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Saale Bie ¥ ——— 7 - ie badd : " Sa > > ae ee) malta . - eer e Radney Bnet pe ie a a th eel - » - y ee eeiall a er “¥ ~< oe ae er ~~ - ra a ne os - fot ee he y ee - * - OL ws " aoa nae “= 4 a et gab tedee” je Inte take 2am 2 _ An aati r wee : Ae hn hl ec fre hate wen ~ ’ ~ eB . —— - o- ~e tinh * Dee —e*- . -——t eho ~< eae os -- —— nee i oat ee ee > a bee ee ~~ — > - ae ~~ erate . . - + +e = er ~~ A A a tien + « a e Soe *. . ‘ . - 2 2 fat oe . . ee ond ase ~~ T-os . . ~ “ " ’ - -t pote s ~ . * . eS OO ae Ee Re ee ee a) ae - . oe eeh,ee . a Retr Sa att Na. > 90 A OS chen al te Oat Te Oe Sete Meee eT ee ott ae ; = anal - ’ * re P= pepe +.0-@ em ee ae Bet Dt Be 2 A ee 0 - > --e.* > 4<2.8 08 + - ro : + 5 qetnt—e ia > re ee ee atl ——_ , oa I Pane ae Pe rte Ow ee & ead + gl me Ree ert ~ STF O6A2L La hoe PROCEEDINGS/ »’ o | | ( | AND \ : 7 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. VOL. Vili. SESSION 18938—94. LIVERPOOL: PRINTED BY T. Doss & Co., 229, BRowNLow HI 1. ~ 1894. 574.0642 § Yan, Aw CONTENTS. I. PROCEEDINGS. PAGE, Office-bearers and Council, 1893—94 Lear Report of the Council . ‘ ‘ ep Na Summary of Proceedings at the Bisdeves . 1x; Laws of the Society XVl. List of Members xT, Librarian’s Report (with list of cities Ee itieehey} XXV. Treasurer’s Balance Sheet CSE, | IT. TRANSACTIONS. Opening Address :—‘ On the Origin of Man—How Derived? His Genealogy and Starting Point, as illustrated by Geology, Biology, Language, History, the early Civilizations and Religions.” By Joun Newton, M.R.C.S., &c., President. 1 Seventh Annual Report of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee and their Biological Station at Port Erin. By Prof. HERDMaAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. 3 Report on the Investigations carried on in 1893 in connection with the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory at University College, Liverpool. By Professor W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; assisted by Mr. P. F. J. CorBIN : ioe Note on a Lobster-Hatchery. By Prof. HERDMAN 93 Report upon the Methods of Oyster and Mussel Culture in use on the West Coast of France. By Prof. W. A. Herpman, D.8c., F.R.S. Sees 484 6H } : /4 aie @ by Iv. - CONTENTS. Report upon the Nemertines found in the neighbour- hood of Port Erin, Isle of Man. By J. HENRY VANSTONE and W. I. BEAUMONT Supplementary Report upon the Hydroid Zoophytes of the L.M.B.C. District. By Miss Laura Roscoz 'THORNELY . Note on the Diagnostic Characters of the Subgenera and Species of Selaginella, Spr. By Professor R. J. Harvey Gipson, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.E. Letter of the late Professor Edward Forbes on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea. (Communi- cated by Prof. Herdman) . The Excavation of the. Neolithic Stone Circle near Port Erin, Isle of Man. By Professor W. Ac HERDMAN, D.Se., ER.st; and 2) e Niece KERMODE, F'..8.A. Scov. S Revision of the Generic Nomenclature and Classifi- cation in Bowerbank’s ‘ British Spongiade.”’ By ha seANIT SCH, hid, Observations on the Vitality and Germination of Seeds. By A. J. Ewart, B.Sc. 135 140 148 156 159 i173 207 PROCEEDINGS OF THE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS AND COUNCIL. Ex-Presidents : 1886—87 Pror. W. MITCHELL BANKS, M.D., F.R.G.S. 1887—88 J. J. DRYSDALE, M.D. 1888—89 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 1889—90 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.B.S.E. 1890—91 T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S. 1891—92 T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S8., A.L.S. 1892—93 ALFRED O. WALKER, J.P., F.L.S. SESSION VIII, 1893-94. resident : JOHN NEWTON, M.R.C.S. Dice-Presidents : Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. ALFRED O. WALKER, F.L.S. How. Treasurer : ISAAC C. THOMPSON, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. How. Mrbrartan: hk. HANITSCH, Pu.D. How. Secretary: JOSEPH A. CLUBB, B.Sc. Conner! : H. C. BEASLEY. ALFRED LEICESTER. J. W. ELLIS, M.B. (Vicr.), F.E.S. G. H. MORTON, F.G.S. Pror. R. J. HARVEY GIBSON, M.A. LESLIE ROBERTS, M.D. Pror. F. GOTCH, M.A., F.RB.S. T C: RYLEY, W. J. HALLS. W. E. SHARP. J, SIBLEY HICKS,.M.D., F.L.S. Pror. WEISS. REPORT of COUNCIL. Durine the Session 1893-94 there have been eight ordinary meetings of the Society, held as heretofore at University College, and one field meeting, in Jue 1894, held at West Kirby and Hilbre Island. The communications made to the Society have been representative of almost all branches of Biology, and many interesting exhibits (both microscopic and macro- scopic) have been submitted at the meetings. As on several former occasions, In previous sessions, the Council invited an outside Biologist of note to address the Society upon some of his own investigations. This address, given by Professor Reynolds Green, was both of interest and of importance, and was much appreciated by the Society. The Library still continues to make satisfactory progress as shown by the Librarian’s Report which follows. The Treasurer’s usual statement and Balance Sheet are appended. No alterations have been made in the Laws of the Society during the past session. By the lamentable death of Prof. Milnes Marshall the Society has, in common with many other similar societies, and science generally, suffered a great and unexpected loss. On the roll of Honorary Members almost from the outset, Prof. Marshall’s name and cordial support have been an honour and source of strength to the Society, and your Council were looking forward to the advantage of an Address from him at an early date. The members at present on the roll are as follows: Honorary Members ......... 8 Ordinary Members ......... 64 Student Members............ 24 SUMMARY of PROCEEDINGS at the MEETINGS. The first meeting of the eighth session was held at University College on Friday, 13th October, 1893; Dr. John Newton, President, in the chair. 1. The Report of the Council on the Session 1892-98 (see “Proceedings,” Vol. VII, p. vil) was read and adopted. 2. The Treasurer’s Balance Sheet for the Session 1892-93 (see ‘‘ Proceedings,’ Vol. VII, p. xxxix) was submitted and approved. 8. The Librarian’s Report (see ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Vol. VII, p. XXxv) was submitted and approved. 4. The following Office-bearers and Council for the ensuing Session were elected :—Vice-Presidents, Prof. W: A.. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S., Alfred QO, Walker, F.L.8.; Hon. Treasurer, 1. C. Thompson, fab. S., 2 R.MeS.; Hon. Librarian, K.- Hanitsch, Ph.D.; Hon. Secretary, Joseph A. Clubb; Council, Hse C. Beasley b> W. “Eihis, M.B., F.E.S., BR. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., F.L:8., Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S., W. J. Halls, J. Sibley Hicks, M.D., Alfred Leicester, G. H. Morton, F.G.S., Leslie Roberts, M.D., T. C. Ryley, W. E. Sharp, and Prof. Weiss. 5. As the President had found it necessary to postpone his Inaugural Address to the November meeting, a joint paper by Prof. Herdman and Mr. P. M. C. Kermode, F'.S.A. Scot., on the ‘‘ Excavation of the Stone Circle of Lag-ny-Boiragh on the Meayll Hill, Port Erin, Isle of Man,” was given. (See “Transactions,” p. 159 and Pls. X to XII). x. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The second meeting of the Society was held at Univer- sity College on Friday, 10th November, 1893, Dr. Newton, President, in the chair. 1. The President (Dr. J. Newton) gave his Presidential Address, entitled :—‘‘'The Origin of Man—How Derived? His Genealogy and Starting Point, as illustrated by Geology, Biology, History, the early Civilizations and Religions.” (See ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 1). A vote of thanks to the President, proposed by Prof. Herdman, and seconded by Mr. T. C. Ryley, was unanimously carried. 2. Mr. R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., F.L.S., exhibited some anomalous flowers of Solanwm, and some Micro-fungi. The third meeting of the Society was held at Univer- sity College on Friday, 8th December, 1893, Dr. John Newton, President, in the chair. 1. An exhibition, by Mr. R. J. Harvey Gibson, of photo- eraphs of plants in the hot-houses of Kew Gardens. 92. On the invitation of the President, Prof. R. Li. Garner gave an interesting account of some of his experi- ences while living in a steel cage in the Gaboon country, Africa, for the purpose of studying the habits and sounds of the Anthropoid Apes. He gave a vivid description of the manner of action and gait of the Gorilla and Chimpanzee and dis- tinguished two kinds of each, the two Gorillas being known to the natives as N’jina and N’tyu, and the two Chimpanzees as N’tyigo and Koola- Kamba. In regard to the latter, the N’tyigo is apparently the common Chimpanzee (Tvroglodytes moger), while Mr. Garner is not satisfied that the Koola-Kamba is the bald Chimpanzee (7’. calvus) but thinks that it may be a third species. SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. Xl. Mr. Garner’s female Koola-Kamba died while in Liverpool, and the brain was sent to Prof. Herdman and is now in the Zoological Museum of University College. The fourth meeting of the Society was held in Univer- sity College on Friday, 26th January, 1894, Dr. Newton, President, in the chair. 1. Prof. Herdman gave his Annual Report of the Liver- _ pool Marine Biology Committee and the Port Erin Biological Station. (See ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 3, and Pls. Ito V.) The report was illustrated by lantern slides and specimens. 2. The report on the ‘“‘Nemertines of the L.M.B.C. District,’ by J. Henry Vanstone and W. I. Beaumont (see ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 185); and the record of additional species of Invertebrata in the L.M.B.C. District, by G. W. Wood, F.I.C., were laid on the table. The fifth meeting of the Society was held at University College on Friday, 9th February, 1894, Dr. J. Newton, President, in the chair. 1. A proposal by Prof. Herdman that a contribution should be made from the members of the Society to the Haeckel Birthday Fund was agreed to, and Dr. Hanitsch kindly consented to take charge of donations and forward them to the committee. 2. Miss L. R. Thornely contributed a paper entitled a ‘Revision and Distribution of the Hydroid Zoophytes of the L.M.B.C. District.” (See ‘“‘'Transactions,” p. 140, and Pl. IX). 3. Mr. H. C. Chadwick (Manchester) gave an interesting account, illustrated by some beautiful lantern pho- Xll. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. tographs, of the Siphonophora. He described in detail some of the many interesting points in connection with the group. Additional observa- tions were made by Prof. Herdman, Mr. Thompson, the Secretary and others. 4. Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson gave a paper on the “Diagnostic Characters of the Subgenera and Species of Selagwmella.” (See “‘ Transactions,” p. 148). The sixth meeting of the Society was held at University College on Friday, 9th March, 1894, Dr. Newton, Presi- dent, in the chair. 1. Prof. J. Reynolds Green, M.A., B.Sc., of the Phar- maceutical Society of Great Britain gave a paper on the ‘‘ Germination of the Pollen Grain.” In introducing the subject he referred to the work of Van Tieghem, Maugin, Strasburger and other writers, which indicated the action of enzymes similar to those present in seeds and other parts, and described experiments carried out by himself during the past two years which led him to the following conclusions :— 1. The enzymes which can be isolated from pollen grains of various plants are diastase and invertase. The former converts starch into malt sugar, the latter transforms cane sugar into dex- trose. Some pollens contain both these enzymes, some only one. 2. At the onset of germination usually the amount of enzyme can be found to increase con- siderably. As the grain gets older it loses the power of germinating and at this time the amount of ferment is very much diminished, almost to extinction, SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. X1li. 3. The pollen tube is nourished during its growth by a store of reserve material deposited partly in the grain itself and partly in the style of the flower. This store of food may consist of several forms of carbohydrate material. 4. The style itself assists in the elaboration of such reserve food material by the secretion of suitable enzymes. 5. The absorption by the pollen grain of such food material is one cause of the increase of enzyme found in the course of germination. 2. Mr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A., described the Phosphorescent Organs of some Cuttlefishes, illustrated by lantern slides. A short discussion followed. The seventh meeting of the Society was held in Univer- sity College on Friday, 13th April, 1894, Dr. J. Newton, President, in the chair. 1. Mr. H. C. Beasley exhibited and described some fossil Fa remains from Storeton. Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S., added some remarks. Karl A. Grossmann gave a lecture on a recent visit made by himself to Iceland. He gave a most interesting description of the country, the habits and folk-lore of the people—their buildings and religions. The lecture was profusely illustrated by a magnificent series of lantern slides, which were thrown on to the screen by means of the electric lantern. A cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Grossmann, proposed by Mr. I. C. Thompson, and seconded by the Rev. J. Sephton who in an interesting speech added some additional facts on Icelandic literature. Dr. Grossmann briefly responded. X1V. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The eighth meeting of the Society was held in Univer- sity College on Friday, llth May, 1894, Dr. J. Newton, President, in the chair. 1. Exhibitions of drawing of some new and rare species of Copepoda, by Mr. Andrew Scott, and of the Reproductive Organs of some Marine Alge, by Miss F. Phillips, were laid before the Society. .G. H. Morton, F.G.S., stated that in the ‘‘ Natural History of Lancashire, Cheshire ‘and the Peak in Derbyshire,’ by Dr. Charles Leigh, published in 1700, there are many objects figured, including the following ten marine shells from the Cheshire Coast. That this was the earliest local list there could be no doubt. Mussel Shells, showing Germination of Pearls = Mytilus edulis. Turbo = Turritella terebra. Dr. Leigh remarks that ‘‘In this Shell I never saw any Fish, but I presume it quits its shell when by storms it is forced from the Bottom of the Sea, where I do conjecture is its natural abode.” Curvirostrum = Venus chione. SeaCoasts, Cheshire. © Pectunculus = Scrobicularia piperata ,, vt Pap-Shell or Patella = Patella vulgata ,, be Buccinum = Murex erinaceus Near Hilbre Island. Trochus=Trochus zizyphinus _,, 99 » Buccinum=Purpura lapillus __,, ” 9 Buccinum=Littorina littorea ,, 9 » Concha veneris= Cyprea Europea - - The recent names are added in ztalics to Dr. Leigh’s names, but the shells are so badly drawn that the determination of several is doubtful. 3. Prof. Herdman communicated an unpublished letter of the late Prof. Edward Forbes to the late Dr. SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. XV. Archer of Liverpool. (See ‘Transactions,’ p. eae.” 156). 7 4. Dr. Hanitsch laid before the Society a paper on the ‘Revision of the Generic Nomenclature and Classi- fication in Bowerbank’s ‘ British Spongiade.’”’ (See ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 178). 5. Mr. A. J. Ewart, B.Sc., gave a paper on ‘‘ Observations on the Vitality of Starchy and Oily Seeds.” (See “Transactions,” p. 207). A discussion followed in which remarks were made by Prof. Harvey Gibson, and Dr. Hurst. 6. Dr. H. B. Pollard (Owens College, Manchester,) gave an account of the structure and habits of Siluroid Fish. He described some of the more important families with their habits and geographical dis- tribution, and then discussed their morphological characters and phylogenetic position. He illus- trated many of his conclusions by specimens of species of Siluroids, and by diagrams. The ninth and last meeting of the Society for the Highth Session took the form of a Field-Meeting to West Kirby and Hilbre Island. A large party assembled and pro- ceeded to Hilbre Island, at low water, where many interesting marine specimens were obtained. The party then returned to West Kirby for tea, after which a short business meeting was held, Dr. Newton in the chair. On the motion of Dr. Newton, the retiring President, seconded by Prof. Herdman, Prof. Francis Gotch, F.R.S., was elected President for the coming Session. LAWS of the LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. I.—The name of the Society shall be the ‘‘ LivERPooL BioLocicaAL Society,” and its object the advancement of Biological Science. II.—The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held at University College, at Seven o’clock, during the six Winter months, on the second Friday evening in every month, or at such other place or time as the Council may appoint. IIIl.—The business of the Society shall be conducted by a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, a Secretary, a Librarian, and twelve other Members, who shall form a Council; four to constitute a quorum. ITV.—The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre- tary, Librarian, and Council shall be elected annually, by ballot, in the manner hereinafter mentioned. V.—The President shall be elected by the Council (subject to the approval of the Society) at the last Meeting of the Session, and take office at the ensuing Annual Meeting. ViI.—The mode of election of the Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, Librarian, and Council shall be in the form and manner following :—It shall be the duty of the _retiring Council at their final meeting to suggest the names of Members to fill the offices of Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, Librarian, and of four Members who were not LAWS. XVII. on the last Council to be on the Council for the ensuing session, and formally to submit to the Society, for election at the Annual Meeting, the names so suggested. ‘The Secretary shall make out and send to each Member of the Society, with the circular convening the Annual Meeting, a printed list of the retiring Council, stating the date of the election of each Member, and the number of his atten- dances at the Council Meetings during the past session ; and another containing the names of the Members sug- gested for election, by which lists, and no others, the votes shall be taken. It shall, however, be open to any Member to substitute any other names in place of those upon the lists, sufficient space being left for that purpose. Should any list when delivered to the President contain other than the proper number of names, that list and the votes thereby given shall be absolutely void. Every list must be handed in personally by the Member at the time of voting. Vacancies occurring otherwise than by regular annual retirement shall be filled by the Council. VII.—Every Candidate for Membership shall be pro- posed by three or more Members, one of the proposers from personal knowledge. The nomination shall be read from the Chair at any Ordinary Meeting, and the Candi- date therein recommended shall be balloted for at the succeeding Ordinary Meeting. Ten black balls shall ex- clude. VIII.—When a person has been elected a Member, the Secretary shall inform him thereof, by letter, and shall at the same time forward him a copy of the Laws of the Society. IX.—KEvery person so elected shall within one calendar month after the date of such election pay an Entrance Fee of Half a Guinea and an Annual Subscription of One XVili: LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Guinea (except in the case of Student Members); but the Council shall have the power in exceptional cases, of extending the period for such payment. No Entrance Fee shall be paid on re-election by any Member who has paid such fee. X.—The Subscription (except in the case of Student — Members) shall be One Guinea per annum, payable in advance, on the day of the Annual Meeting in October. XI.—Members may compound for their Annual Sub- scriptions by a single payment of Ten Guineas. XII.—There shall also be a class of Student Members, paying an Entrance fee of Two Shillings and Sixpence, and a Subscription of Five Shillings per annum. XITI.—All nominations of Student Members shall be passed by the Council previous to nomination at an Ordin- ary Meeting. When elected, Student Members shall be entitled to all the privileges of Ordinary Members, except that they shall not receive the publications of the Society, nor vote at the Meetings, nor serve on the Council. - XIV.—Resignation of Membership shall be signified in writing to the Secretary, but the Member so resigning shall be hable for the payment of his Annual Subscription, and all arrears up to the date of his resignation. XV.—The Annual Meeting shall be held on the second — Friday in October, or such other convenient day in the — month as the Council may appoint, when a Report of the Council on the affairs of the Society, and a Balance Sheet, duly signed by the Auditors previously appointed by hp Council, shall be read. ; XVI.—Any person (not resident within ten miles of Liverpool) eminent in Biological Science, or who may have rendered valuable services to the Society, shall be eligible ~ LAWS. X1x. as an Honorary Member; but the number of such Members shall no exceed fifteen at any one time. XVII.—Captains of vessels and others contributing objects of interest shall be admissible as Associates for a period of three years, subject to re-election at the end of that time. XVIII.—Such Honorary Members and Associates shall be nominated by the Council, elected by a majority at an Ordinary Meeting, and have the privilege of attending and taking part in the Meetings of the Society, but not voting. XIX.—Should there appear cause in the opinion of the Council for the expulsion from the Society of any Member, a Special General Meeting of the Society shall be called by the Council for that purpose; and if two-thirds of those voting agree that such Member be expelled, the Chairman shall declare this decision, and the name of such Member shall be erased from the books. -XX.—LEvery Member shall have the privilege of intro- ducing one visitor at each Ordinary Meeting. The same person shall not be admissible more than twice during the same session. oie sitet 2 XXI.—Notices of all Ordinary or Special Meetings shall be issued to each Member by the Secretary, at least three days before such Meeting. XXII.—The President, Council, or any ten Members can convene a Special General Meeting, to be called within fourteen days, by giving notice in writing to the Secretary, and stating the object of the desired Meeting. The circu- lar convening the Meeting must state the purpose thereof. XXIIT.—Votes in all elections shall be taken by ballot, and in other cases by show of hands, unless a ballot be first demanded. XX. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. XXIV.—WNo alteration shall be made in these Laws, except at an Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting called for that purpose; and notice in writing of any proposed alteration shall be given to the Council, and read at the Ordinary Meeting, at least a month previous to the meet- ing at which such alteration is to be considered, and the proposed alteration shall also be printed in the circular convening such meeting; but the Council shall have the power of enacting such Bye-Laws as may be deemed neces- sary, which Bye-Laws shall have the full power of Laws until the ensuing Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting convened for their consideration. BYH-LAW. Student Members of the Society may be admitted as Ordinary Members without re-election upon payment of the Ordinary Member’s Subscription; and they shall be exempt from the Ordinary Member’s entrance fee. LIST of MEMBERS of the LIVERPOOL ELECTED. 1890 1886 1890 1886 1888 1889 1887 1886 1886 1890 1890 OTL 1894 1889 1886 1890 1894 1891 BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SHSSION 1893-94, A. ORDINARY MEMBERS. (Life Members are marked with an asterisk.) Assheton, R., M.A., Owens College, Manchester iBanks,Protr. W, .Mitchell, M.D.; E2B.C.S., 28, Rodney-street ibaners. By UA. bre, BA, La. B.,. Es. “lie Laurels, Wormley, Herts Barron, ‘Prot.’ Alexander, M.B:, -MRIC.S., 31, Rodney-street Beasley, Henry C., Prince Albert-road, Wavertree Brown, Prof. J. Campbell, 27, Abercromby-square Caine, Nathaniel, Spital, Bromborough Caton, R., M.D., F.R.C.P., Lea Hall, Gateacre Clubb, J. A., B.Sc., Hon. SECRETARY, Free Public Museum, Bootle Davies, D., 55, Berkley-street Dawson, R. A., 25, Winckley-square, Preston Dismore, Miss, 65, Shrewsbury-road, Oxton Drysdale, J. H., M.B., M.R.C.P.; University Col- lege, Liverpool Dwerryhouse, A. R., Church-end Farm, Hale Ellis, J. W., M.B. (Vic.), F.E.S., 18, Rodney-st. Ewart, A. J., B.Sc., University College, Liverpool Forbes, H. O., F.Z.S., Free Public Museum, Liverpool Garstang, W., M.A., Lincoln College, Oxford XXll. 1893 1886 1886 1891 1886 1887 1887 1886 1893 1891 1888 1886 1886 1886 1890 1893 1888 1886 — 1886 1888 1887 1891 1892 LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Gardner, Willoughby, F.R.G.8., 18c, Exchange, Liverpool Glynn, Prof. T. R., M.D., F.R.C.P., 62, Rodney- street Gibson, Prof. R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.U.8., Univer- sity College Gotch, Prof. F., F.R.S., University College Halls, W. J., 35, Lord-street Hanitsch, R., Ph.D., Hon. Liprarian, University College, Liverpool Healey, George F'., Oakfield, Gateacre Herdman, Prof. W. A., D.Sc., EK Bis gee. PRESIDENT, University College Herdman, Mrs., B.Sc., 32, Bentley-road, Liverpool Hicks, J. Sibley, M.D., 2, Erskine-street *Hurst, C. H., Ph.D., Owens College, Manchester Jones, Charles W., Field House, Prince Alfred- road, Wavertree Leicester, Alfred, 30, Weld-road, Birkdale Lomas, J., Assoc.N.§.8., Salen, Amery Grove, Birkenhead Lowndes, W., 173, Lodge-lane Macdonald, J. 8., B.A., Physiological Lab. Univ. College, Liverpool Melly, W. R., 90, Chatham-street McMillan, William 8., F..8., Brook-road, Maghull Morton, G. H., F.G.8., 209, Edge-lane, E. Newton, John, M.R.C.S., Present, 44, Rod- ney-street Narramore, W., F..8., 5, Geneva-road, Elm Park Phillips, Miss F., 3, Green-lawn, Rock Ferry Phillips, H..J), Mb. LDS: WERASe Rodney-st. 1886 *Poole, Sir James, J.P., Abercromby Square 1890 Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston 1890 1887 1887 ~ 1892 1891 1886 1889 1893 1886 1889 1889 1888 1886 1886 1889 1889 1893 1891 1891 1892 1892 LIST OF MEMBERS. XXill. Roberts, Leshe, M.D., 31, Rodney-street Robertson, Helenus R., Springhill, Church-road, Wavertree Ryley, Thomas C., 10, Waverley-road Sephton, Rev. J., M.A., 90, Huskisson-street Sharp, W. H., The Woodlands, Ledsham, Chester Smith, Andrew T., Jun., 13, Bentley-road, Prince’s Park Stewart, W. J., B.A., Magistrates’ Court, Dale-st. Tate, Frank, F.C.8., Hackins Hey, Liverpool Thompson, Isaac C., F.U.8., F.R.M.S., Hon. TREASURER, Woodstock, Waverley-road Thornely, Miss L. R., Baycliff, Woolton Hill Thurston, Edgar, Gov. Central Museum, aoe ee Madras, India Toll, J. M., Kirby Park, Kirby Vicars, John, Gillbank Boot, Carnforth 3 Walker, Alfred O., J.P., F.L.8., VicH-PRESIDENT, Colwyn Bay White, P. H., M.B., University College, Bangor Williams, Miss Leonora, Hill Top, Broadfield, nr. Sheffield ) | | Willams, Henry, Jun., Gowan Brae, College-road, Gt. Crosby ‘ 7 Wiglesworth, J., M.D., County Asylum, Rainhill Wood, G. W., F.1.C., Riggindale-road, Streatham, London ‘i Weiss, Prof., Owens College, Manchester Young, T. F., M.D., 12, Merton-road, Bootle B. STUDENT MEMBERS. Armstrong, Miss A., 26, Trinity-road, Bootle Armstrong, H., Stuinaland: Spital, Cheshire Buckley, Miss i. B.Sc., University College, Liverpool KATY. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Christophers, 8. R., 10, Lily-road, Fairfield Depree, 8. §., 8, Morley-road, Southport Dickinson, T., 3, Clark-street, Prince’s Park Dumergue, A. F.,7, Montpellier-terrace, Up. Parliament-st. Dutton, J. H., Kings-street, Rock Ferry Griffiths, A. S., Manor House, Hale Gould, Joseph, Littledale-road, Egremont Hannah, J. H. W., 8, Allineton-street, Aigburth-road Hamilton, A. G., 16, Whitefriars, Chester Hawkes, A. KE. W., 22, Abercromby-square, Liverpool Hay, John, 92, Bridge-street, Birkenhead Henderson, W. 8., B.Sc., 2, Holly-road, Fairfield Hurter, D. G., Holly Lodge, Cressington Lovegrove, F. T. A., Marino, Blundellsands Lowe, O. W. A., 4, Wexford-road, Oxton Paden, R., Free Museum Palethorpe, Miss F., 14, Sandon-street Simpson, A. Hope, Annandale, Sefton Park Stolterfoth, C. 8., 1, Greyfriars, Chester Warham, Miss A. E., B.Sc., 70, North-street, St. Andrews N.B. Willmer, Miss J. H., Westbourne-road, Birkenhead ~C. Honorary MEMBERS. H.S.H. Albert J., Prince of Monaco, 25, Faubourg St. | Honore, Paris Bornet, Dr. Edouard, Quai de la Tournelle 27, Paris Claus, Prof. Carl, University, Vienna Fritsch, Prof. Anton, Museum, Prague, Bohemia Giard, Prof. Alfred, Sorbonne, Paris Haeckel, Prof. Dr. E., University, Jena Marshall, Prof. A. Milnes, D.Se., F.R.S., Manchester . Solms-Laubach, Prof. Dr., Botan. Instit., Strassburg REPORT of the LIBRARIAN, Our Society has arranged six additional exchanges of publications since the last Report, making in all seventy- two societies and institutions. The following list gives the titles of the exchanges and donations received during the session :— 1 By 3, eh 5 NOD Ne 18. Stavanger Museum. Aarsberetning for 1892, Actes de la Société Scientifique du Chili. III (1893); IV (1894), No. 1, Allgemeine Fischerei—Zeitung, XVIII, 183—27 ; XIX, 10—15. Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes publicados por Augusto Nobre. I, No. 2. Archiv des Vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklenburg, XLVII, Nos. 1 and 2. Archives du Musée Teyler. (S. 2.) IV, No. 2. Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et naturelles, XXVII, 3—5; XXVIII, 1. The Australian Museum, Report of the Trustees for the year 1892. Australian Museum, Sydney. Catalogue of the Marine Shells of Australia and Tasmania. Part III.—Catalogue of the Australian Birds. Part IV. Sechster Bericht der Kommission zur wissensch, Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere. Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen d. k. sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. 1893, IV—IX. 1894, I. Bericht der Oberhessischen Gesellschaft fiir Natur—und Heilkunde. XXIX, Bericht iiber die Senckenbergische naturforschende Gesellschaft in Frankfurt a. M. 1898. . Berichte der naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg i, B, VII and VIII. Bergens Museums Aarbog for 1892. Bulletin de da Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1898, Nos. 2—4; 1894, No. 1. Bolletino dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia comparata, Torino. VIII, Nos. 151—178. Bulletin of the U.S, Fish Commission. Vol, X (1890); Vol, XI (1891). XXVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Vol. XVI, No. 14; XXIV, Nos. 3—7; XXV, Nos. 1—5. Bolletino della Societa Adriatica di Scienze naturali in Trieste. XY. Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France, XVIII, Nos. 1—6. Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum. Nos. 43, 44 and 46. Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick. XI. Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique. XXYV, I. Ergebnisse d. Beobachtungsstationen an d. deutschen Kiisten. 1892. Christiania Videnskabs—Selskabs Forhandlinger. 1891 and 1892. Bihang till Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps—Akademiens Handlingar. Vols. XIV—XVII, XVIII, Nos. 3and4. | Exhibition Building, Melbourne. Illustrated official Handbook to the Aquarium, etc. | Journal of the R. Microscopical Society. 1892, 1898, 1894, Nos. I—III. Journal of the Marine Biological Association. (N.S.) III, No. 2 The Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University, Japan. Vol. V, part 4; Vol. VI, parts 2 and 38. The Journal of Marine Zoology and Microscopy. I, Nos. 1—8. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den naturhistoriske Forening i — havn. 1893. Memorie della R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna. Serie VY, Tomo II. . Mémoires de la Société Zoologique de France. VI, Nos. 1—4. Mémoires de la Société de a pysique et d'Histoire naturelle de Genéve. XXXI, No, 2. Mémoires (2), I, Nos. I and 2. Académie des Sciences et Lettres de ‘Montpellier. © Math. u. naturw. Mittheilungen d. k. preuss. Akademie der ES - schaften, Berlin. Juni, 1893—Mai, 1894. Nachrichten d. k. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, Gottingen. 1893, Nos. 1—21; 1894, Nos. 1 and 2. The Naturalist. Monthly Journal of Natural History for the North i England. August, 1893—July, 1894. Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand- ‘linger. 18938, Nos. 1—3; 1894, No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society. Vol. VII, ee 55 VEE parts 1 and 2. Proceedings of the Birmingham Philosophical Society. VIII, No. 2. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. XXVI. Proceedings of the Liverpool Physical Society. Vol. I. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. XIX, 47. 48. 49, 50. 51. 52. 53. 54, 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 7ale 72. LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. XXVIl. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria. VI. (N.S.) Vol. IV, part 2; Vols. V and VI: BL oo The Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1891-92. : Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 1893, No. 2 and 3. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum. Nos. 926-—980. Proces—Verbaux de la Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux. Vol. XLVI (1893). Records of the Australian Museum. II, 5. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze fisiche e matematiche di Napoli. Vol. VII, fases. 6 and 7. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze fisiche e matematiche: di Napoli. VII, Nos. 8—12; VIII, Nos. 1—5. Report the U.S. National Museum for 1892, pp. 245—368, 461—498. Seventh Annual Report of the Canadian Institute. Session 1893-94. Annual Report, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard eee 1892-93. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. 1891. Report of the Danish Biological Station. 1892. United States Commission of the Fish and Fisheries. Commissioner’s Report. 1889—91. Schriften des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins fiir Schleswig—Holstein, Vol. X, No. 1. K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs Skrifter. VII, No. 9. Sitzungsberichte d. k. preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1893 and 1894, Nos. 1—23. Studies from the Biological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. V, 4. Tufts College Studies. No. 1. Transactions of the Beyat Dublin Society. Vol. IV, No. 14; Vol.:V, Noss 14. Transactions of the Meriden Scientific Association. Vol. V. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. 1892, Vol. XXV. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Vol. VI. Transactions of the Canadian Institute. III, 2; IV, 1. Fifth Annual Report, Session 1892-3. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor ued aie leanne LII. Verhandlungen d. k. k. zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, XLITII, Nos, 3 and 4, XXVIll. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 73. 79. 80. 86, 88, Verhandlungen d. naturhist. Vereins d. preuss. Rheinlande. Vol, L, No. 1 and 2. Verhandelingen der K. Akademie van Wetenschappen to Amsterdam, (S. 2.) Vols. I and II. Det Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaaden ‘ Hauchs’ Togter. V. Vierteljahrschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich. XXXVIII. 3 and 4; XXXIX, No. 1. Zeitschrift fiir Fischerei. I, 4—6; II, 1. A Monograph of Lichens found in Britain. Part I. By the Rey, James M. Crombie, M.A., etc. Presented by the British Museum, Ni: The Hymenoptera — Aculeata of Lancashire and Cheshire. By Willoughby Gardner, F.R.G.S. Presented by the author. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Nottingham, 1893. President’s Address to the Biological Section. 3 Reports. Presented by Prof. Herdman, F.R.S. The Mushroom Beds of the South American Ants. By R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.E. Presented by the author. On the Silicious Deposit in the Cortex of certain species of Selaginella, Spr. By R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A. Presented by the author. The effects of Urban Fog upon Cultivated Plants. By F. W. Oliver. Presented by Professor R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A. Proceedings of the Chester Society of Natural Science and Literature, IV. Presented by A. O. Walker, Esq., F.L.S. Neue Beobachtungen iiber die Organisationund Entwicklung von Cyclops. Ueber die Entwicklung und das System der Pontelliden, By C. Claus. Presented by the author. Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht par le Prince Albert I“, Prince de Monaco. Fascs I—VI. Presented by H.S.H. the Prince of Monaco. Museums of the Past, the Present, and the Future, particularly those of Liverpool, By G. H. Morton, F,G.S. Presented by the author. Bericht iiber die Feier des 60. Geburtstages von Ernst Heckel. Presented by the Committee, "PEST ‘Ble Aynp “lOOduMATT “MALSHOIT GHYA'TV “adUASVadL “NOH “q9aLl09 punof pun pappny ‘NOSAWOHL “O OVYVSI ¢ 6 OcF ovccercccccccesccceseceeee yueg wou) ul soueleg kg @ G OOLF G@ G OOLF e 6 0S were ee ees esesesee . """F6OT asp tk Aue ‘puey, ul eouReleq (‘54 0 OL OT see eeeecereere: eereecerocnee woldizosqug Sdoquley{ oylT i ¢¢ 9 1 0 cere reescesese Pe ecrcercersesesesseeeese TWOTJIGIY XY U19JUB'T ¢¢ 0 0 G at 1% pt s . “ - ‘ a e i * * a 2 ‘ a meee . ’ 2 A ve - TRANSACTIONS OF THE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ’ qm Se) goes . ‘ § cs ees FA LS ' GAG = =: = ANIKE US ALP Be OPENING ADDRESS: On the ORIGIN OF MAN—HOW DERIVED? HIS GHNEALOGY AND STARTING POINT, AS ILLUS- TRATED BY GEOLOGY, BIOLOGY, LANGUAGE, HISTORY, THE HARLY CIVILIZATIONS AND RELIGIONS. By Joun Newton, M.R.C.S., &c., President. (Abstract. ) | THE surpassing interest of the subject was alluded to, and the vast progress which has been made during the last fifty years in all that relates to the origin and antiquity of man, to his affinity with other living things, to his early civilizations, arts and religions. Some account was given of the ancient attempts to give an intelligible account of the creation of the world, all which were superseded by the Mosaic cosmogony, as it 1s called. This was never called in question until of late. It was received also as literally true by scientists, hke Dr. Buck- land, who in 1823 and again in 1887 affirmed its accuracy. The startling discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes, pub- lished in 1847-50, were dwelt upon, as well as those of many other observers, which prove that man’s first appearance upon this earth must have taken place hun- dreds of thousands of years ago, though it was late in geological time. The extremely rude state of primative man, the early stone ages, the later stone ages, age of bronze, and age of iron were discussed, and the references to these in early Greek and Latin writers. Darwin’s 2 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. theory as to the origin of species was briefly summarised, and his chief arguments were given to prove that the theory of Natural Selection accounted for the origin of the human race, which must also have been evolved from lower forms. The anatomy and embryology of the higher Apes were dwelt upon, and compared with those of man, to show their coincidence. Reasons were given for believing that man first appeared in some of the warmer countries of the Old World, such as Southern Arabia, or Northern Africa. Egypt is the earliest centre of civilization as yet known. The relative antiquity of the empires of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome, was given. The chief lines of ancient migration are traceable to the southern shores of the Mediterranean. Allusion was then made to earliest known pottery, architecture, coins, the beginnings of lan- cuage and of religion (the earliest men being without either), and the origin of the alphabet—from Egypt. Modern savages reproduce for us many of the phases of our own prehistoric past, and there are survivals of savage rites and customs in our modern civilization, such as tattooing, marriage by capture and circumcision. Finally the comparative stagnation of the human race for untold ages, was contrasted with the rapid progress at which we are now advancing, and the causes for the change were dwelt upon. SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT of the LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE and their BIOLOGICAL STATION at PORT ERIN. By Professor W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S. LAST year’s report was a somewhat exceptional one as it chronicled the establishment of the new biological station at Port Erin in the Isle of Man, and the formal inauguration of the institution on June 4th, 1892, by His Excellency the Lieutenant Governor, Spencer Walpole, Esq., LL.D. Moreover as this was the first report after the centre of our operations had been moved from Puffin Island to a more populous region where we might reason- ably hope to enlist sympathizers and fellow-workers, some introductory matter was inserted explaining the objects and methods of our Committee, and the nature of marine biological investigations in general. Consequently it seems unnecessary to give any such information again in the present report,* which will therefore deal simply with the progress made in the scientific exploration of the Irish Sea during the year, and with the work carried on by investigators at the Port Erin Biological Station. The year has been a very good one both as regards weather and other facilities for work, and the following record, though in no way sensational, shows good solid progress in various directions and not a few contributions to know- ledge. As on previous occasions I have to acknowledge the hearty assistance rendered me by my colleagues on the Committee and by the workers at the biological-station * Copies of last year’s report (56 pages, 6 plates) in stiff boards can still be had, price one shilling each, on application to the Hon. Treasurer. 4. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. both in the actual investigations during the year and also in drawing up this annual record. . STATION RECORD. The following naturalists have been working at the Station during the year :— DATE. January. March, — May. NAME. C. Thompson A. O. Walker A. Herdman G. W. Herdman Thompson F Weiss W. A. Herdman R F Corbin W Beaumont M Potter G.S. Brady Vanstone I. W. In Ob 5 LD A 5 IG; sd ¢ lhe mC: 5 Sk OH, J WORK. Dredging, shore collecting, and ar- oes veeeee builder. Ascroft \ P. 458 P. M. C. Kermode.. Alfred Leicester Wee lalliisne: W. I, Beaumont M. C. Potter G. S. Brady W. A. Herdman I. C. Thompson Alfred Leicester Wye do IEEMIS. 