: ry Si ¢ R°7 %, tof } ; f 4h AY ful S0600 8806 ¢€ i zit WNINN 1 LARA! 6 on. * a-& coe ee ow PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. VOL. XXXII. ~ MAY | ie Vg AS TSS. Ona| Muses SESSION 1917-1918. LIVERPOOL : C. Tinninc & Co., Lrp., Printers, 53, Vicrorza STRERT. 1918. ee — ered ‘Ppaeen teenie = pte = «: Osh ei ; Sn baa te Reedy, \ Ph ey S74. 0642 CONTENTS. I.—ProcEEDINGS. PAGE Office-bearers and Council, 1917-1918 . vil Report of the Council . Vili Summary of Proceedings at the Mebties : ix List of Members . : : : X11 _ Treasurer’s Balance Sheet... ; , XV1 II.—TRaANSACTIONS. Presidential Address—‘‘ The Public Museum and Educa- tion.” By JosrerH A. CLuss, D.Sc. 3 Thirty-first Annual Report of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee and their Biological Station at Port Erin. (With an Address upon “Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., the Pioneer of Modern Oceanography.”) By Prof. W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., a. Ua : 1 es Report on the Investigations carried on during 1917, in connection with the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory, at the University of Liverpool, and the Sea-Fish Hatchery at Piel, near Barrow. By Prof. W. A. Herpman, DSc., F.R.S., ANDREW Scott, A.L.S., and James JoHNSTONE, D.Sc. RR es r v Nie tal uth 00L BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY r : i ' , i = ge et t 6 (Ta OO q . eae OFFICE-BEARERS AND COUNCIL 1886—1887 Pror. W. MITCHELL BANKS, M.D., F.R.C.S. 1887—1888 1888—1889 1889—1890 1890—1891 1891—1892 1892—1893 1893—1894 1894—1895 1895—1896 1896—1897 1897—1898 1898—1899 1899—1900 1900—1901 1901—1902 1902—1903 1903—1904 1904—1905 1905—1906 1906—1907 1907—1908 1908—1909 1909—1910 1910—1911 Gx-Presidents : J. J. DRYSDALE, M.D. Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S. T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S. ALFRED O. i aes JOHN NEWTON, M.R. Pror. F. GOTCH, M.A. Pror. R. J. HARVEY HENRY O. FORBES, LL.D. ISAAC C. THOMPSON, F.L. Pror. C. S. SHERRINGTON, ‘M.D J. WIGLESWORTH, M.D., ER. Pror. PATERSON, M.D. ., M.B.C.S. HENRY C. BEASLEY. R. CATON, M.D., F.R.C.P.* Rev. T. 8. LEA, M.A. ALFRED LEICESTER. JOSEPH LOMAS, F.G.S. Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.B.S. W. T. HAYDON, -F.L.S. Pror. B. MOORE, M.A., D.Sc. R. NEWSTEAD, M.Sc., F.E.S. Pror. R. NEWSTEAD, M.Sc., F.RB.S. 1911—1912 J. H. OCONNELL, L.B.C.P. 1912—1913 JAMES JOHNSTONE, D.Sc. 1913—1914 C. J. MACALISTER, M.D., F.R.C.P. 1914—1915 Pror. J. W. W. STEPHENS, M.D., D.P.H. 1915—1916 1916—1917 Pror. ERNEST GLYNN, M.A., M.D. Pror. J. §. MACDONALD, L.R.C.P., F.B.S. SESSION XXXII, 1917-1918. Presroent : JOSEPH A. CLUBB, D.Sc. Vice-Presidents : Pror. J. S. MACDONALD, L.R.C.P., F.R.S. Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. Hon. Creasurer : W. J. HALLS. MAY ALLEN, B.A, Mon. Secretary: Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. R. C. BAMBER, M.Sc. (Miss). J. W. CUTMORE. G. ELLISON. Pror. E. GLYNN, M.A., M.D. Council: Hon. Lrbrarran: DOUGLAS LAURIE, M.A. W. S. LAVEROCK, M.A., B.Sc. Pror. R. NEWSTEAD, M.S8c., Pror. W. RAMSDEN, M.A., D.M. W. T. HAYDON, F.L.S. W. RIMMER TEARE. J. JOHNSTONE, D.Sc. EDWIN THOMPSON. Representative of Students’ Section : Miss C. M. JARVIS. F.R.S. vill LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. REPORT of the COUNCIL. Durine the Session 1917-18 there have been seven ordinary evening meetings and one field meeting. The communications made to the Society at the ordinary meetings have been representative of many branches of Biology, and the various exhibitions and demonstrations thereon have been of great interest. On the invitation of the Council, Dr. William Evans Hoyle, Director of the Welsh National Museum at Cardiff, lectured to the Society, on January 25th, on “ Hdward Lhuyd, a Welsh Naturalist.” The Library continues to make satisfactory progress, and _ additional important exchanges have been arranged. The Treasurer’s statement and balance sheet are appended. The members at present on the roll are as follows :-— Ordinary members... ae fe 7 ae 45 Associate members... sé if Student members, including Students? aerial abe 30 Total van Ae 86 SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. ix SUMMARY of PROCEEDINGS at the MEETINGS. The first meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, October 12th, 1917. The President-elect (Joseph A. Clubb, D.Sc.) took the chair in the Zoology Theatre. f. The Report of the Council on the Session 1916-1917 (see “ Proceedings,” Vol. XXXI, p. vii) was submitted and adopted. The Treasurer’s Balance Sheet for the Session 1916-17 (see ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Vol. XX XI, p. xvi) was submitted and approved. The following Office-bearers and Council for the ensuing Session were elected :—-Vice-Presidents, Prof. Herdman, D.Se., F.R.S., and Prof. J. S. Macdonald, L.R.C.P., F.R.S.; Hon. Treasurer, W. J. Halls; Hon. Librarian, May Allen, B.A. ; Hon. Secretary, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.; Council, R. C. Bamber, M.Sc. (Miss), J. W. Cutmore, G. Ellison, W. T. Haydon, F.L.S., Prof. E. Glynn, M.A., M.D., J. Johnstone, D.Sc., Douglas Laurie, M.A., W. S. Laverock, M.A., B.Sc., Prof. R. Newstead, M.Se., F.R.S., Prof. W. Ramsden, M.A. D.M., W. Rimmer Teare and Edwin Thompson, C.C. — Dr. Joseph A. Clubb delivered the Presidential Address on ‘The Public Museum and LEducation” (see “ Transactions,” p. 3). A vote of thanks proposed by Prof. Herdman, seconded by Mr. J. G. Legge, Director of Education, was passed. x LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The second meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, November 9th, 1917. The President in the chair. 1. Prof. Herdman submitted the Annual Report on Ais work of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, and gave an address on “Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., the Pioneer of Modern Oceanography ” (see “ Transactions,” p. 15). The third meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, December 14th, 1917. The President in the chair. 1. Mr. G. Elhson exhibited a photograph and drawing of a carved stone found near Stenness, in the Orkneys. 2. Dr. Johnstone submitted the Annual Report of the Investigations carried on during 1917, in connection with the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Committee (see ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 73). | The fourth meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, January 11th, 1918. The President in the chair. 1. Mr. G. Ellison exhibited, with remarks, stuffed specimens of the Orkney vole, and of a white variety differing from an albino in having black eyes. 2. Mr. J. W. Cutmore exhibited and discussed a series of birds and mammals having unusual colouring. 3. Prof. Herdman exhibited, with remarks, some rare plankton organisms from the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. 4. Dr. Clubb gave an account of the occurrence of Lepidop- terous larvae, and the nest and larvae of a solitary wasp in a gaspipe. 5. Mr. W. 8S. Laverock exhibited a number of solitary wasps from the Malay Peninsula, along with their nests and food supplies for their young. ee a a 7 re SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. xl The fifth meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, January 25th, 1918. The President in the chair. 1. On the invitation of the Council, Dr. Wiliam Evans Hoyle, Director of the Welsh National Museum at Cardiff, lectured on “‘ Edward Lhuyd, a Welsh Naturalist. Dr. Hoyle traced Lhuyd’s connection with Ashmole at the University of Oxford and his important work in connection with the Ashmolean Museum. His work on British star-fishes and in other departments of Natural History was also discussed in a most interesting manner. A cordial vote of thanks to the lecturer was passed. The sixth meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Fniday, March 8th, 1918. The President in the chair. 1. Miss H. M. Duvall, B.Sc., gave an address on “ The Bionomics and Economic Importance of the Mites infesting grain and flour.” The seventh meeting of the thirty-second session was held at the University, on Friday, May 10th, 1918. The President in the chair. Prof. Herdman communicated a series of notes dealing with recent marine biological occurrences at Port Erin. 2. Mr. W. 8. Laverock communicated notes on the Beasley collection of triassic fossils, recently acquired for the Free Public Museum. 3. Mr. Douglas Laurie gave a short account of the habits and physiology of Ligia oceanica. The eighth meeting of the thirty-second session was the Annual Field Meeting, held on Saturday, June 8th, 1918, when Mr. Douglas Laurie acted as leader and conducted the members to various field-ponds and ditches in the neighbourhood of Moreton and Leasowe. At the short business meeting held after tea, on the motion of the President from the chair, Professor W. Ramsden was unanimously elected President for the ensuing session. ELECTED. 1908 Xll LIST of MEMBERS of the LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SESSION 1917-1918. A. ORpDINARY MEMBERS. (Life Members are marked with an asterisk.) Abram, Prof. J. Hill, 74, Rodney Street, Liveraaes 1909 *Allen, May, B.A., Hon. Liprarian, University, 1913 1903 1912 1886 1886 1916 1917 1910 1902 1886 1896 1912 Liverpool. ! Beattie, Prof. J. M., M.A., M.D., The University, Liverpool. Booth, jun., Chas., 30, James Street, Liverpool. Burfield, 8. T., B.A., Zoology Department, University, Liverpool. Caton, R., M.D., F.R.C.P., Holly Lea, Livingston Drive, Liverpool, S. Clubb, J. A., D.Sc., PrRestpEnT, Free Public Museums, Liverpool. Dale, Sir Alfred, The University, Liverpool. Duvall, Miss H. M., B.Sc., Zoology Department, Univer- | sity, Liverpool. Ellison, George, 52, Serpentine Road, Walldae Glynn, Dr. Ernest, 67, Rodney Street. Halls, W. J., Hon. TREasuR=ER, 35, Lord Street. Haydon, W. T., F.L.S., 55, Grey Road, Walton. Henderson, Dr. Savile, 48, Rodney Street, Liverpool. 1886 1893 1912 1902 1903 1898 1896 1906 1912 1915 1917 1904 1904 - » 1913 1903 1915 1903 1890 1910 1897 1908 1894 ~ 1908 1886 1903 1913 1903 LIST OF MEMBERS. xill Herdman, Prof. W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Vicz-PRESIDENT, Hon. Secretary, University, Liverpool. Herdman, Mrs. W. A., Croxteth Lodge, Ullet Road, Liverpool. Hobhouse, J. R., 54, Ullet Road, Liverpool. Holt, Dr. A., Dowsefield, Allerton. Holt, Richard D., M.P., India Buildings, Liverpool. Johnstone, James, D.Sc., University, Liverpool. Laverock, W. S., M.A., B.Sc., Free Public Museums, Liverpool. Laurie, R. Douglas, M.A., University, Liverpool. Macalister, C. J.. M.D., F.R.C.P., 35, Rodney Street, Liverpool. — Macdonald, Prof. J. §., B.A., F.R.S., Vicr-PREsiDEnt, The University, Liverpool. Milton, J. H., F.G.S., Merchant Taylors’ School, Great Crosby. Newstead, Prof. R., M.Sc., F.R.S., University, Liverpool. O’Connell, Dr. J. H., 38, Heathfield Road, Liverpool. Pallis, Mark, Tatoi, Aigburth Drive, Liverpool. Petrie, Sir Charles, 7, Devonshire Road, Liverpool. Prof. W. Ramsden, University, Liverpool. Rathbone, H. R., Oakwood, Elmswood Road, Aigburth. *Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston. Riddell, Wm., M.A., Zoology Department, University, Liverpool. Robinson, H. C., Malay States. Rock, W. H., 25, Lord Street, Liverpool. Scott, Andrew, A.L.S., Piel, Barrow-in-Furness. Share-Jones, J., D.Sc., F.R.C.V.S., University, Liverpool. Smith, Andrew T., 21, Croxteth Road, Liverpool. Stapledon, W. C., ‘‘ Annery,”’ Caldy, West Kirby. Stephens, Prof. J. W. W., M.D., University, Liverpool. Thomas, Dr. Thelwall, 84, Rodney Street, Liverpool. X1V 1905 1889 1888 1918 1891 1916 1915 1905 1914 1916 1905 1916 1915 Nes p( 1915 1912 LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Thompson, Edwin, 25, Sefton Drive, Liverpool. Thornely, Miss L. R., Hawkshead, Ambleside. Toll, J. M., 49, Newsham Drive, Liverpool. Whitley, Edward, Bio-Chemical Laboratory, University. Wiglesworth, J., M.D., F.R.C.P., Springfield House, Winscombe, Somerset. * B. Associate MEMBERS. Atkin, Miss D., High School for Girls, Aigburth Vale, Liverpool. Bamber, Miss, M.Sc., Zoology Department, The Univer- sity, Liverpool. Carstairs, Miss, 39, Lilley Road, Fairfield. Cutmore, J. W., Free Public Museum, Liverpool. Gleave, Miss EK. L., M.Sc., Oulton Secondary School, Clarence Street, Liverpool. Harrison, Oulton, 3, Montpellier Crescent, N ew Brighton. Horsman, Miss Elsie, B.Sc., 17, Hereford Road, Wavertree. | Stafford, Miss C. M. P., B.Sc., 312, Hawthorne Road, Bootle. Swift, Miss F., B.Sc., Queen Mary High School, Anfield. Teare, W. Rimmer, 12, Bentley Road, Birkenhead. Wilson, Mrs. Gordon, High Schools for Girls, Aigburth Vale, Liverpool. C. University STUDENTS’ SECTION. President: Miss C. M. Jarvis. Secretary: Miss M. Howells. (Contains about 30 members. ) LIST OF MEMBERS. XV D. Honorary MEMBERS. §.A.8S., Albert I., Prince de Monaco, 10, Avenue du Trocadéro, Paris. Bornet, Dr. Edouard, Quai de la Tournelle 27, Paris. Fritsch, Prof. Anton, Museum, Prague, Bohemia. Haeckel, Prof. Dr. E., University, Jena. Hanitsch, R., Ph.D., Raffles Museum, Singapore ‘€aadNTO ‘V Hd sor ‘70a4d00 PUNO{ Puy pajipny ‘SI6T ‘I0G saquajdag ‘1ooaumAry 0 OT Lg etree gee au (‘0D eIG¥Q [BIoIoMUIOD) yo04g eAnqueqod % F GBIF —: LNHWLSHANT O 9L LEF O OL L8F BQ 0 triteteePessseesaceesetcesssecesssresssoreees agorganT HUME Ie 0-39 Miata sialon oe PAO Ae Baier Rauaneteeurs puvy ul yseg “ G EL G ieiiteteeetseteesseressenesnvens gmguTASBATI] MO JsedeyuT 2 ‘oeeraRE ur eouRTeg ‘ GG Gh creepereeeeesestaeseacsussamners goumMo A Jo oes“ 600 °c" Cridakeunne wate meee nal Maal “+ (qoqnsvady) sesuysog 0 TT rrttseeeccererceees BET OFUT pred Mor4drosqng “ O G SG cites Te swisienoueae “oo 9 Surpury, ‘sassy, ‘‘ 9 ZL seeetsareeeesensnanesessvarerseres tS TOQTIOTT OFBIOOSSY « OL el Z sees Cece e reece recone eereeeesactvece sosuodxiy S$ UBIIVAQIT 6 0 9 9 Oem e merece scerneseseeeeeesecs (srvorty ut) 6% 73 Wee aaah ina snoaiaaaoke cents wtternacd sosuedxy [etaeyoro0g QO GG itrtrerteteeeeeereeeees ‘++ (goueApy ut) &< \e Or Bo eaaiiiacttee Aavaqrry s,440100g—oouransuy ea * 0 eI eI COBB ROnnree sntrasaneenensacesccenanes sTigTidimosqne) 18 3 cc Dinenmara metic ea eee mie tgsualayaie eben AeeniethS “S897 OF, hoOMDL PL ct ‘rereeeees TOTSSOG |SBI Ulosy ooupeg Ag 2 ofa Maas ‘ST6T ‘190E “340g 09 48ST “900 ‘ATET ‘Pp Ses: “SI6T ‘T30E “ydeg 09 4ST “400 ‘LTET 1G ‘SHUASVANT, ‘NOE ‘STTVH ‘£ "M HIM LNQODDY NT "uD ALAIDOS IWOIlDOTOId TOOddsAIT AHL ee TRANSACTIONS -)) aaa rae GY OF THE 00L BIOLOGICAL er. =| -_) t / ne a . ] * - r 5 4 « a iA i ry . eo es F , ' ‘Peer FY oa > wT ; t = j . .. + ae { ; ary i Beet Le LEG UU eR ia * . i oo Aamo c f ae y . 7 ATT t i ri . | y tan ee ' ane ~ aR) . ¥ \ ; ‘ Lie i pant “ j . ‘ , = ie ; / ' fi es as : i , ey ‘ MW j AR : ‘ ‘ : 7 7 iz Ns r , I 5 6 f RDS hs A nt ie, 3 7 Pies Get i) ul 1 je ; in Me 7 : i i Fi | iff 7 t a a mae 4 P. A ia ‘ ra + be: oe r , Aun a he : - = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS ON THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION By JOSEPH A. CLUBB, DSc., Curator of Museums, Liverpool. [Read to the Society, Oct. 12th, 1917.] As one of the pioneer members of this Society, it has been my privilege to hear a large number of the now lengthy series of Presidential Addresses, and so | have ample evidence of the exceedingly high standard of these discourses. It is, therefore, with the greatest diffidence that I venture to submit to you to-night a few considerations on the Public Museum and Education. To me, personally, it is of course a subject of the greatest possible moment, and I venture to think that there will be no lack of interest in the subject by the members of a Biological Society, seeing how large a percentage of Public Museums are more or less Biological Museums. The term ‘“‘ Public Museum ” is usually applied to Museums supported by public money, to which free access by the public is given. According to the return of a Committee of the British Association in 1887, appointed for the purpose of preparing a Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom, there were at that time, in the words of the Report, “* about fifty-five museums now the property of Municipal Corporations, and which are nearly all supported by local rates levied under the Public Libraries Act.” From a more recent return (1914) this number had then grown to ninety-two. A large proportion 4 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. of these museums were originated by local societies, and have been handed over to the municipal authorities for the benefit of the public. Up to a few years ago, with a few notable exceptions, the collections contamed in many of these museums simply presented a heterogeneous collection, with little or no system of arrangement. The adoption of more definite arrange- ment brought about a stage when the visitor was greeted by row upon row of animals, most literally stuffed, arranged in ranks and accompanied by labels whose principal mission was to convey to the public what to them is a most unimportant matter, the scientific names. But I think it is now generally recognised that the aim of the modern public museum is to illustrate ideas, not merely to display objects, to take the facts or information gathered by long years of patient study, and so present them that they may be understood by everyone. All exhibited specimens should, therefore, have that degree of relation to each other that they may conduce to the same mental impression, if real education is aimed at, and this should be the fundamental pet: underlying all modern museum exhibitions. The educational value of museums is recognised by all universities, inasmuch as every department, where possible, has its museum to enable the student to see the things and realise sensually the qualities described in lessons or lectures—in short, to learn what cannot be learned by words. But the “ Teaching Museums ” of a university are very different in character from Public Museums. In the first place the clientéle is altogether different. The university student comes to his museum primed with the teaching of the classroom, and inspired to acquire © knowledge from what may be seen there. There is not the necessity for special preparation to attract the interest, or — even to preserve the life-like characters of specimens. So long as a few diagnostic characters are preserved, and may be, a So SS ee THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION. 5 sometimes. with difficulty, made out, that is sufficient for a biological specimen in a university Teaching Museum. But visitors to a Public Museum are as a body totally different. Many go just as they would take a walk, without thought or care as to what they are going to see; others have a vague idea that they will be instructed and civilised, and only a small fraction of the total public go for the definite purpose of acquiring knowledge from the things displayed, or have got ideas about them to be verified, corrected or extended. Hence, the exhibits in a Public Biological Museum must be displayed in a manner to attract the interest of the casual passer-by, and they must be represented in as truly a life-like character as possible. If you cannot interest the visitor you — cannot instruct him; if he does not care to know what an animal is or what an object is used for, he will not read the label, be it ever so carefully written. A well-designed, popular Museum should always attract and recreate and excite interest ; and the visitor should come and go with the least possible consciousness that he is being educated. I cannot but briefly touch upon the many methods adopted at the present day by Museum Curators with these aims in view, but I should like to refer in some detail to one of them, and, perhaps the most important, viz., the “ Habitat ” Groups, and to epitomise the various steps that have led from the dreary exhibits of fifty years ago to the present realistic pictures of animal life that now adorn so many Public Museums. In the old days the principal object in mounting animals, especially mammals, was to preserve them and put them in a condition to be studied and compared one with another. But the science of taxidermy was given a great impetus by this demand for Museum groups. In some ways the task of the taxidermist is more difficult than that of the sculptor who deals only with plastic clay, for the taxidermist has not merely to prepare his model, but, in the case of mammals, to fit over 6 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. it a more or less unyielding hide that does not conceal the defects of the model, but has defects of its own to be hidden. Probably no one who has had actual experience in mounting large mammals would question this, though probably few people realise the great progress that has been made in the mounting of animals, particularly large mammals. Not very many years ago animals were most literally stuffed—suspended head downwards and rammed full of straw, often till they could hold no more. These methods were followed by the making of a manikin of tow; next the manikin of wire-netting and papier-mache, and finally the modelling of the animal in clay, giving all detail of muscle contours, etc-—the modelling of this in plaster and the making of a light and durable frame upon which the skin is deftly placed, copyine the folds and wrinkles of life. So far as