the Warrumbungles.

The grasses now dominant in Eastern Australia pro-
bably also originated in the west, especially those of the
interior.

The wet climate of the Middle Tertiary drove the arid
climate plants, which had established themselves over
the raised Cretaceous basin, into the Eastern coastal regions,
while tuft grasses, similar to those of the Plains of Promise,
took possession of the drier parts of the interior.

The re-elevation of the coastal rim, with the restoration
of arid conditions on the inland plains, brought victory
to the saltbush and similar orders, and caused a return
to some extent of the eastern flora.

Messrs. R. H. Cambage, F.L.S., and E. C. Andrews, B.A...
F.G.S., are at present carrying on the interesting and im-
portant work of tracing the descent of Australian forest
timbers, and investigating what geologic and _ physio-
graphic causes brought about the specific differences now
obtaining between the trees of different parts.

Late Pliocene uplift led to the creation of three climates..
/ (1) coastal, moist and warm ; (2) tableland, cool and moder-

ately dry; (3) inland plains, dry and with seasonal
extremes of temperature. This movement, according to
Cambage and Andrews, caused a differentiation of our
trees into three groups. Each genus developed species suited.
for each of these climatic zones. Pleistocene faulting,
according to the same authors, separated still further
members of the same group in such a way that further
specific differences arose. In other cases faulting allowed
an intermingling of coastal and inland types, as was the case
on the Cassilis geocol [33], where the western flora mingles
with that typical of the Hunter River Valley.

The work of Mr. Cambage promises to cast considerable
illumination on obscure problems of Tertiary geology,
thus he shows, from the distribution of the Casuarine,
that a portion of south-eastern Australia must have been
lost by faulting in post-Tertiary times.

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 191

Mr. C. Hedley and others are carrying on similar work
with regard to zoological distribution. Mr. Hedley main-
tains that in the Middle Tertiary, when a wide peneplain
covered Eastern Australia and a lacustrine region occupied

_ the interior, the giant marsupials, known from our newer

' leads and bone beds, roamed far and wide, and fed on the

plenteous herbage produced by the moist climate.

The elevation of the tablelands decimated them, for
the lacustrine interior became an arid plain on which
they died out of starvation, the table lands were too cold
and did not produce the proper herbage for these huge
animals. The great basaltic extravasation caused further
destruction to them, and the surviving remnant was
slaughtered by the blacks.

An interesting effect of the basaltic outpourings on
the temperate tablelands of Eastern Australia was the
destruction of the Eucalyptus flora, and the failure of that
flora to reassert itself. In coastal regions, basalt country
in the state of nature soon becomes covered with scrub,
as we call tropical moist climate jungles. Given good soil,
this flora can hold its own against the hardy typical
Australian flora. But on the tablelands the climate is

‘too dry and cool for tropical jungle ; and inland the climate

is also too dry and extreme, so that basalt flows in these
regions never become scrub covered. [35] The basalt

lands therefore remain treeless plains, for the Eucalyptus
and Acacia groups requires a loose loamy soil, but our

basalt soils are heavy, and shrink on drying. The cracking

-of basalt soils may be the cause of a normal tree growth

failing to assert itself, and young trees having their roots

torn by the cracking of the soil. Again, it is possible

that the black colour and high lime content of black soil
may have some inhibitory effect on the germination of
seeds of plants typical of poorer country. This latter

problem has never been investigated.

Some of the Tertiary changes of geography of
Australia must have been witnessed by the aborigines.

In Victoria, and in the Mount Gambier district of
South Australia, basaltic volcanoes were in active eruption
when the Australian aborigines and their dingoes were in
possession.

192 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

The faulting down of Bass Strait saved a remnant
of the original inhabitants of Australia (the Tasmanian
aborigines) from utter destruction by the invading
Australian aborigines.

Torres Strait was probably also formed during the
occupancy of Australia by the blacks.

STREAM DIRECTIONS.

Great changes in the drainage systems of Australia.
resulted from the Pliocene uplift. Andrews has shown
that some streams cut down rapidly enough to keep pace
with the uplift. He quotes the Hawkesbury River as an
instance. Other rivers were diverted from their courses.

The parallelism of many rivers with the coast has
given rise to much controversy and speculation. Hedley
[19 and 20] sees in it evidence of a great fold rolling in on
Australia from the Pacific. Andrews is inclined rather
to consider these remarkable streams due to faulting.

[36] Woolnough and Taylor have suggested that the
Hawkesbury (Wollondilly) formerly tapped the Shoalhaven,
Tuross and other south-coast rivers. But this great
Wollondilly river was beheaded by coastal streams which
were rapidiy cutting back in a westeriy direction. These
streams having a steep fall to the sea carved canons rapidly,
whereas the sluggish Wollondilly cut down but loa
and fell an easy prey to piracy.

The writer [13] has shown that the Upper Mary River
(rising in the Conandale and Yabba Ranges), Queensland,
was once part of the Maroochy River, flowing through the
Eumundi Gap, in the Blackall Range. Here, undoubtedly,
the uplift of the coastal plain of East Moreton has tended
to aid a capture of consequent by subsequent streams.

In New South Wales, where the reverse has taken
place, we must look for a different cause for the parallelism
of the early streams with the coast. To the writer, the
most reasonable explanation seems as _ follows :—The
elevation of the Miocene peneplain carved in Permo-Carbon-
iferous and Mesozoic sandstone gave rise to the production
of cracks and joints in the sandstone. The major lines
of weakness thus formed followed the structural directions
of the subjacent old rocks. Master joints in the sand-
stones closely followed fault lives, anticlinal axes and similar
structural lines of the older rocks. Along such cracks

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 193

the earliest streams took their courses, and as elevation
progressed, they often worked down through the sand-
stones into the folded formations, where their tendency
to follow structural lines would be accelerated.

Our inland areas not having undergone much vertical
movement in the Tertiary, possess very old streams, many
of which probably date back to the Eocene.

The Namoi and its tributaries are very old subsequent
streams. The Castlereagh is younger, for its original course
was filled up by the volcanic pile of the Warrumbungle
Mountains, and the river had to wander round this group
in a spiral.

PRESENT Day MOVEMENTS.

Only a few salient points will be mentioned. C.
Hedley and T. G. Taylor [37] have demonstrated that
the east coast of Australia is in the main subsiding, as shown
by the existence of the Barrier Reef and numerous drowned
River valleys. David and Halligan [38] have proved a
coastal subsidence of over 100 feet in post-Tertiary times
for the Port Jackson, Hawkesbury and Hunter River inlets.
Andrews [77] has shown that a slight elevatory movement
followed in extremely recent times. The writer has proved
[13] that the coasts of Moreton Bay are being slowly
uplifted, and this holds true for all the coast line, from Point
Danger to Great Sandy Island.

The Victorian coast line is subsiding from Cape Howe
to Cape Otway. That of Western Australia is undergoing
elevation.

Faulting is still in progress in the regions round the
Gulf of St. Vincent, South Australia, as shown by frequent
earthquakes in that region.

ARTESIAN WATER.

Of all Australian geological questions, none are so
interesting and valuable as those connected with the origin
and distribution of Artesian Water. In Eastern Australia,
Artesian Water is confined to formations later than the
Permian. In Western Australia it has been obtained
in rocks as old as Cambrian, and large supplies exist in the
Carboniferous of the Gascoyne River district.

The fact is pretty well established that one of the
essentials for the existence of Artesian Water is a pervious

194 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

stratum of rock lying between two impervious strata. It
is also established that formations pervious enough to
become artesian beds have never been strongly compressed
by earth movements or regional metamorphism. They
have been areas of tensional strain and fracture since the
artesian beds were laid down, for which reason they in
most cases signify that elevation relative to adjoining seg-
ments of the earth’s crust, has been the dominant earth
movement.

In Eastern Australia Artesian Water may be found in
the Triassic (as in New South Wales, see Pittman) [39],
and in the Cretaceous (see Jack and Etheridge, Geology
of Queensland.) ‘Tertiary formations may also contain
Artesian (subartesian) Water, as in the Riverina and parts
of Victoria.

Two theories as to the origin of the Australian Artesian
Water beds have been advanced, neither of which has been
properly established.

The one school of geologists, supported by Pittman
and David, believe in the meteoric origin. They believe
that the pervious beds are continuous over vast areas,
and have outcrops on the surface near the edge of the
artesian basin, at which outcrops water is taken in from
streams that cross them. Water then rises in the bores
by hydrostatic pressure. The comparative freshness of
the water is supposed to be due to its having outlets to the
sea in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Great Australian Bight.
This view receives some support from the rapid dwindling
of Queensland rivers which cross the Blythesdale Bray-
stone (Cret.) in Queensland; from a similar disappearance
of the streams that enter the Pilliga Scrub from the
Warrumbungle Mountains, in N.S.W.; from the drying-
up of the Castlereagh River, west of Mundooran, and
many other such occurrences.

The other school follow, Professor Gregory [40], in
believing that the water is nascent plutonic water, given
off by cooling igneous magmas at great depths. According
to this view, the porous artesian beds act as sponges,
absorbing the water which rises as subterranean
springs along joint cracks and other flows in the formation.
Gas and steam pressure would be the expeiling forces.

a
*

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 195

Gregory’s view receives considerable support from
the following facts :—

(1) Springs are rare in the artesian area, but abundant
outside this area. They frequently occur on the summits
of high mountains, where the catchment area is insufficient
to account for their permanent flow. [29]

(2) The water bearing beds of the Artesian area are
often sand and boulder drifts, and not sandstone: they
frequently seem to be mere lenticular patches.

(3) Very pervious rocks like the Blythesdale Braystone
are rarely met with.

(4) Artesian Water is generally hottest and purest
when tapped from the lower strata: while the water with
most solid matter in solution comes from the upper strata.

If the meteoric theory is right, we should expect
the water to become more and more impure the farther
it is from the intake, and the shallow bore waters should
be the freshest. The reverse happens to be the general
rule. On the Plutonic theory, the superficial beds contain
water which has travelled much further through assimilable
sediments, and should therefore be most saline. Experi-
ence shows this to be the case.

Probably each of these two rival theories is true for
some places. While recognising the meteoric theory as
affording a correct explanation for some cases, the writer
firmly believes that the plutonic theory must account for
the origin of many bore waters.

Proof of a conclusive nature will not be possible uniil
a systematic survey is made of the artesian basin, including
chemical and physical investigation of the waters at different
depths.

It would be well to state here that whether the meteoric
or plutonic theory be found to be true for the greater part
of our artesian basin, there is little danger of speedy
exhaustion of the water supplies. It is true that bores
have frequently ceased to flow, but in every case the cause
has been either (1) corrosion of the casing allowing the
water to escape into dry sandbeds; or (2) the scouring of
a water channel between the casing and the walls of the
borehole, allowing similar escape of the water. Sometimes
the latter cause of stoppage has been aided by tinkering
with the bore, e.g., by temporarily shutting the bore.

196 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

When a flow ceases in this way it can usually be got .
from the same stratum by sinking another bore a few yards
away.

APPENDIX.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE (Reference number given in square bracket,
thus [1] ).
AnpDREws, E. C.
‘An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England.”
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1903, Vol. VII. [10].
‘“* Report on the Drake Mining Field.”
Mineral Resources No. 12, Geol. Surv., N.S.W. [6].
‘‘ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia.”’
Jour. & Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIV, [1].
‘“‘ Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Queensland Coast.”
Proc. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXVII., 1902. [23].
ANDERSON, .
CHAPMAN, F.
‘“* Microzoa from the Wianamatta Shales.”
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VIII, Pt. 4. [7].
Carne, J. E.
“The Kerosene Shale Deposits of N.S.W.”
Geol. Memoir, No. 3, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., 1903. [32].

Carp, G. W. (with L. F. Harper and J. B. Jacquet).
“The Geology of the Kiama-Jamberoo District.”
Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Pt. 1, 1905. [26].
‘“* Notes on Some Sydney Basalts.”’
Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 3. [28].
CaMBAGE, R.
‘* Notes on the Native Flora of New South Wales.”
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1905, Part 3. [34].
Don, W. 8.
‘“ Notes on Some Lower Mesozoic Plants from Benolong, Dubbo
District.”
Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIIL, Part IV., 1909. [8.]
Davin, T. W. E. (with F. B. Guthrie and W. G. Woolnough).
“The Occurrence of Tinguaite on Mount Kosciusko.”
Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXXV. [81].
Davip AND HALLIGAN.
* Recent Subsidence on the Coast of New South Wales.”
Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W. [38].
Davip: Report of Glaciation Committee of A.A.A.S.
Promo-Carboniferous Glaciation. [5].
** Geological Epochs,’ Add. at Mexican.
Geol. Conference, 1907. [4].
Dany, Re A.
“Mountain Building by Igneous Injection,” [18]

BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 197

GREGORY, J. W.
“The Dead Heart of Australia,” [40].

HEDLEY, C.
“A Biological Scheme for the Mid-Pacific.”’
A.A.A.S. Reports for 1909. [22].
Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1910. [19].
Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1911. [20].
“The Barrier Reef,’ (Hedley and Taylor).
A.A.A.S. Reports for 1907. [37].

JENSEN, H. I.
“ Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline Rocks.”
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXXIIT, Pt. 3, 1908. [12].
‘“ Geology of Parts of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts.”
Same Proc., Pt. 1, 1906. [13].
“The Metamorphic Rocks of Southern Queensland.”’
A.A.A:S. Reports, 1909. [14].
“ Geology of the Country Behind Jervis Bay.”’
Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc., N.S.W. [17].
«Notes on Quartz Reefs in the Nelligen District.”’
Same Jour. [17].
“Geology of Warrumbungle, Nandewar and Canoblas Mts., N.S.W.,
and Mt. Flinders, Q.
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909. [29].
“The Vegetation on Basalt Soils.”
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Pt. 4, 1909. [35].

Mawson, D., and TayYtor, T.G.
‘«The Geology of Mittagong.”’
Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XX XVII. [30].

Morpison,
‘““ Voleanic Necks of the Sydney District.”’
Ree, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 4, 1904. [28].

Pittman, F.
** Artesian Water.”’
Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 1907, Vol. XLI. [39].

Sxreats, E. W.
“The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria.’’
A.A.A.S., 1909 Meeting, Brisbane. [25].

SHACKLETON, E.
“In the Heart of Antarctica.” [24].

Sussmincn, C. A.
‘““ Notes on the Physiography of the Southern Tableland of N.S.W.”’
Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLITI. [11].

Tavrog,'T.. G.
“The Physiography of Yass-Canberra,”’
Bull. 6., Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology. [21].
** The Correlation of Coal, Contour, and Climate.”’
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908. [33].

198 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

And WooLnovuGeH, W. G.
‘Important Example of River Captive, in N.S.W.”
Proc. Linn. Soc.,) N.S.W., 1907, Pt. 2. [36]:
TENNISON-WOODS.
“The Desert Sandstone.”
Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXII., p. 290. [9].
WEARNE, R. A.
Paper read at A.A.A.S. Meeting, 1911. [15].

EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURES.

Figs. 1 to 10. Maps of Australia, showing supposed distribution of land
and sea during geological time and zones of heavy sedimentation,
after T. W. E. David.

Fig. 11. Ideal section from Bega, N.S.W., to Southern Queensland,
showing geosyncline under Southern New England up to end of Permo-
Carboniferous, and under Sydney and the Blue Mountains after the
Permo-Carboniferous ; showing also how folding in the Paleozoic
Rocks gets more and more intense as we pass from the South of
N.S.W. to New England.

QO = Ordovician So = «Silurian

D = Devonian C = Carboniferous

P-C = Permo-Carb. H. =.. Triassie

J = Trias-Jura B = Basalt (Tertiary)

G = Granite T = Acid Lavas (Tertiary).

Note the absence of folding in the Post Carboniferous rocks as
Queensland is entered.

Fig. 12. Ideal section from Mt. Byron _(D’ Aguilar Range) to Coast, near
Sandgate.

Fig. 13. (a, 6, c, d). Sketches showing how a new range is moulded on
old divides.

(a) before folding ; (c) plan of same ;
(b) after folding ; (d) plan of same.

Fig. 14. Section showing subsidence area between N. Queensland Coast
and Barrier Reef. This area is now being covered with sediments,
and will in the next geological period become elevated into a fold range
being squeezed between a subsiding massive and a rising massive.

tig th

|
\ i
ats j Re
i \
ook
| es Donati
RANGES
x !
Mus” = ee
Mubarre or a
oe th i.
vy ate
He fo]
es “, 3. a
\ of ik
ete f 5 red =
wee i ow ;
Nee ) “I, y
Nai \
Ni: ae Sa)
© oe :
Pre Camarian foexs a

found chieply W of line marked xx

Se *
4 AREA \
%

earal

Figy,

Shaded

Fig. CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTATION.

Shaded Probable Cambrian wa ey
Zone of Heavy Sedimentation ea

Kimberley District WA...
Mt Lofty la Petersbury.S A

if
As
3. Heathcote District, Via. ,
4 Caroline Ck. Pasi.

Fig3. Oroovieraw Sen.

Fig3. ORoovician SeniMEN TATION

a Probable Continen ri Shelf A

Aecorded Outeraps 8:

ay???

a a

Probable Silurian
Actual Outeron

Fig 4.

Probable Silurian Shelf, lined.

Shaded. ,

Actual Outerops

Fig

Devonian SEaIMENTATIO,

Fig 5

Oevowian SEaIMENTATION

Fig. 6

CHP BOWITPOUS
APES. Ap.

Heavy Sedimenlatian
Shaded...

Lines a Canbs. |
Folding, Granitye \
Lnjeclion & Ore &
Depasilian 0-4°Qs

Fi 1g: 6,
CHRBOMIFFYPOUS

HAEMS

Heavy Sedimenlulian

Lines ar Carbs.

Shaded..

‘

or eae

=f

2 2
‘~v 3
S 5
SS
oS

#5
op ESS
So Si
DS 4
SNe
Tic
uk SQ

a. ed
ee ——-

EYGAS COYWE
Co4L FIELD

a
“hy

/

/K
Z aj
K
(

I
Y,

,

_—

Fig.J *
Strongly Sedimente d

PER MOCARBS Discrih x

Areas

yo OAKEY CREEK

COAL FIELD

z a
2
| YY) .
| Lirreg WY, Yh ee ‘
| RWERF~ SIZ KS, 1
l | hE \ >
* \ 8
a'K { fi x =
n 4 | Bow, , e
K Yy 0
NG cascovne | ee, | 1 ae
Us Veoa. FIELD i | %: 8
TG | 14 = ' WY Of?
¥ x CROW, | Ke ;3
S KPOIN™, eae
ee
wo LAND | YOOX | % iS
—\rn _ se ey wet ‘a8
awinGs | a. = LS
Con, FIELA— \ { x | ies 1
\ yy Meee
Zoniiii %, | is 4 a || ! eee
COAL FIELY o> - —tp- y aK =
EA ys MULETTS GES, EIR x parc \
SEA = ee 1 Coiba Ng
* NE
> X> SN Sen ee a x
se Lez X~ x ee ee SS wACcHle MARS y/
= ee Sg — Beh;
a gio et _ — ye =
a7 ho Z
Aig FE TABLE CAPE 24). MERSEY Sie
x
X :
thee 5 bed
Fig T.

PERMOCARB$ Disérib ution of Land & Sea,
Strongly Sedimente d Oh Glacial Beds fea] Probable Extent of Sea
Areas bs

(eee

fg 8, Triassic Distributio

CONTINENTAL SHELF | <\\1-

a 8 Ee |

TRIAS LAKES

we

Fy8. Triassic Distribution of Land and Sea

Ky)
CONTINENTAL SHELF eetee,

TRIAS LAKES

Y) i 4,
EARLY TRIAS My, |

LINE of ORE DEPOSITION i 5

Dist 5,

Fig W,
Distribution of Land and Sea “1 the Crelaceous,
The Marine Area is Shaded.

ZCRE TACEOUS —

gone a Ze ZZ ms
EEE SELES

a C—

Fig. 10. ;
Distribution of Land and Sea in the Tertiary .

Land unshaded : Sea crosshned.

Cobargo Blue Hirs.
| Marrigun don Braidwood an eke Mannin

Bega. rf D. = SES SS

' a,
< fr F ,
=A ao ee Le a eva SS 32 ~ -7 ———
= Ps i PIS pred

Pe o we =
iy, a ns ah AVS EZ xx ale AND LN NM May BK
Oo. jen’ 4 AVA: AN KWAK | IN

ae 3) Bn i, rx ZZ 7 :

P
we oS SAS ; Cc

Fig.l.

ie Blue Hics.
Shoalhaven

Bega. } Herrigundan Sraidwood
Veen eoBen :
mV ATACE ta EN

we res 7

Os ER NVES WZ Wy
pe PLA

PLE:

“al Fi aes

evel

| Figll , Ap ts Ay Bee

Me Me €

f
Hornblendic
ial ee chigts

Sandstone! | Mic
Ca.

“Ta

ee
Nat ar is 4a

Scale

Me Me e

t
| Hornblendic

tp ‘ S ‘hi ts
AE Byron P stone | v Mica Schist
/

Marang be.

7 * ;
aie Nearer (cepa
~

Fig 12
Scale abt. hm. Acrinch.

sea — anes mane
Pk peek
ning, MesoL oss bs 7 Why, 3
nly, site 3 Z
= 1 MNilede of Range 4
Lp qa’ Curvature Wetter fp

rece
be

QO
wer

Fig 13,

(a)

(&)
Tertiary Uplifr

~ AAW Lat & =

va “

C Ae”
ie >) SY uw ew = . "ae?

=< ae ; fe tC rop.
"nig Mesot ol wy ony ay
4

L
CH Nie “vk Ronge %

lhe Curva Cure Yay tis iy,
(ACC L Fr

—

=)

a

STABLE or RISING
| AREA

BASALT juli NG
| F

AKKXX KK KH Xx x x\ Present
¥ *KK XX ee xX YY Conan
a eK OOO. K Ky

me Granite By x oA

eT eee i
5 ig “% Y
Thi i; Gr
Latrusioc i, i
; a nN .
ao ne of Igneous / S.
in

Lnjeclion / ei
bxplanation Py
Direction of Flow

of Rocks Venn A
Direction of Movement |
along it Planes +> Fig

|
|
|
|

SUBSIDING OCEANIC

STABLE or RISING c

TILTED SE, y

AREA ee eee <

BASALT CAPPING “eeeOT BLOCK
(Recent)
ers ane : Mex y Present Ancient Coastline
¥ * ae oe s Paps x y\ Coas€. ( Pliocene? )

Gran te BARRIER REEF

Qs, CORA [L, ESIEA DEEP
“RECENT SEDIMENTS — OCEAN
ao ae 16
‘on ! "7 Plaga Sthists\ ~ Gres ae
| a AN Z ibere OMT TN
| Pane of Tgnewg GRANITE * y “y ~SERIMENTS
Lnyjection a NO SES Re ae x x Ly = =
j 6 SS Oki eye
Explanation a. tS nee
Direction of Flow ~8AS; C Roc
: rg) st - K a
Direction of Movemenl WAGE

long it Planes t+ Fig (4,

THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S
CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE.

By HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.Sc.,
Lecturer in Geology, University of Queensland.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, August 26th, 1911.

INTRODUCTION.

Havine witnessed the growth of this building which is
likely to be a prominent feature for a long time in Brisbane,
and being somewhat acquainted with the stones used in
its construction, the recording of available information would
seem to the author to serve a useful purpose.

In the choice of the building stone, its actual mode
of weathering in a structure is of first importance, but
failing this, the practice of carrying out mechanical and
laboratory tests approximating as far as possible the actual
conditions is resorted to. While these latter tests are
extremely useful, that, under normal conditions, is the
real one. Unfortunately, records of the stones used in
old buildings are generally unobtainable, thus, much of
the information to be obtained from a study of the weather-
ing of the stones in old structures is thereby lost; hence
the importance of accurately recording the available
information and current opinions as to the stones at the
earliest opportunity.

Stones USED IN THE BUILDING.

These have been gathered from three Australian
States, although the bulk of the material is of local origin,
and both igneous and sedimentary rocks have been used.

Five different stones, of which the following is a list,
are contained in the structure :—

Tuff Locality Brisbane.

Sandstone + Helidon, Queensland
Sandstone ra Sydney.

Granite J Harcourt, Victoria.

Basalt . Footscray, Victoria.

200 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE

The igneous rocks, namely the Granite and Basalt,
have been used in the basement ; the main structure is of
the Brisbane tuff, which is generally called “ porphyry,”
while the sandstone used outside comes from Pyrmont,
Sydney; the inside sandstone being obtained from
Helidon.

DESCRIPTION AND SOME TESTS OF THE STONES.
(1). TUFF.

This is the material familiar to everybody, and which
is used for road-metal, coping-stones, pitchers, building
material, etc. It is a fine-grained fragmental rock formed
by the consolidation of volcanic detritus such as ashes,
sand and lapilli. It is a hard compact material, exhibiting
a variety of colours, salmon, pink, grey, white, green,
purple, etc., which blend well with one another. The
colour effects may be well seen on roads built of this
material, after a heavy downpour of rain, when a handsome
multi-coloured mosaic is produced. Owing to the nature
of its texture it does not take a polish, and in the Cathedral
is used in medium-sized blocks, either rock-faced or smooth-
dressed. It is interesting to note that while tuffs are not
generally used for building purposes owing to their porosity
and friability, the so-called “ peperino”’ of the campagna
of Rome and Naples is a tuff, and has been used in other
buildings in those cities, it was also used in the houses of
Herculaneum and Pompeii.*

The material in question was obtained from the
O’Connelitown quarries, one of the numerous tuff quarries
in the immediate neighbourhood of this city. Immense
quantities of this excellent material exist, as it occurs
bedded up to a great thickness, as shown opposite the
Botanic Gardens, and at the Leichhardt Street quarry.
It occurs geologically almost at the base of the Tria-Jurassic
System, being separated from the much-older underlying
schists by a few feet of highly carbonaceous shales, which,
in many places, contain abundant traces of fossil trees.
The source of the ashes which build up this tuff was in all
probability an ancient volcano, of which the present
Enoggera granite marks the base.

oe

*Hull, Building and Ornamental Stones. P. 283.

BY HENRY 0. RICHARDS, M.SC. 201

This tuff is not of uniform compactness in all the quarries
or even in the same quarry, and requires to be carefully
chosen, but when well picked and dressed properly, is found
to be a highly durable stone under the local climatic con-
ditions.

(2) HELIDON SANDSTONE.

This stone is also well known in Brisbane, having been
used in many structures.

There are several varieties, white, pink, and brown.
The Lands Office affords the best instance perhaps of a
structure of the brown stone, while in the Central Station
buildings, the white and also the pink varieties may be seen.
The former building, with the exception of the columns
and the stones above them, which are of Yangan material,
is of the brown Helidon stone, the basement being of granitic
stones from Enoggera and Mount Crosby. The brown
variety is a particularly handsome material, works well,
occurs in large blocks, and has a warm tone in contrast
to the cold, hard effect of the white variety. The concentric
markings due to the iron-staining, together with the
variation of iron-contents in the different blocks give a
structure of this material a very pleasing effect, particularly
when compared with buildings of a uniform grey stone, like
the Treasury Building.

All the interior work of the Cathedral, the walls, ceiling
and pillars, is done with this stone, and an examination
of this building shows the possibilities in working this free-
stone.

Owing to its protection from the weather, not the
slightest fear need be felt as to its endurance.

The stone was obtained from Wright’s quarry, and
the following information on the brown stone used in the
Government Printing Office, and now being used in the
Central Technical College buildings, has been very kindly
supplied by Mr. T. Pye, the Deputy Government Architect:—

COMPRESSION STRENGTH.

Building. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. ft.
1. Government Printing Office .. 5355 344,25
2. Central Technical College Ber 5076 326
3. Central Technical College e 3624 233

Numbers 1 and 2 were dry, while 3 was wet.

202 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE

THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The specific gravity of the stone used in the Govern-
ment Printing Office was 2°337, and the absorption by weight.
4-41 %, giving a bulk absorption of 10-30%.

Subjected to acid tests, the stone, after being immersed
in a solution containing 23% hydrochloric and 24%
sulphuric acids for 48 hours’ was quite friable after the
treatment.

Chemically, the stone is stable, and contains a medium
silica percentage, while the loss on ignition and ferric oxide
values are higher, the latter one would expect from the
colour of the stone ; lime and magnesia are absent or present
in slight traces only.

The above results carried out for the Public Works
Department on the brown stone obtained from Wright’s
quarry for the Government Printing Office now being
erected, might be taken in a general way to hold for the
brown stone from Wright’s quarry in the Cathedral just
completed.

The compression test is a fair one for sandstones, and
gives a value more than sufficient for the purposes to which
the material is put, being approximately the same as the
Sydney stone.

The absorption value is medium, but in a climate like
Brisbane enjoys, and which is for building stone purposes
free from frost, it does not matter to any great extent, more
especially as the atmosphere of this city is not laden with
acids, and the stone shows no traces of carbonates.

The chemical constitution and acid test call for little
comment.

Reviewing the above tests, this stone for building
purposes must be regarded as a very fair building material
in comparison with other Australian sandstones.

(3) SYDNEY SANDSTONE.

This is one of the widely-used Sydney freestones,
and is obtained from the Pyrmont quarries, being known
there as the Purgatory stone. It is hard, according to
masons, as hard as its name, and has given evidence of its
weathering qualities in Sydney, where the conditions are
perhaps somewhat more severe than here. Its chief
objection has been the manner in which it frets in certain

BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 203

situations, this being due in the opinion of Messrs. Vernon
and Kent to a perishing of the cementing medium of the
quartz particles, a kind of dry rot, and which only appears
to occur when the stone is not exposed to the moisture
of the atmosphere.*

The variety used here is grey-coloured, though occa-
sional blocks of the brown variety have been employed,
and these arranged somewhat haphazardly produce an
effect which serves to break what would otherwise be a
somewhat monotonous dull-grey colour. An examina-
tion of the stone work around the beautiful window on the
N.E. side of the building shows the manner in which this
material lends itself to carving.

Views have been expressed to the effect that the
Helidon stone might, with more advantage, have been used
for the external purposes to which the Sydney freestone
has been put.

The former, from a colour effect, may have been more
pleasing, but its weathering qualities for this type of work
have yet to be fully demonstrated. The-brown variety of
Sydney stone, such as has been recently used in the New
Zealand Life Assurance building, in Queen Street, is
peculiar, owing to its taking on the familiar soft brown
colour aiter being exposed for some time. This is due
to the fact that the stone when freshly quarried contains
a smail amount of ferrous iron, sometimes in the form of
carbonate, which becomes oxidised to the ferric state on
exposure.

Owing to the somewhat uneven distribution of the
ferrous iron contents, the stone does not become a uniform
brown, which is rather fortunate from an architectural
point of view. hi

The following tests of the Sydney stone will be of
interest. Those with an asterisk are taken from the paper
published by Nangle and Baker, in Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W.,
Vol. XLIII., while the others were carried out by the
author, and published in “‘ The Building Stones of Victoria,’’
in Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic., Vol. XXII.

*R. T. Baker and J. Nangle, Proc. R.S. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIII., p- 189-

204 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE

COMPRESSION TESTS.

Edge of Cube. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot
3 inches .. be = 4800 308°5
3 inches .. Se a 4861 312-5*
3 inches .. ba * 5645 366° 9*
3 inches .. os Sa 5747 370° 1*

ABSORPTION ‘TEST.

This gave a value of 3°65 % by weight and 8-40 % by
bulk, which, in comparison with other sandstones, is fair.

ATTACK BY CARBON DIOXIDE.

To ascertain this a current of carbon dioxide gas was
passed continually for 3 weeks through water containing
the stones in two-inch cubes, and as a result, 0:03% by
weight was lost ; this is an excellent result.

ATTACK BY MINERAL ACIDS.

Two-inch cubes were placed in solutions containing
1% hydrochloric and 1% sulphuric acid, and allowed
to remain in it for 96 hours. As a result of this 1-031 %
by weight was lost, and a decided darkening in colour was
produced; this value is rather high.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
The specific gravity of this stone is about 2°30, and
thus has a weight per cubic foot of approximately 144lbs.,
a medium weight for a sandstone.

FIRE TEST.*

The stone, after being subjected to a temperature of
750° ©. for 15 minutes was plunged suddenly into cold
water and was uninjured, no chipping at the edges, but
merely a deepening in colour due to further oxidation of
the iron contents.

The above results, together with its observed mode
of weathering, point to the stone being quite a satisiactory
one for the purpose it is asked to serve in this building.

(4) HarcourT GRANITE.

This has been used very extensively in Melbourne
and other parts of Victoria. It is distinctly handsome
when polished, though in this building being used in the
foundations it is not polished.

This is a somewhat coarse-grained grey granite, which
is made up of quartz, felspar, and the black mica biotite,
the latter being in abundance and sufficiently fresh to show

BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 205

up well in contrast to the milky-white felspar and colour-
less quartz. It has proved its stability as a building stone,
and a notable example of its use and weathering is to be
seen in the Equitable Buildings, Collins Street, Melbourne.
It is a stone that works with ease in all directions, can be
obtained in very large blocks, and quarries well ; the quarries
being in close proximity to the railway line at Harcourt,
it can be delivered in Melbourne at a very reasonable rate.

The local granite from Enoggera must be regarded
as an inferior stone in many ways, but owing to its con-
taining hornblende, as far as strength is concerned it
probably surpasses.the Harcourt material, but this mineral
also greatly increases the cost of working. The Enoggera
stone is rather fine in texture, has not the same relief when
polished, and is liable to contain crystals of pyrites and
vughs of calcite. These two latter minerals weather
rapidly, especially the former, which becomes oxidised,
and a dirty brown patch is formed. This phenomenon
may be well seen in many of the stones used in the base
of the Lands Office. Compression tests on three-inch
cubes of Harcourt Granite have civen the following results :

Stone. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot.
Harcourt granite .. io 2, 11,444 736
Harcourt granite .. =. oe 11,333 729

Being an igneous rock it is almost impervious, and all
its minerals are of a very stable nature, there being no
carbonates or sulphides, while the black mica is found to
stand weathering excellently. The climatic conditions
likely to affect the stone are those of extreme temperature,
but in this city no fear need be anticipated on that score.

(5) Footscray Basar.

This is the familiar bluestone used in Melbourne for
many varied purposes, of which the uses for building stones,
copying stones, pitchers, and road metal, are the chief
ones. It is a dark compact basalt which works easily
and as a result of its proximity to the city in suitable masses
is cheap.

Owing to its igneous nature and its chemical con-
stitution, it is an excellent weathering material, but buildings
of this stone alone are objected to on account of its
sombreness, though for bulk stores and gaol structures
it gives an air of great solidity. It is chiefly used as a

206 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE

building stone for basements, a favourite combinatior
being sandstone as a super-st1ucture on basalt, with which
very handsome results are obtained.

While not in much evidence in the now completed.
Cathedral, it has been used in parts of the foundations
of this building, and, as far as durability and strength are
concerned, it has fully proved itself under more severe
conditions than exist here. |

St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Melbourne is built almost
entirely of this stone, with the result that it will long outlive
St. Paul’s Cathedral, which is built of the Geelong freestone
and Waurn Ponds limestone, both of which stones have
already very much decayed. The crushing strength of
this material on a three-inch cube was found to be 10,5771bs.
per square inch, or 680 tons per square foot, a strength.
more than sufficient for its use in this building.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the foregoing it will be seen that of the stones
in the Cathedral, the Harcourt Granite and Footscray basalt
used in the basement are stones of proven quality, and no
doubt need be felt of their lasting properties.

The inside Helidon sandstone, owing to its compression
strength, its protection from the weather and its lasting
properties even when exposed, also promises a very long
existence.

The outside materials, namely, the local tuff and the
Sydney freestone will determine the life of the building ;
of these the tuff from its texture and composition and
apparently wise choice should weather excellently, whereas
if any stones show signs of decay one would expect them
to be the Sydney sandstone in exposed conditions, where
it is finally carved, and the smooth-dressed tuff. Theformer
will, in the course of time, almost certainly fret in places,
as it has done in Sydney buildings, and being smooth-
dressed might be expected to exfoliate in other places,
that is, thin flakes a fraction of an inch thick, part from
the rest of the stone in a direction parallel to the surface,
as a result of the disturbances produced by the uniform
tapping over the face of the stone during dressing.

In conclusion, I would like to extend my thanks to
Archbishop Donaldson, Mr. R. 8. Dods, and Mr. T. Pye,
for information afforded me in connection with this paper.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF “ WORM-NODULES”
IN CATTLE—A SUMMARY.

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., etc.,

Brotocy Department, University, BrisBane.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28, 1911.

For the past two years a considerable amount of atten-
tion has been paid, both in the Commonwealth and in Europe,
_ to the occurrence of ‘“ worm-nests”’ or ‘* worm-nodules ”
in cattle in various parts of the world, but more particularly
in Australia. Since these nodules are known to be common
and widespread in this state (Queensland), which is an
important meat-producing country, and since their presence
is causing heavy financial losses to pastoralists and meat
exporters, | have deemed it advisable to bring together
for public information, a summary of what is known regard-
ing this parasitic condition. As ‘ worm-nodules”’ may
be produced in man, camels, horses, etc., by allied parasites
(Onchocerca, spp.), casual reference is made to them also.
The following account refers to that form of Onchocerciasis
met with in Australian cattle :—

Macroscopic appearance :—The naked-eye appearance
has been described fully by various authors (Gibson, Park,
Cleland and Johnston, Leiper, Gilruth and Sweet), so that only
brief mention need be given here. The nodules vary in
diameter, {rom under two to four centimetres in the case
of approximately spherical forms, while others of an elon-
gate shape may possess a long axis, Measuring 7 cms.,
or even greater. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 7) found one
reaching 11 cms. by 8 cms., whilst, very rarely, they meet
with others so small that their diameter was only six
millimetres. On cutting across a nodule, one notices that
the ‘‘ worm-area”’ lies at or near the centre, though occa-
sionally quite eccentrically. There is very little variation
in the size of this area though the thickness of the surround -

208 ON THE OCOURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ” IN CATTLE

ing fibrous capsule may vary greatly in different nodules-
The parasite, Onchocerca gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston,
lies coiled in the worm area in such an intricate manner
that it is impossible to extract the female entire. The
small male worms may occasionally be obtained in an
unbroken state. These nematodes are seen to lie in a
definite tunnel or canal, within which they appear to be
capable of a slight movement. Gilruth and Sweet (1911,
p. 10, figs. 3, 4, 37) have figured a tunnel in which the male
and female worms are lying side by side. The actual
nodules are, of course, the result of irritation of the sur-
rounding cells of the host-tissue, set up by the presence
of the parasite. An eosinophilia is also present. When
the worms dies, it degenerates, becoming calcified and
finally breaking down, the worm area undergoing a degener-
ation also. This condition is more frequently met with in
older animals. The statements that tuberculosis is commonly
associated with this alteration are not substantiated.

Seat of infection, etc.:—The commonest situations
in which the parasite occurs are the brisket and flank,
between whose muscles and in whose subcutaneous tissues
the worm-nodules lie. The affected areas have been
defined as follows :—(Gilruth and Sweet, 1911, p. 5, 6.)
“The commonest situation is the region of the brisket,
‘chiefly the triangular outline formed by the junction of
the ribs with the costal cartilages, especially between the
fourth and sixth ribs, but often extending backwards to
the tenth, and, at times, forward to the second rib. Fre-
quently they are superficial, 7.¢., in the subcutaneous tissues,
but more often they are situated between the posterior
portion of the superficial pectoral muscle and the anterior
part of the posterior deep pectoral, between the posterior
portion of the deep pectoral and the external abdominal
oblique, and between the panniculus and the posterior por-
tion of the external oblique, rarely deeper. . . The
other situation is the external surface of the hindlimb,
especially behind the femoro-tibial joint, and the groove
leading upward to the pelvis, anterior to the gluteus
maximus, and even near the angle of the haunch. While
occasionally superficial and readily detected, they are often
under the dense subcutaneous fascia lata, when they are
much more liable to be overlooked.” They mention the

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.SC. 209

reported occurrence of nodules in other situations, such as
‘““on the inner side of the thigh, in the groin and even
throughout the body,” but they are “strongly inclined to
the opinion that such conclusions have resulted from small
tumours of different origin being mistaken for these
nodules.” Dodd (1910, a, p. 86) mentioned that they may
occur in the connective tissues in any part of the body.
We found them mainly in the brisket (C. and J., 1910, c,
p- 92), but referred to their presence in certain other situ-
ations. Dr. Cleland and myself have seen an encapsuled
specimen, said to have been taken from the neighbourhood
of the spleen, a situation similar to that from which Filaria
lenalis was recorded by Stiles.

In regard to the number which may be found in an
animal, we (Cl. and J., 1910, c, p. 92) have recorded the
finding of twenty-one in the brisket alone. As many
as fifty has been counted from one host (Gilruth and Sweet,
p. 6.), while a yearling (p. 4) was found to harbour twenty-
four. Gibson (1893, p. 577) mentioned that he had been
informed by butchers that, in rare instances, nodules were
_ so numerous and so distributed in an animal, that condem-
nation of the whole carcase was necessary.

Age incidence :—As a result of careful ante- and post-
mortem examinations of a large number of cows and_ bullocks
of various ages, Gilruth (p. 4, 5) found that there was a
heavy infection in the case of yearlings, as in old animals,
and that one sex was as liable to become parasitised as the
other, but that in the older animals there was usually a
greater percentage of degenerated nodules. The youngest
animal recorded as having been found to be infected was
between six and seven months old (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 92;
six to eight months—G. and §., 1911, p. 5). This is con-
clusive evidence that the worm can mature very rapidly,
and also suggests that the life of the parasite probably
does not extend over many years.

Degree of infection :—The most important statements
regarding the degree of infection are those of Gilruth (1911,
p. 3), who has had opportunities of investigating this side
of the question. He states that “so far as could be ascer-
tained, no cattle station in Queensland is entirely free from
the parasite,” that at least twenty per cent. of animals
on “clean” stations are affected, and that a complete

910 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

examination would possibly show that fifty per cent. isa ~
nearer approximation. He instances a case in which ten
per cent. were found to be infected after “ very careful.
examination by manipulation, using incision only when
certain or doubtful, but later on, when the brisket of a num-
ber were partially dissected, another 25 per cent. were
found to harbour the nodules.” Thus 35 per cent. of the
cattle, from a ‘‘ notoriously clean station,” from the south-
western portion of Queensland, were parasitised by
Onchocerca gibsoni. In two mobs, from different parts of
north-western Queensland, the same observer detected
their presence in 60 per cent. of the animals “ without any
manipulation,” and as a result of “‘a more careful examin-
ation by dissection,” found every animal to contain “ from
one nodule upwards.” It is known that the heaviest in-
fection occur in the more northerly districts, and that the
degree lessens as we pass southward. Gilruth and Sweet
believe that this state of affairs is not due to the conditions
of ‘soil, climate, rainfall or management.’’ Gibson (1893,
p. 577) mentioned that he had been informed by Mr. Stanley,
the New South Wales Government Veterinarian, that at
least 50 per cent. of the cattle slaughtered about that
time (1892) in Sydney, contained worm-nests, but Gilruth
and Sweet (p. 3) doubt this large percentage. Our own
experience did not reveal such a high degree of infection.
Hancock (1911, p. 25) states that ‘‘ since examination has
been systematically made, at least 50 per cent. of all con-
signments from Queensland ‘ports have been found to contain
a variable percentage of affected carcases.” Judging from
‘“lruth and Sweet’s findings, Hancock’s estimate would
be greatly increased if a more searching examination were
carried out. The Editor of the British Medical Journal
(3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797), mentioned that about 75 per cent.
of the carcases were found to be parasitised. Macfadden’s
findings (1911,.p. 2) corroborate those of Gilruth. He stated
that at first ten per cent. of the quarters in each consignment
mere examined for the presence of nodules, but on a more
complete examination, it was noticed that a much larger
percentage was infected, and in some instances “‘as many
as a hundred per cent. of those already passed’ were found
to contain worm nests. The Editor of the Journal of Meat
and Milk Hygiene (1911, p. 23), in a footnote to our paper

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 211

(Cleland and Johnston, 1911, a, p. 21-23), refers to the
fact that “‘in one consignment of 1,500 hind quarters
which recently arrived in London, 808 were found to be
infected.” This is about 54 per cent., and the number
would probably have been greater had fore-quarters been
examined. If we consider what a large amount of meat
is exported from Australia, especially Eastern Australia,
to Great Britain and elsewhere, we must realise the serious-
ness of this parasitic invasion. Macfadden (1911, p. 3)
states that between 60,000 and 70,000 quarters of Australian
beef arrived per month, between July and October of last
year (1910) at the port of London alone.

Effect on host :—In regard to the result of this para-
sitism on the health of the infested animal, it is of importance
to note that no authors, excepting Barnard and Park
(1894), have mentioned any deleterious effect produced by
the presence of the Onchocerca. In reference to the state-
ments made by these authors, we (Cleland and Johnston,
1910, c, p. 93) have already suggested that tubercular and
actinomycotic tissues, from various parts of the body, had
been inadvertently mixed with true worm nodules, and hence
their mistake in believing that tubercle commonly follows
‘the parasite. Dodd (1910, a, p. 86), Hancock (1911, p.25),
Nicoll (1911, p. 73), Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. vil) and
others agree with us in our assertion that the presence
of the nematode is not any in way detrimental to the host.

Public health aspect :—From the point of view of public
health and meat inspection, we must admit that the presence
of animal parasites in food is undesirable. We think
that they should be removed, but even if eaten, whether
unconsciously or otherwise, as already pointed out by us
(1910, a, p. 174; 1910, c, p. 98), no harm would result.
Dr. Gibson (1893, p. 579) fed a dog on worm-nests for a
-considerable time without ill effect. Then again, the parasite
can only survive the death of the host for a very short time.
The same remark applies to the embryos. Besides this,
there is no possibility of direct transmission through eating,
even if the same species were able to live in man which is
most improbable.

Robinson (1910, p. 6) reported that Dr. Collingbridge,
‘the Medical Officer of Health for London, had stated that

F

212 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE

‘the portions of meat containing the parasite are obviously
unfit for food and should be destroyed.” We do not agree
with this remark. The meat in unaffected, though the
connective tissue immediately surrounding the worm is
affected, since the formation of a dense fibrous capsule
or ‘‘ worm nodule” is the result, but the effect does not
extend beyond this. The Editor of the British Medical.
Journal (3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797) mentioned “ that the meat:
in question is little, if at all, deteriorated in quality, that
it is perfectly safe for human consumption, and that its.
unsightly condition may be remedied by the removal of the
nodules.”? Nicoll (1911, p. 73) says, that “‘ there is no evi-
dence to show that the meat suffers, or that it is dangerous
for human consumption, and the fact that is has been eaten
for some time, both in this country and in Australia, without
ill consequences being remarked, may be taken to support
the Australian view.”

Distribution in Australia :—The greatest percentage
of infection appears to occur in Queensland, especially
in the more northerly and westerly regions, and as one
passes southwards, the condition becomes less common.
Though occurring in New South Wales, its presence is
more or less restricted to the Northern Rivers and the
Hunter districts, though it may be found occasionally
in cattle elsewhere. It is difficult, however, to trace the
origin of cattle brought in for slaughter, but a large per-
centage come “overland” from Queensland to Sydney,
Melbourne and elsewhere. Hence at the abattoirs in these
cities and in Hobart, nodules are met with. The occurrence
of the condition in Victorian-bred cattle is doubtful, while
Tasmania appears to be free fromit. It is well-known in
Western Australia and in the Northern Territory. The
distribution outside of Australia will be referred to in another
place.

The parasite:—The main papers dealing with the
parasite (Onchocerca gibsoni) infesting Australian cattle
are those of Cleland and Johnston (1910, 1911), Leiper
(1911), and Gilruth and Sweet (1911). The worm had
usually been referred to as Spiroptera reticulata, which is.
a parasite infesting horses in Southern Europe. Barnard
and Park (1894, p. 644), Park (1893, also in Tryon, 1910),

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 213

Shipley * (1910), and Hancock (1911, p. 25) refer to it
under that name; Leiper* (1910), as Onchocerca reticulata ;
Bancroft (1893), as Strongylurus sp.; Cleland (1907, p. 88),
and Johnston (1909, p. 412), as Sprroptera sp. ; and Tryon
(1910, p. 81), as Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp. ; while Cleland
and Johnston, a little later (1910, a, p. 174) described it
aS a new species of Filaria, /. gibson. Later in the same
year (1910, c, p. 96), they removed it to the genus Onchocerca.
Later authors (Leiper, 1911; Nicoll, 1911; Gilruth and
Sweet, 1911), have followed them in calling it O. gibsoni.
The synonymy of the nematode may be summarised thus :—

Onchocerca gibsoni (C. and J., 1910, a), Cleland and

Johnston (1091, c).
? Filaria lienalis, Stiles, 1892 (undescribed).
Spiroptera reticulata, Park, 1893, Bernard and Park,
1893 ; Shipley, 1910, etc. (nec., Diesing, 1841).

Strongylurus sp., Bancroft, 1893.

Spiroptera sp., Cleland, 1£07, Johnston, 1909.

Filaria gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston, 1910 a.

Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp., Tryon, 1910.

Onchocerca reticulata, Leiper, 1910 (nec. Diesing).

Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, d.

Unchocerca gibson, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, c; Leiper,

1911, etc.

Onchocerca reticulata, Diesing, known more commonly
but less correctly, as Spiroptera reticulata, is a distinct,
but closely allied, parasite infesting the horse, and is
known under various synonyms, ¢.g.: ilari reticulata,
F., cincinnata and Spiroptera cincinnata. FF. lienalis, Stiles,
may be a synonym of O. gibsoni, and is evidently an Onche-
cerca, aS Leiper (1911, a, p. 10) has suggested. Its specific
identity with the Australian worm seems to me to be unlikely.
The main distinctions between O. gibsoni and O. reticulata
have been tabulated by Leiper (1911, @; p. 10).

The original account (1910, @) contains a few in-
accuracies regarding the male worm, but these were corrected
and a-more detailed description of the male, female and
embyro was given in a larger report published some months
later. (August, 1910, c.) Gilruth and Sweet have shown
recently (1911), that there is a considerable amount of

* Quoted in an abstract of a report (1910)—Editor Jour, Meat and
Milk Hygiene, 1911, p. 24. - .

914 ON THE OGCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

variation in the mature parasites. The following summary
is taken mainly from the papers just referred to :—

The female is very long, but its exact length is unknown,
owing to the impossibility of extracting it entire. By
adding the lengths of all the fragments collected from a
single nodule, apparently containing only one parasite,
we (1910, c) found measurement to be 97 cm., while Gilruth
and Sweet found it to vary from 52 to 140 cms. The cuti-
cular ornamentation is in the form of series of spirally
arranged ridges, each ridge being made up of a series of
undulations. The anterior end is bluntly rounded, bearing
a tiny papilla on each of the three small lips which surround
the mouth. The diameter in the anterior part of the worm
is from ‘08 to °16 mm., and throughout the greater part of
the body is from ‘37 to ‘5 mm. The vulva varies in its
position, being situated between “46 and 1°23 mm, from
the anterior extremity. The nerve-ring les at from 142
to .188 mm., and the excretory pore at from °36 to °38 mm.
from the head end. The anus is located at about -20 mm.
from the posterior extremity.

The male is a very thin and relatively short worm
with much less pronounced cuticular ornamentation. It
is scarcely half the width of the female and its length varies
between 3°75 and 5°3 cm. (Leiper; Gilruth and Sweet.)
It is thus approximately only about one-twentieth of the
length of its partner. The nerve-ring is situated at from
‘17 to -2 mm., and the excretory pore at -25 mm. from the
anterior end. The cloaca lies at a distance of from ‘048
to ‘072 mm. from the posterior extremity.* The two
spicules are unequal. The longer is from ‘14 to "197 mm.,
and is a curved rod with a twisted stem and a pointed
distal termination. The smaller spicule is swollen character-
istically at the outer end. Its length varies from ‘08 to
094 mm. ‘There are six, probably seven, pairs of pipalle
on the tail end of the male. There is a peri-anal group,
consisting of four pair, and a caudal group of two pair. _
At the extreme end there is a pair of minute pro-
jections, which probably represents the seventh pair.

"eps ele on ag A ie Ss ee

*In our paper (1910, c, p. 94) the distance in one case is given as
-072, and in another -65:-m. The latter is a misprint for (065mm. In
our preliminary report (1910, a), the length of the smaller spicule was given
as ‘047, instead of -(082 mm., and some of the papillz were overlooked.

BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 215-

In the peri-anal group, the first pair are usually slightly
more prominent and somewhat separated from the remaining
three pair, which are really ad-anal or post-anal in position,
the first pair being distinctly pre-anal. Gilruth and Sweet
(p. 15) have noted a certain amount of variation in the
arrangement. The alae are not very prominent. The
tail end has a spiral twist, similar to that recorded as —
occurring in O. volvulus. (Parsons, 1609, p. 363.)

The embryos measures from ‘22 to °35 mm. in length
by 003 mm. in width, the anterior end being obtusely
rounded or nearly straight, and the posterior extremity
tapering. Gilruth and Sweet have estimated that there
may at one time be as many as two million embryos and
fertilised eggs in one female.

The internal anatomy of the parasite does not call
for attention in this paper. (Cleland and Johnston ; Leiper ;
De Does; Gilruth and Sweet.)

Transmission :—From the economic point of view,
the most important feature is the means of transmission.
If this be known, then one may hope to be able to formulate
Measures to limit the degree of infection, by reducing the
numbers of the transmitting agents, as is now being done
in the case of mosquito destruction in order to lessen
malarial and other mosquito-borne infections. Direct
transmission of a filarial worm is quite unlikely. We
(1910, c, p. 98), as well as Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 26),
failed to inoculate calves by injecting living embryos
subcutaneously. An intermediate host appears to be
necessary. In some few cases it is known to be a crustacean
inhabitating fresh water, but more frequently it is a blood-
sucking insect, usually a mosquito. The latter method
of transmission presupposes the presence of filarial
embryos in the blood of the final or definitive host.
But, as yet, these have not been found in the general
circulation of cattle affected with Onchocerca, nor in
horses harbouring O. reticulata, nor in men infested with
O. volvulus. In the case of man, filarial embryos belonging
to other Filariidae may be met with in the blood, but in
cases of an infection by O. volvulus alone, such larval forms
have not yet been detected. We have given a summary
of our results (1910, c, p. 97), which were all negative,
embryos being found in the peripheral parts of the tumours,

216 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

but not in the blood, though searched for in films taken
by night as well as by day, in case there should be any
periodicity. Since the nodules are practically restricted
to those portions of the animal which come in contact with
the ground, and since they are frequently subcutaceous
in situation, we were led to suggest that a fresh water
crustacean might act as a transmitting agent in a manner
analogous to that known to occur in the human guinea-
worm, Dracunculus medinensis. Dr. Cleland and myself
have not been able, as yet, to infect Cyclops and Daphnia
with the embryos, the latter living only a very short time
in water. We have, therefore, been driven back to our
first idea, that a biting insect or a tick might be the
actual transmitter. The lack of material in Sydney, and
the pressure of official business, prevented our following up
this matter as thoroughly as we wished.

Leiper (1911, a, p. 12), arguing from the structure
of the embryo, believes the intermediate host to be a biting
insect, such as Stomoxys, Hippobosca or Tabanus, or perhaps
one of the Ixodidae. The Hippoboscidae may be excluded on
account of their absence or rarity on our cattle. Stomoxys
salcitrans is a common fly in parts of Eastern Australia,
and may be responsible for the transmission, but this seems
rather unlikely on account of the relatively slow, south-
ward extension of the condition. The same remark applies
to the Tabanidae. Gilruth and Sweet (p. 27) are not in
favour of the idea that biting flies spread the parasite,
for the same reason, nor do they think that ticks are re-
sponsible, as they state that the nodules were observed
long before the advent of the tick in Queensland. They
evidently refer to the “cattle tick’? Margaropus (or
Boophilus) annulatus, var. australis, but there are many
other ticks which are known to infest cattle in Australia,
e.g., Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis, Aponomma, and Rhipicep-
halus, while an Ixodes, (J. holocyclus) attacks various animals
here. None of these, excepting M. annulatus are, however, -
common on cattle, and may be disregarded for the present
on that account. The calf louse (Haematopinus vituli, L.),
is regarded by these workers (p. 28) as being the most
likely transmitting agent, and point to certain facts which
seem to them to support their contention, viz., that the
infection in young and old cattle is about the same ; that lice

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 217

are frequently present on weakly young animals; that the
situation of the nodules is under those parts of the skin
which most frequently harbour lice; and that the south-
ward advance is slow. They, moreover, found a living
embryo in a louse* which had been fed on an inoculated
part of a heifer. It seems to me that the mosquito, the
true lice, and the ‘ cattle-fly °°—a species of Musca, fre-
quently found associated with Queensland cattle—are the
most likely agents. The great objection, however, lies in the
fact that, as yet, the embryos have not been detected in
the blood-stream, and have not been found beyond the
nodule.t’ Even after centrifugalising large quantities of
blood, Gilruth and Sweet were unable to detect their
presence. In regard to the allied parasite, O. gutturosa,
from the Algerian cattle, Emery (in Neumann, 1910, p. 271)
mentioned that he had not been able to find embryos in
the blood.

The life history is not yet known in any species of
Onchocerca. Brumpt (1904, quoted by Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15),
Fiilleborn (1908, p. 15), and Rodenwaldt (F.and R., 1908,
p. 83), found embryos of O. volvulus in the peripheral parts
of the tumours from human beings, and the first named
author believed that a Vabanus, Glossina or Simuliwm
might act as a transmitter. None of these authors, nor
Parsons (p. 366), detected embryos in the blood, but the
latter worker states that the distribution of O. volvulus
‘“‘ suggests the existence of a riverine intermediary,” and
believes it highly probable that embryos must pass some-
time in the general circulation (p. 367), the transmitting

* Dr. Cleland and myself have examined a large number of lice
(Haematopinus vituli, L.) and Mallophaga (Trichodectes bovis, L., syn. Tr.
scalaris, Nitzsch), taken in New South Wales from a young calf infected
with nodules, but without result. Of course the Trichodect is not likely to
be a normal carrier on account of its food being epidermal structures and
not blood. Sometimes blood is found in the crop, but this is not usual,
the blood entering from wounds along with the ordinary food.

+ Park in a footnote to a paper (Barnard and Park, 1894, p. 645) refers
to finding ‘‘ young Spiroptera in some of the blood vessels.”” Though Dr.
Cleland and myself, as well as Professor Gilruth and Dr. Sweet, have
worked through series of sections, we have not been able to find embryos
in the blood. Park’s statement stands quite unconfirmed up to the present
as regards Australian cattle. It may be mentioned, however, that De Does
41904) found the embryos in the blood of Javanese cattle, and thought
that blood-sucking insects were the most likely transmitting agents.

218 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

agent being, by analogy, probably a blood-sucking insect.

We have suggested (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 98) that
imprisonment within a nodule may not be the normal
fate of O. gibsont. Leiper (1911, a, p. 13) thinks that an
examination of the viscera might reveal the presence
of the parasite in an unencapsuled condition, where it would
liberate its embryos into the blood stream. On the other
hand, one would expect that if encapsulation be abnormal,
that there should be a greater number of free than encap-
suled parasites, and the detection of the embryos in the
circulation should not be difficult. As all the known species.
of the Onchocerca are found more or less embedded in
fibrous capsules, and as both males and females may occur
together in these nodules, and in such relation to each other
that fertilisation is readily effected, (Brumpt, re O.
volvulus, quoted in Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15, and in Fulleborn
and Rodenwaldt, p. 83; Gilruth and Sweet, p. 10, re O.
gibsoni), it seems to me that the connective tissues, especi-
ally the subcutaceous, are @ normal, and probably the normal
habitat of the members of the genus.

Origin of the parasite:—The original home of the
nematode is almost certainly the East Indies. We (C. and
J., 1910, c, p. 99) showed that it was probably by way of
Timor that infected animals (buffaloes) arrived in Northern
Australia. De Does had already recorded the occurrence of
worm-nests in cattle in Java, but we were at the time unaware
of his work. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 34, addendum)
mention that cattle were imported from Coepang, about
1824, and from other parts of the East Indies in 1840.
This evidence supports the conjecture that infected animals
—either cattle or buffaloes, or both—came from the East
Indies to the Northern Territory, and became the means
of spreading the condition, which has gradually extended
its range southward, eastward and westward.

It might be observed that O. armillata (Railliet and-
Henry, 1910, p. 250) parasitises Indian and Sumatran
cattle and buffaloes, and an allied or perhaps identical
worm occurs in Malayan and Indian cattle and buffaloes
(Daniels, Tuck, Leiper, Lingard). O. armillata infests the
aortic walls. O. gutturosa (Neumann ,1910, p. 270) occurs
in the cervical ligament of cattle in Northern Algeria and
Tunis. These parasites are distinct from OU. gibsoni.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 219

Historical Summary :—A brief historical summary
has been reserved until now, in crder to simplify reference.
Only the main papers relating to Onchocerciasis in cattle,
more especially in Australian cattle, come in for notice.

The first published record was that by Morris in 1880
(1881, p. 337), though Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 1) have
been informed that the presence of nodules in the brisket
of Queensland cattle has been known for at least forty
years. In 1892, Gibson (1893, p. 576) communicated an
article to the Intercolonial Medical Congress, in which he
gave an account of the embryo and such facts of the female
worm as he could extract; of the pathology of the con-
dition ; as well as of feeding experiments performed on a
dog, but with negative results. In the same year, T. L.
Bancroft referred to the presence of nodules in cattle in
Brisbane and Rockhampton.

In 1893, Barnard and Park (1894, p. 642) read a short
paper, entitled ‘Notes on Sptroptera, associated with
Tuberculosis in Cattle,’ in which they give an account
of the result of an enquiry into the condition as affecting
Queensland cattle. The parasite was recognised as being
similar to Spiroptera reticulata (i.e, O. reticulata), which
infests horses. No cattle under two years of age were
found to be affected, and this led them to suggest that the
worm probably takes at least a year to develop and cause
trouble. They thought that human beings might become
parasitised by infected meat or drinking water. The
disease was stated to be absent in Tasmania, but probably
present in South Australia. A short account of the
embryo and of a fragment of an adult was given. “A
section of a small tumour or nodule containing the worm
has a perforated or reticulated appearance, hence the
name Spiroptera reticulata’? (p. 644). There seems to be
little doubt but that various tissues, some tubercular,
others actinomycotic, had become mixed with real “* worm-
fibromata”’ (as De Does called them), hence the mistake
made by these authors in considering that degenerated
worm-nests commonly became the seat of tuberculosis or
actinomycosis. (C. and J., 1911, c¢, p. 93.)

Similar information was published by Park, in Dec.,
1893, in the Veterinary Journal (1893, p. 102), and in a
report to the Chief Inspector of Stock (quoted in Tryon,

220 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

1910, p. 82-4). In the same year, Stanley (1893) referred
to the presence of nodules in New South Wales cattle.
For many years after this, little notice seems to have been
taken of the condition in spite of its commonness. The
fact that infected animals apparently do not suffer in health
may have been responsible for this indifference towards
the matter. The waste of meat incurred in removing
the nodules from carcases and in condemning badly-infested
portions, should have been sufficient reason for an investiga-
tion being undertaken. Apart from a few mere references
dealing with the presence of worm-nests in cattle in West
Australia (Cleland, 1907), in New South Wales (Johnston,
1909), and in Queensland (Pound, 1909), nothing was done
until the latter part of 1909, when Dr. Cleland and myself
in Sydney, and Drs. Gilruth and Sweet in Melbourne, began,
independently, to devote special attention to the subject.
Very shortly afterwards public notice was drawn to presence
of these nodules in abundance in frozen carcases arriving
from Australia, mainly from this State (Robinson, 1910,
p. 6; Ann. Rep. Med. Off. Health, 1909, London, abstract
in Jour, Meat Milk Hyg., 1911, p. 24). It was suggested
that such infected meat was possibly unfit for human
consumption (Collingbridge—quoted by Robinson, 1910,
p. 6). This led to severe measures being taken by the
Health authorities in London and elsewhere (Robinson,
1910 ;° Hancock, 1910, p. 25;°Macfadden, 1911)7 9G
course, @ scare was created, and investigations were com-
menced by the Local Government Board (London). In
the Annual Report of the Medical Officer for Health for the
Corporation of London for 1909 (1910, p. 106-7)*, it was
stated that in November, 1909, a large percentage of
carcases of Queensland beef were found to contain encapsuled
parasites lying in the connective tissues of the flank and
brisket. The nodules, together with a small portion of the
surrounding tissues, were removed and the rest passed >
as being fit for food. In cases where they were very
numerous, the whole quarter was condemned. The
parasite was identified by Shipley as Spiroptera reticulata,
and by Leiper as Onchocerca reticulata. This report was
probably isswed early in 1910.

* Abstract in Journal Meat and Milk Hygiene I., 1911, p. 24.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 221

__ Meanwhile a short preliminary paper was published
by Dr. Cleland and myself in the February (Feb. 2nd)
number of the N.S.W. Agricultural Gazette, in which we
briefly described the worm as a new species, Filaria gibsont,
quite distinct from, though closely allied to, F. reticulata
of the horse. The idea that the nematode could be fm any
way injurious to human beings was disputed, as such
nodules had frequently been eaten in Australia without
any ill-effects having been detected. A more detailed
report was reserved for official publication in the Annual
Report of the Government Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney,
for 1909, which, however, did not appear until August,
1910. This delay allowed the inclusion of some further
details, and of information either unpublished or not avail-
able at the time of writing the earlier article.

There appeared in the same month (February, 1910),
in the Queensland Agricultural Journal, two short papers
onthe subject, one by Tryon (1910, a), entitled ‘‘ Verminous
Tumours in Cattle,’ in which the writer gave a list of Austra-
* lian literature, and made public some official information
contained in reports by Park, and the other by Dodd (1910 a),
who disagreed with Park’s statements regarding the alleged
frequent association between these nodules and tuberculosis.
About the same time, Railliet and Henry (1910), in Paris,
contributed a short paper on the Onchocerca group of
parasites, and in it referred to the presence of encapsuled
nematodes in the connective tissues of oxen having
been recorded from Australia (Cleland ; Barnard: Park),
and from Java (De Does). They also dealt with allied
worms causing the formation of worm-nests in other
hosts. They discovered that there exists in the horse
two species of Onchocerca, one O. reticulata preferring the
legs as its habitat, though found elsewhere; the other,
O. cervicalis, frequenting the neck. O. armillata was
described by them as a new species, infesting the aortic
walls in oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra. Lingard
(1905) had already called attention to the presence of
aortic worms in Indian cattle. Neumann (1910, p. 270)
shortly afterwards described another species, O. gutturosa,
occurring fairly commonly in the cervical ligament in
cattle in Algeria and Tunis. As already mentioned,

222 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

the Australian parasite, O. Gibsoni, prefers the brisket
and flank.

The work of these French parasitologists was not
~available until after the publication of our official report
on “* Worm-Nests (Filariasis) in Cattle” (Cleland and
Johnston, 1910, c). Inthis article, we reviewed the Australian
literature and the public health and pathological aspects
of the condition. We also gave a more detailed account
of the anatomy of the worm and of its relationship to:
various other species of Onchocerca, such as O. volvulus,.
which causes nodules in man in certain parts of Africa
(Fulleborn, Rodenwaldt, Parsons, etc.), and O. reticulata,.
which gives rise to a similar condition in horses (Pader).
An account of experiments to determine the mode of
transmission was also given. An allied parasite infest-
ing the camel was dealt with incidentally, and was.
thought to be perhaps identical with O. gibsoni. The
camel parasite is, however, a distinct species (O. fasciata),
as Railliet and Henry (1910) have shown. Some of the ground
traversed by these authors was also covered by ourselves.
Their paper reached us in time to allow us to add a reference
to it as an addendum to the above article in its rearranged
condition, when it was published in the form of two papers
(1910, d, 1910, e), by the Royal Society of New South Wales.

Early in the present year (1911), a number of papers
appeared, the most important being one by Leiper (1911, a),
an article by Macfadden (1911) accompanying it. Others.
were published, or rather republished, by the editor of
the Journal of Meat and Milk Hygiene (Jan. 1911, p. 21-26),
while the February number of the same journal contains.
a brief article by Nicoll (1911).

Macfadden (1911) gave an account of the offcial
method of inspecting the carcases in London, the present
inspection being much more detailed and thorough than
that detailed by Hancock (1910), as being in force a short
time before. He referred to the heavy infection occurring
in some shipments, and to the difficulty of coping with
large consignments of Australian beef arriving at the port
of London.

Leiper’s paper (1911, @) is a valuable one. In it he
deals mainly with the anatomy, geographical distribution,
and pathological effects of the parasite. In addition he

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A, D.SC, 228

makes suggestions regarding the probable life-history,
these having been referred to earlier. In regard to the
geographical distribution, he refers (p. 10) to an encysted
parasite found by Stiles in 1892 in cattle in the United
States, and mentioned under the name Filaria lienalis,
Stiles. A description was not published,* and at a later
-date (1894), this nematode was regarded as_ being
“ Spiroptera reticulata.’ There is, therefore, little doubt,
but that the parasite in question is an Onchocerca, perhaps
identical with O. gibsoni, but I am inclined to believe that
it will be found to be a different species, whose normal
or original host may have been the bison. Some support
for the idea that the two forms may be distinct is derived
from the fact that Algerian oxen harbour a different species,
O. gutturosa, Neumann, and that Indian and East Indian
cattle may be parasitised apparently by two species, viz.,
O. gibsont and O. armillata. Ford (1903) met with one
kind—* the aortic worms ’’—which form nodules in the
-aortic walls of Malayan buffaloes. These are regarded
by Leiper (1911, a, p. 10), as belonging to O. gibsoni, while
Railliet and Henry (1910) describe the aortic worms which
infest oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra as a distinct
form, which they named O. armillata. If these species be
identical, then the latter will rank as a synonym of O.
_gibsom, only a few weeks separating their respective dates
of publication. They appear to me to be specifically
distinct. Tuck (1907, 1808) referred to the aortic worms
as well as to another kind—also belonging to the Filariidae—
from Indian and Siamese builocks. From the accounts
_given, we had regarded both of these as being distinct from
O. gibsont. It seems probable that the “aortic worms ”
(which are not yet recorded from Australia) are O. armillata,
and that the ordinary “‘ nodule worms” from the brisket
-and flank are O. gibsoni. Ags already mentioned, O,
_gutturosa is usually restricted to the cervical ligament.

*In Stiles and Hassall’s Index Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary
_Zoology, part 29, 1910, p. 2266, there is a reference to a paper by Stiles
[1892, g] ‘‘ On the presence of Spiroptera reticulata in cattle,” but mention
sis made that the MS. was lost in the mail. The paper is, therefore,
-uppublished.

t Lingard (1905) recorded their presence in Indian cattle.

224 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE

Leiper (p. 7) does not definitely group all the
Onchocerca worms producing nodules in cattle under one
species. He confines himself to stating that “ this parasitic
condition is known to occur not only in Australia, but
also in the United States (Curtice; Stiles), in the Malay
States (Daniels; Ford), and in India (Lingard).”’

De Does (1904), Dood and Ouwehand* recorded the
occurrence of worm-nodules (worm-fibromata) in Javanese
cattle.

In Nicoll’s article (1911), there is a brief summary
regarding the parasite and the method of inspection of
meat in England in order to detect its presence.

Quite recently an important paper by Gilruth and
Sweet (1911), entitled “‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of
Worm Nodules in Australian Cattle,’ has been published
along with the greater part of our report (C. and J., 1910, c,
d, e) by the Commonwealth Government. The work of these
authors has been frequently alluded to in the present
article. They corroborate our findings generally, and
give additional information regarding the anatomy of the
worm and the variation met with in the parasites, as well
as the early developmental stages of the embryos. Their
suggestion that lice may act as transmitters has been
already referred to.

The Report. of the Agent-General for Queensland in
London, 1910, has just been published (Robinson, Sept.,
1911), and in it he again refers to the question of nodules
in beef, mainiy from the commercial side. A brief article
will shortly appear in the Queensland Agricultural Journal
(Johnston, 1911, 6). There is aiso a brief reference made by
Tryon (1911), in the Annual Report of the Agricultural
Department, Queensland (1910-1911).

In concluding this summary, one must emphasise
the fact that we need more definite knowledge regarding
the means of transmission of the worm. ‘“ The elucida-
tion of the life-history of the parasite is the most important
part of the investigation of the disease. Until this is
effected, no certain preventive measures can be framed
or put into force.” (Nicoll, 1911).

*The articles by Ouwehand and Dood (mentioned by Neumann,
1910) are unknown to me.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 225

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ONCHOCERCIASIS.

Notr.—I have not been able to consult works marked with an asterisk.

Baneroit, t.. L:—

1983. ‘“‘ Notes on Some Diseases in Stock in Queens-
land,” in Report of Chief Inspector, 1892 (1863),
Appendix, p. 4.

Barnard, C. KH. and Park, A.—

1894—“*‘ Notes on Spiroptera associated with Tuber-
culosis in Cattle.” Report Austr. Assoc. Adv.
Sci., V., 1893 (1894), p. 642-5.

Braun, M.—

1908. ‘‘ Die tierische Parasiten des Menschen,” 1£08
Edition. Also English Translation of Earlier
Edition.

Brumpt, E.—

*1904. ‘* Apropos dela Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.”? Revue

de Medic et d’Hyg. tropic., 1904.
Cleland, J. B.—

1807. “The Diseases of Animals and Meat Inspection
in Western Australia.” Journ. Agric., West
Australia, XV., 1907, p. 84-94 (p. 88).

1908. The same as above. Report Austr. Assoc. Adv.
Sci., 1907 (1908), p. 686.

1909(a). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet.
Science, IV., 1909, p. 491-8.

1909(6). ‘‘ Trypanosomiasis, etc., in Camels.” Dept.
Agric., West Austr., Buil. 34, 1909, p. 8, etc.

1809(c). Same as 1909(6)—reprinted in Jour Trop.
Vet. Sci., LV., 1809, p. 316-344 (p. 324).

Cleland, J. B., and Johnston, T. H.—

1910(a). ‘‘ Worm-Nests in Cattle due to Filaria gibsont
—Preliminary Report.’ Agric. Gazette, N.S.
Wales, XXI., Feb., 1910, p. 173-4.

1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci.,
V., 1910, p. 520-1.

1910(c). ‘* Worm-nests (Pilariasis) in Cattle.’ Annual
Report of Govt. Bureau of Microbiology for 1809
(Sydney, N.S. Wales), I., 1909 (August, 1910),
p. 91-99. ;

226 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

1910(d). ‘‘ Worm-nests in Australian Cattle due to
Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, with Notes on
Similar Structures in Camels.” Jour. Proc. Roy.
Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 156-171.
1910(e). ‘* On the Anatomy and Possible Mode of Trans-
mission of Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni. Jour.
Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 171-189.
1910(f). The same as 1910(c).—Reprinted by the
editor under the title ‘‘ Worm-nests in Cattle due
to Filaria gibsoni,” in Jour. Comp. Pathol. Therap.,
XXIII., Dec., 1910, p. 335-353.
1911(a). The same as 1910(a),—reprinted in Jour.
Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., Jan., 1911, p. 21-3.
1911(b). Reprint of 1910(d) and 1910(e) by Common-
wealth Govt.—See under Gilruth and Sweet.
Curtice, C.—
*1892—‘‘ Parasites, etc.” Jour. Comp. Med., and Vet.
Archives, XIII. 7, p. 223-236.
Daniels, C. W.—
*1904. ‘“‘ Studies from Institute for Medical Research,
Malay States,” III., p. 17.
Diesing, K. M.—
1851—‘‘ Systema helminthum,” II., 1851, p. 287.
De Does, J.—
*1904. ‘“‘ Wormfibromen en Filaria—embryoen in het
bloed.” Geneeskundig Tijd. v. Ned. Ind., Deel.
XLIV. (5), Batavia, 1804, 15 pp.T
Dodd, 8.—
1910(a). ‘‘ Spiroptera reticulata in Cattle.’ Queensland
Agric. Journal, Feb., 1910, p. 86.
1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet.
Sci., V., 1910, p. 518.
Dood,—
*Quoted by Neumann, 1910.
Ford, T. A.—
*1903. Veterinary Record, June, 14, 1903. See Tuck.
Filleborn, F.—
1908. ‘‘ Uber Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.’”’ Beiheft 7,
zum. Arch. f. Schiffis, u. Tropenhyg., XII., 1908,

pp. 1-17.

t I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Henry Tryon, Government
Entomologist, for the opportunity of seeing this paper.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 227
Filleborn, F., and Rodenwaldt, E.—
1908. *‘ Filarien”’? in Real Encyclopadie d. ges. Heilk-
inde Auil., 4, Vol. V., p. 81,, etc.

