PROCEEDINGS OF 'I'HK o])al ^omtn of fixtoria VOL. XXX. (Nkvv Skiitks). PARTS I. AND II. Edited lotder the Authority of the Council. ISSUED SEPTEMBER 1917. AND MARCH 1918. (Containing Papers read before the Society during 1917). THK AUTHORS OF THR SEVKRAL PAPKRS ARK INDIVIDUALLY RE8P0N8IBLR FOR THK SOUNUNF.SS OF THK OPINIONS alVKN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THK STATKMKNTS MAUK THEREIN. MELBOUliNE: FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DBUMMOND STRKET, CARLTON. 1918. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX, RT. I. — Timber Production and (irowtli Ciu-ves in the Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus reo-nans). By E. 'I'. Patton. (Plates I. and ir.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 II. — On a Shell-bed underlying- Volcanic Tuff near Warrnambool ; with Notes on the Age of the Deposit. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., and Chas. J. Gabriel. ... ... 4 III.— The Cause of Bitter Pit. By Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D. 15 IV. — Additions to and Alterations in the Catalogue of the Marine Shells of Victoria. By J. H. Gatliff and C. J. Gabriel. (Plate III.) 21 V. — New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in tlie National Museum. (Part XXI. — Some 'J'ertiary Cetacean Eemains). By Frederick Chapman, A. L.S., &c. (Plates IV. and V.) 32 VI. — Description of a New Dividing Engine for Euling Diffraction Gratings. By H. J. Gkayson. (Plates VI.-X VII.) ... 44 VII. — Abnormal Circulation of a Frog. By Kllinor Archer, B.Sc. (Plate XVIII.) 96 VIII. — The Physiography of the Gleiielg Eiver. By Charles Fenneb, D.Sc. (Plate XIX.) ... ... .. 99 IX.— Some Australian String Figures. By Kathlekn Haddon. (Plates XX.-XXIV.) ... ... 121 X. — A Method of Estimating Small Amounts of Calcium. By S. Pern, M.E.C.S., L.R.C.P., Eng. ... ... ... 137 XL— Chiloglottis Pescottiana, sp. nov. By E. S. Eouers, M.A., M.D. (Plate XXV.) ... ... 139 XII. - Magnetic Deflection of ^^-K.'i'ys : Tabulation of v against RH assuming Lorentz Theory. By Miss N. C. B. Ali.kn, B.Sc. 142 XIII. — On the Occurrence of Acrotreta in Lower Palaeozoic (Lance- fieldiau and Heathcotian) Shales in Victoria. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., &c. (Plate XXVI.) ... 145 XIV. — On an Apparently New Type of Cetacean Tooth from the Tertiary of Tasmania. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., &c. (Plate XXVII.) 149 XV. — A Contribution to the Theory of Gel Structure. By W. A. Osborne, M.B., D.Sc ... ... ... ... 153 XVI. — On the Formation of "Natural Quarries" in Sub-arid Western Australia. By J. T. .Jutson. (Plates XX VII 1., XXIX.) .. 159 XVII. — ^The Influence of Salts in Eock Weathering in Sub-arid Western Australia. By J. T. Jutson. (Plate XXX.) 165 XVIII. — Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. 26. By Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D. ... ... ... ... 173 XIX. — On Chlorophyll, Carotin and Xanthophyll, and on the Production of Sugar from Formaldehyde. By Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D. .. ... ... ... 178 [Proc. Roy. Soc. Victokia 30 (N.S.), Part I., 1917.] Art. r. — Timber Production and Grrnvth Curves in the Moivntain Ash (EiLCulyj^tus regnans). By R. T. PATTON. (Witli Plates I.-II.) [Eead April 12th, 1917]. It has been said that Mountain Ash will mature in 40 years, and will give in this time a butt of from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. It has also been claimed for Mountain Ash that it is the fastest growing tree in the world, and that it will give a cut of 150,000 ft. super per acre. In order to test the truth of these statements a series of measurements was carried out at Powelltown on logs of this timber. It was found impossible at the time to get any reliable figures as to either its fast growing rate or its quantity of timber per acre. Many factors militated against this. In the first place all the forest noAv being cut is over ripe, and consequently many trees are hollow. Again, a very large number of trees have incipient decay in the heart. Other factors also prevented any accurate estimate being formed. However, there was ample material for a study of the annual rings. It was impossible to obtain measurements from all logs coming in, as in quite a large percentage there was either a pipe, or decay had proceeded far enough to destroy the boundaries of the first annual rings. Only those logs, then, were taken in which the annual rings were clearly defined. The measurements were taken to the eightieth (80th) ring, and not continued further owing to the difficulty in many cases of distinguishing the rings. In one case the rings, though narrow, were easily distinguishable to the 125th ring. It was obvious from these later rings that the tree had lacked vigour. This was borne out by a study of the trees in the standing forest. The paucity of foliage on these big trees is very noticeable, as was also the amount of mistletoe. No mistletoe was observed on the saplings or even on trees half grown. From these observations, one was led to conclude that the tree reaches its prime well under a hundred years. The most remarkable feature is the rapid expansion of the trunk (and hence width of annual ring) during the first ten years of growth. This is shown in Fig. 1. In this graph the average width of ring for each decade is shown. The annual rings were measured in groups of ten and tlien averaged. This was done in order to 2 2 R. T. Patton: allow for the variiitiou of the successive seasons, conditions of environment, and any accidents. Some very wide fluctuations were obtained, but these were discarded as being obviously not the normal growth of the tree. On reference to Fig. 1 it Avill be seen that there is a steady decline in the width of the ring. It is very apparent, too, that the Avidth varies much less after the 30th year. This rapid decrease to the 30th year, and then a more gradual decrease after that, may indicate that the tree is entering on its manhood, so to speak. The theoretical curve w'hich has been drawn indicates that it will approach the abscissa very gradually, and this is what we would expect. The differences between tlie width of the annual rings as the tree gets older will be less and less. There is a point of interest here, and that is that the enormous decrease in the width of the ring may be due to overcrowding, or putting it in other words, that as the trees grow older and so many are striving for the same light and carbon dioxide, that the crown it not as large as it would Ije if the forest were controlled. It was very apparent from a study of the mature tress that width of ring is largely dependent on the distance of the trees apart, for in many logs the original centre is well to one side of the mature log. Some trees have limbs on the congested side only 6 to 8 ft. long, while on the free side they are 15 to 20 ft. long. The maintenance of a good head is important from a forestral point of view. In Fig. 2 the curve is given for the diameter at each dei'ade. The curve is remarkably even, and from it one may deduce the age of a tree very approximately if the diameter (or girth) be known. It will be seen on inspection that the curve is flattening consider- ably at the 80th year, and this again indicates that the tree is making very little headway. The curve gives rather a remarkable relation between diameter and years of growth. If we let ■z:=age of the tree and 3/ = diameter in inches, we find that the equation ^^/x=y is approximately the equation to the curve, and by using this equa- tion we can arrive, approximately, at tjie age of trees grown in the forest. The flattening of the curve at the 80th year is in accordance with the narrowness of the rings iit these older years. In Fig. 3 is given the amount of wood produced in each decade. It will l)e noticed that the growth of the second decade is approximately twice that of the first decade. The maximum growth occurs in the fifth decade. To fully establish the year of maximum growth, more measurements will be necessary, though the year may vary according to local Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate I. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 sropHSF •7 -.trt - mxnvv. ^ Proc. R.S. Victoria, ] 917 Plate II. ; K. - ; rtr. : UJ ; : : ; ; w f ■■■'■■■ •6 ; ; ^\, illCL t t .-:!': ; '^ uj : ^ta - : : :: z - / M^; -^.-1 -. .,-,-... .;:::■■' !• ^. l ■ , , , '6 :r; o : . X ; . o . Lu km, -t-^J ' - . ■ 1 : ' ' ' ^ '^-i]fi 'A : 7 : ' ^: tiH^Si m^ _rrir-- , . " "1 ,,: _:..2fti .9 M , ■'[ . , ■:.-j... . : -, ■ :^: ■ " : •2 "^< / _ UJ / :;:::;: ■■ .:' i . : : ! ^/ :'-' -:--i "':. " t ' " ' i i \0S •1 ixl--^:i: ::i:.i:l;i ^— - - - - — :- r-r Wm 3p^ isl y t A^ f1 s ^ -or IG ■ R otw T-H^^ 4t?;5i^ 3:^^ Ifelip 20 30 40 50 60 •70 80 '0 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 0 Timber Production and Groivth Curves. 3 -conditions, thickness of planting, etc. It is evidently before the 50th year and after the 40th year. The curve rises somewhat sharply from the 30th to the 40th year, and falls from the 50th to the 60th, so that the maximum groAvth occurs between the 40th and 50th years. This is in accordance with the view that has been put forward from time to time. But although the tree reaches maturity, say, at its 50th year, it would not be correct to say that the tree is then fit for milling. The sap-wood is about 1 inch thick, and this represents so much waste. Further, the value of the wood produced in the next decade, that is, from the 50th to 60th year, may still give a good return on the money invested. But there is the further advantage in leaving the tree to grow on for a further period. Although the tree may have reached its maximum growth period, yet it cannot be deduced that the wood has reached its maturity; for it is quite probable that this wood will improve in quality during the next twenty years. From observations of the logs coming into the mill, it may safely be concluded that the tree at 80 years is still in health, and therefore there need be no fear of heart rot. In Fig. 4 is given the total area of cross section during each decade. There is a gradual rise of the curve, indicating a gradual increase in diameter; but as in the other figs, we get a gradual flattening of the curve after we pass the 70th year. This flattening of the curve would indicate that the tree is losing its vitality, and is hence open to attacks of all kinds. This is borne out by a study of the standing forest, for tliere is a very intimate connection between the paucity of foliage on these old trees, and the small amount of wood produced in the older years. From the study of the annual rings, then, we may conclude at present that the Mountain Ash reaches its maturity l^etween the 40th and 50th years; but we are not entitled to conclude that the tree is then fit for milling. In view of the fact that in the future a large proportion of this timber will probably find its way on to t?ie market in a dressed and seasoned condition, the tree cannot be said to be fit for milling until the Avood is ripe. It may well be, that so long as the tree maintains a good head, i-he timber is improving in quality, and therefore it m.ay be inadvisable to cut it during this period. There are other factors as well to be considered with regard to the time of harvesting the timber. The upkeep of this forest ig small, at present, as compared with that of the forests of the old world. Hence interest charges will be much smaller, and we could therefore allow the forest to stand for a longer period than is the' ■case with old world forests. 2a [Proc. EOT. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1917]. Art. II. — 071 a Shell-bed underiying Volcanic Tuff near Warrnamhool ; with Notes on the Age of the Deposit. FREDK. CHAPMAN, A.L.S., AND CHAS. J. GABRIEL. [Read 10th May, 1917]. 1. — Occur/nice of the Shell-bed. Whilst on a visit to the Western District in 1912, the writers M^ere informed by Mr. H. J. Hauschildt, of the Warrnambool Agricul- tural High School, of an interesting occurrence of a bed of shells in the dune-rock exposed at the mouth of the Hopkins River, on the right bank, close to the Boat-sheds. This occurrence seemed worth investigation from tlie fact that the shell-bed is completely covered by the tuffs of the Tower Hill series, an examination of the organic contents promising to thi'ow some light on the age of the tuffs of the district and the building of the Tower Hill crater. It is a matter of general knowledge amongst geologists that exposures of shell-beds are frequently found underlying the newer volcanic in this locality ,'1 but so far as we are aware, no detailed examination of the fauna has been carried out. Hence, as a result of our visit these notes have been prepared, although owinj^: to more pressing work they have been unavoidably delayed. 2.— Condition of the Shell-bed. The stratum consists of a closely packed shelly and calcareous sandy deposit. The material is not consolidated by deposition from solution or by any secondary mineralisation, for it can be readily 1 Broiiifh Siiivth in his paper "On the Extinct Volcanoes of Victoria, Australia" (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. xiv., IS.'iS, p. 227), quotes a letter of A. R. C. Selwyn's d»ted Augfnst 11th, 1857, in which he says "Tower Hill is certainly the most recent volcanic vent I have yet seen. It appears, at lea.st during its later eruptions, to have emitted vast quantities of ashes and scoriae ; these are seen near Warrnambool, restin{r on beds of shell, sand and earthy limestone, containinf;. numbers of livinff littoral species of moUusca." Shell-bed undedying Volcanic Tnjf. 5 -tn-oken up in the fingers and the sand is loose enough to be scraped out of the interior of the shells with the finger-nail. The mollusca are in some cases polished, as though by wind action, and this also holds good for the foraminiferal shells. As a rule, however, the niolluscan shells are dull and slightly weathered without being greatly worn. The finer siftings consist of abraded and polished sand-grains consisting of chips of the larger shells, echinoid fragments and foraminiferal tests, thus Indicating a certain amount of aeolian action or sand-dune conditions. -3. — •Organic Contents. Order FORAMINIFERA. Rotalia heccarii, Linne sp. yatitilus htccarii, Linne, 1767, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1162; 1788, ibid, 13th (Gmelin's) ed., p. 3370, No. 4. Rotalia beccarii, L. sp., Chapman, 1907, Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, ser. 2, vol. X., p. 139. This widely distributed and even cosmopolitan form is repre- sented here by a fairly large series. Its presence indicates a sliallow- water or shore-line deposit with estuarine influence. As a fossil it is commonly found in Victoria in similar shallow water facies. from the Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene) upwards, but there is also one record of the species from the earlier series, the Janjukian, of Waurn Ponds, by Mr. Howchin. That authority has also recorded R. heccarii from the Kalimnan of Nor'- West Bend, Murray River ; from the W. end of Torrens Lake, Adelaide; and from the upper beds of Muddy Creek. Howchin also found it in the Upper Pliocene of Dry Creek, South Australia, and in the Post-tertiary of Port Adelaide. "1 One of us has also noted R. heccarii in the Mallee bores from all three horizons, of Janjukian, Kalimnan and Werrikooian.2 The condition of the tests shows this species to have lived in a congenial habitat, the estuarine influence having been supplied by the Hopkins or equivalent stream, probably before its mature river bed had been disturbed by the local uplifts due to volcanic activity in the western district. 1 See Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide, 1893, pp. 351, 352. 2 Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxvii. (n.s.), pt. i., 1914, p. 60. 6 Chapman and Gabriel: Class PELECYPODA. Fam. Leptonidae. Genus Erycina, Ijamarck. Erycina helmsi, Hedley. Erycina helmsi, Hedley, 1915. Proc. Linn. kSoc. N. S. Wales,, vol. XXXIX., pt. IV., p. 701, pi. LXXX., tigs. 37-39. This species was first described from the Zostera-heds at Deewhy Lagoon, N. S. Wales. In Victoria it has occurred at Port Melbourne, Corio Bay, Altona Bay, Port Albert and Lakes Entrance. It is fairly abundant in the Warrnanibool fossil deposit. Owing to the apparently sliglit difference between the fossils and the figured type we have conferred witli Mr. Hedley as to their specific agreement, and he has kindly examined thein, together with living- specimens from Lakes Entrance and his own type specimen, and notes a possible difierence in the fossils in "that the long end is more pointed in the fossil and more rounded in the recent." We find, however, every degree of variation in this respect, within small limitations, and there seems hardly enough evidence to warrant even a varietal distinction. The finely contused or pitted surface is as well marked on the fossil specimens as on tiie recent. Fam. Veneridae. Genus Marcia, H. and A. Adams. Marcia nitida, Quoy and Gaimard sp. Venus nifida, Quoy. and Gaimard, 1835, Voyage Astrolabe, Zool., vol. III., p. 529, pi. LXXXrV., figs. 13. 15 (in the text figs. 13, 14 in error). Chione fumigata, Sowerby sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1903, Proc. R. See. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. I., p. J 23. Chione nifida, Q. and G. sp., Hedley, 1904, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. XXXIX., p. 194. Pritchard and Gatliff, 1906, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII. (X.S.). pt. II., p. 67. Marcia nitida. Q. and G. sp.. Hedley, 1917, Proc. Linn. Soc. X.S. Wales, vol. XLI., p. 691, pi. XLVI.,figs. 2, 3. The generic name of this shell, more faniiliarly known as Chione or Tapes fuwi gains, has lately been the subject of discussion by Messrs. Dall and Jukes Browne, and their arirument is strongly in Shell-hed imdevlylng Volea-nic Tuff. 7 favour of separating this and similar forms with smooth shells and uncrenulated margins, under the generic term Marcia."!- Practically all the valves of this species found in the fossil bed are deeper than in the living form, although occasionally one may meet with similar shells of recent origin. This species was fairly common. Fam. Tellinidae. Genus Tel I ilia, Linne Tellina deltoidalis, Lamarck. Tellina delfoidalis, Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. v., p. 532. Pritchard and Gatliff, 1903, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVL (N.S.), pt. L,p. 115. Suter, 1913, Manual of N. Zealand Mollusca, p. 948 (Atlas), pi. LIX.,fig. 11. Several fragments of this common shore-living species occurred in the present deposit. Fam. PSAMMOBIIDAE. Genus Soletellina, Blainville. Soletellina biradiata. Wood sp. Solen biradiata, Wood, 1815, General Conch, p. 135, pL XXXIII., fig. 1. Soletellina biradiata. Wood sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1903. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. I., p. 114. Suter, 1913, Manual of N. Zealand Mollusca, p. 1083 (Atlas), pi. LXII.,fig. 13. Numerous specimens of the above species, mostly fragmentary, occur here. Fam. Mactridae. Genus Spisula, Gray. Spisula trigonella, Lamarck sp. Mactra trigonella , Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. V., p. 479. Gnathodon parvum. Petit, 1853, Journ. de Conch., vol. IV,, p. 358, pi. XIII., figs. 9, 10. 1 MiUl. Proc. U. S. Niit. Has., vol. xxvi., 1903, p. 335. Jukes-Biowiie. Proc. Malae. Soc. Loud. vol. viii., 1909, ]1. 23: A. .OS ^ <^ ,jjIlIBRARYJ33 S Chapman and G ah rid: Spisula parva. Petit sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 190:5. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.8.), pt. 1., p. 1U8. Mactra trigonella, Lam. Lamy, 1914, Bull. Mus, Nat. Hist., p. 205. Sjiisula parva. Petit sp., Chapman, 1916, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III.,pt. 4, p. 402. Spisula trigo?iella. Lam. sp., Hedley, 1917, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. XLI.,p. 692. Mr. Clias. Hedley has drawn attention to Dr. Laiiiy's identifica- tion of Lamarck's specimens of " Mactra trigonella " in the Paris Museum with our well-known Spisula parva. Petit sp. Typical examples of this shell are here moderately common. It is well distributed round the coast, especially on muddy and sandy flats near the mouths of tidal rivers. In the Sorrento bore this species was found at a depth of 489 feet, associated with 'Nassa lahecula and Rotalia heccarii. Class GASTEROPODA. Fam. CYCLOSTKEilATIDAE. Genus Pseudoliotia, Tate. Pseudoliotia micans, A. Adams sp. Cyclostrema micans, A. Adams, 1850, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.. p. 43. Dennant and Kitson, 1903, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I., pt. 2, p. 145. Pseudoliotia micans, A. Adams sp., Pi-itchard and Gatliff, 1902, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIV. (N.S.). pt. II.. p. 102. One small, but typical specimen found. Fam. LiTTORINIDAE. Genus Diala, A. Adams. Diala lauta, A. Adams. Diala lauta, A. Adams. 1862, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. X., p. 298, No. 5. Pritchard and Gatliff. 1902. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIV. (N.S.), pt. II., p. 88. One specimen found. Genus Tatea, T. Woods. Tatea rufilabris, A. Adams sp. Diala rnjilahris, A. Adams, 1862, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. X.,p. 298. Shell-hed underlying Volcanic Tuff. 9 Tatea rufilahris, A. Adams sp., E. A. 'Smith, 1882, Journ. Linn. Soc. Load. Zool.. vol. XVI., p. 268, pi. VIT.,fig. 19. Gatliff, 1905, Victorian Naturalist, vol. XXII., p. 15. Three typical specimens of tliis interesting estuarine shell were found. Geims Bythinella, Moquin-Tandon. Bythinella nigra, Quoy and Gaimard sp. Paludina nigra, Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, Voyage Astrolal>e, Zool., vol. III., p. 174, pi. LVIII.,figs. 9-12. There appears to be a large and confusing synonymy for this very variable species, and the present writers have under examina- tion evidence which seems to point to the above specific name as the valid one. Some of the confusion has arisen through bad drawing or inconsistent description, and it is hoped that a com- parison of the various types involved will finally settle the question. At present the writers are in communication wdth some European authorities on the subject, the results of which wdll be made known as soon as possible. Examples of the so-called species, vicforiae, ler/randl and petierdi are found in this fossil deposit. The varie- ties occurring in the Pleistocene of Mowbray Swamp, Tasmania,*! appear to most nearly approach Bythinella victoriae, T. Woods, the types of which are in the National Museum, Melbourne. Fam. Cerithiidae. Genus Potamides, Brongniart. Potamides australis, Quoy and Gaimard sp. CeritJiinm australe, Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, Voyage Astro- labe, Zool., vol. III., p. 131, pi. LV.,fig. 7. Potamides ai/sfralis, Quoy and Gaimard sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1900, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIII. (N.S.), pt. I., p. 156. A solitary example of this estuarine shell was found. Fam. BUCCIXIDAE. Genus Nassa, Lamarck. Nassa pauper ata, Lamarck sp. Buccinum imuperata, Lamarck, 1822, Anim. sans Vert., vol. VII., p. 278, No. 56. 1 Chapman. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbouine, No. 5, 1914, p. 57. 10 Chapman and Gabriel: Xassa pau]}erata, Lam. sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1898^ Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. X. (N.S.), pt. II., p. 279. Dennant and Kitson, 1903, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I., pt. 2, p. 143. Rather rare. Nassa labecula, A. Adams. Nassa labecula, A. Adams, 1851, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 98. Pritchard and Gatliff, 1903, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. X. (N.S.), pt. II., p. 279. This is a fairly common shell in the present deposit. It is generally a component of Victorian estuarine faunas of modern date. Fani. Amphibolidae. Genus Salinator, Hedley. Salinator fragilis, Lamarck sp. Ampullario fragilis, Lamarck, 1822, Anim. sans Vert., vol.. VI., pt. IL, p. 179. Salinator fragilis. Lam. sp., Hedley, 1900, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. XXV., p. 511. Gatlilf, 1905, Victorian Naturalist, vol. XXII., p. 15. A single specimen of this estuarine shell was found in the iDresent deposit. Class CRUSTACEA. Fam. Cytheridae. Genus Cythera, Miiller. Cythere crispata, G. S. Brady. Cijthere crispafa, G. S. Brady, 1868. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., sev. -t, vol. II., p. 221, pi. XIV., figs 14, 15. Idem, 1880, Rep. Chall., Zool., vol. I.,pt. III., Ostracoda, p. 72, pi. XIV., figs. 8a-d. Chapman, 1914, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVII. (N.S.), pt. I., p. 33, pi. VI., fig. 9. The present specimen is a short, broad variety, but possesses sufficient characters to enable us to refer it without hesitation to the above species. In the living condition it occurs on the shores of Great Britain, Norway and the Mediterranean; also at Port Jackson, Booby Island and in Hong Kong Harbour. In all these- localities it is a moderatelv shallow water form. One of us (F.C.) Shell-bed timlerlylng Volcanic Tuff'. IT has lately recorded it from " Endeavour " material from South Australia at 100 fathoms. In the fossil condition it occurs in the northern hemisphere in the Pleistocene of Scotland, Ireland and Norway; whilst in Victoria it has been obtained in much older beds, viz., the Miocene or Janjukian of the Malice bores. Fam. Balanidae. Genus Balanus, Lister. Balanus sp. A rostral compartment of a species of Balanus, having an obscure rugo-costulate ornament occurs here. It has some resemblance to Balaiius psiUacea, Molina sp., but is not so heavy in structure. )f. — Fossil MoUusca from Bennington, near Warrnamhool. These shells occurred at a depth of 8 feet from the surface and underneath volcanic tuff, at Nestles Milk Factory. This locality is about 1| miles inland from the present coast-line. Area (Anadara) tra'pezia, Deshayes Marcia nitida, Q. and G. sp. Tellina deltoidalis, Lam. Soletellina donacioides. Reeve Boncujc deltoides. Lam. Mactra polifa, Chemnitz Spisula trigoneJla, Lam. sp. Mesodesma elongafa, Deshayes Patella, vstulata, Reeve Turho undulatus, Martyn sp. (operculum) Banl-ivia fasciata, Menke sp. Potamidesi australis, Q. and G. sp. Cymatium spengleri, Chemn. sp. Nassa jacksoniana, Q. and G. sp. Nassa lahecula, Adams The above collection was presented to the National Museum by Mr. D. J. Mahony, M.Sc, April 24th, 1912. From the same locality Mr. H. J. Hauschildt, on Oct. 5th. 1912, presented, amongst other specimens, the following additional species: — Pecten hifrons. Lam.; Mytihis hirsutus. Lam.; Venus (Chione) strigosa. Lam. ; and Piirpora stcccincta, Martyn sp. 12 Chaptnan and Gabriel: 0. — Holocene Mollusca from Lahe Pertohe. This deposit probably belongs to a later episode than the shell-. l>eds underlying tuffs. The locality is S. of Warrnambool and quite close to the coast-line. V eiier ujyis crenata, Lam. sp. Tellina deltoidalis. Lam. Spisula triyonella, Lam. sp. Soletellina hiradiata, Wood sp. SoleteUina donacioides. Reeve Monodonta (Austrocochlea ) co/istricta, Lam. sp. Ri sella melaiio stoma, Gmelin sp. Potamides australis, Q. and G. sp. Bitfium cerithium, Q. and G. sp. Nassa lahecula, Adams. Salifiafor fragilis. Lam,, sp. These specimens were found by Mr. H. J. Hauschildt and donated to the National Museum, March 18th, 1908. 6. — General Bemarl-s on the Ar/e of the Old Duue-rock and associated shell-heds. The dune-rock of Warrnambool, like that of Sorrento, owes its origin mainly to the remains of shells, and is therefore almost entirely calcareous. That both of these rocks are far from modern, historically "speaking, is proved by the occurrence in the Sorrento dune-rock of the remains of an extinct kangaroo, Palorchestes, repre- sented by pelvis, scapiila, portions of ribs and a tooth, as recorded 1>Y Prof. J. W. Gregory ji^ whilst that at Warrnambool has yielded the footpi'ints of a gigantic bird, probably Ge?>7/ornis, a contem- porary of Diprotodon in South Australia. The Warrnambool dune-rock affords an added interest to geolo- gists, in its relationship to what are probably the latest effusions of volcanic ejectamenta in Victoria, for as we have seen, shell-beds, insisting practically of existing species occur in this locality over- lain by volcanic tuffs^ similar to those of Tower Hill. 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xiv. (n.s.), pt. i., 1901, pp. 139-144. Gregory concludes his piper with these remarks :—" Accordingly the lower exposed part of the Sorrento dunes dates back to the time of extinct kangaroos, the agre of which is described as late Pliocene or Lower Pleistocene." 2 Voloanio tuff as defined by Prof. Judd and quoted by Prof. J. W. Gregrory is stated to consist of "the finely divided materials, which, owing: to the storms of rain which frequently accompany volcanic eruptions," descend in the condition of mud, which flows evenly over the surface of the growing cone and cotisolidates in beds of very regularly stratified tufa or tuff. , Shell-bed underlying Volcanic Tuff. 13 In regard to the plant remains of the tuff-beds, it is worth recording- that a block of tuff containing what are probably Euca- lyptus leaves, was obtained by Mr. Hauschildt^ some years ago, when the foundations for the Milk Factory at Bennington were being excavated. Data of age derived from fossil floras of so recent a stage are not, however, of much value, seeing that their types are more persistent than those of animals. Thus the tuffs of Mount Gambler have yielded fronds of the Bracken fern {Pterii< aquilina) and of Baiiksia, practically identical with plants now living in the same locality. The Hampden tuffs of the Camperduwn district _, are in all probability of the same age as those of Warrnamlx)ol and have covered ancient swamps such as those of the Pejark Marsh. In samples of this ancient m.ud deposit which were submitted to one of us (F.C.) by Mr. R. H. Walcott, Curator of the Technological Museum, there were found diatomaceous frustules and remains of a species of Ci/penis indistinguishable from the living Cyperus lucid us. The extinct marsupial bones found on the shores of the crater lakes of the Camperdown district are probably contemporaneous Avith the tuff beds, as note the opinion of Prof. Sir Baldwin Spencer and Mr. R. H. Walcott regarding those from Lake Colongulac^ : — "No bones have been found in situ as far as we are aware, those found having been picked up on the shores of the lake, but there is no doubt, like those of the Pejark Marsh, that they were origin- ally deposited in a swamp or lagoon which was afterwards buried under the ashes ejected by the neighbouring volcanoes; the bones in tliis instance being subsequently freed by the breaking up of the old bed and cast upon the shores of the lake." Summary. From the foregoing discussion it may be assumed that : — 1. — The shell-bearing l^eds underlying the volcanic tuffs near Warrnambool belong to the same episode as the older dune-rock accumulations of that locality and Sorrento, and the swamp deposits under the tuffs of the Camperdown district. 1 This specimen, presented by Mr. Hauschildt, is now in the National Museum and can be seen in the wall-case of the Australian Gallery. 2 Mem. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 9, 1810. "Geology of the Camperdown and Mount Elephant District." Grayson and Mahony, p. 6. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. .xxiv. (n.s.), pt. i., 1911, p. 114. 14 Chapman and Gabriel : SJteli-bed. 2. — That since the old tluue-rock and old swamp deposits con- tain extinct forms of marsupial remains they presumably l:)elong to the early Pleistocene. ."3. — The evidence of the shells from beneath the Warrnambool tuffs shows the fauna to have a geologically recent aspect, but with varietal modifications of the species indicating different geographical features from that now prevailing in the locality, a strong estuarine character antedating the re-juvenation of the present river-system. This ancient estuarine feature is further emphasised by the fact of the prevalence of a wide lava-flow of newer basalt extending down to the present shore-line at Port Fairy and beyond, pointing to the infilling of an ancient river delta which, originally of great extent, embraced the Warrnambool-Portland area. 4. — It may therefore be postulated that the volcanic tuffs of the Tower Hill series were ejected between early Pleistocene and fairly modern times, that is, in late Pleistocene or Holocene, or, using European terms, in early prehistoric times. Compared with the more mature physiogiaphic features shown by the newer volcanic lava flows, these tuffs represent one of the last stages of the volcanic outburst in Victoria. [Proc. Roy. Soc. Vjctoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1917]. Aki'. 111.— 7'Ae Cause oj Bitter Pit. By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D. (Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University, and Government Botanist of Victoria). [Read loth May, 1917], In his fourth report upon this "disease," Mr. McAlpine in .summing up refers the origin of Bitter Pit to two causes, lx>th connected with the supply of water. The first cause is considered to be due to irregularities of growth, the pulp growing more rapidly than the network of vessels, " so that meshes here and there are not formed and the loss of water at these spots cannot be fully met by a fresh inflow of sap. This causes the cells to collapse, the sap reaches an injurious concentration, causing the cells to die and turn l)rown." The second cause is supposed to be the exact opposite of this, namely that an excess of water causes so great an increase in the pressure within the cells that they rupture and die, producing the characteristic appearance of Bitter Pit. In regard to the first cause, since it is a morphological change readily capable of demonstration, one would expect to find some evidence of its existence brought forward. No such evidence is given in the whole of the voluminous reports. The statement is a supposition of possibility not based upon actual observation, and immediately contradicted by observed facts. Bitter Pit spots occur both on and near vascular bundles with healthy cells existing in the tissue further out supplied by the same bundles. Any interruption of the vascular supply would naturally affect all the tissue supplied by the bundles. In some cases a layer of bitter pit tissue may spread over a square centimetre or more extent, and crossing the course of a whole series of bundles. Nevertheless healthy tissue supplied by the same bundles may exist beyond the affected area, showing that the death of the affected cells cannot te due to an interruption of the vascular supply. In regai'd to the .second cause, excess of water causing an increased pressure bursting the pulp cells, it may be noted that the pres- sure within the pulp cells depends upon the osmotic concentra- tion of the cell-sap within them, and that an abundant supply of water simply enables the full osmotic pressure to be exerted. In a 16 Alfred J. Ewart : tissue, an increase of osmotic pressure simply causes the cells to ^jress more firmly against one another and the tissue expands as a whole, sometimes leading in the case of thin-skinned apples floated on water to the bursting of the outer skin, but not to a bursting of the pulp cells. A bursting of the outer skin does not accompany the development of Bitter Pit, which on this theory it should do. In addition apple pulp may be immersed in water without the cells being at first injured or bursting. Later they may die and brown, and in soft fleshed apples the pulp cells may separate singly or in clusters, but again without bursting, although here the supply of water is greater than ever exists when the fruit is on the tree. Both the bursting and the vascular interruption theories fail entirely to take account of the actual sequence of events in the development of Bitter Pit. In the early proteid stage of the apple, no signs of the disease are shown. During the starch stage, in certain localized areas the starch grains remain undissolved in groups of cells, which are at first colourless and living. These cells later die. turn brown and may collapse or shrivel. The first symptom of the disease is the non-solution of the starch grains. Now to prevent a dry starch grain from absorbing water a pressure of 2500 atmospheres is necessary, so that a pressure at least approach- ing this would be necessary to prevent it dissolving under the action of an enzyme, such as diastase, which cm only act in the presence of water. Tlie maximum pressure of the ascending sap is less than 1 atmosphere and tlie maximum osmotic pressure in apple cells con- taining 10-15 per cent, of sugar is 12 to 20 atmospheres. It is well known that in cells with quite as high osmotic pressures as this starch grains dissolve readily, and actual tests have shown that bitter pit tissue is more deficient in sugar than the ordinary pulp, which is the direct result of the non-solution of the starch grains. To invoke changes of sap pressure or of osmotic pressure as a cause of bitter pit is therefore a transparent absurdity. Mr. McAlpine (p. 73) states "the theory of spraying with poisonous compounds w-as brought forward as a direct and definite cause. That theory has now been abandoned and the absorption of poison from the soil in infinitesimal quantities through the roots substituted for it." In justice to Dr. White who first put forward the poisonitig theory of Bitter Pit, so misleading a statement can- not be allowed to pass uncontradicted. In the paper in question'^ Dr. White sums up in the following words : " The results of my 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1911, p. 16. The Cause of Bitter Pit. ] 7 observations seem to indicate that biie complaint known as bitter pit is, strictly speaking, not a disease at all, but rather a symptom of slow local poisoning, and that in the cases actually examined so far it appears to be due to the poisonous compounds sprayed on to the surface of the fruits." " Though as far as my observation and experiments go, I have limited them to the supposition that the spray passes through the breathing pores of the fruit, from the exterior, it is by no means impossible that some of the spray which falls on the ground or is washed down by the rain, and gradually accumulates in the soil, might enter the plant through the root hairs. That soil is capable of retaining arsenical compounds for a considerable length of time is well known, and when an orchard is sprayed 6 to 16 times in one season2 the amount of jjoisonous spray reaching the soil must become quite appreciable. The sensitive fruit cells would probably be more susceptible to poison than the other parts of the plant, since the living protoplasm is reduced to a mere attenuated film, but this would necessarily be a matter for future investigation." The statement that Dr. White's original theory has been aban- doned and another substituted for it is therefore highly misleading. The essential point is that the complaint known as bitter pit is not a disease but a symptom of slow local poisoning, and evidence in support of this is steadily accumulating. The nature and origin of the poisons in question is a subsidiaiy matter. Dr. White informs me that as the result of several years' work on testing the influence of poisons on Prickly Cactus and other plants, she has come to the conclusion that bitter bit symptoms are not confined to such fruits as the apple and pear, but may also occur in leaves and stems, and as in the apple and pear may not only occur naturally but may be produced artificially by the direct application of poisons. It is indeed possible that certain obscure plant tumours and malforma- tions may be the direct or indirect result of oligodynamic poison- ing. Potatoes grown in newly cleared acid soils often develop brown spongy patches of dead tissue internally which are not accom- panied by any disease organisms. This and the disease known as " brown fleck " may be further instances of natural oligodynamic poisoning. The dead cells here also contain undissolved starch grains in quantity, whereas in dead patches produced by parasitic 2 Largely as the result of Dr. White's work sprayinsr is no lonarer carried to the absurd extremtsfc hat were formerly common, and it is more generally recognised that the smaller the amount of poisonous material used to produce the result required, the better it is for the plant and for the soil. 18 Alfred J. Eivavt: organisms, the starch grains are dissolved away. If metallic poisons are responsible for these defects, their j^resence shuuld be capable of demonstration by direct analysis, since potatoes are much less sensitive to metallic poisons than are apples. Organic poisons are, however, also a possible cause, for it is now well known that the infertility to crops of certain peaty and other soils is due to the presence of traces of organic poisons of tlie iiatui'e of phenols, or creosote-like combinations. * The late Dr. Rothera carried out some experiments in the direc- tion of endeavouring to produce bitter pit symptoms by the direct absorption of dilute solutions of metallic jjoisons. Cut leafy branches bearing fruit were placed in solutions of copper sulphate and mercuric chloride of strengths varying from 1 in 100,000 to 1 in 600,000. The results obtained were negative. The tests, how- ever, only lasted a fortnight, and were discontinued on account of the slirivelling of the apples. The latter is due to the rapid blocking of the cut surface preventing the absorption of water (and poison). If the experinient is carried out differently by driving in the poisonous solution under a head of 5 or 6 feet of water or roughly one-sixth of an atmosphere positive results are easily obtained in a few days, and although the browning usually takes place along the veins, it is often strikingly reminiscent of bitter pit. When these tests were performed in the unripe starch stage, the apple always died before all the starch grains had dissolved in the unpoisohed pulp cells, but I have already shown that if dilute poisons are injected into young apples while on the tree, although most of the treated apples usually fall, some remain and ripen on the tree. These show bitter pit areas at the points injected and these areas show every sign of normal bitter pit, including the presence of starch grains in brown cells, Avhile the surrounding healthy tissue contains no starch. A second test carried out by Rothera was by watering apple trees with solutions of copper sulphate of 1 in 100,000 strength. The following results were obtained : — Yield. Pitt< DiALA VAUIA, A. Adams. 1861. Diahi varia, A. Adams. A.M.N.H. vol. viii., 3rd sei-., p. 24.3. 1902. Diala varia, A. Adams. Pritchard and Gatliff. P.H.S. Vic, vol. xiv., p. 89. 1913. Diala varia, A.Adams. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii., p. 286, pi. 18, fig. 56. Hab.— Western Port; Piiebla Coast. Obs. — Figured for the first time by Mr. Hedley, as above quoted. ToRNATiNA FUSiFoinris, A. Adams. 185-1. Bulla (Tornatiiia fusiformis. A. Adams. Thes. Conch.. vol. ii., p. 570, pi. 121, f. 37. 1859. Tornatina apicina, Gould. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. vii., p. 139. 1862. Tornatina apicina, Gould. Otia Conch, p. 112. 1878. Tornatina apicina, Gould. T. Woods, P.L.S. N.S.W. vol. ii., p. 256. 1883. Utriculus avenarius, Watson. J.L.S. Lon., vol. xvii., p. 328. ■ 1886. Utriculus avenarius, Watson. Chall, vol. xv., p. 658. pi. 49, f. 5. 1893. Tornatina apicin;i, Gould. Pilsbry, Tryon Man. Conch, vol. XV., p. 201. 1893. Tornatina avenaria, Watson. Pilsbry, Id. p 202, pi. 24, f. 37 and 38, 1903. Tornatina fusiformis, A. Adams. Pritchard and Gat- liff, P.R.S. Vic. vol. XV. for 1902, p. 212. 1903. Tornatina brenchleyi, Angas. Pritchard and Gatliff. Id. p. 212. 1912. Tornatina fusiformis. A.Adams. Verco, T.R S.S.A., vol. xxxvi., p. 204. 1913. Retusa apicina, Gould. Iltdley, P.L.S., N.S.W., vol. xxxviii., p. 337. 1916. Retusa apicina, Gould. Hedley. Jour. Royal Soc. Western Australia, vol.' i., for 1915, p. 72. Hab. — Sandringham, S(u-rento, Portsea, Port Phillip; Balnar- ring, Shoreham, Flinders, San Rem.o. Western Port; Kilcunda ; Portland. 01:)s. — We are of opinion, after examining numerous examples of this species, from tliis coast. New South Wales, and Tasmania, that 24 Gatliff and Gahrid : although they differ in size, length of spire, and outline of the lip — which is occasionally more patulous — that there is only one species, as indicated above, and that the specimens that we have examined exhibit the slight variation comprised in the description and figures of the forms included in the above synonymy. We also have examples of the si^ecies from Durban, South Africa, and from the same locality, T. hofmnui, Angus. Pilsbry remarks on the genus, ^ "Tornatina differs from Retusa in the conspicuously channeled suture, and the peculiar projecting apex." These are distinguishing features in the type of the genus T .voluta, Quoy and Gaimard. Iredale asserts2 that the genus Tornatina is a synonym of Retusa. Before accepting this we should like to examine the apex of what is authentically regarded as being typical species of Retusa. Lepidopleurus canci<:llatus, Sowerby. 1908. Lepidopleurus cancellatus. Sowerby. Gatliff and Gabriel,' P. R.S. Vic, vol. xxi. (New Series), p. :3S:3. Obs. — We withdraw the record of the occurrence of this species on our coast. Our shell so identified is the species named, Ischnochiton gabrieli, Hull. Lepidopleurus oolumnarius, Hedley and May. 1908. Lepidopleurus columnarius, Hedley and May, Rec. Aust. Mus. vol. vii., p. 12:5. pi. 24, f. 27, 28. 1912. Lepidopleurus pelagicus, Torr, T.R.S.S.A., vol. xxxvi., p. 165, pi. 5, f. 2a-f. 1913. Lepidopleurus columnarius, Hedley and May. Gatliff and Gabriel, P. R.S. Vic. vol. xxvi. (New Series), p. TS. Hab. — Bass Straits, Commonwealth trawler " Endeavour." Obs. — Du. Torr has kindly permitted us to examine with him his type of L. pelagicus, and Ave find it conspecific. IscHXOCiirrox wilsoni, Sykes. 1896. Ischnochiton wilsoni, Sykes. P. Malac. Soc. Loud. vol. ii., p. 89, pi. 6, f. 1, la. 1 Tryon Man. Conch., vol. xv., p. 182. •2 P. Mai. Soc. Lond., vol. xi., 1015, p. 300. Additions to CatSykes. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. XV. (New Series), for 1902, p. 202. 1912. Lsdmocliiton levis, Torr, T.Pt.S.S.A. vol. xxxvi. p. 168, pi. 6, f. 6 a-f. Hab.— Port Phillip Heads (J. B. Wilson). Obs. — Dr. Torr also gave us the type of his species to compare it Tvith the type of I.wilsoni, which is in our National Museum. This w^e have done, and find it to be conspecific. He has requested us to record this fact. His specimen is three-quarters the length of the type of I.wilsoni, which has ten slits in the tail valve. Dr. Torr's has eight or nine in the tail valve. It has been preserved in a solu- tion of formalin, and, consequently, lost most of its coloration, and is in a bad state of preservation. The figure of the head valve of I.wilsoni shows twelve slits regularly disposed. The description states that it has nine slits irregularly disposed. IscHNOCHiTON PROTEUS, Reeve. 1847. Ischnoehitun proteus, Reeve. Conch. Icon. vol. iv., pi. 18, f. 111. 1867. Lepidopleurus proteus. Reeve. Angas, P.Z.S., Lond., p. 222. 1892. Lsclmochiton divergens, Pilsbry, (not of Reeve), Tryon's Man. Conch, vol. xiv., p. 91, pi. 22, f. 74-77. 1916. Isehnoehitou proteus. Reeve. Iredale and May, P. Mai. 8oc. Lond. vol. xii., pp. 109 and 110. Hab. — Ocean beach. Point Nepean ; Shoreham, and San Remo, Western Port. Obs. — We have had specimens sent to us from New South Wales under the name of I. divergens, Reeve, but that species has minute girdle scales; in I. proteus they are large and solid; in both species the scales are transversely striated. It is a handsome species, the predominating colour being green. Interior of tail plate has a central crescent of blackish-green, and in some specimens the interior of the median valves are stained in the centre Avith magenta colour. IscHNOCHlTON ATKINSONI, Iredale and jMay. 1916. Ischnoeliitnn atkinsoni, Iredale and May. P. Mai. Soc. Lond., vol. xii., p. 110, pi. 4, f. 3. Hab. — Shoreham, Western Port. Obs. — A small, pale buff coloured species. 26 Gatlijf and Gabriel : IscHNOciiiTOX ARBUTUM, Reeve. 1908. Ischnochiton arbutum, Reeve. Gatliff and Gabriel P.R.S., Vic. (New Series), vol. xxi., p. 384. Obs. — Having I'eceived specimens of this species from Iredale, which were obtained at Cape York, Queensland, and that have been compared with the type, we find that our previous record has been made upon a wrongful identification, and therefore withdraw it as occurring on our shores. Ischnochiton sculptus, Sowerby. 1908. Ischnochiton sculptus. Sowei-by. Gatliff and Gabriel.. P.R.S. Vic. (New Series), vol. xxi., p. 383. Obs. — We also withdraw the record of this species occurring on our coast. Our shell so identified was subsequently named Ischno- chiton falcatus, Hull. Ischnochiton lineolatus, Blainville. 