8 P. M. C. Kermode ... J. H. Vanstone F. E. Weiss... EK. T. Browne A. O. Walker W. A. Herdman EK. T. Browne A. O. Walker ys valears J. H. Vanstone I. C. Thompson ranging details of new aquarium with Copepoda. Alge. Compound Ascidians. Collecting. Lucernarida. Algee. Copepoda. (Curator). Collecting. Mollusca. Hydroida. Lucernarida and Mollusca. Algee. Copepoda. . Compound Ascidians. Copepoda. Mollusca. Hydroida. Collecting. Collecting. Algee. Meduse and Plankton. Amphipoda, Compound Ascidians. Plankton. Amphipoda. Fishes. Nemertines. Copepoda. ee MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. July. A ugust. September. December. NAME. P. M. C. Kermode ... A. Leicester... W. Cash G. Dannevig EK. T. Browne G. W. Herdman J. H. Vanstone I. C. Thompson W. A. Herdman G. B. Howes W. A. Herdman J. H. Vanstone W. A. Herdman J. Vicars Miss L. R. Tiomaly W. J. Halls... J. H. Vanstone A. Chopin A. Leicester ... P. M. C. Kermode ... I. C. Thompson W. E. Hoyle W. A. Herdman P. M. C. Kermode ... J. Chubb”... W. E. Hoyle H. C. Chadwick I. C. Thompson W. A. Herdman WORK. Collecting. Mollusca, Dredging. Fishes. Plankton. General. Nemertines. Copepoda. Compound Ascidians Collecting. Compound Ascidians. Nemertines. Protective Colouring. Fishes. Polyzoa. Hydroida. Nemertines. Sponges, &e. Mollusca. General. Copepoda. Orthonectida. Protective Colouring. General. Collecting. General. Echinoderms ~ Copepoda. ; Collecting. ~ Besides this list of over 60 Sr ovkbts who stayed at the Station for periods varying from a few days or a week to~ several months, there were several occasions on which: large parties visited Port Erin for a day for the purpose. of seeing the biological station and doing some collecting, Such visitors are not recorded in the list. ~ Much of the work referred to in the above table will be reported on in detail below, or will form the subject matter’ of Separate papers to be laid Belore. the Sa oeerer portly during the coming year. L 6 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. THE AQUARIUM. During the first year’s work (1892) at the new biological station it was constantly felt to be an inconvenience to have all the vessels of sea-water containing our stock of animals permanently in the laboratory along with the microscopes and dissecting instruments ; and moreover it was found that work was frequently interrupted by the arrival of visitors who though not naturalists were more or less interested in marine biology, and to whom it was certainly desirable in the interests both of the institution and also of the diffusion of knowledge that we should show whatever was possible of the interesting animals of the neighbouring seas without interfering too much with the progress of our investigations. Consequently the Com- mittee became convinced of the necessity of having a separate aquarium and tank house for the storage of living marine animals and plants, for facilitating observations on habits and life-histories, and for exhibition to the public. On consulting with our enterprising landlord, Mr. Thomas Clague, of the Bellevue Hotel, we found that he was willing to erect for us a small two-storeyed building on the beach alongside the biological station on a piece of ground only separated from the laboratory door by the flight of steps leading down to the shore (see Pl. II). Drawings were made of the necessary arrangement of tanks, pipes, work-tables, &c., and from these Mr. George Herdman, B.Sc., Edinburgh, kindly prepared for us the plans from which the builders constructed the house. This aquarium was commenced on February 6th and was finished at the end of March. The slate and plate glass tanks was made by Carter & Co., in Liverpool, were taken apart and sent over in separate pieces, and were then put together again under our own supervision in their perma- nent positions in the wall of the building. a a TY, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 7 The aquarium house (see Pl. IIT) measures 20 ft. by 17 ft. Its lower storey is of concrete and opens directly on to the beach a few feet merely from high tide mark so that dredged material can be readily conveyed in from the boat to be sorted out and placed in the tanks. Sunk in the floor are three large shallow tanks or concrete cisterns in which large animals such as skates, or stores of smaller such as mollusca, might be kept alive under fairly natural conditions, with stones, sea-weed and sand, for any special purpose. In one angle is the well, 9 ft. deep, into which water is led by a 3 in. iron pipe from the sea (see Pl. IV). In another corner, clamped to the wall, stands the water- motor and force-pump (see Pl. V), arranged for us by Mr. George Herdman, which draw the sea-water from the well and inject if into the concrete cisterns placed on the cliff behind the house. On the side next the sea are two large exhibition tanks having the sides, back and floor of masonry lined by concrete, while the front is plate glass. These tanks are illuminated by little windows placed in their outer walls above the water-line, and as there are wooden shutters in front, above the water-line, all the light in this lower storey enters through the water of these two tanks which gives them a very bright appear- ance. A straight flight of wooden steps in the centre of the room leads to the upper storey, which is also entered by a door from the platform on the stairs opposite the laboratory (see Pl. Il). This room has three slate and plate glass tanks built into its north side, each partly illuminated by a sheet of dulled glass in its outer wall above the water-line. The opposite side of the room has a strong built-in work table running its whole length under the three windows, and on this, and on wooden stands above it, can be arranged as required a number of large and small movable aquaria, glass globes and jars, and other 8 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. vessels suitable for certain animals or special investigations. . The gable wall opposite the door is fitted up with shelving upon which a small collection of preserved animals illustrating the Fauna of the Bay is arranged. On the side opposite the windows, between the tanks, we have also placed narrow glass cases in which dried specimens, such as Zoophytes, Polyzoa, Mollusca and Crustacea, can be conveniently displayed. It is certainly an advantage for visitors that we should have a certain amount of such museum material properly labelled con- stantly on exhibition, as the living animals in the tanks and aquaria are always a somewhat uncertain quantity— at one time, after a successful dredging expedition, they may be abundant and very interesting, at another, if there has been no recent collecting, or after some accident when a number have died, there may be comparatively few or they may be nearly all common shore animals. Hence the Committee are glad to be able to state that Mr.G. W. Wood has kindly offered them his considerable collection of Manx Invertebrata, which was exhibited at the Douglas International Exhibition last year. When this arrives it will be displayed in a suitable manner on the shelves round the walls of the Aquarium. The arrangement of pipes for allowing the sea-water to’ circulate is as follows (see Pl. IV) :—From the sea the water 1s brought to the well, in which by screwing down the valve at high tide it can be stored. The pump, worked by a small water-motor supplied with fresh water from the pipes of the town, then forces thé sea-water from the well into one division of the cistern ; and, after depositing any sediment, the water passes into the second division from which leads the supply pipe to the tanks. The double cistern is built on a platform of the cliff behind the house, and on a level with the roof, so as to be above the highest ———— . MARINE. BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. @9 tank. The supply pipe goes first to the upper. storey, gives. off a branch to each tank, and a pipe with stop-cock to the work-table, and then passes through the floor to supply the tanks of the room below. The waste from the system leads to the lowest of the floor concrete basins in the lower storey, and from there out to the beach by a drain pipe. As is usual in such cases, our tanks had to be filled and supplied many times, stocked and re-stocked, before they were seasoned and thoroughly cleaned, so that the water would remain perfectly pure in them, and the animals and plants live healthily. In fact, it was not until late in the summer that some of them began to be permanently established, and now during the winter we find that they are looking very healthy, and many small things are begin- ning to grow upon the glass and walls, forming a ‘“ self- sown’ fauna and flora, so they ought to be in excellent condition during the coming season. In order to defray the expense of a laboratory boy who would keep the place clean, and also with the view of excluding those who were not really interested or desirous of seeing the tanks, a small charge of 3d. each was made for admission to the Aquarium during the latter part of the summer after the tanks had been stocked. During the four weeks when the Aquarium was thus open, we had over 150 visitors, and the Treasurer received £1 17s. 10d. from this source. There is no reason why, with the additional interest which our museum specimens will give to the place, and under the charge of an ener- getic curator, who will at stated hours take round visitors and give short demonstrations, the Aquarium should not be a considerable attraction in Port’ Krin and yield a fair revenue. The Aquarium at the Biological Station in the small town of Arcachon, in the South of 10 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. France, has about 16,000 visitors each summer, which brings in about £320 to the funds of that institution. THE CURATOR. In spring, the Committee appointed Mr. J. Henry Vanstone, of the Royal College of Science, South Ken- sington, resident Curator of the Biological Station, and Mr. Vanstone occupied the post continuously from April till September, when he was compelled to resign owing to family circumstances which required him to live near London. After Mr. Vanstone left, Mr. J. A. Clubb acted as Curator for a short time during the vacation, and then the station was left in the charge of the laboratory boy for the winter, but it 1s the intention of the Committee to proceed shortly to the appointment of a new Curator, who will commence his duties at Easter. Mr. Vanstone during his tenure of the office drew up and sent weekly reports to the Director on the condition of the tanks, the work being done in the laboratory, the animals collected, the temperature of sea and air, the number of visitors, &c. From these reports I extract the following series of temperatures (Fahrenheit) which may be of value. They were all taken about 10 a.m. :— DATE AIR SEA DATE AIR SEA APRIL 11 48° 46° APRIL 25 56 50 12 45 47 26 54 50 13 52 48 27 53 50 14 48 48 28 54 50 15 50 49 29 50 48 Wi 46 46 May 1 53 48 18 50 48 2 54 48 19 56 51 3 57 48 20 60 52 4 55 49 21 62 51 5 66 49 22 62 50 6 60 51 24 60 55 8 58 50 MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. DATE May JUNE g AIR 65 64 63 65 64 64. 60 56 68 66 60 55 58 60 60 60 60 60 60 66 64 65 66 66 68 70 66 66 64 66 66 70 71 70 68 68 Curator ill. 67 SEA 49 51 58 51 al 50 50 50 52 52 51 50 51 50 52 52 51 50 51 58 54 55 56 56 57 57 56 57 59 59 60 61 62 62 60 58 59 DATE JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. 1 AIR SEA 27 64 60 28 65 59 29 64 59 30 70 61 1 70 61 3 68 59 4 69 59 5 70 62 6 71 60 7 70 60 8 72 62 [At 3 p.m., air 78°, sea 68°] 10 68 58 Te 68 58°5 17. 66 57 13 66 58 14 65 54 15 59 55 17 62 51 18 62 51 19 60 50 20 64 51 ON 64 55 22 61 59 24 61 59 25 60 59 26 61 58 27 62 68 28 62 59 29 62 59 9 (2 60 11 70 61 15 64 42 28 63 61 29 61 59 30 60 59 31 60 58 fl 60 59 2 60 59 4 61 58 4) 62 60 12- TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. — ‘Date ~~ Arn --SEA -DATE Ate “3Ew Serr. 6 63 59 - ~ Sepr. 11 55) a ae ie | 60 59 as ie 59 -- 58 8 56 58 cee Gl. >a a: Ts 54 56 14 59 58 10 55 58 ; These columns show how during the greater part of the summer, before the maximum has been reached, the tem- | perature of the sea lags behind that of the air, while in September the air approximates to, or begins to be colder than, the sea. The shore pools exposed at low tide to the sun become, of course, on some days very much warmer than any of the above records for the open water of the bay. On July 13th it was found that some of the pools in front of the laboratory varied during the day from 60° F. to 76° F., and on July 22nd from 59° F. to 76° F. FisH CULTURE. These temperatures show that, in summer at least, there is no reason why oyster culture should not be carried on at the Isle of Man. At the various places on the west coast of France, where successful oyster culture is now carried on, I found this summer that the temperature of the sea varied from 66° F. to 76° F. Lobster culture is another industry which might with advantage be tried at Port Erin, the narrow deep-water creeks near Bradda Head could readily be converted into vivaria for this pur- pose. The Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Committee have not yet erected a hatchery alongside the biological station. Unexpected difficulties have arisen, but with the growing feeling in favour of such applications of scientific know- ledge and- methods to the fishing industries, which is rapidly spreading amongst fishery experts, the general public, and in Parliament, there can be little doubt that MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. kd sooner or later the plan will be carried out, and Port Erin will become an important centre for the propagation of young food fishes. In the initial stages of the work at the hatchery there is every probability that our tanks in the aquarium house will be of great service for experi- mental work. It may be of interest in this connection to note that during the past summer the following species of common fish have lived for longer or shorter periods in our tanks :—Cottus scorpius (Bullhead), C. bubalis (Father Lasher), Trigla hirundo (Sapphire gurnard), Agonws cataphractus (Pogge), Gobius minutus (Goby), Cyclopterus lumpus, Liparis montagu (Sucker), Lepadogaster byma- culatus (two-spotted sucker), L. gowanw, Blenmius pholis (Shanny), Centronotus gunnellus (Butter fish), Gadus virens (Saithe), Motella cumbria (Rockling), Plewronectes platessa (Plaice), Clupea harengus (Herring), Conger vul- garis (Conger eel), Syngnathus acus (Pipe fish), and Nerophis equoreus. In May, Captain G. Dannevig, the Director of the well- known Norwegian fish-hatching establishment at Flodevig, near Arendal, paid a visit to Port Erin at the request of some of the Lancashire Sea Fishery Committee in order that he might judge of the suitability of the locality for fish culture. He expressed himself as thoroughly satis- fied with the place, and in his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons, on June 15th, he mentioned Port Erin as a most suitable place for the establishment of a hatchery. DREDGING HXPEDITIONS. During the year 1893 various dredging expeditions in steamers have been arranged, partly under the auspices of the small Committee of the British Association, referred to in last report. The following is a brief account of the results of these expeditions :— 14 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. I. On January 29, 1893, the Committee had the use of the Lancashire sea-fisheries steamer ‘‘ John Fell.’”’ Several hauls were taken about 7 miles to the west of Fleshwick (Isle of Man), then some further to the south between Port Erin and the Calf. Amongst other species obtained were Cliona celata (fine, in various conditions), Sertularia tenella, and a number of hydroids and polyzoa, Sarcodic- tyon catenata, Porania pulvillus and Palmipes membra- naceus, Astacilla gracilis, Inachus dorsettensis, Ascidia venosa and A. virginea, Capulus hungaricus, Venus casina, and Pectunculus glycimeris. II. On March 11-13 the work was again done from the steamer ‘“‘John Fell.’ On the llth the. steamer left Douglas to examine the shoal lying to the north-east and south of the Bahama light: (see chart, Plate I.). Here, along with various food-fishes and some commoner inverte- brates, some very large specimens of Tritonia hombergr were trawled ; also the ascidians Ascidia virginea, Didem- num gelatinosum and Polycyclus savignyt (very large specimens), Corystes cassivelaunus, Scaphander lignarwus, Aglaophena tubulifera, A. myriophyllum, Calycella fastigiata, and Sertularella gayi, which is a new record to . the district ; Hudendrium rameum, Thwaria articulata, Gonothyrea gracilis and other zoophytes, and various common polyzoa, some very abundant and luxuriant. On the 13th, after trying again the same shoal as on the 11th, the steamer went to ‘the top end of the Hole,’ 26 miles east of St. Ann’s Head, 30 fathoms. Here there is sand to the north and mud to the south, and some hauls were taken along the line of junction. Amongst other things the following nudibranchs were obtained: Tritonia hombergt, Dendronotus arborescens (up to 5 inches in length), Holts drummondi, Holis rufibranchialis, and Holis farram; also Virgularia mirabilis, and no less than F MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 105, twenty-five species of hydroid zoophytes and twenty- three species of polyzoa. III. From March 29 to April 4 the Committee were working from Port Erin, and had the s.s. ‘ Lady Loch’ hired for two of these days. One day was spent in dredg- ing on the rocky bottom round the Calf and near the Chicken lighthouse, and in exploring the caves about Spanish Head and the Stack Rock. These caves can only be entered in a boat in calm weather at low tide; and the sides and roof are so closely covered with masses of bright red ascidians (Polycarpa glomerata), black and white sponges (Pachymatisma johnstona and Stelletta collingst), and tufts of Tubularia mdwisa, that scarcely any rock is visible. Amongst the more noteworthy animals dredged round the Calf and obtained on the neighbouring shores were the rare calcareous sponge Ute glabra, Corynactis viridis, Hyalinecia sp., Depastrum cyathiforme, Lineus gesserensis, Dinophilus teniatus (breeding at Easter), fifteen species of hydroids, including Aglaophenia tubuli- fera, Halecium tenellum, Lafoéa dumosa form robusta, L. fruticosa, Cuspidella costata and C. humilis ; the brachio- pod Crama anomala ; the crustacea Xantho tuberculata, Hbalia tuberosa and LE. tumefacta, Galathea dispersa (one with a parasitic Bopyrian), Spirontocaris spinus (one with a parasitic Bopyrian), Janwra maculosa, Triteta gibbosa, Amphithoe rubricata, Aora gracilis, Conilera cylindracea, Mera othonis, Metopa (? n.sp.), and others ; the mollusca Spirialis retroversus, Rissoa cingulus, var. rwpestris, Fissurella greca, Emarginula fissura, Chiton levis, Pleurobranchus plumula, Lima ellaptica and L. loscombit, Astarte sulcata and A. triangularis, Solecurtus antiquatus, Lyonsia norvegica, Pecten tigrinus and P. teste, Kellia suborbicularis, Pandora inequivalvis, Lamellaria per- spicua, Circe nunima and Thracia distorta, the two last 16 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. being new records to the district ; the tunicata Molgula citrina, Styela grossularia, Aseidia venosa, A. virginea, and A. plebeia, Botryllus schlossert, B. violaceus, B. smaragdus, Distomum rubrum, Amaroucium proliferum, A. argus, Leptoclinwm maculatum, and Didemnum gela- tinosum, Botrylloides rubrum, B. leachu, B. albicans ; and the polyzoa Chorizopora brognartu, Cylindreciwm dilatatum, Snuttia trispinosa, Diastopora suborbicularis, Ajtea recta, and Alcyomdium mamillatum which is new to the district. IV. April 28 to May 1. During two of these days the Committee had the use of the Lancashire sea-fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’ On one day dredging was carried on in shallow water along the shore about Fleshwick Bay to the north of Port Erin; while onthe other day advan- tage was taken of the fine weather to run out to the deep water halfway to Ireland, and work inwards. Hauls were taken at the following localities :— 1. Fourteen miles north-west of Port Erin, 79 fathoms, mud; Found Calocaris Macandrew, Lipobranchius jeff- reysu, Rrssoa abyssicola, Nucula sulcata, cc. Y. Ten miles north-west of Port Erin, 50 fathoms, mud: Found Brissopsis lyrifera (in quantity), cc. 3. Nine miles west of Contrary Head, 46 fathoms: Found Cyclostrema nullepunctatum, Rissoa soluta and R. cancellata, Huloma bilineata, cc. 4. Six miles west of Contrary Head, 37 fathoms: Thyone raphanus, Oscanius membranaceus, Alcyonidiwm mamillatum, Cellepora dichotoma, and Pedicellina gracilis. 5. Four miles west of Dalby, 25 fathoms; bottom dead shells, &c.: Found Forbesella tessellata, Stichaster roseus, Palmipes membranaceus, Diphasia pinaster, Hudendrium rameum, Scalpellum vulgare, Pecten maximus and P. opercularis in great abundance. Se el ~ MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. iy Pecten maximus yielded to Mr. Thompson the new copepod Lichomolqus maximus ; while in P. opercularis were found the amphipods Leucothoe articulosa, Triteta gvbbosa, and Podocerus herdmani, Walker. 6. Four miles west of Fleshwick, 20 fathoms: Found Ophiocoma nigra in enormous profusion, and other com- mon species. 7. One mile off. Bradda Head, 15 fathoms: Found Amphidotus flavescens, Ute glabra, Sertularella rugosa, Coppuma arcta, &c. A good deal of shallow water and shore collecting was also done on this occasion, and all the compound asci- dians noted under IIl. were got near Port St. Mary, with the addition of Glossophorum sabulosum and G. sp. (? n. sp.), both of them new to British seas, the genus only being known up to now from the French coast. A yellow variety of Giard’s Astelliwm spongiforme was also obtained. One of the most interesting finds on this expedition was certainly Cyclostrema millepunctatum, Friele, which was only previously known from one spot off the Lofoten Islands, in lat 69° 46’ N., long. 16° 15’ E., 649 fathoms. Our specimens, from 46 fathoms only, were collected by Mr. Leicester, identified by Dr. Chaster, and sent by him to Dr. A. M. Norman for confirmation by comparison with some of Friele’s types in Dr. Norman’s collection. V. May 19-22. On one of these days the Committee again had the use of the sea-fisheries steamer ‘ John Fell.’ The weather was rough, and it was only possible to work near the coast to the north of Port Erin, where hauls were taken at the following localities :— 1. South side of Fleshwick Bay, 13 fathoms: Adamsia palhata and Hupagurus prideauxn, Pleurobranchus plumula, and Ascidia virginea., 18 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 2. Opposite Fleshwick beach, 12 fathoms: Palmipes membranaceus, Solaster papposus, Aporrhais pes-pelicant (a very large number, all alive), Lepadogaster bimaculatus. 3. North side of Fleshwick Bay, 15 fathoms : Solaster papposus, Plumularia pinnata, Hudendriwm capillare, Palmiceilaria skenet (new to the district), Scaphander lig- narius, Ascidia virgined. 4, Same line, a little further out: Palmipes membra- naceus, Aporrhats pes-pelicani, Eugyra glutinans. 5, Across mouth of Port Erin Bay, from near Bradda Head to breakwater, bottom gravel and weeds: Adamsia palliata, Eupagurus prideauxit, Ophioglypha albida (spawning), Membrampora vmbellis, M. dwmerilu, Mucro- nella ventricosa, M. variolosa, Stomatopora granulata, S. major, Lepralia pertusa, Schizoporella linearis. Three varieties of the last species were found (1) var. with abortive cells having ovicells, (2) var. with avicularia on the top of blunt umbones, (3) var. approaching cruczfera, but with a spine on the ovicell. } VI. June 17-19. The Committee hired the steam trawler ‘ Lady Loch’ for June 18, and having favourable weather were able to work out to the depression between the Isle of Man and Ireland (see chart, Pl. II., and sec- tion). Two or three hauls were taken at each of the following :— 1. Six miles N.W. of Port Erin, 33 fathoms, sandy mud: Found Brissopsis lyrifera, Alcyonidium gelatinosum, Porania pulvillus, Adamsia palliata, Palmipes membra- naceus, Scalpellum vulgare on Antennularia. 2. Hight miles N.W. of Port Erin, 40 fathoms, mud: Found Calocaris macandree, Hyalinecia tubicola, &c. 3. Eleven miles N.W. of Port Erin, 50 fathoms, mud: Sagartia herdmant (on Turritella shells, see fig. 2, p. 22), Panthalis oerstedt, Lipobranchius jeffreysu, Bougaiillea MUSCUS, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 19 4. Thirteen miles N.W. of Port Erin, 60 fathoms, mud, bottom temperature 48° F’., surface temperature 60° F.: Found Calocaris macandree, &c. 5. Five miles off Dalby, 30 fathoms, ‘reamy’ bottom (sand and mud mixed): Sole, turbot, and brill all spawning here. Lima loscombu, Cerebratulus (? angulatus), Cheetopterus sp., Thyone fusus and T. raphanus, Eury- nome aspera. 6. Four miles off Fleshwick, 23 fathoms: Pecten oper- cularis and P. maximus in quantity; Molgula sp., Corella parallelogramma, Ascidia plebera, Ascidiella venosa, Polycarpa comata, Suberites domuncula. 7. A-mile and a half off Bradda Head, 12-15 fathoms: Styelopsis grossularia, Bowerbankia caudata, Eurynome aspera, Terebella nebulosa, Thyone raphanus. VII. On August 22nd dredging was conducted from Port Erin round the Calf Island from the hired steam- trawler ‘ Albatross’ at the following spots :— 1. Off Halfway rock and Bay Fine, half a mile from shore, 15 fathoms, bottom broken shells and small sravel:—Antennularia ramosa, Sertularia abietina, Aglao- phenia myriophyllum, Cellularia fistulosa, Sarcodictyon catenata, Ascidia plebeia, A. mentula, Cynthia morus, Porania pulvillus, Galathea intermedia with Pleurocrypta intermedia. 2. From off Kitterland to Halfway Rock, 17 fathoms, bottom stones and large shells :—Cliona celata (massive form), Ascidia venosa, Cynthia morus, Ophiopholis bellis. 3. Three-quarters of a mile north of Kitterland, 18 fath- oms, bottom shell-sand and small gravel :—Sarcodictyon catenata, Lepralia edax, Cellepora punucosa, Echinocy- amus pusillus, Ophiocoma mgra, Ascidia mentula, A. plebeia, Perophora listert, Capulus hungaricus, Murex erinaceus, Xantho tuberculatus, Inachus dorsettensis, EHbalhia cranchi. 20S TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 4. Off north corner of Calf Island, 17 fathoms, bottom stones and very many Ophiocoma nigra :—Stichaster roseus, Ophiothryx pentaphyllum, Ocnus brumneus, Lineus longissumus, Cynthia morus, &c. 5. South end of Calf Sound, 15 fathoms, large stones with Sertularia abietina and encrusting Polyzoa, and Crona intestinalis. 6. North-west of Calf Island, 18 fathoms, bottom stones, with many Ophiocoma nigra :—Calcareous sponge, Chetopterus sp., Thyone fusus, Ophiopholis bellis, Solaster papposus, Ascidiella scabra and Ciona intestinalis. 7. N.W. of Calf Island, further out than last, 20 faths., bottom shells, stones and Kchinoderm spines :—Sarco- dictyon catenata, Aglaophena tubulipora, Spatangus purpureus, Aphrodite aculeata, Crona intestinalis, Pero- phora listert, and Pectunculus glycumeris. 8. From off Kitterland to across Port Erin Bay, far out, bottom large shells:—Perophora listert, A scidia mentula,&e. 9. West of breakwater, one mile out, gravel and rotting weeds :—Lyonsia norvegica (alive), &c. VIII. On September 11th some of the Committee dredged from a large rowing boat between Port Erin and the Calf Island :—Half a dozen hauls were taken about Aldrick and Bay Fine in 15 to 20 fathoms :—Folliculina ampulla (in quantity, alive), Astrorhiza limicola, Anten- nularia ramosa and other Hydroids, Sarcodictyon catenata, Antedon rosacea, Halsydna gelatinosa, Terebella nebulosa, Amphiporus pulcher, Conilera cylindracea, Anthura gracilis (new to the district), Hurynome aspera, Galathea neca with Plewrocrypta nexa, n. sp., Ascidia plebeia, Ascidiella venosa, A. virginea, Cynthia morus, Polycarpapomaria, Corella parallelogramma, Doto fragilis, Velutina laevigata, Ostrea edulis and Syngnathus acus. a SN MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 21 ADDITIONS TO FAUNA. On all these expeditions, in addition to the animals picked out and preserved at the time, surface and deeper gatherings with the tow-net were taken by Mr. I. C. Thompson ; and samples of the bottom and of the ‘dredge débris’ were kept, and these were afterwards carefully examined by Mr. I. C. Thompson for copepoda, by Mr. A. O. Walker for amphipoda and isopoda, by Mr. A. Leicester for small mollusca, and by Dr. Chaster for fora- minifera. The sponges collected have been identified by Dr. R. Hanitsch, and several other workers at the Port Erin Biological Station have assisted the Committee with particular sets of animals. The additions to our know- ledge of the fauna during the year will now be given, taking the groups in zoological order. Fig. 1. Map of the L.M.B.C. District. Dr. G. W. Chaster reports that amongst the ForRAMI- NIFERA he has examined two are new to science, the one 22 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. is a Placopsilina and the other-an allied form which seems to require a new genus. They are from the central area at depths of 20-25 fathoms. Amongst the SPONGES examined by Dr. R. Hanitsch the following are specially worthy of note: Ute glabra, obtained near Port St. Mary (this is practically new to British seas, as it had only been found before at Guernsey) ; Hisperiopsis (Desmacidon) fruticosa, dredged off Calf of Man, 40 to 50 fathoms; Halichondria (Amphilectus ?) expansa, off Garwick Head (previously known from Skye) ; Suberites sp. (?), some very large masses, dredged halfway between the Isle of Man and Lancashire, 20 fathoms ; Raspaila sp. (new to the district), dredged off the Calf, 15 fathoms; Stelletta collingst, from the Caves at Spanish Head, Port Erin; Reniera rosea, at Fleshwick and Per- wick Bay (recorded by Bowerbank from Tenby and Sark only). In addition, Mr. Chopin, who was dredging at Port St. Mary in August, obtained Dercitus bucklandt, which is new to the Isle of Man. } We have found in the pools at Port Erin amongst other Hyproipa the Lafoea pygmea of Alder, and Miss Thornely has been able to prove that it is really a Caly- cella ; while Sertularella gayi has been added as a new record to the district. In all eighty-nine species of Zoo- phytes have been recorded now in the L.M.B.C. district. Fig. 2.—Sagartia herdmani, Haddon. The small pale red anemone attached to Twrritella shells (see fig. 2) which we dredge from the mud off Port Erin at depths of 50 to 70 fathoms has been identified by Prof. A. C. Haddon as Sagartia herdmani, a species MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 23 described by himself afew years ago from specimens obtained off the west coast of Ireland during the cruise of the s.y. ‘ Argo.’ In regard to TURBELLARIA, Mr. F. W. Gamble while working at the Port Erin Biological Station last summer drew up a list of species found in the neighbourhood. This has been published in full in ‘Trans. Biol. Soc., Liverpool,’ vol. vil. pp. 148-174. The list contains records of twenty-eight species, representing twenty-three genera : of these the following five species are new to British seas :—Promesostoma ovoidewm, P. lenticulatum, Byrsoph- lebs intermedia, Plagiostoma sulphureum, Oligocladus sanguinolentus. We also find at Port Erin the elongated pear-shaped opaque white cocoons of the Rhabdoccele Fecampia attached under stones in pools. The Potyzoa collected on the various expeditions have been examined by Miss L. R. Thornely, who also worked at the Biological Station for a couple of weeks in August. She reports that amongst the many forms collected, amounting to 123 species and 14 varieties, four species at least are new records to the district, viz., Alcy- ondivum mamillatum, Palinicellaria skener, Crisia ramosa and Lepralia edax, as well as five well-marked varities :— Schizoporella linearis, var. hastata and a var. like cruci- fera, Membramiporella mtida the Devonshire var., Hip- pothoa flagellum var. vitrea, and H. dwaricata vay. carinata. The CopEropa obtained both by surface nets and also from the mud and other material from the dredge have yielded Mr. Thompson in all 136 species, of which eighteen are new records to British seas and eleven are new to science. These last are:—Ameitra attenuata, Cletodes monensis, Herdmama stylifera, Cyclops marinus, Hersili- oides puffint, Jonesiella hyene, Laophonte spinosa, 24 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY. Lichomolgus maximus, Monstrilla longicornis, Stenhelia denticulata and S. hirsuta. These new species are all described in full, and figured, in Mr. Thompson’s ‘ Revised Report upon the Copepoda of Liverpool Bay,’ just pub- lished (August, 1893) in ‘Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc.,’ vol. vil., so 1t is perhaps unnecessary to give any further details here. Since the publication of his report Mr. Thompson has also worked over a good deal of material, partly fish parasites and partly taken from the stomachs of the young fish ex- amined by Mr. Corbin in the Fisheries laboratory at Univer- sity College. He reports as follows :— (a) Parasites—From the Cod—Caligus rapax and C. curtus. From the Hake—Anchorella appendicu- lata. From Flounder and from Arnoglossus megastoma — Lepeoptheirus pectoralis. From Sprat—Lerneonema spratta. (6) From stomachs of young Plaice, chiefly from More- cambe Bay—most contained quantities of Har- pacticide, chiefly Jonestella hyene in quantity, also numbers of Longipedia coronata and Canuella perplexa ; with these in most of the tubes were a few Cumacea and Amphipoda. Three of the above Copepoda are new to the dis- trict, viz., Lepeopthetrus pectoralis, Anchorella appendicu- lata, and Canuella perplexa. — The HiGHER CRUSTACEA have been examined, and to a large extent collected, by Mr. A. O. Walker, who has supplied the following lists and notes, which record only the more noteworthy additions to the local fauna :— SCHIZOPODA. Erythrops elegans, G.O.8., 8 miles west of Fleshwick, 30 fathoms. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 25 Mysidopsis gibbosa, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour, in alge. Gastrosaccus sanctus, v. Ben., Port Erin Harbour, Nov. 1892 and Jan. 1893, (the most northerly record of this species), Haplostylus normam, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour, Jan. 1893, one male, colour dark brown (also a Southern, Mediterranean, form). CUMACEA. Diastylis biplicata, G.O.S., 8 miles west of Flesh- wick, 33 fathoms, several specimens; an adult male measured only 5 mm. to end of telson. ISOPODA. Leptognathia laticaudata, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour. Paratanais batet, G.O.S., from Pecten maximus at Port Erin (along with another unidentified species of Leptognathia). Astacilla gracilis, Goods., Port Erin and Rhos Bay. Anthura gracilis, Montagu, off Aldrick, Port Erin, 20 fathoms, Sept. 11th, 1898. AMPHIPODA. Hyale nilssonw, Rath., shore, Port St. Mary, Isle of Man. Perrierella audouiniana, Bate, from Pecten maximus, at Pont Brin. Hoplonyx similis, G.O.S., Laxey Bay, Isle of Man. Harpuma crenulata, Boeck, 8 miles off Port Erin, 39 fathoms. Ampelisca macrocephala, Lilljeb., off Port Erin, Aug., 1893, 10 to 20 fathoms, one large female. Amplhilochus melanops, n. sp., off Little Orme, 5 to 10 fathoms, rather common (see below, p. 27). Monoculodes carinata, Bate, Port Erin Bay, July 21st, 1892. Metopa borealis, G.O.S., Colwyn Bay and Menai Strait, 23 fathoms, sandy bottom, not uncommon. 26 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ' Metopa pusilla, G.O.S., Colwyn Bay, 24 fathoms. Metopa bruzellu, Goés, off Little Orme, 5—10 fathoms. Leucothoe spwnicarpa, Abild., from Ascidia mentula off Clay Head, and from Pecten off Port Erin. Synchelidium brevicarpum, Bate, Port Erin Harbour. Paramphithoe monocuspis, G.O.S., off Puffin Id., &e. (probably an immature form of P. bicuspis). Paramphithoe assimilis, G.O.S., Puffin Island, Little Orme, and Lancashire Coast. Stenopleustes nodifer, Sars, Rhos Bay, 4 fathoms (not previously known South of Scotland). Lilyeborgia kinaham, Bate, 3 miles west of Calf, 19 fathoms. Laphystwus sturvonis, (Kroy.), (=Darwina convypressa, Bate), one specimen from under pectoral fin of cod sent from the Fisheries Laboratory, Liverpool. Eusirus longwpes, (Boeck), off Port Erin, Aug. 1893, 10 to 20 fathoms. Melphidippa macra, Norm., 8 miles west of Fleshwick, 33 fathoms. (These show the perfect antennze which were wanting in Dr. Norman’s Shetland specimens*). Maera longimana, Thomp., 8 miles west of Fleshwick, 20 fathoms. _ Chetrocratus assvmilis, Lillj., Port Erin Harbour, Jan. 1893. Photis reinhardt, Kroy., off Little Orme; colour dark brown. Megamphopus cornutus, Norm., 8 miles west of Flesh- wick, 33 fathoms, and off Little Orme 5—10 fathoms. A comparison of specimens of this from Norway, Shetland, Cumbrae, and Isle of Man shows that the horn on the first epimere diminishes and disappears as the species goes south. * British Association Report, 1868, p, 280. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. oT Podocerus herdmani, A. O. Walker, off Port Erin, 20—35 fathoms (washed out of Pecten maximus and P. opercularis), and Laxey Bay (for diagnosis and figure see last Annual Report). Podocerus isopus, A. O. Walker, Rhos Bay, low water, — abundant. Ericthonius difformis, M. Edw., Laxey Bay, 10 fathoms (colony of tubes attached to Zostera). Siphonecetes collettt, Boeck, Port Erin Harbour, off Garwick Head, and off Little Orme, 5—10 fathoms. Seven of these Amphipoda, Harpia crenulata, Anvphi- lochus melanops, Metopa bruzelu, Metopa pusilla, Param- phithoe monocuspris, Podocerus herdmani, and Siphonecetes collettt, have not been previously recorded in British seas. In regard to the new species, Amphilochus melanops, Mr. Walker states :— “This species is interesting from being very closely allied to A. martonis, Stebb., from Marion Island, from which it differs chiefly in its larger eyes, and in having the palm and hind margin of both gnathopods less convex. From A. oculatus (Hansen), from the west coast of Greenland, which it resembles in the eye, it differs in having no spiniform process to the anterior margin of the hand of the second gnathopod; and from A. tenwimanus (Boeck) it differs in the eye, which is described by Sars as being small, imperfectly developed, and light red; in the telson, which is much shorter, and in the armature of the outer plates of the maxillipedes, which are terminated by a single spine, exactly as in A. marionis, instead of two spines, as drawn by Sars. The mandibles have the molar tubercle intermediate in character between Amphilochus and Gitanopsis, Sars, to whose Gitanopsis iermis this species also has a great resemblance, but differs in the above character and in the length of the telson, which - 98 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. closely resembles that of A. marionis. The length of a female with ova is 2 mm. ‘The occurrence of species so closely allied as those mentioned above in such widely separated regions as Marion Island in latitude 48°S. and the west coast of Greenland is very interesting, as also is the presence of well-developed eyes in A. melanops and A. oculatus, taken in from 5 to 25 fathoms; while in A. marionis and A. tenuwimanus, taken in 100 to 200 fathoms, they are imperfect. It is very probable that it was this species (A. melanops) to which Mr. Stebbing referred* as having been sent to him by Mr. Robertson from the Clyde.” In regard to the Monuusca a large number of species have been collected by the Committee; and Mr. Alfred Leicester, who has examined and identified them, has drawn up a list of seventy-eight species which have not before been found off the south coast of the Isle of Man, while thirty of them are new records for the district, these include the following :—Lepton clarkie, Pecten teste, Nucula sulcata, Kellia suborbicularis, Cardiwm minimum, Isocardia cor, Thracia distorta, Euluma intermedia, Odostonia lukisi, O. conoidea, Rissoa abyssicola, R. violacea, Cylichna umbilicata, Aclis gulsone, Utriculus hyalinus, Propylidium ancyloides, Cecum trachea, Philine scabra, P. angulata, Bulla utriculus, Melanypus myosotis, Trochus helicinus, and Cyclostrema millepunctatum, the last being new to British seas. Some of these were found by Dr. Chaster. We have also taken the two Brachiopods Crama anomala and Terebratula caput-serpentis, and the rare Cephalopod Seprola scandica, (new record), as well as the more common 8S. atlantica. Mr. Walker has several times found Loligo forbes at Colwyn Bay. In regard to fishes, although most of the hauls on the * ‘Challenger’ Report on Amphipoda, p. 746. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 29 expeditions, having been taken with the naturalists’ dredge, were not suitable for the capture of fish, still the Committee, partly through the work of Mr. P. F. J. Corbin, at the Fisheries Laboratory, University College, Liverpool, have collected records of 114 species of fish found in the district, and have added the following species, previously unknown—Solea variegata, Gobius quadri- maculatus and Argentina sphyrena. In concluding this section it may be stated that the Committee have conducted eight dredging expeditions during 1893, and have explored a considerable amount of the Irish Sea around the Isle of Man, and especially to the south and west. They have collected and identified during the year over a thousand species of marine animals, of which thirty-eight are new records to the British fauna, two hundred and twenty four are new to the particular district (this part of the Irish Sea), and seventeen are new to science. The Committee give with this report (1) a chart showing the area under investigation, with the zones of depths indicated and (2) a section from Ireland to. Lancashire, through the Isle of Man, showing the marked difference in depth between the sea to the east and that to the west (see Pl. I). They are also preparing a larger and more detailed chart of the sea to the west and south of the Isle of Man, where most of their dredging has been carried on, in which the nature of the bottom and other particulars will be given; but they wish to make this chart more complete by the incorporation of further observations before pub- lishing. It is hoped that this more detailed chart will appear in illustration of a future report. THE SEA Bottom. The small Committee of the British Association, under whose auspices several of these expeditions have been 30 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ‘carried out, was re-appointed* at the Nottingham meeting for another year, with a grant towards expenses of steamers. The application for the re-appointment of this Committee was supported by the Geological section, as well as by the Biological, on the ground that observations of geological importance might be accumulated by pre- serving samples of the various deposits brought up by the dredge. These samples will be sent, at the request of Sir Archibald Geikie, to form a series in the museum of the Geological survey at Jermyn Street, London. It is also of importance to determine if possible whether any of the finer muds in deep water are of glacial origin. We have not as yet brought up any stones with undoubted elacial strie from these muds, but we propose to make use in the future of a circular dredge, with a large-meshed wire net, which will dig in more deeply and may possibly bring up some evidence either for or against the views of the modern glacialists that there were two successive stages in the movements of the ice which filled the Irish sea area—an earlier during which there was a convergence of ice from all sides towards the Isle of Man, and a later when the accumulated ice moved outwards from a central area to the east, south and west. The ice to the west of the Isle of Man would meet with little hindrance to its motion, and the deep gulley between the Isle of Man and Ireland may be the expression of the scour which this ice would produce. There is one interesting deposit from the sea floor found in our district, and of which a specimen was exhibited before the Geological section at the recent British Associ- ation meeting. It takes the form of irregular calcareous * The vacancy on the Committee caused by the sad and sudden death of our friend and colleague Mr. George Brook has been filled up by the appoint- ment of Professor G, B. Howes, who visited Port Erin in July, et MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 31 masses, cementing together the dead shells and sand grains which are lying on the bottom and making lumps lke ‘“‘clinkers.’’ Hence the spot where it is found 1s called by the trawlers the ‘“‘ Blacksmith’s Shop.” It is about 25 miles §.S.W. of the Calf of Man (see Pl. I, in ordinary clear weather the Chicken Rock lhghthouse just dipping and the Stack at Holyhead just rising above the water, and the depth is about 25 fathoms. We first heard of this interesting material from Mr. W. Beck, of Douglas, and he kindly sent a specimen to Mr. A. Leicester at Port Erin. Mr. Leicester found the following shells in the con- cretion :—Pecten opercularis, Cyprina islandica, Venus lincta, Cardiwm echinatum, Nucula nucleus, Scrobicularia alba, Lucina borealis, and Turritella terebra. We have obtained other specimens since, there is a fine lump in the Biological Station at Port Erin, and we have pre- sented another piece to the Jermyn Street Museum in London. Mr. W. W. Watts, of the Geological survey, has made a careful examination by thin sections of the latter specimen, and he has kindly sent me the following notes in regard to it :—‘‘ The microscopic examination shows that it is practically a fine grained grit made up of the usual constituents of fragmental rocks cemented together, the cement being in greater quantity that the orains. “These grains are chiefly chips of quartz, but I have also seen microcline, orthoclase felspar, plagioclase felspar, brown mica, afew grains of glauconite, and green and brown pseudomorphs, probably after grains of some ferro- magnesian mineral like augite, hornblende or even possibly olivine—which, it is impossible now to say, but I think most probably hornblende. There are one or two quite opaque grains and several clear grains containing a good deal of minute magnetite. The grains vary in size within 32 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. small limits, the largest I have measured is 0°02 inch and the smallest 0°002 inch, but the average size would be about 0:004—0:005 inch in longest diameter. They are there- fore minute grains, and as might be expected extremely angular, not one in a hundred showing rounded outlines. They are chiefly such grains as would come from the de- nudation of granitic rocks or sediments derived from them, ‘The cement is carbonate of lime, with a small impurity of carbonate of iron, present chiefly in certain layers, but not there in any considerable quantity. The cement is clearly crystalline in immediate contact with the grains, and also where lining cracks and cavities. Elsewhere it is more opaque and is conspicuously crystalline. The section cuts across numerous shell fragments and a few polyzoa, and where there are any hollow structures as in the inside of Lamellibranchs or Gastropods they are filled up with a substance indistinguishable from the bulk of the concretion. ‘The specimen shows no particular reason for the local deposit of cement, and the other constituents are doubtless the ordinary materials of the sea bed. I cannot find any evidence that the cementing is due to any organic agency, and the thoroughly well-developed crystals of carbonate of lime quite agree with this. It may be that the Carboniferous Limestone crops out on the sea bottom under the deposit, and if so there would very likely be submarine springs laden with carbonate of lime which might be precipitated there under less pressure or local loss of carbonic acid. It may be added that Mr. Clement Reid could not see in the specimen any identifi- able shells of other than recent age.” Manx Natura History Society. The Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society arranged to hold one of their Summer meetings sce mig ta ee tm MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 33 at Port Erin for the purpose of visiting the Biological Station, and they invited the Hon. Director of the Station to give them an address on the occasion. The meeting was held on August 14th under the presidentship of Dr. Tellet. The Society arrived at midday, were received by some of the members of the L.M.B.C., and all had luncheon together at the Bellevue Hotel. At 2 p.m. the members and their friends, making a party of nearly 70, visited the laboratory, and the Director then gave an address on the ‘Objects and Methods of Marine Biology,” with the view of defining the scope and nature of marine biology and its relation to the study of’ biology or natural history in general. He gave examples of the problems of wide theoretical importance still awaiting solution, and showed how much work of speciographic and distributional interest could be done by local scientific societies by means of sub-division and co-operation in work. The origin of land animals from marine ancestors was touched on, and some examples given of sea-animals now living on our coasts, which are becoming accustomed to breathe in air. Finally the subject of ‘‘ bionomics,” or the relation between animals and their environment was discussed, and cases given of protective and warning colouring, of mimicry, and of the characteristics of species having a definite utility and obvious connection with the habits or surroundings. The remainder of the afternoon was spent in examining the specimens under microscopes in the laboratory, and in the tanks and aquaria, under the superintendence of the Hon. Director and the Curator. PROTECTIVE COLOURING. This is a subject which has been referred to in several of these annual reports, and a number of new examples 34 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. have been described from our former laboratory at Puffin Island. There are two cases—(l) that of Lamellaria perspicua, and (2) that of Virbiws varrans—which we have had under observation during the summer at the Port Erin laboratory, and which may be of some interest to readers. (1) The following note on the “‘ mimicry” of Lamellaria appeared in the “‘ Conchologist” for June 24th :— ‘“‘ About twenty years ago Giard pointed out that the mollusc Lamellaria perspicua may be found associated with various compound Ascidians, and is then protectively coloured so as to form an excellent example of what he at that time called direct defensive mimicry. “ TLamellaria perspicua is not uncommon round the south end of the Isle of Man, and is frequently found under the circumstances described by Giard; but I met lately with such a marked case on the shore near the Biological Station at Port Erin, that it seems worthy of being placed on record. ‘The mollusc was on a colony of Leptoclinwm maculatum, in which it had eaten a large hole. It lay in this cavity so as to be flush with the general surface ; and its dorsal integument was not only whitish with small darker marks which exactly reproduced the appearance of the Leptoclinwm surface with the ascidiozooids scattered over it, but there were also two larger elliptical clear marks which looked like the large common cloacal apertures of the Ascidian colony. I did not notice the Lamellaria until I had accidentally partly dislodged it in detaching the Leptoclinum from a stone. I then pointed it out to a couple of naturalists who were with me, and we were all much struck with the difficulty in detecting 1t when am sitw on the Ascidian. “This is clearly a good case of protective colouring. Presumably the Lamellaria escapes the observation of its enemies through being mistaken for a part of the MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 35 Leptoclinwm colony ; and the Leptoclinum being crowded like a sponge with minute sharp-pointed spicules 1s, I sup- pose, avoided as inedible (if not actually noxious through some peculiar smell or taste) by carnivorous animals which might devour such things as the soft unprotected mollusc. But the presence of the spicules evidently does not protect the Leptoclinwm from Lamellaria, so that we have, if the above interpretation is correct, the curious result that the Lamellaria profits by a protective charac- teristic of the Leptoclinwm for which it has itself no respect, or to put it another way, the Leptoclinwm is pro- tected against enemies to some extent for the benefit of the Lamellaria which preys upon its vitals. W. A. HERDMAN.”’ (2) It will be remembered that the colour variations of the small prawn Virbwws varians whereby individuals resemble the green, the red, or the brown seaweeds they are asso- ciated with, or even sandy and gravel bottoms, were discussed and illustrated by a coloured plate in last year’s report, and the question was raised as to whether, or to what extent, the adult animal could change its colour. We have had a number of specimens, of various colours, under observation in the laboratory during the year, and they have been kept in jars with various colours of seaweed and of background, and in very different amounts of light. These experiments have shown clearly that the adult animal can change its colouring very thoroughly, although not in a very short space of time. To take an example or two from my notes :— I. One speckled-red and two brown specimens were put in a glass jar containing bright green sea-weeds (Ulva and Einteromorpha), on a sheet of white paper, in direct sun- light, on September 6th, at 9 am. At 8 p.m. all the brown and red colour had gone, the three specimens were all of a pale amber tint, and ‘“‘ washed-out ”’ looking. 36 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. II. One reddish-brown specimen, dredged amongst red alee on August 19th, was put that afternoon in a glass jar with green alge (Hnteromorpha) ona white background in the sun. On the morning of the 21st it was almost colourless, having merely a pale grey-green tint, and was quite inconspicuous. When examined in a watch glass under the microscope the integument was seen to be almost quite transparent, the pale grey-green muscles showing through distinctly, and the chromatophores or pigment spots being reduced to minute rounded, very rarely branched or stellate, dots which were all of a dark red-brown colour, but from their small size produced little effect upon the general tint of the body. When put back amongst the red weeds it was originally taken from this specimen now looked pale green and conspicuous. III. One red, one brown, and two speckled-red speci- mens dredged amongst red and brown sea-weeds in Bay Fine were put on September 7th at 10 a.m. into a glassjar with green alge, in the sun. At 8 p.m. the brown one was much paler, being a mixture of gamboge and pale neutral tints, while the other three had not undergone much change. On September 8th at 10 a.m. (1.e., after 94 hours in all) the brown one had become distinctly green and was quite inconspicuous, while the red and speckled ones, although not green, had become much less conspicuous by the whole body being very transparent, and the red markings very much paler than they had been— looking as 1f they had been almost washed out. Of the four possible alternatives stated in our last report (p. 36) I now think that the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th are all parts of the true explanation of the state of affairs—that is, that there are no permanent varieties, but the young when they first settle down upon the sand or sea-weeds have, what- ever the colour inherited from their parents may be, great MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. oF adaptability, so that under the influence of their environ- ment they soon assume a protective colouration ; more- over in each generation the action of natural selection will eliminate those most markedly dissimilar to their en- vironment and those which cannot so readily be modified, and this process will go on during the whole of life ; further, the adaptability, or marked susceptibility to the influence of environment, is retained throughout adult life, so that, e.g., a green Virbius from the Zostera put in a clump of Halidrys can change to a dark brown colour. The change in colour is, of course, due to changes in size, and in the arrangement of the contained pigment granules, of the chromatophores. Ina reddish brown Virbiws examined on September 6th the integument was seen under the microscope to be richly pigmented with very large stellate and elaborately branched chromatophores containing pig- ment of various colours, such as blue, yellow, red, brown and chocolate, the last three being the most conspicuous. When this specimen was examined again on September 7th, after the 24 hours in green sea-weeds, it was found that all the chromatophores were smaller and less branched, and that the blue and yellow ones were now the most con- spicuous, the red and brown ones being mostly contracted down to little rounded dots. It would be interesting to determine whether here, as in some other cases of similar colour changes, the modification of the chromatophores is due to nerve action and is dependent upon sight, or is the result of the direct action of light upon the integument. SWARMS OF AMPHIPODS. On several occasions during the past year the Biological Station has been invaded by countless numbers of com- mon shore Amphipoda, chiefly Orchestia gammarellus (the shore hopper), accompanied by small black flies and some 38 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. red mites (Bdella longicornis). This was notably the case on April 18th, and again on May 18th, but was noticed to a less degree on several other occasions. Once during the winter on entering the laboratory after it had been shut up for a few days we found the floor, tables, shelves, win- dow ledges, and even dishes on the highest shelves, covered with great numbers of the dead Amphipods. On April 18th an unusually high tide occurred, and the curator and others Fig. 8. The Laboratory at Biological Station, Port Erin. noticed that the steps leading up from the beach were swarming with Amphipoda. On watching them it was found that the Amphipods were coming up in great num- bers from high-water mark, that they jumped up the steps (see fig. 3), and even climbed the vertical concrete wall surrounding the station to a height of several feet. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 39 Many of them were found about twelve feet (vertically) above the sea, having come nearly all the way on artificial eround (concrete steps and wall), and they were so abun- dant on the platform outside the laboratory door that it was impossible to put a foot down without treading on many. Specimens were kept and have been identified by Mr. A. O. Walker as Orchestia gammarellus. This species lives normally at or about high water mark, and it is abundant at Port Erin under stones at that level, but Mr. Walker has taken it on the one hand nearly at low water mark, and on the other hand under stones on grass, along with beetles, and we have found it near Port Erin far above high water mark at the side of the road. However, these last are probably exceptional cases, and there can be little doubt that the various Amphipod invasions we have sustained have been caused by the Orchestias being driven from their usual haunts by exceptionally high tides. On May 18th the high tide coincided with very heavy rain which may further have helped to cause the migration. But whethera panic arises on the flooding of their homes, or they lose their way on our new concrete, the fact remains that whereas the sea was only a couple of feet higher on these occasions than an ordinary high tide, the Amphi- pods ascended on the one occasion to about twelve and on the other to perhaps twenty feet above their usual level. OTHER F'AUNISTIC WORK. In addition to the results of the various dredging expe- ditions given at pp. 13 to 29, a good deal of faunistic work has been carried on at Port Erin by shore-collecting at low tide, and by bringing in quantities of sea-weeds and materials from the shore pools and searching over these minutely in the laboratory. It isin this way that many of the smaller Mollusca, the Turbellarian and 40 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Nemertine worms, and the smaller Polyzoa, &c., have been obtained. To take these matters in zoological order :—Some mud sent from Port Erin by the Curator to Mr. Chopin, of Manchester, was examined by Mr. W. Chaffer, who has sent me through Mr. Chopin the following lst of the For- aminifera he found, Lagena striata, L. sulcata, L. squa- mosa, L. costata, L. obigerina, L. hexagona, L. lweida, L. marguata, L. gracilis, L. levis, L. crinata, Nodosaria pyrula, N. scalaris, Biloculina depressa, B. ringens, Milr- olina. sennnulum, Marginulina glabra, Nomonna sp., Bulumna pupoides, Spiroloculina depressa, Polymorphina striata-punctata, and Dentalina striata. We have obtained the anemone Corynactis viridis not only by dredging but also onthe shore near Bradda Head at low tide, and we find that it lives well in our tanks. A marvellous place for sea anemones—and for many other things besides—is the group of rocks called the “‘ Clets ” on the south side of the Calf Sound. Few sights can give more pleasure to the naturalist than the spectacle revealed by a low spring tide on a fine summer morning. The variety and profusion of life is very astonishing. Mr. Beaumont during his visits to the Station in the summer of 1892 and in the spring of 1898 paid some attention to the Lucernarians, and he has since published a paper in the Trans. Biol. Soc , vol. VII.,in which he shows that the species up to now found at Port Hrin are Depastrum cyathiforme, Haliclystus auricula, and a second species of Haliclystus, possibly new. Mr. Edward T. Browne, B.A. (Oxon.), from University College, London, worked again this year at Port Erin for some weeks in April, May, and June. He made a systematic examination of the plankton, or floating minute life, which is caught by means of the tow-net in MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. Al the bay; and he specially studied the meduse. Mr. Browne has sent me some notes upon his work, from which I extract the following brief particulars. Further details will be given in an independent L.M.B.C. Report upon the meduse of our district, which Mr. Browne pro- mises us after another visit to Port Erin during the com- ing season. The species which he has found so far are :— Amphicodon (Corymorpha) fritillartia, Codonwum (Sarsia) pulchellum, Cytwandra (Podocoryne) areolata, Huphysa aurata, Laodoce (Thawmantias) cruciata, Margellrwm (Lizzia) octopunctatum, Melicertidium (Stomobrachium) octocostatum, Traropsis (Thaumantrias) multicrrrata, Aurelia aurita, Cyanea capillata, and several other species not yet determined. Nearly all these are new records to the L.M.B.C. district, and Amphicodon fritilaria has not previously been recorded for British seas. Mr. Browne took tow-net gatherings on the average three days a week between April 28th and June 5th. He found :—Prorozoa, three species nearly always present, Ceratiwm tripos, C. fusus, and C. dwergens ; C. fusca was not often taken. CTENOPHORA, Plewrobrachia pileus and Lesueurva vitrea (this is anew record for the L.M.B.C. district). ANNELIDA, T'erebella and Nerine larvee, Tomop- teris, Autolytus prolifer, Sagrtta, and Actinotrocha. CRUS- TACEA, Nauplus and Metanauplius stages of Balanus ; Podon and Hvadne; many Copepoda not identified (great decrease of Copepoda when the sea is full of Diatoms) ; Zoea stage of Porcellana, Megalopa of Pagurus. And finally the Tunicate Orkopleura, many with ova at end of April, young stages at end of May. Mr. G. W. Wood, who recorded several species of Hydroid Zoophytes new to the district in the third volume of our ‘‘ Fauna,’ has now sent me notes of further work. 42 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. He obtained the specimens during a series of dredgings along the coasts of the northern parts of the Isle of Man, between Laxey and The Dhoon in the summers of 1890 and 1891, chiefly on the site of an old oyster bed, from which in the time of Edward Forbes (1838) oysters were brought to market. The supply of oysters has long since been exhausted, but various large mollusca are still abun- dant, such as Pecten opercularis, Cyprina islandica and Mytilus edulis. On these, Polyzoa and other encrusting colonies are abundant, and many Crustacea and some Kchinodermata, such as Solaster endeca, Palnupes mem- branaceus and Astropecten irregulare, are brought up in the dredge. Mr. Wood’s hsts contain Palmicellaria skenet, Scalpellum vulgare, Pisa gibbsu and Chiton han- leyt, new to the district, and Swuberites ficus, Chalina oculata, Polymastia mammnularis, Flustra securifrons, Lichenopora verrucaria, Cardiwm nodosum and Tellina donacina, all new to the Isle of Man. This does not exhaust Mr. Wood’s work, as he has still undetermined material on hand. As is noted elsewhere Mr. Wood is presenting his collection of named and mounted Manx Invertebrata to the Aquarium at the Biological Station. During his visit to Port Erin in April Mr. W. I. Beau- mont worked for some time at the identification and vari- ation of the Nemertida, while later in the summer Mr. J. Henry Vanstone, the Curator of the Station, also occupied some of his time with the determination of the Nemer- tines of the shore. Both these gentlemen have sent me reports upon their work, and I propose that these should be combined to form a joint report by Messrs. Beaumont and Vanstone, which will appear as a separate paper in the Transactions of the Biological Society, and later in the next volume of the “‘ Fauna.” Mr. Beaumont found eight species, as follows :—Carimella annulata, Amphiporus MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 43 lactifloreus, A. pulcher, Tetrastemma melanocephalum, T. candidum, T'. dorsale, Nemertes neesit, and Lineus obscu- rus. T'o these Mr. Vanstone was able to add seven others, viz., Cephalothriz bioculata, Tetrastemma nigrum, T. im- mutabile, T. vernuculatum, T. robertiane, Lineus longis- simus and Cerebratulus angulatus (7). Nearly all of these 15 species are additions to our lists, only two of them having been previously recorded in vol. I. of the ‘‘ Fauna.”’ Several of the species live in abundance in the shingle, immediately in front of the Biological Station, along with the Oligochete worm Clitellio arenarius. It was found that the best way of killing the Nemertines in an expanded condition was by means of either a 1 % solution of cocain or a saturated solution of ferrous sulphate. Some parasitic Bopyride found on the bodies of Gala- thea at Port Erin have been examined by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, who kindly sends me the following report in regard to them :—‘‘ The Bopyride appear to be (1) Pleurocrypta galatee, Hesse, in Galathea squamefera, Leach ; (2) Plewrocrypta mtermedia, Giard and Bonnier, in Galathea intermedia, Lilljeborg; (8) Plewrocrypta nexa, n. sp., in Galathea neca, KEmbleton. They were all on the right side of the host’s carapace, and all laden with eges. The only authority I know of for Plewrocrypta m- termedia is Giard and Bonnier, Bull. Sci. de la France et de la Belgique, t. xxi. p. 375, footnote, merely giving the name of the parasite and that of its host. On their prin- ciple that the same parasite does not inhabit two different species of host, the giving of the names would be sufficient for a preliminary description. On the same principle, therefore, 1t will be sufficient to announce Plewrocrypta nexad as a new species derived from Galathea nexa, Embleton. I send you, however, figures of the female and male of this species in dorsal view. The branchial Hi 44 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. plates on the pleon of the female have the edges crenulate, and are more or less pointed at the apex ; of the six pairs the first are least, and the last most, acute. The two last pairs of marsupial plates have very small setules on the hinder margin. The eyes of the female are very small and indistinct. . . . . In the very much smaller Pleurocrypta intermedia the eggs, as you will see on the slide (although they had not left the marsupium, but were taken from it), show a development equivalent to the ‘first larval stage.’ In all three specimens, as usual, the flattened back of the animal was pressed against the branchiee of the host, while a vast quantity of eggs held together on the ventral side by the large and thin marsu- pial plates, distended the carapace of the host in a remark- able manneyr.’’ Mr. Chadwick, of Manchester, as a result of his work last year at the Station, has published an important paper on some points in the minute structure of the hemal system of our Asterids. This summer he made some observations upon a species of Synapta, which is found to be not un- common in the muddy shingle, near low tide, close to the Biological Station. During September we found that some of the common Amphiura squamata were swarming with the remarkable parasitic Orthonectid Rhopalura. Dinophilus tenatus appeared again this spring in con- siderable abundance, and was found to be breeding early in April. Our marine insects, which have been hitherto rather neglected, will, it may be hoped, receive adequate treatment in the future, as Prof. G. §. Brady and Prof. Miall have announced their intention of taking up this group of animals. We find the red sponge Halichondria caruncula at Port Erin very commonly has its oscula occupied by the Amphipod Triteta gibbosa. The red compound ascidian Distomum rubrum from the Calf Sound MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 45 is very constantly infested with a bright brick-red Cap- rellid. | Amongst the Opisthobranchiate Mollusca obtained at Port Erin during the year are:—Hlysia viridis, var. olivacea, Actwoma corrugata, Plewrobranchus plumula, Holis coronata, EH. angulata, and EH. drummondz ; also Cratena concinna from Leasowe, near Liverpool, on Sertularians. Some experiments were made during the summer at the laboratory with the gregarious Ascidian Polycarpa glomerata from the sugar-loaf caves, with the view of determining the functions of the atrial tentacles found in this and a few other species. Athough some results have been obtained, I hope to make the investigation more complete by further experiments before publishing an account. The large buoy, which 1s moored at the entrance to the Bay, off the end of the broken breakwater, underwent its annual cleaning and tarring on May 26th. Fortuna- tely Mr. HE. T. Browne, who was then working at the Biological Station, was present on the occasion, and he found when the buoy was turned over that the flat. bottom, about five feet in diameter, was completely covered with animals and sea-weeds, especially the former. The following were taken :—Sycandra compressa (very large), S. ciliata (fine clusters), Antedon rosacea (a dozen), Fiucratea chelata, Scrupocellaria reptans, Caprella linearis, Eolis coronata, Mytilus edulis, Ciona intestinalis and Ascidiella scabra (ap to 5 cm. in length). It is interesting to get here such forms as Antedon, the Polyzoa and the Ascidians which are usually found in 10 to 20 fathoms off Port Erin. All the specimens taken were characterized by their fine and luxuriant growth, and all must have become attached since the cleaning of the previous summer. 46 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. THE SUGAR-LOAF CAVES. These caves, like the “‘ Clets’’ in the Calf Sound, are most attractive to the naturalist who loves to see a pro- fusion of animals flourishing under their natural condi- tions. The following note of a visit to them appeared in Nature for May 4th, 1893 :— ‘“‘ During the Easter vacation the Port Erin Biological Station has been full. The l.M.B.C. organized a dredging expedition, and the steamer ‘ Lady Loch’ was hired for some days, during which a trip was made to the deep water lying west of the Isle of Man, and the shallower ground round the Calf Island and off Spanish Head was also explored. On one of the days the calm sea and low tide enabled the wonderful caves at the Sugar-loaf rock, near Fig. 4. Sugar-loaf Rock, near Spanish Head. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 47 Spanish Head (see fig. 4), to be visited in a boat from the steamer. The exposed sides, parts ofthe roof, and as far down as can be seen in the clear water are closely covered with rounded red Ascidians adhering together in masses, black and white sponges, and tufts of T’wbularia, forming altogether a most striking sight. The sponges are mostly Pachymatisma johnstont, and the Ascidians are Alder’s Polycarpa glomerata, a somewhat variable species, solitary specimens of which have been sometimes referred to Styela rustica (a species which probably does not occur at all in British seas). When touched these ascidians emit forcibly tiny jets of sea water fromthe branchial and atrial apertures, and this with their colour has gained for them the local name of the ‘‘ red-currant squirters of the Sugar- loaf cave.”’ PUBLICATIONS. No new volume of the ‘‘ Fauna” of Liverpool Bay has been issued during the past year, but several L.M.B.C. papers have been published and copies printed off and stored away to form part of Vol. [V., which will probably be completed in a year or so. These papers are :—Mr. I. C. Thompson's ‘‘ Revised Report on the Copepoda,” alengthy paper illustrated by 21 plates, and giving an account and a figure of every species found up to now in the district ; Mr. F. W. Gamble’s Report on the Turbellaria of the L.M.B.C. district, illustrated by three plates; Mr. W. I. Beaumont’s Note on Lucernarians found at Port Erin; and Mr. H. C. Chadwick’s account of the hemal and water-vascular systems of some of our star fishes, with four plates. Amongst future papers which will probably be laid before the Biological Society this session as an outcome of work at Port Erin are :—On Synapta by Mr. Chadwick, 48 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. on the Meduse by Mr. Browne, Revised Report on the Amphipoda and Isopoda by Mr. Walker, on the Nemer- tida by Messrs. Beaumont and Vanstone, and possibly a Report on the Fishes by Prof. Herdman and Mr. Corbin. Finally, it may interest some to know that at a recent visit paid to the Station in December we found the place in excellent order, it having been kept well aired and cleaned, and the tanks well looked after by the laboratory boy, William Bridson. In one tank we found vast swarms of Copepoda had made their appearance: Mr. Thompson identified them as Harpacticus fulvus. Swarms of Cope- poda made their appearance suddenly in June in an aquarium at University College, and they proved on exami- nation to be Idya furcata. In another tank at Port Erin we found that a common anemone had a few days before produced upwards of 50 young ones. There is every pros- pect that when we re-open the station at Haster, with a resident curator, the tanks will be thoroughly “ estab- lished’ and in excellent condition for more complete stocking. In addition to the speciographic investigations and the bionomical work—such as the relations between the struc- ture and colours of animals and their surroundings and habits—which have occupied a good deal of our attention bothat Puffin Islandandat Port Erin there is another allied subject well worthy of careful observation, and that is the association of species together, and an enquiry into the causes thereof. The distribution of every species is no doubt determined by definite factors which we may hope some time to ascertain by observation and experiment ; some of these factors are known to be the temperature and the salinity of the water and the nature of the bottom, others are doubtless the presence or absence of other MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 49 organisms—both plants and animals—which serve as food, act as enemies, or influence their neighbours in other more obscure and subtle ways difficult to determine. Edward Forbes wrote long ago, ‘“‘ Geology and Zoology will gain as much by inquiring how our marine animals are associ- ated together as by investigating genera and species, though the former subject has as yet been but little attended to in comparison with the latter.” Things area little better now. The teachings of Darwin in regard to the inter-relations of species have told upon the work of the last quarter of a century, but we still require much accurate knowledge in regard to the factors which limit the existence of a species, and I trust that we may be able to do something at the Port Erin Biological Station towards supplying this want. The usual statement of the Hon. Treasurer, and the lists of subscriptions and donations is appended to this Report. The Dredge. 50 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. > APPENDIX A. LIST OF PRESENTS TO THE STATION. JN sOVeNye JEP NVUSIED(Oye Stl? Ao nosnion nt Mrs. Harvey-Gibson Balfour’s Embryology, 2 vols.... Prof. Weiss Day’s British Fishes, 2 vols...... Mr. J. Vicars Gosse’s Marine Zoology ......... Mr. A. O. Walker Monograph on the Ostracoda ...Prof. G. 8. Brady A Hartnach Microscope ......... Mr. R. J. Harvey-Gibson Various Zoological Books......... Mr. R. J. Harvey-Gibson ID ee Giers AOL IENOFNS. sonsaniocossoab oer Mr. W. J. Halls KOU Ole MEMOS, CiOssonsasanesancpsans Mr. R. D. Darbishire APPENDIX B. SUBSCRIPTIONS and DONATIONS. Subscriptions. Donations. £ -\s.. Os eo eecueee Banks, Prof. W. Mitchell, 28, Rodney-st. Thy Iq, Hi) — Barlow, Rev. T.S., Bishop’s Court, lof Man 0 10 6 == Beaumont, W. I., Cambridge i 0 Bickersteth, Dr., 2, Rodney-street... 2 0 Boulnois, H. P,. 7, Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park 49 ie ae 16k dl al ea) -- Brown, Prof. J. Catnpbel University College, Liverpool... a Rei tee ibe) — Browne, Edward T., B.A., 14, Uxbridge : road, Shepherd’s Bush, London rey ae, Se a Burton, Major, Fryars, Beaumaris.. es De eee te Caine, Nath., 10, Orange-court, Castle. street 1) 1 0 =o MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. at Oash, William, 38, Elmfield Terrace, Halifax 1 1 0 ais Caton, Dr., 31, Rodney-street _... — Peer g Chadwick, H. 0, 2, Market-place, Chorlton- eum-Hardy, Manchester A Sen oO LO 0 — Clague, Dr., Castletown, Isle of Man pee Te eA — Clague, Thomas, Bellevue Hotel, Port Hrin 1 1 0 — Comber, Thomas, J.P., Leighton, Parkgate 1 1 0 = Crellin, John C., J.P., Ballachurry, Andreas, Isle of ee ee sO — Dawkins, Professor W, Baad ee Bolces Manchester... Pea Bat eG) — Denny, Prof., Firth Col ae Sheffield eo EY 16830 — Derby, Earl of, Knowsley .. 31, O00" — Dumergue, A. F., 79, eulsbars Gig Hicroe EEEC™ > 5 ce ar eb Gar H. W,, iitidown-voadl et ee 220 Gamble, Col. David, C.B., Tee epee —_ St. Helens Gaskell, Frank, Woolton Wao Gaskell, Holbrook, J.P., Woolton Wood, Gell, James S., High Bailiff of Castletown... Gibbons, Fredk., 19, Ranelagh-street Gibson, R. J. Harvey, 41, Sydenham-avenue Gifford, J.. Whitehouse terrace, Hdinburgh Glynn, Dr., 62, Rodney-street Halls, W. J 30, Lord-street Henderson, W. G., Liverpool Union Pink Herdman, Prof, ie College, L’pool. Holder, Thos., 1, Clarendon-buildings Tithe- barn-street Holland, Walter, Mossley Hill: my Holt, George, J.P. Sudley, Mossley Hill ... 1 0 0. Howes, Prof. G. B., Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London... 1 1 0O — Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquar- IA MOOCICUY Bede tas pcm tse vee Sea fe Jee DAO po @ Re Re RS eS Rt eR KR WD dD —@ KF RF own FR KF KY K OS So oS.) o.90 eo co SS co oo — b> — S & | 52 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jones, C. W., J.P., Field House, Wavertree 5 0 0 Kermode, P. M.C., Hillside, Ramsey .... 1 1 0 — Leicester, Alfred, Priory Gardens, Weld-rd., Birkdale Lomas, J., Amery-grove, Birkenhead Macfie, Roe Airds Meyer, Dr. Kuno, University Sollee: Lepiol Mitchell, J., 156, Thicketford-road, Tonge, Bolton... ee ees ee: Be Ox 2 Marshall, Prof. A. Milnes (the late), | Owens College, Manchester ... 2 Lk ie Meade-King, H. W., J.P., Sandfield Page _West Derby Meade-King, R. R., 4, Oldhall- street Melly, W. B:, 90, Chee Miall, Prof., Yorkshire College, Leeds Monks, F. W., Brooklands, Warrington Muspratt, KE. K., Seaforth Hall Mylchreest, J., White House, Kirk Michael, Isle of Man Newton, John, M.R.C.S., 44, re street Odgers, Rev. J. E., a Bowden Poole, Sir James, Tower Buildings Potter, Prof. M. C., Durham University ... Rathbone, R, R., Glan-y-Menai, Anglesey Rathbone, S. G., Croxteth-drive, Sefton-park Rathbone, Mrs, Theo., Backwood, Neston Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston ... Rathbone, W., M.P., Greenbank, Allerton Roberts, Isaac, F.R.S., Tunbridge-wells ... Shepheard, T., Kingsley Lodge, Chester ... Simpson, J. Hope, Annandale, Aigburth- oF eS e oF eS SE SS) =) en a Soon S'S hoy EY SS) tee ae NOR KH YH wp KF YO eH Seg 2S So Se S&S] 2 =] Ee & Pe er a Ot =) Le) bo =) drive’ i:.. a Smith, A. T., junr., 24, fare, cube vale s(SLO Stevenson, W.A., Ballakr eighan, Castletown, Isle of Man... igs gery ae ee MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. Stevenson, W. B., Balladoole, Castletown, Isle of Man 1 0 Stewart, W. J., City Masistrates Office Toy 20 Thompson, Isaac C., 19, id road Sefton-park Zz. a Y Thornely, James, Baycliff, ‘Woolton t. £8 Thornely, The Misses, Baycliff, Woolton... 1 0 0 Toll, J. M., 340, Walton Breck-road bot .-@ Tomlin, B., 59, Liverpool-road, Chester GO 29.50 Talbot, Rev. T. U., 4, Osborne terrace, Dou- elas, Isle of Mon BY 0 Vicars, John, 8, St. ene Ge Bootle a2 0 Walker, Alfred O., Nant-y-glyn, Colwyn Bay 3 3 O Walker, Horace, South Lodge, Princes-park 1 1 0 Walpole Spencer, LL.D., His Excellency The Governor, Isle of Man ... Se ees Sek) Walters, Rev. Frank, B.A., King William College, Isle of Man dre. © Wareing, W. R., Charlesbye, eee ) Watson, A. .. Tapton-crescent, Sheffield 1 1 0 Weiss, Prof. F. E., Owen’s College, Man- chester ; 1 0 Westminster, Duke of, nae Hall Ons6 shes, Dr., Rainhill... L70 115 15 0 Arrears unpaid tora © Se TAY te. 0 53 — es 1 3. 6 ‘UALSHOIAT GHUATV “9a009 punof pun poyrpny "S681 “UI0E aquasaq “1OOdUTATT ‘AHUASVAAT, “NOP ‘NOSdWOHL ‘O OVVSI G IL 08tF 0 0 4 iieeressees Geeeeesees eeeeereeees BEE TOLL] UL YSV 0 IT GOL “'soIByG 8°00 WSOP] ON S,WeIwuyIoM “FI —? FUSUNISoAUT PUNY FWOULMO PUT GPL Op cutee romsvory, up sourreg Ag Ve_—— rs OL 0 &8lF Ol 0 &8lF z a oP treseseeerssereers TOMNSBOLT, op doURTeg § 1 Pu GEe Seu. teers oq As0ye10qe] pue 1opeiny 07 Kuxepeg ¢ Ck e gL G CORO meee errors esereersraensenssessessseseseesene seee Ronpuns 6é OL ZT T (UII qog) wendy 04 suorsstUpy 1 pg ceases “+ ow ‘snqgeavddy Jo oBeiivy ‘soBuysog ‘ (0) IL nrereeees strouitoodg unesnyy[ JO eTBS * Ome Oe ae. Ce: uojdure1g pur sne, ‘so}e[q ation ! 8 I reeteeeeeneeeeeues weeeeeesss ea coTOLUT yueg ae 0 ie Zw fon (a pa cd Diareh te reteiavetotara S05 4a0Ud : ‘0g (‘a4 \ Be es et : ow “11t ‘JOA ‘sqaodoy vuney) ‘09 2 Gqoqg ‘cunuitg “ On 0 9 . TIS, SUIUIOT , , 1939ND Jo opeg:* si - eg | Se eo ee er acc nees ae Cueto one d 6= 22 So ns ame Lec eTOdesT TO OR Su: Uy yWog ye “oR ‘syoog ‘eanqiuimmg ‘snzearddy “ gpostouerbononen ‘. Ge Gar OO oe ee wupvenby roy sdumng pure syuey, ‘ Q 8st 4 soleyg “PHI a esnor i aH aii umtendy pue u0ly749 [eosoporg MI WOg Jo query ‘ OTN S UVULyLO MA YSME Pueplatd' ECwATAG Ie ee aoe suorppodxg Sutspolq Jo Fate 9 FL SIlF “ees stromeuog pus suvydriosqug Aq CU ey Aen vane GEN) agama Sr ZERL ‘dotusvety, onp soured Of, p 'S # E681 1D 4S Ge . S681 One| 4 LASWELL, “NOH ‘NOSAWOHL ‘O OVVSI HLM INDO0DY NI 1G ‘ATLLIWIWOO ADOTOIC ANIYVVN TOOCUHATT FAHD MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 5d i B.C. NOTICES. The public are admitted by ticket to inspect the Aquarium from 12 to 1 and from 6 to 6-30 p.m. daily, when the Curator will be, as far as possible, in attendance to give information. ‘Tickets of admission, price sixpence each, to be obtained at the Biological Station or at the Bellevue Hotel. The various tanks are intended to be illustrative of the marine life of the Isle of Man. It is intended also that short lectures on the subject: should be given from time to time by Prof. Herdman, F.R.8., the Hon. Director of the Station, or by other members of the Committee. _ Applications to be allowed to work at the Biological Station, or for specimens (living or preserved) for Museums, Laboratory work, and Aquaria, should be addressed to Professor Herdman, F.R.S., University College, Liverpool. Subscriptions and donations should be sent to Mr. I. C. Thompson, F'..8., 19, Waverley Road, Liverpool. The L.M.B. Committee are publishing their Reports upon the Fauna and Flora of Liverpool Bay in a series of 8vo volumes at intervals of about three years. Of these there have appeared :— Vol. I. (872 pp., 12 plates), 1886, price 8/6. Vol. II. (240 pp., 12 plates), 1889, price 7/6. Vol. III. (400 pp., 24 plates), 1892, price 10/6. Copies of these may be ordered from the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, University College, Liver- pool, or from the Hon. Sec., 4, Lord Street, Liverpool. Isaac C. THOMPSON, Hon. Sec. and Treas. 56 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PuaTE I. Chart showing the area of the Irish Sea under investigation, and a section across the Irish Sea, through Douglas (this plate is from the report to the British Association at the Nottingham Meeting). PuatE II. Sketch of the Biological Station and Aquar- ium at Port Erin. PuAte III. Plan and Section of the Aquarium house, as arranged by Mr. G. W. Herdman, Bese: Puate TV. Diagram of the arrangement of the pipes in the Aquarium House. PuateE V. The automatic pump at Port Erin, arranged by G. W. Herdman, B.Sc. 57 Report on the Investigations carried on in 1893 in connection with the LANCASHIRE SHA-FISHERIES Laporatory at University College, Liverpool. By Professor W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; assisted by Mr. P. F. J. Corsin. THE last Report besides treating of the work carried on in the Fisheries laboratory down to the end of 1892, gave an account of the establishment and fittings of the laboratory, and a certain amount of preliminary informa- tion in regard to the physical and biological features of our district of the Irish Sea, and the need of scientific investigations therein in regard to Fishery matters. There is therefore no need to give again any such general introduction, and the present report will deal merely with the work carried out in the laboratory and at sea during 18938 and the discussion of any results arising from it. Some of this work is merely a continuation of that undertaken last year, such as the investigation of the foods of our various edible fishes and of some inedible ones which frequent the same grounds and so may enter into competition with marketable species; while on the other hand some new questions have been opened up, such as the limits of size of the various species in this district at sexual maturity, the relative amount of vitality in in- dividuals both large and small caught by various nets, the position and physical conditions of the spawning grounds, and the further extension of the food investigations to very young individuals of the edible fishes. A few notes on faunistic investigations of the feeding erounds, on parasites, and on abnormalities of fish are also given; and a preliminary statement is made as to the 58 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. bearing of the statistics as to the distribution of fish collected by Mr. Dawson on board the steamer. A fuller discussion of these results can only take place after the accumulation of further statistics extending over a couple of years. The report ends with a note on Lobster hatch- ing; and an Appendix on the methods of Oyster and Mussel culture adopted in France, illustrated by three plates. THE Foop oF YouNG FISHES. One of the objects we have set before us has been to determine what the fish feed upon in our district at all stages of their lives, and so we have taken any opportunities that offered of examining, small individuals. When this investigation has been extended, as we hope to extend it during next spring and summer, to still younger stages including larval and young post-larval forms it may have the practical value of enabling us to succeed in finding suitable organisms, such as certain Diatoms and Copepoda, upon which young fish hatched artificially may be reared through the earlier and more critical stages of their life-history. | As a matter of fact we have already made during this last summer at the aquarium of the Port Erin Biological Station some experiments in breeding Copepoda in tanks, and I see no reason to doubt that we could cultivate at least some species in large quantities if required. In one of our aquaria we have had now for six months enormous swarms of Idya furcata, and in another we have quantities of Harpacticus fulvus which are reproducing freely. The Harpacticidee seem on the whole to be the easiest to cultivate, and it is consequently important to notice. that in the young Plaice we have examined, by far the most important constituent of the food seems to be the Har- SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 59 pacticide, especially the species Jonesiella hyene. It is curious that this animal which must be very abundant in the sand at the bottom in some parts of our district, and which is clearly from our investigations of so much importance as a food matter for the young fishes was not known at all even to naturalists until we captured some specimens in the bottom tow-net in April 1889, when dredging from the steamer ‘‘ Hyzena’”’ in Port Erin Bay. In the following list we give the locality, date, number of specimens examined, limits of size in inches, and finally the contents of the stomachs. The numerals before the food matters indicate the number of stomachs containing the respective substances. The Map of the district (see Plate) shows the positions of the stations and other localities mentioned. Young Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). 5 Crangon, 3 Gammarus 3 Copepoda, 1 Ostracoda ‘R. Dee. Feb. 15 | 39 fish. | 1 - 2? inch. | Bini Calg © Ave tiss., 22 Empty. Burbo Bank. Kebs by | 28° 2-22 ,, 28 Empty. Morecambe. Feb. 28/10 ,, | 1g-22 ,, ; cate 1 Annelida, 4 Crustacea, 1 Ostracoda North Banks. Feb. 24] 31 ,, 1g—22 ,, a eee ie pear Empty. Formby Ch. Mans Gr 10n5 0) W222 5, 10 Empty. Blackpool. Apl. 21 3 Be 1Z-22 ,, 3 An. tiss, Morecambe. May17| 5 ,, |\2—22 ,, 5 Copepoda, 3 Cumacea, Station 4 June6| 5 ,, |1}-12 ,, Dida, See ee mr do. do. ee 22-22 ,, 2 Corophium, 1 Empty. 3 Gammarus, 1 Carcinus Morecambe. June7|14 ,, |12-2¢ ,, eas a dl Ne Empty. 60 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Young Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). | 24-23 inch. 1 Cardiwm, 8 Annelida. Rock Ch. Station 1. do. Morecambe. do. Morecambe. Morecambe. do. Morecambe. Morecambe. do. Lytham. Rock Channel. Morecambe. do. | June 21) 31 do. —5| 10 June 22 | 15 do. | 18 June 23 | 81 June 2& | 57 do. 2 July 5 | 1 July 21 | 12 do, Dh July 25 | 41 July 25 | 1 July 26 | 23 do. 23 | June 13 9 fish. 39 18-12 ee 1g = 22 g—1g 12-12 22 28 [14-12 13-28 ies 23 12-12 (ae | 26 Pseudocuma, 11Cran- _gon, 14 Copepoda, 4 _Amphipoda, 1 An. tiss. 1 Cardium, 4 Crangon, 4 Pseudocuma, 2 Cope- poda, 1 Schizopoda, 3 _Amphipoda, An. tiss. 5 Pseudocuma, 2 Cran- gon, 4 Cardium, 3 Gam- marus, 1 Ostracoda, 11 Copepoda, 1 ysis. | 12 Crangon, 2 Pseudo- cuma, 1 Cardium, 4 Copepoda, 4 Amphipoda An. tiss. 81 Copepoda, 2 Crangon 14 Cardium, 6 Tellina, 1 Mytilus, 8 Pseudo- cuma, 2 Crangon, 35 Copepoda, An. tiss. 1 Tellina, 1 Gammarus, An. tiss. 2 Crangon, 1 Pseudo- cuma, 12 Copepoda, 1 Amphipoda. 3 Cardium, 2 Crangon, 6 Copepoda. 9 Tellina, 8 Cardium, 2 Corophium, 3 Crangon 4 Copepoda, 2 Annelida, 2 Mysis, 2 An. tiss., 10 Empty. Annelida. 9 Cumacea, 21 Copepoda 2 Spines of echini, 11 Small bivalves, An. tiss. 9 Cardium, 1 Tellina, 1 Mactra, 7 Copepoda, 2 Small bivalves, 1 An- nelida, 4 Cumacea, 1 Amphipoda, 1 spines of echini, 1 An. tiss., 2 Empty. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 61 Young Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). Morecambe. Southport. Morecambe. do. Ribble, Gut Bar. Morecambe. do. River Dee. Morecambe. Blackpool. Morecambe. Morecambe, Morecambe. Morecambe. Deposit Buoy (Horse Ch.) Horse Ch. July 27 July 28 to Aug. do. | Aug. 9 Aug. do. . 29 22 1 fish. | 22 85 ;, 1g— le LOM 5 18—1? 1 Ie 73 9 1722 8 oy) 11 Om ay 1g-2¢ Thos pigeo7 2F yg Wan 42 ”? 1g—2g Ga, Te Sor ” 13 - 23 3 ey 1g— 2g 1» | 2-23 6 oy) 23 — 22 4 ) 28 - 2g inch. | Cardium. 93 13 Copepoda, 2 Cuma- cea, 2 Crustacea, 4 Mac- tra, 3 Tellina,1 Mytilus, 3 Bivalves, 2 Annelida, 1 Zoeas of Crab, 46 An. tiss., 7 Empty. 9 Copepoda, 1 Cumacea, 4 Amphipoda, 1 Zoeas of Crab. 11 Copepoda, 3 Cuma- cea, 2 Talitrus. 6 Bivalves, 5 Annelida, 3 Copepoda, 5 Amphi- poda, 4 Cumacea, 26 An. tiss., 33 Empty. 6 Copepoda, 3 Pseudo- cuma, 1 Amphipoda. 10 Cardium, 12 Tellina, 1 Mactra, 3 Crangon, 12 Copepoda, 3 Amphi- poda, 1 Mysis, 2 Anne- | lida, 1 Empty. | 4 Copepoda, 1 Crangon, 6 Bivalves, 2 Empty. 2 Cardium, 6 Tellina, 12 Amphi- poda, 5 Cumacea, 38 Annelids, 5 Copepoda, 12 An. tiss. 2 Cardium, 5 Copepoda, 1 Annelida, 7 An. tiss. 1 Empty. 9 Copepoda, 13 Pseudo- cuma, 4 Amphipoda. | 3 Cardium., (1 Crangon, 1 Pseudo- /cuma, 2 Copepoda, 7 Sponge. 1 Diastylis, 1 Mytilus, 4 Empty. | 4 Empty. 62 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOUL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Young Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). Morecambe Oct. 14 | 7 fish. ; 2—22 inch. ; 7 Empty. Rock Ch. Oct. 28 | 11 4, {2-25 ,, cae 5 Atylus, 5 Re Mersey, | Nov.) 8 » [14-28 » | puioda, Empty. R. Mersey. | Nov.9) 7 ,, |2—2% 3 Crangon, 1 Copepoda, ae 5 Amphiphoda. 9 : Heysham Lake. | Nov.9/| 3 ,, | 12-2 | Pseudoes ae dium, 1 Empty. /1 Copepoda, 1 Gam- Morecambe. \Nov. 14] 6 ,, 2-24 ,, {imarus, 1 An. tiss., 3 Empty. Rock Ch. Nov. 16| 5 » |2-22 ,,- | 3 Crustacea, 2 Empty. La =| 1 Copepoda, 1 Amphi- > |- N J 993 2 5 Morecambe. | Nov. LG fae 2-22 , | poda, 7 An. tiss. 1 Crangon, 1 Sponges, 4 7 An. tiss., 11 Empty. These lists show that of the 893 young Plaice, 547 had Crustacea. 134 ,, Mollusca. 30 ,, Annelida. 128 ,, Animal tissues (indistinguishable). 182 were empty. Of the 547 (from ¢ to 24 inch in size) with Crustacea 296 had Copepoda. In a total of 348 fish from = to 13 inch in size, 205 had Copepoda. In a total of 545 fish from 14 to 22 inch in size, 91 had Copepoda. These Copepoda have been kindly examined for us by Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.8., and he reports that they are chiefly Harpacticide, the majority being Jonesiella hyene. Other Copepoda present in numbers were Longipedia coronata and Canuella perplexa. Garston. Dee. 8 | 20 ,, 12-22 ee ee SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 63 Young Dabs (Pleuronectes limanda). al » | fale ga. = 4 Serobicularia, 1 Cope- W. of Burbo Bk. | Feb. 17 ; 41 fish. | 14-22 inch. poda, 36 Empty. 