1893. ‘“‘ Notes on Certain *‘ Worm-nests’ or ‘ Worm-
Knots,’ occurring in the cellular tissues of the
brisket in Cattle.” Trans. Intercol. Med. Congr.
Austr. II1., 1892 (1893), p. 576-580.

Gilruth, J. A., and Sweet, G.—

1911. ‘‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of Worm Nodules
in Australian Cattle,’ published by the Federal
‘Govt. (Commonwealth of Australia— N.S.W. Govt.
Printer, Sydney), 1911, p. 1-34.

On pages 35 to 58 is reprinted (almost in full),
Cleland and Johnston, 1910 (d), and 1910 (e).
Hancock, G.—

191i. *‘ Report on the Examination of Queensland
Beef in the Port of London for the presence of
Spiroptera reticulata’ (August, 1910)—quoted by
Editor Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911,
p. 24-6.

Johnston, T. H.—

1909. Proce. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, XXXIV., 1909,
p. 412.

191i(a). This paper, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land, 1911.

1911(6). ‘‘ A brief account of the worm nodules
occurring in Cattle.’ Queensland Agric. Journal,
Dec., 1911.

Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, J. B., see Cleland and Johnston

Labadie-Lagrave and Deguy, 1899.‘‘ Un cas de Filaria
vovulus.”’ Arch. d. Parasitologie, IIJ., 1899, p.
451-460. |

Leese, A. S.—

1910. Annual Report of the Veterinary Offcer inves-
tigating Camel Diseases, for the year ending: 31st
March, 1910. p. 13.

Leiper, R. T.—

19li(a). ‘‘ Report on Onchocerciasis in Cattle, with
Special reference to the structure and bionomic
characters of the parasite.” In Reports to the
Local Govt. Board, etc., London. New Series,
No. 45 (food reports, No. 11), 1911, p. 6-16.

228 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

1911(6). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg.,
15th March, 1911, p. 87-93.

1911(c). Dr. Leiper’s conclusions republished in Q’land.
Agric. Jour., April, 1911, p. 220-1. Under the
title ‘‘ Parasitic Nodules in Australian Beef.”

1911 (d) Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 1911, p. 45.

Leuckart, R.—

*In Davidson’s Hygiene and Diseases of Warm Climates,

1893.
Lingard, A.—

*1905. (a) ‘* Observations on the filarial embryos found
in the general circulation of the Equide and
Bovide, and their probable pathological sig-
nificance.’’ London.

1905 (6). This paper referred to in Lancet, 23rd Sep-
tember, 1905, p. 893-4; Brit. Med. Jour., 11th
Novr., 1905, p. 1299; Bull. d. V’Inst., Pasteur,
IIL, 30th Nov., 1905, p. 933-4; Vet. Journ.,
XII. (ns.), Dec., 1905, p. 381; Jour. Trop. Med.
Hyg., VIII., Ist Sept., 1805, p. 268-9.

Looss, A.—

1905.—In Mense’s Handb., d. Tropenkrankheiten,

Leipzig, 1905. |
Macfadden, A. W. J.—

1911. ‘“* Report on Meat Inspection at English Ports
in regard to Onchocerciasis.” In Reports to
Local Govt. Board, ete.

New Series, No. 45. (Food Reports, No. 11), 1911,
py, t-b.
Manson, P.—
*1893. Skin Diseases, 1893, p. 893.
Morris, W.—

1881. Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, XIV., 1880

(1881), p. 337.
Neumann, L. G.—

1905. A Treatise on the Parasites and Parasitic
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals. Engl.
transl., of French Edition.

1910. ‘‘Un nouveau Nematode parasite de Boeuf
(Onchocerca gutturosa, n. sp.)”

Revue vétérinaire, May, 1911, p. 270-8. A

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 229

translation of the same, reprinted in Jour. Trop.
Vet. Science. VI., 1911, p. 101-5.
Nicoll, W.—
1911. ‘‘ Onchocerciasis in Cattle,’ Jour. Meat and Milk
Hyziene [., 1911; pei.
Ouwehand—
* Mentioned by Neumann, 1910.
Pader, J.—

1901. “* Filariose du ligament suspenseur du_ boulet
chez le cheval.” Arch, d. Parasitologie, IV.,
1901, p. 58-95.

Park, A.—

1893. “*‘ Parasitic Diseases in the Colony of Queens-
land.’ Vet. Journ. and Annals of Comp. Pathol,
XXXVITI., 1893, p. 102-7.

1910. Report to Chief Inspector of Stock, also various
newspaper articles (1893), summarised in Tyron
1910 (a), p. 82-3, p. 83-4.

Park, A. and Barnard, C. E.—

1894. See Barnard and Park.

Parsons, A. €.—

1909. “ Filaria volvulus, ete.” in Parasitology LI.,

1908, (1909), p. 359-368.

Penel, R.—
*1905 (a), ‘‘ Les Filaires du sang de Phomme.”’ Paris,
1905.
1905. (6), ‘‘ Les Filaires” in Arch. d. Parasitol, IX.,
p. 187-204.
Pound, C. J.—
1909. In Rep. Agric. Dept. Q’land, for 1808-9 (1909),
pis eae
Prout, W.—

1901. (a) ‘“‘ A Filaria found in Sierra Leone (? Filaria
volvulus, Leuckt).”’ Brit. Med. Jour., Jan. 1901,
p. 209-211.
1901. (6) ‘“‘ Observations on Filaria volvulus.” Arch.
d. Parasitol., IV., 1801, p. 301-307.
Railliet, A.—
1895. Traité d. Zool. médic. et agricole, 1895.
Railliet, A. and Henry, A.—
1910. Les Onchocerques, etc. C. R. Soc. Biol., Paris,
LXVIIL., 1910, p. 248-251.

|
230 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE

Robinson, T. B.— :
1910. Report of the Agent-General (London) for Queens-
land, for 1909 (1910), p. 6. .
1911. Report of the Agent-General (London), for
Qland for 1909 (1910).
Rodenwaldt, E.—
1908. ‘* Filaria volvulus. Arch. f. Schiffs, u. Tropen-
hygiene, XII., 1908, p. 701-2.
Stanley, E.—
1893. Report to Board of Health, N.S. Wales, 1893.
Stiles, C. W.—
*1892. (a) *‘ A word in regard to Pilaritdae, found in
the body cavity of horses and cattle.’ Jour. Comp.
Med. and Vet., Arch. XIII., 1892, p. 143-147.
*1892. (b) “A check list of Animal parasites of cattle,
etc.’ Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., 1892,
p. 346-350. |
1892. (c) ‘On the presence of Spiroptera reticulate
in cattle.’ Stiles and Hassall, in their IJndex
Catalogue of Med. and Vet. Laterature, p. 2266,
refer to the fact that the M.S. was lost in the
mail. ‘This paper is, therefore, unpublished.
*1894. ‘“‘ A preliminary catalogue of the parasites
in the U.S. National Museum.” Vet. Magazine,
May, 1894.
Tryon, H.—
1910. (a) ‘“‘ Verminous tumours in cattle—Australian
literature.’ Q’land Agric. Journal, 1910, p. 81-4.
1910. (6) The same, reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet.
Sei, V., 1910, p. 511-516. |
1911. ‘‘ Verminous tumours of Cattle” in Report of
Govt. Entomologist—Report Dept. Agric. Stock,
Qland, 1910-1911 (i911), p. 73.
Tuck, G. L.—
1907. ‘‘ Observations on some worms found in the
aortas of buffaloes and bullocks.” Jour. Trop.
Vet. Sei., I1., 1507, p. 69-100.
1908. The same—published in Studies Inst. Mea.
Research, Malay Straits, Singapore, IIl., 1608,
p- 19-66.
1907. Abstracts of same in Veterinary Record, X!IX.,
1907, p.- 648-9.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 231

Védy, L.—

*1906. “‘ Filariose dans le district de 1’ Uele.’ Bull.
Acad. roy. d. Méd. d. Belgique, Dec., 1906, p.
966-976.

Ziemann.—

*1907. Medizinal—be-ichte tiber die deutschen
Schutzgebiete ftir das Jahr, 1905-1906. Berlin,
1907, p. 148, 179 (cuoted by Filleborn and Roden-
waldt, p. 84).

Editorial Abstracts and reviews—

1910. Brit. Med. Journ., 3 Dec., 1910, p. 1796-7—
referring to Leiper, 1911 (d.)

1911 (a). Lancet, 4 Feb., 1911, p. 317—referring to
Leiper, 1911 (a).

1911 (0). ““ Imported parasitic Colonial Beef.” Jour.
Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911, p. 24-6.
Abstracted from Annual Report of Med. Officer
of Health for Corp. of London for 1809, p. 106-7
and also from Hancock (Q.V.)

1911 (c). <‘* Australian Meat Regulations.”’ Jour. Meat
and Milk Hygiene, I., I911, p. 351.

The greater number of the abovementioned papers
deal either wholly or in part with Onchocerciasis in cattle
but some of them refer only to a similar condition in man,
and a few to that met with in horses and camels. For
further literature regarding Onchocerciasis in horses, see
Pader (/.c.), as well as various veterniary textbooks.

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A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN
KNTOZOA,

—_. —_. -——~

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.,
Biology Department, University, Brisbane.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28th,
: 1911,

THE present paper is the result of an attempt to collect
references to the occurrence of entozoa and haematozoa
in Australian reptiles, the term Australian being used
in a wide sense so as to include forms from New Guinea and
New Britain, as was done in a similar paper on avian entozoa.
(Johnston, 1910 c.)

Many of the following records, more especially those
which give merely the generic name of a nematode infest-
ing a certain host, are of little value, but for the sake of
completeness, they have been tabulated. Dr. Sweet (1908)
has already collected a number of earlier records and
published them in her Census of Australian Entozoa. The
greater part of the literature referring to our reptilian haema-
tozoa has been brought together in papers by Dr. Cleland
and myself. (Johnston and Cleland, 1910 @; 1911 a.)

I have mentioned synonyms of the accepted specific
name of the host only in those cases where a recorder of the
occurrence of a parasite has referred to the host under such
hame.

OPHIDIA.
1. PyruHon sprmoTes Lacep, (syn. Morelia spilotes.)
The Diamond Snake.
*a Hemogregarina shattocki, Sambon & Seligmann,
1907, p. 284; Sambon, 1907, p. 310; Sambon,
1909, p. 111 ; Dobell, 1908, p. 291 (Hamogregarina
sp.) ; Laveran, 1908, p. 103.

*a, denotes that the parasite is a Protozoon; b, that it is a Cestode;
c, a Trematode ; d, a Nematode; e, an Acanthocephalan; f, a Linguatulid.

234 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

Sambon’s and Dobell’s specimens were obtained in
England, hence the original locality of the host is not
recorded. As has been already pointed out (Johnston,
1909 6, p. 403), the snake must have come from the coastal
district of New South Wales, if the popular and scientifie
names be correct.

b i., Bothridium pythonis, Blainville—more commonly
known under the name of Solenophorus megaloce-~
phalus (megacephalus), Creplin.

Baird (1865 a p. 68 ; 1865 6 p. 52)- described a cestode
under the name of Bothridium arcuatum, from this host.
Monticelli and Crety (1891, reprint p. 17) after having
examined Baird’s original material stated it to be a synonym
of Blainville’s species. Krefft (1871, p. 214) referred to
Baird’s description. Specimens have been taken (Johnston
1910 d, p. 28) from diamond snakes killed near Sydney.

ii, Sparganum sp.

IT have several Bothriocephalid larve from the sub-
cutaneous tissues of this host (Hawkesbury River). They
resemble at least externally, those recorded here from the
connective tissues of other reptiles such as Python varie-
gatus (N.S.W. and Queensland), Varanus varius (Burnett
River), Varanus gouldii (Burnett River), Dendrophis
punctulatus (Burnett River), while an allied form is occas-
ionally found in certain frogs between the muscles of the thigh
—Hyla ‘cerulea (Burnett River and Sydney), Hyla aurea
(Sydney and Perth, West Australia). The parasites referred
to as Bothriocephalus mansoni, by Spencer (1892, p. 433)
and by Hill (1905, p. 378) whose specimens were found in
human beings, should perhaps be grouped merely as
Sparganum sp., as their identity with Cobbold’s forms is
doubtful. Similar specimens of a Sparganum have been
forwarded to me by Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian,
Adelaide, who found them in the subcutaneous tissues of
of a fox in South Australia. Probably the adult forms
of these occur in snakes.

d. Ascaris sp., Krefft (1871, p. 214).

A large Ascarid occurs fairly frequently in this species
and in P. variegatus (N.S.W. and Queensland).

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 235.

2. PYTHON SPILOTES var. variegata, Gray (syn. Morelia
variegata). The Carpet snake.

Unlike P. spilotes, this reptile has a very wide range
over Australia.

i, Hemogregarina shattocki. Sambon & Seligmann.
Johnston, 1909 6, p. 403; 19106, p. 42 (Enoggera,
Brisbane) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 487
(Burnett River).

i., Hemogregarina morelie, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 404;
1910 6, p. 43 (Abrolhos, West Australia).

iii., Haemogregarina megalocystis, Gilruth, Sweet and
Dodd, 1910, p. 234 (Victoria).

H. megalocystis is very like H. bancrofti from Pseudechis
australis and P. mortonensis (vide infra), in regard to its
detrimental effect on the parasitised erythrocyte. The
other two haemogregarines will be referred to again (mde
infra).

oe Bothridium pythons, Blainville—Johnston, 1910

d, p. 28 (N. S. Wales).

ii. Sparganum sp. in subcutaneous tissues (Hawkes-
bury River).
ad Ascaris sp., Krefft, 1871, p. 214. Occurs also in
Python spslotes. |
3. PYTHON AMETHYSTINUS, Schn.
a Hemogregarina amethystina, Johnston, 1909 a, p.
257; 1910 b, p. 42. (Port Curtis, Queensland. )
As a result of having examined haemogregarines from
a considerable number of reptiles, it has become evident
to me that these haematozoa vary a good deal in form and
size. I now regard H. amethystina, H. moreliae, H. shattocki
(from Australian pythons) and H. pococki, Sambon (from
Python molurus) as being identical, and that they are all
(as Dobell suggests in the case of Sambon’s forms) synony-
mous with H. pythonis (Billet) Labbé. We cannot agree
entirely with Dobell’s suggestion that the generic name
of the host might be added as a temporary specific name.
We have adopted this method where convenient, but we
have met with cases where this would be inapplicable.
For example from species of Pseudechis, we have described
two haemogregarines differing widely in regard to their

236 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

effect on the red cell; Python variegatus harbours at least
two quite distinct forms ; and then again we (J. & C., 1911
a) have met with a species in Varanus Gould‘ which, to our
minds, is certainly different from that usually met with
in V. varius,

4, DENDROPHIS PUNCTULATUS, Gray. The green tree-snake.

a Hemogregarina dendrophidis, Johnston & Cleland,
1910, a, p. 680 (Burnett River).

b Sparganum sp., from the mesentery and _ sub-
cutaneous tissues—collected by Dr. T. L. Bancroft,
Burnett River.

5. DIPSADOMORPHUS IRREGULARIS, Merrem.

All the following entozoa were collected by Dr. A.
Willey in New Britain.

b Phyllobothrium dipsadomorphi, Shipley, 1900, p. 550.

d i., Physaloptera obtusissima, Molin; Stossich in
Shipley, 1900, p. 559.

ii., Physaloptera retusa, Rud.; Stossich in Shipley,
1900, p. 559.

iil., Diaphanocephalus appendiculatus Molin: Stossich in
Shipley, 1900, p. 560.

f. Porocephalus tortus, Shipley, 1898, p. 52; 1900,
p. 563.

6. DIEMENIA PSAMMOPHIS, Schl. The whip snake.

No parasites have been described from this host though
a mere mention of the occurence of Porocephalus sp., Physa-
loptera sp., and Ascaris sp. has been made (Johnston, 1910,
a, p. xviii; 1910 d, p. 309), Sydney.

7. DIEMENIA RETICULATA, Gray (perhaps more correctly
D. PSAMMOPHIS var. RETICULATA).

This Western Australian reptile is sometimes known
locally as a “ spinifex snake.”’ Krefft recorded the presence
of some parasites but did not give any indication of the
locality, in fact one is led to believe that the host came
from Queensland or New South Wales. As a matter of
fact, his material was from Western Australia. Dr. J. B.
Cleland has been kind enough te hand over to me specimens

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 237

which he collected in North Western Australia, and I have had

an opportunity of inspecting Krefft’s collection also. The

latter is very indifferently preserved.

a Hemogregarina sp., Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a,
p. 682. (N.W. West Australia.)

d Physaloptera sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214.

I have a few specimens collected by Dr. Cleland.

e Echinorhynchus sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214.

I have some immature echinorhynchus from the sub-
peritoneal tissues (Johnston, 1910 d, p. 659) collected by
Dr. Cleland.

f Porocephalus sp., Krefit (1871, p. 214) recorded the
presence of Pentastomum in the lung of the above
snake. ‘His specimens are specifically identical
with those which I have received (Johnston, 1910
d, p. 28) from Dr. Cleland. For the present they
may be provisionally identified as Porocephalus
teretiusculus (Baird), which they very closely
resemble.

8. DIEMENIA TEXTILIS, Dum. & Bibr. The brown snake.
a Trypanosoma sp., Tyrie and Love, 1906, p. 408.
This record is based upon the following extract. “ Dr.

Love exhibited under the microscope a Trypanosome from

the blood of a brown snake, sent by Dr. Tyrie.” North

Queensland.

d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 d, p. 309. (Sydney).

e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi; 1910
d, p. 659.

Adult forms in the intestine, and larval forms in the

subperitoneal tissues. (Sydney ; Hunter River.)

Bennett in his book ‘‘ Wanderings in New South Wales,
1834,” Vol. I., p. 215, refers to the presence of bright red
worms one and a-half to two inches long, affecting the lung
and perforating the stomach wall of the brown snake. The
lung worm is possibly Porocephalus teretiusculus. The
stomach worm may have been a Diaphanocephalus or other
Strongyle.

9. PSEUDECHIS PORPHYRIACUS, Shaw. The Black snake.
a Hemogregarina pseudechis, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 406 ;

1910 b, p. 48 (Sydney) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911
a, p. 487 (Hawkesbury River).

238 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

6b i., Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston, 1911 a, p 175
(from various districts of New South Wales and

from Gippsland, Victoria). Previously recorded

as Ichthyotaenia sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi;
p. Xviil.)

This tapeworm also infests the Tiger Snake, Notechis’

scyutatus (Sydney district).
ii, Sparganum sp. Larval forms of a Bothriocephalid

have been taken by me from the subperitoneal

tissues (Sydney).

c Hemiurus sp., from the intestine. Also previously
recorded from Denisonia superba (Johnston, 1910
a, p. xviii) under the synonym Apoblema (Sydney
district).

d Diaphanocephalus sp. (Kalicephalus sp.) from the

alimentary tract (Sydney).

e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909 c, p. 590. From
the rectum. A common parasite (Hawkesbury
River ; Sydney).

f Porocephalus teretiusculus (Baird).

This parasite infests the lungs of some of our venomous:
snakes and has generally been referred to as Pentastomum
teretiusculum. Baldwin Spencer (1888, :p. 110) first recorded
it from the host from King Island as Pentastomum sp., but
later (1892, p. 1) gave a full account of it under Baird’s
name. (Victoria.) Shipley (1898, p. 77) summarised
Spencer’s and Baird’s accounts. I here record the occur-
rence of the parasite in New South Wales (Blue Mountains).
10. PSEUDECHIS AUSTRALIS, Gray. A Northern Black Snake.

a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a,

-p. 486. Films kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Ban-
croft, from Eidsvold, Burnett River, Queensland.

h i. Proteocephalus sp. (EKidsvold, Burnett River.

This cestode is closely related to but not identical
with, P. gallardi, but a tapeworm which I have taken from
Denisonia superba belongs to the same species as the parasite
from this host.

ii. Sparganum sp.

From the mesentery collected from a snake, forwarded
by Dr. Bancroft. (Eidsvold, Burnett River).

~-

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, MA., D.SC. 239

11. PSEUDECHIS MORTONENSIS, De Vis.

a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911
a, p. 486. (Eidsvold, Burnett River.)

12. DENISONIA SUPERBA, Gunther. (Syn. Hoplocephalus
superbus). The Copper-headed Snake.

b i Piestocystis hoplocephali, Hill, 1894, p. 49.

Occuring in cysts in the peritoneum around the intestine.
(N.S. W.)

ii, Proteocephalus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii.

This cestode is specifically identical with that referred
to above as occurring in Pseudechis australis, and differs
only in minor details from Proteocephalus gallardi. Recorded
from Sydney district under the synonym Ichthyotaenia sp.

c 1. Hemeurus sp.

From the oesophagus (Sydney). Recorded as A poblema
sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). It also infests the Black
Snake.

d Trichosomum sp., (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). From

the intestine. (Sydney.)

f Porocephalus teretiusculus, (Baird):

This ~entastome was described by Baird (1862, p. 114)
having been taken from the lung of a snake belonging to
this species which had died at the London Zoological Gar-
dens. Krefft (1871, p. 211) hereby mentioned Baird’s
species. B. Spencer (1892, p. 1) found the parasite in D.
superba (Victoria) as well as in Pseudechis porphyriacus.
Shipley (1898: p. 76) referred to its occurrence in this host.
Porecephalus sp., recorded by me (1910 a, p. xviii) from the
same host (Sydney district) belongs to Baird’s species.

13. NoTECHIS scuTATUS, Peters—syn. Hoplocephalus curtus.
D. & B. The Tiger Snake.

b Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston.

Tapeworms which | have taken from a Tiger Snake
killed near Sydney, have been identified as belonging to the
same species as those from the black snake. WNotechis
scutatus is thus a newly recorded host for this entozoon.
Kitson’s reference (1904, p. 147) to the occurrence of a long
cestode in this host is of no value.

240 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1909 d, p. 590—from
the stomach and duodenum (Sydney district).
14. ACANTHOPHIS ANTARCTICUS, Shaw. The death adder.
d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1899, p. 15.
(South Australia).
15. Furrma occrpirauis, D. & B. The ringed snake.
d Diaphanocephalus, sp. (Kidsvold, Burnett River).
16. A LarGe UNIDENTIFIED SNAKE—from the Bismarck
Archipelago.
d i Physaloptera, sp. Linstow, 1897, p. 286.
ii Ascaris papillifera. Linstow, 1897, p. 281.
LACERTILIA.
17. GyMNoDACTYLUS mMILIUSII, Bory. (Syn. Phyllurus
milius:t.)

d Ascaris sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 214.

18. DIrePLODACTYLUS ViITTATUS, Gray, syn. JD. ornatus, Gray.

f Porocephalus sp. Recorded by Krefft (1871, p. 214)

as Pentastomum sp.
19. Gpura TRYONI, De Vis

a i Hemogregarina sp.

ii Hemocystidium sp.

Both were found by Dr. Cleland and myself in a film
kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft (Eidsvold, Burnett
River).

20. LiaLis BURTONU, Gray. The slow worm.
b Piestocystis lialis, Hill, 1894, p. 61. (N.S.W.)
d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, vp. xvii.
(Sydney.)
21. AMPHIBOLURUS MURICATUS, White.
d Strongylus paronai, Stossich, 1902.

bo
bo

2. AMPHIBOLURUS BARBATUS, Cuv. The Jew lizard.

d Strongylus paronat, Stossich.

IT am referring to Stossich’s species some Strongyleg
collected by Dr. Cleland in the Moree district, N.S. Wales.
23. PHYSIGNATHUS LESUEURII, Gray. The water dragon.

d Microfilaria sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 489.
Found in blood smears forwarded by Dr. Bancroft
(Bidsvold) Burnett River), who afterwaids ‘discovered the

BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 241

adults in the mesenteric veins. The finding of filarial embryos
in the blood of reptiles is rare, this being the only recorded
instance as far as Australian reptilia are concerned.
24. CHLAMyDOSAURUS Kinet, Gray. The frilled lizard.

d Strongylus paronai, Stossich.

Some specimens taken by me from a frilled lizard for-
warded by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River), are provisionally
referred to this species.

25. VARANUS INDICUS, Daud.

b Palaia varani, Shipley, 1900, p. 548.
d Physaloptera varan, Parona. Stossich in Shipley,
1900, p. 560.

Both species were collected by Dr. Willey in New
Britain. In regard to Palaia varani, the account given
does not allow of the genus being properly placed. It
seems to me probable that Palaia is a synonym of Proteo-
cephalus.

26. VARANUS VARIUS, Shaw. The monitor.

a Hemogregarina varanicola, Johnston & Cleland, 1910
4, p. 683 (N.S.W.) ; 1911 a, p. 487. (Burnett River)

Hemogregarina sp. Gilruth, 1910, p. 36 (Victoria)

is the same.

b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston, 1910 a, p. 103;

1910 6, p. 87 (N.S. W.?)

This species was first described as Ichthyotaenia (Acan-
thoteenia) tidswelli, but Benedict (1), La Rue (2) and others
have shown that Weinland’s genus has priority over Lonn-
berg’s Ichthyotaenia. I have already shown (1910 a, p. 113-
114) that Linstow’s genus Acanthotaenia is a synonym of
Proteocephaius.

ii Sparganum sp.

From the sub-peritoneal tissue. (Burnett River—
collected by Dr. Bancroft.)

d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona ?

Johnston, 1909 e, p. 115; 1910 a, p. xi; 1910 6, p. 88
(N.S. W.)

(1.) Benedict, H.—On the Structure of Two Fish Tapeworms, from
the genus Proteocephalus. Weinland—-Jour. Morphology XVI, p. 337;
Studies from Zool. Lab. Univ., Nebraska, No. 33, Jan., 1900.

(2.) La Rue, G.—On the Morphology and Development of a New
Cestode of the genus Proteoeephalus. Weinland.—Studies Zool. Lak
Univ., Nebraska, No. 95, Dec., 1909.

242 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

27. VARANUS GOULDII, Gray. Gould’s Monitor.
a Heemogregarina gouldii, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a,
p. 488. Found in films forwarded by Dr. Bancroft
from Eidsvoid.
b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston.
Some fragments coliected from a specimen (Burnett
River) probably belong to this species.
ii Sparganum sp.
Specimens were forwarded to me by Dr. Bancroft
(Burnett River) who found them in the subperitoneal tissues.
d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona? Johnston, 1910
d, p. 524.
I have specimens from this host from Queensland (Dr.
Bancroft—Eidsvold), West Australia (Dr. Cleland), Victoria
(Mr. A. 8. LeSouef) and New South Wales (T.H.J.)

28. VARANUS sp. From New Guinea.

b i Proteocephalus birot (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658.

ii Proteocephalus saccifera (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658.

iii Taenia mychocephala (Ratz), 1900 a, p. 659.

The two former were described under the genus I[chthyo-
iaenia. A description of the three species is given in Ratz,
1900 a, ‘p. 657 ; 1900 6, p. 980; 1901, p. 329.

29. EGERNIA CUNNINGHAMI, Gray.

Krefft (1871, p. 214) mentioned finding worms in this
host. They appear to belong to the Oxyuridae. (N.S.W.)
30. EGERNIA wuHitu, Lacep. (Syn. Lygosoma (Hinulia)

whitii, Steind.)

d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214.

31. TRACHYSAURUS “RUGOSUS, Gray.

d Oxyuris tuberculata, Linstow, 1904, p. 300 (Australia).
32. Tir1qguA SCINCOIDES, White. The Common sleeping

or Blue-tongued lizard.

« Hemogregarina tiliquae, Johnston & Cleland, 1911, a

p. 484. (Hawkesbury River.)

d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi (Sydney).
33. Tr1qgua GiGAs, Schn., syn. Cyclodus gigas, Schn.

d Physaloptera sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214.

Boulenger (Cat. Reptilia-Lizards, Edit. 2, III., p. 145)
states that the localities from which this lizard is known are

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 243

New Guinea, Moluccas and Java, Australia not being
mentioned.
34. TILIQUA OCCIPITALIS, Peters. (Syn. Cyclodus occipit. lis.)
d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1889, p. 15 (South
Australia).
35. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TAENIOLATUM, White.
a i Hemogregarina sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a,
p. 479.
ii Trypanosoma sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 479.
Both of these haemotozoa were found in a film forwarded
by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River).
e Echinorhynchus sp.
From the intestine. (Hawkesbury River, N.S.W.)
f Porocephalus sp.
Krefft (1871, p. 214) recorded the occurrence of Pentasto-
mum in the lung.
36. Lygosoma (HinvuLiIA) Quoyi, Dum. & Bibr.
a Hoemogregarina hinulie, Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a,
p. 684, Hawkesbury River); 1911 a, p. 487
(Sydrey).
e Kchinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909, d, p. xxix.
(Hawkesbury River). From the intestine.
37. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TENUE, Gray.
d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi. (Hunter
River.)
CROCODILIA.
No entozoa have, as far as I know, been described
from Australian crocodiles.

CHELONIA.

38. CHELONIA MyDAS, Linn. (Syn. Chelone mydas). The
Green Turtle.

¢ i Amphistoma scleroporum, Creplin.

ii Octangium sagitta, Looss.

Neither of these trematodes had been previously recorded
from Australian hosts. They were known from Mediter-
ranean turtles. Amphistoma scleroporum is insufficiently
known, Braun’s single specimen (Braun, 1901, p. 56) which
he referred to Creplin’s species, being immature. It was
8.2 mm. long by 2.2 mm. broad and possessed only rudi-
ments of the genitalia. Looss (1901, p. 623) in his descrip-

H

244 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

tion of A. spinulosum from Chelone mydas from Egypt,
states that mature specimens are from 5 to 5.6 mm. long
and are thus much smaller than Braun’s specimen of A.
scleroporum. Later (1902, p. 430) he referred to specimens
7.5 to 8 mm. long, about 1.6 mm. broad and | to 1.6 mm.
in thickness, and mentioned that they were of a pale flesh-
red colour when alive. He also stated that the species was
unmistakeably like Braun’s form. My specimens (collected
on Mast Head Island, at the southern end of the Barrier
Reef by Mr. L. Harrison in October, 1910) are from 7.5 to
9 mm. long by from 2.4 to 3 mm. broad. The characters
are those of A. scleroporum. The anatomy is strikingly
like that figured by Looss (1902) for A. spinylosum, the main
difference being that, in some of my specimens, the vitellaria
extend a little further forward and the testes are more
markedly lobed.

Octangium sagitta was originally described by Lees
(1899, ‘p. 772) as Microscapha sagitta, being transferred later
to Octangium (1902, p. 685).

39. ERETHMOCHELYS IMBRICATA L. Syn. Chelone
cata L.

imbri-

Shipley (1900, p. 532) described a trematode which he
regarded as belonging to Monostomum trigonocephalum Rud.,
the material having been collected by Willey (New Britain ?)
Braun (1901) recognised that Shipley had had more than
one species before him. He stated (p. 51) that M. trigono-
cephalum Shipley 1900, p. 532, pl. 54, fig. 1, did not belong
to Rudolphi’s species but to M. rubrum (p. 45): that the
form figured on plate 44, figs. lc, 3, 4, 5, 7, as well as
Cricocephalus delitescens Looss (1899, ‘p. 759) belong to M.
album ; and (p. 38) that Pronocephalus trigonocephalus Looss
(1899, ‘p. 756) as well as some of Shipley’s forms belong to
Rudolphi’s species. In 1901 Looss (1901, :p. 566) recognised
that his trigonocephalus was distinct from Rudolphi’s and
consequently re-described it as a new species Pr. obliquus,
while Rudolphi’s species was made (1901, p. 567: 1902,
p. 548) the type of a new genus Pleurogonius. He stated
(1902, p. 549) that some of Shipley’s forms, viz., those
described and figured, belonged to this species, while certain
forms which were figured but not described, belonged to
Cricocephalus albus (K.& Hass.) Looss, which Looss admitted

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 245

(p. 532) to be identical with his C. delitescens ; and that
(p. 527) Braun’s account (1901) of M. trigonocephalum
‘included at least two distinct species, Pronocephalus obliquus
Looss (on page 40) and M. trigonocephalum Rud. (on p. 3)
and in all probability (according to Looss, 1902, p. 557
footnote) includes also a third form, HE pibathra crassa Looss.
He regarded M. trigonocephalum of Van Beneden 1859
and of Walter, 1893, as belonging to Plewrogonius longius-
-culus Looss (1901, p~. 568; 1902, :p. 558).

From the foregoing it appears that Willey’s collection
really contained the following :—

i Pleurogonius trigonocephalum (Rud.) Looss.

ii Cricocephalus albus (K. & Hass.) Looss.

Braun believed that Monostomum rubrum K. & H.
was also present. Looss (1902) does not refer to this species.
40. A SEA TORTOISE.

The following trematodes were identified by Braun
(1899) from material collected in the Bismarck Archipalego
by Dahl. He dealt with a number of other forms from
‘Chelonians in the same paper.

i Distomum gelatinosum Rud. (p. 716).

ii D. irroratum, Rud. (p. 717).

iii Monostomum album, K. & Hass. (jp. 723).

iv M. rubrum, K. & Hass. (p. 724).

D. gelatinosum is called Rhytidodes gelatinosus by Looss
(1901, p. 563 ; 1902, p. 445) ; D. irroratum becoming Pachyp-
solus irroratus (Rud.), Looss (1901, p. 55; 1902, p. 485) ;
and M. album, Cricocephalus albus (Looss, 1902, p. 532).

Braun (1899) has been misquoted by Dr. Sweet (1908
“pp. 459, 460, 463, 464) who includes the following species
‘in error as having been amongst those collected in New
Britain by Dahl. |
i Amphistoma scleroporum, Crepl. (p. 725).
ii Distomum amphiorchis, Braun (p. 719). i.e., Orchid-
asma amphiorchis (Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 560;
1902, p. 463.
iii Distomum anthos, Braun (‘p. 720)—Calycodes anthos
(Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 565; 1902, p. 458.
iv Distomum cymbiforme, Rud. (Braun, p. 720).—
Phyllodistomum cymbiforme (Rud.) Braun, 1901,

246 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

p. 10—Plesichorus cymbiforme (Rud.) Looss,: 19014
p. 655; 1902, p. 469. ; :

vy Monostomum reticulare v. Ben., Braun, 1899, ‘p. 725
—Microscaphidium reticulare (v. Ben.) Looss, 1902,
“pelo9 ly | |

vi Monostomum trigonocephalum (Rud.) \Looss, 1901
p. 567; 1902, p. 548.

41, CHELODINA LONGICOLLIS, Shaw. The long-necked
Tortoise.

« i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. Johnston &
Cleland, 1911 a, p. 482. (Burnett River—Dr.
Bancroft; Murray River, South Australia).
Originally described from C. oblonga.

ii Heemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1909:
a, p. 97; 1910 6, p. 38 (Sydney).

iii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.), 1907, p. 26
(Murray River, SouthAustralia) ; Johnston &
Cleland, 1911 a. p. 479 (Murray River, South
Australia ; Burnett River—Dr. Bancroft).

42, CHELODINA OBLONGA, Gray.

a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston, 1909, ‘p. 407,
1910 6, p. 44; Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, p. 67
footnote; 1911 a, p. 482 (Perth, West Australia).

ii Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a,
p. 482 (Perth, West Australia) —originally described
from C. longicoiiis.
43. Ewypura Krerrri, Gray.
a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. J ohnston &
Cleland, 1911 a, p. 483 (Burnett River). ;

ii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.).
Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 480 (Burnett River.)

In our paper (1911 a) we have given other localities
in Queensland from which parasitised blood films were taken
by Dr. Bancroft, viz., Enoggera and Petrie’s Creek. The
species of tortoise from these localities has been identified
as Emydura macquarie, hence the information contained
in that paper will need to be modified in accordance with
the details as to, host and localities contained in this com-
munication. Hemocystidium —chelodine recorded by us.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 247

{1911 a, p. 481) from this host from Petrie’s Creek, near
Brisbane, thus should be listed under EF. macquarie (vide
infra).

44, EMYDURA MACQUARI®, Gray.

a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston.

ih Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland.

i Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.).

These three haematozoa were recorded (J. & C., 1911 a)
as being taken from #. Kreffti from Petrie’s Creek. The
host is really HE. macquarie, a very closely related species.
All of the above were found in a blood smear taken in this
locality by Dr. Bancroft (J. & C., 1910 a, :p. 679).

45. ELSEYA DENTATA, Gray.
c Amphistoma sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 213.
d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 213.
From Northern Queensland Rivers.

\ My thanks are due to Dr. Bancroft, who has greatly
assisted me by forwarding material from various parts of
Queensland ; Mr. D. Fry of the Australian Museum, Sydney,
who has identified mcst of the hosts for me; Dr. J. B.
Cleland ; Messrs. 8. J. Johnston (Sydney University), D. Fry,
F. H. Taylor, L. Gallard and L. Harrison for sending

specimens to me.

LITERATURE.

1862 Baird, Proc. Soc. London 1862, p. 114.

1865a Baird, [bid., 1865, p. 68.

18656 Baird, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) XVI., p. 52.

1899 Braun, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXV., p. 714.

1901 Braun, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, II., 1901.

—— Cleland & Johnston—see Johnston & Cleland.

—— Crety & Monticelli—see Monticelli & Crety.

1908 Dobell, Parasitology I., 12C8 (109), p. 291.

—— Dodd, Gilruth & Sweet—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd.

1910 Gilruth, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXIII., p. 36.

1910 Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd, Lbid., XXIII., p. £31.

1894. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, IX., 1894.

1905. Hill, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Ausir., 1905, p. 378.

1907° Johnson (A. E.), Austr. Med. Gaz., XXVI., p. 26.

1909a Johnston (T. Harvey), Rec. Austr. Museum, VII.,
p. 257.

248 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA

19096 Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, XXXIV.,.
p.. 400.

1909¢ Johnston, [bid., XX XIV., p. 590, etc.

1909d Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLITL., p. xxix.

1909e Johnston, [bid., XLIII., p. 103.

1910@ Johnston, Jbid., XLIV., p. xi; p. xviii.

19106 Johnston, Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney, L.,.
pp. 38, 41-45, p. 87 (abstracts of 1909a, 18095, 1909e.).

1910c Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLIV., p. 84.

1910d Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1910, p. 28,.
p. 309.

191la Johnston, Annals Queensland Museum X., 1911, p. 175.

19116 Johnston, The present payer.

1909a Johnston & Cleland, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales,
ALT;, : 7.997.

1910a@ Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.Wales,
XXXV., p. 400.

191la Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales.
XXXVI., p. 479.

1904 Kitson, Vict. Naturalist, XXI., 1904-5, p. 147.

1871 Krefit, Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S. Wales, II., 1871.

1897 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXIII., 1897.

1899 Linstow, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, I., (2), p. 15.

1904 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXX., p. 300.

—— Love & Tyrie—see Tyrie & Love.

1908 lLaveran, C. R., Acad. Sci., CXLVII., 1908, p. 103.

1899 Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XIIJ., 1899, p. 521.

1901 Looss, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I, XXX., p. 555—;
p. 618—. ; .

1902. Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XVI., 1902, p. 411.

1891 Monticelli & Crety, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, Ser.
1I., XLE., 1891.

1900a Ratz. Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXVIII., p. 657.

19006 Ratz, C. R. Soc. Biol., LII., 1900, p 980.

1901 Ratz, Arch. d. Parasitol., IV., 1901, p. 329.

1907 Sambon, Trans. Pathol. Soc. London. LVIII., 1907.

1909 Sambon, Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., XII., 1909.

1907 Sambon & Seligmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907-

1898 Shipley, Arch. d. Parasitol, I., 1898.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 249

Shipley in Willey’s Zool. Results V., 1900, p. 531

Spencer, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Austr., 1892,
p. 433.

Spencer (Baldwin), Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., I., 1888,
p. 110.

Spencer (Baldwin), Q. J. M. S., (N.S.), XXXIV
1892-3, p. 1.

Stossich, Bull. Mus. Genova. 1902.

Sweet, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXI., 1908 (1909),
p. 454.

Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd,—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd.
Tyrie & Love, Austr. Med. Gaz., XXV., p. 408.

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ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF
NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI, KREFET.

By THOMAS L. BANCROFT ., M.B., Edin.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2nd
December, 1911.)

THE writers on Ceratodus, so far as I am aware, have
not touched upon a very important matter in connection
with the life-history of the fish.

From the earliest date (1870) no one seemed ever
to have caught a small Ceratodus, 7.e., a fish, an ounce
to a pound or so in weight ; specimens, about six pounds
or there about, were occasionally taken and regarded
as very small ones. The Blacks even were unable to find
the little fellows ; it was a mystery where they hid them-
selves; some people thought that they went up small
ereeks, whilst others thought that they lived in the mud
and some comparatively recent observations have lent
support to the latter theory*. 3

It appears that during a dry spell at Cooranga, on
the Burnett, when a lagoon was drying up and all the fish
were concentrated in a small space, search was made for
Ceratodus ; several small fish were taken out of the mud;
they were fish about fourteen inches in length, probably
about four pounds in weight: these were the smallest
hitherto seen, that is in their natural home. Mr.
Thomas Illidge has, however, reared fish from the ova
up to eighc months ; they were then two and a half inches
in length.

All the fishes, in a lagoon drying up, are compelled
to sink into the mud or debris, so it cannot be said of those
small Ceratodus, that they were in the mud of their
free will. There are stretches of the Burnett River with
a sandy, and other parts with a rocky bottom, in which

* Notes on the Ceratodus by D. O’Connor, Rep. Aust. Assn., Ad.
Science, Vol. XII., p. 383.

952 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI

numerous full-grown Ceratodus live, and these fish spawn
every September; where are the young fish in such
lagoons ? There is no mud, but I suppose those who have
advocated the mud theory, regard the debris at the bottom,
consisting of rotten leaves, sticks and water weeds, as
mud.

I have endeavoured to find the little fish by scooping
out water weeds, mud and debris of every kind both in the
river and in the contributory creeks ; I have found young
forms of every fish inhabiting the Burnett with the
exception of Ceratodus. I have tried liming a pool with
the intention of suffocating all the fish ; I have dynamited
holes, but never was a Ceratodus under six pounds taken.
I have had conversations with a good many men, who have,
for a life-time, dynamited mullet, and they have all had
the same experience in that no little ‘salmon’ have
been seen.

With a fishing net having a six inch mesh, that is
three inches square, set across a deep lagoon, there is no
difficulty whatever in meshing forms from six to thirty
pounds in weight. With a net of three inch mesh, one
might reasonably expect to take smaller forms, but
although attempts were repeatedly made both by day
and night, night being the best for large fish, no success
followed.

Dredging in places, where last year ova were plentiful
and even as recently as a month ago, no young fish can
be procured although dead ova are to be found. With
this experience, I have concluded that there are no young
forms at the present time.

Ceratodus was a common fish all over the world ages
ago, but is now restricted to the two rivers in Queens-
land, the Mary and the Burnett.

It is therefore nearing its extinction. There is a
weak spot in its<life-history ; this occurs after the little
fish leaves the egg, or rather its gelatinous envelope ; it
is then a helpless little creature only able to move a few
inches at a time and unable to balance itself, lying upon
its side at the bottom for hours on a stretch ; it remains
in this helpless state for several days, and during this
critical period of its life it is preyed upon by the larve

BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 253

of dragon-flies: so helpless is it and so numerous its
enemies that I am of opinion not one individual ever
escapes in an ordinary seascn. In aquaria, it is extremely
difficult to prevent the litiie fish from being devoured by
insects : so rar I have been unable from this cause to rear
fish longer than ten weeks: some of the insects live in the
stems of the water weeds and elude the most careful
detection; you may. daily watch your little fish thrive
right up to its disappearance when further search brings
to light a larva or a part of the fish’s remains.

It is probable that certain meteorological conditions.
occur, perhaps once or twice in a century, during which
the enemies of the young Ceratodus are removed. Such
a condition might occur in this manner; during a pro-
longed drought when the Burnett River is reduced to
a chain of lagoons, the enemies would be absent ; the
enemies consisting of small fishes, prawns and _ insects,
live in the water weeds in comparatively shallow water,
water‘to a depth of six feet or so; now in a drought the
water would have receded past this level and the small
fish have been devoured by the larger ones, eels especially,
so that eventually only large fish remain ; a flood follow-
ing would give the Ceratodus freedom from its enemies,
possibly for a number of years.

During a flood in an ordinary season all the little
fish and insects keep well to the edge and go up gullies,
and when the water recedes return again to the same parts
of the river which they left. Large trees having been
undermined by the flood and falling into the river, are
the means of causing a considerable wash out, deep pools
or lagoons below the obstruction resulting ; such new
lagoons would be free from water weeds ana it is possible
that a flood occuring in the winter might bring about
conditions favourable to the propagation of Ceratodus
in those new lagoons.

As it is manifest that without assistance or unless
natural favourable conditions occur in the near future,
this interesting fish will shortly be extinct, endeavours
should be made at once to prevent the extinction.

Mr. D. O’Connor, on behalf of this Society, which
received a subsidy from the Queensland Government

254 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI

for the purpose, was instrumental in transferring
many living specimens from the Mary to the Enoggera,
Condamine and Logan Rivers; it is very likely that both
sexes were taken to each spot, for recent examination
of fifty Ceratodus shewed that there were twice aS many
males as females: in any bunch of five specimens both
sexes would occur. There is no doubt that the fish sur-
vived and thrived in their new abode, as specimens have
been caught twenty years later.

Nevertheless, [ am of opinion that that method will
not suffice to prevent the extinction, and propose the follow-
ing scheme. Let a suitable lagoon be constructed and
stocked with a dozen fish ; so arranged that the fish could
be caught in September, the spawning season, transferred
to a hatchery and there stripped of their ova. if that be
possible with Ceratodus ; the young fish reared until a
year old and then liberated in weedy rivers. A pond,
circular in shape, as large as ‘possible, constructed pre-
ferably by excavation, bricks and cement, with abrupt
walls ; one half to be four feet in depth and planted with
Vallisneria and Hydrilla, and one half twelve feet deep.
Preparatory to catching the fish any that might be in the
weedy portion could be made to go into the deep water
by poking a long stick into the weeds: by means of a
frame, the width and depth of the deep portion, covered
with wire netting and lowered into the water at the
junction of the shallow with the deep art and carried
towards the end, the fish would be imprisoned ; if the
extreme end were made narrow and shallow the fish could
be more easily captured. If it were found that Ceratodus
was a fish that could not be stripped of its ova, it would
be advisable to construct a small pond, the same absolutely
protected in every way from insects, into which the fish
could be transferred during the spawning season; the
ova could be obtained and hatched in aquaria if that were
considered advisable. Failing for want of funds to get
the scheme as outlined carried out, | would recommend
that a smail hatchery be arranged and some one sent to
Miva on the Mary River, in September, to procure ova.

Ceratodus spawns in weed beds in still water close
to the edge of the river during September and October,
in water two to four feet in depth; the ova are eaten by the

BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 255

*Grunter.”” Therapon percoides and other fish; some
few being hidden in the weeds, escape detection ; T believe
in thick masses of Hydrilla they have the best chance.
On Nitella beds, the ova that sink deep perish owing to
the lower portion of the Nitella being in a state of
decomposition ; the eggs that reach the sand or mud also
die, probably from this being roul. The eggs that get
tangled up in the green weeds and not exposed to too
much light develop in about a month; the larve of
insects seem not to injure them but are attracted by the
young fish directly it emerges.

A dredging net made of mosquito net on a stout ring
of iron is serviceable in scooping through the weeds in
search of ova: the ova must be kept cool and in the
dark ; they are very easily killed; only a few obtained
in this rough way develop. It is absolutely necessary
to keep the newly hatched fish in the dark for a week at
least.

Control experiments with the ova of the common
Cat-fish, Tandanus tandanus, were very successful under
the conditions that seemed the reverse for Ceratodus: a
young Tandanus might be likened to the chick of the
common fowl and Ceratodus to a young pigeon.

One experienced in rearing trout would be required
to attend to the hatchery.

256 LIFE HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI.

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Annual Meeting of Members,

Held on Monday, March 25th, 1912.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the
Queensland University, Monday, March 25th, 1912. The
President (Mr. J. B. Henderson) occupied the chair. There
was a very fair attendance of Members and _ friends,
including His Excellency, Sir Wm. Macgregor, Lady Mac-
gregor, and Mr. Byth (Private Secretary). The minutes
of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed.
The Hon. Secretary read the accompanying Report for the
year 1911, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. J. F.
Bailey, seconded by Mr. E. C. Barton. The Financial
Report (as herewith) was moved by Mr. J. C. Brunnich
(Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. A. G. Jackson, and
carried.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report
for the year 1911]

The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as
shown in Appendix B.

Eleven Council Meetings have been held during thg
year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix
A. At no meeting was there an attendance of fewer than
five Councillors.

During the year 10 members were admitted, and we
have lost by removal and other causes, 6 members. There
-are now on the roll 14 honorary and 95 ordinary members,
a total of 109. See Appendix D.

Messrs. Bailey and Jackson were selected in March
to fill the vacancies on the Council, Mr. G. Watkins again
accepting the position of Hon. Auditor.

Vol. XXIII of our proceedings was issued during the
year. A number of papers of considerable value were

i. REPORT OF COUNCIN.

given during 1911, especially in the fields of Geology and
Biology, and the forthcoming volume promises to be one
ot value. Plates will be more in evidence than in years
when less funds were available. Our printers do their
best to let each author have his author’s copies as soon as
possible after the M.S.S. is handed in, and each author is
now allowed 50 author’s copies. We have received valuable
help from several members of the Univcrsity staff, and
have reason to hope that, when matters have passed the
difficulties of the inception stage, and when science students
are more numerous, we Shall receive for publication much
research work from the University and its alumni.

The Library, containing approximately 4,000 volumes,
has been shifted from the Technical College to the University.
This has entailed considerable expense, and as it is now
imperative that we should bind much unbound work, a
further expense will be entailed. This, with the cost of a
well illustrated volume of Proceedings, will lower our Bank
balance during the year ahead of us. We congratulate
our members on meeting for the first time in the University,
and trust that the Society’s valuable Library will be largely
made use of by members and University students in the
future. It is hoped that Dr. Harvey-Johnston will take
charge of the receipt of exchanges, etc., while the issue
of books will be under the control of the University
Librarian, and thus both our and the University’s interests
will be seen to.

By Appendix C., it will be seen that, though there
was an increase in expenditure of about £43 for printing
Proceedings, we still have a slightly greater credit to balance
than we had at the end of the previous year.

F. BENNETT, J. B. HENDERSON, F.LC.
Hon. Secretary. President.
February, 1912.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. iil.
APPENDIX A.
ATTENDANCE OF CounciL, 1911.
=i |e
Sy os |
Office. Name. 52 | — 20 Remarks.
=e ‘a
os ie ae
= \|n
President .| J. Brownlie Henderson, | 10

Vice-President ..
Hon. Treasurer..

F.I.C.
P. L. Weston, B.Se., BE. 5
J. C. Briinnich, F.> fee ae 8

Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett.. 11 i!
Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White 7 1
EK. H. Gurney 7 1
W.R. Colledge .. 9 1
Members of 4H. C. Richards, M.Se ‘i lL
Council J. F. Bailey : 3 ei Appointed in
A. G. Jackson 2 1 March.
APPENDIX B.
List or Pavers, Erc., Reap Durine 1911.
No.| Date. Title. Author.
1|Feb. 25|A Brush-Tongued Mosquito (Presi- | W. R. Colledge.
dential Address)
2 | March 25 | Anthracite in Galena : L C. Ball, B.E.
Exhibits of Galena of peculiar H. C. Richards, M.Sc.
character
New Slides J. F. Bailey.
April 25| Exhibition of Chemical Apparatus
by Government Analyst and
Staff
3 | June 24] Notes on the Geological Age of| B.O. Marks, B.A.,
Volcanic Activity in South-east B.E
Queensland
4 |July 29| The Building of Eastern Australia|} H. I. Jensen, D.Sc,
5 | Aug. 26] The Building Stones of St. John’s} H. C. Richards, M.Sc.
Cathedral, Brisbane
6 | Oct. 28] On the Occurrence of Worm-nests | T. Harvey-Johnston,
in Cattle D.Se.
7 | Oct. 28}A Census of Australian Reptilian |T. Harvey-Johnston,
Entozoa D Sc.
8; Dec. 2] A Weak Point in the Life History of | Dr. Thos. Bancroft.

a Ceratodus

REPORT OF COUNCIL.

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REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vv.

APPENDIX D.
LIST OF MEMBERS.

Honorary AND Corresponpinc Mempemrs (13.)
Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson;
J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb-
Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor
EK. H. Rennie; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, (Czech University),

Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University), Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth
David. Orpinary Mempers (95).
Archer, R. 8. Lord, F.

Badger, J. 8.

Ball'L.C., B.E.

*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G.

+Bailey, J. F.

Barton, E. C.

Bennett, F..

Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C.

Brydon, Mrs.

Bundock, Miss Alice

Bundock, C. W.

Byram, W. J.

Cameron, John

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Colledge, W. R.

Collins, Miss Jane

Collins, R. M.

Connah, F. E., F.I.C.

Cooper, Sic Pope A., C.J.

Costin, C. W.

Cowley, R. C.

Dempsey, J. J.

Dunstan, Benj.

Eglinton, Dudley

Eglinton, Miss Hilda

Elkington, J. S. C., M.D., D.P.H.

Forrest, EK. B., M.L.A.

Fraser, C. S.

+Gailey, Richard

Gibson, Hon. A., M_L.C.

Gore-Jones, KE. R.

Greenfield. A. P.

*+Griffith, Sir S. W.

Gurney, E. H.

Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.S8c.,
F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S.

Hedley, C., F.L.S.

Henderson, J. Brownlie, F.I.C.

Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D.

Holland C. W.

Hopkins, G., M.D.

Hiilsen, R.

Hunt, G. W.

Illidge, Rowland

fame, ow G., L:L.D.,
F.R.G.S.

Jackson, A. G.

Johnston, T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sc.,

EAS:

Johnston, Jas.

Jones, P. W., A.I.C.

Lindsay, W.

B.G.8e;

*Members of Philosophical Society.

Love, Wilton, M.B.

ihueag. CoP... GER.GP:

His Excellency Sir William
MacGregor, MD .,.. DS6..
G.C.M.G. C.B., &e

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.

Marks, EK. O., B.A., B.E.

Mav, H. W., B.E.

May, T. H., M.D.

Michie, J. L, M.A.

Murray-Prior. Mrs.

McCall, T., F.1.C.

McConnel, Eric W.

McConnel, E. J.

McConnel, J. H.

Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng.

tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C.

Parnell, T , M.A.

Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

Plant, Hon. EB; H. T.,, M.L.C.

Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S.

Priestley, H. J.,M.A.

*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.

Rands, W. H., F.G.S.

Reid, D. E.

Richards. H. C., M.Sc.

Riddell, R. M.

TRoe, R. H., M.A.

Ryan, J. P., M.D.

Sankey, J. R.

Saunders, G@ I., B.E.

pennd, §...):, A.8,, A.S.M:
(Adelaide)

+Schreider, H., M.A.

Shirley, J., B.Sc.

Smith, F., B.Sc, A.I.C.

Steele, T., F,L.S., F.E.S.

Steele. B. D., D.Se.

+Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C.

Sutton, A., M.D.

TSutton, J. W.

Swanwick, K. ff., B L :

Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C.

Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L

Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D.

Watkins. Geo.

+Weedon, Warren

Weston, P. L., B.Sce., B.E.

White, C. T.

Willcocks, G. C.

-+Life Members.

Nine admitted. Six left colony or resigned. Now on list, 109.

vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

The following new members were proposed by Mr. H.
C. Richards, M.Sc.:—A. W. Oakes, B.A., 8. G. Lusby,
M.A., H. G. Denham, D.S8c., and P. P. Fewings, Esq.

The President then delivered his Retiring Address.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Natrona WASTE.

It is only six years since I previously had the honour
of presiding over the deliberations of our Society, and I
then took for the subject of my address, one in which we
all have long taken a considerable interest—Education.
T then called attention to the pressing necessity for the
influence of a University on our national life, and we are
now in the happy position of having achieved our hearts’
desire in that direction, and to-night the Royal Society
meets for the first time within the University Building.
It is true that it is but an infant among Universities, but
it is an infant whose growth has already seriously
embarrassed its parents. The baby has completely out-
grown its clothes, and judging by this remarkable growth
and the preparations proposed for its further expansion,
it is going to grow much more quickly than provision
has been made for clothing it. And where the money is
to come from to feed it as it grows, is already a pressing
question, and one that has to be looked at from two differ-
ent standpoints—that of the young Queenslanders demand-
ing a first class up-to-date education such as will fit them
to be capable leaders of this great State, and that of the
State Treasurer who has to find the money. Let us hope
that Queenslanders will see that the best education that
can be had is not too good for the best of our young men
and women, and that they will give at eiection times a
mandate to their Parliamentary representatives that
education, primary, secondary and University, is the
most important part of the national life which is dealt
with by our system of Government, and must be made
efficient. Primary education is already well in hand,
secondary and University education are only in their
infancy, and must be as carefully nourished and as freely
fed as our splendid system of primary education.

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F,I.C. Vili.

Nearly everything has been done for our University
so far by the Government ; in the Southern States, the
three older Universities have had almost as much done
for them by private benefactors as by Government aid.
It is to be hoped that Queensland will not long remain
distinguished as purely a Government University. Already
a few thousands have been given, but hundreds of thousands
are required for endowment. It is not generally realised
that it takes nearly £25,000 to endow the professor’s salary
for any one chair, apart from the cost of lectures, laboratories
and other incidental expenses. Sydney has private endow-
ments amounting to about £500,000, and we must provide
at least as good an education as Sydney, if our students
are to hold their own in after life.

, In thinking over possible subjects for my address
this evening, I decided to follow up one which must have
repeatedly thrust itself on the attention of every student
of science—the national waste of material, of energy, and
even of life itself that is going on around us in every direction.

It is quite true that we are a young nation, we have
only passed our Jubilee, and that youth is the time of waste.
It is only on reaching maturity that the individual appre-
hends the necessity of conserving energy, and nations are
apt to resemble the individuals of which they are mostly
built. But, after all, a nation is guided (or should be
guided), by individuals of mature thought, by men who
have (or should have), the large outlook and who should
never hesitate to spend or be spent in the effort to help
every individual to get the best possible return for his
work, and to advance the nation to the highest, morally,
mentally and materially.

My object to-night is to point out briefly some of the
directions in which we are wasting materials and energy
—and energy means wealth, and in its final application,
life. I found when I opened up the subject that it led to
much labour, much searching—that many hours spent in
looking for information and statistics gave little result,
and that the most I could hope for was to interest a few
who had more leisure to take up some branches of this
subject and investigate them thoroughly.

Viil. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Considering the enormous wealth produced by our
handful of people, it may seem absurd to talk of national
waste. Let us glance at some of our industries as they
stand to-day, and see if after all we are not wasting golden
opportunities.

Take first of all our Pastoral Industries. Wool is
one of our principal exports. In 1910, the wool exported
was valued at £5,808,000 and weighed 139,250,802Ibs.
(Government statistician). Much of this was scoured,
and most of it could easily have: been scoured here. In
France it pays to extract the water-soluble potash salts
from wool by washing the wool with cold water and evaporat-
ing the solution. From 7.0 to 10.0 per cent of potash salts
is obtained in this way from raw wool. (F. H. Bowman’s
‘** Wool Fibre,’’ page 256). We produced over 139 million
pounds weight of raw wool in 1910, containing over 6,000
tons of potash salts recoverable without damaging the
wool, obtained by washing with water. The evaporation
of this solution in the dry atmosphere of West Queens-
land should not be an expensive matter. We are evidently
losing wealth in that direction.

Wool again is the source of lanoline, which exists
in raw wool to the extent of about 14 per cent. So far
as I can gather no lanoline is saved in Queensland. So
we throw away every year 20 million lbs. weight of lanoline.
And the German wholesale price of lanoline is about 11d.
per lb. I do not mean the mixture of lanoline, vaseline
and water, which is sold as lanoline in collapsible tubes,
at a very much higher rate. But at 11d. per lb. our lano-
line which we threw away in 1910 had a value of approxim-
ately £1,000,000. Personally I think there is certainly
a fair margin of profit showing here—it is not at all likely
that a process which is already worked successfully and
well known in Germany, would cost a great deal more to
work here, with such a store of raw material to hand.

Other directions in which it is obvious that waste
might be avoided and energy and material conserved
in the pastoral industry, are preservation and care of natura]
pastures, and the prevention of spread of weeds and other
vegetable pests. The danger of practically exterminating
some of our most valuable indigenous pasture grasse

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. ixt

and herbs has repeatedly been pointed out, but the
temptation to overstock pastures in good seasons is always
present, and the danger is one which it is difficult to over-
come, either by legislation or administration. The annual
loss of animal life from poisonous weeds is very heavy
and in some cases might be avoided. The loss of pastures,
through overgrowth of weeds, is almost invariably easily
prevented, as in the case of prickly pear, but when lost,
the cost of recovery of the pasture is exceedingly heavy.
It has been pointed out repeatedly that the spread of cattle
ticks, which have wasted millions of money, might have
been: prevented when first noticed in Northern Queens-
land ; now they are evidently here to stay, and they demand
an annual toll running into many thousands of pounds.
It probably costs Queensland much more every year for
feeding the ticks with cattle than for all the secondary
and University education combined.

Another of our great Industries is the production of
sugar. In 1910 we produced 210,756 tons of sugar
(Government Statistician). Now each ton of sugar means
the production of about 35 gallons of molasses, so that
7,376,000 gallons of molasses were produced. Nearly
all of that was wasted; so far as I can learn only a very
small proportion was made into cattle feed and not much
converted into alcohol. Each gallon of molasses yields
about 0.4 gallon of alcohol so that molasses sufficient to
make nearly 3,000,000 gallons of alcohol was thrown away
to become a nuisance to whole neighbourhoods. The
importation of petrol to Queensland in 1911 was 765,139
gallons which, at 1s. 4d. per gallon, gives £51,000. | Evidently
most of the money sent from here to America for petrol
might have been kept in Queensland. I understand that
alcohol cannot be bought in Queensland at less than Is. 5d.
per gallon. Three million gallons at Is. 5d. represents
£212,500, a considerable annual loss to the state. It is
possible even now to sell industrial alcohol at Is. 3d. per
gallon in Queensland. Unfortunately the stringent Excise
Laws add materially to the cost and trouble of using
industrial alcohol, owing to the fear that some of our
decadent and debased fellow citizens might drink alcohol
which had paid no duty. But for that fear, industrial

x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

alcohol could be sold at 1s. per gallon, possibly lower, and
at that price it would probably replace kerosene and largely
replace petrol.

I would note here that profitable undertakings,
considered from the national and from the trading com-
pany standpoint do not necessarily mean the same
thing. A trading company with income and. expenditure
balancing is a financial failure—a nation with income
and expenditure balancing is a financial success. The
production of alcohol from molasses, to replace petrol, |
if it only paid expenses from a trading standpoint might not
be profitable—from the national standpoint there would
be one saving among others, of £51,000 which would
otherwise have gone to America. In other instances
which I note, I obviously do not intend to suggest that the
value of the material at present wasted would be all profit
to the trader—but that that value is a value lost to the
nation. © Whether from the standpoint of National
Economics, it would pay to keep an industry going which
only paid expenses, is a question which it is not necessary
at present to discuss —in most of the instances I have given,
the wastes are already being made sources of trading profit
elsewhere.

The enormous quantity of megass which is burned
in the sugar mills is often looked on as waste, and many
suggestions have been made as to its better utilisation
as in making paper, paper pulp, etc. I understand that
no use has yet been found for this material which will give
a greater return than its use as fuel, so at present it can-
not be looked on as wholly a wasted product.

In agricultural products, other than sugar, there 1s
also a lavish waste of wealth. After good seasons, hundreds
of thousands, probably millions, of tons of grass are burned
off which might have been stored for fodder, either dry in
stacks or as ensilage in silos. 7

I remember a former Under Secretary for Agriculture
telling me that in one district shortly after the great
drought which ended in 1902, he saw several farmers throw
into the roadways alongside, lucerne which they had cut—
it was so low in price just then that it would not pay to
send to market. And yet a few months later lucerne had

BY J. R HENDERSON, F.I.C. 5

again risen in price and stacked lucerne would have returned
many times the cost of stacking. Five years ago the
Government fruit expert published the fact that in the
Cleveland district alone 300 tons of mangoes were allowed
to go to waste—it did not pay to market them As old
trees yield from 1 to 2 tons of fruit in a good season, it is
evident that thousands of tons of mangoes go to waste
in Queensland every good season. |

There is something seriously wrong with the people
of a country in which superabundant wealth of agricultural
products is produced in a good season, only to be to a large
extent deliberately wasted, and who cry out with pangs
of starvation after one dry year. Surely with all our
education and training and our agricultural experts, it
will not much longer be left to sad personal experience,
the most costly of all teachers, to teach many of those
engaged in agriculture the necessity of making the good
seasons provide for the bad.

A most serious blot on our national life is the primitive
and wasteful manner in which we are attempting to settle
people on our lands. The sacred right of individual liberty
has, in this case, been carried to an absurd extreme. It
is still true “none of us liveth to himself.’ The State
recognises not only the right of the individual to a certain
amount of freedom, but on the other hand insists that
as he is a part of the State he must not damage the State
by, for instance, destroying himself. Where the freedom
of the individual undoubtedly and seriously conflicts with
the good of the State that freedom should certainly be
curtailed. Nothing can damage our State more seriously
than to have men throwing away their substance and the
best of their lives attempting impossible tasks in pioneer-
ing. And yet it is not many years since I heard of a family
of new arrivals from England, with only £50 capital, being
allowed to take up prickly pear land. The result was a
foregone conclusion—they held out until starved out and
then abandoned the hopeless task. Most of us in travelling
over Queensland have seen the remains of not one or two,
but of hundreds of abandoned homes, most of them repre-
senting a waste of capital and life which can be ill-spared
in our vast territory, and which a little more knowledge

Xli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

would have prevented—knowledge too, which was possessed
by officers in the Lands Department from which the
selections were taken. But, owing to the fact that it
has hitherto been regarded as the absolute right of every
man to *“‘do what he likes with his own,” selectors have
been and still are permitted to undertake the task of estab-
lishing homes on lands where it is perfectly obvious that the
applicants, owing to lack of capital, or experience, or both,
must certainly fail. In doubtful cases by all means let
the applicant try. but when he asks for land where he
obviously cannot succeed, do not give it to him—persuade
him to take some where he has at least a fighting chance.
It is perfectly obvious that the settler who can start on
Jand which is ready for planting, or which will in some way
yield him a return for his labour in a short time. is almost
bound to succeed. Settlers who tackle pioneering are
generally hard-workers, and if success is to be obtained by
constant application, they will succeed. It is also perfectly
obvious that in many cases, the first clearing work could
be done much more economically by the Government with
its command of large capital, for large machinery, than
it could be done by the selector with his one-man efforts.

Most of us have seen, or know of, thousands of square
miles of our Western Country; already fairly well served
by rai’way, which if cleared of prickly pear or scrub, or both,
ploughed where necessary, and made ready for the farmer
to begin work, would be instantly snapped up by farmers.
But the first cost of this preliminary work makes it practic-
ally impossible for the average farmer to attempt the task
with any chance of success. [Lam quite certain that before
many years are over, we will find the State Governments
of Australia doing this pioneering work as a matter of
course, even as they now undertake for the individual
the administration of justice, of defence. the post and
telegraph, roadmaking, and all those other services which
civilised communities have found to be better undertaken
by the community than by the individual. The State
which leads the way by preparing the land and the railway
to market, so that success in settling on new land will be
practically assured instead of being exceedingly problem-
atical, will not lack increase of population. Immigrants
would flock in by thousands to obtain such a chance, while

BY J. Bs HENDERSON, F.I.C. Xill.

the cost to the State of doing the pioneering would easily
and certainly be repaid by the increased value of the land.
Good agricultural land is one of the few assets which seems
never to fall in value—as the population increases’ the
value of such land also increases. The unnecessary waste
of time and capital and life in the single handed and other
ignorant methods of our pioneers, is probably one of the
most serious wastes in our national life. It means not only
time and capital gone—the crushing, physical strain often:
lowers the worker almost to the level of a working animal.
He is up before daybreak, toils all day, often till long after
dark, and if he is dairying, keeps it up for seven days a week.
There is no time for reading, none for thinking, none for
recreation, only one long struggle to achieve the goal of:
an independent living. But in the struggle, even when
successful, there is too often almost as much lost ag is
gained. Even years after success has been attained from
the material point of view, there is often still no flower
garden, no library in the house holding the treasures of
the ages, no work of art worthy of the name, and the only
music heard is a thing to be avoided. I have even known
such a one living in the old tumble-down slab humpy, with
all its crudities, inconveniences and ugliness, with no
garden, no attempt at bettering in any way the material
surroundings, and yet, in a well-finished building close
by, a beautiful up-to-date motor car. So common is this
loss among the farmers of much that is best and noblest
and highest in our lives, that the suggestion that a higher
standard is possible, is often received with incredulous
smiles. Such words as “ bucolic’? and “ bumpkin ”’ convey
meanings not at all complimentary to farmers. But history
also teaches that from the farm have come great leaders
of thought, soldiers, scientists, even artists—in a word,
the past declares that there is nothing in farming that
Should lead to the atrophy of our higher nature. In the
present each one of us knows of families on the farm where,
along with the ability to work hard and successfully, goes
a refinement and education, which is as genuine and thorough
as could be met with in any city home. The frequent
loss of many of those higher attributes which distinguish
man from the lower animals, in the terrible struggle for
his animal existence in a new land, or for that matter in

XIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

an old land, is a serious form of national waste that
undoubtedly saps the strength of any country. Anything
that can be done by a Government, that is by the com-
munity, to lighten that load and more quickly bring the
settler to obtaining a livelihood without such extremes
of wasteful toil, it is the imperative duty of that Govern-
ment to do, and it can be done without going to the other
extreme of sapping the individuality of the farmer. The
problem is obviously one which can be successfully financed.
The actual details of the methods by which the work should
be done would vary with circumstances, but would give by no
means impossible problems to a properly qualified agricul-
tural engineer. It is rather a notable fact and typical of
the state of our agricultural methods that although nearly
three-fourths ot our exports are of agricultural origin,
agricultural engineers are practically unknown in Queens-
land. .

There are other directions in agriculture in which
there is at present a great waste of energy and material,
such as the burning off of millions of feet of timber when
clearing, because no one can find a use for it.

The waste of Forestry has been and still is, appall-
ing, but I can find no statistics available.

Water, both rainfall and artesian, is mostly run to
wasce.

Then there is the use of horse ploughs for large
areas where steam or petrol would be much less costly,
and similar primitive methods of working. I noticed
recently a statement by a Manitoba wheat farmer, that
the replacement of horses by a large petrol tractor for
ploughing and reaping had saved him £500 a year. Where
capital is not available to small farmers for the purchase
of such expensive engines, there is a good opening for
co-operation.

Turning for a moment to the Mining Industry, we
find there a similar prodigality in wasting our mineral
wealth. The history of many mining companies is a
succession of managers, each of whom points out that his
predecessor knew nothing of his business, and straight-
way proceeds to demonstrate that he also does not know
how to solve the problems. And so we have the capital
which should have been applied to making the mine a

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. XV.

wealth-producing business, squandered in useless and
often absurd methods. As an example of the results
which can be achieved by educated endeavour in our
mining methods, take one of our largest well-known Northern
mines. There, where everything pointed to disaster, a
qualified engineer, a university graduate, was appointed.
He reduced the costs by over 20s. per ton on an output of
about 20,000 tons per annum, and so turned a dismal
failure into a dividend paying mine.

Lying in many places over Australia, including
Queensland, are huge heayps of ore residues, all waste pro-
ducts. They contain hundreds of thousands of pounds
worth of metallic values, but for the lack of a little know-
ledge—knowledge of a proces which would economically
extract these values, all of that wealth at present lies
waste.

From one works alone (Mt. Morgan), over 800 tons of
sulphuric acid per day is thrown away into the atmosphere.
This enormous loss is much more marked in America than
it is here, and the problem of its utilisation is receiving
close attention there.

In our coal mining also, the great bulk of our wealth
of coal is wasted. First of all, with present mining
methods, about one-third of the coal is left in the seams,
and can never be recovered. Of what is extracted that
used in producing power by steam is mostly wasted—
some of the waste being inherent to the methods, much
of it due to unsuitable boiler construction, dirty tubes
and plates, and bad firing. It has been estimated that
of the energy actually obtained from the original coal
in a coal seam, less than 10 per cent is utilised by steam
engines. With house coal for heating and cooking, matters
are even worse, probably less than 1 per cent of the original
energy of the coal seam being utilised.

There is one obvious method of effecting a huge saving
in this wasteful method of producing energy, a method
to which attention has been called elsewhere. It is to
establish a huge power station at the centre of the mining
district—in our case, near Ipswich. There electrical]
power would be generated from waste coal and from the
waste gases from large coking ovens. The by-products
* rom the distillation of the coal would also yield a return

Xvi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

in ammonia, phenols, etc. Electric power generated on
a large scale from such waste fuel would, according to the
estimate of one of my engineering friends, cost not more
than 0.4d. per unit. From Ipswich, it could be distributed
all over the Ipswich and Brisbane districts at a cost that
would put electric light, electric power, and clectric heating
into every home: With modern metallic ‘lament lamps,
electric light is already a competitor with gas; and at
such a low rate for electricity, it would at once displace
gas for lighting, as much cheaper, more sanitary, more
convenient ; in fact, better in every way. I made an
attempt to get actual figures as to the probable saving
to Brisbane by the adoption of this form of utilisation
of the energy of our coal supply, including cost of capital
outlay, but statistics and facts were difficult to get, while
some necessary factors in the calculation seem almost
unobtainable, and they should certainly be handled by
an engineer. However, a presidential address is not
supposed to concern itself with direct original research,
so I will leave the detailed elucidation of this subject to
one of our engineering members: more than one good
paper could be written on the subject. But I have found
enough to justify the statement that the saving would
be enormous, both to energy users in cost, and to the
reserves of coal.

For example, of the heat produced in cooking at an
ordinary stove, probably less than 2 per cent is actually
utilised, I can find no statistics of trials, though I under-
stand they have been made. But in electrical cooking,
from 79 per cent to 80 per cent of the energy is actually
utilised. With a low price for electricity the saving would
be marked. while the convenience, the cleanliness, the
better results, the absence of smells, the ease of controlling
the temperatures, and the great saving of labour, would
make the change desirable even if it cost more than at
present, instead of less. The hot water reservoirs could,
if necessary, be heated at night when there is little demand
for other current. Imagine a house where the electric
current was cheaply available. There would be no fire
to light in the morning—the oven could be heated, the
kettle boiled, the porridge made, eggs and bacon cooked,
the bread toasted—all the heat required obtained by the

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. XVll.

turning on of a few switches. No coal, no wood, no ashes
to clear away, no smoke, no dust, and no waste heat making
the kitchen an oven of itself. When any cooking operation
was finished, a switch would be turned off, and heating
would cease. In the most recent ovens the temperatures
to be obtained are marked on the switch, and so cooking,
which depends so much on correct heating, becomes one
of the exact sciences. A plentiful supply of hot water
would easily be made available for washing or bathing.

When dusting and sweeping had to be done, exhaust
sweepers, electrically driven with the exhaust hose dis-
charging on the lee side of the house, would drive dust
out into the sterilising sunshine where it would cease to
be “ dirt,’’ cease to be “ matter in the wrong place.”’

The sewing machines would be driven electrically,
as I understand they are now in nearly every home in
many American towns—San_ Francisco for instance.
Troning would be done with an electrically heated iron,
and burning with a too-hot iron and waste work with a
too-cold iron would be things of the past. With all our
8-hours days and wages boards and arbitration courts,
and partly because of them, there seems to be one
individual who is getting longer hours, whose money does
not go so far as before, and who has no right of appeal
to any wages board or arbitration court—I refer to the
mother. Help in the housework is getting more and more
beyond her reach as its cost rises, the general increased
cost of living affects her nearly as the buyer for the
family, and, help or no help, the work must be done, starting
at daybreak and finishing long after dark. There is no one
who would be more relieved and helped by ‘ eleccrifying ’’
our energy supply than the mother, and there are none
who stand more in need of help or are more deserving.