1825. Chiton lineolatus, Blainville, Diet. Sc. Nat. vol. xxxv.,. p. 541. 1893. Chiton lineolatus, Blainville. Pilsbry, Tryon's Man. Conch, vol. XV., p. 105. 1916. Ischnochiton lineolatus, Blainville. Iredale and May, P. Mai. Soc. Lon., vol. xii., p. 108, pi. 4, f. 1. Hab. — Port Phillip Heads; Port Fairy; Western Port. Obs. — At the reference last quoted above, it is stated that the identification of this species by Australian and Tasmanian writers as being I. contractus. Reeve, is incorrect. Iredale and May have now identified it as 1. lineolatus. Ischnochiton (Stenochiton) pallkns, Ashby. 1900. Ischnochiton (Stenochiton), pallcns, Ashby, T.B.S.S.A. vol. xxiv., p. 86, pi. 1, f. 1 a-e. 1912. Ischnochiton (Stenocliiton) pallens, Ashby. Torr, Id. vol. xxxvi., p. 143. Hab.— Port Phillip Heads. Obs. — When examining at the National Museum the collection of Chitons obtained by Wilson, and dealt with by Sykes, we noted that he had wrongly identified one as I.juloides, Adams and Angas. We considered it to be what was subsequently named I. pallens, Ashby. The Curator kindly lent us the specimen to send to Mr. Ashby for his opinion. Mr. Ashby writes to us upon it: "While it may be Additions to Catalogue of Shells. 27 classed with 'pallens, you will note several differences. In yours the lateral areas are more raised, and the growth lines are strongly in evidence, which is not the case with /;a/Ze«s. The angle of the an- terior valve in yours is not quite the same; yours shows a slight bulge towards the apex. While the anterior valve in yours is short, it is barely as proportionately short as in />a?Ze?!s, but it certainly has a short anterior valve so characteristic of 2MUens. The pos- terior valve does not show the niucro far back on a long valve, but that may be due to its damaged condition. Yours suggests a little more carination, but this may also be due to damage. In conclusion I should place your shell with ])olle>is/'' Mr. Ashby kindly sent us his only co-type for comparison. We quite agree with his remarks. Our specimen is not quite half the length of the co-type. We have not yet found I. juloides on ou)- coast. Cardium cygnorum, Deshayes. 1903. Cardium cygnorum, Deshayes. Pritchard and Gatliff^ P.R.S. Vic, vol. xvi. (New Series), p. 135. 1916. Cardium cygnorum, Deshayes. Hedley, J.R.S.W. Aust., vol. 1, for 1915, p. 13. 1917. Cardium cygnorum, Deshayes, Hedley, P.L.8. N.S.W., vol. xli. p. 686, pi. 52, fig. 41. Hab. — Old valves occasionally obtained at Carrum, Rye, Portsea,. Port Phillip; dredged alive Western Port. Obs. — ^Mr. Hedley has figured this species for the first time. Genus Marcia, H. and A. Adams, 1857. Marcia nitida, Quoy and Gaimard. 1835. Venus nitida, Quoy and Gaimai'd. Astrolabe Zool.. vol. iii., p. 529, pi. 84, fig. 13, 15 (in the text the figures are wrongly given as 13, 14). 1904. Chione nitida, Quoy and Gaimard. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxix., p. 194. 1906. Chione nitida, Quoy and Gaimard. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xviii, (New Series), p. 67. 1909. Marcia fumigata, Sowerby. Jukes-Browne, P. Mai. Soc Lond., vol. viii., p. 237, 244. 1914. Marcia fumigata, Sowerby. Jukes-Browne, P. MaL Soc Lond., vol. xi., p. 88. 28 Gatliff and Gabriel: 1917 -Marcia iiitida, Quoy and Gaiiuard. Hedley. P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xli., 1916, p. 691, pi. 46, figs. 2, 3. 1917. Marcia nitida, Quoy and Gainiard. Chapman and Gabriel, P.K.S. Vic, vol. xl. (New Series), p. antea. Hab. — Common in Port Phillip; Portland. Obs. — Jukes-Browne has reviewed somewhat exhaustively the Family Veneridae, and has made Adams' Chi(jne, subgen. Marcia into a genus. DosiNiA GRATA, Deshayes. (PI. iii.). 185.3. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Cat. Brit. Mus. Biv. p. 8. 1858. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Adams' Genera, vol. ii., p. 431. 1862. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Romer, Mon. Dosinia, p. 19. 1868. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Pfeiffer, Malak, Blatt. vol. XV., p. 146. 1897. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Tate, T.R.S.S.A.. vol. xxi., p. 47. 1913. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii.. p. 270. Hab. — Dredged 5 to 8 fathoms. Western Port; also dredged off Portsea, Port Phillip. Obs. — A left valve, 30 x 40 mm. was forwarded to Mr. T. Iredale, London, for comparison with types, and he Avrites : " Agrees exactly with the types in the British Museum of Dosinia grata, Des- hayes . . . from Tasmania, collected by R. Gunn. . . Tate and May (p. 429), place D.(/rata, Deshayes, as a synonym of D.circinaria, Deshayes, Avhich it is not, types compared." Much confusion has arisen respecting this species, and to Aus- tralian conchologists its identification has been perplexing, owing in the first place to Tate giving a wrongful figure, l and at the same time quoting D.diana, Adams and Angas. as a synonym. In 1897 — reference above given — he corrected this, stating : " The type of D.diana, Adams and Angas, and the shell I figured as D. grata are certainly the same, but they are different from D. grata. ^^ Tate and May2 cited the species as a synonym of D.circinaria, Deshayes, from 1 D. grata, Deshayes. Tate, T.ll S., S.A., vol. ix., ISSG (18S7), p. 03, pi. v. ■2. P.L.S., N.S.W., vol. xxvi., 1001, p. 420. Additions to Catalogue of Shells. 29* which it may be distinguished by its sharp, erect, concentric lamellae. We are indebted for the kindness of Mr. F. Chapman. He photo- graphed the identified shell figured on Plate III. Spisula trigonklla, Lamarck. 1818. Mactra trigonella, Lamarck, An. s. Vert., vol. v., p. 479. 1853. Gnathodon parvum. Petit. Jour, de Conch., vol. iv., p. 358, pi. 13, fig. 9, 10. 1903. Spisula parva, Petit. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xvi. (New Series), jd. 108. 1914. Mactra (Spisula), parva. Petit. Smith, P. Mai. Soc. Lond., vol. xi., p. 146. 1914. Mactra, trigonella, Lamarck. Lamy, Bull, Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 245. 1915. Spisula (Hemimactra), parva, Petit. Chapman, Geol. Surv. S. Aust., Bull, No. 4, p. 50. 1916. Mactra trigonella, Lamarck. Hedley, J.R.S., W. Aust. vol. i., for 1915, p. 20. 1917. Spisula trigonella, Lamarck. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W... vol. xli., 1916, p. 692. 1917. Spisula trigonella Lamarck. Chapman and Gabriel, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xl. p. antea. Hab. — Coast generally. Obs. — Spisula parva is reduced to synonymy through the dis- covery of an earlier Lamarckian appellation. Dr. Lamy declares their specific identity. Lasaea australis, Lamarck. 1818. Cyclas australis, Lamarck. Anim. s. vert., vol. v., p. 560. 1842-1856. Cyclas australis, Lamarck. Hanley, Cat. Recent Biv. Shells, p. 90. 1913. Cyclas australis, Lamarck. Laniy, Bulletin du Mus.. d'Hist. nat. Paris, p. 466. 1914. Lasaea scalaris, Philippi. Gatliff and Gabriel. V.N. vol. xxxi., p. 84. 1915. Lasaea australis, Lamarck. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W.,. vol. xxxix., p. 702. 1916. Lasaea australis, Lamarck. Hedley, Jour. Roy. Soc Western iVustralia, vol. i. for 1915, p. 13. Hab. — Coast generally. 30 Gatllff and Gahriel : Obs. — A very variable shell. Lamarck's vol. v. is paged to 560, and then the pages following are again numbered 551 to 560. L.aus- tralis octurs on the tirst of the pages that are numbered 560. Genus Bpachydontes, Ssvainson, 18-iO. BRACiiyDONXES EKOSUS, Lamarck. 1819. Mytilus erosus, Lamarck, Anim, s. Vert., vol. vi., p. 120. 1906. Mytilus erosus, Lamaixk. Pritchard and Gatliff. P. U.S., Vic, vol. xviii. (NeAv Series), for 1905, p. 69. 1916. Brachyodontes erosus, Lamarck. Hedley, Jour. Poyal Soe., Western Australia, vol. i., for 1915, p. 9. Hab. — San Bemo; Poljvarth Coast ; Portland. Bhachydontks (Hormomya) hirsutus, Lamarck. 1819. Mytilus hirsutus, Lamarck. Anim, s. Vert. vol. vi., pt. 1, p. 120. 1904. Mytilus hirsutus, Lamarck. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xvii (New Series), p. 248. 1905. Brachyodontes (Hormomya) hirsutus, Lamarck. Jukes- Browne, P. Mai. Soc. Lend., vol. vi., p. 223. Hab. — Polwarth Coast; Kilcunda. Braciiydontes (Hormomya) rostratus, Dunker. 1856. Mytilus rostratus, Dunker. P.Z.S. Lond., p. 358. 1904. Mytilus rostratus, Dunker. Pritchard and Gatliff. P.R.S. , Vic, vol. xvii. (New Series), p. 247. 1905. Brachyodontes (Hormomya) rostratus, Dunker. Jukes- Browne, P. Mai. Soc, Lond. p. 223. li)l(). Brachyodontes rostratus, Dunker. Hedley, Jour. Royal Soc Western Australia, vol. i., for 1915, p. 10. Hab. — Coast generally. MODIOLA PULEX, Laiiiarck. 1819. Modiola piilex, Lamarck, Anim. s. vert., vol. vi., p. 112. 1904. Modiola ater, Zelebor. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic. vol. xvii (NeAv Series), p. 249. 1913. Modiola pulex, Lamarck. Hedley, P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii., p. 265. ^v Proc. E,.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate III. .1/ Additions to Catalogue of SJtells. 31 1914. Modiola pulex. Laniaitk. Hedley. Id. vol. xx.xix., p. 698, pi. 79. I. 24. 1916. Modiola pulex, Lainurek. Hfdlev, Jour. Royal Soc. Western Austr. vol. i.. for 1915, p. 10. Hab. — Coast generally. Obs. — Mr. Hedley noted the types of this species in the Lamar- ekian collection of the Geneva Museum. His figure (cited above) is drawn from a specimen obtained at Frederick Henry Bay, Tas- jviania, and is Mytilus crassus, T. "Woods, which becomes a synonym. Genus Notomytilus, Hedley, 1916. NOTOMYTILUS ItUBUA, Hedley. 1!)()4. Philippiella rul)ra, Hedley. P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxix., p. 207, pi. 10, figs. 44-47. 1906. Philippiella rubra, Hedley. Prichard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xviii. (New Series), p. 69. 1916. Notomytilus rubra, Hedley. Aust. Ant. Exped. Zool. p. 20. Hab. — Dredged in about 7 fathoms. Western Port, off Phillip Island ; Portsea, Port Phillip ; Torquay. Obs. — This species is selected by Hedley for tlie type of his new genus Notomytilus. He states that his previous classification of it was made " under a misapprehension of the original diagnosis." Notomytilus cren.atulipkha, Tate. 1892. Myrina crenatulifera, Tate. T.R.S. S.A., vol. xv., pt. 2, p. 131, pi. 1, figs. 11, 11a. 1904. Philobrya crenatulifera, Tate. Pritchard and Gatliff, P.R.S. Vic, vol. xvii., p. 255. 1904. Philippiella crenatulifera, Tate. Hedley. P.L.S. N.S.W., vol. xxix., p. 208. 1906. Philippiella crenatulifera, Tate. Pritchard and Gat- liff. P.R.S. Vic, vol. xviii. (New Series), p. 69. 1916. Notomyrilus crenatulifera, Tate. Hedley, Aust. Ant. Exped. Zool. p. 20. Hab. — Barwon Heads (type); Flinders, Western Port. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 111. Dosinia grata, Deshayes. The smaller figures are taken from the shell identified with the type. All figures natural size. [Pboc. Rot. Soc. Victoria. 30 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1917J. Aht. Y.—New or Little-known Victoria/a Fossils in the National Museum. Part XXI. — Some Tkrtiaky Cetacean Remains. By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., &c. (Palaeontologist, National Museiun, Melboiirne). (With Plates IV. and V.). [Eead 12th July, 1917]. Introduction. The following notes embrace descriptions of teeth of two new cetaceans, one of which is a second Australian species of the extinct genus of sperm whales, Scald icetvs, namely, S. lodge i. The other form is a tooth referred to tlie living genus Sfeno, a dolphin which, so far as I am aware, has not been previously noted in the fossil con- dition. Both types are from the Lower Pliocene or Kalimnan series. A new locality is given for the tooth of the great sperm wdaale, Physetodon haileyi, whilst an incisor of the squalodont genus, Paras- qualodon, is newly recorded from Leigh River, near Shelf ord, an occurrence which helps to confirm the Miocene age of these particular beds. Probably the most interesting cetacean discovery from a distribu- tional point of view is the occurrence in the Victorian Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene) series, of Owen's ziphoid species, Mesoplodon com- pressus. This genus of beaked whales is already represented in the Victorian Janjukian (Miocene) beds by the strap-shaped tooth of Mesoplodon geelongensis, McCoy sp. Cranial rostra belonging to several species of Mesoplodon are also found in the Pliocene of Eng- land, Belgium and Italy, and about eight species still exist. Until the present occurrence, the rostra of this genus were only known in the fossil condition from the northern hemisphere, but six of the species now found living have their habitat in the Southern Ocean and adjacent seas. The following remarks on tlie genus Mesoplodon by Prof. Flower have an especial interest to students of Australian recent and fossil cetaceai : " The geographical distribution of the group has a very great interest in relation to that of many other Australian groups, both of vertebrates and invertebrates. Among the earliest known re- 1 Trans. Zool. Soc. Lon.l, vol. .\., 1878, p. 436. Victorian Fossils, Part XXI. 33 mains of Cetacea, in the Belgian and Suffolk Crag, Mesoplodon, and closely allied forms are most abundant. Up to a little more than ten years ago the few stray individua-ls of M.hidens occasionally stranded on the shores of North Europe were supposed to be their sole survivors. Since that time it has been proved that they are still numerous in species, and even in individuals (as many as twenty- five of M.grayi having been stranded on one occasion on the Chatham Islands, and four at another time on the New Zealand coast, where it is sufficiently abundant and well known to have obtained the local name of Cow-fish), in the seas which surround the Australian conti- nent, extending from the Cape of Good Hope on the one side to New Zealand on the other, though beyond these limits no specimens have yet been met with. It is the history of the Marsupial Mammals, of Ceratodus, of Terehratrda [Mof/elhniia], and of numerous other forms." Systematic Description. Order CETACEA. Sub-Order ODONTOCETI. Fam. Physeteuidae. Sul)-fam. Physeterinae. Genus Physetodon, IMcCoy. Flnjsetodoii hadtyi, McCoy. Physetodon haileyi, McCoy, 1879, Prod. Pal. Vict., dec. VI., p. 19, pi. LV., figs. 1, 2. Lydekker, 1887, Cat. Foss. Mammalia, Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), pt. V., p. 57. Ohservatiojis. — A portion of the tooth of the above species of ex- tinct sperm whale has lately been donated to the Museum collection from a new locality in the Kalimnan series, viz., Grange Burn (Forsyth's), near Hamilton. It represents the apical portion of the tooth, about one-half of the entire length, and measures 132 mm. in length. At its widest part its measurement is exactly the same as the original specimen described by McCoy, which came from the Kalimnan of Beaumaris, so that it may be assumed that both indivi- duals reached their maximum development before their demise. The osteodentine around the puljD cavity shows the same spheroidal grouping of the dentinal layers round the vascular centres as in the earlier described specimens. The fracture at the proximal end of the specimen occurs near the junction of the osteodentine with the dentine proper. The cement is 14 mm. thick at 10.50 cm. from tne apex. Occurrence. — Tertiary (Kalimnan series). Grange Burn, near Forsyth's, Hamilton. Collected and presented by the late Lieutenant Edward Ellis Hentv. 34 Frederick Clucpritan : Genus Scald icetus, Du Bus. Scaklicetns lodyei, sp.. nov. (Plate TV., Fig. fi). Descrijitio^i. — Tooth, long, slender, conical, gently curved, especially in the apical portion. Pnlp cavity open, narrow and apparently not very deep. The cement is smooth, but marked with microscopically fine longitudinal lines and cracks; it extends for 76.5 mm. from base of enamel cap doAvn to the root, and is of a rather pale ochreous brown. The cement is corroded or eaten away in large patches, and the exposed dentine is encrusted in places with a nubeculai-ian foraminifer, and there is also a valve of Bimya sp. attached to the surface of the root. The enamel cap, of a warm sienna brown colour, is longitudinally grooved and crenulated, but the relief is not so granulate as in the tooth of S.macgeei. Chap- man.i Where the enamel is fractured the apex shows the dentine to he compact, semi-vitreous and dark brown in colour, weathering to ochreous. Measuremenls. — Tooth, present length. 102.5 mm. ; portion of apex missing, circ. 2 mm. Length of enamel cap when complete, cir. 15 mm. Diameter of tooth at base of enamel cap, 8 mm. ; greatest diameter of root (at 2.3 mm. from base), 20.5 mm. ; diameter of pulp cavity at base, 10 mm. Weight. — The tooth referred to the above species weighs 1| oz., or .104 kilogrammes. That of Scaldicefiis ?nacf/eei Aveighs 6 oz. 2 dwts., or .423 kilogrammes. The largest tooth of the genotype, S.carrefi, weighs 1^ kilogrammes. Observations. — In comparing the tooth of Scah/icetiis lodgei with that of the previously described S.macgeei, the following salient differences are noted : — S. lodgei. Crown one sixth of entire length. Enamel cap finely striated and cren- ulate. Apex of crown sliarjily conical. Root gradually widenin^jf to near base and then contracting. Pulp cavity narrow, opening elip- tical. Weight, .104 kilos. S. inncgeei. Crown one third of entire length. Enamel cap rugosely vertically striated. Apex of crown broadly conical. Root widening rapidly to base. Pulp cavity large, open and sub- circular. Weight, .42.S kilos. From the two previously described species of Scaldicetiis, the present form, S.lodgei, differs very nxarkedly in its slender shape 1 Records Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. iii., pt. ii., 1912, p. 236, pi. xl. Victorian Fossils, Part XXI. 85 and small size. The build of both S.carreti, Du Bus (Antwerp Crag) and S.macgeei, Chapni. (Beaumaris), is heavy, and the form of the teeth broadly conical. The present tooth of S.lodgei is that of a mature individual, and it does not in any of its characters suggest specific affinity with the Beaumaris species. As in S.lodgei, the Belgian species has the enamel of the crown longitudinally striated, whereas in S.macgeei the enamel is not only rugosely striated, but beaded or crenulate. Occurrence. — Balcombian or Oligocene. Muddy Creek (Clifton Bank), near Hamilton, Victoria. This tooth (holotype) was discovered by the late Mr. H. Lodge, of Hamilton, and we are indebted to Mr. F. P. Spry for presenting this interesting specimen to the National Museum. Note. — According to the label, it was found at " ]Muddy Creek, near Hamilton." Since the locality is often used in a general vsense by collectors for several geological exposures in the district, includ- ing the Kalimnan of the Grange Burn, it suggested the possibility of the tooth having come from the latter locality. However, this doubt is removed by an examination of the material enclosed in the pulp cavity of the tooth, which contained typical upper Clifton Bank foraminiferal sand with shells of the pteropod VagineUa, and rolled and wnnd-polished Aitiphistegiiiae. It is, therefore, conclusive that the tooth w^as found in VagineUa band at Clifton Bank, which includes the higher Balcombian horizon merging on the Janjukian bed represented in the Grange Burn area by red limestone. i Sub-fam. Ziphiinae. Genus Mesoplodon, Gervais.'- Meso2'>lodon compressim, Huxley sp. (Plate IV., Figs. 1-4 ; Plate V., Fig.s. 7-11). Belemnoziphius compressus, Huxley, 1864, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. XX. p. 388, pi. XIX. Ziphius compressus, Owen, 1870, Crag Cetacea, No. i (Ziphius), Mon. Pal Soc, vol. XXIIT. p. 25; pi. V.. fig. .-?. Mesoplodon coinpressiis, Huxley sp., Lydekker, 1887, Cat. Foss. Mammalia, Brit. ]\Ius., pt. V., p. 7-3. Woodward and Sherborn, 1890, Cat. Brit. Foss, Vertebrata, p. 363. 1 See Mem. Nat. Hus. Melbourne, No. .'5, 1914, p. 44, fig-. 14. 2 For notes on the validity of this generic term see Flower, W. H., Trans. Zool. Sof.. \ol. i., 1?7'2, p. 2C8, footnote 3, and Idem, ibid., vol. x., 1878, p. 434. 36 Frederick Glaqmidu: Ohseri'dlions. — Meso2)h)do/i agrees with the other beaked whale^ Ziphius (of which there is probably only one living species), in hav- ing an ossified niesethmoid, but the nasals joined together form the vertex of the skull in the latter genus. In Hyperoodon, the bottle- nosed whale, there are large longitudinal ci-ests on the maxillae at the base of the rostrum. In Berardiiis the mesethmoid is only par- tially ossified. Chonezijyhius has the mesethmoid cartilage non- ossified, and there is a fistular cavity throughout the short, thick rostrum. According to Flower, the tympanic bone of Berardiiis is exactly like that of Mesoplodon.'^ The chief character given by Owen for the cranial rostrum in the species comjtressiis is " the predominance of the dimensions of depth over that of breadth at every part of the extent of the specimen figured." Prof. Owen also states that " the pre-frontal mid-tract is transversely convex from its beginning, the convexity increasing as it advances; and, from the low position of the ecto-maxillary ridges and the steep slope thereto of the premaxillaries, the mid- tract seems, of itself, to constitute the upper surface of the rostrum," In Huxley's specimen the same character of great vertical depth pre- vails, with the exception of the extreme posterior, where it is wider tlian deep. This exception would also most likely have obtained in Owen's specimen, but for the fact that the posterior area adja- cent to the narial openings is wanting. The only apparent differences between Huxley's and Owen's speci- mens are that, in the former, the sectional outline is more distinctly rhomboid, and there is a slit in the mesethmoid band '' about 2^ in. in front of the upper apertui-es of the canals," . . . . " Avhich deepens as it passes backward and becomes lost in an irregular fossa." This median slit is not present in the nearly perfect Aus- tralian specimen from Grange Bvirn, so that in this point it agrees with Owen's example. On the other hand, another specimen from Grange Burn, Avhich is in Mr. Dillwell's collection at Hamilton, and of which there are casts in the National Museum, shows a distinct median slit, as in the Huxley example, and much longer, measuring 4f in. The two Grange Burn specimens have been carefully examined and measured, Avith a view to discovering any definitely separable characters, but with the result that one feels bound to conclude that the slight differences between them represent merely individual variation, such as are evident in living species of this genus. For example, the median slit probably representing a vesti- 1 Flower. Uiid., vol. x., 1878, p. 423. Victorian Fossils, Fart XXI. 37 gial line of imperfect o'Ssification, or even infilling of a hollow vomerine, as met -with in Choneziphius, may be wholly obliterated in some examples and not in others; whilst abrasion may have some- thing to do with its absence, since all fossils from the nodule beds are more or less rolled and worn. The sectional drawing of the rostrum of " Bdeniiwziphius com- jjressus,'' given by Prof. Huxley, is so nearly like that of Owen's " Ziphius compressiis,'" tlie former l:>eing more angular in outline than the latter, but generally agreeing with the Grange Burn speci- mens in general contour, that it is impossible to point to a specific difference between all three occurrences. The interesting point to note, however, is that the more perfect rostruni from Grange Burn, with its smoother posterior mid-tract, agrees more closely with Owen's example; whilst the less perfect Grange Burn specimen, with its fissured mid-tract, agrees more nearly with Huxley's specimen. Apart from a consideration of morphological and structural differ- ences in these Australian specimens, the fact that they occur together in the same geological horizon, would lend support to tlie assump- tion that, being otherwise so closely allied, they were specifically identical. Descri ption of examples of Mesoplodon co/ii])/^-^^)!^. Hurley sp. from Grange Buni. Specimen A. Description. — A Avell preserved cranial rostrum. In this specimen the pre-frontal mid-tract rises prominently above the tipper surface of the rostrum ; it is at first (proximally) flatly con- vex, becoming more strongly arched towards the middle of the ros- trum and again depressed in the anterior third. This mid-tract is proportionally narrow as compared with some other described forms, as Mesoplodon longirostris, Cuvier sp.i, and differs from that species in the absence of the deep, longitudinal sulcus. The upper median surface of the rostrum rises and falls in two low curves from the base to the tip of the snout, the greatest convexity being situated a little in front of tlie middle of the rostrum. The rostrum is slender and gently tapering, and is deeper than wide along the entire length excepting in the pre-frontal area, where the depth is less than the width. A transverse section of the rostrum in any part of the middle and anterior thirds gives a laterally compressed hexagonal figure, Avhilst that from the pre-frontal region is trapezoidal in outline, not unlike that of M.tenuirostris, Owen sp.- 1 Ziphins longirostris, Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, 2nd ed., vol. v., pt. i., 1823, p. 357. /Jphiui medilmeatus, Owen, Crag Cetacea (Mon. Pal. Soc), 1870, p. 22, pi. iv., fig. 3. Menoplodon longirostris, Cuv. sp., Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit, llus., pt. v., 1887, p. 68, fi^'. 1". 2 Ziphins tenuirostris, Owen, op. cit., 1870, p. 24, pi. v., fiifs. 1, 2. Mesoplodon tenuirostris, Owen sp., Lydekker, op. cit., 1887, p. 71. ^]8 Frederick Cha/nnav : Tlie uai-ial orifices are situated in a concavity of the extended pre- maxillae, the left being not so long as the right. The nervo-vascular foramina of the interorbital area of the maxillary are slightly in ad- vance of the narial openings, and lead downward and backward to tlie ent-orbital foramina. The vomerine is visilile on the inferior surface of the rostrum as a narrow lenticular wedge about 90 mm. long and 9 mm. broad in the widest part. In a cavity of the premaxillary on the right side of the rostrum. about -41 mm. from the anterioi-, tliere occurs, embedded in the hardened and phusphatiztd mud, a small tooth of a depressed conical shape, slightly curved and bluntly pointed, having a length of 4 mm. and a width of 2.5 mm.^ Measurements. — Total length of complete rostrum, 49.5 cm. Width on a tranverse line tlirough middle of antorbital foramina, 12.6 cm. Width at 10 cm. from base, 62 mm.; depth, 80 mm. Width at 20 cm,, from base, 54 mm. ; depth, 61 mm. Width at 30 cm. from base, 39 mm.; depth, 46 mm. Width at 20 mm. from apex, 21 mm. ; depth, 23 mm. Distance between narial openings, 31 mm. Distance between antorbital foramina, 82 m.m. Width of mesethmoid band at 75 mm. from base, 23 mm. Specimen B. Description. — This is a less perfect example than the foi'egoing, the rostrum having lost alxmt one-half of the anterior por- tion, and tlie lateral edges of the maxillaries in the pre-frontal region. The characters of this specimen compare closely with the foregoing. The slope on either side of tlie mesethmoid ridge is steep as in the previous specimen, but the surface is more convexly rounded and the ecto-maxillary ridge less prominent. The inner margins of the narial openings are 21 mm. apart as against that of Spec. A, in which they are 32 mm. apart. Specimen B, however, is proportion- ately smaller in every respect, and either represents a mature indi- vidual of different sex from Specimen A, or is a younger example. Measurements. — Length of rostrum (incomplete), 25.5 cm. Width on a transverse line through middle of antorbital foramina (incom- plete expanse), 9.4 cm. AVidth at 10 cm. from base, 61.5 mm.; depth 90 mm. Width at 20 cm. from base, 43 mm. ; depth, 59 mm. Rekitionship of M.comjjressvs irith liviiif/ species. According to Professor Sir W. H. Flower there are eight exist- ing species of this genus, all of which, as that author says, 1 The strncture of the tooth in MfsoplotJnn .i;rai-dnit: anwuxi. Victorian Fossils, Fart XXT. 39 " have a close g'eneric resemblance. Mesoplodon bidens, Sowerby sp., is conunon to the North Sea and North Atlantic; M.€i(ro2Mteus, Gervais, sp., was found in the English Channel; M.de/isirosfris, Blainville sp., occurred off the Seychelles Islands, South Africa, and Lord Howe Island; M.layardi, Gray sp., was found off the Cape of Good Hope, near Sydney, New Zealand and the Chatliam Islands; M.hectovi, Gray sjj., found in Titai Bay, New Zealand; M.grayi, Haast sp., from Bank's Penin- ,sula. New Zealand; M.haasfi, Flower, North Island, New Zealand; and M.ausfralis, Flower, from Lyall Bay, New Zealand. In certain structural characters of the cranial rostrum, the rela- tionships of the fossil, M.coifipressiis, judging from the Australian i^'pecimens, lie nearest to M.grai/i, Haast sp., from New Zealand, i chiefly by the indications of a row of small teeth in the upper jaw, as well as by the deep lateral basirostral groove, and the posterior position of the premaxillary foramen in relation to the maxillary. In the sectional sketches of rostra of living species of MesojjJodofi by Flower, 2 that of MesopJodon haasti is almost identical both with those given by Huxley and Owen respectively, as well as some taken from the above described Victorian specimens. In regard to the supposed identity of M.rjrai/i and M. haasti, by Von Haast, who included them under the one species name of M. grayi, Flower remarks^ : " Making every allowance for individual variation, it scarcely seems possible that a rostrum such as that shown in Fig. 2, could change in the course of growth to that of Fig. 3. If so, most of the detei-minations of the fossil species based solely upon the form of the rostrum are quite valueless." Occurrence. — The discovery of two Australian fossil specimens of a ziphoid whale identifial)]e with a si:)ecies occurring in the Crag deposits of England is especially interesting to stratigraphists, since it further confirms the identification of the Victorian Kalimnan beds with the Pliocene of England and Belgium. Specimen A of the fore- going descriptions was received by exchange from Mr. R. Hughan, whilst Specimen B is a cast taken from a fossil in Mr. Dillwell's collection. They are both from the Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene) of Grange Burn, near Hamilton. See synopsis of characters of Meaoplodon 1)y Flower, Trans. Zool. Sop., vol. x., 1878, p. 418. Op. cit., p. 42?, fiifures. Flower, op. cit., vol. x., IST-*, p. 422. 40 Frederick Chapman : Note on " Ziphiiis (Dolichodon), r/eelonr/ens/s,^' McCoy. ^ The fossil from Waurn Ponds referred by Sir F. McCoy to a ziphioid is a long, strap-shaped tooth, having a compressed oval sec- tional outline, and an extensive but slender pulp cavity. It is com- pared with a type of tooth seen in Meso2)lodoii layardi (found off the Cape of Good Hope, Chatham Islands and New Zealand), in which the pair of mandibular teeth have a crown composed of true dentine surmounted by a small and pointed enamel cap. The crown is raised upon a solid mass of osteo-dentine, which has a continuously changing form as the tooth advances in growth, tending upwards, backwards, and finally inwards.- In course of time these teeth interlock over the top, preventing complete opening of the jaws. Their great size and recurved form is curiously paralleled in the sabi'e-toothed tigers, as remarked by Beddard.^ The existing 3/. ZrtyffrcZ?, Gray sp., and, presumably, M.geelongen- sis, McCoy sp., belong to the genus Me so plod o?i sensu stricto, while M comjjressus, Owen sp., is referable, according to Flower, to the group Dio2)lodon, including M.densirosfris, Blainv, sp., M.ausf rolls. Flower, M.[/rai/i, Fl, and M.hnasfi, Fl. Fani. SQUALODONTIDAr,. Genus Papasqualodon, T. S. Hall. Pantsqindodon toUkinsoni, McCoy sp. Squcdodon wilkl/iso/ii, McCoy, 1875, Prod. Pal. Vict., dec. 2, p. 7, pi. XI., Figs. la-d. Id., ibid., 1879, dec. 6, p. 20. pi. LV., Figs. 3, 3a, b. Prosqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy sp., T. S. Hall, 1911, Proc. R. Soc, Vict., vol. XXIII., N.S. pt. II., p. 262, pi. XXXVL, Figs. 1-5. Observations. — In Dr. Hall's paper, " On the Systematic Position of the species of Squalodon and Zeuglodon described from Australia and New Zealand," a specimen (No. 5529) in the National Museum from Waurn Ponds is figured. This is noticed by Hall as an " In- cisor of (?) Farasqualodon wilkinsoni .''^ Having recently examined the cetacean teeth in the Museum in some detail for the purpose of the present paper, Ihave arrived at the conclusion that this speci- men is without doubt referable to the above species, and that the curious appearance of an incision at the base of the crown as shown 1 Prod. Pal. Vict., dee. 7, 18S-2, p. 2S, pi. Ixix. 2 See Flower, op. cit, vol. x., 1S7S, p. 418. 3 Cambridge Nat. Histor}-. Mammalia, 3902, p. 369. Victorian Fossils, Fart XXI. 41 in the photograph by Dr. Hall, is due to an interesting minera- logical change set up in the tooth during early fossilisation and sub- sequent weathering. The narrower root axis as compared with the •crown is caused by phosphatization of the dentine and its consequent hardening, whereas the surrounding cement, being of a softer tex- ture, has subsequently been removed by the resortment and disturb- ance of the deposit before final sedimentation. The surface of the phosphatized axis of the tooth is polished like that of the mineralized tympanic" bones found associated in the same beds. The grooved ■ornament of the enamel of the crown of the tooth is exactly similar to typical incisor teeth of r.wiU.itisoni . Occurrence. — ^^Tertiary (Janjukian.) Waurn Ponds, near Gee- long. Presented by the Rev. C. S. Y. Price. A new locality for P.wilki/isoni may here be noticed, namely Leigh River, near Shelford, where a fairly comj^lete incisor was found and presented to the National Museum by Mr. J. H. Young, of Meredith. This discovery of a typical Miocene species helps to correlate the Shelford beds with the Janjukian series. Fam. Delphinidae. Genus Steno, Gray. Steno cudmorei, sp. nov. (Plate IV., Fig. 5). Descr'iption. — Tooth, convexly curved and twisted, more or less circular in section. Root more than twice the length of the crown, closed at the base and swollen or bulbous just beh^w the base of the crown. Crown conical, curved, with a moderately sharp apex; colour dark brown increasing in depth to black at the base; surface roughly scored by fine irregular vertical furrows. The cementum impinges over the base of the crown, and at 2.5 mm. below the crown is cinctured by a brown stain, probably marking the upper edge of the alveolus. The root is ochreous brown to yellow, and irregularly wrinkled and furrowed, especially towards the base. Measurements. — Length of tooth, measured along tlie f)uter side, 23 mm. (crown 7 mm.; root, 16mm.); width of crown at base, 4 mm. ; Avidest part of root, near distal end, 5 mm. Observations. — At first glance this tooth might be thought to show alliance with the incisor of Parasqiialodon , which it resembles in general shape and in the vertically rugose crown. The root in the present tooth, however, is closed, Avhilst that of the incisor of Paras- qualodon is open and deep. Further than this, ParasquaUdon has 42 Frederlch Chapman : the crown nearly, if not quite, equal in length to the root, and the enamel furrows are sharply ridged and not vermiculate, as in the above species. The smaller and slender character of the tooth and the closed root resembles that of the Dolphin family, and comparison was made with Delphi/ius uncichns, Lankester,!! which, although having the peculiar twisted and swollen shape of the root of the Beaumaris tooth, has the enamel of the crown finely and sparsely furrowed. Turning, then, to Prof. Flower's classical paper " On the Characters and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae,"2 we read that the genus Stetio, Avhich is rei^resented by S.rostratvs, Cuvier sp., and found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, and in the Red Sea, is distinguished from other genera of this family by the furrowed character of the teeth : — " Teeth, 21 to 25 on each side of the jaw, of comparatively large size (5-6 millims at base of crown), ^ and in most, if not all the spec'ies, with their surfaces roughened by fine, irregular longitudinal grooves (which are in a great measure effaced in old individuals), not seen in other Dolphins, and whence the name Gh/phidelphis proposed by Gervais for the section."'* Occurrence. — Tertiary (Kalimnan), Lower Pliocene. Beaumaris, Port Phillip. Found by Mr. F. A. Cudmore, after whom it has been named, and who presented it to the National Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate IV. Fig. 1. — MesopIodoN comp7'essus, Huxley sp. Cranial rostrum, viewed from above. Specimen A. Tertiary (Kalimnan.) Grange Burn, near Hamilton, Victoria. About 'i natural size. Fig. 2. — M.comj^ressus, Huxley sp. Cranial rostrum, viewed from the side. Specimen A. About i- natural size. Fig. 3. — M.compressus, Huxley sp. Cranial rostrum, viewed from below. Specimen A. About f natural size. Fig. 4. — M.compressus, Huxley sp. Cranial rostrum, viewed from above. Specimen B. Same locality. About '^ natural size. 1 Ann Mag. Nat. Hist , ser. 3, vol. xiv., 1864, p. 350, pi. viii., fisfs. 12, 13. This tootli and otic bones have since been referred to the genus Globieephalvs. See TiVdekker. Cat. Foss. llani- nialia. Brit. Mu.s., pt. v., 18S7, p. 81. 2 Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, pp. 466-513. 3 Width of crown in fossil specimen, 4 nun. 4 Op. supra cit., p. 482. Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate IV. F.C., Photo. Mesoplodon, Steno and Scaldicetus. Tertiary, Victoria. Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate v. Sections of Cranial Rostra in Mesoplodon. (Nat. size). \:. Victorian Fossils, Part XXI. 43" Fig. 5. — Steno cudmorei, sp. nov. Tooth. Tertiary (Kalimnan). Beaumaris, Port Phillip. About natural size. Fig. 6. — Scaldicetiis lodgei, sp. nov. Tooth, Tertiary (Balcomhian). Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, near Hamilton. Slightly under natural size. Plate V. Fig. 7. — Sectional outline of Huxley's type of " BelcmnozipJiius compressus.'" From the Lower Pliocene of Suffolk, Eng- land. (After Huxley.) Fig. S. — Ditto of Owen's type of " Ziphiiis compressus." Lower Pliocene, Suffolk, Eng. (After Owen). Fig. 9. — Ditto of Specimen A, Mesojjlodon comj^ressus, Huxley sp. taken at 22 cm. from distal end. Kalimnan (Lower Plio- cene). Grange Burn, Victoria. Fig. 10.— Ditto of Specimen A, taken at 12 cm. from the distal end. Fig. 11. — Ditto of Specimen B, taken at 15 cm. from narial open- ings. Same locality. Fig. 12. — Ditto of cranial rostrum of Mesojylodon grayi, Haast sp. (young). After Flower. Living. Fig. 13. — Ditto of M.haasfi. Flower, (adult). After Flower. Liv- ing. All figures on this plate to actual scale. [Proc. Eot. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1917]. Ar'I". VI. — Description of a New Dividing Evijine for Ruling D iffract ion Grat ings. By H. J. GRAYSON, University of Melbourne. (With Plates YI.-XVII.) [Read 12th July, 1917]. Intpoductopy. The fcjllowing pages comprise a description of a New Dividing li^ngine designed and 'constructed by the writer for the ruling of Diffraction Gratings and also, vrith certain modifications, of accu- rate scales. Prior to 1910, when this work was begun, a consider- able experience of the difficulties inherent to worlv of a related ■character had already been obtained; particularly with respect to the ruling of very fine or closely spaced lines, known as " Test Rulings, "1 used for testing the resolving and defining power of MicroscojDe objectives. Rulings for this purpose, known as Nobert's Test Plates, were first made by Herr Nobert Avith the aid of a machine the design of which remained a carefully guarded secret until his death. On this machine he ruled his celebrated Diffraction Gratings, which Avere the first of their kind available for spectro- scopic work. Several papers, 2 descriptive and critical, referring to the author's earlier work, will serve to show that this fresh undertaking — the construction of a machine for ruling Diffraction Gratings — though far more difficult than anything of the kind previously undertaken by him, had at least a reasonable prospect of being successful, provided health permitted and suitable mechanical facilities were available. For a time progress Avas somewhat sIoav, OAving to lack of essential appliances and the very limited time available for so great an undertaking. Both these draAvbacks Avere, hoAvever, largely over- come— mainly by an extension of the time available for construc- 1 "The Microscope," Naegeli and Schwendener, 18S9. Translation. 2 " A Wave-length Comparator for Standards of Length," hy A. E. H. Tiitton, AI.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. of London (Series A), vol. 210, pp. 1-34. " On the Aleasurement of Grayson's Ten-band Plate," by A. A. Eliot Merlin, Journ. R. Micro. Soc, 1010, pp. 5-8. "On the Measurement of Grayson's New Ten-Band Plate," by A. A. Eliot Merlin, Journ. R. Micro. Soc, 1911, pp. 160-163. "Comparative Micionietic Measurements, by Dr. Marshall D. Ewell, Journ. R. Micro. Soc, 1910, pp. 537-554. Also many "Notes" and "References" to Grayson's Rulings by E. M. Nelson, Esq., Journ. R. Micro. Soc, earlier vols. Neiv Engine for RidiiKj. 45- tional work vipon the niacluue, and also partly in that the under- taking Avas later recognised as a piece of " Research Work " under the regulations governing University Research Scholarships. The latter adjustment served to bring the work directly under the notice and control of the Professor of Physics, Dr. T. R. Lyle, F.R.S., to whom it was arranged that I should report from time to time. Tliis served to make available additional mechanical facili- ties, and led to a transference of my services and work to the Department of Physics. Preliminapy Outline of the Design of tlie Machine. It is desirable, before describing the more important parts of the machine, to outline its essential features. A fuller description of certain parts is also desirable, as published descriptions of similar machines frequently lack constructional details. Even Professor Rowland's article, on the grinding of a pre- cision screw, omits reference to impoitant working details; while similar omissions occur in the published description of his ruling machine, issued at a much later date. Thus one frequently fails to find the information sorely needed when entering upon a 'similar undertaking. The omission of information, with respect to the working routine of these undertakings, may frequently mean the difference between success and failure, or, in any case, great lose of time and labour on the part of those who attempt similar work. Occasionally, even negative experiences are not without value, and are worth recording. In the following preliminary description of the completed machine, reference to the plates and photographs, particularly Plates VI. to XA^II., will l^e advantageous. For example, Plate VI. is a plan of the complete Engine drawn to scale. The various parts are numbered, and their general purpose and relationships are indicated in the descriptive index. The bed of the machine, marked A, of cast iron, is a hollovy rectangular oblong box, with several internal cross webs for increas- ing its rigidity. Plate VII., an end view photograph of the machine, shows the external outline of the bed. Externally, the bed has been accurately machined throughout; the top surface and one edge have also been ground true. This form of bed is very rigid in proportion to its mass, and is, moreover, not unwieldy to handle or complicated in outline; its weight, apart from any attachments,, is under 70 lbs. 46 H. J. GrayHun: Attached to the outer faces of this simple form of l)ed are all the essential working parts of the machine, other than the driving mechanism, which is independent of the bed, apart from the neces- sary attachment to its base. This relationship is shown in Plate VII. On the right hand half of the upper surface of the bed is the screw (1) Avith its supports (8), or capped Ijearings, which are bolted directly to the bed. The sci-ew carries and operates the nut only, and is therefore practically free, from any stress or strain other than what is due to a direct axial pull. The connection of the screw with the travelling carriage, supporting the plate to be ruled, is made through two steel bars (19), one on the right hand and the other on the left of the screw, and both parallel with it. These rods are screwed into a horizontally swivelling steel ring, sur- rounding the outer casing of the nut, and are rendered slightly flexible in a vertical plane by grinding them, partly through near the point of attachment to the ring. The nut is therefore relieved from any stress other than the weight of the two rods and ring. The other ends of these rods are joined to a crossbar, and the latter to the carriage, through the agency of parts Nos. 18, 20 and 21, details of which will be found in the index to Plate A^I. The " pitch " of the screAv is approximately 20 threads to the inch, or more exactly, 20 threads= .9997 in. at 62oF., and as it may carry one or other of two interchangeable and accurately cut ratchet heads with 360 and 540 teeth respectively, operated by double paAvls, its ruling range varies from 20,000 lines per inch down, in to approximately 7200 lines per inch. The position of the ratchet heads, and mode of their attachment to the screw, is shown on the plan and index of the related parts. The travelling steel nut is 3 inches long, and is lined with a special alloy, related to a bearing metal, in which the threads are cut. After cutting the threads, the nut was ground with oil only, under pressure, to a bearing fit upon a duplicate screw of identical pitch and thread form, and finally upon the permanent screw itself, thus ensuring 'a true bearing fit throughout. The steel casing of the nut is surrounded by an outer ring of steel, in which, in addi- tion to the rods already described, is screwed a round steel lever (4), the further end of which carries a short revolving bar with hardened bearing surfaces sliding upon an optically true guide bar (13). This bar is adjustible Avith respect to its parallelism in relation to the screw axis, and can be used, if ik'sii-ed, for slight corvection New EiH/lne for Riding. 