1 Mytilus, 1 Copepoda, Ribble, Gut Ch. | Feb. 23 | 11 fish. | 1g - 2% inch. | 1 Caumpanwlaria, 8 Em- pty. 15 Scrobicularia, 4 Mac tra, 5 Donaw, 3 Pectin- aria, 10 Amphipoda, 1 Annelida, 85 Empty. Of these 175 young Dabs, 29 had Mollusca, 12 had Crustacea, 4 had Annelida. The great majority, 129, had their stomachs empty, but they were from a neighbourhood (Ribble, Gut Channel) where we usually find that the adult fish have little or nothing in their stomachs. Ribble, Gut Ch. | Aug. 10 | 123 fish.| 2—32 inch. EXAMINATION oF FOOD IN STOMACHS. During the past twelve months 4326 stomachs of marine animals have been examined in order to determine the food contents. Of these 4078 will be accounted for in the lists which follow, the remainder are of various species none of which are numerous enough to make them worth ‘recording. Of the 4078 recorded, 3656 are fish proper, while of the remainder 154 are shrimps and 85 shanks (Pandalus annulicornis). In addition to the fish of various sizes recorded in the following table, over 1000 young plaice and dabs have been examined, and these are reported upon separately. The plaice, of which we have a considerable number recorded, nearly 900, show clearly that at sizes of about -an inch in length they lve mainly on Copepoda, small Cumacea and some Crustacean larval forms, while after- wards they take to a more mixed diet consisting largely of Mollusca and worms. The change of diet, as far as can 64 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. be made out from our material, takes place at a size of about 12 inch. In the following lists are given the locality, the date, the number of fish examined, the limits of size in inches, : and the contents of the stomachs. Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). Morecambe. Jan. 13] 3 fish. | 3-53 inch. | 1 Annelida, 2 Empty. | ; 1 Annelida, 1 Amphi- Morecambe, Jane259) bag, V1) 5-62. 5, ea ce mia = mpl Crosby. INDI Zou | Os 54-75 5, | 8 Empty. Crosby. Feb. 13/50 ,, 53-112 ,, | 1 Annelida, 49 Empty. Ribble. Hes lai mle 4k » | Pectinaria. ; : ¥ 1 Bivalves, 1 Young Fish / R. Dee. Welds LH 8 55 3-7 » | 7 Empty. =) ? | Burbo Bk. IRGOS UO 54 3-38 4», | 6 Hmpty. ; 1 Tellina, 1 Crustacea Morecambe. Feb. 23} 6 ,, |43—62 ,, 1 Annelida, 3 Empty. / 1 Pectinaria, 1 Nereis, 2 North Banks. Reb. 2423 4, ‘3-62 9), 1) 1 Bivalves 2 GAgiiniccs 19 Empty. Formby Ch. Mar.6|9 ,, | 38-52 ,, | 2 Scrobicularia, 7 Empty 8 Ammodytes, 1 Echin- ocyamus, 1 Ophioglypha Maughold Hd Mar. 13/20 ,, |5—-138 ,, |1 Curinella, 1 “Nereis, IN SAWS Loe Ns 2 Solen, 1 Pectinaria, 9 Annelida, 3 Empty. The Hole. Wiley Itsy |) Be 56 19-20 ,, | 2 Empty. 32 Serobicularia, 1 Phi- “ A ee The Hole. ars 2i5| SH ty, Ve= i). line, 5 Empty. N. of Morecambe | Mar. 28 | 14 ,, 10-18 ,, se SPOS, 1 Em- Bay Ship. DYy: Blackpool. April 26) aS =5e 2 IE ube, Le | valves. | ) 100 Corbula, 3 Scrobi- Blackcombe. May 9 |105 ,, | 7-134 ,, | cwlaria, 1 Mactra, 2 N.E.2 E.-- - Empty. West of Gynn 4-miles. Morecambe. Off Bahama Ship. Zebra Buoy. Station 4. Morecambe. Rock Ch. Crospy Ch. Morecambe. Morecambe. Horse Ch. Morecambe. Horse Ch. Morecambe. Rock Ch. Morecambe. Morecambe, Bank off Bahama Ship. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 65 May 11 | 12 fish. May 17 | 21 May 22] 1 May 23 | 83 June 6 | 12 June 7 | 9 June 13} 30 June Zt | 2 June 22 | 14 June 28 | 18 July 1 | 115 | July 5 | 16 July 7 | 6 July 21 | 18 | July 25 | 22 July 27 | 11 Aug. 2 | 3 Aug. 7 | 4 9? 3 39 3? bi) 7-104 inch. eth way eater aoi6F BG: 73-73 55 3-35 55 g 240, 62-16} ,, a4: 84-92, 3-63 ” 3g -7 ) 43—54 99 g2-12 ,, Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). 2 Pectinaria, 1 Solen, 9 Mactra, 3 Annelida. 3 Corophiwm, 16 Cope- poda, 13 Pseudocuma, 1 Annelida, 1 An. tiss. Polynoe and Terebella, 67 Mactra, 13 Scrobicu- laria, 5 Annelida, 2 Empty. 5 Corophuim, 1 Tellina, 1 Cardium, 4 Annelida, 2 An. tiss., 1 Empty. 8 Annelida, 1 Bivalves, 1 Schizopoda. 5 Crangon, 3 Tellina, 12 Annelida, 1 Cope- poda, 1 Mysis, 8 An. tiss., 2 Empty. 2 Tellina, 1 Cardium, 3 Atylus, 7 Crangon, 3 Annelida, 2 Empty. 5 Tellina, 3 Cardium, 4 Crangon, 3 Annelida, 1 Amphipoda, 3 An. tiss. 114 Mactra, 1 Tellina, 1 Carcinus, 1 Nereis. 6 Crangon, 1 Amphipo- da, 1 Vegetable tiss., 6 An. tiss., 4 Empty. 2 Tellina, 1 Nereis, 4 Empty. 16 Annelida, 2 Mysis, 9 Crangon, 1 Portunus, 2 Cardium, 8 Annelida, 1 An. tiss., 2 Empty. 6 Cardium, 3 Crangon, 1 Annelida, 1 Bivalves. 1 Annelida, 2 Empty. 4 Mactra, 66 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Ribble. Morecambe. Morecambe. Horse Ch. R. Dee. Morecambe. Formby Ch. Morecambe. Blackpool. Morecambe. Morecambe. Morezambe. Morecambe. RMarecaic! Deposit Buoy. Horse Ch, Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Oct. Aug. Aug. Aug. | Aug. 9 10 a Gs) 10 1 Yellina, 7 Scrobicu- 35 fish. | 34-54 inch. | /aria, 1 Annelida, 1 An. 42 17 50 33 20 en 16 87 2) 39 33 bh) 29 9 9 tiss., 26 Sand. 5 Tellina, 4 Cardium, 1 Arenicola, 1 Nereis, 9 Annelida, 1 Crustacea, 1 An. tiss., 1 Empty. 2 Eurydice, 2 Crustacea, 4 Empty. 129 Scrobicularia, 28 Tel- lina, 27 Pectinaria, 59 Nereis, 1 Mactra, 1 Carcinus, 5 Mytilus, 1 Nereis, 11 Bivalves shells, 11 An- nelida, 14 Empty. 1 Curdium, 4 Annelida, 4 Empty. 32 Mactra. 8 Cardiwm, 1 Annelida. 1 Crustacea, 1 An. tiss.. 6 Empty. 49 Worm tubes, 1 Pece- tinaria, 1 Mactra. 9 Pseudocuma, 1 Cope- poda, 30 Annelida, 1 Young Fish 3 Bivalve shells, 4 Amphipoda, 1 Cardiun. 3 Tellina, 1 Arenicola, 1 Portunus, 1 Curdium, 3 Annelida, 12 Empty. 2 Annelida, 1 An. tiss., 2 Empty. 2 Cardium, 4 Annelida, 1 Empty. 3 sponges, 12 An. tiss., 1 Empty. 84 Mactra, 2 Ophiogly- pha, 1 Pectinaria, 2 Donaw, 1 Nereis, 3 Em- | pty. Lo OE A tls me Horse Ch. Morecambe. Rock Ch. R. Mersey. R. Mersey. Heysham Lake. Morecambe. Rock Ch. Morecambe. Morecambe. Morecambe. Garston. Blackpool closed ground. Morecambe. Crosby Ch. Crosby Ch. Burbo Bk. Ribble, Gut Bar. Morecambe, Formby Ch. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 67 Plaice (Plewronectes platessa). 3} — 33 inch. | 2 Empty. Oct. 13 Oct. 14 Oct. 28 Nov. 4 Nov. 9 Noy. 9 Nov. 10 Nov. 16 Nov. 17 Nov. 21 Nov. 23 Dab (Pleuronectes limanda). Jan. 16| 9 fish. Jan. 25 Feb. 7 Feb. 15 Feb. 17 Feb 18 Feb, 24 2 fish. 10 19 13 73 oO © “I 18 12 39 3 —52 34— 64 9 99 29 7 Sponges, 3 Empty. 5 Atylus, 2 Annelida, 13 Empty. 11 Sponges, 2 Annelida, 2 Empty. 19 Scrobicularia, 1 Dias- tylis, 1 Mactra, 1 Anne- lida, 52 Empty. 2 Tellina, 2 Scrobicularia 5 Empty. 9 Empty. 1 Annelida, 4 Empty. 7 Empty. 1 Phyllodoce, 11 Empty. 2 Annelida, 3 Empty. 6 Sponge remains, 9 An. tiss., 14 Empty. . 24-4 inch. | 3 An. tiss., 6 Empty. 99 1 Atylus, 1 Idotea, 2 Annelida, 14 Empty. 8 Empty. 1 An. tiss., 3 Empty. 1 Philine, 1 Annelida, 2 Crustacea, 2 An. tiss., 7 Empty. 1 Crangon, 1 Clupea, 2 Annelida, 3 Empty. 1 Annelida, 1 An. tiss., 2 Empty. 4 Scrobicularia, 2 Tere- bella, 3 An. tiss., 9 Em. pty. 68 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Maughold Hd. K.S.E., 5 miles. The Hole. The Hole. N. of Morecambe Bay Ship. West of Gynn, 4 miles. The Hole. Off Bahama Ship. Zebra Buoy. Morecambe. Garston. Rock Ch. Blackpool closed ground, Dab (Pleuronectes limanda). Mar. 13 Mar. 21 Mar. 28 May 10 May 11 May 19 May 22 May 23 June 22 July 20 July 25 | Aug. 1 240 81 85 IIe 20 40 Mar. 13 | 23 fish. 9 42—9 inch. 43—104 44-112 4} — 194 99 33 2 Philine, 1 Pagurus, 1 Ophioglypha, 1 Stenor- hynchus, 15 Solen (foot) 1 Ammodytes, 1 Zoo- phytes, 2 Empty. 2 Solen (foot) 47 Empty. 70 Scrobicularia, 1 Ophioglypha, 1 Portunus 1 Nephrops, 1 Fish re- mains 69 Weeds, 89 Em- pty. 22 Scrobicularia, 1 Vir- gularia, 1 Pandalus, 3 Pagurus, 3 Solen, 2 Sa- bella, 1 Buccinuwm, 2 Nephrops, 1 Portunus, 3 Annelida, 5 Weed, 38 | Empty. 41 Corbula, 20 Scrobicu- laria, 7 Pagurus, 8 Solen, 4 Cardium, 1 Ampliura, 13 Ophioglypha, 1 Pan- dalus, 1 Phyllodoce> 1 Corystes, 3 Empty. 8 Ophioglypha, 5 Pagur- us, 1 Philine, 1 Pectin- aria, 1 Scrobicularia, 3 Pagurus, 1 Solen, 12 Annelida, 1 Fish remains 3 Empty. 1 Terebella, 7 Ophiogly- pha, 8 Solen, 2 Pagurus 11 Annelida, 5 Bivalve shells, 2 Schizopoda, 2 Amphipoda, 6 Empty. 1 Ophioglypha, 1 Actinia, 1 Mactra, 1 Annelida. 2 Crangon, 1 An. tiss. 1 An. tiss., 1 Empty. 4 Crangon, 1 Carcinus, 1 Bivalve shells. 3 Annelida, tubes. 1 Worm Off Bahama Ship. Deposit Buoy. Gut Ch., Ribble. Morecambe. Morecambe. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 69 Dab (Pleuronectes limanda). Aug. 7 Oct. 18 Aug. 9 Nov. 17 Novy. 29 43 fish. On 7 5-11 inch. 43 74 ” 3-54 ” 33 — 44 ” 7 Solen, 3 Pagurus, 1 | Pecten, 2 Cardium, 8 Annelida, 4 Serobicu- laria, 1 Philine, 1 Por- twnus, 2 Ophioglypha, 14 Empty. 1 Pagurus, 1 Mactra, 1 Portunus, 3 Small Bival- ves, 1 Vegetables, 1 Empty. 5 Empty. 2 Atylus, 5 Empty. 1 Bivalves, 1 Crustacea, 3 Empty. These statistics show the Dab to be a very omnivorous feeder. Morecambe. Morecambe. Crosby Ch. Morecambe. The Hole. The Hole. N. of Morecambe Bay Ship. Morecambe. N. of Morecambe Bay Ship. West of Gynn. The Hole. Off Bahama Ship. Jan. 13/14 fish. | 48—7 inch. gan. 19 . Feb. 7 Feb. 23 Mar. 16 Mar. 21 Mar. 28 July 21 oe ss 1L603,5 23 4, 28 35 Geeks bp 11 ” 5-74 ”9 o— 145 29 85 —134 ,, 8-113 oe) 6 » Flounder (Pleuronectes flesws). 1 Annelida, 13 Empty. 1 Crustacean remains, 1 Campanularia, 11 Empty. Empty. 1 Pectinaria, 2 Empty. 16 Empty. 8 Scrobicularia, 15 Em- pty. 6 Scrobicularia, 1 Worms, 21 Empty, Empty. Sole (Solea vulgaris). May 9 May 11 14 fish, 3 99 May, 19) | 4E 5 May 22} 16 ,, . 11 < 174 39 1 Crangon, 13 Empty. | 2 Annelida, 1 Empty. 3 Donax, 8 Empty. | 16 Empty 70 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Morecambe. Morecambe. Egremont. Morecambe. Crosby Ch. Ribble, Gut Bar. Crosby Ch. Burbo Bk. Morecambe. North Bks. Off Bahama Snip. The Hole. Morecambe. Morecambe. ~ Morecambe. Rock Ch. Cod (Gadus morrhua). Jan. 13 | 10 fish. Jan. 19/1 ,, Jan. 2078 55 Jaiie ZO a RO vs Hebe is 20 23 Feb. 13/1 ,, Feb. 15 | 16 ,, Rebs a74| boxy, Hebe 23) (aes, Feb. 24) 4 ,, Mar.13/1 ,, Mar, 219)" le On July 27 Noy. 21 J ~ we Nove 28152) >%,5 Dec. 14 | 52 ,, 34 - 54 inch. 3 Orangon, 3 Gammarus, 1 Mysis, 1 Annelida, 1 Bivalves, 1 Empty. Crangon, Gammarus. 2 Carcinus, 1 Crangon, 1 Bivalves. 3 Crangon, 4 Gammarus, 1 Empty. 4 Crangon, 2 Mysis. Pectinaria, Ganvmarus. 5 Crangon, 5 Avrenicola, 3 Gadus. 1 Gammarus, 1 Portunus, 1 Pagurus, 2 Bivalves, 1 Empty. Crangon. 2 Crangon, 1 Idotea, 2 Clupea, 1 Gobius, 1 Car- CINUS. 3 Crangon, 3 Atylus, 1 Idotea. Pagurus. Gadus, Gonoplax. 4 Crangon, 1 Atylus. 3 Crangon. 2 Crangon. 20 Crangon, 3 Pandalus, 4 Gammarus, 2 Atylus, 5 Mysis, 4 Eunice, 4 Fish remains, 5 Mollusca, Weed, 9 Empty. Most of these Cod are from 3 to 9 inches in Jength, and these feed chiefly upon Crustacea, such as Crangon (the Shrimp), Mysis, and Amphipoda (sand hoppers). As they get larger they take to eating fish, such as smaller Cod, Whiting, Sprats, Gobies, &c., and large Crustacea such as the true crabs and large hermit crabs. The locality apparently has no marked effect upon the diet. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 71 Whiting (Gadus merlangus), Crosby Ch. Feb. 7 | 4 fish. | 42-54 inch. | 4 M/ysts, 1 Fish. 1 Arenicola, 1 Crangon, Ribble, Gut Bar. | Feb. 13/10 ,, | 44-6 ,, | 2 Clupea, 1 Amphipoda, 2 Annelida, 4 Empty. 1 Nereis, 1 Pectinaria, 3 Burbo Bank. Feb. 17/14 ,, |54-8 ,, | Mfysis, 1 Atylus, 5 Anne- lida, 1 Bivalves, 2 Empty. 2 Clupea, 2 Gadus, 1 81 ~7h Crangon, 1 Pandalus, 1 » | Nereis, 1 Amphipoda, 4 Empty. Morecambe. Hebe 23:1) 8 45 10 Crangon, 2 Clupea, 2 Rock Ch. Mar. 7 | 30 ,, 32-74 ,, | Annelida, 2 Amphipoda, 1 An. tiss., 14 Empty. The Hole. Mat. 14.1231 5, 10-12 ,, | 1 Pandalus, 1 Empty. 2 Fish remains, 1 Pectin- Southport. Mar: 20.1, 8 | 45 44-54 ,, aria, 2 Empty. N. of Morecambe | 4,.. Bay Ship. Mar 28) | 1: «35 14 », | Empty. Rock: Ch. Miavy4 4 Sy 44-68 ,, | 5 Crangon, 4 Empty. Rock Ch. July 25| 6 ,, 54-64 ,, | 2 Crangon, 4 Empty. a 3 Crangon, 1 Mysis, 2 _ € 143 b) b) Morecambe. July 27 | 9 ,, 24-438 ,, Fish remains, 3 Empty. Morecambe. Aig 2, tea oy 34 3 43 ,, | 1 Carcinus, 3 Empty. Off Bahama Ship. | UIC OM Dyes, 7 », | Empty. ; es ‘ 10 Crangon, 10 Clupea Morecambe. Aug. 24/18 ,, 3-44 ,, 2 Arenicola, 2 Empty. Morecambe. PAUL LL Vea ic 226 | 5-1 [il Crangon, 1 Fish, 1 Emp. Morecambe. Sept. 5° | 4 5, 34-4 4, | 2 Crangon, 2 Empty. 5 Crangon, 3 Clupea, 1 Morecambe Sept. 13/17 ,, 22-44 ,, | Gammarus, 1 Pagurus, 7 Empty. Morecambe. Noy. 227 5,../4=62 ,; ZOU E Ne es Corophium, 4 Clupea. 19 Crangon, 12 Mysis, 4 Atylus, 5 Gammarus, 3 Rock. Ch. Dec. 14 | 44 ,, 34-3 ‘ . : aan es ; 4-35 5; Clupea, 3 Nereis, 3 Am- | | phipoda, 1 Mollusca. 72 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. These Whiting, mostly from 4 to 8 inches in length, like the Cod, in this district live.largely upon the commoner Crustacea, e.g., Crangon vulgaris and Mysis and Amphi- poda, and in a good many cases remains of fish, chiefly the Sprat, and some worms, have been found in the stomach. All these food matters being common and widely distributed, locality apparently makes no noticeable difference in the diet. Red Gurnard (Trigla cuculus). Off Bahama Ship. | Mar.13 1 fish. | 18 inch. | Empty. ; 1451 | 1 Ammodytes,1 Pagurus The Hole. | Mar. 28 | Ase, 124-—153,, 1 Wishs aeenteeie Empty. N. of Morecambe | May 9 | 4 ,, 12-173 ,, | 2 Pagurus, 2 Amimodytes. Bay Ship. 8 Callionymus, 9 Por- tuius. 8 Hyas, 2 Mysis, 5 Pagurus, 5 Crangon, 3 2 |G ay = 1 Pandalus, 1 Nephrops, 1 Off Bahama Ship. | May 22/41 ,, | 92-162 ,, | Ammodyies gaa | 1 Stenorhynchus, 4 Fish | remains, 4 Amphipoda, 7 Empty. 10 7.93 1 Aphrodite, 6 Crangon, 2 , *? | 1 Fish remains, 2 Empty. i The Hole. Aug. 7 The food of these Red gurnards is chiefly Crustacea, especially crabs and hermit crabs, and some fish. Haddock (Gadus aeglejinus). 21 Scrobicularia, 3 Gon- oplax, 1 Aphrodite, 1 ¢ es Spatangus, 1 Nephrops, The Hole. Mar. 21 | 30 fish. | 9—27 inch. 1 Pectinarin, Ae selee poda, 2 Amphipoda, 2 Annelida, 4 Empty. 2 Solen, 3 Serobicularia, N. of Morecambe | Mar. 28 | 7 _,, 72-17 ,, | 1 Pectinaria, 1 Amphi- Bay Ship. poda, 1 Empty. The diet of the Haddock seems very varied, but no conclusions can be drawn from such a small number. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. la Sprat (Clupea spratta). Morecambe. Jan. 13 | 6 fish. 34-4 inch. gists; 2. Araphipeda, | 2 Empty. Morecambe. Jan. 24| 5 ,, | 22-22 ,, |1 Copepoda, 4 Empty. Ribble, Gut Bar. | Feb. 13] 4 ,, 3-44 ,, |4 Empty. Morecambe. Sept. 13| 3 ,, 34-32 ,, | DE Corop hain. 2 Axapi poda. Morecambe. Oct. 6 [2 ,,' | 28-384 ,, : f ed nn 2 Spines Morecambe. Oct.21/ 3 ,, | 32-53 ,, tek nee sae 9 4 . 4 1 Pandalus, 1 Campanu- e laria, 2 Copepoda, 9 eae ? ? Rock Ch. Oct 25)| M7 ih te 35 2 Amphipoda, 2 Cumacea, 4 1 Empty. Morecambe. Nov. 14) 4 _,, 3-44 ,, | 4 Empty. Morecambe. Nov. 21| 3 ,, |3$-48 ,, | 1 Copepoda, 2 Empty. Morecambe. Nov. 24! 3 ,, 3-42 ,, | 1 Crangon, 2 Empty. The sprat between 2+—51 inches in length appears to feed almost entirely on the smaller kinds of Crustacea such as Copepoda and Amphipoda. Thornback Skate (Raia clavata). N. of Morecambe | Mar. 28 {| 2 fish. ; 64—7 inch. ; 2 Empty. Bay Ship. 2 Pagurus, 7 Philine aperta, 4 Corystes, 2 W. of Gynn. May rls hts... 10-26 ,, | Portunus, 1 Carcinus, 1 Crangon, 1 Pleuronectes, 1 Mactra. 10 Pagurus, 4 Solen, 1 Off Bahama Ship.| Aug. 7 | 14 ., 13—26 ,, | Portwnus, 1 Pectinaria, _5 Bivalve shell. | 1 Portunus, 2 Pagurus, Dec. 21/16 ,, |10—14 ,, |1 Fish, 15 Mollusca, 1 Empty. Isle of Man E.S.E. (14 miles). This Skate has a very varied diet. 74 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SHRIMP AND SHANK. Some Shrimps (154) have been examined, and their food consisted of small Cardiwm edule, various algee, amphipods, vegetable tissue, Copepoda, Tellina balthica, annelid remains (setae and occasionally half digested portions of a Nereis or a worm closely allied to it being found), Crangon vulgaris (the shrimp itself), starfishes and echini (the pedi- cellariz and spines), Pectinaria belgica a tubicolous annelid very common in the sand below low water mark, Nauplius larvee, Diatoms of various species, Hwnice, small fish, and a few Ostracods. The Shank (Pandalus annulicornis) of which 85 were examined, feeds to a large extent on Sabellaria alveolata— a worm which builds up masses of rock by cementing together sand grains—as the stomach contains usually numerous setae, occasionally the remains of the worm itself, amphipods, young Mytilus edulis, vegetable matter, spines of echini, stalks of Campanularians, and remains of Crustacea which were unidentifiable being merely small portions of legs and other appendages. THe MATURITY OF FISHES. It is desirable that the average size at which each species of food fish arrives at maturity, or produces spawn for the first time, should be determined for various parts of our coast. It does not do in this matter to take the figures ascertained for other places, such as the south coast or the North Sea, for what little we do know of spawning sizes tends to show that on different coasts the same kind of fish arrives at maturity at different sizes, if not ages. Consequently during last spawning season we made a beginning in the examination of fish and the collection of statistics in regard to size at maturity. Besides small numbers of half-a-dozen other edible fish, the following SHA FISHERIES LABORATORY. Va seven have been specially examined, Sole, Plaice, Dab, Flounder, Haddock, Grey Gurnard and Red Gurnard. Our object was to keep a record of the smallest mature males and females we met with and of the largest 1mma- ture males and females. In regard to those in the latter category it may be remarked that great caution must be exercised, as in the case of an individual fish that is a late spawner the reproductive organs at the normal breeding season may show little or no signs of the distension which is usual in fish that are approaching maturity. SoLE (Solea vulgaris)—smallest ripe female 114 inches, largest immature fish (male) 9 inches. The number we have examined has, on account of the difficulty of obtain- ing the fish in this district, been too small to lead to any conclusion, but the results such as they are agree tolerably with those given by Holt for the North Sea—10 inches for the mature male and 12 inches for the female. PLAICE (Plewronectes platessa)—smallest ripe female 13 inches, male 103 inches; largest immature female 19 inches, male 13 inches. We have as yet examined only 73 fish, ranging in size from 6 to 20 inches, trawled on the spawning grounds. The smallest ripe male was only 104 inches, but that was probably an exceptional case. ‘Holt gives the spawning period in the North Sea as from the middle of January to the end of March, and rarely going as late as May. We did not obtain spawning fish here till the middle of March, and they went on till the middle of May. Das (Plewronectes limanda)—smallest ripe female 5+ inch, male 44 inch; largest immature female 112 inch, male 63. The largest female fish was 123 inches, the largest male 9inches. 511 fish have been examined. The smallest ripe male we have found 1s only 43 inches long, but this is undoubtedly an exceptional case, the average at maturity 76 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. being from 6 to 7 inches, and the ordinary minimum repyro- ductive size 54 to 6. The smallest ripe female is 54 inches, and the average size at maturity from 63 to 8 inches, the ordinary minimum size at spawning being 6 to 63. FLOUNDER (Pleuronectes flesus)—smallest ripe female 8 inches, male 7 inches; largest immature female 123 inches, male 10} inches. Only 75 have been examined. The females arrive at maturity on the average at about 103 inches, and the males at about 9 inches. They were spawning from the middle of March to the middle of May | when they seemed to have finished spawning and to be returning to the rivers from which they came. One of the first facts we discovered in the trawlings on the offshore spawning beds last season was that, contrary to the opinions of the fishermen, the Flounder leaves the rivers and estuaries up which it is usually found and comes for the purpose of spawning to these offshore grounds about 20 miles from the mouth of the nearest river. HADDOCK (Gadus eglefinus)—only 35 examined. Small- est ripe male 93 inches; smallest ripe female 123 inches; largest immature female 17 inches, male 13 inches. GREY GURNARD (Trigla gurnardus)—smallest ripe fe- male 92 inches, male 83 inches, largest immature female 113 inches, male also 11}, inches. 25 fish were examined. RED GURNARD (Trigla cuculus)—smallest ripe female 13 inches, male 94 inches; largest immature female 133 inches, male 12+ inches. 65 fish were examined. During the coming spawning season we shall devote considerable attention to the maturity question, and besides accumulating more statistics of the above nature we shall endeavour to make some observations on the rate of growth of the fishes, and the ages at which they arrive at sexual maturity. Although the ideal minimum size at which fish ought SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. [FT to be caught is the “ biological”’ one of the smallest size which will ensure that the animal has had the chance of reproducing its species once, still, if that is at present impracticable, any limit set by the law would be of some value, as the protection of the immature stages will— other things being equal—lead to a greater number being present of the lowest unprotected size, and, if the rate of capture remains the same, in each size above that, so that there will be an increased number of spawners, and the average size of the species will become greater. Ifa fish spawns, for example, at 12 inches, and it is not possible to extend protection to that size, it 1s better to protect it up to 8 inches, say, than not to protect it at all. And if, as the result of this partial protection, the numbers and the average size of the fish are increased it may be possible in the future gradually to raise the minimum catchable size until the “‘ biological’’ limit is reached. SPAWNING GROUNDS. In last year’s report it was recommended that a sys- tematic search should be made with the new steamer for any spawning grounds that exist in the district. One of the places visited, on March 11 and 13, was a sandbank of considerable size situated off the Bahama lightship, about 5 miles E.8.E. of Maughold Head, Isle of Man, and having a depth of 8—10 fathoms over it (see map). Several hauls of the trawl were taken over this bank and a tow-net was also kept going at the surface to see if there were any floating fish eggs, but no indication was found of any spawning fish or eggs being present. The next place tried (on March 13) was the spot known to fishermen as “‘ The Hole,” a tongue of deep water run- ning up from the south of the Isle of Man and being a continuation of the deep belt of water which leads in 78 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY. from the ocean up St. George’s Channel and along the west side of the Isle of Man (see map). This proved to be an important spawning ground for Plaice, Dabs, Flounders, Cod, Haddock and Whiting, as not only were fish distended with ripe ova brought up in the trawl but large numbers of transparent pelagic fish ova and embryos in various stages of development were obtained in the surface tow-nets. This was the first piece of actual evidence obtained as to the spawning place of the food fishes of this district. Subsequent trawlings and tow-nettings during the sum- mer showed that this is probably the great spawning eround for this part of the Irish sea, and it is noteworthy that it is not a bank, but is actually a depression on the average 8 fathoms deeper than the neighbouring sea. This locality has a remarkably rich fauna. The small bivalve molluse Scrobicularia alba, which is a favourite food of various edible fishes, is very abundant, along with many rarer things, such as the beautiful Nudibranchs Tritonia hombergi, Eolis tricolor, and Dendronotus arborescens, the crab Gonoplax angulatus and the Pennatulid Vzar- gularia mirabilis which is constantly browsed on by fishes of the Cod tribe. The bottom here is a soft bluish black mud with which we find great numbers of the long spiral mollusc Twrritella terebra, and the egg masses of this and other molluscs when brought up from the bottom on long lines or in nets have frequently been mistaken by fishermen for the spawn of food fishes. It is well-known now that our ordinary food fishes, except the Herring, produce pelagic eggs which are not deposited at the bottom, but which rise to near the surface of the sea where they undergo their development while floating freely. Although it is obvious that there must be determining factors which attract fish from great distances to certain SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 79 special spots for spawning, it is difficult to say what— besides distance from land, a fair depth of water, and abundance of food both on bottom and surface—these factors are in the present case. In co-operation with Mr. Dawson, it 1s proposed during the coming spawning season to make some expeditions to this ground, when no doubt further information both as to the kinds, numbers, and sizes of the spawning fish, and also as to their surrounding conditions, will be obtained. We have also while dredging from Port Erin come upon a spawning ground on the other side of the Isle of Man. It is 5 miles west of Dalby, the depth is 30 fathoms and the bottom is what the trawlers call ‘“‘reamy,”’ 7.e., a mixture of sand and mud. Herein the latter half of June we found Sole, Turbot and Brill all spawning. VITALITY HXPERIMENTS. In connection with the enormous destruction of imma- ture food fishes by shrimp nets discussed in the last report, and the disputed question as to whether it is much use returning the more or less exhausted fish to the sea, 1t was suggested (p. 27) that investigations should be carried on from the ‘‘ John Fell” on the same lines as those started by the Scottish Fishery Board on their steamer ‘‘ Garland.’ This has been done during the past year, and we have now statistics showing the results of a number of experi- ments made on fish taken both with the shrimp trawl and and also with the fish trawl. The mode of procedure has been as follows :—The fish are taken from the net, measured, and the species noted, and are then put into a fixed tub (about 38 x 2 feet) through which is kept running by means of the hose a constant stream of sea-water. They are left in the tub from half- an-hour to an hour, or even two hours, and then the ~ 80 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. length of time and the resulting effects upon the fish are noted. The proportion of the fish, chiefly Plaice, Dabs, and Soles, which have recovered is surprisingly large, as will be seen from the particulars given below. The con- ditions were sometimes very different in one experiment from those in another and yet the results were in nearly all cases favourable. The duration of the haul varied from 30 to 165 minutes, in some cases the fish were allowed to lie on deck in the sun for 10 minutes before being placed in the tub, while the time they remained in the tub varied from 30 to 180 minutes. Ina few exceptional cases where there is a very large mortality this can generally be assigned to some special cause, such as the fish being taken along with a heavy weight of starfish, or with a large quantity of rubbish such as may be got in the net at the bottom of the Horse Channel or outside the Liverpool Bar. We have picked out from the statistics taken on board the steamer by Mr. Dawson the following series of cases which relate to the three edible fish with which the sreatest number of experiments have been made—yviz., Plaice, Dab, and Sole. Each of these series, and especially the Plaice, contains sufficient examples to allow us to draw definite conclusions. The other fish experimented with are not yet numerous enough to make it worth while recording them. PLAICE. inch. Shrimp net down 55 min. 7 Plaice from 24—7}. 7 hrs. in tub; all alive. Shrimp 4g Gb =a. 16 oe 2=—84. in 1 hr. ; all alive. Shrimp “ee G5. jaar ,, and Dabs from 3 inch, 25 min. on deck, 100 lived. Shrimp ) 60g 39 s 2—64 inch; 1 hr.; all alive. Shrimp - 60° 555 S100 55 3—5. (on deck 30 min.) ; 50 alive. Fish % 50; 3 as 7-103. (deadly); alive after 3 hr. Fish yD OD" 3, 8 oy 62-84. after 75 min., 1 dead. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 81 Fish “7 OOM sy. 10 a 7-8 after 60 min., 4 dead. Shrimp Ls 1D" 55 5 5 If = 5 ROP oe” all alive. Fish , 10%, 5 is a4-6 .,, 180° ,, all alive. Shrimp ‘a a, 7 ¥ 24-4) 4°70 ,, all alive: Fish a 90K, 3 is 84 sgt GO alleles Shrimp iF TON. 12 re 2E—6 . ,,1' 60. 4, 2dead: Fish a (Dd ss 4 Af 6-84 ,, 150 ,, allalive. Fish 93 OO 8 14 i 6-9 1 20") Ke dead. Shrimp ig 60 " 3 5 4 a. “60: 4,7 alll alive, Fish 5. ieee 2 Ms geog an 7 af Fish Ae 90 ,, 3 ae 6-7 LOD xs i Fish x LOB 8 13 74-94 ,, 105 ,, aa Fish ne 15a 9 si SiO yal MOLL 9 af Fish = LON ais Wal Me D=Ono 234 25 = Shrimp 73 GOPe 9 a 2—5 aml Okt 4: Shrimp Hi 30) 45 20 a 2 eon peal abives Shrimp re ABS fe 8 * 2-5 Wy HOSE) at. 2) dead Shrimp a AOR 22 on 2-5 yy LOD. 4) alilPalive: Thus out of 393 plaice, caught some with shrimp and some with fish net, 318, or 81 per cent., have recovered after being on an average about an hour in the tub. It does not appear that the one net is any more fatal than the other. It must be remembered however that these experimental hauls were of short duration and that under ordinary circumstances the fish trawl is down for about six hours.* Probably the great- est mortality is caused when the net is down for a consider- able time and accumulates a great weight of fish, or of starfishes, or gets choked with mud and rubbish, or when in rough weather the net full of fish is bumped heavily on the side of the boat in being got on board. It is astonishing however how even a crushed looking plaice may sometimes recover when put in the tub. * However in our district the greatest destruction ot young food fishes is certainly caused by the shrimpers and other smaller boats fishing in inshore waters which in many places are the fish nurseries. 82 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. DABS. Fish net down 80min. 6 Dabs (3 deadly), 64-8 inch., after 60min., 1 dead. Shrimp an 65243. 7 Dabs, from 4—-6 inch, 60 min., all alive. Shrimp a GO 5, 2 2-8 a SOs = ish i 110.3 2 " 67—72 5, 10.45 A Fish Bs 90:45; .. iets ese eee a Fish 5 1G, > 5; 5 ss 64-11 ,, 90 ,, 3 Fish 3 90\) 5; 8 5 74-94 ,, 45 ,, all dead. (crushed by starfish.) Fish oe st Se ee 8 a 7-93 4, ¥5 (5, “ee Fish 3 ‘Seo 6 3 5—8 >, 180 ., aideade Fish . 13° os a: + 5 » 90-5, Sele Shrimp s An. Gs 4 it 22—5 4, ~ 70. 5% Siiwetee Fish Me 90-35 6 iy 6-94 ,, 90 ,, 3 dead. Shrimp 3 10 33 6 s 4—55 ,, 60 ,, very lively. Fish iy SMa Meet ae B= 7h) ~ ous Ole Fish a 13= Ss 2, ,, (deadly) 64-7 150 ,, Ee Fish af 60°; 4 if 6-8 5, 420 ., “ieee Shrimp ss 60; 4 a 44 > | -60.4, eae Fish 35 Le 4 me 4-7 53° | 20D: Sd eee Fish Ce nas | ae lee = 105... So Fish x 6, 4.05 — BOO. a,. 45 ee Fish es is * = 4 + 44-7 ,, 125 ,, very lively. Shrimp CS GO 7 Bs 1g=6 > 45 M0- Ee These experiments seem to show that the dab is not so hardy as the plaice, and that when caught with the fish trawl the dabs are less lable to live, if returned to the sea, than if caught in the shrimp trawl. In 16 hauls with the fish trawl, out of 79 fish 20 were dead; in 9 hauls some of the fish died. In 6 hauls with the shrimp trawl out of 39 fish 2 only were dead; in 1 haul only did some fish die. SOLE. inch. Fish net down 90 min. 1 Sole 9 after 30 min., very lively. Shrimp 33 105 33 2 33 85 oy) 40 33 re) Shrimp 3 75 5 ,, irom 32=10.,, 7 & . -_-- 1 Fish rr) 49D 55 Sp ” 5z—-8 >, 180 ,, 13 6 Fish $3 33 oy) 7-92 ) 90 39 oy) 33 SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. Shrimp a 45 ere »5 44-10 after 70 min., 9 Shrimp is ri ee (ae » 4—9 oe CE tasty ‘ Fish > (eae gear oe BRS OE LS ESD Vy, o Shrimp + GO! 4); 6 oy 3 «5, RODE, 3 dead. Fish ~ FO ais Dates 10 55, £05.55 , very lively. Fish Bs 15a a 2D tes ay So sion Ce a He Fish sc hich i De Me een i eis Om aes OES © ae sf Shrimp 4 GO"; lait =F 54 PeGO" "5 54 Fish A He 45 ae 94 bait ee OA As * Fish ti 95.4, big os 8 102 erreGO? | gs ‘ Fish s 120; | ee 10} a3 Uso, ; Fish as U0 nee De ~ . lsi—14 4, 60 5, “A Fish soy dal ale ela lee Mame alan Ge Sea ts eet a Fish - PGS) 7, es ws VLE -13 ,, GOs; ei 83 Thus, out of 61 soles tried only 3, or 5 per cent., died, so this goes to show that the young sole if returned to the sea has an excellent chance of living. The kind of net used appears to have little or no influence upon the result. We shall now give a few examples of our vitality experiments, from the statistics, in which other fish are dealt with. I. At 11.45 a.m. put in tank 6 Soles, 2}-—64 inches, 7 Plaice, 24-74 inches, 8 Dabs, 3-44 inches, 5 Skates, 7-8 inches, all lively. At 7 p.m. all lively, circulation stopped and at 9a.m.1 Sole, 4 Plaice, 4 Skate, 1 Dab were still alive. II. 2 Red Gurnards, 6 Dabs, 2 Lemon Soles, 1 Skate and 3 Dabs, all deadly; after being in tank 1 hour all recovered except 1 Dab. III. 16 Plaice, 7 Dabs, 2 Rays, (11 Plaice lively, 3 deadly, 2 just alive; Dabs 4 just alive). Fish in basket 10 minutes, then in tub 1 hour, when all recovered and very lively. } IV. 180 Plaice and Dabs left in basket in sun for 25 minutes then put in tub for an hour when 100 had recovered and were quite lively. ; 84 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. V. 39 Plaice, 11 Dabs, 2 Whiting, 1 Sole put in tub; after 1 hour only 3 Plaice and-1 Whiting were dead. | VI. 100 Plaice, 3-5 inches, left on damp deck + hour then put in tank when 50 were still alive. VII. 1 Sole, 2 Dabs, 2 Lemon Soles (all lively) put in tank for 1 hour and 10 minutes when all were still alive. These results show pretty clearly that if the immature fish taken by shrimpers and other small boats were sorted out and thrown overboard within a reasonable time after capture a very large proportion of them would recover and have a fair chance of growing up. Mr. Dawson tell us that the fishermen themselves are beginnin¢g to realise the necessity of sorting out the fish and shrimps as soon as possible after hauling. If they can be got to do so systematically and efficiently it will undoubtedly prevent a great deal of the present needless destruction of young fish and will perhaps obviate the necessity of restrictive legislation in regard to shrimping which might otherwise be required in the interests of our very important fluke and sole fisheries. It can scarcely be too emphatically pointed out that the remedy for the present unsatisfactory state of affairs lies largely with the fishermen themselves. The enormous destruction has been abundantly demonstrated, these vitality experiments teach us that under ordinary conditions the young fish will live if returned promptly to the sea, consequently it is very important that this should be made widely known to the fishermen, and it would be well worth while to go to some trouble and expense in persuading or compelling them to adopt such methods as will lead to the young fish being separated out and returned to the sea with the least possible damage and delay. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 85 THE DISTRIBUTION OF IMMATURE AND OTHER FISH. The statistics, n regard to size, number, &c., of fish, taken by Mr. Dawson on the s.s. ‘‘ John Fell”’ have been carefully analysed by us, with the results given in the following pages. We are of opinion, however, that the observations have not yet been continued for a sufficient length of time to enable us to come to definite conclusions in regard to the migrations of fishes during the year in ‘our district. An area at Blackpool, about 10 miles long, was closed two years and a half ago against trawling because it was known to be a “‘nursery”’ for young food fishes, and in order to see what the effect would be on the numbers of young fish. On comparison with other grounds it seems to us now there are far more immature fish (chiefly Plaice and Dabs) on it than elsewhere. The following list gives the average number of fish taken in each month with the shrimp trawl on the Blackpool closed ground. 1892. August 270 1893. May 101 September 712 June 122 October 1658 July 385 November 1984 August 437 December 2471 September 14892 1893. January 134 (Of these 11000 were Dabs.) February 1199 October “is. -0sccs March 636 November 2536 April 302 December 13055 These seem to show that during the months from September to December the young fish congregate in large numbers, so that one haul may take thousands, on this eround; while for some reason from January or February to August (which period covers the spawning season) the numbers are comparatively few, say on an average 500 or 600 per haul. The smallest numbers are in May and June. The number of fish taken on this ground seems steadily increasing since it has been closed. The largest 86 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. haul taken in 1892 (November) was 3929, in September, 1898, 14892 were taken in one haul, and now in December the largest haul is 20,889. We give next a comparison between these takes on the Blackpool ground and the corresponding takes in More- cambe Bay, in the estuary of the Mersey, and in the Ribble estuary, which shows the greater numbers present on the Blackpool ground, especially in autumn and winter, As in the preceding list, each entry is the average of a number of hauls. The column Morecambe Bay includes Grange Channel, Heysham Lake, River Keer, and River Lune. The column River Mersey includes the Rock Channel and the Horse Channel. The column Ribble includes the Gut Channel. In the Morecambe district there seems to be fewest fish in the winter and spring months, December to May; and in the Mersey fewest in April and May. In the Ribble, as at Blackpool, the ereatest hauls are taken late in the year, in September, October and November. 1892. Blackpool. Morecambe B. R. Mersey. Ribble. Aug. 270 719 — _— Sept. 712 577 = 823 Oct. 1658 828 1176 942 Nov. 1984 524 814 1527 Dec. ‘2471 DTD 471 122 Jan. 134 124 -— 82 Feb. 1199 119 608 207 March 636 61 665 313 April 302 92 247 Jes May 101 238 WA = June 122 514 1409 153 July 85 1084 = 43 Aug. 437 1160 2538 — Sept. 14892 555 1513 — Oct. — 921 733 604 Nov. 2536 449 729 a Dec. 13055 216 592 soe SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 87 Mr. Dawson tells us that the ground known as the ‘“ Deposit Ground” lying between the Queen’s and Horse Channels, outside Burbo Bank, 1s also a place where young flat-fish congregate in large numbers, as many as 10,000 having been obtained at a single haul of the shrimp trawl. During the time the fish are on this ground there is a sreat deal of trawling for shrimps with the usual des- truction of immature flat-fish. We have drawn up from the statistics a series of tables howing the takes of fish for each month in the year in each of 4 areas into which we have divided the ground trawled over, but we are of opinion that we require infor- mation extending over several successive years before we can come to reliable conclusions in regard to the move- ments of the fish, and consequently we shall not publish these tables now but retain them and add to them with the view of having them incorporated, when more extensive, in a future report. We have also “‘ taken out”’ particular fish—Plaice, Dab, Whitinge—from the statistics and have drawn up tables of their distribution, as shown by the trawlings, in various parts of the district for each month. These tables also we retain for further additions, but we may at present draw the following tentative conclusions :— PratcE—Taking the three localities (a) Horse and - Rock Channels, (0) the Mersey estuary, and (c) Burbo and North Banks, we find that the biggest hauls in all three were in September and October, the average for the 3 or 4 winter months (November to February) was about 100 fish in each case, and the average for the 3 or 4 summer months (June to September) was about 700 in each. Very large hauls of young plaice (2 to 6 inches) are taken with the shrimp net in August in the Horse Channel and the Dee estuary. Das—In the Horse Channel the largest hauls were in 88 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the height of summer, from June to August, while in the Mersey the best hauls were in November and December. Wuitinc—Both in the Horse Channel and in the Mersey district the whiting seems most abundant in summer, the largest hauls being taken in July and August. After that the numbers fall off and remain comparatively small during the winter, then rise somewhat in February, and fall again in March, April and May, after which they rise to the maximum in July. PARASITES AND ABNORMALITIES IN FISH. All the fish which pass through our hands are carefully examined in order to detect the presence of parasites or abnormalities. A collection is being formed of the Cope- poda (generally known as “‘ Fish-lice’”’) obtained from the bodies of the fish. These Copepoda have been exam- ined for us by Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.8., who reports that he has identified the following :— Parasites—From the Cod—Caligus rapaz and C. curtus. From the Hake—Anchorella appendicu- lata. From Flounder and from Arnoglossus meq- astoma—Lepeoptheirus pectoralis. From the Sprat Lerneonema spratta. Various abnormalities have been also found, including a blind cod and a number of “reversed”’ flat-fish—speci- mens of Dabs and Flounders in which the young animal has evidently settled down upon its right in place of upon its left side, the result being that the side which is usually blind has both eyes upon it and the side which is usually pigmented is white. A condition not uncommonly met with amongst flat-fish, especially in the plaice, is the partial or entire pigmentation of the lower, usually colour- less, side. In these cases the upper side is in its usual pigmented condition. SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 89 We have found two specimens of Dabs in which there are similar irregularities in the lateral line. This organ in place of being one continuous row of scales is divided into two nearly parallel tracts, the one dorsal and anterior and the other ventral and posterior. The posterior part of the semi-circular curve near the anterior end of the lateral line is absent. FAUNISTIC INVESTIGATIONS. During the various trips that have been taken, on the steamer ‘‘ John Fell,’ on various trawlers, and on the cutter stationed at New Brighton, for the purpose of collecting and making observations on fish a number of notes and collections have been made of the fauna of the eround trawled over, and this has led to the discovery of several animals new to the district. Besides this we are now able to show that there are definite areas in the district, both inside and outside of the territorial limits, which are inhabited by large numbers of some one or two particular molluscs or annelids or echinoderms. These areas with their assemblages of animals are of economic importance as constituting the chief feeding grounds of our food-fish. Below are given the names of some of the animals which are of importance in this way with a few notes as to the localities, depth, etc. :— Scrobicularta alba:—This small bluish-white bivalve shell well known to the fishermen as ‘‘ henpens”’ covers a very large extent of the sea-bottom, usually in the deep water lying about midway between the Lancashire coast and the Isle of Man and extending down to the bottom end of the Horse Channel, the depth varying from 7 to 31 fathoms. It is usually found on a dark blue mud and as this extends also in places round the Isle of Man 90 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. it is highly probable that this shell may be found to be widely distributed throughout-the Irish Sea. Scrobicu- larva has been found mostly in the stomachs of Plaice, Dabs, Haddock and Flounder. Mactra stultorum and M. elliptica :—These two shell- fish which have been taken in large numbers off the Zebra buoy, R. Mersey, and also off the Ribble Gut Bar in com- paratively shallow water—2 or 3 fathoms, constitute a not inconsiderable element in the food of Plaice and Dabs of small size (up to 12 inches) which are found in the territorial waters. Their young afford also a considerable amount of food to the very young fish stages from 1% in. upwards. Tellina balthica and Cardiwm edule :—these two shell- fish are put together as they generally occur together, the Tellina. being extremely abundant on the extensive cockle beds of this district, and both are of very great importance in furnishing food to the fry of the flat-fishes at a time when they first become ground feeders and leave off eating copepods. Corbula gibba:—This small shell-fish, notable for having its two valves unequal, has been found to furnish food to considerable numbers of flat-fish on certain grounds where it is found, especially in a locality off Morecambe Bay, Blackcomb bearing N. EH. # E., at 14 fathoms, where it must be extremely abundant. Philine aperta:—This soft mollusc is to be found in oreat numbers off the Ribble, Gut Bar, at the seaward side of Blackpool closed ground, and also at the bottom end of the Horse Channel on the mud, in a moderate depth of water. It has so far been taken chiefly in the stomachs of skate. Pecten opercularis and one or two other species of the genus are to be found in large numbers on the deep SEA FISHERIES LABORATORY. 