Another result of cheap electrical supply would be the
establishment of home industries. The principal reason
for gathering hundreds of workers into factories in many
industries, is the fact that power is provided more cheaply
there, enabling work to be produced at a lower cost than
before. But if the power is supplied just as cheaply to run
a sewing machine or a loom, or a wood-turning lathe at
home, as to run suburban trains and factories, the main
reason for congregating sewing machines, looms, or wood-

Xviii. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

turning lathes into factories ceases to exist. The cost
of carriage of goods is somewhat greater, but where cheap
electricity is supplied, it is found that the worker much
prefers the independent life at home to the fixed hours
of the factory. The cost of the machinery has proved
no bar, as makers have shown themselves only too willing
to advance them on the time-payment system. Cheap
electrical supply would soon give us a sturdy independent
class of home workers.

Electrification of trains would, of course, follow with
an enormous saving in cost of haulage, in cleaning of carriages
and in waste of passengers’ clothes.

If such a cheap source of power were available in Bris-
bane, it would assuredly straightway become the greatest
manufacturing city in Australasia. The manufacturer
here, with the cheap power, would undersell his rivals
elsewhere who used power at about 6 or 10 times the cost;
while ore smelting, which is becoming every day more and
more electrical, would certainly make its home here.

And to think that all this enormous gain in cleanliness,
in convenience, in time, in money, would ‘cost us, as a
community, less than nothing—that by making the change
we would save money.

This great saving of coal and labour can, of course,
only be done by the community, that is, by the Government
—no private trading company should or could get the
necessary monopoly, probably no one else could raise the
necessary capital to effect the change. It would mean
buying up several private interests at present supplying
some of our wants, probably not more than five companies,
but the enormous savings to be made and the gain other-
wise would make it a very profitable matter indeed to buy
each of these interests at an honest price. There seems a
tendency nowadays to confiscate private interests by tax-
ation or by Government competition. Where such interests
have been honestly acquired and are honestly serving the
public as they are in Brisbane, no other course should be
adopted than honestly buying them back. Competition
by the Government would virtually mean confiscation.
And the scheme is no wild Utopian idea—it requires no new
discoveries, no new inventions, scarcely any new laws,
In November, 1910, the President of the Society of

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C., XIX.

Electrical Engineers promulgated such a scheme for
England, and calculated that electricity could be supplied
at one-eighth penny per unit.

There are other forms of national waste which have
not yet received the serious attention of those who look ©
after the welfare of our nation. A few years ago, I heard
one of our educational authorities state that nearly two
years of a young man’s life were practically wasted by
the overlapping of the State school, the Grammar School
and the Southern Universities. ‘Fortunately that can no
longer be said, and the education of our youth is now in
the process of being made as nearly continuous as possible.
It is to be hoped that before long there will be no over.
lapping, and that a student will not require to reach first
year University standard in certain subjects ere entering
the University.

The passing from the State School should qualify for
the High School, and passing from the High School should
qualify for the University, with no side-tracking of education
to coach the student to ‘‘ pass an exam.’ That efficient
system of inspection, as opposed to examination, which
has succeeded so well in our Primary Schools, should
succeed quite as well in our Secondary Schools. If, in any
instance, it did not, the University would soon let the fact
be known. |

Possibly the saddest of all our wastes is that direct
waste of human life which could so easily, in many cases, be
avoided. In the case of adults phthisis and typhoid are
largely “preventable, if watched by the individual and
fairly attacked by the community, while malaria, filaria and
other mosquito-borne diseases can easily be eradicated.
But of all the life losses, the most inexcusable and criminal
is that of infant life. Times without number the appalling
statistics have been published, but with only a comparatively
slight lowering of the infantile death rate. It seems almost
impossible to drive home to those controlling the com-
munity, in any land, their criminal responsibility for per-
mitting the wholesale slaughter to go on. Much of the
waste of infant life is due to ignorance of the most elementary
facts of infant nutrition. I knew of a baby three weeks
old, the mother unable to suckle it, being fed with tapioca
made with water, and of several other cases almost as bad,

XMie st PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

the mothers being fairly well educated otherwise although ~
knowing, nothing of. babies. I suppose any medical
practitioner could supply hundreds of similar instances.
Surely there is something wrong with a system of education
which teaches ‘a girl who is presumably going to be a
mother, nothing whatever about maternal duties and
responsibilities. Motherhood is, or ought to be, the
supreme crown of nearly every woman’s life, and her
education ought first of all and_ before everything else,
fit her for that w hich is her greatest duty, if also her greatest
privilege and happiness, and this could easily be done
without in the slightest degree sacrificing her general
education. ‘There is no question that good mothers are the
greatest asset of any nation, and we ought to see to it that
the education of our girls fits them for that high position.
There is another direction in which even quicker results
can be obtained in lowering the infant death rate—that
' of stopping the milk poisoning. It is universally agreed
by sanitarians that the high infant mortality of the summer
months is due to bacteria in milk, bacteria to which adults
are mostly immune. These bacteria get into the milk
after it leaves the cow’s. udder, in other words, they
get there through. filthy methods of milking and storing
the milk. Milk, when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow,
js in a sterile ¢ condition. The calf gets sterile milk, the baby
gets the filthy. milk. It has been pointed out that if the
death rate among calves was as high as among babies,
every breeder of cows would soon become bankrupt. We
kill during the early summer months more than one baby
every day in the Brisbane district, through this filthy
milk, yet practically no steps are taken to stop the
legalised murder. . Several municipalities in other countries
have demonstrated that this particular waste of human
life can be stopped, and they have stopped it, and at a
very small cost indeed. One London hospital actually
bought a farm, got a healthy herd together, milked the
cows. with, milking machines under perfect sanitary con-
ditions, separated.the milk, chilled the separated milk and
cream, sent them by rail.in chilled storage to London,
and then got. the pure wholesome cold-stored products for
mixing. again for each. child as prescribed, at a smaller

BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. EX.

cost than they had previously been-paying for the ot
death-dealing article.

What is the moral condition of a community which;
with such absolutely convincing evidence ‘before it as:to
the possibility of protecting these innocent lives, allows
them to be slain by the hundred year after year ? ‘Herod
had some excuse, if no reason, for his ‘“‘ Massacre of the
Tnnocents,’? who could not have numbered so very many.
in the small village of Bethlehem; he thought his throne
and life were in danger. ‘We certainly have neither excuse
nor reason for fling a far greater number every year in
Brisbane. ;

And now having rather hastily run over a few of ‘the
more obvious sources of. national waste, let me say that
the way out in nearly every instance lies in bringing’ mén__
who have been properly educated, to deal with the problems
to be attacked. For attacking each separate: problem,
education, along specialised lines, is essential for the best.
results. For some of the problems, the material solution
has already been shown in other lands; the only difficulty,
is in educating our community to take the necessary action.
In the cases of other problems, more knowledge is required,
and I trust that not one of the least; honourable tasks
undertaken by the young graduates of our; new University,
will be the solution of problems such as these...

I have said nothing of the presence wasteful. methods
of the system of party politics by which we are governed.
It has been many times pointed out that no.sane business
man would ever attempt to conduct his private business,
along the lines now used for doing. the national business. |
The methods of election, the franchise used, the choosing.
of the ministry, the giving of the ministry legislative con- |
trol, the methods in use while legislating —in fact the whole —
“party ’’ system, requires to be put back into the crucible
and remelted. The greater proportion will be found waste
material, and a committee of capable business experts,
not men who give too much weight to precedent, should »
take the resultant pure metal in hand, and from it con-
struct a system by which the business of the country could
be conducted in a more sane manner than it is at present.
Every politician who has written on the matter, has
deplored the waste of time and energy which the present

Xxli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

system entails, yet nothing is done. It has been pointed
out that a leader who brought about the change, would
commit political suicide. Let us pray that a leader will
soon arise in the Empire who will value the good of his
country above that of his own political life. The current
literature of the Old Country, even more than that of
Australia, emphasises the fact that the nation is getting
quite as tired of the present system as the politicians are.
With the public so educated, the hour is here, let us hope
that the hour brings the man. My reason for introducing
the debatable subject of politics at all, is that most of the
larger problems I have mentioned to-night must be dealt
with by politicians, and they are severely handicapped in
their attempts to obtain national efficiency by the methods
which our present system forces them to adopt.

May the time soon come when it will be recognised
as the principal duty of our various Governments to so
eontrol and direct the States, that the maximum results
will be obtained from the efforts of every individual in
every trade and profession, and that the national assets
of the State will be conserved for our children.

And the way out does not lie in wasteful wars between
Labour and Capital, between Individuals and Communism.
We must have labour and capital, we must have individual
freedom and control by the community, and when we,
as a people, are sufficiently educated to recognise that
fact and ahandon the system ot party Government, we
will have taken the first and greatest step towards evolving
a proper State Control in which waste will be as carefully
guarded against, and individuality as jealously fostered
as in the keenest of private businesses.

A vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. Richards,
and seconded by Mr. Briinnich. _An interesting discussion
followed in which His Excellency, Mr. Barton and Mr.
Briinnich took part, and Mr. Henderson briefly replied.

The following officers were returned unopposed.
President, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.; Vice-President,
H. C. Richards, M.Sc.;: Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich,
F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, T.

RFPORT OF COUNCIL. Xxlii.

Harvey-Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8.; Councillors, H.
J. Priestley, M.A., E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson, F.1.C.,
J. F. Bailey, J. Shirley, B.Sc.

The President could not be installed as his train could
not arrive in time, and the Hon. A. Norton was absent

through illness.

vier
rohigs

aS

bali Gt VAY BB asetenes

Gry eae yA NT DD.

VOL. XXIV.

PRINTED YOR THE SOCIETY

he: GARE BY ei:
H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGH STREBT BRISBANE.

PROCKEDINGS

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QUEHENSLAND.

Bae ee eee

VOL. XXIV.

errmiriter teeters

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY
H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET BRISBANE.

1913.

DF Send

ee

Royal HOciely of Queensland

Patron :
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR,
M.L.D., GGG: C.5., Etc.

OF FI@iaies, 1913.

President :
H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc.

Vice-President:
J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :
J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.

Hon. Labrarian :
T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.

Assistant Librarian:
D. C. GILLIES.

Members of Councii:
J. F. BAILEY. E. H. GURNEY.
E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY.
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.

Trustees:
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. | JOHN CAMERON
HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.

Hon. Lanternist:
A. G@. JACKSON.

Hon. Auditor :
GEO. WATKINS.

CONTENTS.

A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA.—
T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., b.L.S., and
Launcelot Harrison, April 24th, 1912

A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA.—T. Harvey Johnston,
M.A., D.Sc., and Launeelot Harrison, April 24th,
1912

SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF
Age Salama Shirley, D.Se., ves 29th
1912

NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINIDA.—
Allan R. McCulloch, June 26th, 1912

ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF
QUEENSLAND (Part ey Shirley, D.Se.,
July 81st, 1912 ; -

CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.—R. C. Ringrose, M.A.,
April 24th, 1912

NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.—!’. Harvey Johnston,
M.A., D.Sc., June 26th, 1912

NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN
VALLEY.—E. 0. Marks, B.A., B.F., October
9nd, 1912...

A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST.—F. P.
Dodd, November 27th, 1912..

A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.—T.
Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Se., and Launeelot
Harrison, November o7th, 1912

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA pee
lide.)—A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.E.S., Novem-
ber 27th, 1912 ‘ :

THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.—O. Meston and
J. Brownlie Henderson, F.I.C., July 31st, 1912..

Ne

‘ PAGE

23

AT

or
on

63

93

103

105

111

165 -

A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA.

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.Sc., F.LS.,
and LAUNCELOT HARRISON.

ee

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912.

—-

WirH the exception of a few short papers by Messrs.
Le Souef and Bullen, in the Victorian Naturalist (see Liter-
ature list), no work on Mallophaga has been done in
Australia. The forms from Australian hosts that we list
have been described by various European writers, rarely
from material collected from the hosts in their natural
state, but more often taken from skins in European
museums, or from animals in captivity in the collections
of the various Zoological Societies. It is to be expected
that records of this nature will require some revision,
as some straggling is bound to occur.

‘The names of bird hosts are in accordance with
Mathews’ Handlist (1908), which is itself based on Sharpe’s
Handlist of Birds (1899). The synonym under which
the host was originally quoted is in all cases given.
Parasites from domesticated and introduced animals are
dealt with in a separate paper. We have not included
parasites described elsewhere from species, the range of
which includes Australia, and the Australian seas: nor
those from oceanic birds, except where a definite Australian
reference is given. In one or two instances, new names
have been used to replace others which were preoccupied.

Mr. Le Souef having kindly placed his collection of
Mallophaga at our disposal, we are able to establish some
synonymy after examination of his types. The making
of new records from our own collections is left for a later
communication.

It will be seen that Mallophaga have been recorded
from but 48 out of nearly 900 bird species listed by Mathews :
and from only 7 marsupials.

2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA

MALLOPHAGA FROM BIRDS.
DROM2XUS NOV-EHOLLANDI®, Lath.
Degecriella asymmetrica, [Nitzsch], Johnston &

Harrison, 1912.

Syns. Nirmus asymmetricus, Nitzsch, 1866, xxviii,
p. 370 ; Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874 p 151, pl. 8, figs. 8-9 ;
Piaget, 1877, p. .... ; 1880, p. 205, pl. 17, fig. 3 (Paris
Zoo).

Nirmus setosum, Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii.‘
p. 157, figs. 5-6 (mec. N. setosus, Giebel, 1876).

We have examined the type of N. setosum, Le
Souef and Bullen, and find it to be identical with
Nitzsch’s species as described and figured in both
Giebel and Piaget. Le Souef figures the male as
possessing continuous bands on the posterior segments
of the abdomen. This appearance is due to the strong
ventral markings showing through in the cleared
and mounted specimens. We have examples from
the same host from Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria.

Lipeurus pallidus, Giebel, 1866 (nec. Piaget, 1880).

Recorded from this host. Stated by Giebel (1874,
p. 219) to agree so completely with L. heterographus
from the domestic fowl, that he considers th two
species identical, and the emu merely an accidental
host.

CATHETURUS LATHAMI, Lath.
Goniocotes fissus, Rudow.

Rudow, 1869, p. 23 (New Holland) ; 1870, xxxv.,
p. 477; Giebel, 1874, p. 187; Piaget, 18°0, p. pi)
Taschenberg, 1882, p. 84, pl. 2, figs. 7-74 (Hamburg
Museum).

Goniocotes macrocephalus, Taschb.

Taschenberg, 1882, p. 87, pl. 2, fig. 11. (Hamburg
Museum).

Lipeurus crassus, Rudow.

Rudow, 1870, p. 127 ; Giebe 1, 1874, p. 217 . Piaget,
1880, p 259 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 174.

Lipeurus ischnocephalus, Taschenberg.

Taschenberg, 1882, p. 173, pl. 6, fig. 8.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 3
/

SYN@CUS AUSTRALIS, Temm.
Goniodes elongatus, Piaget.
Mr. A. 8. Le Souef has collected specimens, which
we identify as belonging to this species, from the
above host in Victoria.
Goniodes retractus, Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 90
The male of this species is unknown, and it is
possible that the species may have to be referred to
the genus Gontocotes on its discovery. Locality,
Victoria.

o

EXCALFACTORIA LINEATA, Scop.

Oxylipeurus acuminatus, [Piaget|, Mjoberg.

Mjoberg, 1910, p. 92.

Syn. Lipeurus acuminatus. Piaget.

Piaget, 1885, p. 70, pl. 7, fig. 6. Host quoted as
E. australis. Leyden Museum.
Goniodes elongatus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1885, p. 53, pl. 5, fig. 10; 1880, p. 281,
pl. 23, fig. 5.

Syn. Goniodes longus, Le Souef, 1902, xix, p. 90.

Taschenberg (1882, p. 71), believes this form to
be identical with connie asterocephalus, Nitzsch,
but Piaget (1885, p. 53) upholds the validity of the
species Host quoted as H#. australis, Leyden Museum.

We have examined Le Souef’s type of G@. longus,
and find it identical with G. elongatus, Piaget. Host
quoted as EH. chinensis, Victoria.

MEGALOPREPIA MAGNIFICA, Temm.
Inpeurus columbae, [Linn].
Syn. Lipeurus baculus, Nitzsch, 1818.
This common parasite of pigeons is given as
occurring on Carpophiga magnifica by Taschenberg
(1882, p. 125). No locality is stated.

MACROPYGIA PHASIANELLA, Temm.
Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel.

Re. orded by Piaget (1880, p. 534, pl. sia fig. 5),
from Columba phasianella.

4 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
PHAPS CHALCOPTERA, Lath.
Goniocotes flavus, |Rudowl|, Giebel, 1874.
Syn. Goniodes favus, Rudow, 1870, p. 486.
Gontocotes flavus, Giebel, 1874, p. 188: Piaget, 1800,
p- 236 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 101, pl. 3, figs. 5-5a.
Inpeurus angustus, Rudow.
Rudow, 1869, p. 34; 1870, p. 137; Giebel, 1874,
p- 216; Piaget, 188 , p. 306; Taschenberg, 1882,
p- 123. From Tasmania. Taschenberg (1882, p. 123)
considers that the species is probably identical with
L. baculus (=L. columbae). ;
Inpeurus columbae, [Linn.|, Neumann.
Syn. L. baculus, Nitzsch.
Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg
(1582, p. 123), as L. baculus.
Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel.
Giebel, 1874, p. 268.
LEvcosaRciIA PICATA, Lath.
Lipeurus columbae, {Linn.], Neumann.
Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg

(1882, p. 124). Host quoted as L. plicata and the
parasite as Lip. baculus.

RRALLINA TRICOLOR, Gray.
Rallicola bisetosa, |Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912.
Syn. Oncophorus bisetosus, Piaget, 1880, p.
218. Leyden Museum.
MICROTRIBONYX VENTRALIS, Gould.
Goniodes cornutus, Rudow
Rudow, 1869, p 26; 1870, p 485; Giebel, 1874,.
p- 205 ; Piaget, 1880, :p. 284.
PORPHYRIO MELANONOTUS, Temm.
Rallicola fallax, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912.
Syn. Oncophorus fallax, Piaget, 1880, p. 220, pl.
18, fig. 6. Eastern Australia, Leyden Museum.
Daprion CAPENSIS, Linn.
Ancistrona procellariae, Westwood.
Syn. A. gigas, Piaget.
Recorded from the above host by one of us (L H.,
1911) from Narrabeen, New South Wales.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. >

STERNA BERGII, Licht.
Colpocephalum crassipes, Piaget.

Recorded by Piaget (1880, p. 566) from a specimen
of S. poliocerca in Leyden Museum. As this is Gould’s
species from 8. E. Australia, now merged in S. bergit,
we have included the reference, although no direct
Australian locality is given.

HyYDRALECTOR GALLINACEUS, Temm.
Rallicola sulcata, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912,
Syn. Oncophorus sulcatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 218.
pl. 18, fig. 5. Rotterdam Zoo.

ANTIGONE AUSTRALASIANA, Gould.

Philopterus integer, Nitzsch.

Syn. Docophorus integer, Nitzsch, 1886, p. 360;
Giebel, 1874, p. 95; Piaget, 1880, p. 99.

Docophorus noveholl indie, Giebel, 1866,

XXViil., ~. 360; 1874, -p. 96. |

Giebel described the form from the above host
(quoted as Grus novehollandie) as a distinct species.
Piaget does not uphold the distinction.
Lipeurus giganteus, Le Souef & Bullen.

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, fig. 1.
Lipeurus gruis, [Linn.| Johnston & Harrison, 1912.

Syn. L. ebre@us, Nitzsch, 1818.

L. hebreus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 382; Giebel,

1874, p. 226.

Taschenberg (1882, p. 133) records the occur-
rence of L. hebr@us on Grus novehollandie. |

We have examined specimens of the last two
species from the same host from Queensland, Victoria,
and N.S. Wales.

Ipis motucca, Cuv.

Lipeurus ibis, Le Souef & Bullen.

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, ae A
Host quoted as Threskiornis stictipennis,

PLATIBIS FLAVIPES, Gould.

Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef.

Le Souef (1902, xix., p. 91) states that he has
met with O. fuscus on the Australian spoonbill.
Possibly it has only straggled from a swan.

6 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA

XENORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS, Lath.
Philopterus horridus, Giebel.

Syn. Docophorus horridus, Giebel, 1876, p. 243%
Piaget, 1880, /p. 97.

Host quoted as Ciconiqa australis.

NOTOPHOYX NOV2-HOLLANDIE, Lath.
Lipeurus unguiculatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1888, xxxi., p. 247, Pl. 10, fig. 2

Host quoted as Herodias novehollandie.

CHENOPSIS ATRATA, Lath.

Lipeurus anatis megaceros, Johnston & Harrison, 1912,

Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. antennatus, Piaget,
1880, p. 346. L. squalidus, Nitzsch, is a synonym
of L. anatis, Fabricius. The name antennatus is pre-
occupied by L. antennatus, Giebel (1874, p. 213).
We therefore propose to substitute the sub-specific
name megaceros as above. Host quoted as Cygnus
atratus, Rotterdam Zoo.
Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef.

Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria.
Trinoton niger, Le Souef.

Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria.
Colpocephalum castaneum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1885, p. 153, Pl. 16, fig. 7. Host quoted
as Cygnus atratus, Rotterdam Zco.

CEREOPSIS NOV#-HOLLANDI®, Lath.

Lipeurus australis, Rudow.

Rudow, 1869, p. 38: 1870, p. 130; Giebel. 1874,
p. 239; Piaget, 1880, p. 351; Taschenberg, 1882,
p. 164.

Taschenberg notes that this’ species is closely
related to L. jejunus Nitzsch (=L. crassicornis, Olfers),
his material coming from the Hamburg Museum.

NETTIUM GIBBERIFRONS, 8. Mill.
Lipeurus anatis major, Piaget..
Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. major, Piaget, 1880
p. 346. Host quoted as Anas gibberiformis.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 7

PHALACROCORAX SULCIROSTRIS, Brandt.
Inpeurus setosus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 335, Pl. 27, fig. 4. Host quoted
as Phalacrocorax (Graculus) sulcirostris, Leyden
Museum.

Menopon subrotundum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 453, Pl. 35, fig. 2. Host quoted

as Gracula sulcirostris, Rotterdam Zoo.

SULA SERRATOR, Gray.
Philopterus breviantennatus, [Piaget] J. &. H., 1912,

Syn. Docophorus breviantennatus, Piaget, 1880,
p. 108, Pl. 9, fig. 9. Host quoted as Sula australis :
Leyden Museum.

Pectinoprgus gyricornis (Denny) J. &. H., 1912.

Syn. Lipeurus gyricornis, Denny.

Piaget, (1880 p. 337, Pl. 27, fig. 8) records this
species—originally described by Denny (1842, p. 167)
from a tern, Sterna hirundo—from Sula australis,
Leyden Museum. This species has the typical form
of Lipeures from Sula.

Menopon albescens, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 491, Pl. 41, fig. 4. Hest quoted
as Sula australis.

MICROGLOSSUS ATERRIMUS, Gmel.
Colpocephalum temporale, Piaget.
Piaget, 1888, p. 252, Pl. 10, fig. 6. Host quoted
as Psittacus aterrimus, Rotterdam Zoo.
Degeeriella paraboliceps, [Piaget]. J. &. H., 1912.
Syn. Nirmus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1880, p. 135,
Pl. 11, fig. 5. Host and locality as above.

CALYPTORHYNCHUS VIRIDIS, Vieill.
Lipeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1 &&C, . 301, Pl. 24, fig. 6. Taschenberg
(1882, p. 118, Pl. 3, fig. 13) records th is species from
the above host under the name of C. leachi, no locality
being given.

8 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
CACATUA GALERITA, Lath.
Lipeurus albus, Le Souef & Bullen.

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 4.
Victoria.

CACATUA ROSEICAPILLA. Vieill.

Degeertella eos. [Rudow.| J. & H., 1912.
Syns. Nirmus eos, Rudow, 1870, xxxv., p. 471 ;
Giebel, 1874, p. 181 : Piaget, 1880, p. 137.

Nirmus tenuis, Rudow, 1870,, xxxv., p. 471 (nec,

Nitzsch in Burmeister, 1832, p. 429).

Giebel has quoted this host under two different
names,—as Plictolophus roseocapillus in his Index
(1874, p. x.), and as Cacatua cos in the text (1874, p.
181); Gurlt (1878), in preparing his list, has copied
Giebel’s names, but has quoted them as referring to
two distinct hosts, Psittacus eos and Psittacus roseo-
captllus (fide Piaget, 1880, p. xvii.)

CALOPSITTACUS NO V#®-HOLLANDI2®, Gmel.
Goniocotes fasciatus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 236, Pl. 19, fig. 11. Host
quoted as Nymphicus nove-hollandie, Leyden Museum
and Rotterdam Zoo. It is questionable whether this.
species should be included in its present genus.

POLYTELIS BARRABANDI, Swains.
Philopterus angustoclypcatus, [Piaget] Johnston &

Harrison, 1912. ;

Syn. Docophorus angustoclypeatus, Piaget, 1880,
p. 34, pl. 2. fig. 3. Host recorded as Platycercus
ba: ratandi.

Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p..... :
1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. Host as above.
Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p..525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host as above -
Rotterdam Zoo.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 9

POLYTELIS MELANURA, Vig.

Inpeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 301, pl. 24, fig. 6; Taschenberg,
1882, p. 118, pl. 3, fig. 13. Host given as Platycercus
melanurus, Leyden Museum.

APROSMICTUS CYANOPYGIUS, Vieill.
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget| Johnston & Harrison,

1912. |

Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .-..3
1880, p. 32, pl. 2 fig. 1. Host given as Platycercus
scapulatus. f

PLATYCERCUS ELEGANS, Gmel.
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
. Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .... 3
1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host given as P. pennantis.
PLATYCERCUS PALLIDICEPS, Vig.
Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host quoted
as P. palliceps, Rotterdam Zoo.

PLATYCERCUS EXIMIUS, Shaw.
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget], Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3
1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1.
Menopon psittacus, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 8.

BARNARDIUS ZONARIUS, Shaw.
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3
1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host quoted as Platycercus
bauert, (p. 33) and P. zonarius (bauert) (p. 684).

DacELO GIGas, Bodd.
Philopterus delphax, [Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Docophorus delphax, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 360 ;
' Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 92. Host quoted as
Dacelo gigantea, Halle Museum. Piaget, 1880, p. 75.

10

A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN. MALLOPHAGA

Degeeriella bracteata, |Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Nirmus bracteatus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 369 ;
Giebel, 1874, p. 145: Piaget, 1880, p. 163. Host
as. above.

Degeeriella goniocotes, {[Piaget| Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Nirmus goniocotes, Piaget, 1885, p. 33,
pl. 4, fig. 3. Host given as Dacelo gigas from Mada-
gascar (Leyden Museum). As this bird is confined
to Australia, either the locality or the host is incor-
rectly stated.

Menopon infumatum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1885, p. 106, pl. 11, fig. 7.. Reference

to same host and locality as last species.

CACOMANTIS RUFULUS, Vieill.

Philopterus laticlypeatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912. |
Syn. Docophorus laticly peatus, Piaget, 1871, p..... :
1880, p. 37, pl. 2. fig. 9. Host given as Cuculus
flabelliformis from New Holland, Leyden Museum.

SCYTHROPS NOV#HOLLANDIA, Lath.

Philopterus obcordatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Docophorus obcordatus, Piaget, 1871, p. ....;
1880, p. 38, pl. 2, fig. 10. Leyden Museum.
Degeeriella lipeuriformis, [Rudow| Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Nirmus lipeuriformis, Rudow, 1870, p. 470 ;
Nirmus chelurus, Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 150;
Piaget, 1880, p. 138. Dry skin; Paris. Giebel, (1874,
p. 151) establishes the identity of Rudow’s and
Nitzsch’s species, but wrongly retains Nitzsch’s name.
Menopon platygaster, Giebel.

Giebel, 1874, p. 290: Piaget, 1880, p. 420, pl. 32,
fig. 5. Leyden Museum.

MENURA SUPERBA, Davies.

Philopterus paraboliceps, [Piaget] J. & H., 1912.
Syn. Docophorus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1888, p.
224, pl. 8, fig. 2. Host quoted as Menura lyra.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON 11
Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister] J. & H., 1912,
Syn. Nirmus submarginalis, Burmeister, 1832. ;
p. 4381; N. submerginellus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 368;
Giebel, 1874, p. 148; Piaget, 1880, p. 155; 1885,
p. 22, pl. 3, fig. 2 (Halle Museum) ; N. menurae-lyrae,
Coinde, 1859, p. 424; N. menura, Le Souef & Bullen,
|g pale | ed a
Kellogg (1908, p. 27) gives Menura superia as
a host of Nirmus (i.e. Degeeriella) marginalis,: Nitzsch.
We cannot find any reference justifying this, hence
we have concluded that it is an error.

MENURA VICTORI®, Gould.
Lipeurus menura, Le Souef & Bullen.

Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 3.
Menopon menura, Le Souef & Bullen. — |

~ Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158,, fig. 9.
Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister].

Syn. Nirmus menura, Le Souef and Bullen, 1902,
xviii., p. 157. For full synonymy, see under Menura °
superba. We have examined Le Souef and Bullen’s
type of N. menura, and find it identical with the
above species. These authors quote the host as
Menura superba, but Mr. Le Souef informs us that
the birds were the now separated Victcrian form
M. victoria.

GYMNORHINA TIBICEN, Lath.
Degeeriella bimiaculata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Nirmus bimaculatus, Piaget, 1885, p. 148,
pl. 16, fig. 1. Host given as Baryta tibicen, Rotterdam
Zoo.

GYMNORHINA LEUCONOTA, Gray.
Degeeriella semiannulata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,

1912.

Syn. Nirmus semiannulatus, Piaget, 1883, p. 156;
1885, p. 24, pl. 3, fig. 11... Host quoted as Baryta
leuconota. | .

Piaget (1880, p. 140) records Nirmus varius (te.
Degeeriella veria) Nitzsch, from the above host. This
is a common parasite of European crows, and prob-

2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA

ably straggled from one of these on to the Gymnorhina,

whieh was very probably a captive in the Rotterdam

Zoo, where much of Piaget’s material was collected.
PARDALOTUS PUNCTATUS, Shaw.

Menopon, sp.

Giebel (1874, p. 286) mentions that Nitzsch had
a damaged individual of a species of Menopon from
the above host, which was not in sufficiently good.
condition to justify description. Nitzsch considered.
it to be closely allied to his own M. minutum.

GLYCIPHILA FASCIATA, Gould.
Goniocotes candidus var. pellucidus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1885, p. 40, pl. 4, fg. 10. Leyden Museum-
This is possibly a straggler, as it is extremely unlikely
that Gonvocotes should occur on the Meliphagide,
and particularly on such a small honey-eater as G-
fasciata.

PTILONORHYNCHUS VIOLACEUS, Vieill.
Philopterus grandiceps, [Giebel| Johnston and Harri-

,son, 1912.

Syn. Docophorus grendiceps, Giebel, 1874, p. 85;
Piaget, 1880, p. 53, Host quoted as P. holosericeus.
Degeeriella pontoni, Johnston & Harrison, 1912.

Syn. Nirmus nitzschi, Ponton, 1871 (nec. Giebel,.
1866, p. 364; 1874, p. 125). This species is referred
to by Gurlt (1878). Piaget merely mentions the
name. We have not been able to consult Pontcn’s
original description. As the specific name nitzeché
was precoccupied by Giebel in 1866, we have substi-
tuted for it pontoni, in compliment to the author of
the species.

Giebel (1874, p. 133) gives a brief description
of Nirmus (=Degeeiiella) sp. from the above host,
collected from a dry skin, but not in sufficiently good
condition to allow description.

SERICULUS CHRYSOCEPHALUS, Lewin.
Degeeriella hectica, [Nitzsch| “ohnston & Harrison, 1912.

Syn. Nirmus hecticus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 366;
Giebel, 1874, p. 136; Piaget, 1880, p. 161. Host
quoted as Sericulus regens.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 13

STREPERA GRACULINA, White.
Colpocephalum vinculum, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 10.

MALLOPHAGA FROM MARSUPIALS.
MACROPUS GIGANTEUS, Zimm.
Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harri-
son, 1912.
Syn. Menopon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504,
pl. 41, fig. 7. Rotterdam Zoo. Host quoted as
Halmaturus giganteus.

-MACROPUS RUFUS, Desm.
Boopia grandis, Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 154, pl. 16, fig. 8.

MACROPUS DORSALIS, Gray.
Boopia minuta, Le Souef.
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 8.
-MAcCROPUS UALBATUS, Less & Garn.
Becpia notafusca, Le. Souef.
Le Souef, 1£02, xix., p. 50, fig. 1.
“* Kangaroos and Wallabies.”
Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget| Johnston & Harri-

son, 1912.

Syn. Menogon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504
pl. 41, fig. 7. Heterodoxu macropus, Le Souef &
Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 159, fig. 11; Froggatt, 1907,
p- 391. We have examined the types of Heterodoxus
macropus, Le Souef and Bullen, and find the species
to be identical with that described by Piaget ag
Menopon longitarsus. No hosts are indicated specific-
ally by the former authors. We will deal more fully
with the host distribution of this parasite in a forth-

‘ coming paper on Mallophaga from Marsupials.
Latumcephalum macropus, Le Souef.
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 4.
PETROGALE PENICILLATA, Gray.
Trichodectes penicillatus, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 506, pl. 32, fig. 10, Rotterdam
Zoo. Taschenberg (1882, p. 214) states that this

14

A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA

species is identical with 7’r. crassipes, Rudow (1886,
p. 111, pl. 7, fig. 1) from the Angora goat. Raillet

(1895, p. 837) and Neumann (1905, :p. 65) refer to the

species, suggesting that in one of the above cases
the host is wrongly indicated. Material collected
by ourselves from the above host does not include
any T'richodectes, nor have we found a member of this
genus on any of a large number of marsupials.
examined.

AEPYPRYMNUS RUFESCENS, Gray.

Boopia bettongia, Le Souef.
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 50, fig. 2. Host quoted
as Bettongia rufescens.

PHASCOLOMYS URSINUS, Shaw.

1907
1866
1874
1876
1878
191]

1911

Boopia tarsata, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 599, pl. 50, fig. 1. Host quoted
as Phascolomys fossr.
Colpocephalum truncatum, Piaget.

Piaget, 1880, p. 540, pl. 45, fig. 2. Piaget (1880,
p. 542) records finding this species, which is a parasite
of Grus communis, on a wombat. This is evidently
a case-of straggling.

LITERATURE LIST.
Burmeister—Handb. d. Entomol, 1832.
Coinde—Bull. Soc. imp. Nat., Moscou, xxxii., 1859.
Denny—Monogr. Anoplurorum Britanniae, Lon-
don, 1842.

Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney, 1907.

Giebel—Z.f. ges. Naturwiss., xxviii.

Giebel—*‘ Insecta Epizoa, etc.” Liepzic, 1874.

Giebel—Z. f. ges. Naturwiss.

Gurlt—Arch. f Naturgesch., xliv. ;

—Harrison—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Notes and

Exhibits, pt. 3, 1911.

Johnston & Harrison—** Notes on some Mallophagan
Generic Names,’ P.L.8., N.S.W. 1911.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 15

1912. Johnston & MHarrison—‘* A Census of Australian
Mallophaga.’’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland,
1912. (The present paper.)

1908— Kellogg —‘‘ Mallophaga,’? in Wytsmann’s ‘“ Genera
Insectorum”’ Fasc. 66.

1902—Le Souef—Victorian Naturalist, xix., p. 50.

1902. Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat., xviii., p. 155.

1902 Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat, xviii., p. 159.

1908 Matthews—*‘ Handlist of the Birds of Australia.”
“Emu” vii, pt. 3, 1908, Supplement.

1910 Mjoberg—Arkiv. f. Zoologi. vi., No. 13.

1905 Neumann, “ Parasites et Maladies parasitaires des
Oiseaux domestiques,’ Paris, 1909.

1818 Nitzsch—in Germar’s Magazin d. Entom., iii, 1818,
pp. 261, sqq.

1866 Nitzsch—Zeitschr f. ges. Naturwiss, xxviii.

1874 Nitzsch—(in Giebel) “ Insecta Epizoa,”’ 1874.

1871 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xiv.

1877 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xx.

1880 Piaget—‘‘ Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique.’
Leiden, 1880,

1885 Piaget—‘* Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique,”’
Supplement, Leiden, 1885.

1888 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xxxi.

1871 Ponton—American Monthly Microscopical Journal, vi.

1895 Raillet—Traite d. Zool. Agric. Medic.

1869 Rudow—Beitrage, etc. Inaug. Dissert. Halle.

1870 Rudow—Zeitschr. f. ges. Naturwiss, xxxv and xxxvi,

1899 Sharpe—* A Handlist of the Genera and Species
of Birds,’ London, 1899, sqq.

1882 Taschenberg—* Die Mallophagen, etc,’ Nova. Acta.
Halle, xliv., 1, 1882.

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A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA
FOUND ON INTRODUCED AND DOMESTICATED
ANIMALS IN AUSTRALIA,

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., and
LAUNCELOT HARRISON.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912.

THE present communication contains a list of the
Mallophaga previously recorded as occurring on introduced
animals in Australia, as well as several whose presence is
now noted in literature for the first time, though some
of them are common, well-known forms. We have recently
‘published (J. & H., 1912, a,) a census of the species
recorded from the native Australian fauna.

The application of the law of priority has necessitated
the alteration of some well-known names.

BIRDS.

(CoMMON Fow. (Gallus domesticus).
1. Lipeurus caponis (Linn). Syn. L. variabilis, Nitzsch.
—Common. N.S.W., Victoria,* Q’land, W. Austr.
2. Lipeurus heterographus, Nitzsch.—Vict., Sydney
(N.S.W.)
3. Goniodes dissimilis, Nitzsch —Vict., N.S.W.
4, Goniocotes gigas, Tasch.—N.8.W., Q’land. The
occurrence of this parasite (quoted as
Gc. abdominalis) on fowls in N.S.W., has already
been recorded by Bradshaw (1909, p. 51). It is
fairly common.
5. Goniocotes hologaster, Nitzsch.—Uncommon.
Melbourne (Victoria).

“We are indebted to Mr. A. S. Le Souef for most of the Victorian.
-material referred to in this paper.
B

18 ' A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA

This species was referred to by DeGeer as Ricinus
galling, which name therefore appears to have priority.
Linneus, described a Pediculus galline (= Menopon galline),
but soon afterwards DeGeer divided up the Linnean genus
into Pediculus (including the blood-sucking species), and.
Ricinus (including those which feed on epidermal structures).
Thus P. galling L. should have become R. galline (L.),
in which case R. galline DeGeer would be invalid, as it
refers to a different species. DeGeer’s work is not avail-
able to us, so that we do not know whether that author
believed that he was referring to Linnzeus’ species, or whether
he took no cognisance of P. galling L. and erected a new
species, R. gallinew. We are thus unable to state whether
the parasite should be termed Gc. galline (Geer), or Ge.
hologaster (N.), though it seems to us that Nitzsch’s name
is the more correct.

7. Menopon galline (L.)—Syns. M. trigonocephalum
(Olfers); MW. pallidum, Nitzsch. A common
parasite. N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland, West
Australia.

8. Menopon stramineum, N.—Syn. M. biseriatum,
Piaget. Common—N.8.W., Victoria, Q’land.

TuRKEY (Meleagris gallopavo).

1. Lipeurus meleagridis (li.)—Syn. L. polytrapezius-.
N. Sydney (N.S.W.)

2. Goniodes stylifer, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land.

3. Menopon stramineum, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land.

GUINEA FowL. (Nwmida meleagris).
1. Lipeurus caponis (L.)—Sydney (N.S.W.)

2. Goniocotes rectangulus (Nitzsch), Burm.—Sydney.
This species is usually quoted as Ge. rectangu-
latus N., but the latter name is a synonym.

PHEASANT (Phasianus colchicus).
1. Lipeurus caponis (L.) Victoria.

2. Goniodes colchici, Denny.—Syn G. colchicus, Giebel.
Victoria.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 19
Peacock (Pavo cristatus).
1. Goniodes pavonis (L.)—Syn. G. falcicornis, Nitzsch,
Melbourne, Sydney.
SILVER PHEASANT. (Genneus nycthemerus.)
1. Menopon fulvomaculatum, Denny.—Syn. M.
productum, Piaget. Victoria.
PicEON (Columba livia dom.)

1. Lipeurus columbe (L.)—Syn. LL. baculus, N,
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane.

bo

Goniodes (Coloceras) damicornis, Nitzsch. Sydney.
3. Goniodes (Coloceras), piagetitnom. noy.—Syn.
Gd. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 256), nec. Gd. dispar.

var. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 248)*.

4. Goniocotes bidentatus (Scopoli).—Syn. Ge. compar,

Nitzsch. Sydney.

5. Menopon giganteum, Denny.—Syn. M. latum,

Piaget. Sydney.

6. Colpocephalum turbinatum, Denny.—Syn. C.
longicaudum, Nitzsch (1866). Sydney.

Inpian DOvE (T'urtur suratensis). A common bird in some
Australian cities. .

1. Goniocotes chinensis, Kellogg & Chapman. Sydney.
Previously recorded only from Turtur chinensis,
from Hawaii.

GOosE (Anser domesticus).

1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers).—Syn. L. jejunus,

Nitzsch. Victoria ; Sydney, Richmond (N.S.W.)
DvccKk (Anas domestica).

1. Lipeurus anatis (Fabr.)—Syn L. squalidus, N.
Sydney, Melbourne.

2. Menopon obscurum, Piaget. Sydney.
Muscovy Duck.

1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Sydney.

*According to Article 11, of the International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature, ‘‘ specific and sub-specific names are subject to the same
rules . . . . . . and frcm a nomenclatural standpoint, they are
co-ordinate - that is, they are of the same value.” Hence our substitution
of a new specific name for Piaget’s species.

20 A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA

Swan (Cygnus, dom.)

1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Victoria.

2. Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef (1902, p. 91)—Melbourne

Zoological Gardens.

3. Ornithobius cygni (L.) Victoria, Sydney.
SrarLine (Sturnus vulgaris).

1. Philopterus leontodon, Nitzsch. Sydney.

2. Degeeriella nebulosa (Burmeister). Sydney.

3. Menopon spinosum, Piaget. Sydney.
SKYLARK (Alauda arvensis).

1. Menopon parviceps, Piaget. Richmond,* (N.S.W.)
‘OsTRICH (Struthio camelus).

1. Lipeurus quadrimaculatus, Piaget. Richmond

(N.S. W.). (In collection of Entomological
Branch, Dept. of Agriculture, Sydney).

MAMMALS.

Ass (Equus asinus).

1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel (nec. Piaget). Victoria.
Horse (Equus caballus). =
1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel. Victoria. Lea (1908,
p. 105), refers to this species, but does not state
whether it oceurs in Tasmania. Linneus (Syst.
Nat. II., 1018), described Pediculus equi from the
horse. In 1842, Denny (1842, p. 191), gave an
account of a parasite which he regarded as belong-
ing to Linneus’ form, as Trichodectes equi. In
1874, Giebel (1874, p. 5S), described Tr. pilosus,
ostensibly renaming 7'r. equi, Denny and Pediculus
equi, Linn. Piaget (1880, p. 397), in 1880,
separated Denny's 77. equi from Linneus’ form,
redescribing the former as 7'r. parumpilosus, while
on p. 395, he described what he believed to be
Tr. pilosus, Giebel, giving as a synonym Pediculus
equi, Linn. A little later, Taschenberg (1882,
p. 214), stated that Piaget was correct in identify-
ing Tr. equi, Denny with Tr. parumpilosus, and,

Sen Nn en
*We are indebted to Mr. C. T. Musson, of the Hawkesbury Agricul-
tural College, Richmond, N.S.W., for specimens from this locality.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 2r

moreover, after having examined’ Giebel’s
specimens, was convinced that 7'r. pilosus, Giebel,
was also synonymous with Tr. parumpilosus,
Piaget. He went on to state that the two species.
from horses should be quoted as 7'r. pilosus, Piaget,
and 7'r. parumpilosus, Piaget. Taschenberg does.
not appear to have recognized that pilosus was
already preoccupied when Piaget adopted it.
Railliet (1895, p. 835) quoted Tr. pilosus, Piaget,
nec. Giebel, under the name T7'r. vestitus.

The synonymy of the two species is thus :—

(a) Pediculus equi, Linn. (6) Trichodectes equi, Denny,.
Tr. pilosus, Piaget, nec. nec. Li:
Giebel. Tr. pilosus, Giebel, nec.
Tr. vestitus, Raill. ' Piag.

Tr. parumpilosus. Piaget,

From the foregoing it will be seen that Giebel, without
any justification, renamed Denny’s and Linnzus’ species,
believing both to be identical. It has since been shown
that his description really referred to Denny’s form, and
not to Pedic equi, Linn. His name thus accidentally
becomes the valid one for 7'r. equi, Denny, nec. Linn., with
Tr. parumpilosus, Piaget as synonym, while the Linnean
species must stand for the less common parasite, T'r. equt
(L.), with 7'r. pilosus, Piaget, nec. -Giebel and T'r. vestitus,
Raill, as synonyms. It might be stated here that Piaget’s.
names are those generally used, but from the above dis-
cussion it will be seen that this should not be the case.
Osborn (1891, p. 45-7) followed Piaget’s nomenclature.

Ox (Bos taurus).

1. Trichodectes bovis (L.)—Syn. Tr. scalaris, Nitzsch.
N.S.W., Johnston, 1911, p. 217. Queensland.
We have restored Linnzus’ specific name.

SHEEP (Ovis aries).

1. Trichodectes ovis (L.), Raill.—Syn. T'r. sphaeroece-
phalus, Nitzsch, Victoria, N.S. Wales. -Lea (1908,
p. 105), has recorded the presence of this species
under Nitzsch’s name in Tasmania.

22. A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA.

Goat (Capra hircus).

1. Trichodectes climax. Nitzsch, Victoria, Nitzsch’s
name was published in 1818, but no description
appeared (as far as we are aware) until Gervais
published one in 1844.

Cav (Felis domestica).

l. 7. ichodectes subrostratus, Nitzsch. Victoria.

GUINEA Pie (Cavia cobaia).
1. Gyropus ovalis. Sydney.
2. Gliricola porcelli (Schrank)—Syns. Gyropus gracilis,
Nitzsch ; Gliricola gracilis, Mjoberg (1910, p. 18):
We have reinstated Schrank’s name on account
of its priority, even though it is very imapprop-
priate.*

LITERATURE.
1909. Bradshaw, Farmers’ Bull. 15, Dept. Agr., N.S. W.
1842. Denny, Monogr. Anoplur. Brit., London.
1907. Froggatt, Australian Insects, Sydney.
1874. Giebel, Insecta Epizoa, Leipzig.
1911. Johnston, Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland. 1911. p. 207.
1912a Johnston & Harrison, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land. 1912,
pp. 1—16.
19126 Johnston & Harrison, the present paper.
1908. Lea, Insect and Fungus Pests, ete., Edit. 3, Hobart.
1902. Le Souef, Victorian Naturalist, xix., 1902.
1767. Linnezus, Syst. Nat., IT.
1910. Myjoberg, Arkiv. f. Zoologi., VI, (13).
1818. Nitzsch, in Germar’s Mag. d. Entomol.
1891. Osborn, Bull. 7., Dept. Agr., Entomol. Div., U.S.Az
1880. Piaget, Les Pediculines, Leiden.
1895. Railliet, Traité de Zool. Agric. Medic., Paris.
1882. Taschenberg, Nova Acta. XLIV. (1), 1882.

*Froggatt (1907), refers to some of Piaget’s and Le Souef’s species, but
does not add any information regarding Australian Mallophaga, either
mative or introduced. .

¢

SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF
QUBENSLAND. |

By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 1912.

The Lichen Flora of Queensland was published in
1888-9. Parts I-III (6) appeared in Volumes V and VI,
of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland,
Part IV, with Index and Supplement, was sprinted by
Messrs. Pole & Outridge, in 1889. Since that time, a period
of twenty-three years, many additional lichens have been
recorded from this State by Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva ;
Dr. Chas. Knight, of New Zealand; Dr. James Stirton,
of Glasgow; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson, and the author of this
‘paper.

These additions have been described in various
scientific journals of Europe and Australia, and many
have been recorded by our Government Botanist in his
Bulletins, or in Extracts from the Queensland Agricultural
Journal, 1890-1912. In these the sections dealing with
lichens were of my drafting.

As many Queensland lichens are recorded under
incorrect names, and not infrequently under wrong genera,
a revision is necessary, and as the Australian student
cannot consult the whole of the works, a summary is
required. This paper is an attempt to meet both these
requirements.

The reference following the name of each species gives
to the student the name of an Australian publiation
in which a description may be found, with the habitat of the
type specimen, and a means of obtaining other information.

The classification is that of Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva,
who adopted the distinguishing title of Muller of Aargau,
for which the abbreviation M.A. is used.

/

24 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
- LICHENS.
CoLLeMAcEs, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18, and
Lich. Socot.
I. CoLLEME®, Korb., Par., p. 48.

1. Obryzum, Wallr. These are lichens parasitic on species:
of Collemez, and are now referred to Pyrenocarpez..
Lich., Great Brit., ii., 264-5. .

O. myriopus f. isidiosum, Wilson. s. Coccocarpia pellita
v. tncisa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 97.

”)

2. Synechoblastus, Trev.

S. mgrescens, Huds. s, Collema nigrescens, Huds..,.
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 5. cael

S. glaucophthalmus, M.A. 8s. C. leucocarpum, Tayl.;
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 6.

S. microcarpus, M.A. s. C. microcarpum, M.A., Lich.
Bi a2.,. 2. 0.

S. Gwytheri, Shirley. s. C. Gwytheri, Stirton, Q.A.J.,,
Nov., 1899.

3. Physma, Mass., Neag., p. 8.
P. byrsinum, M.A. s. C. byrsinum, Ach., Lich. FI-
Q., p. 5.
P. byrsinum v. amphiurum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 23.
4. Collema, Ach. (pro p.)
C. hypolasium, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

5. Leptogium, Fr. (pro p.)

L. bullatulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 23.

L. cerulum, Wils., Bot. Bull. ii., p. 28.—Coccocarpra
aurantiaca, Bot. Bull., viii., p. 97.
Wilsoni, Shirley=L. denticulatum, Wils., a name
already used by Nylander, Lich. Mey., 41. (See
Bot. Bull. ii., 28.)
L. sphinctrinum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. ii., 28.
L. atro-viride, Wils.,-Bot. Bull. ii., 28.
L. phyllocarpum v. isidiosum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. iii., 20.
L. phyllocarpum v. dedalum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 31.
L
LD
L
L

S

. tremelloides v. azureum (Ach.), Mnt., Bot. Bull. iii., 20.
,. tremelloides v. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 91.

. chloromelum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. i., 20.

. hypotrachynum, M.A., Lich. Beit. xii., 12.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 25
6. Leptogiopsis, M.A., L.B., 372.
L. carneolum (Wils.), Shirley, Bot. Bull. ii., 28.

1. MyrtIaneium, Mnt. et Berk.
Now referred to Fungi. Lich. Fl., Great Brit., ii., 263.

IT. EPICONIACE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18;
and Lich. Socot.

I. Canicrem®, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 19.

—

. Trachylia, Fries.
T. tricincta, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.

2. Pyrgillus, Nyl.
P. javanicus, Nyl. = P. australiensis, Wils., Bot. Bull.,
i, 31, and Calicium — stenosporum, Wils., Bot.
Bull, ii., 29.
P. calicirsporus, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.
P. fallax, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.

oo

. Acolium (Fee), De Not.
A. buelliaceum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91.

4, Calicium, Ach.
C. trachelinum, Ach. =C. glebosum v. glaucescens, Wils.
=C. glebosum v. concinnum, Wils,
and C’, hymenosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull, ii., 30;
Bot. Bull., viii., 91.
. trachelinum v. queenslandie, Wils., Bot., Bull., ii., 30.
. glebosum, M.A., Bot. Bull, v., 31.
. pachypus, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 23.
. chlorosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29.
. fulvo-fuscum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29.
atro-nitescens, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30.
. victoria, C.K., v. albo-carneum, Wils., Bot. Bull.,
ii., 30.
. victoria, C.K., v. jejunum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30.
. pretenue, Wils.,; Bot. Bull., ii., 30.
. quercinum v. lenticulare, Ach., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. curtum, Borr., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184.

OES OO.G20 6

oR eas)

26 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
III. LICHENACE, Mull. Arg. Lich. Soc., and Enum.
Lich. -Gen:, ‘p. -18.

I. SPHEROPHORES, M.A., Lich. Miy., p.120.

1. Spherophoron, Pers.
S. australe, Laur., Bot. Bull., iii., 20.

11. TYLOPHORE®, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430 as
TYLOPHOREI.

bo

. Tylophoron, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430.
T. triloculare, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 92.

mm. *CLADONIEZ, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen.; p. 22.

3. Stereocaulon, Schreb.
S. proximum v. nudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21.
S. ramulosum v. microcorpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31. _

4. Thysanothecium, Berk et Mnt.
T. Hookerit, Berk et Mnt., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

5. Cladonia, Hftm.
s. Pheocarpe.
C. fimbriata v. antilopea, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21;
vill., 92.
C. fimbriata v. tenella, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184.
=C. delicata, Wilson, non. Flk.
C. fimbriata v. chordalis, Flk., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
C. fimbriata v. radiata, Fr. Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184.
C. cartosa, Flk.=C. degenerans, Fr., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
C. degenerans v. pleolepis, Flk., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.
C. elegantula, M.A.=C. lepidula, Kremp. of Lich. Fl. Q.,
Pate
C. furcata v. foliolosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.
C. ochrochlora v. ceratodes, Flk., Bot. Bull., iv., 23.
C. rangiformis v. sorediophora, Wain., Bot. Bull., iv., 23.
C. squamosula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184.
s. Erythrocarpe.
C. macilenta v. flabellulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.

Iv. THAMNOLIEZ, Mull. Arg., Lich. Miy., p. 121.

6. Thamnolia, Sch.
T. vermicularis, Sw., Bot. Bull., v., 31.

*Given as an order of Lecideei in Lich. Flor. Great Brit. II, 2.

-

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D SC. 7 2a
v. Usnea, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Heter, p. 50.

7. Usnea, Hftm.

U. barbata v. asperrima, M.A.=Eumitria Baileyi,
Stirton, B.B., ii., 21.

U. barbata v. hirta, Fr. =U. florida v. articulata, Stirton,
Bb. ni 2k .

U. barbata v. scabrida (Tayl.), M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 21.

U. barbata v. strigosa, Krph.=U. florida v. strigosa,
Stirton, B.B., iii., 21.

U. sublurida, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

vi. RAMALINES, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Hetero., p. 50.

8. Alectoria, Ach.
A. australiensis, C.K., transferred to Fungi, having
no gonidia. Bot. Bull, viii., 91.

9. Ramalina, Ach. |
R. gracilis, Nyl.=R. geniculata, Hook. et Tayl. (none
perforate part), Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. R. maculata.
M.A., R. exiquella, Stirt., R. costata, Mey. et Flot.
R. Eckloni, Mnt.=R. Yemensis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q.,
p-- 196.
R. Ecklonit v. tenuissima, Mey. et Flot., Bot. Bull.,
vili., 93.
. Ecklonii v. membranacea (Mnt.), Laur., Bot. Bull,
Hi.) 22
. Eckloni v. ovalis, Tayl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. dendriscoides, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. |
. dendriscoides v..minor, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 22.
. farinacea v. squarrosa, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185.
. fraxinea v. teenieformis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185.
. inflata, Hook. et Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185.
. inflata v. gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186.
. inflata v. olivacea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.
R. letodea, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22.

10. Platysma, Hoffm.
P. eriophyllum, C.WK.=Erioderma Knightii, Shirley.

Sy

thr rea >

vul. PELTIGEREH, M.A., Lich. Gen., p. 29.
11. Peltigera, Hoftm. 3
P. polydactyla v. dissecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.
12. Nephromium, Nyl.
N. tropicum, M.A., Lich. Beit., 559.

28 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

yiu. PARMELIE, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag., p. 3; and Lich.
Gen., p. 3l.

13. Stictina, Nyl.
S. argyracea f. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
. punctillaris, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
. fragillima v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.
. fragillima v. dissecta, M.A.=S. fragillissima, Kremp.
S. intricata, Stirton (non Del.) =S. crocata v. esorediata,
M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.; Bot. Bull., viii., 94.
S. intricata v. Thouarsii, Nyl.=S. pustulosa, Wilson.
S. cinnamomea, Rich.=S. fragillima, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 196.

S. impressula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189.

S. impressula v. sublevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.

S. suborbicularis, M.A.=S. subtomentella, C.K., and
S. macrophylla, of various authors. Bot. Bull,
vill., 94.

S. quercizans, Ach.=S. tomentella, Leighton (non Ach.),
Bot. Bull., viii., 94.

S. cyphellulata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189.

S. fuliginosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.

S. brevipes, M.A.=S. marginifera, Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 55; Bot. Bull., vii, 94.

S. retigera, M.A.=Lobaria retigera, Ach., Lich. Beit., 74-

14. Sticta, Ach.

S. pulmonacea, M.A.=Lobaria pulmonacea, Ach., Lich.
Hi Qi). oss

S. variabilis v. papyracea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viil., 94.

S. demutabilis, Krph., Bot. Bull., 11., ep 8

S. carpolomoides, Nyl., Bot. Ball. ni: 2a.

S. dichotomoides, Nyl.=S._ stipitata, Wils., and S-.
camare, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.

S. Sayeri, M.A., Lich. Fl Q., p. 191.

S. Seemanni, Bab., Bot. Bull., viii, 94.

S. fiix v. myrioloba, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31.

S. glaucescens, Krph., Bot. Balk, im: Za.

S. aurata v. microphylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.

S. endochrysea v. flavicans, M.A.=S. flavicans, Hook.
et Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii, 94.

S. Richardi, Hook., to be separated from S. Billardiert,
Del., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 62; Lich. Beit, 566.

15.

16.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 29

S. sulphurea, Schaer, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.

S. Karstenti, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.

S. Karstenii v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p- 191.

S. impressa, Hook. et Tayl.=S. physciospora, Nyl.,
and S. Bornetii, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.

~

Riascolia, De Not:

R. erosa, Eschw., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

R. Ravenelit, Tuck., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

Rk. patinifera, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 191.

R. hypoleuca, M.A.=S. hypoleuca, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.,
2a 6

Parmelia, Ach.

P. tinctorum, Despr.=P. euplecta, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q.,
p- 36; and P. pretervisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.

. cetrarioides, Del., Queens. Ag. Jour., Nov.. 1899.

. laceratula v. minor, Shirley, Bot. Bull., v., 32.

. tenuirima, Tayl., Bot., Bull, viii., 95.

. tenuirima v. corallina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186.

latissima v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.

. latissima, Fee.=P. platycarpa, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 39.

. hypoxantha, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

. placorhodioides, Nyl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

. cetrata v. sorediifera, Wain., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.

. corrugis v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.

perforata, Ach.=P. reparata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q.. 40.

perforata v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.

encausta, Ach., Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899.

perlata v. ciliata, D.C., Bot. Bull, viii., 95.

. perlata v. olivaria, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.

. Hookeri, Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.

. tiliacea v. afixa, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

. tihacea v. rugulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.

=P. caperatula, Stirton (non Nyl.), Bot.

Bull. viii., 95.

. tiliacea v. stenophylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p. 186.

. tiliacea v. sulphurosa, Tuck., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.

. meizospora, Nyl.=P. tiliacea v. meizospora, Ny).,
Bot. Bull., viii., 95.

P. pruinata, M.A., Lich. FI. Q., p. 188.

wey yyw ety WD

a wee

30

“Se ty

wire:

aria a Baia a aa

LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

. pretervisa, M.A.=P. tinctorum, Despr., Bot. Bull.,

vili., 95.

. conspersa f. exasperata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.
. conspersa v. hypocleistordes, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.
. adpressa, Krph.=P. amplexula, Stirton, Bot. Bull.,

vill., 95.

. rutidota f. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.

. limbata v. endococcinea, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186-
. gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.

. limbata, Laur.=P. insinuata, Knight (non Nyl.),

Bot. Bull., viii, 95; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 47.

. virens, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.

virens v. sorediata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.

. hypoxantha v. major, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.

hospitans, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.

. eciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 32.

. physodes v. pulverata, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 95.
. urceolata v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull. v., 32.

. urceolata v. subcetrata, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32.

17. Theloschistes, Norm. (Pseudophyscia, Lich. Beit., 1503).

qT,

if.

chrysophthalma v. leucoblephara, M.A.=T. velifer,
Wils., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193, as Physcia.

flavicans v. croceus (Ach.), Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24,
as Physcia.

18. Anaptychia, Korb., Fl. 1861, p. 32.

A.

A.

barbijera, Nyl.=P. barbifera, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q.,
De Tks |

comosa, Trev.=P. comosa v. alata, Wils, and
Theloschistes comosa v. alata, Shirley, Bot. Bull,
ii., 32. ; Bot. Ball., v., 32; Bot. Bull, viu., 95-6.
leucomelena, Trev.=P. leucomela, Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 70, Bot. Bull., viii., 95-6.

. speciosa v. hypoleuca f. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull,

viil., 95-6.

. speciosa v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., vili., 95-6.
_ obesa v. caesio-crocata, Tuck., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 71, as

Physcia.

19. Physcia, Fr. (pro. p.)

: =
Ce

picta v. isidiophora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, ii., 24.
picta v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 24.

- BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 31

Ix. PyxingE@, M.A., Lich. Parag., ‘p. 6; Bot. Soc.,
p. 356.

20. Pyxine, Fr.
P. endochrysina, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 96.
P. cocoes v. endoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.
P. meissneri v. endoleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96.
P. meissnert v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii. 96.

x. Psorome, Nyl., Syn. II., 21 (ex. Gymnoderma), and
M.A., Lich. N.Z.; p. 41.

21. Psoroma, Fr.
P. pholidotum, M.A.=Pannaria pholidota, Nyl., Lich.
FI. Q., p. 196.
P. sphinctrinum, Nyl.=P. contortulum, Wils.
P. cesium, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193.
P. Karstenii, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193.

XI. PANNARIEX, Korb., Syst., p. 105.

bo
bo

. Pannaria, Del.

P. mariana=P. pannosa, Nyl.=P. cervina, Kremp.,
Lich: - Fl)-Q:,.p..) FSi yekichy) Beit... 243); Lich.
Beit, 1159; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.

P. elatior, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

P. terrestris, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

P. mariana f. isidiosa, M.A.=P. pannosa f. isidioidea
M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96.

P. fulvescens, Mnt., Lich. FI. Q., p. 193.

P. brisbanensis, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194.

P. sordida, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194.

>

23. Heppia, Nyl.
H. brisbanensis, Wilson. Bot. Bull, ii., 32.

24. Erioderma, Fee, Lich. Schenk. —.
E. Knightii, Shirley=Platysma eriophyllum, C.K.
Bot. Bull., viii., 96.

xl. PARMELIELLEH, M.A., Lich. Cath., p. 239.
25. Parmeliella, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 36.
P. triptophylla, M.A.=Pannaria triptophylla, Ach.,
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 80.
P. nigro-cincta, M.A.=Puannaria nigro-cincta, Mnt.,
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 81. .

bd
1

30.

ol.

32.

+
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

xi. CoccocaRPIE®, M.A., Lich. Schenk.

. Coccocarpia, Pers.

C. molybdea, Pers., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
C. pellita v. incisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97.
C. pellita v. isidiophylla, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.

hes =

CO. pellita v. smaragdina, M.A.=C. smaragdina, Pers.,

Bot. Bull., viii., 97.

xiv. PLacopiE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 37.

. Amphiloma, Fr.

A. murorum, M.A. = Placodium murorum, Korb. Lich.,

Fl. Q., p. 85.

. Placodium, D.C.

P. clavigerum, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
P. galactinum v. dispersum, Pers., Bot. Bull., iii., 25.
P. glauco-lividum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.

xv. Psore#, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 8.

. Phyllopsora, M.A.

P. breviuscula, M.A.=Psora parvifolia, 'Tuck., Bot.

Bull., iii., 25 : and P. foliata v. atro-virens, C. K.

P. foliata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 105, as Lecidea.

Psora, M.A.
P. parvifolia, M.A.=Lecidea parvifolia, Pers., Lich,

PL 4d; yw. 2 06.

P. parvifolia v. fibrillifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 33.
P. parvifolia v, subgranulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull.. viii., 97.

Ph

subhyalina, Shirley=Lecidea subhyalina, Stirton,
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 106.

Thalloidima, M.A.

Mish

caeruleo-nigricans, M.A.=L. caeruleo-nigricans,
Lghtf., Bot. Bull., viii., 97.

Xvi. LECANORE, M.A., Lich. Socot., p. 358.

Lecanora, Ach.

SESE SE Si SEs

s. Hulecanora, M.A.

. lacteola, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii., 97.
. subfusca v. cinereo-carnea, Tuck., Bot. Bull.. viii., 98.
. subfusca v. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 19.

. subfusca v. compacta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 2
. subfusca v. allophana, Ach., Bot. Bull., i., 2
. subfusca v. distans, Nyl., Bot. Bull, vin., 9

Or

is

12

‘33.

34.

35.

36.

_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35

. subjusca v. subgranulata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.

. subfusca v. testaceo-pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97.

. subpurpurea, Strn., Q.AJ., Nov., 1899.

. granifera, Ach. (non. Krph.), Bot. Bull, tii., 25.

caesto-rubella, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 25.

. interjecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25 ; viii., 98.

connivens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.

atra v. serialis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19.

. albellaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19.

. flavido-fusca, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.

. Knightiana, M.A., Bot. Bull, xii., 20.

. melacarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.

. rhodophthalma, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32.

s. Aspicilia, M.A.

A. impressa, Kremp.= Lecanora levissima, C.K., B.B.,
vil., 99.

A. melanommata, C.1K.=Lecanora melanommata, C.K.,
EQ: \p. 91. 4

s. Ochrolechia, Mass., for s. Lecanorastrum, L.F.Q.,
94.

SESS SE SESE SESH Si Si sists

Lecania, Mass., Lich. Scand., p. 11.

L. pheoplaca, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. .

L. punicea, M.A.=Lecanora punicea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 93.

Callopisma, De Not.

C. connabarinum v. opacum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98.
C. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98.

CO. rubens, M.A:, Bot. Bulli, iv., 25.

Rinodina, M.A.

R. xanthomelana, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.

R. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv:, 25.

R. rhypoderma (M.A.), Shirley, Bot. Bull., iv., 25:
Lich. Brisb., 51.

R. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bult, iii., 26.

Pertusari@, D.C.

. albinea, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22.
amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.

. commutata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 98.

. confluens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.

. depressa v. octomera, M.A., Bot: Bull., viii., 98.
. elliptica, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.

py

38.

39.

ve WIA

LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. XN

P. globulifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 98.

P. irregularis, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22.

P. leucoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.

P. lactea, Nyl.=P. sorediata, C.K., Bot. Bull., viii., 98.
P. leiocarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.

P. leioplaca v. gibbosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 33.

P. leioplaca v. octospora, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 33.

P. iewcostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 21.

P. macra, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.

P. meridionalis v. xanthostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 26.
P. multipuncta, Turner, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.

P. persulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bail; 1v2 5. 25.

P. plicatula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 21.

P. rhodotropa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.

P. straminea, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.

P. sulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bull, vii., 98.

P. subvaginata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 26.

P. subrigida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.

P. Wuljenti, D.C., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.

. Diploschistes, Norm. (Urceolaria, Ach.)

D. actinostomus, Zahl= Urceolaria actinostoma, Scher.,
Bot. Bull, iii, 26; and Lecidea clausa, C.K.,
Lich. Fl. Q., p. 123.

xvul. GyaLecte@, M.A. Lich. Parag., p. 12.

Gyalectidium, M.A.

G. phyllocharis, M.A.=L. phyllocharis, Mnt., Lich.
FL Q., p. 115: Bot. Bull., vii., 99.

G. filicinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 99.

xvul. LecipEs, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 50.

Lecidea, Ach.
s. Eulecidea.—Apothecia lecideine ; spores, 8
simple ; hypothecium coloured.
L. ferax, M.A., v. geographica, M.A. Bot; Bull, xing
23:
L. albo-cerulescens, Wuli.=L. subnubila, Stirton, Lich.
Fl. Q., p. 108; Bot. Bull., vii., 99.
L. cinerascens, A.L.8.,=L. speirea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Gt.
Brit., ii., 73.
s. Lecidella.—Apothecia lecideine: spores 8,
simple ; hypothecium hyaline.

>

40).

L.

. leptoloma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.
. piperis, Spreng., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194.
. piperis v. melanocarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35

. angolensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.

s. L. ocellifera, Nyt, Lich. Jap., p. 70.

. nesophila, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 23.

s. Biatora.—Apothecia biatorine, spores 8, simple.

. aspidula v. dispersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.
. nsulana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.
. exigua, Chaub., Bot. Bull, iii., 27:

impressw, Krph., Bot. Bull, iii, 27; given as
Lecidella, Lich. Cost. Riec., ii., 18.

. impressa v. angulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26.

s. Biatoreila, M.A., Apothecia biatorine, spores
numerous, simple. |
hematina, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26.

Patellaria, M.A.

"oT

ga i a

s. Biatorina.—Apothecia biatorine, spores small,
uniseptate.

. melaclina, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100.

s. Psorothecitum.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ;
spores large, uniseptate.

. flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26.
. melanodermia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26.
. Taitensis v. epiglauca, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33.

s. Catillaria.-—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine, finally
convex and immarginate, spores 8, uniseptate.

. albo-flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100.

s. Bilimbia.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine; spores
3 to many-celled, finger or rod-shaped.
nodulosa, Shirley. s. L. nodulosa, Stirton Q.A.J.,
Nov., 1899.

. spheroides, Dicks., Bot. Bull., v., 33.

. leucoblephara, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195.

. triseptata, Hepp., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.

. luteola v. conspondens, Nyl., Q:A.J., Nov., 1899.

. vinicolor, Shirley. s. L. vinicolor, Stirton, Q.A.J.,

Nov., 1899.

s. Bombyliospora.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ;
spores shaped and divided like a bee’s body :
5 to many-septate.

36

41.

a ee

LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

P. fusco-luteum. M.A.=L. fusco-lutea, Dicks.. L.F.Q..
plis:
P. domingensis v. ineaplicata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii,
28.
P. vulpinum, Tuck.=L. domingensis v. gyrosa, Stirton,
Lich FE Qpe ali
s. Bacidia.—Spores acicular, 3 topluriseptate.
_ intermiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100.
. millegrana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100.
millegrana v. fusco-nigrescens, M.A.. Bot. Ball,
Viii:< “LOO:
P. rhodocardis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26.
P. entodiaphana, C.K., Bot. Bull., i., 28.
s. Scoliosporum.—Spores blunt at one end and
pointed at the other, 3 to pluriseptate.
P. multiseptata, Shirley, Bot. Bull, v., 33.
Blastenia, M.A.
B. ochroleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 23.

maa

41 (a) Buellia, De Not. Spores brown, bilocular.

42.

_ rimulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull, vin., 101.

_ subareolata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viu., 100.
subarenaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., viri., 100.

lactea, Korb., Bot. Bull, i., 29.

parasema v. rugulosa, Korb., Bot. Bull., 1i., 28.
parasema v. saprophila, Korb., Bot. Bull, ii., 28,
parasema v. vulgata, Th. Fr.; Bot: Bulls! ieee
_tetrapla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., Shirley ; Lich. War., p. 3.
. tetrapla v. nigro-cincta, M.A., Bot. Bull.; viva

_ modesta, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 28.

_ amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 23.

. innata, M.A., Bot. Bull., 21., 29.

_ lauri-cassie, Fee., Bot. Bull., 11., 28.

. macrosporoides, M.A., Bot. Bully xiii:

. placomorpha, Stirton, Q:. A.J.,. Nov;-189o:
sanguinolenta, Shirley=L. sanguinolenta, Stirton,
Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. .

. glomerella, Shirley=L. glomerella, Stirton, Q.A.J..
Nov., 1899.

who bb bbb bbb

&

Heterothecium, Flot. (pro. p. Mass.)

H. vulpina, Tuck. s. L. domingensis vv. gyrosa,
Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q:, p: IN7:: Bot. Bullewag
101.

44.

45.

46.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. BT

. vulpina v. corallinum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27.

. vulpina v. glaucescens, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33.

_ fusco-luteum, M.A. s. L. fusco-lutea, Dicks., Lich.
FQ), pi 116 Bere Balls wan; 101,

. pulchrum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27.

. biferum, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 34.

re es

3. Rhizocarpon, M.A.

R. geographicum v. cyclopicum, Nyl.

S. L. geographica v. cyclopica, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q.,
p. 123:

xix. *Connoconigem®, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 18.

Coenogonium, Ehrenh.

C. confervoides, Nyl. s. C. interpositum, Nyl., Bot
Bull., vii., 101.

C. implexum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv.. i:

C’. moniliforme, Tuck., Bot. Bull., i1., 29.

xx. BIATORINOPSIDE®, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag, p. 18.

Biatorinopsis, M.A.
B. planella, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.
B. zonata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27.

XxI. THELOTREMES, M.A., Graph., Fee., p. 5.

Ocellularia, M.A., L. B., 365.

O. annulosa, M.A., Bot., Bull, xiii., 24.

O. Bailey, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.

O. cricota, Wils. s. Phaeotrema cricotum, M.A., Bot.
Bullies 82; vali 102:

O. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.

O. endomelena, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101.

O. goniostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.

O. jugalis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24.

O. leucotylia, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91.

O. pulchra, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.

O. phlyctioides, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101.

O. platychlamys, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24.

O. xantholeuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 29.

O. zeorina; M.A.. Bot. Bull., iv., 28.

47. Phaeotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 10.

*In Lich. Fl, Great Brit.. 1, 2, placed with Lecidex.

P. cricota, M.A. s. Ocellularia cricota, Wilson, Bot-
Bull., viii., 102.

38 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

48. Thelotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, pp. 10-11.
T. albo-coronatum, C.K. s. 7. cwpulare, M.A., Bot.
Bull., vin, 102:
. argenteum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
. bicuspidatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
. cyphelloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24.
. endoxanthum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
. inturgescens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii, 102.
. megalosporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
. microphthalmum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 24.
. profundum, Shirley, Bot. Bull., xii., 24.
T. rimulosum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.

49. Leptotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 12.

. emulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25.

. diffractum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27.

. compunctum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 102.

om fs Ee ele Pape ie [arm

a ee ee

. monosporum, C.K. s. Thelotrema monosporum, ee
lpn 2: (pe IS
. nitidulum, ar Bot;. Boils citi; 25:
. patulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25.
. polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 25.
XXII. GRAPHIDE®, M.A., os a Fee, p. 13., and Bot. Soce.,
p. 372

eae

50. Tremotylium, M.A.
T. nitidulum, M.A., Bot. Bulls; viii., 103:

51. Platygrapha, Ny|.
P. Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25.

52. Opegrapha, Ny}.

s. Huopegrapha, M.A., Lirelle lecideine, always
oblongate, not thalline-margined : perithecium
complete ; gonidia chroolepoid.

O. grossulina, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 29.

O. prosodea, Ach., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.

O. interveniens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30.

O. Bonplandi v. abbreviata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 102.

s. Lecanactis, M.A. As in Euopegrapha, but
lirelle always when young orbicular, sub-
lecideine, at length oblongate, no thalline
margin, but often pulverulent : perithecium
complete; base incrassate; lips laterally
emergent.

OSS

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 39

. varia v. diaphora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, viii., 102.

. vulgata v. subsiderella, Nyl., Bot. Bull., vii., 102.
. lacteella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.

. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 26.

53. Melaspilea, M.A.

M.

s. Holographa, M.A. Perithecium complete, lips
connivent ; disk rimiform.

. operaphoides, Nyl., Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 487, No. 92,

as Opegrapha.

leucina, M.A. s. O. lewcina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.?

p. 135.

s. Hemigrapha, M.A., Perithecium with base
wanting; lips connivent; disk rimitorm-
angulate.

asteriscus, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 29.

s. Eumelaspilea, M.A. Perithecium at the base
complete ; lips rather small, at length distant
or widely gaping; disk wide.

. congregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30.
. intrusa, M.A. s. Opegrapha intrusta, Stirton, Lich.

Fl. Q., p. 135.

. congregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.

s. Melaspileopsis, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 20.

. stellaris., M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 26.

54. Graphis (Ach.), M.A.

s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, base
complete; lips connivent: ‘longitudinally
suleate ; disk rimiform, black.

. descissa, M.A., Bot. Bull:, xiii., 27.
. rimulosa v. pulverulenta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 30.
. rimulosa v. brachycarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.

s. Solenographa, M.A. Perithecium black, com-
plete, not at all sulcate ; disk narrow, black,
subrimiform.

. emersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103.

s. Hugraphis, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting
beneath the lamina ; lips connivent, not at all
sulcate; disk narrow, commonly rimiform,
subnigrous. |

. albissima, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.
. tmmersella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.

40 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.

G. Lineola, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. .
i. scripta v. recta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 31.

s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting
beneath the lamina about the middle part of
the lirella; lips connivent, longitudinally
sulcate ; disk subrimiform and_ subnigrous.

G. duplicata, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103.
G. dwplicata v. sublaevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103.
G. vinosa, M.A.,: Bot. Bull., xiui.; 27.
s. Phanerographis, M.A. Perithecium complete ;
disk at length opening widely, plane.
G. semiaperta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31.
s. Fissurina, M.A. Perithecium pallid, more or
. __ less erumpent ; disk pallid ; spores 4-locular.
G. albo-nitens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30.
G. insidiosa, M.A., Bot. Ball., viii., 103.
G. laevigata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 30.

s. Chlorographu, M.A. Perithecium pallid ; disk

subplane, pallid ; loculi of spores more than 4.
G. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viti., 103.

s. Diplographis, M.A. Lirelle with lips closely
connivent, longitudinally suleate, not at all
black ; spores 2-4-locular.

G. robustior, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 31.

s. Mesographis, M.A. Perithecium sulcate/ above

black, within coloured ; epithecium rimiform.
G. xanthospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.

55. Pheographis, M.A., L. B., 454, 531.
s. Anisothecitum, M.A., Perithecium black, base
wanting ; disk subrimiform, narrow.
P. epimelena, M.A., Bot. Buil., xiii, 28. s. Graphs
malacodes, Stirton, non. Nyl.. Lich. Fl. Q.._p-
143.

56. Graphina, M.A.

s. Solenographina, M.A. Perithecium black, com-

plete ; lips not suleate ; disk rimiform, black.
G. saxicola, M.A. s. G. olivaceo-lutea, C.K., Lich. FI.

QO: ana Aap:

s. Aulacographina, M.A. Perithecium black, base
incomplete, wanting beneath the lamina ;
lips longitudinally sulcate; disk rimiform,
black.

a

G.

ae

a:

-

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 4]

sophistica v. recta, M.A., Bot. Bull., xin., 28.
subvelata, Shirley. s. Graphis subvelata, Stirton,
Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899.

tenwrima, Shirley. Bot. Bull., v., 34.

s. Platygrammina, M.A. Perithecium fuscous or
pallid, base wanting; disk widely aperient,
subplane, pallid, clothed with a thin thalline
vestment.

quassiaecola, M.A. s. Graphina pyelodes, Wils., Bot.

Ball, .4di.n32 Paves.

s. Platygraphina, M.A. Apothecia and = disk
thickly albido-thalline clothed ; perithecium
brown or pallid or almost indistinct, base
complete, everywhere thin; disk broad, flat,

pallid.

. simulans, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 29.

s. Medusulina, M.A. Lirelle gregariously crowded,
not subsequently dispersed.

. egenella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31.

Pheographina, M.A.

s. Eleutheroloma, M.A. Perithecium wanting or
hyaline under the lamina, elsewhere black
or olivaceo-fuscous or evanescent; lips at
length distant, thin; disk wide, subplane,
nigro-fuscous.

caesio-pruinosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 20.

. caesio v. monospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 28.

s. Homoloma, M.A. Perithecium fusco-nigrous,
not sulcate or thalline clothed ; base complete,
margins thick ; disk black and narrow.

assimilis, Shirley, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195.

s. Chrooloma, M.A. Lirelle clothed with thalline
stratum, wholly pallid, or golden or brown ;
margins thick, connivent, beneath the thallus
profoundly longitudinally sulcate; = disk
narrow, pallid.

chrysentera, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 31.
contexta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.

b). Helminthocarpon, Fee.

H. Baileyanum, M.A., Bot. Bull. xiii., 29.

/ #,

42 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
58. Arthonia, Ach.
A. albofarinosa, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
A. amoena, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29.
A. gracilior, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29.
Ay rubeella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29.
A. subgyrosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 30.
A. gregaria v. adspersa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii.,. 30.
A. gregaria v. purpurea, Esch., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
A. leptospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
59. Arthothelium, Mass.
A. eribrosa, Fee., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
4. favulosa v. depauperata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
A. fevulosa v. intermedia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30.
4. microsporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29.
A. polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29.
A. puniceum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.
60. Mycoporellum, M.A.
M. perexiguum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
61. Asterotrema, M.A.
A. punctuliforme, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30.
XXII. GLYPHIDE®, M.A.
62. Sarcographa, Fee.
S. subtricosa, M.A. s. S. actincta, Wils., Bot. Bull.
vili., 104.
S. subtricosa v. pulverulenta, Shirley. s. S. actinota f,
pulverulenta, Wilson, Bot. Bull, ii., 33.
S. oculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30.
63. Chiodecton, Ach.
CO. endoleucum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.
C. hamatum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30.
C. spherale, Ach. s. C. stromaticum, C.K., Lich. FI.
Q.\.p. 157
C. virens, M.A:, Bot. Bull., xiii., 30.
XXII. (a) NYLOGRAPHIDE®, Th. M. Fries.
64. Diplogramma, M.A.
D. australiensis, M:A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33.

iV. PYRENOCARPE, “M.A., Consp. Syst. N.Z., p. Td.

I. DERMATOCARP, M.A., Pyreno. Cub., p. 377.

1. Dermatocarpon, Eschw. Syst., p. 21 (pro. p.)
D. miniatum, Th. M. Fries, Bot: Bull., x., 28.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 43
II. STRIGULEH, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 378.
2. Strigula, Fr.
S. Glaziovi, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 61.
S. elegans v. eumorpha, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.
S. elegans v. pertenius, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.

It. PYRENUL&, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 381.
Sub-tribe 1. Astrotheliew, Trev., Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 22.
3. Parmentaria, Fee., Meth., p. 24.
astroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.

. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., p. 34.
. grossa, M.A., Bot. Bull’, x:, 35.
. nterlatens, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35.
. subastroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35.
. subastroidea v. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35,
toowoombensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35.
Sub-tribe 2. Pleurotheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., jp. 387.
4. Pleuwrothelium, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 387.
P. australiense, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33.
5. Parathelium, Nyl., Bot. Zeit., 1862, p. 279.
P. decumbens, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 105.
P. fibrata, Shirley. s. Verrucarria fibruta, Stirton,
Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
6. Pleurotrema, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 388.
P. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 15.

7. Campylothelium, M.A., Lich. Beit., 595.
C. defossum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30, and iv., 33.

C. ntidum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 30, and iv., 33.
Sub-tribe 3. Trypetheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 389.

8. Trypethelium, Trev., Syn. Tryp., p. 19.
. anomalum, Ach., Bot. Bull., v., 34.
. infuscatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34.
. tropicum v. nigratum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34.
. virgineum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34.
. eleuterie v. citrinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30.
. oligocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33.
9. Bathelium, Trev. Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 21.
B. chrysocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
10. Bottaria, Mass., Misc. Lich., p. 42.
B. umbilicata, M.A. ss. Trypethelium umbilicatum,
©. Be. Bats Balls ae 34.

Sila iac Basia aa

eas Pasa

A4

It,

13.

14.

16.

LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND

Melanotheca, Wee., Ess. Sup., p. 70.
M. cruenia, M.A. s. M. rubra, C.K., Bot. Bull
34. |

M. oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34.

M. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.

Tomasellia, Mass., F1., 1856, p. 283.

T. aciculifera, M.A., Bot., Bull., iii., 31.

iT’. queenslandica, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34.
Sub-tribe 4. Verrucariew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 398.

Porina, M.A.; Lich. Beit., 644.

5 Ky

P. africana, M.A. .s. P. limitata, C.K.,, Bot. Bull, x.,

30.
. araucarie, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
. bellendenica, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
. fulvula, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 31.
gine. NE AC. Bot. Bulli, 30:
. internigrans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30.
. pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 31.
. rude, M,A., Bot. Bull.) x.; 30.

wy ytd

Oe Bots ‘Bull. 3; "ae

. tetracere, ‘M.A.,. Bot. Bull.,-x:, 30. 3: WW.
Stirton.

P. variegata, Fee:, Bot. Bull., x., 30.

Phylloporina, M.A., Lich. Epiph., No. 50.
P. epiphylla, M.A:, Bot. Bull, x., 30:

'

. Clathroporina, M.A., Lich. Beit., 541.

C. desquamans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 34.

C. desquamans v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin.

C. flavescens, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 34.

C. olivacea, M.A. s. Porina enteroxantha, C.K..,
FL QO op 7k Bor. Balk, aa Oe,

Arthopyrenia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 612.

. aiomaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.

. cinchone, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 105.

. consobrina, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.

, extans, M:.A:; Bot: Bull, =.) 29:

. fallacior, M.A,» Bot.>Bull, x.9.28:
limitans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.

. oculata, M.A-.,.Bot. Bull, x., 29.
suboculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xm, 31.

Ps fs fb me pe

Ds ps pa

rhaphidospora, M.A. s. Verrucaria rhaphispora,

NANO,

, 105.

Lich.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. A5

17. Polyblastia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 490.
P. geminella, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31.
P. gregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30.
P.. nudata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viit., 105.
18. Pyrenula, Fee., Ess. Suppl., p. 76.
P.. adacta, Fee., Bot. Bull, 1ii.; 31.
P.. adacta v. cinerascens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33.
P. bicuspidata, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.Ix., Bot.
Bull, viii, 106.
. Bonplandie, Fee., Bot. Bull., x. 32.
. ndusiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32.
. Kunthii., Fee., Bot. Bull., viii., 106.
. mastophora (Nyl)., M.A., Bot. Bull, ii., 31.
mastophorizans, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33.
. marginata, Trev., Bot. Bull., viii, 106.
mamillana, Trev., Bot. Bull, ii., 31.
melaleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
. microcarpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32.
. nigro-cincia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
nitida, Ach., Bot. Bull., vii., 106.
. nitidans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull.,:x., 32.
. pinguis, Fee., Bot. Bull, viii., 106.
. pinguis v. emergens, M.A. s. V. punctella v. exstans,
Nyl., Bot. Bull... x., 33.
. porinoides, Ach., Bot. Bull., x., 33.
. subcongruens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32.
. sexlocularis, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.K., B.B.
apes Fp
P. velatoir, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32.
P. Warming, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 31. s. V. tropica,

Stirton.

Sewwey weve yy

mo Ay ty

19. Anthracothecitum, Mass., Esam. Comp., p. 49.
A. aurantium, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33.
A. amphitropum, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 31.
A. confine, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii, 106.
A. denudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33.
A. denudatum v. ochrotropum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33.
A. Doleschalii, Mass. 8s. Trypethelium planum, C.K..
Bot. Bull’, viii., 106.
A. oculatwm, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 35.
A. oligosperum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33.

46

LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND

A. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 32.
A. Thwattesi1, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.
Microthelia, WKorb., Syst., p. 372.

M.
. brisbanensis, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31.

. maculiformis, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 32.

. obovata, M.A. s. Pyrenula obovata, Shirley, Lich.

alba, M: A; Bot. Bull, x31.

Bis Q. 3p. L76.

M. queenslandie, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31.
. Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31.
. subgregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31.

NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINTDAL,
By ALLAN R. McCULLOCH,
ZOOLOGIST, AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, SYDNEY.
(Published by permission of the Trustees of the Australian

Museum).

Plate I. and Text Figure 1.
Read before the Royal Socrety of Queensland, 26th June, 1912.
(Communicated by Dr. T. Harvey JOHNSTON).
ATHERINA MUGILOIDES, nom. nov.
(Text Figure 1.)

Atherinichthys punctatus, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8.
Wales, IX., 1885, p. 869 (not Atherina punctata, Bennett,
1832).

NAVE, L/7-8 5 AAY9-10 Ware ees O FT Maa hat.
Soe SE Ly, Tre:

i

ww NV
5a TCC yi; raat: ei
cin

=

x
N\\
‘ q

Aa

GI4, it~
2g ee
Ze 4

No
ARNE AMRNONN

Text Ficure 1.

od

Body stout, depth at ventrals 51-52 in length from
snout to hypural; head 4 in the same. Snout 14-14 in the
eye, which is 24-22 in the head, and equal to or wider
than the interorbital space. Maxillary not expanded
posteriorly, reaching to below the margin or anterior fourth
of the eye. Teeth minute, slender, acute, apparently
arranged in two series in the upper jaw and one in the
lower ; confined to the front and anterior parts of the sides
of the jaws. Vomer, palatines and tongue toothless.
Gill-rakers long and slender.

48 AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID®

Scales much larger anteriorly than on the caudal»
peduncle, in 33-34 series between the base of the pectoral
and the hypural. There are six between the median series
before the second dorsal and the anal, 10-12 between the
first dorsal and the head, and nine between the first spines
of the two dorsal fins.

Origin of the first dorsal almost midway between the
snout and the hypural, and a little behind the vertical
of the vent which is between the middle or hinder third
of the ventrals. Ventrals inserted about halfway between
the pectoral and the dorsal or nearer the latter, and beneath
the hinder third or fourth of the pectoral. Anal com-
mencing well, and terminating slightly in advance of the

second dorsal.

Solourless after long preservation in alcohol, with a
broad silver lateral band. Cheeks and opercles silver. Upper
parts with scattered minute black specks.

Described from six specimens, 28-35 mm. Jong from
the snout to the hypural. Through the kindness of Dr.
Hamlyn-Harris, Director of the Queensland Museum,
I have been able to examine four from Cape York. including
the type specimen, while two co-types are in the Australian
Museum. The largest of these last is figured. They do not
appear to differ generically from <Atherina, but may be
distinguished from most other Australian species by their

large scales.
CRATEROCEPHALUS, gen. nov.

Freshwater atherines with small protractile mouths,
the maxillary not reaching to the anterior margin of the
eye. Body covered with large, cycloid, concentrically
striated scales which extend forwards on to the upper part
of the head: some large scales on the cheeks and opercular
bones. First dorsal with about 5-8 spines, the second
with 1 spine and 7-8 rays. Anal similar to dorsal. Miero-
scopic teeth in each jaw; vomer, palatines and tongue
toothless, the skin covering the roof of the mouth often
bears minute papillae which closely resemble teeth. Gull-
rakers short and few, about ten on lower limb of first arch.

Type.—C. fluviatilis, sp.nov. Atherinichthys inaculatus,
Macleay, also belongs to this genus.

BY ‘ALLAN R. MG CULLOGH. AQ:
~ This genus differs from Atherina in having a smaller
mouth’ and shorter and fewer gill-rakers. From Tdénio-

membras it is distinguished by the “absence of vomerine
teeth.

" Atherininichthys, Bleeker, in which C. maculatus and
other Australian atherines have been placed, is synonymous
with Chirostoma, Swainson* (type Atherina humboldtiana,
Cuv. & Val.), and differs from all the Australian species
in its small scales, long anal fin, _and general form. ,

CRATEROCEPHALUS. FLUVIATILIS, sp. nov.
(Plate I.:; Figure 1.) - .

D.V-VII, I/7-8; A.1/8-9; V.I/5; P. sg; Segoe OREM & 3

L. Lat. 31-33. | ee Raia]

Head 32- 33 in the length from the snout to the hypural.
Depth 14-134 in the head. Eye longer ‘than the snout,
about 3 in the head, and equal to or longer than the depth
of the caudal peduncle. Interorbital width a little narrower
than the eye in young specimens, wider in adults. Cheeks
with a single series of large angular scales, and there are
similar scales on all the opercular bones ; upper surface of
the head with larger irregular scales extending forwards
to between the eyes, snout and ‘preorbital'naked. Anterior
nostril near the margin of the preorbital on the angle formed
between the top and side ‘of the snout ; posterior nostril
near the eye. A line of pores extends ‘estan the snout to
behind the eye, then bends downwards to a groove above
the operculum; another line extends around the preoper-
culum and branches behind the angle of the mouth, one
branch running along the preorbital and the other on to
the lower jaw. Maxillary slightly..expanded posteriorly
not reaching the anterior margin of the eye. Six branch-
iostegals. Teeth minute, in a single series in each jaw.

Scales large, cycloid, concentrically striated, 31-33
in a row from behind the base of the pectoral to the hypural.
Most of those on the dark lateral band are pierced by a
simple pore. Between the median scale béfore the second
dorsal and that in front of the anal there are 7-10 rows :

?

in 20 specimens from the junction of the Namoi and Barwon

*See Jordan & Evermann, Bull. U,. S. Nat. Muz., No.. 47,. Pt. a
1896, p. 792, and Pt. IV., 1900, pl. cxxm., fig. 334.
D

5a AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID®

Rivers there are 7 rows, and. in six from Narrandera three
have 10 rows, two have $,andonehas7. Thescales extend
on to the base of the caudal

Origin of first dorsal slightly in advance of the middle
of the length to the hypural, and a little behind the vertical
of the ventrals ; second and third spines. longest. Anterior
rays. of second dorsal longest, the fin originating a little
farther back than the anal, to which it is similar in form.
Ventrals usually reaching to the vent, sometimes shorter.
Upper pectoral rays longest, reaching to the vertical of
either the ventrals: or the first dorsal.

Colour.—Whitish in formalin with a dark (silver)
band extending from abdéve the base of the pectoral to the
hypural which may be continued, more or less indefinitely,
on to the upper portion of the operculum and side of the
snout. Upper portion of head and back with more or less
numerous minute black specks which, when present, are
arranged near the margins of the scales above the lateral
band. Lower parts of the body with a few scattered specks,
and a median row on the under surface of the caudal
peduncle.

Described from six specimens, 35-61 mm. long, from
North Yanko Creek, Narrandera, N.S. Wales,-and twenty
from, a lagoon at the junction of the Namoi and Barwon
Rivers, N. S. Wales. The specimen selected as the type
is 61 mm. long, from the former locality. They were
collected by Mr. David G. Stead, who presented them
to the Australian Museum. Other specimens are in the
Museum collection from the McIntyre River, on _ the
boundary between N. 8S. Wales and Queensland.

This species is very probably identical with Atherima
interioris, Zietz,* from the overflow of Coward and Strang-
ways Springs, Central Australia, which though named,
has not been described. Through the kindness of Professor
E. C. Stirling, Director of the South Australian Museum,
I have been: able to examine one of Mr. Zietz’s original
specimens, but its condition is too bad to enable me to say
whether it is identical with these described above or not.

The following notes on the distribution and_ habits
of C. fluviatilis have been supplied by Mr. Stead. “ The

*Zietz, Trans. Rey. Soc. S. Austr., xxxmi., 1909, p. 264.

BY ALLAN BR, MC: CHLLOCH. 51

Freshwater Hardyhead,” which, curiously enough,
considering its abundance, has, apparently, hitherto escaped
description, is one of the commonest fishes in the Western
waters of New South Wales—I may go farther than that,
and say throughout the whole of the Murray River Drainage
Area. I have collected it from billabongs and lagoons on
the Murray River and have seen it in the Mitta Mitta,
and other Victorian feeders of the Murray. It has also
been sent to me in a collection from the lower Murray
in South Australia. I have taken it in the warrumbools
and small waterholes of the country north of the Upper
Barwon, not far from the Queensland border, and have
taken or observed it in Lake Narran, in several places on
the Barwon and the Darling (old Collymungool Station,
Collarenebri, Calmundi Station, Walget, Barooma, Brew-
arrina, and Bourke), in Tarrion Creek and the Dry Bogan,
in the Bogan proper (at Nyngam), the Macquarie, the
Cudgegong (at' Rawden and above at an altitude of about
2,500. feet), the Lachlan, the Murrumbidgee (at several
places on the plains and also, in the vicinity of Cooma.
at an altitude of about 2,500 feet), Yanko Creek, Edward’s,,
or Kyalite River and the Wakool,

‘“T have found it equally abundant in such widely-
separated places and at such varying altitudes as Munga-
barina, near Albury, Rawden near Rylstene, and the
Upper Barwon. It may be mentioned that in one haul
of the net, at a small waterhole near the junction of the
Namoi and the Barwon, I took several thousands of this
species from 3-3 inches in length, with a net only 30 feet
long by 4 feet deep. In the flowing rivers and larger
lagoons it is found principally in the shallows along the
banks, and in the clearer waters is seen moving in small
schools.

«Adults commonly attain a length of two or three
inches, and exceptionally four inches. The spawning
season is during the warmer months, and the egg, which
s an adhesive demersal one, is_ relatively large. It
subsists upon the small aquatic insects and crustaceans
which occur in prodigious numbers in most of the waters

of the Murray Drainage Area.’’

52, AUBTRALIAN ATHERINID® ~

CRATEROCEPHALUS MACULATUS, Macleay.
(Plate: a eave

Atherinichthys maculatus, Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc, N. Ss.
Wales, VIIT., 1883, p. 207, and IX., 1884, p. 40.

D.VI-VII, | ¥/6-8 ¥ A.1/8-9;'V.1/5; P. 11-13; C.-17;
L. Lat. 32-33. it r

_ Head 332-41 in the ek from the snout to the hypural, -
Depth of foie 11-134 in the head. Eye longer. than, the
snout, larger than in C. fluviatilis, 23-34 in the head, its.
length equal to or less than the depth of the caudal peduncle.
Interorbital as wide as the eye in. young specimens,. half
as wide again in adults. : Head scales, nostrils, and pores:
as in fluviatilis. Teeth minute, in three or four rows in,
the upper jaw, and one or two below.

Scales and fins similar to fluviatilis, but the relative
positions and sizes of the latter vary somewhat in both
species ; the ventrals appear to be usually larger in C.
maculatus. In all my specimens there are seven transverse
rows of scales between the median dorsal and anal | series
in front of the second dorsal and anal fins. |

Colour.—Whitish in alcohol with a dark band from the
hypural to the pectoral, which is usually also distinct on
the head. Upper part of head and back more or less
densely speckled with black, and in well-marked examples
each scale on the sides bears a central dark spot.

This species was originally obtained in Lillesmere
Lagoon on the lower Burdekin River, Queensland. I am
unable to find the type specimens in the Macleay Museum,
and as they are not in the Australian Museum they are
probably lost. The Australian Museum collection includes
two specimens from freshwater at Cairns, and two from
Townsville, collected by Mr. W. Butcher; four from
Eidsvold, Burnett River, collected by Dr. Thomas L.
Bancroft ; one from near Brisbane, collected by Mr. F,
Phillips. Length, 34-74 mm.

O. maculatus is distinguished from C. fluviatilis chiefly.
by its different colour-marking and in having several rows
of teeth in the jaws instead of only one. The eye is also
larger. |

BY ALLAN R. MC CULLOCH. 53

Explanation of Plate I.

Figure 1. Craterocephalus fluviatilis, sp. nov. Type, twice
natural size.

Figure 2. Craterocephalus maculatss, Macleay. Twice
natural size.

Gtk (OED; ae ae. Woe Ge gine okie .
Cara ae fe eae?

LOL DE

“ype

PuatE I.

Proc. Roy. Soe. Q’nanp, VoL. xxiv.

ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF
QUEENSLAND.
Part ITI,

By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc.
Senor Inspecror or ScHoots.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st July, |
1912.

In continuation of my paper of September 24th, 1910,
in which 348 species, not yet recorded from Queensland,
were reported, and which formed a suplement to Mr. Charles
Hedley’s list of 1911 Queensland species, catalogued in
the Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. xii., pp. 343-371, and 809-810,
I submit a further list of marine shells from this State,
not hitherto known to be found on our shores.

Arca (Scapharca) -chalcanthum, Reeve, Normanton.
Arca nivea, Gmelin, Moreton Bay.

Arca reticulata, Sby., Moreton Bay.

Glycimeris angulatus, Lamk., Murray Island.
Modiola Senhausii, Reeve, Murray Island, Normanton.
Crassatellites pulchra, Reeve, Caloundra,

Cardium vertebratum, Jonas, Moreton Bay.

Dosinia laminata, Reeve, Normanton.

Macrocallista impudica, Chem., Normanton.

Euchelus ampullus, Tate, Caloundra.

Euchelus baccatus, Menke, Murray Island.

Turbo pulcher, Reeve, Murray Island.

Strombus tridentatus, Lamk., Murray Island.
Pterocera pseudoscorpio, Lamk,, Normanton.

Cithara nove-hollandiw, Reeve, Cape York.
Cymatium obscurum, A. Ad., Torres Straits.

Bursa leucostoma, Lamk., Yeppoon.

Cassis strigata, Gmel., Moreton Bay.

Terebra aciculina, Lamk., Murray Island.

56

MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND.

Terebra cingulifera, Lamk., Murray Island.

Conus betulinus, L., Torres Straits.

Conus maldivus, Hwass, Murray Island.

Harpa: crassa, Morch, Normanton. bits iy
Glyphostoma rubida, Hinds, Cape York.

Peristernia nassatula,' Lamk., Thursday Island.
Cantharus (T'ritonidea) australis, Pease, Murray Island.
Cantharus (Tritonidea) rubiginosa, Reeve, Normanton.
Arcularia compacta, Angas, Bowen.
Thais armigera, Reeve,* Torres: Straits.’

Drupa concatenata, Blain., Thursday Island.

The following are errata in my previous paper of

September 24th, 1910 :—

p. 147, line 13, for ‘““philippinensis, Desh,” read
** Reeveanum, Dunker.”’

isp. 148, line 30, delete “‘ Gibbula. magus, L.,’ which

though sent down from Torres Straits is undoubt-
. edly European.
p. 148, line 37, for ** mysticus, Pilsbry,” read “‘ampullus,
.Tate.”’

- p. 153, line 10, for “ adusta, Lamark,”’ read “ digitalis,

Reeve.”’

_p. 153, line 15, for ‘* Hainillei, Pet.,” read “ variabilis

Reeve,’’

ORATER NEAR HERBERTON:

By. R. C. RINGROSE, M.A.

— ee

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th April, 1912)

Tuts remarkable spot is situated on the Upper Barron
River Watershed, about nine miles from Herberton, and
about twelve miles from Atherton, in an area of land com-
prising two square miles, reserved at the instance of the
Herberton Chamber of Commerce as a Reserve for a
National Park. The corrected height of the Crater ‘tip
above sea level is 3,341 feet, and of the high ridge outside
the scrub is 3,566 feet. The bed of the Barron River
(Dinner Creek) encircling the Crater on two sides is 3,101
feet. These readings are the result or a series of observa-
tions with two aneroids, and corrected by Mr. C. E. Deshon-
chief surveyor to the Hydraulic Engineer’s Department
of Queensland.

The whole of this dividing ridge between the Barron
River and Nigger Creek is either too heavily grassed or
clothed with dense scrub and the vegetable mould formed
by the decomposition of the leaves, to admit of accurate
observation of the rocks buried beneath. Speaking
generally, the whole of this divide consists of quartz
porphyries (composed of felspars and quartz with a small
quantity of mica) cut through in places by elvan dykes.
A large portion of the high mountain on which the Barron
River and Poona Creek rises is largely composed of massive
porphyry. The main mass of this range is often cut into
intrusive dykes of a fine grained porphyry known as elvans.
It may here be noted that the main quartz porphyries
and granites of the valleys of the Wild and Walsh Rivers
as well as many of the Permo-carboniferous or Devonian
series of these valleys are everywhere cut into by a series
of intrusive elvan dykes, in some places forming dykes
cutting through the ridges at their ‘highest points or
occurring in the form of irregular compact masses.

58 CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.

These dykes are probably newer, though possibly
of the same period as the huge massive porphyry, which
extends from the Valley of the Dry River, some 34 miles
southerly, from Watsonville and crosses the Wild River
some seven miles from MHerberton and extends past
Evelyn Station to the Gorge Road and to the Millstream.

In his report on “The Tin Mines of Watsonville,”
(1897), Mr. 8. J. B. Skertchly, referring to the igneous
rocks of the Herberton and Watsonville Districts, says—
‘““The granites are the oldest of the rocks and they are
newer than the permo-carboniferous (?Devonian) sedi-
mentary strata for they can be seen forcing their way
into these rocks and sending strings and dykes into them,
and this is even more marked in the southern part of our
Colony than in the northern.”

‘Next in geological sequence is the great porphyry
series which has pushed its way through the granite and
sent numerous dykes into it. Following this is the period
of the elvan dykes, which intersect alike the sedimentary
rocks, the granite and the porphyry. Connected with
these elvan dykes is the production of some of the tin-
bearing matter, as is abundantly shown in the sequel.
Next in order are the basic dykes (diorites, etc.) with which
the chief outpourmg of the tin occurred.”

Last of all, there are the great basaltic outpourings
of the Tertiary period similar to so many other districts
in. Australia.

These main characteristics are well illustrated on the
main spur of the Hugh Nelson Range, on which the “ Crater”
is situated. Descending from the high granite point,
from which the view of Bartle Frere and Bellenden Ker
is obtained, it is necessary to proceed on foot through the
scrub. Here and there cedar trees are met with, and
except in a few places the rock is buried under the rich
vegetable mould of the scrub. But the main characteristics
above referred to are well illustrated, where fragments of
the rock are obtainable. Entering the scrub, the rock
is here elvan, further on the quartz porphyries appear,
and in the bed of the creek, about three quarters of a mile
in the scrub, hard elvan porphyry is exposed. Crossing
the Creek chocolate soil overlies the rock beneath. Ascend-
ing the high ridge forming the Gorge of the Barron River

BY R. C. RINGROSE, M.A. 59
the quartz porphyries are again visible and extend to the
“Crater.” The ridge near the ‘“ Crater” is narrow, and
towards the Barron River Gorge is exceedingly steep.
From the summit of the ridge one descends rapidly amongst
cedar trees, until one descends almost unconsciously into
the great chasm known as the “ Crater,” hidden ‘amongst
the trees at the end of the leading spur, and encircled on
two sides by the Barron Gorge. I estimate the distance
across the ‘“‘ Crater’ at its widest point to be 34 chains.

From the rim on the low but accessible side, the distance
to the water is rather less than 300 feet. On all sides,
except where there i is a slight slip, the walls are absolutely
vertical. The whole of the bottom of the chasm is water,
the depth of which measured by a line with a weight on it,
is about 300 feet. (These measurements are subject to
correction.) The surface of the water is covered with a
weed known as “lemna oligorhiza.”’

The main material of the precipitous walls of the
chasm is quartz porphyry, but on one-side there is a small
belt of fine-grained elvan porphyry. The height of the
** Crater”? is 3,341 feet above sea level, and the bed of the
Barron River, just above the Crater is 3,101 feet. It
therefore follows that there is no outlet for the water in
the Barron River. As far as is known the level of the
water is stationary, and there is no evidence that it either
increases or diminishes otherwise than by rainfall or by
natural evaporation respectively. The bed of the Barron
River is solid quartz porphyry, and from Dinner Creek
descends rapidly in a series of pretty cascades, until it
passes through a gorge just above Clarke’s track to the
Russell. Attempts have been made, but no one _ has
succeeded in getting the depth of the water in the centre
of the chasm. On the eastern side of the Barron River,
Gum Tree Hill 1ises abruptly out of the river.

What is the origin of this remarkable chasm? What
is its age? It has none of the appearances of the voleanoes
of the Tertiary basalts. It is newer than the quartz
porphyries, and newer than the elvan porphyries. Being
carved out of solid rock on the main back-bone of Aus-
tralia, no other conclusion can be arrived at than that
its origin was due to some violent volcanic action of deep-
seated origin. There is no evidence of any falling in or

£20, CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.

denudation of the rock. There | is no rock such as limestone,,.
soluable enough to account for the erosion of such a chasm.
‘There is no evidence that the waters of the Barron River
are affected. by or swallowed up even to the slightest degree
by, the, Crater. No similar. vent or chasm is known to
exist. _in, any other portion of the district. It is totally
different tg Lake .Kacham, which is clearly the ruined
voleano of the Tertiary period. But the Crater, might have
been caused by the outburst of a period of voleanic, activity,
Subsequent to:-the period of the-‘‘ massive porphyries,”
and subsequent to the period of the elvan outbursts. . The
only. appearance which lends a clue to the origin of-the.
Crater is, that on the north-west side and-highest. side
rounded stones of exceedingly porous:and vesicular. basalt
are found. Altered zeolite ahs yi are embedded in all
of the boulders. ; |

On the eastern side of the Crater and right down to
the edges of the rocky bed of the Barron River itself, there
‘are in places small fragments of basaltic rock, and in other
places up the river a few hundred yards, there is abundance
of red chocolate soil. Now whether these apparently
rounded, highly vesicular fragments of basalt have been
ejected with great force up the vent of the Crater, it is
impossible to say at present, until something further is
known of the country further up the Barron River. This
is a pathless jungle at present, and it will be probably
‘many years before the country up the Barron River’ will
be sufficiently opened up to speak with certainty. The
writer has not observed such highly vesicular basalt in any
other part of the district. Not far away, on the Western
edge of the Hugh Nelson Range, the solid basalts of the
later’ Tertiary period have flowed down from some old
volcano. near the head of the Beatrice, very much along
the course of the south branch of Nigger Creek, and finally
spread. out over the bed of the old bed of the Wild River,
and. have formed what is now known as the Herberton Deep
‘Lead. The river beds were then wider than they are
to-day, and probably the ranges were higher and the rain-
fall greater. The basalts of these old lava flows are hard,
compact basalts for the most part, and have no oe
with the vesicular basalts of the Crater.

BY R. ©. RINGROSE, M.A. aes 5 «|

there is nothing extraordinary in finding a volcanic
vent carved out of rock of a much older series. But it
is not usual to find them in a condition much the same
as when they were in their original state of activity, and
unfilled by rock originally being rising columns of lava,
or by falling debris and rocks, either hurled up the chimney
itself and falling back into it, or from surrounding rocks
shattered from explosions of steam and gases. There
is no great quantity of debris found immediately round
the Crater near Herberton. Denudation, no doubt, has
‘worn away some of the volcanic deposits. But it is likely
enough that volcanic ashes were ejected in large quantities
with great force over a wide area. That the early flows
of basalt broke through the underlying deep-seated rocks
with great force is illustrated by the fact that a dyke of
basalt, having no visible connections, has been exposed
in solid porphyry country rock in one of the cuttings of
the Herberton-Evelyn line near the great Northern Gully,
in the town of Herberton, showing that the dykes burst
through the most solid country rocks apparently from great
depths. This is the only known instance of an isolated
basalt dyke unconnected with ordinary basaltic outpour-
ings, and evidently of the most deep-seated origin.

The conclusions to be drawn from the observed facts
of the Crater may be :—

1. That the Crater is a volcanic vent, which is newer
than the massive porphyries, and newer than the elvan
series, and that all the facts point to its origin being caused
by a violent manifestation of volcanic activity.

2. Its origin may be older than the period of the
Tertiary Volcanic system.

3. It must have been a vent for steam gases and
volcanic ejecta between the periods of the massive por-
phyries, elvan period and the Tertiary volcanic period,
nd it is conceivable that in some early portion of the
Vertiary period. it was an outlet for voleanic bombs of the
basaltic type, but it has no connection with and may have
‘been closed up before the period of Lake Eacham and other
Tertiary volcanoes.

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NOTES ON SOME. ENTOZOA.

a

By T. HARYEY JOHNSTON. M.A., D.Sc.
(Biology Dept., University, Brisbane).

(Plates Il, ITI, IV, V).

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th June, 1912-

Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp.
(Pl. bE; Bigs.. 1,. 2).

Host :—Hyla aurea ; specimens collected by Dr. 8. J.
Johnston, of Sydney University, from frogs eaptured in
the neighbourhood of Sydney.

Length, over 6 cm. ; greatest breadth, about -75mm.

The seolex is a rounded unarmed structure, :32 mm.
in width, with four suckers, each about -11 mm. in diameter,
and a rudimentary apical sueker or muscle plug. There
may be a slight neck-like constriction, succeeded by a
relatively long unsegmented region of about the same
breadth as the scolex. Segmentation is of the usual type
seen in the Proteocephalide. The proglottids do not project.
aterally, nor do they vary much in width after sexual
maturity has been reached. The genital pores are situated
at about the middle of the segments and alternate irregu-
larly.

The muscular, nervous and excretory systems are of
the general Proteocephalid type. The testes consist of
numerous vesicles of about -08 mm. diameter, arranged
dorsally in two wide lateral fields between which lies the
uterus. These fields extend almost from the anterior
border of the segment to the ovary. The vas deferens
may be recognised as a coiled tube in the middle of the
proglottis, lying above the uterus and passing laterally
n close coils above and parallel to the vagina until it enters
the cirrus sac within which the vas becomes thrown into

G4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.,

a few rather wider convolutions. The greater part of the
sac is occupied by the wide eversible unarmed cirrus which
is capable of being everted to a length of ;20 mm., its width
in such a state being about -033 mm. The cirrus sac,
when the cirrus is at rest, is-a pyriform organ -14 mm.
long and about -055 mm. wide in its inner. portion. ,The
male pore lies postero-dorsally to the female _aperture,
both terminating in a very short genital cloaca.

The large bilobed ovary consists of numerous tubes
whose terminations lie dorsally, the ovarian bridge being
ventral. Its duct is short. Situated dorso-laterally in
the cortex in the region of the longitudinal nerve are the
vitelline follicles, each with a diameter of about ‘013 mm.

The vagina is a wide tube lying antero-ventrally to
the cirrus sac, narrowing somewhat as it passes inwards
below~it and the vas deferens to bend backwards and travel
above the uterus. Just in front of and above the ovary,
there is a slight enlargement, the receptaculum seminis,
followed by a narrowed portion or fertilising duct into
which the oviduct enters. The shell gland lies in this
region. ‘The uterus arises’ as a’ thin duct which passes
forwards ventrally, along the mid-line, below the ovary
and the vagina. Numerous’ short lateral diverticula
appear at an early stage, and as egg-formation proceeds,
these become much more prominent, until at length the
uterus appears as a much-branched structure almost filling
the medulla. The eggs measure from 15 to 19 micra in
diameter, and the oncospheres from 7:5 to 11 micra.
Vitellaria persist even in segments with fully formed embryos.

Ophiotenia hyle appears to be the first adult cestode
described from an Australian amphibian.

La Rue (1911, p. 473), has recently subdivided the
genus Proteocephalus, one of the genera being Ophiotenia,
to which our form belongs. The differences between
Acanthotenia and Ophiotenia are very slight. The latter
might even be regarded as a subgenus of the former.

Acanthotenia gallardi, Johnston.
(Pl. ID; FWigs.’3, 4)-

This cestode was described by me last year (191la,
p. 175), under the name Proteocephalus gallardi, mention
being made (p. 181) that it belonged to the subgenus

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC 65

Acanthotenia. La Rue (1911) has recently dealt with
the Proteocephalide, and has restored Linstow’s name
(Johnston, 1909, pp. 112, 114) to full generic rank. He
includes all the known Proteocephalids from amphibia
and snakes under Ophiotenia, a genus whose members
do not possess the tiny cuticular spines which occur on
the anterior end of: species of Acanthotenia. Our form
which infests several species of Australian venemous snakes,
is, however, a typical Acanthotenia. It was originally
described from Pseudechis porphyriacus and very shortly
afterwards (Johnston, 1911), p. 239) was recorded from
the tiger snake, Notechis scutatus, mention being made
that a closely allied species parasitised two other snakes,
Denisonia superba (p. 239) and Pseudechis australis. A
careful comparison has led me to consider that all four
snakes harbour the same species of cestode. The main
difference seen is in regard to the number and shape of
the testes, but the former is variable, while the elongate
form of the glands as seen in specimens from the two last
named snakes, is apparently due to imperfect preserva-
tions, both series of specimens having been taken by me
from the intestine of reptiles which had been preserved
for some time in alcohol. The arrangement of all the
organs aS seen in transverse sections, agrees entirely with
that already figured (19lla, pl. vu., figs. 2, 3.)

Acanthotenia tidswelli, Johnston.

Specimens of this. tapeworm which is known to occur
in Varanus varius (Johnston, 1909, p. 103), and in
V. gouldit (19116, p. 242), have been collected from Bell’s
monitor V. bellii, forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, from
Eidsvold, Burnett River. This reptile harboured in its
stomach several nematodes, Physaloptera varani ?, similar
to those already recorded from the two above-named
lizards, while in its blood there were present hemogregarines,
Hemogregarina varanicola.

Some authorities regard V. belliz.as being only a well-
marked variety of V. varius. .

Hymenolepis diminuta (Rud.)

From rats, thus decumanus and M. rattus (Alexandrinus)

caught in Brisbane. Not previously recorded from

Queensland.
E

66 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

Hymenolepis cartoca (Magalh.)

From a domestic fowl, Brisbane. Not previously
reported from Queensland.

Hymenolepis megalops (Nitzsch).

This species has been identified from material collected
from a Black Duck, forwarded by Dr. Bancroft, Eidsvold
and is now definitely recorded from this State.

A new host for this parasite is the Teal, Nettion
castaneum, specimens having been collected by Mr. C. J.
Woollett near Cobar, N.S. Wales.

The parasite under review was described by Krefft
(1873, p. 220; Johnston, 1912, p. 33) as Tenia cylindrica,
and is quite a different form to that described under the
same name by Clerc (1902, p. 661), whose specimens came
from a gull Larus canus. Clere’s species has been listed
as Dilepis? cylindrica and Choanotenia? cylindrica, but
since the specific name was already preoccupied in T'enia,
the name clerci might be substituted for it. (Tenia
clerci=Choanotenia ? clerci, nom. nov.)

Diorchis flavescens (Krefft).

Found by me in a Black Duck, Anas superciliosa,
shot on the Burnett River. In company with this species
of cestode were some trematodes, Hchinostoma sp. (sensu
lato).

Amebotenia cuneata (Linstow).

Found in some fowls in Sydney and also in Brisbane.
This small parasite had not been recorded as occurring in
Australia.

Bancroftiella glandularis (Fuhrmann).

This cestode was originally described by Fuhrmann
under the name of Anomotenia glandularis, from Herodias
timoriensis, his material being collected in the East Indies.
It is now recorded as infesting the Blue Crane, Notophoyx
nove-hollandie, my specimens being collected by Dr. 8. J.
Johnston near Gosford, N.S. Wales. I have the same
species from this host from Queensland.

It belongs to the genus Bancroftiella (Johnston, 1911c,
p. 50).

BY T. HARVEY .JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 67

Tenia crassicollis, Rud.
Found in a local cat (Brisbane). Not previously
recorded from Queensland.

Cysticercus fasciolaris, Rud.

This bladderworm stage of Tenia crassicollis is fairly
commonly met with in the liver of local rats (Mus decumanus
and M. alexandrinus) and mice (M. musculus), but its
presence in Queensland does not appear to have been
reported.

Dipylidium caninum (L.)

A common parasite in local dogs and cats (Brisbane),

but apparently unrecorded from this State.

Diploposthe levis, Bloch.

This large and interesting cestode has again been
met with in a White-eyed Duck, Aythya australis, kindly
forwarded by Dr. Bancroft from Ejidsvold. It is now
definitely recorded from Queensland. Krefft, who
described the parasite as Tenia tuberculata, did not refer
to a definite locality, mentioning merely that his material
was collected in either New South Wales or Queensland.

Metroliasthes luweida, Ransom.

Found in the domestic turkey, my specimens being
collected in Sydney from material supplied by Mr. Thos.
Steel, through the Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney. This
identification constitutes the first record of the occurrence
of the species in Australia.

Davainea cesticillus, Molin.

Has been identified from a local fowl (Brisbane). Not

previously recorded from Queensland.
Davainea tetragona, Molin.

Has been found several times in local fowls (Brisbane).
This species has been previously recorded by Dr. Sweet
(1910, p. 243), as occurring in Rockhampton.

Davainea varians, Sweet.

This tiny parasite of domestic fowls has been described
by Dr. G. Sweet (1910, p. 243), but it seems to me to. be
synonymous with D. proglottina, which is admittedly a
variable species. The main difference appears to be in the size

65 - NOTES ON SOME ‘ENTOZOA.

and form of the rostellar hooks, but it is often a difficult
matter to figure these quite accurately, and the differences
are small. The general anatomy is similar to that of
D. proglottina.
Cittotenia bancrofti, n. sp.
(Pl V; Figs. 42, 45).

This large cestode parasitises one of the small wallabies,
Onychogale frenata, specimens having been collected for
me by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River District). The
Jength is about 15 cm. and the maximum breadth 14 mm.
The unarmed scolex is large, being 1:9 in diameter, and
bears four powerful suckers, each about ‘72 mm. in
diameter. There is no unsegmented neck region, the
strobila consisting of very numerous narrow _leaf-like
segments, which gradually increase in length and breadth
as they pass backwards. The genital papilla les in the
posterior half of each margin.

The longitudinal musculature is very powertul, con-
sisting of a broad zone of bundles lying in the inner portion
of the cortex, the outer portion being free from them. The
bundles on the outer edge of the zone are smaller than
those lying nearer the well-developed transverse muscles.
Dorso-ventral fibres are abundant. The dorsal excretory
vessel is a small tube situated laterally from the larger
ventral canal. The nerve lies just above, or at times
dorso-laterally to, the dorsal vessel. The sex canals pass
above both the excretory canals and the nerve, the male duct
lying above the vagina. Both sex canals terminate in a
common genital chamber which communicates with the
exterior through the genital pore.

Testes were not distinguishable in the specimens.
There is a large cirrus sac in each half of the segment. Its
length when the cirrus is at rest, is from ‘8 to 1 mm., and
the breadth 019 mm. _ It possesses relatively thick muscular
walls. The vas deferens forms a small closely-coiled mass
near the inner end of sac, and after entering the latter,
enlarges to form a vesicula seminalis. The cirrus may be
everted to a distance of -30 mm. beyond the genital pore.
It then appears as a wide organ (-14 mm. in width), covered
with very numerous tiny spines so closely set as to give
a stippled appearance. ;

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 69

The female organs are duplicated and are somewhat.
obliquely placed. The inner and anterior portion of the
female complex consists of the ovary, while the more
laterally situated posterior division consists of the vitellarium
Separating the two is the receptaculum seminis. The vagina
travels inwards behind and below the cirrus sac in a slightly
sinuous course, becoming widened in its progress, its inner
portion being the widest portion. As already mentioned,
this receptaculum lies above and anterior to, the yolk
gland. Each uterus arises as a transverse tube from which
numerous processes or pouches develop anteriorly and
posteriorly. The two uteri extend medianly and eventu-
ally almost touch. I have not determined whether they
ultimately fuse or not.

The above description is of a preliminary nature.

Dibothriocephalus felis, Creplin.

This cestode is met with occasionally in cats. In
addition to specimens from Queensland, I have others
collected in Melbourne, in Sydney, and near Gosford, New
South Wales.

Cysticercoids of Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina.
(PL. Tile: Bie Tb).

_ During the time that I was associated with the Govern-
ment Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, I had opportunity of
examining some thousands of rat-fleas, the species repre-
sented being almost entirely the three common fleas infesting
Muride, viz., Xenopsylla cheopis, Ceratophyllus fasciatus
and Ctenopsyllus musculi. In the last-named _ species,
no parasites were found, while in the two former there
were met with occasionally two distinct species of
Cysticercoids as well as larval nematodes to be referred
to later. Rarely, both the nematodes and one or other
species of Cystercoid occurred in the one host, and also
rarely, both species of Cysticercoid in the same Ceratophyllus,

These cestode larval are identical with those described
and figured by Nicoll and Minchin (1910, p. 9; text figs.
1, 2, Minchin, 1909, p. 741), who proved experimentally
that they were the Cysticercoid stages of two common
rat-parasites, Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina. They
were found only in Ceratophyllus fasciatus and in about

70 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA’

four per cent. of specimens examined. The former larva
is pyriform, with an unarmed scolex and a fairly long tail,
while the Cysticercoid of H. murina is rather broadér
and shorter, has scolex armed with small hooks and
possesses a short thick tail.

Xenopsylla cheopis is thus a new host for these two
larval forms, and the known geographical distribution
is extended from Europe to Australia. As mentioned
by Nicoll and Minchin, there is usually only one larva
present at a time, but | have met with multiple infection.
On one occasion there were found no less than nine Cysticer-
coids of H. murina (see Fig. 11) in a Ceratophyllus fasciatus
taken from Mas decumanus in Sydney (1909) ; on another
occasion three larve: belonging to the same species were
found in a Xenopsylla cheopis taken from Mus rattus, also
in Sydney. One specimen, a H. diminuta Cysticercoid,
was found in one flea, C. fasciatus, out of six sent to me in
1910 from Melbourne for identification.

The presence of these parasites was detected in
specimens of fleas after clearing the latter and mounting
them in long series in canada balsam.

A record of the per centage infection was kept, but
it has been mislaid. It was, I believe, about the same as
that already recorded.

Sparganum, sp.
(Pl. IL; Figs. 5, 6).

Cestode larve (plerocercoids) occur occasionally in
certain parts of the body, mainly in the thigh muscles,
of some Australian frogs, e.g., Hyla aurea and H. cerulea.
I have examined specimens from the former host from Perth,
West Australia, collected by Dr. J. B. Cleland, and from
Sydney, N.S. Wales, collected by Dr. 8. J. Johnston, and
by myself; and also from the latter host from Sydney,
and from the Burnett River, Queensland, collected by
Dr. Bancroft. The figures have been drawn from a specimen
mounted by Dr. S. J. Johnston.

The parasite has already been described by Professor
Haswell (1890, p. 661), its occurrence in various localities
having been noted by myself (1911b, p. 234) Prof. J. P.
Hill (1905, p. 369) also has referred to it The general

BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M A‘. D.SC. 71

appearance of the anterior end is shown in Fig: 5. The
width is fairly uniform (-7 mm.) throughout the greater
part of its length, the broadest portion being anterior
(1-4 mm.) The length varies somewhat, some of the
complete specimens examined measuring 47 mm. The
posterior end is rounded (Fig. 6), and bears the excretory
pore lying at the base of a small depression. The body
is imperfectly ringed, and the cuticle is also thrown into
small folds.

Calcareous corpuscles are abundant. The longitudinal
muscles. are arranged in a series of well-marked bundles.
The excretory canals lie deeply, each being distant from
the margin about a third of the body diameter. They join
near the posterior end to form a very short common tube
terminating at the excretory pore. The nervous system
consists of a small mass just behind the slit-like depression
at the anterior end, and of a pair of prominent laterally
situated strands, as well as a pair of longitudinal nerves.

Fasciola hepatica, Li.

Specimens of the common liver fluke were forwarded

from Ipswich, having been taken from sheep and cattle.
Heterakis chenonetite, n. sp.
(Pl. TV); Wigkevae,.oa).

Last year, | took from the cecum of a wood duck
Chenon:ztta jubata, near Sydney, a number of specimens
of a small Heterakis, which appear to belong to a new species.
The dimensions are :—Male—length, 6.8 mm.; _ breadth,
-i9 mm.; female—length, 7-7 mm.; breadth, -26 mm.
This species is thus slightly longer than H. bancrofti.

The cuticle bears very fine annulations. The anterior
end tapers rather rapidly from region of the nerve ring,
while the posterior portion of the worm becomes gradually
narrowed to terminate in small fine tail. The lips are
equal in size, but are small. The excretory pore lies at
‘422 mm. from the head end, in the same region as the
nerve ring. The vulva is situated just behind the middle
of the body (4-2 mm. behind the head). The anus in the
female les at .53 mm. from the posterior end.

The tail of the male terminates in a fine point. The
ale are prominent and bear nine pair of papille, whose
position is indicated in Fig. 30. Four pair are pre-anal

72 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

three pair lying just in front of and laterally to the
prominent cloaca, while one pair lies laterally from the
sucker of the post-anal papille; three pair are almost
caudal in position, The sucker is situated at a considerable
distance (194 mm.) in front of the cloaca, and appears
as a prominent organ. The spicules are 1:17 mm. _ in
length, and -013 mm. in breadth. The longer male spicule
is strongly curved, and has a fairly uniform breadth (-008
min.), but tapers slightly towards the extremity. The
length is -48 mm. The shorter spicule has a length of
.18 mm., and a breadth (in its midregion) of :012 mm., but
the extremity is widened and rounded.

The uterus contains eggs with vermiform embryos.

Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp.
(Pl IV; Figs. 28, 30).

The cecum of the brush turkey, Catheturus lathami,
is commonly infested by small nematodes, which at first
sight remind one of Heterakis papillosa of the fowl. Dr.
Bancroft has forwarded me material from the Burnett
River district, while Mr. R. Dart has sent me material
from Laidley. From all of the specimens, this species of
nematode has been taken. It is therefore a common
parasite of this host. Occasionally one finds in company
with it a much larger Heterakis, described below as H.
catheturinus, as well as a J'enia-like species of Hchino-
rynchus, or, perhaps more correctly, Gigantorhynchus.

Heterakis bancrofti has the following dimensions :—
male—4.3 mm. long and -22 mm. broad ; female 6°25 mm.
long, and -33 mm. broad. The anterior end tapers gradually
while the tail of the female is rather short and sharply-
pointed, that of the male being very narrow and delicate
(Fig. 30). The vulva is situated at about the middle
of the body, the excretory pore at -260--265 mm. from the
anterior end, and the anus (in the female) at -91 mm. from
the posterior extremity.

There are three prominent lips of equal size, with deep.
notches between them. The alimentary canal is of the
usual Heterakis type. The nerve ring surrounds’ the
pharynx at -16 mm. from the anterior end, and is situated.
just in front of the excretory pore.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 73

The male spicules are equal and relatively long. (-860
mm.), sharp-pointed structures, the points being turned
backwardly. Their form is indicated in Fig. 30. The
sucker is chitinised and possesses a diameter of -073 mm,
Its posterior margin is situated at about -035 mm. in front
of the cloaca. Lying between it and the cloaca is a pair
of pre-anal papille. The disposition of the papille around
the lobed ale is indicated in the figure, there being two pair
placed pre-anally, two pair post-anally, and two _ pair
just near the junction of the ale with the narrow pointed
tail.

This species is associated with the name of Dr. T. L.
Bancroft, who has rendered me considerable service in
regard to material.

Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp.
(Pl. TEL > Figs.: 23, 25, PRIS Figs, 26; .27)

As already mentioned, this large species may some-
times be found in company with the commoner speciess
H. bancrofti, infesting Catheturus lathami. My specimens
have been collected from material forwarded by Dr. T. L.
Bancroft from the Burnett River. Adult females may
reach a length of 28 mm., males being somewhat shorter
and attaining a length of 21 mm.

The anterior end is rounded and narrow, while the
posterior extremity terminates in a short pointed tail in
both sexes. The three lips are equal in size, their
characters being indicated in Fig. 24. The excretory
aperture lies at a distance of -8 mm. behind the mouth..
The vulva is situated at about the middle of the body
length, on a slight elevation. The anus is distant from the
posterior extremity -40 mm. in the case of the male, and
-86 mm. in the case of the female. At each side of the
anterior end of the parasite, there is a ridge or ala, arising
laterally just behind the mouth and travelling backwards
for about two millimetres. The cuticle bears fine trans-
verse rings.

The alimentary canal is of the usual type, and is
surrounded at -50 mm. behind the mouth by the nerve
ring. |

74 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

The male spicules are slightly curved pointed rods,
méasuring 1:05 mm. in length, and -022 mm. in width.
The male tail is not prominent, the ale being narrow.
The sucker lies at some distance (-275 mm.) in front of the
cloaca. There are two pair of prominent pre-anal papille,
a small unpaired median pre-anal, and a small unpaired
post-anal papilla, followed by six paired post-anal papille,
the arrangement of these sensory structures being indicated
in the figure of the tail end of the male. (Fig. 25).

Heterakis papillosa, Rud.

A common parasite of poultry (Brisbane), but hitherto
unrecorded from this State.

Heterakis perspicillum, Rud.

More commonly known as H. infleza. A fairly common
but apparently unrecorded nematode infesting local fowls
(Brisbane).

Heterakis spumosa, Schneider.

Present in Mus decumanus and M. rattus (Brisbane).
Not previously recorded.

Belascaris mystax, Rud.

Formerly grouped with an allied round-worm parasitic
in the dog, under the name of Ascaris canis. This species
was found in a local cat, and has not been recorded as yet
from this State.

Toxascaris canis, Gm.

Occurs in local dogs (Brisbane), but is apparently
unrecorded until now.

Ascaris spiculigera, Rud.

Numerous specimens were taken by me from the
oesophagus and stomach of, a cormorant, Phalacrocorax
sulcirostris, and a darter, Plotus novehollandie, shot on the
Burnett River, Eidsvold, by Dr. Bancroft. Ascaris, sp., .
recorded by Krefft (1873, p. 213), from the latter host,
belongs to the same species.

Some parasites which I have collected near Sydney
from the pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus, are referred to
the same species. They are rather larger, but appear
to be specifically identical with the above. .

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON Mas, D sc 75

A larger species of Ascaris from the stomach of
Phalacrocorax carbo, shot by Dr. Cleland on the Hawkes-
bury River, N.S. Wales, is of the same general appearance,
but does not agree entirely with the available accounts
of A. spiculigera.

Amblyonema terdentatum, Linstow (1898, p. 470).

This species of nematode has been found quite commonly
by Dr. Bancroft and myself in the spiral valve of specimens
of Neoceratodus forsteri, caught in the Burnett River.
In company with it, on one occasion, there were found
a few specimens of a small Amphistoma.

Oxyuris obvelata, Bremser.

Occurs in Mus decumanus, M. rattus and M. musculus
in Brisbane. Not previously recorded.

Trichosoma hepaticum, Raill.

Found in the liver of Mus decumanus, M. rattus (alex-
andrinus), and M. musculus in Brisbane. Its presence
in Queensland was recorded by Dr. Bancroft (18936, p. 89),
who described it from Mus rattus as Trichocephalus hepaticus.
It was originally described by Railliet under the same
specific name.

Trichodes crassicauda, Bellingham.

Occurs in the bladder of Mus decumanus (Brisbane).

Not previously reported from this State.
Spiroptera obtusa, Rud.

From the stomach of Mus musculus, M. alexandrinus
and M. decumanus in Brisbane. Apparently unrecorded
from this State.

Hystrignathus hystrix (Cobb).

Cobb (1898, p. 315), originally described this species
as Xyo hystrix, it being the type of his genus Xyo. A
comparison of Cobb’s figure with those given by Leidy
(1853, Pl. 7, Figs. 8, 9, 10), leads us to synonymise Xyo
with Leidy’s Hystrignathus.

Dr. Cobb did not actually give an account of his form,
but defined it by means of his ‘“‘ nematode formula ”
and a figure. The host is quoted as beetle, Passalus, sp.
H. hystrix is a parasite of the large common passalid beetle,
found in rotten timber, and’ identified for me by Mr. W.

76 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

Gurney, of the Entomologist’s Branch, Sydney, as
Mastochilus, sp. It is under this host name that these
tiny nematodes should be placed.

My specimens were collected in various parts of New
South Wales.

Echinonema cinctum, Linstow.

This roundworm was _ originally described as
Hoplocephalus cinctus, by Linstow (1898, p. 469), from
material taken in Queensland by Prof. Semon from a
bandicoot, Permaeles obesula. It is now recorded, from the
“native cat,’ Dasyurus viverrinus, my specimen of the
parasite—a female—being collected from a dasyure secured
by Mr. T. Steel, in a suburb of Sydney.

Filaria websteri, Cobbold.

This large nematode infests the bursa at the knee-
joint of several kangaroos and wallabies. I have recently
received specimens collected near Eidsvold by Dr. Bancroft
from Macropus giganteus, M. dorsalis, and M. parryi.

Habronema musce (Carter).

The larval stage of this parasite, Habronema musce, has
been met with in two species of flies, Stomoxys calcitrans
and Musca domestica in Sydney, and in the latter in Bris-
bane. As far as I know,: the larval form has not been
previously recorded from Australia.

Ransom (1911, p. 690), has recently shown that A.
musce is the larval stage of a parasite which infests the
stomach of the horse.

A larval worm which has the general form and
characters of the above species occurs in the head region
of the common “ cattle fly,’ found frequenting, especially
the eyes of cattle, in Queensland and determined as Musca
vetustissima. I am indebted to Dr. Bancroft for specimens
taken near Eidsvold in the Burnett River district of this
State.

Filaria clelandi, n. sp.

(Pl. TL: Wipe. Sf Sa
A single specimen—a male—was found by Dr. Bancroft
in the peritoneum of a magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen, shot

near Eidsvold. Its length is 27 mm., and its breadth
-62 mm. The cuticle is quite smooth. The ends are

\

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. v1

somewhat similar in appearance both being obtusely
rounded, but the tail end is broader. At the head end are
three papille placed laterally, while surrounding the mouth
are three very slight pit-like depressions, with each of
which is associated a highly refracting rod-like structure,
apparently of a chitinoid nature. This bifurcates, each
branch being relatively long. These six rods come into
relation with the anterior end of the alimentary canal,
where it meets the mouth cavity which has thus something
of the character of a mouth capsule. The alimentary
canal is of the usual filarial type ; the nerve ring surrounding
it at a distance of -(027 mm. from the anterior end of the
worm. The anus is subterminal, lying at only -08 mm.
from the posterior end.

No definite papille were recognised in the colacal
region, though there appeared to be indications of a small
pre-anal pair. The male spicules are relatively large and
thick ; the longer being :75 mm. in length, sabre-like,
twisted and with a broad lancet-like termination: while
the other is also long, but is bent in a remarkable manner
to form an elongate 8. The total length of the latter,
including curves, is ‘60 mm. The general breadth of both
spicules is the same (‘025 mm. )

T desire to associate with this species the name of my
friend and former colleague, Dr. J. B. Cleland. We have
already described two forms of larval filarie (Cleland
and Johnston, 1910, p. 107), found in the blood of this host
in N.S. Wales, but Dr. Bancroft (1889, p. 61), had already
recorded the occurrence of larve in specimens taken in
Queensland. Simultaneously with ourselves, Drs.
Gilruth, Sweet and Dodd (1910, p. 236) described several
different forms under the name, Microfilaria gymnorhine.
It is inadvisable to confer specific names on larval filarial
forms since it is not always an easy matter to associate
a larva with the adult form; hence confusion in nomen-
clature is more likely. As the specific name given includes
more than one form, there need be no hesitation in naming
the adult male which has been briefly described above.

Plimmer (1912, p. 138) also mentions finding embryos
in this host, his birds having died in the London Zoological
Gardens.

78 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

Microfilaria -sp.
(Pl. IIL; Figs. 16, 17).

Filarial embryos have been found by Dr. J. B. Cleland
and myself in Plotus novehollandie and Phalacrocorax
sulcirostris, both shot on the Burnett River by Dr. Bancroft.
These larve are relatively long (-163 to -236 mm.) and
narrow (-004 to -006 mm), with a rounded anterior end
and a pointed posterior extremity. A sheath is present.

Filaria sp.
(Pl. TH ; ‘Figs. 14, ‘15).

I found several immature female filarize encysted in
the subcutaneous tissues of a “ leather-head’’ Philemon
citreigularis forwarded by Dr. T’. L. Bancroft from Eidsvold
They were coiled up within fairly thick brownish cysts,
only the head end protruding. Their length, when
uncoiled, is 10:mm. ‘The cuticle is very distinctly ringed,
the ridges being similar in general appearance to those
present in species of Onchocerca.

The anterior end is narrowed and bears six papille,
while the posterior end is pointed. The anus lies at about
-16 mm. from the latter. The nerve ring is situated at
about -14 mm. from the head extremity. The mouth soon
leads into the esophagus which in its turn communi-
cates with the intestine. The excretory pore is situated
in the region of the nerve ring. i

Filaria, sp.
(Pl. DV Bigs. BT38),

A mature female worm, about 20 mm. in length, and -7
mm. in maximum breadth was taken by Dr. J. B. Cleland
from the subcutaneous tissues of a honey-eater,
Acanthogenys rufigularis, shot near Sydney, N.S. Wales.

The anterior end is narrowed but terminates abruptly,
while the posterior extremity ends in a short bluntly-
rounded tail. The cuticle is practically smooth. The three
lips are not prominent, but each bears a tiny papilla. Lying
at a short distance behind the mouth are the excretory
aperture (at -14 mm.), and the female pore (at -24 mm.)
Lateral lines are relatively broad, the excretory vessels
travelling within them in a _ sinuous course. The

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 19

alimentary canal is of the usual filarial type, the ceso-
phagus measuring -64 mm. in length. The anus lies very
close to the posterior end, being only -130 mm. distant.
The nerve ring is situated at -16 mm, from the anterior
extremity.

The two uteri which contain eggs with vermiform
embryos within them, join to form a very short vagina
near whose external opening are gland cells. The eggs
in utero measure ‘050 by -028 mm.

Filaria physignathi, n. sp.
(Pl. Jl ; dies. 18,22).

The presence of filarial embryos in the blood of
Physignathus lesueuriit, Gray, has already been made known
(Johnston and Cleland, 1911, p. 489), .while mention has
been made (Johnston, 19115, p. 241) of the fact that the
adults were found in the mesenteric veins by Dr. Bancroft.
These adult worms, mainly females, were forwarded .to me
and are.now dealt with under the name of Filaria physignathi.
Filarial.embryos have ;been recently recorded as occurring
in another Australian lizard, belonging to the same family,
Amphibolurus barbatus, by Plimmer (1912, p. 139), whose
specimens came from the London Zoological Gardens.

The dimensions of the new parasite are as follows :—
Male 12 mm. long, and -20 mm. broad; female, about
36 mm. long, and -33 mm. broad.

The following account is taken from a female. The
diameter of the body is uniform, each end being bluntly
rounded. Three small papille appear to be present at the
anterior end. Lips are absent. The anus is. terminal,
The vulva is situated at about 1:40 mm. from the head
end, and lies on the summit of a small elevation surrounded
by a definite depression. The excretory pore lies in front
of the nerve ring, at about -130 mm. from the anterior
extremity. The cuticle is not transversely striated, but
is smooth and thin.

There is no mouth cavity or pharynx. The cesophagus
is -82 mm. in length, being surrounded at :180 mm. from
the mouth by the nerve ring. Its front portion is rather
wider than the remainder. Succeeding the cesophagus
is the widened thin-walled intestine, which terminates at.
the anus at the end of the worm-

80 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

The female glands and ducts are very extensive, coils
being present close to the anus, while the common uterus
—a wide tube—terminates close to the anterior end, as
already mentioned. The lower parts of the female canal
are crowded with free embryos of the type already
described as occurring in the blood. Surrounding the
vulva are numerous vaginal glands. The female aperture
is very narrow.

The male is quite small when compared with the
female. The tail is spirally rolled. The cloaca les at
-097 mm. from the blunt posterior end. The nerve ring
lies at about -130 mm. behind the mouth. A coil of the
testis approaches quite closely to the region of the nerve
ring. The ale are very small and papille are poorly
represented. There appears to be a pre-anal pair just
antero-laterally to the cloaca, as well as two pair of post-
anal papille just behind the cloaca. The spicules are rather
small, the larger being -162 mm. long, slightly curved,
and bearing a pointed extremity. The smaller is -081 mm.
long, also slightly curved, but its extremity is widened,
as often happens in Filariide.

The specimens were collected by Dr. Bancroft from
the water dragon, Physignathus lesueurii, on the Burnett
River, near Eidsvold.

Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp.
(Pl. IV; Figs. 34, 36).

As far as 1 am aware, no nematodes have been
described as infesting the eyes of native birds in Australia.
Krefft (1873, p. 213), recorded the presence of Ascaris sp.
from the eye of a gill-bird, Anthochera carunculata. I
have already remarked (1910, p. 111), that the worms
probably belong to the Filariide. An examination of
Krefft’s specimens, through the courtesy of the Curator
of the Australian Museum, Sydney, shows them to belong
to that family, and apparently to Oxyspirura. In my list
of entozoa known to infest Australian birds, I have
recorded this form as Ceratospira anthochere. (19126, p. 111).
The position of the female pore is posterior instead of
anterior, hence the species must be transferred to
Oxysprrura.

BY -T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSC. 81

The specimens had become dried up and are therefore
of little value. The description given below is lacking
in many details, but should allow the recognition of the
species in the future.

The length of the male is about 8-5 mm., and of the
female 8 to 9 mm. The breadth of each is about -11 mm,
The cuticle is finely striated transversely. The head
end has suffered in drying. Neither lips nor papille are
recognisable on the rounded anterior extremity, which is
slightly -wollen when compared with the succeeding neck
region. The posterior end of the female is sharp-pointed,
the anus and the genital aperture lving at -194 mm. and
-32 mm. distant. respectively, from the extremity. The
cloaca in the male lies at -08 mm. from the tail end, which
is spirally curved and is shorter than the female tail. No
male papillze were discernible.

A small mouth cavity is present. Surrounding the
pharynx at a distance of -195 mm. from the anterior end,
is the nerve ring.

Larval nematodes tn fleas.
CPLA NT pia k 2. LS).

As a result of examining a large series of rat fleas,
as mentioned earlier, the. presence of small coiled nematode
larve, Agamonema sp., was detected in a goodly number
of Xenopsylla cheopis, and—-on only one _ occasion—
Ceratophyllus fasciatus, all the parasitised fleas coming
from Sydney and district. As far as I am aware, the
presence of larval nematodes in fleas, has not been recorded.
Usually, there was only one present, but sometimes two,
three or four, while on one occasion, no less than six of
them were present in the body cavity of a male X. chcopis
When compared with the size of the host, these larvaz
are quite large as a glance at Fig. 12 will indicate.

In nearly every. instance the parasite was closely,
usually spirally, coiled and therefore very difficult to
examine. Sometimes a relatively thick cyst enclosed it.
Owing to their transparency, their presence is not detected
unless the bodies of the fleas be either carefully teased up
and examined in saline or other solution with a minimum
amount of light, or the hosts be cleared and examined,
very little light being allowed to pass through them. They

-

82 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

are delicate, practically colourless worms 43 mm. in length
and -042 mm. in width, which is uniform throughout the
greater part of the body. The body bears delicate trans-
verse rings. The posterior end tapers rapidly to become
pointed, while the anterior extremity narrows more slowly.
The whole larva bears a striking likeness to Habronema
musce. {1 therefore consider it to be the young form of
a Spiroptera sensu lato.

The species of Sprroptera which infests rats and mice
in Australia is S. obtusa. It is thus quite likely that the
larve under review, belong to this species. The probability
is suggested by the following facts :—S. obtusa is quite
common here. [ts eggs pass to the exterior with the
feces of the rat or mouse and come to reach the earth
ju the rat holes, or elsewhere where the rat-fiea eggs are
developing into larve. The latter are known to be able
to ingest rat-cestode eggs with contained embryos, ¢.g.,
Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina which also reach
the exterior with the feces. It is thus not unlikely that
the life history of S. obtusa is different from that of Habro-
nema musce, whose eggs become ingested along with organic
matter in horse manure by the fly larve (Musca domestica,
Stomoxys calcitrans, and probably other flies). Maturity
is reached by the ingestion of the intermediate host by
the definitive host. As already mentioned, the larva is
of the Sproptera form. It occurs fairly frequently, and
is known to infest at least two species of rat fleas.

The objection is, that the parasite occurs chiefly in
Xenopsylla cheopis, a flea which lives ordinarily in tropical
and subtropical regions ; and quite rarely in the common
flea C. fasciatus which forms such a large percentage of the
aphanipterous population of murids in temperate and
subtemperate zones and in the colder periods of the year
in sub-tropical areas. This objection does not appear
to me to be a very serious one, as the parasite does not
seem to have been recognised elsewhere, perhaps because
unsuspected, perhaps because of the ditficulty in seeing it
unless very little light be allowed to pass through the
specimen.

Stephanurus dentatus, Dies.

The * kidney worm ”’ of pigs was recognised many years.

ago in Queensland by Morris, in 1871, and by Bancroft

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 83

(1893a, p. 258). My specimens were forwarded from
Ipswich. Immature forms have been fouund by me in
the liver.

Agchylostoma caninum, Ercol.

Found locally in dogs and cats. Its presence in dogs
in Brisbane (presumably), is inferred from a statement
by Dr. Bancroft (1901, p. 41), while I have recorded its
occurrence in the dog in N.S. Wales and Victoria. As
far as I am aware, this hook-worm is now recorded for the
first time as parasitising cats in this continent.

Gigantorhynchus moniliformis, Bremser.

Occurs in Mus decumanus and M. alexandrinus in
Brisbane, but apparently hitherto unrecorded.

Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp.
(Pl. TV; Figsa0s 40):

A single specimen, 19 mm. in length and i:lmm.
in breadth was taken from the intestine of a lyre-bird,
Menura swperba, near Gosford, N.S. Wales. Owing. to
the large number of eggs overlying the female organs,
very little of the internal anatomy was recognisable.

The parasite has a maggot-like appearance, being
somewhat narrower at the anterior end. The body wall
is thin and delicate and consequently readily distorted.
The small tubular rostellum (Fig. 39) measures about -16
mm. in diameter, and bears about seven whorls of very
numerous, narrow, sharp-pointed hooks, each of which
projects about -04 mm. beyond the surrounding collar.
The proboscis sheath is relatively long.

The only part of the female genitalia recognisable is
the lower portion of the uterus, or perhaps more correctly,
the vagina, which terminates at the gonopore, the latter
lying at the base of a concavity. The elliptical eggs measure
‘10 by -031 mm., and the embryos -068 by -019 mm.

Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus, n. sp.
(Pits PVs ties 41).
This species occurs commonly (Johnston, P.L.S.,
N.S.W., 1909, p. 590; P.R.S., Q’land, 1911, p. 238), in the

rectum of the black snake, Pseudechis porphyriacus, Shaw,
in various parts of New South Wales and Victoria.

4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA,

The females may reach a length of 32 mm., the males
being much smaller (12 mm. long). The body is firm and
whitish, the cuticle being smooth or crinkled transversely:
The proboscis is nearly spherical, measuring -76 mm.
across, and bearing about seven spirally-arranged series
of hooks, each series consisting of twelve to sixteen hooks"
according to their position on the proboscis. The hooks
are powerful structures, consisting of a relatively strong
basal portion and of a stout backwardly-projecting hook,
surrounded at its base by a small collar. The posterior
end of the male is slightly narrowed, and bears the male
gonopore. The extremity of the female is slightly swollen
and bifid, there being two prominent lobes between which
lies the genital aperture.

The following account is taken from a male. The
proboscis sheath is an elongate sac 1-6 mm. long. The
lemmisci are extremely long, extending through the
anterior three-fourths of the parasite. The two rounded
testes lie just in front of the middle of the worm. Their
long diameter is nearly a millimetre. The vasa deferentia
unite to form a large swollen convoluted vesicula
seminalis, the lower part of which is a sac-like structure
succeeded by the ejaculatory duct. The latter terminates
at the small bursa which in turn communicates with the
exterior through the male gonopore.

The vagina or uterus is long and thin. Eggs measure
-087 mm. in length, the embryos being -043 mm. long.

Echinorhynchus, sp.
(PI! TE 5° Figs? 95" 10).

Last year, I found a larval echinorhynch encysted
in the peritoneum lining the body wall of a common golden
frog, Hyla aurea, near Sydney. The length, excluding the |
rostellum which measures ‘72 mm. when everted, reaches
1:53 mm. The rostellum bears about twelve whorls of
hooks, each whorl consisting of about sixteen. The hooks
(Fig. 10) possess a stout basal portion, and of a long sharp
claw partly surrounded by a collar-like outgrowth of the
rostellar cuticle. The entire hook, when measured from
the point to the upper end of the base, reaches a jength of
-150 mm.. of which -115 mm. protrudes. The rostellar
sheath is relatively short, the lemmisci being much longer.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 85

No sex organs were recognisable, but the specimen is.
probably a female. Although a large number of frogs.
were examined, parasite was found only once. It thus
appears to be rare. I refrain from giving a specific name
to this jarval form.

LIST OF HOSTS AND THEIR PARASITES, REFERRED
TO:.IN THIS PAPER.

MAMMALIA :—
Mus decumanus Hymenolepis diminuta
(Hpimys norvegicus) Cysticercus fasciolaris

Gigantorhynchus moniliformis
Spiroptera obtusa
Heterakis spumosa
Oxyaris obvelata
Trichodes crassicanda
Trichosoma hepaticum
Mus rattus (alexandrinus) Hymenolepis diminuta
Cysticercus fasciolaris
Gigantorhynchus moniliformis
Spiroptera obtusa
Heterakis spumosa
Oxyuris obvelata —
Trichosoma hepaticum
Mus musculus Cysticercus fasciolaris
Spiroptera obtusa
Oxyuris obvelata
Trichosoma hepaticum
Canis famlaris Dipylidium caninum
Agchylostoma caninum
Toxocara (Toxascaris) canis
Felis domestica Dibothriocephalus felis
Tenia crassicollis
Dipylidium caninum
Agchylostoma caninum
Belascaris mystax

Sus scrofa, dom. Stephanurus dentatus
Bos taurus, dom. Fasciola hepatica
Ovis aries, dom. Fasciola hepatica

Dasyurus viverrinus Echinonema cinctum

86 NOTES
Macropus giganteus
Macropus dorsalis
Macropus parryi

Onychogale frenata

AvEs :—

Gallus domesticus

Gallopavo meleagris

Catheturus lathami

Anas superciliosa

Nettion castaneum
Aythya australis
Chenonetta jubata
Notophoyx novehollandie
Pelecanus conspicillatus

Plotus novehollandie
Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

Phalacrocorax carbo

Larus canus

Gymnorhina tibicen
Menura superba
Philemon citreigularis
Acanthogenys rujfigularis

Anthochera carunculata

ON SOME ENTOZOA,

Filaria websteri
F. websteri
F. websteri

Cittoteenia bancrofti, n. sp.