47 of tlie pitch of the sci-eAv. This last adjustiaeiit is ett'ecteJ by means ■of two micrometer screws (15) seen in Ph\te VIII. Any elevation of the bar due to a reversed action of the screw and ratchet is obvi- ated by a weight serving as a counterpoise and an upper guide bar ^16). The nut has a clear run of nearly 7 inches upon the screw; thia range of motion therefore represents the ruling capacity of the engine. The thrust block (17) witli its sapphire bearing face and several adjustments (7 and 7a), are important parts of the machine, which call for great precision in setting, wliich will be the subject of special mention latei-. The position of the thrust block is almost exactly central upon the bed of the machine. Hence, it is favour- ably situated with respect to any expansion of the bed due to temperature changes. The effect upon the ruling of such changes appears to be very slight, as seems to be proved by careful inspection of a 40 hours' ruling, during the progress of which temperature fluctuations amounting to 3°C. were recorded, but appeared to have produced no discoverable change in the regularity of the ruling. The travelling carriage, Avhich supports the plates while they are being ruled, is advanced by a central axial pull, directly in line with the screw axis, through the agency of tlie two rods already described, which serve to connect up the ruling carriage with the nut. The advantage of having screw, nut and ruling table joined together in a direct axial line is obvious, and, so fai- as I am aware, is an arrangement which has not hitherto been adopted in existing ruling engines. The ruling table itself is simj^le, being merely a Sijuare plate of steel fitted with a detacliable, circtilar graduated revolving super- table for supporting any rulings, or plates for such, requiring angular adjustment. The lower j^late, serving as the base, is 6 inches square and | in. tliick. It slides, by means of semi-circular ■grooved supports, attached to its under stirface, along two heavy circular rods of steel very accurately ground and polished, and resting in special supports screwed to the bed. The chief function of these two rods is to act as guides or Avays for maintaining the exact alignment of the ruling carriage with the screw. Most of the weight of the ruling plate, and also of any load it may carry, is borne by a separate under carriage rolling with a minimum of friction directly upon the upper surface of the beil. The frame and supports of the carriage are seen in outline on the plan as 27, 28 and 29. The under frame (27 and 28) supporting 48 H. J. Grayson : thy rods upon which the carriage slides to and fro, is best seen in- Plate IX. It consists of two identically shaped strong brackets bolted to the bed, one on each side, which serve mainly to support two rectangular steel bars grooved on their upper surfaces, through- out their length, to the exact curvature of the two circular glass- rods (29) which are ground perfectly straight and accurately uniform. These rods rest in, or rather float upon, a viscous medium (thick oil or vaseline) within the grooves of the two steel supports. The glass rods can be slightly adjusted to secure parallelism, and alignment, by means of the four screws (30 and 31). Such adjust- ment is very slight, and made with only just sufficient pressure to- prevent any longitudinal movement of the bars. The chief effect of thus supporting the glass rods is the complete- suppression of any tremour or vibration during movement of the diamond carriage over their surface. The surfaces themselves are not only ground, but are semi-polished, so that they consist essen- tially of innumerable minute facets, and when so prepared render the use of any lubricant unnecessary. It was found that the use of any lubricant would vary in its action, frequently introducing a variable load or pull upon the carriage during the progress of a ruling. The diamond bearing carriage is seen detached in the plan (Plate VI.), and in various other aspects in the series of photo- graphs illustrating the machine. It is a somewhat complicated piece of m,echanism. Leaving to a later page its more detailed description, the following outline of its principal parts and move- menta will serve to make clear its general operation. The plan shows the outline of the carriage as a rectangular framework, which is built up of brass and steel parts (32, 33 and 34) supporting a superframe (35) carrying all the adjustments for raising and low'er- ing those parts which control the movements of the diamond ruling^ point, situated at 40, during the operation of ruling a line. The chief adjustment in elevation is effected by means of a central screw (36) operating' the dovetailed slide near 35. This slide carries all the parts 37-42. The lower frame comprises the two broad bars (34) immediately over the glass guides (29). These bars are connected together by means of two steel plates (32, 33). The lower faces of the bars form rectangular grooves, and are fitted Avith boxwood linings adapted to the curvature of the glass rods upon which the frame slides to and fro. This motion is conununicated to the carriage from the eccen- New Engine for Kullmj. 49 trie drive (52) and transmitted to the frame through the driving rod (44). A second and smaller driving rod, not shown in the plan, lies immediately under 44, and is so adjusted as to move in the same direction, but slightly ahead of 44, thus raising or lowering the ruling point in advance of any movement of the frame by 44. The sequence of movements in the ruling of a line is as follows : — The diamond is first lowered into contact with the surface of the plate to be ruled. This is effected by the falling of a bell-crank lever due to the withdrawal of the rod underlying 44. The rod (44) then draws the carriage slowly forward, through the interval deter- mined by the position of the crank (53), and the line is completed. The first return movement, due to the revolution of 53, raises the diamond, through the lifting of the bell crank about .02 inch, above tlie ruled plate before any movement of the carriage on its ways can occur. The moment the diamond is clear the return journey of the carriage commences, and continues to the starting point of the next line; the diamond remaining suspended both during the return journey of the carriage and feed of the ratchet wheel which occur at the same time. The several movements ars so timed and adjusted as to permit the longest stationary interval to be precedent to the lowering of the diamond for each fresh line. The time occupied in the ruling of a single line may vary from 5 to 10 seconds, according to the length of the line ruled, and degree of accuracy required. The slowest rate named, calls for some check upon the descent of the diamond point at the start of each fresh line. An unchecked fall would speedily ruin the delicate cut- ting edge of any diamond suited to this work, hence its fall has to be so graduated as to avoid any sort of shock or blow. This is effected through the agency of three plungers and dash cells, the latter containing a fairly thick oil. The plungers are situated at 42 and 42a. The lines are also, by this means, freed from the effects of undulatory vibration of the diamond in a vertical plane. This brief reference to the action and control of the diamond during the cutting of a series of lines might properly lead to a description of the form of diamond, best suited to this work, at this stage. A careful study of the cutting action of a diamond for ruling lines of such extreme tenuity and perfection as are required for diffraction gratings, is of the very first importance. The amount of Avork required of a diamond in the cutting of even a medium-sized grating is equal to the cutitng of a single continuous line of over a mile in length. This line, or rather series of lines, 5 50 H. J. Grayson : must througlKHit be without appreciable change in depth, -width, or in its capacity to reflect light. These and other considerations, which are particularly well described by Professor Michelson,^ aff"ord some idea of the amount of care required in the selection, testing and adjustment of a ruling diamond. As it is our intention to refer in detail to the selection, preparation and general manipula- tion of a diamond suitable for ruling fine lines, and to illustrate its action under varying conditions, further reference is, for the present, postponed. Driving Mechanism. This includes chiefly the driving Engine, also such parts of the machine as are essential for the transmission of motion to those of its features just described. Respecting the motive power : while the total energy required may be very small — say below J H.P., it must be continuously and uniformly exerted over long periods. Any stoppage, no matter for how short a time, would be ruinous in its effect. Even a slowing down of the engine, such as would cause a variation in speed of more than a few j^er cent., would be highly detrimental. It appears to have Ix^n the usual practice to select some type of water or electric motor for operating the most recently constructed ruling engines. Electric powder seems to have been availed of by Rowland, and also for driving the Blytheswood machine, now at the National Physical Laboratory. No doubt the electrical drive may be advantageous when suitable storage batteries are exclusively available. As access to such bat- teries Avas not at my command it was decided to try the next most suitable driving-power obtainable, viz., a small hot-air Engine. Several preliminary trials Avith this type of motor were very pro- mising, and as the total energy required was found to be very small, not more than 1-40 H. P., an engine of that nominal capacity proved to be fully adequate for all requirements. This motor has now been in almost continuous use for about three years and has never once failed. It runs, with a minimum of atten- tion, for comparatively long intervals. And as it gives off but little waste heat, and is free from vibration and noise, it can be placed in a room adjoining that of the ruling engine. It has, in fact, proved an almost ideal engine for accomplishing a some- what difficult task. 1 See "Nature." Jan. Hth, 1912. New Engine for Riding. )1 The method of its adaptation to its Avork is as follows : — It is set up in an outer room adjacent to the small specially constructed room in which the ruling machine is housed. When at work the engine is regulated to run at about 250 revs, per minute. This speed is reduced to about one-fourth by means of leather bands and alu- minium speed reducing pulleys. Motion is given to the machine by a cord passing directly from the reduced drive, through a narrow slot in the wall of the machine house, to the driving wheel {60) on the main shaft (57) of the ruling machine. The shaft (57) is supported on a portion of an underframe which comprises three parts indicated on the plan as B, C and D. It will be noted that plate D rests upon and is bolted to B and C, which in turn are attached, by means of angle brackets, to the lower projecting flange of the machine bed. This construction has the merit of greatly reducing the weight of the whole machine and yet secures sufficient rigidity. Describing in order the parts of the machine supported on D, B and C; D carries on its upper surface two stout iron pillars, one near each end, which support the driving shaft (57), a circular rod of steel about 28 inches long, resting on bearings (55) with adjustable collars (56). Near its right-hand end are two cam collars {58 and 59). These are constructed so as to slide along the shaft, and are recessed on their inner faces. Within the recess is placed a cam, provided with means for lateral displacement as required ; it lies immediately under its lubricating pad and spring (62). A slotted, under cut, circular brass disc (54) is screwed to the opposite end of the main shaft, and provides for the eccentric adjustment of the crank bar head (53). The range, up to three inches, of this adjustment governs the length of the lines. On inspection of Plates VII., VIII. and X. will serve better than further verbal description to make clear the construction and relations of the j^arts just named. The second plate, B, carries a single substantial iron pillar (64) which forms the main support and fulcrum of the steel lever bar {61). One end of the lever passes under the cam on 57, and is pivoted at 63, with provision for adjustment and alignment in relation to both cam and ratchet wheel. The ratchet end of the lever is fitted with a small and carefully made frame which supports and controls the pawl or pawls engaging the ratchet teeth (9). The pawls are fitted with the utmost care and are controlled through the agency of the several parts of the frame (66 to 69). Just below the frame carrying the pawls is a support provided with screw 5\ 52 H.J. Grayson : adjustment and lock nut for regulating its height. The top surface of the pillar is hardened and polished, and serves as an arrest for a hardened spherical projection extending from the main lever imme- diately under the pawls. The arresting pillar and its adjustments are attached to a separate base plate (11) extending out from the base of the main l>ed of the machine to which it is bolted. The two screws, the heads of which are shown on 11, have no relation to Bj tliey, however, prevent any flexure of 11, due to the weight of the lever and counterpoise (65) descending upon it. It is, of course, important that all movements affecting the ruling be regu- lated to avoid the sudden arrest of any movement affecting the operation of the diamond point ; hence the provision throughout the machine of a variety of parts necessary to its protection. Reference to Plates VII., VIII. and X. wdll serve to supplement the brief description of the features indicated. Passing to base plate C. A glance at the plan will show that it is complementary to B in its relation to D and the main bed of the machine, to both of which it is similarly attached. Plate VII. shows its position, and indicates in perspective its purpose. It forms the base of a rigid pillar, of cast iron, supporting a frame which carries the two steel rods (50). These rods, both of which are accurately ground, mainly serve as guides to a small platform of steel, through the agency of which the ,eccentric swing or throw of the crank rod (52) is converted into a steady, even horizontal " to and fro " motion, as free as possible from any kind of constraint. This movement can be communicated to the ruling carriage as required. The transmission of a smooth and even motion is due primarily to the attachment of the connecting rod (52) to a rotating crosshead placed between the two guides (50) im- mediately below tlie lower plate or base of 49 ; and in part to the carefully fitted sleeves sliding on 50. To the upper surface of platform 48, are secured the various adjust- ments needed to effect and control the motions of the ruling car- riage, the chief of these being the centre block (47), which is rigidly screwed to the surface of 48. The communication rod (44) passes through the centre of 47, one end screwing into a rocking bar on the ruling carriage, the other resting partly in a guide frame (45) and partly in block 47. On opposite sides of the latter (47) are small sleeves or clamps fitted with binding screws; these, if free or clamped at a sufficient distance from 47, will permit 44, on which they travel, to slide freely through 47 without communicating any New Engine for Ruling. 53 motion of the main driving rod (52) to the ruling carriage. When, however, the clamping blocks are brought closer to 47 and secured, the free motion of 44 is restricted to a precise interval, which may vary from 0.01 in. to 0.1 in. or more, as desired; any further motion exceeding the interval to which the setting has been adjusted is of course communicated to the carriage. The purpose served by this preliminary movement of 47, which is not communicated to 44 or the ruling carriage, is to permit of the lowering and raising of the ruling diamond at the beginning or end of each line. This is effected by means of a second rod which passes tlirough 47, and may be clamped therein at any convenient jjoint in relation to the end, which pushed against a small lever. This lever lowers the diamond point before the ruling of a line and raises it from the plate on the return traverse as already explained. The location of this rod is not seen on the plan, as it lies immediately under 44 and parallel with it. As brief reference has already been made to the operation of the -diamond when ruling lines, furtlier allusion to the sul)ject may be deferred until the matter is dealt with in detail. The foregoing brief outline of the chief mechanical features and operation of the machine and ruling mechanism may fittingly close with a short description of its earliest trial runs, and the subsequent housing, etc., after which a more detailed account of certain of the methods adopted in the construction of its more important parts will be entered upon. The Housing of the Ruling Engine, etc. The provision of suitable accommodation for a machine for such exacting requirements as are involved in the ruling of a dift'raction grating is of some moment, especially when it is borne in mind that such a machine has to run for long periods ranging from 20 to 200 hours at a stretch. During such intervals there must be no very appreciable change in temperature of the air inmiediately sur- rounding the machine, that is, no change exceeding two or three tenths of a degree. Further, during the ruling of a grating the machine must not be subjected to vibrations, such as might arise from the proximity of trains, trams, or any heavy vehicular traffic; nor yet to shocks or tremors due to the operation of other machinery in the same building or immediate neighbourhood. Thus the pos- sibilities to be provided for or against are by no means easily met. 54 H. J. Grayson : Oil the completion of the machine, it was not found possible for some considerable time to house and use it under conditions favour- able to a satisfactory trial of its capabilities. Hence perforce it remained in an ordinary dwelling-house situated not far from a railway, but otherwise fairly free from serious disturbing influ- ences, other than those inseparable from such a location. Seeing that for a time no other alternative offered, it was^ decided to make the best of the available accommodation. The machine was set up on a brick pier, erected below the floor of a small room used as a study, etc., in which the temperature condi- tions were fairly even. In the main, the results from a series of trials justified the experiment. Certainly, defects of various kinds Were apparent, and for some of these remedies were devised, this being one of the objects for which the trial was undertaken. But the principal result of the experiment served to prove that it was possible, in the intervals between the somewhat extreme fluctuations of temperature to which our summer climate is liable, to rule fair gratings, even under adverse conditions. Subsequently a large sub-basement room., having very thick outer walls, situated under the main Library of the University, and suffi- ciently remote from disturbing influences akin to those named, was partitioned off into two smaller rooms. One of these is used for spectroscopic examination and work, while within the adjacent room a still smaller room has been constructed especially for the accommodation of the ruling machine. The latter room has double walls, the intervening space being filled with non-conducting material, consequently a very uniform temperature can be main- tained for a considerable period, the variations being mainly of a seasonal character. Within this small room, a foundation of dry sand, enclosed within cemented brickwork, has been laid down below the floor level. A heavy stone slab, resting upon the sand, serves to support a brick pier capped with a thick slate bench insulated from the brickwork with rubber pads. The upper surface of the slate is ground smooth and true, and carries the machine and driving gear, other than the engine; the whole being enclosed within a carefully constructed case, consisting niainly of heavy glass sashes, affording ready access to every part of the apparatus. The driving motor is placed outside the machine house, and does not affect its temperature. As the gas consumption of the motor is under one cubic foot per hour, any heat from this source is easily conveyed from the room. New Engine for Riding. 55 It will be perceived from the foregoing that the provision respect- ing insulation, isolation, general stability and comparative freedom frcjni temperature variations, combined with easy accessibility, leaves little of importance unprovided for. Naturally, the result of favourable conditions in the housing and surroundings of the machine was a pronounced improvement in the quality of the grat- ingti ruled, even apart from further mechanical improvements resulting from a more extended acquaintance with the working of the machine. This general account of the more important mechanical features of the Ruling Engine will, it is hoped, convey a fair idea of its structural divergences from other machines designed for ruling gratings; that is, so far as descriptions of such machines have been published. Two such descriptions, more or less complete, have recently appeared, viz., that of the Blytheswood machine, now at the National Physical Laboratory, and a partial account of a new machine designed by Professor Michelson, of the Chicago Univer- sity. Descriptions of Ruling Engines of earlier design, as for example those of Nobert, Rutherford, and Rowland, have been published. With perhaps the exception of the Blytheswood Engine, few of the descriptions convey to the reader any very detailed or important information concerning the actual construction of a machine of this character. Therefore, as much of the work entailed differs from ordinary instrument work and involves an intimate appreciation of minute values, it may be useful to give some account of the actual work involved in constructing special parts of the machine. The methods adopted were largely due to unavoidable limitatiiins, and better results might liave been attained by other means. This record is primarily the fulfilment of a definite obligation to the University whose generosity has made the building of a machine possible of accomplishment. That the information concerning its construction, which is here given, may be of service to others who may be engaged on similar or related work, affords the possibility of additional usefulness. In conformity with the foregoing, the following special parts of the machine appear to merit more detailed attention, namely : — 1. The Screw. 2. The Ratchet Wheel. .3. The Thrust Plate. 4. The Bulinq Diamond. 56 H. J. Grayson : 1.— The Screw. Embracing : — 1. Cutting the screw tliread and (i.) the grinding nut. 2. Process of grinding the screw, including : — (i.) Preliminary separation of Emery or other abrasives. (ii.) Method of Refining crudely separated abrasives, (iii.) Preliminary grinding of the screw by hand, (iv.) Grinding Avith fine abrasives and semi-automatic control. (v.) Mode of operating the mechanical grinder. 3. Method of testing the screw and its bearings during final correction and adjustment. I. — Cutting the Screiv Thread. The method of cutting the screw thread hereunder described differed but little from that adopted by Rowland and others, but the process of grinding it varied in important particulars. The Rowland screw appears to have been ground between the regular lathe centres by means of a specially constructed brass nut, described in the article on " Screws " in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The process of grinding followed by the writer varied materially, and is described below. With respect, first, to the operation of cutting the thread. A suitable bar of mild steel was selected and carefully annealed by slow heating and cooling. Its diameter permitted of the removal of several heavy cuts from end to end of its length, after v.hich it was again annealed, accurately centied in the lathe, and turned down to about | in. diameter with repeated light cuts. Later experience with other screws has shown that fine grinding may be preferable to turning as a preparation of the surface for threading, as it is not so likely to warp and compress the rod, and leaves its surface more uniform and true. The cutting of the thread on the prepared bar differed in no wise from the routine usually followed in the cutting of a good thread. The lathe was run slowly with an abundant supply of potash soap solution continually playing on the threading tool. The advance or forward " feed " of the cutting tool should never result in a heavy cut;, and as the work proceeds the cuts sliould l>e reduced until those finally taken are apj^roximately only .0005 (if an inch. It is, however, important that the last cuts taken should be continuous and even throughout the threaded length of the bar, even though Neiv Engine ior Ridiitg. 57 this should involve a slightly heavier cut than that just named. Also it is material that the over-all threaded length of the bar should exceed by several inches the portion it is pro^Dosed to use in the finished screw. The thread " pitch " and " angle " should be appropriate to the work for which the screw is designed. The pitch value of the screw here described is 20 threads to the inch, a value convenient for sub- division, and the thread angle 50°, permitting of a somewhat deeper thread than the usual Whitwortli standard; both "crown" and " root " of the thread, previous to grinding, remained as left from the threading tool. The greatest care was taken so that the intersections of the thread walls with any plane through the axis of the screw should be straight lines — a precaution applying equally to the counterpart threads within the nut. Should the work for which a screw is being cut justify tlie expenditure of the time involved, it will pay to cut several screws at the outset, selecting two of the best for final grinding. (i.). — The. grinding nut . — For grinding his screw, Rowland, accord- ing to the Encyclopaedia article, appears to have made use of a brass nut constructed externally so as to taper from the centre towards -each end, and split longitudinally into four equal segments which could be fitted to the screw and held in position by means of sliding sleeves or collars adapted to the tapered ends of the nut. The opposing sleeves were connected with bolts and nuts, and could thus be drawn together as the work of grinding proceeded. Soine objection may be taken to the use of this form of nut for grinding a precision screw for the following reasons : — (1) The iise of a brass nut upon a steel screw has the disadvantage due to the wide difference in the coefficients of expansion of the two metals, as some heating will take place in the process of grinding. To avoid heating, the Avork ol grinding must either proceed very slowly or else be conducted under water or oil, which entails very serious disadvantages. Hence any gain from the use of brass, due to its superior action with abrasives upon a harder metal, is lost. (2) The division of a grinding nut into four segments appears to be faulty, in that it is possible for one or more sections to move .slightly in relation to the others providing, as is almost sure to be the case, there are periodic or other irregularities in the screw. While the method of tightening up the segments is likely to produce uneven pressure, so that one or more sections of the nut may do more than their share of grinding, even though the general trend of the 58 H. J. Grayson: pressure applied may be in the direction of uniformity of action^ Thus any advantage derived from increased surface action; result- ing from the use of a segmented nut, may be somewhat discounted by unequal pressure. The foregoing and one or two minor considerations led up to th& decision to employ a continuous steel nut of sufficient thickness and rigidity to resist any variations in pressure which were likely to be used upon it. This nut was cut, bored and threaded up to a length of about 10 inches, which was nearly equal to the length proposed for the finished screw when in use. This long nut was threaded on the lathe used for cutting the- thread of the screw, with a threading tool and such other conditions and precautions as would result in the closest correspondence between the tAvo threads. The outer wall of the finished nut was slotted through on one side and partly so on its inner opposite side. The two halves of the- nut could thus be drawn or rather forced together on the applica- tion of moderate external pressure at suitable points. To effect this pressure the nut was encircled with three strong metal rings fitted with set screws bearing directly on its opposite sides. As the- rings, under pressure, Avere slightly elastic or yielding the pressure exerted by them was free from any rigidity likely to lead to seizure between the respective surfaces of nut and screw. Fig. 2, Plate XI. illustrates several of these features. II. — Process of Grinding the Screiv. As may readily be supposed, success in grinding an accurate screw is so intimately related to the abrasive used, that some- account of the properties and preparation of those^commonly em- ployed is desirable before treating of the method of their application. The following three well-known substances, in tlie form of abrasive powders, viz. : Carborundum, Alundum and Emery were- used, at least to some extent, experimentally in grinding the screws. As each of these abrasives possesses qualities and structural peculi- arities of its own, some explanation of the n\ethod of separating or grading, with i-espect to size and uniformity of grain, is essential to an appreciation of their efficiency. With respect to their nature and qualities : — Carhornndum, whilst by far the hardest of the three substances, is also the most brittle and the least suited for application to such New Engine J or Ruling. 59 a comparatively soft metal as mild steel in its annealed state, as minute particles become imbedded in its surface. Commercially obtainable in the form of very finely divided powders, microscopical examination of even the finest reveals the presence of numerous acutely angular, and frequently needle-like particles, very difficult to separate to a uniform shape and size of grain. Thus, though rapid in action as a cutting and grinding agent, Carborundum is liable to score and scratch finished surfaces to an extent dispropor- tionate to the average grading of the powder used. Moreover, the grades not infrequently contain a considerable amount of graphite, ■which is apt to soil and obscure the surfaces being operated on. Alundum, when obtained in the form of an abrasive powder, is usually white and clean. Though not so hard as carborundum, it is tougher and somewhat less variable as to the shape of its. particles. It may readily be separated into the finest grades,, which are clean to work with and effective in action. Emery, as an abrasive, is rounder and more uniform of grain than either carborundum or alundum, compared with which it is not so hard as either, but possesses the quality of toughness to a greater degree. Owing to its fairly high specific gravity it can readily be separated into a very effective series of finely divided powders suited for use upon mild steel, on which the finer grades leave a uniformly smooth or even polished surface. As, practically, the process for the separation of any of these abrasives is the same, we may describe that used for separating emery as typical, the details being as follow : — (i.). — The lyreliminary se'pdrafion of Emery or other ahrasives. — In connection with other Avork, considerable quantities of separated abrasives were required; the experience gained in their separation was availed of in the selection and preparation of the materials required for grinding the screws; the process being, in respect to the separation of emery, as follows : — As commercial flour emery contains a relatively large amount of coarse material, that is of grains over .001 incli in diameter, down to small grains unsuited for abrasive work of the kind here- described, the work of separation is best accomplished by first subjecting the crude powder to a preliminary treatment. The quantity dealt with, it must be understood, was propoi'tioned to the work for which this particular separation was required. A third of this amount would, of course, be ample for the supply of material for grinding several screws. 60 H. J. Grayson: A quantity (usually about 3 lbs.) of the finest flour emery was tied up in a j^iece of linen or canvas of moderately open texture and kneaded under water, preferably warm, in any convenient vessel until the whole of it had been washed out. This treatment ensures a thorough wetting of all the emery and prevents it from floating upon the surface of the water used in the later stages of its separa- tion. The water and emery were next thoroughly agitated and passed tlirough a fine sieve of wire or milling silk to separate out any coarse grains of emery or other material present. For this and the subsequent operations, four or five large tins holding about four gallons each (empty kerosene or petrol tins do very well) are required. Having washed the whole of the material through a suitable sieve, more water may be poured in to nearly fill up the tin, to which is added a few c.c. of a 20 per cent, solution of Tannic acid, Avhich acts as a deflocculent if not in excess. (Re- peated additions of this solution are made with each fresh supply of water as the separation process is continued). After a thorough stirring, allow the vessel to stand for ten minutes and then decant with care the upper three-fourths of the water, carrying in suspen- sion the finer emery, into another tin. This process should be repeated several times, with fresh supplies of water, until it is seen that most of the finer material has been decanted from the original sample. The sediment remaining will consist mainly of the coarsest grains present in the original samples, and may be set aside to settle in a smaller vessel or beaker and afterwards dried off. We have next to deal with some 8 or 10 gallons or more of water, con- taining finer emery than will fall through the depth of water each vessel contains — say 8 to 10 inches in 10 minutes; but will settle in say 20 minutes. Hence we proceed with the separation of this finer material much in the same way as we dealt with that which came down in 10 minutes, providing sufficient vessels are available; if not, allow the vessels containing it to stand and settle for about SO minutes, when the upper portion of tlie water in each, in which tliere will remain in suspension only fine material of little or no abrasive value upon a screAv, may be poured away as close to, but without disturbing the sediment, as possible. The several sediments having been transferred to one vessel, with additional water as required, and well stirred, are allowed to stand for 20 minutes, Avhen the upper portion of the Avater containing still finer emery is poured off, as l)efore, into other tins. The addition of fresh sup- plies of water and time for settlement (20 minutes) being continued, Neiv Engine for Riding. 61 so as to secure as niiich of the fine material as possible. The sedi- ment remaining, consisting mainly of material which settles in ■20 minutes, may be put aside for use or further treatment. We may next deal in the same way with the still finer emery contained in the water decanted oft' from the 20 minutes sediment. Much of this will require a still longer time — say 40 minutes — in which to settle and so obtain a further and yet finer grade of emery. The addi- tion of more water and decantation, etc., being continued, aa in previous grades, the time interval only being ex- tended to 40 minutes with a corresponding increase in care in tho several operations. In order to obtain a small supply of the finest effective material present, it will be necessary to carry on the separation process with a 60-minute interval for settlement, the sediment from Avhich will be small in bulk but proportionately valuable for the final abrasive work. The process of separating abrasives thus outlined is both slow and tedious, and may extend over one or two days. As, however, reli- able separations are absolutely necessary if good results are desired, it pays to go to considerable trouble to obtain them. It is, of course, not necessary for the purpose of grinding one or two screws only to undertake the separation of so large a quantity of material as that above named; but it is essential that an effectual grading of whatever abrasive it is proposed to use be made; and also that the process of separation should be carried to an even greater degree of refinement than is possible with the rough and ready method above outlined. This process only afforded a series of crude powders in which there is considerable variation in the size of the grains. To secure greater uniformity of grain, and greater smoothness in working, than is possible with any of the four sediments or separations just described, the following more exact method of treat- ment was adopted : — (ii.). — Method of Refinincf crudely separated abrasives. — Before commencing to grind the screws, we had the good fortune to have at hand a series of carefully separated powders of all the abrasives we have described and used; also some knowledge of their behaviour under varying conditions upon a variety of materials. This experi- ence had, in the main, tended to show that the greater the care bestowed upon the separation of an abrasive, the more efficiently and as a rule more quickly, could a desired result be obtained. 62 H. J. Grayson : Guided by this knowledge, confirmed by niicioscopical evidence from tlie examination of a variety of powders, it was decided to carry on the process of separation of the three finest grades of emery, obtained by the decantation method of separation, to a greater degree of refinement, the method adopted l>eing essentially as follows : — A circular upright glass jar, about 10 inches high by 5 inches wide, was roughly graduated into one-inch spaces. With this jar, the syphon and attachments shown in Fig. 1, Plate XI., were used. The attachments include a glass tube of about 5 m/m. bore, bent as indicated; the short arm being longer than the depth of the vessel used Avith it. The longer arm is extended as required with rubber tubing; it must be more than twice the length of the short arm, and retained at a length convenient so as to maintain a constant pressure at the outfloAv. Various sized jets to control the overflow of the syphon are required. A convenient series of these jets, which are not difficult to make and adjust, should permit of the whole of the Avater being withdraAvn from the container during intervals of about 10, 20, 40 and 60 minutes. It should be noted that the short arm of the syphon passes through a large circular piece of cork, which acts as a float upon the surface of the water in the graduated container, and also serves to regulate the depth of the intake tube. The bent syphon and its attachments are suspended and counterpoised by means of a cord, pulleys and Aveight, as shown in the figure, the outfit being completed with over- flow receptacles.! Before using this outfit with the particular grade of abrasive it is proposed to refine, the rate of flow from the syphon should first be adjusted. If the required grade is one of 20 minutes, the water level in the container should be lowered one inch in two minutes. Generally it is better that the time should exceed rather than fall short of the interval for which the adjustment is made. Everything being in readiness, the container is filled to the upper graduation mark Avith thoroughly mixed emery and water and allowed to settle for about 2| minutes, before the float is lowered upon its surface or the syphon clamp removed. On releasing the latter the water level should fall to wathin about one inch from the bottom of the con- tainer. The inlet tube is prevented from descending too near the. surface of any sediment on the bottom of the container by inserting 3 pins or bits of Avire tripod-Avise into the under surface of the float 1 The overflow vessel must be placed well below the syphoti outlet and not as shown in the fl:jfure, which was thus drawn for convenience of reduction. New Evgine for RuUikj. 63 so as to projec-t below the inlet at least one inch. This device will prevent the withdrawal of any coarse sediment from the bottom of the container in case the clamp should not have been replaced in .time. After syphoning off to a safe level the clamp is replaced, the tube and float withdrawn and a further supply of untreated sedi- ment and water poured into the container and the syphoning conducted as before, afterwards water only is added and the -syphoning continued so long as any considerable proportion of abrasive remains in suspension. The water withdrawn through the syphon carries with it most of the fine material suspended in the container; the bulk of the heavier particles, maintaining their initial advantage in descent during the stated interval, make their way to the bottom of the vessel. By this method of treatment, as will readily be perceived, a much larger proportion of fine material can bo withdrawn in a given time, while the regulated discharge ensures a more uniform grading. Respecting the fine material thus withdrawn, the vessels contain- ing it may be left to settle until the water appears comparatively clear, when it may be poured off and the sediment transferred to an evaporating dish preparatory to drying off. Before drying, the material should be examined under a microscope and the average size of the grains determined, in case it should be neecssary to repeat the separation process, with a slightly longer time interval, in the event of too great a disparity between the size of the various grains. Much the same mode of procedure as the foregoing applies to each of the crude separations first made, with correspondingly coarser or finer jets and longer or shorter periods for settlement. It must be borne in mind in this connection, that a small quantity of carefully separated abrasive is far more effective and uniform in its action than many times the same quantity imperfectly treated. Hence, though the process of separation may appear tedious, it will prove to be a wise economy to carry it through. Pour grades only of any particular abrasive thus treated are all that are really necessary to complete the grinding of a precision screw, providing the thread has already been carefully cut. With a view to present to the reader a graphic representation of the uni- formity in size of grain attainable by this mode of separation, a series of photo-micrographs with a magnification of approximately 75 diameters has been prepared and are shown as Plate XII.. Figs. 1 to 6. Respecting tliese photographs it is first necessary 64 H. J. Graysov : to point out that it is extremely difficult to secure uniformity in the distribution of powders so tine in grain as those represented owing to their tendency to clot or segregate; and also that the magnifica- tion used was somewhat too high for the coarse-grained samples, and too low for the finer ones. In spite of these drawbacks, the photographs render sufficiently apparent the differences in size and character of the grains. For example. Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XII., illustrating alundum, the grains of which are respectively .0015 in. and .0003 of an inch, are adequate to make clear the difference in grain between the respective sizes. Again, Figs. 3 and 4, representin/.seing the chief means of estimating and controlling the nature and extent of the woi-k being done. The mode of applying abrasive is now of considerable import- ance, and can be controlled and varied so as to materially modify its effect upon the screw. Ordinarily, when applying a fresh grade of abrasive or re-commencing operations after cleaning nut and screw, it was usual to release all clamping pressure and run off the nut below the screw; the latter was then coated with a thin even film or layer of abrasive mixed with oil — and in this connection it may be remarked that a light mineral oil and olive oil in equal parts, was later used. This combination was found to possess cei - tain advantages over either of its components used alone. Thin mineral oil was found to dry up rather rapidly and was more liable lo produce an increase of temperature in consequence, while olive 158 H. J. Grayson : oil alone proved somewhat too viscous, especially with the finer abrasives. The screw having been evenly coated with abrasive, the nut is run into a central position upon it, and pressui-e brought to Ijear, evenly and slowly, rotating the nut by hand while this is being done. In order to ensure a positive and uniform pressure the clamping screws are advanced alternately until they are felt to grip gently, and are then slightly relaxed. We thus ensure a condition for both nut and screw in which it will he safe to run for a short time. During all starting operations, close attention is paid to the machine, until we are assured the running is satisfactory. Provid- ing the pressure on both rings is properly proportioned, and the- condition of the screw is known to be of a fairly uniform character, it is quite safe to run at a speed of 120 revolutions per minute, with an abrasive (alundum) of a uniform average diameter of grain of about .0007 inch. This was found to be a suitable grade to follow that of emery used in the hand grinding already described. A mixture of equal parts of alundum and carborundum was, how- ever, later substituted for alundum alone. Having allowed the nut to travel up and dowai the screws a few times, the former was- run off and reversed, and re-engaged by hand over several threads; the latter being a precautionary measure never omitted, otherwise damage might result to either nut or screw or both. The nut having attained a central position once more, some readjustment of pres- sure may be required. This is effected exactly as l^efore, and when found uniform, the work of grinding should proceed for the same time interval as before reversal. After the lapse of this interval, it will probably Ije found that the abrasive and oil tend to work away from the centre to opposite ends of both screw nut, and if attention were not given to correct this tendency, it would even- tually lead to a slight tapering of the screw from its centre towards each end, and particularly to that end which was lowest during grinding. At a later stage, it was found possible to counteract this tendency, partly by varying the distribution of the abrasive, and partly by extending or restricting, as the case required, the travel of the nut upon the screw. It might readily be supposed that the central portion of the screw would be more rapidly ground than the ends, providing the nut does not travel over the full length of the screw after each reversal — to permit which is not usual or wise. As a rule it was found best to reverse the motion of the nut when from two-thirds to three-fourths of the screw Ntw Engine for Ruling. 69 length had been traversed, i.e., about one-third of the nut should generally remain engaged upon the screw. Regarding the re-distribution of the abrasive as the grinding proceeded; this was usually done by using a flat camel's hair lacquering brush to collect any excess oil and abrasive and transfer it back to the central and upper portion of the screw, in advance of the travelling nut in either direction ; whilst additional supplies of oil and abrasive were carefully inserted into the slotted nut by means of a piece of leather cemented to a strip of aluminium or zinc. This proved both safe and satisfactory, as only the edge of the leather, charged with abrasive, came into contact with the re- volving threads. After about three hours of carefully controlled work, it was customary to run the nut off the screw, detach it and thoroughly wash out the threads with kerosene, with the aid of a stiff tube brush. The screw also avouIcI be dismounted and similarly treated. In this, and all other operations involving reversal or detachment of the nut, attention was constantly required to avoid the accidental introduction of dust, hairs, or any kind of fibrous material, which might cause the nut to jamb or seize. Attention Avas also directed to any temperature change by inserting a sensitive thermometer into the nut whenever the latter was detached ; three degrees being the limit of variation at this stage of the work. After cleaning the nut and screw, it was usual to make a fresh examination of the latter under the microscope; its condition, in respect to the action of the abrasive upon it, being noted. At the same time the diameter of the screw was measured with a micro- meter ; the measurements obtained providing data for adjusting the travel of the nut upon it, and to some extent, for any increase or decrease in pressure; though, as a rule, the latter was more accu- rately controlled, during the operation of grinding, by the sense of touch. No precise record of the time taken to reduce the surface of the threads to a uniformly smooth condition was made at this stage, but for this particular grade of abrasive, it was not less than 40 hours; the work lieing distributed over a fortnight or more. Inspection then showed a decided improvement in the condition and appearance of the screws. The scoring due to the coarser emery had practically disappeared; at the same time the form of the thread had been well maintained, and the gauging was uniform and good. It was therefore decided to proceed with the next finer grade of abrasive, viz., .0005 inch alundum and carborundum in -equal parts; the grinding operations and other procedure being 70 H. J, Grayson .- exactly similar to those of the preceding grade. It was noticed^ ahnost at once, that this somewhat finer abrasive had a different grinding sound, and somewhat smoother action, appreciable to the touch when the nut levers were held by hand for a short time. A longer time was given to grinding with this particular grade, the '.vork extending over the greater pai't of a month. The improve- ment effected could then be easily appreciated in the smoother move- ment of the nut, apart from that seen under the microscope, which was satisfactory throughout the full length of the screw. It was therefore decided to use one of the finest grades of emery and carry on the grinding with this to a finish. This work occupied another week or more, and proceeded satisfactorily, although the effect upon the screw was less pronounced than might have been expected. As it now appeared that little further imj^rovement could be effected by grinding, both nut and screw were carefully cleaned, and the latter slightly polished with the harder residneo of washed rouge, that is the purplish portion, which imparted a slight gloss only to the finished work. The screw having been freed from all traces of polishing material, the nut was traversed to and fro upon it, with a trace of oil only, and pressure just sufficient to ensure the closest approximation to contact with the screw which could be obtained without risk. As this procedure gave no indication of inequalities of pitch or dia- meter, and direct microscopical examination and comparison by the methods described was equally satisfactory, it was decided to mount tlie screw in its permanent position upon the bed of the machine, and sul>mit it to the test of an acutal ruling or series of rulings, in order to determine under working conditions its accuracy and other behaviour. Preparatory to this step, it was necessary to eut away a portion of the threads from each end of the screw, to provide space for bearings and the ratchet head. To effect this, the original centres of the screw bar were availed of for the preliminary turning doAvn to obtain a first approximation to the limits of accuracy required. As the original axis of the bar and that of the ground thread were probably no longer coincident or parallel, and as it was of the first importance that the thread axis and ]:)earings should be strictly in alignment to ensure this condi- tion, the grinding nut was first mounted upon the lathe carriage, so as to travel approximately parallel with the ways of the l>ed : the screw was then threaded through the closely fitting nut. The bearing portion of each end of the screw Avas next slowly revolved New Eixjvne for Rulhig. 