I can find out, the first to introduce group mounting was an enthusiastic private collector, Mr. H. T. Booth, of Brighton, who devoted a large part of his life to making a collection of British Birds, mounted in various attitudes, with accessories which copied more or less accurately the appearance of the spot where they were taken. As Mr. Booth wrote, “the chief object has been to represent the birds in situations somewhat similar to those in which they were obtained ; many of the cases indeed being copied from sketches taken on the actual spots where the birds themselves were shot.” These groups were intended to be viewed from the front only, and were arranged in cases of standard size, assembled along the side of a large hall. The collection, which was begun about 1858, was bequeathed to the town of Brighton in 1890, and hence did not appear in a Public Museum until that year. I cannot find out with certainty, but I believe the Liverpool Museum was the first Public Museum, not excepting South Kensington, to exhibit “ group” specimens. In the year 1865 a group of the coot was prepared and was exhibited at the THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION. 7 British Association meeting*, held in Birmingham in the same year. This group is still in existence, and, although duplicated by a newer and more up-to-date one, is still on exhibition. Here, as in so many other directions, although England is the pioneer, she has allowed other countries to outstrip her. In Great Britain we have been content to stop at mammals and birds, and few attempts have been made here to extend “oroups” to other animal divisions. It is in America that we find the greatest development of group making. The American has been quick to realise the great educational possibilities of Museum groups in clutching the imagination of the Museum visitor, and no expense has been spared in extending and perfecting their production. After mammals came anything that the American taxidermist or modeller could master—reptiles, amphibians, fishes, insects and other invertebrates, and last of all plants which, when copied by their modern methods, are ever green, and may be made to show their adaptations to environment and _ inter-relation to varying conditions of soil, climate and surroundings. Details were given and illustrations shown of a number of the more modern American “ Habitat’? Groups which may now be seen in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, and other American Museums, where by the aid of enlarged lantern transparencies, painted panoramic back- grounds connected with the foreground, rounded corners and overhead lighting, which permit the last touches in the way of illusion and control of light regardless of the time of day, ana produce effects which, to say the least, are extremely striking. The creation of such groups must require a large number of assistants, practically skilled in various directions, in order to carry out the injunctions of the scientists of the staff. Obviously both time and money must be lavishly spent so as to arrive at the state of perfection suggested by these descrip- tions. Some estimate may be formed, when we consider these * Report of the British Association, 1865, Miscellaneous communications, p. 92. 8 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. facts, of the very high educative value Americans attach to these forms of exhibition. This section of Museum work was dwelt on in coseianaae detail, and it was claimed that from the popular standpoint, these ‘‘ group ” exhibits mark a distinct step in Public Museum development, for they serve to emphasize the points of greatest interest to the general public—what the creatures are, where they live and what they do—and they mark a break-away from the old-time collection of natural objects arranged systematically. A limited amount of systematic arrangement -may be necessary, for some idea of system is an essential part of scientific education, but the great, view of modern science which the general public needs is only in very small part taxonomic. 7 Another development in educative usefulness of the Public Museum for the general public is in the appomtment of Guide Demonstrators, the movement so _ energetically advocated by Lord Sudeley. Jt was in April, 1911, that the British Museum organised a system of short lectures and demonstrations, open to the public, and with so much success | that the Natural History Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum followed in the succeeding year with similar arrange- ments, and there is little doubt but that some of the provincial Museums would have followed suit had it not been for the war. And, without doubt, this is an important step. So many persons have neither the opportunity or the desire to become serious students, but they take an interest in the advancement of Art and Science, and they would lke to obtain some know- ledge of the world around them and of bygone history. Thus, to this class of the community the Public Museum is increasingly becoming a store-house of information. : The American Museum of Natural History has a Depart- ment of Public Education, organised in 1880 for the purpose primarily of familiarizmg the teachers of the Public Schools a Se a ee THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION. 9 with the collections on exhibition, by means of lectures illustrated with specimens and lantern slides. From a humble beginning in 1881 the lecture courses rapidly grew in importance, until in 1884 state aid was given to this feature of Museum work, greatly extending its scope and volume. he authorities of many Museums in this country have realised for some considerable time the great possibilities of a closer co-operation with the schools, and efforts have been made with varying success to bring this about. In Liverpool, since 1884, special circulating Museum cabinets and loan collections have been formed, by means of which Museum specimens have been circulated on loan to any school choosing to make application. In addition, every facility has been given to schools making use of the clause in the Education Code, and bringing classes for instruction in the Museum during school hours. A special lecture room is placed at their disposal to which Museum specimens for purposes of illustration are conveyed, and lantern, operator, and (when required) lantern slides are also provided, and courses of lectures by members of the staff and others have been given in relation to Museum collections and exhibits. In other towns similar arrangements have been in existence. But the education authorities have not responded to any very great extent, and very little systematic use has been made of the facilities available, although every educationist is prepared to admit the educational possibilities of such arrangements. All teachers realise the difficulty ofimpart- ing knowledge by mere verbal description—in awakening interest in mere mental pictures, and they know better than anyone else how the tired and anxious face of the child lights up when shown the actual thing—how delighted and anxious it 1s to see more. The hide-bound. syllabus and time-tables of the present system of education may be responsible, but whatever the reason, the fact remains that.comparatively little work is being done in this direction in this country. When we enquire what 10 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. America is doing, we find a very different state of things. Although probably later in the field, and commencing on very similar lines with the formation of loan collections, the work has now grown to considerable dimensions. From small beginnings this work has progressed until at the present time, in New York and district, nearly four hundred schools, some of which are twenty-five miles from the Museum, are receiving the collections regularly. The American Museum possesses more than thirty-five thousand lantern slides, of which about twelve thousand are coloured. The field parties which the Museum is sending to remote parts of the earth bring back photographic material, which enables continual additions to be made to this series of slides. The views illustrate plant life, animal life, industries, customs of people and physical geography. The broad scope of the educational work of the Museum is indicated in the action of the trustees in recently authorizing the equipment of a room especially reserved for the use of the blind. As yet only a small beginning has been made, but specimens of animals and Indian implements have already been set aside and labelled in raised type. The development of this feature of the Museum’s activity has been amply pro- vided for by financial bequests. It is safe to say that no visitors to the Museum obtain a greater enjoyment from the collections than do the various groups of blind people, who may often be seen in the exhibition halls. In an address before the Fourth International Congress of School Hygiene at Buffalo, August, 1913, C. EH. A. Winslow, Curator of the Public Health Department of the American Museum, gave an account of the preparations made in the Museum for co-operation in the teaching of school hygiene and sanitation. He claimed the American Museum as the first institution of its kind to grasp the opportunity of attacking the educational problem of public health by the use of Museum e —— THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION. ll methods. He argued that as man is an animal and public health is one of the most important phases of his natural history, the existence of a Public Health Department in a Natural History Museum was quite logical. Many other interesting details were given of this important work. These particulars show the vast field of education work covered at the present time by the Department of Education of the American Museum of Natural History, especially in co-operation with public schools. The possible as well as logical pomts of contact between schools and museums are so numerous as to surprise even those closely in touch with education, and it is claimed by American Museums that there is no sphere of educational work in the public schools of their cities which the Public Museum cannot elaborate or supplement. Vast as this work is, it has grown to its present dimensions in New York in a very few years. It was commenced in a very modest way, and apparently in imitation of similar efforts in Great Britain, by the formation of School Loan Collections. But, whereas in America, and especially in New York, it has srown and extended, the work here has had little or no expan- sion. They have made progress, whereas we have remained almost stationary. It may be due in some measure to the school system of education in this country, which is being subjected at the present time to so much thought. It is, of course, obvious that any system of education must, as time progresses, require alteration, re-adjustment and amendment to vivify, improve and adapt the system according to altered circumstances, and I am not without hopes that the excellent example of co-operation between Schools and Museums, as seen in New York and other American cities, may have important results in the coming revision of our school education system. But the Public Museum in this country has got to do its share also, and in accordance with the progressiveness of the times must, while maintaining its stand as an institution of 12 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. science, become distinctly identified with public education also. The educative potentialities of Museums must be more fully recognised, especially by their governing bodies. It must be realised that the work of the staff of a Public Museum may rank high in educational importance, and means must be taken to induce and attract intellect and talent for the work. More generous treatment is necessary, especially m the staffing. From returns under this head recently analysed, it is found that the public museums of this country are all lamentably understaffed. For a Public Museum to fulfil its purpose in a conmmunity, authorities will have to realise that sufficient funds must be provided so that the services may be obtained of a qualified scientific head, with a sufficient number of trained assistants, proportionate to the size and importance of the collections and the field (Science, Archeology and Art) covered by them. If this is acted upon as a principle, even the smallest museum with most modest collections could be made of real educational value. What I should advocate is the formation of a Department of Public Instruction in every Public Museum situated in a large city or centre of population, on similar lines and with ~ similar functions as in the American Museum of Natural History. It should organise and arrange for the distribution of Museum Loan Collections to schools; the arrangements for and delivery of courses of lectures to teachers, pupils and the general public, both inside and outside the Museum, together with the preparation of lantern slides, specimens and other methods of illustration. The entire time and service of this department of the staff should be available to the public at. large, and to teachers and classes in particular. In short, its function should be to assimilate the scientific data supplied by the various sections of the museum, and present these facts in such a way that teachers can readily make use of them, and, children and the general public easily understand them. THE PUBLIC MUSEUM AND EDUCATION. 13 I have dealt exclusively in this address with what may be defined as popular education, but I am the first to recognise that a public museum has a duty to science, and means should be provided whereby the equally important function of scientific research work, looking toward an increase of the sum total of knowledge, can be carried on, and in this way the specialists, attracted by opportunity for scientific work, may also be excellent directors of the educational activities in their own lines, and the numerous specimens required may at the same time serve both scientific and educational ends. The most discouraging fact concerning our boasted science is that its great teachings, full of meaning for daily life, are so slowly filtering down from the investigators to even many well-educated people, not to mention the great masses with limited or no formal education. We need a rapid expansion of facilities for the promulgation of scientific knowledge among the people. This means a movement along two lines; first, there should be greater attention paid to science teaching m schools and colleges, and. second, there is need of a science extension system reaching out to those who have already passed beyond the direct control of regular educa- tional institutions. In both these lines public science museums have an opportunity of playing an important part. They should be valuable supplementary aids to the science studies in educational institutions, and they should be the people’s university of science, for the diffusion of scientific knowledge among those not directly reached by teachers. A public museum with educational aims must be planned to present great principles which make an intellectual appeal ; it must teach the application of science to practical hfe, and it must increase the aesthetic appreciation of nature and nature’s processes. B sae eT re t " ’ | fa’ ‘ teled irre rishh ae Rt Uae ' THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN BEING THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE. By Proressor W. A. Herpman, F.R:S. Once again this Report will deal with little beyond the _ record of routine work carried out at the Port Erin Biological Station and elsewhere in the L.M.B.C. District. The “Station Record’’ and the “Curator’s Report ” _ which follow show that during the Easter vacation and the _ Spring months, when both students and senior workers frequent our marine laboratory more than at any other time of the year, the numbers, though still greatly reduced in comparison with the few years preceding the war, were greater than in 1915. In 1914 we recorded ninety researchers and students occupying work-places in the laboratory ; in 1915 we had only fifteen, in 1916 we had twenty-one, and the present report again shows twenty-one. The number of visitors to the Aquarium is larger _ than it was in 1915, but is far below the numbers usual in previous years. , In regard to the educational work in the laboratories, the usual Easter vacation course in Marine Biology was carried on during April by members of the staff of the Zoology department of the University of Liverpool, and was attended by 12 undergraduates. Work out at sea was wholly prevented, by Admiralty regulations, but collecting expeditions as usual, along the shore at low tide, were arranged in the Easter vacation. During the remainder of the year the Assistant-Curator made periodic collections from time to time as occasion offered, and plankton — ee a oe > == 16 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. samples were taken across Port Erin Bay with regularity twice i each week, during most weeks in the year. Special series of — gatherings were also taken almost daily during April, August and September, as part of the work in connection with the scheme of “ Intensive Study of the Plankton ” which has now been in progress for over ten years. It may be useful to students and others proposing to work at Port Erin that the ground plan of the buildings showing the laboratory and other accommodation should be inserted here (see fig. 1, p. 17). As on previous occasions, the statistics as to the use made of the Laboratories during the year will be given, in the form of a “Curator’s Report”’; and after that, I have added a short account of the life and work of the recent Oceanographer, Sir John Murray—which seems to follow naturally after the discussion, in last year’s Report, of the results of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition. This completes the series of studies of three notable British pioneers in Oceanography, Forbes, Wyville Thomson and Murray, which it is hoped may prove useful for the information of our students and other workers at the laboratory. CURATOR’S REPORT. Mr. Chadwick reports to me as follows on the various departments of the work :— ; Station Record. ‘Twenty-one workers—exactly the same number as last year—occupied tables in our laboratories during the past year. Twelve of these were undergraduates of the University of Liverpool, who undertook the fortnight’s course of instruction given by Professor Herdman, Mr. R. D. Laurie and Miss R. C. Bamber on the shore, in the field and in the laboratory; the remaining nine were researchers or advanced students. Steps fo upper floor ari Plan of the Port Erin Biological Station, showing MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. le 3 T The new laboratory of Bio-Chemistry is over the Hatchery on the right hand side of the plan. *& IE: K 20 lS le = HIS | ee oe Ol /O Feet Dxe, 1, Research wing on both floors. — Dark reom rs ng ae ‘ert area ed , Deep Decptert Sal fone) a { ee HATCHERY. AQUARIUM. Ceneral work room of r floor Uppe Research Laboralery LABORATORY. t a Hatching Tanks. Ae of | | Vestibule 4 ea at 17 18 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Professor Herdman continued his work on the marine plankton of Port Erin Bay and on the Tunicata; Mr. Laurie, during two visits, at Haster and again in September, devoted much time and laborious work to the problem of ambicolouration in the plaice, of which so many examples have been observed in the Fish Hatchery during the past ten or twelve years ; Miss Bamber did some preliminary work upon the earlier larval stages of the common hermit crab (Hupagurus bernhardus) Miss Gleave continued her work upon the anatomy of the sea- lemon (Doris tuberculata), and Miss Stafford began a study of the well-known tube-building worm Terebella conchilega, with a view to an L.M.B.C. Memoir upon it. Miss Duvall collected material for a Memoir upon Balanus. Inst of Workers. , December 26th, 1916 to January 8th, 1917. Professor Herdman— Official. March 22nd to April 11th. Mr. R. D. Laurie—Educational. pn V22mdet Ys 11th. Miss R. C. Bamber—Educational. wy Done ts 5th. Miss B. D. Tyrrell—General. | 22nd mt 5th Miss J. H. Hanley—General. Bet ened ey pth. =, Miss H. Midgley—General. 5 | 22nd 3 5th. Miss P. E. Harris—General. » | 2ond $s) 5th. Miss C. M. Jarvis—General. 5 22nd cf 5th. Miss C. Mayne—General. — | een aN 5th. Miss BE. M. Stephenson—General. au DQnd = 5th. Miss M. Howells.—General i Peon iS 5th. Miss M. S. Moss—General. Sy oou DT ie 5th. Miss S. Firth—General. son H2ne - 5th. Miss M. Quayle—General By 28th Me Ath. Miss H. M. Duvall—Cirripedia. DINE iene 20th. Professor Herdman—Plankton. ne Dna, th 20th. Miss E. C. Herdman—General. aa On, 5th. Miss L. M. Christian—General. April Tth to 13th. Miss E. L. Gleave—Doris. 33 Nth to L3th. Miss L. Davies—General. ci dbheito Lath. Miss G. Andrew—General. » odth to 19th. Miss C. M. P. Stafford—Terebella. July 24th to September 22nd. Professor Herdman—Plankton and Tunicata. 