91 eround outside Morecambe Bay and off the Cumberland coast, and also off some parts of the Isle of Man. It is not yet known whether these are of much use as food to the fishes but so far they have not been taken in the stomachs of the large fish examined. Aphrodite aculeata:—This characteristic worm, well known to many as the ‘‘ sea mouse,” is always to be taken in large numbers off the mouth of the Ribble, the Gut Bar, in about 5 fathoms. Here again we are unable to say from our own statistics whether it is used as food, but on other parts of the coast it is of frequent occurrence in the stomachs of cod. A number of Echinodermata, viz., Ophioglypha albida, and O. texturata, Spatangus purpureus, Brissopsis lyrifera and Hchinocardiwm cordatum have been taken in numbers, but as yet we have not got sufficient evidence to show that they are important articles of food for our fishes. The two species of Ophioglypha have been taken in im- mense numbers in every haul of the trawl off the Ribble Gut Bar usually in 5 fathoms, and associated with Aphro- dite aculeata, Philine aperta, Mactra stultorwm and M. elluptica. Spatangus purpwreus, Hchinus esculentus and E. miliaris are usually associated together with Pecten opercularis on the deep water ground off the northern portion of our district. Brissopis lyrifera has been taken in immense numbers in the deep water on the mud to the western side of the Isle of Man, and at times constitutes the main portion of the invertebrate fauna brought up in the trawl. Hchinocardiwm cordatum is taken off the Blackpool closed ground in large numbers. In regard to Crustacea, Carcinws moenas (shore crab), Portunus depwrator (swimming crab), Pagurus bernhardus (hermit crab), are widely distributed all over the district in the shallow water; the two former do not go much beyond 92 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the 5 fathom line, while the last is pretty generally distri- buted between Lancashire and the Isle of Man. Nephrops norwegicus, the Norway lobster, is extremely abundant off the south end of the Isle of Man and between the northern end and Cumberland, coming up in immense quantities. These Crustacea undoubtedly constitute a large part of the food of such fish as the Cod and Whiting. A number of very interesting rarer forms have also been taken, viz:—Cardiwm echinatum and Isocardia cor ; Tritoma hombergr, Holis tricolor and EH. rufibranchialis and probably H. viridis; Calocaris macandree, Pasiphea swado, Mumda bamffica, and some parasitic Bopyrians ; also the brittle star Amphiwra chiaju. These observations on the fauna of the district besides being interesting from a purely scientific point of view are of importance economically as they afford us information as to the feeding grounds of the fish, and may give some clue as to the movements or migrations of species. Prob- ably the most important factors influencing the life, habits and prosperity of fish—and therefore of the corresponding fisheries—are their spawning grounds, their feeding erounds and their enemies. NOTE on a LOBSTER-HATCHERY. By PRoFESSOR HERDMAN. At the end of the year, I visited the Lobster hatchery established recently by the Fishery Board for Scotland at Brodick, in the Island of Arran, and of which I had heard from Dr. Fulton, the Scientific Secretary to the Board, The shore between tide marks at the spot is rocky, and the hatchery is a very simple modification of a natural creek. The sides and floor of the creek have been to some extent levelled and smoothed, and a concrete sea- wall about two feet thick has been built at each end so as to make a rectangular vivarium about 60 ft. by 20. This is roofed in with galvanized wire netting of 14 inch mesh set in iron frames each 9 ft. by 18 in. At each extremity of the roof two adjacent frames are hinged so as to form doors which can be raised to give access to the interior. The depth is rather greater at the lower than at the upper end on account of the natural slope of the creek, but there is on the average about 5 ft. of water in the vivarium at low tide. The lower concrete wall is penetrated at its base by a 4 inch iron escape pipe, with a wooden plug: through this pipe the place can be emptied when required. On the floor of the vivarium are scattered some boul- ders and stones with growing sea-weed to afford shelter, and some large draining tiles have been found specially useful for this purpose, as the lobsters seem to like hiding in the cavities of the tiles. The lobsters live well, flourish, and reproduce in the vivarium, and they require no looking after except that a supply of food consisting of old fish—any 94 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. kind that can most readily be obtained—is thrown in to them once a day. Some of the lobsters have now been in for three years and have spawned twice in that time. This vivarium at Brodick, however, is only used as a breeding pond, and a protection to the mother lobster and the spawn until hatching takes place. No attempt has been made to retain the young larval lobsters when set free and rear them up to the adult condition. When I visited this vivarium the water was run off at low tide so as to let me examine the interior. It then contained a number of large lobsters, both male and female ; some of the latter had spawn which was ready to hatch out, and in fact some of it had been hatched since the previous day, others had spawn which had just recently been produced, and all seemed in a thoroughly healthy and satisfactory condition. I have been of opinion for the last few years that Port Erin in the Isle of Man would be a most suitable place for lobster culture. In the first place, there is pure sea- water, and a rocky coast with abundance of sea-weeds ; and moreover lobsters live already in the neighbourhood, showing that the ground and other conditions are suit- able, and ensuring a ready supply of the parent animals. Secondly, on the north side of the bay, between the Biological Station and Bradda Head, there are several deep creeks in the rocks which could be easily closed in to form vivaria. Thirdly, the lobsters could be easily fed and looked after by those having charge of the Biological Station, and the Sea-Fish hatchery, when that is estab- lished. Fourthly, the lobsters, whether full-grown ones for the market or in their younger stages for stocking other grounds, could readily be sent off from Port Erin, by train to Douglas and then by steamer to Liverpool, Fleetwood, etc., or direct by steamer from Port St. Mary NOTE ON A LOBSTER HATCHERY. 95 to Liverpool, or by the fisheries steamer from Port Erin to any required spot. I would propose that if this suggestion is carried out and a vivarium is formed at Port Hrin, the operations should not be restricted to the mere breeding of lobsters and the protection of the parents and spawn till hatching, but that an attempt be made to retain the young larve and rear them, either (1) through their early stages and then set them free as young lobsters in suitable localities throughout the district, or (2), if it 1s possible, to rear them up till they are adult. I would set about this in the following manner :— Starting with a vivarium hke that at Brodick 1 would stock it with breeding lobsters, or with females having spawn on the abdomen. I would examine the spawn at intervals when feeding the lobsters, and when any spawn was seen to assume the characteristic appearance which it has for a day or so before hatching I would transfer that mother lobster into a separate box or com- partment of the vivarium walled in with wire gauze sufficiently fine to prevent the hatched larvee from pass- ing through. Here she would have to be fed for a few days, until all her spawn was hatched out, then she could be removed and put back in the vivarium, and the wire would now contain all the b) gauze box, or “‘ nursery cage,’ young free swimming larvee and could be lifted out of the vivarium and examined from time to time, while suitable food (possibly Copepoda, which can readily be obtained in quantity, would do) could be added, and if necessary some of the young lobsters could be taken out from time to time and distributed into other nursery cages or placed in tanks. No doubt the greater part of the rearing work would be at first experimental until the most suitable food and the 96 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. most favourable conditions are found out. but I do not foresee any insuperable or evén formidable difficulty, and if even a small percentage of the young lobsters hatched could be successfully reared it would be a very great gain, as under their natural conditions in the sea they have to run the gauntlet of so many dangers that there can be only a remote chance of one in a hundred escaping from its numerous enemies and reaching maturity. I may add as a proof of the want of many more native grown lobsters that some hundreds of thousands are imported annually. from Norway and from France, and that lobster hatcheries have lately been established in Newfoundland which hatch over 500 million young lobsters annually so successfully that there is only a loss of about 11 per cent., and the promoters of these hatcheries are said to be thinking of placing their lobsters on the British markets. In this paper for references to Plates I, II, and III read Plates VI, VII and VIII respectively. at REPORT upon the Methods of OysTER and MussEL CULTURE in use on the Wrst Coast oF FRANCE. By W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S. PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL, [With Plates I.—III.]. INTRODUCTION. In accordance with the wish of the Lancashire Sea-Fish- eries Committee I went to France towards the end of last June and spent about three weeks in visiting the various places on the western coast between Arcachon and Brittany where oyster and mussel culture are carried on. I saw everything possible in the time of the methods employed and the results attained, collected notes and specimens, and took about 60 photographs of the more important poimts. From that material the following report has been drawn up. I am indebted to Mr. C. EH. Fryer, of the Board of Trade, and to several scientific friends for kindly giving me letters of introduction and for other help, and I hoped to have received similar assistance through our foreign office, but although I wrote and explained fully what my object was in wishing to study shell-fish culture and asked that facilities should be given to me by putting me in communication with the consuls or the fishery authorities at the places I proposed to visit, and although Lord Rosebery kindly gave me an introduction to the British Ambassador at Paris, to whom also I wrote explaining my objects, still I received no introductions or official help from the Government. It gives me the more pleasure then to acknowledge the friendly spirit in which I was received and the hospitable way I was treated by all the Frenchmen I came in contact with and to whom I was merely a foreign naturalist. I have since, however, obtained some information in regard to the fishing at 98 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Le Croisic from Mr. Elford Dickie, the British Vice- Consul at St. Nazaire, to whom I tender my thanks for his courtesy and help. I have not thought it necessary to give references to the various reports and papers on oysters and other shell-fish which have been published in the past, chiefly in France and America, as I consider it more important for the present purpose that I should give an account. of what I saw myself, and state my own opinions based upon ali the information I have been able to get in any way. I shall first give a brief statement showing the order in which I visited the localities, and then a more detailed account of the fishery methods at each centre. Finally I shall draw some general conclusions as to the applicability of the French methods to our own district. OUTLINE OF TOoUR. ON arriving in Bordeaux I was met by Mons. Emile Durégne, Directeur de la Station Zoologique, and Secretary of the Scientific Society of Arcachon, who very kindly offered to accompany me next morning to Arcachon and facilitate my enquiries there. I found his presence with me of the very greatest assistance as he was intimately acquainted with the ground, and knew personally the men engaged in oyster culture, and so was able to let me see the various processes in much less time than it would otherwise have taken. At Arcachon M. Duregne placed the resources of the Zoological Station at my disposal. I was assigned a bedroom and a private laboratory, and during my short stay I lived in the institution, had the use of the station boatmen, and found it all a great convenience in obtaining, examining and packing my specimens. For this courteous treatment I take this opportunity of thanking the Scientific OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 99 Society of Arcachon, and especially their able Secretary Hmile Durégne. Besides going over samples of the oyster ‘‘ parcs’”’ both in boats and by wading, I met at Arcachon Mons. Gustave Dasté, a proprietor of parcs and exporter of oysters, who gave me a good deal of important information about his methods and the condition of the industry. I also visited M. Dasté’s warehouses and establishment for the exportation of oysters at Pointe de |’ Aiguillon some way to the east of Arcachon. I met also Mons. Peseux one of the oyster syndicate and a member of the oyster commis- sion, and Mons. Dubourdieu who showed me round his pares. From Arcachon I returned to Bordeaux and then pyro- ceeded to Royan, at the mouth of the Gironde, where shrimping and sardine fishing is carried on, and where abundance of small wild oysters are found on the rocks at low tide. From Royan I went to La Tremblade, La Gréve and Marennes which are all near the estuary of the Seudre and are in the most important district for the ‘fattening’ and ‘‘ greening”’ of oysters. I was at first at Tremblade and La Gréve, and then crossed the Seudre to Marennes where I spent a couple of days examining the oyster ‘‘claires.”” I had a letter of introduction to Mons. Grenier at Bourcefranc in that neighbourhood but he was away at that time for a week. I saw however his claires on the coast a few miles off. I then went on by coach to Pointe le Chapus and saw the small and very primitive oyster parcs there, imecluding however the basin of ‘“‘dégorgement”’ for freeing the oyster from the mud in the intestine before being packed for transport. Here also I saw the mussel enclosures on the shore, and the ground where the girls collect ‘‘ Pélerins” (Tapes decussata). I next crossed to the Island of Oléron and visited 100 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Chateau d’Oléron, then St. Pierre and finally Boyardville and from there returned to the mainland at La Rochelle. I had intended going to the Island of Ré also but heard at Rochelle that it was much the same as Oléron, so, as my time was very limited, I gave it up. After examining the shore about Rochelle, and getting what information I could, I went on to the bay of Aiguillon to see the con- ditions under which mussel culture is there carried on. To reach the small villages on the edge of this enormous mud-swamp which has been rendered profitable in such a wonderful way by means of the ‘‘ bouchot”’ system of mussel culture, it is necessary to go by train from Rochelle to Marans a small station on the line to Roche-sur-Yon and then find one’s way across country for 10 or 12 kilometres to the shores of the bay. I visited the village of Charron and saw the bouchots there. I then went on to Roche-sur-Yon and from there to Les Sables d’Olonne where there is a huge oyster parc behind the harbour with built stone sides. From Sables I went to Nantes and from there to the coast near the mouth of the Loire in the neighbourhood of Le Croisic, Pornichet, and Le Poulignen where there are oyster parcs and claires, and at Le Croisic a great inland basin somewhat as at Arcachon and Sables d’Olonne. At Croisic moreover I specially wished to see and hear about the shrimp traps and take some photographs of them. ‘This was satis- factorily managed, and I then returned home by Nantes and Paris. I shall now discuss the chief fishery centres I saw, in order, beginning at the Southern end of the series. ARCACHON. Arcachon is probably the most important centre for the study of oyster culture. It is one of the two places where | OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. On oyster-spat can be obtained in abundance, and it is not only able to supply young oysters to the various regions in France, such as Marennes, where the oysters are reared, fattened, flavoured, and coloured for the market, but it also exports them in large quantities to England. This artificial oyster culture at Arcachon was established in 1859 by M. Coste, a biological professor in the Collége de France. The population of Arcachon and the neighbourhood is about 30,000, and of these 12,000 are employed constantly in the oyster parcs. About 300,000,000 oysters are pro- duced annually, their value being upwards of 1,000,000 francs. The most notable physical feature of the neigh- bourhood is the vast inland sea, the ‘‘ Bassin d’ Arcachon”’ which is about 80 kilom. in circumference, contains at high tide about 15,000 hectares of area, say 30,000 acres, and is over the greater number of the channels about 5 to 10 fathoms in depth, while two thirds of the whole area dries at low tide. This “bassin” is connected with the Atlantic by a narrow entrance (‘‘passe’’) at Cap Ferret through which the tide runs in and out. In the middle of the ‘‘ bassin”’ and due north of the town of Arcachon is a small island, Ile des Oiseaux, and on the shores of this and on various other flat shallow parts which are exposed at low tide (and which are called ‘ crassats’’) are situated the oyster farms or “‘ parcs.’’ Some of these (‘‘bancs reserves’’) belong to the state and are reserved for the purpose of producing spat—no doubt in the past a most useful provision and wise precaution against any general depletion of the private beds, but I was assured by several people at Arcachon that the state reservations were now really unnecessary. ‘They say that there are now so many adult oysters all over the ground that abun- dance of spat for all is produced. Certainly during the 102 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. time of my visit (July 3rd and 4th) which was just the period when the free-swimming embryos were settling down, the water over the parcs seemed to be swarming with them, and the spat was making its appearance all over all sorts of suitable submerged objects. The great importance of Arcachon in oyster culture is undoubtedly as a place where the adult oysters reproduce freely, and where the free-swimming larve or “‘fry’’ when settling down as spat can be readily collected and so be saved from destruction and made available for artificial rearing. The oyster chiefly cultivated at Arcachon is Ostrea edulis the ordinary rounded flat oyster of Northern Kurope, but the large elongated Portuguese oyster, Ostrea angulata, is also abundant at Arcachon and is said to be increasing. ‘There was some alarm recently amongst the oyster proprietors upon the ground that these two species were breeding together and producing an inferior kind of hybrid. This fear has however been dispelled, as it is well known to biologists that the reproductive arrangements in the two species are very different. A much more practical, and in fact quite likely, difficulty would ensue if the Portuguese oysters became so numerous in the “bassin,” that their fry would come into competition with the fry of Ostrea edulis in settlng down on the ‘collectors,’ and being, it is said, more hardy animals would oust the latter is the struggle for existence. The oyster reproduces at Arcachon between May and the beginning of July and the young animal leads a free- swimming existence for nearly a week before settling down. The cultivators (“‘ parqueurs’’) examine carefully the condition of the spawn in the old oyster and at what they consider to be the proper time (generally about the end of June) for catching the deposit of spat, or young oyster ssettling down after the free-swimming existence, OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 103 they place their ‘‘ collectors”’ in position. They consider that itis of great importance that the collectors should not be put in the water unnecessarily soon as the tiles are liable to become coated with other things, slime and sedi- ment, which will prevent the oyster spat (‘‘ naissain,”’ as they call it) from adhering. The collectors are crates (called ‘‘ gabarets”’ or “‘ ruches’’) of earthenware tiles coated with a hme cement (PI. I, fig. 2). The tiles are lke ordinary roofing tiles. They are about 14 inches in length 6 inches in breadth at one end and 5 at the other, and $ an inch in thickness The clay they are made of is coarse and of areddish colour. Later on I saw the tiles being made further up the coast, north of the Gironde, whence they are shipped in coasting vessels. The tiles are prepared for use as collectors by being coated with a layer of limy cement which gives them a whitewashed appearance. The cement is made of lime mixed with sea-water and a certain amount of sand so as to form acreamy paste. Different proprietors use slightly different proportions of lime and sand, and in some places hydraulic cement is also used. This process of coating, known as ‘‘chaulage,’ adds about from =, to 2 inch in thickness to each side of the tile. It has to be done with some care so that the limy layer may be of the right nature, sufficiently strong and adhesive and yet readily detachable e when the right time comes, so that the young oysters may be removed from the tiles without injury and without the necessity of breaking ap the tiles as used to be the case. By the present method the oysters and cement can be scaled off and the tiles preserved for use again the follow- ing year. A dozen or more millions of these tiles are probably employed each year at Arcachon. The prepared tiles are arranged in rows inside cases (‘“‘ruches”’) made of sparwork or strips of wood so that the 104 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. water may flow readily in between and around them. The cases of collectors I measured were about 6 feet in length by 2 feet in breadth and 3 feet in height; each holds 120 tiles arranged in 10 tiers or layers. The tiles in any tier are placed with their long axes at right angles to those of the tiers above and below, as is shown in Pl. L,, fig. 2. This it is thought breaks up better than any other arrangement the currents of water as the tide runs through the ‘“‘ruche”’ and so gives the young oysters a better opportunity of affixing themselves to the tiles. This is the arrangement in the “ gabaret”’ collectors or “ tuilles en ruche,’’ which is considered after numerous experiments to be the best form at Arcachon, but various other forms of tile collectors are in use elsewhere and are better suited to special local conditions, such as depth of water and softness of bottom. The tiles are always placed with the convex surface upwards as it is very important that there should be as little opportunity as possible given for the collection of any fine sediment in which the young oysters might be smothered. | I was very fortunate in seeing some of the tiles just after the young oyster spat had been deposited, and one of the figures (Pl. I, fig. 8) represents Mons. Dubourdieu holding up such a tile, covered thickly with the little amber coloured specks, less than ;4, inch across, for me to photograph. There may be several hundred such young oysters on one side of a tile. I had the advantage of going round with Mons. Peseux and Mons. Dubourdieu on July 3rd, when they were inspecting their collectors, and they and also Mons. Dasté assured me that this was an especi- ally good year for spat. They attributed that to the con- tinued fine weather and especially to the high temperature of the water. . During my stay at Arcachon the water in the “bassin” OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 105 was certainly very warm. When run from the seawater taps in the Zoological Station I found it was at 74°F’. with a specific gravity of 1:023, out in the middle of the. ‘bassin’? I found it at 76°F. with a specific gravity of 1:024, while over the shallow oyster parcs I found it - varying from 78°F’. to 80°F. with a specific gravity of 1:022 to 1:024, and in one or two corners of the pares at low tide where the last of the ebb had been exposed to the midday sun it rose as high as nearly 90°F. The cultivators at Arcachon are of opinion that the oysters could not be bred successfully, that there would not be a sufficient deposit of spat, in waters that are much cooler, but we have evidence to the contraryin what Captain Dannevig says in regard to the plentiful spawning of the oyster in his pond at Norway, and also in the deposits of spat on the North Coast of France and South Coast of England. The temperature in July in Dannevig’s pond at Arendal was about 63°F. ; while at Port Erin, Isle of Man, the temperature in the bay during the first week in July varied from 59° to 62° F., and on July 22nd was 59°F’. with a specific gravity of 1:025, and shore pools near the Biological Station, fairly comparable with the oyster parcs at Arcachon, ranged in temperature on July 22nd from 59°F. to 76°F., and on July 13th from 60° to 76°F. I am very hopeful that although the specially high tem- perature of the ‘‘ bassin” at Arcachon—and possibly still more the calm weather during the critical period when the young animal is free-swimming and then settling down for life—may have favoured an unusually heavy deposit of spat, stillno such great heat is really necessary for a normal amount of reproduction and development, and that we may have in our neighbourhood water sufficiently warm for the purpose. As to the specific gravity : —it varies at Arcachon from 106 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. about 1°022 to 1:024, and Dr. Bashford Dean and others state as their opinion that a lew specific gravity is necés- sary for a good deposit of spat. I asked Mons. Dasté his opinion on this point. He has had great experience as a practical ostreo-culturist and has moreover been in the habit of taking temperatures and specific gravities. He said that unusually low specific gravities (due to wet weather) during the breeding season did harm at Arcachon, while further north at the other end of the“ bassin” they did good and resulted in more abundant spat because of differences in the local conditions. Therefore it can scarcely be predicted for any particular place whether a high specific gravity of the sea water will or will not be advantageous for oyster culture. On the whole Mons. Dasté thinks that salter water is better for breeding and for the growth of the shell (‘‘ coquillage’’) but that less salt water—some admixture of fresh from springs or streams—is better for the growth of the animal (the soft parts in contradistinction to the shell) when one or two years old. Certainly the French wild oysters that I came across attached to rocks at low tide on the shores of the open sea, although their shells might be well grown, had the animal meagre, stringy, and saltish to the taste and wanted the fatness and flavour of those reared in ‘‘ claires.”’ At Arcachon the young oysters are allowed to remain on the tiles at least till October or early in winter, when they are about the size of the finger-nail, say 3 to # inch in diameter (see Pl. II, fig. 1). Then the tiles are collected and taken ashore and the process of ‘‘ détroquage”’ or separating the oysters from the tiles takes place. This is effected very rapidly by a skilled hand, the little oyster with the film of lime to which it is attached being flicked off the tile rapidly by a square-ended knife, —— OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 107 Many of the oysters are sold at this stage to the ‘“éleveurs’’ who rear and fatten them, but many on the other hand are kept for another year or two in the parcs at Arcachon. These latter after removal from the tiles are placed in flat trays having a floor and a ld of close galvanized wire netting, of about half inch mesh, and these trays are placed between short posts in the sea on the oyster parc so that the tide can run freely through them supplying the oysters with food and oxygen. Such trays are called ‘‘ambulances’”’ or “‘ caisses ostreophiles’”’ and are shown in Pl. I, figs. 4, 5. They measure about 6 feet by 4, and are 6 inches deep. They serve to keep the young oyster during the early period of its life out of the sedi- - ment, and they also protect it from its numerous natural enemies, such as the boring sponge (Clzona) which ruins the shell, starfishes and crabs which manage to suck or pick out the soft animal, and whelks (such as Purpura and Nassa) and other Gastropods, which can bore a hole through the shell and prey upon the oyster. The ambulances are constantly looked after by the oyster men, and especially women, who come at low tide when the caisses are exposed, open the lid and pick over the contents, removing any enemies or impurities which may have got in, such as crabs, taking out any dead shells, and re-arranging the oysters if necessary so that all may have a fair chance of obtaining food and growing normally. The young oysters grow rapidly in the ambu- lances and have soon to be thinned out. The larger ones are removed to other caisses—or, if large enough, they are thrown into the open enclosures of the parc. Addi- tional young ones may now be added, or all the space may be required for a time by those left. In this way, by thinning out, re-arranging, and adding, relays of young oysters in their first year may occupy the ambulances for 108 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 8 months although an individual oyster may only be in for one month or so. Eventually all the oysters not sold to éleveurs or exported get transferred from the ambu- lances to the other parts of the parc. _ Mons. Dasté told me that he soaked his ambulances thoroughly in coal tar once a year to preserve them. Although they are some little expense at first they last well, and are used over and over again. The rest of an oyster parc is marked out into certain areas like little rectangular fields having raised edges all round and a sluice at one corner so that the water may either be retained or allowed to run out (PI. I, fig. 6). At low water the boundary banks of these are all exposed but there is usually some 6 or 8 inches or so of water retained over the area. This shallow water becomes warm towards the last of the ebb and it is swarming with living things and so no doubt supplies abundance of food to the oysters lying on the floor of the enclosure. The banks bounding these areas are formed of two parallel rows of closely set vertical bunches of the local heath, H7v7ca scoparia, with the space between, a foot or more wide, filled in with masses of a tenacious clay (Pl. I, fig. 6) obtained from the Ile des Oiseaux. In some places the boundary is strength- ened, or partly formed, of planks of wood and stakes. An objection which is urged against the use of the heath is that it forms a most attractive system of ‘‘ bouchots”’ upon which young mussels settle down and flourish. The mussels are not cultivated, nor desired, but they are present in considerable abundance over some parts of the oyster parcs, hanging in clusters from the branches of the heath. The men at Arcachon say that there is not enough hme in the water for both the oysters and the mussels, and that the latter being the stronger they get all the lime and the former suffer correspondingly. This is one way of ex- OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 109 pressing the general fact that somehow in the complex struggle for existence the mussels get on best. There are many crabs and other enemies of the oyster in the parcs. Every here and there one can pick up empty oyster shells quite recently dead and having a neatly drilled hole in one valve which shows that the oyster had been attacked and killed by a carnivorous Gastropod. Crabs are injurious both directly by eating young oysters and also indirectly by excavating holes in the floor of the pare into which oysters slip and are then smothered by mud. The young oysters when taken from their ambulances are put in these little fields or enclosures with the mud banks, and there they remain thickly scattered over the floor till they are required for exportation. JI was informed that they usually put about 1,000,000 oysters in each enclosure, which is about at the rate of 125 to the square metre. The oysters grow very rapidly on leaving the am- bulances and may be # inch across in a couple of months. When one year old they are usually from 1 inch to 14 inches in diameter, and when two years old they are usually from 23 to 24 inches in diameter. During the time I was there (July) some of the one and two year old oysters were evidently growing very rapidly. It was easy to see the annual increments by means of the lines on the shell, and some of the shells had beautifully transparent exten- sions of new matter from their free edges. One Ostrea angulata which I was shown had evidently added an inch to the edge of its shell during the past year. Between neighbouring oyster pares, and surrounding the ‘‘concessions”’ of the various proprietors, run lanes of water about 4 metres wide. These give ready access to all parts of the parc and are traversed by the boats of the oyster men (parqueurs). ‘These boats at Arcachon are 110 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. - very remarkable. They are long and narrow but stoutly built, pointed at both ends and rather like a gondola in appearance. They are much easier to row or push along than would be thought from their appearance, and they can also be used with sails. The lanes of water around the parcs are bordered by tall saplings with their twigs left on which keep constantly waving in any slight breeze. These are called “‘pignons,’’ and they are not only service- able as a boundary, but—the oyster men declare—they also frighten away the fish and especially the large voracious ray, Myliobatis, which might otherwise do great damage to the preserves (see Pl. I, figs. 1, 4, and 6). Possible depradations of another kind are guarded against by the “‘pontons”’ or large barges moored at the corners of the parcs in which the oyster police (gardes des péches) live (see Pl. I, fig. 6). Concessions of ground for oyster pares at Arcachon are given by the state at about 30 francs the hectare, which comes to be about 10 shillings per acre. The practical men I met assured me that the industry was still thoroughly successful, and they thought the present year was going to be avery goodone. M. Dasté informed me that he had already sent 11,000,000 of oysters this year to London. He sends out two year olds, measuring 5 to 6 centimetres across, at the rate of 12 francs per 1000, and somewhat older ones, measuring 6 to 7 cm. across, at 25 francs per 1000; these prices include packing and carriage as far as Bordeaux where they meet the steamer. On an average only 1 per cent. of those exported die on the journey. He considers from the 15th March to the 15th April the best time to send young oysters for stocking purposes to England. Before that it is liable to be too cold in England, and later it is too hot in Arcachon for the transportation to be effected safely. OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 11} Great numbers of the oysters bred and reared through their early stages at Arcachon are sent to Marennes and La Tremblade, when from one to two years old, to be fattened in a “‘ parc d’élevage”’ and “‘ greened”’ by feeding upon the diatom Navicula fusiformis, var. ostrearia. (See further on in this report under Marennes, p. 112; and also under General Conclusions, p. 129). RoyAaN. This place is situated at the mouth of the Gironde, and is a centre of the sardine fishing. I found there a fleet of between 60 and 70 fishing boats carrying a trawl with a beam of about 20 feet. Shrimping also is carried on by means of fixed or suspended nets worked both from the long breakwater and also from the boats. The net is shaped as a shallow bag and is about 6 feet in diameter. It has either a hoop round the mouth or is attached to four light spars set in the form of a square. This frame- work is then suspended by a rope which passes over a pulley at the end of a long pole, on the breakwater, or a light boom, on the boat, set at such an angle that the net can be conveniently lowered into the water. Some bait is put in the centre of the net and after it has been down a short time it is hauled up rapidly and the shrimps are thus caught in the concavity of the net. On the rocks to the north of Royan I found many small natural oysters which the people go out at low tide to collect, and to eat largely on the spot. The rocks here are a richly fossiliferous limestone (cretaceous), and the oysters seem to have rather thick, irregular, sometimes distorted shells. Most of them adhere completely by one valve, and are attached to'the rocks in fair abundance from low water mark up to at least half tide. They seem to be mostly 2 or 3 years old, and are not really good to eat, 112 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. being poor and saltish in taste. Possibly these may have been grown from spat derived from embryos which have been drifted up on some occasion from Arcachon. MARENNES, &C. The flat district on both sides of the estuary of the _ Seudre is the chief region for fattening up the oysters and preparing them for market, and it is in this neighbourhood that the celebrated green oysters, so well known and highly prized in some markets, are produced. But it must not be thought that all the oysters reared in these claires are green, the two kinds (“‘ huitres vertes” and ‘“huitres blanches’’) are cultivated in the same neigh- bourhood. La Tremblade is on the southern side of the Seudre a few miles from the estuary, and its port is La Gréve. A wide canal, up which small coasting vessels and fishing boats can sail, leads the sea-water from La Greve to Tremblade and supplies the numerous oyster “ claires” in the district around. The country is very flat and the soilisclayorclayandmarl. Itis excavated in all directions for miles to form claires and the branch canals supplying them. The ‘‘claires”’ (Pl. IJ, fig. 4) are merely shallow artificial ponds of more or less rectangular form and about 2 feet deep on an average. ‘The floor is simply the clayey soil and is very muddy, while the sides are turf banks pierced somewhere by a pipe leading from a branch canal or a neighbouring claire. On the north of the estuary in the neighbourhood of the little town of Marennes there are also numbers of claires supplied by a canal leading inland. A good deal of the low-lying land is also occupied by salt marshes (marais salants), shallow excavations in which the sea-water is evaporated and from which the salt is scraped up in heaps by great wooden rakes. The pyramids OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. ps of gleaming white salt which are formed at the sides of the salt marshes are often a conspicuous feature in the land- scape. ‘They are seen in one of the figures (PI. ITI, fig. 3). In spring and early summer the éleveurs prepare their claires for use by emptying them of water and allowing the floor to be exposed for some time to the sun and weather, they then dig over the soil on the bottom and break it up thoroughly so as to let air through it. They dig the edges more deeply so as to form a slight trench all round which is said to be of some importance in catching and retaining the fine sediment, and may also be of value in equalizing the temperature. In the central part of the claire the soil is heaped up so as to form in some cases a considerable convexity, so that later on, when in use, the water is shallower in the middle. | About July or August they let a little water in by the sluices and this mixes with the clay and marl crust and makes a frothy scum in which many lowly organisms begin to grow. A little later more water is let in so as to fill up the claires and then the green water-weeds (Algee) make their appearance and soon cover the floor with a dense green growth. This is known to the éleveurs as ‘‘ moss” or “‘ verdure’’ and they recognise its very great importance in connection with the nutrition of the oysters. I collected samples of the green growth from the bottoms of several claires, and these specimens have been carefully examined for me by Mr. R. J. Harvey Gibson, the lecturer on Botany at University College, who finds that they consist of Cladophora flavescens and Cladophora expansa, along with Spirulina tenwissima and a Lyngbya, the Cladophora being however the chief constituent. A microscopic examination of these Algze shows that they are teeming with other forms of hfe. Small Amphipods, Cladocera and other kinds of Crustacea as well as lower 114 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. animals are clinging to and entangled in the branches in abundance, some parts give attachment to little tufts of Calothriz, while nearly everything is covered with innu- merable Diatoms or their remains, such as Gomphonema stalks adhering to the stems of Cladophora. Probably so far as oyster culture is concerned the green Alge thought so much of by the éleveurs are only of importance as forming points of attachment and shelter, or favourable environment, for the microscopic forms of life and especially for the Diatoms. It is known that under all conditions natural and artificial, Diatoms form a most important constituent of the food of the oysters, and it has been established by several eminent investigators that the ereen (or rather greenish blue) tint of the Marennes oysters is due to the presence in the “‘ claires”’ of a par- ticular kind of Diatom in enormous profusion (PI. IT, fig. 5). This special Diatom used to be known as Amphi- pleura, or Navicula, ostrearia, but its correct name is now Navicula fusiformis, var. ostrearia. This form is found in our own district in the estuary of the Dee, although not abundantly; but it 1s probable that there are many other kinds of similar Diatoms that would do equally well for rearing and fattening oysters on, and as a matter of fact the contents of an oyster’s stomach show that the food has consisted of various kinds of Diatoms (in one case 87 species were found) as well as other lowly organisms. T also collected samples of the mud, sometimes of a dark sreen colour or almost black and sometimes browner, from the bottom both of dry and wet claires, and on submitting these now to a detailed microscopic examination I find that the deposit 1s very largely composed of organic parti- cles, such as living and dead Diatoms, spores of Algz, and minute animals. Altogether, all the evidence I was able to collect shows, I think, that the bottom of a claire OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 115 is teeming with microscopic life, and it is probably this rich feeding alone which is necessary in order to bring the oysters in a very short period—a few weeks usually, some- times 10 days or a fortnight is sufficient—to the desired condition of fatness and flavour. It is said that the oyster can be colowred under favourable circumstances in 36 hours. It is only the gills and the labial palps of the animal which become green. The pigment of the Diatom (which has been called ‘‘ marennin’’ by Prof. Ray Lankester) is really blue, but when deposited in minute granules in the yellowish coloured gills it gives rise to the greenish tint. From the oyster’s point of view the claire is a very unhealthy place. The mortality is very high, and those that survive are probably in an enfeebled, if not actually a diseased, condition. They have had far too much to eat, their food is highly nutritious, the water is very stagnant and badly aerated, and is probably unhealthily warm. However the healthy natural oyster is not what is desired by the epicure, and of course it is the business of the éleveur to produce what will fetch the highest price in the market, so he regulates the condition of the claire in such a way as to favour as much as possible the pro- duction and growth of an abundant supply of microscopic plants and animals. The oysters are generally laid down in the claires in August, and the autumn and even early winter months are supposed to be the best times for “ greening.” During my visit in July most of the claires were being prepared for the reception of the oysters, but some were full. I found very considerable differences in temperature and specific gravity between some claires and others, as is to be expected when one recollects that the fresh supplies of water are admitted at very irregular intervals, so that 116 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. one claire may have been stagnating and evaporating for a week or more while the neighbouring pond may have been freshened by a canal from the estuary of the Seudre an hour or two before. In most cases the water is ad- mitted at spring tides only. The large canal leading towards Marennes had sp. gr. 1016 and temperature 70°F., while several neighbouring claires had their sp. gr. about 1:027 and temperatures of 78° F., 82° F., and 85° F. respectively. The oysters laid down in claires of the Marennes and Lia Tremblade neighbourhoods are obtained from Arca- chon. They may be bought by the éleveurs when they are from 18 months to 2 years old, and may be fattened, ereened and ready for the market by the end of the following autumn. POINTE LE CHAPUS. I was disappointed in not seeing Mons. Grenier at Bourcefranc, but went on to Pt. le Chapus to see the claires, the oyster parcs on the beach and the basin of dégorgement (see Pl. I, figs. 2, 3, and 6). The oyster enclosures on the beach, which is just at the mouth of the estuary of the Seudre on the Straits of Maumusson, are very primitive. They extend over the ereater part of the muddy gravel shore as exposed at low tide, and are merely rude enclosures surrounded by low banks of stones heaped together to about one foot in height. The oysters are laid out in these parcs and are attended to at low tide by men and women. ‘There are also at Pointe le Chapus certain enclosures of smaller size on the shore in which mussels are placed to fatten and to be protected till they are wanted. These mussel preserves are areas of about 10 yards square and one foot in depth, and the floor is of firm mud. Probably these enclosures are of considerable use in protecting the large OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. BL] clusters of fine mussels from the sea, which rolls in at this point between the Islands of Oléron and Ré. Another minor industry at Le Chapus is the “ Péler- in” gathering, which is carried on by girls (PI. II, fig. 6). They go out on the shore at low tide attired in flannel knickerbockers and armed with a long narrow knife or spike of iron with which they scrape round the edges of the oyster parcs and in the mud between the stones. The mollusc they are in search of is Tapes decussata, and they seem to be able to rake it out in considerable quantities. It is a favourite article of food in the neighbourhood and I constantly met with it under the head of ‘‘ coquillage’’ in the déjetner menus at the hotels along this part of the coast. The basins of dégorgement at Le Chapus are placed high up on the beach. They are shallow tanks of considerable size, regularly built and with smooth, bricked, or tiled floors so that they can be kept perfectly clean and free from mud. They can be filled at high tide or emptied, as required. Their purpose is as follows:—It is found that oysters taken fresh from the parcs or claires have a good deal of fine mud and food-matter of a decomposable nature clinging to them both externally and internally, and they also naturally have the alimentary canal filled with a collection of partially digested diatoms along with some mud and other matters. Now if such oysters are packed up in this condition and sent off on a journey there is con- siderable chance of some of these organic matters or the more or less impure mud going bad and causing mischief; and so the oyster-growers have discovered that it is a great advantage to place the oysters for a week or so before their journey in clean water in order that all traces of dirty mud and excrete matters may be got rid of from the intestine, etc. (See Pl. II, fig. 3.). 