Hymenolepis carioca
Davainea tetragona
Davainea cesticillus
Davainea proglottina
Amebotenia cuneata
Heterakis perspicillum
Heterakis papillosa
Metroliasthes lucida
Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp.
Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp.
Echinorhynchus, sp.

Hymenolepis megalops
Diorchis flavescens
Echinostoma, sp.

Hymenolepis megalops
Diploposthe levis
Heterakis chenonette, n. sp.
Bancroftiella glandularis
Ascaris spiculigera

Microfilaria, sp.
Ascaris spiculigera
Microfilaria, sp.
Ascaris spiculigera
Ascaris, sp.

clerci,

Choanoteenia nom.

nov.

Filaria clelandi, n. sp.
Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp.
Filaria, sp.

Filaria, sp.

Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp.

C.W.,

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 87

REPTILIA :—

Varanus belli

Physignathus lesueurii
Pseudechis porphyriacus

Pseudechis australis
Notechis scutatus

Denisonia superba

AMPHIBIA :—

Hyla aurea

Hyla cerulea

PISCES :—

Neoceratodus forsteri

INSECTA :—

Mastochilus, sp.
Musca domestica

M. vetustissima
Stomoxys calcitrans
Ceratophyllus fasciatus

Xenopsylla cheopis

Hemogregarina varanicola
Acanthotenia tidswelli
Physaloptera varani %
Filaria physignathi, n. sp.
Acanthotenia gallardi
Echinorhynchus rotundocapi-
tatus, 1. sp.

Acanthotenia gallardi
Acanthotenia gallardi

Acanthotenia gallardi

Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp.
Sparganum, sp.
Echinorhynchus, sp.
Sparganum, sp.

Amphistoma, sp.
Amblyonema terdentatum

Hystrignathus hystrix

Habronema musce (larva)

H. musce (larva)

HT. musce (larva)

Hymenolepis diminuta
(Cysticercoid) -

Hym. murina (Cysticercoid)

Agamonema sp. (? larva of
Spiroptera obtusa)

Hymenolepis diminuta
(Cysticercoid)

Hym. murina (Cysticercoid)

Agamonema, sp. (? larva of
Spiroptera obtusa)

REFERENCE TO LETTERING.

& anus; a.m.p., apical muscle plug; b., bursa: e¢.,
cirrus ; c.g., cerebral ganglion ; cl., cloaca ; ¢.s., cirrus sac ;

cyst. .wall; cy.,

cysticercoid ; d.v.,

dorsal vessel ;

88 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

d.v.m., dorso-ventral muscle; e., egg; e.d., ejaculatory
duct ; e.p., excretory pore; g.c., genital cloaca; gl.c.,
gland cells; g.p.. genital pore; int., intestine; l., lip;
lem., lemniscus ; 1.1, lateral line ; l.m., longitudinal muscle ;
n., nerve ; n.r., nerve ring; oes., cesophagus ; ov., ovary ;
p-, p.l., p.2., etc., papillae ; ph., pharynx; p.s., proboscis
sheath; r., rostellum; r.s., receptaculum seminis; s.
Sucker ; sh., sheath ; sp., spicule ; t., testis; tr. m., trans-
verse musculature; u., uterus; v., vagina; v.d., vas
deferens ; v.g., vitelline gland; v.s., vesicula seminalis ;
v.v.. ventral ‘excretory vessel.

Plate IT.

| Ophiotenia hyle.
Fig. 1. Scolex.
Segment showing genitalia.

bo

Acanthotenia gallardi.
Fig. 3. Segment showing genitalia.
4. Trans. sect. of segment passing through
genital ducts.
Sparganum, sp. from Hyla.
Fig. 5. Anterior end.
6. Posterior end.
Filaria clelandi.
Fig. 7. Anterior end of a male
8. Posterior end of a male.
Echinorhynchus, sp. from Hyla.
Fig. 9. Entire parasite.
10. Hook from rostellum.

Plate ITI.

Hymenolepis murina.
Fig. ll. Cysticerecoids in Ceatophyllus fasciatus
Agamonema, sp.
Fig. 12. Four encysted worms in Xenopsylla cheopis.
13. <A parasite enclosed in a cyst.

Filaria, sp. from Philemon.
Fig. 14, Head end.
15, "Pail. end.
Microfilaria, sp.
Fig. 16. From Plotus noveholiandie.
17. From Phalacrocorax suleirostris

Fig.

42.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.S€.

Filaria physignatni.
Head end of male.
Head end of female.
Portion showing valva.
Tail end of female.
Tail end of male.

Heterakis catheturinus.
Anterior end of female.
Lips.

Tail end of male.

Plate IV.

Heterakis catheturinus.
Tail end of female.
Tail end of male.
Heterakis btancroftt.
Head end of male.
Lips.
Tail end of male.
Heterakis chenonette.
Anterior end of female.
Lip.
Posterior end of male.
Oxyspirura anthochere.
Head end of male.
Tail end of male.
Tail end of female.

Filaria, sp. from Acanthogenys

Anterior end of female.
Posterior end of female. .~

Echinorhynchus menure.

Anterior end of female.
Posterior end of female.

Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus.
Entire male worm.
Plate V.

Cittotenia bancrojti.

Portion of segment showing one set

genitalia.

89

of

90

1889
1893a
18936
1901
1902
1898
1910

1910

1890
1905

1911
1909
1910
19lla

19116

NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.

43. Transv. sect. of segment.
44. Longit. horiz. sect. of segment.
45. Scolex.

LITERATURE LIST.

Bancroft—P.R.S., Queensland, 6, 1889, p. 58-62.

Bancroft-—Austr. Med. Gazette, 12, 1893, p. 258.

Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 27, 1893, p. 89.

Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 35, 1901, p. 41-46.

Clere—Zool. Anz., 1902.

Cobb—Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales, 9, 1898, p. 296-321.

Cleland and Johnston—-P.R.S. South Austr., 34,
1910, p. 100-114.

Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd—P.R.S. Vict., 23, 1910,
p. 231-241.

Haswell—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 5, 1890, p. 661.

Hill—Intercol. Mid. Congr. (Adelaide), 1905, p. 369.

Johnston & Cleland, see also Cleland & Johnston.

Johnston & Cleland-——P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911,
p. 479-491.

Johnston—P.R.S.. N.S. Wales, 48, 1909, p. 103-116.

Johnston—P.R.S., 1, N.S. Wales, 44, 1910, p. 84-122.

Johnston—Annals Q’land Museum, 10, 1911, p.
175-182.

Johnston-—P.R.S., Q’land, 23, 1911, p. 233-249.

19llc Johnston—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911, p. 47-57.

1912a
19125
1912c
1873
1851

1898
1909

1911
1909
1910

Johnston—Rec. Austr. Museum, 9, 1912, p. 1-35.

Johnston—The Emu, Oct. 1912, p. 105-112.

Johnston—The present paper.

Krefft—Trans. Entom. Soc., N.S. Wales, 2, 1873.

Leidy—Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl. 5 (2), 1853,
67 pp.

Linstow—In Semon’s Forschungsreisen, 5, 1898.

La Rue—Studies Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebraska, No.
95, 1909.

La Rue—Zool. Anz., 38, 1911, p. 473-482.

Minchin—P.Z.S. Lond., 1909, p. 741.

Nicoll & Minchin—P.Z.S., Lond., 1910 (1911), p.
9-13.

1912
1904

1911
1910
1910

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 91

Plimmer—J. R. Micr. Soc., Lond., 1912, p. 133-150.

Ransom—Bull 60, B.A. Ind., Dept. Agr., U.S.A.,
p. 7-54.

Ransom—Science, 34, Nov. 1911, p. 690-2.

Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd, see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd.

Sweet—P.R.8., Vict., 23, 1910, p. 242-256.

Prate: IT.

Proc Roy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIV.

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NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN VALLEY,

WITH SOME QUERIES AS TO THE UNIVERSAL APPLICABILITY
OF CERTAIN PHYSIOGRAPHICAL THEORIES.

—

By E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E.

(Plates VI, VII, VIII, IX.)

Read before the Royal Soctety of Queensland, October 2nd, 1912.

———

THE advances made during recent years in the scientific
interpretation of land forms, and through them of the
comparatively recent geological history of land surfaces,
have not been neglected by Australian scientists. Their
work has already proved of great scientific value, but it
is sadly hampered by the paucity of information concerning
much of the continent, including the majority of Queens-
land.

Since the consideration of such knowledge as is avail.
able concerning the drainage systems of the rivers has
drawn particular attention to the courses of the Burdekin
and Fitzroy, the writer has taken the opportunity, resulting
from a recent visit to the most interesting part of the
Burdekin’s course, to note some of its characteristics.
As the observations made have led him to doubt the correct-
mess of the interpretations put by some on the vagaries
of the river as well as the universal applicability of certain
physiographical theories, the opportunity is also taken
to give the reasons for these doubts.

While calling attention, in doing so, to the need for
the utmost caution in applying physiographical reasoning
to regions the geological structure of which is but
imperfectly understood, it is very far from the writer’s
intention to belittle, in any way, the value of physiographical
studies and reasonings in regions whose outward features
and internal structure are reasonably well known. |

94 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.

Among the rivers flowing to the east coast of Aus-
tralia, the Burdekin with 53,500 square miles is second
only in catchment area to the Fitzroy, which drains 55,600
square miles. These two rivers possess a certain amount
of similarity in their systems, the complexity of which,
as well as their magnitude compared with the other Pacific
streams, has drawn the attention of students of Australian
physiography.

Of the large area occupied by the Burdekin basin,
the writer is only ‘acquainted with that portion which lies
within the Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields.
This, however, includes the Burdekin falls and gorge,
where the river passes through the Leichhardt Range,
as well as portion of the so-called peneplain upstream
from the falls, these two features being the ones to which
most attention has been given.*

The Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields
consist mainly of granite, and possess an undulating surface
whose monotony is broken by occasional ‘‘ monadnocks ”
of more resistant rocks or by flat-topped “‘ mesas”’ of a
sandstone which, in places, presents lateritic affinities.
The undulating country descends gradually to the water
courses which thus occupy wide and shallow valleys, con-
veying the impression of great maturity in the cycle of
erosion.

In streams of great maturity, however, one naturally
expects to find great widths of alluvial flats, but the
Burdekin has, considering its magnitude, deposited very
little alluvium.

Another feature not altogether consistent with an
advanced stage in the cycle of erosion, is formed by the
rocky bars over which the river passes in not infrequent
falls of up to 4 or 5 feet.

*W. Poole, Notes on the Physiography of North Queensland, A.A.A.5.,
1909.

C. Hedley. A Study of Marginal Drainage. Pres. Address, Linnean:
Soc., N.S.W., 1911.

G. Taylor, Physiography of Eastern Australia. Commonwealth
Bureau of Meteorology.

J. V. Danes, Physiography of North-Eastern Australia. Royal
Bohemian Society of Sciences, 1911.

BY E. O. MARKS, B.A.,: B.E. 95:

Between these bars the river is a wide, sandy bed
over’ which the water flows in a quiet and shallow stream
from hole to hole. The fall of the river in the 95 miles,
between Macrossan Bridge and the top of the falls, amounts
to some 400* feet, an average of 4 feet per mile, which is
ereater than would be expected of a stream of great
antiquity. On the other hand the wide sandy bed and
quiet stream, like the wide valley, give an impression of
old age almost as strong as does a view from one of the
few hills in the peneplain which the stream traverses.

The Leichhardt Range through which the Burdekin
has cut its gorge consists, from the gorge northwards to
near Ravenswood, mainly of various, more or less altered
felsitic lavas, tuffs and conglomerates. The country on
the east side of the range has a general level some hundreds.
of feet below that of the country on the western side, as
would be expected when consideration is taken of the fact
that the water of the streams on the western side has so
much greater a distance to travel before reaching the sea
than has water on the eastern fall. The eastern streams
have, in some instances, eaten far back into the range as
for example, near Ravenswood, where the head of the Kight-
mile Creek has eaten back to the peneplain on the western
side of the range. The divide here is not marked by any
prominent ridge as viewed from the western side, but
further to the east the mountains attain a much greater
elevation than the divide. South of this the range does
form the divide, and is considerably higher than the country
either to east or west.

As one travels southwards down the Burdekin from
near Ravenswood, the Canton Range on the left, approach-
ing within a mile of the river, is an offshoot of the main
Leichhardt Range and is composed of felsites. Below
Ravenswood station similar rocks constitute the Twins,
and form a narrow belt which crosses the river and runs
parallel to it on its western side for a few miles forming a

*The levels of the country about the falls were taken with a single
aneroid, and must be considered as approximate only. The weather
conditions being normal and readings in the same place agreeing closely
on different days, while the readings at Ravenswood, before and after
an interval of three weeks. were also in accord, the writer is satisfied that
the levels noted may be relied on as being reasonably close to the correct
altitude.

"

96 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.
>

line of prominent hills. Where the river is crossed the hills on
each side of it, would form a gorge were not the width of
the river greater than the length of the gorge. Had felsitie
rocks occurred here on a more extensive scale, it seems
reasonable to presume that a gorge would have existed.
It follows, therefore, that the change again to granite
country is the cause of the river valley widening out once
more to seeming maturity as we proceed downstream.
In the reverse order, it is not till a change of country once
more occurs, and the hard felsite hills close in to the river
that it enters the gorge and passes over the falls that have
drawn the attention of physiographers.

On the river’s first entering the gorge, the wide, sandy
bed gives place to one of bare boulder-strewn rock over
which, at ordinary times, the water flows in two streams
for perhaps half-a-mile, and then with a drop of 50 or 60
feet forms the two falls illustrated. Below these, within a mile
and a-half, the river falls in three or four places another
50 feet, passing through a rocky gorge whose width is the
width of the river bed. The sides of the gorge can only be
climbed here and there as the lower 100 feet or so are
exceedingly steep where not perpendicular. Above thig
the hills are rounded and rise to the height of some 500
feet above the river on either side.

Further down the river the valley widens out a little
here and there, but for 20 miles the river winds its way
through mountain ranges from 1500 to 2000 feet in height.
The river bed is excessively rough ; and to travel down it
can only be done on foot (sometimes, probably, with the
assistance of the hands) and necessitates swimming the
crocodile-haunted stream at frequent intervals, while to
journey along the side of the river entails the ascending
and descending of spur after spur and mountain after
mountain. In the 20 miles of its course through the
mountains, there are said to be very few places where
cattle can get down to the river, so rough and steep are
its banks.

Though so rough as to its bed and steep as to its sides,
no further falls are said to occur of more than a foot or two
in drop before the river emerges from the ranges and once
more assumes the even tenor of its journey to the sea. The

BY. E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 97

-~writer did not follow the river further than about 6 miles
below the falls, but noticed in one place that the river is
‘divided by an island some 150 feet in height.

It is to be pointed out that the falls total between
100 and 150 feet, while the mountains and hills on either
~side of the river are of much greater elevation than that
part of the peneplain immediately to the west. Thus,
-at the Suttor confluence the elevation is approximately
‘350 feet above sea level, while the hills on either side of the
‘gorge rise to elevations of 800 feet near the start and over
'1500 feet lower down the river.

Two creeks joining the river in this part of its course
pass through gorges before doing so. One of them, Stones
‘Creek, has the upper part of its course mainly in undulating
granite country. Of the remainder of its course, part is in
fairly open country composed of purplish felsitic tuffs and
‘lavas, while the part: nearer the Burdekin, where the rocks
are similar to those of the Burdekin gorge, lies also in an
:almost impassable gorge. |

The belt of country formed by the felsitic rocks prac-
‘tically constitutes the Leichhardt Range between the Burde-
‘kin Falls and Ravenswood. The country is exceedingly
‘hilly, but the hills are rounded and with the exception of
Mt. Bluey, as it is known locally, or Mt. Glenroy, as it is
named on the maps, do not form prominent peaks above
‘the general level of the range. The creeks occupy steep-
-sided V-shaped valleys often difficult to travel along.

At the heads of Glenroy and Stones Creeks areas of
‘granite are marked by the change to the more undulating
‘topography, that at the head of Glenroy forming a table-
jand on the divide, a tableland from which the creek
‘descends in a waterfall of 300 feet over exceedingly hard
granite.

Perhaps the most interesting example of contrast
‘in topography between the two types of country. occurs at
Plumtree Pocket, about 4 miles south-east of Ravenswood.
This pocket is almost entirely surrounded by rounded
hills or felsitic rocks traversed by narrow V-shaped valleys.
The pocket itself, some 500 feet below the summit of the
‘hills, is approximately 3 miles long by 1 mile wide and is
-of the usual undulating granite country, almost if not

6

9S THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.:

quite as ‘old.’ in appearance as is the peneplain west of the
hills. -The creek draining it is also of the usual type tilk
it Tapes its exit, when it passes between the felsitic
hills in a V-shaped valley which is so steep and rough
that one cannot ride a horse down it, the track leading
from the pocket passing in preference over the hills. The
granite which occurs in the ranges is not uniform in
character, and in places weathers into rough, boulder-
strewn hills, but- never with the narrow V-shaped valleys.
peculiar to the felsites.

The features presented in miniature by Plumtree Pocket
are precisely similar to those exhibited by the Burdekin
under similar conditions, but on a much larger scale, as
well as by Stones and Glenroy Creeks. It is obvious that
Plumtree Pocket owes its differentiations from the surround-
ing hills only to the different weathering powers of the
component rocks, and not in any way to a difference in age:
of denudation. ‘a

It appears to the writer necessary to apply this to the
Burdekin and conclude that the contrast between the narrow
gorge—the type of youth in denudation—and the pene-
plain—the corresponding type of old age in denudation—
is merely due to a difference in the weathering powers of
the component rocks.

The river, of course, has a history, and this may
possibly yet be puzzled out, but in working out the puzzle:
undue importance must not, in the writer’s opinion, be
placed on the existence of the two types of land forms.

Any discussion of the peculiarities in the directions
of the tributary streams, the changes in direction of the
Burdekin itself, or as to whether the Belyando-Suttor or
the Burdekin above their confluence should be considered
the main stream, has been purposely avoided in this paper,
as the writer is only acquainted with such a small part
of the systems, and information is so scant concerning
the rest as to render any suggestions that might be made-
of little value.

As already hinted, the writer suspects that the so-called
peneplain is in reality deceptive. That the slope of the
river is greater than would be expected in advanced old
age, the following table will show, and is an interesting
comparison with other Queensland streams.-

BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A:, B.E. ) OD»

DECLIVITIES..OF SOME QUEENSLAND ‘RIVERS.

Level Dit- Feet
River. Locality. above | S| Ta eriroeate per
nye fea. | ‘| mile.

| eet. | Feet. | Miles.
Burdekin -.. .. | Macrossan... ‘fe 695*
| Falls (above) me 320*| 375 95.) 4-0

Falls (below) Be Pa TP ane ee
SHS ee atc cage Ce IO cated Gre By
Belyando (branch at) | Alpha a | 1115*# | |
and Suttor .. | Confluence with Bur: — Ls
/ dekin = :. ph wes 765.| 260) 2-9)
Cape Biwer 65 ‘oda! Cape River Railway. _ eI |

Bridge .. Erte ol oo
Burdekin confluenuce: 350°) 878 140 | 6:3.

and Suttor

~ Dawson ane Fitzroy Boolburra ..° 0: 156. | ~ |
Sea .. % os 0} 156.) -180 | 0-9
Nogoa, Mackenzie and) Emerald > ». wo} B28-/:
Fitzroy: .. acer fA DOB 5 e% vs | 0 | 523.| 380 |.1-4:
Brisbane (Marongi'| Harlin ~~ .. Be dnee) Stas
Creek) [Seti . tanh ep ete Ohh ala+! 160 (be
~ Condamine .. .. | Killarney~ .. oof L659

Chinchilla -. F 964 | -595 |° 176 | 3-4.
(Charley Creek). _ |

Condamine, Darling; | Killarney .. >. | 1559 |
&e. A siniy | ORS fs < “is ae 0 |-1559 | 2300 | 0-68

Warrego: x; .. Charleville... ., S716. 4
{Cunnamulla - .. 590'|. 286 , 150 | 1-8
Thomson | Torrens Creek .. | 1466

|" Longreach-.:-: .. | 580 | 886-| 240 | 3-7

}

la len SB Ate a eae a

Note.—With the exception of those marked with am asterisk, which

are aneroid measurements, the levels were supplied by the courtesy of Mr..

N. G. Bell, Chief Engineer for Railways. The distances were measured
on the maps.

The following figures, taken from Geikie’s Text Book.
of Geology, are interesting: for' comparison: .

|
River.. Fall per mile in feet.

Missouri
Thames
Shannon
Volga e
ste FoR Ppa
Colorado: in its: Cations

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‘100 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.

The conclusion arrived at in regard to the Burdekin

“basin, that what would ordinarily be considered a youthful
-and an ancient type of topography are really in all prob-

:

ability of the same denudational age, naturally leads one
to review the reasoning on which physiographers have
based their classification. For a summary of modern views
on the processes: of stream- eresion,. one can hardly do
better than refer to Mr. E.°C. Andrews’ ** Erosion and its

Significance,” read before the Royal Soc. of N.S.W. in 1911.

~The principles have mainly been evolved by American

writers and are fascinatingly told in such works as Chamber-
lin and Salisbury’s Geology ‘or W. N. Davis’ Physiography.

A perusal of these writings shews that it is assumed
that in a new or rejuvenated land surface. the action of
denudation is in effect almost purely mechanical. It is
not until the streams are “ graded,” and thus less active,
that the relative importance-of weathering action is thought
to be sufficiently great to be worth considering.

This assumed predominance of mechanical action
is certainly applicable in rocks which are physically soft,
but chemically resistant to the atmospheric agencies, or
to exceptional conditions in which stream action is very

_ great compared with the decomposition resulting from local

rainfall. Thus a large stream passing through an arid
region, or a stream possessing such a fall that its corrosive
power is very great compared with’ the work done on its
valley sides by the rainfall would certainly approximate
in its conditions to the hypothetical cases.

An examination of the usual American illustrations
show, in the majority of cases at:any rate, that the conditions
are such as are mentioned above. For instance, the Grand
Canon of the Colorado is formed by a powerful stream
in a region of light rainfall, and is excavated in sedimentary
rocks which probably are in their nature, mechanically
soft but chemically resistant.

In some text books, inorder to illustrate the principles
of erosion, an island of regularly dome-shaped surface is
supposed to have risen suddenly above-the sea and to be
subjected to the action of the rainfall. In considermg
its subsequent history only mechanical erosion is considered.

BY E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 101°

If now we were to suppose that island to be composed
of a rock, uniform in texture and so exceedingly hard, .
physically, but so readily decomposable that the chemical
action alone would be worthy of consideration, what different
land forms would result as compared with the usual hypo-
thetical developments !

Of course no rock known possesses these qualities
in such extreme proportions, but different rocks do differ -
very greatly in their relative powers of resistance to-
weathering and to friction. The ratio exhibited between
the resistance offered to these two destructive forces may
be termed the weathering factor of the rock, a factor which
would necessarily depend on the chemical or mineralogical
composition and on the texture of the rock and would vary
with conditions of climate.

Some rocks, such as basalt or some coarse-grained
granite, being exceedingly hard and resistant to mechanical
action, are yet readily subject to disintegration by chemical
means. It seems to the writer improbable that the forces
of denudation would be capable under ordinary conditions .
of inducing anything but rounded forms of a ‘‘ mature ”’
aspect in large areas of such rocks.

We have, for instance, in North Queensland extensive -
basalt tablelands which have been dissected by narrow
gorges. These gorges have been cut in the arenaceous.
strata below the basalt and are very narrow with precipitous -
sides, while the watercourses on the surface of the basalt
are mere shallow depressions almost to the edge of the-
gorge. Residuals of basaltic lava flows of greater age:
occur both in North and South Queensland, and possess, even
where they have evidently been subjected to denudation :
for long periods, gentle contours on their summits from:
which the streams descend in waterfalls, being incapable -
of cutting back gorges or narrow valleys in such rocks.

In the same way the undulating character of part of
the Burdekin Valley may be attributed to the weathering»
factor of its component. granite, and not necessarily to a
maturity which it may, but quite likely does not, possess.
Of course such a granite, if on the edge-of a plateau where -
streams are sufficiently swift and powerful to make light-
of the natural hardness of the rock, would be- excavated!

102 THE. BURDEKIN VALLEY. .

‘into gorges, but the angle of.declivity necessary for the
streams to form these gorges would cause them to. be short-

While all denuding processes lead: eventually to the
formation-of a plain or, in other words, the reduction of
‘the surface to base»levels, and while an approximation

to this result is an indication of great age in the cycle of |

-erosion, the writer has come to the conclusion that the
nature of some rocks.leads to their producing surfaces of
low relief having a deceptive appearance of old age.

If this view be correct, the greatest caution is necessary
‘in making physiographical deductions from the mere exist-
ance of what appears to be a peneplain, since, without a
-close acquaintance with its geological structure, one could
mot be certain that .it.is due to advanced old age in the
«cycle of erosion.

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A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST.

By Ff. P. DODD.

(IKURANDA.)

‘Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th,
1912. |

For some years past,: when collecting Coleoptera on
the ranges in this and the Herberton districts, my sons
vand I have frequently taken the females of the large and
variable buprest, Stzgmodera regia, on the ground, always
on hot days and when there was some dry dust or. fine
sand, and, for some time, we were puzzled as to the meaning
_of its presence there, seeing that the. beetle feeds upon
the honey of various Eucalyptus trees., As the yellow
beetles, and the yellow bands on the varieties gradually
.-echanged to dull brown which is often the case with yellow
colored beetles I usually eviscerated all of that color,
in the hope of preventing such undesirable change. In
operating upon Regia I often noticed and removed two or
three little sacs of fine sand at the extreme tip of the abdo-
men, but only in the females, invariably in those examples
which were rather old and contained but few eggs. This
peculiar habit warranted a little investigation, and, as we
‘found other specimens on the ground, we endeavoured
to ascertain how the sand was taken in. Though we
seldom succeeded in approaching closely to the insects
when on the ground, our presence of course alarming them,
we were able to ascertain that they curve the abdomen
close to the ground, and that the first pair of legs appear
to be actively engaged.in kicking up the dust, the body
.at the same time working backward and forward on the
‘other legs. Whether the sand is sucked up by the abdomen-

104 A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BAILAST.

tip direct from the ground, or is received by it from the-
kicking front legs, | cannot say (their office may be merely
to loosen the sand), but I may have further opportunities.
of observing during the coming season.

I know of several species of hovering flies (order Diptera), .
which fly closely over the ground, and often drag their:
abdomen-tips in the dust, and comparatively recently
captured a female of a large species whilst so engaged,
which I opened and found to contain a quantity of fine>
earth or sand.

The explanation of the beetle’s habit is, I think, quite
clear, and, no doubt, the same applies to the flies too. The’
beetle is much in hilly country, where the winds are strong,
and often blow in violent whirling gusts, which are apt-
to, in fact do, frequently drive and whirl it and flies and
other insects out and far from the trees in which they
may be feeding. Our beetle, possessing a rather ample
or balloon body, and having deposited most of her eggs,
and consequently being so much lighter than before, now
experiences great difficulty in recovering and flying back
to trees in such winds. Moreover the wings of the Buprestide
are generally short and narrow compared with beetles
in other families, and the assistance of the elytra is
invariably required when in the air, they being raised
and held out to help support the insect, as during flight the
body inclines downward. To overcome the drawbacks.
mentioned the sand is taken in, which, lying at the extremity
of the body, doubtless effectually ballasts the insect in its-
beats and strugzles against adverse winds.

The Cetonnide, another flower hunting family, possess -
much larger flying wings, and do not require the support
of the elytra, the wings being slipped out underneath,
enabling the insects to bore their way horizontally and
swiftly through the air.

Several of the Buprestide are extraordinarily variable:
in size and coloring. Regia is fairly even in size, except.
that the females are larger than the males, but the elytra may
be all yellow to deep red, or with two or three dark bands.
with yellow to orange or dark red areas between. Four
variable female specimens are forwarded for inspection..

A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSc., and
LAUNCELOT HARRISON.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th,
1912.

No Pediculids have been described, as far as we know,
as occurring on our native fauna, although it is likely that
a few species will be found to infest the true Australian
Muride. One is recorded below. Besides this, one may
expect to find some on the various species of seals which,,
at times, frequent parts of the Australian coast. Mar-
supials apparently do not harbour true lice, their ecto-
parasitic insects being Hippoboscids and Mallophaga; the
latter, strange to say, belonging to that division of
Mallophaga which is mainly parasitic on birds. The bats
and flying foxes are parasitised by Nycteribids, as in other
perts of the world.

In this note, an attempt is made to give a census of
the Pediculids known to occur in Australia. The presence
of some species is recorded for the first time.

MAN.
Pediculus capitis, L.
P. vestimenti, Nitzsch.
Phthirius pubis, L.

The presence of the first and third has _ been
referred to on a few occasions in Australian medical
journals. Mr. Froggatt (1907) and Mr. Lee (1908)
also mention the three, but do not locahse them. They
are all cosmopolitan species and occur in every State
of the Commonwealth. There is no need to make:
further reference to them.

106

AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.

Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus).

Pedicinus euryqaster.
¥

We have specimens from Sydney and Melbourne
Zoological Gardens.

Dog.

Linognathus piliferus.

N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland—not previously
recorded though fairly common. The Mallophagan
parasite T'richodectes canis (Tr. latus) also occurs on
dogs in Sydney, but is not so frequently met with’ as
the pediculid.

Pic.
Hematopinus suis, L. (syn. H. uriits).

Tasmania. Victoria, N.S.W., Queensland, West.
Australia. . Lea (1908, p. 105) recorded the presence
of this common parasite in Tasmania.

CATTLE.

Linognathus vituli, lL.
Hematopinus eurysternus, Nitzsch.

The former, the calf louse, was _ incidentally

‘recorded by one of us (Johnston, 1911, p. 217, foot-

note—N.S.W.), and by Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 29 ;
1912, p. 28). We have specimens from N.S8.W.,
Victoria and Queensland.

The latter species has been recorded by Gilruth
and Sweet (1912, p. 28), presumably from Victoria.
We have specimens from N.S.W., Victoria and Queens-
land.

Lea (1908, p. 104) records the presence of both in
Tasmania. ;

CAMEL (Dromedary).

Hematopinus tuberculatus, Burm.

We have identified as belonging to. this species
some specimens found by Dr. J. By Cleland: on a camel
imported into North West Australia from India.
Neumann (1909, p. 497) gives a description and refers
(p. 498) to the finding of this species, which normally

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 107

parasitises the buffalo, on a camel in Australia
(Nuttall’s collection). As Dr. Cleland forwarded
specimens to Prof. Nuttall also, it may be. assumed
with safety that it was these stragglers from West
Australia that Neumann had before him. It is a pity
that the name of the collector was not indicated, in
the case of this interesting find.

HORSE.
Heematopinus asini, L.
N.S.W.—Collected by Mr. A. 8S. Le Souef.
Lea (1908, p. 104) mentions the species, but does
not state whether it occurs in Tasmania.

SHEEP.
Linognathus ovillus, Neumann.

N.S.W.; South Australia. Not — previously
recorded from Australia. This parasite has been
recognised by one of us as occurring, though rarely,
on sheep in certain localities of New South Wales.
Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian, Adelaide,
has recently forwarded the same species for determina-
tion, from two widely separated localities in South
Australia. In 1906 Dr. Gilruth (1906, p. 309) met
with it in New Zealand and figured it as Hematopinus,
sp. Neumann later described it as H. ovillus, Gilruth
giving a resume of the description in 1908.

_ RABBIT.

Hemodipsus ventricosus, Denny.

N:S.W. This species is now recorded for the
first time as occurring in the Commonwealth. Our
specimens were collected in Sydney from rabbits sent
from the southern district of N.S. Wales.

MOovsE.
Though pediculids have been carefully searched
for, none have yet been found by us on this host.

Rats. (Mus rattus (alexandrinus) and Mus decumanus.)
Polyplax spinulosus, Burm.
Recorded from both hosts, from Sydney; by one
of us (Johnston, 1910, p. 20), who has specimens from
Melbourne and Brisbane 180. oe oe ie species
of rats. | ? ae

rays “OG 4 |

108 AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.

Neumann (1909, p. 515-7) has described a new
species Hamatopinus (Polyplax) bidentatus as infesting
a Mus rattus from Lake Torrens, South Australia
(Rothschild collection). In conneetion with this form
Dr. Cleland has made certain inquiries, the result of
which has been to make known the following facts,
Dr. Borthwick, Commissioner of Public Health, Adelaide,
forwarded to the Hon. Rothschild, through Professor
Stirling, Director of the Adelaide Museum, a collection
of ectoparasites from rats. Amongst them were fleas
from the common rats, and pediculids from a water
rat, Hydromys chrysogaster, captured at Torrens Lake,
a sheet of fresh water in the vicinity of Adelaide. Lake
Torrens is a depression, sometimes containing saline
water, in the central portion of South Australia. It is.
safe to assume that this is the collection which Pro-
fessor Neumann handled. The host of this new species
of pediculid is thus an Australian rat and, not, as far
as we are aware, the introduced house rat Mus rattus.
Owing to the collector’s name not having been recorded
along with the description, some difficulty might have
been experienced in tracing the specimens but for Dr.
Cleland’s kindness. One of us has received from the
Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, a_ pediculid, one
millimetre long, taken from H. chrysogaster, caught om
the shore of Sydney Harbour. The head is injured,
but the general form of the parasite agrees with that
described by Neumann. The sete on the pleura are
longer in our specimen, as they extend beyond the
stigmata.

Water Rat. (Hydromys chrysogaster.)
Polyplax bidentatus, Neumann.
S. Australia, Sydney.

(See under Mus rattus and decumanus.)

No doubt many of the forms here recorded as occurring
in certain States of Australia are also present in others.

Mr. A. S. Le Souef and Dr. Cleland of Sydney, and Mr.
Desmond, of Adelaide, have been kind enough to forward
material to us.

1907
1906
1908
1911
1912
1910

A911
1908

1909

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 109

Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney.

Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1906.

Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1908.

Gilruth and Sweet—Onchocerca gibsoni, ete—(Com-
monwealth Gevt.), Sydney, 1911.

Gilruth and Sweet—Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, 25,
1912.

Johnston—Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney,
1909 (1910).

Johnston—Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, 1911, p. 207.

Lea—Insect and Fungous Pests, etc., Hobart.
Edit. 3. 1908.

Neumann—Arch, d. Parasitol, 13, 1909, p. 497.

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STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA,
| PYRALID A,

By A. JEFFERIS TURNER. M.D. F.E:S.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 27th November,
3 1912. '

MANY species of this family, especially in the sub-
families Pyranstine and Phycitine, have a wide distribution
from Queensland through the Malayan Archipelago to
China and India, and even to Africa. There is consequently
in describing Australian species as new a risk of creating
synonyms. J! hope I have not often erred in this direction.
I have many species which I have thought it more prudent
to leave undescribed. In some instances I have been
able to send duplicate specimens to the British Museum,
and so obtain the assistance of Sir Geo. Hampson’s
valuable opinion. .

Subfam. PHYCITINA.

HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOPLEURA, W. sp.
vipotAevpos, With snowy costa.

g§ ¢. 10-14 mm. Head. fuscous.. Palpi fuscous ;
in g moderate. (3), in @ long (6). Antenne fuscous ;
in g with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper
surface near base. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey,
dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs fuscous. Fore-
wings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded,
termen very obliquely rounded ; fuscous, in ? sometimes
reddish-tinged ; a broad, white costal streak narrowing
at base and apex, sometimes containing a fine central
fuscous streak ; costal edge fuscous near base, sometimes
as far as 2; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, from November to February ; a
series received from Mr. Fe P. Dodd.

412 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID2).

HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOSEMA, 2”. Sp.

viboonpos, Snow-marked.

ft @. 18-20 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi very
long in both sexes (g 5, 9 7); dark-fuscous. Antenne
fuscous: in ¢g thickened and dentate, with a broad notch
filled with rough scales on dorsal surface near base.
Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen grey; dorsum except
near apex ochreous. Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow,
‘costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen
very obliquely rounded ; dark-fuscous, in ? sometimes
reddish-tinged ; a whitish or ochreous-whitish costal streak,
narrower towards base, and ending in a point at apex ;
-costal edge more or less fuscous ; cilia dark-fuscous. Hind-
wings grey-whitish, darker towards apex ; cilia whitish.

Like the preceding but considerably larger, the 2
palpi longer, and the 7 antenne dentate. Vein 10 of
‘forewings may be either stalked or separate, so that I
‘doubt whether the genus Hypsotropha as defined by Hampson
‘can be maintained.

Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin. in November and December ; five
‘specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

HyYPSOTROPHA DYSEIMATA, 2. Sp.

dvuceatos, meanly clad.

6 92. 15 mm. Head fuscous-whitish or ochreous-
whitish. Palpi very long (¢ 4, 2 6); ochreous-whitish
mixed with fuscous. Antenne ochreous-whitish, in ¢@
with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper surface
near base, ciliations minute. Thorax ochreous-whitish.
Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum of basal segments
ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior and middle
pairs fuscous in ¢. Forewings narrow, costa moderately
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous-
whitish, sometimes reddish-tinged with some dark-fuscous
scales ; a dark-fuscous subdorsal dot before middle, another
before tornus, and traces of a dark-fuscous line between
this and apex; a terminal series of dark-fuscous dots ;
‘cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings grey; in Q whitish ;
cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

BY A. JEFFERIS' TURNER, M.D., F.E.S; 113:

N.A. Port Darwin in October and December and!
January ; a series received from. Mr. F. P.. Dodd.

HYPSOTROPHA LAROPIS, n. sp:
Aapwris, Of dainty appearance.

Q. 17 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi rather:
long (4); whitish with a few pinkish scales. Antenne:
ochreous-whitish. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen ochreous-
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments’ ochreous. Legs:
ochreous-whitish. Forewings very narrow, costa slightly
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; rose-
pink, becoming whitish towards dorsum ; veins slenderly”
whitish ; a broad white costal streak from base, narrowing
to a point at apex, containing a costal and’ subcostal fine-
pink lines ; cilia pink. Hindwings and cilia whitish.

Type m Coll., Turner.

N.A., Port Darwin, m November; one specimen:
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

HYPSOTROPHA NEURICA,. n.. Sp..

veupixos, With marked. nerves..

S 24 mm. Head pinkish. Palpi. long (5) ; fuscous.-
Antenne ochreous-whitish ; in g thickened. and dentate,
with a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal
surface near base. Thorax, abdomen. and. legs pinkish-.
grey. Forewings elongate, costa strongly arched, apex
rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;: dull-pink, towards.
termen, mixed with fuscous; area of. cell. and all veins
ochreous-whitish ; cilia pinkish-white.. Hindwings grey ;
towards base whitish ; cilia whitish..

Type in Coll., Turner..

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns,. in June ;. one specimen.

ANERASTRIA SYSSEMA, 2.. Sp..

svoonpos, Similarly marked.

Q 12-15 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi in Q
long (6); fuscous.. Antenne: whitish-ochreous. Thorax
grey. Abdomen grey ; dorsum: of basal segments ochreous.
Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings.
narrow, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish.; a broad: white costal:
streak, narrowing towards base and apex, containing a
few fuscous. scales towards apex ;. costal. edge’ narrowly

E

114 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID#).

‘fuscous ; last costal, median, and submedian veins outlined
by fuscous irroration; a fuscous terminal line; cilia
-whitish irrorated with fuscous. Hindwings and _ cilia
whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in November and January; six
-specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ANERASTRIA METALLACTIS.
Anerastria metallactis, Meyr., Tr. E.S. 1887, p. 262.

Q 15-20 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne brown-
whitish ; palpi long (5). Thorax brown-whitish. Abdomen
whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair
brown-whitish. Forewings elongate, not narrow; costa
-gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;
pale whitish-brown; most of the veins defined by whitish
lines, which are powdered with fuscous scales ; a fuscous
-spot at lower external angle of cell; cilia whitish. Hind-
‘wings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish. |

In spite of the difference in locality, I think this must
be Mr. Meyrick’s species.

N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and December ;
five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, N.S.W.,
Bathurst (Meyrick).

ANERASTRIA ABLEPTA, 2. Sp.
aBXexros, Inconspicuous.

S Q 20-25 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish-
Palpi in ¢ rather long (4), in Q very long (7); brown-
whitish, irrorated or suffused with fuscous. Antenne
brown-whitish; in ~ thickened with minute ciliations,
a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal surface
‘near base. Abdomen ochreous. Legs brown-whitish,
‘sometimes irrorated with fuscous. Forewings elongate,
-costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded ; pale whitish-brown, with a few scattered fuscous
scales; a median whitish streak along lower edge of cell
to 3; veins towards termen sometimes obscurely whitish ;
a terminal series of fuscous dots, often inconspicuous ;
cilia whitish. Hindwings grey .or whitish-grey ; towards
-base whitish ; cilia whitish.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 115

Vein 10 usually separate, in one specimen short-
stalked.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in November, December, and Feb-
ruary. Q. Bunya Mts. -in December ; Brisbane in March ;
Mt. Tambourine in November.

ANERASTRIA ARGOSTICHA, 7. Sp.

apyootixos White-lined.

Q 14 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi moderate
(3) ; pale-fuscous, towards base whitish. Antennze whitish-
ochreous. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum
-of basal segments ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish ;
anterior pair pale-fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate,
‘costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded ; pinkish ; veins slenderly whitish ; a white median
streak from near base to near termen, its anterior 3 edged
‘dorsally with fuscous ; cilia whitish with a fuscous sub-
basal line. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish with
-a pale-grey sub-basal line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received
‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ANERASTRIA ’ ENERVELLA.

Erythphlebia enervella, Rag., Rom. Mem. viii., p. 394, Pl. 39,
f, 24.

d 20-24 mm. Head and thorax pinkish. Palpi in ¢
‘rather long (4) ; pale-fuscous. Antenne whitish-ochreous ;
‘in ¢ thickened, ciliations 3, with a dorsal groove filled
with rough scales near base. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ;
‘dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs pale-fuscous ;
posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings
moderately elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded,
‘termen obliquely rounded; pinkish; veins whitish more
-or less edged with fuscous scales ; a median whitish streak
‘from near base to termen, becoming gradually broader
to mid-disc and remaining broad to termen, from mid-dise
‘it is divided by a fine median pinkish streak; a fuscous
‘streak from base along lower edge of median streak to
:middle ; .a terminal series of fuscous. dots; cilia pinkish-

116 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).

white. Hindwings whitish; an interrupted fuscous line
along apical half of termen ; cilia whitish.

N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Q. Eumundi near Nambour, in
December, one specimen.

ANERASTRIA AN4EMOPIS, n. Sp.

dvaipwris, pale, bloodless.

Q 18 mm. Head, thorax and antenne brown-whitish.
Palpi in Q moderately long (5) ; brown-whitish with some
fuscous irroration. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum
of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, costa moderately
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-
whitish, with a few scattered dark-fuscous scales, mostly
towards termen; a roundish suffused fuscous sub-dorsal
spot before middle, and a second similar on dorsum before
tornus ; cilia brown-whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia.
white, with a grey-whitish sub-basal line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ANERASTRIA BALIORA, 2. Sp.

BaX.opos, speckled.

9 18 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish. Palpi
in Q very long (8) ; pinkish-white suffused with pale-fuscous ;
under surface whitish. Antenne whitish. Abdomen
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ;
anterior pair fuscous on dorsal aspect. Forewings elongate,
costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen
slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; pale pinkish with afew
scattered dark-fuscous scales ; all veins outlined in whitish ;
a dark-fuscous dot on sub-median vein at +, and a second
before tornus ; smaller dots on veins 2, 3, and 4 before their
middle ; cilia white. Hindwings whitish ; cilia white.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns in November ; one specimen
received from Mr, F. P. Dodd.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 117

ANERASTRIA ACROPH HA, 2. Sp.

axpopaios, dusky at the apex.

36 17 mm. Head and thorax pinkish-fuscous ; face
with a long dense tuft of anteriorly projecting hair-like
scales. Palpi fuscous; in g¢ moderate (34), terminal joint
strongly down-curved. Antennz whitish-ochreous, towards
base fuscous; in ¢ thickened and slightly dentate, with
short ciliations (4), a broad sub-basal dorsal groove con-
taining rough scales. Abdomen ochreous ; towards apex
paler; under-surface fuscous. Legs fuscous. Forewings
scarcely elongate, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed,
termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; whitish suffused
with brown-pinkish ; irrerated rather densely with dark-
fuscous seales towards base and termen ; towards the latter
this tends to form interneural streaks, of which that running
into apex is best marked ; cilia grey-whitish, at apex mixed
with fuscous. Hindwings dark-grey; cilia whitish with
a grey sub-basal line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ANERASTRIA PLEUROCHORDA, 2. Sp.

7Xevpoxopdos, With costal line.

Q 22 mm. Head ochreous-brown ; face white. Palpi
in Q long (5); brown. Antenne pale-brown. Thorax
brown. Abdomen brown; dorsum of basal segments pale-
ochreous. Legs fuscous ; [posterior pair broken]. Fore-
wings elongate, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded,
termen obliquely rounded : pinkish-brown ; a broad costal
whitish streak narrowing towards base and at apex; cilia
whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stanthorpe, in January; one specimen.

ANERASTRIA ERASMIA, 2. Sp.

€pacp.os, lovely.

Q 26 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax bright crimson-
pink; palpi in Q long (5). Antenne ochreous-whitish.
Legs pinkish; tarsi fuscous; posterior tibize and dorsal
surface of tarsi ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate,

118 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDA).

costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen but
slightly rounded, oblique; bright crimson-pink ; towards:
dorsum suffusedly whitish; a slender whitish median
streak from near base to ?; cilia crimson-pink. Hindwings:.
grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Herberton, in February; one specimen received.
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

POUJADIA CTENUCHA, 7. Sp.

ktevovxos, bearing a comb.

-G 17-18 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown..
Palpi moderate (3); fuscous mixed with brown-whitish-
Antenne with long pectinations (3), not extending to apex ;
brown-whitish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum of basal
segments ochreous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous..
Forewings not elongate, costa gently arched, more strongly
towards apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;
ochreous-whitish or sometimes reddish ; variably irrorated
and suffused with dark-fuscous ; usually a broad whitish
costal streak from base to 2, containing some fuscous.
scales, but often this is entirely obscured by the ground-
colour; a terminal series of fuscous dots, sometimes
obscure ; cilia whitish. Hindwings whitish, suffused with
grey towards apex, and with a dark-grey terminal line not
reaching tornus ; cilia whitish.

218-20 mm. Palpi rather long (5). Forewings with
less fuscous irroration; costal streak well-defined and.
without irroration.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, from September to January ; eight
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

POUJADIA LEUCONEURA, Nn. Sp.

Aevxovevpos, White-nerved.

Q 30 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish. Palpi
moderate (3) ; fuscous-whitish. Antenne white. Abdomen
whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish.
Forewings moderately broad, costa moderately arched,
apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly oblique, rounded
beneath ; whitish-ochreous with some pink scales; all

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 119:

veins outlined in white which is edged by interneural pale-
fuscous streaks; submedian vein edged with pink and’
interrupted by a pale-fuscous dot at 4; a pale-fuscous:
longitudinal streak through cell; cilia whitish. Hindwings:
grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in March; one specimen received:
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Gen. DIALEPTA, Nov.

diadertos, very small.

Tongue present. Palpi recurved, ascending, reaching
vertex, tolerably pointed. Forewings with nine veins,
3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 8 and 9 coincident, 10 separate.
Hindwings with six veins, cell closed, 4 absent, 5 absent,.
7 running into 8.

DIALEPTA MICROPOLIA, n. sp.

puxpotoAwos, Small grey.

Q@ 8 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi fuscous ;
bases of joints whitish. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs-
grey with obscure whitish annulations. Forewings narrow,
somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey mixed with.
whitish ; a transverse grey line at + ; succeeded by a squarish
orey subcostal spot ; an obscure sinuate grey subterminal.
line ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia grey with:
whitish dots. Hindwings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in November; one-
specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

GEN. ECBLETODES.
Ecbletodes, Turn., P.R.S.Q., 1903, p. 124.

Tongue well-developed. Antenne in ¢ slightly serrate-
towards apex, ciliations minute. Palpi erect, appressed
to frons, exceeding vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings.
with 4 and 5 connate or short stalked, 9 absent, 8 and 10°
stalked. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked,,.
5 absent, 7 running into 8.

Allied to Hphestia and Homaosoma, but with very
distinct neuration. The neuration is given erroneously
in my original description.

1120 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4).

ECBLETODES ,NICTA, n. Sp.

duvixtos, Obscure.

6 2 14 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen
-ochreous-whitish. Palpi ochreous-whitish with some
fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior tibize and
tarsi fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa rather strongly
.arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous-
whitish with some fuscous suffusion ; a fuseous spot on base

-

-of dorsum ; a broadly-suffused fuscious fascia from % costa
to # dorsum ; followed by a pale line, beyond which terminal
part of disc is suffused with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings

-and cilia grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October, May and June ;
‘Stannary Hills; eight specimens.

ECBLETODES OTOPTILA, 7”. Sp.
otomtiAos, With eared wing.

g 12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brown-whitish
mixed with fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in ¢@
imperceptible. Abdomen brown-whitish ; dorsum, except
a series of median spots, fuscous. Legs brown-whitish
mixed with fuscous. Forewings moderate, costa strongly
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-
whitish ; markings and a few scattered scales dark-fuscous ;

-a very obscure sinuate line from % costa to 2 dorsum; a
-Short longitudinal streak above middle of disc running mto
ithis; a short oblique streak also running into it above
‘dorsum; a terminal series of interneural streaks; cilia
‘grey with whitish dots. Hindwings with a basal costal
Jobe formed by an abrupt excavation of costa at }, containing
.a curled tuft of long hairs, the costal portion of disc beyond

‘vein 7 being not developed ; dark-grey ; cilia grey.

Very obscure, but easily recognised by the highly
‘peculiar hindwings, which are however probably only a
-sexual characteristic.

N.A. Port Darwin, in September ; one specimen received
‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 121

Grn. CRYPTADIA, nov.
kK pUTTA@OLOS, hidden.

Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed
‘to frons, reaching vertex ; terminal joint well-developed,
tolerably pointed. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5
absent, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 separate. Hindwings with cell
very short (1); 2 from well before angle of cell, 3 and 4
short-stalked, 5 absent, 7 running into 8.

Best distinguished from Euzopherodes by the extreme
shortness of cell of hindwing.

CRYPTADIA XUTHOBELA, ”. Sp.
fovfoBedos, with tawny weapons (palpi).

Q 18-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Face and
palpi orange-ochreous. Abdomen and legs fuscous. Fore-
wings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; fuscous, with
dark-fuscous dots; a dot on costa at 4, another above dorsum
at 3, and a third between but slightly posterior to these ;
a median discal dot; a dot on dorsum before tornus,
another above this, and two in disc placed transversely,
slightly: posterior to the preceding; cilia fuscous. Hind-
wings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. ;

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, in September, October and March ;
‘five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

KUZOPHERODES SPODOPTILA, 2. sp.
wmodoTTiAos, ashen-winged.

6 14 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi
fuscous ; apices of second and terminal joints whitish.
Antenne whitish ; ciliations in ¢ 4}. Abdomen grey ; basal
segments and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish-grey
with fine fuscous irroration. Forewings narrow, costa
rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded ; whitish-grey with some fuscous irroration; a
suffused sub-basal fuscous spot from costa, not reaching
dorsum ; a similar suffused transverse fascia at 2; a fine
fuscous line at ~ angled into a prominent posterior tooth
in mid-disc ; an obscure terminal series of fuscous dots ;

122 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).

cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings whitish ; suffused with grey
towards apex and termen ; cilia whitish with a grey sub-
basal line, at apex grey.

In wing-shape this resembles H#. leptocosma, from which,
however, it is very distinct.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December; one specimen
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

UNADILLA TRISSOMITA, 1. Sp.
T PLO OPATOS, with three threads.

S$ Q 16-18 mm. Head and thorax purple-reddish
mixed with whitish ; face ochreous-whitish. | Palpi reddish-
fuscous ; base, extreme apex, and most of internal surface
whitish. Antenne and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs.
ochreous-whitish ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations.
Forewings narrow-elongate, apex rectangular, termen
rounded, slightly oblique; purple-reddish mixed with
fuscous ; three white longitudinal streaks ; first broad from
1 costa to costa again at apex ; second rather above middle,
slender and interrupted, from near base, not quite reaching
termen ; third along fold, similar, from near base to beyond
middle ; a dark fuscous terminal line ; cilia purple-reddish,
apices partly fuscous. Hindwings whitish, tinged with grey
towards termen ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May; two
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

UNADILLA ATECMARTA, nN. SD.
atexpaptos, Obscure.

Q 21 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous-
whitish. Palpi fuscous. Antenne whitish. Legs whitish
irrorated with fuscous. Forewings narrow-elongate,
posteriorly dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded,
termen obliquely rounded ; whitish irrorated with fuscous ;
an obscure externally oblique fuscous line in middle of
disc ; a fuscous subcostal dot at 3; a fine fuscous obliquely
transverse line parallel to termen at %; an obscure inter-
rupted fuscous terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous irrorated
with whitish. Hindwings grey, thinly scaled ; cilia whitish
with a grey sub-basal line.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 123

Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Gen. MESEINIADIA.

Tongue well-developed. Palpi recurved, ascending,
reaching vertex, apex acute ; third joint in ¢ with a short,
basal, anterior tuft. Antennal ciliations of ¢ extremely
short. Forewings with 2 and 3 long stalked, 4 and 5 long-
stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2 from near
angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 7 anastomosing strongly with 8.

Related to the following genus, but peculiar in the
stalking of 2 and 3 of the forewings.

MESEINIADIA INFRACTALIS.
Nephopteryx infractalis, Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus. xxx., p. 958.

6 @ 12-13 mm. Head brown-whitish; face in ¢
dark fuscous. Palpi whitish ; outer surface of third joint
fuscous. Antenne, thorax, and abdomen brown-whitish.
Legs ochreous-whitish with some fuscous irroration. Fore-
wings narrow, costa straight, gently arched beyond middle,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish
irrorated and suffused with brown ; markings dark-fuscous ;
a dot on base of costa ; costal edge to 4 dark-fuscous ; an
interrupted median streak, more or less marked, ending
in terminal suffusion; a short streak on base of dorsum ;
an oblique streak from } costa, bent in disc to become
longitudinal, and ending in terminal suffusion; dorsal
edge more or less dark-fuscous ;_ a large tornal dark-fuscous
suffusion extending nearly to apex ; cilia grey. Hindwings
whitish more or less suffused with grey; cilia grey.

A very obscure little species easily recognised by
structural characters.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May ;
Innisfail in November; also from Borneo.

Gren. ENCRYPHODKES, nov.

éykpupwous, hidden.

Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed
to frons, reaching vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings
with 4 and 5 stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2
from before angle of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anas-
tomising strongly with 8.

124 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).

ENCRYPHODES ZNICTOPA, ”. Sp.
aiviktwros, obscure.

Sg 15 mm. - Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen
ochreous-whitish. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ thickened,
ciliations imperceptible. | Legs ochreous-whitish. —Fore-
wings moderate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; ochreous- whitish suffused with fuscous ;
a straight oblique pale line from #2 costa to 3 dorsum,
preceded by a fuscous suffusion; a slightly sinuate pale
line from % costa to 2 dorsum:; cilia ochreous-whitish, apices
fuscous. Hindwings grey; cilia pale-grey, bases ochreous-
whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

EUZOPHERA STICHOSEMA, ”. Sp.

otixoonpos, marked with lines.

S$ Q 11-12 mm. Head _ fuscous-whitish; face
ochreous-whitish. Palpi with a small anterior tuft of scales
on second joint towards its apex ; fuscous-whitish mixed
with fuscous. Antenne whitish; in ¢ thickened, minutely
ciliated, and with fine dark-fuscous annulations. Legs
whitish mixed with fuscous ; posterior pair mostly whitish ;
tarsi fuscous annwated with whitish. Forewings dilated
posteriorly, costa straight to middle, then strongly arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish
with some fuscous irroration ; two dark-fuscous transverse
lines; first from mid-costa to mid-dorsum, outwardly
curved ; second subterminal, straight; cilia grey. Hind-
wings whitish, becoming grey towards apex ; cilia whitish,
at apex grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Brisbane, in August and October; Rosewood in
March; three specimens.

HYPHANTIDIUM SERICARIUM.
Hyphantidium sericariwm, Scott, P.Z.8., 1859, p. 207, Pl. 61,
Euzophera microdoxa, Meyr., P.L.S., N.S.W., 1880, p. 231.

Sir Geo. Hampson kindly identified one of my Port
Darwin examples, and these correspond closely with Mr.

; BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 125.

Meyrick’s excellent description. It is the type species of
the genus.

N.A. Port Darwin; Q. Duaringa ; N.S.W., Wollombi ;
T., Launceston.

_ HYPHANTIDIUM ATERPES.

ATEPTS, unpleasing.

6 Q 1li-12 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish.
Palpi brown-whitish with some _ fuscous _ irroration.
Antenne brown-whitish; in ¢ thickened and _ slightly
serrate, ciliations imperceptible. Legs brown-whitish mixed
with fuscous. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa gently
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-
whitish irrorated with fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ; a dot
beneath mid-costa, a second in disc shightly below and posterior
to this, and a third above mid-dorsum ; two dots placed
transversely in disc at 3, the lower larger ; a finely dentate
line from before apex to before tornus, and another more
acutely dentate from apex to tornus ; cilia brown-whitish.
Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in October and January; twa
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

HYPHANTIDIUM SEMIFICTILE, ”. Sp.

Semifictilis, half made of clay.

6 14mm. _ Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi grey-whitish.
Antenne grey ; ciliations in ¢ +. Thorax grey. Abdomen
pale-ochreous. Legs grey ; posterior pair ochreous-whitish,
tarsi on outer surface grey. Forewings moderate, costa
gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;
grey, finely irrorated with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings.
brownish-ochreous ; at apex grey; cilia pale-ochreous,
at apex grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stradbroke Island, in September; one specimen.

TYLOCHARES EREMONOMA, 1”. Sp.
épnyovoyos, Awelling in the desert.
Q 19 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi rather long
(24), obliquely ascending, not appressed to frons, second
joint very long, terminal joint very short 3, obtuse ; whitish

t

126 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).

terminal joint and apex of second joint on external surface
brownish. Antennze brown. Thorax brown. Abdomen
ochreous-whitish. Legs [anterior and middle pairs broken]
posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow-elongate, slightly
dilated posteriorly, costa nearly straight, apex rounded,
termen obliquely rounded; reddish-brown; a_ very _ ill-
defined broad costal streak from near base to near apex,
white sparsely irrorated with reddish-brown ; cilia whitish-
brown. Hindwings grey: ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Adavale, in May; one specimen.
‘TYLOCHARES HEMICHIONEA, ”. Sp.

jpexvoveos, half-snowy.
g 17 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous.

Antenne fuscous; in ¢@ thickened and minutely ciliated.
Abdomen brownish-grey, base of dorsum ochreous-tinged.
Legs white with scanty brown irroration ; apical half of
anterior and middle cox, anterior and middle femora
except middle, anterior and middle tibize except apex and
one or two white dots, and all tarsi, fuscous. Forewings
narrow-elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; brown-fuscous with purple reflections ;
a broad white streak from costa at + to apex, its dorsal
edge ill-defined ; costal edge in middle } brown-fuscous ;
cilia fuscous, bases whitish. Hindwings grey; cilia grey,
paler towards tornus, bases whitish.

Similar to the preceding but with very different palpi,
the terminal joint being well developed (2) and rather acute.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

TRISSONCA ODONTOSEMA, 2. Sp.

ddovtoanpos, tooth-marked.

S Q 20-22 mm. Head brownish ; face whitish. Palpi
whitish with brown irroration. Antenne pale-fusccus ;
in ¢ much thickened with minute ciliations. Abdomen
pale ochreous-brown. Legs whitish irrorated, except
posterior pair with fuscous ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annula-
tions. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched,
bee) aac diet i

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 127

apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; whitish densely ©
suffused with fuscous ; costal area except basal fourth and
apex mostly whitish ; a suffused oblique lne from } costa
to mid-dorsum ; a pair of median discal dots placed trans-
versely, sometimes obsolete; a finely dentate transverse
line at 5; a terminal series of fuscous dots ; cilia fuscous-
whitish. Hindwings with cell 4 or rather less, 2 from well
before angle 3 and 4 separate but closely approximated
at origin ; fuscous-whitish or fuscous ; cilia fuscous-whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in August, October and
April ; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

PHYCITA OLIVALIS.
Phycita olivalis, Hmps., Moths. Ind., iv., p. 92.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in August, December and
April; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Besides the following I have many unnamed species
of Phycita and Nephopteryx, which I think it wiser not to
name at present.

PHYCITA CRYPTADIA, 7. Sp.
KpuTTaoLos, hidden.

Q@ 25 mm. Head and thorax dark brownish-grey.
Palpi’ brownish-grey, second joint irrorated with whitish.
Antenne whitish-grey. Abdomen grey tinged with brown.
Legs fuscous with obscure whitish irroration and annula-
tions. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa
moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded;
grey tinged with brown and mixed with whitish; a
whitish transverse line from mid-costa to dorsum beyond
middle, indented inwards above middle and again above
dorsum ; beyond this are two rather large brown suffused
spots placed. transversely ; a finely dentate whitish line
from costa at 2 obliquely outwards, then bent parallel to
termen, and ending in dorsum near tornus; a terminal
series of dark-fuscous dots ; cilia grey with whitish points.
Hindwings thinly scaled ; pale-grey, darker towards apex ;
cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line.

128 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).

Type in Coll., Turner. My second example is in the
British Museum.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; two specimens:
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

CRYPTOBLABES ALPHITIAS, ”. sp.

dAqita, barley-meal.

Q 12 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and
abdomen grey. Legs white irrorated with grey; tarsi
grey with white annulations. Forewings narrow, somewhat
dilated posteriorly, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;:
fuscous-grey, towards costa broadly irrorated with white ;
a fuscous line from costa before middle to dorsum beyond.
middle, interrupted beneath costa ; two fuscous discal dots
at 3%, placed transversely, sometimes connected; a
whitish line at *% parallel to termen, preceded by a fuscous
line obsolete towards costa; a terminal series of fuscous
dots; cilia pale-grey with white points. Hindwings-
whitish ; veins outlined in grey; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen:
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

CRYPTOBLABES HEMIGYPSA, 2. Sp.

npcyelos, half-chalky.

gS Q 14-17 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and thorax
whitish-grey. Abdomen grey towards apex in ¢@ whitish..
Legs whitish irrorated with grey, and sometimes also with
reddish. Forewings narrow-elongate, posteriorly slightly
dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; pale grey, costa half broadly irrorated
or suffused with white, sometimes also with some reddish
scales ; a fuscous sub-costal spot at 4, sometimes indistinct ;
two fuscous discal dots at 2, placed transversely ; an ill-
defined fuscous transverse line at 2, parallel to termen,
sometimes a similar sub-terminal line; a terminal series.
of fuscous dots; cilia pale-grey, apices white. Hindwings
thinly scaled, whitish; veins and margins outlined with
grey; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Brisbane, in August, September, and November 3.
four specimens.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 129

GEN. MACROCHILOTA, nov.
paxpoxetAoros, long-lipped.

Frons oblique and flat. ‘Tongue present. Palpi very
long, porrect densely hairy above and beneath. Maxillary
palpi very short, filiform. Tibize with outer spurs not
-exceeding $ length of inner spurs. Forewings with 4 and
-5 stalked, 8 and 9 long stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hind-
wings with cell about 3, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anasto-
mosing with 8.

MACROCHILOTA ARAZZOSTICHA, 2. Sp.

A PALOTTLXOS, narrow-lined.

Q 23-26 mm. ‘Head pale ochreous-grey. Palpi in Q
‘7; pale-fuscous, inner surface whitish. Antenne and
‘thorax pale ochreous-grey. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish-
‘grey ; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate, costa gently
-arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale
ochreous-grey ; three white lines partly edged with fuscous,
-arising from a white sub-costal basal spot ; first line costal,
leaving costal edge narrowly grey, running into second line
before middle ; second line sub-costal, nearly approximated
to first, ending on costa shortly before apex ; third line
median, running along lower edge. of. cell, and ending on
*termen above middle; sometimes posterior edge of cell
and terminal veins are partly outlined with fuscous ; cilia
pale-grey with white points. Hindwings whitish suffused
‘with grey towards apex and termen, sometimes wholly
‘grey ; cilia grey- whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.S.W. Ben Lomond (4,500 ft.), in January ; three
‘specimens, of which one is in the British Museum.

Susp-Fam. GALLERIAN:.
HETEROMICTA LEPTOCHLORA, 2. Sp.

AertoxAwpos, Slightly green.

g 24 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antenne
white with dark fuscous annulations; in @ mnunutely
ciliated. Thorax white with some faint green suffusion.
Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish irrorated with
grey and annulated with dark fuscous. forewings rather
‘elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen

J

130 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4).

rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish suffused with pale-green:
and irrorated with grey; a transverse whitish line at 4
‘forming three large dentations: a blackish oblique discal
mark at middle preceded by a blackish dot ; a finely dentate:
whitish line edged anteriorly by a fine grey line, from 2’
costa outwards, then bent in disc, and ending on + termen :
beyond this is a greyish suffusion ; a terminal series of dark-
fuscous dots; cilia grey mixed with whitish. Hindwings-
grey, paler towards base; cilia whitish with a grey basal:
line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Herberton in January; one specimen received:
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

DOLOESSA VIRIDIS.
Viridis, Zel., Isis, 1848, p. 860.
Thagora figurana, Wik., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 205,.
Hmps., Ill. Het. ix. Pl. 157., f. 8. Moths Ind., iv., p. 5.
N.Q. Cairns. Also from Java and Ceylon.

| MELIPHORA MYRMECOPHILA, 7”. Sp.

puppynKxodiAros, ant loving.

Q 22mm. Head, palpi, antennz, thorax, and abdomen:
fuscous. Legs fuscous irrorated and annulated with
whitish. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched,
apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; fuscous-
with some dark-fuscous irroration especially towards base ;
some dark-fuscous scales on termen:; cilia fuscous. Hind-
wings with termen sinuate ; fuscous, paler towards base ;
cilia fuscous.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Townsville, in October; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd, who found the rather hairy and
somewhat smoky larve in the closed galleries of a tree ant
(Crematogaster s.p.), Where they pupate, the saiall oval
cocoons being peppered with smail fragments of bark.

Gen. ACARA.
Acara, Wlk., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 198, Hmps., Moths
Tnd:..~Ivs5 der te
Palpi clothed with long hairs. Antenne of ¢ minutely
ciliated, with a tuft of long hairs from basal joint. Fore-
wings with apex acute and produced ; lower angle of cell
more or less produced, 2 from middle, 3 from ?, 4 and 5

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 13

connate or separate, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 and 11 separate...
Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked, 6 and 7 stalked, 7 anas--
tomosing with 8.
ACARA PSOLOPASTA, 2. Sp.
Uvororactos, Sprinkled with soot.

6 36mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and abdomen.
and legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, costa
straight, before apex incurved, apex produced, bent costally,
and acute, termen scarcely oblique, rounded beneath ;
7 from 8 before 9; ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale -
ochreous-grey, and sparsely irrorated with dark-fuscous :
cilia pale ochreous-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ;,
ochreous-whitish ; cilia ochreous whitish.

Type m Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Atherton; one specimen.

SuB.-Fam. CRAMBIN/.
DipTYCHOPHORA LEUCOGRAMMA, . Sp.

Nevkoypappos, inscribed with white.

6 Il mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi whitish--
ochreous with pale-fuscous hairs. Antenne whitish ; ciliations.
in ¢ very short (4). Thorax whitish-ochreous. Abdomen
pale-fuscous, at base whitish-ochreous, tuft whitish. Legs.
whitish. Forewings triangular, costa nearly _ straight,
apex rounded, termen oblique, nearly straight, incised
beneath apex ; fuscous mixed with whitish; a patch on
base of dorsum and terminal half of disc, especially on
veins, suffused with brownish-ochreous ; a median white:
line from base to ¢ where in divides into two limbs forming
a Y, costal limb ending beneath } costa, dorsal limb at
mid-dorsum ; a white line from 2 costa curved outwards.
and then parallel to termen and ending in 2 dorsum; an
oblique white subapical costal streak nearly to termen ;.
a few blackish scales on lower part of termen ; cilia brownish-
ochreous, a leaden-fuscous sub-basal line not reaching
tornus, apices fuscous at apex of wing, on costa before
apex white. Hindwings with termen sinuate ; ochreous-
whitish ; cilia ochreous-whitish, a pale-grey basal line on
apex of wing.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Bribie Island, near Caloundra, Moreton Bay, ini
September; one specimen.

1132 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).

TALIS POLYARGYRA, 2. Sp.
TOAVApPYUPOS, rich in silver.
G 24-28:mm. Head pale brownish-ochrevus. Palpi
-very long (8); pale-fuscous. Antenne grey; in ¢ serrate
--with short ciliations (4). Thorax brownish-ochreous, with
-a white posterior spot. Abdomen pale-ochreous.. Legs
pale-fuscous ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings
-moderately elongate, costa gently arched. apex round-
pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; —brownish-
ochreous ; markings silvery-white ; a whitish costal streak
more or less defined: a broad median streak from base
to end of cell edged with a few fuscous scales ; a fine streak
along vein 2; five short broad interneural streaks beyond
_ cell; veins beyond cell more or less outlined with fuscous ;
a subterminal line from beneath apex nearly to tornus,
interrupted by fuscous lines on veins; cilia whitish wilh
silvery lustre, a fine fuscous: line at 4. Hindwings with
~termen slightly sinuate; pale-ochreous; cilia whitish-
_ ochreous. |
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.S.W., Glen Innes, in March; four specimens.

Susp-Fam. PYRALINE.

GEN. MICROCYTTARA, NOV.
[ALKPOKUTTAPOS, small-celled.
Frons flat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate,
--porrect ; second joint Jong, slightly ascending ; terminal
joint short, stout, obtuse, slightly bent downwards. Thorax
with a small posterior crest. Legs with outer spurs less
- than 3 as long as inner spurs. Forewings elongate : without
_ raised scales ; discocellulars very strongly curved inwards,
2 from 3, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 approximated at
‘ base from angle, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, 8, 9,
which are stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hindwings con-
- siderably broader than forewings ; cell extremely short ('),
discocellulars very strongly bowed inwards, strongly pro-
duced at both angles, 3, 4 and 5 stalked, 7 anastomosing
with 8 for some distance.

This curious genus is not closely related to any known

‘to me, but I think it may be regarded as a development
. of Bostra with peculiarly exaggerated neural characters.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. F33-

MICROCYTTARA EUMEEES,. ”.. sp.

EVLNKNS, of good length.

Q 42 mm. Head, palpi, and antennz: brownish-grey..

Thorax brownish-grey, a large posterior spot and a small
spot on base of each patagium fuscous. Abdomen
ochreous-whitish irrorated with pale-fuscous, slightly tinged
with ochreous on base of dorsum. Legs ochreous-
whitish ; femora, tibiz, and first tarsal joints with oblique
dark-fuscous rings. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brownish-
grey with slight fuscous and reddish-brown irroration ;
markings fuscous ; an oblique line from + costa to } dorsum,
indented inwards on fold; a median sub-costal spot; a

sharply dentate line from 3 costa to 3 dorsum, bent outwards -

in disc; a terminal series of dots ; cilia ochreous-whitish
with some fuscous irroration. Hindwings- slightly sinuate
beneath apex ; ochreous-whitish ; a fine interrupted pale-
fuscous terminal line from apex for some distance ; cilia
ochreous- whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ;- one specimen :

received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

GEN. ODONTOPASCHIA.

Odontopaschia, Hmps:

Frons with an anterior tuft. Tongue present. Palpi.

long, porrect ; second joint very long, with a short tuft

at apex ; terminal joint short, slender, smooth.. Antenne -

of ¢ unknown. Forewings with tufts. of. raised.

Scales; 4 and 5 stalked, 7 absent, 8, 9, 10° stalked, 11
Separate. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent,
7 anastomosing with 8.

Type O. virescens, Hmps. from India.

ODONTOPASCHIA ECNOMIA, 2... Sp.

éxvopwos, Unusual,

Q 20 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish mixed |

with dark-fuscous. Palpi 5; brown-whitish, outer aspect

of second joint dark-fuscous. Antenne: brown;whitish..
Abdomen brown-whitish. Legs fuscous ; tarsi annulated.

with whitish. Forewings triangular, costa scarcely arched,

134 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).

-apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; brown-whitish
mixed and suffused with fuseous; a tuft of dark-fuscous
“scales on middle third of dorsal margin; basal part of
disc suffused with fuscous; a large raised sub-costal
‘tuft of dark-fuscous scales at 4, and a second smaller
beyond middle; a fuscous line from first tuft to ? dorsum,
preceded by a pale line; a fuscous line from ? costa
“Obliquely outwards, then acutely angled inwards and
finely wavy to dorsum before tornus; a dark-fuscous
terminal line; cilia brown-whitish with two dark lines.
Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly wavy; grey,
towards base paler ; cilia pale-grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in December ; two specimens
“received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which one is in the British
Museum.

Gen. SIALOCYTTARA, Nov.

ciAoKkuTtapos, With greasy cell.

Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed
to frons, much exceeding vertex ; posterior aspect of terminal
joint and of apex of second joint clothed with long hairs,
which in ¢ form dense tufts ; second joint in ¢ dilated
to receive the brush-like maxillary palpi. Antenne of 2
with fascicles of moderately long cilia, no process from
basal joint. Thorax with a small post-median crest.
‘Forewings of ¢ with cell on underside covered by modified
greasy-looking scales, terminal area of wing abbreviated,
and veins short ; 7, 8, 9 stalked. Hindwings broad ; in ¢
with modified scales along costa beneath ; 4 and 5 connate
or short-stalked, 7 closeiy approximated to 8, not anastom-
-osing. ;

Near Heterobcla, Turn., but with peculiarly tufted
palpi, and in ¢ with modified scale-areas and truncated
‘forewings.

SIALOCYTTARA ERASTA, 2. Sp.
EpATTOS, beloved.

Gg 28 mm. Head and palpi white mixed with dark-
green. Antenne ochreous-whitish ; ciliations 2. Thorax
-white mixed with dark-green and reddish-brown ; a central

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 135

ereddish-brown spot. Abdomen white partly suffused with
reddish-brown, with some blackish irroration on sides ;
‘tuft pale-ochreous, towards apex fuscous. Legs white
-mixed with reddish-brown and blackish ; tarsi dark-fuscous
with white annulations. Forewings triangular, costa
-straight, apex rounded, termen strongly bowed, slightly
oblique ; greenish-grey with glossy reflections; a large
snow-white spot on base of costa; some blackish and
rreddish-brown scales on basal part of dorsum; a large
dark-green central fascia, its edges very irregular, preceded
by a snow-white spot on and beneath costa, and containing
some blackish scales near posterior edge above and below
-middle ; this is partly edged and intersected in middle by
whitish-ochreous ; a dark-green spot surrounded by white
-on costa at +; before this is a small similar sub-costal spot
edged with whitish-ochreous; a third similar spot on
dorsum near tornus; some pale reddish-brown suffusion
towards termen; four leaden-fuscous spots on termen
beneath apex ; cilia fuscous mixed with whitish and reddish-
brown. Hindwings pale-reddish; near base becoming
ochreous-whitish ; cilia whitish, towards apex barred with

.fuscous.