24th my 22nd. .. Miss E. C. Herdman—Ceneral: September 19th to 26th. Mr. R. D. Laurie—Ambicolouration of young Plaice. ) ee ea MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 19 The Inbrary. “Our thanks are due to the respective donors for the Annual Reports of the Marine Stations of Millport and Cullercoats, and the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory ; the Journal of the Marine Biological Association ; the publica- tions of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., the Smithsonian Institute, U.S.A., the University of California, U.S.A., and the Brown University, Rhode Island, U.S.A. ; the Royal Italian Oceanographical Committee. Other additions to the Library have been presented by Professor and Mrs. Herdman, Mr. A. O. Walker, the Secretary of State for India in Council, H.H. the Gaekwar of Baroda and Mr. James Hornell. A few works have been purchased. Much work was done during the winter upon the catalogue of the Library, and the Curator hopes to complete it to date during the present winter. The Fish Hatchery. “ Owing very largely to conditions imposed by the war, no additions were made during the Autumn of 1916 to the stock of spawners. When, on November 28th, the spawning ponds were drained, the stock available for this year’s hatching operations was found to consist of 102 healthy fish. Fertilised eges were first seen in the pond on February 22nd, three days later than their first appearance in the previous year. Thence- forward, in spite of much severe weather and exceptionally low temperatures, the daily number of eggs collected increased in much the same proportion as in former years until March 24th, when the maximum number of the season, 504,000, were placed in the hatching boxes. Three days later the next largest number, 493,500, was recorded. From that time the number fluctuated a good deal from day to day, as on April 11th and 12th, when there were 283,500 and 63,000 respectively. When 20 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the season was somewhat advanced it was found that 19 fish which were hatched and reared during the season of 1914, and had attained an average length of 104 inches, were spawning. The eggs produced by these fish were smaller than the average size of the egg of-the plaice, the proportions being as 5 to 6:5, but they were otherwise normal. “The Hatchery Record, giving the number of eggs collected and of larval fish set free on the various days, is as follows :— Larvae set free, Date. Eggs collected. Date. 715,600 _.... Feb. . 22 to: 27 64,050 ... March 23 163,800 . yx 28 and March 2.. 151,200.) Seen ~ 430,000 _ March 3and8 | 409,500 ... April 3 4555100 9) ee LOMand 12 418,950 A ET 628950. )), Gon sy ae 3960\20 549,150...::,.7 eee 420,000 ... ,,. 2l and 22 386,400 2. ees BOL OOD eit + aaa ee 454,650 © 2.) 844,200 aie 2 EONS 764,450... See 537,600 » 91 to April 4 443.100 >» ot 390,600 April 5 and 7 326,550 eae 346,500 sy eld end 12 301,350 agin aa 189,000 SEN STEGS 163,800 May 2 504,000 Zueak toi20 409,500 ad 4 LAT O00 © Ween 126,000. eae iT SLOB00m G0 ee 2 an. 20 268,500) eee eee 9 So, 200 ah oe 193)800") ) =) See 42,000 ... May 1 31,500 2. See 5,348,450 Total larvae. Le Te 6,07 7,950 Total eggs. “The plaice hatching operations were conducted wen by the Assistant Curator, Mr. T. N. Cregeen. — Lobster Culture. ‘Though the number of larvae set free during the lobster hatching season was not large, the percentage reared to the lobsterling stage was considerably larger than that of any MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 21 previous season; and the general result reflects credit upon the Assistant Curator, who, again, had entire charge of the work and whose efforts were untiring. Eleven female lobsters were purchased from local fishermen, and the eggs of these yielded 4,142 larvae. Two thousand eight hundred larvae were set free in the first stage ; the remaining 1,342 were transferred from the spawning pond to a number of half-gallon glass jars, placed in convenient rows in the Hatchery. At the beginning of the season 12 larvae were put into each jar, but though the water was changed frequently, experience showed that a smaller number gave better results, and later on the number was reduced to 6. The larvae were fed exclusively upon plankton, which the experience of the past two or three seasons has shown to be the best food. The total number of lobsterlings thus reared was 300. Two hundred and eighty-five were set free in chosen spots where they would find shelter, and 15 have been retained for further experiments in rearing. The Aquarwm. “Three thousand two hundred and nineteen visitors paid for admission to the Aquarium during the year. The small increase in numbers as compared with the previous year—169— is somewhat disappointing, considering that it was propor- tionately much larger from Easter until the early part of August, when persistent unseasonable weather checked the inflow of visitors. The specimens exhibited in the tanks were much the same as those of previous years, with the notable exception of the octopus of the Irish Sea, Hledone cirrosa. For the first year in the history of the Institution, not a single specimen of this exceptionally interesting animal was obtainable, much to the disappointment of many visitors. Plaice hatched and reared in the Hatchery in 1914, 1915 and 1916 were exhibited bo bo TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. in several tanks and fully maintained the interest shown by the visitors of previous years in our economic work. The lobster larvae also excited much interest. The display of sea- anemones in the table tanks never fails to attract attention ; and to these Miss E. C. Herdman, at the latter end of the season, added a number of interesting species—Czona wntestinalis, Sabella pavona, Hols rufibranchialis, Doto fragilis, Idotea marina (both sexes and young), Antedon bifida and others. A group of specimens of the sand anemone, Haleampa crysan- thellum, inhabit a small glass dish filled with sand, and afford a remarkable example of the very close resemblance, in colour and markings, of many marine animals to their surroundings. The disk and tentacles of Halcampa present the same speckled appearance as the sand on which the latter are allowed to rest when the animal is fully expanded, and are not easy to detect, even to the practised eye. A large specimen of the Mollusc Pleurobranchus membranaceus was one day seen to swim voluntarily round and round the table tank in which it lived for some time during the summer. Swimming was effected by the lateral margins of the foot, which, with graceful curva- ture, were flapped dorsally and ventrally in much the same way as a Skate or ray uses its lateral ‘ wings.’ The animal was under observation for about twenty minutes, durmg which time it swam actively, with only two or three brief intervals of rest. Less than an hour before this it deposited a large coil of spawn on the gravel at the bottom of the tank. General. “The occurrence of various Invertebrates, especially - medusz, in our spawning ponds has been recorded from time to time in our Annual Reports. This year a species of Sarsia appeared in large numbers during the plaice hatching season. Mr. EK. T. Browne, to whom specimens were submitted for | MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. DO identification, writes that they were in too early a stage to enable him to recognise the species. It is curious that in spite of careful search the hydroid stocks from which this and other previously recorded medusz have arisen have not been found in the pond. When the ponds were drained for their annual cleanmg in September, various other Invertebrates were found: On the vertical wall at one end of the lobster pond a colony of the barnacle Balanus balanoides had established themselves and attained a considerable size, and a well-grown Fic. 2. Colony of T'ubularia larynx in aquarium jar. ‘Two-thirds nat. size. y 1 J specimen of the Polynoid worm Lepidonotus squamatus was found in the larger plaice pond. Great swarms of the Copepod Acartia clausi were seen in the smaller plaice pond as the water was drained from it. The common limpet, Patella vulgata, and the periwinkle, Littorina rudis, are now well-established inhabitants of the 24 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. storage tanks, but do not appear in the spawning ponds. This is probably accounted for by the daily varying level of the water in the former, which to some extent resembles the ebb and flow of the tide on the beach. Karly in August the growth of a colony of the beautiful Hydroid Tubularia larynx was noticed in one of the half-gallon glass jars used for rearing lobster larvae in the Hatchery. The first polyp of the colony had established itself at the bottom and close to the side of the jar, and from it the creeping stolons subsequently grew to left and right along the junction of the side with the bottom of the jar, and to a small extent over the latter. Polyps arose at frequent intervals from the stolons, and were frequently seen to catch with their tentacles and feed upon the Copepods which were put into the jar as food for the lobster larvae. The colony attained a length of 34 inches (see fig. 2). (Signed) H. C. CHAapwicK.” REPORT OF THE EDWARD ForRBES EXHIBITIONER. An “ Edward Forbes Exhibition” was founded* in 1915, at the University of Liverpool, in commemoration of the pioneer marine biological work done in this district by the celebrated Manx Naturalist, who was born about a hundred years ago. The object of the Exhibition is to enable some post-graduate student of the University to proceed to the Port Erin Biological Station for the purpose of carrying on some piece of biological research, more or less in continuation of some line of work opened up by Forbes, or an investigation which has grown out of such work. : The Edward Forbes Exhibitioner for the year 1917 is CuaRLorTe M. P. Srarrorp, B.Sc., who spent a couple of weeks at Port Erin in the Spring, working at some points in *The Regulations in regard to the Exhibition will be found at p. 67. ; i 4 ee ee |S lO _— = a = ———= a) MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. pa the structure of the Tubicolous Annelid, Terebella conchilega. . with a view of preparing an L.M.B.C. Memoir on the subject. Miss Stafford reports as follows on her work at Port Erin :— “ During my fortnight’s stay at Port Erin, from 5th April to 20th April, the aim of my work was twofold :— 1. To examine, in their natural habitat and in tanks at the Biological Station, living specimens of Terebella conchilega. 2. To preserve material of this species for further examination at Liverpool. “For collecting purposes the tides were very suitable. The small sandy tubes, often with fringed ends and standing up, or bending over, about 1 inch above the surface of the sand, indicated where Terebella could be found. It occurs between low and high water marks of ordinary tides, the zone just above low water mark being very densely crowded, although they are not nearly so thick just above low water mark of a spring-tide. Considerable care is necessary, while digging for Terebella, in order to remove the tube from the sand without damaging the worm and before it has time to withdraw to any great depth. “The tube-building habits of this worm have been worked out in great detail and described by Mr. A. T. Watson (Jowrn. R. Micro. Soc., 1916, pp. 253-256); but, from the point of view of general interest, I kept several worms, which I had removed from their tubes to shallow glass tanks, and made observations on their building habits on lines kindly suggested by Mr. Watson. I was fortunate enough to be able to see many of the wonderful actions, which he has described, and was struck with the remarkable activity exhibited. “With regard to preparations for preserving material, it was first necessary to remove the worms from their tubes and keep them for two or three days before fixing them in order to make certain that all sand had been voided from the 26 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. intestine. This is of the utmost importance in the case of Specimens intended for microtome sectionising. “Killing and fixing methods were at first wholly experi- mental, and later I fixed the bulk of my material according to the best results obtained. Worms killed by chloroform, or by chloroform vapour, appeared to show signs of maceration after a few hours. Those killed in formol gave better promise of suitable material for dissection purposes. For sectionising purposes, the apparently most successful results were obtamed with acid corrosive sublimate and Bouin’s Fluid. Still others I gradually narcotised with alcohol and then extended them completely before fixing with absolute. The value of these methods will be ultimately decided by the results they yield on further investigation, but undoubtedly each = have its worth in some one particular direction. ‘“‘T obtained and fixed sufficient material for a considerable amount of work at Liverpool, where I shall continue the investigation. “‘T acknowledge and appreciate the help given me in con- nection with this work, both at Liverpool and Port Erin, where the Curator and Assistant Curator made valuable suggestions, and helped in carrying them out. (Signed) CHaRLoTTE M. P. Starrorp.”’ L.M.B.C. MeEmorrs. Since our last report was published, no further Memoirs have been issued to the public. Himanruatia, by Miss L. G. Nash, M.Sc., is ready to print; Miss KH. L. Gleave, M.Sc., has nearly completed her Memoir on Doris, the Sea-lemon ; Mr. Burfield, who was writing the Memoir on Saqirra, has joined the Army; Miss Bamber has made further progress with TuBULARIA, and still other Memoirs are in preparation. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 27 The following shows a list of the Memoirs already published or arranged for: . Ascrp1a, W. A. Herdman, 60 pp., 5 Pls. . Carpium, J. Johnstone, 92 pp., 7 Pls. . Ecuinus, H. C. Chadwick, 36 pp., 5 Pls. . Copium, R. J. H. Gibson and H. Auld, 3 Pls. . Atcyonium, 8S. J. Hickson, 30 pp., 3 Pls. . LEPEOPHTHEIRUS AND LeRN@mA, A. Scott, 5 Pls. . Lingus, R. C. Punnett, 40 pp., 4 Pls. . Puatce, F. J. Cole and J. Johnstone, 11 Pls. . CuonpRus, O. V. Darbishire, 50 pp., 7 Pls. wEATERLA, J. R. A. Davis and H. J. Fleure, 4 Pls. . ARENICOLA, J. H. Ashworth, 126 pp., 8 Pls. . Gammarus, M. Cussans, 55 pp., 4 Pls. . AnuRIDA, A. D. Imms, 107 pp., 8 Pls. . Liera, C. G. Hewitt, 45 pp., 4 Pls. . AnTEDON, H. C. Chadwick, 55 pp., 7 Pls. . Cancer, J. Pearson, 217 pp., 13 Pls. . Pecten, W. J. Dakin, 144 pp., 9 Pls. . Exepong, A. Isgrove, 113 pp., 10 Pls. . PotycHart Larva, F. H. Gravely, 87 pp., 4 Pls. . Buccinum, W. J. Dakin, 123 pp., 8 Pls. . Eupacurus, H. G. Jackson, 88 pp., 6 Pls. . EcurnopEerM Larva, H. C. Chadwick, 40 pp., 9 Pls. . Tusirex, G. C. Dixon, 100 pp., 7 Pls. HimanTHatia, L. G. Nash. Doris, EH. L. Gleave. TuBULARIA, R. C. Bamber. AptysiA, N. B. Eales. TEREBELLA, C. P. M. Stafford. Batanus, H. M. Duvall. Saaitta, 8. T. Burfield. Aotintia, J. A. Clubb. ZostTEeRA, R. Robbins. 28 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. HALICHONDRIA AND Sycon, A. Dendy. Oyster, W. A. Herdman and J. T. Jenkins. SABELLARIA, A. T. Watson. OstRacoD (CyTHERE), A. Scott. ASTERIAS, H. C. Chadwick. Pycnoconum, J. EK. Hamilton. -BotTrRYLLoipEs, W. A. Herdman. In addition to these, it is hoped that other Memoirs will be arranged for, on suitable types, such as Pontobdella, a Cestode and a Nematode. _ As the result of a slight fire in the Zoology Department of the University, a portion of the stock of L.M.B.C. Memoirs has been partially destroyed. There are a certain number of damaged copies of some of the Memoirs which are stained or singed externally, but are still quite usable, and are suitable for laboratory work. The Committee has decided to offer these at prices ranging according to the condition from one- half to one-fourth of the published prices, as follows :— Memoir I., Ascidia, 6d. to 9d.; VI., Lepeophtheirus and Lernea, 6d. to ls.; VII., Lineus, 6d. to 1s.; XIII., Anurida, 1s. to 2s. ; XIV., Ligia, 6d. to 1s.; XV., Antedon, 6d. to ls. 3d. Orders for these damaged copies should be sent to Professor Herdman, the University, Liverpool. New copies of any of the Memoirs should be ordered from Williams & Norgate. The diagram of sea and air temperatures for 1917, compiled ~ by Mr. Chadwick from his daily records, is not yet completed ; but that for the preceding year, 1916, is inserted here as usual. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 29 JAN. FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE. JULY AUC. SEPT OCT. NOV DEC. en ae Rom: Cem Rams Nese 2 9E0 __ SE SSS Pee eee pot. Ls RRMER ae PSS Re BREDA aE DERSESREREE ee rafinies srareette uae Eee = Meso eeteatial |i EBS EOS Sea RB SREB iie | | TT ry BE: | a TNT ia eR Py tT ay —s || yy HAH ae oo pe ff aes errr EOLA SEUSS eee ABwe ee a Pooh ee. |] ty URGES ERSSe Ye | a a aaa PEEEEEEESEE EEE a Zh DUES LEEPER PERERA AEo eRe oe? Oi Ms ied BO cr fe tae aa WEEKLY AVERACE TEMPERATURE. ECE ft tt} OF THE AIRAND SEAAT 9m@.AT H—--4-4+-4-4-4-4-1-4--1-74 | {|| PORT ERIN DURING THE YEARISIG. ||| 11} ge hes J Oven Beh ep meb et ty et (BERBAS ES SCRE eee KUKHNABBSAASTASASSINATAMTATRIVAA a a eee eee ye ST Te ere ye ice ede ame] eet HHESER OOS Ses Bee eRe | HHSC SER see ese eee Appended to this Report are :— . (A) An Address on “ Sir John Murray, the Pioneer of Modern Oceanography,” delivered to the Biological Society, by Professor Herdman, on November 9th, 1917 ; (B) The usual Statement as to the constitution of the L.M.B.C., . and the Laboratory Regulations—with Memoranda for the use of students, and the Regulations in regard to the “ Edward Forbes Exhibition ” at the University of Liverpool ; (C) The Hon. Treasurer’s Report, List of Subscribers, and Balance Sheet for the year. 30 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SIR JOHN MURRAY. From a photograph taken about 1911, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN SU! APPENDIX A. AN ADDRESS UPON SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S., THE PIONEER OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY. GIVEN BEFORE THE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY By W. A. Herpman. ___I desire to lay before you on the present occasion the third and last of this short series of studies of those notable _ pioneers in British Marine Biology leading on to Oceanography, _ Professor Edward Forbes, Sir Wyville Thomson and Sir John _ Murray. During these last three years of war our usual biological _ work at sea has been impossible, and it seemed fitting that the opportunity should be taken to lay before our students some _ record of those who had established a Science of the Sea in our country. In 1915 our thoughts were naturally turned to ’ Edward Forbes by the centenary of his birth, which was celebrated that year. The following year (1916) it seemed natural to talk of Wyville Thomson, who extended to the _ depths of the great oceans those methods of exploration which _ Forbes had started on the coasts of Europe. Finally, in 1917, _ we realise that Murray continued and completed the work of _ Thomson, in addition to undertaking other more recent investi- gations. While Sir Wyville Thomson’s name will always be remembered as the leader of the “ Challenger’ Expedition, _ Sir John Murray will be known in the history of Science as _ the Naturalist who brought to a successful issue the investiga- tion of the enormous collections and the publication of the _ scientific results of that memorable voyage: these two Scots | share the honour of having guided the destinies of what is _ still the greatest oceanographic exploration of all times. a2 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. John Murray, although a typical Scot in all his ways, was — born in Canada—at Coburg, Ontario, on March 8rd, 1841. But he was of Scottish descent, and returned in early life to maternal relatives in Scotland to complete his education. The lives of our three pioneers just occupied a century (1815 to 1914), and to some extent overlapped. Forbes was only fifteen years senior to Wyville Thomson, and Thomson eleven years senior to Murray. While John Murray was still a school-boy in Upper Canada, Forbes was running his brief meteoric career as Professor in Edinburgh, and Wyville Thomson was a young lecturer on the Natural Sciences in Ireland. Curiously enough all three went through unusually extended courses as students of Medicine and Science at the University of Edinburgh, and not one of them took a degree. Forbes was a genius who neglected his work and frankly “funked”’ his examinations when the time came. In Thomson’s case ill-health, fortunately for Science, stopped his proposed career in Medicine ; while Murray despised examinations and degrees and probably never proposed to take them. He studied a subject because he wanted to know it, and in that spirit he ranged widely over the Faculties of his University. When I was a student and young graduate I used to hear him denounce in vigorous language all examina- tions and other formal tests of knowledge, and yet, late in life there was probably no man of his time who had so many honorary degrees and titles conferred upon him by the Univer- sities and learned Academies of Europe and America. After returning to Scotland as a boy in the teens, he lived ‘for some time with a grandfather at Bridge of Allan, and attended the High School at Stirlmg. During this time he seems to have been most interested in the physical sciences, and especially electricity. He established some electrical apparatus at his home, and in an address to his old school, in 1899, he gives an amusing account of some of the results of his experiments with a large induction coil, such as the MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 33 following :—‘‘ On another occasion, several companions ar- rived from Stirling to see my experiments; they had with them five dogs, one of them being ‘ Mysie,’ a large dog belonging to Sir John Hay, and I had a large Newfoundland called ‘ Max.’ _ We resolved to give the dogs a shock. They weré duly arranged in the room, and the circuit was completed by bringing the noses of the two largest dogs together. Pandemonium was the _ result. Hach dog believed he had been bitten by the other. _ They fought, chairs and tables were over-turned, and much of the apparatus broken. In the future, I was requested to turn my attention to the observational sciences of botany, zoology, and geology.” He then spent some years, in the ’sixties, at the University _ of Edinburgh where he was known as a “chronic”’ student, 1 working at the subjects in which he was interested without _ following any definite course. Amongst the Professors under whom he studied at that time, and who became his close friends in later life, were P. G. Tait in Physics, Crum Brown in Chemistry, Turner in Anatomy, and Archibald Geikie in Geology. A decade or so later, after the return of the “ Challenger’ Expedition, he became once more a student at the University of Ediburgh, and that was when I had the good fortune first to meet him. In 1868 he visited Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen and other _ parts of the Arctic regions on board a Peterhead whaler, on _ which, on the strength of having once been a medical student, he was shipped as surgeon. This voyage of seven months probably did much to confirm that interest in the phenomena and problems of the Ocean which had been first aroused on his passage home from Canada, ten years before. This interest was doubtless further stimulated during the immediately following years by the epoch-making results of the pioneer _ deep-sea expeditions in the “ Lightning” and “ Porcupine,” which explored, under the direction of Wyville Thomson, 99 34 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Carpenter and Gwyn Jefireys, the Atlantic coasts of Europe. And then, fortunately, in 1870, Wyville Thomson was appointed — Professor at Edinburgh, which now became the centre of the negotiations and arrangements with the Admiralty and the Royal Society that led eventually, in 1872, to the equipment and despatch of our great British Deep-Sea Exploring Expedi- tion. It was only an odd chance that led to Murray’s connection with the “ Challenger.” The scientific staff had already been definitely appointed when, at the last moment, one of the Assistant Naturalists dropped out, and mainly on the strong recommendation of Professor Tait, in whose laboratory Murray was at the time working, Sir Wyville Thomson offered him the vacant post—surely one of the best examples in the history of Science of the right man being chosen to fill a post. In addition to taking his part in the general work of the Expedition, Murray devoted special attention to three subjects of primary importance in the science of the sea, viz., the plankton or floating life of the oceans, the deposits forming on the sea bottoms, and the origin and mode of formation of coral reefs and islands. It was characteristic of his broad and syn- thetic outlook on nature that, i place of working at the speciography and anatomy of some group of organisms, however novel, interesting, and attractive to the naturalist the deep-sea organisms might seem to be, he took up wide- reaching general problems with economic and geological as well as biological applications. Amongst the preliminary reports sent home during the course of the expedition, and published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (Vol. XXIV., No. 170, p. 471), we find those by John Murray, written from Valparaiso, 9th December, 1875, dealing with (1) Oceanic Deposits, (2) Surface Organisms and their relation to Oceanic ~ Deposits, and. (3) Vertebrata (mainly Fishes) which, though superseded by the later work of himself and others, are still of MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. ao _ great historic interest. In that preliminary account of the Oceanic Deposits we find Murray’s first classification into (1) Shore deposits, (2) Globigerina ooze, (3) Radiolarian ooze, (4) Diatomaceous ooze, and (5) Red and Grey Clays, which has _ been adopted with little or no change in all succeeding works ; _ and, in his report on the surface organisms, we find the first figures of the living Hastigerina, Pyrocystis and the remarkable deep-water Radiolaria known as “ Challengeride.”’ Kach of the three main lines of investigation—deposits, _ plankton and coral reefs—which Murray undertook on board the “Challenger ’’ has been most fruitful of results both in his own hands and those of others. His plankton work has led on to those modern planktonic researches which are closely bound _ up with the scientific investigation of our sea-fisheries. His ob- _ servations on coral reefs, in conjunction with the “Challenger” results as to depths of the ocean and the presence of submarine volcanic elevations, resulted in his new and most original theory as to the formation of “ Atolls,’ which removed certain diffi- culties that had long been felt by zoologists and geologists alike to stand in the way of the universal acceptance of Darwin’s well-known theory of coral reefs and islands. His work on the deposits accumulating on the floor of the ocean resulted, after years of study in the laboratory as well as in the field, in collaboration with the Abbé Renard of the Brussels Museum, afterwards Professor at Ghent, in the pro- duction of the monumental ‘“ Deep-Sea Deposits”? volume, one of the “Challenger’’ Reports, which first revealed to the scientific world the detailed nature and distribution of the varied submarine deposits of the globe and their relation to the rocks forming the crust of the earth. These studies led, moreover, to one of the romances of Science which deeply influenced Murray’s future life and work. In accumulating material from all parts of the world and all deep-sea exploring expeditions for comparison with 36 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the ‘“Challenger”’ series, some ten years later, Murray found that a sample of rock from Christmas Island in the Indian — Ocean, which had been sent to him by Commander (now Admiral) Aldrich of H.M.S. “ Egeria,” was composed of a valuable phosphatic deposit. Murray’s interest in this rock was at first solely in relation to the ‘“‘Challenger”’ deposits and its possible bearing on his coral reef theory; but he soon realised its economic as well as scientific interest, and was convinced that the Island would be of value to the nation. After overcoming many difficulties he induced the British Government to annex this lonely, uninhabited volcanic island, and to give a concession to work the deposits to a company which he formed. He sent out scientific investigators to study and report on the pro- ducts of the island, and the results have been highly successful on both the scientific and the commercial sides. Sir John Murray visited Christmas Island himself on several occasions, he had roads cleared, a railway con- structed, waterworks established, piers built and the necessary buildings erected. In fact, the lonely island was colonised by about 1,500 inhabitants, and flourishing planta- tions of various kinds were established in addition to the working of the phosphatic deposits. Murray was able to show that some years ago the British Treasury had already received in royalties and taxes from the island considerably more than the total cost of the “‘ Challenger ’’ Expedition. - This is one of these cases where a purely scientific investi- gation has led directly to great wealth—wealth, it may be added, which in this case has been used to a great extent for the advancement of Science. ; In the case of Sir John Murray, as in that of my address on Sir Wyville Thomson last year, I am writing of a man who made a strong personal impression as one of my teachers in Science at Edinburgh forty years ago. It is not from one’s _ MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 37 formal instructors alone that one learns. Murray was never on | the teaching staff of the University ; but a few of us (generally Sir David Bruce, now of the War Office, Professor Noel-Paton, now of Glasgow, and myself), who were then, in the late ’seventies, young students of Science, and were privileged to have the run of the “ Challenger” Office, learned more of practical Natural History from John Murray than we did from many University lectures. This was in the few years following on the return of the “ Challenger ”’ Expedition in 1876, and the vast collections of all kinds brought back from all the seas and remote islands were being classified and sorted out into groups for further examination in a house near the University, known as the “ Challenger Office.” Murray, as First Assistant on the Staff, had charge of the office and the collections, and welcomed a few eager young workers who were willing to devote free afternoons to helping in the multifarious work always in progress. There we first made acquaintance with the celebrated ‘ new deep-sea “oozes,” learnt to distinguish them under the microscope and how to demonstrate the silicious Radiolaria hidden in the calcareous Globigerina ooze; and there we first saw such wonders of the deep as Holopus and Cephalodiscus and the extraordinary new abyssal Holothurians, afterwards known as Elasipoda. These—now the common-places of marine biology—were then revelations, and those of us who witnessed the discoveries in-the-making will always associate them with “‘ Challenger Murray ” as the arch-magician of the laboratory—a sort of modern scientific astrologer, bringing mysterious unknown things out of store-bottles, and then showing us how to demonstrate their true nature. [am afraid that we who are trying to inspire students with the sacred fire at the present day have no such wonders to show as those first-fruits in the early days of deep-sea research. Then between 38 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. times, while waiting for a reaction, or after work, Murray would tell us stories of the great expedition—how the first living Globigerina (Hastigerina murrayi) seen in all its glory of vesicular protoplasm expanded far beyond its tiny shell was picked up in a teaspoon from a small boat during a dead calm in mid-ocean; and how the naval officers wrote their names with their fingers in letters of fire on the phosphorescing giant Pyrosoma (over 4 feet long) as it lay on the deck at night ; how they “iced ”’ their champagne in the tropics by plunging the bottles into the trawlful of ooze just brought up from the abyss, and still retaining its abyssal low temperature; and, finally, he would sing us a most amusing song—we never knew whether he had invented it or not—about a Chinaman eating a little white dog. | A few years later, after Sir Wyville Thomson’s death in 1882, Murray had supreme control of both the collections and the editing of the Reports; and of the “ Office,” by that time moved to more commodious quarters at 32, Queen Street, which was the scene of his labours for many years, and where I for a time held the post of ‘ Assistant-Naturalist,” and saw Murray practically every day. When I first knew John Murray, although he was an older man, we were really in one respect fellow-students, as we attended together Professor Archibald Geikie’s course on Geology. One very pleasant and not the least instructive part of the course at that time was the series of geological walks personally conducted by the professor, not merely Saturday walks in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, but also longer expeditions of a week or ten days at the end of the session, to localities of special geological interest further afield, such as the Highlands or the Island of Arran. I well remember one such long excursion to the Grampian and the Cairngorm Mountains and Speyside, when we had, as somewhat senior members of the party—in addition to Professor Geikie— MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 39 Dr. Benjamin Peach and Dr. John Horne of the Geological Survey, Dr. Aitken of the University Chemical Department, Joseph Thomson the African explorer, and John Murray of the “Challenger.” The rest of us were ordinary students of Science, and you can realise how we enjoyed and profited by the conversation of these senior men, how we dogged their steps and hung upon their every word. All who ever met John Murray will readily understand that in the frequent discussions that took place between these geologists and chemists, he always took a leading and forcible part—he was nothing if not original in his views and vigorous in his language. Murray’s first paper on his theory of Coral Reefs was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 5th April, 1880, and was published in the Proceedings, Vol. X, p. 505. I well remember the occasion, and also the rehearsal which took __ place some days before in Sir Wyville Thomson’s house of —s - -— a ve SCC Bonsyde, when Murray read his MS. to a small but highly eritical audience, consisting of Sir Wyville Thomson, Sir. William Turner and myself. For months before I had daily seen Murray preparing the paper in a large room at the “Challenger Office,” sitting at his notes in the centre of a multitude of charts showing all the reefs and coral islands of tropical seas—some of the charts spread out on tables, others carpeting the floor or stacked in piles and rolls—while he measured and drew sections of the contours so as to see which reefs supported his views and which presented difficulties. His coral reef theory was a direct outcome of his “ Challenger ”’ work. The soundings had revealed the presence of volcanic elevations, and the distribution of the calcareous deposits showed how these might contribute to build up suitable plat- forms as the foundation of reefs which might grow to the surface independent of all sunken lands, such as Darwin's theory had required. It may be said that Murray demolished the supposed need of vast oceanic subsidence, which had been 40 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. felt to be a difficulty by many geologists, and showed that all types of coral reef could be accounted for without subsidence, and even in some cases along with elevation of land. Some of Murray’s friends were disappomted that his theory did not receive more serious and more immediate attention, and the then Duke of Argyll wrote a couple of articles with somewhat sensational titles—‘‘ A Great Lesson,” in the Nineteenth Century for September, 1887, and “ A Con- spiracy of Silence,” in Nature for November 17th, 1887—which gave rise to answers from some of the leading men of Science of the day, Huxley, Bonney and Judd. Murray went on his way undisturbed, collecting further evidence and publishing at intervals further papers dealing with one or another part of the large subject—such as his paper on the structure and origin of Coral Reefs in the Proceedings of the Royal Institution for 1888, his account of the Balfour Shoal in the Coral Sea (1897), a submarine elevation being built up by calcareous deposits, his “ Distribution of Pelagic Foraminifera at the surface and on the floor of the Ocean ”’ (1897), and a series of reports upon bottom deposits from the “ Blake” (1885) and many other expeditions. Later on (1896-98) Murray took a lively interest in the investigation, by a Committee of the British Association and the Royal Society, of a selected typical case, the atoll of Funafuti, one of the Ellice Group, in the South Pacific. A first expedition was sent out from this country under Professor Sollas, and then two others from Australia, under Professor Edgeworth David of Sydney, and borings were eventually obtained reaching an extreme depth of over, 1,100 feet. The core was brought home and subjected to detailed microscopic — examination, with the extraordinary result that the supporters of both rival theories find that it can be interpreted so as to support their views. The Funafuti boring cannot be said to have settled the matter. I believe the verdict at the present Se ee MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 41 _ time of most zoologists and geologists would be that whereas Darwin’s beautiful theory would certainly hold good for coral reefs growing on a sinking area, Murray’s explanation, based upon observations and ascertained facts, probably applies to many of the “ atolls’ and “barrier reefs’’ of tropical seas. But I have been led on to these more recent times by his paper of 1880. Let us now return to his work at the “ Challenger ” Office. During the last couple of years of Sir Wyville Thomson’s life, when he was more or less of an invalid, Mr. John Murray (as he then was) came gradually to take over more and more the complete charge of affairs at the “Challenger ” Office, including the distribution of the groups of animals to specialists and the editing of the volumes of reports. It was very fortunate for zoological science that such a man was on the staff, ready to take up and carry out to a successful issue the work that Sir Wyville Thomson was no longer able to continue. Murray brought to the task a complete knowledge of all that had to be done and how best to do it, along with an extraordinary amount of zeal and energy. During the years that followed, until the completion of the work, he seemed to be doing several men’s work. He was in constant communica- tion, both by correspondence and personal visits, with all the authors of Reports in various parts of Europe and America ; he had frequent dealings with the Government departments concerned in the production of the work; and all the time he was also himself investigating some of the great general problems of Oceanography. It is difficult to imagine that any other man than John Murray could have carried through all this mass of detailed and difficult work and have produced the fifty thick 4to volumes within twenty years of the return of the expedition. About five of these large volumes are the result of Murray’s own work. Along with Stafl-Commander T. H. Tizard, the late Professor H. N. Moseley, and Mr. J. Y. © Buchanan, he drew un the general “Narrative of the 42 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Expedition” ; along with the late Professor Renard he wrote the very important report upon the ‘“ Deep Sea Deposits ” | (1891), generally recognised as the authoritative work on the subject; and finally, at the conclusion of the series, he pro- duced two volumes entitled “Summary of Results” (1894), which gives an elaborate historical account of our knowledge of the sea and the development of the science of Oceanography from the earliest times to the present day, and also, in addition to complete lists of all the organisms at all the “ Challenger ” Stations, includes a discussion of many important matters, geological as well as biological, relating to the origin of our present distribution of land and water and of the ce of the marine fauna and flora of the globe. It was characteristic of him to put forward, especially in these “Summary ” volumes, views which were novel and even daring, which he believed he had evidence to support, but which a less courageous man might have kept back or expressed more cautiously. He always had the courage of his convictions. He admitted that he sometimes made mistakes, but held that the man who never made a mistake never made anything else. That was one of his obster dicta which were flymg about the “Challenger” Office, and stuck in my impressionable youth. Let me read you a passage from one of his many letters that I have and which refers to the kind of views he afterwards published in his “Summary.” It is dated 13th September, 1894, and is evidently in answer to some question I had asked as to his views on the past history of life in the sea. a I gave two papers to the R.S.E. and also said something about distribution at the British Association, but I have not yet published anything. I am now considering whether or not I will add a chapter to the last “ Challenger ” Volume, giving my. views. “I believe the continental areas are very permanent, and for instance Africa has separated marine faunas and floras ‘MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 43 longer than the time when there was a very nearly similar _ fauna at both poles. However, the faunas of the sea are now _ arranged more according to zones of temperature than by Land Barriers. The tropics extend polewards as we go down : in the geological formations till just before the Chalk there _ was a universally warm sea—from equator to poles and from top to bottom—say 80° F'.