71 and advanced past a small tine carborundum grinding wheel, run- ning on the dead centres of the lathe, at about 5000 revs, per min- ute. This plan of " truing " the bearings ensured a very close agreement between the thread and bearing axes. ^ The two bear- ings thus ground were then available for correcting the centre holes on which the threads were first cut, so that eventually, centres, bearings and threads were found to be in such close agree- ment that the usual mechanical tests applied to them indicated no aj^preciable error. As we are not here concerned with the work intermediate be- tween what has just been described, and certain further correc- tions made at a later i^eriod, and which resulted in the practical elimination of all measurable irregularities between screw, nut and bearings, we may at once proceed to describe how this further imj^rovement was accomplished. III. — Final inetJiod of adjustiiig and testing the screw and its bearings. It lias already been stated that the ruling macliine was completed up to a certain stage, and a number of trial ruling made under unavoidably adverse conditions. As was anticipated, the results from these early trials were imperfect but valuable in that they served to bring under notice defects of various kinds. Among these one was such as could have been caused either by a bent screw or by a screw whose axis was eccentric with its bearings by amounts too small for the rough method already described to detect. After some experiments had been made, the following device for the detection of small errors in the screw or its bearings was designed and constructed, and proved both convenient and effec- tive. An inspection of Fig. 2, Plate XIV., wliich is a plan of the apparatus, will aid the verbal description here given. As a sufficiently sensitive test coidd not be directly applied to tlie screw when in position upon tlie ruling machine, both screw and nut were detached and placed in polished steel V-shaped bearings, secured to the carefully worked surface of a heavy slab or surface plate of glass about 1| inches thick. The strict alignment of the V bearings with respect to each other was obtained by first placing upon them a straight round bar of steel accurtely ground to the same diameter as the bearing surface upon the screw. The use of this bar ensured the parallelism of the V block surfaces. 1 This method of correcting- the liearings assumes the str.iig-htness of tlie screw ; an assumption which afterwards was found to he incorrect. 72 H. J. Grayson : The glass slab carried, in addition to the screw and its bearings, a long rectangular bar — also of glass — lying parallel to the screw, and serving as a guide and support for the extension lever bar of the nut, in a position identical with that occupied by the same parts upon the ruling machine when in action. Hence the nut could be traversed from end to end of the screw, without the slightest movement in rotation. A second long rectangular bar — In this case of machined iron lying parallel to the screw, but about 6 inches from it, was also secured to the base plate. This iron bar served mainly as a guide for a smaller bar or block of iron sup- porting a small travelling microscope which could l^e moved in a direct line from end to end of the screw. The microscope was fitted with an objective and ej-e-piece, affording a combined magnifica- tion of al:»out 25 diameters; tlie eye-piece being fitted with a micrometer scale having 100 scale divisions within the field of view. The V bearings supporting the screw were both exactly of the same dimensions and height, and one of them was provided with a thrust plate enabling the screAv to be rotated without end play. For con- venience in rotation, and recording of positions, the other end of the screw was fitted with a simple graduated disc and short lever handle. The swivelling steel ring surrounding the nut carried a carefully made parallel plate of quartz about U in. long by | in. in width, and thick enough to prevent flexure. One face of this plate was cemented to the steel ring in a horizontal position, while its outer face, which was optically true and polished, could be brought to a position strictly in alignment with the travel of the nut, and therefore of the screw axis, an essential condition for this method of testing. This agreement Avas arrived at by trial and error, the quartz plate being adjusted so that a longitudinal movement without rotation of the screw in the V bearings caused no change in the position of the indicator (described below) as seen in the micro- scope. To complete the testing equipment, a delicately sensitive lever indicator was constructed. This was provided with adjustable bearings and a needle index bar with a magnification ratio of about 1 to 20, Avith respect to its length and fulcrum adjustment; or with the microscope a combined magnification of 500 diameters. The index point of the needle moved in a vertical plane across the scale of the miscroscope eye-piece, and was adjusted, when in use, to New Evg'nie J or Ruling. 73 indicate a movement of rather less than one micron per division of the micrometer scale and values of less than half that amount, or 1/50000 inch were both appreciable and reliable. In operation the lower bearing point of the indicator — a polished steel sphere — was brought inte contact with the face of the polished quartz plate Just mentioned, the indicator needles being inclined at about 45°; an angle both correct and convenient for the position of the micro- scope reading scale, and other predetermined constants of the apparatus. These various adjustments called for the expenditure •of some little time and care at the outset, but any difficulties were soon mastered and the instrument proved reliable and effective throughout its subsequent use. As soon as the foregoing method afforded the necessary assurance ■of reliability, a series of tests were made and the readings care- fully tabulated, the results being recorded in graphic form. One of the graphs, the earliest obtained, has been reproduced as Fig. 1, Plate XIII., and will serve to illustrate the actual condition of the «crew at this time, l^efore any attempt had been made to correct the errors revealed by this method of testing. Seeing some explana- tion is necessary to make clear the interpretation of the results -obtained from the measurements and graphically recorded as Figs. 1,2, Plates XIII., and Fig. 1, Plates XIV., we may first indicate the procedure followed in obtaining the data for constructing the ■graphs here presented. The curve in the upper part of the figure was based upon a record of some 16 readings (see below) taken at half-inch or 10-thread intervals over the full length of the screw in the following manner. The three-inch nut was first carefully fitted to the screw and run into position, back towards the thrust end of the screw up to the limit of the threads available, all the threads of the nut being engaged. With the spherical end of the indicator in contact with the quartz plate, the screw was slowly revolved through a complete "turn, the observer meanwhile noting any change of index point, in relation to the scale in the field of the microscope. It is here worth drawing attention to the fact that the maximum and minimum readings always corresponded with the same points on the divided circle used for locating these positions, indicating that the bend upon the screw was of the nature of a plane curve. A record of the mean deviation of the index per revolution for three revolutions, was usually made for each position. This was -done for every half-inch interval over the range of threads available 74 H. J. Grayson : for measurement. The set of readings here given was obtained before any further work was done on the screw by way of correction. Distance from zero position. Microscope deflection. Distance from zero position. Microscope deflection. 0" 30.5 4.U" 44.5 0.5 32.5 4,5 44.0 1.0 33.5 5.0 43.0 1.5 35.5 5.5 43.0 2.0 40.0 6.0 41.5 2.5 40.5 6.5 39.5 3.0 43.0 7.0 37.5 3.5 43.0 7.5 37.0 The method employed in plotting these observations was as fol- lows : — In the figure (1, PI. XIII.), the abscissae along the line O X repre- sents the distance of the centre of the nut from its position at the- first observation where the abscissa =0; measuring the first read- ing or its reduced value from 0 and the last reading (that at 7^ in.) from X both downwards we obtain the points A and B respectively. Then using the straight line A B as base line, all the intermediate- readings were plotted by measuring them upwards from A B. Thus we obtain the curve 0 M X which represents graphically the shape of the screw between the points where the nut was situated at the first and last readings. Thus at the point on the screw represented by M, the interval N M represents the sum of the errors of bend and eccen-^ tricity, M P representing the ordinate at M of the curve formed by the screw, and P N the amount by which the screw is " drunk " at M due to bearing eccentricity; the actual amount of error in each case being given by the scale on the diagram. With respect to the value of the microscope readings mentioned above. One division of the microscope scale was actually .00009 cm. but for convenience the observed readings, which obviously were twice the actual error, were plott-ed in each case. The inch values given as a scale to the diagrams are approximate only and repre- sent the errors, not twice the errors. Ref/rindinri the Screii'. Progress and results at intervals of from 3 to 5 hours. — The series of curves shown in Fig. 2. PI. XIII., have been prepared in order to illustrate the improving shapes of the screw as re-grinding New Engine for Rulivg. 75 proceeded. The base or reference line A B of Fig. 1 has, however,, been omitted in Fig. 2 for convenience. In all the tests the values of the negative ordinate.s 0 A and X B remained the same, within the limits of experimental error, as in the case of the first test (Fig. 1). With respect to Fig. 2, the first of the four curves is that already described Fig. 1, included for direct comparison. The second curve shows the result of 15 hours' work, and is the fourth recorded during this period. It clearly shows the reduction of the original error to about one-half. The third curve was drawn after a further period of grinding, with the same abrasive and for alx)ut the same time as before, and with the same proportion of improvement. Afterwards the grade ofi abrasive was reduced to .0003 in. — emerv in this case — and the grinding continued at a slow rate for some hours longer. Finally, the result shown in curve 4 was obtained and was deemed satisfactory. It now remained to correct the eccentricity of the l^earings. To effect this no better plan than the one previously tried could be devised ; it was therefore followed, and as the screw was now straight, with entirely satisfactory results, as may be seen in Fig. 1, PI. XIV. Here the curve 0 X and base line A B were plotted exactly as in Fig. 1, PL XIII., and it Avill be seen that the negative ordinates 0 A and X B which represent eccentricity, have l^een reduced to about .00002 in. and .0000-3 in. respectively, a condition which it would \ye diiScult to improve with any certainty of success. The results from these two improvements, combined with minor adjust- ments, have been evident throughout all subsequent ruling. 2.— The Ratchet Head. The construction of the Ratcliet head or wheel differed in some respects from similar parts of other ruling engines. These parts, so far as they have been described, have usually been made of brass or gun metal throughout; probably for ease and convenience in cutting the teeth. It was decided in this case not to follow the usual practice, but to construct a composite head of gun metal and steel; the hub, with a flange for supporting the steel rim, alone being gun metal. As the general design and construction of the head are well shown from various view^ points throughout the series of plates illustrating the 1 Alundum, grade •0005" had been used up to this stage. 76 H. J. Grayson: machine, it is not i^roposed to enter upon a detailed description, but merely to specify the principal dimensions and essential features. Tlie central hub and the flange for supporting the steel rim -were turned from a single casting of hard jrun metal ; the hub being about 1| in. through and made to fit the corresponding tapered bearing upon the screw. The flange of the hub was about 8 inches in diameter and formed the bed and support of the circular st-eel rim. The over-all diameter of the rim was 10 inches and its finished thickness just under ^ inch. This steel rim, which was turned, annealed and afterwards ground and lapped with great care, was accurately fitted and bolted to its gun metal support with- out avoidable stress of any Sort, and with only just sufficient freedom to accommodate for any difference in expansion. Two similar heads were thus constructed; in one 360 and in tlie other 540 teeth, were eventually cut. The cutting of these teeth with the necessary accuracy was a formidable undertaking, and occupied a long time. As no milling machine possessing even approximately the accuracy required for cutting the teeth was available, it was decided to grind them out, a method which, •although slow and laboriovis, promised to afford accuracy of a fairly high order. The first requisite for the method proposed to be followed was a well divided circle. Therefore, with a view to securing one sufficiently correct, a number of theodolite and other circles were examined and tested as to their correctnes; but all failed in tliis respect. Hence it was decided to have a circle con- structed and specially graduated. Messrs. Watts and Son, of Lon- don, who had recently built a very accurate circular dividing engine, were communicated with, and they undertook the work of making and graduating a suitable disc of silver. On this circle ■each of the 360° was divided into 10 minvite intervals with gradua- tion lines sufficiently fine to bear a magnification of 100 diameters. The completed circle fully met expectations, its accuracy being well within the limits stipulated for, viz.,± 2.5 seconds. Indeed, after a series of tests we found its accuracy comparable with that of a circle ruled by the same engine under approximately the same conditions and tested by the Imperial Institiite, Charlottenberg. The maximum error of any sort found in the latter were -1-1.4 seconds and —1.7 seconds. The provision to be made for the actual operation of grinding the teeth was next considered and was mainly worked out as fol- lows : — A number of specially thin dental wheels, 3 inches in Neiu Engine for Riding. 77 diameter and made of the very hard greenish variety of carbor- undum, were obtained. Each wheel was mounted upon its own steel spindle, from which it was not again removed, and with the aid of suitable diamond tools its periphery was trued and cut to the shape necessary to reproduce by grinding the form of teeth required. The wheel spindles were adapted to run in a lathe cutter frame witL hardened centres, with overhead drive and provision for speeds up to 6,000 revs, per minute as free as possible from vibration. A series of wheels were thus fitted varying in grade of grain, but all relatively fine and made up with a vitreous bond. The coarsest of these wheels were used as originally made for the first roughing cuts in which extreme accuracy was not called for. But the carefully formed edges of the finer grade wheels, used for finishing the teeth,, in which process both great accuracy and high finish were required,, were charged with diamond powder obtained by crushing and grad- ing after the method described for preparing other fine abrasives. This grading was of course done on a proportionately small scale and with the aid of petrol in place of water. Several grinding discs were so charged, each with its own grade of diamond in the- following way : — The spindles, carrying each its own wheel finally trued and turned to the correct shape, were supported on centres in a small frame convenient to a tiny blow-pipe flame arranged to impinge upon the edge of the disc and parallel with its face. The disc or wheel,, carefully freed from grease or dirt of any sort, is then slowly revolved and its edge moistened with a strong solution of soda car- bonate, using a fine camel-hair brush and working with the aid of a magnifier, which is necessary as the dimensions of the trued edge of the disc are very small. The application of the alkaline solution ensures the even distribution and adhesion of a film or layer of a thin cream (made up with water) of glass enamel composed of extremely fine ground moderately hard glass, containing about one part in three of diamond powder of the particular grade suited to the work to be done. The liquid enamel thus prepared, fills up the pits and crannies in the edge of the disc, which are of course very small in the case of a fine grade wheel. As soon as the layer of enamel is dry, that is in a few minutes, it is ready for firing. To effect this the wheel and spindle are first slowly and uniformly heated with a bunsen flame, after which the blow-pipe jet is brought into position to play quietly upon the extreme edge of the disc, which is quickly brought to a white heat, fusing the painted 78 H. J. Grayson .• on enamel (which binds the diamond dust) to a thin vitreous coating on the edge of the Avheel. The fusing process requires care, skill and judgment. The wheel during the process is slowly revolved and kept under observation with a magnifier. More than one coat- ing of enamel will usually be required to ensure an enduring result. It will be understood that this treatment does not injure or fuse the diamond fragments, which, if small and uniformly graded, remain .securely embedded in the enamel, filling the minute cavities of the wheel edge. As the thin outer skin of the enamel wears away when the wheel is in operation the diamond particles are exposed; hence after a little preliminary use, the wheel edge when used for cutting or grinding purposes which require prolonged endurance and i^er- manence of shape, becomes the equivalent of. a diamond wheel. It is, however, important that during is use, either upon hard steel, glass, or any similar substance, the precaution not to overfeed or force the rate of cutting be strictly observed. With due attention to these precautions the " life " of the cutting edge of the wheel may be greatly prolonged. The art of using such a wheel correctly and effectively can only be gained by experience. The method of mounting and moving the ratchet head had next to be provided for. The arrangements made for this purpose, also for supporting and revolving the graduated circle and for main- taining in a rigid position the two reading microscopes used upon the circle, are sufficiently illustrated in the photograph, PI. XV. This photograph, if carefully examined, is self explanatory in respect to almost every detail. Some of the principal features «hown therein, apart from the lathe and its fittings, are, first, the «teel rod forming the spindle on which are mounted from left to right in order — the ratchet wheel, next to this the tangent- wheel and its fittings for moving and clamping the whole system during work upon the ratchet. Finally the Watts divided circle for spacing and controlling all angular movements upon the ratchet. The ratchet wheel and divided circle were most carefully centred and correctly related to each other by grinding the spindle on " dead " centres and making full use of the two microscopes in the adjustment of the reading circles. Once these adjustments were effected the ratcliot . and divided circle were never displaced relatively to each other during subsequent grinding operations upon the teeth. The micro- scopes were securely mounted upon the tla-ust bar or socket of the back centre which also provided for rotary swing and rough focus- sing adjustment. Fine adjustments of the microscopes were effected Neiv Engine for Riding. 79 "by means of the sleeves carryiiifj the tubes; provision was also made for a certain amount of lateral displacement. The optical equip- ment of the microscopes afforded a magnification range of from 50 to 100 diameters which was found to be ample for all purposes. The steel spindle, carrying the whole system, was supported on the two " dead " centres of the lathe, which were secured in a "locked " position. The cutter frame, supporting the grinding disc and guide pulleys, is seen in a working position immediately in front of the ratchet wheel. During the operation of cutting the teetli the main carriage or saddle of the lathe bed, in the tool holder of which the •e utter frame was clamped, was traversed along the ways of the lathe for the short distance, usually less than an inch, required to com- plete the cut and clear the ratchet. To effect and control this move- ment, the apron mechanism of the lathe carriage was made use of ■iind proved to be both steady and reliable. During work upon the ratchet, and particularly near its final stage, pro'^ision was made f(n- protecting the more sensitive and exposed parts of all mechanism likely to l3e affected by heat from Ihe operator's body or other source liable to lead to expansion or contraction owing to temperature changes. The cutting wheel, which was absorbent, was maintained in a moist condition "with kerosene, derived from a sponge pad in contact with its edge. Hence the heat prodiiced by the operation of grinding was reduced to a minimum. In the course of the final finishing Avork upon the ratchet wheel, the whole of which was effected with the diamond charged discs already described operating with cuts of .0001 in. or less, a greatly Improved grinding frame (not shown in the photograph) for hold- ing the grindirtg cutters was used. Hence the combined outfit worked with such pi-ecision that it was possible to grind completely round a circle of 540 teeth and find hardly any appreciable loss -upon the wheel cutting edge due to wear, although the operation involved over 2,000,000 revolutions of the grinding disc. A result of such a nature would have been quite impossible without the aid of the special appliances with which it was effected. Reference to one or two other details affecting grinding opera- tions may here be made. In order to save time, the angular feed of the ratchet through a tooth space was effected by means of the tangent wheel during four-fifths of the time occupied in the process •of grinding out the teeth. During the finishing process, however, In order to eliminate all stresses, the tangent wheel was thrown out 80 H. J. Grayson : of action and direct adjustment upon the divided circle with the- aid of the microscopes was made by hand. Once this adjustment had been made for eacli tooth, the whole system was clamped and remained rigid during the passage of the grinding disc across the tooth face. The precaution to complete each circuit of the wheel at one operation without a break was always observed. Further-^ more, every fresh traverse was commenced a quadrant to the rear of the one preceding it. Adequate provision was also made to eliminate- so far as was possible the chances of error due to fatigue or interrup- tion; tlie latter being by far the most difficult to provide against. It now remains to indicate in general terms the probable degree- of accuracy which was attained by the foregoing method of cutting- a ratchet wheel. Prolonged tests with a view to determine the- nature and extent of the inaccuracies upon the circuit of the ratchet were made. Necessarily errors are present even in the most care- fully executed work of the character just described. It was hoped that, assuming necessary precautions had l^een taken throughout,, the degree of accuracy present in the divided circle Avhich was copied. could at last be closely approximated, especially as the original errors of this circle, which had already been proved to be small, were bisected by the use of two microscopes in the adjustment made for every tooth cut. Among the various tests made to determine the extent of remain- ing inaccuracies, was one Avhich involved the use of a test indicator^ not unlike the one already described and used for testing the screw. In this case, however, it was made and fixed so that it engaged the working face of a tooth similarly to the way in which the pawl engaged it. It was so fixed that, as the ratchet wheel was moved on the ruling engine by the pawl, it engaged first the teeth distant LSQo from the pawl, and readings were taken. Then it was placed at other distances as requii-ed in tlie usual nietliods of cali- brating divided circles. This test was carried out upon the ruling^ machine under conditions, so far as individual teeth were con- cerned, analogous to those in operation when ruling. The magni- fication used to detect movement of the index in the field of the- microscope was such that a movement indicating an error of one- thousandth part of a tooth interval could be read with ease. The result deduced from a sei'ies of tests by the above method indicated that the maximum error of any single tooth throughout the circum- ference of the ratcliet was less than one-600th part of a tooth space and no periodic error was perceptible. Unfortunately the limits. Netv Engine for Riding. 81 of this paper preclude any detailed statement concerning the manner in which these investigations were carried out. 3.— The Thrust Plate. The thrust plate or ]:)earing surface against which the screw rotates is of great importance, in that any imperfection or weakness of its surface or any diversion from a strictly normal position, of even a small area of its surface, may result in some error or slight disturbance of the screw which is almost inevitably communicated directly to the ruling. Hence a thrust plate must be made of material combining the properties' of compactness, hardness, tough- ness and durability in a high degree. This material, whether natural or artificial, must also be such as is capable of receiving the highest possible optical finish, that is, with respect to the perfection of its working or bearing surface. The importance of these requirements will be appreciated when it is borne in mind that errors resulting from imperfection of a thrust bearing will be periodic and if so an error of amplitude less than .0000005 in. would be quite appreciable by its effect on the finished grating. Thus in the selection of a substance suitable for a thrust surface we are restricted to an extremely limited choice of material. Naturally, to those familiar with the limitations and requirements involved, the diamond is at once suggested as the most likely substance to ade- quately fulfil all the demands made upon it. Unfortunately a diamond of a suitable size and shape for the screw thrust of a ruling engine would be difficult to procure, extremely costly and almost impossible to work, without professional aid, to the requisite perfection of surface demanded. Of other substances we only propose to mention those of which we have had actual experience, and know wherein they failed to meet requirements. Naturally, of the substances experimented with, only the most perfect examples obtainable were used. These included the hardest steel, crystalline quartz, agate, topaz and sapphire. The steel thrust plat« was promptly discarded; though hard and tough and worked to a highly finished surface, it required lubrica- tion to prevent seizure and this at once introduced instability, owing probably to the varying thickness of the oil film. Moreover, with steel against steel (the screw terminal face also being steel) signs of wear wei'e soon apparent. The two examples of quartz which were tried, afforded, for a time, some promise of success and permanence; eventually, how^ever, minute circular scratches or 7 '82 H. J. Grayson : grooves appeared on the area of contact with the screw facet, which led to their rejection. Topaz, \\hich is only a trifle harder than quartz, and not so tough as the variety of quartz known as agate, likewise failed, and probably from the same cause as tlie latter. With respect to sapphire, this was actually one of the fii'st sub- stances made use of, and was only temporarily discarded because of the difficulty of working up a bearing face to the recpiisite perfec- tion. A second attempt to prepare a fine crystal slab of this gem, after the rejection of steel, agate and topaz, was rewarded with a greater n)easure of success; the result from the second attempt being a finely polished optically true surface, over a central circular area of the crystal § in. in diameter. This face, which was free from defects, either of its crystalline structure or tlmse arising from the process of woi-king it, was formed on the face of a S(|uare slab of sapphire f in. in diameter and under 3-16 in. thick. Two sapphire thrust plates have been successfully prepared. One of them, which is circular in shape, has been cut f)'om a synthetically formed crystal of sapphire. The latter is somewhat easier to work than the natural gem, probably because the crystalline cleavages are less developed. The artificial gem, however, has tlie disadvantage of being less perfectly annealed, and, in consequence, requires greater care in working to avoid fracture. The following outline of tlie process of working a true sapphire thrust face may be worth recording, as it differs from the lapidary's method of Avorking such gem faces. It is necessary in the first place to secure a good sapj^hire gem .stone, its colour is immaterial; it should, however, be fairly large and quite free from cleavage fractures and other similar defects. The work of slicing and roughly cutting to shape is done after the method followed by the lapidary; the grinding and polishing of its faces requires more exact treatment than he usually gives to these operations. In order to obtain good surfaces, truly worked and free from scratches or other defects, three small laps were first prepared and ground true on one face. One of these laps, made of gun metal, was used, Avith finely crushed and separated diamond powder, to grind up the faces and edges of the sapphire plates until they were fairly smooth and parallel. A second lap, of steel in this case, with still finer diamond powder, sufficed to finish off one ground face until it was free from the scratches and pitting remaining from the preceding grinding. A third lap of pure tin, with a carefully prepared face, was now u.sed for polishing the already optically true face of the crystal; the polishing material Nevj Engine for Riding. 83 being extremely fine diamond separated in oil. If the polishing •operation is properly carried out it leaves the surface of the crystal •optically true, scratchless and with a brilliant polish. The outer zone of the rectangular face of the crystal was next turned off in the lathe, ^^itll the aid of a diamond tool, leaving the central area cir- cular in outline and slightly above the surrounding face (see I'ig. 1, Plate XVI.). The task of grinding and polishing the plate was throughout controlled and corrected from time to time, as required, with the aid of a small test plane, in order to ensure the best possible result. Any trace of error, when tested in this way, should nowhere exceed some small fraction of a wave length. This condition is attainable with time, jDatience and a moderate amount of manipula- tive skill. It remained now to provide for the Mounfing and Adjustment of the thrust plate prepared as described. With respect to the former, viz., Mounting. The plan adopted for mounting the prepared thrust plate was as follows : — A block of machined cast iron was first prepared. This in elevation was tri- angular in outline Avith rectangular base and perpendicular face. The base was 1^ in. square, the perpendicular face 2 in. high. Plate VI. shows the position of the thrust in relation to surrounding parts of the machine; also the method of its attachment to the bed. Fig. 1, Plate XVI., is a photograph, slightly enlarged portion of the perpendicular face of the block, the upper part of which shows the method of attaching the crystal plate to its bed. This attachment was effected with the aid of a small rectangular frame the inner ■edges of which were undercut to fit the bevel upon the edges of the ■crystal plate. The latter was then inserted into the frame in which it was embedded with a suitable cement composed mainly of shellac. By this means the thrust plate is made both secure and rigid within its frame without undue strain, while at the same time its face is adjusted approximately perpendicular to the base of its supi>ort. Final adjustment of the thrust plate and sereio thrust. — As tliere is a mutual relationship between the sapphire thrust plate and the screw thrust, their respective adjustments may be treated concur- rently. The shape of the screw thrust finally adopted was that of a blunt cone of hard steel with a small flat termination, the diameter of the latter being about .1 in. This form of thrust, up to the present, has behaved satisfactorily and promises to prove per- manent, as it has now been in use for a considerable time. 84 H. J. Grayson : Although it may not Ije absolutely essential that both thrust faces sliould be strictly parallel and perpendicular to the screw axis, one of them must be exactly so placed and the other as nearly so as pos- sible; hence the adjustment of both was effected as part of the same operation. In the first place, the cone and flat of the inserted screw thrust was ground Avith all due precaution in the lathe and a surface approximately perpendicular to the axis of the screw Avas obtained. This, however, was not accurate enough for the purpose required and, as the further adjustment of the end of the screw was related to that of the sapphire face, the method adopted for their mutual correction will be exj^lained with the setting up of the thrust block. In order to obtain a close approxiniation to its true position the sapphire thrust block was first set up with the aid of the usual mecha- nical appliances. More exact adjustment was obtained by the use of a well-known optical method of setting up a mirror normal to a rota- ting axis. A round bar of steel, rather longer than the screw, was accurately ground at each end to the same diameter as the screw bearings. This bar formed the counterpai't of the screw without its threads, and hence could be used with greater freedom and with- out risk. To one end of the bar, representing the thrust end of the- screw, a truly plane quartz mirror was attached by means of a slightly plastic cement. This rod was placed in the bearings of the ruling machine, and the mirror firmly pressed without rotation against the sapphire thrust face. The rod was then transferred tO' V bearings so placed that by means of a reading telescope of fairly high power a distant illuminated disc Avith cross wires and perpen- dicular scales could be viewed by means of the quartz mirror. Rotating the rod caused the image of the cross wires to move in the field of view unless the surface of the mirror Avas normal to the axis of the rod. Definite movements corresponded, as was soon found, to definite errors in the thrust and so by means of trial and error the thrust Avas, after considerable AA'ork, adjusted until the image of the cross wires remained fixed during a rotation. As the sapphire thrust had already- l>een adjusted to a nearly correct position, these later adjustments Avere only of microscopic dimensions. For adjust- ment in a horizontal plane, the small movements required were effected with the aid of tAA-o micrometer scrcAvs placed one on the right and the other on the left of the thriist block to which they could be made to impart a minute rotary movement. Adjustment of the block in a vertical direction Avas obtained by slightly grinding New Engine for Riding. 85 •either the front or back surface of the block base as required. The -effect of every adjustment was determined -with the telescope and waa followed by such further alterations as was indicated by the motion of the image of the cross wires. The process of correction was continued in this way until the telescopic image remained steady within the limits of experimental error. Finally the mirror was removed from the rod representing the screw and was placed upnn the actual screw of the machine and a slight further adjustment of the thrust plate made by the same method. As the thrust block could now be removed and restored to its position tetween the micrometer screws with certainty, it was taken out and the surface of the sapphire coated with a very thin film of a solution of eosin in alcohol and water, applied with the aid of a fine smooth needle. In this way an immeasurably thin film of stain or colour was left upon the polished sapphire face. On replacing the block in its former position the thrust facet of the screw was ;gently pressed into contact with the sapphire and rotated through a very small angle. The effect produced was carefully examined with a powerful magnifier and the exact position and area of contact determined; this showed that the surface of contact was not central but was limited to one part of the thrust near its edge. Another test with the screw I8O0 from its former position definitely indicated that the screw facet was principally at fault. Correction of this defect was obtained by inserting a thin parallel plate of quartz between the thrust plate and screw bearing; one face of the quartz was polished the other smoothly ground, the latter being in contact with the steel thrust. The screw was then slowly rotated in contact with the plate which was constantly moved, i-evolved and reversed between the thrusts. The result of these combined movements was a delicate abrasive action upon the screw facet without any cor- responding effect upon the sapphire thrust face. In this way, with <;arQ and judgment, fairly uniform central contact of the screw thrust face with that of the sapphire was obtained. It should be understood that the amount of material removed from tHe bearing surface of the thrust by this process was probably not more than one or two wave lengths in thickness. These correctional operations, which extended over a considerable period, with intervening trial rulings, resulted eventually in the almost complete elimination of any remaining periodicity. 86 H. J. Grapon : 4. — The Diamond. Under this heading it is proposed to allude briefly to the minor but yet essential mechanical appliances for adjusting and con- trolling the movements of the diamond during the act of ruling. The principal features of the mechanism of the ruling carriage have already been described and a short account given of the sequence in ^vhich certain movements took place during the process of ruling. (See page 49.) The follo^ving remarks so far as they relate to the mechanism controlling the diamond, are sui^ijlementary to the previous descrij^tion. Figs. 2 and -3, Plate XVI., are photographic views, back and front respectively, of the ruling mechanism. Fig. -3 sho\vs in some detail the following parts : — (1) The bar of hard steel of square section supported in a steel frame with the aid of two hardened conical screw pivots wliich permit of movement in arc of a few degrees. Secured to this bar on its lower face there is a plate of hard steel (37), i triangidar in shape, in the centre of which the principal dash well (42) is placed, the diamond holder being secured to its apex. This liolder is a small hollow cylinder (38) of aluminium with solid end whose walls are partly slotted through to hold the diamond clamp (39). The attachment of the solid end of the cylinder to the triangular steel plate provides for rotational adjustment. Three important movements of the diamond are pro- vided for in this form of holder, viz. : (1) axial rotation of the rod or pin 'jn which the diamond is mounted ; (2) movement of the clamp block 39 in a vertical plane parallel with the direction of the lines ruled; (3) movement in a direction or plane at a right angle to the direction of the lines ruled. All these movements are important in the preliminary setting up of a diamond. Two steel rods complete the control outfit of the diamond ; one of these (4) is made to lift the diamond from the plate after each line has been ruled, the other supports the plunger of the dash well and is not shown by the photograph. In Fig. 2, Plate XVI., we have a back view of the diamond carriage and its fittings. Here may be seen an oblong block of metal secured to the suspension bar and sei'ving as a counterpoise to the trianu'ular frame and fittings of the diamond holder. This block in addition to acting as a counterpoise is fitted with twO' additional oil wells and dashers and also carries a projecting T The numbers refer to positions and parts indicated by corresponding- numbers on the plan of tlie machine, Plate VI. New Engine for Riding. 87 threaded bar on which additional weights are screwed for regu- lating to a nicety the pressure upon the dianiond ruling point. The ruling system is thus completely controlled and balanced upon the two hardened centres of the suspension frame. Considering the long period during which interest has been more or less centred upon fine ruling and the means for accomplishing it, either for use as spectroscopic gratings, test rulings or micro- meters— all of which recjuire very fine accurately spaced lines — but little has been written concerning the diamond Avith which such ruling is effected. As already mentioned, Nobert guarded with jealous care his knowledge of the subject, the result of years of patient work, and whicli he regarded as an important secret known only to himself. Tpun Xobert's death his ruling machine passed eventually into the possession of the late Dr. von Heurick, of Antwerp, who was interested in ruling in its relation to the microscope. Some years ago the writer had correspondence with Dr. van Heurick, who stated that he had spent some time in trying to rule test plates similar to those prepared by Nobert, but without success. In the course of his experiments he had had prepared by one of the most skilled diamond workers in Antwerp a set of diamonds exactly similar to those found with the Nobert machine and Avith Avhich Nobert presumably ruled his plates. Dr. van Heurick generously presented to the writer three of the prepared stones. Whilst it was a matter of great interest and pleasure to obtain these diamonds, the knife edges of which appeared to have been exquisitely worked, the results obtained by their use were most disappointing. Indeed the lines obtained with these carefully prepared knife-edged gems Avere quite unsuited for any but the coarsest ruling. Prior to this experience with the diamonds from Dr. van Heurick, an interest- ing paper by Profesor Rogers, of Baltimore, U.S.A., had ap- peared. This paper contained much information concerning the operation of a ruling diamond Avith prepared knife edges and Avitli edges resulting from fracture; the latter AA-ere stated to be more or less unsatisfactory. His method of using .either knife edges or fractured splinters appears to have been diametrically opposed to that of otlier AA-orkers; certainly to that of the Avriter. Professor Rogers, for example, emphasises the statement that a ruling diamond should produce, or did in his experience produce, a distinct and characteristic sound during the act of ruling. So familiar had this note become to his sense of hearing that he Avas accustomed to judge of tlie behaviour of a particular diamond by 88 H. J. Grayson: this characteristic note. The writer's experience, extending over some 20 years, of the behaviour of a diamond during the act of ruling is that its action should be practically free from any appreciable sound or note of any sort. Anything approaching a distinct hissing or singing note has invariably l>een regarded as evidence that the lines thus being ruled would show, when examined miscroscopically, some indication of a vibratory or chattering effect upon the surface ruled, and that the " life " of a diamond operated under these conditions would be comparatively short. Apart from this some- what contradictory position with respect to the experience of others whose work has extended over a considerable period, the article referred to contains much interesting information. One other reference to the action of a diamond when ruling appears in the collected Researches of tlie National Physical Labora- tory, Vol. VIII., 1912. The results therein embodied have pre- sumably been derived from experience in ruling with the Blythes- wood Engine. So far as the method of using a diamond is there explained, the writer is in full agreement; with certain other statements and procedure there recorded his experience is at variance. With respect to the choice and selection of diamonds suitable for ruling. After an experience extending over 20 years the writer prefers diamonds found in the diamondiferous drifts of New South Wales. These stones are both harder and tougher than any other he has hitherto obtained. Both Cape and Brazilian stones have been tried; also the so-called black diamond, carbonado and " bort," nearly all the varieties of which are more or less crypto-crystalline and unsuited for ruling except for the coarsest lines. The best Australian stones for ruling work are those showing smooth, bright crystalline faces, the simpler octahedral forms affording the best results. The more complicated the crystalline structure, the fewer the splinters adapted for ruling obtainable from a given gem. Cleavage fragments intersecting the smooth outer surface of a stone frequently give excellent results and are very durable. For breaking the stones, a small mineralogical hammer and hard steel anvil are required, with provision to prevent loss of flying fragments. Straight smashing blows must be avoided^ or the stone will be reduced to dust. A dragging blow ranging from a sharp tap to one of considerable force may be used ; changing the position of the stone until success is attained. 20/- worth of selected stones will serve for a lifetime if properly vised. Once a stone has been Neiv Engine for Riding. 