118 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. These basins of dégorgement are also sometimes used for the purpose of educating the oyster in view of the prospective journey and subsequent sojourn in the market or the fishmonger’s shop. By emptying the basins periodically, and so accustoming the oysters gradually to stand exposure to air, they are taught to close their shells very accurately when taken out of the sea so as to be able to hold in the supply of water which lies around the gills, and upon which the animal is dependent for respiratory purposes. I am of opinion that the use of basins of dégorgement is a most important and necessary sanitary addition to successful oyster culture. It may be added that the men at Pointe le Chapus are of the same opinion as the Arcachon parqueurs viz., that the abundant deposit of spat this year is due to the hot summer. ILE D’OLERON. From Pointe le Chapus I crossed to Le Chateau on the island of Oléron where there are enormous mud flats extending a long way into the straits of Maumusson. There are numerous oyster parcs over these mud flats and extending all along the east and north sides of the island. The parqueurs buy very small oysters from Arcachon and lay them down to grow and fatten. After 18 months or 2 years they sell them again at a consider- able profit. At low tides—especially at spring tides—the parcs are very carefully worked over in order to ensure that the growing oysters are under favourable conditions and are not suffering from their enemies. In addition to this rearing of young Arcachon (or ‘“‘flat’’) oysters, which they say at Oleron is a most suc- cessful and profitable industry, there has been a very considerable cultivation, especially during the last year or OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 119 two, of the “‘ Portuguese”’ oyster, Ostrea angulata. This they commence at the very beginning by placing in their parcs large quantities of plain tiles kept in place by stones. After the first summer these tiles are found to be covered ‘ with spat which has been produced from “ natural,’’ (2.e. not cultivated) Portuguese oysters in the neighbouring sea. The tiles are brought ashore in small flat boats and the young oysters are separated and then laid down again in the parcs, where I am told they grow very rapidly so that at the end of a year they are very much larger than those at Arcachon of the same age. At Le Chateau I met Mons. Charles Laray, Courtier maritime, to whom I am indebted for some information in regard to the fisheries of the neighbourhood. M. Laray told me that there are now 10,000 people who make their living by oyster culture on this part of Oléron. The Portuguese oysters are found growing naturally over the rocks and anything else they can adhere to at several places in the neighbourhood such as the mouth of the river at Rochefort, and at Port des Barques, Fouras, &c. These are frequently gathered by the people while still small and transferred to the pares. Flat oysters (O. edulis) were to be obtained in a similar manner round the coast twenty years ago, but now they say they are never seen. Mussels used also to be cultivated at Oléron, but they have become scarce, and do not seem to have been doing well during the last couple of years. This the men attribute to the hot seasons which they say are not favourable to mussel culture. Other shell fish (Tapes) are scraped up on the beach and brought into the market, but only in small quantities. The whole island of Oléron is very flat and the sea is taken for miles inland by means of canals so as to fill the claires and salt pans which one comes upon in driving 120 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. through the interior. I visited St. Pierre near the west side and then Boyardville on the north, and was much struck by the admirable way in which by this system of artificial irrigation great tracts of what would otherwise probably be waste swampy land are made good use of. Some of such claires, canals and salt pans are shown in Pl. III, fig. 3. I found the canal at Boyardville on July 7th to be 70°F’. with a specific gravity of 1:023; while on the same day at 11 a.m. and in the open sea, half way between the islands of Oléron and Ré, the temperature was 72°F. and the specific gravity 1:025. On that same day the temperature of the sea at Port Erin in the Isle of Man was 60°F ., at 10 a.m.,and the following day at 3 p.m. it was 68°F, the highest temperature we have registered in the open sea at Port Erin this summer—the shore pools often become considerably warmer, e.g., 76°F. Lia RocHELLE. The shores in the neighbourhood of Rochelle are in part limestone, in some places very much broken up so as to be merely masses of separate stones, and in part a fine mud. On the rocks and stones are many small “‘natural”’ oysters which are collected by the people at low tide. Those I tasted were of poor quality and saltish in flavour. ~ I found the temperature of the sea near Rochelle to be 82°F ., the highest temperature I met with except on the parcs at Arcachon. In the fish market at Rochelle I saw very small immature soles and plaice exposed for sale in quantities ; also mussels which were small, from 17 to lg inches in length, but very good; and also cuttlefishes and various kinds of crabs. I had intended going next to the Island of Ré, but heard at Rochelle that it would scarcely be worth while, so I decided to visit the mussel bouchots in the Bay of Aiguillon. eee ae OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 19} Bay oF AIGUILLON. This large shallow bay with flat muddy shores miles of which are exposed at low tide has become celebrated through the peculiar method of mussel cultivation there carried on. The bouchot system owes its origin to the wreck in 1035 of an Irish barque loaded with sheep upon the rocks near the village of Hsnandes.* The only man rescued was the captain, named Walton, who having saved some of the sheep from the wreck crossed them with the animals of the country and produced a fine race, the marsh sheep, which is still held in high estimation. Walton also devised a kind of net the “‘allouret’’ which he stretched on poles above the level of the sea to catch the flocks ot birds which fly across the surface of the bay after dark. In order to carry the net far out over the mud he had to drive in many poles, and he soon found that these became covered with mussel spat, and that the shellfish erown in this way in the open water above the mud were of superior quality. This led to the construction of the first artificial mussel plantation or set of bouchots. Walton also invented the ‘‘ pousse pied”’ or ‘“‘ acon”’ the characteristic boat of the boucholeurs still in constant use for traversing the soft mud—I had a trip in one last July. The ‘“‘acon’”’ is composed of a plank forming the bottom and bent up in front to make a flat prow (PI. ITI, fig. 1.) The sides and stern are each formed of one piece of wood, sometimes the sides are of two planks each. The size is 9 or 10 ft. in length, from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. wide and about 1 ft. 6 im. deep. There isa shelf at the stern, a narrow thwart close to the bow, and a small wooden stool in the middle of the floor—these with a wooden paddle and a short pole complete the equipment. The boatman in using “For this historical fact Iam indebted to Quatrefages’ ‘“‘ Souvenirs d’un Naturaliste,” Paris, 1854, _ | 122 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the acon faces the bow, grasps the sides about the middle - firmly with both hands, rests his left knee on the floor of the boat, and putting his right leg (encased in a long sea boot) over the side he plunges it into the mud and pushes the boat onward. He is able to propel it at a great rate over the soft mud, and when he gets to a channel of water where the acon floats he works with paddle or pole until he again reaches mud and 1s able to use his foot. There is also a larger kind of boat in use. It is known simply as ‘‘ bateau plat’’ and is used to transport large quantities of mussels. (See Pl. ITI, fig. 1.). Originally the bouchots formed V shaped figures; but now the poles, which are trunks of small trees about 12 ft. long and 6 or 9 inches in diameter, are placed about 2 ft. apart in parallel rows at right angles to the shore and are driven for several feet into the mud. The rows are about 30 yards apart, and each has several hundred posts. The bouchots have been increased greatly since the time of Walton, and now extend for miles along the coast, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the villages of Esnandes, Charron, and Marsilly. It was Charron that I visited. The rows of stakes or poles are placed now in at least five zones of which the outermost or furthest from land (it may be 3 miles or so from highwater mark) is called ‘“bouchots d’ aval,” the next is ‘‘ bouchots batisse,” the next ‘‘bouchots du bas” then ‘‘ bouchots batards”’ and finally the row nearest the land is ‘‘ bouchots d’ amont”’ but each of these named kinds may really include several sets of bouchots. Each of these sets 1s composed of the above mentioned long lines of posts driven into the mud, in some cases—the bouchot d’aval—plain and in other cases interlaced with flexible branches and twigs placed a few inches apart and known as ‘“‘clayonnage.” There is a space at the bottom of the poles free from clayonnage : OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 193 so that mud can wash through. The seaward rows of bouchots are for the young mussel spat to attach itself to and these alone have no clayonnage, while those further up the shore are for the purpose of growing and fattening the shell-fish on. The spatting time there is in early spring and by the end of May the young mussel is the size of a lentil (say =, inch in length). In Julyit is about 4 of an inch in length, and is then ready to be transplanted to the bouchots further up. They are thus gradually moved up the shore as the bouchots require to be thinned, and this process educates them to bear prolonged exposure to air. The bunches of young mussels are detached and are wrapped up in a piece of old net and then stuffed into the clayonnage of the bouchots d’amonts where they may remain for a year until about 13 inches long when they are considered ready for market. Before the netting has rotted away the mussels have managed to attach themselves by their byssus threads to the neighbouring branches or to one another. I saw no very large mussels, the finest I saw averaged from 2, to 24 inches in length and were in bunches of 6 to 12, but they certainly seemed to be very abundant. The bouchots looked black with them, and the boucholeurs declared that 1t was an excellent summer for their industry. The weather was unfortunately so dull that I was unable to take any satisfactory photographs at Charron. The temperature of the water I found to be 73°F. The water was exceedingly muddy, and the mud as exposed at low tide was so extremely soft that one sank into it at once and it was impossible to traverse it in any way except by means of an acon. I collected samples of mud from various parts of the shore and from the mussels themselves and these I have now carefully examined. The mud is a very yellow mud, and is extremely smooth and unctuous 124 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. to the feel. Under the microscope it seems to be composed of very finely divided particles along with the remains of many animals and microscopic plants amongst which I find Diatoms, especially Navicula and Coscinodiscus, Foraminifera, and sponge spicules. The Sevres Niortoise and other smaller streams which flow into the bay of Aiguillon keep the water partly fresh and this is said to be highly favourable for mussel culture. The boucholeurs at Charron told me that the industry was a thorough success, and what I saw led me to the same conclusion. The mussels though not large seemed very abundant. I saw large quantities gathered from the bouchots and ready to be sent away to market. There are also a few systems of bouchots to the south of La Rochelle, at Chatelaillon, but not many; while mussels are grown on the bed system on various parts of the French coast. Many people say in France that the mussels erown on the bouchots are better than those from the beds. It may be so, but although I have tasted both I cannot be sure of it. ‘There can be no doubt that the chief reason of the extensive cultivation by means of bouchots in the Bay of Aiguillon is simply that no other plan would suc- ceed there. The mud is so very soft and so constantly forming that mussel beds could not be established—any- thing placed on the bottom is very soon smothered in mud. Consequently I am inclined to think that where mussels can be grown successfully in beds it is best to adhere to that mode of culture; while on the other hand in some of our muddy estuaries 14 might be worth while to try bouchots. The Scottish Fishery Board have been trying some experiments lately with bouchots at St. Andrews, without it seems much success. For-one thing, it costs more both for the first establishment and also for subsequent labour a os OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 125 in Scotland than in France. Then it is said that our colder seas do not favour so abundant a deposit of spat, and do not yield such abundant nourishment to the erowing mussels as do those of the south. This I think has still to be proved. The spat deposited on some of our beds and other parts of the shore in our own district and on any submarine objects in any way resembling bouchots, such as pieces of wreckage, stakes, piers, stems of large seaweeds, &c., is most abundant, indicating that there is no want of the free-swimming embryos prepared to settle down upon any suitable foundation; and in regard to the nourishment of the adult it seems to me that our mussels are quite as large and well formed in every way as those I saw in France. I therefore see no reason from the biological point of view why the bouchot system of mussel culture should not be a success in our district, but it is quite possible that 1t might not be worth while, financially, to start it except in places where from local conditions it is impossible or difficult to grow the mussels in beds. LES SABLES D’OLONNE. Les Sables is a favourite seaside resort, and centre of oyster culture, situated close to Pointe de l’Aiguille about halfway between the mouth of the Gironde and that of the Loire. It is in an exposed situation, but behind the harbour there is a large artificial lake which reminds one of the basin at Arcachon, although it is of course much smaller (about 160 acres), and has well-built sloping walls round its edge. A considerable part of this area of shallow sea-water is devoted to oyster culture, and is divided off into parcs, which however are only for élevage, the young oysters being brought from Arcachon or Auray in Brittany. ‘The bottom of the parcs is rather 126 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. firm muddy sand, and I found the temperature of the water to be 74°F ., and the specific gravity 1:025. The water is admitted from the sea by great sluice gates, and there seems an abundance of vegetation and food matters in the parcs. The oysters are laid down in July or so, and remain till the following March or April, when they are ready for market, but may be kept longer till required. They are all “huitres blanches” as no ‘“sreening’’ appears to take place in these enclosures, which by the way are not called claires here but pares d’ élevage. Itis said that the growth of the oysters in this lake at Les Sables is very rapid. In the low-lying ground round the lake there are ponds dug out, very like the claires at La Tremblade and Marennes, in which the oysters may be put for a few weeks to be specially fattened up and flavoured. Salt is also made by evaporation in these or similar shallow pits. Les Sables is a centre for the sardine fishing and has a large fleet of boats, and also factories and warehouses for the tinning of the sardines. On the actual seashore north of the town the beach is marked off into rude stone enclosures used as fishing weirs; set lines are also used on the shore and prawning is carried on. Fixed engines, as at Royan, for shrimping are in use both from the breakwater and also from small boats. In the market, in addition to the usual common fish, oysters, mussels, Tapes decussata, and two or three different species of crabs were exposed for sale. LE CRolisic. This ancient little fishing town is in the south of Brittany close to the projecting poimt which forms the northern extremity of the estuary of the Loire. It is conveniently reached from Nantes by St. Nazaire. As in = ——_— ee OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 197 the case of Arcachon and of Les Sables d’ Olonne there is a sheltered inland sea, with a narrow entrance through which the tide runs in and out with a considerable cur- rent. The temperature of this water I found to be 66°F., and the specific gravity 1:025 to 1:026, practically that of the open sea. In this area there are oyster pares for élevage. No production of spat takes place here, the young oysters being mostly obtained from Auray, a little to the north, when about two years old and 5 or 6 cm. in diameter. The parcs contain abundant vegetation, the same green ales being apparently present as those I found at Marennes, and similar ‘‘green”’ oysters are produced in some of the parcs, although they are perhaps not so well known as those from the estuary of the Seudre. I examined the parcs at Croisic at low tide, and photo- eraphed one set of 12 quadrangular areas, each about 30 yards by 15 yards, separated from one another by a double row of stakes supporting planks, the space between these palings—about 2 yards across—being filled in with mud and gravel. The stakes are placed about a yard apart. The pare contains about 2 feet of water and there isa sluice at one end of each enclosure. The walls between adjacent pares are of this great thickness (2 yards) because there is no stiff clay here lke that which makes such excellent enclosures at Arcachon. Ambulances with wire net lids, like those at Arcachon, are also in use here for the very small oysters. There are also great salt and oyster-rearing ~ excavations near to at Le Poulignen, and also between Le Croisic and Le Bourg-de-Batz as shown in the accom- panying sketch-plan (Pl. III, fig. 3). The more irregular areas shown in the left foreground and in the distance on each side of the watcher’s house are oyster pares, while the very regular areas in the centre are for the manufacture of salt. Mussels are also cultivated here both in beds and 128 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGIGAL SOCIETY. in special reservoirs in which they are placed for a time before being sold—one cultivator sends 150,000 kilo- erammes annually to market. Le Croisic is also a centre for the Sardine fishery and for the capture of lobsters and “‘langousts”’ (Palinwrus vulgaris), but it is of still greater interest because of the remarkable method there pursued with great success of catching shrimps in traps. It was chiefly to see these shrimp traps and to hear about their use that I had gone to Croisic. The trap (‘‘casier’’) is a barrel-shaped structure about 3 feet long and formed of spars of wood covered with fine meshed netting and thickly tarred all over (PI. ITI, fig. 2). It has a bottom plank projecting for a few inches at each end so as to form shelves upon which stones are tied to weight the apparatus. On one side there is a little wooden door, tied with string, through which the hand can be introduced to clear out the contents. At the ends are the usual funnel-shaped entrances like those of lobster pots. Le Croisic, apart from the inland sea, is open and exposed to the Atlantic and there are no special conditions so far as I can see that are favourable to the use of the shrimp trap. The shrimpers are 60 to 70 smallish, open, one-masted boats, and each takes out 20, 25 or 30 traps. The traps are set in the open sea and are used chiefly in winter. These boats do not use the traps alone, but also fish at the © same time with a small fish trawl. They go to sea and set the traps, which they leave down all night, then they go trawling and pick up the traps on the way back in the morning. I gathered from conversation with some of the men that the traps are sometimes rather uncertain in their results, on some nights catching great numbers of shrimps and on others very few. One man told me that he did not feel sure that the traps were better than a shrimp trawl would be for catching shrimps, but that the OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 129 use of the traps saved time and labour as it allowed them to use the fish trawl at the same time. Another fisher- man, however, assured me that he preferred the traps to a shrimp trawl, that they gave much better results. They say that it is not very much use setting the traps in summer as they only catch very small shrimps then. The best time of the year they say is in January and February. None of the boats were using the traps at the time I was there (middle of July). The value of the shrimps caught varies from 80,000 to 60,000 francs annually. Another object of fishery interest I saw at Croisic was the ‘‘ vivier”’ which they are in the habit of making out of their old fishing boats. They make certain slits in the sides between the planks, put on a deck of sparwork, and several partitions in the interior so as to divide it up into about four compartments through which the water flows readily, and in these aquaria they keep their stock of lobsters and “‘langousts.”” The “‘viviers”’ float deep in the water, and are to be seen moored in various parts of the entrance to the harbour and inland sea. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. There is no doubt that there are great and flourishing shellfish industries along the west coast of France; and one thing that struck me very forcibly was the admirable manner in which the people seem to make the best of unfavourable conditions and to take advantage of every opportunity given to them by nature. Few places on any coast, I fancy, could look more desolate, hopeless and forbidding than the vast mud swamps of the Bay of Aiguillon, and yet by means of the bouchot system many square miles of this useless ground have been brought 130 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. under cultivation, and an industry established which sup- ports several prosperous villages. It seemed to me, moreover, that the fishing populations knew more about the products of their coasts and made more use of them, took a more lively interest in the welfare and habits of the animals—not only those which are the direct objects of the fisheries, but also others which have an indirect influence through being the natural food or enemies of the former—and devoted themselves with a more constant industry, and even a loving care, to the cultivation of their shores than is generally found to be the case amongst corresponding classes in this country. The neat little enclosures along the beach, carefully tended at low tides, remind one constantly of market gardening, and enforce the truth of the idea long familiar to the biologist and now beginning to be generally recognised that the fisherman should be the farmer not the mere hunter of his fish and that aqui-culture must be carried on as industriously and scientifically as agriculture. Another noteworthy point in regard to French fish- culture is the great extent to which the women seem to help and work along with the men. At Arcachon and several other places there seem to be as many women as men employed in the parcs, and they struck me as taking an intelligent interest and pride in their work. In addition to these personal qualities in the fisher folk the success of the shellfish industries in France 1s, I think, largely due to the encouragement and wise assistance of Government, especially in the regulation of general oyster dredging and the reservation of certain grounds for supplying seed. I do not see that the French shores are in any important respects better fitted for shellfish cultivation than ours are; the variety in geological formation 1s on the whole much —————e OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 131 the same, the fauna both macroscopic and microscopic is not appreciably richer, and although the temperature of the water is certainly higher in the south, probably on the average about 10°F’. higher, still I do not think that that is essential, and it may even be considered doubtful whether it is much advantage. The opinions of the practical men I met in France differed on this point. Mons. Dasté at Arcachon was convinced that considerable heat was absolutely necessary for the successful breeding of oysters, and that the greater the heat the better the deposit of spat. It is not unnatural for the successful breeder of oysters to be influenced—perhaps unconsciously—by the desire to keep that branch of the industry as much as possible in his own hands, and to think that the conditions found in his district are essential, and that all that should be attempted elsewhere is to rear the oysters he has pro- duced. In opposition to that opinion we have the facts that Capt. Dannevig has had oyster spat produced in abundance in his pond at Arendal in Norway, and that both on the north coast of France and the south coast of England oysters reproduce and spat is deposited. Lately Prof.H. de Lacaze-Duthiers has proved that even under artificial conditions in the aquarium of the Zoolog- ‘ical Station at Roscoff on the North Coast of Brittany, he can bring seed oysters to a high state of development and commercial value, and that the oysters will reproduce in the aquarium, spat be deposited, and the young oysters be readily reared up until they are fit for the market—the entire life-history having been passed through in confine- ment. I consider that this is an important observation as there can be no doubt that under natural or semi- natural conditions a very large proportion of the free- swimming embryos are carried away by tides or currents and either destroyed or lost to the cultivator. 132 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. M. Dasté and others however are all agreed that we might do a great deal more in this country than we now do in the way of rearing up young oysters and fattening them for the market. Dasté has visited the west coast of Scotland and he mentioned to me Campbeltown and Aros in the sound of Mull (a locality I know well) as being places that had struck him as being well suited for oyster culture. I have no doubt there are parts of our own district which are equally favourable. It is of importance if the oysters are kept in shallow water, that the tempera- ture in winter should not be too low, and that is a point upon which I feel we require further information in regard to the various parts of our district. As to the other conditions, a gravelly mud bottom sufficiently firm to bear up the weight of the shell so that the exceedingly delicate respiratory organs of the animal should not be injured by much mud being carried in by the water currents, possibly a certain admixture of fresh water, and abundance of good food are what seem most favourable to oyster growth. The food must be micros- copic, and about 90% of it is usually Diatoms—so these lowly plants are the most important things to look for in estimating the oyster rearing capacity of a particular region. Finally in regard to Mussels there seems to be a difference of opinion as to whether a hot season is favour- able or the reverse. I was distinctly given to understand at Oléron that heat was not good for them, and that they were disappearing because of the hot summers, but on the other hand there is the positive fact which I came across at Arcachon that the uncultivated and unwished for mussels are increasing in numbers over the oyster parcs, where the temperature of the water is the highest I met with. I have already given my conclusions in regard to the OYSTER AND MUSSEL REPORT. 133 bouchot system of mussel culture fully at the end of the section on the Bay of Aiguillon (p. 121). Expressed briefly, my opinion is that where mussels are now grown success- fully on the bed system the best we can do is to farm these beds carefully, and it would be useless to erect bouchots, except perhaps on the seaward side for the purpose of collecting more spat; but in places where from local conditions beds cannot be formed and where we know that there are plenty of embryonic mussels in the water, as evidenced by the quantities of young mussels that settle down on any post, drain pipe, or other occasional submerged object, it is highly probable that a system of bouchots would attract abundance of spat, and there is no reason to think that the mussels could not be reared as successfully on bouchots here as they are in France. I would recommend then, that in some such spot in one of our estuaries a set of bouchots should be established on a small scale. Such an experiment is obviously the only way of settling definitely whether or not the French method would be a practical success on the Lancashire coasts. I need scarcely say that I have made no attempt to abbreviate this lengthy report as I feel that it is most important in a practical question of this nature that every fact and every opinion which is at all likely to be of value should be fully stated and carefully considered. I may say now in conclusion, as Professor Huxley said in his Royal Institution lecture in 1883, ‘“‘I for my part believe that the only hope for the oyster consumer lies first in oyster culture, and secondly in discovering a means of breeding oysters under such conditions that the spat shall be safely deposited. And I have no doubt that when those who undertake the business are provided with a proper knowledge of the conditions under which they have to work both these objects will be attained.” 134 Fig. Fig. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PratTE LI. . 1. Oyster pare at Arcachon showing enclosures, pignons, and row of collectors. . 2. A collector (‘‘Gabaret’’) showing arrangement of tiles. . 3. Shows a tile on which oyster spat has just been deposited. . 4. Part of an oyster parc showing rows of ‘* ambulances.’ . 5. An ‘‘ambulance”’ opened. 6. Corner of a parc showing sluice, construction of banks, and a ponton in the distance. Puate I. . 1. Part of a tile showing young oysters ready to be removed. . 2. Primitive oyster parcs on shore at Pointe le Chapus. 3. Basins of dégorgement at Pointe le ear 4. Oyster claires near Marennes. 5. Navicula fustformis, var. ostrearia, and allied forms, on which the oyster feeds. 6. Shellfish enclosures at Pointe le Chapus, with girls collecting ‘‘ pélerins.”’ Puate III. . 1. Sketch near Charron, Bay of Aiguillon, showing bouchots, acons, &c. 2. The shrimp traps (‘‘casiers’’) at Le Croisic. _ 3. Oyster parcs and marais salants between Le Croisic and Le Bourg-de-Batz. 135 REPORT upon the NEMERTINES found in the neighbourhood of PORT ERIN, ISLE OF MAN. By J. Henry VANSsToONE and W. I. Beaumont. [Read January 26th, 1894. ] In the first volume of the “‘ Fauna of Liverpool Bay,” several species of Nemertines were recorded for the dis- trict, but since that time no additions have been made to this division of the Fauna of the Irish Sea. In the present list are noted those genera and species which have come under our notice, during the spring and summer of this year, at Port Erin and in its immediate neighbour- hood. The lst is far from being a complete one, and there is no doubt that this interesting class of worms will be found to be well represented on the Manx coast. The habitat of the group is varied. Some, hike Nemertes neesw, are found under stones at high tide mark, others only at mid and low tide among the tufts of Corallina officinalis, while others again love the deeper waters and are only captured by means of the dredge. On the east shore of the Calf Island is a group of rocks (‘‘ The Clets,’’) forming at low water an excellent hunting ground for many marine animals, and especially in respect to the Nemertines, which abound there in the masses of Crista and Tubularia. | Owing to their great power of contractility, these worms are difficult to kill in an extended and normal condition. Authors have recommended various methods, such as the use of corrosive sublimate or chloral hydrate, but the results obtained are very uncertain. A one per cent solu- tion of cocain, however, answers well in most cases, and 136 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. in the absence of this drug, a saturated solution of ferrous sulphate may be used. The worms are dropped into the solution and in about ten minutes will be found thoroughly aneesthetised in an extended condition without any extru- sion of the proboscis. They are then transferred, through 50 % and 70 %, to 90 % alcohol. Order I—PROTONEMERTINI, Burger. Family CARINELLID2. Carinella annulata, Montagu. Under this species must be placed a nemertine recorded in Report I, and again in the Sixth Annual Report, as C. linearis. It is described as being “of a brick-red colour with white bands,” and these are the characters of C. annulata, and not of C. linearis which is pure milk- white without any bands. ‘This species has been dredged in 23 fathoms, 8.E. of Port St. Mary, and in 20 fathoms, W. of Fleshwick Bay. A specimen about 3 cm. long, coloured in the manner characteristic of this species, was found in July, 1892, under a stone at low tide at Port St. Mary by Mr. Beaumont. Order II.—_MESONEMERTINI, Burger. Family CEPHALOTHRICIDZ, M‘Intosh. Cephalothriz bioculata, Oersted. Several specimens were taken during August in the coralline pools between Traie Vane and Traie Veg to the north of the Biological Station. The average length was about one centimetre. The colour in each case was of a pale orange with the characteristic reddish snout. Order II] —METANEMERTINI, Burger. Family AMPHIPORIDH, Hubrecht. Amphiporus lactifioreus, M‘Intosh. Average length, 5 centimetres. Colour creamy white L.M.B.C. NEMERTIDA. 137 with conspicuous red brain. This species is very abundant in the shingle under Ulva-covered stones, a short distance from the Laboratory, and is generally associated with Lineus obscurus and the Oligochaete Clitellio arenarwus. On being placed in a dish of sea-water with some sand and shingle, A. lactifloreus forms a sandy mucous tube which lies on the top of the shingle. Mr. Beaumont also found this species under stones on the limestone reefs at Poyllvaaish in Bay-ny-Carrickey. Ampliporus pulcher (7), O. F. Muller. Oersted. A specimen about 13 inch long dredged in 10 fathoms, S.H. of Kitterland (between Spanish Head and the Burrow), on April 1st, 1893, was doubtfully referred at the time to this species.* Family TETRASTEMMID@, Hubrecht. Tetrastemnma dorsale, Abildgaard. Average length 3 cm. Colour brown, with yellow median dorsal line and transverse bands. Found in the laminarian zone on the destroyed breakwater and on the north side of the Bay. The easily recognised reddish brown speckled variety of this species occurred plentifully last year in dishes containing material dredged in the vicinity of Port Erin. Tetrastemma nigrum, Riches. Average length 9mm. Found on Codiwm in a mid-tide pool at Traie Veg, Port Erin Bay. The body is rounded, and the head, in this species, not well defined. The colour on the ventral surface is yellow, while the dorsal surface is quite black. | * In the absence of information as to the structure of the proboscis and the position of the side organs of this specimen it is impossible to determine whether it should be referred to Amphiporus pulcher, or to the recently described species Amphiporus dissimulans, Riches (Jour. of Mar. Biol. Ass., Vol. II, new series, p. 10), 138 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Tetrastemma wmnutabrle, Riches. Average length 5 mm. Found among the masses of zoophytes at ‘‘ The Clets.”” The body is rounded and of a pale yellow with a dark brown dorsal band running the whole length of the body. Tetrastemma candidwm, O. F. Muller. Average length 1 cm. Fairly common in Port Erin Bay. The colour-varieties met with are the pale yellow and the yellowish green. Some examples had well developed gonads in April. Tetrastemma melanocephalum, Johnston. Mr. Beaumont obtained a specimen from Poyllvaaish in April, and Mr. Vanstone has since collected several of a green variety in the coralline pools near Spaldrick Bay, Port Erin. This variety was 5 cm. in length, and lived for several weeks in captivity. Tetrastemma vermiculatum, De Quatrefages. Average length, 2 cm. Found at “The Clets” among tufts of Crista eburnea. The colour was pale orange with a white dorsal line. The anterior and posterior eyes on either side were united by a band of dark pigment. Tetrastemma robertiane, M‘Intosh. ; Length, 2cm. One specimen was found during July, 1893, in company with Amphiporus lactifloreus. The yellowish body bears on its upper surface a median white line and two lateral brown stripes, which take their origin in a transverse pigment band behind the posterior pair of eyes. Family NEMERTIDA, Hubrecht. Nemertes neesit, Oersted. Average length 7—8 cm. ‘This species is very common under stones and amongst gravel, from high to low-water mark on the south side of the Bay, and also at low-water off Traie Veg. The colour is usually brown on the dorsal L.M.B.C. NEMERTIDA. 139 surface, and flesh coloured on the ventral surface. A very pale variety was obtained from ‘‘ The Clets,’”’ having the dorsum of a flesh tint with scattered brown granules. Order IV.—HETHRONEMERTINI, Burger. Family Lineipa, M‘Intosh. Lineus obscurus, Desor (=. gesserensis, auct.). Average length 7 cm. This is by far the most abundant species of Nemertine at Port Erin and also at Poyllvaaish, and is found under stones along with Amphiporus lacti- jloreus.’ The colour varieties met with are the dark olive ereen and the dark red, with pale ventral surfaces, and the pale green form with red at anterior end as figured by M‘Intosh. The head is wider than the body, and the whitish lateral cephalic fissures are very conspicuous. Near the jetty, flesh-coloured and dark green varieties occur averaging in length from 2 to 3 centimetres. Lineus obscurus lives well in captivity, seeking the waterline, where it ensheaths itself in a transparent mucous iInvest- ment. Some individuals had well developed gonads in April. Lineus longissumus, Sowerby (= L. marinus, auct.). The length varies from a few centimetres to 2 or 3 feet. It is found in low tide pools and in deep water all round the coast. The three pale longitudinal bands on the dorsal surface are usually very distinct, but in an individual from Traie Veg, the dorsum was very black, and the bands hardly noticeable. Cerebratulus angulatus (?), O. F. Miller. In April, 1893, a large pale nemertine was dredged off Dalby, depth 25 fathoms. It broke up into many pieces before it was got to the laboratory, but from the descrip- tion given of its appearance and mode of swimming, it was, most probably, referable to this genus and species. 140 SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT upon the HYDROID ZOOPHYTVES of the i. M.8.C. DIS @kieae By Miss Laura Roscor T'HorNELY. With Plate IX. [Read February 9th, 1894.] EDITORIAL NOTE. THE first volume of the Fauna of Liverpool Bay, published in 1886, contained a report upon the Hydroida, drawn up by Mr. W. R. Melly, Dr. Sibley Hicks and myself, in which were recorded 63 species. Since then a certain amount of work upon the Zoophytes of the district has been done by Mr. W. J. Halls and by Mr. G. W. Wood, and the additions to our list made by these gentlemen, and by Miss Thornely, have been noted from time to time in the annual reports. But by far the greater part of the work in this group since 1886 has been done by Miss L. R. Thornely who has worked carefully through all the mass of material brought home by the various dredging and other collecting expeditions and has identified and mounted the species new and old. Miss Thornely’s work has been carried on to some extent in the Zoological Laboratory of the College, where she has arranged the Hydroida and the Polyzoa in the ‘‘ Local Collection’’; and she has also stud- ied the living material at the Port Erin Biological Station. The success of her work will be seen from the numerous entries in the carefully compiled table of geographical distribution in the district which follows, from the fact that the total number of species has been raised from 63 in 1886 to 87 in 1893, and from the accompanying plate (Pl. IX.) L.M.B.C. HYDROID ZOOPHYTES. 141 which records the discovery of several interesting novelties and the transference of a species of Lafoéa to another genus (Calycella pigmea). W.A.H. Hd., L.M.B.C. Repts. In the last report on the Hydroid Zoophytes, in 1886, 63 species were recorded as having been found in Liverpool Bay. ‘Two species, Thwaria thya and Aglaophenia pen- natula, might have been added from Mr. Charles H. Brown’s list given in ‘‘Tne Handbook for Southport,” edited by Dr. KE. D. McNicoll, 1861. Since then (1886) four species :—Tubularia attenuata, Campanularia raridentata, Halecwum muricatum, and Sertularella tenella have been recorded by Mr. G. W. Wood in Volume III of the Fauna of Liverpool Bay; and eighteen I have identified from material sent to me from time to time after dredging trips and shore collections had been made, these are :—Coryne van-benedem, Hydranthea margarica, Bougamvillia ramosa, Obelia plicata, Cam- panularia fragilis, Gonothyrea gracilis, G. hyalina, Lafoéa fruticosa, Calycella fastigiata, C. pigmea, Cuspidella grandis, C. costata, C. humilis, Sertularella gay, S. fusi- formis, Aglaophenia tubulifera, Plumularia frutescens, and P. echinulata. To these the following 12 (Hudendriwm rameum, Bimeria vestita, Tubularva larynx, Obelra genicu- lata, Opercularella lacerata, Fulellum serpens, Diphasia pinaster, Thuiaria articulata, Aglaophenia myriophylium, Plumularia setacea, P. catharina, and P. svmilis) may be added as new to the L.M.B.C. although they have already been reported in “‘ Fauna” Vol. I., as having been found in the district by earlier collectors. This makes 36 addi- tional species in all (and there is also the variety Lafoea dumosa var. robusta) which are new to us since 1886, and 142 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. so the total record is now brought up to 87 species and 1 variety. I have arranged these in the following table so as to show their distribution in the district, as has been done in pre- vious reports on other groups, so that here I need only mention those that seem to call for special remark. In the first place, we have found several that are rare :— two species Hydranthea margarica, (found growing on Flustra foliacea, the habitat which Hincks gives), and Canwanularia fragilis, have only been found at Ilfracombe before; two others Obelia plicata and Gonothyrea hyalina are only known from the Shetland Islands; Calycella pigmea, only at Tynemouth, and Gonothyrea gracilis, only at Connemara; while several have only been found before in the South, such as Bowgaivillea muscus (Torquay) Canpanularia raridentata (Swanage, Brixham, Torquay), Plumularia setacea (Cornwall), and Campanularia cal- culata (Ramsgate, Corky. Secondly, the following species have presented some noteworthy points of structure, or have shown some previously unrecorded character :— Obelia genculata, Linnaeus. Specimens of this luxuriantly branched (Hincks says they are sometimes sparingly branched) were found lately at the Isle of Man. ‘The branches, or in their place, two extra pedicels, bearing calycles, rise from the axils of the ordinary pedicels. Tendrils ike those on Campanularia angulata were fairly common on these specimens, as I have also seen them on Campanularia flexuosa and Obelia plicata. Gonothyrea hyalina, Hincks (Pl. IX, fig. 1). This species has not been recorded by us until now, as although I have examined a good many specimens of it I have always wanted to see more before saying that I i.M.B.C.:-HYDROID ZOOPHYTHS. 