—Coral reefs once flourished at the poles. These have now been driven to equatorial regions where _ the temperature has remained nearly the above. The animals which in the universal warm sea came to live in the mud at a little depth, remained behind when cooling of the poles com- menced. These animals without pelagic free-swimming larvae also descended to the deep sea as the waters cooled. When _ the sea was all 70° or 80° F. the deep sea was not inhabited. Polar animals and deep sea animals have all a direct develop- ment (so also fresh water animals, also derived from the deeper part of the shore estuarine universal fauna). “Tt is nonsense to suppose that while the earth was developing the sun has always been the same as now. It has _ been contracting. In Chalk times it had a diameter seen from the earth equal to an angle of 10° in the heavens. This would give all the heat and light that is necessary for a great Carboni- ferous forest at the poles. ~ “You can tell me how much of this is d——d nonsense. “Yours sincerely, “Joun Murray. “ Fresh water fauna is much more archaic than deep sea.” One of the theories which he supported, and which is not now generally accepted, although he believed he had much evidence in favour of it from the “Challenger” results, was the theory of “ Bipolarity,” viz., that identical organisms were found in arctic and antarctic seas and not in intermediate waters, and that they represented the original marine fauna which at some earlier period of the earth’s history inhabited 44 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. all the oceans. This bipolarity hypothesis has been vigorously controverted, and like some other theories in Science which — have had to be abandoned, was most useful in its day as giving rise to much new investigation. A good deal of evidence against Murray’s views on bipolarity has been accumulated as the result of recent antarctic expeditions. But whether all his views are accepted or not, Ries are all very stimulating and useful, and have given rise to much investigation and discussion in the history of Oceanography. His five great volumes are a notable monument to his memory. They and the other “Challenger ’’ Reports which he edited record collectively the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the great geographical discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. We must now go back to a couple of subsidiary expeditions (1880-82) for the purpose of investigating the very remarkable conditions of temperature and fauna in the Faroe Channel. Carpenter and Wyville Thomson, during their preliminary investigations in the “ Lightning” and “ Porcupine,” had found that the Faroe Channel, between Cape Wrath and the Faroe Isles, was abruptly divided into two regions under very different conditions—a “cold” and a “warm” area. The temperature of the water to a depth of 200 fathoms is much the same in the two areas; but in the cold area to the N.E. the temperature is about 34° F. at 250 fathoms. and about 30° at the bottom in 640 fathoms, while in the warm area which stretches S.W. from the line of demarcation the temperature is 47° F'. at 250 fathoms, and 42° at the bottom in 600 fathoms. The warm area was found to have 216 species, while the cold had 217, and of these only 48 species were common to both. A consideration of the “ Challenger’ temperatures led to the conclusion that the cold and warm areas of the Faroe Channel must be separated by a very considerable submarine ridge rising to within 200 or 300 fathoms of the surface. Sir Wyville MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 45 Thomson induced the Admiralty to give the use of a surveying _ vessel for a few weeks for the purpose of sounding the Faroe Channel with a view of testing this opinion. That was the origin of the “ Knight-Errant” expedition in the summer of 1880, conducted by Captain Tizard, R.N., and Mr. John _ Murray, under the general direction of Sir Wyville Thomson, _who remained at Stornoway, in the Outer Hebrides, during _ the four traverses of the region in question. The results (Proc. _ Roy. Soc. Edin. for 1882, Vol. XI.) showed that a ridge rising to within 300 fathoms of the surface runs from the N.W. of - Scotland by the Island of N. Rona to the southern end of the _ Faroe fishing bank. ; This was followed, after the death of Sir Wyville Thomson, by a further expedition in H.M.S. “Triton,” in the _ summer of 1882, again under Murray and Tizard, which _ was very fruitful of zoological results. The discovery of two very different assemblages of animals living on the two sides _ of the Wyville Thomson ridge—arctic forms to the North and Atlantic forms to the South—gives us a notable example of the effect of the environment on the distribution of marine _ forms of life. The results of the “ Triton” expedition, written _by a number of specialists, were published in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. during the next few years—a time during which _ Murray came to occupy a more and more prominent position in the scientific world of the North. When we remember that his earlier fellow-workers and associates at the University were such men as Robertson Smith the theologian, Dittmar _ the chemist, Sir John Jackson the great contractor, and ~ Robert Louis Stevenson ; and his later friends, after the return _ of the “ Challenger,” were such men as Agassiz, Turner, Crum- ] Brown, Tait, Renard, Haeckel, Geikie, Blackie, Masson, _ Buchan, and Lord McLaren, we can understand the stimulating - intellectual atmosphere he lived and worked in and to which he doubtless contributed as much as he received. »-D 46 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. We now come to a period of great local scientific activity, when Murray exercised a notable influence in the University scientific circle and took a leading part in every new movement. He was a prominent member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and of the Scottish Meteorological and Geographical Societies, he helped to establish the Observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis, and in 1884, along with his friend Robert Irvine of Caroline Park, on the shores of the Firth of Forth, he acquired the lease of an old sandstone quarry at Granton ito which the sea had burst some thirty years before, drowning the quarry and leaving it as a land-locked sheet of sheltered deep water which rose and fell with every tide. Here he moored a large canal barge, upon which he had built a house, divided into chemical and biological laboratories, and which, for obvious reasons, he named “ The Ark.” Two little Norwegian skiffs were attached to ‘“‘ The Ark,’ one for the chemists and the other for the biologists, and on the opening day Dr. Hugh Robert Mill and I were invited to name them. He called his ‘The Asymptote ” and I named the other “ Appendicularia.” Murray ridiculed our pretentious names, and said that in a few days the one would probably be called “the Simmie,” or “ the Tottie,’’ and the other ‘‘ Dick.”’ This floating biological station, after some years’ work at Granton, was towed through the Forth and Clyde Canal to Millport on the Cumbraes, and there it was beached and remains to this day as part of the Millport Biological Station. During the period when ‘“‘ The Ark” was at Granton, and later, Murray and Irvine turned out a good deal of joint work on the Chemistry of the secretion of carbonate of lime by marine organisms, on the solution of carbonate of lime by the carbon-dioxide in sea-water, and on the chemical _ changes taking place in muds and other deposits on the sea- bottom. But, after all, his chief scientific work at this time and for years afterwards was the joint investigation at the ; . 4 { i { MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 47 “ Challenger’’ Office, of the enormous series of deposits (said to be over 12,000) which he and the Abbé Renard had accumu- lated from many expeditions and all seas. When one entered the little laboratory on the top floor of 32, Queen Street, after penetrating the dense cloud of tobacco smoke, the first thing one heard, rather than saw, was John Murray issuing some order or announcing some result, the next was the figure of the portly Abbé waving a courteous greeting with his perpetual cigar. Then there were the two Assistants, Mr. F. Pearcey, who had himself, as a boy, taken part in the great expedition, and had been retained as Assistant Curator of the collections at the “‘ Challenger” Office, and Mr. James Chumley, the Secretary. Murray and Renard were hard at. work at the microscope or at chemical reactions in test tubes over Bunsen burners, Pearcey was preparing fresh samples to be examined and Chumley was noting down results. There has probably never been in recent years such a small laboratory so poorly equipped, which has turned out such epoch-making results. Everything absolutely essential was there, but nothing in the least extravagant. The place looked, with its plain boards and deal tables and sinks, more like an overcrowded scullery than an Oceanographic laboratory. But even in his busiest years at the “ Challenger’ Office Murray never gave up wholly his work at sea. He was a good hand at “ roughing it ’’ and making the best of circumstances, and no one could have had a greater appreciation of the open- air life. The practical work that he did, more or less periodically all the year round, on the West Coast of Scotland from his little yacht ‘“‘ Medusa’ is a good example of careful planning and resolute carrying out. It seems that while working at the results of the “Challenger” and other deep-sea expeditions, it occurred to Murray that for the purpose of comparison a detailed ex- amination of the physical and biological conditions in the 48 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. fjord-like sea-lochs of the West of Scotland might yield valuable information. He accordingly built a small steam yacht of about 38 tons, called the ‘‘ Medusa,” fitted wp with all necessary apparatus for dredging and trawling and for taking deep-sea temperatures and other observations. This little vessel was, in fact, fully equipped for oceanographical investigations in the neighbourhood of land, and during the years 1884 to 1892 she was almost continuously engaged in exploring the deep sea- lochs of the Western Highlands. Various younger scientific men, such as Dr. W. E. Hoyle and Dr. H. R. Mill, were associ-. ated with Murray in this work. Considerable collections were made, some of which are now in the British Museum, and many scientific papers contributed to various journals have resulted from the periodic cruises of the ‘“ Medusa.” One result was the discovery in the deeper waters of Loch Ktive and Upper Loch Fyne of the remnants of an arctic fauna. _ From time to time during these researches in the sea-lochs the “‘ Medusa”’ penetrated to the fresh-water lochs, such as Loch Lochie and Loch Ness, which are united by the Caledonian Canal, and Murray was greatly impressed by the differences — in the physical and biological conditions between the salt and the fresh water lochs. This observation seems to have led to another of Murray’s scientific activities, namely, the bathy- metrical survey of the fresh water lochs of Scotland, undertaken . between the years 1897 and 1909. It was already known that, like some of the salt water fjords outside, certain of these fresh © water lochs are of surprising depth. For example, 175 fathoms had been recorded by Buchanan in Loch Morar, and Murray subsequently running a line of soundings along this loch found at one spot a depth of 180 fathoms. . The survey was undertaken at first in collaboration with his young friend, Mr. Frederick P. Pullar, who was drowned in a gallant attempt to save the lives of others in a skating accident on Loch Airthrey in 1901. The results of the Lake MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 49 _ Survey were published in a series of six volumes (Edinburgh, 1910), edited by Sir John Murray and Mr. Lawrence Pullar, and dedicated to the memory of Mr. F. P. Pullar, who had done much to initiate and promote the investigation in its - earlier stages. The work dealt with the determination of the depths of the lakes and of the general form of the basins they occupy, _ along with observations in other branches of limnography _ from the topographical, geological, physical, chemical and biological points of view. Some important novel investigations, such as those on the temperature seiche and variations in the viscosity of the water with temperature, help to throw light on some oceanographical problems. In fact, the whole investiga- tion, containing 60,000 soundings taken in 562 lakes, resulted in very substantial contributions to knowledge, and is probably the most complete account of the depths and other physical features of lakes that has been published in any country. It cannot be said that Murray ever finished his work on the West Coast of Scotland, and I have evidence in a letter that he wrote to me late in life that he still thought of returning to the work. The passage is worth quoting, both for its scientific interest and for the kindly consideration which it shows. It is dated 20th May, 1913, less than a year before his death :— 9) I am seriously thinking of overhauling all the ‘Medusa’ work on the West Coast, and repeating a lot of these old observations for two years or more; then pub- lishing a book on the lochs of the West Coast. Would that _ in any way interfere with your work? I am being pressed by the Clyde people to do something of the kind. “ Could I afford it at present, I would be off to the Pacific in a Diesel-engined ship !!” fi During the years when he was working at the “ Challenger ” results and subsequently, Murray published many papers in the Geographical Journal and in the Scottish Geographical 50 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Magazine and elsewhere, which deal with world-wide questions in Oceanography or in Physical Geography, such as the annual rainfall of the globe and its relation to the discharge of rivers, the effects of winds on the distribution of temperature in lochs, the annual range of temperature in the surface waters of the ocean, and the temperature of the floor of the ocean, on the height of the land and the depth of the ocean (1888), and on the depths, temperatures and marine deposits of the South Pacific Ocean (1906). j In 1897 Dr. John Murray (as he then was) formally opened — the present Biological Station at Millport and the associated Robertson Museum, and delivered an address on the marine biology of the Clyde district. He continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of this West Coast Biological Station, and frequently looked in there with scientific friends when on his cruises in the “ Medusa.” I recollect, for example, an occasion, when after dredging in Loch Fyne, we ran to Millport for the night, and the party mcluded Canon Norman, old Dr. David Robertson, Haeckel and the late Mr. Isaac Thompson, of this Society. He frequently had foreign men of science as his guests, and was, I think, especially friendly with the Scandinavians, such as Nansen, Hjort, Otto Pettersson the Swede, and C. G. Joh. Petersen the Dane. Murray’s oceanographic work was not limited to any particular region or special series of problems, but was world- wide, both in extent and subject matter. He was a great traveller, and had probably personally explored more of the oceanic waters of the globe than any other man. He had ranged from Spitzbergen in the North to the Antarctic Ice- barrier, dredging, trawling, tow-netting and sampling the waters and bottom deposits in every possible way. Even when travelling as an ordinary passenger on a liner, he would engage emigrants in the steerage to pump water daily from the sea through his silk nets, or would arrange with a bath-steward MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 51 _ to let the sea-water tap run through his net day and night in _ order that he might have living plankton to examine. Murray was not only an investigator of special problems, _ but we owe to him much synthetic work, in which he gathered together the results of many observations and put them in the form of short conclusions or statistical statements. Some of these were published in the form of useful maps and charts, _ such, for example, as the map showing the 57 “ deeps,” or _ parts of the ocean in which soundings of over 3,000 fathoms have been obtained. Most of these deeps (32) are in the Pacific, including the deepest soundings of all, which extend down to over six English miles. At the meeting of the British Association held at Ipswich q in September, 1895, a meeting of contributors to the “Challenger ” Reports was held, at which the then President of the Zoological Section (W. A. Herdman) presided, and about fifty biologists or oceanographers, either attended or wrote expressing their concurrence in the objects of the meeting. It was then proposed and resolved “that this q meeting of those who have taken part in the production of the _ ‘Challenger’ Reports agrees to signalise the completion of _ the series by offering congratulations in some appropriate form to Dr. John Murray.” Eventually this congratulatory offering took the form of an address in an album, containing the portraits and autographs of all the ‘‘ Challenger ’”’ workers, with an illuminated cover and dedicatory design by Walter Crane. This book was afterwards reproduced for the con- tributors in the form of a thin quarto volume, which forms a _ very interesting record of the completion of the work con- nected with the “ Challenger” expedition. . Dr. Murray himself provided a very pleasing memento _ of the conclusion of the great work by having a handsome ~ medal designed and struck, an example of which was presented to each of the authors of “ Challenger’ Reports. The medal 52 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. in a bronze alloy, measures 75 mm. in diameter, and shows on the obverse the head of Minerva encircled by Mermaids, a dolphin and Neptune holding in his left hand the trident, and in his right the Naturalists’ dredge, with the legend ““ Voyage of H.MLS. ‘ Challenger,’ 1872-76” ; and on the reverse an armoured knight casting down his gauntlet in challenge to the waters—being the crest of H.M.S. “ Challenger °—with Portrait of Dr. John Murray, from the “Challenger” Album. the legend, “ Report on the scientific results of the ‘ Challenger ’ Expedition, 1886-95.” The name of the recipient of the medal is engraved on the lower margin. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 53 After Sir Wyville Thomson’s death, when Murray came to be recognised by the scientific world as the moving spirit in connection with all the ‘‘ Challenger’ work, and especially when the great series of publications was completed, honours of all kinds came pouring in upon him—for which he probably cared little. He was an honorary doctor of many Universities— including our own here—he was awarded the “ prix Cuvier ” medal by the Paris Academy of Sciences, and he was created K.C.B. in 1898. He gave the Lowell lectures at Boston in 1899, and again in 1911. He was chief British Delegate at the International Congress for the Exploration of the Sea, at Stockholm, in 1899. He was President of the Geographical Section of the British Association in the same year; and it is an open secret that he might have been President of the Association had he been able to undertake it. He was approached no less than three times in connection with three different meetings (two of them overseas meetings, at which it was felt that a man of world-wide associations, such as Murray, would be singularly appropriate), but after some hesitation and careful consideration he felt that circumstances compelled him to decline the honour. Some of his letters to me, from which I quote a few passages, allude to these offers. This is a letter from Mentone, on Ist April, 1904, referring to the first of these occasions :— fs At first, I said it was impossible to alter our family and other arrangements so as to go to South Africa To my astonishment my wife seems taken with the idea of going to the Cape, and says it is by no means impossible to alter our arrangements. I’ve promised to think over the matter for a week. I'll let you know definitely a day or two after I reach Edinburgh. “T feel that you are predisposed to honour me, but I also feel I have given the Association very little of my attention : others have more claims on the honour. I don’t care a bit 54 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. about it. If I consult my own feelings I would much rather have nothing to do with it. My wife suggests there may be — some question of duty. Perhaps? I had not heard you had taken on the General Secretaryship.”’ ; In a letter from Boston, U.S.A., he writes on 20th March, 1911 :— | *: On ‘Saturday I received your letter of the 3rd March. By same post had letters from Geikie and Bonney. Had I been at home I would of course have seen you before sending any reply, but I am not likely to be in England before June. ““. . . To-morrow I deliver the Agassiz address at Harvard. I came over for that address, but have been let in for the Lowell lectures (eight) and addresses here [Boston], Princeton, New York and Washington. We go to Washington next month | “ During the last two days I’ve had frequent deliberations with my wife and daughter, who are with me, and the only way out seemed tobe to decline the nomimation. For some time past I have been planning a cruise as far as the Pacific during 1912 and 1913, and I have made a good many business and domestic arrangements with that object in view. It must take place in these years or not at all, and if my health be good I cannot well withdraw. | “T know your enthusiastic nature and your too favourable - opinion of my poor labours. I know you like to do me honour. For these reasons I very much regret the nature of the cables I have just sent off to you, Bonney and Geikie. I am anxious to do anything to assist the progress of Oceanography, but I fear my Presidentship of the British Association would not do much in that direction. However, itis very good and nice of you to say you think it would. I find many enthusiastic young workers here, and I believe there will likely be a ship fitted out for a deep sea expedition in 1912. They wish to consult MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. : 55 me at Washington and New York about this. Townsend is _ now away in the ‘Albatross,’ off the Pacific coast. They invited me to go with them, also to go to the ee Station, __ where some very interesting work is going on.’ This further letter refers to the same occasion. It is fain Washington, D.C., 19th April, 1911 :— “«. . . I duly received your letter of the 20th. I have not replied at once, especially as I had written to you when I sent off my cable, and I had also cabled and written to Bonney and Geikie. I have not changed my mind about the Presidency. I cannot see my way to accept. I am very sorry, for I would willingly do very much to please you and my other friends on _ the Council. I also believe that some scientific man less known locally would be more agreeable to the Dundee people. “You will see from the enclosed cutting that they have been domg us much honour here. There was a dinner in our honour last week, about seventy-five scientific men here and their wives. The British Ambassador and his wife were present. Taft accepted, but sent an excuse at the last minute. t We go to Philadelphia to-morrow to meetings of Bigiadélphia Academy. Then to New York. Osborn is to have 14 millionaires to hear me at the Museum as to what they should do for the study of the Ocean!! May it have some effect ! “On the 26th we start for the West to see rocks and mines in Nevada. We sail from Boston on the 30th May. ** With my very best thanks to you for all your endeavours to honour me, and to cultivate an interest in Oceanography.” The following letter of 12th November, 1912, refers to the final occasion. He was killed before the meeting in question took place :— q ii I shall not refuse at once. [ll consult with my wife. All the same I do not think it is the sort of thing for a man over seventy. I’m very well just now—have been for 56 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the past three months shooting over the moors nearly every day ! Some people say even that I am a wonder! but who can tell what I'll be like in two years. Men over seventy years are likely to break down, then what a nuisance I would be to everyone ! “TI would, of course, appreciate the honour, but honours are not worth much to an old man. The only question would be, a real service to Science, and would it be a duty. At my age it can hardly be a duty. I have no message to give to the world!! I honestly think some young scientific man would — do the trick very much better. Pll consider it. Pll be in London, | _ Piccadilly Hotel, the first ten days of December, and could perhaps see you. “TI really very much appreciate your desire to honour me. It is really very good of you. It is not quite out of the possible that I may be in the Pacific in 1914 in a boat of my own. I would have been there now had the cost not been much greater than I, at first, calculated.” At the inauguration of the new Zoological Laboratories of the University of Liverpool in November, 1905, Sir John Murray was one of the honoured guests of the University, and after the formal opening by the Earl of Onslow, Sir John gave a short address upon Oceanography, the first lecture to be delivered in the Zoology lecture theatre of the University. A few years later, in 1907, the University conferred upon him the Honorary degree of Doctor of Science. We now come to Sir John Murray’s last great scientific expedition—a four months’ cruise in the North Atlantic, in the summer of 1910—a very notable achievement for a man in his seventieth year. The investigating steamer “ Michael Sars,” was built by the Norwegian Government in 1900, on the lines of a large high-class trawler of about 226 tons, but specially fitted out for scientific work under the direction of MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 5e -Murray’s friend, Dr. Johan Hjort. At Murray’s request this vessel was lent, with her crew and equipment, by the Norwegian Government for the North Atlantic cruise, Sir John Murray undertaking to pay all the expenses. The scientific reports on the Expedition will be published im a series of volumes by ‘the Bergen Museum; but the more general results have appeared in popular form in a volume entitled, ““ The Depths of the Ocean” (Macmillan, 1912), by Murray and Hjort, with _ contributions by several other naturalists, which gives a con- densed account of the modern science of Oceanography, with special chapters on the latest discoveries, based largely upon _ the experiences of this North Atlantic cruise taken along with _the previous cruises of the “ Michael Sars” in the Norwegian Seas. 4 Amongst noteworthy matters that are discussed in this _ yolume we find :— (1) Methods of plankton collecting, including the towing _of.as many as 10 large horizontal nets, at various depths, simultaneously. The pelagic plants collected, either in the nets or by centrifuging the water, are discussed in a notable - chapter by Gran. 4 (2) The “ Mud-line,”’ a favourite subject with Murray, as being the great feeding-ground of the ocean. He places it at an _ average depth of 100 fathoms, on the edge of the ‘‘ Continental- shelf,” at the top of the “ Continental-slope,’ which descends more or less precipitately to the floor of the Atlantic at an ] average depth of 2,000 fathoms. We know from Murray’s _ careful estimations that, if all the elevations of the globe were ‘filled into the depressions, we should have a smooth sphere covered by an ocean 1,450 fathoms deep. The floor of this ocean is the “ mean sphere level.”’ (3) Dr. Helland-Hansen, the physicist on board the “Michael Sars,” had devised a new form of photometer, which registered light as far down as 500 fms. in the Sargasso Sea. At between 800 and 900 fms., however, no trace of light 58 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. \ was registered on the photographic plates, even after two — hours’ exposure. The observations show that light in con- siderable quantity penetrates to a depth of at least 1,000 metres, which is much deeper than had been previously supposed. It was shown that the red rays of light are those that disappear first and the ultra violet are those that penetrate most deeply. (4) A special study was made on the “ Michael Sars” of the characteristic colour of the fishes in various zones of depth. In the superficial layers of the ocean small colourless or transparent forms abound, forming a part of the well-known pelagic fauna. Below this, at an average depth of about 200 fms., are found fishes of a silvery and greyish hue, along with red-coloured Crustaceans. At depths of from 500 fms. down- wards black fishes make their appearance, still associated with red Crustaceans and other strongly coloured red, brown, or black Invertebrates. This chapter is illustrated by some beautiful coloured plates of the fishes. (5) Lastly, the “ Michael Sars” got important evidence in support of the view that the fresh-water eel spawns South of the Azores, and that the larvae are carried by currents back to the coasts of North-west Europe. In 1913 Murray published in the Home University Library a small book of about 250 pages, entitled “The Ocean, a general account of the Science of the Sea,’ which is undoubtedly the most concise and accurate and, so far as is possible within its small compass, complete account that has yet appeared of all that pertains to the scientific investigation of the sea. It is written in simple language for the general reader, and 1s probably the best introduction to Oceanography that can be recommended to the junior student or the intelligent non- specialist enquirer who desires information merely as a matter of general culture. It deals with the history, methods and instruments of marine research, the depths and physical characters of the Ocean, the circulation of the waters, life in MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 59 the Ocean, submarine deposits, and finally the nature and relations of the various “ Geospheres’’ that constitute the globe. Coloured maps and plates illustrate depths, salinities, temperatures, currents, deposits and many of the characteristic plants and animals of the plankton and of the “oozes.” As Murray’s final contribution to Science it is an appropriate summary of his life-work, and will do much to spread the knowledge of his discoveries and to make his name widely known amongst intelligent readers of popular works on Science. If I try now to give you a personal impression of John Murray as I remember him in earlier life, I picture him as a short, thick-set, broad shouldered man, with a finely-shaped head and very forcible-looking blue eyes, under rather shaggy eye-brows. His hair was fair, somewhat reddish on the whiskers and moustache. Later in life, when his hair was turning white, he wore a closely-clipped beard. It was a strong, determined- looking face, with those arresting eyes, making him a noticeable and dominant figure in any assembly. But the eyes could dance with fun on occasions, and his good Scots tongue was kindly as well as outspoken. He remained sturdy and energetic to the last, although he was 73 years of age a few days before the motor accident in which he was instantaneously killed on March 16th, 1914. John Murray was a man of upright character and of downright speech. He was apt to tell you what he thought of you, or anyone else, in plain and emphatic language without fear or favour. Some people of more conventional habits may have been shocked or offended at times; but the better one knew him the more one came to appreciate and admire his transparent honesty of thought and speech, his most uncommon “common-sense,” his purity of motive and directness of purpose and his genuine kindness and goodheartedness, especially to all the young scientific men who worked with 60 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. or under him and whom he in large measure tramed. He was absolutely free from all guile and humbug of any kind, and had — no sympathy with intrigue or vacillation. I may appropriately conclude this short account of John Murray’s life and work with a few sentences quoted from an appreciation (Nature, 1914, p. 89) by his old friend, and former teacher, Sir Archibald Geikie :-— “Sir John Murray’s devotion to science and his sagacity in following out the branches of inquiry which he resolved to pursue, were not more conspicuous than his warm sympathy with every line of investigation that seemed to promise further discoveries. He was an eminently broad-minded naturalist to whom the whole wide domain of Nature was of interest. Full of originality and suggestiveness, he not only struck out into new paths for himself, but pointed them out to others, especially to younger men, whom he encouraged and assisted. His genial nature, his sense of humour, his generous helpfulness, and a certain delightful boyishness which he retained to the last endeared him to a wide circle of friends who will long miss his kindly and cheery presence.” MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 61 APPENDIX B. THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE (1917). His Excettency THE Ricut Hon. Lorp Raguan, Lieut.- Governor of the Isle of Man. Mr. W. J. Hats, Liverpool. Pror. W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Liverpool. Chairman of the L.M.B.C., and Hon. Director of the Biological Station. Mr. P. M. C. Kermopz, Ramsey, Isle of Man. Pror. BENJAMIN Moore, F.R.S., London. Sie Cuartes Perrin, Liverpool. Mr. E. Tuompson, Liverpool, Hon. Treasurer. Mr. A. O. Waker, F.L.S., J.P., formerly of Chester. z. ARNOLD T. Watson, F.L.S., Sheffield. Curator of the Station—Mr. H. C. Cuapwick, A.L.S. Assistant—Mr. T. N. CREGEEN. 62 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. CONSTITUTION OF THE L.M.B.C. (Established March, 1885.) I.—The Ossecr of the L.M.B.C. is to investigate the © Marine Fauna and Flora (and any related subjects such as — subiiarine geology and the physical condition of the water) of — Liverpool Bay and the neighbouring parts of the Irish Sea and, — if practicable, to establish and maintain a Biological Station on — some convenient part of the coast. i I].—The Commitree shall consist of not more than 12 © and not less than 10 members, of whom 3 shall form a quorum ; ! and a meeting shall be called at least once a year for the purpose of arranging the Annual Report, passing the Treasurer’s — accounts, and transacting any other necessary business. " III.—During the year the Arratrs of the Committee shall | be conducted by an Hon. Director, who shall be Chairman of the Committee, and an Hon. TREasurER, both of whom shall — be appointed at the Annual udiiaiic: and — be eligible for | re-election. 1 IV.—Any Vacancrzs on the Committee, caused by death — or resignation, shall be filled by the election at the Annual ~ Meeting of those who, by their work on the Marine Biology of | the district, or by their sympathy with science, seem best fitted i to help in advancing the work of the Committee. : V.—The Expenses of the investigations, of the publication — of results, and of the maintenance of the Biological Station — shall be defrayed by the Committee, who, for this purpose, | shall ask for subscriptions or donations from the public, and for | grants from scientific funds. q VI.—The Brotogicat Station shall be used primarily for © the Exploring work of the Committee, and the SPECIMENS ~ collected shall, so far as is necessary, be placed in the first q MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 63 | instance at the disposal of the members of the Committee and | other specialists who are reporting upon groups of organisms ; work places in the Biological Station may, however, be rented by the week, month, or year to students and others, and duplicate specimens which, in the opinion of the Committee, can be spared may be sold to museums and laboratories. LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. GENERAL REGULATIONS. I.—This Biological Station is under the control of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, the executive of which consists of the Hon. Director (Prof. Herdman, F'.R.S.) and the Hon. Treasurer (Mr. E. Thompson). II.—In the absence of the Director, and of all other members of the Committee, the Station is under the temporary control of the Resident Curator (Mr. H. C. Chadwick), who will keep the keys, and will decide, in the event of any difficulty, which places are to be occupied by workers, and how the tanks, boats, collecting apparatus, &c., are to be employed. IJI.—The Resident Curator will be ready at all reasonable hours and within reasonable limits to give assistance to workers at the Station, and to do his best to supply them with material for their investigations. IV.—Visitors will be admitted, on payment of a small specified charge, at fixed hours, to see the Aquarium and Museum adjoining the Station. Occasional public lectures are given in the Institution by members of the Committee. V.—Those who are entitled to work in the Station, when 64 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY there is room, and after formal application to the Director, are :—(1) Annual Subscribers of one guinea or upwards to the funds. (each guinea subscribed entitling to the use of a work place for three weeks), and (2) others who are not annual subscribers, but who pay the Treasurer 10s. per week for the accommodation and privileges. Institutions, such as Univer- sities and Museums, may become subscribers in order that a work place may be at the disposal of their students or staff for a certain period annually; a subscription of two guineas will secure a work place for six weeks in the year, a subscription of five guineas for four months, and a subscription of £10 for the whole year. VI.—Each worker is entitled to a work place opposite a window in the Laboratory, and may make use of the micro- scopes and other apparatus, and of the boats, dredges, tow-nets, &c., so far as is compatible with the claims of other workers, and with the routine work of the Station. VII.—Each worker will be allowed to use one pint of methylated spirit per week free. Any further amount required must be paid for. All dishes, jars, bottles, tubes, and other glass may be used freely, but must not be taken away from the Laboratory. Workers desirous of making, preserving, or taking away collections of marine animals and plants, can make special arrangements with the Director or Treasurer in regard to bottles and preservatives. Although workers in the Station are free to make their own collections at Port Erin, it must be clearly understood that (as in other Biological Stations) no_ specimens must be taken for such purposes from the Laboratory stock, nor from the Aquarium tanks, nor from the steam-boat dredging expeditions, as these specimens are the property of the Committee. The specimens in the Laboratory stock are pre- served for sale, the animals in the tanks are for the instruction of visitors to the Aquarium, and as all the expenses of steam- boat dredging expeditions are defrayed by the Committee, the ( + i . j MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 65 specimens obtained on these occasions must be retained by the _ Committee (a) for the use of the specialists working at the Fauna of Liverpool Bay, (6) to replenish the tanks, and (ce) to add to the stock of duplicate animals for sale from the Laboratory. VIII.—EKach worker at the Station is expected to prepare a short report upon his work—not necessarily for publication— to be forwarded to Prof. Herdman before the end of the year for notice, if desirable, in the Annual Report. IX.—All subscriptions, payments, and other communica- tions relating to finance, should be sent to the Hon. Treasurer. Applications for permission to work at the Station, or for specimens, or any communications in regard to the scientific work should be made to Professor Herdman, F.R.S., University, Liverpool. MEMORANDA FOR STUDENTS AND OTHERS WORKING AT THE Port ERIN BIOLOGICAL STATION. Post-graduate students and others carrying on research will be accommodated in the small work-rooms of the ground floor laboratory and in those on the upper floor of the new research wing. Some of these little rooms have space for two persons who are working together, but researchers who require more space for apparatus or experiments will, so far as the accommodation allows, be given rooms to themselves. Undergraduate students working as members of a class will occupy the large laboratory on the upper floor or the front museum gallery, and it is very desirable that these students should keep to regular hours of work. As a rule, it is not expected that they should devote the whole of each day to work in the laboratory, but should rather, when tides are suitable, spend a portion at least of either forenoon or afternoon on the sea-shore collecting and observing. 66 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Occasional collecting expeditions are arranged under guidance either on the sea-shore or out at sea, and all under- graduate workers should make a point of taking part in these. It is desirable that students should also occasionally take plankton gatherings in the bay for examination in the living state, and boats are provided for this purpose at the expense of the Biological Station to a reasonable extent. Students desiring to obtain a boat for such a purpose must apply to the Curator at the Laboratory for a boat voucher. Boats for pleasure trips are not supplied by the Biological Station, but must be provided by those who desire them at their own expense. ‘Students requiring any apparatus, glass-ware or chemicals from the’store-room must apply to the Curator. Although the Committee keep a few microscopes at the Biological Station, these are mainly required for the use of the staff or for general demonstration purposes. Students are therefore strongly advised, especially during University vacations, not to rely upon being able to obtain a suitable microscope, but ought if possible to bring their own instruments. Students are advised to provide themselves upon arrival with the “ Guide to the Aquarium ” (price 3d.), and should each also buy a copy of the set of Local Maps (price 2d.) upon which to insert their faunistic records and other notes. Occasional evening meetings in the Biological Station for lecture and demonstration purposes will be arranged from time to time. Apart from these, it is generally not advisable that students should come back to work in the laboratory in the evening ; and in all cases all lights will be put out and doors locked at 10 p.m. When the institution is closed, the key can be obtained, by those who have a valid reason for entering the building, only on personal application to Mr. sare the Curator, at 3, Rowany Terrace. : MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 67 _ REGULATIONS OF THE EDWARD FORBES EXHIBITION. _ [Extracted from the Calendar of the University of Liverpool for the Session 1915-16, p. 438.] “EDWARD ForBES EXHIBITION. | “Founded in the year 1915 by Professor W. A. Herdman, 7 D.S8c., F.R.S., to commemorate the late Edward Forbes, the eminent Manx Naturalist (1815-1854), Professor of Natural _ History in the University of Edinburgh, and a pioneer in Oceanographical research. The Regulations are as follows :— (1) The interest of the capital, £100, shall be applied to _ establish an Exhibition which shall be awarded annually. (2) The Exhibitioner shall be a post graduate student of the University of Liverpool, or, in default of such, a post-graduate student of another University, qualified and _ willing to carry on researches in the Manx seas at the Liverpool _ Marine Biological Station at Port Erin, in continuation of the Marine Biological work in which Edward Forbes was a pioneer. (3) Candidates must apply in writing to the Registrar, ; on or before 1st February. (4) Nomination to the Exhibition shall be made by the Faculty of Science on the recommendation of the Professor — of Zoology. | (5) The plan of work proposed by the Exhibitioner shall be subject to the approval of the Professor of Zoology. 