89 laroken into several pieces a gentle blow will serve to reduce the larger fragments to a suitable size for ruling purposes. The broken splinters are placed in a watch glass and roughly sorted from the small debris. The selected pieces are then carefully examined under a higher magnification and those showing good knife edges and •cleavage faces intersecting a smooth outer crystalline face, may be selected for trial. After a sufficient number have been thus obtained they are mounted in cup-shaped depressions drilled on the ends of short pieces of straight hard brass of the correct gauge to fit the holder of the m.achine. The depressions in the rods are partly filled with a hard tough cement rendered plastic by heating. The diamonds are j^laced in position upon the cement which is gently heated and moulded around the diamond fragment until the latter is deemed to be secure. The whole of this work is done with the aid of a microscope and requires both care and experience. A popular notion concerning diamonds is that they are so excessively hard that they may l>e handled with impunity. This notion is speedily falsified upon a very short experience of the fragile edge of a diamond suited for ruling lines at the rate of 20,000 to the inch. When a few promising fragments have been cemented in their holders they are placed in a small ruling machine, and tested with i-espect to correct centring and inclination or angle of the knife's edge to the surface being ruled. The setting of a diamond for ruling is almost the reverse of that required when it is used as a turning or cutting tool upon a lathe. When used for the latter -purpose, it is required of a diamond to definitely remove materials from a given surface. As a ruling instrument the diamond usually ■only slightly displaces or compresses material according to the nature of the material. The lines, for example, represented in the photographs, Plate XVII., are nearly all examples of slight dis- placement or compression. Moreover the diamond is not rigidly held during the act of ruling but is trailed along the surface operated on. The pressui-e exerted upon the cutting edge of a diamond must be carefully proportioned to the length of its contact with the sur- face ruled, and this does not usually in the case of fine lines exceed .002 in. The angle the cutting edge makes with the surface ruled upon must at the same time be taken into account, as this angle has an intimate relation with the length of contact on the ruled surface and hence with the pressure required for a satisfactory line. 90 H. J. Grayson: With respect to lines suited for diffraction gratings they must be clean and sharply defined and for normal light distribution in the different spectra the groove should be symmetrical or isosceles with respect to the ruled surface. The length of service of which a diamond is capable depends very greatly upon the treatment to which it is subjected. The shock which a diamond gets due to its fall at the conuuencement of each fresh line has a more detrimental effect upon its cutting edge than the wear due to the act of cutting. A ruling diamond in the case of grating ruling should have its fall restricted to less than .02 in., and the "blow from even that height must be carefully moderated with damping devices or the character of the line will change as the ruling progresses and the resulting grating rendered valueless. In order to illustrate several of the most common defects resulting from the improper adjustment of a ruling diamond, a few photo- graphs of rulings have been prepared and are shown in Plate XVII. Two of these photographs (Figs. 1 and 2) were taken to show the character of lines resulting from a correct adjustment of the ruling diamond. Only the starting and terminal ends of the lines were photo- graphed as these show most clearly that the diamond has been correctly adjusted. These lines were ruled at the rate of 1000 to the inch by liand which accounts for any slight irregularity. The diamond with which these lines were ruled had been in use for some weeks and had ruled several hundred thousand lines with apparently no change in its condition. Fig. 3, PI. XVI., shows a group of lines ruled upon speculum metal with a slight displace- ment of the diamond edge from a position parallel with the line ruled and also slightly tilted from the perpendicular. The effect produced is sufficiently striking. The diamond, in cutting these lines, appears to have acted somewhat after tli^ manner of a plough- share, the material removed coming aAvay in a thread-like form from certain areas of the metal surface. Upon readjustment the line appeared normal and without a break. The angle made by the knife edge with tlie ruled surface was then increased and the effect which Avas produced appears in Fig. 4. Here the lines ruled are fairly symmetrical but somewhat ragged on both edges ; some of the material removed from the lines appearing as minute spirals. Fig. 5, PI. XVII., is a photograph of lines rided with a carefully adjusted diamond at the rate of 9000 to the inch. Lines of this quality would be. well suited for grating work up to 20,000 lines per inch. Two examples of finer ruling are seen in Fig. 6, the New Engine for Riding. , 91 only difference between these lines and the preceding (Fig. 5) being one of pressure upon the ruling edge. Such rulings are of course much too fine for grating work. In conclusion the writer may be permitted to say that the con- struction of a Ruling Machine is not the straightforward piece of work which this brief account may appear to indicate. Difficulties were met with from time to time which frequently necessitated a modification of preconceived ideas and intentions. The work throughout afforded but little opportunity for economy with respect to either time or labour. Practically every portion of the machine required one's best effort to be bestowed upon it; as each part was either in itself of sufficient importance to call for this or was- directly related to other important parts. It remains to express my great obligation to several gentlemen who afforded unstinted help whenever appealed to. During the early stages of the work, I was especially indebted to Mr. W. Stone, Chief Electrical Engineer of the Victorian Railways, who generously undertook the labour of cutting both the screws and grinding nuts, which required a more accurate and powerful lathe than any at my service, and who, throiighout subsequept operations, was ever ready witli lielp, suggestions and fi-iendly criticism. I am likewise under even greater obligation to Professor T. R. Lyle, F.R.S., who, from the initiation of the project for building a machine, interested himself and others in a variety of ways with a view to such assistance and encouragement as he considered would best help forward the undertaking. Later he induced the Univer- sity Council to permit him to make provision in 1914 for housing the machine in his laboratory at the University, and for carrying- on the work of its completion and improvement under favourable conditions. Since his retirement from the Chair of Physics in 1915, he has been immediately and actively associated with all the later improvements, many of which are due to him. This applies especially to the calibration and adjustment of the Ratchet wheels, and the elimination and correction of errors of the screw and its thrust plate. These operations were prolonged and tedious, but were greatly simplified by his mathematical insight and experience which, to me, were an inestimable advantage and materially reduced the mechanical work involved. My best thanks are also due to Professor E. W. Skeats, who, during my association with his Department, unreservedly placed at my service all the facilities his workshop and laboratory afforded. 92 H- J- Grayson: I am greatly indebted to Professor Orme Ma.sson, F.R.S., who as President of the Professorial Board and Dean of the Faculty of Science, used his influence for the promotion of the undertaking and whose efforts made it possible for a proportion of my official time to be given to the work. To my friend, Mr. James Fawcett, of Camberwell, my heartiest thanks are due for the time and trouble he bestowed upon the preparation of the plan of the machine appearing as Plate VI., and for several minor drawings. Finally, I am fully cognisant of the fact that I owe to the University or its governing authorities, whose consideration and generosity have made it possible for me to devote so much of my time to the completion of this work during the past three years, far more than this verbal expression of my indebtedness conveys. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate VI. — Plan of Ruling Engine. ,, VII.— End view of Ruling Engine. ,, VIII. — Side view of Ruling Engine — Right hand. IX. — Side view of Ruling Engine — Left hand. ,,, X. — Front view of Ruling Engine. XI. — Fig. 1. Apparatus for refining crudely separated abrasive. Fig. 2. Apparatus for grinding the screw. .,, XII. — Fig. 1. Alundum, average diameter of grains, 1-500 inch. Fig. 2. Alundum, average diameter of grains, 1-4000 inch. Fig. 3. Carborundum, average diameter of grains, 1-2000 inch. Fig. 4. Carborundum, average diameter of grains, 1-4000 inch. Fig. 5. Emery, average diameter of grains, 1-1000 inch. Fig. 6. Emery, average diameter of grains, 1-4000 inch. — Figs. 1 to 6, x 75. .,, XIII. — Fig. 1. Curve indicating condition of screw prior to re-grinding. Fig. 2. Curves showing progressive improvement during re-grinding. Prou. K.S. Virtori>i, 1917. I'lalc VI. Dividing Engine — for Rumng Diffraction Gratings CONSTRUCTUD hyH.J.Cra\ LEFT SIDE Plare IX Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate VII. ,r-^: BEaiMtaiMaMfcfcj8!ft'' ■^^ Proc. E.S.f Victoria, 1917. Plate VIII. Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate IX. troc. R.S. Victoria. 191 TJ^ Plate X. Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XI. ^ t V ■^1 ^ M ^ oj >l t 1 1 .]■/. 'jwA'] .V((M .ui-v,rn7 .H.'-i .-jo-i'i i Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XII. Proc. U.H. Victoria, 1917. Plate Xlll, F,Q. 1 Fm 2 Proc. U.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XIV. ■000/ ifi + ibiiff Mil i||| Wf +1- miijii'i 1 II 1 1 1 M 1 1 lllllll II 1 Mill 1 |{[!lil[||[[ 1 ' -■■■i-i--- ■0000<- ■0001 i:i:tii itiiiii MM -wmm ^^W Bii----- ::::::::::: %------t%"-- zzz^v---------X±p;x ZZZZZLLl"-^ ^:::::;-±:±::: + ::::: U ^y L_^ f 1^ ., ,_„ I + ::::i±::: i:S::::::i±:tii ±::S:E E::::E:±:±:2:;:±:: "D r > z o ■n > c en s cn H Z o H I n 00 o s o /r^/? Gu/c/e Bar , [ 3 1 1 « < H c\ ^ -~~\m I ti. 5r/^»r 11 "Di- X Ill 1^ 1 '^ 1 C/cy3s c^ (y^/o'e and Suppo; t U ^' /"^^ -^^"'^ G/ass Base P/ate F'S ^■ Proc. K.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XY, Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1917. Tlate XVI. Proe. E.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XVII. . . W ' \ F/g. t Fig. 2 \ \ ilP'JP'!!', ■ 1 ' i ill :i ' ■;,:,'' '::';'|'f' , ' i'l''''- ' ■• "''',1 [ '1 ■ :;. ' ' i i ''Hi nil Hfl ' J riQ. 3. Fig. f . 1 III Mi i| r ! 1 ' ■ //■^. 5. Fig. 6. New Engine for Ruling. 93'- PI. XIV. — Fig. 1. Curve showing result of corrections. Fig. 2. Plan of apparatus for testing the screw. „ XV. — General view of apparatus for cutting ratchet teeth. ,, XVI. — Fig. 1. Thrust block and sapphire thrust plate, slightly enlarged. Fig. 2. Diamond carriage — back view. Fig. 3. Diamond carriage — front view. ,, XVII. — Microphotographs. Fig. 1. Commencement of lines ruled with a correctly adjusted diamond, x 66. Fig. 2. Termination of lines ruled with a correctly adjusted diamond, x 66. Fig. 3. Lines ruled with an incorrectly adjusted diamond, x 50. Fig. 4. Lines ruled with an incorrectly adjusted' diamond, x 50. Fig. 5. Fine lines ruled with a correctly adjusted diamond, 9000 to the inch, x 300. Fig. 6. Fine lines ruled with a correctly adjusted diamond, 55,000 (Right) and 60,000 (Left) to the inch, x 1300. Key to mimhers on Plate VI. — the Plan of the Machine. A. Main cast iron Bed of Machine. B. Base plate supporting ratchet mechanism. C. Base plate supporting mechanism controlling ruling carriage.. D. Base plate supporting main driving shaft. 1 Precision screw; 20 threads per inch. 2 Steel casing of nut. 3 Ring of steel surrounding nut with pressure and trans- mission-rod adjustment. 4 Nut extension bar. 5 Bearing support for guiding 4. 6 Lock nut to prevent end play of screw when reversed. 7 Inserted hardened steel thrust. 8 Main bearings supporting screw with caps and bolts. 9 Ratchet wheel. 10 Shoulder plate and hub to which 9 is bolted. 11 Base plate supporting arrest pillar of ratchet wheel. 12 Lock nut for fixing handle to screw (when required). 54 H. J. Grayson: 13 Adjustable guide bar supporting 4 and h. 14-15 Micrometer elevating screws and lock nuts of 13. 16 Guide bar arresting 4 and 5 on reversal of screw motion. 17 Thrust block with polished sapphire bearing plate. 18-19 Cross head and steel bars connecting 2 and '■) with ruling table 23. 20-21 Screw plate, swivelling bar and ball thrust joining 18 and 23. 22 Detachable circular ruling plate. 23 Slotted steel ruling table with under-carriage (latter not seen). 24 Circular steel supports of i-uling table. 25 Bearing supports of 24. 26 Lock nuts connecting 24 and 25. 27 UjDper portion of frame supporting ruling carriage ways. 28 Part of steel trough in which 29 lie. 29 Circular ground glass rods upon which diamond carriage travels. 30-31 Adjustment and binding screws uf 29. •32-34 Steel and brass framework of diamond carriage. 35 Framework supporting ruling diamond and its adjustments. 36 Elevating screw and dovetail slide of ruling mechanism. 37 Triangular steel plate carrying ruling diamond. 38 Rotating clamp holding 39. 39 Swivelling clamp on block in which diamond holder rotates. 40 Rod or holder on the lower end of which ruling crystal is mounted. 41 Pin and clamp controlling elevation of diamond holder. 42 Dash well Avith oil and plunger. 43 Hinge joint connecting 44 M'ith ruling mechanism. 44 Sliding connecting rod. 45 Guide frame in which 44 slides. 46 Screw clamps for adjusting range of motion of 44. 47 Adjustment block, controlling 44. 48-49 Base plate to which guides and sockets are attached travel- ling upon 50. 50 Polished steel parallel guide rods supporting 44-49. 51 Lock nuts and frame suppoiting 50. 52 Jointed crank shaft. 53 Adjustable eccentric locking head sliding in 54. 54 Circular slotted head rotating up main f^liaft 57. New Engine for Rulirig. 91 55-56 Bearing blocks, caps and adjustment collars of 57. 57 Main driving shaft. 58-59 Cam guides with adjustments. 60 Driving wheel. 61 Hinged steel lever bar communicating cam motion to pawl. 62 Lubricating spring bar overlaying cam. {)3-64: Hinge block and main support of 61. 65 Counterpoise opposing cam action. 66-69 Frame and adjustments controlling pawls 68. TO Base of arresting pillar below pawl frame. 71 Brackets joining B. and C. to A. [Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1917j. Art. VI [. — Abnormal Circulation of a Frog. By ELLINOR ARCHER, B.Sc. (Government Research Scholar). (With Plate XVIII). [Read 9th August, 1917J. During the usual dissection of the frog (Hyla aurea) by students in tlie Biological laboratory of the University of Melbourne, one of the specimens was found to show a hitherto unnoticed abnormal arrangement of certain vessels of the venous system. The organs were well developed and sliowed no trace of being affected by the altered circulation as might have l^een expected, especially in the case of the liver. The anterior abdominal vein was the chief vessel showing the- abnormality. It commenced from the two pelvics as a normal-sized vessel; it then, instead of being augmented by the two parietals, as- is normally the case, passed some of its blood into the parietals on the left side, which was an unusually large vessel. The parietal on the right side was normal." The anterior abdominal beyond the two parietals was smaller than is usually the case, and was continued up the length of the body to the heart, across the liver and across the ventral surface of the heart, entering the left anterior vena cava at the point at which it is formed by the large anterior veins. The hepatic portal opens directly into the liver without being joined by the anterior abdominal vein, which therefore had no- communication Avhatever with the liver. The musculo-cutaneous branch of the left subclavian appeared abnormally large, and the branch which enters the muscular body- wall was traced down and found to be a continuation of the large abnormal parietal. This vessel ran between the obliquus externis and obliquus internis muscle of the body wall. Apparently some of the blood via the pelvics and anterior abdominal entered the left parietal and flowed through it to the musculo-cutaneous, and so on into the left anterior vena cava and sinus venosus. The abnormal connection of the left parietal and musculo- cutaneous vein may l>e readily explained on the presumption that during the early development the capillaries of these vessels which I'roc. E.S. Victoria, 1917. Plate XVIII. ,. I. — Introduction. These notes were prepared in connection with the Universitj' Survey Camp, conducted in this area under Professor Skeats during the vacation of January, 1914. They are published with the per- mission of the Geological Survey of Victoria, under whose auspices this survey camp was arranged. The Glenelg River is one of the largest and most important of Victorian streams. It is situated in the south-western corner of Victoria, and drains an area of about 4200 square miles. Major Mitchell, who discovered and named the river on July 31st, 1836, records that the native name was Temicingandgeen, "a name unfor- tunately too long to be introduced into maps. "1 Major Mitchell's .lom-nal, vol. ii., p. 21 100 Charles Fenner : Both the Glenelg and its chief tributary, the Wannon, rise in the bold meridional sandstone ranges of the Grampians, and drain nearly all the Victorian territory west and south thence to the sea, emptying into Discovery Bay. When nearing the coast the river makes a long westerly sweep, looping across the border into South Australia, thence it doubles back round a coastal border hill, Mt. Ruskin, and enters the sea on the Victorian coast. A casual examination of the river basin (see Plate XIX.) shows it to be curiously one-sided, and detailed enquiry into its physiographic history brings out many interesting details of the changes which have occurred during its lifetime. It is very interesting to note the first impressions gained by that talented explorer and keen observer. Major Mitchell, in his traverse of this area. In the latter part of July, 1836, his expedition had reached the very fiat land (average elevation, 530 ft.), which lies, imn-ediately north of the Glenelg basin. Here, since it was winter and very wet, he had great difficulties in getting his bullocks, waggons, etc., over the soft, swampy, sodden ground. After floun- dering on through lakes and swamps for many days, ever seeking solid ground, he made this entry on July 30 : "By pursuing a course- towards the base of the friendly mountains,! I hoped that we should at length intercept some stream, channel, or valley, where we might find a drier soil, and so escape from the region of lakes. . . . From here the pinnacled summits of the Victoria range presented an outline of the grandest character. The noble coronet of rocks was indeed a cheering object to us after having been so long half- immersed in mud. ... I found at length, to my great delight, ... a valley, where we finally encamped on a fine stream2 flowing to the south-west over granite rocks (white felspar, quartz and silvery mica). . . . We had solid granite beneath us; and, instead of a level horizon, the finely rounded points of ground presented by the sides of a valley thinly wooded and thickly covered with grass. This transition, from all we sought to avoid to all we could desire in the character of the country, was so agreeable, that I can record that evening as one of the happiest of my life." It Avas on the next day, July 31, that Mitchell actually discovered the Glenelg. (See Fig. 1.) Although he shows in all his records a keen instinctive knowledge for physiographic features, the peculiar nature of the course of this river for many days presented a com- 1 The Granipiaiis. 2 Probably Reilly's Creek. Physiography of the Gienelg River. 101 plete puzzle to him. Of his first contact with the river he writes : " We now moved merrily over hill and dale, but were soon, how- ever, brought to a full stop by a fine river flowing, at the point where we met it, nearly south-west. The banks were thickly over- hung with bushes of the mimosa, festooned in a very picturesque manner with the wild vine. The river was everywhere deep and full, ... on an average 120 feet wide and 12 feet deep. Granite protruded in some places, but in general the bold features of the valley through which this stream flowed were beautifully smooth and swelling. ... A little rill then murmured through each ravine, " ' Whose scattered streams from granite basins burst, Leap into life, and sparkling woo your thirst.' It seemed that the land was everywhere alike good, alike beautiful." Fig. 1. — Map of the Gienelg Basin, as prepared by Major Mitchell in 1836. The spelling, heights, &c., ai-e as given by Mitchell. His route, with dates, is shown. 102 Charles Fenner : II. — General Description of the Area. The accompanying plan (Plate XIX.) shows the courses of the main stream, and its most important tributaries ; the extent of the basin is shown by a dotted line, and the approximate contours of the area are also shown. Fig. 1 is copied from Mitchell's first map' of the river and its tributaries, and shows the route of his expedi- tion. As has been previously noted, there is u distinct preponderance- of tributaries to the east, and especially to the north-east. Indeed,, except for a few short valleys, there are no tributaries on the western side at all. In order to more systematically consider the various features, we njay conveniently divide the area into four parts; these are numbered respectively. A, B, C, and D in Plate XIX. The chief distinctions between these four divisions consist in the nature of the drainage, but there are other characteristics which, may be briefly summarised as follows : — A. — The tract between the Glenelg and the South Australian border; low land, sloping gently to west and south-west. Irregu- larly timbered, mostly scrubby; poorly drained, abounding in swamps and lakes with low separating ridges, often of limestone; some dairying and grazing, sparsely populated. Recent work shows- good agricultural possibilities in this area where extensive drain- age schemes are undertaken. B. — The tract north of the Glenelg, towards Goroke and Natimuk; slightly better populated, and with a better class of land, grazing, some wine and wheat; timber mostly scrubby, but abundant good redgum; badly drained, abounding in lakes and swamps, and with- a few wandering " creeks." C. — The tract enclosed by the Upper Glenelg and the Wannon; of varied elevation, rising in the Dundas higlilands to 1535 feet; well drained by streams flowing north, north-west, and south; well peopled for the most part; good land, in places excellent, especially in the open downs to the south. The underlying rocks of this important area consist of a series of ancient gneisses, schists, slates, cherts, with acid and basic igneous intrusives. The most elevated portions (Grampians, Dundas, etc.) consist of lower carboniferous sediments — purple and grey sandstones and quartzites, strongly faulted; in the lower part of area C, calcareous Jurassic mudstones occur; practically the whole area, up to 1000 feet, has l^een covered by marine deposits of late tertiary (1 pliocene) age. Pliysiography of the Glenelg River. 103 D. — The south-eastern part of the basin, extending towards Port- land; lower land than C, but somewhat diversified; in the north excellent land as at Merino, etc., Avhen the level-bedded Jurassic mudstones occur; further south heavily timbered, but with big areas of "heath country." Open basalt plains cover about one-third of the area, the remainder consisting of level-bedded ferruginous and calcareous marine tertiaries (? pliocene, etc.); a few streams draining west and north-west. III.— Rainfall. The rainfall of the whole area is good, being a little above the average for the State. As will be seen, the distinctive nature of the topography and drainage in the four areas A, B, C, D, does not appear to be at all due to the rainfall, but rather a product of three factors : (a) elevation, (b) slope, (c) nature of the rocks. Mr. H. A. Hunt, the Commonwealth, meteorologist, has courteously sup- plied the following details of the rainfall, based on 10 years' records. It will te noted that the only appreciable distinction is that the flat plains of area B, stretching from Apsley to Toolondo, suffer to the extent of five inches per annum, the rain-bearing winds having parted with a good deal of their moisture before this area is reached. Annual Averages for Ten Years. Area A. Area B. Dartmoor - 32.89 ins. Apsley - 25.10 ins. Derghohn - 26.86 Edenhope - - 25.82 Nangeela - 26.92 Pine Hills - . 22.43 Poolaijelo - 28.26 Charam - 22.16 Strathdownie 27.48 Douglas . 19.42 Telangatuk 24.04 Av. 28.48 Area C. Area D. Balmoral - 24.81 ins. Portland - 33..54 ins. Carapook - 25.54 Branxhohne 24.04 Eoseneath - 27.55 Condah 28.18 Coleraine 24.46 Croxton E. - 27.57 TulseHill - 29.77 Dunkeld 29.69 Melville Park 29.51 Hamilton 28.00 Montajup - 26.36 Merino 29.83 Mooralla 29.26 Av. 28.( Av 27.16 104 Charles Fenner : IV.— Mountains and Hills. As stated in the last section, differences of general elevation appear to have played a large part in producing the diverse features of the four divisions. Generally speaking, we may sum these differences up as follows (see Plate XIX.) : — A. — Low, flat, gently sloping south-west ; average elevation 2-300 feet, rises to 400. B. — Higher land, fairly level, difficult to detect any general direction of slope, but probably slopes to north and west; average elevation 4-500 feet. C. — Comparatively high lands, average 7-900 feet, rises in the western part to 1500 feet, and in the east to 3000 feet and over ; deeply dissected by streams flowing in all directions from a central east-west ridge. D. — Somewhat similar in elevation to area B, but with much more diversity of hill and valley; variety also introduced by volcanic hills and flows. Apart from these considerations of elevation, the chief cause of the present disposition of the Glenelg and its tributaries lies in the manner of their growth. The basin of this stream, although itself of comparatively recent origin, appears to have still more recently, added greatly to its territory in two ways : — (i.) Aggressively, by the capture of less fortunately situated streams, (ii.) Passively, by the diversion of neighbouring streams into the Glenelg basin on account of lava flows. These possibilities will be dealt with more fully in a later section. Meanwhile, having accomplished- a general survey of the whole area, we may deal with hill and valley in somewhat more detail. (a) Grampians and Dundas Highands. — In these mountains most of the streams in the basin have their origins. They form the outstanding mountain feature of western Victoria, and consist of upper palaeozoic indurated sandstones and quartzites. block- faulted, with faults roughly north and south, the scarps facing east and the dip slope to the west. The Grampians were discovered and named by Mitchell, who in 1836 ascended the highest peak. Mount William (3827 ft.), and spent a freezing night on its summit. Mount Dundas (1535 ft.) is the extreme western member of the group. (b) Continuation of the " Main Divide." — One point is worthy of discussion here since it bears on the question of the Main Divide Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1918. Plate XIX. Map uf the Glenelj^- River basin, showing the approximate relief of the area. In the hiy means of headward erosion, as at the Wannon and Xigretta falls, to reduce the three parts of the stream to a more harmonious grade. The events are so recent, and the evidence so clear, that any geological map of Victoria will evidence the truth of this theory; especially is this so if taken in conjunction Avith the more ■detailed county maps as to the nature and direction of the river's course. It should be noted also that of the two older tracts of the Wannon, the lower one — from Tahara to Casterton — is Avholly due to erosion. The upper part, Avithin the Grampians, lies in valleys that are probably of tectonic origin, and older than the Tahara-Casterton portion. (c) Wando and Wando Vale Ponds. — These tAvo streams rise in the Avestern part of the Dundas highlands, and Aoav south-Avesterly, Physiography of the Glenelg R iver. Ill converging towards the Hummocks. Passing through the latter hill in two narrow gorges, they junction, and flow into the Glenelg near the " Retreat " homestead. Since the work done by the survey party was largely in their basins, they were more closely REFERENCE 3 Hard^mountain outliers. Carboniferous sandstone. ^^ Soft Jurassic mudstone. I I Tertiary and Alluvial. Y//jj\ Wide level Basalt flows- The basalt at + ^•^v. probably extended much further i^est. Probable original course of Rivers. Note wide swampy course xyf Wcmituttv xU A; aC B^C Ihc iH^kr ^fivWs iri/ Aieep,.WUl ^estaSW^hed \kiU€y^. Fig. 3. — Geological plan to illustrate more clearly the effect of the lava sheet in determining the present course of the Wannon. The carboniferous sandstones are here referred to as " outliers," in respect to the very ancient underlying bed-rock, which is covered by a thin layer of marine tertiary and recent alluvial material. observed than other similar tributaries of the Glenelg. The name Wando was given by Mitchell, who appears to have elicited it from an aboriginal female whom he interrogated there. The 112 Charles Fenner : course of these streams was decided by and set out on the sloping coastal plain. When their valleys were once selected, they would soon carve through the lose, level-bedded tertiary sediments, and then cut down into the soft, decomposed Jurassic mudstones. Under such conditions very Avide, open U-shaped valleys are found. Underlying these last-mentioned sediments, and in some cases immediately below the tertiaries, very hard gneisses and granites were met, with the result that narrow, fairly steep-sided gorges Fig. 4.— Sketch of gorge cut by Robertson's Creek into the hard schists and gneisses which underlie the thin capping of level-bedded marine tertiaries. mark the places where such superimposition occurred. Good examples of such gorges are those of the Wando and Robertson's Creek (Fig. 4), that of Corea Creek is much more precipitous.; they provide patches of rugged and interesting scenery, quite a break in the monotony of the level uplands into which they are cut. In the lower Wando and Wando Vale Ponds the course of the stream, with its numerous large waterholes, has within recent years quite silted up; probably this is mainly due to the opening up of the hillside lands by agriculture. In summer the streams cease to flow, but good water for stock may always be procured by scooping out a hole in the sands of the creek bed. (d) The Upper Glenelg and "Brim Spring Gap."— The upper- most parts of the Glenelg show a tortuous course. The stream rises in the heart of the Grampians, at the " Chimney Gap," just over the ridge from one of the south-flowing tributaries of the Wannon. It then flows north-east 12 miles, north-west 18 miles, Pltysiography of the Glenelg River. 113 and then south-southeast about IS miles, forming a V-shaped loop with the sharp angle to the- north. This angle is at a point east of the Black Range, near Brim Spring. A low gap occurs, and it is interesting to know that some years ago a scheme was proposed whereby a canal was to be dug to carry the water from the upper Glenelg across to the Wimmera on the north. While not able to visit the spot, the writer has obtained much valuable information from the details of the railway survey through the gap, and also from Miss Sinclair, of the Brim Spring school. There appears to be evidence that the upper Glenelg originally flowed north, perhaps down Norton's Creek, to the Wimmera. This area is well worth closer investigation. (e) Minor Streams. — A numljer of other streams present pecu- liarities in their courses, and leave much room for detailed physiographic work. Of these may be mentioned the Pigeon Ponds. Steep Bank rivulet. Harvester Creek, and the Stokes River; the latter shows a remarkably sharp southern loop north of the town- ship of Lyons, probably due to the lava stream having filled up part of its former valley. VI.— Lakes. The basin of the Glenelg has an extremely ill-defined boundary. Except in the case of the Grampian district, low, flat, swampy divides are the rule. On the eastern side this low divide has been carefully selected as the route for the Dunkeld-Portland por- tion of the railway; lakes and swamps, lying on the basalt sheet, are common here. To the north, in area B, the very numerous lakes are perhaps to some extent relics of the streams which attempted to make their way northwards before being captured by the active headward erosion of the Glenelg ; there are no streams whatever adjacent to the Glenelg valley here. In the north-west one or two ill-defined creeks occur, such as the Mosquito creek, towards Apsley. To the west of the Glenelg, if we except a few minor streamlets, there are no tributaries whatever; the water collects in the depressions, and is got rid of by evaporation and percolation. Most of these swamps, especially across the border, are elongated along north-north-west axes. Woods^ records that at flood times the Dismal Swamp — a large swamp north of Mount Gambler — drains eastward into the Glenelg. 1 Geological Observations in South Australia. J. E. Woods, 1862 114 Charles Fenner : The lakes may he rouglily classified as (i.) solution lakes, (ii ) cut-offs, (iii.) basalt dainuied, and (iv.) those (in basalt sheet. (i) Solution Lakes. — This type, dealt with bv Professor Gregory, 2 is common. Mitchell had close experience with a large numijer, and deals with them in some detail. I'ndoubtedly wind erosion plays a large part in forming many of these lakes, as shown by the frequently occurring crescentic bank of sand on the eastern shores. A beautiful drawing of the group called the Greenhill lakes is given by Mitchell in Vol. II. of his journal, plate XXXII. (ii) Cut-offs. As before mentioned, these occur in the wider and more mature portions of the Wannon and Glenelg, especially where Jurassic mudstones are dominant. (iii.) Swamps and lakes caused by the damming up of streams by lava flows are common northward from Glenthompson towards Mount William. These include the Cockajemmy lakes. Larger ones occur west of Mount Abrupt. (iv.) The lakes found on the basalt sheet itself are numerous and shallow. Tliey are similar to those found all over south-western Victoria, and bear witness to the innuaturity of the drainage systems. They are usually ascribed to one or more of the follow- ing agencies :— Sagging of the basalt, the meeting of tw-o or more lava flows, wind erosion, and more rarely, crater depressions. VII.— The Hummocks. This remarkable natural feature deserves a special section for itself. It consists of a hill, a little over 450 feet high, cut through bv two steep-sided gorges — those of the Wando and the Wando Vale ponds. An observer coming eastwards up the wide, open valley of the Wando, cannot fail to be struck by the fact that tliis hill lies riglit across the valley almost at right angles to the course of the stream. Closer observation is necessary to show that it is cut through by the tw^o streams named, which narrow their valleys down to gorges a cliain or less in width. A detailed survey of the imme- diate area was made under the direction of Mr. 0. A. L. Whitelaw, Field Geologist, Geological Survey of Victoria, and is shown in Figure 5. To the traveller along the Harrow road to the east, a similar puzzle is presented of two wide U-shaped valleys suddenly nar- rowed to two small V-shaped guts. Since it lies on Major Mitchell's Geograplij' of Vittoria, pp. 132 et serj. Physiography of the Glenelg River. 115 route, Ave may be sure so keen an observer would not pass it with- out remark. He records that the native name of the hill now known as the " Hummocks," was Kinganyu, and adds : " Proceed- ing along the valley, the stream on our left (the Wando) vanished at an isolated rocky hill; but, on cldser examination, I found the SECTION ON A-B-C Fig. 5. — Plan and section of " Tlie Hummocks." The contours are from data collected by Mr. P. B. Nye. The jjlan shows clearly the wide valleys carved ovit by the two streams in the softer rocks both above and below the " gorges." apparent barrier cleft in two, and tliat the water passed through, roaring over rocks. This was rather a singular feature in an open valley, where the ground on each side was almost as low as the rocky bed of the stream itself. The liill was composed of granular felspar, in a state of decomposition .^ It is not so easy to suppose that the river could ever have watered the valley in its present state, and forced its way since through that isolated hill of hard rock, as to suppose that the rock now isolated originally contained 1 It is largely serpentine, with talc schists, quartz schists, phyllites, etc. 116 Charles Fenner .- a chasm, and afforded once the lowest channel for the water, before the valley now so open had been scooped out on either side by gradual decomposition." When reading this interesting explana- tion w^e must remember that it was written in 1836. The Hummocks have received a fair amount of attention from' geologists. They were visited about 1886 by F. L. Krause, who- figured them in the Mines Department report of that year. Strangely enough, he did not visit the second gorge, that of the Wando Vale Ponds, and refers to it as a " road cutting." It is- evident that the Wando and the Wando Vale are at this point " superimposed streams/' with wonderfully clear and convincing characteristics. When the streams commenced their downward cutting, they were- in soft tertiary material; the ridge of resistant rock lay hidden less than 200 feet felow, and almost at right angles to their course. With the gradual deepening of their valleys, this hard ridge was- encountered, and there was nothing left to do but to "go on with the Avork " ; the tAvo V-shaped gorges are the result. The great contrast between the very hard rock of the Hummocks, and the very easily eroded Jurassic and tertiary material under which it was. hidden, have given this feature much greater distinction and interest (see Fig. 5). General Conclusions. Of much interest in this area are the traces found of ancient physiographic features, preserved by burial under sediments of various ages and subsequently exposed by stream action. Of those that were investigated in the field by the survey party, the oldest may be referred to as the pre-jurassic. This ancient landscape has left many traces of its outlines, such as may be seen in the Wando Vale district. It was evidently a surface of low relief, with its ridges and valleys carved out in a series of ancient resistant rocks. The most northern part of the Jurassic lake system, as far as it has been preserved, embraced this. area, and the accumulating sediments of this lake gradually covered' the submerged landscape. Thus it was in part preserved until comparatively recent times. Of these ridges, now partly exposed, but still with jurassics over- lapping their flanks, we may mention Cashmere Hill, Bracken Hill, and the ancient tablelands exposed in the Roljertson's Creek and Wando gorges. Clearest of all, however, in the Hummocks (Fig. 5),. Physiography of the Glenelg River. 117 N o Ic^ X ro O ^ c: OJ 1 ^:3 ^ =2 (d L 118 Charles Fenner : 80 venerable a feature that it can only l^e regarded with awe. Except for the two gorges, it stands to-day in all likelihood with the same general outline that it presented to the sun and wind when it formed part of the landscape of those extremely remote mesozoic ages. Figure 6 represents in a diagrammatic way the chief features of importance that have been referred to in this paper. The various letters and figures of that diagram are explained below, and will serve as a general recapitulation. (a) Rock Types. k. — The bedrock of the area, outcropping abundantly in the northern parts, and greatly influencing the physiographic features (see A. Fig. 6). As far as known it is non-fossiliferous; it consists of mica schists, tale schists, phyllites, slates, etc., intruded by both acid and basic plutonics and dykes. Many ages of rocks are perhaps represented in this complex, but the youngest present may be taken as not younger than ordovician. These rocks are on the whole very resistant to weathering and erosion. B. — The faulted and tilted sediments of the Grampians and Mt. Dundas (probably Lower Carboniferous) ; grey and purple mud- stones, sandstones, and quartzites. These are strongly resistant to erosion, and form the highest land in Western Victoria, com- prising much magnificent mountain scenery. The letter F in Fig. 6 indicates the faulting which is so prominent in these rocks. C. — Jurassic lacustrine sediments, consisting of felspathic mud- stones, sandstones, and occasional grits; frequently calcareous, and in places carbonaceous; nearly always level-bedded; weather easily and good outcrops are rare. Fine agricultural land, wide valleys, broad, fertile flats, and rounded hills. D. — Older Basalts, etc. — These are taken as belonging to various periods in the tertiary. Different types occur; the relics are small and scattered. They are of minor importance from the physio- graphic point of view. E. — Tertiary limestones, gravels, and sandstones often strongly ferruginous. These are in places f ossiliferous ; very Avidespi'ead, originally covering the whole of this area up to the thousand-foot contour line. They are level-bedded, and easily eroded. In the higher areas these beds are naturally quite thin — a few feet in thickness; the deposits become thicker towards the south and west; in the southern areas they reach a depth of from two to three Physiography of the Glenelg River. 119 thousand feet. Some of the most famous tertiary fossil beds in Australia occur in this series in the Wannon and Glenelg valleys. G. — The Newer Basalts. — These flows cover large areas in the south-eastern portion of the Glenelg Basin ; wide level sheets with occasional cones. They have considerably influenced the physio- graphy, obliterating the old valley systems, diverting streams, etc. The features so far developed on these areas are, of course, con- siderably more recent than those of the Glenelg Basin as a whole. (h) Valley Types. (w.). — As typified in the loAver Wando River; broad and gently-^ sloping in the tertiary and Jurassic, narrow and steep-sided in the underlying bedrock (A). See Fig. 6. (x.). As typified by the Lower Wannon; broad, gently-sloping valleys, with wide flats, almost wholly in tertiary and Jurassic sediments. (y.). — As typified by Robertson's and Corea creeks; valley in level coastal plain material, superimposed on hard ancient rocks (A); Jurassic sediments absent. (z.). — As typified by the Upper Wannon (Dwyer's Main Creek, etc.); deep V-shaped valleys, partly tec'tonic in origin. (c) The Past " Erosion Periods.'' We may regard the periods of rock-foi-mation (sedimentation, etc.), as being " positive " periods in the geological history of the area. Equally important ai-e the intervening " negative " periods — the periods of rock-destruction (erosion, etc.). These great erosive periods are represented only by the unconformable bound- ing lines between the rocks of any two ages, as shown in Figure 6. (1) Post 1 Lower-Palaeozoic and Pre-lower-carboniferous. — As already stated, this boundary was not investigated. (2) Post ? Lower-palaeozoic and Pre-jurassic.^ — This erosion period ended in the formation of an area of low relief to which extended reference has already lieen made. Whether lower- ? carboniferous rocks (B) ever covered the more ancient rocks (A) over the whole area cannot be determined. (3) Post-jurassic and Pre- ?older Basaltic. — Some valleys of this period are preserved by remnants of basaltic flows ; such basalts are older than the tertiary (Murray gulf) material, and are here loosely included under the comprehensive term of " older basalts." Wliilo much theory could be indulged in regarding this erosion period. 120 Charles Fenner .■ Glen el g River. from evidences in otlier areas, there is no evidence of any value so far available licie. (4) Post-?older Basaltic and Pre-Mui-ray Gulf (tertiary). — Both the top and bottom limits of this erosion period are stated in terms that are unavoidably vaVG0i^G = 3fatei. (Cape York). Opening A. Release the right index and draw tight. Bend the left index into its own loop, catching down this string, and allowing its own to slip off. Release the left thumb. Bring the left thumb and index together tip to tip, and slip the index loop on to the thumb. Pass the left index to the radial side of the loose loop that runs to its palmar string, and pick up the radial string proximally, then pass it to the ulnar side of the ulnar string of this loop, and, turn- ing up the index fingers towards you, pick up this string, letting the other slip off. Similarly pick up with the right index the right ulnar thumb and the radial little finger strings. Pass the little fingers into the index loops proximally, and hook down the oblique strings that run towards the centre of the figure, allowing tlie original little finger loops to slip oft". Release the thumbs, then pass them away from you into the space at the bottom of the figure, and pick up on their backs the strings that run straight across the figure. Release the little fingers. This represents a Dugong, the left hand diamond is the head, and the right hand one is its tail. 24. (Plate XXTV.)— A Scrub }im=E(angn. (Cape York). Position 1 on left hand. Pass the right hand between the two pendant strings, and separate the thumb and the little finger widely, thus picking up on them the left thumb and little finger strings respectively, and draw out. Release the left hand and repeat this movement with it. Pass the thumbs proximal to the radial little finger string and pick it up. Pass the little fingers proximal to the ulnar thumb string and pick it up. 1 "Hawaiian frames." American Aiitliropalfyixt, \oI. i., No. 'i (n,!^.), April, 1899, p. •222. 136 Kathleen H addon : Australian String Figures. Do Opening A with single palmar strings. Pass the radial thumb string distal to the rest, and place it over the toe. Slip thumbs out of this string. Release little fingers, transfer the index loops to the thumbs, and place this double loop over the hands in Position 1. Move hands towards and away from you to imitate the bird scraping together its mound. Take the loop off the hands and rotate through 180 degrees clock- wise, and replace in Position 1, so that the idnar little fingers strings are still ulnar, but lie over instead of under the toe strings. Again imitate the bird scratching. Release thumbs and lay figure doAvn with the little finger strings nearest you. 'Pick up on the indices their respective toe strings in the centre of the figure and draw out. This represents the two eggs laid by the Scrub Hen. Froc. K.S. Victoria, 191S. Plate XX. 7. 3aJ^d S/: ^/:a'L^ -o-6 Proc. R.S. Victoria. lUlN. Plate XXIV. J^a.lS.a.^L.^'yyif [Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Art. X. — A Method of Eslhnating Small Amounts of Calcium. By S. pern, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Eng. (Communicated by Professor W. A. Osborne). [Read 13tli September, 1917]. Yov long there has been need of a simple and easy method of estimating small quantities of calcium, such as would be useful in clinical medicine. 'After some 'four years' experimenting the following method was found to l>e the most useful : — To a slightly acid solution containing a soluble calcium salt, from three-quarters to an equal volume of methylated spirits is added without mixing, then a few drops of a saturated solution of oxalic acid, and the whole shaken up, almost immediately a white clou«>0'Oira-^TjHT}icocococoiMNe^(M 2 ^ g CO ICI (N § s s CC O CD C^l ^ t- 00 O 05 CO t^ CO OinoiOi-il-rWO^^^&'^'5M'-iQQOt>iOT}T}(r-IOOCO-*e^1000t>LO-rfC<;Nr-HOOl35 -*'*'* re coTOl^^(^^<^^(^^c^^r-^r^.-|.-Ht-^'-^'-^^'-t ri X LO CO O 00 "O O00CDlO'^C0C^1^O0>00Q0t>I> i^ t^ CD in ■* '.'.' v— 'JU "J ■? ; I— 1 ^^ iJU V.1,/ UJ CO CO c^i c^i ct^COLOiO>0-*-*T}'COCOCO ^ s lOIMOt-COOONCDO^O'-l i-lCOiOCDQ0O5>-<52COiracO CO t}( •^ rH t^ (N t^ C^l CO O 1— I ,— ( N (M CO CO 1 IM IM !M C^l N S I O LO t- CO CO crs CD 00 00 O 52 ^C3C5r-H^reT-(COT} t^ CD TO 05 00 O t- 00 CO -^ f- T-^Lo't^o^oOooocd-^ocdtNt^iMcDOcot^CooioooQ ,-|(MCOT}!CD'-^0000O5Q>-irHs!!'-*^ooQ® cqo5^«^Scb°^'#'-io^O ^, -^ J> 00 T-H t> iM (M_ 00 05 CO O Ol CO oiinaJ^'^odas<5o5Q6cDcoocdrHcO'-icdcTico t~a5C!^1CO,JiS^CDt~QOaiOr-<,-l(M(MCOCOCOTJ( t> CD i-l CO t> "— ' 05 e 05 iq 05 s^ tJi ira lO lO lO CO (M (M (M (M C CO c^_ t^ o Oo6lOC^io6cOo6?'"'l--Q6o0001>lO(M05LO^CDrHioascOC005NlOt-Q Sc)'^CDt-05ONC0ijI>C;--IC1C0l-0C105C0 00 CO CO ^ t^ N O 05 O CI lO 05 iC -^ lO 05 l'^ O t>; 05 l> T-l CI 0> CO Tf CO O Tj< t> 00 CD co' o CO ci t-^ =^' "^ CO t~.' ^~' i>^ CD t}< ^ 00 iri o ifi o lo 05 ci CD 05 ci in i^ c^ cqTjHcoi^05C!^i^-*incot^ooc:50C!'-^(Mc^icococo-*-*-^inioin'n ^ " ;r| i-H ^ ;5 ^ rH ^ rH ,-H Ca M CI CI cq Cq CI CI C4 C5 CI (M IM CI CJ O 05 ino505QOO'#Ocooo-^cq>ninj>cDco^cooooi-iincicoa5coi>i^inco O in 00 I> T-l t- CO CD t>; O tJh 02 CO in 1> CI 1-1 tJI CI ■* CO t~ 00 in 05 T-H C t-; W "5 r-^TiHi-Hooino'ino5Ciin'cD'cDcDincor-Ho6-o^ ci'^ini--050i— ico-*incot>oo050Q'— iNNcococo-^-^-^inmin'n rHrH^'-lrH,-l,-l,-l,-IC;jClNClC^ClC^ClC]C1C<)ClCqCqC'1 00 N 5Diraoo--iOrHLOt>,-iinc)Tj(^^t>,jiQOco^t>incjciQcOino5>-i'-ir2 CMOOi-t>05in->^ooco05oocoTjinocq incJQi>-coo5-*Q6i-icdinioinT^cq'Ofc^co05-tiIo5-^odciinQD'-H-^i>05 ci-i^int-oooi— ico-^incoi:^oo0500i— ii— iMMcoco-*-^-'*inmioin ^,-lI-ll-^I-lrHr-lrHl-H^^clc^(?^c^c^c^c^c^c^c^c^C'^clC^ ClOC0^05I>0505COCOe<1r-4t^lOOOTHrHT-IOOCDOO'35cOf^C^C25'-l "5. '"l'^"^*. '^^<»«^. ^<^. Oit-OO'-HQOOOC^OTJHTOCXDOCOCOinSciS.rH cicomt^cco^co^incDt^coSSg^^S^i^J^g^^^S^^^^ CO CO S?!2;?'f"fc'^^J2'~'2?52<^°o'^oooooo-*oc.co_t-;i^. cq_i-HCjin05T^i-Hooooo5coO'-;coinc35 05-^cCiTjie5Cjc505inoo ■"*' 5 S rS P ^ 1^ '-'' ^'^ '^ ^ ^' ^ |>i '-^' (^ ^ |^^ 1^ ^' 00 CO i>; t-H T* 00 -H CO CO 00 1-1 CO LO J> 00 o .-H CI ^# in CO f- 00 05 05 o .-H --I ci CI CO CO ^ ^ -f m m S "2 '-I ,-1 T-l T-l r-l r-< ,-1 ,-i ,-1 T-^ lr^ oi c^t t:^ c o C5 GO QO rt T-H CO in CD 00 05 ■<# 05 tJi l> O CD 00 lO CJ CO i-l 'T- ^_ 05 05 -^ tJi o ci in .-H c^ CO 00 CO 05 05 t^ ci CO 00 ci ci c^ o 00 ^ 1-^ •>• CO 00 CO tC >-< ■>*! i-J cr '.^.- ^^ ^ ^ coi>;Q0O5O5Sj;;-^C3Mcoco^T}i,f.inin.ning i-H ^ ,-1 rH ,-1 Cl Cq M CI CJ N Cq CJ Cl CI Cl Cl O -l ira ■* ■# OS CO "^ 3 CC 05 CO ■* C3 * Cq (M d N N c 00 00 C73 02 02 (31 (M C^l C^ IN (M cq (M O 05 l> 0> oi o CO O iM ■* in CO 00 00 a> 05 Oi u> IM (M N CS (M CI (M (M !M (N (M ^^^ j> OS o I-; 00 CO 00 Tjl !