148 believed it to be a Gonothyrea, which Hincks only thought probable from the shape of the gonotheca. I have now found one specimen with gonothece bearing extra-capsular meduszeform sporosacs, the character distinguishing the genus Gonothyrea, thus placing the matter beyond doubt. These specimens are all more the height of G. lovém, but the number and shape of the castellations round the rim of the calycle do not accord with those of that commoner form. Calycella pigmea, Alder (Pl. IX, fig. 2). In this species, lately transferred from the genus Lafoea to that of Calycella, as I found it to have an operculum | which the Lafoeas have not, I have now found gonothece, which are said to be unknown by Hincks. They many of them bear extra-capsular gonophores which resemble, as does the whole colony, those of Calycella syringa in miniature. Calycella syringa, Linn. (Pl. IX, figs. 3 and 4). Hincks speaks of a sheath covering, as I understand, the calycle of old specimens of Calycella syringa, and having a serrated border which stands above and around the operculum. I have seen this (as in fig. 4), and also in some cases several series of these castellations encircling the calycle one below another at varying distances apart (as in fig. 3). In some cases I have seen three such sets of castellations. I think it possible that these are really old, worn-out opercula, new ones having developed inside them. Lengthening of the calycle by growth would carry these up. The single sheath with a serrated border (fig. 4) would be the first stage. Filellwm serpens, Hassall (Pl. LX, fig. 5). Most of our specimens of this form have a chitinous crust in which the creeping stem ‘is 1mmersed, (fig. 5). Professor Sir Wyville Thomson speaks of this, but Hincks 144 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. could not find it. One of our specimens creeping over an ascidian, however, is without this crust. Halecium tenellum, Hincks (Pl. IX, figs. 6 and 7). Hincks speaks of the gonothece of this species being borne on the side of the calycle. I have found them so (see fig. 7) and on the stolon, but also and most frequent- ly protruding from hydrothece in place of polypes, (as shown in fig. 6), Plumularva echinulata, Lamarck (Pl. IX, figs. 8, 9 & 10). I have hesitated over the specimens finally placed under thisname. They have the internodes of the stem narrow- ing towards the base (see fig. 8), the right number of nematophores in well preserved specimens, and other characters of P. echinulata, but they have also, as in P. similis, the branchlets set forward on the stem, never less than two joints between the calycles (fig. 8), and the gonothece often without spines (fig. 10), and obscurely lobed; even when spinose (fig. 9) they are always more the shape of Hinck’s figures of P. similis than of those of P. echinulata. | Menai Straits and Anglesea. TABLE SHOWING THE DIS- TRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF ZOOPHYTES IN THE L.M.B.C. DISTRICT. Hilbre Island & Ches- Rhyl to Penmaenmawr Barrow to Crosby. hire Coast. | Lancashire Coast, | NRO BK OX | Mersey Estuary. Welsh Coast, Puffin Island, | Central Area. Se | Isle of Man. Clava multicornts .............-- Gt VAL DEOSEUUN teint thee Hydractimia echinata ......... Coryne van-benedent ............ Og PUssla ere eee - Hudendrium rameum......... 0. Xx Sees TOMOSUM, fred ds Xx i. capillare .....>... Xx Hydranthea margarwca ...+..... x ees x xxXX XX XX XX MEX RK OX L.M.B.C. HYDROID ZOOPHYTES. 145 | | xX x x | Hilbre Island & chess Menai Straits and Anglesea. TABLE SHOWING THE DIS- TRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF ZOOPHYTES IN THE L.M.B.C. DISTRICT. Lancashire Coast, Barrow to Crosby. Puffin Island, | Rhyl to Penmaenmawr, | Mersey Estuary. | hire Coast. x | Welsh Coast, l | Central Area. | Isle of Man. GOTUCG WULANS | 0 ve.e 22 clece veces ME ALCHION VESLUUG © ace ve assnive neta Bougainvillia muscus ......... ; ROMOSG onsen os: TREOULAVEE MAUISA® cere cie ts Xx # lie COROM GEO? oo teen. tt; x ihe ALLENUATA — derscecben fi SOMUIMCD FF ouksc. 3. dhs OFITANNICE 020.6. Xx PMOULOTUR VATYNE Sooo et eee ts x Eictopleura dwmortverw ........ Corymorpha nutans ........0:... CHUHO ONNStONG Fs 0652 o oe GEG GeniCUlata, 2.00%. bees x ORNS GCIGEINOSG, 4 | Mersey Estuary. os xX XK X x EK OK IN ON NN a ON Hilbre Island & Ches- hire Coast. x | x xX KX KKK KS KS KOK | clea es alES| a ES mlaa| 2 K or x x x x XK | Ke x XK.) Oe x | Kae x |X x | X | Xx xX |X| xX xX | X i Ka x Al aX KAS ae x | X x x 1X1 x | x Xe a x x | xX x | vay< Kal HK ee x x Ge X|xX eK Sa eK NOS ae 4 | Central Area. KOK A RK IS KA x xX x L.M.B.C. HYDROID ZOOPHYTES. 147 i a Bs . | @|8 5 TABLE SHOWING THE DIS- 4534 S Ala 3 Fee elie eek, TRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF an 6 (Sula £ a-| 8 (83/2 8\430| 4 | 2 ZOOPHYTES IN THE L.M.B.C. S8\ a [22 SAA Ss 5 = = : & Z Pe l2S|a £ a4 oes 3 DIsTRICcT. 2) 2 a5 she's S £ ale = seen] 4 |s Bmaophenta pluma ...0..6.. 68: x |X RI KK Pale myriophyllum ... X |X xX | X ae CHOUMUFERG, — cavevens | MX AX A DENNACULA ~....82.. |X Plumularia pinnata ...... cece. | x ee BRRURGESCCHG o> e.: |X x die SCLOCED foie vs vesis soi 0's Sab eB | Rex iP) Catharina =...:.... » Gabs:< j5R BChAMUNALE ccc... | |X Ee; SUMULIUG) wenlhaut oe! a. | x |X HXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. Fig. 1. Gonothyrea hyalina, showing extra-capsular gono- phores on the gonotheca, and castellations on the hydrotheca. Fig. 2. Calycella pigmea, showing operculum and gono- phore. Fig. 3. Calycella syringa, with double row of castellations. Fig. 4. Calycella syringa, showing the castellations as Hincks describes them. Fig. 5. Filellwm serpens, hydrothece and stolon embedded in a chitinous crust. Fig. 6. Haleciwm tenellum, with gonotheca protruding ) from orifice of hydrotheca. Fig. 7. Halecowm tenellum, with gonotheca growing on side of hydrotheca. Fig. 8. Plumularia echinulata, showing two joints between the hydrothece, and other characters. Figs. 9 and 10. Plwmularia echinulata, spose and plain gonothece. 148 Note on the DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS of the SUBGENERA and SPECIES of Selaginella, Spr. By R. J. Harvey Gipson, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.E., PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL. As is well known to botanists, the genus Selaginella has been subdivided by systematists into subgenera and these again into groups and series in consequence of certain external morphological differences which are exhibited by the members of the Selaginellacez. Internal anatomy plays no part whatever in the classification. Having been engaged for the past year and a half on an investigation into the minute anatomy of the group, and having had occasion to examine in detail the structure of a large number of species, I have been forced to the conclusion that the taxonomy of the genus requires revision, and that the accepted arrangement is not supported on the whole by anatomical evidence. [am not in a position at the present moment to undertake such a revision as my anatomical work is not yet complete, but I desire to draw attention in a tentative manner to the subject prepara- tory to a future and more systematic treatment. The at present accepted classification of the Selagineil- aces is based chiefly on the works of Spring* and Alexander Braunt. Amongst more recent authors we owe most perhaps to J. G. Baker, F’.R.S., whose admirable synopsis (Handbook of the Fern Allies, 1887) is invaluable to students of the Vascular Cryptogams. An examination * Monographie de la famille des Lycopodiacées: Mém. Vacad. roy. belg. 1849. + Revisio Selaginellarwm Hortensiwm : Ann. Se. Nat. (Bot.) xiii., 1860. Appendix Plantarum novarwn, &c. Berlin, 1856. SUBGENERA AND SPECIES OF SELAGINELLA. 149 and comparison of the systems advanced by these authori- ties shews at once that the basis of classification 1s in each case the external morphological features only. Taking Baker’s scheme as the most recent and best known, we find that he divides the genus into four subgenera, viz. : Selaginella proper, Stachygynandrum, Homostachys and Heterostachys, characterised as follows :— 1° Selaginella. Ordinary leaves all alike, daleanioue Bracts uniform. 2° Stachygynandrum. Ordinary leaves of two kinds and spreading in two planes, those of the upper plane smaller and more ascending. Bracts uniform. 3° Homostachys. Ordinary leaves of two kinds, and spreading in two planes. Bracts also dimorphous, the smaller bracts in the same plane as the smaller, more ascending leaves. 4° Heterostachys. Ordinary leaves of two kinds, and spreading in two planes. Bracts also of two kinds, but the spikes resupinate (7.e., the smaller bracts in the same plane as the larger leaves, and vice versa). The subgenus Selaginella proper is sub-divided into two series according as to whether the spikes are or are not sharply square; whilst the other three subgenera are subdivided into a large number of groups dependent chiefly on habit, size, and the presence or absence of ‘articulations’? or swellings at the points of origin of branches. Very few species of Selaginella have been anatomically examined. The largest number yet investigated is 28 (out of over 300 known) by Dangeard.* He can scarcely be said however, to have exhausted even these; indeed he has fallen into many and serious errors both of omis- * Hssai sur Vanatomie des Cryptogames Vasculaires, Le Botaniste. Vol. I. 150 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. sion and commission as I will endeavour to shew elsewhere.* In textbooks of Botany the anatomy of the genus is invariably based on certain well known but incomplete (ain the sense that they only treat of one or more special points) monographs on a few of the more commonly cultivated species, such as S. Kraussiana, 8. caulescens, S. maequalifolia, &c., and no figure 1s more familiar to students of the Vascular Cryptogams than the wood-cut of the transverse section of the stem of S. inaequalifolia, originally drawn from Sachs’ classic textbook. The general accounts based on these researches are found to be by no means applicable to all the species; indeed several peculiar conditions have, so far as I am aware, © never been described at all. In the research already alluded to I have established eight distinct but related types of stem structure as follows :— 1° In S. levigata, Bak. var. Lyallw, Spr. In this form a distinct rhizome gives origin to a series of erect shoots on one side and roots on the other. The rhizome contains a cylindrical hollow stele with protoxylems on the outer border of the xylem. ‘The centre of the cylinder is occupied by a median cord of metaxylem without any protoxylem elements, itself however a isolated part of the outer cylinder. The erect shoots on the other hand possess four cords which bear the leaftraces and several accessory cords which anastomose at intervals with the four primaries. 2° §. spinosa, P.B. In this species there is no marked distinction between a rhizome and erect shoots; the stem is at first creeping and then becomes erect or semi-erect. The creeping portion however shews the anomaly of having a central protoxylem. Dan- * The Anatomy of Selaginella. Annals of Botany, June, 1894. SUBGENERA AND SPECIES OF SELAGINELLA. 151 geard (/.c.) has shewn that the primary axis of S. Kraussiana has a similar structure, and I have found that indications of the peculiarity are not wanting in other species. Further researches which I hope soon to undertake may result in shewing that the central protoxylem in the primary embryonic axis is the rule rather than the exception. The erect shoots of S. spinosa are not greatly removed from the creeping rhizome of S. Lyallw, for here also there occurs a single cylindrical stele with protoxylems on its outer border. The cylinder is however not hollow save in the apical regions where the place of the metaxylem is still occupied by procambium. 3° §. Galeottet, Spr. The so-called bistelic species I feel sure are to be derived from species with steles like those of S. Lyallw, (where the leaves are in four rows) by fusion of the protoxylems of adjacent leaf- traces and feeble development of metaxylem, so that two laterally placed steles result each with one proto- xylem marginally situated. 4° §. Braunw, Bak. In this type the creeping axis, differentiated from the erect shoots as in S. Lyallu, is at first monostelic and then later bistelic, the steles being dorsal and ventral, not lateral. The erect shoots are however monostelic the two marginal protoxylems arising from the dorsal and ventral steles respectively. S. Brauniw I consider as related to 4 : 8. Lyallii, although in the former the leaf traces have fused into one cord on either side and the two cords so formed have become connected by metaxylem. 5° S. Oregana, Hat. In this species we have a transi- tion between S. spinosa and the usual Selaginella type, for here although the leaves are Bee age the stele is dorsi-ventral. 152 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 6° §. Martensw, Spr. Round this species must be grouped the majority of the species of the genus, diverse as they are in habit, all characterised by dorsi- ventrally both of external morphological features and internal anatomy. 7° S. wncinata, Spr. is a particularly interesting species as giving the first indication of the tendency to form at least three principal steles, placed dorsally, medianly and ventrally, a feature seen on the highest division of the group, and arising, as I have shewn elsewhere (/.c.) In quite another way from the bistely of such forms as S. Galeottet. 8° S. inaequalifolia, Spr. I look upon the series of which this species is the anatomical type as represent- ing the highest development of stem in the genus. Here there are two principal accessory steles one dorsal to the median stele (which latter alone bears the ordinary leaf traces), the other ventral. The dorsal stele arises from the fusion and isolation of dorsal cords which in younger conditions result from the fusion of the adjacent protoxylem strands of branch and axis, whilst the ventral stele carries the leaf traces of the axillary leaves. Let us now see whether the accepted classification of the species by systematists is in accord with these anat- omical peculiarities. In order to make the comparison the more vivid I give in the left hand column the names of the species I have examined microscopically arranged in groups according to their anatomical structure and in the right hand column the same species arranged accord- ing to Baker’s list. 1° S. LAEVIGATA, Bak., var. LYALLII, Spr. I, SELAGINELLA. (1) S. spinosa, P.B. 2° S. spinosa, P.B, (2) S. rupestris, Spr SUBGHNERA AND SPECIES OF SELAGINELLA. 153 S. Oregana, Eat. II, STACHYGYNANDRUM. 1° Decumbentes. i. Microphylle. S. denticulata, Lk. 3° S. GALEOTTEI, Spr. S. delicatissima, A.Br. S. sulcata, Spr. S. Kraussiona, A. Br. S. Poulteri, Veitch. S. rubella, Moore. 4° S. Braunit, Bak. 5° S. OrEGANA, Eat. S. rupestris, Spr. 6° S. MARTENSII, Spr. . grandis, Moore. . Vogeltt, Spr. hematodes, Spr. . erythropus, Spr. » Douglasii, Spr. . caulescens, Spr. Grifithii, Spr. plumosa, Bak. . suberosa, Spr. . viticulosa, Klotz. . serpens, Spr. . tnvolvens, Spr. . cuspidata, Lk. . molliceps, Spr. . apus, Spr. . helvetica, Lk. » . denticulata, Lk. . pilifera, A.Br. patula, Spr. . convoluta, Spr. . albonitens, Spr. . flabellata, Spr. . atroviridis, Spr. HPRRRRHRRRRRRRARARRRKHHRARRARRY S. producta, Bak. S. bisulcata, Spr. S. Bakeriana, Bail. S. concinna, Spr. 7° S. UNCINATA, Spr. . Karsteniana, A.Br. . stenophylia, A.Br. . depidophylla, Spr. S. helvetica, Lk. S. delicatissima, A.Br. S. serpens, Spr. S. patula, Spr. S. Douglasti, Spr. ii. Plumose. SS. wnceinata, Spr. S. Bakeriana, Bail. S. plumosa, Bak. S. concinna, Spr. S. producta, Bak. S. Mettenti, A. Br. ili. Stoloniferee. S. swlcata, Spr. S. Kraussiona, A.Br. S. apus, Spr. S. albonitens, Spr. iv. Apode. 2° Ascendentes. i. Suberecte. (none examined). ii. Atrovivides. S. atroviridis, Spr. S. Martensti, Spr. S. rubella, Moore. iil. Articulate. S. G'aleotted, Spr. iv. Radiate. SS. Poulteri, Veitch. 3° Rosulate. S. involvens, Spr. S. convoluta, Spr. S. ptlifera, A.Br. S. lepidophylia, Spr. S. cuspidata, Lk. 4° Sarmentose. 8S. Wallichii, Spy. . gracilis, Moore. . Lobbié, Moore. Victorice, Moore. . tnaequalifolia, Spr. . canaliculata, Bak. . viridangula, Spr. RRRRRRR . Chilensis, Spr. 5° Scandentes. S. Wildenowti, Bak. 6° Caulescentes. 154 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 8° S. INAEQUALIFOLIA, Spr. i, Flabellate. S. caulescens, Spr. S. Wallichii, Spr. S. Braunii, Bak. S. Wildenowii, Bak. S. Grifithii, Spr. S. canaliculata, Bak. S. grandis, Moore. S. Mettenti, A. Br. S. flabellata, Spr. S. Lobbii, Moore. S. Vogelii, Spr. S. gracilis, Moore. S. levigata, Bak., var. S. viridangula, Spr. Lyallii, Spr. S. Chilensis, Spr. S. viticulosa, Klotz. S. Victorie, Moore. S. erythropus, Spr. S. haematodes, Spr. ii. Geniculate. (none examined). III. Homosracuys. (2 species, neither exam- IV. HETEROSTACHYS. ined). i. Bisuleate. S. bisulcata, Spr. ii. Proniflore. (none examined). ili. Brachystachye (none examined). iv. Suberosee. SS. suberosa, Spr. S. molliceps, Spr. S. Karsteniana, A.Br. S. stenophylla, A.Br. The above columns will show at a glance how difficult it is to bring into accord a grouping based on external morphology and one based on anatomical structure. Of course I do not aim at present at doing more than calling attention to the fact that taking into account the anatomy of the stem only we are led to group together species widely separated by systematists and conversely to separate species which agree strongly in external features. Hven in such a group as the Sarmentos@ section of the subgenus Stachygynandrum which so nearly agrees with the anatomical section of which 8S. inequalifolia is the type, we find S. Mettenw widely separated from that type, and S. Wildenoww refused a place. A more prominent case 1s however that of S. levigata, var. Lyallw, with, as I have shown a perfectly distinct anatomical structure, which stands side by side with species like S. Vogel and grandis, forms not to be separated from S. Martensiv. SUBGENERA AND SPECIES OF SELAGINELLA. 155 It may be said that I am attempting to found a taxonomy on as narrow a basis as the most rigid upholder of external features as diagnostic of species and subgenera. In answer to that I may reply that I do not propose to base a revised classification on anatomical characters exclusively; but it seems to me in the first place that anatomical characters cannot be omitted from consider- ation, as has been done in the past in this family, more especially when we take into account how varied and important these anatomical characters are. The question at once arises to which, external mor- phology or internal anatomy, must we give the most weight? It will surely be admitted that in constructing a phylogeny of the group more weight must be given to the internal than to the external structure, since the former is less liable to external influences during the process of evolution. Even extreme differences in morphology and habit have not been considered of sufficient importance to separate species of other genera which agree fundamentally in anatomical characters ; why should the method adopted in the Selaginellacez be different from that in others cases ? 156 LETTER of Professor EDWARD FORBES on the Marine Zoology of the IRISH SEA. Communicated by Prof. Herdman. [Read May llth, 1894.] (Note. The following letter was found amongst the papers of our late member Mr. Frank Archer, and was kindly sent to me for perusal by his sister Miss Archer: it was addressed to their father the late Dr. Francis Archer who held the office of President of the old Natural History Society about 1837 or 1838. That fixes approximately the date of the letter. On seeing that the contents were of some interest in connection with our local marine biological investigations, I obtained permission from Miss Archer to take a copy of the letter and lay it before our Society with a view to publication in the Transactions. The ‘‘ Huplocamus”’ referred to is Triopa claviger, Tritoma pinnatijida is now Doto, Lamellaria tentaculata is the male of L. perspicua, Asterias templetont 1s now known as Porama pulvillus, and the rest are well known species or synonyms. The Report on the distribution of Pulmoniferous Mol- lusca in Britain referred to by Forbes was, I find, laid before the British Association at the Birmingham meeting in 1839. W. A. HERDMAN.| LETTER. To the President of the Natural History Society of Liwerpool. Sir, Allow me to return my grateful thanks for the honour conferred upon me by the Natural History Society of Liverpool, in electing me a corresponding member. In ~ es | y | " | | LETTER OF PROF. EDWARD FORBES. 157 order in some measure to deserve the title I send you one or two notices of some additions I have lately made to ‘the Fauna of the Irish Sea. The first is a new species of a genus of Mollusca as yet unrecognised by British Naturalists, namely the genus Huplocamus of Phillippi, although one species (perhaps identical with the Doris clavigera of Muller) has been described and figured by Dr. Johnston of Berwick in the Magazine of Natural History. The genus forms a con- necting lnk between Doris and Tritonmia, having the dorsal branchiae of the former combined with the lateral branchiae of the latter. My species differs from those described in colour (white with yellow-tipped branchiae and tubercles) and in the number of branchiae, which are fewer, both dorsally and laterally. It is a little animal about one quarter of an inch long, and was obtained by dredging on the east coast of the Isle of Man in Sep- tember. Secondly, I may mention the occurrence of the T'ritoma pinnatifida and Doris nodosa on the Manx coasts, also of the Lamellaria tentaculata, the two latter at low water, the former in 20 fathoms. ‘he following list of Manx Asteriadae may interest, as no catalogue has hitherto been published :— Asterias tenvpletom—a species as yet undescribed—A. gibbosus, A. glacialis, A. endeca, A. hispida of Pennant (rubens of Fleming), A. rwbens of Fleming (not of John- ston), A. oculata, A. papposa, A. aranciaca, A. spinosus ; Ophiwra lacertosa, O., a species allied to lacertosa but much larger—undescribed as British, O. bellis, O. granu- lata, O. rosula, O. neglecta, O. minuta, Pennant ?; Coma- tula rosacea. A valve of Pandora obtusa and several specimens of 158 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Lyonsia striata were dredged up lately near Douglas, also a new T’rochus. In the collection of Mr. Wallace is a specimen of Rata marginata: it will be recollected that this still very rare fish was first discovered in the Liverpool market. The specimen in question was found last winter among the products of a Liverpool trawlboat. . The British Association has requested me to draw up a report on the Geological and Geographical Distribution of the British Land and Fresh Water Mollusca for the meeting next year. As such report cannot be completed satisfactorily without co-operation, I take the lberty of expressing a hope that some member of the Society will be kind enough to furnish a lst of the species about Liverpool, with the situation in which they are found. It is to the resources afforded by Local Societies that the naturalists of Britain must especially look for assistance in the great work of the Philosophical Development of the Natural History of our country. Hoping e’er long to have some communication of greater importance to transmit to the Society, I remain, Mr. President, Your obedient servant, EDWARD FORBES. 159 The EXCAVATION of the NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE near PORT ERIN, ISLE OF MAN. By W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in University College, Liverpool ; and P. M. C. Kermopg, F.S.A. Scot., Hon. Secretary, Isle of Man Nat. Hist. and Antiquarian Society. With Plates X to XII. [Read October 13th, 1893.] At the south end of the Isle of Man, next to the Calf Island, is a group of low rounded hills which stand out rather prominently from being nearly completely separ- ated off from the remainder of the land by the narrow neck of low-lying country which runs from Port Erin on the west to Port St. Mary on the east. This is the ‘‘ Meayll”’ (pronounced ‘‘ Mule,” derived possibly from the Scandina- vian “‘ Muli,” a muzzle or snout, or more likely from the Celtic ‘‘ Meall,’=a hill or rising ground of rounded shape; so ‘‘Meaull” in Galloway, and ‘‘ Moyle” in Ireland), a district very well suited to be a stronghold in savage times as it 1s surrounded on three sides by lofty and precipitous sea cliffs extending from the formidable Spanish Head and the Chasms round by the Calf Sound to Port Erin, while on the fourth side is the low neck of land which was formerly submerged and after that fora time was no doubt a swamp ormorass. ‘This commanding situation probably rendered it a favourite habitation in early times—possibly it was a last refuge in the Isle of Man of the preceltic race—and on the higher parts of the hills, still uncultivated, we can trace the lines of ancient bound- ary fences dividing the moorland into small plots, we can 160 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. find the remains of at least three prehistoric villages or clusters of huts, and near the highest summit, known as the Meayll Hill, is the remarkable stone circle we are about to describe, an ancient neolithic burial place prob- ably common to the neighbouring villages (see map of loll APA 3X.) In form and arrangement this circle is we believe unique, and although it has long been known to local antiquaries, 14 has never, we consider, been adequately described or sys- tematically explored. The late Mr. Jeffcott of Castletown gave an account of it to the Cambrian Association in 1865, and this is quoted, and an imperfect figure given, by Fergusson in his ‘‘ Rude Stone Monuments,” (p. 158). To this account, which is not quite accurate, he adds that from simple inspection it 1s evident that these cists must _ at one time have been covered with earth, and if so, thinks that so far as one example can go they would tend to prove that the circular vallum at Avebury and many other localities was a place for the deposit of bodies. He re- marks upon the two gaps or openings in the circle opposite one another, as at Arbor Low and Penrith, but suggests that they may have arisen from the removal of cists. As the result of our examination we can state definitely that that is not the case—the openings were certainly left intentionally. Finally, the Manks Archeological Commissioners in their report to Sir Henry Loch in 1878 catalogued this circle and recommended that a careful excavation should be made. This recommendation we endeavoured to carry out during August and September i898, having first duly obtained permission from the proprietor; and although we found that some parts at least had evidently been formerly disturbed by irresponsible persons who have left no record —probably early diggers for treasure without any archeolo- gical knowledge or interest—still we unearthed a very NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 161 perfect series of eighteen cists, and some remains of pottery and implements, and are now enabled to put on record a detailed description of this, one of the most interesting of ancient Manks monuments, and to draw more certain deductions as to its age and purpose. Our general plan of the Meayll Hill (Pl. X), shows the position of the stone circle (A), the sites of the villages and the lines of the ancient boundaries. ; Hut VILLAGES. Of the little villages referred to we have discovered the sites of three, containing each the foundations of 4 to 16 huts. The largest and most interesting of these groups (Pl. X) still retains amongst the country people its name ‘“‘ Lhag-ny-Boirey,” hollow of trouble, or lamentations, or strife, or, as the people put it, of “ botheration.”* When or why this name was given one can now only conjecture, but as it is good Manks, that seems to imply that the place was still known as an inhabited village as late as the beginning of the celtic occupation. This village les about 330 yards N. of the cairn at the summit of the hill and is immediately at the foot of the ridge on which the stone circle stands, in a sheltered hollow looking towards the north. The hut foundations of earthen banks and large unhewn stones are overgrown with heather and gorse and he in a straggling row along the eastern side of one of the ancient boundary fences; they extend over an area of about 130 yards, and are placed at distances apart of from 3 to 24 yards. In at least three instances there are groups of 2 or 3 huts adjoining, so that one wall would serve for two. One of these which we * When we laid an account of these excavations before the meeting of the British Association at Nottingham in September, Dr. Munro, President of Section H, suggested ‘‘ scolding” as a better rendering of the word. 162 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. excavated measured inside 8 by 3 yards, and appeared to consist of two dwellings. The foundation stones were still in position and marked out a roughly rectangular building, with a division across the middle, having at the 8.W. end what was probably an entrance passage 4 feet long by 3 feet wide, but partly built up like a step at the outer end. At a depth of about 18 inches we came on what was evidently the ancient floor with some charcoal on it and fragments of pottery from + to 2 inch thick. The pottery evidently belonged to a crock like vessel with a lip, and a reconstruction showed the mouth to have been about 44 inches across. Another part of this village which we excavated proved to be a group of 4 huts varying in inside diameter from 6 feet to 12 feet 6 inches. The largest, of which the found- ation stones all appeared to be in position, was rectangular and had an entrance about 3 feet square at the N.E. end; it was separated from the others by a wall 3 ft. thick. A few small flat stones were found on part of the ancient floor, but nothing that was an undoubted hearth. In one of these huts was found a flint scraper, in another a small flint flake with two cutting edges. Perhaps a more re- markable find was a stone 54 inches by 13 inches by # inch, of which one face was polished, having probably been used as a rubbing or polishing stone in curing and preparing skins. There were also found some small flints and quartz pebbles which may have been used for striking a light. Possibly the white quartz pebbles, a great number of which were also met with in the cists of the circle, had been used as ‘“‘pot-boilers.”’ If the rudely baked clay vessels were not able to stand much fire the contents may have been cooked by dropping in these stones previously heated on the hearth. This explanation may account-for the small pebbles in the ee ee NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 163 huts, but scarcely for the great numbers found in the graves, (see below p. 166). Somewhat further east than this village of ‘‘ Lhag-ny- Boirey”’ we found the circular foundations of 3 or 4 more huts measuring from 8 to 12 feet in diameter, and like the others these are on the line of one of the ancient fences (see Pl. X). Lower down the hill and still further to the east are half a dozen more such hut foundations. Their outside diameters are from 4 to 5 yards, and the stones forming them—about 12 in a circle—measure about 4 feet by 2 feet and project about 2 feet above the surface; they are un- hewn blocks of the same clay slate of which the fences and the circle and the rock of the hill are composed. Like the other huts these are also on the line of one of the ancient fences and (also like the rest) occupy a sheltered situation looking to the north (¢.e., with an uninterrupted view across the lower ground to the remainder of the Isle of Man). This village has the further advantage of being just above the spring which is known as ‘“ Chibbyrt-ny- Garval,’’ Horse-well. One is tempted to suggest that we may have yet another of these ancient villages existing to this day in Cregneash, on the other slope of the hill about 250 yards to the south of the cairn and usually regarded as one of the very few typical old Manks villages left. Possibly some indication of this may yet be found by a careful examination of the gardens and bases of the cottages at Cregneash, but in the meantime it is interesting to note that Sir George Head writing in 1837 in his ‘‘ Home Tour’”’ (Vol. II, p. 28) speaks of a small hamlet near Spanish Head and between ‘“‘ Port-le-Murray’’ and ‘“‘ Port Irons”’ which must be Cregneash as ‘‘ composed of edifices so rude, that it is really hard to predicate of the houses at a little distance, whether they are masses of rock or human dwellings.” 164 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. THE STONE CIRCLE. The most interesting relic on the Meayll Hill is the stone circle which is situated a little way down from the summit at a distance from the cairn of 250 yards in a direction 10° W. of north, and at a height of about 500 feet above the sea. Mr. Jeffcott gives this burial place the name of “ Rhuillick-y-lage-shliggagh,” graveyard of broken slates. This name however we have ascertained belongs without doubt to the circle down at the Calf Sound a mile or so to the South, and we had no difficulty in discovering the true name of the Meayll Circle, for it is still in actual use among the fishermen who take its prominent stones in a- line with the Calf asa mark for one of their fishing grounds, and apply to it the name of the ancient village in the hol- low immediately below (which of course 1s not visible from the sea) Lhag-ny-Boirey or hollow of botheration. The circle (see Pl. XI) is formed of six symmetrically arranged sets of cists or stone chambers, each set—for which we propose the term “ tritaph ’’—being composed of one radial cist and two tangentially placed. Three tritaphs form the eastern half of the circle and three form the western, leaving considerable gaps or entrances at north and south. The south entrance measures 16 feet in a line with the external circumference, while the corres- ponding opening at the north is 18 feet across. The north to south diameter measures 50 feet, and the east to west 57 feet. A circular mound of loose stones and earth pack- ed on to the external circumference of the cists slopes to 3 or 4 yards beyond the above measurements. There is some indication of a cist or chamber of some kind having formerly been in the centre, but it had evidently been previously disturbed and is no longer recognisable. Although there are slight differences in size and proportion between the different tritaphs they are all built on the NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 165 same plan, viz., two large cists placed end to end running along the circumference of the circle, and one rather longer narrower one directed radially outwards from the place of junction of the two former. The arrangement then ts a triradiate one; we shall call the end of each cist which is nearest the common centre of the tritaph ‘‘ proximal,” the remoter end “‘ distal.’’ The tangential cists are composed each at the distal end of an outer end stone about 3 feet wide, of two side stones or monoliths placed on edge and measuring up to 8 feet in length, and of a ‘“‘ gateway ”’ at the proximal end. This gateway consists of a pair of up- right pillar stones one at each side, measuring 18 to 24 inches across, and standing within and partly overlapped by the large side stones, and so forming a distinct entrance to the cist. Sometimes at the base of the pillar stones and stretching between them is a flat slab or step, and sometimes traces of a low wall built of smaller stones. In no case is there a single large end stone at this extremity as there is distally. Between the proximal ends of these tangential cists and running out at right angles to them is the third or radial cist of the tritaph. It is formed of two pairs of small side stones each 1 to 2 ft. across, and in all cases is open at its distal end where in some cases there are a few steps, formed of rough slabs, leading down from the surface of the eround to the floor. No gateway is present in the radial cists, which thus differ constantly in several points of structure—of sides, and of both ends—from the tangential cists. The average size of the tangential cist is 5 ft. 9 inches by 2 ft. 8 inches, and of the radial cists 7 ft. by 2 ft. 3 inches. The floor, at a depth of 18 to 24 inches below the surface, showed in all cases indications of a pave- ment of flat stones, on the average about 1 ft. across and 1 to 2 inches thick. All these stones from the large 166 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. monoliths to the small gate posts and floor stones are of the grey clay slate of which the mountain is formed, and some of which crops out close at hand with highly inclined cleavage planes, so that probably large slabs could be readily split off with wedges and then dragged or rolled to their present positions. No lintel, impost, or covering to the cist appears to have been used: above the flooring of flat slabs and the buried urns, ashes and flints, the cist appears simply to have been filled in with loose stones and earth up to nearly the top of the side stones (see Pl. XII, fig. 1). The burials were evidently all by cremation, 2 to 5 or more urns being deposited in each tangential cist or in the proximal end of the radials—we met with no such remains in the distal part of any radial cist. Altogether we have been able to distinguish the remains of at least 26 distinct urns, all however in a fragmentary condition. With this pottery were some fragments of calcined bones, ashes and loose charcoal, also compacted lumps of bone, ash, and charcoal, with a certain amount of greasy black matter. A few flint instruments were met with including three arrow heads (Pl. XII, fig. 2), at least 5 knives, a scraper, and some broken pieces. In each cist also were found a number of rounded white quartz peb- bles, from the beach, measuring 1 to 6 inches in diameter. These were found scattered through the grave without obvious arrangement, although they may orginally have been carefully deposited on the floor around the urns or in some definite manner. In some other ancient burial places in the island similar white quartz pebbles, evidently brought from the sea-shore, have been used. Can this be the origin of the superstitious dislike the natives still have to the use of the ‘‘clagh-bane” or “‘ white stone”’ ? Fishermen for instance will refuse to go to sea in a boat which has a white stone in the ballast. NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 167 In one cist—VI.A of our plan (Pl. XI)—we found immediately beneath the pavement or floor a hole measur- ing 12 inches in diameter at the mouth and 12 inches in depth, filled with a fine dark soil like that above the floor of the cist, while with this exception all the floor stones rested on the undisturbed surface of the hard yellow mountain soil. This suggested that in this case an urn had been buried in the soil under the floor, and in fact nearly all the pieces of pottery and the flints were found beneath the floor stones. How far this position is due to the cists having been disturbed before, the contents turned over, and the urns broken it is impossible to say. Now we shall note briefly any special characters of the tritaphs, commencing at the north east corner (see Plan Pl. XI). We label the tritaphs I to VI, and the cists in each A, B, and C, B being in each case the radial one. In I.A we found an old worn shell of Littorina littorea, also fragments of pottery which proved on examination to belong to at least 5 different vessels measuring from 9 to 12 inches in height and in widest diameter. Other fragments, some evidently belonging to the same urns, lay in the central space between A and C. In II.A in its north west corner were loose pieces of charcoal and some burnt bone fragments, also traces of a black oily substance possibly the result of charred animal matter mixed with earth. We were told that 20 years ago a man named Fargher had dug a perfect urn out of cist C. No description or record of it was however kept, and the urn itself has disappeared. We think that it was in or beside this tritaph that in 1882 Mr. F. Swinnerton picked up a small flint arrow head. In III.B a small flint scraper was met with, and in C some pieces of pottery belonging to 5 urns and 2 broken knives. The space between this and the next tritaph, an 168 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. interval of 16 feet, was tried in various places with spade and pick but was found to be undisturbed mountain soil. It evidently formed the southern:and main entrance to the circle (see cut, p. 170). A level track, like a road way, leads from here in a curve down the slope of the hill to the hut village (see Pl. X). Tritaph IV. the first on the west side going from 8. to N. had evidently been disturbed before, and some of the stones had been displaced and removed, but still on clearing them out the shapes and sizes of the cists were readily distinguishable. The next, V., was pretty perfect. In A some fragments of pottery belonging to 3 urns, calcined bones, 2 flint knives and 2 arrow heads were found, and in the central space between A and C some pottery. In C were some fragments of pottery (at least 2 vessels) at the S.W. and N.E. corners, also a flint knife and another arrow head. Tritaph VI. was also a perfect one, and cist A particularly so. Init some flints and pottery were met with in the N.W. corner, and in the centre was the hole excavated under the floor which had evidently once contained an urn and which is referred to above, p. 167 (also Pl. XII, fig. 1). In C some flints and fragments of pottery were found between the entrance pillars. This completes the circle. Between tritaphs VI. and I. is a space of 18 feet which we tried carefully with pick and spade and found nothing but soil and small stones. It had evidently been left intentionally as the northern opening of the circle, facing down the hill towards Port Erin Bay and Bradda Head. With respect to the pottery, we found in all remains of at least 26 vessels the appearance of which showed that they had been used as cinerary urns, and along with them the remains of ashes, charcoal and calcined bones. With the exception of tritaph IV. which had been more dis- 4 NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 169 turbed before our examination than any of the others, and of II. from which, however, a perfect urn had been formerly taken, we found some pottery in every tritaph, but with two exceptions it was always in the tangential cists. The urns numbered from 2 to 5 in a cist, but there may have been more. From the fragmentary remains the vessels seem to have been all between 9 and 12 inches high and the outside diameter at the mouth varies from 8 to 11 inches. They show some diversity of shape, colour, lip, and surface (Pl. XII, figs. 83—5). About seven vessels show traces of patterns. These are of the simplest kind, consisting of lines impressed diagonally or per- pendicularly across the lips (Pl. XII, fig. 5) and of lines diagonal, horizontal and perpendicular either drawn with a pointed stick or formed by punctured holes on the walls. There is no colouring save that given by firing and stains. The paste appears in all to contain a mixture of the local slate and quartz with a good deal of mica probably from disintegrated granite which would be found in the boulder clay in the neighbourhood. With respect to shape the most notable thing about the vessels is that several of them appear to have had broad overlapping rims or lips (Pl. XII, fig. 4), not a common type in the Isle of Man, and some also median bands and grooves. On the floor of one of the huts we found remains of a couple of small earthen vessels similar in colour, material and style to those met with in the cists. The flints obtained have already been enumerated. The arrow heads were all of the same type, leaf shaped, showing secondary working and careful finish (Pl. XII, fig. 2). Two are worked on both faces, the third, which has lost its point, is worked only on one face. The knives are all of the same type, the flat face left intact, the convex trimmed by secondary working on one edge only. The 170 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. largest measures 234 long by 17; broad and 2 inch thick. The scrapers are small and rudely made. One of yellow flint measuring 14 inch by 1 inch and 7; thick has the bump of percussion at the broad end, the edges which are sharp and narrow are rounded to a point, and only the edges show secondary working. A scraper of about the same size from one of the huts shows almost no trace of secondary working. An awl, or perhaps a knife, from the huts resembles one figured in Evans ‘“‘ Ancient Stone Implements” figs. 235 and 239, but is smaller and broader in proportion. The point and the butt are rounded and both edges sharpened, but it shows very little trace of secondary working. View of circle from the east. (From a photograph taken by Prof. Brady, F.R.S., at Easter, 1893. For the use of the block we are indebted to the kindness of the Editor and Publishers of the “‘ Illustrated Archzologist.”) To sum up :—Our examination of these remains shows that the people who inhabited the ancient villages on the Meayll and who erected and used the stone circle, were NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE AT PORT ERIN. 171 in the Neolithic stage, living in small communities of 4 to 16 families, that they occupied the locality over a lengthened period and were there when the later Celtic population settled in Man—and perhaps on the evidence of the name ‘“‘Lhag-ny-Boirey”’ we may conclude that they occupied one of the latest preceltic strongholds and that they had a reputation for being quarrelsome and troublesome to their neighbours. They used pottery of a rude kind, made by hand, of materials obtained from the spot, for domestic purposes and as urns in which they deposited the ashes of their dead. The stone circle on the hill above the villages was used by them as a place of sepulture, and the only mode of burial there was by means of cremation. They hunted and fought with flint-tipped arrows, used flint scrapers to prepare the skins of animals for their clothing, and the flint knives no doubt for various other purposes. In regard to the ceremonies of burning their dead and the burying of the ashes we can only conjecture, but the size and nature of the cists, the presence of the numerous quartz pebbles, the buried weapons and imple- ments deposited with the ashes all imply the funeral rites of a people imbued with some religious ideas however primitive. ‘he remarkable arrangement of the tritaphs in a circle with radiating spokes and openings to north and south may point to some form of nature worship. We have done our best to make the examination of the huts and stone circle of-the Meayll Hill as thorough as possible, and what is perhaps of nearly equal importance we have lost no time in placing the results on record for future reference. We trust the proprietor may now be induced to make over the guardianship of this unique relic to the Trustees of the Manks Museum and that it may be thus preserved as a National Monument of interest not only to Manksmen but also to Archeologists in general. 