Q 30 mm. Head and thorax similar. Palpi ochreous-
‘whitish. Abdomen whitish tinged with green: laterally
-ehiefly dark-fuscous. Forewings more elongate-triangular ;
a snow-white basal costal spot; base dark green to {;
.central area white with dark-green blotches on mid-costa

-and mid-dorsum; an indistinct dentate transverse line
from ? costa, bent inwards beneath costal blotch and
-ending on ? dorsum; terminal area dark-green, becoming
fuscous towards termen. Hindwings white ; a large fuscous
apical blotch continued as a narrow band along termen.

Though very different I think these will prove to be

Sexes.
Types in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in Julv (¢) and December

-(Q)3 two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

136 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 4).

Gen. AXIOCRITA, Nov. .

a&ioxpitos, Worth choosing.

Frons fiat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi slender,.

ascending, very long ; second joint very long, much exceed-
ing vertex ; terminal joint acute ; distal half of second joint
and terminal joint with long hairs on posterior surface ;

second joint in not dilated. Antenne in moderately -
¥

ciliated, no antennal process. Abdomen with dorsal crests.

on first two segments. Forewings with raised scale tufts ;
4 and 5 separate at origin, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 closely
approximated to them. Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate,
7 anastomosing with 8.

Allied to the preceding but differing in the neuration
of the hindwings, and in the ¢ palpi.

AXIOCRITA CATAPHANES, hl. Sp.

xaTaparns, Conspicuous.

¢ 25 mm. Head brown, on face mixed with whitish.
Palpi very long (6); brown; extreme apex whitish.
Antenne grey; in ¢ dentate, with moderate ciliations (1).

Thorax brown with three whitish spots ,one posterior, .

and one on each patagium. Abdomen fuscous; apex
brownish ; bases of second and third segments whitish.
Legs brown-fuscous ; base of anterior coxze white; tarsi
with narrow whitish annulations. Forewings triangular,

costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; .

fusecous ; base, a broad costal streak, a small area in disc,
and veins towards termen suffused with dull ochreous-

green ; six prominent scale-tufts ; first near base, white ;_

the remainder fuscous, three sub-costal. and two on median
vein ; white dots on costa at !, #, and +; a white dot just
posterior to basal tuft ; a faint, whitish, irregularly dentate

line from sub-apical dot to before tornus; beyond this -

terminal area is paler; cilia whitish barred with pale-
fuscous. Hindwings bright orange-vellow ; a dark-fuscous
terminal band, broad at apex, narrowing to tornus ; cilia
fuscous.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in September ; one specimen :

received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. ISF

MACALLA MNIOMIMA, n. Sp.

pviopipos, imitating moss.

6 Q 23-25 mm. Head white with a green spot on
crown. Palpi green with a few whitish scales. Antenne
ochreous-whitish ; ciliations in 4 2; antennal process in
6 green. Abdomen pale-green mixed with whitish. Legs
whitish mixed with green and fuscous ;_ tarsi green-fuscous
annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly
oblique ; whitish densely suffused with yellow-green which
is arranged in confused, broken, dentate or wavy transverse
lines ; a dark-fuscous median spot at }; beyond this an
incomplete wavy whitish transverse fascia, divided into
two by a wavy green line; a dark-fuscous median sub-
costal spot with a similar spot or suffusion between it and
dorsum ; sometimes some patchy dark-fuscous suffusion
towards termen ; cilia whitish with a basal series of yellow-
green dots. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Atherton in February: four specimens. Also in
British Museum from New Guinea.

MACALLA CHLOROPHGNA, 2. Sp.

xAwpodowos, green and red.

gS Q 35-42 mm. Head, thorax, palpi. and antenne
yellowish-green. Antennal ciliations in @ short (%).
Abdomen whitish partly suffused with pale-reddish, with
a few fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded,
termen bowed, slightly oblique ; whitish densely but patchily
suffused with brownish-green ; a short transverse linear
dark-fuscous discal mark beneath mid-costa ; a pale trans-
verse line from ? costa to + dorsum, angulated outwards
in middle, and succeeded by a darker shade containing
some dark-fuscous scales; an interrupted dark-greenish
terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings brownish-red ;
a dark-fuscous terminal band, broadest at apex; cilia
pale-reddish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

@. Mount Tambourine, in December and January ;
two specimens.

138 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).

MACALLA PELOSCIA, 2. Sp.

zyA\ookws, With muddy shade.

gd 25 mm. Head and thorax whitish mixed with
dull-reddish. Palpi greenish with some whitish and
towards apex with some dull-reddish scales. Antenne
grey ; ciliations in @ short ($); antennal processes in @
whitish mixed with dull-reddish. | Abdomen ochreous-
whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish irrorated with dull-reddish ;
tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings triangular,
costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly
oblique ; whitish mixed with grey and dull-reddish; a
darker dorsal shade containing some fuscous scales from 4
nearly to tornus, extending half across wing ; a pale trans-
verse line edged by dark lines at }, obsolete towards costa ;
an obscure darker median discal spot; a whitish mark
preceded by a dark mark on costa at 3; a darker sub-
terminal shade; a terminal series of fuscous dots best
marked towards apex; cilia whitish, with a pale-reddish
basal line interrupted by fuscous dots. Hindwings pale-
fuscous becoming darker towards termen ; cilia as forewings
but basal line and dots much paler.

Type in Coll., Turner. .

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December ; one specimen
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

EPIPASCHIA POLYSCIA, 2. Sp.
zodvek:os, very shady.

S Q 25-28 mm. Head pale-brown ; face mixed with
fuscous. Palpi pale-brown; second joint with obscure
antemedian and subterminal fuscous rings ; terminal joint
fuscous except apex. Antenne pale-brown ; ciliations in
3 1. Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen brown-whitish with
some fuscous irroration; dorsum tinged with ochreous.
Legs brown mixed with whitish and annulated with fuscous ;
tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings. tri-
angular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed,
oblique ; brown-whitish irrorated with brown ; markings
fuscous ; a spot on dorsum near base; a large triangular
blotch on costa at +; a smaller blotch between this and
dorsum ; an interrupted line from 2 costa to mid-dorsum ;
a median sub-costal dot preceded by a crest of pale scales ;

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 139

2

a line from 3 costa obliquely outwards, bent inwards in
«lise and ending on ? dorsum ; an ill-defined brown blotch
containing some fuscous scales on costa near apex; a
brown-fuscous terminal line interrupted on veins; cilia
pale-brown, apices whitish. Hindwings fuscous; paler
towards base; cilia as forewings but with basal fuscous
bars on apical half of termen.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in January ; four specimens
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

EPIPASCHIA CHLOANTHES, 2. Sp.
xAoavGyns, green.

2 30 mm. Head fuscous-brown, sides of crown green.
Palpi 2, third joint $; dark -fuscous ; basal half of second
joint green; apices of second and third joints narrowly
whitish. Antenne grey. Thorax green with a few fuscous
scales. Abdomen green; a series of median dorsal dots
and a few scattered scales brownish and fuscous. Legs
whitish irrorated with purple-fuscous and annulated with
dlark fuscous; external surface of middle tibiz green.
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex
rounded, termen bowed, oblique; bright-green ; markings
brownish-fuscous ; three dark-fuscous costal spots at 4,
4, and 2; less defined spots on dorsum at } and +; a median
discal dot with some irroration beneath it ; a line from third
costal dot obliquely outwards, bent in disc, parallel to
termen for a short distance, then bent inwards, and again
to end in dorsum at 2 ; a large dark apical patch ; a small
patch above tornus; a series of dark-fuscous terminal
dots ; cilia pale-reddish, apices whitish, barred with fuscous,
Hindwings whitish with a reddish tinge ; a suffused pale-
fuscous terminal band ; cilia as forewings but fuscous bars
inconspicuous.

Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June; one specimen.
ORTHAGA EXVINACEA.

| er f

Orthaya exvinacea, Hmps., Ill. Het. viii., p. 127, Pl. 154,
f. 9. Mothes. Ind.,. iv., p. 125.

6 Q 24-28 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi grey-

whitish ; second joint with antemedian and_ subapical

140 AUSTRALIAN LEPTDOPTERA (PYRALID2®).

fuscous rings. Antenne grey-whitish; ciliations in ¢@ Ls
Thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen whitish irrorated with’
fuscous and suffused on dorsum with oehreous. Legs:
fuscous mixed with whitish ; tarsi fuscous with ochreous-
whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight,.
apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; grey-whitish
with some brownish and fuscous irroration ; basal fourth
shows more brownish irroration; a _ transverse fuscous
line at 4, often indistinct ; a fuscous line from 3 costa
obliquely outwards, then bent inwards and either dentate:
or lost in a dark-fuscous suffusion, then angled inwards,
ending on dorsum near tornus; a slight purplish tinge
on posterior part of disc ; an interrupted fuscous terminal
line ; cilia pale-brownish barred with fuscous, apices. whitish.
Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; darker towards termen ; cilia
as forewings.

Sir Geo. Hampson tells me that mine agree with Indiam
and Ceylon specimens.

N.A. Port Darwin, in October and November ; four

ral

specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ORTHAGA AMPHIMELAS, 2. Sp.
dpoipedas, black all round.

Sg 24 mm. Head grey. Palpi with second joint
dilated at apex, terminal joint very short, stout, obtuse =
dark-fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in gL.
Thorax blackish. Abdomen grey-whitish densely irrorated
with dark-fuscous. Legs dark-fuscous mixed, and _ tarsi
annulated, with fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly
oblique ; dark-fuscous ; a broad whitish suffusion on middle
third of costa ; markings blackish ; an indistinct transverse
line at 4; a dot beneath mid-costa; a line from 3 costa
obliquely outwards nearly to mid-termen, there forming
a rounded projection, angulated inwards above dorsum,
which it joins near tornus ; a few white scales near termen ;
ciia fuscous, bases barred with brownish, a few whitish
points on apices. Hindwings fuscous-whitish; darker
towards termen ; cilia white with a fuscous basal line.

The form of the postmedian line of forewings is dis-
tinctive. In the palpi this species agrees with the preceding.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 14]

Type im Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ORTHAGA BRYOMIMA, 2. sp.

Bpvopipos, like moss.

¢ 23mm. Head. thorax, and palpi green. Antenne
grey: ciliations in g 1. Abdomen whitish mixed with
dark-fuscous. Legs greenish; posterior pair mostly
whitish ; tarsi annulated with dark-fuscous. Forewings
triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen
bowed, oblique ; green mixed with whitish-green and with
some blackish irroration ; first line indistinct, represented
by some confused blackish irroration ; a median subcostal
blackish discal tuft of raised seales; second line from 2
costa, green, traversing a whitish-green blotch obliquely
outwards, then curved inwards and ending. on dorsum
at +; above dorsum it is preceded by a blackish blotch
with suffused edges ; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal
line; cilia very pale reddish barred with dark-fuscous.
Hindwings fuscous, becoming whitish towards base ; cilia
as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Montville (1500 ft.), on Blackall Range, near
Nambour, in October; one specimen.

GEN. ENCHESPHORA, ‘nov.

eyyerhopos, Spear-bearing.

Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ;
second joint slightly ascending, rough-haired above towards
apex ; terminal joint short, broad. obtuse, down-curved
Maxillary palpi broadly dilated at apex. Forewings with
4 and 5 approximated for a short distance, 7, 8, 9, stalked,
10 and 11 separate but approximated. Hindwings with
4 and 5 approximated, 7 anastomosing shortly with 8.

The characters of the ¢ are not known. In other
respects, the genus is allied to Doddiana, but differs in the
more normal neuration. |

ENCHESPHORA POLIGPHANES, 2. Sp.
zodwopavys, OL grey appearance.

2 33 mm. Head, thorax and antennze whitish-grey
Face and palpi fuscous. Abdomen grey with a series of

142 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).

large dark-fuscous median dorsal spots. Legs fuscous ;
tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa straight for 3, then gently arched, apex
rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique; whitish-grey,
with some dark-fuscous markings and trroration; an
obliquely transverse bar from dorsum near base, not reaching
costa; a median subcostal dot; a large apical blotch
produced along termen ending above tornus in a small
terminal enlargement ; a terminal series of dark-fuscous.
spots; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings fuscous; paler
towards base and suffused with pale-reddish towards
dorsum ; a short pale line parallel to termen beneath middle ;
cilia whitish with a pale-fuscous sub-basal line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Sus-Fam. PYRAUSTIN 2.
Gren. AUCHMOPHOBA, Nov..

atypopoBos, tearing drought.

Frons flat. Tongue obsolete. Palpi rather long ;
second joint porrect, with a dense tuft of long hairs beneath :
terminal joint erect, very slender, acute. Maxillary palpi
dilated. Antenne of ¢ simple, minutely ciliated. Legs
long and slender; inner spurs longer than outer. Fore-
wings with 5 absent (coincident with 4), 10 separate.
Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked. 7 anastomosing with 8.

Perhaps nearest Nannomorpha, Turn., but. there are
important differences both in the palpi and neuration.

AUCHMOPHOBA TYNNUTA, 2. Sp.

TvVVOVTOS, SO little.

S 10-11 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish ;
face whitish. Palpi whitish ; tuft on second joint partly
fuscous. Antenne whitish annulated with fuscous ;
ciliations in ¢ 4}. Thorax fuscous mixed with whitish.
Abdomen fuscous annulated with whitish. Legs fuscous ;
posterior pair, except tarsi, whitish. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded,
termen excavated in middle ; fuscous mixed with whitish ;
a transverse line at 34, dentate beneath costa; four pairs
of short white streaks from costa, first strongly outwardly

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 143

oblique at 4, second less oblique at middle, third trans-
verse at ?, fourth transverse sub-apical; a fuscous sub-
terminal line; cilia whitish, bases and apices fuscous.
Hindwings with termen indented at + from apex ; whitish ;
a fuscous suffusion on dorsal part of disc before middle,
a broad terminal suffusion, and a small suffusion on tornus ;
cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stradbroke Island, in August; six specimens,
taken in a swamp at dusk.

AGROTERA GLYCYPHANES, %. Sp.

yAvkvuparys, Of Sweet appearance.

Q 22 mm. Head pale-yellow with two _ posterior
orange spots ; face with three orange dots, one on upper
and two on lower edge. Palpi pale-yvellow with four orange
bars on outer surface, the last apical. Antenne pale-
brown ; basal joint pale-yellow with an orange dot at apex-
Thorax pale-yellow reticulated with orange. Abdomen
whitish-ochreous, dorsum of basal segments barred and
of apical segments suffused with orange. Legs whitish ;

:
anterior and middle tibize suffused with orange;
anterior tarsi white except two apical segments which
are dark-fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight for
%, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly
bowed, oblique; pale-brown with a purple gloss; basal
third pale-yellow reticulated with orange, bounded by
a crenate orange line; a large round pale-vellow spot
beneath costa at 3, edged and irrorated with orange; a
similar but much smaller spot beneath this ; a pale-orange
streak along costa from + to apex ; a fine fuscous line from
2 costa obliquely outwards then bent to form a quadrangular
projection, bent again to beneath second spot, thence to #
dorsum ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia whitish
with a brown sub-basal line. Hindwing with termen
slightly sinuate; as forewings; but basal patch defined
only towards dorsum; no subcostal spots; postmedian
line edged externally with orange, and with three confluent
vellow spots on dorsal extremity.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in January ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

144 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).

DICHOCROCIS XANTHIAS, ”. sp.
Eavoos, vellow.

Q 27 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and _ thorax
ochreous. Abdomen ochreous; apices of segments and
underside white. Legs whitish-ochreous ; posterior pair
white. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 3, then
strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ;
yellow; basal 4 ochreous; markings pale-fuscous; an
irregularly dentate transverse line from { costa to } dorsum
limiting basal ochreous patch; a large transversely oval
discal spot beneath mid-costa ; a broad fascia from ? costa
to 2 dorsum, attenuated at each end; a more suffused
terminal band connected with preceding in middle ; cilia
ochreous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly
sinuate ; whitish-yellow : an indistinct pale-fuscous trans-
verse median discal mark at 3, a terminal band from apex
narrowing to a point at mid-termen ; cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in March ; two specimens
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. of which one is in the British

Museum.
DICHOCROCIS LEPTOPHAES. 1” Sp
Aextodays, slightly shining.

2 28 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne fuscous-whitish.
‘Thorax pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre. Abdomen
pale-fuscous ; apices of segments and underside whitish.
Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz and basal part of
middle tibie grey. Forewings triangular, costa straight
for 2, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed,
oblique ; pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre ; a roundish
whitish spot beneath origin of vein 2, and another in end
of cell beneath mid-costa ; a suffused whitish spot on mid-
costa close to preceding ; a small whitish spot in disc beneath
3 costa ; cilia whitish interrupted with fuscous. Hindwings
fuscous-whitish with slight purple lustre ; cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stradbroke Island ,m February; one specimen
unfortunately in poor condition taken among tropical
‘scrub.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 145

Gren. GLYCYTHYMA.

This genus (Tr. R.S.S.A., 1908, p. 91) must be
dropped. The type, chrysorycta, Meyr., has the ¢ antennz
formed just as in rheonalis the type of Nacoleia. The
other species, thymedes, is a synonym of leonina, Butl.

NACOLEIA SYNGENICA, n. sp.
TUVYEVLKOS, akin.

Q 23 mm. Head and antenne brown-whitish. Palpi
fuscous; under-surface white except towards apex.
Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen pale-brown, with dark-
fuscous lateral lines; apices of segments and underside
white. Legs whitish; tarsi brown-whitish; anterior
tibize fuscous except at apex ; middle femora with a fusceus
blotch on inner side beyond middle. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa straight for 3, then arched, apex tolerably
acute, termen slightly bowed, oblique; pale-brown; a
squarish white spot in disc before middle, slightly biconcave ;
lines blackish ; first from } costa to 4 dorsum, slightly curved
outwards ; second finely dentate, from 3 costa towards
‘tornus, before reaching it bent inwards to beneath end of
cell, then bent again and ending on § dorsum ; an interrupted
terminal line; cilia fuscous, bases barred with whitish,
-above tornus wholly whitish. Hindwings fuscous, towards
base whitish ; lines dark-fuscous ; first from } costa to 3
dorsum, outwardly curved ; second dentate, from 2 costa,
bent rather outwards in disc, obselete towards dorsum ;
-cilia as forewings but more whitish towards tornus.

Best distinguished from rh@onalis by the single whitish
‘spot on forewing.

N.Q. Atherton, in June; one specimen.

NACOLEIA MELANAUGES, 2”. sp.

peravavyns, dark.

Q 20mm. Head ochreous-whitish mixed with fuscous :
‘face fuscous. Palpi fuscous; base beneath whitish.
Antenne fuscous, towards base whitish. Thorax and
abdomen dark-fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa with basal 3 slightly
concave, strongly arched before apex, apex rounded, termen
“rather strongly bowed, oblique; dark-fuscous ; lines but

K

146 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).

slightly darker and very obscure ; a transverse line at } ;.
a whitish subcostal dot about }; postmedian line from #4
costa, wavy, bent above tornus to below end of cell, and
again to 3 dorsum; edged posteriorly by a few whitish
dots, and on costa by a short whitish streak ; cilia dark-
fuscous. Hindwings rather narrow and elongate, termen
sinuate ; dark-fuscous, towards base mixed with whitish ;
first line distinct, curved, from 4 costa to ? dorsum ; second
line obsolete ; cilia dark-fuscous, between tornus and mid--

termen whitish except bases.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June ; one specimen,

TYSPANODES PHAOSTICHA, 2. Sp.

PULogTixos, dusky-lined.

¢6 Q@ 25-28 mm. Head ochreous; face whitish-
ochreous. Palpi fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous except
towards apex. Antenne whitish-grey; ciliations in ¢ L..
Thorax ochreous ; tegule and bases of patagia wholly or
partly dark-fuscous. Abdomen ochreous, dorsum except
at base suffused with fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish ;.
anterior pair except tarsi fuscous ; all tarsi annulated with
fuscous. Forewings oval-triangular, costa rather strongly
arched, apex obtusely rounded, termen bowed, oblique ;
reddish-ochreous, with numerous’ fuscous inter-neural.
streaks variably developed; a whitish patch on termen.
from below middle to tornus; the fuscous streaks do not
quite reach termen ; cilia fuscous, on tornal patch whitish..
Hindwings ochreous-yellow ; a dark-fuscous apical blotch,
prolonged as a band more or less along termen, sometimes
not reaching tornus ; cilia on apical half of wing fuscous,
beneath this whitish, on tornus and dorsum ochrecus-.
yellow.

Ab. Forewings wholly suffused with dark-fuscous.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December.

Q. Eumundi, near Nambour, in October. Five speci-

mens, |

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 147°

SYLEPTA SYMPHONODES, 7. sp.

cvppovodns, harmonious. | |

Sg @ 28 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne-
yellow. Antennal ciliations in ¢ 1. Abdomen, vellow ; a
pair of basal fuscous dots on dorsum of third segment ; .
sides and underside whitish. Legs whitish; anterior
pair tinged with ochreous ; apex of anterior tibiw# fuscous.
Forewings triangular, costa straight for ?, then strongly
arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly bowed, oblique ;.
yellow ; markings fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; an
outwardly curved line from { costa to } dorsum; an,
outwardly crescentic discal mark beneath mid-costa; a
line from ? costa, bent outwards in disc and with three-
dentations, then bent inwards to beneath discal mark,
again curved, with a small posterior tooth above dorsum,
ending on ? dorsum ; traces of a pale-fuscous terminal line-
best marked near tornus ; cilia pale-vyellow. Hindwings
as forewings but without basal line.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December and May;
four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which.
one is in the British Museum.

SYLEPTA TRACHELOTA, ”. sp.
tpaxndotos, With conspicuous throat.

Q 30-38 mm. Head and palpi ferruginous-brown..
Pectus with a large fan-shaped patch of white scales
immediately behind palpi. Thorax ferruginous-brown ;.
posterior edge brown-whitish. Abdomen fuscous-brown 4
basal segments ferruginous; underside whitish. Legs
brownish ; anterior pair and all tarsi fuscous with whitish
annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 2,
then strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen bowed,
oblique ; bright ferrugimous mixed with ochreous-yellow ;
markings dark-fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; a waved
transverse line at !}; a round sub-costal dot at +, and a
transverse median sub-costal mark in disc; a line from 3
costa, irregularly dentate, displaced outwards in middle,
then bent inwards to beneath discal mark, and again bent
to mid-dorsum ; a broad fuscous terminal band touching
posterior line on projection. only ; a series of dark-fuscous-

148 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).

terminal dots on veins ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings fuscous
more or less suffused with ferruginous ; an oblique dark-
fuscous mark at } towards costa; a postmedian line at 2,
_displaced outwards in middle, the projection with three
‘rounded dentations; this line is edged posteriorly with
ochreous ; terminal dots and cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll.. Turner.

N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in October and
November ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd,
of which one is in the British Museum.

SYLEPTA SPILOCROSSA, ”. Sp.

o7mtX0KpoT mos, with spotted border.

g Q 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous
mixed with whitish. Antenne grey, annulated with dark-
‘fuscous ; ciliations in g 1. Abdomen fuscous; apices of
second, third, sixth, and seventh segments white; tuft
ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish annulated with dark-
fuscous. Forewings elongate, ovate-triangular, costa
straight at base, moderately arched beyond middle, apex
. obtusely rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ; whitish
suffused with brownish-fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ;
sometimes a dark basal patch; a transverse line at. }; a
rather broad reniform discal spot beneath mid-costa, its
centre brownish; two or three brownish-centred costal
spots variably developed; posterior line from # costa
‘towards tornus straight and finely dentate ; then obtusely
- curved to below discal spot, again curved to end in dorsum
at 2, a small posterior tooth above dorsum; a terminal
_series of dots; cilia whitish, bases brownish-tinged, with
.a median series of fuscous dots alternating with those on
termen. Hindwings as forewings but without discal mark ;
first line from $ costa to 3 dorsum; second line from 4
-costa, bent outwards in middle and then dentate, towards
but not reaching tornus.

Not closely allied to any other species known to me,
and not quite certain in its generic position.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June and October ;
“three specimens.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 149%

GEN. ELLOGIMA, nov.
eAAoyipos, noticeable.

Frons flat, oblique. Tongue well-developed. Palpi
moderate, porrect ; second joint thickened with appressed
hairs. above and.- beneath; terminal joint short, acute..
Antenne of ¢ thickened and bent downwards at 4, with
dense short hairs on underside of bend. Forewings with
obtusely rounded apex; 8, 9, 10. stalked. Hindwings -
with discocellular very oblique, 3, 4, and 5 from angle,
and 7 anastomosing with 8 for some distance.

Allied to Camptomastyx, Hmps., but with much shorter:
palpi.

ELLOGIMA MACROPERALIS.
Piletocera macroperalis, Hmps., Tr. E. 8., 1897, p. 214.

¢ 18-20 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi fuscous ; under-
surface except apex white. Antennze fuscous ; ciliations.
in ¢ Il. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish.
Forewings elongate, costa strongly concave in middle,
strongly arched before apex, apex very obtusely rounded,,.
termen slightly bowed, oblique ; fuscous with darker lines ;
an irregularly wavy, fine, obscure, transverse line at 1;
a suffused discal spot beneath mid-costa ; postmedian line:
more distinct, finely dentate, from 3 costa, produced out--
wards in mid-dise, then bent inwards to beneath discal’
dot, and again bent to ? dorsum ; apical area suffused with
leaden-fuscous ; cilia pale-fuscous with a darker sub-basal
line. Hindwings fuscous ; lines obsolete ; cilia as forewings.

N.Q. Cooktown; Kuranda near Cairns, in October:
and December; Q. Brisbane, in November and January.

GEN. METALLARCHA.
Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr. E. 8., 1884, p. 331.

This genus and the allied endemic genera require
careful differentiation from each other, and from Lowostege,
Hb. (Phlyctenodes, Gu.), of which the two species affinitalis _
Led., and massalis, Wlk., occur in Australia. ;

I suggest the following scheme of differentiation :—-

A. Maxillary palpi not dilated.

B. Frons with a short, stout, acute prominence,

nearly forming an equilateral triangle
Loxostege, Hb--

1150 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID A).

BB. Frons with a very long, flattened, acute

prominence + eb .. Panopsia, 7.g.
‘BBB. Frons with a moderately long. cone-shaped,
blunt prominence - .. Metallarcha, Meyr.

‘BBBB. Frons with a moderately long, abruptly
truncate prominence excavated at apex
| Criophthona, Meyr.
AA. Maxillary palpi dilated at apex. Frons
with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt
prominence T ae .. Conoprora, 7.9.

To the genus Panopsia besides the type calliaspis,
Meyr., are to be referred tetraplaca, Meyr., pseliota, Meyr.,
-and goudii, Low.

GEN. METALLARCHA.
Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr., E.S., 1884,p. 331.

Frons with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt
‘prominence. Tongue well-developed. Palpi rather long,
porrect, long-haired beneath; terminal joint concealed.
Maxillary palpi not dilated at apex. Antenne of ¢ simple,
shortly ciliated. Tibiz with outer spurs shorter than
inner. Neuration normal.

Type M. diplochrysa, Meyr., To this genus I refer
also epichrysa, Meyr., eurychrysa, Meyr., crocanthes, Low.,
and /eycodetis, Low.

METALLARCHA PHZENOLIS, 2. Sp.
daworts, light-bringing.

6 Q 15-16 mm. Head yellow. Palpi fuscous ;
‘beneath whitish-ochreous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; ciliations
in ¢ #1. Thorax yellow; shoulders narrowly leaden-
fuscous. Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs pale-ochreous ;
anterior pair leaden-fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen strongly
oblique, in g nearly straight, in Q bowed; whitish
irrorated with leaden-fuscous, more densely so on costa ;
markings bright orange; a broad streak along dorsum
‘from base to 3, abruptly truncate ; a fascia from dorsum
just before middle nearly to but not reaching mid-costa ;
-a second fascia from costa before apex almost to tornus,

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 151

slightly curved inwards ; (cilia abraded). Hindwings and
-¢ilia pale-ochreous. |
Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Adavale (western interior), in April ; two specimens.

CRIOPHTHONA DELOTYPA, 2. Sp.:

-dyAoturos, Clearly marked.

Q 16mm. _ Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi pale-fuscous ;
undersurface white. Antennz whitish-ochreous. Thorax
whitish-ochreous with a few fuscous scales.’\”~-Abdomen
-othreous-whitish ; apices of segments narrowly’ ‘fuscous.
Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings — elongate-triafhgular,
costa slightly sinuate, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ;
whitish-ochreous with slight fuscous irroration ; markings
-dark-fuscous ; a dot on dorsum near base; a line from }
-costa, bent outwards in disc, and then straight to } dorsum ;
a longitudinally oval pale-centred sub-costal spot at 45
a similar spot beneath mid-costa, transversely oval; a
-sinuate line from 2 costa, bent outwards in mid-dise,
parallel to termen for a short distance, then bent sharply
inwards to beneath median spot, and bent again to end
in = dorsum; an interrupted terminal line ; cilia whitish.
Hindwings as forewings, but without discal spots; first
line from 4 costa to dorsum near tornus ; second line forming

2

three large dentations, from 32 costa to termen beyond
tornus ; terminal line not interrupted.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Stannary Hills; one specimen received from
Dr. T. Bancroft.

CRIOPHTHONA CELH,NOPHAES, 2. Sp. ,
KeAawogdans, dusky.

Q 25 mm. Head, thorax, and antennez _ fuscous.
Palpi fuscous; beneath white. Abdomen _ pale-fuscous ;
-apices of all but basal segments whitish. Legs white ;
_all femora and anterior aspect of anterior tibiz and tarsi
‘fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly
straight, apex rather acute, termen bowed, oblique ; fuscous ;
first line and discal spot obsolete ; a finely dentate dark-
fuscous line from + costa towards tornus, near this bent

152 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).

inwards, and again downwards to ? dorsum ; an interrupted
dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings. as.
forewings, but postmedian line indistinct.

Much larger than the other species but agreeing:
structurally.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stradbroke Island, in February ; one specimen.

GEN. CONOPRORA, Nov.

Kwvorpwpos, With cone-shape prow.

Frons with a moderately long cone-shaped frontal
process. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ;
second joint rather long with dense hairs above and
beneath ; terminal joint concealed. Maxillary palpi dilated
with hairs. Antenne of g simple or slightly dentate,
with short or moderately long ciliations. Legs with outer
spurs rather shorter than inner. Neuration normal.

Differs from Criophthona in the frontal process not.
being truncate, from Metallarcha in its being proportionately
shorter, stouter, and more obtusely pointed, from both
in the dilated maxillary palpi.

Type C. ecista.

CONOPRORA ECISTA, 2. Sp.
NKLOTOS, very small.

6 Q@ 10-12 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish. .
Palpi moderately long (3); fuscous, beneath white.
Antenne pale-fuscous; in ¢@ thicker, annulated with
whitish, and with moderately long ciliations (1). Thorax
fuscous. Abdomen fuscous mixed with whitish. Legs.
grey-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, apex rounded,
termen® slightly bowed, oblique; whitish irrorated with
fuscous, less so towards dorsum ; markings dark-fuscous ;
slightly outwardly oblique lines from 4 and mid-dorsum,
not reaching costa; a wavy line from + costa to before-
tornus; cilia whitish, with a basal row of dark-fuscous.
dots. Hindwings fuscous; lines indistinct or obsolete ;.
cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and Decem-
ber ; three specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 153.

CONOPRORA CELIDOTA, n. sp.
knAwooros, blotched.

6 9mm. Head whitish. Palpi dark-fuscous ; beneath
white. Antenne whitish ; in ¢ slightly dentate with very
short ciliations (4). Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous.
mixed with whitish. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous ;
anterior tarsi with whitish annulations. Forewings.
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded,
termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ;
lines obsolete ; a quadrangular whitish blotch on dorsum
before tornus ; a median white dot in disc above this,
surrounded by fuscous ; cilia fuscous, with an interrupted
basal whitish line. Hindwings grey; an obscure whitish
blotch in disc above tornus ; cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

CONOPRORA ANERASMIA, 2. Sp.

avepacp.os, unlovely.

2 11 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen
fuscous. Palpi moderate (23) ; fuscous, beneath whitish
Legs whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly
straight, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ;
fuscous, markings obsolete ; a darker dot on + costa from
which a faint dentate transverse line can be traced for a
short distance; cilia fuscous with a darker basal line.
Hindwings and cilia as forewings.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received
rom Mr. F. P. Dodd.

CONOPRORA TRIPLEX, ”. Sp.

Triplex, threehold.

36 2 14mm. Head whitish, posteriorly fuscous. Palpi
moderately long (¢24, Q 3); fuscous, beneath white.
Antenne fuscous-whitish ; in ¢ very shortly ciliated (4).
Thorax and abdomen whitish. Legs whitish. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded,
termen bowed, strongly oblique ; three oblique fuscous lines,
first from +} costa to 4 dorsum, second slightly beyond

454 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID42:).

middle, third from + costa to before tornus ; an indistinct
interrupted terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey-
whitish ; cilia whitish.

Type in Coll., Turner.

@. Adavale, in April; two specimens.

CONOPRORA BALIOCROSSA, ”. Sp.
Pudwo«Kpoooos, with spotted border.

g¢ 17-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 23:
fuscous ; beneath with basal half white. Antenne fuscous ;
ciliations in g¢ 4. Abdomen fuscous ; apices of segments
whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish; tarsi
annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ;
fuscous mixed with whitish, appearing rather dark-grey ;
darker along costa; markings dark-fuscous; a line from
1 costa to 4, dorsum outwardly curved; a median line
from mid-costa to 2 dorsum, interrupted beneath costa
by a slender reniform whitish annulus with dark-fuscous
centre ; an irregularly dentate line from ? costa to tornus ;
a fine terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous with a basal series
of whitish dots. Hindwings fuscous ; cilia as forewings.

Larger than the other species and with the maxillary
palpi less dilated, but agreeing in the shape of the frontal
process.

Type in Coll., Turner.

Q. Stradbroke Island, in November ; three specimens.

Gen. METASIA.
Metasia, Gn., Delt. and Pyr., p. 251., Hmps., P.Z.8., 1899,
p. 236.
Frons with a rounded or very shortly conical pro-
jection.

To this genus I refer ach@alis, Wik., in spite of its
somewhat larger size and brighter colouring as: compared
with the other species..

METASIA THELCTERIA, 7. Sp.
GeAxrypios, Charming.

6 18 mm. Head and thorax yellow. Palpi 2; yellow,
base beneath white. Antenne whitish; ciliations in @

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 155

minute. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs white. Fore-
wings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded,
termen bowed, oblique; vellow ; markings blackish, very
distinct ; a dot on dorsum at }, a second beneath costa
at 4, and a third in disc between but rather internal to
these ; a dot beneath mid-costa: a slender line from 2
costa, bent slight outwards in disc, then parallel to termen,
until bent inwards beneath discal dot, then abruptly bent
and dentate to } dorsum; a series of terminal dots ; cilia
fuscous-whitish. _Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; a few pale-
fuscous terminal dots; cilia fuscous-whitish, becoming
ochreous-whitish towards termen.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

METASIA GALBINA, 2. Sp.

‘Galbinus, yellowish.

Q 16 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen
pale-ochreous. Palpi 2); brownish-ochreous, beneath
white nearly to apex. Legs whitish-ochreous. Forewings
elongate-triangular, apex round-pointed, termen bowed,
oblique ; ochreous- yellow marking fuscous, indistinct ; a dot
on fold with some fuscous scales between it and dorsum
representing first line; a very faint annular discal spot
beneath mid-costa; a finely dentate line from ? costa,
bent slightly outwards in disc, parallel to termen for a
short distance, then bent inwards to beneath discal spot,
again bent, and ending on 2 dorsum; an interrupted
terminal line; cilia fuscous-whitish. Hindwings as fore-
wings, but without first line and discal spot.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

NOORDA HEDYPHAES, 7. sp.
idupans, Sweetly shining.
Q 16-17 mm. Head and thorax whitish-yellow ; base
of patagia ferruginous. Palpi ferruginous irrorated with

fuscous, internal surface white. Antenne whitish-yellow.
Abdomen whitish-yellow, sides and under-surface white.

156 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).

Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz ferruginous-fuscous.
Forewings triangular, costa staight to near apex, apex
round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 10. separate but
very closely approximated to 8, 9; whitish-yellow with
an oily gloss:;.a ferruginous costal streak from: base to 3,
extreme costal edge dark-fuscous to same extent; three
dark-fuscous dots, first sub-costal at + touching costal streak,
second on dorsum at 4, third in middle of dise at lower
angle of cell; a crimson termimal band edged by a dark-
fuscous line acutely indented on vein 4; within band is a
suffused subterminal fuscous. line, beyond which termer
is pale-crimson with darker interneural dots ; cilia yellow,
apices paler. Hindwings with termen: well rounded: ;. white,
semitranslucent ; a median crimson spot on termen bounded
by a dark-fuscous line except costally, where it is continued.
by a pale-fuscous band nearly to apex.;. cilia white, bases
on apical half of wing yellowish.

Allied to N. fessalis, Swin.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in September and November ;.
three specimens recerved from Mr. F. P.. Dodd.

MYRIOSTEPHES XUTHOSPILA,. 2.. S/p..
EovBoomAos, tawny-spotted.

6 Q 12-13 mm. Head orange-ochreous ; face dark-
fuscous. Palpi 2, dark-fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous.
from base to middle of second joint. Antenne dark-fuscous ;
ciliations in g minute. Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen
yellow-ochreous ; bases of segments dark-fuscous. on.
dorsum. Legs dark-fuscous annulated with whitish-ochreous ;.
posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings triangular,
costa straight, slightly arched towards apex, apex round-
pointed, termen nearly straight, moderately oblique ;
blackish-fuscous with orange-ochreous. spots ; a sub-basal
spot on dorsum extending 2? across disc; a rather large
roundish spot on mid-dorsum ; a triangular spot on costa
at 2; a smaller spot on tornus, more or less confluent with.
a spot just above it; cilia blackish-fuscous.. Hindwings
and cilia dark-fuscous.

Tvpe in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in December and Mareh; two
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 157

MYRIOSTEPHES ARGYPHEA, 2. Sp.

apyveos, Silver-white.

6 2 12 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi 2; dark-
fuscous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ serrate and minutely
ciliated. Thorax dark-fuscous; patagia snow-white.
Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs dark-fusecous ; middle tarsi
with slender whitish annulations ; posterior. pair whitish ;
posterior tarsi beneath fuscous barred with whitish. Fore-
wings triangular, costa gently arched, more strongly in 9,
apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; snow-white ;
a dark-fuscous streak on costa to middle ; a broad median
fascia, its costal half dark-fuscous, dorsal half orange-
ochreous ; a broad sub-terminal orange-ochreous fascia,
suffused with dark-fuscous towards apex, bounded by a
finely waved dark-fuscous line ; a white dot on costa before
apex ; a white streak on termen, but terminal edge fuscous ;
cilia ochreous. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish,
tipped with grey at apex.

This and the two following species are closely allied,
but distinct.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in February and March; two
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

MYRIOSTEPHES CATAXIA, n. Sp.

kataéios, Of good worth.

dg 9-10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous ;
inner aspect of maxillary palpi white. Antenne fuscous-
whitish; in ¢@ slightly serrate and minutely ciliated.
Thorax white; patagia crossed -by a pale fuscous bar.
Abdomen whitish. Legs dark-fuscous with white annula-
tions ; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Forewings
triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen
slightly bowed, slightly oblique; snow-white with pale
ochreous-fuscous fascie; first fascia sub-basal, slender,
expanded at extremities, with a blackish dot on middle
of posterior margin ; second fascia at 4, broad, its anterior
edge partly outlined with blackish ; third fascia-at 4, broad
with very irregular margins, enclosing a white dot on costa,
its anterior edge partly outlined with blackish, its posterior
edge giving off a process to mid-termen; a sub-terminal

158 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).

and terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia whitish, bases:
dark-fuscous. Hindwings pale-grey ; cilia whitish, bases
pale-grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; four specimens received:
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

MYRIOSTEPHES POLYZELOTA, 2. Sp.

rodvGyAwros, Much desired.

¢ 10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous..
Antenne fuscous; in 4 slightly serrate and minutely
ciliated. Thorax fuscous ; patagia pale-fuscous. Abdomen
pale-fuscous ; dorsum of first segment whitish. Legs
dark-fuscous with whitish annulations; posterior pair
except tarsi whitish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly
arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly bowed,
moderately oblique ; white with dark-fuscous fascie partly
edged with blackish ; a small basal fascia connected with
second fascia by a costal streak ; second fascia at 4, rather
broad, its edges irregularly dentate; third fascia at #,
irregularly margined, enclosing a white dot on costa, con-
nected by a bar with mid-termen; a dark-fuscous sub-
terminal line ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish,.
bases grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in January and February; two
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

MYRIOSTEPHES EPARGYRA, 2. Sp.

érapyvpos, overlaid with silver.

3} 10 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen reddish-brown.
Palpi 24; reddish-brown. Antenne reddish-brown ; ing
slightly dentate and minutely ciliated. Legs reddish-brown.
Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round
pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; reddish-brown with silvery
white fascie ; first fascia sub-basal, rather obscure, not
quite reaching costa ; second fascia from 3 costa to $ dorsum,
its posterior edge wavy ; third fascia narrow, sub-terminal,.
interrupted in middle ; cilia whitish, bases fuscous. Hind-
wings brown-whitish ; a fine fuscous line at 3 and another
on termen, neither reaching dorsum ; cilia as forewings.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 159

type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; two specimens received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Gen. EMPHYLICA, nov.
éudbudixos, Of the same race.

Frons with a rounded short conical projection. Tongue
well-developed. Palpi rather long, porrect, densely clothed
with appressed hairs, terminal joint concealed, slightly
turned downwards. Maxillary palpi large, triangularly
dilated. _Neuration normal. Tibiz with outer spurs about
half-inner. |

Allied to Myriostephes which it resembles in the tri-
angular maxillary palpi, but with a conical frons like that
of Loxostege.

EMPHYLICA XANTHOCROSSA, 2. Sp.
cavOoxpoccos, vellow-edged.

Q 14mm. Head pale-ochreous. Palpi orange-ochreous
at base white. Antenne fuscous, towards base ochreous.
Thorax ochreous; patagia fuscous; pectus white.
Abdomen fuscous ; base, sides, and tuft ochreous ; beneath
whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; middle pair
white ; anterior tarsi with white annulations. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex
round-pointed, termen slightly bowed, rather strongly
oblique ; purple-reddish ; a large triangular orange spot
on costa beyond middle ; cilia orange. Hindwings whitish-
ochreous ; a broad pale-fuscous terminal band; terminal
edge orange except towards tornus ; cilia orange, on fornus
pale-fuscous.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N. A. Port Darwin, in November and January ; two
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

| HELIOTHELA FLORICOLA, 7. sp.

Floricolus, flower-haunting.

¢ 10-12 mm. Head blackish. Palpi blackish ; lower
surface of second joint except at apex and base of third
joint white. Antenne blackish; ciliations minute.
Thorax and abdomen blackish. Legs blackish ; tarsi with
obscure whitish annulations. Forewings oblong, posteriorly

160 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).

dilated, costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, scarcely
oblique ; blackish with a few white scales; a white spot
variably developed on ? costa reaching half across disc ‘
lines black; first from } costa to 4 termen, outwardly
curved ; second from ? costa towards tornus, bent inwards
around white spot, and then downwards to 2 termen ;
cilia blackish, apices whitish. Hindwings blackish ; a pure
white spot from mid-costa reaching middle of disc ; some-
times also a smaller spot above and external to tornus ;
cilia as forewings.

Q differs as follows :—14-16 mm. Hindwings without
white spot, but with a few scattered whitish or ochreous
scales in disc.

Types in Coll., Turner.

N.S.W. Mt. Kosciusko (5000 to 6000 ft.), in March ;
a series taken flying in the sunshine and resting on the
flower heads of Composite.

Fam. PTEROPHORID.

PLATYPTILIA EUCTIMENA, 2. Sp.
EVKTLLEVOS, well-built.

g Q 24-26 mm. Head brownish. Palpi short (14),
slender; brownish, internal surface whitish. Antenne
brownish ; ciliations in ¢ 34. Thorax brownish. Abdomen
brownish ; base and under-surface brown-whitish. Legs
fuscous-brown ; tarsi whitish. Forewings pale-brownish
with some whitish irroration ; a median fuscous dot at 4
‘and two fuscous dots just before cleft ; a short whitish streak
-on sub-apical part of costa ; a fine whitish line across costal
segment shortly before apex ; cilia brown-whitish, a series
“of basal fuscous dots, one on mid-dorsum, one on dorsum
-at 3, one on tornus, one on apex of dorsal segment, and
‘one on lower angle of costal segment, two fuscous streaks
one before last-mentioned dot and one at apex. MHind-
wings brown; cilia pale-grey.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June. Q. Brisbane,
in May; Toowoomba, in November. Four specimens of
«vhich one is in Coll., Meyrick.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 161

Fam. ORNEODIDA.

Three Australian species of this very curious family
have been described, and [ am now able to add a fourth
and fifth.

ORNEODES PYGM42ASA.

N.A. Port Darwin.; N.Q. Cairns, Townsville; Q.
Brisbane, Toowoomba.

ORNEODES PHRICODES.

I have bred this species from larve feeding in the
flowerbuds of Tecoma jasminoides growing in the wild.

N.Q. Cairns, Herberton, Townsville. Q. Nambour,
Brisbane, Mt. Tambourine, Southport.

ORNEODES XANTHODES.
N.Q. Townsville.

ORNEODES ACASCAA, %. sp.

axackatos, delicate.

9 9 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne white.
Palpi moderate, ascending ; terminal joint about 3 second.
Abdomen whitish with several median reddish-fuscous dots
Legs white. Forewings white ; markings very pale reddish-
fuscous : first segment with a broad fascia beyond middle
and a second before apex; other segments with similar
markings but much less pronounced ; cilia white. Hind-
wings white; segments barred at intervals by fuscous
irroration ; cilia white.

In size and fragility this agrees with O. pygmea.

Type in Coll., Turner.

N.Q. Cardwell, in ‘August; one specimen.

ORNEODES AGAPETA, n. sp.

avarytos, lovely.

36 17 mm. Head white: face grev with some white
scales. Palpi short, ascending ; terminal joint 1, whitish.
Antenne grey-whitish ; in ¢@ finely serrate and minutely
ciliated. Thorax and abdomen white. Legs white ; anterior
pair suffused with fuscous anteriorly. Forewings white ;
costa interruptedly fuscous ; first segment with four or five
pale-fuscous bars in posterior half; bars formed by dark-
fuscous irroration on second, third, fourth, and fifth

rg

162 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).

segments before middle; broad pale-fuscous fascie edged
by dark-fuscous scales on second and third segments at 3,
on fourth and fifth segments at }?. and on sixth segment
at 2; pale-fuscous sub-terminal bars and dark-fuscous
terminal dots on all segments; cilia white, on apices of
segments pale-fuscous. Hindwings as forewings but ante-
median bars nearer to base, and with a faintly-marked
series of median bars.

Near O. xanthodes though very different in coloration.
Type in Coll., Turner.

N.A. Port Darwin, in April; one specimen received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

ADDENDUM.

Sub. Fam. CRAMBINE.
Gen. ORESSAULA nov.

éperoavdos , dwelling in the mountains.

Frons flat, hairy. Tongue well-developed. Palpi
moderately long, porrect, densely clothed with very long
hairs beneath, terminal joint concealed in hairs. Maxillary
palpi well-developed, ending in a dense tuft of very long
hairs. Antenne, in ¢ with paired tufts of long cilia.
Thorax hairy, especially on under-surface. Legs with outer
spurs 2 of inner. Forewings with 2 from }, 3 from shortly
before angle, 4 from angle, 5 from shortly above angle,
7 and § stalked. Hindwings with median vein densely
pectinated ; discocellulars very strongly oblique, dorsal
edge of cell more than twice costal; 4 and 5 connate or
short-stalked, 6 from junction of upper and middle third
of discocellulars well-separated from 7; 7 anastomosing
at a point or very shortly with 8.

_ A primitive type with the neuration and pectination
of hindwing of Talis, but in wing-shape and general appear-
ance more suggestive of one of the lower Pyranstine. The
general hairiness is rather chiracteristic of mountain forms.

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 165

ORESSAULA LACHN#A, 2. sp.

AaXVALOS , hairy.

o Q 24-28 mm. Head dark-fuscous with a few whitish
hairs. Palpi dark-fuscous; internal surface whitish.
Antenne dark-fuscous, ciliations in @ 2. Thorax dark-
fuscous. Abdomen dark-fuscous: beneath mixed with
whitish. Legs dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ; under-
surface aiid spurs whitish. Forewings broadly triangular,
costa somewhat arched at base, then straigh , apex rounded,
termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous irrorated with pale-
ochreous ‘and more sparsely with milk-white scales ; cilia
fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
ochreous-fuscous, towards base dark-fuscous; cilia as
forewings.

Type in Coll., Lyell.

V. Mount Hotham, in February ; six specimens. Mr.
Geo. Lyell writes: “‘1 took this species flying close to the
ground on the extreme summit of Mount Hotham (just
over 6,200 feet). 1 was a fast bustling flyer, and on account
of its sombre colour, somewhat difficult to follow with the
eye. A fortnight’s stay at Mount St. Bernard, at a couple
of hundred feet lower elevation, failed to find it.’’

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THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

By J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C.
and L. A. MESTON.

PLATE X.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 31st, 1912.)

At the Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science Meeting in Brisbane in 1909, a paper was read by
Mr. Henderson on “‘ The Freezing Point of Milk ; Its Usein
the Detection of Added Water ”’ and the paper was published
in the printed Proceedings of that meeting.

So many inquiries were subsequently made for copies
of the paper that the Authors’ Copies have long since
been exhausted, and it was thought advisable to put on
record a more complete description of the work done on
the subject at the Government Chemical Laboratory,
Brisbane, and to record the results of the practical working
of this process in a Foods Laboratory for over five years.

A short paper on the same subject by the same author was
published in Vol. XIII. ot the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science.

No article of food has caused more trouble to food
analysts than milk, firstly owing to the extremely import-
ant place it holds as an article of diet, and then owing to
the great variations in its composition. Attempts to
regulate the quality by fixing a minimum standard at
once led to the watering down of rich milk to that low
standard.

166 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

The legal standard for milk in Queensland is :—** Milk
shall be the normal, clean, and fresh secretion obtained by
completely emptying the udder of the healthy cow, properly fed
and kept, excluding that got during fifteen days immediately
before, and ten days immediately following on, parturition.
It shall contain not less than eight and five-tenths per centum
of milk solids not fat, three and three-tenths per centum of milk
fat, and not less than twelve parts per centum of total solids ;
its freezing point shall not be higher than 0°55°C below zero.”

This is a distinct advance on the old 8.5 Solids not
Fat and 3-0 per cent. Fat standard which almost invariably
permitted the addition of at least 4:0 per cent. of water
without the mixture falling below the standard. The
average of the milk supply of Brisbane is 8-9 per cent.
Solids not Fat, and 4:1 per cent. of Fat.

So far as we know this is the first occasion in the history
of milk control that the freezing point has actually been
included in the legal minimum standard, though on the
continent of Europe its use by food analysts in judging
the quality of milk is by no means new. It is worthy of
note that in Queensland there is no “‘ appeal to the cow.”
The law provides not only that the milk shall be pure and
clean and from healthy cows, but that it shall reach the
above noted composition. Pure milk, which owing to its
being derived from herds of unsuitable breed or from herds
badly fed, falls below the prescribed standard may not
be sold in Queensland.

In the paper above referred to it was pomted out
that the attempts to solve the problem of added water in
milk by treatment of the milk serum had all proved of
little practical value. The refractive index method of which
most was expected has been shown to be of little use. The
index reading varies between thirty-nine and _ forty-six,
which means that a rich 46 milk might- have nearly 20 per
cent. of water added to it ere falling below the 39 minimum.
Apart from the manipulation difficulties which are not
small, the range of readings on genuine milk makes the
process of little value.

Since E. Beckmann (Milch Zeitung, 1894) drew atten-

tion to the constancy of the freezing point of milk, and
Winter in 1895 reported his work confirming it, the results

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.6., AND L. A. MESTON, 167

of hundreds of thousands of analyses have added to the
certainty of the position. The freezing point of fresh milk
from a ae of cows seems never to vary further than from
—0-55° C. —0°56° C. with a mean of —0°555° C.. The
. maximum Fee represents about 2 per cent. of added
water, while the working error of the process is less than
0-5 per cent. of added water.

Betore dealing with the details of the method, it might
be well to note the reasons for the constancy of the freez-
ing point of a substance of such variable composition as
milk.

The freezing point of a solution of a substance in water
depends mainly on the number of crystalloid ions dissolved
in the solution.

Substances which are not in solution, like fat, do not
affect the freezing point. As fat is the most variable
component of milk, the most varying factor is removed
from affecting the result. Substances also which are in
‘colloid ” solution such as the albumenoids affect the
freezing point either not at all or only to a very slight extent,
and in any case as the molecular weight of the albumenoids
is very high, their relative effect on the freezing point is
very small. i

Thus the second most variable constituent of milk
does not appreciably affect the result. The milk sugar
content of milk is fairly regular, bet again we are dealing
with a substance of high molecular weight and with a
correspondingly small effect on the freezing point.

It will thus be evident that we get down to the small
proportion of other constituents ere we get the substances
which control the freezing point, and it seems that these,
as in the blood of nearly all animals, are almost perfectly
constant in proportion.

The freezing point of milk is, therefore, not in any
degree whatever a measure of the proportion of Total Solids
or Solids not Fat present.

We have found milks of known genuine origin from
small herds, with Solids not Fat 9-7 per cent. and 7-6 per
cent. as well as those of normal composition give exactly
—0:555° C. freezing ‘point.

168 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

The following references to work done on the freezing
point of milk are worth noting :—

Dr. Barthel (‘‘ Methods used in the Examination of
Milk and Dairy Products, 1910’) refers to the freezing
point of milk as follows :—

“'This method of determining the amount of added
water is very simple and perfectly reliable if carried out.
carefully. It is remarkable that it has not found more
general application, for it not only shows that water has
been added, but gives also the amount with accuracy.
The author has experimented with this method and is
quite satisfied that the results are reliable, and that in agree-
ment with Winter and Parmentier, Schnorf, and others,
pure unadulterated milk never has a higher freezing point
than —0-:54° C. This is independent of breed, individuality,
sexual excitement, the amount of fat, etc., but avery small
addition of water at once raises the freezing point.”

J. Cornalba (‘‘ On the Milks of Lombardy, Chemiker
Zeitung, 1907-1909 *’) shows the constancy of the freezing
point to fall between —0°55° C. and --0:56° C. He also
points out that colostrum with salts ranging between. 0-9 per
cent. and 1:12 per cent. gave normal freezing points.

J. Winter and E. Parmentier obtained from single
cows freezing points varying from —0°54° C. to —0°57° C.
The mixed milk from a herd never rose above -—-0°55° ©.

or fell below —0:56° C.

P. Ducross and H. Imbert (Bull. Sciences Pharmacal,
1905) obtained a value of -——-0°533° C. from a sick cow and
a sample of milk from a cow in calf gave a freezing point
of —0°535° C.

Beckmann & Jordis (Forschungs berichte uber Lebens-
mittel, 1895, Vol. II.) found the average freezing point
to be —0°554° C.

It seems that for the mixed milk of a herd there is
variation between only —0°55° C. and —0°56° C., but for
milk from single cows in a diseased or abnormal state
wider variations may occur.

_ The freezing point method places us in a sound position
ag regards the milk control. In the past, on the old standard
an honest milk vendor was liable to be prosecuted for

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON. 169

selling as watered milk, genuine milk which simply failed
to reach the legal standard. On the freezing point test,
we have been able to warn three vendors in the last three
years that the milk they were vending was genuine but
below the Jegal standard, and that they had better take
steps to improve their herds by feeding or “ culling ” in
order to meet the standard.

It has been pointed out by one or two critics of the
freezing point method that the results can easily be masked
by the addition of substances which depress the freezing
point.

Any of the substances likely to be used in this direction
can be readily detected by an analyst. Many tests at the
disposal of the analyst are liable to be masked, and it is
part of his duty to look out for this masking, as for example
the masking of the heat test of explosives by the addition
of mercuric chloride, the masking of Becchi & Halphen
reactions for cotton seed oil by boiling the oil and other
treatment, and the masking of MHehner’s reaction for
formaldehyde by adding sodium. nitrite.

The freezing point is such a sensitive test however
that if the ordinary dairyman did start tampering with
the milk he would either add too little to cover the addition
of water or add too much and make the freezing point
abnormal.

For the last four years in the Government Chemical
Laboratory, Brisbane, every legal sample of milk for prose-
¢cution purposes has been checked by this method, and most
of the results are shown in Tables A. B., and C.

Table A. shows results obtained on legal samples of
milk taken during the last three years, wherein an increased
acidity had developed. When the milk becomes acid the
larger molecules are decomposed into a number of smaller
ones. The osmotic pressure increases and the freezing
point is further depressed. Without this knowledge the
results in Table A. would, make it appear that some of
the samples were abnormal before watering, while others
were only slightly above the legal standard of 85 S.N.F.
The added water, however (calculated on the minimum

170 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

proportion of 0-5 per cent. nitrogen and 0-7 per cent. ash,:
found in normal milk), is higher than that estimated from:
the freezing point of the sample.

We have not done sufficient work to enable us to say
whether any definite relationship exists between the.
depression of the freezing point and the increase of acidity.
It is very doubtful if any constant factor could be obtained
to correct for the acidity as the fermentation products
would vary with the nature of the ferment and the time and
temperature of the reaction. Barthel states that the
percentage of water can be determined fairly accurately
if the acidity is 20° (Thorner) by adding 5 per cent. to the
result of Winter’s formula. Figures obtained by us, on a
small number of samples only, indicate that 1 per cent.
increase of acidity covers the addition of 0-5 per cent. of
water. It is to be noted that any error introduced by the
increased acidity is entirely in favour of the milk vendor.

TABLE A.

|

>
oO
S.
= |
O

| Total | Fat. | Solids | Nitro- Ash ccs. Freezing | Added a

| Solids not Fat} gen n NaOH Point. ,0: eae

|. per per per per per lio oY 6 cn z al

| cent.:| cent. | cent. cent. cent. | per 100 | 8-5S.N.Fi 3S 2h

| | c.cs. milk Pts

EPP R ERIC Pato —— | — > —_—— ——| — — | -—_. —-_ oO

| ee aa

11-6 | 3-3. 8-3. | 0-47 | 0-68 | 20-0 :| —0-340 | (2-3 | 1:8
124.) -4°2°.18-2) | 0-47.) 0-66) |.18-4)) 0-517). aT eee
D7 BO 18 +1 0:45 | 0-66 | 17-0 | —0-537 4°02 t
12-2 | 4-1 | 8-1 0-46 | 0-68 | 15-6 | —0-515 4-8 | 6-4:
10:8 | 3-0 |7-8 | 0-44 | 0-62 | 20-0 | —0-500 | 8-3 / 9-1]
10-6") °3-0 > | 7-6 0-42 | 0-63 | 24-0 | —0-527 | 12-9 | 4-1
9-5 ).2-0 17-5 0-41 | 0-64 | 17-6 | —0°520 | 11-8 | 5-4
8-8 | 2-5 16-3 | 0-36 | 0-50 | 17-6. | —0-435. | 25-5 [20-9

The acidity of milk is determined by Dr. Chapman’s
method, using 25 c.cs. of milk, 100 c.cs. of water, and 1.c.c.
of 0-1 per cent. of phenol phthalein solution and titrating
with » NaOH. The normal acidity of milk by this method
is about 13-5 c.es. 2, NaOH per 100 c.cs. of milk.

BY J. BROWNIE HENDERSON,, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON,

TABLE B.

171

Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained
during the last three years, containing 8:5 per cent. and
over of Solids not Fat.

Total Solids
Solids Fat not Fat
pel per cent. per
cent | cent.
|
= Gd OE
14-8 5-1 | 9-7
Pee a ees OG
130% |) A] 9-5
13-4~'| 4-1) 9-3
13-3 | 4:1 9.2
14-2 | 5-0 | 9-2
Bee | aes 9-1
13-3 | 4-2 9-1
i2-8 | 3-7 9-]
fees hs BZ 9-()
my 5] 9-0
| 14-4 | 5-4 9-0
2 a ee eg 9-0
12-4 3-4 9-0
13-5 4-5 9-0
12-9 3-9 9-0
12-8 3°8 9-0
13-0 4-] 8-9
13°] 4-2 8-9
{13-2 4-3 8-9
| 12-9 4-0 8-9
13-3 4-5 8-8
11-3 2-5 8-8
12-8 | 4:0 8-8
12-5 | 3-7 8-8
12-8 | 4:0 8-8
13-3 | Ro eas
14-6 A-8e |. 8-8
13-6 | 4-8 8-8
12-9 | 4-1 8:8
12-6 | 3-9 8-7
13:3 | 4-6 8-7
\ 12-4 / 3°7 Sek
12-9 | 4-2 &-7
13-3 4-6 8-7
19-2 173-5 8°7
12-6 | 4-0 8-6
12-4. | 3-8 8-6
| ee am eee, 3 8-6
12-2 | 3°6 8-6
feee 36 8-6
il Sow | acl 8-6
12-2 3-6 8-6
12-3 Here Sie. 7 | 8-6
/12-6 =| 4-0 8-6
11-3 2-8 8-5
11:5 3°0 8°5
12-2 3°7 8+5
2b As eee i

Nitrogen |

per
eent.

Or
~!

0+50

Q-

ls’

I
Or

|

Freezing

R«

—0
—0

ryint.

i Ou Se St St Ot St Str Ot G1

COT Ss See
Ot St Cr Sr Or

St St
ie

Sto
=

-550
-550
°547
°DAT7
“545
ain 4
-532
*530
-560
»5D50
» HAT

Added
HO
calculat-
ed on, P
——()"550C
per cent.

0-9
a

0-9

m bo

on be
.. ome one 6

Ie Oo

|
|

172 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

TABLE B—Continvgep.

Added
Total Solids | Nitrogen Ash HO
Solids Fat not Fat Freezing calculated
per per cent. per per | sper Point. on F.P.
cent. cent, cent. | cent. —0°55°C,
| per cent.
12-1 3°6 | 85 —0.544 1-0
11:7 3-2 | 8-5 0-69 —(,544 1-0
12-0 3°5 | 8-5 —0-542 | 1-4
12-4 3-9 | 8-5 | —0-+540 1-8 |
12-0 2-5 | 8-5 | 0-7 0-540 | 1-8
12-6 40h)! BFR I —0+540 1-8 |
12-2 3-7 | Bh —0-+535 2°7
12:1 | 3-6. | 85 | | —0-532 | 3-2 |
| 12-9 4-4 | 85 | 0 +530 3-6
12-5 4-0 | 855 | | 0-580 3-6
12-1 36 | 85 | | — 0-530 3°6
| 12-4 3-9 | 85 | O47 | OFT +528 | 4-0
12-3 3°S 85 0°7 —0 +527 4-1
| 12-3 ae. 8S | —0-593 | 4:8
12°5 4-0 | 85 0-71 —0-520 5-4
| 12-6 4°] | 8-5 | 0-74 —0 +520 | 5-4
! . i

SUMMARY OF TABLE B.
Results from 64 legal samples of milk obtained during
the last three years, containing from 8-5 to 9-7 per cent.
of Solids not Fat. |

6 Samples 9-2 to 9-7 per cent. Solids not Fat. All normal Freezing Point.

3 Samples 9-1 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point.
1 1-2 % Water.

8 Samples 9-0) per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point.
3 less than 1°, Water.

4 Samples 8-4 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point.
2 less than 1-5 % Water.

9 Samples 8-8 per cent. Solids not Fat = 4 norma] Freezing Point.
5 from | to 5-4, Water.

6 Samples 8-7 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point.
3 from 2 to 7%, Water.

9 Samples 8-6 per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point.
4 from | to 3-6 % Water.

19 Samples 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point.

16 from 1 to 5-4 % Water.

The amount of watering is not appreciable until the
Solids not Fat figure falls below 8-9 per cent., although there
are genuine milks on every figure from 8°5 to 8-9 per cent.
Solids not Fat. The greatest proportion of adulteration
falls on the 8-5 figure, only 3 samples being genuine out of
19 received. The actual proportion of added water read off
from Winter's table is given, as obviously for this comparison
any working error of the process should not be taken into
account.

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I,C., AND L. A] MESTON 173

TABLE C,

Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained
during the last three years, containing under 8-5 per
cent. of Solids not Fat.

| Added | Added

i
Solids | HO | H-0
Total Fat Not |Nitrogen} Ash | Acidity | ealey- \Caleu-
Solids Fat Freezing | | Jateq | lated
per per per per Point. | ‘on 8.5 | _on
cent. cent. per cent. cent. oC | S.N.F.| F.P
cent | per per
| |
| cent. | cent
alg Sah RCA Naat ick 2 ara el ae a a
| |
11-8 | 3-5 | 8-3 | 0-40 | 0-70 | —0-520 | 2-6 5-4
Pie ds 4 893.- | O60 | 0-68 | —0-485 | 14-t | 3-0 | 11-8
11-1 | 2-8 | 8-3 | 0-45 | 0-66 | —06-480 | 30>) a2.
11-6 | 3-3 | 8-3 | 0-49 | 0-69 | —0-490 | 3-1 | 10-9
12-5 | 4-3 | 8-2 | 0-43 | 0-68 | —0-495 | 13-6 | 3-4 | 10-0
11-6 | 3-4 | 8-2 | 0-48 | 0-70 ] --0-530 3-5 | 3-6
10-, | 2-5 | 8-2 | 0-41 | 0-68 | —0-528 3-8 1050
11-5 | 3-3. | 8-2 | 0-49 | 0-66 | —0-530 | 14-0 | 4-0 3°6
11-3 |3-2 |8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70 | —0-594 14-5 | 467
11-5 | 3-4 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-66 | —0-480 4-6 | 12-7
11-2 | 3-1 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-510 4-7 m2
11-9 | 3-8 | 8-1 | 0-44 | 0-68 | —0-520 | 14-0 | 4-7 5-4
12-0 | 3-9 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70} —0-505 12-0 | 4-7 8-1
11-4./ 3-3 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-517 | | 4-7 5-9
11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —O-510 | 5-0 7-2
11-6 | 3-5 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-72 | —0-520 | 5-0 54
11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —0-510 5-0 7-2
11-4 | 3-4 | 8-0 | 0-47 | 0-69 |. —0-497.| 13-2 | 5-9 9-6
11-8 | 3:8 | 8-0 | 0:44 | 0-67 | —0-505 | 12-0 | 5-9 8-1
1f-0°.|-3-0 | 8-0 | 0-49~ | 0-72 ; —0-525 | 12-0 5-9 4-5
11:1 | 3-1 | 8-0 | 0-44 | 0-69 | —0-515 | 12:0 | 5-9 6-3
10-9 | 2-9 | 8-0 | 0-48 | 0-63 : —0-475 5-9 | 13-6
10-5 | 2-6 | 7-9 | 0-41 | 0-70 | —0-460 | 6-6 | 16-5
11-0 | 3-1 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-64 | —0-490 7-1 | 10-9
11-2 | 3-3 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 7-1 | 14-5
11-0 | 3-2 | 7-9 | 0-46 | 0-62 | —0-475 7-9 | 13-6
11-5 13-7 17-9 | 0-44 0-67.| —0-500 | 12-8 | 7:6 | 9-1
11-8 |3-9 | 7-9 | 0-44 | 0-67 | —0-495 | 7-3 | 10-0
11-0. | 3-2. | 7-8 | 0-45. | 0-68 | —0-472 8-2 | 14-1
11-3 | 3-5 | 7-8 | 0-47 | 0-63 | —0-458 | 12-4 | 8-2 || 16-8
11-6 | 3-8 | 7-8 | 0-46 | 0-64 | —0-507 | 8-2 77
10-9 | 3-1 | 7-8 | 0-48 | 0-64 | —0-496 | 12-0 | 8-2 | 9-8
11-3 | 3-6 | 7-7 | 0-44 | 0-62 | —0-505 | 12-8 | 8:8 8-1
11-5 | 3-8 | 7-7. | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-452:) 12-4 |10-1 17-7
11-2 | 3-5. 17-7 ' 0-46 | 0-63 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5
es |. 3:6 7-7 "| 0-46 .| 0-65), 0 77 | 14-0 | 9-4 | 13-2
10-6 | 2-9 | 7-7 10.45 0-67 | —0-494 9-4 | 10-1
11-2 .|.3-5 «| 7-7 .|.0-46 | 0-66 | —O-484 9-4 | 11-9
TOPE abel TT | 0-45 0-63 | —0-492 Y-4 10-5
11-8 | 4-1 | 7-7 | 0-47 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5
11-2 | 3-6 | 7-6 | 0-44 | 0-60 | —0-475.| 13-2 {10-1 3-6
10-2 | 2-6 | 7-6 | 0-41 | 0-65 | —0-465 | 13-0 (10-1 15-5 i)
11-6 | 4-0 | 7-6 | 0-49 | peel —O-502 | 12-0 10-4 8-7 |
| |

174 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

TABLE C.—Contrinuep.

| mas Added | Added
Sotids F:0 H;0O
Total Fat not |N itrogen, Ash : : Acidity | caleu- | calecu-
| Solid® Fat Freezing lated | lated
1 per per per per Point. | on 8°5 on
i cent. cent. per cent. | cent. | eC. S.N.F.| F.P.
i cent. per per
| | cent cent.
10-6 | 3-0 | 7-6 | 0-43 | 0-64 | —0-502 10-6 | 8-7
10-8 3°35 1:5 0-46 0-65 | —O-467 11-8 | 15-]
10-9 | 3-4 | 7:5 |.0-44 | 0-62 | —0-448 112-2 | 184
| 10-2 | 2-8 | 7-4 | 0-41 | 0-63 | —0-500 ! 13-0 1. Oe14
| 10-2 | 2-9 | 7-3 | 0-42 | 0-61 | —0-477 [14-1 | 18-2
| 39-1 | 9-8 | 7-3 | 0-41 | 0-60 | —0-455 | 12-8 |14-1 | 17-3
| 9-7 | 2-4.) 7-84 | 0-62 | —0-455 14-1 | 17-3
| 10-1 | 2-9 | 7-2 | 0-42 | 0-60 | —0-451 5-3 | 17-9
10:0 | 2-8 | 7-2 | 0-41 | 0-58 | —0-433 | 12-0 [15-3 | 21-2
| 9-4 | 2-3 | 7-1 | 0-48 | 0-58 | —0-425 16-1 .| 22-7
10-1 | 3:0 | 7-1 | 0-41 | 0-64 | —0-440 16-1 | 20-0
1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-41 | 0-56 | —0-433 7-7 | 21-2
1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-38 | 0-54 | —0-425 \17+7 | 22-9
| 10-4 | 3-5 | 6-9 | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-430 | 9-2 [18-2 | 21-8
| 9-6 | 2-8 | 6-8 | 0-39 | 0-57 | 0-425 | 120-5 | 22-7
| 8-9 | 2-2 | 6-7 | 0-38 | 0-56 | —0-420 | 14-0 [21-2 | 23-6
1 °9-8 13-6 | 6-2 | 0-41 | 0-54 | —0-407! 8-0 (26-8 | 25-9
| 7.7 | 1-9 | 5-8 | 0-36 | 0-48 | —0-377| 9-2 |31-8 | 31-4
| 5-9 | 1-9 | 4-0 | 0-25 | 0-37 Rouend 52-4 | 53-6
| 5B 1-5 | 3-8 | 0-23 | 0-33 ee 55-2 | 60-0 |
i |

SUMMARY OF TABLE C.

Results from legal samples of milk obtained during

the last three years.

In 54 samples out of 63 the water shown by the freezing point is from
0-2 per cent. to 9-9 per cent. higher than that shown when calculated
on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat, the average being 4 per cent. In 5 cases,
the calculation of added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat and the
freezing point are practically identical.

Tn the other 3 cases the added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat
is from 1-7 to 3-9 per cent. lower than by the freezing point. In the
3-9 per cent. case the acidity was not determined.

A. A. Bonnerna (Zeitzchrift fur Nahrungs und Genus-
mittel, 1908, X.V., page 34) points out an inaccuracy im
Winter’s formula for calculating the percentage of added
water :

Suppose a milk to contain W per cent. of water,
then the cyrstalloids which cause the depression of the
freezing point in 100 grams of milk are dissolved in W

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON by 33

grams of water. If X grams of water are now added
to 100 grams of milk, the cyrstalloids are dissolved in
(W + X) grams of water.

Now let D be the observed freezing point of the

diluted milk expressed in — degrees Centigrade then
0-55 X W
pt EU —W
D

As the value W can easily be. calculated when the
percentage of Fat and the specific gravity are known, the
value of X can also be obtained.

This formula, however, is not accurate from a theoretical
point of view, because on diluting with water the electrolytic
and hydrolytic dissociation of the salts is increased and
consequently the freezing point decreased. This error
is, however, sufficiently compensated for practical purposes
if the calculation is based on the volume instead of the
weight. The error thus introduced compensates the one
arising from the increased dissociation.

Kxamples of Bonnerna’s Formula.

MILK,
Specific Gravity .. ae .. 1:0142
Total Solids (weighed) .. car BRD
Freezing Point .. Ss -. . —0.255
0-55 X 94-]
X =———_—-—_-— —94-]

-=/203 —94-1) X 100

SS

==93-64 per cent. Water by weight,

53-64 X 1-0142 = 54+4 per cent. Water by volume against 53:7
per cent. Water by volume calculated by Winrter’s formula,

MILK.
Specific Gravity .. a «.. 1-0298
Total Solids - * eG YT
Freezing Poimnt./... os 420° 0" 026
0-55 X 88-03
xX =——_—__—_—_— 88:03
0-526

=4-35 Water by weight.

—4-48 Water by volume against
4-32 Water by volume according to Winter’s Formula.

176 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

The following is a description of the method and
apparatus that have been used in the Government Chemical
Laboratory, Brisbane, for the last three years. The
diagrammatic sketch shows the arrangement of the very
simple apparatus required.

“A.” ig a stand made of wood 1 ¢.m. thick, 30 e.m.
high, 31 ¢.m. wide and 18 ¢.m. deep. Two rests “B”™
at a height of 9 c.m. carry a movable shelf “ C.” on which
the vessel containing the freezing mixture stands. We
use a porcelain beaker “ D.”’ 16 c.m. high by 10 ¢.m. wide
for a freezing vessel, and tie around it for insulation, a roll
of flannel to the thickness of about one inch.

A circular hole ** E.” centrally situated in the top of
the stand carries the milk tube “ FF.” We use a flat bottomed
tube 14 c.m. deep and 3 ¢.m. diameter for holding the milk
sample. We find it much easier to get agreeing results
with this size of tube than with the longer round bottomed
tube recommended by Winter.

The indiarubber cork has two perforations for carry-
ing thermometer and stirring rod_ respectively.

The first thermometer we used was a Beckmann
graduated in ,\,ths.. The special thermometer devised
by Winter for this work was subsequently obtained from
Paris, but we found the Beckmann easier to read. For
the last year, a thermometer graduated in ,},ths, a
degree covering 8°5 c.m. of the stem, and specially made
for us of normal glass by the V.F.L. has been used and gives
‘splendid results. The trouble of having to occasionally
readjust the mercury of the Beckmann has been avoided,
while the true zero point which is determined afresh, at
least once every day on’ which the thermometer is used,
has not varied more than 0-02° C. A small telescope “H””
is used for reading the thermometer. The telescope is
mounted on the stand in the usual manner. ‘The
stirrer ‘‘K.”’ is a brass rod 2 m.m. in diameter, the spiral part
being partly flattened out and armed with four small points
of wire to break up the ice formed in standardising.

In practice, 50 ces. of each milk to be tested is put into
a tube, titted with a cork, and the tubes are put into crushed
ice and allowed to remain there (generally standing in the

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F£.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON 177

ice chest) until required. By this means the freezing
of each sample is started close to 0° C. While the samples
are cooling, the freezing mixture is prepared. The ice is
conveniently prepared from the ice block by means of the
usual ice plane. Alternate layers of ice and salt (3: 1) are
added until the porcelain beaker is filled. When about
half filled, an empty “ milk ” tube is put into the middle
of the beaker and the mixture packed around this tube.
On removing the empty tube when the beaker is filled, there
is no difficulty in inserting the tube containing the milk
sample. After filling the beaker, the shelf is put in position
on the rests and the beaker put on it. A tube containing
a sample is then put through the hole in the top of the
stand into the freezing mixture. The indiarubber cork
is inserted, carrying the thermometer and -+the stirrer.
The thermometer has been so adjusted that the bottom
ot the thermometer is about 2 c.m. from the bottom of the
tube when the cork is in position.