>' ira" 05 rH CO -^ CO 1-- 00 00 05 05 05 c^i cq (M N N (M c-i 1 g i 1 s i i s s 00 00 § ^ ^ s 9 in « <» T-H « Tfl t^ 00 05 o I , ^ in c. .H 0-1 -^ r-l ^ g O: Tj< r-l g CO CO rH rH CO IM i-l O o e CI CO O x}; CO t> 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 C5 CI N CI 00 05 -^ CO CO 00 05 05' •^ 05 i-H O CO 00 -^ CO CO 00 05 ai CI 05 00 05 05 CO «> CO in CO 1 ,-( 0 i 1 rH 0 I ,-H 0 i i r-H 0 S ' 9 0 .-H 0 :! r-l 0 1 0 0 i 00 i 00 2 ^ ^ 1 11 i CO in 00 00 cq d 0 s g ^ 00 00 § 1 « 7 1 F.c. ad. iiat del. Acrotreta antipodum, Ch., Lower Palaeozoic, Victoria [Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Art. XIV. — On an Ap'pareyitly Neiv Type of Cetacean Tooth from the Tertiary of Tasmania. By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., &c. (Palaeontologist, National Museum, Melbourne). (With Plate XXVII.) [Read 8th November, 1917]. Introduction. The fossil tooth which forms the subject of the following note was kindly lent to the National Museum by Mr. H. H. Scott, the Curator of the Victoria Museum, Launceston, with permission for its description. It was bequeathed to the Victoria Museum by Miss Lodder, who found it in 1897 washed up with " two other (1) simi- lar fossils," at the mouth of the Leven, at Ulverstone, about 28 miles east of Table Cape. It seems probable from the comparable evidence obtainable re- garding the relationship of this tooth that it is allied to that of the Sperm Whale, but with the difference that, instead of being a curved, cylindrical cone, the tooth is much flattened in contour, has an extremely wide base and a bevelled apex or crown. The absence of any true enamel at the apex further points to its rela- tionship with the Physeteridae. It is without doubt a tooth of the m,andibular series, those of the upper jaw in this family being stunted, and are buried in the dense ligamentous gum.ii In view of its apparent distinctness from the living Physeter macroce- phalus a new generic name is here suggested. Genus Scaptodon,^ nov. Generic Characters. — Tooth conical, depressed, curved, gradu- ally tapering from base to apex, depressed elliptical in section. Root much larger than crown. Base of crown not contracted. 1. See Tomes: Manual of Dental Anatomy (7th ed., Tims and Hopewell-Smith), 1914, p. 493. Also Ritchie and Rdwards : " On the occurrence of functional teeth in the upper jaw of the sperm whale." Proc. R. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii., pt. ii.. No. 15, 1913, pp. 166-168, pi. x.\xiii. Those authors show that the maxillary teeth of Physeter macrocephaltut are flattened at the apex and oval in section ; they bear no resemblance to the present form of tooth. 2. From CTKaTTTO), to dig, and oSous, a tooth, in allusion to the trowel-ended apex. 150 Frederick Chapman: Pulp cavity moderately deep. Root entirely covered with cement. Crown bevelled on inner, concave side and surface radiately grooved. Scapfodon lorlderi, gen. et. sp. nov. (Plate XXVII., Figs. 1-3). Description. — Tooth (mandibular), large, conical, tapering from a wide base to a narrow crown; much depressed and widely curved, in basal section, long elliptical. The base is open, and has a mode- rately deep pulp cavity. The whole of the root, so far as pre- served, was covered with a fairly thick layer of cement ; the sur- face is relieved by a series of shallow longitudinal furrows extend- ing from the base through more than half the length. The crown can scarcely be separated, being continuous in contour, with the root, and is apparently marked off at the limit of the tevel. The apex of the crown is bevelled to a sharp cutting edge towards the convex side, the bevelled surface being marked with some low radiating ridges producing a few serrations on the cutting edge,, the latter having a parabolic curvature. Measurement. — Length of tooth, measured along the convex face,. 113 mm. Greatest width of tooth at base of root, 41 mm.; width at base of bevel, 13 mm.; thickness at base of tooth, 19.25 mm.; thickness at base of bevel, 7.5 mm. ; depth of pulp cavity, 36.5 mm. ; weight, 46.5 dwts (troy), or 161 kilogrammes. Microscopic Structure of the Tooth. — A thin transverse section was taken through the wall of the tooth at the base, bordering the pulp cavity. The intermediate layer is of the nature of ivory like that of the Cachalot,^ and the outer and inner margins, each about one quarter of the thickness of the middle layer, show the structure of cement. Under a 1-inch objective (about 52 diameters), the cement layer, about 5 mm. in thickness, is homogeneous in struc- ture, but in this specimen is crowded wlith ramulose borings of a parasitic fungus, the hyphal tubes being filled with dark material, probably due to the grinding; isolated spores are also seen here and there. The intermediate layer, the dentine or ivory, shows a dense structure composed of a closely set series of minute dentinal tubes transversely arranged, whilst circumferentially, or crossing these tubes, are parallel lines of greater density at varying distances, probably contour lines. The intermediate ivory layer in the slide examined measures 2 mm. in width. 1. See Owen. Odontography, 1845, p. S.'ifi, pi. Ixxxix., fij.'. '2. New Tijpe of Cetacean Tooth. 151 A higher power (g^in. giving 380 diameters) shows the cementum, where not obscured by the hyphae of the boring fungus, to be fairly homogeneous, excepting near the inner dentinal layer, where it is penetrated by tlie dentinal tubes, which ramble away from their parallel structure in the ivory. The dentinal tubes are crossed by numerous lines of ivory globules and interglobular spaces, probably air-filled. The dentinal tubes are spaced in each optical layer, 15/x apart. The hyphal tubes of the parasitic fungus have an average diameter of 5//, Observations. — In the microscopic structure of the above tooth there is sufficient evidence to show its close relationship to the living sperm whale, Physeter; but the flattened form of the tooth, which is long — elliptical in section, is a very distinct feature, for only in very extreme examples of that genus can one find a tooth having a broadly elliptical outline. The widely separable forms of tooth base and apex in the two genera are very apparent. In Physeter the base is always more or less cylindrical, or even taper- ing, and the point of the tooth, when depressed, is not hollowed and scalprate as in the above described form. The heavy, flattened root and moderately deep pulp cavity re- minds one of the tooth of Hoplocetus, but in that genus the crown is separated from the root by a constriction, and the tooth is fusi- form in shape and not wide at the base, and gradually tapering, as in the present form. In reply to a note and sketch of this speci- men, which I sent Dr. C. W. Andrews, F.R.S., of the British Museum, he has kindly remarked that it does not agree with Hoj^- locetus as figured by Gevvais — whose works, by the way, in the Zoologie et Paleontologie Francaises (vol. I. 1848-52, p. 161) and the Osteographie des Cetaces (p. 345), are not in Melbourne. In view of the fact that the cement layer in this tooth extends over the convex surface almost up to the cutting edge of the apex, there could have been little of the crown exposed, and in view of this character the affinities of the tooth appear to lie with modern sperm whales as Physeter. A rolled and otherwise abraded cetacean footh figured by E. Ray Lankester in 186T'i from the Red Crag of Suffolk, may have some generic affinity with the present form. It is stout and fusiform, with a compressed crown, which, so far as the rather obscure .sketch shows, is marked with radiating furrows, as in the Table Cape specimen. 1. Trans. Uoy. Micr. Soc. Lond., vol. xvi., 1867, pp. 63, G4 (fifr. 3). 152 Frederick Chapman: Cetacean Tooth. In the absence of any further evidence as to the relationship of the Tasmanian fossil tooth with already described forms, it is here provisionally referred to a new genus,^ Scaptodnn. The stained and fossilised appearance of the tooth leaves no doubt that it was derived from a Tertiary deposit of some considerable age. Occurre7ice. — " Found washed up at Ulverstone, N.W. Tas- mania, after a heavy gale." — H. H. Scott, Victoria Museum, Laun- ceston, Tasmania. Probably from either Janjukian or Kalimnan beds of the Table Cape series of Tasmania (Miocene or Lower Pli- ocene). In writing the above I wish to express my thanks to Mr. J. A. Kershaw, F.E.S., for facilities in examining recent specimens, and to Dr. E. Brooke Nicholls, for useful references and sugges- tions. EXPLANATION TO PLATE XXYII. Fig. l.-^Scaptodon lodderi, sp. nov. Inner face of tooth. Giro, natural size. ,, 2. — Ditto. Edge view. ,, 3. — Ditto. A thin transverse section of the tooth taken from the base, showing the external cement above and the ivory or dentine beneath. The cementum is perforated by the hyphae of a boring fungus, x 144. Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1918. Plate XXVTT. F.c. Photo Tooth of a Fossil Sperm Whale from NW. Tasmania [Pkoc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Art. XV. — A Covtrihution to the Theory of Gel Structure. By W. a. OSBORNE, M.B., D.Sc. (From the Physiological Laboratory, University of Melbourne). [Read 13th December, 1917]. It is now generally admitted that a gel is a diphasic system, but divergent views are held concerning the nature and possible vec- torial characteristic of the more solid phase, and the forces which hold the more liquid phase in position. Whether the meshwork of the more solid phase is composed of micro-crystals, or is truly amorphous, or whether both can give rise to gel structure, further refinements in ultra-microscopy may determine. But Avhatever view may be correct, the question is unaffected, whether the " fila- ments," " needles," or micellae assume a definite arrangement under the influence of forces akin to those that produce crystallisa- tion. Is the meshwork of the more solid phase devoid of any vec- torial characteristic, or is such actually present? To throw some light on this problem I commenced certain experi- ments in 1909 on the shapes of bubbles found in strong gelatine gels when decompressed after being subjected, when warm and dur- ing setting, to gas under pressure — generally COr,. The ordinary fracture of a gel can be described as " perfectly conchoidal," and this in itself indicates that like obsidian or ordinary flint homo- geneity of structure may be present. But such reasoning cannot be pushed very far, for conchoidal fracture can be given by crystal- line substances, notably quartz. It was this consideration that led me to exaimine the internal fractures produced by bubble forma- tion. The simplest way to carry out the experiment is to subject warm 10% gelatine solution in a sparklet syphon to the action of CO2 under pressure. I have also employed the Leonard Hill high pressure chamber with gas pressures of 10-20 atmospheres but the small quantity of gelatine that can be used is here a disadvantage. On decompression the appearance of the jelly is remarkable. Each bubble that forms is lenticular, or apparently a disk of great thin- ness, and entirely in one plane. I communicated this result to the late Mr. William Sutherland, and he wrote me as follows, under date May 7th, 1910;— " The form of the gas cavity will depend on the rigidity of the jelly in the following way : The spherical form characteristic of 154 • W. A. Osborne.- bubbles in a liquid, when they are small, results from the equality of hydrostatic pressure in all directions. But in a jelly suppose a cavity of any arbitrary shape formed. In the jelly bounding it there will be surface stresses due to the unequal pressure effects of the surface tension acting on parts of the surface of different curva- ture. If the jelly is weak enough it will begin to flow (like lead in the manufacture of pipes), and will assume finally the spherical form round the cavity. But if the jelly is too strong to flow quickly enough the unequalites of stress will not be relieved rapidly. The escape of gas may accentuate them, with the result that in a stiff enough jelly the material begins to tear at the part of the original arbitrary cavity, where the conditions are most favourable, and the tearing will go on till no longer necessary. A slow flow of the jelly w^ill round off the edges of the spreading cavity, and give it a lenticular shape." The bubbles make all possible angles with each other, giving a spangled appearance. This point I was particularly anxious to investigate. In a recent number of " Science Progress,"! there is a reference to an article by Hatschek in 1914. which apparently dealt with this same subject — the formation of bubbles in jellies. I have been unable through the war to get Hatschek's article in the " Kolloid-Zeitschrift," and so cannot institute any comparison l>etw€en his results and mine, but most certainly my observations did not support the assumption that any particular angle was pre- dominant amongst these disk-like bubbles. I was at first inclined to regard these results as evidences of the absence of crystalline or pseudo-crystalline arrangement ; but as lines of cleavage are absent in certain substances most definitely crystalline, this view can not be rigidly held. If, however, a vectorial characteristic is present, the arrangement must be similar to that exhibited in masonry composed of courses of uniform cubical bricks. Fracture and Regelation. If a solid cylinder of 5%-10% gelatine is broken transversely at any point, and the fracture mended by warming the opposing sur- faces and allowing to set, it will be generally found that the former line of fracture is the seat of weakness. If a sti-aight piece of combustion tubing filled with 10% jelly is heated between cork guards at some point, and then allowed to stand over-night, it will 1 S. C. Bradford. On the Gelation of the Natural Einulsoids. Soience Progress, July, 1917 p. 64. Theory of Gel Structure. 155 be found that on expelling the jelly (which can be done with a little practice by quick immersion of the whole tube in warm water) the place of former heating is weak, and fractures readily. Indeed, this region may look to the eye actually thinner. The cause of this is to be found in the well-known hysteresis of jelly. That part which is heated and allowed to reset, will melt more readily on the application of the warmth necessary to loosen the jelly cylinder in the tube. But if a cylinder of jelly is cut through slowly with a platinum wire, carrying an adiustable electric current just sufficient to produce melting of the jelly, a complete transverse lesion can be obtained, which on resetting exhibits no weakness. If an ordered arrangement of the solid phase was pronounced, one would expect to find weakness always manifest, when continuity was once dis- turbed. No definite conclusion can be based on this evidence, but once more it points either to the lack of any vectorial character or to such being of the nature of a complex of uniform cubical or rect- angular units. l^he Struve-Baumstarh Phenonemon. In 1885 a method was described by F. Baumstarki of preparing aqueous extracts of brain tissue for purpose of analysis. The pro- cedure was simply to immerse the brain matter in ether, where- upon after a day or two a copious watery extract was expelled from the brain tissue, and collected at the bottom of the receptacle. Baum- stark found that petroleum ether was without this effect. In reality this phenomenon had been already observed and utilised in 1876 by H. Struve,2 who investigated the watery extract obtained from various plant and animal tissues. The same device was resorted to by MacMunn^ in order to obtain muscle extracts for the study of myohaeniatin. I have made a number of experiments on this method, chiefly from the standpoint of the structure of gels. One hundred grms. sheep's brain, immersed in wet ether, gave in three days 37.5 cc. aqueous extract. After one week the amount was 39.9 cc; after three weeks 41.4. The solid matter in this ex- tract was 3.6%. One hundred grms. of meat fairly fat-free gave in one week 17.5 cc. extract. The solid matter was 4.2%. 1 Zeit. f. physiol. Chemie. Vol. 9, p. 145. 1885. ■2 Bull, de I'Ac.ad. Itnp. de St. Petersburg. Vol. n, p. 243. 1876. Also Bericht. rtentsch. cheni. Gesell. Vol. '.), p. 623. 1876. 3 .Iourn.ll of Phvsiol. Vol. S, p. 54. 1887. 156 W. A. Osborne: One hundred grms. of the same, finely minced, gave the same amount, namely, 17.5 cc. exti-act. Solid matter = 4.5%. If brain or muscle be exposed merely to ether vapour, a " sweating " takes place, and drops of extract are formed, but one never obtains any- thing like the quantity of fluid as when tbe tissue is immersed in the ether. Two hundred grms. dry sand in a separating funnel when wetted with tap water retained, after dripping had ceased, 48.5 cc. water. On pouring ether vapour on the surface of the sand 4 cc. water were immediately discharged below. If the ether vapour is ad- mitted to the under surface only of the sand, this discharge does not take place. If instead of vapour a quantity of liquid ether is poured on the surface of the wet sand, the following events occur : — At first a few cc's. of water, then a further quick flow of water holding increas- ing amounts of ether in solution, then ether charged with water, and, lastly, ether with a very small quantity of dissolved water. The sand w^ill now be found to be wet with ether. If petroleum ether is used, then only a small quantity of fluid is very slowly discharged. A given quantity of sand will hold more tap water than it will water which has been shaken with ether. It is obvious that we have two effects here. One is the sudden lowering of surface tension due to solution of ether, and consequent fall of the capillary columns of water between the sand grains. If water ia allowed to mount up a capillary tube and a small drop of ether is placed in an enlarged part above, but not blocking the lumen, then as soon as the vapour falls down the capillary a rapid drop in the water meniscus can be seen. The other effect is the progressive solution of the ether in the water, the augmenta- tion of the latter in volume and hence progressive discharge until the ether displants the aqueous phase. At the same time there may be diminution of " Haftdruck " in the sense of Traube.i Now coming to gels, Ave find that some give the Struve-Baum- stark reaction, and others do not. Amongst those that display this property in a marked degree are the soaps. A 10% sodium stearate (Merck) gel placed in ether begins to discharge liquid at once. If the fluid is drained off until no more forms, it will be found 1 Theorie des Hafttinickes, etc. Biochem. Zeit. Vol. r,!,, p. 305. 1913. Theory of Gel Structure. 157 that the liquid phase of the soap gel has been replaced wholly by ether (containing, of course, some water in solution). The gel now exudes ether on compression, and if lit will burn violently. The discharged fluid, however, has some of the solid phase in solution, for it contains more than double the amount of solid matter present in the fluid expressible from the original gel, and moreover, if exposed to the air, and so allowed to lose its dissolved ether, will revert to a moderately firm jelly. Indeed this seems to me to be an ideal method for studying stages of gel formation, as the process can be made slow or rapid as desired. I had at first attri- buted this partial solution of the solid phase to the presence of alcohol, but repeated washing with water failed to remove this faculty from the ether. The ether layer above the soap jelly in these experiments was found to contain some solid matter in solution, and from the qualitative tests I employed this seemed to be fatty, acid, but I have been unable to pursue this particular investiga- tion. The discharged fluid will set, therefore, on-'exposure to the air, and the gel thus formed can be once more subjected to ether ; the liquid phase and a portion of the solid dissolved in it will be discharged and the remainder of the solid phase left behind impregnated with ether. This procedure can be repeated three or four times. The fact that the liquid phase of the soap can be discharged and be replaced by ether is obviously similar to that obtained with wet sand. It certainly indicates that the liquid phase of the soap gel is held by capillarity in the open meshwork of the solid phase. If, however, a 5% gelatine gel is submitted to ether immersion no fluid, or only an exceedingly small amount is extruded. "Where- as a 2% gelatine will show the Struve-Baumstark phenomenon clearly. That there exists a profound physical distinction between these two is evident to the sense of touch alone — the 5% gelatine is dry, the 2% is wet. In the 5%, and in greater concentration, the fluid, we may assume, is not merely held by capillarity, but exists in solid solution in the substance of the framework, whereas in the 2% gel the water-logged lattice holds by capillarity a fluid with a small amount of solid matter in solution. This is at any rate an explanation that falls in with modern physico-chemical theories of gelation. Another possible hypothesis is that the liquid phase in the more rigid gels is formed of small vesicles completely en- closed by walls of solid phase in honey-comb fashion. This expla- nation is, however, rendered most unlikely by the results of ultra- 158 Osborne .• Theory of Gel Structure. microscopic examination. i In egg-white coagulated by heat, we have a gel containing some 86% water, but no fluid is extruded when the coagulum is subjected to ether. It is just likely that we have a honey-comb structure here, though the hydrophile nature ■of the framcAvork may also take its part. On the other hand, the thallus of laminaria, as Struve discovered, exudes fluid copiously. A silicic acid gel containing 13.4% solid matter, though easily fractured, did not give a positive result. It seems to me, therefore, that the Struve-Baumstark phenome- non can be employed to distinguish those gels where the liquid phase is held, in part at least, by capillarity from those in which the fluid is held, through imbibition, by the hydrophile lattice of the solid phase. 1 See for instance, W. H. Howell: Structure of the Fibrin-Gel and Theories of Gel Formation. American Journ. of Physiol. Vol. f,0, p. 526. ivne. [Peoc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Art. XVl. — Oii the Formation of "Natural Quarries" in iSub-arid Western Australia.^ By J. T. JUTSON (Geological Survey of Western Australia). (With Plates XXVIII., XXIX.). [Read December 13th, 1917]. Introductory. The sub-arid interior of Western Australia possesses many strik- ing surface features, which are as yet but little kiTown, and still less have been the subject of investigation. Amongst minor forms, the remarkable hollows, to which the writer has applied the name, " natural quarries," are worthy of record. They differ in origin from, the natural quarries due to ice action ; and in normally moist climates they have no definite parallel. Their nearest topographic forms in such climates are certain scars left in places on steep hillsides, owing to land-slips, but for reasons stated below such an origin cannot be postulated for any of the quarries described in this paper. Summary. " Natural quarries," in sub-arid Western Australia are of three kinds, circular, rectangular and triangular. They are distinct excavations (resembling artificial quarries) in the hillsides of various rocks; and are chiefly due to the mechanical gouging or lindermining action of rain under certain special conditions. Description. There are three kinds, broadly speaking, of natural quarries. They may be described as the circular, the rectangular and the triangular types, such terms being based on the kind of plane figure formed by the outline of the quarry on the normal surface slope. There is, however, a certain amount of transition between the different forms. The Circular Quarry/. — This kind forms a more or less circular hole of varying diameter and depth, on a hillside; and in many 1 By permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of Western Australia. 160 J- T. Jutsonr places has a resemblance to an ordinary shallow artificial quarry excavated in a similar locality. The slope of the hillside is usually steep, or at a moderately high angle from the horizontal. Treat- ing such slope as a plane, the outline of the quarry on such plane would approximate towards a circle, and taking a section down the slope through the quarry, the section line along the plane acrosa the quarry would be the chord, and the outline of the quarry on the section would be the arc, of a vertical circle. In some cases, however, the lowest lip of the quarry may be removed by erosion, and the quarry then passes gradually into the lower slope of the hillside. The rocks of the hillside are either decomposed igneous rocks, or normal sediments such as shales and grits. The igneous kinds- predominate. The rocks must be soft and easily removed, and therefore circular quarries are not found in the unweathered granite and "greenstone." These soft rocks are frequently capped by distinct bands of ironstone, or the surface layers of the rocks may become indurated, without forming a distinct cap. The upper surfaces, therefore, become resistant to erosion. The hard- capped or surface-indiirated hills form lines of cliffs, known as " breakaways," connecting a tableland with a lower plain. Small water channels, which are usually mere furrows, one or two feet wide and deep, may lead into the quarry at the top of it, or out of it at its base. In surface dimensions the quarries range in diameter from a few feet to perhaps 40 or 50 feet, and in depth from perhaps a foot or two to five or six feet. They are generally shallow in pro- portion to their surface area. The Eectanrjular Quarry. — This type is also found on hillsides. Its floor, however, is practically coincident with the floor at the base of, or with the floor of a bench on the hillside. It is different from the circular quarry in that it is bounded by approximately straight lines. Its " back " forms a steep usually vertical, or close to the vertical, plane, Avhich intersects at an acute angle the plane of the hillside. Its floor forms a plane but little inclined from the horizontal, and practically coincident with and forming an exten- sion of the floor at the base of, or of the floor of a bench on the hill- side. Thus there is frequently but not always no "front" wall dividing, or partly dividing, the quarry from the adjacent floor; and where a wall does occur it is generally very low and is always broken to allow for tlie passage of water from t he quarry. Formation of "Natural Quarries." ]Q\ The " hack " and the floor of the quarry approximate in outline to rectangles, which are frequently at right angles to each other. The two sides of the quarry form triangles on vertical planes, or planes ■which approximate to the vertical, and which tend to be at right angles to the plane of the " back," The sides of the triangles are therefore formed by the planes of the hillside slope, the "back" and the floor. In the rounding off of corners there is a tendency to destroy the sharp rectilinear outlines, btit such outlines are clearly recognisable. A quarry may form on any hillside provided the rocks under- lying the surface rocks are comparatively soft and easily removed. Thus this type of quarry is found on hillsides of soft schistose or stratified rocks, or of any decomposed rocks; and such hillsides may include " dry " lake cliffs. It is not found on slopes with hard granite boulders; but it does occur on slopes littered with small but tough greenstone fragments, for often beneath the surface litter the rock in situ may be much decomposed. Rain furrows and small channels may lead to and from the quarry and across its floor. Most quarries are of small dimensions, the average of which for many would be about eight to ten feet high, six to eight feet broad, and ten to twelve feet long. Some quarries greatly exceed these measurements. One on the western shore of Lake Goongarrie, at Comet Vale, is probably 30 to 40 feet high, 40 to 60 feet broad, and 60 to 70 feet long; but this is an exceptionally large one so far as the writer's observations have gone. The figures given are approximate only, as no actual measuring has been done. The Triangular Qiifrrr//. — This type of quarry is more akin to gulches produced by normal erosion at the heads of gullies. On the plane of the slope which it dissects it is roughly triangular, and has the base of the triangle on the upslope and the vertex pointing downhill. It is usually V-shaped in a cross section parallel to the base of the triangle, the sides having but moderate slopes. The " back " however, is somewhat steeper, this feature being accen- tuated when, as often occurs, a rock cap which tends to be under- mined forms the coping to the back. The quarry is mostly con- nected with a drainage line at the vertex of the triangle, the quarry representing the present but somewhat abnormal head of that line, as the steep slopes and gulches do in an area of normal erosion. Similarly, as in such a normal erosion area, the quarry tends to be at the top of the slope, with its " back " close to the crest line of 6 162 J. T. Jutson : the ridge. There is thus a close resemblance between the two types — the quarry under arid, and the steeji slopes and gulches under normal, erosion; but marked differences also exist. In normal areas, the lower drainage line or channel is wider and more strongly marked than the upper portion running up towards the crest line, and if the upper portion be branched, the branches are separated by a ridge. In the quarry, however, there is a wide scooping out with no distinct bisecting ridge.'i Moreover, the quarry is the clearly marked feature, the lower drainage line often being insignificant and difficult to trace by reason of the tendency of the occasional water flows to spread themselves over a compara- tively wide belt of the lower country. The triangular quarries have a moderate range in size. They are from 10 to 15 feet in all dimensions, to a large quarry having a " back " perhaps 100 feet in length measured horizontally along the top. They probably approach equilateral triangles in shape, but the base (the " back ") is, the w^riter lielieves, usually longer than the sides. This type of quarry does not, as a rule, form in granite. Much weathered "greenstones" or greenstone schists, with a cap of hard ironstone, appear to be the most suitable rocks for their for- mation. Mode of Fonnation. The action of the rain in beating upon and undermining decom- posed comparatively soft rocks, which ai'^ associated in definite Avays (to be presently stated) with cei'tain harder rocks, is appar- ently the main factor in producing tlie three types of natural quarries above described. The circular quarry originates in most instances at least in the following way : On the face of a " breakaway," the detritus from the hard surface layers and from the rocks below slowly drift towards the bottom, and in doing so the whole face of the " break- away " may at any particular period of time be covered with this detritus or talus to a thickness of about one foot or less.- Owing to the widespread tendency in sub-arid Western Australia to cement all loose surface deposits by mineralised water rising to the 1 It must be remembered that these remarks only apply to the triaii-ular natural quarries here described, and that gullies with normal branches in every way similar to those formed in wetter climates are numerous in hilly country in the dry areas. 2 A gfreater thickness than one foot may occur, but under such conditions it is doubtful if a natural quarry would form. Formation of "Natural Quarries." 163 Burface by capillary attraction and by the evaporation of such water with deposition of mineral water, this detritus may be compacted and hardened by the introduction of (chiefly) iron oxide or travertine as a cement. The cemented detritus then forms a ■cover, fairly strongly resistant to erosion, over the underlying soft rocks. The latter are, therefore, so long as the cover lasts, pro- tected from further erosion. The cover may, however, not be quite continuous everywhere, or it may be very thin and not completely cemented in certain places, or for some other reason a hole in such cover may exist or be made. Having such a hole, the rain may directly beat upon the soft underlying rocks, or may find its way between the cover and the softer rocks, with the result in either case of removing portions of such softer rocks and undermining the cover, which collapses and gradually disintegrates into fine enough material to be carried away by the rain. Once started this process may go on, the hole growing larger until one sufficiently large enough is produced to be called a circular natural quarry. This seems to be the chief method of formation, although some quarries occur which do not seem to have had a distinct cover; but here there is probably some surface hardening of the rocks, with- out, however, the formation of an appreciable cover. It is also conceivable that some parts of the soft rock are less resistant to •erosion than others; that therefore where no cover exists, the beat- ing action of the rain may gouge out the less resistant rocks; and that when once started the cavity so formed may grow in size. The rectangular quarry in places resembles the scar left by a landslip, but as an accumulation of detritus, such as would result from a rock fall, is never found on the floor of the quarry, this mode of origin must be rejected. It is difficult to account for all quarries of this type, but the following conditions favour their formation : — (1) An abuttal along a vertical or nearly vertical plane of decomposed soft rocks against a band of hard erosion- resisting rocks. (2) Decomposed soft rocks capped by a practically continuous band of loose fragments of a hard erosion-resisting rock derived from an outcrop farther up the hillside. In both cases, if the soft rocks form vertical or nearly vertical schists, the formation of the type of quarry now discussed, is accelerated. The mode of origin is not easy to understand, but it seems that the action of rain l>eating on the soft i-ocks is mainly responsible for the wearing away, aided of course by the ordinary weathering agents ; and that the resulting form is governed by the band of hard rock or by the surface cover of hard detrital rock mentioned 164 J. T. Jutson : "Natural Quarries." above, either of these two rock arrangements necessarily tending- to produce a steep cliff. It is possible also that water finds its way down through the rocks and oozes out at the base of the cliff; and so may slightly remove, or at any rate weaken the soft rocks at the- base of the cliff. When these (quarries occur at the edge of " dry " lakes bounded by rocky cliffs, the crystallization of salt from water evaporating from the rocks at the base of the cliffs may also help- this type of quarry formation, l)ut further investigation is desir- able on this point. The triangular quarries are due to the gouging action of rain on soft rocks. Their form is guided by the hard rocks forming a cap- to the " back," which cap resists erosion and brings about the steep "back." At the same time the check given to erosion by such cap causes the denuding agents to follow the line of least resistance, with the result that the quarry is widened between the sides of the triangle, thus causing a lengthening of the "back" along the base of the triangle. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate XXVIII. Fig. A. — Section through a circular quarry. Tlie broken lines- indicate the original surface, which has now been removed. Fig. B. — Block diagram illustrating the formation of a triangular quarry with a hard cap to the " back." Figs. C. and D. — Sections illustrating the formation of rect- angular quarries, the broken lines being the original surfaces, now removed. Platr XXIX. Fig. E. — A circular quarry, Niagara. Fig. F. — A rectangular quarry, western shore of Lake Goongarrie^ Comet Vale. Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1918. Plate XXVIII, //// ^Oiks r?rr,Qy^(i /o -form a. c'ircu/ar auo^ r ry 3 \\)\ -f-h //// 3c/}f%f-03e rocks remo^ecC A> form rectcLng^/ckr aoarr/es^ OO J^e^ri^ from 771 0.55* ^^e to cA^, Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1918. Plate XXIX. Fig. E. Fig. F. [Proc. Koy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Akt. XVII. — The Influence of Salts in Rock Weathering in Sub-arid Western Australia} By J. T. JUTSON. (Geological Survey of Western Australia). (With Plate XXX.). [Read 13th December, 1917J. Intpoduction. Among the many erosion processes that are now acting in that portion of sub-arid, south-central Western Australia, which corre- sponds with the writer's Salt Lake or Central physiographic divi- sion,2 the apparent influence of the crystallization of salts under certain conditions in breaking up the rocks and in assisting to give characteristic forms to certain features of the landscape, has not hitherto been recorded. This phase was first pointed out to the writer at Lake Raeside, which lies chiefly to the east of the railway running north from Kalgoorlie through Menzies and Kookynie,^ by Professor J. Walther in 1914, on the occasion of the visit to Australia of the members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This process of erosion may be regarded as one of the phases of " exsudation," a term which is subsequently defined. Since the visit referred to, the writer has studied the question in the field in several localities, and now submits a brief account of the process and its effect in modifying the land surface. Situations Favourable for the Wopk of " Exsudation." "Exsudation," as understood in this paper, can only be ob- served taking place in certain comparatively limited situations These are as follow : On tlie face, but most frequently close to the bottom of the cliffs bounding the "dry" or "salt" lakes; on the rock floors of such lakes; possibly in hollows beneath the hard caps of lines of cliffs known as " breakaways," (which may border 1 By permission of the Direntor of the Geological Survey of Western Australia. •2 Jutson, J. T.^An Outline of the Phf/siofjiaphicnl Gfolocin (Plnixionraphy) of Western histralia. Bulletin 61 of the Geol. Snrv. Western Australia, pp. 32 and .5-2. 3 .Menzies is 80 miles and Kook^\nie IIS miles north of Kalyoorlie. 166 J' T. Jutson: or he quite apart from lakes); and possibly on the under surfaces of granite and quartz boulders. The process may be acting on other rock outcrops, but it is probably masked by the stronger erosive action at such other outcrops of other processes, such as insolation and the action of rain. The Process of " Exsudation " as here Defined. According to Hunieji^ " exsudation " is a name given by Fut- terer, and comprises several "desert evaporation effects"; but in this paper the term will be restricted to those processes by which, under certain conditions, flakes or grains are mechanically broken off from the parent rock, or by which the latter, if soft and decom- posed, may crumble almost to powder. These results are appar- ently chiefly due to the crystallization of salts contained in solu- tions brought to the surface by capillary attraction, and the evapo- ration there of the water. The deposition of the salts exerts pres- sure on the rock, with the result that flakes or grains may be forced off or a soft rock may crumble. Walther2 has described the effect on the rocks in arid areas of the crystallization of salts from evaporating underground water, and a valuable series of observa- tions and experiments as to the disintegration of building stones in Egypt has been made by Lucas, ^ who regards such crystallization of salts as the main agent of such disintegration. In sub-arid Western Australia, the operation of "exsudation" is best seen in cliffs — usually at or close to the base of such cliffs — of weather-resisting rocks, at the edge of a " dry " lake. Amongst the resistant rocks forming these cliffs the " greenstones " are the most abundant; and such cliffs are frequently high, steep and prominent features on the borders of the lakes. " Hard," prac- tically undecomposed granite also occurs, but the cliffs so far seen by the writer are usually low and insignificant. These rocky cliffs frequently rise from a rock floor at the edge of the lake of such an extremely smooth level character that the writer has applied to such a floor the name " billiard-table rock- floor." The cliffs may be nearly vertical for some height, ranging from a few feet to perhaps 20 feet, beyond which they recede at 1 Hume. W. F. — Professor Walther's Erosion in the Desert considered. Geol. Mau. Decade VI , vol. i. (1914), V. If). 1 Walther, J. -Das (iesetz der Wustenhildiing. 2 ed., Leipzit;-, 191-2, pp. T2S-l-2f>. 3 Lucas, A.— VVte Disinteri ration of Bwlding Stones in Kriyitt. Survey Department, Cairo, 1902. The Influence of Salts in Rock Weathering. 167 either a high or a moderate angle from the horizontal; or such approximate verticality may not exist in any portion of the cliffs. The base of the cliffs is, in various localities, undermined into irregular caves and hollows varying both in breadth and height from a foot or two to several feet, but the floors of the caves and hollows are not always coincident with the lake floors, although frequently they are so. The caves and hollows in places increase in height away from the cliff face, that is, the roofs become more dome-like. This doming is helped by the tendency to form resis- tant films on the outside surfaces of the rocks; and in its results resembles to some extent the " pocket rock " and the effects partly due to " shadow-weathering " of other areas, referred to by Hobbs.'^ The undermining may V)e more or less continuous along the base of the cliff's for some yards ; and where strong vertical joints or other division planes occur, a roughly rectangular outline may be given to the part attacked. The roofs, sides and floors may be damp, and the roofs and sides have a very scaly appearance owing to innumerable thin rock- flakes (of from one-half to two inches in length and breadth, and usually from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in thickness) being shed from the parent rock. On account of their thinness and of their decay dui-ing the process of splitting oft', these flakes can usually be broken by the fingers. This flaking is, in the writer's opinion, chiefly due to the process of " exsudation," which has been defined above. Meteoric water percolating from the surface downward must assist " exsudation " by acting as a solvent, however slight or slow, thereby weakening the rocks and making them more liable to fur- ther decay. This water also, by passing doAvn joint planes and dripping on to the floors of the caves and hollows, helps to enlarge such hollows, one mode of such enlargement that has been noticed being the scooping out of small lens-shaped hollows in uneven floors along joints. The rocks at the base of the cliffs must, by reason of the constant drawing up of moisture by capillary attraction, aided by the downward percolation of surface waters, be mostly in a more or less soaked state, which must undoubtedly tend to make the rocks less coherent. In many places the sun's rays never reach the sides and roofs of the cavities, so that temperature variations must be negligible in 1 Holibs, \V. n. — Earth Fcatiuvs and their Mcanlvrj. New Ynik, 191-2, pp. 201-200. 168 J. T. Jutson: their effect on the disintegration of the rocks. The direct action of rain must also be excluded, as it cannot beat on to many sides and roofs. Similarly the wind must take little part in the actual breaking up of the rock; and as regards the lake waters as abrad- ing agents, the lakes are dry, especially at the edges, for very long periods; and the water in the lakes is, as a rule, not more than a few inches deep.' No normal waterworn pebbles are found, and the only conclusion appears to be that the lake waters have no abrasive power. The rock flakes further break up on the floor of the caves, and in time the debris is removed, mainly, in the writer's opinion, by deflation, but discussion of this aspect does not come within the scope of this paper. Cavities are sometimes scooped out on the face of a cliff at any height from the ground up to perhaps 20 feet, but the hollowing out is chiefly confined to a band rising from the lake floor to a height of about four feet; and where the undermining takes place regularly over a length of some yards, the cliff may, in a very marked way, overhang a regularly hollowed out area, which is about two feet high from the lake floor upwards, one to two feet broad, and several yards in length along the line of junction of the lake floor with the cliff. Lucas2 has noted that in the decay of building stones in Egypt the action is frequently limited to a metre or a metre and a half above the ground level ; or if not actu- ally limited to that extent, it is usually greatest at or near the sur- face of the ground; and liis conclusion is that the disintegration is chiefly due to the crj^stallization of salts by the evaporation of water on the rock surface, that is the process now under descrip- tion. White incrustations or etflorescences occur frequently, but not always, on the Egyptian rocks, which are subject to the process de- scribed. In Western Australia no pronounced efflorescences at the lake cliff cavities have been noted by the writer. Tliis is a jjoint requiring further investigation. The ground water is usually close to the lake floors, and is very saline. The following are two analyses, made in the Western Aus- tralian Geological Survey Laboratory, of watos, one of which was collected from a trench sunk on Lake Cowan, Norseman, 3 and the 1 The writer has heen informed that water, 10 feet or more deep, lias been observ ed in a lake ; but if so, it i.s quite exceptional aiid perhaps due to some artificial embankment. Most oliservers agree that the lake waters are generally not more than a few inches deep. 2 Op. cit., p. 3. 3 Norseman is 108 miles south-southeast of CoolKardie. The Influence of Salts in Rock Weathering. 169 other from the Happy Jack Mine at Comet Vale,'!^ the mine being west of Lake Goongarrie, and about three-quarters of a mile dis- tant from the lake's nearest point. Salts. Parts per cent. Happ.v Jack Gold Mine, Comet Vale. Lake Cowan, Noiseuian. CaCO'g .0023 .0076 CaSO^ .1328 .2238 MgSO, 2.1532 1.132+ MgCl, 2.9943 3.1905 KCl .0378 .0738 NaCl. 20.1071, 18.8806 XaNOg nil. NaBr " nil. Nal nil. A\.S),.{Fe,0,) .0200 .0044 SiO., .0100 trace Total solids - 25.4575 23.5131 Extra CO2 .0030 Analyst D. G. Murray E. S. Simpson, The predominance of common salt may be noted. The Happy Jack water is extremely salt for a water away from a lake, but it shows how salt some of the underground waters are. In its percentage and nature of solids, it is probably close to the normal underground lake waters. These analyses show that there are abundant salts to operate on the rocks in the way described. Space does not permit of detailed descriptions of particular localities where the features described above may be seen, but as examples of the flaking of hard greenstone rocks, reference is made to the western shore of Lake Goongarrie, at the eastern end of the " peninsula," between Comet Vale and Goongarrie.^ An example of flaking of practically undecomposed granite occurs at the low cliffs at the western end of an unnamed and unmapped lake to the east of the Tiorth -eastern corner of Lake Goongarrie. The rectan- gular outlines of siome of the undermined cavities, which are largely due to vertical joints and other division planes, may be seen at the extremity of the peninsula at Lake Goongarrie. 1 Comet Vale is 63 miles north of Kalg:oorlie, 2 Goongarrie is 55 miles north of Kalgoorlie. 