68 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. (6) Should no award be made in any year, the income shall be either added to the capital of the fund, or shall be applied in such a way as the Council, on the recommendation of the Faculty of Science, may determine. (7) The Council shall have power to amend the foregoing Regulations, with the consent of the donor, during his life- time, and afterwards absolutely; provided, however, that the name of Edward Forbes shall always be associated with the Exhibition, and that the capital and interest of the fund shall always be used to promote the study of Marine Biology.” fe € EDWARD ForsBres EXHIBITIONERS. 1915 Ruth C. Bamber, M.Sc. , 1916 K. L. Gleave, M.Sc. 1917 ©. M. P. Stafford, B.Sc. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 69 APPENDIX C. HON. TREASURER’S STATEMENT. The Balance Sheet and List.of Subscribers are shown on the following pages. There is, unfortunately, a debit balance, due to the fact that the expenses have unavoidably increased and the receipts are rather less than previously. It is to be regretted also that the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries did not see their way this year to grant a further sum for research work. There is, however, still a balance in hand for this purpose, so this work will be carried on as usual next year. It is to be hoped that there will be increased support, either by special donations or by annual subscriptions, to enable the Committee to open up further fields of useful work and research, which are even more important now than they have ever been. Epwin 'T'Hompson, Hon. Treasurer 25, Sefton Drive, Liverpool. December 18th, 1917 70 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SUBSCRIBERS. Browne, Edward T., M.A., Anglefield, Berkhamsted, ietee at) Brunner, Mond & Co., eee Brunner, Rt. Hon, Sir John, Bae Silverlands, Chertsey Brunner, J. F. L., M.P., 43, Harrington Gaia London, S.W. sep Brunner, Roscoe, Belmont Hall, Notaeih Clubb, Dr. J. A., Public Museums, Liverpool Dale, Sir Alfred, University, Liverpool Dixon-Nuttall, F. R., J.P., F.R.M.S., Prescot Gibson, Prof. R. J. Harvey, The aa Liverpool Graveley, F'. H., Indian Minecaet ‘Caen Halls, W. J., 35, Lord-street, Liverpool ... f Herdman, Prof., .R.S., University, Liverpool . Hewitt, David B., J.P., Northwich Hickson, Prof., F.R.S., University, Manohaveem Holt, Dr. Alfred, Dowsefield, Allerton © Holt, Mrs., Sudley, Mossley Hill, Liverpool Isle of Man Natural History Society Jarmay, Gustav, Hartford, Cheshire : Livingston, Charles, 16, Brunswick-st., Liverpool Manchester Microscopical Society... Meade-King, R. R., Tower ae eee Mond, R., Sevenoaks, Kent.. By. : Monks, F. W., Warrington... seis Muspratt, Dr. H. K., Seaforth Hall, ierrerpoe! @ Connell) Drie Ey as Heathfield- 1 Liverpool ss Forward BS (Fe >) = NS oa So pe So ON oAGHeY KF KF NH NRF FF YH OF en =) on & ole, => pelo, eae Me BPRrEDPDNORF NY HE CoO om) Sr owe OO 2:S,2o o o Oo Oo 6. oc = =) ee MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 71 TBS: at Forward.. 42 15 0O Petrie, Sir praee Ivy Lodge, Aigburth, tite fie O Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston . HO Rathbone, Mrs., Green Bank, Allerton, ae § LO 0 Roberts, Mrs. Isaac, Thomery, 8. et M., France... die sia | Robinson, Miss M. E., Holmfield, Aigburth, L'pool fk OF Smith, A. T., 43, Castle-street, Liverpool... V Lied Tate, Sir W. H., Woolton, Liverpool ae 2 2 0 Thompson, Edwin, 25, Sefton Drive, Liverpool ... bial ea Thornely, Miss, Nunclose, Grassendale ... Q; 10: 20 Thornely, Miss L. R., Nunclose, Grassendale 2 tg Toll, J. M., 49, Newsham-drive, Liverpool A They Walker, Alfred O., Uleombe Place, Maidstone a ary Ward, Dr. Francis, 20, Park Road, Ipswich yee ae Watson, A. T., Tapton-crescent Road, Sheffield . ty LO Whitley, Edward, The Holt, Linton-road, Oxford oF 4a" £0 Yates, Harry, 75, Shudehill, Manchester ... 1) tgere £65 4 0O Deduct Subscriptions still unpaid less old Subscriptions received ... a ark: 6.6 28 £58 18 0 SUBSCRIPTIONS FOR THE Hrke oF ‘‘ WorkK-TABLEs.”’ Victoria University, Manchester ... és to SIG, OTD University, Liverpool in es Fe see | Oe O University, Birmingham ... - ie 3.4, BON. Ovlt £30 0 0 TT 8 98tF T *% 9G ‘++ eangrpuaed xq FIOM YOIvosey sowoysiaT 0) eT GPG OOo eee rr rece veevesseese eee OI6L ‘requie0eq, eouvleq — UNOdOY selleyst yg pu ornqnousy jo prvog 6 F LEF YITET ‘roqutooog 4¥ sv ‘soueleg—:. pun, uoIsusyxq T O S8IF “"**** 9T6T ‘19quIe00q 4¥ sv ‘oouvTeq—pun,q alouTETy TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. "£I6L ‘YIGT saquacveaq “IOoodaMAr'y ‘syUBJUNOOOW poreqreyO ‘aHHLVAT % MOOD 490.1409 DUNO{ pun pazipny “HHH OSVaAU YT, ‘NOP, ‘NOSdNOHL NIMGH ‘pred Aq[ny qovo TF Solvyg 06 “OD eSNOF oqnd s,UVUlyIoAA YSZ —: puny peyseauy poemopug L ¥ P8TF TE TL 8k 4“ LT6T ‘tequteoeq ‘ternsvery, onp sourreg ‘* SS - FI LT ntalarelelsib piaininieta cine Be. aieraarevoic ciate Gypdratnniore aisle ste qsoroquy yueg 66 f FI ¢ COC Ceres eee SEO OH Dede Oe eee roe Eee EEE ene eee Deeeeeeee selipung ce Il 81 eI Boece sere rec eenesereresecscece doy) ‘sueuttoedg 66 66 0, 0c Cece eres ces essecesseens 8,JUB4SISSy 66 6c 6e “7 TI 4 Se ee aE a YC) qSOg pue sopmy jo a[eg 6 0 0 cg Cee eee eee eee eresesvesnssces S,10yV8Ing jo e1eyg—Areyes 66 0 0 og ee pung (968T) WOlyBIoossy ystqag 0 qser0qUuyT 6c IT S fF COP Oe meee eee eee ees esseessesece ey.) ‘aselqleg ‘oseqsog 66 0 0 Og Slaisininlalerelatqcars le/hiavelete aio eiatuinioniatoievets cidisie ., S148, FIO AA + 0 9 FL CRS SO sore ee eee ees eset eeeseenssseeee mu01ye4g [Bolso[org” JO OI LOJ SOLJISTOATUL, UWOIJ poeAtooor qunoury ‘ Ula tog 48 soddng pue snyereddy ‘syoog “ 0 ST gg PR AO peateoar suolyeuocy pue suorjdtzosqng a 0 eT 7 Cee eee eee Hee Ded E eH see eee eer eseeeesereneneneeeseeene ellAy 4voq 66 P OT OL Cee cercecccceccene 9T6L ‘requle0eq ‘puey utr eourled kg P L GG : COP e ee eer ere aseseseeserdeoesons AI@uOTyeIG pue suudg OL Ds F “LTGT ps F “AT6T "1D ‘aHUASvVadT, “NOH ‘NOSGTNOHL NIMC HIM LNNODDW NT 1G ~ ‘AULLINNOO ADOTOIA ANIVVN TOOCUHAIT AHL 73 PREPORT ON THE INVESTIGATIONS CARRIED / ON DURING 1917 IN CONNECTION WITH THE _ LANCASHIRE SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL, AND THE SEA-FISH HATCHERY AT PIEL, NEAR BARROW. EDITED BY Proressor W. A. HeErpman, F.R.S., Honorary Director of the Scientific Work. . CONTENTS. PAGE 1. Introduction oe - a e ar ) 998) )) ssn eG eae 3 Totals ...|1,004| 834 | 911 {1,083 |1,130| 936 | 819 | 863 /|1,051| 552 | 624 | 524 At first sight the figures above might be thought to lead to the conclusion that the periwinkle industry of Barrow Channel is suffering a serious decline. If the pre-_ vailing conditions now and the present day results be taken into account and. compared with the pre-war figures, it will be seen that there is really a marked increase in the output per man. The mean annual man average during the nine years 1906-1914 was slightly under six tons. The results of the year SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 83 1914 are included in this period as the most important season of the fishery was over before the reduced man-power could have noticeable effect. The three men who have carried on the industry since the beginning of 1915 to the end of 1917 have raised the mean annual man average to almost nine and a half tons. They also took an active part in the valuable stake-net plaice fishery at Roosebeck in the autumn 1916. This fishery reached its maximum in October, and came to an end through bad weather which also affected the collection of periwinkles in the last quarter of the year. One of the three men found temporary employment in November and December, 1917, repairing the breakwater connecting Foulney Island with the railway embankment. The other two at the same time engaged in line fishing for small cod, which were more remunerative than the periwinkles. The quantity of periwinkles sent away from Piel Station in December, 1917, was only threecwts. This is the smallest amount in the whole twelve years. This marked reduction is not due to a decline in the number of periwinkles present in the area. It is simply because they were not fished. It is probable that the same thing is taking place in the other minor inshore fisheries along our coast. The annual statistics in some cases may show a reduction when compared with pre- war results, but one must be certain that the man-power has not suffered depletion before we can say that there is a real decline. If the results could be analysed we would very likely find that the fishermen remaining at work are getting more fish and shell-fish per man than they did in the past. In the cases where the bare figures show a decline there may really be an increase per man, as in the Barrow Channel periwinkle industry. Much will depend upon trade conditions after the war is over whether the men will return to their outdoor life and take up the periwinkle fishery again. The work may appear hard and monotonous to the ordinary observer, but the expert fisher- man does not consider it so. It is probably not much harder 84 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. than cockle gathering, and the price per bag even in peace days was higher than was obtained for cockles. The expert peri- winkle collector can easily obtain half a bag per tide. Many of them collected three-fourths of a bag before the returning tide drove them home. The periwinkle fisherman was able to live very comfortably in pre-war times on the income from his periwinkles, fish, fishmg parties and market garden. He was probably better off on the whole than many of the workers in large factories where well defined hours are the custom, at any rate he was perfectly satisfied and had no desire to change his occupation till war restrictions compelled him. SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 85 THE DIETETIC VALUE OF THE HERRING. (With SpeecrAL REFERENCE TO THE MANX SUMMER pe FISHERY.) By Jas. Jounstone, D.Sc. CoNTENTS. PAGE 1. Introduction “ee bt ue Se ee 4a =a es 85 2. Methods . zi ds re: pit :¥, ue i ae 87 3. The ealpsical ils) ag 93 4, Composition of the flesh of Fresh Herrings, Canc | Herings pei Sprats fs 96 5. The Food Value of tat Sane ie, a bP a ae 99 6. Effects of Cooking and Curing Methods _... ie — oh) 05 7. Composition of Cured Herrings .... a he hin Lie we 8. The Herring as a National Food Asset oe ae Papen Gi! _ 9. The Analytical Data of the composition of fish flesh in we a kro _ 10. Some physiological questions ... ahs 5 BA on 57 PRES Introduction. This vestigation was begun in the summer of 1914 and had reference then to the hydrographic researches which were in progress. We know, in a general kind of way, that all marine cold-blooded animals exhibit very clearly-marked metabolic cycles, sexual and nutritive, and that the phases of these cycles are to be associated with the seasonal changes in (at least) the temperature, the salinity and the alkalinity of the sea-water which is their environment. Various indices of the metabolic changes have been studied. The development of the genital organs, the percentage of oil in the liver and other tissues, the growth-rates, the ‘“‘ condition” of the animal as indicated by its weight per unit of length, and so on. It was known that there were marked variations in the percentage of oil contained in the flesh of Norwegian Brisling and that the variation of this constituent ran parallel with the annual variation in sea tem- perature. Summer-caught Brisling made good Norwegian 86 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. sardines because they were very fat while the winter-caught fish had a lower commercial value.* Of course the variation was also studied in a strictly scientific manner. A similar variation was expected in the case of these Manx herrings. It was expected that the percentage of oil in the flesh would be small at the beginning of the fishery (in May), would rise with the increase of sea temperature and attain a maximum in August, and then would fall rapidly as the sea temperature decreased, and as spawning occurred. Such a metabolic cycle was found to exist, but the change in fat# contents was very much greater than previous work had led us to expect. In the course of the investigation the dietetic aspect became a very obvious one to take up, and so the analyses, which at first dealt only with fat-contents, came to include the other “ proximate food stuffs.” The investigation was extended to include herrings from other sources than the Manx fishery, cured fish, and sprats. It is not pretended that this research is complete, yet a greater amount of information is now available than has so far been in the possession of food investigators. It will be seen from the data given here that simply nothing is conveyed by any state- ment of the food value of “ the herring ” ; the kind of fish must be specified before we can say what it is worth from the point of view of nutrition. Finally there are the physiological problems—by far the — more interesting ones. The seasonal changes that occur in the body of a fish were worked out by Miescher Reusch, in the case of the Rhine Salmon, and by Noél Paton and his colleagues in the case of Salmon from the Scottish coasts. It cannot be said that so much has been done, with regard to the salmon, * All the British sprat-fisheries are winter ones and the fish, being rela- tively poor in fat, are inferior to the Norwegian brisling. Where are the British sprats in summer? At present there are no fisheries, and if there - were the industrial (and food) resources of this country would be considerably increased. y 2 a SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 87 that further investigation is unnecessary, and there is hardly anything of the same kind* in the literature with regard to the herrmg. Yet the seasonal changes that occur in the tissues oi the latter fish are far more interesting and the economic value of investigation is vastly more evident. This purely physiological research has not, of course, been attempted here. Obviously it would have been foolish to attempt it without considering also the food of the herring. Very interesting questions are suggested here: for instance, the origin of the oil that is so characteristic of marine Copepods and Schizopods from thew food (Peridinians and Diatoms) ; the chemical nature of this oil and its relation with the oil of the herring ; and the fate of the peculiar hpochromes that are present in the oil of the micro-crustacea. Under present conditions the mvestigation of the latter questions is impossible, for plankton catches containing Diatoms, Peridinians, Copepods, &c., cannot be obtained in quantities large enough for analysis. And the amount of routme work that would be involved in an adequate study of the seasonal metabolism of the herring is so great that it could only be at- tempted by collaborators. Therefore this report is to be regarded only as a general survey of the dietetic question—the food value of the English West Coast Herring. Methods. These very technical details are necessary for criticism of the results set forth. | Sampling. Fortnightly samples were received from Mr. T. N. Cregeen, of the Port Erin Biological Station, Isle of Man, during the months May to September of the years 1914, 1916 and 1917. * With the exception of Milroy's study of seasonal changes. Rept. Fishy. Bd. for Scotland, Pt. L11, 24th Ann. Rept. and Pt. LI, 25th Ann, Rept. 88 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Samples were received at irregular intervals from Fishery Offi- cers in the Welsh part of the Lancashire and Western Sea Fisheries District. Some samples were received from More- cambe and others were bought in Liverpool shops. Cured herrings were also studied ; some salted fish obtained by Prof. Herdman, at Port St. Mary, and some salt herrings, bloaters, kippers and red herrings were purchased in shops. The samples from Isle of Man consisted of 2 dozen fish each. They were very carefully packed and forwarded, and were almost always in fine (eatable) condition. As a rule they were dusted over with coarse dry salt.* Some of the — samples (received in August) were cold-stored. It is difficult to say whether or not this had any effect on the composition. The actual samples for analysis were always composite ones, that is, the material was derived from (usually) ten fish, 5 male and 5 female. Sampling the herrings was a matter demanding care. In most of the summer catches the quantity of liquid iat, or oil, contained in the flesh is so great that any process of mincing or chopping carried out im order to obtam a representative sample is impossible. Hach herring tested was lightly washed and the scales on one side were rubbed away. Theskin was then dried by rubbing lightly with a towel, and a series of transverse cuts, down to the backbone, were made with a sharp razor; the cuts were about 1 millimetre apart. These slices were then freed by a tangential cut, right along the fish, made with a thin bladed knife so as to leave all the sections in situ. Slices from various parts, from each herring, were then taken up one by one with forceps and placed in a ‘weighed extraction thimble contained in a weighing bottle. A little plug of cotton wool (to close the mouth of the thimble) was also contained in the bottle. The wet weight of flesh was found by difference. As a rule from 35 to 6 grammes of ME formed each of these samples. * This affected the composition slightly as will be seen later. SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 89 So rich in oil were some of the herrings that it was necessary to rinse out the weighing bottle. Oil actually oozed through the paper thimble. In some cases larger samples of the flesh were taken— several dozen grammes. These were dried in the steam oven, extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus, ground to powder, dried again and stored. Only the“ flesh ” of the herrings, including the skin (minus scales), was sampled. Since only relative results were required for the hydrographic research this was sufficient, and from the the point of view of dietetics it is only the flesh that matters. Adequate physiological investigation would, of course, have necessitated sampling other organs. Drying. This was really the most troublesome of all the operations involved in the analyses. The flesh had to be dried in some receptacle that would absorb and retain the liquid oil oozing away at a high tempera- ture. Therefore the samples were dried in the thick-walled paper thimbles* used for the oil-extraction. They were kept in a steam oven for about 24 hours after which the weight be- came constant. It is doubtful whether this process really “ dries ’’ the flesh but whatever the error may be cannot matter greatly, at any rate it had to be employed since vacuum-em- bedding apparatus or ovens running at high, constant tem- peratures were unavailable. Another source of error, suggested by Atwater} was also considered—the possible oxidation of the oil at high temperatures. This might have involved (1) raising the weight by oxidation, and (2) lowering the weight of oil extractable by rendering it insoluble. So a preliminary series of experiments were made. * Those recently made by the Whatman people are very suitable, and admirable in every way. U.S.A. Department of Agriculture, 1906. G 90 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. A paper thimble was perforated by a hole made by a cork borer and a little loose plug of cotton wool was placed at the bottom. The flesh was put in the thimble, with another loose cotton-wool plug on top. The thimble was closed by a per- forated rubber cork and placed in a wide glass tube contained in a brine solution boiling at about 103°C. Air or hydrogen or carbon dioxide, previously dried and heated by passing through a coil of lead piping contained in the boiling pan, was then drawn or forced through the paper thimble. The results (to which I refer later on) were not always consistent and must be repeated before any conclusions can be made. But it was evident (1) that there was some oxidation of the oil, (2) that the latter was