The stirrer is now worked up and down continuously
at the rate of from one to two complete movements per
second to preveut the formation of a solid block of frozen
milk in the tube as the temperature falls. As a rule the
mercury will rapidly fall to a point below the true freezing
point of the milk (surfusion of the milk), and then rapidly
rise and become almost stationary ; the highest point of
the rise after the fall will be found to be very close to the
true freezing point. When the tube has become partly
filed with finely broken up frozen crystals-—(experience
with the method soon enables one to judge of the correct
proportion of crystals to have in the liquid)—the porcelain
beaker containing the freezing mixture is removed by
withdrawing the shelf C and lowering the beaker and
the hand put round the tube ‘*G.” so that its warmth may
cause a rise in temperature, the stirrer being worked very
gently until there is a rise of about ,2,ths on the thermometer
scale. The hand is now removed and the milk well stirred
so as to surround the thermometer bulb with crystals of
frozen milk.

The stirring is stopped and the temperature observed-
the mercury will slowly fall, and when it becomes stationary
the reading is taken, but should not be taken as final unless
if remains constant for at least two minutes.

Wi

178 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.

The position on the thermometer scale of the freezing
point of water is determined in exactly the same way as
in the case of milk, distilled water being first placed in one
of the tubes “ F.”’ and cooled in a mixture of ice and water.
Particular care, however, must be taken to break up the
ice formed and to prevent the formation of a shell of ice
round the sides and bottom of the tube. The fine ice should
extend from the surface to the bottom of the thermometer
bulb to ensure a good reading. It is much easier to deter-
mine the freezing point of a milk than that of water, owing to
the fact that “ milk” crystals are easily kept small, while
water always tends to freeze in one lump. “lhe difference
between the freezing point of the distilled water and that —
of the milk on the thermometer, gives the freezing point
of the milk.

For deducing the proportion of added water from the
determined freezing point, the following table, extended from
Winters, is used.

BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON

179

Table giving the number of ccs. of added water per
Lhitre of Milk examined, corresponding to the temperatures
—°550 to —°351° C. (Les nouveaute’s chimiques pour, 1905

page 276, par Winter.)

—

. bad hm 4
eee hee e| 2 S C S
S 8 ge g S Fen o, meee SS
; Zz = eS i ee |e
235 [ees |S35| See |ESS( sas | ETE
BPs | SHS Seal SESW SES] Heal aes

=] ete oH | Om om] (| oO
SGQ | adel Ssoo| as || S52) S_& || Soe
S@,/|s Siiagenl] aut las2z!l 3S i asa
So hoe | Soa ise Hl hes. Se eS s
ace tela |e o| 2S BH #|/ 2s a &
So | we on od meee Eo
Be e/18 S) © ni x
eu e Qa (am) = (ax)

i}

550 0 510 (ee "470 | 145°4 430
°549 1.8 509 74°5 469 | 147°3 429
548 3.6 508 76°4 “468 | 149°1 428
° 547 5.4 507 78°2 "467 | 150°9 427
*546 7.3 506 80°0 || °466 | 152°7 426
545 9,1 505 81°8 “465 | 154°5 425
544 | 10.9 504 83°6 || °464 | 156°3 424
543 | 12.7 503 85°4 °463 | 158°2 423
542 | 14.5 502 87°3 ‘462 | 160°0 422
541 | 16.3 501 89°1 “462 3) L618 421
540 | 18.2 || -500 | 90:9 || -460 | 163-6 || -420
539 | 20.0 499 | 92°7 || °459 | 165-4 || -419
538 | 21.8 498 94°5 || °458 | 167°5 °418
bon | 23.0 497 96°4 || °457 | 169°1 417
536 | 25.4 496 98°2 456 | 170°9 416
535 | 27.2 || -495 | 100°0 “A255: lene "415
534 | 29.1 494 | 101°8 "454 | 174°5 414
533 | 30.9 493 | 103°6 453) |) LiGee 413
532) | 32.2 492 | 105°4 4527 | Ss a 412
531 | 34.5 491 | 107°2 451 | 180°0 411
530 | 36.4 || -490 | 109°1 450 | 181°8 410
529 | 38.2 489 | 110°9 449 | 183°6 409
528 | 40.0 498 | 112°7 448 | 185°4 408
527 | 41.8 487 | 114°5 447 | 187°3 "407
526 | 43.6 486 | 116°4 446 | 189°1 “406
525 | 45.4 485 | 118°2 445 | 190°9 “405
524 | 47.3 484 | 120°0 444 | 192°7 404
523 | 49.1 483 | 121°8 443 | 194°5 °403
522 | 50.9 482 | 123°6 442 | 196°4 “402
Bee 52.7 481 | 125°4 441 198°2 “401
520 | 54.5 480 | 127°3 440 | 200°0 400
519 | 56.3 479 | 129°1 439 | 201°8 *399
"518 |.58 52 478 | 130°9 438 | 203°6 *398
olr |, 60.0 ATE \eloged 437 | 205°4 °397
516 | 61.8 || -476 | 134°5 || -436 | 207-3 | 396
515 | 63.6 475 | 136°4 435 | 209°1 °395
514 | 65.4 || °474 | 138°2 434 | 210°9 *394
518 | 67.3 || -473 | 140°0 430 [20S 2e °393
512 | 69.1 472 | 141°8 432) | 204-5 *392
*51T 70.9 AG le L43°7 431 216°4 °391

added

Water in 1 Litre of

of
Sample.

ces

283°

~

on

i=)
PADSWEUNTNOR WE AODWODW PUNTO OR AODONW ROINTORM OO RO DOb

285°

287°3
289-1

Temperature

observed.
Degrees below zero.

*361
*360
*359
*358
*357
*356
355
“354
°353
*352
*351

ecs of added
Water in 1 Litre of

Sample.

DOW MUAAMSHWRADONEUTSHWRADON ROUSE WRADONRAIS

180 THE PREBZING POINT OF MULK

' SUMMARY.

(1). We find that the freezing point of pure fresh milk
saroples from herds of cows in Southern Queensland never
shows & greater variation than from —055°C to —0-56°O,
the mean being —O0:525°C. This is exactly in accord with
Continental experience.

(2). The freezing point determines with accuracy, the
proportion of water added to any milk from a herd, and
distinguishes with sbsolute certainty the watered rich milk
from the naturally poor milk.

Proc. Roy. Soo., Vou. XXIV. Prara X~

er.

On ee

en

.

~ PROCEEDINGS

| ROYAL SOCIETY

OU eta Sree ND.

!

VOLK.

1914, | | |

; PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
, |
4 - H. POLE #.CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE.

My
VEE NU Ve:

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUBEPNSLAN DTD.

VOLi gaex NY .

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY

H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE

1914.

Bist = =

Royal Society of Queensland

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR,
M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Etc.

OF FIGEreswe1913.

President:
H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc.

Vice-President :
J. SHIRLEY, D. Sc.

Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:
J. C. BRUNNICH, F-I.C. F. BENNETT.

2

Hon. Librarian:
T. HARVEY-JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.

Members of Council:
E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. E. H. GURNEY
P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY
J. F. BAILEY.

Trustees:
HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON
HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.

Hon Auditor:
GEO. WATKINS.

CONTENTS.

Tue INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FAcTOR IN

NATIONAL PROGRESS (Presidential Address) —

P. L. Weston, B. Sc., B.E., 26th March, 1913

On AN EASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF HATCHING

CeRATODUS Ova—Thos. L. sae M.B., 29th

April, 1913

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND
GasTEROPODA —John Shirley, D.Sc., F.M.S.,
27th June, 1913 ue iy

NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMO-
PHILA MacuLata— Frank South, BSe; FT Aes
26th August, 1913

THE PLANTS OF Mast-HeEap IsLanp— H. A. Longman,
27th June, 1913

UNDERGROUND WaTERS (1.)—Thomas Parker, F.GS.,
27th May, 1913

UNDERGROUND WartTERS (II.)— Thomas Parker, F.G.S.,
26th August, 1913

Pace

vl

13

17

25

31

PROCEEDINGS

OF '\HE

Annual Meeting of Members,

Held at University on Wednesday, March 26th, 1913,
at 8 p.m.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the
‘Queensland University, Wednesday, March 26th, 1913,
at 8 p.m. The President (P._L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.)
occupied the chair, and there was a good attendance of
members.

Apologies from Messrs. W. R. Parker and J. Shirley,
D.Sc., were read. :

The Minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read
and confirmed.

The Hon. Secretary then read the accompanying Report
for 1912, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. E. @.
Barton, seconded by Mr. F. Bennett. The’ Financial
Report (as herewith), was moved by Mr. J. C. Briinnich
(Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. Weston, and carried.

Mr. J. B. Henderson, F.I.C., urged the necessity of
binding much of the Library matter when funds allowed.
The Secretary urged that this could not be done till the
membership increased, as the expense of publishing
valuable papers absorbed practically all the revenue.
Mr. E. C. Barton suggested popular science lectures, and
personal propaganda as means towards increasing the
membership.

To tHE MEMBERS OF THE Royat Socrery or QUEENSLAND.
Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for
the year 192.
The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as shown
in Appendix B.
Eight Council Meetings have been beld during the year, at
which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A.

ii. REPORT OF COUNCIL.

During the year 17 members were admitted, and 5 re-
signed. This shows a satisfactory increase in the membership.
We have no deaths to regret. .

C. Hedley, Esq., F.L.8., was elected an honorary member.
We have now on our Roll 14 honorary members, and ordinary
members, 112. See Appendix D.

Special inducements were offered to Science students at the
University, but there was not the response expected. This may
come after the present year, when the Science students, having
finished their University Course, will have time for original
research work

Vol. XXIII. part ii. of our Proceedings was issued during
the year, and proved a valuable volume, several of the articles
published arousing wide-spread interest and remark. The forth-
coming volume is likely to be of considerable scientific value,
and will give evidence of a valuable year’s work.

As foreshadowed in our last Report, considerable expense
was entailed in connection with the Library. £4 was spent in
shifting it, and £12 in re-arranging, the latter work beiny yet to
be completed. Dr. Harvey Johnston took charge in place of
Mr. C. T. White, on the removal of the Library to the Univer-
sity. The services of Mr. White in the past are thankfully
acknowledged, and the energetic efforts of Dr. Harvey Jonnston
much appreciated. The systematic acknowledgment of all
-HMxchanges received has increased the Librarian’s Postage
Account. During Dr. Harvey Johnston’s absence, Mr. D. C.
Gillies is acting as Librarian.

The increase in Library expenses has lowered our
Credit Balance despite the increased membership, but this
expense will not recur. The forthcoming volume of Proceedings
is to be issued without delay, at an earlier date than usual, and
it would help the Council to defray its cost if subscriptions were
forwarded earlier than usual. The President’s Address and this
Report will not appear in the volume, as that would delay its
issue, but in the next volume.

Our Representatives at the Melbourne Meeting of the Austr.
Assn. for the Ad. of Science were Professor Priestley and H. C.
Richards, M.Sc.

PERCY L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.,
President.
FY BENNETT, Hon. Seeretary

3rd. February, 1913.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. iii.

APPENDIX A.

ATTENDANCE oF CounciL, 1912.

slial
Office. Name. fn a Remarks.
of | ©
oS | as
President .. | P.L. Weston, B.Se., B.E.| 6
Vice-President .. | H. C. Richards, M.Se. .. 7
Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 5
Hon. Secretary.. | F. Bennett 9
Hon. Librarian |T. Harvey Johnston, 5 |
M.A., D.8e. /
ee Brownlie Henderson,,; 7 |
gate he Be 0
Members of J. Shirley, D.Sc... 5 eel
Council Prof. Priestley ... 1
K. H. Gurney 7
J. F. Bailey 2

APPENDIX Bb.
List or Papers, Erc., Reap purine 1912.

No.| Date. Title. Author.
1912.
1 | Mar 25 | National Waste (Presidential Address)| J. Brownlie Hender-
son, F.1.C.
2|Apl 24|1 An Extinct Crater near Herberton | R. C. Ringrose, M.A.
2 Critical. Census of Australian

Mallophaga T. Harvey Johnston,. ©
List of Mallophaga found i) M.A., D.Se., and

vo

Native and Introduced Animals L. Harrison.
in Australia

3 | May 29/1 Revision of Queensland Lichens | J. Shirley, D.Sc.
2 Exhibit—New Mineral from North | F. E. Connah, F.I.C.
Queensland P iy
3 Exhibit—Entozoa . ie .. | T. Harvey Johnston,
, D.Se..
4 |June26|1 Entozoa .. 8 ite -. | T. Harvey Johnston.
M.A., D.Sc.
2 Freshwater Fish of i poem Allan McCulloch.
3 Ceratodus .. ‘ oe -- | D. O’Connor
5 | July 31 | 1 Queensiand Shells.. :
2 Exhibit—A Poisonous J. Shirley, b.w .
don
3 The Freezing Point of Milk ... | O. Meston & J. Brown-

lie Henderson, F.I.C.
6 | Oct 2 The Burdekin Valley and Certain| E. O Marks, B.A,.
Physiographic Theories. . ns B.E.

A Beetle that takes in Ballast .. | F. P. Dodd.

Notes on the Westralian egskg A. Jeffries Tarner,.
tera (Pyralide) .. ; M.D., F.E.S.

3 Census of Australian Pediéulids. . T. Harvey Johnston,

M.A., D.Se. and L.

Harrison

Ne

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4 o: OL 0 "* ‘Og JO “Y 04} 1OJ UoOSSY ‘UysNY JoJ BuyUIIg “
5 er" 5* te 3c Arvaqvy Buisavire-sy ‘*
eB 00 Ff ee ee ee ee ee ArBaquy jo EY UR GTS) «ss
8 0 0 I *? ee ee ee ** *. Ia BIIIBO é
5 ae ee 2 ‘ ‘ysug AWJ0g puv oseysog [Rieuar ‘
a 9 ra T ee e- e- ee ee ee 90uBANSUT cé ;
Ee ; 9. “re +s of ba $3 ey sesuedx y 0 «G10 4 om o a0 Be "+ harejoroag “
2 a8vqISOg S,UBIIBIGIT OSTB ‘ssuIpeed01g Jo asuysog ‘ S-— Te ip we ME he if sdulpseoo01g jo [vg ‘*

Sag Phe re: oa seeTjoN Ayqyuoy Jo eduysog “ GET GR a Bare i Ee suoydiosqng “

9-91.60: °°" rs o ** (og pu ojog) Suyuig &g Tae es Me “3 :* "* qrodoy yse] wor1y ooURleg OT,

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"ANWISNAANO FTO ALAIOOS IWAOHN FHL

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REPORT OF COUNCIL. ¥

APPENDIX D.
LIST OF MEMBERS.

(1912.)

Honorary AND CorRRESPONDING Mempers (14.)

Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson
J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb-
Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor-
EK. H. Rennie ; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin. (Czech University),.

Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University),

David, C. Hedley, F.L.S.

Ornpinary Mempers (112) ;

Archer, R. S.

Badger, J. 8.

Ball, L.C., BE.
*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G.
Bailey, J. F.

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E.
Bell; byte.

Bennett, F.

Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C.
Brydon, Mrs.

Bundock, Miss Alice
Bundock, C. W., B.A.
Byram, W. J.
+Cameron, John
Cameron, W. E., B.A.
Colledge, W. R.

Collins, Miss Jane
Collins, R, M.

Connah, F. E., F.I.C.
Cooper, Si: Pope A., C.J.
Costin, C. W.

Cowley, R. C.

Dempsey, J. J.

Denham, H. G., M.A., D.Sc.,Ph.D.

Dunstan, Benj.

Eglinton, Dudley, F.R.A.S.
Eglinton, Miss Hilda
Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H.
Fewings, P. P.

Forrest, Hon. E. B.

Fraser, C. S.

+Gailey, Richard

Gibson, Hon. Angus, M_L.C.
Gore-Jones, E. R.
Greenfield. A. P.

*+Griffith, Sir S. W.
Gurney, E. H.

Halst:-ad, W. H
Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Se.,

F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S.
Harvey- Sabuskon, T., M.A., D.Se.
Henderson, J. Brownlie: F.I.C.

Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D.
Holland C. W.
Hopkins, G., M.D.

*Members of Philosophical Society.

Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth

Live Memperrs (14)

Hiilsen, R.

Hunt, G. W.

Illidge, Rowland

fdecs, Bo OL. Le DEG
E-R.G:S.

Jackson, A. G.

Johnston, Jas.

Kenny, F. Hamilton, M.D.

Lambert, C. A

Lennon R. T.

Lindsay, W.

Longman, H A.

Lord, F.

Love, Wilton, M.B.

Lueag, T. P., L.B.C:P.

Lusby, 8S. G., M.A.

Lyons, R. J., B.A.

His Excellency Sir William:
MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc.,.
G.C.M.G! C.B., &c.

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C..

Marks, E. O., B.A., B.E.

May, H. W., B.E.

May, T. H., M.D.

Michie, J. L., M.A.

Murray-Prior, Mrs.

McCall, T., F.I.C.

McConnel, E. J.

McConnell, Eric W.

McConnel, J. H.

Morris, Leon, A.M.I.C.E., Eng.

Morton, C. R.

+Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C.

Oakes. A. W.. B.A.

Pani): EC. PhD.

Parker. 'l'., F.G.S.

Parker, W. R.

Parnell, 'T' , M.A.

Plant, Hon. E. H. T., M L.C.

Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S.

Priestley, H. J., M.A.

*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.

Rands, W. H., F.G.S.

Reid, D. E.

Kichards, H. C., M.Sc.

+Life Members.

Vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

List of Members—(Continued)

!

Riddell, R. M. +Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C.
+Roe, R. H., M.A. Sutton, A., M.D.
Ryan, J. P., M.D. tSutton, J. W.
Sankey, J. R. Swanwick, K. ff., B.A., L.L.B.
Saunders, G. I., B.E. Taylor, Hon. W. F. ., M.D., M.L.C.
Schild, S. D., A.S.A.S.M. Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L.C.

(Adelaide) furner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.E.S.
+Schneider, H., M.A. Watkins, Geo. ‘
Shirley, John, D.Sc. +Weedon, Warren
Smith, F., B.Sc., A.I.C. Weston, P. L., B.Se., B.E.
Spark, E. J., M.D. White, C. T.
Spenceley, T. White, Jean, D.Sc.
+Steele, T., F.L.S., F.E.S. Willcocks, G. C.

Steele, B. D., D.Se.
” Assoc1aTE MEMBER,
Gillies, D. C.

Miss Freda Bage, M.Sc., and A. B. Walkon were pro-
posed as new members, by Messrs. Henderson and Richards,
respectively. Mr. J. W. Watkins, proposed by J. Shirley,
D.Sc., was unanimously admitted as a member.

The President then delivered his retiring address.

THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FACTOR IN
NATIONAL PROGRESS.

The subject which I have chosen for my address is
perhaps of too technical a nature to prove of general in-
terest on such an occasion, but, as it rarely falls to the
lot of an engineer to have the honour of presiding over
this society, the choice of an engineering subject might
be excused just for once. In vain did | search for some
subject of a more suitable and catholic a nature, such as
the question of national waste which produced such an
interesting and instructive address from our preceding
president, Mr. Henderson. My subject to-night is in one
particular direction a sequel to Mr. Henderson’s address,
inasmuch as it deals with means for minimising the na-
tional waste in one important direction—viz., fuel con-
‘sumption.

My theme deals with the influence of the internal
combustion engine on national progress and develop-
ment. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point out that.

| Life Members.

BY P.-L. WESTON, . BSC., B.E. VII.

the onward march of civilisation is marked by an ever
insistent demand for power. The immense progress of

the past century is largely to be attributed to the de-
velopment of the steam engine, which has reigned su-

preme as a prime mover or machine for the production
of mechanical power since the days of Watt. There are

many signs, however, that this supremacy is being seri-
ously challenged by the internal combustion engine,
mainly by reason of its superior efficiency as a heat en-
gine or apparatus for turning the energy of fuel into
mechanical power. We know from a study of the theory
of heat engines that of the total energy to be derived
from the combustion of fuel not more than about 15
per cent. can be converted into mechanical work by the
combination of a steam boiler and steam engine or tur-

bine, whereas with an internal combustion engine as

much as 35 per cent. of the fuel energy can be converted
into useful work. Hence it is safe to assume that the
promise of the future lies with the engine having the
higher intrinsic efficiency, and in the same way as the
19th century can be aptly ealled the steam age so the
20th century seems destined to merit the designation of
the gas age. The term gas engine can for the sake of
brevity be used to inelude all forms of internal combus-
tion engines.

Except in a few favoured localities where water
power is available power has to be mainly de-

‘rived from the combustion of fuel of various

kinds, of which coal is the chief. Consequently
one of the most important of a nation’s assets
lies in its stores of fuel and the rate of consumption is
so rapid that the question of the conservation of fuel
resources is one of ever increasing urgency. From time
to time we have pointed out the inevitability of the early
depletion of our coal and other natural fuels, especially
of the higher grades, but unfortunately too little heed is
paid to this matter of vital national importance. Fortun-
ately much of the present waste of fuel can be minimised
by the adoption of the internal combustion engine, with its
superior economy and adaptability to use low grade fuels,
which are at present discarded. The economic import-

VIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

ance of doing this can hardly be over-estimated. Owing
to a number of varying factors this problem presents it-
self in a different aspect in every country.

In Australia, with its limited population and manu-
racturing industries, together with a fairly plentiful
supply of coal, the necessity for economising fuel has not
been so pronounced as in most other older countries.
Consequently we are far behind these places in the use
of the gas engine. I faney we hardly realise the extent
of the development that has taken place on the Con-
tinent in this direction. In order that success can be
achieved with gas engines of any considerable size the
local conditions have to be carefully taken into account,
more especially with regard to the nature of the avail-
able fuel. Very little has so far been done in Australia
in this direction, and there is scope for much investiga-
tion of local coals, ete. Other countries, notably Ger-
many, under stress of dear fuel conditions, have success-
fully utilised fuels which previously were of no commer-
cial value. For instance, gas engines are being success-
fully operated on mine refuse containing as high as 80
per cent. of non-combustible matter, and peat and hg-
nite containing 50 per cent. of water.

Such fuels are absolutely useless for steam-raising
purposes. The waste gases from coke ovens, blast fur-
naces, and even copper smelters are also very extensively
used for operating gas engines. We have had pointed
out to us the possibility of more economically using Ips-
wich coal for various power requirements in Brisbane by
generating electricity at the pit’s mouth from inferior
fuel instead of transporting higher grade coal to the me-
tropolis. Of the economy and feasibility of such a scheme
there can be little doubt in the technical mind, ‘but
before such a project can eventuate it is generally neces-
sary for the public to appreciate the value of the pro-
posal. In the case of water power, the man in the street
rarely fails to discern the potentialities of a handy water-
fall, and henee it is usually comparatively easy to get
such a scheme developed. For instance, if we had a
Barron Falls at Ipswich it would no doubt have been
harnessed for Brisbane’s needs long ago. It may ocea-

BY P. L. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. x*

sion surprise to many to learn that even in our present
state of knowledge power could probably be produced
by gas engines at Ipswich at a price which would com-
pare with the cost of the average water power scheme
with its expensive hydraulic engineering works. Water
power is comparatively scarce in Australia, and for that
reason our engineers should be fully alive to the possi-
bilities of the gas engine as a source of cheap power.

In this respect I may mention that the manufacture
of calcium carbide, which is usually considered to be
commercially possible only when cheap water power is
available, is now being successfully carried on in New
South Wales with gas engines using coke as fuel. There
seems to be every probability of metallurgical coke being
produced at Ipswich in large quantities in the near fu-
ture, and the generation of power from the oven gases
would appear to be a natural sequel. When one looks
into the commercial use of gas and other internal com-
bustion engines the most noticeable feature is the rela-
tive searcity of engines of large or even moderate size.
The cause of this is that all internal combustion engines:
show up to best advantage when in comparatively small
units, say, below 200 horse power. Larger units show
ao inerease, either in fuel consumption or first cost per
brake horse power, while increase of size is accompanied.
by greatly increased difficulty of construction and opera-
tion.

This is in marked contrast to the steam engine, and
more especially the steam turbine, as, in both these types
of prime movers increase of size is accompanied by de-
crease of fuel consumption and capital cost per horse-
power, while difficulties of construction and operation
do not materially increase. As a result gas engines over
about 200 horse-power capacity are almost as rare as
steam turbines under this capacity. These intrinsic dif-
ferences between gas and steam engines are due solely
to the higher temperature of the working fluid in the gas
engine. In the steam plant the fuel is burnt in the boiler
furnaces at a temperature of, say, 1200 degrees Centi-
grade, and the heat transmitted.to the working fluid,
steam. which enters the engine at, say, 200 degrees Centi-
grade.

x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

In the internal combustion engine the working fluia
is air, which is heated by the direct combustion of the
fuel inside the cylinder to as high as 1700 degrees or 1800
degrees Centigrade. Since the working parts could not,
for obvious reasons, be allowed to attain this tempera-
ture, the positive cooling of the cylinder walls is a prac-
tical necessity. In the steam engine the temperatures
are easily dealt with, and the abstraction of heat from
the cylinder walls is to be avoided as being merely a
source of waste.

Since increase of cylinder dimensions means a de-
erease in the ratio of area of cylinder walls to eylinder
volume, it will be seen that, whereas this condition is
desirable in a steam engine, in a gas engine it merely
leads to practical difficulties in keeping the temperature
of the working parts within a practical limit. For in-
stanee, when the diameter of a gas engine cylinder is
greater than about 20in. it becomes necessary to water
cool the moving piston, whereas in smaller sizes water
jacketting of the cylinder walls is quite sufficient. In
large cylinders also the increased thickness of metal re-
quired to resist the explosion pressure leads to liability
to severe internal strains, due to unequal expansion of
the metal, and pistons and cylinders have frequently
eracked from this cause. In addition to the above
troubles with large gas engines, the fuel used in the
majority of the larger size units was either coke oven
gas or blast furnace gas, and it was not properly realised
that efficient purification of such gas was necessary to
avoid fouling of the engine.

The result has been that the large gas engine has in
the past gained an unenviable reputation for unrelia-
bility of operation. Profiting, however, from past experi-
ences, designers have now been able to produce large
gas engines for various classes of land service which ap-
proach very closely the reliability of operation of good
steam engines. It must not be supposed, however, that
the one class of engine will satisfy all classes of service.
Many of the failures to secure satisfactory service have
been due to the attempt to apply the one class of engine to
all classes of work. Now, in steam engine practice, very

BY P. L. WESTON. B.BC., B.E. XI.

widely differing types of engine have been evolved for dif-
ferent kinds of work and the same process of evolution
is now taking place, and already many standard designs
have been produced. The largest engines at work are
those to be found in most modern iron smelting works in
America and on the Continent. In the largest of these
installations the power of the engines aggregates
150,000 horse power. The economy of using the gases
escaping from the blast furnaces has in many cases re-
duced the cost of the production of pig-iron by 2 or 3
per cent.

The efforts of designers are now being mainly con-
ecentrated on the problem of adapting the internal com-
bustion engine in large sizes to marine work. This is a
matter which I think is worthy of special comment on
this oceasion, because probably the most noteworthy en-
gineering achievement of the term of my presidency has
been the birth of the motor ship. The pioneer ship of
any considerable size to be fitted with internal combus-
tion engines was the Zealandia, launched early in 1912;
and during the same year no less than nine other ocean-
going ships were launched. It is perhaps a matter for
national regret that, though the British engineer led the
way in the development of the marine steam engine, and
later on the marine steam turbine, yet in the matter of
the marine internal combustion engine the pioneers have
been chiefly Swedish, German, and other continental
engineers. There is, however, every indication that the
English engineer and shipowner will before very long
make up the leeway, and it is pretty safe to prophesy
that before long the public will have to get reconciled to
the disappearance of the familiar funnel from the ocean
tramp and other low powered craft. Whether it will be
feasible to produce internal combustion engines of suit-
able size for the high powered liner and battleship is a
matter about which it would now be premature to ex-
press an opinion, It must be remembered that the work-
ing fluid in an internal combustion engine is actually
white hot flame, and when one considers the amount of
heat being produced in the numerous furnaces of a big
liner and realises that to produce the same power in an

XII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

internal combustion engine approximately half as mucky
heat has to be generated as white hot flame inside the
cylinders themselves, the problem of doing so is seen to:
be of no mean order.

At present the marine engine is invariably of the:
Diesel oil engine type, and so far satisfactory operation:
has been secured in sizes up to 200 to 300 horse power
per cylinder. As the Diesel engine is unique among in-
ternal combustion engines, and has only recently become
prominently under the notice of the lay public, a brief
description of its peculiar features may not be out of
place. In other forms of internal combustion en-
gines, the fuel which may be combustible gas or oil
in a state of vapour or minutely subdivided is:
drawn into the eylinder together with the air
necessary for combustion. This charge of explosive mix-
ture is then compressed by the return stroke of the piston
and caused to ignite at the proper instant by electric
spark or other suitable means.

In the Diesel engine, however, the fuel charge is not
admitted to the cylinder until the end of the compressiom
of the cylinder charge. The compression of any gas is
accompanied by rise of temperature, and in the case of
the Diesel engine the compression is carried to such a
degree that the air in the cylinder is red hot before the
oil fuel is injected into it. In this way ignition and per-
fect combuston are secured without any separate ignition
device. Incidentally a higher degree of economy in fuel
consumption is secured by the high compression pres-
sure than is possible in other forms of internal combus-
tion engines and, more important still, cheap erude oils:
and even tar oils can be readily used. The consumption
of oil per brake horse power is less than half a pound
per hour as compared with, say, three times this weight. —
of coal which the steam engine requires for the same out-
put. The gain in saving of cargo space by the adop-
tion of the Diesel engine is then obvious and also the
desirability of eliminating the steam boiler and the stok-
ers to feed it. |

BY PLL. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. XIII.

There are other advantages, such as the ease of
handling liquid fuel and the instant readiness for start-
ing of the Diesel, as compared with the time required to
get up steam in a boiler. It seems improbable that the
steam turbine will be superseded by the internal com-
bustion engine for some time to come where very large
' powers are concerned, but the present limits are bound to
be exceeded, and the present rate of the development of
the latter engine is surprisingly rapid. Perhaps here in
Australia we can hardly realise the progress béing made
on the other side of the world in this direction, and

especially on the Continent. It is a remarkable fact that
in Germany the manufacture of steam engines has almost

been abandoned, and the works are turning out instead
gas and Diesel engines, the latter mostly adapted to
operate on tar oil. There are approximately 30 German
firms manufacturing Diesel engines, while Britain has
only three makers.

Much work remains to be done in connection with
investigating the best means of utilising various classes
of fuel in internal combustion engines. In Germany a
State commission has been constituted to deal with this
problem. This is an example which might well be fol-
lowed in every country, since each locality has its own
particular kinds of fuel. Ordinary bituminous coal ean
be prepared for use in internal combustion engines in
several ways. It can be gasified in various forms of pro-
ducers, which turns both the fixed carbon and the vola-
tile constituents into fixed gases, or other forms of pro-
ducers may be used, which leave the tarry vapours to
be condensed into creosote, benzol and other distillate oils.
The benzol will no doubt very largely replace petrol for
motor car engines and similar purposes, while the heavier
oils ean be used in Diesel engines. It is obvious that
liquid fuel can be transported with much greater ease
than coal, so that the tendeney of the future will be
to abandon the present wasteful method of mining only
the choicest portions of the coal seams and transporting
the solid fuel over long distances. Instead, the whole
of the seam will be utilised for the production of power
at the pit’s mouth, and for the various liquid fuels and

xIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

other by-products. Already the available supplies of
petroleum oils are unable to cope with the demand, and
prices are on the increase, so that sooner or later other
sources of oil must be pressed into the service.

Turning now to a consideration of the more common
applications of the internal combustion engine, we find
that for small powers it stands practically unchallenged
as a prime mover. For ordinary industrial work up to,
say, 200 horse power gas engines with suction gas pro-
ducers using anthracite, coke, or charcoal, have become
extremely popular, and form very convenient and econo-
mical sources of power. It is not, however, yet fully
recognised by the public that such plants have certain
peculiar limitations with regard to overload capacity
and behaviour when running on varying loads.

There is also a more or less popular impression that
these plants can be successfully run by unskilled attend-
anee. As with other classes of comparatively high grade
machinery proper reliability of service can only be en-
sured by having suitably trained attendants. In Aus-
tralia at any rate the supply of really capable gas engine
attendants is somewhat limited, with the result that com-
plaints of unreliability are not common, especially with
units of any size. While the cause of trouble is very
often due to unskilful engineering in selecting the plant,
or in the manner of erection, or even in the design or
manufacture of the plant, still, with a properly trained
man in charge, reliable operation can generally be ob-
tained such as would compare favourably with steam
plant.

It is to be hoped that the facilities now being of-
fered by technical education will be effective in remedy-
ing the deficiency in the near future. In this connection,
I may remark in passing that some four years ago I had
the privilege of inaugurating what I believe was the
first course of technical classes in Brisbane dealing with
the internal combustion engine. The present trend of
practice is towards the use of cheaper fuels, such as bitu-

BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. Xv.

minous coal, wood, ete., which have been previously found
difficult to gasify in the ordinary form of updraught pro-
ducer without including tarry vapours which affect the
running of the engine.

A number of different types of producer have been
designed to obviate this difficulty, and it is perhaps
worthy of special mention, that one of the most pro-
mising designs originated in New Zealand, and is coming
into local use. This development, if it proves as success-
ful as present indications promise, will still further popu-
larise the suction gas plant, especially in fairly moderate
sizes where the cost of fuel begins to be a considerable
item. The influence of such a cheap and convenient
souree of power for comparatively small installations is
no mean factor in the development of every country, and
more especially in a comparatively young and sparsely
populated country lke Australia. The small manufaec-
turing concern, the butter factory, the irrigation plant
of the farmer, the isolated electric light installation are
familiar instances of its ready application. In many
other countries the Diesel oil engine is a close competitor
of the suction gas plant for such work, but locally the
comparatively high cost of oil, and the uncertainty of
supply, have put it at a disadvantage. It is in the sphere
of portable work of all kinds, however, that the internal
combustion engine has made its influence most felt. It
is almost unnecessary to mention its use for motor
car, motor boat, and aeroplane work. So great has been
» the demand for engines for these purposes that already
a very high degree of excellence has been attained in
the design and manufacture of petrol engines of these
types.

a critical examination of, say, a modern aeroplane
or high-class automobile engine discloses a truly cour-
ageous piece of machinery, which for lightness of con-
struction in relation to output would have been econ-
sidered mechanically impossible a few years ago. The
demand for materials of the highest possible strength
has led the metallurgist to produce various alloys of iron
and other metals, usually termed alloy steel, which pos-
Sess extraordinary strength and toughness. For in-

XVI. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

stance, we have nickel steel, with an elastic limit of 70
tons per square inch, chrome vandium spring steel which
will permit twice the working extension in a spring that
ean be endured by an ordinary carbon steel spring, and
a host of other alloy steels with peculiar properties for
the particular service for which they were produced.
In addition, machinery has been perfected for obtaining
extreme acenracy of workmanship in machining parts
of engines and motor cars in general. For instance,

hardened steel balls for ball bearings are guaranteed to
be accurate in diameter to within’ one-ten-thou-
sandth (.000lin.) of an inch. In fact, not only do we
owe to the internal combustion engine the whole of the
motor ear industry, but mechanical engineering gener-
ally has advanced in innuimerable ways in response to
the demands of ‘the motorist. The mechanical achieve-
ment represented in, say, a modern racing ear, is to say
the least of it, rather surprising. We take a flimsy-look-
ing engine, mount it on a springy platform, make it
develop very considerable power by getting, say, twenty
explosions per second behind a piston, which is subjected
to, say, a thrust of two tons each time, and let the whole
power station on wheels fly along at speeds of approach-
ing 100 miles per hour, or higher than the fastest steam
locomotive. Of the value of motor transport little need
be said, as we see its use extending every day, and we
have now the motor car, motor lorry, fire engine, tractor,
railway autocar, motor cycle, and a host of other pos-
sible applications of the ever-ready little engine.

Australia with its immense distances affords a wide
field of usefulness for all kinds of motor transport. Few
‘station homesteads are without their motor cars, and the
motor tractor is beginning to be widely adopted, especi-
ally in dry country, where the steam traction engine is at
a disadvantage. For railway work it appears most prob-
able that certain classes of traffic can be better handled
by the railway autocar than by the steam locomotive,
and experiments in this direction are shortly to be made
on the Queensland railways. Where the traffic does not
warrant the use of long trains, a single motor coach can
be used to advantage, the cost of working being less,

BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. XVII.

owing to the abolition of the stoker, and the engine is
always ready for starting without the necessity for in-
eurring stand-by losses as with a steam locomotive. There
is also the absence of grit or sparks, and the problem of
taking in fuel and water is much simplified. I under-
stand the use of internal combustion engines is sug-
gested on the transcontinental railway, owing to the
searcity of water along certain sections of the route.
Though I understand the autocars now being procured
by the Railway Department were intended for trial in
country districts where traffic is infrequent, this system
seems to me to be very promising for suburban traffic in
order that a quick service could be maintained. The
Enoggera line, for instance, would benefit greatly by a
more frequent service than is warranted at present with
the ordinary steam train. The high cost of oil fuel in
Australia is, however, a serious drawback. One respect
in which the internal combustion engine is inferior to
the steam engine is in the ease with which the latter can
be started and stopped. This necessitates the use of
special means of transmitting the power from the engine
to the wheels, a frequent method being to do this elec-
trically, an arrangement which gives great flexibility of
control, which is of special value for high speed work
with frequent stops. For work of all kinds where small
power is required, engines using petrol and paraffin prac-
tically hold the field except, of course, where electric
supply is available.

In these days of high wages every effort should be
made to supplant manual labour by power as far as
practicable, and new uses for the internal combustion
engine are being found every day. In building opera-
tions, for instance, hoisting of materials, mixing up of
concrete, sawing and dressing of timber, and stone dress-
ing tools should be power driven whenever there is any
quantity of such work to be done.

One future sphere of usefulness for small engines is —
for producing electric light in small: isolated installa-
tions such as a country hotel or station homestead. The

remarkably high efficiency of the modern metal filament ”
B

XVIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

lamp has enabled such an arrangement using storage
batteries to commercially compete with acetylene and
other forms of lighting and when this is realised by the
public small electric lighting schemes will become very
popular. While-on this subject I may be permitted to
remark that in the matter of electric lighting in this
State we are decidedly behind the times in many re-
spects.

A prominent visitor recently remarked to me on
the public lighting of the Brisbane streets, or rather on
the comparative absence of such in the main streets, and
on taking a house in New Farm expressed surprise that
electric supply was not available in the suburbs. In
the question of electric supply our provincial towns are
very much behind those of the other Australian States,
where small electric supply schemes are being installed
in large numbers, the source of power being in most
cases suction gas plants. Why Queensland should be
so less progressive in these respects than the Southern
States I fail to understand, more especially as the climatic
conditions render electric lighting and fans highly de-
sirable.

However, it is gratifying to note signs of a spirit of
inquiry and progress in our citizens as evinced, for in-
stanee, in matters of education and sanitation, and I
hope that now the spirit of unrest, which spells the dawn
of progress has been engendered further advancement
will not be long delayed. We may even hope for the
adoption of a decimal system of weights, measures, and
even money, for the establishment of a rational system
of training our artisans now that the old apprenticeship
system is dead, for direct railway connection across the
river and the proposed standard gauge line along the
coast to New South Wales, for a new town hall, for re-
vision of the Electric Light Act and the Local Authori-
ties Act in so far as it debars local authorities from
establishing electric supply schemes, and we may even
hope to secure proper public recognition of the value
and the status of the engineer. |

BY P..L.. WESTON? B.EC., B.E: XIX...

Returning now to our original theme, and summing
up, the internal combustion engine has already become a
factor of great economic importance in our national
life, and before long it promises to become the chief
agency for turning the useful energy of fuel to account
unless the dream of the scientist of turning the energy
of fuel direct into electricity without first producing
mechanical work is realised.

With regard to general design of internal combustion
engines, the present standard design of reciprocating en-
gine is not likely to be drastically altered unless the pre-
sent fundamental principles of operation are abandcned,.
since its performance very closely approaches in effi-
ciency what is theoretically possible under the cireum-.
stances: The possibility of the evolution cf a gas tur-.
bine is often mentioned, but when the problem is eare-
fully examined it does not look very promising. There-
is, however, a special form of engine for pumping pur-
poses which is most interesting, and bears little resem-.
blanee to the ordinary form of engine. This is the
Humphrey gas pump, in which there is no piston in the
ordinary sense of the word, its place being taken by the-
fluid to be pumped, which is subjected directly to the
force of the explosion in a closed chamber. In this way
there is a practical elimination of working parts, and as.
the apparatus takes the place of both an engine and a
pump, a very high efficiency is possible, and these plants:
have been successfully used for very large installations.

In conclusion, I may remark that fire has been the
servant of man since the dim days of our prehistoric
ancestors, and its uses have been multiplied through the-
ages, contributing in no small degree to the advancement
of civilisation. A new era was heralded when mankind
learned how to harness steam, the product of the two-
opposing elements, fire and water, and extract its latent
energy by the steam engine. Now another era has been
instituted by the subjection of our willing slave in a
more direct manner in the internal combustion engine.

In the one case we imprison him within the walls of
a furnace made of refractory materials, but now we have.

XxX. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

bottled him up inside the metal walls of the engine it-
self, like one of the genii of mythical fancy pent up in a
magic jar, and ever struggling to escape from his prison.

With the aid of our tame giant we are enabled to
outstrip the fastest steed on land, the fish in the sea,
and the bird in the clouds, so there are no more king-
doms for us to invade and conquer. How mueh further
progress will be made it is impossible to predict, except
to venture the opinion that, while steam still holds the
field in most cases where large powers are required, this
supremacy will shortly be seriously challenged by its
more modern rival. In this development the services of
the engineer will be largely dependent on the researches
of the chemist into matters pertaining to the treatment
of fuels, and on the-metallurgist for the production of
special alloys and other materials to resist the onerous
conditions of service.

Mr. Henderson moved a vote of thanks to the President
for his interesting and valuable address.

The following o‘tice-bearers were declared elected
unopposed for 1913 :—

President—H. C. Richards, M.Sc.

Vice-President—J. Shirley, D.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer—J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C.

Hon. Secretary—F. Bennett.

Hon. Librarian—T. Harvey Johnston, D.Sc.

Assistant Hon. Librarian—D. C. Gillies.

A ballot among J. F. Bailey, E. C. Barton, A.M.1.C.E.,
E. H. Gurney, Professor Priestley, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.,
R. Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc., resulted in the election of the five
former as Councillors.

Mr. G. Watkins was re- aiched Hon. Auditor.

The new President was then inducted to the chair,
and returned thanks for his election.

The Report from the Delegates to the Melbourne
Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science was read. 3

On the motion of Mr. Barton, the President and Mr.
Weston were deputed to meet the Decimal Ass3ociation’s
representatives on =o Ast, 1913, and the meeting term-
inated. :

ON AN BASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF
HATCHING CERATODUS OVA,

By THOS. L. BANCROFT., M.B. Edin.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 29, 1913.

Hitherto only a very few of the Ceratodus ova obtained
each season hatched out* and it was generally considered
by myself and others, who have made the attempt, that
the ova were easily injured by handling or that strong
light quickly killed them or that a large proportion were:
infertile, that it was essential for success to keep them
in running water or the water changed for fresh every day.

Semon in his work ‘In the Australian Bush,” p. 90,.
says :—‘* The eggs of Ceratodus are extremely frail and.
tender. If the water in which I kept them ior breeding
purposes became too warm or there happened to be too
many in one vessel or if I did not take care to remove
every dead egg immediately, all the eggs died off rapidly.
This circumstance formed a great hindrance to my embryo-
logical collecting.”

Having made the discovery that when more than
three ova were placed in the same glass jar all of them
perished, and that with two or three ova success occasionally
followed ; it occurred to me that if each egg could be kept
separately in a jar of water of its own, any that were then
alive would probably develop. For this purpose I gathered
together over a hundred pickle “bottles, filled them with
river water and placed each bottle inside a jam tin to exclude
light, old rusty tins from the rubbish heap were requisitioned ;
the tins with their bottles were placed on and under a
table in a corner of the verandah and screened from the light

* Proc. lioy. Soc. Queensland Vol. xxur., p. 251.

2 HATCHING CERATODUS OVA.

with afew corn sacks. Into each bottle one egg was dropped.
Upon examination of the ova in a week’s time almost every
one was noticed to be alive ; this is easily seen by observ-
ing the change in shape of the yelk from the round to pear
shape (see figure, b and c). In three weeks’ time the little
fish had left their gelatinous envelopes. A bit of conferva
was then dropped into each bottle for food ; shortly after-
wards the little fish were noticed to have insinuated them-
selves in the conferva and even when the latter had floated
to the top, as occasionally occurred, the fish were able to
find it. The bottles were disturbed as little as possible
and the water was not changed nor added to, and at the
end of four weeks, although the water had diminished by
evaporation to less than half, it made no difference what-
ever.

The little fish after a week’s sojourn in the pickle
bottles were removed to glass cells of a half to a gallon of
water capacity, prepared with some clay at the bottom
and conferva; ten fish were put into each vessel. Some
of the jars were placed in a tub of water so as to keep them
cool. Some were left on the table and in these the fish
thrived equally well, but a time came when the whole
lot suddenly died one day, and it was thought from the
water getting too warm. Some fish were put into a wooden
tub, it was half a wine cask; I had used it before as an
aquarium ; it was cleaned out and filled with river water
and some conferva and pieces of floating green water weed
put in; no clay or sand; it was so arranged that any
insect enemies might be easily detected; it was partly
covered over with a board to exclude light. The tub was
placed inside a galvanised iron wash tub containing water,
the idea being to prevent evaporation from the wood.

The fish for the most part lie quietly at the bottom ;
they never bury themselves in the clay and never come
to the top to breathe air. At night time they are more
active ; in one glass jar, which was totally immersed in
a tub of water, the little fish escaped into the tub during
the night..

No attempt was made to feed the fish otherwise than
with conferva. There is evidently some other food neces-

BY THOS. L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 3

sary for their well-being, and possibly they need cooler
and deeper water than I was able to give them.

The fish, whether in glass cells or in the tub, rapidly
increased in size to three-quarters of an inch in length
and up to two months ; after that time they were noticed
to become sluggish and emaciated and began to die off,
and at the end of three months all had died.

I am of opinion that were the Ceratodus reared even
up to two months and then liberated in a suitable artificial
lagoon, that a large number would survive.

oe eo <

A—Appearance of fresh egg, life size,

B—End of one week.

C—End of second week.

D—Empty envelope showing exit hole.

E—Young Ceratodus just emerged; will often go back into gelatinous
envelope if disturbed,

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.

By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc., F.M.S.
(SENIOR INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS.)

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913.

The number of aquatic gasteropods, reported as inhabit-
ing Queensland waters, amounts in all to 1,619 species
Mr. Charles Hedley published a list* and supplementt
of 1328 species ; and, in papers read before this Society,
the writer has suppled lists containing 291 additional
names.

A study of the geographical distribution of these 1619
gasteropods has revealed some interesting facts. One of
the most striking is the similarity of the molluscan faunas
of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; no less than 520 Queens-
land species, or nearly one-third of the whole, having this
extremely wide range. It, therefore, seems likely that the
two oceans have been in free and uninterrupted connection
for many geological ages, since many species, which are
at home in both oceans, belong to such genera as TJ'urbo.{
Trochust and Phasianella, known to extend back to Devonian
times ; others as AHaliotis, Nerita, Litorina, Strombus,
Triton, (Cymatium), Dolium (Tonna), Sigaretus, Mitra,
Cancellaria and Murex® to Cretaceous times ; while Liotia,
Terebellum, Ranella, (Bursa), Marginella, Engina and
Purpura date from the Eocene epoch. Very few genera, be-
longing to the two oceans in common, appeared later than
the Miocene era.

*Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. XII., pp. 343-371.
Loc. cit., pp. 809-810.

tTryon, Vol. I., p. 57, says “ Silurian.”
°Tryon, Vol. L., p. 57, says “ Jurassic.”

6 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.

Just as the most westerly region in which the Malay
race exists is the island of Madagascar, so this Indo-Pacific
molluscan region, with its centre of distribution in Malaysia,
has for its western frontier the eastern coast of Africa, 76
species found on the northern or eastern coasts of Queensland
being reported from such distant localities as Natal, Mada-
gascar, Mozambique and Zanzibar. ~ Acommon shell of our
EBarricr Reef—Septa aquatile, Reeve, better known as
Triton pilearis, L., is reported from the following localities :
—Natal, Seychelles, Red Sea, China, Japan, Philippines,
Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and, still stranger from
Florida and Erazil. The genera best represented and most
widely spread are Cerithium, Strombus, Conus, Ovula and
Purpura (Thais).

This great province, formed of the two oceans that have
no north and south barriers, and in which therefore the great
equatorial current is not deflected into frigid regions,: ex-
tends also into the Red Sea, where 147 species are common
to that sea and to the shores of Queensland. The genera
best represented are :—Cer.thium, Strombus, Triton (Cyma-
tium), Ranella (Bursa), Conus, Pyramidella, Drillia and
Mitra. So strong is the relationship between the Red Sea
molluscs and those of Queensland, that of 573 species, enumer-
ated in Issel’s Malacologia del Mar Rosso, no less than 133,
inhabit the seas of our State. It is necessary to mention
that Issel’s list contains bivalves as well as gasteropods.

Woodward* in his Manual of the Mollusca, says, “ of
the 408 mollusca of the Red Sea collected by Ehrenberg
and Hemprich, 74 are common to the Mediterranean
from which it would seem that these seas have communicated
since the first appearance of some existing shells. Of the
species common to the two seas, 40 are Atlantic shells
which have migrated into the Red Sea by way of the
Mediterranean, probably during the newer Pliocene period ;
the others are Indo-Pacific shells which extended their
Tange to the Mediterranean at an earlier age.” Fishery
points out that this statement is in part incorrect, some
of the so-called Red Sea shells having been collected off

*Reprint of 4th Edition, 1890, p.-73.
+Manuel de Conchyliologie, p. 159.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 7

the Syrian and northern Egyptian coasts. The Revd.
A. H. Cooke, says* that “of 818 shells collected by
Macandrew at Suez, 17 are undoubtedly Mediterranean.”

It would be well to try and ascertain in what geologic
age the great equatorial current swept in an unchecked
stream across the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans,
carrying with it the vivifying warmth acquired in its long
course through tropical seas. In the Cretaceous age the
southern type of the system attained a great development
on both sides of the Mediterranean basin, and covered a
vast area of the north of Africa. In the Sahara region,
forming the interior of Algeria, it extends in broad plateaus,
ending in abrupt escarpments, showing the varied outlines
that might have been an old shore line. In these rocks
the various Cretaceous subdivisions from the Neocomian
upwards have been recognised. One important member
of the system forms the upper part of the ‘“‘ Nubian Sand-
stone,’ which is so important a factor in determining the
character of the landscape in north-eastern. Africa. This
formation extends eastwards into Syria, and is found in
the region of the Lebanon. In the Eocene epoch the most
widely distributed marine deposit is represented by the
nummulitic limestone, which extends from the Alps to the
Caucasus, through northern Africa, from Persia to the
Suleiman Mountains, and is found again in China and
Japan. Lyellt says of it—‘‘The nummulitic limestone
is of world-wide extent, and contains many corals of large
size, of genera now common in tropical seas, some of the
same fossil species ranging from Scinde in India tothe
West Indies.” A. Geikiet believed ‘‘ that the open Cre-
taceous sea must have stretched through the heart of the
Old World.”

The Cretaceous fauna, as seen in European forma-
tions, includes such genera as Strombus, Fusus, Fasciolaria,
Oliva, Pleurotoma and Conus, and, in India, Cyprea and
Voluta, which in the present age are most abundant
in warm seas. In Eocene times the affinities of the

«Cambridge Natural History, Molluscs and Brachiopods, p. 369.
+Principles of Geology, Vol. L., BE 207.
tGeology, p. 325.

ds DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.

Kuropean molluscan fauna, with those families now
inhabiting the Indian and Pacific Oceans, becomes
uch closer, the most prominent forms represent-
mg the following genera :—Cancellaria, Fusus, Oliva,
Voluta, Conus, Mitra, Rostellarva, Pleurotoma, Cyprea,
Scalaria (Epitonium), ete.

In these two periods, when the connection between
the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, across Northern Africa and
the basin of the Mediterranean, appears to have been wide
and complete, the climate must have greatly modified by
the flow of a vast current warmed in equatorial regions ;
and, though there are undoubtedly other causes that have
modified terrestrial climate since Miocene times, sufficient
stress does not seem to be given to the presence in recent
times of the two great barriers, the isthmuses of Suez and
Panama. These, by causing the equatorial current to be
deflected, first round Cape Agulhas and then round Cape
Horn, united with the influence of the west wind drift,
change it to a cold current on the southern and western
extremities of Africa and America.

When we contrast the climate of British Columbia
with that of Labrador in the same latitude, we have
evidence of the striking results caused to the one by the
warm Japan current of the Pacific, and to the other by the
cold Labrador current that sweeps down from the Arctic
into the Atlantic.

Wallace* expresses his belief in a former connection
of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans thus :—‘** We also know
that a little earlier, in Eocene times, tropical Africa was cut
off from Europe and Asia by a sea stretching from the
Atlantic to the Bay of Bengal, at which time Africa must
have formed a detached island-continent such as Aus-
tralia is now, and probably, like it, very poor in the higher
forms of life.

Huxley} also expresses the same opinion, as follows :—
‘There is every reason to believe that both Hindustan,
south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the Sahara, were
separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during

*Island Life, p. 418.
+Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, 1870.

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 9

the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. . . . . Some
time during the Miocene epoch, the bottom of the Num-
mulitic Sea was upheaved, and converted into dry land,
in the direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the
mouth of the Ganges.

The earth movements that severed the connection of
the north-west portion of the Indian Ocean with the
Mediterranean, caused the Red Sea to retreat to its present
limits, but it still maintained its union with the great Indo-
Pacific province, and the character of its molluscan fauna
remained unchanged. The Mediterranean Sea no longer
traversed by a warm equatorial current, lost most of its
genera that are typical of the Indian, Malaysian and Aus-
tralasian sub-regions, and, maintaining its connection with
the Atlantic, gave to its mollusca a northern facies. The
presence of isolated species belonging to tropical genera
like Fasciolaria, Cancellaria, Sigaretus, Cymbium, Cyprea,
Marginella, Mitra, Cassis and Pisania, is strong testimony
that the Meditrranean region was formerly a part of the
great waterway of the equatorial current.

To the north of Australia the extension of the typical
molluscan fauna of Queensland is equally wonderful. The
Philippine Islands lie 3,500-4,000 miles from our shores,
yet the appearance of its molluscan fauna would be per-
fectly familiar to the Queensland collector. Of our 1,619
species of Gasteropoda, no less than 673, or over 40 per
cent., are known to inhabit the shores of this distant archi-
pelago. Of 18 additional species to our fauna, found in
collections sent down from Murray Island, Normanton
and Torres Straits, no less than half are also reported from
the Philippines, showing that the affinities are still greater
if we make the comparison between the shells of our northern
coast and those of this distant group of islands. Wallace’s
Line, though it may separate land faunas of very dissimilar
nature, forms no hindrance to the spread of marine
molluscs. |

As American collectors reveal to us the wealth of
material which the Philippine Archipelago affords, as settle-
ment progresses in Northern Australia, and when the
discovery of intermediate forms has reduced the number

10 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.

of supposed species, the two faunas will show still more
striking points of agreement.

The only inference to be drawn from this remarkable
similarity in marine life is that, however much the areas
of the intervening islands may have been extended or
diminished in the successive geological epochs, between
Queensland’ and the Philippines an open sea has been main-
tained through a vast series of years. |

Wallace, when accounting for the differences in animal
life of the land faunas of the various East Indian Islands,
sheds some light on the question under discussion in the
following statement :—‘‘ Beginning in late Miocene times,
when the deposits on the south-east coast of Java were
upraised, we suppose a general elevation of the whole of
the extremely shallow seas uniting what are now Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, and the Philippines with the Asiatic con-
tinent, and forming that extended equatorial area in which
the typical Malayan fauna was developed. After a long
period of stability, giving ample time for the specialisation
of so many peculiar types, the Philippines were first separated,
then at a considerably later period, Java; a little later,
Sumatra and Borneo; and finally the islands south of
Singapore to Banca and Billiton.’

In other directions the same conclusions must be made.
As the islands of Melanesia and Polynesia come under .
European influence and their molluscan life is made known,
the astonishing range of species found on our shores is
extended. Of 487 species or marked varieties collected
by Mr. C. Hedley at Funafuti, one of the Ellice Islands,
no less than ‘261 also inhabit Queensland ; and a definite,
but decreasing relationship is shown as we study the marine
shells of New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Paumotus
and the Sandwich Islands.

-Darwin,* in his ‘‘Voyage of a Naturalist,” states that
of 90 shells collected by Cummings at the Galapagos, 25
are found on the west coast of South America, and 18 are
natives of the Low Archipelago or of the Philippines. The
Galapagos group therefore marks the junction between the
Western South American and Indo-Pacific provinces ; the

*Sir John Lubbock’s Edition, p: 285.

—_ er ey ee 7

BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 1k

stretch of deep sea parallel to, and west of the Andes, separat-
ing two very different conchological faunas.

A study of the molluses of the Pacific coast of Mexico
and Central America shows that 17 species known in Queens.
land also inhabit those distant waters. They are in some
cases of genera like Hipponix, Cheilea and Ianthina, which,
from their mode of life, are easily and widely spread -
but include others such as Natica, Drwpa (Ricinula), and
Pyrene (Columbella) which have no special means of dis-
persal in adult life.

Of the barrier between the equatorial portions of the
Pacifc and Atlantic formed by Central America and the
Isthmus of Panama, Geikie* says :—‘‘ While the fishes
and molluscs. living in the seas on the two sides of the
Isthmus of Panama are on the whole very distinct, a few
shells and a large number of fshes are identical ; whence
the inference has been drawn that though a. broad water-
channel originally separated North and South America in
Miocene times, a series of elevations and subsidences has
since occurred, the most recent submersion having lasted
but a short time, allowing the passage of locomotive fishes,
yet not admitting of much change in the stationary molluscs.
Of species found on the Atlantic side of America, in the
West Indies, Florida and Brazil, 35 are also found in
Queensland ; two of these are reported doubtfully, and
may be rejected; the remainder include species of Fis-
surella, Hipponix, Litorina, Tectarius, Planaxis, Epigrus,
Rissoina, Intiopa, Cerithium, Llanthina, Epitonium (Scalaria),
Cymatium (Triton), Distortrix, Septa (Triton), Cassis, Tonna
(Dolium), Trivia, Oliva, Murex, Hydatina and Pyrene
(Columbella).

Geikie’s use of the term “stationary molluscs” is
rather misleading. It may be true that they deserve that
title in adult life, but the immature mollusc in the veliger
period is a great traveller, floating over widespread areas
before coming to rest. Many of these juvenile forms,
before their proper place in molluscan history was under-
stood; have been regarded as species, and given such. names
as Macgillivrayia Sinusigera, etc. This power of ranging

*Geikie, Text Book of Geology, I., 391.

12 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.

widely over ocean waters is also possessed by the sea creatures
formerly placed in a separate class as Pteropoda, but now
regarded as molluscan forms whose life-cycle has been
arrested at the free floating marine stage. The Rev. A.
H. Cooke,* M.A., states the case as follows :—‘‘ The
Pteropoda are a group whose true relations are masked
by the special conditions of their existence, which has
tended towards the development of certain organs, the so-
called ‘ wings’ and the shell, which give them an apparent
symmetry ; this symmetry disappears on a close investi-
gation of the internal organs.” This author reduces the
Pteropoda to a sub-class of the mollusca.

Recapitulating, the aim of this paper is to show from
the distribution of Gasteropods, geographically and
geologically, that the shell-fish of the great Indo-Pacific
province were almost universally spread through warm
temperate and equatorial regions to the end of Eocene
times ; but that the north and south barriers, formed by
the elevations that produced the Isthmuses of Suez and
Panama, limited the range of species to the two oceans
that are connected in tropical areas, and by giving rise to
modifications of climate in the Atlantic and Mediterranean
basins, caused great changes in the character of their
molluscan faunas.

eens a ETE

*Cambridge Natural History; Brachiopods and Molluses, p. 435.

NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF
KREMOPHILA MACULATA,

(NATIVE FUCHSIA.)

By FRANK SMITH, B:Sc., F.1.C.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queenslard, 26th August,
1913.)

THE occurrence of an hydrocyanic acid yielding glucoside
in a member of the exclusively Australian natural order
Myoperinae, Eremophila Maculata, was first noted by the
author and J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. (Queensland Agric.
Journ. XXV., 291) in November, 1910, in pursuance of
an enquiry into the cause of mortality among stock on
Carondotta and Roxbrugh stations in the Boulia district.

In the interim an attempt has been made to isolate
the glucoside, and though unsuccessful, it is proved to be
one of the Amygdalin group, probably difficultly crystal-
lisable, and yielding on decomposition with emulsin
benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid and reducing sugar.

The observation that the glucoside and the enzyme
necessary for its decomposition occur separately in leaves
and fruit respectively, could not be confirmed on subsequent
specimens of the plant. Though not actually resulting
in the separation of the glucoside in the pure state, the
details of the experimental work performed may be cited.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Onc kilo of dried leaves including a small quantity
of fruit, after preliminary extraction with petroleum ether,
was thoroughly extracted with 90 per cent. alcohol, and

c

’ re

?

14 CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMOPHILA MACULATA

the resinous material obtained on evaporation of the solvent
treated with water. The aqueus solution, precipitated
by basic lead acetate, and excess of lead removed by H.S,
was concentrated under diminished pressure, taken up in
aleohol and finally extracted with ethyl acetate.

The brown syrup obtained on evaporation of the solvent
showed no sign of crystallisation even on standing several
months, and was without appreciable reducing action on
Fehling’s solution.

It was furthertaken up in water when addition of acetate
of lead produced further small quantity of yellow precipitate.

The solution freed from lead and concentrated to a
syrup was repeatedly taken up in alcohol and fractionally
precipitated by addition of ethyl acetate and ether when
small quantities of resinous material were deposited.

The decanted liquor on concentration in partial vacuo
did not crystallise. nor could crystallisation be obtained
by use of a mixture of ethyl acetate and toluene as recom-
mended by Herissey (J. Chem. Soc. Abr., 110, pt. 1, 31).

An attempt was made to prepare the acetyl derivative
of the glucoside by boiling a quantity of the crude syrup
with acetic anhydride. The oil obtained by pouring into
water was washed with 5 per cent. sodium hydroxide
solution to free from acidic substances and finally thoroughly
with water.

It was completely soluble in ethyl acetate, chloro-
form, ether, and 95 per cent. alcohol, and evaporation of
the last mentioned solvent vielded a quantity of rhombic
crystals. These were purified by two crystallisations from
hot 95 per cent alcohol and were found to melt sharply
at 123 degrees C.

This melting point isidentical with that of tetra-acetyl-
prulaurasin, though from its sparing solubility in cold
alcohol and its crystalline form it could not be identified
with that substance. The amount available did not permit
of further experimental work. Cooling of the mother
liquors to—5 degrees C. gave a further quantity of similar
crystals, and also a small quantity of needles, apparently
orthorhombic, though it was found impracticable to effect
the separation of the two substances.

BY FRANK SMITH, B.SC., F.I.C. 15

Caldwell and Courtauld (J. Chem. Soc., 107, 91, 666)
state that tetra-acetyl-prulaurasin separates from concen-
trated alcoholic solution in orthorhombic needles at— 5 degrees
C., and that prulaurasin is difficultly crystallisable.
Prulaurasin, therefore, is probably present in Eremophila
maculata.

A portion of the crude syrup (9 grms. in 50 ces. of water)
was decomposed by :05 grm. of Merck’s emulsin and dis-
tilled in steam. The distillate contained hydrocyanic
acid and benzaldehyde, the latter being positively identified
by the formation of its phenylhydrazone (M.Pt. 153 degrees
C.). The’liquid from the distillation flask was found to
reduce Fehling’s solution strongly, and after precipitation
with lead subacetate yielded with phenylhydrazone the
typical osazone of glucose.

v=

oP Mba
Py ery or Bar
“ar ane”

el Rath. Ff

THE PLANTS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND.

By H. A. LONGMAN.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913.)

MvucuH prominence has been given of late years to the
study of island floras, perhaps the most noted instance
being that of Krakatau* In 1883, the entire vegetable
life there was blotted out of existence by lava streams,
the result of a volcanic eruption so gigantic that the sound
of it travelled 3,000 miles and was heard here in Queens-
land. Yet to-day this island is so thickly clothed with
vegetation that in places it is almost impenetrable, and
an object lesson has been given of the manner in which
organisms re-establish themselves on island homes. The
interest taken in ‘the flora of Krakatau is an incentive
to Australian botanists to note the growth of vegetable
organisms on those islets of our Great Barrier Reef which
are known to be of comparatively recent origin.

The respective theories of elevation and depression,
formulated by Murray and Darwin, to account for the
growth of coral islands, and somewhat strenuously advocated
by adherents of each school, are now found to be both correct.
Whilst certain coral atolls are due to depression, others
are indubitably formed by elevating influences. The
whole of the Barrier Reef region is, of course, the result
of subsidence, but varying factors have contributed to-

*New Flora of Krakatau, A. Ernst; English trans. A. C. Seward,
Cam. Univ. Press, 1908.

Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the nuts of Oocos
nucifera, Linn., the cocoanut palm, ever germinate naturally when cast
upon a beach, and in the majority of cases they evidently fail so to do.
But in the Flora of Krakatau definite evidence is given that a large number
of these valuable palms have established themselves on that island by
natural methods.

18 PLANTS OF MAST-HEAI) ISLAND.

wards the formation of its many islands. Mr. Charles
Hedley*, to whom we are indebted for considerable inform-
ation respecting Mast-Head Island, considers that it was
formed by the action of tides in the shallow waters. Drifts
of sand apparently develop, and through the interaction
of lime and water a core of rock is formed. Depositions
of matters are constantly added to its bulk, until we have
an island centre, and a lagoon, suitable for the growth
around of a wonderful world of coral organisms. The
island sand is soon enriched by the excretz of birds and
it forms a ‘fit soil for the development of a wealth of
vegetable life. The great Greeks who worshipped art
conceived their goddess of love and beauty as rising from
the pure waters of ocean. And is not much of the glamour
and fascination experienced by visitors to one of these
coral islands on the Barrier Reef due to the fact that these
little paradises are sea-born—the work of the waves and
of ocean organisms 4

Mast-Head Island is situated just outside the Tropic
of Capricorn, 31 miles from the mainland near Port Curtis,
and is but 160 acres inextent.+ The outstanding feature
of its botany is the luxuriance attained, although com-
paratively few forms participate. Apparently the
potentialities of the environment, so far as Phanerogams
are concerned, are utilised to almost the same extent as
though treble the number of forms were competing for
sustenance. We have here a striking illustration of the
advantages to an individual species of an island habitat
where the struggle for existence is less keen than on the
mainland. Of the first plants established, a very large
proportion of offspring must have survived. We may
expect in such insular floras opportunities for the develop-
ment of variations which the curtailing influences of Natural
Selection might stamp out in less congenial habitats. The
position is somewhat analogous to some of Luther Bur-
bank’s experiments, where, in order to get all possible varia-
tions, the fullest scope is given to every seed of the selected
plant. Both in botany and zoology we find island varieties
of mainland species. A surprising number of specimens

*Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, Vol. XXXI., part 3
Commonwealth Year Book, 1912, p. 60.

BY H. A, LONGMAN. 19

from island habitats appear in records with ne specific
name attached or are noted as varieties. This 1s par-
ticularly true of the Challenger Volume by Hemsley, on
Insular Floras. In certain species a change in environ-
ment tends to increase variability, and this is surely true
of many plant immigrants on islands.

The study of insular floras reveals successive stages in
plant colonisation. My list from Mast-Head, numbers only
twenty-six species, two of which are but carpological and
represent unestablished forms. There may be, of course,
additional annual plants, not found during our visit.*
We may anticipate that a census taken some years hence
will show an increase, even though some species fail to
survive. The majority of the plants found are naturally
conspecific with those on the adjacent coastal districts.
With these the most interesting point is not a mere
enumeration of names, but an inquiry as to the method
of colonisation. Primary importance should be given
to ocean currents. I was fortunate in securing a pod of
Castanospermum australe, A. Cunn., the Moreton Bay
Chestnut, which had been washed high on the beach, and
which in the ordinary course of things might have taken
root and flourished. Our veteran botanist, Mr. F. M.
Bailey+, has noted a fruit of Parinarium lauri:num, a Rosace-
ous tree found in Fiji and the Samoan Islands, which was
secured in a similar position on the island in 1907. In
this connection it is interesting to remember the experi-
ments of Darwin, Guppy, Ch. Martins and others, demon-
strating that long immersion in sea water fails to rob many
seeds of their vitality. Casuarine and Pandani flourish
on coral sand debris, and are usually among the first comers
brought by ocean currents. Associated with them is the
common seashore grass, T'huarea sarmentosa, which has
valuable binding properties in loose sand. Mast-Head
is circled by a gray-green belt of Casuarina equisetifolia.
The small cones of these trees sink in the water when green,
but when somewhat dry they float and retain their vitality
for several days. Other plants in my list, the seeds of which
probably reached the island by ocean currents are Sophora

*Qid. Univ. Biol. Students’ Trip, Sept., 1912.
TQlid. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76.

20 PLANTS OF MAST: HEAD ISLAND.

tomentosa, Abutilon muticum, Sesuvium portulacastrum,
Tribulus cistoides, Tournefortia argentia, Ipomea Pes-
caprae, I. Turpethum, Boerhaavia repanda, Euphorbia atoto.

As an interesting sidelight on the growth of know-
ledge on this point, it is worth while noting an article by
Charles Moore on the flora of Lord Howe Island, read before
the Royal Society of N.S.W., and published in their Trans-
actions of the year 1871, in which he frankly expresses
his disbelief in the agency of ocean currents except in the
case of such fruits as the cocoa-nut.

Several species are stated to have the advantage
of two methods of transport. The seeds of Cassytha are
found in the crops of carpophagous birds and are also
said to be conveyed by ocean currents. The same applies
to the seeds of many grasses.

Some seeds are unquestionably transported in eartli
adhering to the roots of trees, sent adrift by storm or flood,
and which find a resting place on the beaches of islands.
The amount of timber seen in the drift zone at Mast-Head
was remarkable. The island is celebrated for its multi-
tudes of birds, and by their agency some of its plants must
have been introduced. Birds are usually credited with
the transport of the inland portion of an island flora. In
dealing with so small an island, the term inland flora,
in contradistinction to the drift zone and the strand area,
seems a little incongruous, and except that at Mast-Head
the Pisonia trees were found in the centre, and Casuarinas
on the shores, no rigid demarcation should be made. Among
the fruits eaten and dispersed by birds may be mentioned,
in addition to Cassytha and the grasses, Ficus (two species)

_and Solanum nigrum, but for want of fuller knowledge on
this subject, I do not care to add to the list. Banfield*
has compared Pisonia Brunoniana to the fabled Upas tree
because the viscid substance coating its seeds is comparable
to birdlime and it ensnares and occasionally causes the
death of small birds. So many insects perish in the gummy
envelopes that Banfield asks whether it may not be to the
advantage of these seeds to have animal matter present
to assist them in germinating. J. A. Leachtf refers to the

** Confessions of a Beachcomber,” p. 207.
7° An Australian Bird Book,” p. 36.

BY H. A, LONGMAN. 21

** wonderful partnership’ between the noddies and this
tree, adding, *“‘ The birds are sometimes so loaded and clogged
with these fruits that they are incapable of flight.”

The seeds of some of the smaller plants are often con-
veyed in mud attached to birds, and in this connection
we have Darwin’s classic illustration of 82 seeds germinating
from a ball of hard earth found on the leg of a partridge.
The well-known Plumbago zeylanica, which is firmly estab
lished at Mast-Head, has a glandular calyx surrounding
the fruit and which falls off with the ripening seeds. This
sticky calyx is doubtless responsible for the transfer of
seeds, for this widely-spread species is found in most of
our scrubs.

It is with disidence that one mentions the possibility
of wind dispersal in regard to the plants in my list. Of
the two Composites found on the island, the Wedelia has
no pappus, but the seeds of Gnaphaliwm luteo-album, a
very common weed, may well have been blown from the

Fy |
mainland.

As Mast-Head has been visited at various times by
camping parties, it is by no means unlikely that man himself
has unintentionally been responsible for the conveyance
of some species.

Only one parasitical plant was found, that being
Cassytha filiformis. Species of Loranthus are very com-
monly found on Casuarinas, but they have as yet failed
to establish themselves at Mast-Head.

No fungi, lichen or mosses were noted ; perhaps the
season and the time of the year were partly responsible, but
no careful search was made for such small forms as usually
escape ordinary notice.

A large number of Mast-Head plants represent very
widely-spread species, and among them are some of the
most successful colonists of the vegetable world. Touwrne-
fortia argertea was collected by Darwin at the Keeling
or Cocos Islands, 600 miles from the nearest land. Taking
the areas of Continental Asia, Polynesia, Australia, Africa
and America, as tabulated by Hemsley, we find that seven
of our plants have the full range : Tribulus cistoides, Suphora
tomentosa, Sesuvium vportulacastrum, Boerhaavia repanda,
Achyranthes aspera, Cassytha filiformis and Casuarina

og. PLANIS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND.

equisetifolia. Several of the other species are also widely
dispersed, and it is thus evident that this island has been
reached by some of the most ubiquitous of plants.

One of my specimens, Stenotaphrum subulatum, an
ally of the Buffalo grass, is a new record for Australia. It
is a common grass in New Guinea and Fiji, and will doubt-
less before long establish itself on our mainland. A variety
allied to this species was secured from the south-eastern
Moluccas during the Challenger expedition and may prove
to be intermediate between subulatum and americanum.

Leaving on one side the fruit of Castanospermum
australe, we have only three Mast-Head species which
should be classed as truly endemic to Australia. These are
Euphorbia eremophila, Ficus opposita and Pandanus pedun-
culatus.

As several Pandani are mentioned from islands in the
Pacific but with no specific name attached, the range of
this last species may need to be enlarged. According
to Bentham our Abutilon muticum agrees with specimens
from tropical Asia, generally referred to A. asiaticum*

My thanks are due to Mr. F. M. Bailey and his assist-
ant, Mr. C. T. White, for help with one or two difficult
specimens. I should also like to take this opportunity of
expressing my obligations to Mr. J. H. Maiden for his ever-
ready assistance to botanical workers.

Order CRUCIFERZ.
Senebiera integrifolia, D.C., var. scaber, Bail.t
(R.A.O.U., Excur. 1910. Not seen in 1912.)
Order MALVACEZ.
Abutilon muticum, G. Don.
Order ZYGOPHYLLEA.
Tribulus cistoides, Linn.
Order LEGUMINOSA.
Sophora tomentosa, Linn.
Castanospermum australe. A. Cunn. (Fruit only.)
Order ROSACEA.
Parinarium laurinum, A. Gray (Fruit only.)t

*Benth. Fl. Austr., i, 204.
+Qld. Agric. Journ., Nov., 1910, p, 234.
tfyld. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76.

BY H. A. LONGMAN. 2a

Order FicorpE2.
Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn.
Order ComMposiIT&.
Gnaphalium luteo-album, Linn.
Wedelia (not seen by writer; noted by ornitho-
logists ; probably W. biflora, D.C.).
Order PLUMBAGINE®.
Plumbago zeylanica, Linn.
Order BoRAGINE®.
Tournefortia argentea, Linn.
Order CONVOLVULACES.
_LIpomea Pes-caprae, Roth.
Ipomea Turpethum, R. Br.
Order SOLANACE.
Solanum nigrum, Linn.
Order NYcTAGINE®.
Boerhaavia repanda, Willd.
Pisonia Brunoniana, Endl.
Order AMARANTACES.
Achyranthes aspera, Linn.
Order LAURINE.
Cassytha filiformis, Linn.
Order URTICACES.
Ficus opposita, Miq.
Ficus, sp.
Order EUPHORBIACEZ.
Euphorbia atoto, Forst.
Euphorbia eremophila, A. Cunn.
Order CASUARINE.
Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst.
Order PANDANACES.
Pandanus pedunculatus, R. Br.
Order GRAMINEZ.
Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers.
Stenotaphrum subulatum, Trin.