170 ^ J. T. Jutson: AH greenstone clifts bordering lakes have not pronounced caves- and hollows at their base; but some hollowing out, although per- haps only a small scale, can generally be detected. If the rocks are comparatively soft or finely schistose, the rate of ordinary weather- ing on the face of the clifi by insolation and the action of rain, may keep pace with or, exceed the rate of weathering at the base, with the result that no pronounced hollows or caves are formed; and the angle of slope of the cliff will depend on the ratio between the two forces. The prominent greenstone cliffs on the western shore of Lake Goongarrie, close to the town of Comet Vale, afford excellent illustrations of fairly steep slopes with practically no hollows at tlie base. Here the respective rates of erosion at the Dase and on the upper portion of the cliff appear to be about equal. The writer believes that " exsudation " also acts to some extei\t away from the lakes in the hollowing out of granite boulders, and in the formation of caves and hollows beneath the hard caps of the lines of clifJs known as "breakaways." It is proposed, how- ever, to discuss these questions in another paper. Rock jfioors are exposed — or coated with mere films of silt — in at least portions of many lakes. The rocks may be ancient sediments or igneous rocks, and are frequently " soft " and easily broken. When the floor is free from surface water, the underground water is drawn to the surface by capillary attraction, evaporation takes place, and an efflorescence of salts (chiefly common salt) occurs on or near the surface of the rocks. The surface of the latter tends to break down into a meal, which is soon swept away by wind or water. The writer has collected numeroiis specimens of these rocks, which showed little salt deposited on the surface, but which must have contained in solution a comparatively large amount, as alter a few days common salt was thickly deposited as an efflores- cence, and some specimens had crumbled to pieces. On these rock floors, exposed as they are for the greater part of the year to the sun's rays, the amount of direct and indirect disintegration by salt efflorescence is probably considerable, and an appreciable factor in the general erosion of the land. The Results of the Process. The results of the process of " exsudation " as here considered, aided by other apparently subordinate processes, have already been partly stated. They may. however, be now briefly sum- marised. Thev include : The Influence of Salts in Rock Weatliering. 171 (1) The hollowing out of cliffs of hard rocks abutting the " dry "■ lakes, generally at or close to the base of such cliffs, thereby tend- ing to keep the cliffs steep, and at the same time assist in their recession ; and by such hollowing to aid in forming level rock floors at the edge of the lake. (2) The disintegration on rock floors of lakes, whether close tO' or at any distance from the cliffs, of the rocks forming such floors. Further research, particularly on the chemical side, is needed tO' definitely substantiate these results. The mode in which the debris at the foot of and beneath the cliffs^ and on the rock floors of the lakes, is removed, does not come with- in the scope of this paper ; but in order to fully understand the part played by " exsudation," brief mention must be made of the processes following the breaking down of the rocks, and the effect on the land forms. As already pointed out, the cliff's are broken down by rain, by insolation and by " exsudation," these agents being helped by the weakening of the rocks by meteoric waters acting as solvents. The removal of the detritus is, in the opinion of the M^riter, chiefly due to the wind acting in its deflative capacity, although the lapping of the lake waters, when they collect after rain for a brief period, may remove fine material in suspension, but this removal is often counterbalanced by the deposition of the silt when the water dis- appears. On the rock floors of the lakes the same principles apply. The wind as a corrosive agent is also believed to act on the base of the cliffs, and on the rock floors to some extent. The effect of such processes is to produce a cliff of varying steep- ness, with a rock floor of such smoothness that the writer has termed it a "billiard-table rock floor." The cliff recedes, and, owing to various causes, is followed by the water. Thus a migra- tion of the lake takes place.*! Such migration of cliffs and of lakes, and the production of level rock floors, are materially aiding the formation of a vast plain at a considerable height above sea level as opposed to a normal peneplain, whose base level approximates tO' that of the sea. ADDENDUM. Since this paper was read, Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., etc., of the National Museum, Melbourne, has kindly drawn the writer's attention to an interesting letter by Dr. F. A. Bather on salt weathering, in the 1 The theory of lake mitrratioii in Western Australia has been first stated by the writer in his. work already cited (pp. 155 57), and has been elaborated by him in a hitherto unpublished paper. 172 J. T. Jiitson: Salts in Rock Weathering. "Geological Magazine" for November, 1917, pp. 526-528, iu which is raised the question of the chemical action of sodium chloride in addition to the mechanical principle of crystallization. In this connection Dr. Bather refers to the work of Professor R. C. Wallace, whose full statement will be awaited with interest. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX. Fiffs. G. and II . — Sections illusti'ating undermining of rock cliffs on shores of " dry " lakes. In G the small cavity may be regularly continuous for some yards along the line of cliff. tig. I. — Undermining of granite on the western shore of a lake, east of Lake Goongarrie, Comet Vale district. The rock floor is not visible here. Fig. J. — Undermining and hollowing out of greenstone clifis at the " Peninsula." Lake Goongarrie. A thin layer of silt covers the rock floor here. Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1918. Plate XXX. Fig. ^ ^ ~- ■ r -,. i7i1gflWHIllffl"ii''" 1 1 ;-_.7Ti ; .. "™*™™- ^rr^:-;^ . >gttK,^^-" "^ "^ ^c^^:;^;*^^^ ""' •* Fig. J. [Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1918]. Art. XVIII. — Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. 26} BY ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D. (Government Botanist of Victoria, and Profaesor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University). [Read 13th December, 1918]. Acacia glandulicarpa, F.M. Reader. (Leguminosae). " Hairy Pod Acacia." Whipstick Forest, near Bendigo. Collector, David J. Paton, September, 1917. A native of Victoria, previously only recorded from the Mallee. Cynosurus echinatus, L. (Grainineae). "Rouojli Do,t,''s Tail Grass." Mentone, Collector, J. R. Tovey, December, 1916, Ferguson, near Beech Forest. J. Murchison, February, 1917. New localities in Victoria for this introduced grass, which has previously been recorded from the Drouin district only. Crovvka exalata, F. v. M. (Rutaceae). "Crowea." Whipstick Forest, near Bendigo, D. J. Paton, December, 1916. This is a new -locality in Victoria for this plant. It had previously been recorded from the east and north-eastern localities only. Mr. Paton says that the plant is fairly abundant in the Whip- stick Forest, in two or three localities, notably near Eaglehawk, whence the present specimens are taken. It seems to be associated with the Mallee-like flora of the Whipstick, as I have not observed it on the southern side of Bendigo, where the flora is of a different type. As found here it is a low erect or straggling shrub, seldom attaining three feet in height, and often much less. November and December is the best flowering period, though a few flowers may be gathered at almost any season of the year. 1 No. 25 in Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, iniT, vol. xxi\. (ii.s.), pt. ii., p. 142. 174 Alfred J. Eiuart Drakaea Huntiana, F. v. M. (Orchidaceae). " Tiuy Hammer Orchid." Cravensville, R. S. Rogers, December, 1917. A new record for Victoria of this rare orchid, which was first described from speci- mens found on Tingiringi mountain, New South Wales, in 1889, by Bauerlen. Erica arborea, L. "Tree Heath." (Ericaceae). Selby, C. French, junr., October, 1917. Becoming very common along the Gembrook line. It was first recorded at Wheeler's Hill (J. W. Audas), and Beaconsfield (Mrs. Dancocks), and must now be regarded as definitely naturalised. The plant has no injurious properties, and is a decorative shrub, which has escaped from gardens. As Epacrideae in Victoria take the place of Ericaceae in England, it will be of interest to see to what extent this introduced Erica will ou.st the native EjDacrideae. Hypericum tetrapterum, Fries. (Hypericineae). Government House Domain, Melbourne, P. F. Morris, January, 1917. This plant, a close relative of the St. John's Wort, is a native ■of Europe and North Asia, may be classed as an exotic not yet suffi- ciently established to be considered naturalised. Inula graveolens, Desf. "Stinkwort." (Compositae). Tyabb, Victoria, A. S. Krcrouse, May, 1917. This plant, which is proclaimed under the Thistle Act for the whole State, is now evidently spreading in the above district. Lactuca scariola, L. " Prickly Lettuce." (Compositae). Near Deniliquin, N.S.W., per Mercantile Land and Finance Co. Ltd., April, 1917. A native of Europe and Central Asia. It is an annual or bien- nial weed of no economic value, and apt to iDe spread readily by seed. Sheep will eat it down, particularly when it is young. This plant was recorded as a naturalised alien in the northen parts of Victoria in 1913, and is now evidently spreading in New South Wales. Flora of Australia. 175 Lepidium virginicum, L. (Cruciferae). " Virginian or Wild Peppercress." Mt. Wycheproof, Rev. W. W. Watts, November, 1916. A new locality for this introduced plant. It is a native of North America. LoBKLlA Erinus, var. GRACILIS, L. (Canipauulaceae) (Lobeliaceae). " Prickly Lobelia." Scrub near Lake Margaret Power station,. Tasmania, T. B. Moore, January, 1917. This handsome Lobelia is already a naturalised alien in Victoria, and may also become a naturalised alien in Tasmania. LoRANTHUS PKNDULUS, Sieber. (Loranthaceae). "Hanging Mistletoe." Diamond Creek, C. French, junr. Growing in fair abundance on such introduced plants as Robinia pseudacacia and Cytisus proliferus. Other instances of the spread of native mistletoes to introduced trees have already been re- corded. Lychnis coronaria, Desr. (Caryophyllaceae). "Rose Campion" Anderson's Creek, Hazeldene, 29/1/1917, J. W. Audas. Spreading rapidly in this locality. A native of South Europe .and Asia Minor. Mesembryanthemum laxum, Haw. "Loose-flowered Pigs-face." (Ficoideae). Burwood, J. W. Audas, 17/8/1917. Growing in fallowed land and in process of naturalisation. Paronychia chilensis, D.C. "Chilian Whitlow Wort." (Caryophyllaceae) (sub order, Illecebraceae). Moonee Ponds, J. P. McLennan, 1909. Eldorado, H .B. Wil- liamson, No. 1454. Werribee River, C. French, junr, January, 1917. Near Diggers' Rest, C. French, junr.. May, 1917. This plant, a native of Chile, may now be considered to be estab- lished as a naturalised alien in this State. 176 Alfred J. Ewart : Phalaris pakadoxa, L. (Gramineae). Menindie, N.S.VV., November, 1916. A new locality for this introduced plant. It is a native of the Mediterranean Regions. Rosa kuuiginosa, L. (Rosaceae). "Sweet Briar." In a tall old plant, 6 ft. high, the tap root was found to have descended 3 ft. in sandy soil, Avhile the largest lateral root extended 6 ft. 6 in., at an average depth of over 2 ft. In the case of this plant, after cutting the stem nine inches below the surface, new shoots appeared above the ground. Usually, however, lateral shoots only arise from the stock a few inches below the ground, and with such young plants a six inch ploughing usually cuts away the roots capable of growth, those left in the ground dying. When the ground is moist and the plants are dragged out with a horse and chain, there is a greater possibility of leaving behind pnrts capable of developing new shoots, but th'^se can be easily de.stroyed witli a mattock when they appear a few months later. vSlSYMBRiUM ori^:ntalk, L. (Cruciferae). " Indian Hedge Mustard." Foreshore, Geelong, H. B. Williamson, No. 1449, December, 1910. Northcote, W. R. A. Baker, January, 1911. Bank of Yarra, Anderson Street Bridge, W. R. A. Baker, January, 1913. War- racknabeal, E. T. Lukey, November, 1913. It is a native of Europe and Asia, now widely spread in Victoria. This plant is very easily confused with Erysimum repandum, and in some cases records of E. repandum really refer to Sisymbrium orientale. It is a weed of waste places, but spreads in pastures and cultivated ground if neglected. Solanum hkterandrum, Pursh. (Solanaeeae). "Pincushion N^ightshade." Bute, S. Australia, per Professor Osborn, March, 1917. This North American weed is already recorded as a naturalised alien in Victoria and New South Wales, and is now evidently establishing itself in South Australia. Staticr Thouini, Vis. "Thouin's Sea Lavender." A garden escape at Wycheproof. A native of the Mediterranean Regions. Coll., Rev. W. W. Watts, Dec, 1916. Flora of Australia. 177 Ulex europaeus, L. (Leguminosae). " Furze or Gorse." An important factor in determining the persistence of perennial weeds during dry summers is the depth to which the roots penetrate. Nevertheless, in the case of gorse, the plant seems to withstand dry seasons, even when the roots penetrate only to a small depth. Thus in one case a green clump four to five years old, 2 ft. 6 in. in height and 4 ft. across, was growing on thin soil, with a hard pan subsoil which the roots were unable to penetrate. Their depth varied from 4i to 6 in., without the plant appearing to suffer from the dry summer. On looser soils the roots penetrate much more deeply. The deepest roots were found on a loose soil, with a porous clay sub-soil, in which they attained a depth of 2 ft. 7 in. Under still more favourable circumstances possibly greater depths may be obtained. Xanthorrhora australis, R.Br. (Liliaceae). "Grass Tree." In addition to the resin produced by this plant other products may be obtained from it, some of which may have an economic value. By distilling the resinous leaf bases with water, Mr. Watt, of Cobden, obtained a dark coloured, strongly smelling grass tree oil, which if it could be obtained cheaply and in abundance might be of some value as an insecticide. The oil itself killed every leaf to which it was applied, viz., grasses, St. John's Wort, sunflower, dahlia and onion weed. Unfortunately the oil does not mix with water, and although water shaken up with it acquires a strong- smell of the oil, it had no effect when sprayed on plants of St. John's Wort, and also did not affect the grass leaves around them. 7 [Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 30 (N.S.I, Ft. II.. 1918]. Art. XIX. — On ChloropJtyll, Carotin and Xanthopltyli, and on the Production of Sugar from Fonnaldehyde. By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D. (Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University and Government Botanist). [Read 13th December, 1917]. In a previous paper the theory was put forward that the produc- tion of carbohydrates in plants did not take place by a direct synthesis of carbon dioxide and water to form formaldehyde, and then sugars by polymerization, but that the carbon dioxide and water combined with the phytyl base of chlorophyll to form xantho- phyll or carotin, and that this by photo-oxidation produced for- maldehyde, reducing sugar and phytyl, the latter recombining with the chlorophyll molecule. This would represent a change in which chlorophyll played the part of an enzyme, requiring a supply of energy in the form of light for its activity. This conclusion was mainly based upon the facts that formaldehyde is produced by the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll films in the presence or absence of carbon dioxide, and that chlorophyll films in contact with water saturated with carbon dioxide turn first yellow and then brownish white, slowly in darkness and rapidly in light, while at the same time they appeared to gain in weight and did not set free any oxygen. In the earlier work I was able to extract small amounts of xanthophyll from chlorophyll fibns decomposed by carbon dioxide by treatment with potash and extraction with alcohol and separation with ether. Hence the conclusion was made that an actual produc- tion of xanthophyll had taken place. Jiirgensen and Kidd^i suggest, however, that the chlorophyll films used might have contained xanthophyll as an impurity, and they confirm Willstatter's^ state- ment that the action of carbon dioxide on chlorophyll is due to its removing magnesium, and converting the chlorophyll into phaeo- phytin, which in the form of films is yellow in colour. On using chlorophyll separted from 80 per cent, acetone by petrol ether, and removed from the latter, after washing, by the 1 Proc. Roy. Soc, J.-inuary, 1917, p. 342. •2 Sitzungsb. d. Ksl. Press. Akad. der Wiss, 191fi, pp. 322, 544. Cklo7'ophyll, Carotin and Xantliophyll. 179 addition of talc and filtering, no xanthophyll could be extracted from the films decomposed by carbon dioxide. Nevertheless., that the first stage in photo-synthesis might be a ■direct addition synthesis with carbon dioxide is by no means im- possible. It has long been known that direct addition syntheses of ■carbon dioxide can be produced with the aid of strong reducing agents such as sodium or potassium (Wanklyn, Kolbe), Bremmer .(Annalen, 350, 1906, p. 313) has shown that hydroquinone heated with potassium carbonate, bicarbonate, glycerine and sodium sul- phate in a stream of carbon dioxide yields oxysalicylic acid and dicarbosylic acid (CgHgOj;). Similar results were obtained with phenol and resorcin, while gallic acid yielded a gallocarboxylic acid. Presumably phenols may be transformed into Ketone com- binations with a free affinity to which carbon dioxide can attach itself, that is a direct addition synthesis with carbon dioxide takes place. The action of watery solutions of carbon dioxide on chlorophyll in light and in darkness. Pure dry carbon dioxide does not appear to exercise any action upon chlorophyll films in darkness, or even in light, after several weeks' exposure the films being still green and not appreciably altered. As the presence of water is necessary, a large bulb tube was lined with chlorophyll half way from the bulb end. The tube was filled with pure carbon dioxide over mercury, and after intro- ducing 0.5 c.c. of water saturated with carbon dioxide, was exposed to light for three weeks. The films were still green, but with a yellow tinge. The weight of chlorophyll used was 0.216 gram. Out of 2440 c.c. of carbon dioxide 15.6 c.c. disappeared, and the residual gas contained 0.4% of nitrogen, but no oxyyen. Appar- ently a rapid reaction between chlorophyll and carbon dioxide only takes place when the former is in direct contact with a watery solution of the latter. Repeating the experiment with a tube containing sufficient wat«r to cover the film, the upper end being drawn out, sealed, and the tube exposed for one week, the water became pale yellow, and the chlorophyll yellowish green. Eight c.c. of saturated water were used, 40 c.c. of carbon dioxide and 0.22 gram of chlorophyll. After bringing the whole tube to the original temperature, and allowing for the pressure, the gas had decreased in volume only 3.8 c.c. (i.e., 0.007 gram COtj per 0.006 gram of Magnesium). On evaporating the water to dryness, and adding the chlorophyll film 180 Alfred J. Etvart .- after dissolving it in hot alcohol, the total weight of residue wa» 0.21 gram, i.e., a slight loss instead of a gain. In the experiments mentioned in the previous paper in which chlorophyll films appeared to gain in weight after exposure to light in water saturated with carbon dioxide, the films were weighed in situ in the tube after pouring oft' the water and drying in a current of rarified dry air at room temperature. Repeating a similar experiment, a film weighing 0.105 gram appeared to in- crease in weight to 0.228 gram. Close observation showed, how- ever, that dry chlorophyll films in w^ater swell and imbibe water, and that this water is not removed wholly by drying at room tem- perature, the films assuming an approximately constant weight while still containing a large percentage of water. The same film on dissolving in alcohol and petrol ether weighed on drying 0.102 gram. On the other hand, if dried in air at 50°C. or 60°C., the films lose weight by oxidation. In one test experiment this loss amounted to 3% in ten hours. In a second experiment a dry film weighing 0.264 gram, weighed 0.251 gram after sixteen hours at 60° in air and darkness, and 0.234 gram after forty hours, being- then quite yellow with nearly all the green colour lost. This error can be avoided by drying in vacuo, or in hydrogen or nitrogen. In a further experiment conducted with every possible precaution, a chlorophyll film weighing 0.228 gram after one week's exposure to light in water saturated with carbon dioxide weighed 0.223 gram, i.e., it lost slightly instead of gaining in weight. The film is, however, not wholly insoluble, but a little matter passes into solution in the water, and this may include one product, formaldehyde, which is mostly lost on evaporation. Experiments on a large scale were then carried out by using ordinary sparklet syphons. Dry chlorophyll, obtained by i^etrol ether separation from an acetone extract and subsequent purifica- tion, was weighed in a small beaker, dissolved in a little ether,, poured into the syphon, and the beaker then dried and reweighed. A current of warm air was passed through the syphon, which was inclined and revolved until an even chlorophyll film formed up to the danger mark. The syphon was then filled to this level with cold boiled w^ater, the head screwed on a sparklet bulb attached, and after previous exhaustion by a Geryck pump while in the inverted position, the bulb was pierced, and the water charged highly with carbon dioxide. One syphon was exposed to sunlight for a week, the other left in darkness. Owing to the sunlight warming- Garhon Dioxide and Chlorophyll. 181 and partially melting the chlorophyll, the film sometimes becomes more or less distorted. This can largely be avoided by keeping the syphon under cold water flowing from a tap. The syphons remained highly charged with carbon dioxide, but contained no oxygen. The films on washing with absolute alcohol gave a yellow solution containing phaeophytin and turning green with zinc acetate. The water was also evaporated to dryness. It was at first clear and colourless, but became faintly brown on evaporating. A trace of solid residue was left by the water from both syphons, which was partly soluble and partly insoluble in water. It averaged under 2% of the weight of chlorophyll used. If the films are prepared from the first petrol ether separation of chlorophyll without further purification, the water always leaves a larger residue, and that from the syphon exposed to sunlight always contains some reducing sugar. Thus, in one case, the water from the syphon in darkness left a residue containing a little matter soluble in water, and giving a trace of reduction by Feh- ling's test, and a brownish white waxy solid soluble in petrol ether. The residue from the syphon in sunlight contained more matter soluble in water, and gave a strong reduction with Fehling's test. Further tests showed a hexose sugar to be present. The weights were in grams. Suiiligrht. Darkness. Chlorophyll film .-..-. 0.359 - 0.37 After 1 week in water + CO^ under pressure - 0.265 - 0.306 Residue from evaporation of water - - - 0.056 - 0.039 Total Residue - 0.321 - 0.345 The same experiment was repeated, using thicker films of chloro- phyll, exposures of four weeks' duration, and evaporating the large bulk of water under reduced pressure and temperature. The water from the sunlight syphon left a brown residue on the sides of the vessel on evaporating, and a gummy residue on the bottom. More than half of the residue was soluble, and it gave the tests for a reducing hexose sugar. The water from the syphon in dark- ness left a brown non-gummy residue of which less than 1/5 was soluble in water, and gave a white flocculent precipitate with Feh- ling's test, but no reduction. No trace of free oxygen was found. For deinoiistration purposes the s.vphoii can he filled h.alf way ahove the danger mark and then charged with a sparklet, usinff a control without carbon dioxide. After a week in dark- ness a comparison of the twO syphons forms an admirable lecture demonstration of the action of a solution of carbon dioxide on chlorophyll, the film in the first case beini; yellow, in the latter, green. 182 Alfred J. Ewart : The film from sunlight was in the thinner parts nearly colour- less, and in the thicker parts more brown than yellow. It contained less phaeophytin than the films kept in darkness. The weights were — Chlorophyll film - . - Total film residue after 4 weeks Total water residue Sunlight, grammes. Darkness, grammes. 0.555 0.527 0.301 0.458 0.205 0.058 Total From the above it would appear that in sunlight and COg, chloro- phyll decomposes slightly more than in darkness, that a little for- maldehyde or other volatile product is formed, and that if any oxygen is formed, it is not set free, but oxidises the phaeophytin. The action is not continuous as in the plant, since there is no re- construction of the chlorophyll. It appears, further, that the sugar formed in the plant remains at first in loose combination with the chlorophyll, and follows it into the petrol ether and other solvents, and that it is only sepa- rated from the chlorophyll when this is purified by precipitation. If pure chlorophyll films are dusted over with zinc dust, they remain green in contact with a solution of carbon dioxide in water indefinitely, and even after a week's exposure to sunlight only show a slight fading on the more exposed side. On dissolving the films the solution shows the same absorption bands as chlorophyll, but the solubility is altered. On incinerating, the ash of the green pigment was found to consist of zinc oxide, and not of magnesium oxide. It evidently consisted of the salt of zinc with phaeophytin, described by Willstatter and Hocheder (Annalen der Chemie, 1907, 353, p. 205), which closely resembles chlorophyll. Evidently in the presence of a saturated solution of carbon dioxide in water, zinc will displace the mag- nesium of chlorophyll. In the previous paper I had described some results which seemed to show that with the aid of zinc dust and in the presence of carbon dioxide a reconstitution of chlorophyll was possible from the products of its decomposition. What really hap- pened was that the zinc salt of phaeophytin was formed, which closely resembles chlorophyll, and is easily mistaken for it. This zinc salt appears to be more resistant to acids and to photo. -oxida- tion, and to be more stable than natural chlorophyll. It is worthy of note that impure chlorophyll films prepared directly from the first petrol ether separation of an alcoholic Oxidation of Chlorophyll. 183 extract of chlorophyll always bleach more rapidly in light than do pure preparations of chlorophyll. No evidence could be obtained of the existence of any special oxidase enzymes in the impure films, but these always yield small amounts of reducing hexose sugar, even if previously well washed with water prior to photo-oxidation, whereas fully purified chlorophyll yields no sugar on photo -oxida- tion. In one test experiment, a sample of pure chlorophyll was prepared as described by Willstatter and Hiig (Annalen, 1911, p. 177). Two films of it were prepared each in a large bulb tube, containing dry CO^ free air. After a week's exposure to sunlight, no further bleaching took place. The volume of air decreased by 14.6%, a small amount of water appeared, but no reducing sugar. After shaking with water and filtering, the latter gave Riminis, Schryver's, Schiff test, and the Schiff and sulphuric acid tests for formaldehyde. The amount present was, however, distinctly less than when a current of air was passed over long tubular films exposed to sunlight, and then led into water, as described in the previous paper. The changes which chlorophyll undergoes during photo-oxida- tion in dead tissues are not necessarily precisely similar to those taking place after its extraction and purification. It has, how- ever already been shown (Proc. Royal Society B., 1908, 80, 30) that formaldehyde is produced in green leaves by the photo. -oxidation of chlorophyll after death, and in the absence of carbon dioxide.^ Green grass leaves were boiled and then dried in a strong press re- peatedly until they yielded no trace of reducing sugar. The leaves were then spread flat on glass plates, and held in position by silk threads. The plates were placed in large glass vessels — (a) contain- ing COg free air, (b) with COj present, (c) ordinary air. The vessels (a) and (b) were exposed to sunlight until the leaves were bleached, (c) was kept in darkness. The air in all three was kept moist. The leaves were then extracted with boiling water, which was concen- trated, filtered and tested. Both (a) and (b) yielded small amounts of reducing hexose sugar, while (c) yielded none. Apparently the post mortem photo-oxidation of chlorophyll and its companion substances can increase the extractable sugar content of drying hay in the same way that photo-oxidation causes sugar to separate from an impure chlorophyll film. 1 Further confirmation of this has recently been g\vtn l).v Osterho it, see n. se:' p. 68. See also Schr.wer, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, B., 1910, 82, 226. 184 Alfred J. Eivart: The influenct of ttmptratart. Thin, bright green chlorophyll films formed on the floor of a beaker kept on a boiling water bath rapidly turned bright yellow, After twenty-four liours in darkness on the water bath, the films were nearly colourless. Comparative tests showed that although the bleaching of chlorophyll by oxidation at 100°C. is rapid, it is not as rapid as in sunlight at 30-35°C. Films prepared from a petrol ether solution separated from an alcoholic solution, to which copper sulphate had been added, remained green after an hour on the boiling water bath, and still showed colour after twenty-four hours. The copper compound with chlorophyll is therefore more resistant than chlorophyll, not only to photo-oxidation, but also to thermo-oxidation. Chlorophyll films in large sealed tubes filled with carbon dioxide kept at 100 ''C, Avithin one to two hours became bright yellow. The petrol ether extract was dark yellowish in colour, showed a strong fluorescence, and gave the spectrum of phaeophytin. It ^uelded no appreciable ash. Apparently at high temperatures car- bon dioxide acts readily on chlorophyll, removing its magnesium and producing phaeophytin. The photo-oxidation of xanthophyll. In a previous paper it was suggested that portion of the oxygen produced during the interaction of carbon dioxide with chlorophyll might he used to oxidise xanthophyll into phytol, hexose sugars and formaldehyde. This suggestion was based upon data obtained by passing moist oxygen over dry " xanthophyll " films in tubes exposed to light. Further experiments carried out with films exposed to light under water kept saturated with air gave no trace of formaldehyde on distilling the oxidised liquid. The method of obtaining the xanthophyll used in these experiments yields a product which though free from chlorophyll, contains a high proportion of xanthophylloid and other impurities. Owing to their presence, the impure " xanthophyll " obtained as previously described is temporarily soluble in petrol ether. Films from petrol ether solutions were covered with water exposed to sun- light and frequently shaken with fresh air, until the film breaks up to form a white, milky liquid. In addition strong alcoholic solu- tions were poured into water and similarly exposed. The products in this case are the same, but the bleaching is more rapid. Oxidation of Xanthophyll. 185 The watery liquid was then evaporated to dryness and the brown, gummy residue digested with a small quantity of cold water and filtered. The clear brown filtrate has a slightly sweetish taste, fol- lowed by the bitter flavour of wax impurities. If the digestion is prolonged in a larger quantity of water, the whole residue breaks up, and the less soluble portion swells to form a colloidal solid which is difficult to separate by filtering. It can, however, be con- densed by the addition of a few drops of lead acetate. The filtrate and also the filtrate from the photo-oxidation in water of impure chlorophyll from the first petrol ether separation gave the following tests : — 1. With a naphthol and sulphuric acid it gave the furfural test for carbohydrates (green ring, red above, purple on cooling and shaking). 2. Warmed with phloioo;lucin and hydrochloric acid, the solu- tion deepened slightly in colour, but gave no pink. Hence no pentoses were present. 3. Strong reduction with Fehling's test not increased by previous warming with a drop of sulphuric acid. Hence no cane sugar present, but maltose, glucose or levulose. 4. With hydrochloric acid and resorcin it gave one warming a red liquid and a brown precipitate on standing. Since cane sugar is not present this shows the presence of a keto hexose such as levulose. 5. Milk of lime was added, and the liquid filtered. Precipitate. — A portion dissolved in HCl. gave a fairly strong reduction with Fehling's test. A second portion was neutralised, and phenylhydrazin hydrochloride and sodium acetate added. After warming half an hour on a water bath a finely granular yellow glucosazone precipitate was given = presence of levulose. Filtrate gave a blood red with picric acid and sodium hydrate. Carbon dioxide was passed into the remainder of the filtrate, which was then evaporated to dryness, water added and refiltered. The filtrate gave a fairly strong reduction with Fehling's test, but not as strong as before the precipitation of the levulose. Presence of glucose. In a further experiment, the watery extract from oxidised " xan- thophyll," after clearing and filtering, was treated with ammoni- cal lead acetate and filtered. The precipitate was washed, sus- pended in water, carbon dioxide passed through, and again filtered, The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, dissolved in a minimum of water, and cleared and decolorized with animal charcoal. The 186 Alfred J. Eivavt : solution had a sweetish taste, was dextro-rotary, and gave a strong reduction with Fehling's test. The precipitate from the carbon dioxide was suspended in water, sulphuretted hydrogen passed through and filtered. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, and the nearly colourless gummy residue dissolved in water and filtered. It was sweetish in taste, laevoro- tary, and gave a strong reduction with Fehling's test. Hence the sugars produced are a mixture of dextrose and levu- lose, and probably in equal proportions since the original solution showed a slight laevorotation. In a further experiment Pasteur's solution was added to a watery extract from photo-oxidised " xanthophyll,'' and a drop of water containing lU to 20 yeast cells. The tubes were sealed, and kept at 25*^0. In one week, yeast cells were abundant, and actively budding, carbon dioxide was formed, and the filtered liquid gave the iodoform test for alcohol. The sugars are, therefore, ferment- able by yeast. In the above experiments the " xanthophyll " used contained not only " xanthophylloids," but also other extractives. Accordingly pure preparations of xanthophyll were prepared by slight modifica- tions of the methods used by Willstatter and Mieg. (Lieb. Ann. 355 .1. 1917). Chopped dry grass leaves (4 kilogrammes) were ex- tracted with alcoholic potash. The filtered liquid was treated with excess of ether and a separation effected by the addition of water. The red ether extract was washed with water, dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate, concentrated, and petrol ether added. The red precipitate which forms, was dissolved in hot acetone and filtered after cooling and standing, leading a white solid, and a dark almost black liquid (orange red when dilute). To this, twice its volume of methyl alcohol was added, and on standing in darkness and out of contact Avith air, pure xanthophyll crystallizes out, and can be finally washed with petrol ether. The xanthophyll obtained was exposed to photo-oxidation as dry films in tubes in a current of air, and in the form of a fine emulsion in water. No trace of reducing or non-reducing sugar could be detected after oxidation whatever the method used. In the first experiments traces of formaldehyde seemed to appear, particularly when the photo-oxidation was rapid. It was found, liowever, that the methyl alcohol used for precipitating the xanthophyll yielded traces of formaldehyde when exposed to sunlight. On removing this source of error no formaldehyde could be detected as a product of the oxidation of xanthophyll. It is worthy of note that pure Oxidation of Xanthophyll. 187 samples of xanthophyll oxidize and bleach much more slowly in light than do impure samples, xanthophyll being less readily oxidiz- able than chlorophyll, and very much less so than carotin. The white waxy solid separated by acetone during purification was ex- posed to light. No production of sugar or formaldehyde could be detected. Dry films obtained from the first ether separation yielded small amounts of reducing sugar after photo-oxidation, and this even when the films had been previously well washed with water. The inference might be made that xanthophyll oxidized in the presence of certain associated substances yields sugar, but not when oxidized by itself. The addition of a few particles of magnesium powder re- tards the oxidation of pure xanthophyll greatly, but no sugar or formaldehyde appears. To an alcoholic solution of impure " xanthophyll " which yielded sugar readily on photo-oxidation, alcoholic potash was added. A reddish yellow precipitate formed, insoluble in petrol ether, acetone or ether, but dissolving readily in water, and consisting almost wholly of reducing sugar. On now separating the xanthophyll solution with ether, no trace of sugar could be obtained from dry xanthophyll films after photo-oxidation. The impure xanthophyll films evidently contain preformed sugar, possibly held in loose com- bination, so that it is not readily removed by washing with water, but is easily separated from an alcoholic solution by the addition of potash. In the purification of the ether solution of xanthophyll by preci- pitation with ether, a large amount of yellow xanthophylloid material remains in solution, and is not precipitated from an acetone solution by methyl alcohol. This forms a yellow oily solid with a low melting point. It is readily soluble in petrol ether. Boiled with water it yields neither formaldehyde nor reducing sugar. Films exposed to sunlight bleach fairly rapidly. They usually yield a trace of acetone (Schiff test, etc.) when previously washed and dried, but give no formaldehyde, Schryvers, Rimmers, and the Schiff, and sulphuric acid tests being all negative. The watery extract from the bleached films when evaporated to dryness dissolved in a little water and filtered, gave in all cases the test for a reducing hexose sugar. In a further test, with pure xanthophyll, nearly half a gram was spread as a film inside a large flask exposed to strong sunlight, with a slow current of moist CO.i-free air passing through the flask and then into water in a darkened receiver. The film was wholly 188 Alfred J. Ea-ari: bleaclied in three chiys. The wuter in tlie reeeivei- gave Schiff' s test strongly, Seliryvers, Kinmiers, and thL' Schiff and sulphuric acid tests faintly. It apjiaiently contained a trace of formaldehyde in addition to a trace of acetone, but not sufhcient of the former to give the characteristic smell. Apparently when subject to violent photo-chenucal oxidation pure xanthophyll may produce traces of formaldehyde, but none when tlie oxidation takes place in darkness or in weak illumination or under water. According to Willstatter, Mayer, and Hlini (Annalen. 1910. p. 73), the constitutional formula of phytol may be CH,-CH-CH-CH-CH-CH-CH - C = C - CH-CH.,0 I I I I I I I I I CH, CK, CH, CH, CH, CH, CH, CB, CH, Phytol would therefore be constructed from similai- l)uilding materials to alipliatic and cyclic terpenes and rublx-r. Just as geraniol and limonol may be constructed from two molecules of isoprene, so may four molecules form phytol. as thus : — 4C,H, + H".,0 + 3H, = r'.,„H,„0 In the same way eight molecules of isoprene might yield cai-otin eet root, etc.) can be reduced to colourless compounds."* In my previous paper^ I was also misled into ascribing this state- ment to Palladin, but could obtain no evidence of any action of either watery or glycerine extracts of plants oxidases and reductases on carotin or xanthophyll. This may possibly be because of the difficulty of reproducing the conditions existing in the plant. Experiments were, however, made with the pigments in various solvents, and in the form of fine emulsions in water. The results obtained with metallic reductases were more satis- factory. As already shown, magnesium dust rapidly, and zinc ■dust slowly, reduce xanthophyll, present in a clear yellow solution in a mixture of alcohol and water, to carotin, leaving the liquid nearly colourless. Using strong emulsions of xanthophyll in the form of suspended particles, zinc dust was found to be ineffective and magnesium dust only acted slowly. In the latter case on filter- ing, drying and dissolving, the dry residue in petrol ether, the bulk of the pigment consisted on evaporating of yellow xantho- phylloids with scattered minute red particles of carotin. The tests should be done in darkness, and as far as possible out of contact with the air since otherwise the carotin may oxidize to colourless products. All attempts to convert carotin into xanthophyll by the aid of metallic oxidases, organic oxidases (carrot, potato, apple) or direct 1 Chemistry of Plant Products, p. 252. 2 Ber. d. D. Bot. Ges. 1908, 26, A, pp. 12.i, 378, 398; (1909), 27, p. lid. Zeitschr. f. Physiol. Chemie. (190S). 55, p. 207. 3 Biochemical Bulletin, 1915, p. 184. 4 Zeit.s. t. Physiol. Chem., B^. sr., 1008, p. 221. r- Pi-oc. Roy. Soc, B, 89, W\f>, p. 11. Influence of Carbon Dioxide. 191 oxidizing agents failed, whether solutions or emulsions in water were used. Lubimenko^ finds, however, that both carotinoids and xanthophylloids exist which are intermediate between xanthophyll and carotin. The carotinoid from the aril of Euonymus is indeed insoluble in petrol ether, while xanthophylloids are soluble to a greater or lesser extent. According to Lubimenko, in the absence of oxygen, the xanthophyll decreases and the carotin increases, while in boiled leaves exposed to air and peroxidase, the carotin is converted into a yellow pigment equally soluble in alcohol and petrol ether, and with a spectrum intermediate between carotin and xanthophyll. The influence of the absence and presence of carbon dioxide. Mustard seedlings were grown in moist air in diffuse daylight, and under similar conditions in air deprived of carbon dioxide. The cotyledons in the first case were larger, broader and more yel- lowish green, and in the second were smaller, darker and more bluish green. The cotyledons with the upper halt of the hypocotyl were removed, and the crushed material after killing by boiling was extracted with successive poi'tions of absolute alcohol, and finally with hot alcohol. The last extraction was nearly pure carotin, and showed clearly that the seedlings grown in tlie al)sence of carbon dioxide contained more carotin than the others. The whole extract was divided into three parts. From one the chlorophyll was separated by three successive petrol ether extrac- tions, and the amount of chlorophyll estimated by comparison with solutions of known strength. The second sample was evaporated to dryness, dissolved in a minimum of cold absolute alcohol, saponi- fied and separated with ether. The third sample was saponified, petrol ether added, and then water. After w^ashing the petrol ether and ether solutions, their strengths were estimated by com- parison with solutions of known concentration. This method is not wholly accurate, but in the complete separation of chlorophyll, caro- tin and xanthopliyll, the losses are so great that the exact estima- tion of the amounts originally present is impossible. The values obtained were : — Weight of Material. Chlorophyll. Carotin. Xanthophyll. wramnies. grammes. grammes. grammes. CO2 present - 100 - 0.474 - 0.11 - 0.15 C0„ absent - 100 - 0.271 - 0.275 - 0.12 1 Compt. Rend. 191.5, p. 27S. 192 Alfred J. Eivart : The dark blue green colour, therefore, apj^ears to be due not to an excess of chlorophyll, but rather to the more compact character of the tissue, and it appears as though chlorophyll develops most rapidly when its normal functional activity can be exercised. The conclusion seems also justified that the carotin supplied at least a part of the carbon and h^'drogen for the construction of chloro- phyll. The spontaneous decomposition of chlorophyll. Twenty pounds of grass leaves were extracted with absolute alcohol, and separated with two litres of petrol ether. After wash- ing with 80% alcohol, the petrol ether solution containing a little alcohol and a trace of water was placed in a completely filled bottle. The percentage of chlorophyll was estimated by diluting against a sample of pure chlorophyll and comparing under the spectroscope. The bottle was sealed and kept in darkness for one year. On open- ing and diluting a sample the colour was strongly yellowish green instead of pure green. The solution was divided into four parts. One part was evaporated to dryness, and treated with cold absolute alcohol. This left behind a large amount of a brownish white Avaxy film, readily soluble in petrol ether. The solution was diluted down to a dilute solution of known strength, in which only the red band of chlorophyll was visible. This indicated that per gram of the original chlorophyll only 0.54 gram remained. To the second portion of the petrol ether solution twice its volume of absolute alcohol was added, and sufficient hot water to bring about separation. After standing three days in darkness the subnatant liquid was deep yellow, and a layer of solid red par- ticles was present between the two liquids. These were collected and washed. They consisted mainly of xanthophyll, with a little carotin. The third portion was evaporated to dryness in the form of a film lining a large tube. It weighed 4.452 graan. After soaking in cold absolute alcohol for several days, the brown waxy film re- maining was washed and dissolved in petrol ether. On evaporat- ing, it weighed 1.309 gram, and on incinerating after warming with a drop or two of nitric acid it yielded 6.8 per cent, of ash as magnesium oxide. According to Willstatter, the phyllins (glauco- phyllin and rhodophyllin have the formula (C3iH„oN4Mg(COOH2) which represents 7.1% of ash as magnesium oxide. The fourth portion was agitated with a little water, the petrol ether allowed to evaporate and the residue distilled. Tlie distillate contained distinct traces of formaldehyde. Precursors of CJdoro'phyll. 193 Hence impure chlorophyll appears to spontaneously undergo partial segregation into carotin and xanthophyll, and pale brown waxy solids rich in magnesium. In addition small quantities of formaldehyde appear. An equation for the production of glauco- phyllin and carotin from chlorophyll cannot be made to balance without the addition of oxygen, but small quantities of dissolved or occluded oxygen might have been present before sealing, as this possibility was overlooked, In that case a suggested equation might be — (cOOC,oH3, If a similar change resulted in the production of the monocar- boxylic phyllophyllin (CgiH.nNjMg.COOOH) still less oxygen would be required. In samples of chlorophyll purified by precipitation, no carotin or xanthophyll appeared, and dry samples kept in sealed vacuum tubes were apparently unaltered after five months in darkness. In the case of dry samples from the unpurified petrol ether extract, after keeping for some months, the sample will flow slowly over the glass, and shows a separation of solid red carotin or xanthophyll particles. The Precursors of Chloroj)hyU. According to Timiriazeff'i and to Monteverde2 etiolated leaves yield a small amount of fluorescent pigment which they term " proto- chlorophyll," This, according to Monteverde and Lubimenko,^ is a derivative of the labile " chlorophyllogen." which rapidly turns into chlorophyll when exposed to light. The precursor of this theoretical substance is. according to the same authors, a colourless theoretical substance, " leucophyll." Kohl* showed that etiolated seedlings contained carotin in abundance, and even doubted whether any other pigment was pre- sent. He also found that the percentage of carotin did not decrease during the formation of chlorophyll on exposure to light, and hence denied that any conversion of carotin into chlorophyll com- ponents took place. Kohl's observation might, however, merely indicate that while food materials were abundant, the production 1 Conipt,. rend.. 102, 686 (1886) ; 414 (1889). •2 Acta. Horti. Petropol., 13, 201 (18S4); Bull. Lard. Imp. Dot. Pecrograd, 7, 37 (1907). 3 Biol. Central, 31, 449 (1911) ; Bull. Ac. Imp. Sci. Pctro-rad, 73 (1911) ; 609 (101-2). 4 Untersuchungen iiber Carotin, 7.'> (1902). 