not rendered insoluble, and (3) that increase in the weight of oil need not be taken into con- sideration, at all events not in results intended for dietetic studies. : More important was the great saving of time. By em- ploying CO, (because of its higher specific heat) constant weight may be obtained in 4 hours, and an apparatus which would be very convenient and could deal with a number of samples could easily be fitted up. However, all results quoted here were obtained by drying (at 97°-98° actually) in a steam-oven for about 24 hours at least. Extraction of the oil. This was carried out in an ordinary Soxhlet apparatus, using carbon tetrachloride as solvent. The process was always very simple and easy. Rarely, even in very dark oils, was there any trace of colour in the solvent after the third siphoning. As a rule the extraction was continued for 4 hours but, evidently, © long before that time had elapsed the process had been finished. At first the last lot of solvent distilling over was tested by evaporation on a piece of white paper, but later on a definite routine was followed. Whether or not appreciable quantities of substances other SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 9] than fats are thus extracted was not investigated. Lecithin, for instance, may be thus dissolved out from the flesh, but it is not certain that the quantity extracted is significant—in a dietetic mvestigation. Nor was the difference, if any, in solvent power, of ether and carbon tetrachloride studied—probably it does not matter. Strictly speaking we ought to speak of * extract’ rather than of“ oil ” or“ fat,” but the latter terms may be used. The dried flesh of the herring is very friable and easily crumbles to an impalpable powder. It was so friable that it was unnecessary to powder the dried substance before extraction (though this was done in some cases). Far different is the dried flesh of some other fishes, the plaice, for instance. The water-free, fat-free residue. After extraction the plugged thimble was replaced in its own weighing bottle and dried in the steam oven. The weight of the residue was found by difference and the total, water + oil + residue (three weighings), was used as a check. As a very general rule it did not differ by more than 0-5% from 100. Very often the error was in excess, and was regarded as the gain in weight due to oxidation of the oil (though this is a matter requiring further study). If there were wider deviations the analyses were repeated. As a rule two samples were taken. The contents of the thimbles were taken out, powdered in an agate mortar, re-dried and stored. Usually there was enough to enable both proteid and ash estimations to be made. If not, the reserve of dried material (when this had been prepared) was used for these purposes. The proteid estimations. Proteid was estimated by the Kjeldahl process. None of the 1914 samples were examined in this way, but all the 1916 dry, fat-free residues were kept with the object of estimating 92 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. proteid. The amount of residue in the single samples was rather small, so those for each month were mixed together and the composite samples so formed were estimated (as shown in Tables II-III). In all cases 0-500 gram of the dried residue was taken and digested in 20 c.c. of pure sulphuric acid, using potas- sium sulphate and a small globule of metallic mercury. A first complete series of estimations of the 1916 and 1917 samples was made using copper sulphate instead of mercury, but since several of these estimations appeared to be erroneous the whole series of analyses was repeated, varying the process in detail, using mercury instead of copper sulphate, and employing different reagents and standard solutions—with two or three exceptions the results were nearly the same, but the latter series of estimations is that quoted. The process was perfectly straightforward. There was very little frothing of the mixture of residue and acid, and the reduction to a colourless solution took about two hours, as a rule. Some difficulty was, however, experienced in the cases of the residues from the flask of salted herrings and the re- duction took the greater part of a working day. In two cases there was no precipitate of mercury sulphide on adding sodium sulphide solution to the diluted acid, and the cause was apparent, the residues contained from 20 to 40% of salt and a chloride of mercury was produced which volatilised during the reduction. Afterwards the residue was digested with sulphuric acid and potassium sulphate for about half an hour and then the mer- cury was added. In these cases the whole process then went normally. It was found advantageous to boil the diluted acid solution, . after adding the sodium sulphide, so as to get rid of H,S. This seemed to improve the end-point of the titration. Litmus was used for an indicator, and decinormal solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium hydrate were employed in the titration. -SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 93 The propriety of using the factor 6-25 to convert the nitro- gen found into proteid is discussed later on. Non-volatile mineral matter. When there was sufficient of the dried residue, some of this was incinerated in porcelain capsules. After about } hour of ignition at a low red heat a drop or two of nitric acid was added to the cooled residue so as to obtain a white ash. The capsule was then again ignited to a full red heat. This weighing gave the “ ash”’ of the Tables. It is not suggested that it precisely represents the mmeral matters present in the raw flesh, but it is probably a near approximation. As will be seen from the Tables many of the ei Lia taoe samples were examined in full detail. The Analytical Results. I. Manz Summer Herrings, 1914. | . oof % of Oil Date Sex. Condition. Water. % of Oil. |and Water. rr 5:3 a - 3-6 ae e 27-8 nan ag 26-8 ae O7°5 24-4 81-9 ded 29-5 ies 48-4 32°5 80-9 46-6 34-9 81-5 61.2 16-9 78:1 44-7 26-5 71-2 53:5 23°7 77-2 62-3 17-6 79°9 63-4 16-3 79+7 60-2 18-1 78:3 63-9 9-0 72-9 66-3 8-9 74:2 94 - TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Il. Manx Summer Herrings, 1916. VATGT OL . Date. Sex and Condition. | Water. | % of Oil. | Proteid. | % of Ash. 25 May OG Mirgim Winn i. Aebee 75:4 2:5 21-1 r Be TS ie ane 74:7 2-6 mae 9 June ZU Sana Penta ic 55 73:5 4:5 , Bid nee os 72:9 4-6 | : 29 June ...| @ Filling ssc... 58-4 18:8 =|) see 2-03 _ elo lim abuts 59-6 17-5 | 5 July Pea aaah 1) a 58-4. 17-6 a RW) ica ves eee ea, 60-9 14-0 ned 21 July Rc ia tye 52-3 26-1 if. if SLE dame AO: 51-6 28-7 | 3 Aug. @ Half-full ........0+.- 47-1 32-9 ct a Cove, Aen oe 49-1 30-0 a 17 Aug. 3 A SO RET 48:6 31-5 | eS : ele cae 48-7 2-8 eae 1 Sept. ab edd ees a 48-6 27:8 15:3 E; On, eens 45+] 38-3 } TASC RE AAS WER CORE cae 51:8 22-1 i SOE HU ee eee 53-1 22-9 | BO Sour mah ne A Ue eet 56-3 19-3 19:3 2-63 e Sy STONE PER ae 56-2 22) ny Il. Manx Summer Herrings, 1917. % of Oe on Date Condition, &c. Water. | % of Oil. | Proteid. |% of Ash. 11 May ...| Pectoral, virgin ...... 70-6 3:5 ) : Beds 8 oe CR ME 71-1 Bei sii, ae ae 21 May . Pectoral 59 4 jaisieseiain 65-5 7:8 ) 19-5 Pome Tere (ad bgt oa 5 Sede eee 67-0 7-5 J 6 June ...| All regions, filling 58-0 13-2 22-8 oe 21 June ...| Pectoral a 43-5 33°2 ) 1e7 3.36 Sof coset) LY One as 45-4 32-6 j 4 July ...| Pectoral Be 45-2 31-8 l a7 Bip Trunk ‘5 weel aed 30:2 ) 19 July ...| Pectoral, 4-full ...... 38°3 41-8 ) : Oe acl PRandbes a adacd omens 43-9 BBQ || |) eee 2°55 31 July ...| All regions, ?-full ...) 42-7 37°7 15:8 2-55 ig , Port Erin 36-0 39:3 20-2" 7. Bay 15 Aug. ... ag aL teadeae 43-5 36:6 15-7 2°85 1) Sent. ... os Easels 44-] 33°9 17-6 1-65 SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 95 IV. Winter Herrings. 9 SES % of % of Oil. | Proteid.| Ash. Total. a Se GHD cossdacsessa-ce 4-] Co es See 8-8 ER OMSPIOIIG caccscecaeseses 1-2 / S Spenb ......... 2-8 2 8-7 21 i 63-8 18-6 ai. Se 69-1 11-3 3 $9 thawte eeeeeeeee 60-4 22°5 rads 8... 68-9 11-8 - ae 63-4 19-1 es... 65-0 16°5 oS ee oe 63-8 18-6 ae 69:9 11:7 VIEGAS. <.....0..... 68-9 10-3 | [ae 71:3 77 ae? Vein 9 61-1 22-38 | 15:53 | 0-97 99-96 ee 60:3 22:87 | 15-46 | 1-03 99-68 (b) "shop herrings. OP. cee 49:91 | 35:6 a sas ea _. ae 53-94 | 32-77 | 12-66 | 1-26 | 100-63 ae 65:53 | 17-53 | 15:48 | 0-87 99-41 | gf Large, full ......... 69:95 | 13-74 | 15:57 | 1:29 | 100-63 V. Cured H errings. OC OF % of % of % of Water. | Oil. Proteid.| Ash. Total. ——<$—— |, | Date. Origin, Condition, &c. 1917. 1 May ...| Saur, Shop, spent ...| 50-61 12-01 24-48 9 7 gume...| SALT, ,, full _...|. 47-80 20-61 22-93 6: . 13 Dec. ...| Sart, Manx, ,, «eo 38°29 32°72 15:47 12- 99-01 16 Nov. ... Kirrer, Shop, good 59-97 13:98 | 21-71 3°50 | 99-16 30 Jan. ...| BLOATER, ,, be 50-22 | 18:29 | 19-22 9 97-38 2 65 45:84 17-51 26-49 12-63 | 102-47* 1918. 3 Feb. ...| REp, i i | * See p. 127. 96 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. VI. Immature H errings (Morecambe). | ‘eee % of | %of | %% of | eogiotu ee Date. Length. Water. Oil. | Proteid.| Ash. Total. 1914. is 24 May ...| About 12 cms. ...... sis 3:0 Sie pga ie, eee hy 4+] BO wi. 4: i ee mn 3-2 VII. Sprats (Morecambe). : % of % of of ie % of Date. Condition, Water. Oil. | Proteid.| Ash. Total. 1914. 29 May ...| Immature, small ...|... 9-5 1915. 27 Jan. ...| Large, mature ° ...... 70-0 11-9 1918. |. 29 Jan. ...| Large, mature ...... 67°95 13-21 17:74 «|, 1:28 | 100.18 _ Composition of the Flesh of Fresh Herrings, Cured Herrings and Sprats. General Remarks on the Analytical Results. It is necessary to make some remarks with regard to the general question of the accuracy of the analyses. ‘First of all we must note that the totals for water, oil, proteid and ash in the Manx Summer Herrings of 1916 and 1917 show a deficiency. The mean results for all the samples received during each month are given in the Table on p. 103. Excluding the analyses of May, 1916, we see that the mean totals for water, oil; proteid and ash are 97-8% for 1916 and 97:9% © for 1917. Thus there is a deficiency of 2%, and this is iis than the experimental errors. _ The cause for this deficiency was investigated in a pre- liminary way. First of all it was suggested that the fat ex- SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 97 traction was incomplete and that there was still some oil in the dried residues. That would have depressed the proteid value, which is calculated on the wet weights. But renewed extrac- tion of the residues, reduced to fine powders, gave no appreci- able amount of oil, and had there been such it would have become apparent by forming a soap in the process of distillation, durmg the Kjeldahl estimations. If the fat is erroneously estimated it ought to be an error in excess due to a possible extraction of some substance such as lecithin, or to incomplete drying of the oil (the carbon tetrachloride being adsorbed to - a slight extent), or to oxidation of the oil during the drying in air. It is certain that such oxidation occurs. The oil extracted is always dark brown in colour, but if the drying of the wet flesh is carried out as suggested above, in an atmosphere of hydrogen or carbon dioxide, and if the subsequent drying of the oil is also carried out, in a similar indifferent atmosphere, then the oil obtained is light yellow in colour, with a crystalline substance separating out on cooling. That fish oils oxidise in air at high temperatures is well known, and the principal means of obtaining a colourless, medicinal cod-liver oil that does not produce eructation when administered, is the exclusion of air during the process of preparation of the oil. An indifferent atmosphere of CO, is, in fact, used. Further there are signifi- cant variations in the refractive indices of the herring oils ob- tained in various ways. Thus we have :— Extracted and dried in air ... Refractive index = 1-388. Extracted and dried in CQ,... ms » = 1378. Kipper oil, air-dried... ... if » = 138. _ Red herring oil, air dried... ” 55 == 1-455. The previous oxidation of the kipper and red herring oils raise the index of refraction. But the effect, with regard to weight, is very small, as will be seen by drying a sample persistently in the air oven and observing the rise in weight. It is, probably, a lipochrome, 98 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. or some other substance present in very small quantity, that is oxidised. It was also suggested that the deficiency was due to the imperfect drying of the wet substance, but reflection upon this possible source of error does not support the suggestion. Finally there are possible errors in the estimation of nitro- gen by the Kjeldahl process. Now it is perhaps unnecessary to state that blank and control experiments were made. A piece of N-free Swedish filter paper was substituted for the proteid-containing residue, and the operations were then carried out in all respects as if an actual estimation were being made. Then distillations and titrations were made, using pure ammonium chloride instead of the diluted acid from the Kjeldahl flask. In both cases small departures from zero or the theo- retical percentage were obtained, but these sources of error were so small that it was not regarded as necessary to correct the results stated in the Tables. However, we see from Table IV, that the iin herrings show more satisfactory totals. The mean of 5 analyses is :— 61-8 % water, 21-9 % oil, 14:9 % proteid, 1-1 % ash = 99-7 %, and it is therefore evident that we have to deal with a real deficiency, that is, there is, in the flesh of the Manx Summer herrings some substance not found by the usual poe of estimating fat or proteids. We discuss later what this substance may be. Differences between Summer and Winter herrings will also be noticed with respect to the percentage of ash recovered from the residues. The Manx Summer herrings of 1916 and 1917 gave 2:33 and 2-75 per cent. respectively, while the Winter- caught shop and Welsh herrings gave 1-08. But this difference - is easily to be accounted for by the fact that the Manx fish were slightly salted. Thus some sodium chloride was added to the tissues, and some water withdrawn. The difference in ash in the two kinds of fish is about 15%. SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 99 The Food Value of Manx Herrings. First of all we have to consider the “‘ waste,”’ that is, the proportional weight of the fish that is not eaten. A certain number of experiments were made to find this waste value. The herrings (usually 3 or 5 fishes) were beheaded, and the viscera (except roes and milts) were removed ; the fins were cut ‘away ; the backbone and as many as possible of the small bones were removed and the skin was also removed. In the salt ones we may eat the skin and the small bones which, when fried, are quite brittle and so leave nothing but head and backbone. Only those parts of the herring usually capable of being eaten were regarded as ‘‘ edible.” The results are as follows :— Ratio of Edible to Inedible Parts. Date and Origin. Edible % Inedible % May 11, Manx, ¢ Q, virgin ... va see 57 43 June 21, _ ,, Ease ne we 63 37 July 4, _,, oS a a 59 4] July 19, _,, --\ aes ie ne 68 32 Sept.11, ,, ae A ige 72 28 May 1, shop, ¢ 9, virgin ... fis eae 68 32 LO aa 3 full ae abe », February aha but Be re Cee Lets 91-9 Mean a ion ist ty 91-4 Now it is difficult to see that the variations from month to month in the case of the Manx Summer herrings are of real significance. Whatever the analytical error in the estimation of N may be it is multiplied by 6-25, and so we must regard the errors of the percentages of “ proteid’’ in these residues as rather high, say 0:5 to 1%. But we may perhaps distinguish safely between (1) Manx Summer herrings of 1916, (2) Manx Summer herrings of 1917, (3) Winter herrings. Here the differ- — ences in the percentage of N x 6-25 lie well outside the analytical errors. The Proteid Factor 6:25. Thus the percentage of (N x 6-25) in the various water- free, oil-free residues varies between about 78 and 92, while the percentage of non-volatile matter is never more than about 3. " 0, where t, and ft, are respectively, the beginning of March ta p Ns 8 8 and the end of September, and @ is the mean sea-temperature SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 131 for each 10-daily period in degrees Centigrade. Making these calculations we find :— Temperature-integral for 1907-1916, Mar. to Sept. = 236-3 Temperature-integral for 1914, Mar. to Sept. = 266-2 Temperature-integral for 1916, Mar. to Sept. = 243-9 -Considering these results we see at once that the differences in time of spawning and percentage of fat between 1914 and 1916 are to be correlated with the integrative temperature factor. Spawning occurred relatively early (in August) in 1914 because of the relatively great cumulative heat effect, and relatively late in 1916 for the opposite reason. h32. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. THE PLAICE FISHERY OF 1892-1917. By JAMES JOHNSTONE, D.Sc. Some interesting results have been obtamed during the examination and tabulation of the statistics of experimental trawling operations carried out during the past 25 years. A report on these results has been prepared, and it is hoped that it may be possible to publish this at some future time. Meanwhile, allusion may be made to some points of special interest. The Plaice Fishery of the Mersey Estuary. Experimental hauls with fish-trawl nets of various meshes and dimensions, and also with shrimp-trawl nets, have been made regularly since 1892 by Captain Eccles. These trawling operations were carried on in the Mersey Channels and outside the Banks. As a rule, they have been made under nearly uniform conditions, and all the circumstances as to weather, etc., are recorded. Since about 1908 all the plaice caught have been individually measured in centimetres—work requiring considerable patience and accuracy. In considering these figures, one sorts them out ito average catches of plaice, etc., per haul per month—or into average catches per hour’s fishing per month or per annum. The latter is the most obvious way of dealmg with the figures, and we see at once that there are quite remarkable’ variations. Nevertheless, to take the numbers of plaice caught per hour’s fishing, per month, is not a very satisfactory method, for there are usually not very many hauls per month, nor even per year. © And in comparing year with year there is the difficulty that some months are well represented in some years but not in SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 133 © others. Since the abundance and average sizes of the plaice caught vary greatly from month to month, this unequal fishing disturbs the averages. Also one very large catch of plaice among a number of very ordinary catches raises the average unduly and gives us a distorted idea of the variation. So, mstead of average catches per hour’s fishing, we try to find some other form of average. I have arranged the catches made by the fish-trawl and shrimp-trawl in groups of 3 years, which overlap—thus, 1892 to 1894, 1893 to 1895, 1894 to 1896, etc., and then the numbers of plaice caught per haul are arranged in groups of 0 to 50 fish, 51 to 100, 101 to 150, and so on. Thus we consider all the separate hauls made during each of the overlapping groups of three years, as follows :— | Nos. of plaice caught per haul ... 0-50 51-100 101-150 151-200, ete. Nos. of times each of these results was obtained ...... 24 29 5 7 ete. We see that 24 of the hauls made during the years 1912-14, for instance, contained from 0 to 50 plaice, 29 contamed from 51 to 100, 5 contained from 101 to 150, and so on. This has been done for each of the groups of years 1892-4, 1893-5, 1894-6, ete. The results are, in general, similar to those obtained simply by tabulating the average numbers of plaice caught per haul (or, what is very much the same thing, per hour’s fishing), but the irregularities due to accident, which bulk so largely in the application of the latter method, are avoided, and we are prevented from making erroneous conclusions. The result is—the smaller the catch of plaice the more often it is made, and wice versa. If we make graphs for each of the three-years periods, as is suggested by the above incomplete table, we get J-shaped curves, the tail of the J being drawn 134 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. out into a nearly horizontal line. An extension of this method of making the curves enables us to arrive at the following results (for the period 1912-43 :— There were 85 hauls in all, and in these either no plaice or some plaice were caught ; In 61 out of the 85 hauls more than 50 plaice were caught ; | In 32 hauls out of 85 more than 100 plaice were caught ; In 6 hauls out of 85 more than 500 plaice were caught : In 2 hauls out of 85 more than 1,000 plaice were caught. Then we can easily find out, from the same curves, what was the “ shortest half-range”’ of the plaice caught in each period. Thus we can say whether one half of all the hauls gave 0 to 50 plaice, 0 to 60, 0 to 100, 0 to 150, and so on. These half-ranges make a kind of averages, and these averages are tabulated in the followmg diagrams :— 400 300 200 ; n - Ss 6 ae ee Sa ree oe re eS ele aaa Md @ Variation in the numbers of el fet a a ’ F a ft . - J — . « ‘%. y « e e . - . . 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