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UNDERGROUND WATERS.

(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND
QUEENSLAND.)

By THOMAS PARKER, F.G:S.

——_—

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May 27th, 1912.

RESEARCHES IN GREAT BRITAIN.

A @QREAT impetus to the study of underground waters
—that is, water subterranean, sub-artesian, and artesian
-—was given by the researches in Great Britain of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. A
Research Committee was appointed in 1874, and their
work was spread over a number of years. At the com-
mencement of that committee’s investigations a list of
questions was sent out to voluntary observers in different
parts of the country. These questions had relation to the
wells in their localities, the depths, and yields of water,
the variations of the water levels in the wells in dry and
wet seasons, and other important points. At an early
stage of this inquiry the decision was arrived at that the
source of underground waters was the rainfall by percola-
tion from the surface.

NortTErs on SoutH AUSTRALIA.

About this time I was engaged in making engineering
‘surveys in connection with water conservation and irriga-
tion in various localities in South Austrajia. During this
work I met some striking instances of the great amount
of percolation of the rainfall below the surface of the country,
In the Willochra Valley, during the great drought of 1885-6,
the ground in many parts was covered with large cracks
and fissures, extending down into the subsoil for a con-
siderable depth. From this I concluded that, during the

26 UNDERGROUND WATERS.

season of heavy rainfall which followed, a very great pro-.
portion of the rainfall would disappear underground. Here
is another instance of excessive percolation. In the bed
of the Wakefield River, during a dry season, I noticed a
large number of wide cracks in the river bed, into which
during the next flood the water poured, and arrested the
river channel flow for some time. This shows what large
quantities of the rainfall percolates and goes underground.
These observations of great percolation confirmed my
opinion, largely held by others, that underneath the beds
of most rivers and streams there is a subterranean stream
following a direction and gradient similar to that of the
river at the surface.

URGING THE COLLECTION OF DATA.

In South Australia I found that, with the exception
of rainfall records, there were at that time little data upon
which to base conclusions as to the feasibility of works
of water conservation and irrigation. In order to arrive
at a thorough knowledge of the underground waters I
urged on the Government the great need of systematic
gauging of the water flowing in the rivers, and showed
that this work, and the measurement of evaporation and
absorption, were quite as important as the survey of the
lands and the mineral-bearing areas of the country. Soon
after this the work of gauging the rivers of South Australia
was initiated. 1 made similar recommendations in Queens-
land about five years ago, and I am pleased to hear that
river gaugings have since been begun in this State.

UNSCIENTIFIC SEARCH FOR UNDERGROUND
WATER.

The search in South Australia for suitable sites for
bores and wells at the dates referred to had not been always
conducted under the guidance of recognised scientific
principles. Artesian. water had been found in some
localities, and a speculative use of the boring rod was
frequently made. The tendency was to take the most
hopeful view of the prospect in connection with many
of these earlier ventures in search of water. The professor

of the divining rod was then, and even up to the present is,
too much in evidence.

BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. ! 27

e

I may here relate an interesting test I had the oppor-
tunity of making of the work of a divining-rod practitioner.
One of these had applied to the South Australian Govern-
ment to be appointed as water finder. The matter was
referred to me for inquiry and report. I proceeded with
the diviner and a number of interested visitors to the Plain
of Adelaide. After a locality was selected for the test
the operator moved about with the rod held in his hands
in the usual way. At the bending down of the forked
twig at certain spots 1 had pegs driven to mark the places.
I next proposed to sink bore holes at these spots marked
by the pegs, having with me some men and boring appliances.

Before beginning the borings I asked the practitioner
of the rod what was his opinion about the points which
the rod had passed over without turning down. Did he
consider water could be found under these places? After
having this question put to him more than once, the operator
at length declined to answer. Several of the visitors from
other States agreed with me that it was a fair inquiry
to make. The only reply obtainable was: He considered
it was only a catch question.

I then had borings made, both at the points marked
by the pegs and at two other points where the rod passed
over without turning down. The result-was that, the ground
being soft and the boring easy, water was soon reached,
being found at a shallow depth. The borings went on,
and water was reached at a similar depth at all the places,
as water prevailed under the locality generally.

The conclusion I arrived at was that the turning
down of a divining rod, by whatever force it may be pro-
duced, is not a reliable guide to the presence of water
under the surface at the spot where the rod turns down.

UNDERGROUND WATER EXPLORATIONS SCIENTIFICALLY
GUIDED.

A very important question may be asked here. What
progress has been made in Australia towards a scientific
method of exploring for underground water supplies, artesian
or otherwise, previous to sinking or boring? As far as I
have ascertained neither America nor Australia can report
much progress towards a solution of the problem. In a

Cy UNDERGROUND WATERS.

D

\

recent official report in the United States it is stated ‘‘ Much
blind optimism prevails on this subject.’’ This is also
true, to a large extent, of Queensland, with the exception
of some able work done by the Geological Department.
Measuring evaporation and gauging the run-off in the
rivers have been left undone until recently. I began this
work in South Australia 25 years ago. Such data are
necessary to solve the problems of the source of the
artesian wells, and the permanency or otherwise of their
flow.
A METHOD oF EXPLORATION.

I would again emphasise the importance’ of the
question: what is the best scientific method of explora-
tion for underground waters ? As a contribution to the
answer to this I shall now describe some work I undertook
some years ago in that direction. I had to examine the
Willochra Valley, in South Australia, where a water supply
was required for railway purposes. I was instructed to
make an engineering survey, and report on the proposed
construction of a large dam on the Willochra Creek to
conserve water in the valley. I found the locality, after
examination and survey, not at all suited for that kind of
scheme, and considered a work of that nature probably
would prove an abortive one.

Before preparing my report, I decided to examine
the neighbouring Coonatto and Flinders Ranges. To enable
me to decide on the probability of discovering an under- —
ground supply of water there, 1 took levels of the mountain
slope with the aneroid barometer, measured the depth
of some wells, in the foot hills, yielding good potable water.
From these and other data obtained in the locality I pre-
pared a hydro-geological sketch section across the valley.
In this section I indicated the underground water surface
or line of saturation. This was obtained by joining the
points, indicating the water level in the wells. Then,
inferentially, I indicated the probable course of the under-
ground water, by producing this line of saturation down
to the bottom of the valley, intersecting the line of railway
at the township of Bruce. I then reported on the
probability of underground water being found near the

BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 29

railway at the depth indicated in my sketch section. On
a bore being sunk there, good water was found at about
the depth indicated in my section. I adopted the system
whilst in South Australia up to 1889, a step in advance
of the old haphazard method.

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UNDERGROUND WATERS

(In SourH AUSTRALIA AND QUEENSLAND.)

By THOMAS PARKER, F.G.8.

Read before the Royal Society of Queensland Auqust 26th,
1913.

FurRTHER NOTES ON SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

ANOTHER stream of underground water, which I ex-
amined during my water explorations in South Australia, was
from acatchment on Mount Lofty. This stream, though not
artesian, was of interest as showing the grade of the under-
ground flowing water. Coming from the range behind
Adelaide, it passed thence under that city, towards the
sea, and at increasing depths along the line of its flow.
The depth at Glen Osmond, on the foot-hills, was 40ft.
from the surface ; at Adelaide, 70ft.; at Kilkenny, nearer
the sea, 118ft.; and under Port Adelaide probably at a
greater depth, as a bore made at the port down to 100ft.
from the surface did not reach the underground water.
It is most probable that this underground water passes
under the sea bottom of the Gulf of Saint Vincent, and
finds an outlet further seaward.

A WATER-LOGGED VALLEY IN QUEENSLAND.

One of my first studies of the underground waters
of Queensland was the large subterranean storage of water
on the western side of Rockhampton. This extends to
Warren, on the Queensland Central Railway, a distance of
18 miles. The water is found at a depth from the surface
of about 22ft. As the rise of the surface between the two
places just named is 150ft., the slope of the surface of this
underground water will be about 8.3f{t. per mile, and the
water must be a flowing stream. Some years ago I made
an examination of this body of water by means of bores,

32 UNDERGROUND WATERS.

trial shafts, and surface surveys, and found the storage
an extensive one, and the water in the drift sand had been
tested in one locality to a depth of about 50ft. of water
and find sand. I afterwards had an opportunity of deter-
mining the source of the supply as coming from the moun-
tains near Stanwell, Mount Morgan, and Lion Mountain.
Near Stanwell a large number of creeks unite, and the
combined waters percolate under the sandy bed of Neerkol
Creek. In the lower part of the valley of this creek, right
on to Rockhampton, the water flow is mostly underground.
The stream appears to pass under the flats west of Rock-
hampton, and the railway at Yeppen, and probably finds
its way into the Pacific Ocean.

THe ARTESIAN WELLS OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND.

The advancing surveys and delimitation of the great
Australian basin enable us now to form some conception
of the paramount interest which Queensland has in the
artesian water question of Australia. The total area of
this basin is about 481,000 square miles, of which near
three-fourths is in Queensland, and the remainder in New
South Wales and South Australia. Since the discovery
of the existence of this immense basin some hundreds of
artesian wells have been sunk, and the daily flow was given
recently as 529 million gallons ; this, however, is probably
only a fractional part of the water percolating on the
catchment, going down to maintain the flow of the under-
ground streams, so that the artesian wells are not likely
to diminish in yield for want of water to maintain their
supply. The prominent features of these wells are the
great diversity of chemical contents of the waters, the
varieties of rocks bored through, and the temperature of
the waters at the surface. At Longreach, for instance,
where I designed and carried out works for laying on the
bore water to the town, the water is of high temperature,
also is so high in saline contents as to render it unsuitable
as a potable water. Still, it is found most pleasant for
bathing, of great use for domestic purposes, for fire ex-
tinction, andfor manufacturing purposes. The beds passed
through by the. boring were mostly shales down to the
water-bearing beds.

BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30

OUTLETS TO THE CCEAN.

Another condition of these artesian waters’ is that
they find an outlet to the sea at points greatly distant
from the locality of their intake. Mr. A. Gibb, Maitland,
formerly of the Geological Department of Queensland,
some years ago reported on the leakage of Queensland
artesian waters into the sea. He said that, as is the case
in Queensland, nearly all the important artesian water
basins cf the world leak into the sea, or present facilities
for the escape of water at a lower level than that at which
it isreceived. My researches in South Australia and Central
Queensland also lead me to the same conclusion that the
ocean is largely the ultimate destination of underground
waters. Keasoning then, as I think one may, from the
analogies of artesian basins in other countries, it appears
a safe inference that the underground waters of Western
Queensland are not a motionless reservoir of water, but a
moving stieam; a stream passing onward through the
porous 1ocks and the fissures and openings of the several
rock formations in which the water is found.

Is CLOSING OF ARTESIAN WELLS DIMINISHING THEIR FLOW 2

It is well-known that the flow of artesian wells in
Queensland and New South Wales has diminished during
recent years. The most common cause of reduced flows,
according to some American experience, is improper casing,
and these have existed from the beginning of the well.
In other cases the failure of flow is ascribed to poor jointing
or packing. In other instances a friable rock has been
fractured by the boring tools, and this part of the bore
has been subjected to caving.

From these and similar causes the leaks around the
casing or into adjoining porous beds may easily cause a
diminution cf the flow, or lead to the total loss of the flow
of the well.

Some remarkable evidence on this question has been
given by Mr. R. S. Symmonds, of New South Wales, which
goes to prove that closing down artesian bores. is ‘an
injurious practice. Mr. Symmonds describes 19 bores
in which the closing of the valve at the surface was followed
by a rush of water outside the bore, causing permanently

34. UNDERGROUND WATERS.

decreased flow. After explaining in detail the injuries
to the bores through closing the valves, he remarks, ‘“ It
is quite possible, indeed very probable, that this (closing
down the valves) is the true reason why many of the flows
are diminishing.”’

In the case of the Longreach town bore, Central
Queensland, I found on examining it, before beginning
the reticulation works of the town from the artesian bore,
the water was flowing almost as much outside the bore
easing as within it. Evidently some injury had been done
previously to this bore, probably through a shock from
water ram. The depth to the water-bearing bed is about
2400ft. ; the pressure of the water at the surface was about
75lbs. to 9Olbs. per square inch. The shock from water
ram which oceurs when a bore is valved down, would be
a heavy one, and most probably sufficient to burst the
casing, and cause a diminution of the flow inside the bore
casing, and also make the water leak away underground.
It is well known that if a valve in a line of system or water
pipes be suddenly closed while the water is flowing freely
under pressure, such sudden closing of the valve will pro-
duce a strain upon the pipes far greater that that due to
the static head of water. I have known cases where town
water pipes were burst by the closing of the street valve,
and water ram caused by such closing. The bursts occurred
so frequently that the matter was investigated by me,
and it was found the bursts of pipes were caused by closing
a hydrant valve from time to time, and the pipes were also
found weak through corrosion. In the case of an artesian
bore well, the bursting of the casing pipe, from water ram
and corrosion of the pipe, would show by water coming
up outside the casing, or the water would find an escape
underground into some porous beds of rock, or some open-
ings in the shale, or some permeable rock through which
the bore has passed.

WastTE CAUSED BY RESTRICTION OF FLOW.

From inquiries I have made respecting some of the
artesian bores of Queensland I consider the facts and
conditions point strongly in the direction of the conclusion
that the diminished flow of artesian wells is mostly caused
by the closing down of the valves, and thereby bursting

BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30

weak or corroded casing pipes. I know one district in
Western Queensland where galvanised wrought iron pipes
have been so corroded by the surface soil contents that
the pipes have become worthless by corrosion within two
years. Where the casing pipes of artesian wells have
suffered by corrosion the shock of closing down the valve
at the surface will easily cause the rupture of the casing,
and bring about the diminished flow of the wells already
described. It would appear, then, that the practice of
valving down adopted to prevent waste of artesian water is
more likely to have a contrary effect, and rather cause a
diminished flow at the surface, and bring about a real
waste of the water underground. It may here be asked,
What is a waste of the water of a flowing artesian well ?
Evidently the opinion in some quarters hitherto has been
this, that by allowing the unrestricted flow of the bores
to the surface much of the water is wasted. Hence the
decision to restrict the flow. But I think if the facts and
arguments I have presented were taken into account, and
fuller inquiry made, it would be found that this unrestricted
flow of existing bores is not a waste of the water, although
at the first glance it may appear so; also that valving
down existing bores does not conserve the underground
supply. It should be remembered that the closing down of
a bore and stopping the flow, even if it could be done without
a water ram shock and consequent damage to the bore,
does not necessarily conserve the water. All the time the
bore is closed the opening at the ocean end of the under-
ground stream is there. The water into which the bore
has originally pierced is not a closed reservoir, but a flow-
ing stream, though moving slowly, hence no water is being
actually conserved whilst the bore is closed at the surface,
for the stream below is passing the locality of the bore all
the time. The water, as before, is flowing down the incline
between two watertight strata, which form a kind of water
pipe, but one, however, which is open at the lower end.
When it is considered what a very large amount of money
has been expended on artesian wells in this State, and that
the maintenance of that water supply in the arid western
areas is of vital public importance, the question of the di-
minishing flow of the well should be thoroughly investigated.

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Royal Society of Queensland.

mo

fe -INDEX

|
|
| ~ VOLUMES | to XXV_

INCLUSIVE.

HON. -EDITOR.

Bri shine;

COMPILED BY
A. B. WALKOM, B.Sc.,

: BR. Poum & Co,, Printers, Hlizabeth Street.
bea : hte 1914.
A eee llama == i - : 2 4 /
Pig fect Me aie g ee ee :
eS et foe tet tn ee -

Peters
2s

THE
Royal Society of Queensland.

INDEX

TO PAPERS IN

VOLUMES I to XXV_

INCLUSIVE.

COMPILED BY

A. B. WALKOM, BSc.,
HON. EDITOR.

Brisbane,
3. Pour & Co., Printers, Elizabeth Street.

1914.

DATES OF PUBLICATION OF VOLUMES.

pies cee
Vou. I. Parts 1, 2, 3. 1884. Part 4. 1886.
I. Part 1. 1885. Part 2. 1886.
iil 1887
IV 1888
¥; Parte 1, 2, 3, 4. 1888. Part 5. 1889.
Vi Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 1889.
Vil. 1891.
VIIl. Parts 1, 2. 1891. Parts 3, 4. 1892.
1X. 1893.
b & 1894.
Ai; Part 1. 1895... Part 2. 1896.
XI. 1897.
XIU. 1898.
XIV. 1899.
RY; 1900.
XVI. 1901.

bo

EV ti. Part 1. 1902. Part 1903.

XVIII. 1904.

XIX. Part 1. 1905. Paet 2. 1906
xX. 1907.
XXI. 1908.
XXII. Part 1. 1909. Part 2. 1910.
XXIII. Part 1. 1911. Part 2. 1912.

XXIV. 1913"
KY. 1914.

Nore.—Some volumes were published in parts, others complete. In the following
index the Roman numeral represents the number of the volume, the
figure in brackets the number of the part, and the final number the
page; eg., I (1) 1 means Vol. I., part 1, page 1, and X 40 means.
Vol. X., page 40.

INDEX.

A number of papers of which the title only, or an abstract of two or three
lines, has been printed are marked with an asterisk.

A.A.A.S. Report of delegates to, VIII
(4) 122, *X 40.

Aboriginal Customs in N. Queensland.
XT 33.

drill.

Description of an, XIII
87.

languages of E. Australia com-
pared. XII 11.

s. Notes on the, of Stradbroke
and Moreton Islands. VIII (2) 40.
Social and Individual nomen-
clature of the N.W. Central Queens-
land, XIII 39.

Aborigines. Food of the. of Central
Australia. I[ (3) 104.
On an undescribed class _ of

rock-drawings of, in Q. I (2) 45.
*Stone cooking holes of the
Australian, XV 3.

Acacia delibrata. On the discovery of
saponin in, IV 10.
— melaleucoides, Bail.
of, V (3). 121.
Notes on, V (4) I48.
S. Occurrence of
Australian, and Albizzias.
Acarus. On an, associated
diseased condition in the
IV 106.
Address, Inaugural, I (1) 3.
* Ailanthus imberbiflera, var macartneyt.
Constituents of the resin of, XI (2)

Description

saponin in
XIT 103.
with a
banana.

42.

Albatross Bay and the Embley and Hey
Rivers. XII 42.

Albizzias. Occurrence of saponin in

Australian acacias and,
Aneitia graffet and its allies. V (5) 162.
Angophoras. Gums of Eucalypts and,
VIII (2) 37. :
Anopheles pictus. Notes on a malaria-
carrying mosquito (,) XVI 45.

Anthills. Note on the meridional, of the
Cape York Peninsula. NII 99.
Anthracite in a fissure lode. XXIII (2)

131.

XIT 1053. ,

Anthropological notes of 50 years ago.
XXII (1) 107. ‘

Ants. Judicial entomology and- on an
unrecorded habit of white, 1V 119.

Notes on Queensland, I. Harvest-
ing ants. II (2) 146. ;

———— On a sense of hearing in, I (2) 79:

Arauearia. Notes on the resins of two-
Queensland species of, VII (1) 1.

bidwilli. On the resin of, Xf

(1) F2:
Armit W E. Notes on the philology of
the islands adjacent to the SE.

extremity of New Guinea. II (1) 2.
The Papuans : comparative notes on
various authors, with original
observations. II (2) 78.
Artesian Basins. The geological structure:
of extra-Australian, XII 17
Wells and Water. II (2) 208.
water by the
Hwang-Ho Rivers.
AAT: 25.

*

as illustrated
and Yane-tse

Stratigraphical notes on
the Georgina Basin with special refer-
ence to the question of, XI (2) 70.

The submarine leakage
of, XII 59.
A post-Pliocene, III 42.
VIII (4) 114.
Atherinidz#. Notes on some Australian,
XXIV 47. .
Australia. The building of, X XI 57.
The building of E., XXIII
(2) 149. | :
*__ ns. The supposed
the, XI (2) 46.
their life-history and effects.

Artiodactyle.
Asbestos.

descent of

* Bacteria :
& 34.

* Bacteriological knowledge as applied to:
the human race. X 34.

Baiera bidens. XII 74. wi

Bailey F. M. A contribution towards a
flora of Mt. Perry. I (2) 61, Botanic
notes. XI (1) 14, Concise . history
of Australian Botany... VEIT (2)

| INDEX.

Bailey VF. M.—Continued.

xvi, Contributions to Queensland
Flora I (1) 9, I (2) 84, I (3) 148,
Contributions to the New Guinea
Flora. XVIII 1, Description of a
new Eucalypt. X 17, Description
of Acacia melaleucoides, Bail. V (3)
121, Description of the Queensland
form ot Nipa fruticans. V. (4) 146,
Sxhibit of a bunya nodule. X 53,
*Exhibit of new and _ interesting
plants. X 37, Fasciation in
Bouvardia triphylla, Salisb. ITT 153,
Fasciation in Sicyos angulata, Linn.
T (2) 102, Excursion to Eumundi.
X 51, Notes on Acacia melaleucoides.
V (4) 148, *Notes on fresh Queens-
land plants. X 101, Notes on some
plant specimens collected by Dr. T.
Baneroft on the Diamantina. VIII.
(4) 128, Notes on the vegetation of
New Guinea. XIV 14, Obituary
notice of Dr. Chas. Prentice. X 50,
Speeimens of Blackall Range plants.
VIII (4) 136.

‘Bailey J. F. The introduction of econ-
omic plants into Queensland. XXII
(2) 77.

Ball L. C. Anthracite in a fissure lode.
XXIIE (2) 131.

Bancroft J. An inquiry into the maize
disease of the Caboolture District.
Ill 108, An unusual agency in the
destruction of marine mollusca.
IV 26, Experiments with Indian
wheats in Queensland. I (4) 176,
Food of the aborigines of Central
Australia. I (3) 104, Obituary
notice of N 102, Presidential
address (1885) [1 (2) 67.

aS ap. Distillation ‘of ‘native
essential oils from a commercial
aspect. VII (1) 6, On a method by
which a pure water-supply. could be
obtained for Brisbane. XV 83,
On a weak point in the life-history of
Neoceratodus forstert, Krefft.
MXIT (2) 251, On an easy and
certain method of hatching Cera-
todus ova. XXV 1, On Echino-
coceus ina wallaby. VII (1) 31. On
Filarie of birds. VI (1) 58. On
Hematomonas of rat’s blood. V (1)
31, On the discovery of saponin in
Acacia delibrata. IV 10. On the
physiological action of Cyrtocarya
australis. IV 12, On the physio-
logical action of Daphnandra
yepandula. ¥V 13, On the poisonous
property of Nicotiana suaveolens.

Bancroft 'T. L.—Continued.

IV 9, Preliminary notes on some new
poisonous plants. VIII (2) 35,
Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 665,
Strychnine, a useless remedy in
snakebite. VIII (2) 29.

Barramundi. Description of a new
species of true, Osteoglossum jardinii
from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105,

Bartley N. Gold occurrence in Queens-
land. LV 124, The first discovery of
gold in Queensland. IV 114.

Basalt. Contemporaneous, im
Gympie Formation. XII 95.

Bees. Notes on, and wax-scales. XIV 1.

Bennett E. J.
IV 129.

F. Botany of Irvinebank and

its neighbourhood. XIX (1) 65,

Permo-Carboniferous fossils from

Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47,

Probable outcrop of the Blythes-

dale Braystone south of its supposed

the

Observations on cataract.

boundary. XIII 23.
Dr. George. Obituary notice of,
i ee ff

Berge J. S. See Ringrose R. C. ete.

Bernays L. A. Description of exotic
fruits new to Queensland. I (3) 136,
Gruinea grass (Panicum maximum) ;
its history. cultivation and value.
VIII (2) 51, Notes on the palm,
Caryota wrens. LIT 33, On the palm,
Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. IL (2) 210,
Presidential Address. Lit » Ee.
Sechium edule (Chayote). Its intro-
duction into Queensland—cultiva-
tion and uses. VII (1) 41, The
economic aspects of entomology.
Tr. (2): 43:

Birch C. W. de B. Sesbania, a native
fibre-producer. I (2) 101.

Birds. Additions to the list of fossil,
VI (1) 55.

Description of new, from Herberz-

VI (5) 242.

On Filariew of, VI (1) 58.

On the migration of, at Cape

York Peninsula. I (2) 93. .

The, of Charleville. III 23.

The, of the Chinchilla district.

IE (2) 117.

of Central Queensland. V (1) 14.

*Blackman F.A. The effect of advanced
bacteriological knowledge as applied
to the human race. X 34.

Blake E. C. See Shirley J. and Blake.

ton.

INDEX.

Blythesdale Braystone. Probable out-

crop of, south .of its supposed
boundary. XIII 25.
Bora ring. A, in the Albert Valley.

XXII (1) 103.

AE CD dA.

* Botanical excursion to Burleigh Heads
and the Macpherson Range. X 02.

Botanic notes.

_- work. A review of recent. in
Australia. IX 12.

Botany. Concise history of Australian,
VIII (2) xvi.

of Irvinebank and its neigh-

bourhood. XIX (1) 65.

Bouvardia triphylla, Salish. Fasciation
in, IIT 153.

Braula ceca, a bee parasite. ITV 17.

*Brigalow. The chemistry of,
XI (2) 56.

Broadbent K. Birds of Central Queens-
land. V (1) 14, On the migration of
birds at Cape York Peninsula.
I (2) 93. The Birds of Charleville.
II 23, The birds of the Chinchilla
District. If (2) 117.

Broun N. W. *Further notes on crater
lakes at Ban Ban. XI (2) 88, On
the discovery of two crater lakes
and other evidences of volcanic
activity near Ban Ban. X 44.

Brownlee J. H. See Ringrose R. C. etc.

Briinnich J. C. Graphical and mechan-
ical aids to calculation. XXI 33,
The land we live on. XXII (1) 37.

V (4) 148, VI (1) 76,

gum.

Bryological notes.
VI (2 & 3) 104.
Building stones of St. John’s Cathedral,
Brisbane. XXIII (2) 199.
Exhibit of a, nodule.
XI (2) 45.

X 53.

Bunya.

— bunya nuts.

Burbung of the Wiradthuri tribes.
XVI 35.

Burdekin Valley.
the, XXIV 95.

Butterflies. List of, of the
District. XIII 89.

New species of Queensland, VI
(2 & 3) 117.

Byram W. J. Recent aspect
Theory. XVI (1): v.

Notes on portion of

Brisbane

of the Cell
The begin-

nings of Life. XV 5.
Caffein-yielding plants. XI (2) 82.
*Callophyllum inophyllum. Resins of,

XII 10.

Cameron J. Presidential Address.

<0 (1) a.

i

5
Canarium mulleri, (Bail.). On the oleo-
resin of, VILT (3) 95.

Cancer On the prevalence of, in Aus”
tralasia. X 65 & 89.
Caryota urens. Notes on the palm,

lit 33:
Cassowary. On the Australian,
varius australis) X 59.

( Cas-

Casuartus australis. On the Australian

Cassowary, X 59.

lV

Cave-drawings. On aboriginal, on the:
Palmer goldfield. XI (2) 91.

Cataract. Observations on, 129.

Caves. Description of some, near Cam-
ooweal. XY 87.

Cell Theory. Recent aspect of the,
RVI (1) v.

Ceratodus. On an easy and certain
method of hatching, ova. XXV lI.

Oo

Report on preservation of, XII
101.
forstert. X AO.

post- Pliocene.

1 (1) 40.

On the occur-
Til 141.

Noto-

Chanos salmoneus, Forsk.
rence of, in Moreton Bay.
The lesser, of the
Ke OLS.
The discovery of chicken, in
XI (2) 77.
Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. The sassafras
trees of Queensland and _ the
chemistry of, XI (1) 20.
Clarke A. W. Reply to Lindon’s note.

Chelonians.
therium drifts.
Cholera.

Queensland.

IV 112, The Mineral Scolecite
occurring in granite, Charters
Towers. IV 109. The occurrence:

of triclinic felspars in the granite of
Charters Towers. IV 131.
Climate. The influence of the, of Queens-
land on its inhabitants of Kuropean
origin and their descendants. XI
(2) xxiii.
s of the geological. past.. XXII

(2) 59.
*Coalfields. On the oldest worked, of.
China. XIII 38.

Cobalt ore. On the mineral resources of
Kilkivan, Wide Bay, and. on the
recent discovery of, in that district..
III 129.

Cognac. Distilling, from sugar and. grape-
juice. XI (2) 57.

Colledge W. R. Notes on a_ brush-
tongued mosquito. XXIII (1) 121,.
Notes on a malaria-carrying mos-
quito ( Anopheles pictus).. XVI 46,

f
‘Colledge W. R.—Continued.

Notes on a species of sandfly. XVII
(1) 17, Notes on an apparently new
species of hyaline Daphnia, XX 58,
Notes on Brisbane pond-life. XXII
(1) 35, Notes on the rotifers or
wheel animalcule of Brisbane.
XXIII (1) 87, Notes on the Scots
Gray Mosquito (Culex mucidus
alternans, Westwood) XVIII 67.
Observations on the life-history of
the common mosquito, XV 111.

V (5) 161.
Colocasia imacrorrhiza. On the curative
properties of the cunjevoi, I] (2) 211.

Collurinel: sibila sp. nov.

Colour sight and colour — blindness.
XVIII 29.
Cones. Notes on poisonous, X 38.

*Conglomerate. The, rocks of Wild R.
XI (2) 56.

CConnah F. E. Chillagoe garnet rocks:
XXII (1) 31, Estimation of Zine in

copper ores by Potassium ferro-
cyanide. XXIT (2) 65.

‘Cosside. Australian woodboring, XVII
(2) 161.

‘Coxen Mrs. C. Meteorological Notes.

V (5) 158 VI (2 & 3) 122, VIII (2)
56, Notes on floods in the Brisbane
R. X 32, Notes on poisonous Cones.
X 38, Notes on the Cypree. X 35,
Obituary notice on Dr. G. Bennett.

X 37, Rainfall at Bulimba. XJ (2)
LOS, CET LY SBS 55,

Temperature of the capital of each

colony in Austraha during 1898.
XIV 54.
‘Crater near Herberton. XXIV 57.

*Crater lakes. Further note on, at Ban
Ban. XI (2) 88.
On the discovery of two,

and other evidences of volcanic

activity near Barn Ban. X 44:
‘Crocodiles. Australian, XVIIL 201.
‘Crookshank E. M. Science and _ the

State, with special reference to

Tuberculosis and the public health.
XVII (2) 25. .
Culex mucidus alternans, Westwood.

Notes on the Scots Gray mosquito,
XVIII 67.

‘Cunjevoi. On the curative properties of
the, (Colocasia macrorrhiza) IT (2)
211.

‘Cyclone. On the Bowen, of 30th Janu-
ary, 1884. I (1) 30.

‘Cypree. Notes on the, X 35.

|

INDEX.

Cyrtocarya australis. On the physio-
logical action of, IV 12.

Danes J. V. Physiography of some
limestone areas in Queensland.
XXIII (1) 75.

Daphnandra repandula. On the physio-
logical action of, [V 13.

Daphnia. Notes on an apparently new
species of hyaline, XX 53.

Davis H. L. Description of an antique
plaque. XIII 29.

Deglutition in the freshwater snake.
I (2) 82.

Dendrobium cincinnatum, sp. noy. I (3)
113.

Dendrolagus. Notice of a probable new

species of, IIT 11.

De Vis C. W. A conspect of the genus
Heteropus. 1 (4) 166, A further
account of Prionodura newtoniana.
VI (5) 245, A possible source of

Isinglass. | (2) 58, A post-Plocene
Artiodactyle. Ill 42, A whale

(Ziphius layardi, Flower) recently
stranded near Southport. I(4) 174,
Additions to the list of fossil birds.
VI (1) 55, Australian ancestry of
the crowned pigeon of New Guinea.
V (4) 127, Ceratodus forsteri, post-
Pliocene. I (1) 40, Collurinela
stbila, sp. nov. V (5) 161, Degluti-

tion in the freshwater snake. I (2)
82, Description of a species of
Eleotris from Rockhampton. II (1)

32, Description of new birds from
Herberton. VI (5) 242, Nest of
Philemon corniculatus, Lath. I (2)
58. Notes on the fauna of the Gulf
of Carpentaria. I (3) 154, Notice of
a fish, apparently undescribed. I
(2) 144. Notice of a probable new
species of Dendrolagus. II 11, On
a bone of an extinct eagle. VI (4)
161, On a femur, probably of
Thylacoleo. 11 122, On a fossil
Saurian. II (2) 181, On a lizard
and three species of Salarias. II (1)
56, On a naked-eyed scink, appar-
ently new. V (5) 160, On a new
form of the genus Therapon. I (2)
56, On a new species of Hoploce-
phalus. 1 (2) 100, On a new species
of Hyla. I (3) 128, On a third
species of the Australian tree
kangaroo. IV 132, On an anomalous
snake. I (2) 58, On an extinct genus
of mammal. V (5) 158, On an
extinct mammal of a genus appar-
ently new. IV 99, On an extinct
monotreme (Ornithorhynchus agilis)

INDEX. 7:

De Vis C. W.—Continued.

II (1) 35, On apparently new’ species
. Of; ,Halmaturus. I (3) 107, On
bones and teeth of a large extinct
lizard. TEL (1) 25, On Diprotodon
ménor, Hux. V. (2) 38, On Megalania
and its allies. VI (2 & 3) 93, On
new Australian lizards. I (2) 53,
On new fish from Moreton Bay.
I (3) -144, On new Queensland
Lizards. I (2} 77, On new species
-of Australian lizards. I (2) 97,
On the genera Nototherium and
Zygomaturus. V (3) 111, On the
mandible of Zygomaturus. XI (1) 95,
On the Phalangistida of the Post-
Tertiary, period in Queensland.
VI (2 & 3) 105, Perameles bougain-
vilht, Q. & G.I (2) 101, The lesser
Chelonians of the Nototherium
drifts. X 123, The Moa (Dinornis)
in Australia. I (1) 23, The ribbon

fish. VIET (4) 109.
Dinornis. The Moa (,) in Australia.

Eh) 23:
Diprotodon minor, Hux. V (2) 38.
Disease garden. A, XIX (2) 73.

s. Inseets and, X XI 99.

*______ Prevention of infectious, X Il.
= The serum treatment of infec-

tuous, XI (1) Ll.

Dodd F. P. Reptile that takes in ballast
XXIV 103

Dodgson F. H. Some abandoned gold-
fields of the old World. XI (2) 59.

BDomin K. Queensland plant associa-
tions. XXIII (1) 57.

Duffield A. J. Notes on the inhabitants
of New Ireland and its Archipelago.
I (3) ENS.

Eagle. On a bone of an extinct, VI (4)
161.

Echinococcus in a wallaby. VII (1) 31.

MEX (2) iv.

Description of a species of,

11 (1) 32.

the, of the

( Ostrea

Education in Queensland.

Hleotris.
from Rockhampton.
Embryology. Notes on

Australian rock Oyster
glomerata), VII (1) 33.

Entomologica. Miscellanea, XV 133.

Entomology. Judicial, and on an
unrecorded habit of white ants.
Ly 119.

The economic aspects of, IL (1)
13.

‘of a teatree swamp. XV 1

Entozoa. A census of Australian Rep-
tilian, X XIII (2) 233.

Notes on some, XXIV 63.
Eremophila maculata. On the cyano-
genetic glucoside of, XXV_ 15
*Eucalypti. Drought
perties of. X 13.
Eucalypt. Description of a new, X 17.

resisting _pro-

s. Gums of, and Angophoras. VITI
(2) 37.

Exploration in W.A. XVI 9.
*Explosives. Notes on some modern,
XVI 7.
The detection of mercury in,
EMT 51.

Falconer J. Artesian wells and water.
II (2) 208, Queensland gold deposits.
I (3) 131, Water Supply: Springs
and their origin. J (1) 28.

Fasciation in Bouvardia triphylla, Salish.

IIL 153.

Fauna. Notes on the, of the Gulf of
Carpentaria. I (3) 154.

Felspars. The occurrence of triclinic,

in the granite of Charters Towers.
FV. 131.

Field Naturalists’ Section. Excursions
VI (1) 64, to Ashgrove. VI(2 & 3)

123, to Brookfield. VI (1) 65, to
Caboolture. V (4) 137, to Eumundi.
X 51, to Peechey’s Scrub. V (4)
144, IV 135, to Pimpama, VI (5)
252, to Sunnybank. VI (5) 255, to
Upper Ithaca Creek. VI (2 & 3)
125, togWoolston. V (5) 175.
Report of, V (2) 70.
Filariw of birds. VI (1) 58.
Filter. An efficient automatic
X XJ 45.

The domestic water, XI (2) 49
Notice of a, apparently un-
described. It (2) 144.

On. acclimatisation in Queens-
land. III 139.

On new, from Moreton Bay. I
(3) 144.

The ribbon, VIII (4) L109.
acclimatisation in Queensland.

sand,

Fish

XIT 108.
poison. A, of the aborigines.
XI (2) 88.
Fishes. New genera and species of,
7. He. ep

New Genera and species of,

Queensland, X XI 87.

8 INDEX.

Fishes. On new or insufficiently de-
scribed, XXIYIM (1) 1.

On some new, from the Queens-
jand coast. XXIII (1) 85.

Some new pediculate, XX 17.

Symbranchiate and Apodal, new
to Australia. XX 1.

Floods. Notes on, in the Brisbane R.
a 2,

Flora. A contribution towards a, of
Mt. Perry. +1 (2) 61,11 (1) 41.

* - Additions to the fossil, of
Queensland XIII 38.

Contributions to the New

Guinea, XVIII 1.

— Queensland, I (1) 9 [ (2) 84, I
(3) 148.

* — on Moreton, I. X 17.

Flying fox. The,; its habits and
depredations. XII 49.

Forests. On the decadence of Aus-
tralian, III 15.

Fossils. Permo-Carboniterous, from

Banana (Abstract) XI (2) 47.

Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane. XIII 51.

Fox H.W. On indelible writing inks.
111 149.

Frog. A new tree, from Brisbane. XX
ol.

Frost.

On the possibility of preventing
damage by, XVIT (2) 101.

Fruits. Description of exotic, new to
Queensland. I (3) 136.

Fryar W. Remarks on the temperature
of the earth as exhibited in mines,
with special reference to some
Gympie mines. VII (1) 12, On the
mineral resources of Kilkivan, Wide
Bay. and on the recent discovery
of cobalt ore in that district. IT
129.

Garnet rocks. Chillagoe, XXII (1) 31.

Gastropoda. The geographical distribu-
tion of Queensland, X XV 5.

Gems. Queensland, XX 61.

Geological Survey. The establishment
of a, in Queensland. II (2) 198.

Geology and mineral deposits of the
country around Herberton, Watson-
ville and Chillagoe. XIV viii.

Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI 27.

Gold. Observations on the occurrence
of, at Mt. Morgan, near Rockhamp-
ton. I (3) 141.

Queensland, deposits.

1 (3) 131.

Gold. The first discovery of, in Queens--
land IV 114.

occurrence in Queasnsland.

124.

fields. On some abandoned,

the Old World. XI (2) 59.

Goldie J. The people of New Georgia.
XXIT (1) 23.

Grape vines. The native, of America
and Australia. WITT (3) 101.
Graphical and mechanical aids to cal-

culation. XXI 33. :
Gregory A.C. Inaugural address. . 1 (1)>

3, Observations on the occurrence:

of gold at Mt. Morgan, near Rock-

1y"

of-

hampton. I (3) 141.

Guinea grass. (Panicum maximum) ; its.
history, cultivation and value.
VIII (2) 51.

*Gum. The chemistry of brigalow:-

XI (2) 56.
*___s, Chemistry of some undescribed,.
XI (2) 62.
of eucalypts and Angophoras-
VIII (2) 37.

Gympie Formation. Contemporaneous.
basalt in the, XII 95.

Hematomonas. On, of rat's blood. V
(si.
Hall E. and Stokes H. G. Ashestos..

VIII (4) 114.
Halmaturus. On apparently new species.
of I (3) 107.

Hann F. Exploration in W.A. XVI 9.
Harrison L. See Johnston T. H. and
Harrison L.

Hawkins Mrs. From Sydney _ to-
Bathurst in 1822. XVIIT 95.
Health. Summer heat and, (Abstract).

I (4) 173.

Hedley C. A list of landshells recorded
from Queensland. V_ (2) 48,
Anatomical notes on the Helicide.
VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249, Anetha
graffer and its allies. V (5) 162,.
Description of a new slug, with
notes on other terrestrial mollusca.
V (4) 150, Note on Mr. Tryon’s

errata. V (5) 179, Notes on
Queensland landshells. VI (2 & 3):
100, Notes on the Heélicide. VI

(2 & 3) 120, Uses of Queensland
plants. V (1) 10.

Helicidz. Anatomical notes on the,.
VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249; Notes on,.
VI (2 & 3) 120.

INDEX.. %

Henderson, J. B. Domestic water supply
in Brisbane with special reference
to the presence of Zinc. XVII (2)
131. Education in Queensland.
XIX (2) iv, The detection of Mercury
in explosives. XXI 51. See also
Meston and Henderson.

Hepatics. On the mosses and, of the
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3)
116.

Hepialide.
XVI 65.

Hemalus (2) virescens (VD bld). The larval
structure of, XV 89

Hesperidw. Descriptions of some new
species of Australian, VI (4) 146.

Australasian © woodboring,

Heteropus. A conspect of the genus,
I (4) 166.
Hirschfeld,, EK. Inspection of meat.

XI (2) 62, Obituary notice of Dr.
J. Bancroft. X 102, On the prev-
alence of Cancer in Australasia.
X 65, X 89, *Prevention of infec-
tious diseases. X 11, Preventive
measures against the spread _ of
Tuberculosis. XVI 1, *The serum
treatment of infectious diseases.
XI (4) 11.

Holocephalus. Descriptions of new
snakes with a synopsis of the genus.

I (3) 138.

Hoplocephalus. On a new species of,
I (2) 100.
Horses. Psoriasis in, VIII (3) 65.

Hybridisation.
I (4) 161.
Practical, (Abstract).

A plea for the, of plants.

11 (2) 141.

Hyla. On a new species of, I (3) 128.

Ichthyology. Studies in the, of Queens-
land. XVIII 7.

Illidge R. Entomology of a teatree

swamp. XV 1, List of butterflies
ot the Brisbane District. XIII 89,
Life history etc. of timber moths.
XIV 21, Miscellanea entomologica,
XY 133, Notes on Lepidoptera from
the vicinity of Brisbane, whose
larvie feed on Loranthus. XX 33.
and Quail A. Australasian wood-
boring Hepialide. XVI 65.
Australian woodboring
Cosside. XVII (2) 161.
T. On Ceratodus forstert. X 40.
Immunity : natural and acquired. XVII
(2) 128.
Inks. On indelible writing, [11 149.
Insects. Colouration’ of, XI (2) 66.

|

XXI- 99.
International Catalogue. A reply to
some critical notes on the Queens-

Insects and diseases.

land volume of the, of scientific
literature. XV 75.
Tsinglass. A possible source of, I (2) 53.

Jabiru. Nest and eggs of the, II] 139-

R. L. Note on the discovery of
organic remains in the Cairns Range-
XII 47. Note on the meridional
anthills of the Cape York peninsula.
XII 99, On a new Queensland
locality for Zygomaturus, Macleay.
X 120, On aborignial cave-drawings
on the Palmer goldfield X1{ (2) 91,
Presidential Address XI (1) vii,
Stratigraphical notes on _ the
Georgina Basin, with special refer-
ence to the question of artesian
water. XI (2) 70, The submarine
leakage of Artesian water. XII 59.

Jaggard W. N. JMesoplodon layardi.
I (2) 58.

Jardine expedition from Rockhampton
to. York. -X AIL (1) 1

Jensen H. I. Origin and occurrence of
phosphate rock and the possibility
of finding phosphate deposits in
Australia. X XII (2) 69, The building
of E. Australia. XXIII (2) 149,
The climates of the geological past.
XXII (2) 59.

Jobnston T. H. A census of Australian
reptilian entozoa. XXIII (2) 233,
Notes on some entozoa. XXIV 63,
On the occurrence of worm-nodules
in cattle. XXIII (2) 207.

and Harrison IL.
Queensland Mallophaga. XXIV 1,
A list of Mallophaga. XXIV _ 16,
A note on Australian Pediculicds.
XXIV 105.

Jones P. W.
XXI 49.

Kangaroo. On a third species of Aus-
tralian tree, 1V 132.

Jack

A census of

A new test for mercury

Keys J. A contribution to the flora
of Mt. Perry. II (1) 41.
T. BP. Description of some

caves near Camooweal. XV 87.
Kissack A. H. The Savo megapode.
I (4) 18].
Knight C. A description of new species
of Parmelia from Victoria. I (5) 114,

Lagoon. Description of a typical Queens-
land, (Enoggera Reservoir) XIX (2)
105.

10

INDEX.

*Lakes. Further notes on crater, at | Leichhardt Dr. Ludwig. Unpublished

Ban Ban. XI (2) 88. lecture by, X 46.
On thé discover or Hae beer: Lepidoptera. Descriptions of Queens-
and other evidences of volcanic land, XIIT 59. |
activity near Ban Ban. X 44. New species of Australian
macro-, VITT (3) 57.

Lauterer J. Anatomical and chemical New species of Queensland
researches on the parasitic phanero- XV 137 Shia lt) : j
gams of Queensland. XI (2) 75, ;

A new method of assaying tannates. (Rhopalocera). Note on some

XI (2) 43, Bunya bunya nuts. XI
(2) 45, Caffein-yielding plants. XI
(2) 82, Chemical affinities between
Rutacez and Umbellifere. XII 72,

*Chemistry of some undescribed
gums. XI (2) 62, *Comparative

grammar and vocabulary of the
Yogum and Yaggara languages.
XI (2) 102, *Constituents of the
resin of Ailanthus imberbiflora vay.
macartneyt. XI (2) 42, Distilling
cognac from sugar and grape-juice.

eae wr A ran sy & * Drought-resisting
properties of Eucalypti. X 13,
*Exhibits of plants possessing or

credited with medicinal properties.
X 36, Gums of eucalypts and Ango-
phoras. VIII (2) 37, *Native
astringent medicines and tanning
materials of Queensland. XI (2)
46, Native medicinal plants from
Queensland. X 97, Naturalised and
acclimatised plants in various parts
of the world.. XVIII 55, New
investigations on Rickets and
Macrozamia. SIV 5, New native
medicinal plants of Queensland.
XII 92, *Notes on a new worm
discovered in Moreton Bay oysters.
XIIL 25, Occurrence of saponin in
Australian acacias and albizzias.
XIE 103, On leprosy in the north
of Europe, and its contagious
character. X 14, On Queensland
scorpions. X 19, *On Queensland
wines. X 44, *On some new species
of Queensland spiders. X 34, On
the resin of Araucaria bidwilli. XI
(1) 12, *Resins of Callophyllum
inophyllum. XII 10, Snake-poison
v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32, The
aboriginal languages of E. Australia
compared. XII 11, *The chemistry
of Brigalow gum. XI (2) 56, *The
poisonous principle of Wacrozamia
spiralis, X1(2) 90, The sassafras tree
of Queensland and the chemistry
otf Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. XI
(1) 20, *The supposed descent of
the Australians. XI (2) 46, *Unpub-
hshed songs and corroborrees. XI

(1) 13.

undescribed Australian, VI (5) 263.

Notes on, from the vicinity of
Brisbane whose larve feed on
Loranthus. XX 33.

On 34 new species of Australian,

VIII (3) 68.

Queensland, XVI 73.

Studies in Australian (Pyralidz)
XXIV III.

Leprosy. Ethnography of, in the Far
East. XIII 1.

On, in the north of Europe, and

its contagious character. X 14.
Lichen. Additions to the, flora of
Queensland. V (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI

(2 & 3) 115.

Note on a remarkable, growth
in connection with a new species of
Sticta. VII (1) 8.

Supplement to the, flora of
Queensland. XXIV 23.

The, flora of Queensland, with
descriptions of species. V (3) 78,
VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, VI (5) 165.
Notes on, in N.S.W. V1(2 &

Lichens.
3) 85.
On some Victorian, X 54.

from Warwick and neighbour-
hood. VIII (4) 132.
XVI vii.
The beginnings of, XV 5.

Lindon E. B. A catalogue of such
minerals as are at present known in
*Q. with their principal associations
and places of occurrence. IV 32,
Note on A. W. Clarke’s paper on
Scolecite. IV 111, On native zinc
in Queensland. III 154, On the
occurrence of Topaz in association
with tin. JII 155.

Lizard. On a, and three species of
Salarias etc. II (1) 56.

On bones and teeth of a large
extinct, II (1) 25.
s. On new Australian, I (2) 53.

On new Queensland, I (2) 77.

Life, chiefly bacterial.

INDEX.

Lizard. On new species of Australian,
T (2) 97.

Locust. A, plague on the Lower Her-
bert. I (2) 59.
Longman H. A. The plants of Masthead
ae? XOEV “Tk
Love W. W. R. Immunity, natural and

acquired. XVII (2) 123.
Lucas T. P. A _ few scientific notes

taken during the present drought.
XVII (2) 97. The colouration of
insects. XI (2) 66, Descriptions of
Queensland Lepidoptera. XII 59,
New species of Queensland butter-
flies. VI (2 & 3) 117. New species
of Queensland Lepidoptera. XV
137, On 34 new species of Aus-
tralian Lepidoptera. VIII (3) 68,
Queensland Lepidoptera. XVI 73,
*Scrubs and the part they play in
the mitigation of tropical floods.
XIV 2, Six new species of Rhopal-
ocera. VI (4) 155, The flying fox :
its habits and depredations. XII 49.
MacGregor 8. Observations on extinct
volcanoes in Victoria. X 47.

Mackie R. C. Anthropological notes otf
“~ 930 years ago. XXIII (1) 107.

Macrozamia. New investigation on
Rickets and, XIV 5.
- spiralis. The poisonous prin-

ciple of, X1'(2) 90.

Maiden J. H. Notes on the resins of two
Queensland species of Araucaria.
VII (1) 1. On the oleo-resin of
Canarium mullert Bail. VIIL (3) 95.

Maitland A. G. The geological structure
of extra-Australian artesian basins.
MILE.

Maize disease. An inquiry into the, of
the Caboolture District. III 108.

Malaria. Mosquitoes and, XV 7l.

Mallophaga.
XXIV 1.

A list of, XXIV 16.

A census of Queensland,

Mammal. On an extinct genus of, V
(5) 158.
On an extinct, of a genus

apparently new. [V 99.

Marks E. 0. Notes on portion of the
Burdekin Valley. XXIV 93, Notes
on the geological age of volcanic
activity in S.E. Queensland. XXIII
(2) 139.

Martin S. G. The principal causes of

mortality. in Queensland. XVII
(4) lL.

|

li

Mathews R. H. Aboriginal customs in
N. Queensland. XIII 33, Burbung
of the Wiradthuri tribes. XVI 35,
Rock-carving by the Australian
aborigines. XII 97, *Stone eceoking-
holes of the Australian aborigines.

XV 23.
*McCall T. Notes on some modern
explosives. XVI 7.

McCulloch A. R. Notes on some Aus-
tralianJAtherinidie. XXIV 47.
*Meat. The inspection of home and

export, supply. XVI 44.
Inspection of, XI (2) 62.
* Medicines. Native astringent, and
tanning materials of Q. XI (2) 46
Megalania. On. VI (2
& 3) 93.
The Savo, I (4) LSI.
Mental development in animals.

and its allies.

Megapode.
XX 41.
A new test for, X XI 49.

The detection of, in explosives.
XXI 51.

Mesoplodon layardi. 1 (2) 58.

Meston A. On the Australian Cassowary
(Casuarius australis). X 59.

Mercury.

©. and Henderson J. B. The
freezing point of milk. NXIV 165.
Meteorological notes. V (5) 158, VI

(2 & 3) 122, VIII (2) 56.
Micro-organisms from the Brisbane air.
XII 77.
Migration of birds. On the, at Cape
York Peninsula. I (2) 93.
Milk. The freezing point of, XXIV 165.
Mineral. On the occurrence of a green,

in the schists of Adelaide St. Bris-
bane.<s’ me Bl.

Resources. On the, of Kil-
kivan, Wide Bay and on the recent

discovery of cobalt ore in that
district. III 129.
Minerals. Catalogue of, known in
Queensland etc. IV 32.
List of, Walsh and _ Tineroo
Districts, N.Q. XV 47.

Miskin W. H. A revision of Australian
Sphingide. VIII (1) 1, Descrip-
tions of some new species of Aus-
tralian Hesperide. VI (4) 146,
Further notes on Australian
Sphingide. VIII (3) 60, New
species of Australian macro-Lepidop-

tera. VIIL (3) 57, Note on some
undescribed Australian Lepidoptera

12
Miskin W. H.—Continawed.

(Rhopalocera) VI (5) 265, Papilio
parmatus, G. R. Gray, at Mackay.
IV 17, Revision of Australian
species of T'ertas, with deseriptions
of some new species. VI (5) 256.

Moa. The, (Dinornis) in Avwstralia,
L(t) 2:
Mollusea. Additions to the marie, of

Queensland. XXIII (1) 93. XXTV
OD.

An

destruction

a - unusual agency in the
of marine,’ IV 26.
Description of a new slug, with
notes on other terrestrial, V (4) 150.
Monctreme. On an_ extinet, (Oxn-
thorhynchus agilis). Il (1) 35.
Mortality. The principal causes
in Queensland. XVII (1) 1.

Mosquito. .Notes on a_ brush-toneued,.
|

MATT) Vo.

of,

Notes on a_malaria-carrying,.

( Anopheles pictus). XVI 45.
——— Notes on the Scots Gray,
(Culex mucidus alternans. West-

wood), XVIII 67.

- Observations on the life-history
of the common, XV 111.

XV 71}.

es and malaria.

Mosses. On the, and Hepaties of the
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. VY (3)
116.

Moths. Life-history ete. of timber,

XIV 21.
Mud eruptions. Hot springs and, on
the Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19-

Mueller F. von. Dendrobium cincinnatum,
sp. nov. I (3) 113, Description of
a new tiliaceous tree from N.E.
Australia. IT (2) 141.

Natural History collection. Preliminary
observations on a, VI (5) 219.
Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft. On a

weak point in the life-history of,
XXII (2) 251.
New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71.

New Georgia. The people of, XXII (1)
23.

New Guinea. Notes on a trip to, Il 2.

New Ireland. Notes on the inhabitants
of, and its archipelago. I (3) 115.

Nicotiana suaveolens. On the poisonous
principle of, [V 9.

Nipa fruticans. Description of
Queensland form of, V (4) 146.

the

= SS

INDEX.

Norton A. *A trip to the Darling» R.
N.S.W. in 185% X 101, Mentab
development in animals. XX 41,
New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71,
Notes on a living tree stump. ITI 38,.
Notes on travel, Brisbane to Port
Curtis by land in 1861. XTX (2) 91,
Notes on travel, 1859-60. XVIITS81,.
On the decadence of the Australian ,
forests. III 15, *Parthenogenesis.
and bisexual characteristics. XIII
32, Presidential Address. IV 94,
VIII (2) x, Settling in Queensland,
and the reason for doing 30, XVII
(2) 147, The Jardine expedition from:
Rockhampton to C. York, 1864.
XXII (1) 1, Tuberculosis. X 105.

Nototherium. On the genera,
Zygomaturus. Vo (3) Wd.
O'Connor D. acclimatisation in
Queensland. XII 108, On ‘fish
acclimatisation in Queensland. UT
139, The oceurrence of Chanos
salmoneus, Forsk, in Moreton B..
IIT 141, Report on preservation of
Ceratodus. XII 101.

Ovilby J. D. A new type of tree-frog
from Brisbane. XX. 31,. Australian
crocodiles. XVIII 201,. Catalogue:
of the Kmydosaurian and _ testu-
dinian reptiles of New Guinea. XIX
(1) 1, New genera and species of
Queensland fishes. XXI 87, New
genera and species of fishes. XXI 1,
Ona new Terapon, from Stanthorpe
District. XX 37, On new or
insufficiently described fishes.
XXIII (1) 1, On some fishes from
the Queensland coast. X XIII (1) 85,
Some new pediculate fishes. XX 17,.
Studies in the Ichthyology of
Queensland. X. VIII 7,.symbranchiate,
and apodal fishes new to Australia.

b. 9. SB

and

Fish

Oils. Distillation of native essential,
from a commercial aspect. VIL
(1) 6.

Olsson-Seffer P. On the possibility of
preventing damage by frost. XVII
(2) 101.

Organic remains. Note on the occurrence
of, in the Cairns Range. XII 47.

Ornithorhynchus agilis. On an extinct.
monotreme, I1 (1) 35.

Osteoglossum jardinii.. Description of a
new species of true barramundi,
from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105.

Ostrea glomerata.. Notes on the embryo-

logy of the Australian rock oyster,
VII (1) 33.

INDEX.

Palm. Notes on _ the,
‘HET 33.

On the, Raphia (Sagus) ruffia.
WT (2) 210.

Palmer E. Hot springs and mud erup-
tions on the Lower Flinders R.
i (1) 19, Notes on a great visitation
of rats in the N. and N.W. plain

_ country of Queensland in 1869 and

1870. II (2) 193, Notes on bovine
pleuro-pneumonia. IV 20.

Caryoia wrens.

Parcun maximum. Guinea grass (,)5
its histery, cultivation and value.
VIUIT (2) 51.

Papillo parmatus.
Mackay. IV 17.

Papuans. The,: comparative notes on

, various ‘authors, with omrginal
observations. II (2) 78.

Parasitic scourge. A, of warm climates.
XI (2) 99.

Parasite. Braula ceca, a bee, IV 17.

Parker T. Underground waters. XXV
25 & 31.

Parmelia. A description of new species
of, from Victoria. I (3) 114.

*Parthenogenesis and bisexual charac-

G. R. Gray, at

teristics. XIII 32.

‘Pediculids. A note on Australian,
XXIV 105.

Perameles bougainwillii, Q. & G. I (2)
101.

Perspatus. On, and its occurrence in
Australia. IV 78.

Perishable articles of food. On. the
preservation of, by refrigeration.
III 49.

Permo-Carboniferous fossils from

Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47.
_ Pettigrew W. On the curative properties

of the cunjevoi (Colocasia macro-
rrhiza). It (2) 211.

Phalangistide. On the, of the post-

' Tertiary period in Queensland.
VI (2 & 3) 105.

Phanerogams.
researches
Queensland.

Anatomical and chemical
on the parasitic, of
XI (2). 75.
Philemon corniculatas, Lath.
F (2) 58.
Philips G. On the comparative

necessity for the drainage of dray-
roads and railroads. VIII (4) 137.

P ayo Notes on the, of the islands
. to the S. E. extremity of New Guinea.
II (1) 2.

Nest of,

PPonmiecd

13
Phesphate rock. Origin and oceur-
rences of, and the possibility of
finding phosphate deposits in
Australia. XXII (2) 69.
Photomicrography and photo-micro-
metry. XVI 61.

Physiography of some limestone areas
in Queensland. XXIII (1) 75.
Pigeon. Australian ancestry of the

crowned, of New Guinea. V (4) 127.

Pink J. A plea for the hybridisation of
plants. I (4) 161. Practical hybrid-
ization. I] (2) 141.

Plant. Queensland, associations.
(1) 57.
*_____«. Exhibit of new and interesting,

mad

XXIIt

*

SIL ALM.

Introduction of economic,
Queensland. XXII (2) 77.
Native medicinal, from Queens-
land. X 97.
Naturalised
in various
XVIII 55.
New native medicinal, of Queens-
land. XII 92.
* Notes
X 101.

Plants. Preliminary note on some new
poisonous, VIII (2) 35.

Insectivorous.

into

and acclimatised,
parts of the world.

fresh

on Queensland.

Specimens of Blackall Range,
VIII (4) 136.

Uses of some Queensland. V (1)

10.

of Masthead J. XXV 17.

possessing or credited
medicinal properties. X 36.
Notes on some, col-
T. Bancroft on the
VIIT (4) 128.

Plaque. —_ Description
XIII 29.
Pleuro- pneumonia.

in Queensland.
Pond-life.
(1) 35.
Potts J. W.

Guinea.

with

Plant specimens.
lected by Dr.
Diamantina.

of an antique,
Notes on bovine,
IV 20.
Notes on Brisbane, XXII
Notes on a trip to New
Hit 2.

Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane.
XIII 51, Notes on the cattle tick.
XIV 28, On Trypanosoma and
their existence in the blocd of
Brisbane rats. XIX (1) 33, The
discovery of chicken cholera in

4 INDEX.

Pound C..J.—Continued. - | Rhopalocera. Six new species of, VE
Queensland. XI (2) 77, The Stock-~; (4) 155. _ i
Owners’ indebtedness to the micro- | Richards H. C. The building stones of
scope. XIII vi, Tuberculin; its St. John’s Cathedral, © Brisbane.
history, preparation and use. XIV XXIII (2) 199. wes
39 Rickets. New investigation on, and

Prentice Dr Chas. Obituary notice of, Macrozamia. XIV 5. f
X 50. _ Ringrose R. C. Crater near .Herberton.

Prionodura newtoniana. A further XXIV 57. Notes on the congiom-

account of, VI (5) 245.
*Proteacex. Peculiarities of the flowers
of the order, XIII 32.

Protoplasm. The nature and origin of
living matter. (,) XV 27.
Pseudomorphism in minerals. [I (1)

Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 65.

Pterophyllum. Two new species of, XII

89.

Pyralidze. A preliminary revision of the
Thyridide and, XVIII 109, XIX
(1) 39, XIX (2) 89.

Quail A. See Illidge and Quail.
The larval structure —_ oof
Hepialus (2) virescens (Dbid.) XV 89.
Quinnell W. C. *The inspection of
home and export meat supply.
XVI 44.

Radford H. W. Summer heat and
health. (Abstract). I (4) 175.
Rainfall. The, at Brisbane and its

periodicity. IT (2) 176.

at Bulimba. XI (2) 103, XII U11,
XIII 88, XIV 55.

Rands W. H. Contemporaneous basalt
in the Gympie Formation. XII 95.

Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. On the palm.
I (2) 210.

Rats. Notes on a great visitation of,
in the N.W. plain country of Queens-
land in 1869 and 1870. II (2) 195.

Reptile that takes in ballast. XXIV
103.

s. Catalogue of the Emydosaurian
and testudinian, of New (Guinea.
XIX (1) 1.

*Resin. Constituents of the, of AWdanthus
imberbiflora, var. macartneyi. XI
(2) 42.

On the,

x1 iy

On the

of Araucaria bidwilli.

oleo-, of Canarium
mullert (Bail). VILL (3) 95.

—s. Notes on the, of two Sere
land species of Araucaria. VII (1) 1.

erates and sandstone series of the
Wild R. Valley and of the head-
waters of the Walsh R. XII 54,
*The conglomerate rocks of ‘Wild
R. XI (2) 56, The establishment
of a Geological Survey in Queens-
land. IJ (2) 198.

Berge J. S. and Brownlee J H.
List of minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo
districts. XV 47.

Roads. On the comparative necessity
for the drainage of dray, and rail,
VIII (4) 13 oy

Rock-carving by the Australian aborig-
ines, XII 97.

Rock Drawings. On an _ undescribed
cla’s e ‘of aborigines in Queens-
land. I (2) 45.

Experiments with, XI186.

Description of an aboriginal
XIII 87, Notes on savage life

Rontgen rays
Roth W. E.
drill.

in the early days of W. A. settle-
ment. XVII (2) 45. Social and
individual nomenclature of the
N.W. Central Queensland aborigines.
XIII 39.

Rotifera. A list of Queensland, VI (1)
70. ;

On certain, found in the ponds.
of the garden of the Acclimatisation
Society, Brisbane. IV 28.

Rotifers. Notes on the, or wheel animal-
cule of Brisbane. XXIII (1) 87.

Rutacex. Chemical affinities between,
and Umbelliferze. XII 72

Salartas. On a lizard and cheaes species
of, ete. II (1) 56.

Sandfly. Notes on a species of, XVII
(1) 17.

Sankey J. R. Queensland gems. KX

Ol. -* ;

Saponin. Occurrence of, in Australian

——— of (as snophyllum. XIE 3

10.

acacias and albizzias. XII 103..

On the discovery of, in Acacia
delibrata. IV 10.

Sassafras trees of Queensland and the
chemistry of Cinnamomum oliwert,
Bail. XI (1) -20.

INDEX.

Saurian. On a fossil, {1*(2) 181.

Savage life in the early days of W.A.
settlement. XVIT (2) 45.

Saville-Kent W. Description of a new
species of true barramundi, Osteog-
lossum jardinii, from N. Queens-
land. VIII (3) 105, Notes on the
embryology of the Australian rock-
oyster (Ostrea glomerata). VII (1)
33, Preliminary observations on a
natural history collection. VI (5)

219, Presidential Address. VII (2)

17.

Science. Progress in Australia. XII
viil.

Scink. On a naked-eyed, apparently
new. V (5) 160.

Scolecite. Note on a paper on the
mineral, by A. W. Clarke. IV 111.

On the mineral, occurring in
Granite, Charters Towers. IV 109.

Reply to E. B. Lindon’s note
on Clarke’s paper on the mineral,
IV 112.

Scorpions. On Queensland, X 19.

Scortechini Rev. Benedict, Obituary
notice of, IV 2.

The, and its nature.

TI (1)

Sea-scum.
18.

Sechium edule (Chayote). Its introduc-

tion into Queensland—cultivation
and uses. VII (1) 41.
Sesbania, a native fibre-producer. I (2)

101.
Settling in Queensland and the reason
for doing so. XVII (2) 147.

On the disposal of, X 21.
Shells. Errata in list of land, recorded
from Queensland. V (4) 131.

A list of land, recorded from

Queensland. V (2) 45.

- Notes on Queensland land, VI
2 & 3) 100.

Shirley J. A bora ring in the Albert
Valley. XXIII (1) 103, A fish
poison of the aborigines. XI (2) 88,
A reply to “ Some critical notes on
the Queensland volume of the
International Catalogue of Scien-
tific literature.” XV 75, A review
of recent botanical work in Aus-
traha. IX 12, Account of Field

Sewage.

Naturalists’ Excursion to Peechey’s ©

Scrub. IV 135. *Additions to the
fossil flora of Queensland. XIII 38,
Additions to the Lichen flora of
Queensland. YV (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI
{2 & 3) 115, Additions to the marine

15

Shirley J.—Continued.

Mollusca of Queensland. XXIII (1)
93, XXTV 55, Australian vegetation
and its geological development.
XVI 39, *Bacteria: their _life-
history and effects. X 34, Field
Naturalists’ Section Excursion to
Caboolture. V (4) 137, *Flora of
Moreton I. X 17, *Insectivorous
plants. XII 111, Liechens’ from
Warwick and neighbourhood. VIII
(4) 152, Mosquitoes and malaria-
XV 71, Note on a fossil wood from
Mt. Astrolabe, New Guinea.’ XIV
3, Notes on bees and wax-scales.
XIV 1, *On a botanical excursion
to Burleigh Heads and the Mac-
pherson Range. X 32, On Baiera
bidens. XII 74, On some Victorian
lichens. X 54, Report of delegates
to A.A.A.S. ~ VIII (4).122, *X. 40,
Supplement to the Lichen flora of
Queensland. XXIV 23, The geo-
graphical distribution of Queens-

land Gastropoda. XXV 5, The
Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI

27, The Lichen flora of Queensland
with descriptions of species. V (3)
78, VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, The lichen
flora of Queensland. VI (5) 165,
The native grape-vines of America
and Australia. VIII (3) 101, Two
new species of Pterophyllum. XII
89, Vocabularies of the Gowrburra
and Koolaburra tribes. XII 1.

Shirley J and Blake E. C. *Peculiarities:
of the flowers of the order Prote-
ace. XITT 32.

Sicyos angulata. Linn.
Tt (2) 102.

Sillago bassensis.. On the common
whiting of Moreton B. (,) XVII (2).
175.

Simmonds J. H. Field Naturalists”
Section Excursions. VI (1) 64, VI
(2 & 3) 123, V (4) 144, V (6) 42,
VI (1) 95, VI (2 & 3) 125.

Skertchley 8S. b. J. *Artesian water as
illustrated by the Hwang-Ho and
Yangtse Rivers. XIII 25, Ethno-
graphy of leprosy in the Far East.

Fasciation in.

XIII 1, Geology and mineral
deposits of the country around.
Herberton, Watsonville and

Chillagoe. XIV viii, *On the oldest-
worked coalfields of China. XIIL
38, The building of Australia. XXI
57. ;
Smith F. On the cyanogenetic glucoside-
of Evemophila maculata. XXV 13.

16

Snake. Deglutition in the freshwater,
T (2) 82.

On an anomalous, I (2) 58.

bite. Strychnine, a useless remedy

in, VIII (2) 29.

poison v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32.

Snakes. Descriptions of new, with
synopsis of the genus Holocephalus.
IT (3) 138.

Spicer E. On a sense of hearing in ants.
I (2) 79.

*Spiders. On some new species of Queens-
land, X 34.

Sphingide. A revision of Australian,
VIII (1) 1.

——— Further notes
VIII (3) 60.

Springs. Hot, and mud eruptions on the
Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19.

on Australian,

r Supply : , and their origin.
T (4) 28.
Sticta. Notes on a remarkable lichen

growth in connection with a new
species of, VIT (1) 8.

Stockowners’ indebtedness to the micro-
scope. XIII vi.

Stokes H. G.
green mineral
Adelaide St. Brisbane.
see Hall E.

Stratigraphical notes on the Georgina
Basin, with special reference to the
question of Artesian water. XI (2)

70.

Strychnine—a useless remedy in snake-
bite. VIII (2) 29.

Snake-poison v., VIEL (2) 32

Sutton J. W. Experiments with
Réntgen rays. XII 86, Presidential

On the occurrence of a
in the schists of
X 1), also

Address. XV x.

Tannates. A new method of assaying,
XT (2) 43.

Taylor W. F. On the disposal of
sewage. X 21, The influence of

the chmate of Queensland on its
inhabitants of European origin and
their descendants. XI (2) Xxill,
Public abattoirs and the prevention
of tuberculosis. XV 95, The
domestic water filter. XI (2) 49,
Water supply for domestic use. XI
(2) 27.

‘Temperature of the capital of each colony
ain Australia during i898. XIV 54.

Re

INDBX.

‘femperature of the Earth. Remarks on
the, with special reference to some
mines on the Gympie goldfield.
VI (1) 12.

Terapon. On a new, from Stanthorpe
District. XX 37

Trias. Revision of Australian species
of, with descriptions of new species
VI (5) 256.

Therapon.

[ (2) 56.

Thomson J. A disease garden. XIX
(2) 73, Colour-sight and colour-blind-
ness. XVIII 29, Life, chiefly
bacterial. XVI vii, Photo-micro-
graphy and __ photo-micrometry.
XVI 61.

Thorpe J. On the Bowen cyclone of
30th January, 1884. I (1) 35.

V.G. A list of Queensland Rotif-
era. Vi (1) 70, On certain Rotifera
found in the ponds of the garden —

On a new form of the genus.

of the Acclimatisation Society,
Brisbane. IV 28

Thylacolco. On a femur, probably of,
Til 122.

Thryidide. A preliminary revision of
the Australian, and Pyralidz.

XVITT 109, XTX (1) 39, XIX (2)'89.

Tick. Notes on the cattle, XIV 2

Tiliaceous tree. Description of a new,
from N.E. Australia. II (2) 141.

Title of the Society. Correspondence
relating to the, II (2) 64.

Tolson J. On the preservation of
perishable articles of food by
refrigeration. III 49.

Topaz. On the occurrence of, in
association with tin. III 1565.
Tosh J. R. On the common whiting of
Moreton B. (Sillago bassensis)

XVII (2) 175.

Travel. Notes on, XVIII 81.

Notes on, Brisbane to Pt.
Curtis by land in 1861... XIX (2) 91.
Tree-stump. Notes ona living. III 3s.

Trigonometrical Survey of Queensland.
Short account of the measurement
of the baseline. IJ (2) 127.

Tryon H. A locust plague on the
Lower Herbert. I (2) 59, Braula
ceca, a bee parasite. IV 17,
Errata contained in list of land-
shells recorded from Queensland.

INDEX.

Tryon H.—Continued.

V (4) 131, Judicial entomology
and on an unrecorded habit of
white ants. IV 119, Notes on

Queensland ants, I. Harvesting ants
II (2) 146, Obituary notice of Rev.
Benedict Scortechini. [V 2, On an
acarus associated with «w diseased
condition in the banana. IV_ 106,
On an undescribed class of rock-
drawings of aborigines in Queens-
land. I (2) 45, On Peripatus and its

occurrence in Australia. IV _ 78,
The seascum and its nature. II (1)
18,

Trypanosoma. On, and their existence
in the blood of Brisbane rats. XIX
(1) 33.

Tuberculin: its history, preparation
and use. XIV 39.

Tuberculosis. X 103.

Preventive measures against the
spread of, XVI 1.

Public abattoirs and the pre-
vention of, XV 95.

Science and the State, with
special reference to, and the public
health. XVII (2) 25.

Tully W. A. Short account of the
measurement of the baseline in
connection with the trigonometrical
survey of Queensland. II (2) 127.

Turner A. J. A_ parasitic scourge of
warm climates. XI (2) 99, A pre-
liminary revision of the Australian
Thryidide and Pyralide. XVIH
109. XIX (1) 39, XIX (2) 89,
Insects and diseases. ML GS:

Micro-organisms from the Brisbane

air. XII 77, Remarkable reaction

of the typhoid bacillus. XIII 26,

Studies in Australian Lepidoptera

(Pyralide). XXIV 111, The nature

and origin of living matter (proto-

plasm). XV 27.

Typhoid. Remarkable reaction of the,
bacillus. XIIT 26.
Unmbelliferz. Chemical affinities

between Rutacee and, XII 72.
AAV 25 & Sl.

Albatross Bay and the
XII 42.

Australian, and its geo-
XVI 39.

Underground waters.
Urquhart F. C.
Embley and Hey Rivers.

Vegetation.
logical development.

hg

Vegetation. Notes on the, of New
Guinea. XIV 14.

Vocabularies of the Gowrburra and

ALLL

Volcanic activity. Notes on the veo-
logical age of the, in S.E. Queens-

land. XXIII (2) 139.

Koolaburra tribes.

Volcanoes. Observations on extinet, in
Victoria. X 47.

Wagenknecht B. The rainfall at Brisbane
and its periodicity. IL (2) 176.

Wallaby. Echinococcus in a, VII (1) 31.
Wallmann H. F. Pseudomorphism in
minerals. I (1) 32.

An efficient automatic
sand filter. XXI 45, Description
of a typical Queensland lagoon
(Inoggera Reservoir). XIX (2) 105.

Wasteneys H.

Water.” An unexpected source of, in
the bush. I (4) 175.

supply. Domestic, in Brisbane,
with special reference to the presence
of zinc in tank waters. XVII (2)
131.

a pure,
Brisbane.

On a method by which
could be obtained for

XV 83.

: Springs and their origin.

I (1) 28.

for domestic use.

XI (2)
27.

Watkins G. Notes on the aboriginals
of Stradbroke and Moreton Is.
VIII (2) 40, Report of Field Natur-
alists’ Section. V (2) 70.

Weston P. L. The internal combustion
engine as a factor in National Pro-

gress. XXV vi.
Whale. A, (Ziphius layardi, Flower),

recently stranded near Southport.
I (4) 174.

Wheats. Experiments with Indian, in
Queensland. I (4) 176.

White W. T. Nest and eggs of the
Jabiru. IL] 139.

Whiting. On the common, of Moreton
B. (Sillago bassensis). XVII (2) 175.

Wild C. J. Bryological notes. V_ (4)
148, VI (1) 76, VI (2 & 3) 104, On
the mosses and hepatics of the
Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3)
116,

18 INDEX.

Wilson F. R. M. Notes on a remarkable
lichen vrowth in connection with
a new species of Sticta. VII (1) 8,
Notes on lichens in N.S.W. VI
(2 & 3) 85.

* Wines.

Wood. Note on a fossil,
Astrolabe, New Guinea,

*Worm. Notes on a new, discovered in
Moreton b. oysters. XIII 25.

On Queensland. X 44.

from Mt.
XIV &

nodules. On the occurrence of,
in cattle. XMXEL (2) 207.

Zinc. Estimation of, in copper ores by
Potassium ferryocanide. XXII (2)
65. :
On native, in Queensland. III
154.

Ziphius layardi, Flower. A whale (,)
recently stranded near Southport.
I (4) 174.

Zygomalurus. On a new Queensland
locality for, Macleay. X 120.

On the Notothertum

and, V (3) LLL.

On the mandible of, XI (1) ‘5.

genera

.
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Bm ynt
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.

VM

6746