194 Alfred J. Ewart : of carotin continued at a greal^er rate than it was used in the for- mation of chlorophyll. To test this, two batches of wheat seedlings were grown in dark- ness, until approaching partial starvation. One batch was then ex- posed to full sunlight for one day. Equal quantities were then dipped in boiling water, the surplus Avater squeezed out, and the leaves twice digested with cold absolute alcohol on two successive days. The fully etiolated leaves were still deep yellow, and with hot alcohol gave a strong, nearly pure solution of carotin. Those which had been exposed to light were nearly colourless, and gave a pale yellow solution with hot alcohol, containing only a small amount of carotin. Kohl is, however, correct in stating that carotin is the chief pig- ment in etiolated seedlings. Complete extractions with etiolated wheat seedlings yielded from 8 to 10 parts of carotin to one of xanthophyll, the percentage may of course vary Avith other seed- lings, and after prolonged etiolation it appears to decrease. If colourless precursors of chlorophyll exist, they should have a high magnesium content, and should be capable of separate extrac- tion. An area of ten square feet of closely planted AA'heat Avas kept in darkness until the seedlings were six inches high. The yelloAv leaves Avere cut at once and dropped into boiling Avater, and after squeezing out all excess of Avater, tAvice digested in cold alcohol for periods of a day, all liquid being squeezed out in a strong press after each extraction. The nearly colourless material AA-as then digested in boiling absolute alcohol for five hours. Tlie solution Avas filtered hot, petrol ether added while still Avarm. and sufficient Avater to bring about separation. After standing for a day the pale yellow petrol ether extract Avas evaporated to dryness, and the residue dissolved in a minimum of hot alcohol. In this solution, after standing for one day, a bulky white crystalline solid separates out Avhich appears to contain alcohol of crystallization. After filtering and Avashing with a little absolute alcohol a pale broAvnish Avhite solid Avas obtained. This gave off alcohol AA'hen heated, and after incinerating Avith a drop of nitric acid yeilded 1.5% of ash as mag- nesium oxide. The original precipitate, hoAvever, appears to consist of two solids — (a) a Avhite Avax less 8oluble in cold alcohol than carotin, but readily soluble in hot alcohol; and (b) a broAvner Avax, Avhioh is still less soluble in alcohol, than the preceding, and can be separated from it by Avashing Avith small amounts of warm alcohol. This less soluble broAvner Avax yielded in one experiment 6.2% of ash as mag- Decomjwsition of Chlorophyll. 195 nesium oxide, and in another 7.4%. The discrepancy is consider- able, but the difficulty of purifying without great loss of material is very great. The amounts of solid obtained for incineration were only 0.35 and 0.42 gram, respectively. Presumably, the original precipitate consists of a darker waxy solid, with a high magnesium content, and a paler wax with little or no magnesium, which may possibly partly be derived from the wax impregnating the cuticle, and have nothing to do with chlorophyll. The wax present in the cuticle does not, however, decrease with starvation, and increases in amount with increasing age. In a further experiment the seedlings were grown in darkness until nearly starved, and the yellow leaves were treated as before. The waxy solids obtained after separation fiom petrol ether and crystal- lization from hot alcohol gave a yield of 5.1% magnesium oxide. The amount obtained was insufficient for the separation into mag- nesium containing and non-magnesium containing waxes, but the result indicates that the waxy solids with little or no magnesium decrease during starvation, and hence are not derived wholly from the cuticle. The decomposition of chlorophyll in grass leaves in darkness. Plots of barley grass (Hordeum murinum) were kept in darkness from just before the commencement of flowering until the greater part of the leaves turned yellow or yellowish red. These parts were cut away and extracted. A little chlorophyll was still present, as well as xanthophyll and carotin, in the approximate proportions of 1, 3 and 12 respectively. The pale brownish white wax obtained ,as previously described yielded 1.15% of ash. After washing with warm alcohol the darker residue remaining yielded as much as 12.9% of ash, but the whole of this did not consist of magnesium oxide. Many of tlie old grass leaves were bright red in colour, and remain so in darkness, until they died and shrivelled. These were extracted with absolute alcohol and petrol ether until all caro- tin and xanthophyll were removed. They were still red. They imparted a red tinge to water and the red pigment rapidly dis- solved in dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute potash. The neutral solution in water was precipitated by lead acetate, turned yellow with sodium hydrate, reddish brown with hydrochloric acid, and dark reddish l)rown, with ferric chloride. It was apparently, therefore, a flavone, and as it appeared to develop in or in the neighbourhood of the chloroplastids, it may be one of the products Sa 196 Alfred J. Ewart : of the progressive decomi>osition of clilorophyll in darkness. In any case the formation of a pigment of this character is darkened leaves in unusual. Extractions of additional material, with alco- holic potash containing a little water yielded potassium rhodophyl- lin, but Avhether this was partly responsible for the red colour or was merely derived from the chlorophyll, is impossible to say. In the case of most green leaves, the chlorophyll decomposes more or less rapidly in darkness. This is possibly primarily due to the- action of the carbon dioxide produced by respiration, aided by sub- sequent oxidation, and l)y the absence of the chlorophyll regenera- tion normally carried on in the presence of light. It is worthy of note that in fleshy plants such as cacti, Avhere in darkness a forma- tion of organic acids may largely replace the normal carbon dioxide production, the leaves remain green unusually long in darkness. The same applies to water plants such as Elodea and Chara, in which the carbon dioxide is removed in solution by the water out- side. The yhot o-o.ridation of rhodoplxyllin. An alcoholic solution of chlorophyll containing a little water was heated on a water bath with potash for twelve hours. Excess of water was added, and the liquid was placed in a stoppered Win- chester, shaken and allowed to settle daily for three days. The supernatant liquid was syphoned off, and the residue filtered. The residue was Avell washed with water, dried washed with a little absolute alcohol, and then treated with hot alcohol containing a little water. The red filtrate on standing formed red crystalline platelets, with a bluish metallic lustre. From this potassium- rhodophyllin, rhodophyllin was obtained by treating with acid sodium johosphate and subsequent separation.! The product was readily soluble in ether ajid alcohol. l^'ilms and watery emulsions of rhodophyllin and of its potassium- salt were exposed to light. The latter was slightly more resistant to photo-oxidation than the former, l>ut both proved to be much more stable and resistant to i^hoto. -oxidation than either chloro- phyll or xanthophyll. No formaldehyde or reducing sugar could be detected as a product of the photo-oxidation, either in the absence or in the pre.sence of carbon dioxide. Since rhodophyllin is comparatively stable, and resistant to photo-oxidation, it Avould be natural to find that it would be one of the products of the decomposition of chlorophyll in autumnal 1 WiHstaUer ai-.d Pfannestiil, Aniialen, 358, 1908, v- 205. Oxidation of Rhodoj^hyllin. 197 leaves exposed to light. Brown leaves of Salix Babylonica were collected in quantity and boiled and pressed repeatedly until all the soluble tannins were removed. They were then washed with absolute alcohol, and extracted with hot absolute alcohol. The liquid was filtered, concentrated and cooled and refiltered. The brown waxy solid removed consisted partly of phaeophytin. Ether was added to the alcohol and then salt. The reddish yellow ethereal layer contained all the pigment. After washing with water and drying with sodium sulphate, it was evaporated. The residue was extracted with methyl alcohol, leaving a white waxy solid undissolved. To the liquid, alcoholic potash was added, and after heating, it was filtered. On standing, shining red platelets with a steely blue shimmer of potassium rhodophyllin separated out. Yellow leaves picked off the tree and kept in darkness for three days turned brown, as in fallen leaves, so that the change is not necessarily due to light. They yielded, however, xanthophyll largely on extraction and rhodophyllin only in small amount. Rhodophyllin was also obtained from the brown autumnal foliage of the English oak. When these are red in colour erythro- phyll is present- in the cell sap, but it soon fades, leaving them a pure brown colour. The colour of such leaves is due to several pig- ments of which the erythrophyll fades first, then the xanthophyll, then the rhodophyllin and the permanent brown colour is due prac- tically wholly to oxidized tannin compounds. The evolution of oxygen from etiolated plants. It appears from the foregoing that etiolated leaves contain carotin, a little xanthophyll, and a nearly colourless waxy solid rich in magnesium, which is either glaucophyllin, or is related to it. Carotin appears to be the first pigment formed in the construc- tion of chlorophyll, and presumably it is produced at the expense of carbo-hydrate or of hydrocarbon food materials. The relative amounts of carotin and xanthophyll in etiolated parts may depend upon the relative activities of oxidase and reductase enzymes re- spectively. When an etiolated plant turns green in light, it seems reasonable to suggest that the carotin undergoes photo-oxidation, •! liberating formaldehyde, which is rapidly polymerized, and that the bleached 1 111 the case of plants able to develop chlorophyll in darkness, an oxidase enzvme could produce the same effect. 198 Alfred J. Eivart .- carotin residue combines with the glaiicophyllin, converting it intO' the tricarboxylic chlorophyll. This process involves an absorption of oxygen. If carbon dioxide is present, it interacts "with the chlorophyll, probably undergoing additive combination. If it tlieu separated formaldehyde and phytyl, it would liberate a large amount of oxygen. The phytyl would then recombine with the glaucophyllin, reforming the chorophyll molecule. If the supply of carbon dioxide was abundant in proportion to the inten- sity of illumination, the decomposition and recombination would balance and an evolution of oxygen Avould be possible without any actual accumulation of chlorophyll taking place. In 1896 I was able to confirm on a variety of plants the statements of Draper and of Englemann that etiolated chloroplastids can evolve oxygen in light,*!- and showed that this took place before any actual chloro- phyll was developed. The rule was not a universal one, however, and particularly in the case of maize, which has a high temperature minimum for the formation of chlorophyll, no evolution of oxygen could be detected from etiolated leaves so long as they were free from chlorophyll. It was also shown that sealed preparation of etiolated leaves of Elodea with Bacteria, owing to the presence of an excess of carbon dioxide did not turn green in light, although they produced the small amount of oxygen necessary to support protoplasmic streaming. The presence of from 2% to 5% of carbon dioxide in the sur- rounding air distinctly retards the turning green of etiolated grass seedlings as compared with those in ordinary air, 2 but if the in- tensity of the illumination is approximately quadrupled, the re- tarding action of the carbon dioxide is less pronounced or even ceases to be perceptible. Kohl^ ten years later without referring to the previous work reconfirmed the statement that etiolated plants may evolve oxygen in light. He showed that carotin was the chief pigment in etiolated plants, and held that it was responsible for the assimilation of carbon dioxide in the absence of chlorophyll. It is, however, more probable that the evolution of oxygen takes place as outlined above, and that carotin is not by itself capable of caus- ing the assimilation of carbon dioxide. Actual observation shows that it does not appear to comljine with carbon dioxide, and that it combines more energetically and rapidly with oxygen than either chlorophyll or xanthophyll does. Tlie formaldehyde produced 1 See Journal of Liiinean Society, vol. xxxi., 1896, p. 554. 2 See also Bohni, Sitzungsb. d. Wien. Akad,, 1878, p. 14. 3 F. G. Kohl, Ber. d. D. Bot. Ges., 19(»6. vol. xxiv., p. 222. Evolution of Oxygen. 199 during its photo-oxidation does not appear to be directly derived from carbon dioxide. Kohl states that etiolated plants exposed to light in the absence of oxygen, but in the presence of a little carbon dioxide, slowly turn green, the oxygen set free by the agency of the carotin being used in the formation of chlorophyll. It is doubtful, however, whether a complete absence of oxygen was assured at the outset, for Correns''^ has shown that the production of chlorophyll is closely dependent upon the presence of oxygen, and that a partial pressure of oxygen, at which growth and lieliotropic cuivatuie aie still possible, does not suffice for the formation chlorophyll. The evolution of oxygen from green plants in light. It is a diflficult problem to determine how the oxygen produced in close contact with pigments capable of rapid photo-oxidation is. able to escape from the cell. No production of oxygen could be obtained from extracted chlorophyll, carotin or xanthophyll in the presence of oxidase or reductase enzymes in light or darkness and in the presence or absence of carbon dioxide. It seems legitimate, however, to assume that the large chlorophyll molecules may have a definite physical arrangement in the protoplasm of the chloroplas- tids. If their phytyl radicles were all turned outwards towards the entering carbon dioxide, and carotin or xanthophyll were pro- duced by additive combination with the latter, the surplus oxygen could either escape or disintegrate the carotin or xanthophyll, back to phytyl. For the latter a portion only of the oxygen is required. The oxidation films formed from carotin, chlorophyll and xantho- phyll are very impermeable to oxygen, so that the excess would diffuse outwards. So long as the supply of carbon dioxide was sufficient to rei^lace the xanthophyll or carotin film, as it was oxidized, and as the phytyl returned to the chlorophyll molecule, the chlorophyll would remain unoxidized, but if the intensity of illumination increased greatly, oxygen would slowly penetrate the chloroplastid, bleaching it. Phytol itself forms a series of compounds with varying propor- tions of oxygen (CooHshOo.C.joHs^O,,), etc.,- and it also foinis an ozoitide CaoHjoOj, which spontaneously separates into C.20H4O.O.. and free oxygen.* The possibility of a reductase enzyme, converting zanthophyll into carotin, with a liberation of free oxygen also needs considera- 1 Correns, Flora, 189:^, p. U. •2 Willstatter and llocheiler, Aimaleii Htr Cheinie, 1907, 353, p. 205. 3 Willstatter, iUyer luul llnni, Amialcn, 1^)10, p. 73 200 Alfred J. Etvdvt : tion. Against this possibility we have the fact that free oxygen oxidizes carotin more rapidly than xanthophyll, and that the only reductases which seem able to effect the reduction of xanthophyll to carotin appear to be such as themselves readily combine with free oxygen. In the absence of light the presence of a film of carotin or xan- thophyll on the surface of the chloroplastid would render the further penetration of carbon dioxide very slow, and would largely protect the chlorophyll, so long as the plastid was living, from decomposition by carbon dioxide during darkness. Tlie now well recognised fact that chloroplastids may be rendered temporarily inactive without necessarily being killed, and while appearing normal, l is sufficient evidence that the continued assimi- lation of carbon-dioxide involves a definite relationship between the chlorophyll and protoplasm of the chloroplastid. In other words the physical structure of the chloroplastid may be as impor- tant as the chemical composition of chlorophyll. Some special arrangement must exist to protect the chlorophyll from the direct chemical action of the carbon dioxide, which would otherwise re- move the magnesium from the clilorophyll and convert it into phaeophytin. 7''he poli/merizatioj} of fornudchhyde. Butlerow (Liebeg's Annalen, 120, p. 295, 1861) obtained a bitter tasting syrup " methylenitan," by the action of lime water on trioxymethylene, a polymer of formaldehyde. Loew obtained a sweet syrup by the prolonged action of lime water on "4% formal- dehyde. Euler has shown that when a 2% solution of formaldehyde is heated for some hours with calcium carbonate, arabinoketose, a pentose sugar, is jjroduced with glycollicaldehyde as an inter- mediate product. According to Czapek (Biochemie, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 628), glucose is not produced by the action of alkalies on for- maldehyde, but only non-fermentable sugars such as i-Fructose^ and i-arabinoketose. Fischer, however, obtained from Loew's crude formose an " acrose " sugar, which he was able to convert into levulose. Both Loew's and Euler's methods are slow and tedious to carry out. A rapid method is as follows : — A saturated solution of for- maldehyde is mixed with six times its volume of lime water, and 1 Ewart, Journal Linnean Soo=pty, 1896, vol. xxxi., p. 364. 2 Ordinary fructose is fermentable by yeast. See Harden and Yonn<;-, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, B., 1910. 82, p. 645. Polymerization of Forinaldeliyde. 201 while kept heated to boiling point one and a-lialf volumes of 12% sodium hydrate are added. The latter portions are added slowly, and if necessary a few drops additional. A white precipitate is formed at first, with each addition of sodium hydrate, which re- dissolves slowly, the liquid remaining alkaline. With the addition of the last few drops, the liquid suddenly clears, become pale yellow, ceases to smell of formaldehyde, but develops a slight cara- mel smell, and is neutral. If an excess of sodium hydrate is added, the liquid turns brown, and a precipitate may form, but it may be neutralized with a drop or two of acid. On cooling and standing, a white crystalline solid separates, which is insoluble in absolute alcohol, and practically so in cold water. On heating it chars, glow^s and leaves a bulky chalk ash. It is, therefore, an organic calcium compound. The filtrate gives all the tests for a reducing hexose sugar. It also gives red with picric acid, and sodium hydrate, and gives a caramel smell, and darkens when warmed with sulphuric acid. It gives the keto-hexose reaction, with resorcin and HCl. With phenylhydrazin and sodium acetate, it gives a golden yellow imperfectly crystalline osazone. The liquid showed a feeble laevo rotation. The diluted liquid, after adding yeast and Pasteur's Solution, keeping at 30°C. for three days, and distilling, gave a product containing an appreciable quantity of alcohol, and giving the iodoform test readily. The sugars are, therefore, in part at least fermentable. The following procedure was adopted to separate the different products : — The original syrup contains several compounds. After no more of the insoluble calcium compounds would crystallize out, the syrup Avas filtered, and twice its volume of absolute alcohol added. A colourless viscid liquid separates and falls to the bottom. After washing this with alcohol it becomes a white viscous solid. On adding water it partly dissolves and a white crystalline solid separates, which when heated chars with a slight caramel odour, and leaves an alkaline ash containing CaO and CaC03. The filtrate, after the addition of water, gives a strong reduction with Fehling's test. On evaporating nearly to dryness, and cooling, a white crys- talline solid separates, Avhich is an organic sodium salt, and the syrup contains sugar. It yields a glucosazone, but gives only a faint reaction with resorcin and HCl., and appears to contain more glucose than levulose. 202 Alfred J. Ewart: The original filtrate from the first addition of alcohol is a clear, slightly yellow liquid. On adding twice its volume of alcohol, it becomes turbid; after standing one day a bulky mass of long, slender crystalline needles separates. This, after washing with alcohol, gives no reduction with Fehling's, but chars on heating, and gives an ash of sodium carbonate. It is readily soluble in water, and consists of an organic sodium salt. The yellow filtrate on evaporating to a thick syrup and cooling, crystallises out the remainder of the sodium salt. The filtered syrup contains mainly hexoses, but also some pentose sugar. Thus distilled with HCl. it turn aniline acetate strongly red, while with HCl. and phloroglucin it turns red, and then gives a brown preci- pitate soluble in amyl alcohol. The purified syrup was treated with ammonical lead acetate, and filtered. The filtrate contained pentose sugar. It was evaporated to a small bulk, after treating with CO-2 and filtering, cooled, the liquid drained off, diluted, and Pasteur's ash and yeast added. No alcoholic fermentation took place. The washed precipitate was treated with carbon dioxide and filtered. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, dissolved in a little water and filtered. It gave the test for glucose, was dex- trorotatory produced a glucosazone, and after adding yeast and Pasteur's ash, the liquid distilled after three days readily gave the iodoform reaction for alcohol. The remaining solid was treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness and dissolved in water. It gave the ketose reaction, was laevoratatory, and produced glucosa- zone. After adding yeast and Pasteur's ash, the liquid distilled readily, and gave the iodoform reaction for alcohol. Both sugars were also capable of nourishing putrefactive bacteria, PenicilUum and Mucor, when infected with these organisms. The proportions given above are the most satisfactory for a com- plete reaction. With less lime water the reaction is less perfect, and less sugar is produced. With more lime water the boiling liquid clears only slowly, between each addition of sodium hydrate, and it is more difficult to obtain a perfectly neutral liquid at the end of the reaction. On cooling, however, a larger amount of the calcium salt crystallizes out directly, as for instance, when the pro- portions used are 50 c.c. of 40% formaldehyde, 500 c.c. of lime water, and 65 c.c. of 12% sodium hydrate. The crude sugar con- sisted almost entirely of hexoses, with apparently a trace of pentose, as it gave the furfural test more readily than a pure hexose solu- Polymerization of Formaldehyde. 203 tion, and gave a slight coloration and turbidity with phloroglucin and HCl. A more rapid but less perfect separation than that given above is effected by evaporating the whole synthesized product nearly ta dryness in a water bath, and adding a minimum of cold water. The calcium salt remains undissolved. The filtrate is again evaporated nearly to dryness, and treated with 90% alcohol. The residue consists of sodium tartrate; the filtrate contains the sugar. In previous work on sugar synthesis, alkalies have been used singly instead of jointly, and not as here described. As the bye- products described have been saccharates, formates, etc., with which the calcium and sodium salts did not agree, a precise de- termination of their character was necessary. Professor E. W. Skeats investigated the crystallographic charac- ter of the calcium salt, and found that it belonged to the ortho- rhombic system, forming pyramids, domes and elongated pinacoid pyramids, with parallel sides. The crystals were strongly, doubly refractive, optically negative, and had a mean refractive index of 1.55. Mr. J. W. Clendinnen carried out a complete analysis of pure samples of the two salts. Analysis of tufo Crystalline Salts obtained by Professor Ewart. The calcium salt was in the form of well defined crystals, and so needed no further treatment to purify it. As the salt was evidently one of an organic acid, simple ignition left a residue of calcium oxide, from which the percentage of calcium could be calculated. A combustion was then done with the calcium salt, and this gave the percentages of hydrogen and carbon, and thus oxygen by difference. These were the results obtained : — Percentag-e. Approx. Ratio Element. Duplicates. Mean. At \vk. At wk. x .3Sri. Oa - \^^^] - 1.5.4 - .385 - 1 H - \^] - 4.9 - 4.9 - 12 C - ^^%] . 18.7 - 1.56 - 4 O - - 61.0 - 3.81 - 10 (diff.) This formula (CaHjoC^ Oj^) corresponds with that of calcium tartrate CaH4C^Oe.4H„0. The usual quantitative tests for tar- 204 Alfr(^d J. Eiuart : trates were then applied to both the salts. All the tests were posi- tive, thus confirming that these were salts of tartaric acid. The importance of this method of producing sugar lies in the fact that it iS a rapid and well dehned action, yielding definite salts, namely, sodium and calcium tartrates, and that the amount of sugar produced, particularly of hexose sugars, is large, being intermediate between the weights of the calcium and sodium salts. It is not, however, likely that this mode of producing sugar from formaldehyde is of any importance in the living plant, since it involves a high temperature, and the presence of an abundance of two free alkalies. WiUstaUer's and StolUs^ work on Photo-synthesiis. These authors found that all attempts to produce extracellular photo-synthesis failed, which they conclude is owing to the absence of a hypothetical enzyme from extracted chlorophyll. They found, however, that slight pressure applied to the leaf completely stopped photo-synthesis, which rather supports my own view than an orderly physical arrongement of the chlorophyll molecules in the chloroplastid is an essential factor in continuous photo-synthesis, and that a disturbance or disorganization of this arrangement may be partly responsible for the temporary inactivity into which an apparently normal chloroplastid may be thrown by various agencies or treatments, which wlien extreme, lead to death and permanent disorganization. They also conducted experiments on living leaves by passing a mixture of air and carbon dioxide over them in vessels on a water bath exposed to light, and estimating the amounts of carbon dioxide assimilated. They found that the assimilation was not always proportional to the chlorophyll content, a fact already well known to the plant physiologist. In leaves lich in chlorophyll the authors found that increased illumination did not increase the assimilation, whereas a rise of temperature did, while in leaves deficient in chlorophyll a rise of temperature had little effect, and increased illumination rendered the assimilation of carbon dioxide more active. Hence they con- clude that their hypothetical enzyme is in relative excess, and only exercises its maximum effect when the chlorophyll is working at full pressure. 1 Berichte, 1915, 48, 1540. Theories of Plioto-synthesis. 205 Willstatter and Stoll have, however, overlooked the principle of limiting factors established by Blackmann and his pupils. In leaves rich in chlorophyll the limiting factor is usually the supply of carbon dioxide and an increase of illumination beyond that necessary to assimilate the carbon dioxide available in a given unit of time is naturally without effect. An increase of temperature on the other hand accelerates all plant functions, including respiration. In leaves rich in chloro- phyll this may not be more than -"^ the activity of CO^- assimila- tion, but in leaves poor in chlorophyll it represents a large frac- tion of the COo assimilated. Respiration may be 20 to 40 times as active as 35"^ C. to 40°C. as at 0"C., and this would be sufficient to prevent any accelerating action of a rise of temperature upon the photo-synthesis of leaves deficient in chlorophyll being shown. Willstatter and StoU's results are, therefore, capable of a simple and natural explanation, and do not support the construction they place upon them. Theories of Photo-synthesis. From Jorgensen and Kidd's criticismi of the results obtained by Usher and Priestly, by Wager and by myself, it would appear as though the work of these avithors was completely antagonistic, and mutually contradictory, and therefore of no value. This is not quite a correct view, as the work of each investigator led on to or directly gave rise to that of the next. Thus Usher and Priestley (I.e.) in supposing that they produced photo-synthesis outside the cell, drew attention to facts which otherwise might have been overlooked, and it was their work which led me to determine that the formaldehyde was a direct product of the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll, and was formed in the absence of carbon dioxide. It was a further investigation of their results which enable me to de- termine that carbon dioxide decomposes chlorophyll in darkness as well as in light. I was in error in concluding that xanthophyll was one of the products ol this decomposition, and this error has lieen corrected by Willstatter as well as by Jorgensen and Kidd, thus bringing our understanding of the changes possible in photo-syn- thesis a stage further. The direct action of carbon dioxide is to remove the magnesium from the chlorophyll, forming phaeophytin, and I have shown that if zinc dust is present during this reaction, the zinc steps into the place vacated by the magnesium, forming the stable green zinc chlorophyll. 1 Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 89, B., p. 342, 1917. 206 Alfred J. Eivart : The removal of the magnesium from clilorophyll by carbon dioxide, and the fact that magnesium will l>ring about the combina- tion of carbon dioxide and water to formaldehyde suggests at first sight a possible explanation of carbon dioxide assimilation. This action, however, takes place as well in darkness as in light. Fur- ther, the magnesium is separated from chlorophyll as the carbonate, and not in the form of the metal, and if any such action was necessary in photo-synthesis, when the latter was active, tlie bulk of the chlorophyll would exist in the form of phaeophytin, and the leaf should lose its green colour, which is not the case. Carbon ■dioxide decompose the chlorophyll in heaped grass leaves in dark- ness, but in living leaves exposed to light in air rich with CO-o, the chlorophyll remains green. If no carbon dioxide is present, and the illumination is strong, the chlorophyll slowly bleaches, but this is stopped if the supply of carbon dioxide is proportionately in- creased. It is more reasonable, therefore, to suppose that the chlorophyll as a whole takes part in photo-synthesis, acting as a light fer- ment, or lytase enzyme, which, using light energy to draw carbon dioxide and water into its own organisation, breaks down again, liberating them as carbohydrates, and that so long as the supply ■of CO-o corresponds to the intensity of the light, and the joroducts are removed, the decomposition and reconstruction of the chloro- phyll remain in equilibrium. There is no difficulty about the decomposition of chlorophyll, but evidence of its regeneration is difficult to obtain. In a previous paperi an account was given of various attempts made to bring about the regeneration of chlorophyll outside the plant. Although indications were obtained suggesting that this might be possible, these were not conclusive. Further attempts in the same direction have so far completely failed. It was frequently observed that in the separation of chlorophyll, alcoholic solutions of xanthophyll, containing the waxy derivatives by precursors of chlorophyll in finely suspended form, when evaporated formed greenish yellow skins, which contained chlorophyll, and left the remaining liquid with little xanthophyll. This happened even when the watery alcoholic liquid showed no trace of chlorophyll under the spectroscope. Further investigations showed, however, that when alcoholic solutions of pure xanthophyll containing a little water are evaporated slowly, the first pnrt of the xanthophyll to 1 Pioc. Hoy. Sor. [,01x1., B., vol. 80, p. 30, 1908. Theories of Photo-synthesis. 207 separate out had a greenish colour owing to its physical condition. When dissolved, it shows no trace of chlorophyll. It was further found that a liquid rich in xanthophyll could contain traces of chlorophyll in finely suspended form without any traces of chloro- phyll being visible under the spectroscope. This is partly because owing to the opacity of a liquid containing waxy impurities in finely suspended form, only thin layers can be examined. When such liquids are evaporated, and the green solids which first sepa- rate out removed and dissolved, the appearance is given of a pro- duction of chlorophyll having taken place. In other observations in which chlorophyll appeared to be regenerated with the agency of zinc dust, the apparent regeneration was due to the formation of the ^inc compound of phaeophytin, which closely resembles chloro- phyll. Hitherto the regeneration of chlorophyll from its magnesium containing derivatives, and from xanthophyll or carotin under the action of light, has not been possible outside the living plant. Iwanowski^ states that solutions of chlorophyll containing carotin or xanthophyll are more stable towards light than chlorophyll alone. This may be partly due to a direct protective action, carotin in particular combining more readily with oxygen than chlorophyll ■does. According to Iwanowski, however, the protective action is more marked when both carotin and xanthophyll are present. This may possibly be because a certain amount of regeneration of chloro- phyll takes place with the aid of light energy from the products of its decomposition and from those of the photo. -oxidation of caro- tin and xanthophyll. In the case of those plants which can develop chlorophyll in dark- ness, its building up requires a supply of energy which is either derived from the oxidation of the stored food materials, or which is absorbed directly as heat from outside. It is worthy of note that in all cases the minimum temperature for the formation of chloro- phyll is higher than for the formation of carotin or xanthophyll, and plants which can turn green in darkness will do so at a lower temperature in light than they wnll in darkness. Until the heats of combustion of chlorophyll, glaucophyllin. phyllophyllin, phytyl, carotin, and xanthophyll are known, it is impossible to discuss the energy changes which may be involved in carbon dioxide assimilation. A large part at least of the energy represented by the carbohydrates produced is undoubtedly light energy, which was absorbed and used in the reconstruction of chloro- 1 Ber. d. D. Bot. Ges., 1913-14, 31, pp. 600-613. 208 Alfred J. Ewart: phyll. and the carbohydrates are probably as much a product of phuto-aiialysis as of photo-synthesis. So long as the supplies of car- bon dioxide and light energy are in a certain ratio of equivalency, and the products are continually removed, the chlorophyll is exter- nally stable, though internally labile. In other words, it behaves as an enzyme, and, according to whether we emphasize the source of energy or of material, it might either, to coin a term, be regarded as a lytase enzyme or a carboxidase enzyme. The following equations are put forward not as representing established facts, but as indicating how chlorophyll could act as a photic or lytase enzyme for the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. The chief difficulty in regard to them is the very large mass reactions which they represent. (i.) 2C3,H„N,M<^ COOH COOOH,+ 36CO,+ 16H.p=.2C,oH,A + 440, + 2C,iH,oN,Mg(COOH,) cooa„H,„ Amorphous chlorophyll 4- carbon dioxide and water would form xantho- phyll (or carotin) oxygen and glaucophyllin. (ii.) 2C4oH,„+24H.,0 + 8.0., = 2C,oH,,OH + 3CeHi,0s + 3aH,.A + 4CH.,0 Carotin (or xanthophyll) + water + oxygen =: Phytol + levulose + glucose + formaldehyde. This reaction would take place in light with the aid of an oxidase enzyme and the excess oxygen from (i.) escapes, (iii.) 2C,„H,,0H + 2C,iH3oN,Mg(COOH,)-|-4C0.3 j COOH = 2C«in29N,Mg COOC H3 + 3.0,, I COOC.,oH,, Phytol, glaucophyllin, and carbon dioxide form amorphous chlorophyll and oxygen. This change would take place in the living plant with the aid of light energy. It makes the total volume of oxygen exhaled equal to the volume of carbon dioxide absorbed. This suggested cycle would indicate the enzymatic action of chlorophyll in the presence of water, carbon dioxide and light, and might serve as a basis for further investigation. Written in one- line the equations would read : — 40CO.,-f-40H,O + chloiophyll + light energy =3C6HiA + SCfiHiA + 4CH.,0 + 40. 0, + chlorophyll. Summary. . 209 With an excess of carbon dioxide and a deficiency of light, stage 1 would preponderate. With stronger illumination .stages 2 and 3 would balance 1. With excessive illumination and a deficiency of carbon dioxide disintegratory photo-oxidation would take place, and the amount of chlorophyll would he reduced. In the assimilation of carbon dioxide chlorophyll acts as a light energizing enzyme, and takes direct part in the cycle of chemical changes, which probably have carotin, xanthophyll, phytyl and glaucophyllins as intermediate products and glucose, levulose, for- maldehyde and oxygen as end products. The sugar may be formed directly as well as through the polymerization of formaldehyde. A large part of the energy represented by the carbohydrate products is absorbed during the reconstruction of the chlorophyll molecule. Carbon dioxide decomposes extracted chlorophyll both in light and The earlier supposition that zanthophyll was one of the products has not been sustained. In the presence of zinc dust, the zinc takes the place of the magnesium, and the chlorophyll i-emains green as a in darknncc.. removing its magnesium, and producing phaeophytin. stable zinc chlorophyll. Apart from its protective function, carotin seems to be especially important as providing during its photo-oxidation or partial dis- integration, the massive hydrocarbon combination in the phytyl radicle of chlorophyll wliose addition is necessary to convert the dicarboxylic glaucophyllin into the tricarboxylic chlorophyll. Xanthophyll can be reduced to carotin by the aid of metallic re- ductases, but no oxidases have been found capable of converting carotin into xanthopliyll. The oxidation of these substances in darkness or in feeble light differs in certain re.spects from that taking: place in intense light. The oxidation of rhodophyllin, chlorophyll, xanthophyll, and carotin is more rapid at high temperatures than at low ones, and the rates of oxidation are in the order given, carotin being most readily oxidized. A rapid method is described of polmerizing formaldehyde to sugar, which has a definite end reaction, and yields* calcium and sodium tartrates as bye-products. INDEX. The names of new genera and species are printed in italics. Abdominal vein, abnormality in, 96 Acacia glandulicarpa, 173 Acrotreta, occurrence of, 1 15 A. antipodum, 145, PI. XXVI. Akiana, 130, PI. XXII. Allen, N. C. B., 142 Alowga, 134, PI. XXIV. Ama, 132, 133, PI. XXIII. Annual rings, influence of age on, 2 Apo, 133, PI. XXIII. Apples, oxidases in, 20 Area trapezia, 11 Archer, Ellinor, 96 Aropa, 131, PI. XXII. Atundi, 129, PI. XXII. Australian string figures, 121 how made, 122 forms of, 123 seq., and Plates XX to XXIV. Auto, 131, PI. XXII. ^rays, magnetic deflection of, 142 Balanus, 11 Bankivia fasciata, 11 Banksia, 13 Barbed spears, 125, PI. XX. Bitter pit, browning of, 20 cause of, 15 Bittium cerithium, 12 Brachydontes erosus, 30 hirsutus, 30 rostratus, 30 Brown fleck, 17 Bythinella nigris, 9 Calcium, estimation of small amounts of, 137 Calcium tartrate, bye-product in sugar production, 203 Canoe, 131, PL XXII. Carbon dioxide, action of on chloro- phyll, 179 influence of temperature on, 184 influence of absence and presence of, 191 Carboxidasp enzyme, 208 Cardium cygnorum, 27 Carotin, 178 oxidation of, 188 amount in etiolated seedlings, 194 Cetacean tooth, new type of, 149 structura of, 150 Chapman, F., 4, 32. 145, 149 Chiloglottis diphylla, 140 formicifera, 140 Gunnii, 140 Muelleri, 140 Pescottiana, 140 trapeziformis, 140 trilabra, 140 Pescottiana, 139, PI. XXV. Chlorophyll, 178 action of carbon; dioxide on, 179 decomposition of in darkness, 195 precnrsors of, 193 regeneration of, 193, 206 spontaneous decomposition of, 192 Chlorophyllot^en, 193 Corroboree, 129, PI. XXII. Cough, 129, PI. XXII. Crane, 127, PI. XXI. Crayfish, 134, PL, XXIV. Crowea exalata, 173 Cymatium spengleri, 11 Cynosurus echinatus, 173 Cyperus luciduss, 13 Cythere crispata, 10 Diala lauta, 8 pulchra, 2- varia, 23 Diamond, mode of use of in ruling, 49, 86 Diastatic action, influence of pres- sure on. Id Diffraction gratings, dividing engine for, 44, Plates VI.-XVII. Dividing engine, 44 diamond, 86 driving of, 50 housing of, 53 mechanism of, 45-49 ratchet head, 75 screw, 56 grinding of, 61 adjusting and testing of, 71 thrust plate, 81 Dog's tail grass, rough, 173 Index. 211 Donax deltoides, ]1 Dosinia grata, 28 Drakaea Huntiaua, 174 Drum, 131, PL, XXII. Dugong, 135, PI. XXIV. Ekeli. 126, PI., XXI. Erica arborea 174 Erycina helmsi, 6 Etanga, 135, PL, XXIV. Etiolated plants, 1 carotin in, 194 evolution of oxygen from, 197 Eucalyptus, 13 Eucalyptus regnans, 1 Ewart, A'lfred J., 15, 173, 178 Ewite, 129, PL XXII. Exsudation, 165 process of, 166 results of, 170 Fenner, C, 99 Fire making, 129, PL, XXII. Flora of Australia, contribution to, 173 Flying foxes, 133, PL XXIII. Formaldehyde, polymerization of, 200 Fracture and regelation, 154 Frog, abnormal circulation in, 96, PL XVIII. Full Moon, 130, PI. XXII. Gabriel, C. J., 4, 21 Gatliff, J. H., 21 Gel structure, theory of, 153 Gels, influence of ether on, 157 Genyornis, 12 Glenelg Basin, an account of, 101 the hummocks, 114, fig. 5 description of, 102 lakes in, 113 mountains and hills in, 104 rainfall of, 103 relation of rock types in, 117, fig. 6 valleys and streams of, 106 Glenelg Eiver, physiography of, 99 origin of drainage system of, 108 Gorse, 177 Granite rocks, 126, PL XX. Grass tree, 177. Grayson, H. J., 44 Growth curves, 1, 2, PL I., II. Haddon, K., 121 Hairy pod acacia, 173 Hammer orchid, 174 Happy Jack gold mine, analysis of waters of, 169 Hart, T. S., on origin of Main Divide, 107 Hedge mustard, Indian, 176 Hordeum murinum, decomposition of chlorophyll of in darkness, 195 Hummocks, 114, 115, fig. 5 Hypericum tetrapterum, 174 Inula graveolens, 174 Ischnochiton, arbutum, 26 atkinsoni, 25 lineolatus, 26, 24 pallens, 26 proteus, 25 sculptus, 26 wilsoni, 24 Jew Lizard, 128, PL XXI. Jutson, J. T., 159, 165 Kalydoii vinosus, 22 Kangaroos, 133, PL XXIII. Kroldambi, 126, PL XX. Kungwari, 127, PL, XXI. Krogwali, 127, PL, XXI. Lactuca scariola, 174 Lake Cowan, analysis of waters of, 169 Lasaea australis, 29 Lepidium virginicum, 175 Lepidopleurus cancellatus, 24 columnariuSj 24 Lettuce, prickly, 174 Leucophyll, 193 Lightning, 130, PL, XXII. Lizard, 132, PL XXII. Lobelia Erinus, var. gracilis, 175 prickly, 175 Lorentz theory, 142 Loranthus pendnlus, 175 Lychnis coronaria, 175 Lyle, T. E., 45 Lytase enzyme, 208 McAlpine, 13, 18 Mactra polita, 11 Magnetic deflection of fi rays, 142 Main divide, origin of, 107 Marcia nitida, 6, 11, 27 Mare, 132, PL XXIII. 9A 212 Index. Marine shells of Victoria, 21 Mater, 135, PI. XXIV. Mesembryanthemum laxum, 175 Mesodesma elongata, II Mesoplodon compressus, 32, 35, 37, PI. IV., V. Miral Kaiperi, 125, PI. XX. Mistletoe, hanging, 175 Mitchell, discovery of Glenelg River by, 100 map of, 101 Modiola pulex, 30 Monodonta constricta, 12 Mountain Ash, Timber Production and Growth, curves in, 1 Mullet, 134, PI. XXIII. Murex fimbriatus, 21 Mytilus hirsutus, 11 Nassa jacksoniana, 11 labecula, 10, 11, 12 pauperata, 9 Natural quarries, 159 Nephelometric method, 127 Night owl, 126, PI. XX. Nightshade, pincushion, 176 crenatulifera, 31 Notomytilus rubra, 31 Ole, 129, PI. XXII. Osborne, W. A., 153 Oxidases, 20 Oxygen, evolution of from etiolated plants, 197 from green plants in light, 199 Palorchestes, 12 Parasqnalodon wilkinsoni, 4<0 Paronychia chilensis, 175 Patella ustulata, 11 Patton, R. T., 1 Pecten bifrons, 11 Peppercress, 175 Pern, S., 127 Phalaris paradoxa, 176 Photosynthesis, energy changes in, 207 equations for, 208 theories of, 204, 205 Physetodon baileyi, 33 Physiography of the Glenelg River, 99 Pig's face, 175 Portal system, abnormality in, 96 Potamides australis, 9, 11, 12 Potatoes, brown fleck of, 17 Protochlorophyll, 193 Pseudoliotia micans, 8 Pteris aquilina, 13 Purpora succincta, 11 Quarries, natural, 164, PI. XXVIII. circular, 159, PL, XXIX. rectangular, 160, 164, PI. XXVIII. and XXIX. triangular, 161, PL XXVIII. mode of formation of, 162 Rhodopbyllin, occurrence of in autumn lea-ves, 197 photo oxidation of, 196 Risella melanostoma, 12 Robertson's Creek, gorge in, 112, fig. 4 Rocks, undermining of, 172, PL XXX. Rock weathering, influence of salts on, 165 Rogers, R. S., 139 Rosa rubiginosa, 176 Rose campion, 175 Rotalia beccarii, 5 Rothera, tests by, 18 Salinator fragilis, 10, 12 Salts, influence of on rock weather- ing, 165 Scaldicetus lodgei, 32, 34, PI. 4. Scaptodon, 149 hdderi, 150, PL XXVII. Scrub hem, 135, PL XXIV. Sea lavender, 176 Shell bed underlying volcanic tuff, 4 Sisymbrium orientale, 176 Sodium tartrate, bye-product in sugar production, 204 Solanum heterandrum, 176 Soletinella biradiata, 7, 12 donacioides, 11, 12 Spisula, trigonella, 7, 11, 12, 29 Statice Thouini, 176 Sfeno cudmorci, 41, PL IV. Stinkwort, 174 Struve-Baumstark phenomenon, 155 Sugar, production of from formal- dehyde, 178, 200 separation of, 201 bye-products, 203 Sweet Briar, 176 Tarkai, 126, PL XX Index. 213 Tatea rufilabris, 8 Tellina deltoidalis, 7, 11, 12 Timber production, curves of, Plates L, II. Tornatina fusiformis, 23 Tree heath, 174 Turbo undulatus, 11 Two men, 132 up a tree, 133, PL XXIII. Twq swans, 127, PI. XXI. Ulex europaeus, 177 Unke, 133, PI. XXIII. Untemo. 130, PI. XXII. Venerupis crenata, 12 Venus strigosa, 11 Victorian fossils, 32 Wannou River, 109 origin of, 110 map of. 111 Water rat, 126, PI. XXI. Waterspout, 132, PI. XXIII. Whitlow wort, Chilian, 175 W^hite, theory of, 16 Willstatter and Stoll, 204 Xanthophyll, 178 photo-oxidation of, 184 conversion of into carotin, 190 Xanthorrhoea australis, 177 Xiphius geelongensis, 40 Yappa, 134, PL, XXIII. Yawundi, 132, PL XXII. Zinc, infltience of, on decomposition of chlorophyll by carbon di- oxide, 182 END OF VOLUME XXX. [Part II. Published March, 1918]. PROCEEDINGS OF THK 0pl ^mt\^ of #irtona. VOL. XXX. (Nkw Semes). _^ c^7-> Edited under the Authority of the Councili^^^^^\». ^, ISSUIilJ SEPTEMBER, 1917. {Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of April to August, 1917. < TUB AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAb PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN. MELBOURNE : FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON. 1917. Publications of the Royal Society of Victoria, and of the Societies amalgamated with it. Victorian Institute for the Advancement of Science. Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855. Philosophical Society of Victoria. Transactions. V^ol. 1. 1855. These two Societies then amalgamated and became : — Philosophical Institute op Victoria. Transactions. Vols. 1-4. The Society then became : — Royal Society of A^'ictoria. Transactions and Proceedings (Vol. 5, entitled Transac- tions). (8vo). Vols. 5-24. Transactions. (4to). Vols. 1, 2, 3 (Pt, 1 only was pub- lished), 4, 5, 6 1888 . Proceedings (New Series). (8vo). Vols. 1 1888 . Microscopical Society of Victoria. Journal (Vol. 1, Pt. 1, entitled Quarterly Journal). Vol. 1 (Pts. 1 to 4), 2 (Pt. 1), title page and index \all published]. 1879-82. [The Society then combined tvith the Royal Society of Victoria]. Note. — Most of the volumes published before i8go are out of print. PROCEEDINGS §ojjd ^odet]] of §ktorm. VOL. XXX. (New SERys^figVCl? . , PART II. fe -^^ £diyed under the Authority of the W^^^^^ a 6*>^v^y ISSUIil) MARCH, igU (Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of September to December, iQiy). THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN. MELBOURNE: FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON. 1918. Publications of the Royal Society of Victoria, and of the Societies amalgamated with it. Victorian Institute for the Advancement of Science. Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855. Philosophical Society of Victoria. Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855. These two Societies then aiiiaJgatnated and became: — Philosophical Institute of Victoria. Transactions. Vols. 1-4. The Society then became : — Royal Society of Victoria. Transactions and Proceedings (Vol. 5, entitled Transac- tions). (8vo). Vols. 5-24. Tran.sactions. (4to). Vols. 1, 2, 3 (Pt. 1 only was pub- lished), 4, 5, 6 1888 . Proceedings (New Series). (8vo). Vols. 1 1888 . Microscopical Society of Victoria. Journal (Vol. 1, Pt. 1, entitled Quarterly Journal). Vol. 1 (Pts. 1 to 4), 2 (Pt. 1), title page and index [all published]. 1879-82. [The Society then co}nbi?ied with the PvOyal Society of Victoria]. Note. — Most of the volumes published before i8go are out of print. MBL WHOI Library - Serials 5 WHSE 00609