172 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE X. Plan of the Meayll Hill, showing the ancient boundary fences, the hut villages, and the stone circle (A). Scale, 6 inches to the mile; circle, &c., enlarged. Puate XI. Plan of the stone circle of tritaphs. PuaTE XII. Fig. 1. Vertical section of a cist. Fig. 2. Outlines of the flint arrow-heads. Fig. 3. A large fragment of pottery. Fig. 4. Outlines of some of the fragments of pottery showing the rims of urns. Fig. 5. Two fragments of pottery showing patterns. 173 REVISION of the GENERIC NOMENCLATURE and CLASSIFICATION in Bowerbank’s “BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ By R. Hantrscu, Ph.D., DEMONSTRATOR OF ZOOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL. ‘ [Read 11th May, 1894.] No Spongologist is hikely to expect an apology for the present paper. Whilst the faithfulness of the illustrations and the correctness—in general—of the descriptive part in Bowerbank’s ‘‘ British Spongiade’’ is such that this Monograph will remain indispensable to students for time to come, yet his generic nomenclature and classification are incomprehensible and have never been accepted. What Bowerbank understood by a genus will remain a mystery. One out of numerous instances is sufficient : his genus Hymeniacidon has had to be broken up into no less than fifteen different genera, including amongst them the following: Halichondria, Esperella, Clathria, Suber- ites, Dercitus and perhaps even Halisarca. Therefore I have made an attempt in this paper to assign all species described in Bowerbank’s Monograph to their proper genera, as the latter are accepted at present, thus continuing and supplementing what Oscar Schmidt (15, p. 76) began in 187 0. Whilst thus I shall be respon- sible for the correctness of the generic names, I do not wish to be equally so for the specific names. Many of Bowerbank’s species will, in time to come, be found synonymous with others described by himself or by other authors. This, I think, applies chiefly to the still numer- ous species of Halichondria, Reniera and Hymeniacidon, 174 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL .BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. But only he who is fortunate enough to have access to the type specimens can attempt to revise the specific nomenclature, and, even then, his success may be doubtful, as so many of the type specimens are preserved in the dried condition. This paper consists of’ two parts, the first containing the revision of the generic nomenclature. It is meant to be used with the plates in the third and fourth volumes of the Monograph. The left of the two columns gives Bowerbank’s nomenclature, the right the revised nomen- clature, beginning with the first plate in the third volume’ and ending with the last plate in the fourth volume. The numbers of the plates in the third volume are simply indicated by Roman numbers, but those in the fourth volume by Roman numbers preceded by “‘ 4.” The second part of the paper contains the classified list of all species described by Bowerbank, with their revised generic names only. References to the plates in the two volumes are given in each case, so that, by referring back to the first part of the present paper, the old name is easily ascertained. In many cases references are added to other works in which Bowerbank’s species have been redescribed, or which otherwise bear upon the subject. I have thought it useful to give the generic definitions of all Monaxonida, because they have been compiled from various authors. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Ridley and Dendy’s “ Challenger’? Report (4) and perhaps still more to Topsent’s recent writings (8, 19, 20). Many of the generic definitions are literally, or almost so, copied from those sources. ‘Thus also the classification of Halichondrina is taken from Topsent’s latest paper (20). Valuable aid was also obtained from yon Lendenfeld (41, 13) and Vosmaer’s works (22). ls REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 175 But I have not deemed it necessary to give the generic definitions in the other eroups of Sponges, as for the Calcarea I have exclusively followed Dendy (2, 3, 4), for the Tetractinellida, Sollas (77), and for the Hexaceratina and Monoceratina, von Lendenfeld (12). The definitions of the genera of these groups will be found in the works of these respective authors. BOWERBANK’S NOMENCLATURE. i II. III. PART Grantia compressa Grantia ciliata Grantia ensata Grantia tessellata Leucosolenia botryoides Leucosolenia contorta Leucosolenia coriacea Leucosolenia lacunosa Leuconia nivea Leuconia fistulosa Leuconia pumila Leucogypsia Gossei Geodia Zetlandica Pachymatisma Johnstonia Ecionemia ponderosa Ecionemia compressa Polymastia ornata Polymastia bulbosa Polymastia robusta Polymastia brevis Polymastia spinula Polymastia radiosa Polymastia mammillaris Halyphysema ramulosa Ciocalypta penicillus Tethea cranium Isodictya infundibuliformis Tethea Collingsii Tethea Schmidtii L REVISED NOMENCLATURE. Sycon compressum, auctt. Sycon coronatum, E. & S. Ute glabra, O.S. Sycon elegans, B. Leucosolenia botryoides, E. & S. Leucosolenia contorta, B. Leucosolenia coriacea, Fl. Leucosolenia lacunosa, Johnst. Leucandra nivea, Grant. Leucandra fistulosa, Johnst. Leucandra pumila, B. Leucandra gossei, B. Cydonium miilleri, Fleming. Pachymatisma johnstonia, B. Stryphnus ponderosus, B. Peecillastra compressa, B. Polymastia ornata, B. Polymastia bulbosa, B. Polymastia robusta, B. Quasillina brevis, B. Polymastia spinula, B. Polymastia radiosa, B, Polymastia mammillaris, B. (no sponge). Ciocalypta penicillus, B. Craniella cranium, auctt. Tragosia infundibuliformis, J. Stelletta collingsi, B. Stelletta collingsi, B, 176 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX, XX. XXI, XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXYV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX, XXXI. XXXII. Tethea Lyncurium Tethea spinularia Halicnemia patera Dictyocylindrus ventilabrum Dictyocylindrus ramosus Dictyocylindrus hispidus Dictyocylindrus fascicularis Dictyocylindrus stuposus Dictyocylindrus Howsei Dictyocylindrus virgultosa Dictyocylindrus pumilus Dictyocylindrus rugosus Dictyocylindrus radiosus Dictyocylindrus pumilus Dictyocylindrus aculeatus Phakellia robusta Phakellia ventilabrum Microciona fictitia Microciona levis Microciona fallax Microciona armata Microciona spinulenta Microciona plumosa Microciona atrasanguinea Microciona ambigua Hymeraphia vermiculata Hymeraphia clavata Hymeraphia verticillata Hymeraphia stellifera Hymedesmia radiata Hymedesmia stellata Hymedesmia Zetlandica Hymedesmia radiata Hymeniacidon Thomasii Hymeniacidon coccinea Hymeniacidon Brettii Hymeniacidon fragilis Hymeniacidon reticulatus Hymeniacidon fallaciosus Hymeniacidon albescens Hymeniacidon perarmatus Hymeniacidon caruncula Tethya lyncurium, Lin. ? Polymastia spinularia, B. Halicnemia patera, B. Raspailia ventilabrum, B. Raspailia ramosa, Mont. Raspailia hispida, Mont. Axinella fascicularis, B. Axinella stuposa, Mont. Raspailia howsei, B. Raspailia virgultosa, B. Raspailia pumila, B. Axinella rugosa, B. Raspailia radiosa, B. Raspailia pumila, B. Raspailia aculeata, B. Phakellia robusta, B. Phakelha ventilabrum, Johnst. Plumohalichondria fictitia, B. Microciona levis, B. Microciona fallax, B. Microciona armata, B. Pocillon spinulentum, B. Stylostichon plumosum, Mont. Microciona atrasanguinea, B. Stylostichon ambiguum, B. Axinella vermiculata, B. Hymeraphia clavata, B. Hymeraphia verticillata, B. Acarnus stelliferus, B. Hymeraphia radiata, B. Hymedesmia stellata, B. Clathrissa zetlandica, B. Hymeraphia radiata, B. Halichondria thomasi, B. Halichondria coccinea, B. Halichondria bretti, B. Halichondria fragilis, B. Halichondria reticulata, B. Halichondria fallaciosa, B. Halichondria albescens, J. Clathrissa perarmata, B. Hymeniacidon carunculum, B. XXXIITI. XXXIV. LOeaie RXXVI.. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. | XLII. XLII. XLIV. REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ U7 Hymeniacidon sanguinea Hymeniacidon lactea Hymeniacidon membrana Hymeniacidon mammeata Hymeniacidon consimilis Hymeniacidon macilenta Hymeniacidon variantia Hymeniacidon fallax Hymeniacidon viridans Hymeniacidon perlevis Hymeniacidon crustula Hymeniacidon aurea Hymeniacidon pachyderma Hymeniacidon armatura Hymeniacidon virgultosa Hymeniacidon suberea Hymeniacidon carnosa Hymeniacidon ficus Hymeniacidon sulphurea Hymeniacidon paupertas Hymeniacidon subclavata Raphiodesma floreum Hymeniacidon clavigera Hymeniacidon Dujardinii Hymeniacidon celata Hymeniacidon gelatinosa Hymeniacidon Bucklandi Halichondria panicea Halichondria panicea Halichondria glabra Halichondria augulata Halichondria caduca Halichondria invonspicua Halichondria incerta Halichondria coalita Halichondria distorta Halichondria corrugata Halichondria forcipis Halichondria subdola Halichondria Thompsoni Isodictya simplex Halichondria incrustans Hymeniacidon sanguineum, G. Halichondria lactea, B. Halichondria membrana, B. Hymeniacidon mammeatum, B. Hymeniacidon consimile, B. Esperella macilenta, B. Desmacella variantia, B. Hymeniacidon fallax, B. Hymeniacidon viridans, B. Hymeniacidon perleve, M. Suberites crustula, B. Hymeniacidon aureum, M. Hymeniacidon pachydermum, B. Spanioplon armaturum, B. Suberites virgultosus, J. Suberites domuncula, Olivi. Suberites carnosus, J. Suberites ficus, J. Suberites sulphureus, Bean. Hymeraphia paupertas, B. Esperella subclavata, B. Esperella florea, B. Clathria clavigera, B. Dendoryx dujardini, B. Cliona celata, Grant. ¢ Hymeniacidon gelatinosum, B. Dercitus bucklandi, B. Halichondria panicea, Pallas. Halichondria panicea, Pallas. Halichondria glabra, B. Gellius angulatus, B. Halichondria caduca, B. Halichondria inconspicua, B. Halichondria incerta, B. Halichondria coalita, Gr. Halichondria distorta, B. Biemma, corrugata, B. Forcepia forcipis, B. Axinella subdola, B. Hsperiopsis thompsoni, B. Reniera simplex, B. Dendoryx incrustans, Esper. 178 XLV: XLVI. XLVII. 2G AOU XLIX. LI. Ibe IGN UL, Halichondria candida Halichondria irregularis Halichondria Dickiei Halichondria granulata Halichondria scandens Halichondria albula Halichondria nigricans Hymeniacidon variantia Halichondria Pattersoni Halichondria Hyndmani Halichondria pulchella Halichondria Ingalli Halichondria Batei Halichondria inornatus Halichondria simplex Raphiodesma lingua Isodictya cinerea Isodictya Peachii Isodictya permollis Isodictya simulo Isodictya varians Isodictya elegans Isodictya parasitica Isodictya Mcandrewii Isodictya rosea Isodictya indefinita Isodictya anomala Isodictya densa Isodictya pallida Isodictya jugosa Isodictya Gregorii Isodictya simplex Isodictya indistincta Isodictya simulans Isodictya mammeata Isodictya fallax Isodictya palmata Isodictya ramusculus Isodictya pocillum Isodictya clava Isodictya dichotoma Isodictya fistulosa TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Dendoryx candida, B Myxilla irregularis, B. Dendoryx dickiei, B. Myxilla granulata, B. Pocillon scandens, B. Yvesia albula, B. Tophon nigricans, B. Desmacella variantia, B. Dendoryx pattersoni, B. Pocillon hyndmani. B. Dendoryx pulchella, B. Dendoryx ingall, B. Dendoryx batei, B. Biemma inornata, B. Hymeniacidon simplex, B. Esperella lingua, B. Reniera cinerea, Grant. Reniera peachi, B. Reniera permoliis, B. Reniera bowerbanki, Norman. Reniera varians, B. Reniera elegans, B. Reniera parasitica, B. Reniera macandrew:, B. Reniera rosea, B. Reniera indefinita, B. Reniera anomala, B. Reniera densa, B. Reniera pallida, B. Gellius jugosus, B. Reniera gregori, B. Reniera simplex, B. Reniera indistincta, B. Reniera simulans, Johnst. Reniera mammeata, B. Gellius fallax, B. Homeeodictya palmata, Johnst. Reniera ramuscula, B. Reniera pocillum, B. Reniera clava, B. Reniera dichotoma, B. Reniera fistulosa, B, LIV. LY, LVI. EVIL. LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. LXXII, REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADZA.”’ 179 Isodictya infundibuliformis Isodictya dissimilis Isodictya paupera Isodictya uniformis Isodictya Normani Isodictya pygmea Isodictya Clarkei Isodictya fucorum Isodictya Alderi Isodictya Barleei Isodictya Beanii Isodictya fimbriata Isodietya Edwardii Isodictya lobata Isodictya gracilis Isodictya lurida Spongilla fluviatilis Spongilla lacustris Desmacidon fruticosa Desmacidon Jeffreysii Desmacidon Peachii Desmacidon egagropila Raphyrus Griffithsii Ophlitaspongia seriata Spongionella pulchella Chalina oculata Chalina cervicornis Chalina gracilenta Chalina limbata Chalina Flemingii Chalina Montaguii Chalina Grantii Dysidea fragilis Ophlitaspongia papilla Halichondria farinaria Verongia Zetlandica Diplodemia vesicula Hymeniacidon foliatus Desmacidon constrictus Hymeniacidon firmus Hymeniacidon radiosa Tragosia infundibuliformis, J, Tragosia polypoides, O. S. Hsperiopsis paupera, B, Stylotella uniformis, B. Esperiopsis normani, B, Reniera pygmea, B, Esperiopsis clarkei, B. Esperiopsis fucorum, Johnst. Esperiopsis alderi, B, Tragosia barleei, B. Clathria beani, B. Dendoryx fimbriata, B. Esperiopsis edwardi, B. Esperella lobata, Mont. Esperiopsis gracilis, B. Dendoryx lurida, B. Ephydatia fluviatilis, Pallas. Euspongilla lacustris, auctt. Desmacidon fruticosum, Mont. Oceanapia robusta, B. Desmacella peachi, B. Esperella egagropila, Johnst. Cliona celata, Grant. Ophlitaspongia seriata, Grant. Leiosella pulchella, Sowerby. Chalina oculata, Pallas. Chalina cervicornis, Pallas. Pachychalina gracilenta, B. Pachychalina limbata, Mont. Chalina flemingi, B. Pachychalina montagui, Fl, Pachychalina granti, B. Spongelia fragilis, M. var. irregularis. Ophlitaspongia papilla, B. Suberites farinarius, B. Aplysina zetlandica, B. Diplodemia vesicula, B. Suberites foliatus, B. Esperella constricta, B. Halichondria firma, B. Hymeniacidon radiosum, B, 180 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL LXXIIlI. LXXIV. LXXYV. LXXVI. LXXVII. LXXVIII. LXXIXx. LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV. LXXXV. Hymeniacidon placentula Hymeniacidon plumiger Polymastia conigera Halichondria foliata Halichondria edusa Halichondria regularis Halichondria Couchii Microciona simplicima Halichondria falcula Halichondria mutula Halichondria expansa Halichondria ambigua Hymeniacidon tegeticula Isodictya laciniosa Isodictya obscura Isodictya imitata Isodictya coriacea Raphiodesma sordida Raphiodesma lingua Isodictya Ingalli Desmacidon columella Hymeraphia coronula Hymedesmia inflata Hymedesmia occulta Hymedesmia simplicima Hymeraphia simplex Normania crassa Isodictya lurida Desmacidon copiosa Desmacidon cavernula Ecionemia coactura Microciona fictitia Microciona jecusculum Microciona fraudator Chalina inornata Tethea spinosa Desmmacidon egagropila Dictyocylindrus rectangulus Isodictya filamenta Isodictya luteosa Isodictya invalida Hymeniacidon medius BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Peecillastra compressa, B. Hymeniacidon plumigerum, B. Polymastia conigera, B. Esperiopsis foliata, B. Halichondria edusa, B. Halichondria regularis, B. Gellius couchi, B. Tedania simplicissima, B. Hamacantha faleula, B. Esperiopsis mutula, B. Dendoryx expansa, B. Halichondria ambigua, B. Halichondria tegeticula, B. Clathria laciniosa, B. Reniera obscura, B. Esperiopsis imitata, B. Plocamia coriacea, B. Esperella sordida, B. Esperella lingua, B. Reniera ingalli, B. Stylotella columella, B. Hymeraphia coronula, B. Pytheas inflatus, B. Desmacidon occultum, B.- Suberites simplicissimus, B. Hymeraphia simplex, B. Pcecillastra compressa, B. Dendoryx lurida, B. Esperella copiosa, B. Desmacella cavernula, B. Stelletta coactura, B. Plumohalichondria fictitia, B. Myxilla jecusculum, B. Plumohalichondria fraudator, B. Stylotella inornata, B. Lissomyxilla spinosa, B. Esperella egagropila, Johnst. Raspailia rectangula, B. Reniera filamenta, B. Reniera luteosa, B. Hymeniacidon invalidum, B. Hymeniacidon medium, B, LXXXVI. LXXXVII. LXXXVIII. LXXXIX, XC. XCI. XCII. REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADZ.”’ 181 Desmacidon incognitus Ciocalypta Leei Spongilla Parfitti Spongilla sceptrifera Hymedesmia indistincta Isodictya obscura Isodictya varians Desmacidon pannosus Isodictya incerta Tethea cranium Microciona Kentii Desmacidon similaris Raphiodesma simplissima Isodictya dubia Desmacidon rotalis Isodictya rugosa Leuconia Somesii Halichondria McIntoshii Dysidea coriacea Isodictya tumulosa Battersbyia Bucklandi Hymeniacidon Aldousii Hymedesmia pansa Hymedesmia tenuicula Hymedesmia pilata Hymedesmia pulchella Hymeniacidon Hillieri Hymeniacidon solidus Isodictya scitula Hymeniacidon virgulatus Hymeniacidon callosus Hymeniacidon armiger Halichondria virgea Halichondria Robertsoni Halichondria condensa Halichondria cylindracea Halichondria coralloides Halichondria flabellifera Isodictya ferula Isodictya crassa Isodictya scitula Stylotella incognita, B. Ciocalypta penicillus, B. Ephydatia parfitti, C. Ephydatia sceptrifera, B. Hymeraphia indistincta, B. Reniera obscura, B. Reniera varians, B. Stylotella pannosa, B. Reniera incerta, B. Craniella cranium, auctt. Plumohalichondria kenti, B. Esperella similaris, B. Stylotella simplicissima, B. Esperiopsis dubia, B. Esperella rotalis, B. Dendoryx rugosa, B. Leucandra somesi, B. Halichondria macintoshi, B. Spongelia fragilis, M. var. irregularis. Dendoryx tumulosa, B. Dercitus bucklandi, B. Hymeniacidon aldousi, B. Myxilla pansa, B. Suberites tenuiculus, B. Myxilla pilata, B. Myxilla pulchella, B. Hymeniacidon hillieri, B. Halichondria solida, B. Esperiopsis scitula, B. Hymeéniacidon virgulatum, B. Hymeniacidon callosum, B. Yvesia armigera, B. Dendoryx virgea, B. Dendoryx robertsoni, B. Halichondria condensa, B. Desmacidon ecylindraceum, B. Halichondria coralloides, B. Lissodendoryx flabellifera, B. Reniera ferula, B. Reniera crassa, B. Esperiopsis scitula, Bb. e 182 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Isodictya perplexa Reniera perplexa, B. AOXG Isodictya involuta ? Hymeniacidon involutum, B. Isodictya paupercula ?Desmacidon pauperculum, B. 4, XI. Microciona tumulosa Halichondria tumulosa, B. | Isodictya trunca Clathrissa truneca, B. | 4, XII. Isodietya hispida Esperiopsis hispida, B. Isodictya nodosa Hymeniacidon nodosum, B. | 4, XIII. Isodictya pertenuis Hymeniacidon pertenue, B. Hymedesmia Peachii Myxilla peachi, B. 4, XIV. _—__Isodictya deformis Esperiopsis deformis, B. Isodictya collina Esperiopsis collina, B. 4, XV. Hymeniacidon tenebrosus Suberites tenebrosus, B. Isodictya funalis Esperiopsis funalis, B. 4, XVI. Isodictya ineequalis Dendoryx ineequalis, B. Isodictya implicita Jophon implicitum, B. 4, XVII. Raphiodesma intermedium Esperella intermedia, B. Raphiodesma fallaciosum Esperella fallaciosa, B. PART II. Classified List of the British Sponges described by Bowerbank. Phylum PORIFERA. Class I. CALCAREA, Gray. 1. Order. HOMOCAC&LA, Poléjaeff. Leucosolema botryoides, Klis & Sol., Ill, (Heckel, Oy 10s 183). ¥ contorta, B., III, (Heckel, 6, p. 91). ‘ corvacea, Fleming, III,(Heeckel, 6, p. 24). . lacunosa, Johnst., [V, (Heckel, 6, p. 70). 2. Order. HETHROCCILA, Poléjaeff. Sycon compressum, auctt., 1, (Heckel, 6, p. 360). » coronatum, Hillis & Sol., II, (Heeckel, 6, p. 304). 3 elegans, in.) Ii ieeckel 6) p 358) Ute glabra, O. Schmidt, II, (Heckel, 6, p. 349). Leucandra jistulosa, Johnst., V, (Heckel, 6, p. 197). 3 gosser, B., VI, (Heckel, 6, p. 177). REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 183 Leucandra mvea, Grant, V, (Heckel, 6, p. 211). ve pumila, B., VI, (Heckel, 6, p. 148). a somest, B., XCI. Class “LI. SILICEA, Gray. Sub-class I. TRIAXONIA, Schulze. 1. Order HEXACTINELLIDA, Schmidt. : None. a 2. Order HEXACHRATINA, Lendenfeld. 4 Halisarca dwjardim, Johnston. (Schulze, 16.) Note. Bowerbank (see Vol. IT, p. 225) never seemed to believe in the existence of Halisarca dwjardin, as des- cribed by Johnston. It is difficult to imagine that B. never met with that sponge. For some time I thought that his Hymentacidon dwardum, XXX VIII and A. gelatinosa, XXX VIII might have been certain _ spiculiferous sponge remains overgrown by Halisarca. But since Topsent (28, p. 99) describes the former of the two sponges under the name Dendoryx dwardini, B., my supposition could be true only with regard to Hymeniacidon gelatinosa. Norman enumerates Hf. dwardini in the Appendix to Vol. IV, p. 2388. Sub-class Il. TETRAXONIA, Schulze. a. Order TETRACTINELLIDA, Marshall. 1. Sub-order: CHORISTIDA, Sollas. Craniella cranium, auctt., XIV and LXXXIX. (Sol- las, 17, p. 51.) Pecillastra compressa, B., 1X, LXXIT and LXXXI. (Sollas, 17, p. 98.) Dercitus bucklandt, B., XXX VIII and XCII. (Sol- las, 17, p. 108). Stelletta coactura, B., UXXXII. (Sollas, 17, p. 184). collingst, B., XV. (Sollas, 17, p. 185). 39 184 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Stryphnus ponderosus, B., VIII. (Sollas, 17, p- 198). Pachymatisma johnstoma, B., VIII. (Sollas, 17, p. 242.) | Cydomum miillert, Fleming, VII. (Sollas, 17, p. 254.) | 2. Sub-order: LITHISTIDA, O. Schmidt. None. 6. Order MONAXONIDA, Ridley and wa With uniaxial megascleres. 1. Sub-order HALICHONDRINA, Vosmaer. Typically non-corticate; skeleton usually reticulate; megascleres usually either oxea or styli. Family I. HaApnoscLerip#, Topsent (20). Skeleton simple; megascleres typically diactinal; mi- croscleres rarely present, never chele. a. Sub-family CHALInIna#, Ridley and Dendy. Skeleton fibrous. Megascleres oxea or strongyla, com- pletely enveloped by a sheath of spongin. Microscleres, if present, toxa. Genus Chalina, Grant. Fibres typically with a single axial series of spicules. No microscleres. Chalina cervicornis, Pallas, LX VII. 5 ojreming?, 3. Tix Vee, - oculata, Pallas, LX VI. Genus Pachychalina, O. Schmidt. Fibres typically with numerous spicules, arranged poly- serially. No microscleres. Pachychalina gracilenta, B., UX VIL. f granti, B., LX VIII. L limbata, Mont., LXVII. (Grentzen- berg, 5, p. 30.) Se montagur, Fleming, LXVIII. (Han- itsch, 8, p. 201.) REVISION ‘“‘ BRITISH SPONGIADZ.”’ 185 b. Sub-family RENIERIN®, Ridley and Dendy. Skeleton confused or regular. Spongin may be present, but never completely enveloping the spicules. Micros- cleres rarely present. Genus Halichondria, Fleming. Skeleton confused, never regularly reticulate. Megas- cleres oxea or strongyla. Spongin scarcely appreciable. No microscleres. Halichondria albescens, Johnst., XX XI. ' ambigua, B., LXXTV. me bretit, Ba XXX. 5 caduca, B., XLI. (Ridley & Dendy, 14, p. 9.) 6 coalita, Grant, X LI. ve coccinea, B., XXX. cs condensa, B., 4, VI. ie coralloides, B., 4, VII. = distorta, B., XLII. - edusa, B., LXXITI. _ fallaciosa, B., XXXI. i firma, B., LUXXII. i fragilis, B., XXX. se glabra: B., Xl: # encerta, B., X LI. A inconspicua, B., XLI. a ka@eted), “Br. XOX DEL we macintosh, B., XCI. 4 membrana, B., XXXII. o panicea, Pallas, XXXIX. (Gyrentzen- bere srout pn tle) “4 regularis, B., LUXXIII. as FEUCULALA Bs). XXX. oF solidas B., 4, ELI. ¥ tegeticula, B., LXXIV. 186 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Halichondria thomast, B., XXX. ie tumulosa, B., 4, XI. Genus Reniera, Nardo. Skeleton composed of definite, rectangular (sometimes triangular or polygonal), typically unispicular meshes. Spicules short oxea or strongyla, usually united together at the ends only by spongin. No microscleres. NOTE. Some of the spicules of one species, viz., LB. anomala, are inflated in the centre. Renvera anomala, B., Li. bowerbanki, Norman, XLVIII. . enerea, Grant, XL VIII. clave, Be ait: crassa, B., 4, VIII. densa, B., Iu. dichotoma, B., UII. elegans, B., XLIX. (Topsent, 18, p. 70.) ferula, B., 4, VIII. filamenta, B., LUXXXYV. jistulosa, B., LILI. gregort, B., Li. incerta, B., LXXXIX. indefinta, B., XLIX. indistincta, B., LI. (Topsent, 18, p. 69.) ingalli, B., UX XVIII. luteosa, B., LX XXV. mammeata, B., Li. macandrewt, B., XLIX. obscura, B., LXXVI and LXXXVII. pallida, B., L. parasitica, B., XLIX. peach, B., XLVILII. permollis, B., XLVITII. perplexa, B., 4, IX. REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 187 Remera. pocillum, B., LITI. : if pygmea, B., LVI. : he ramuscula, B., LIT. cs rosea, B., XLIX. sumplez, B., XLIV and L. yi sumulans, Johnston, Lil. p varvans, B., XLVIII and LXXX VIII. Genus Gellius, Gray. Skeleton formed of a more or less regular network, never of fibres. Megascleres diactinal. Microscleres sigmata and (or) toxa. Note. Bowerbank omitted to describe and figure the slgmata amongst the microscleres of Gellius angula- tus. Ridley and Dendy (14, p. 44) who examined the type specimens in the British Museum, discovered that _ spicule, and referred the sponge to the genus Gellius. Gelluus angulatus, B., XLI. (Topsent, 18, p. 76.) ih Couche? 15) ) XX, | » sallas, B., Ll. ys gugosusy Bs, Lu. c. Sub-family SPONGILLINA. Fresh water Sponges. Genus Huspongilla, Vejdowsky. Megascleres smooth or spined. Gemmules covered with small spined spicules. Euspongilla lacustris, autt., LX. (Weltner, 23, p. 12; 24, p. 260.) Genus Hphydatia, Lamouroux. Megascleres smooth or spined. Gemmules covered with amphidiscs the edges of which are indented. Ephydatia fluviatilis, Pallas, LIX. (Weltner, 24, p. 245. * parfittr, Carter, LXXXVI, ae sceptrifera, B., LXXXVI. 188 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. d. Sub-family GELLIODINA. None. é. Sub-family PHL@opictTyin#, Ridley and Dendy. Massive Sponges with a thick rind and fistulous appendages. Skeleton of the choanosome consisting of spiculous fibres. Megascleres oxea. Microscleres (if present) sigmata. Genus Oceanapia, Norman. With microscleres. Oceanapia robusta, B., LXII. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 36.) Family Il. PaciLoscLERIDa, Topsent. Skeleton more complicated. Megascleres typically monactinal. Usually with microscleres, typically chele. a. Sub-family EsPpERELLINe, Ridley and Dendy. Skeleton fibres not echinated. Megascleres of the ectosome not differing essentially from those of the choanosome. Genus Stylotella, Lendenfeld. Skeleton reticulate. Primary fibres multispiculous. Megascleres chiefly styl. No microscleres. Note. Topsent, (18, p. 185) established the genus Stylunos for the undermentioned forms (except S. inornata), but dropped it again (20, p. 6) on finding that Stylotella, Lendenfeld, was identical with and prior to it. Stylotella columella, B., LXXVIII. (Topsent, 18, p. 136.) * uncognita, B., LXXXV. a mornata, B., LXXXIII. ie pannosa, B., LXXXIX. ‘a sumplicissuma, B., XC. o uniforms, B., IONE REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 189 Genus Desmacella, Schmidt. Skeleton fibrous. Megascleres tylostyli or styli, or both. Microscleres sigmata and (or) toxa, occasionally trichodragmata. Desmacella cavernula, B., LXXXII. (Topsent, 18, p. 84). ys peach, B., LXIII. (Topsent, 18, p. 84.) varvantia, B., XX XIII and XLV. Genus Biemma, Gray. Sponges allied to Desmacella, but with the aspect and structure of Halchondria. Megascleres: tylostyles. Microscleres: sigmata. Biemma corrugata, B., XLII. (Topsent, 18, p. 81.) », mornata, B., XVII. .(Vopsent, 1S, p. 80.) Genus Hsperiopsis, Carter. External form amorphous or symmetrical. Megascleres monactinal, Muicroscleres isochele, with or without slgmata. Lisperiopsis aldert, B., LVI. e clarker, B., LVI. 4 collina, B., 4, X1V. ) deformis, B., 4, XIV. i dubia, B., XC: es edwardi, B., L VIII. (Ridley and Dendy, TLS We TS:) i folata, B., LUXXIII. (Carter, 7, p. 310.) 5 fucorum, Johnst., LVI. ‘i funalis, B., 4, XV. . gracilis, Bt, WiVUlt. Ms hispida, B., 4, XII. 3 umtata, B., LXXVI. a mutula, B., LUXXI1V. i normant, B., LVI. » paupera, B., LY. 190 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Esperiopsis scitula, B., 4, TV and 4, IX. . thompsont, B., XLIV. Genus Esperella, Vosmaer. External form amorphous or symmetrical. Megas- cleres monactinal. Mlicroscleres palmate anisochele, to which others may be added. Esperella egagropila, Johnst., LXIII and LXXXITI. n constricta, B., LXXI. ad coptosa, B., LXXXII. < fallaciosa, B., 4, XVII. i florea, B., XXX VII. (Hanitsch, 8, p. 202.) 3 wntermedia, B., 4, X VIL. 2 lingua, B., XLVI and LXXVII. (Top- sent, 18, p. 88.) A lobata, Mont., LVILII. a macilenta, B., XX XIII. 3 rotalis, B., XC. - sumilaris, B., LXXXIX. 3 sordida, B., UXXVI. (Hanitsch, 9, p. 214.) - subclavata, B., XXX VII. | Genus Hamacantha, Gray. Megascleres usually styli. Microscleres typically dian- cistra, with or without sigmata, toxa and inchot Hamacantha falcula, B., LUXXIV. Genus ivan Bowerbank. Megascleres diactinal. Microscleres isochele and, usually, sigmata. Desmacidon cylindraceum, B., 4, VI. i fruticosum, Mont., LXI. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 104.) a occultum, B., LXXIX. 2 es pauperculum, B., 4, X. Genus Homeodictya, Ehlers. Usually lobate or palmate, Fibres rich in spongin, REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 191 Megascleres diactinal. Microscleres characteristic fim- briated isochelee. Homeodictya palmata, Johnston, LIT. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 108.) b. Sub-family DENDORICINZz, Topsent. Skeleton fibres not echinated. The megascleres of the ectosome are usually of a different type of those of the choanosome, generally diactinal. Genus Dendoryz, Gray. Skeleton reticulate. Megascleres of the ectosome usually diactinal, mostly smooth, in a few cases spined on the ends. Megascleres of the choanosome monactinal, | always spined. Mlucroscleres: usually isochele, rarely anisochele or no chelz at all. Sigmata may be present. Nots. As the genus Dendoryx, defined as above, includes a great variety of forms, I think it useful to arrange the species according to the character of the ectosomal megascleres, and of the microscleres. According to Vosmaer (22, p. 859), D. dickiet and D. lurida are identical. But he apparently overlooked what Bowerbank says in regard to the former species (Vol. II, p. 254): “The vast quanity and great size of many of the anchorate spicula is a very remarkable feature in this sponge.” The corresponding spicule in D. lurida is considerably smaller. Still these two species, as possessing hastate diactinals (and thus forming Vosmaer’s genus Hastatus), stand much nearer to each other than they do to D. rugosa. 1. Ectosomal megascleres diactinal, smooth: a. with isochele and sigmata : Dendoryx inaequalis, B., 4, XVI. : incrustans, Esper, XLIV. (Hanitsch, 8, p- 204,) 192 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. robertson, B., 4, V. b. with isochele only: Dendoryx dickier, B. XLV. lurida, B., L VIII and LXXXII. rugosa, -B., XCI. c. with anisochele and sigmata : Dendoryx ingall, B., XLVI. d. without microscleres : Dendoryx dujardini, B., XXXVIII. (Topsent, 18, [ds 219). 2. Ectosomal megascleres monactinal, smooth : a. with isochele only : Dendoryx batei, B., XLVI. Rs fimbriata, B., LVIII. . vrrgeda, B., 4, V. 3. Ectosomal megascleres diactinal, terminally spined : 99 9 99 a. with anisochele only : Dendoryx expansa, B., UXXIV. i pattersom, B., XLVI. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 117.) b. with sigmata only : Dendoryx pulchella, B., XLVI. 4. Ectosomal megascleres monactinal, terminally or entirely spined : a. with isochele and sigmata : Dendoryx tumulosa, B., XCILI. b. with sigmata only : Dendoryx candida, B., XLIV. Genus Lophon, Gray. Soft, crumbling sponges, of dark colour. Megascleres of the ectosome diactinal, those of the choanosome spined styli. Microsceleres anisochele and bipocilli. Tophon ngricans, B., XLV. (Topsent, 18, p. 98.) umplicatum, B., 4, XVI. bP) REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 193 y Note. Ridley and Dendy (14, p. 117) include Hali- a: chondria pattersom, B., under the present genus. | This must be an oversight, as that species possesses no bipocilli. Its right place seems to be under Dendoryx. Topsent (18, 34) places J. implicata in his new genus Pocillon. I do not follow him, as Bowerbank leaves it uncertain whether there are really ‘‘ defensive spicules’’ in that sponge. Genus Lissodendoryz, Topsent (18, p. 97.) Sponges having the main skeleton composed of smooth styli, but else with the characters of Dendoryz. Lissodendoryx flabellifera, B., 4, VIL. Genus Tedama, Gray. Megascleres of the ectosome diactinal, those of the choanosome monactinal, both smooth. Microscleres raphides. Tedania simplicissema, B., UX XIII. Genus Forcepia, Carter. Megascleres of the ectosome diactinal, those of the choanosome monactinal, both smooth. Characteristic microsclere a labis, with or without isochele or anisochele. Forcepia forcipis, B., XLII. | Genus Yvesia, Topsent (18, p. 102). Megascleres of the ectosome generally monactinal, but often also diactinal, always spined, Megascleres of the choanosome smooth, normally diactinal. Microscleres isochele and (or) sigmata, or absent altogether. Yvesia armigera, B., 4, IV. 3 aloula. Bb. XV. c. Sub-family Ecoryonina, Ridley and Dendy. Skeleton fibres echinated, generally by spined spicules. Genus Myzilla, Schmidt. Megascleres of the choanosome monactinal, spined, 194 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. forming a reticulate skeleton echinated by spined styli. Megascleres of the ectosome smooth diactinals. Micros- cleres isochele, with or without sigmata and toxa. Myxilla granulata, B., XLV. Me wrregularis, B., XLIV. » jecusculum, B., XXXII. (Carter, 7, pi23sT) an pansa, B., 4, I. 5 . peach, B.A, XIII: (Topsent, 13)4p94085) by plata, B., 4, I. & pulchella, B., 4, I. Genus Pocillon, Topsent (19, p. xxxiv). Agreeing with Myzzlla in structure, but having bipocilli in addition. Differing from Iophon only by the possession of echinating spined styl. Pocillon hyndmam, B., XUVI. (Hanitsch, 9, p. 217.) “4 scandens, B., XLY. - spinulentum, B., XXIV. Genus Lissomyxilla, n.g. Skeleton fibres of the choanosome formed of smooth monactinals, echinated by spined styli. Megascleres of the ectosome smooth diactinals or monactinals. Micros- cleres (isochele, etc.,) may be present. Notrz. I have ventured to make this new genus for a form which I could bring under no existing genus. It differs from Myzxilla only by the smooth styl of the choanosome, and stands to Myzilla in the same relationship as Lissodendoryx, Topsent, to Dendorya, Gray. 'Topsent (28, p. 108) speaks of the possibility, of a genus of the above character having to be created sometime. I have left the definition of the new genus wider than was really necessitated by the only known species of it, so that allied forms may be more easily included under it. The present species has REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 195 monactinals in the ectosome, and possesses no microscleres. Lissomyxilla spinosa, B., LUXXXITII. Genus Plwmohalichondria, Carter. Main skeleton formed of plume-like columns, containing smooth diactinal spicules, echinated by spined styl. Dermal skeleton with smooth diactinal spicules and spined styli. Microscleres isochele. Plumohalichondria fictitia, B., XXIII and LXXXII. - fraudator, B., LX XXIII. 4 kentt, B., LXXXIX. Genus Stylostichon, Topsent (18, p. 111). Main skeleton formed of plume-like columns, containing spined styli, echinated by spined styli. Dermal skeleton with smooth diactinal spicules. Microscleres isochele. Stylostichon ambiguum, B., XXV. bs plumosum, Mont., XXIV. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 145.) Genus Microciona, Bowerbank. Main skeleton formed of short plume-like columns, containg basally spined styli, echinated by entirely spined styl. Dermal skeleton with smooth styli. Microscleres may be present: isochele, with or without toxa and slgmata. Note. WM. levis differs from the three other species by having smooth styli in the skeleton columns. Microciona armata, B., XXIII. Rees atrasanguinea, B., XXIV. (Hanitsch, 8, p- 207.) foliag, B., XXII. a levis, B., XXIII. Genus Hymeraphia, Bowerbank. Sponges thin, encrusting. Main skeleton formed of isolated monactinals, spined at least at their bases, arising 196 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. vertically from the basal membrane, with accessory shorter, generally entirely spined monactinals. Megas- cleres of the ectosome of varying character. No micros- cleres (?) Note. Topsent (48, p. 109) places H. radiata under the genus Myzilla. | Hymeraphia clavata, B., XX VI. = coronula, B., LXXIX. + indistincta, B., LXXXVII. 5 paupertas, B., XXX VII. ee radiata, B., XX VIIT and XXIX. (Top- sent, 18, p. 109). - simplex, B., UXXX, a} verticillata, B., XX VII. (Carter, J, p. yA ie) Genus Raspaila, Nardo. Sponges typically whip-hke, with a dense central axis of spiculo-fibre containing much spongin, from which loose tufts of spicules radiate to the surface. Megascleres usually monactinal. Echinating spined_ styli always present. No microscleres. Note. ‘Topsent (20, p. 13) states that some species of Raspailia possess asters, referring apparently to Dictyocylindrus stuposus, B., D. fascicularis, B.., and similar forms. I prefer to include the same under Axinella, as they do not possess echinating spined styli. Spongia rigida, Montagu, described by me (8, p. 213) under the name Raspailia rigida, M., would now also come under Azinella. Raspailia aculeata, B., XXII. oe hispida, Mont., XVII. . howset, B., XIX. 5 pumila, B., XTX and XXI. 4 radiosa, B., XX. REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADZ.”’ 197 Raspailia ramosa, Mont., XVI. ‘ rectangula, B., LXXXIV. b ventilabrum, B.,X VI. (Hanitsch, 8, p. 212.) e virgultosa, B., XIX. Genus Acarnus, Gray. Megascleres of the ectosome diactinal (tylota); those of the choanosome monactinal (smooth styli). Accessory megascleres of the choanosome cladotyles, characteristic of the genus. Microscleres isochelee and toxa. Acarnus stelluferus, B., XX VII. 2 Genus Pytheas, Topsent (18, p. 110). Megascleres of the ectosome usually spined styl, lying tangentially. Skeleton of the choanosome formed of bundles of smooth diactinals, echinated by spined styli. Isochele usually present. Pytheas inflatus, B., LXXIX. Genus Spanioplon, Topsent (18, p. 116). Chief megascleres of the choanosome smooth mon- actinals, few in number as compared with the megascleres of the ectosome, smooth diactinals. With accessory small spined spicules (microxea, microstyles, or tylostyles). Microscleres (isochele and sigmata) rarely present. Spanioplon armaturum, B., XXXIV. Genus Clathria, O. Schmidt. Main skeleton formed of well-developed horny fibres cored with smooth styli, echinated by spined styli. No special dermal skeleton. Microscleres isochele and (or) toxa, sometimes absent. Clathria beam, LVILIL. 4 clavigera, B., XXX VII, % lacuniosa, B., LXXV. Genus Clathrissa, Lendenfeld, emend. (11, p. 217). Main skeleton formed of dense bundles of diactinals, with very little spongin, echinated by spined styl. With 198 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. or without dermal crust of oxea. Chele may be present. Note. The orginal diagnosis runs: ‘‘ Desmacidonide with a skeleton composed of dense bundles of slender oxea, with very litttle spongin; echinated by spined styl.” I have altered the diagnosis slightly in order to include the undermentioned species. Topsent created a new genus (Leptosza) for Bowerbank’s - Hymedesma zetlandica, but I think we can include that species under the present genus. Clathrissa perarmata, B., XXXI. - trunca, Bi, 4, XI. s zetlandica, B., XXIX. Genus Ophlitaspongia, Bowerbank. Skeleton formed of horny fibres, not cored by spicules, but echinated by smooth styli. Microscleres toxa. Ophlitaspongia papilla, B., LXX. ‘ serrata, Grant, LXV. Genus Diplodemia, Bowerbank. Skeleton formed of horny fibres containing smooth oxea and echinated by smooth oxea. No microscleres. Diplodenna vesicula, B., LXX. Genus Plocamia, O. Schmidt. Characteristic megascleres dumb-bell shaped spicules, spined. Chief megascleres styli or subtylostyh, often spined at their bases, sometimes accompanied by shorter and more completely spined spicules. Hctosome some- times with diactinals. Microscleres: isochele and, usually, toxa. Nort. Topsent (20, p. 17) includes this genus under his new sub-family Bubarine. But as that sub-family is at present not yet quite satisfactorily defined, we may be allowed to leave Plocamima amongt the Ectyonine. The type of Topsent’s new sub-family is Bubaris, Gray. But as the same is supposed to REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADZA.”’ 199 include such greatly differing forms as Hymeraphia vermiculata, B. and H. verticillata, B. (which I refer to Axinella and Hymeraphia respectively), I have not thought it advisable, to make use of that genus. Plocamia coriacea, B., LX XVI. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, ph 158.3, Topsent, £5; -0. 107.) Family III. AxineLuipa#, Ridley and Dendy. Skeleton typically consisting of ascending axes of fibres from which arise subsidiary fibres radiating to the surface, but may be reticulate. Megascleres chiefly monactinals to which diactinals may be added. Microscleres rarely present; if present, raphides, microxea, cladostrongyla or asters. Genus Hymeniacidon, Bowerbank. Sponge massive. Skeleton reticulate. Megascleres monactinal. No microscleres. | Notte. In regard to ? H. gelatinoswm see Halisarca. Hymeniacidon aldousu, B., XCII. aureum, Mont., XXXIV. i callosum. ., 45° CV. a carunculum, B., XXXII. (Ridley and Dendy, Vso) Vor) consumile, B., XX XIII. FOC Se KOO 2 = gelatinosum, B., XX XVIII. ae hillvert, B., 4, ILL. - invalidum, B., LXXXV. 2 wmovoolutum, B., 4, X. i mammeatum, B., XXXITI. A, medium, B., LXXXYV. ef nodosum, B., 4, XII. 4 pachydermum, B., XXXIV. Ms perleve, Mont., XXXIV. 200 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Hymeniacidon pertenue, B., 4, XIIT. i plumgerum, B., UXXIT. “J radiosum, B., LXXII. ef, sanguneum, Grant, XXXII. is sumplex, B., XLVIT. ae virgulatum, B., 4, IV. viridans, B., X XXIII. Genus Phakellia, Bowerbank. Sponge fan—or funnel—shaped. Skeleton somewhat reticulate. Megascleres styli and often oxea, generally slender and twisted. No microscleres. Note. O. Schmidt, and Ridley and Dendy regard Ph. robusta as identical with, or, at the most, only as a variety of Ph. ventilabrum. I prefer to keep the two forms separate. Phakellua robusta, B., XXI1. sc ventilabrum, Johnston, XXII. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 170.) Genus T'ragosia, Gray. | Sponge fan—or funnel—shaped, or branching and anastomosing. Skeleton pretty regularly reticulate. Megascleres styli and often oxea, not twisted and stouter than in Phakellta. No microscleres. Tragosia barleer, B., LVIL. - nfundribuliforms, Johnst., XIV and LIV. (Carter, 1, p. 240.) x; polypotdes, O. Schmidt, LV. Genus Ciocalypta, Bowerbank. Sponge massive or ramose. Megascleres stylote and sometimes oxeote. From a central skeleton are given off pillars of spiculo-fibre at about right angles, spreading out and supporting the dermal membrane, leaving large sub- dermal spaces. No micyroscleres. REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADZ.’’ 2O1 Ciocalypta penicillus, B., XIII and LXXXVI. (Rid- co ley and Dendy, 14, p. 173.) Genus Axinella, Schmidt. Sponge generally ramose. Skeleton fibre plumose. Megascleres stylote, sometimes oxeote. Sometimes stellate microscleres. Note. A. vermiculata, B., is possibly identical with A. erecta, Carter. See Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 182. Axinella fascicularis, B., XVIII. rugosa, B., XX and XXI. *, stuposa, Mont., XIX. (Topsent, 18, p. 128.) me suodold. BX. vermiculata, B., XX VI. 2. Sub-order CLAVULINA, Vosmaer. Sponges typically with cortex, radiating skeleton, tylo- stylote megascleres and no spongin. Mlicroscleres rarely present, never chelez or sigmata. 3 Family I. SUBERITIDZ, Vosmaer. No microscleres, except occasionally centrotylote mic- rostrongyles. Genus Suberites, Nardo. Massive or stipitate, without mammiform projections. Usually with special dermal crust of radiating spicules. Megascleres typically tylostyles. Microscleres: occasion- ally centrotylote microstrongyles. Suberites carnosus, Johnst., XXXVI. (Ridley and & Dendy 12. p. 197.) a crustula, B., XXXIV. » - domuncula, Olivi, XXXVI. 5 farinarwus, B., LXxX. ¥: ficus, Johnst., XXXVI. a foliatus, B., LX XI. i, sumplicissimus, B., UX XX. 202 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Suberites sulphureus, Bean, XXXVII. tenebrosus, B., 4, XV. tenuiculus, B., 4, I. virgultosus, Johnst., XXXV. Genus Polymastia, Bowerbank. With mammiform projections. Megascleres tylostyli or styli. No microscleres. Norte. Iinclude here P. (Tethea) spinularia, B. Oscar Schmidt referred this species to his Radiella. How- ever the figure given by Bowerbank shows no special resemblance to the symmetrical structure of Radtella (nor of T'richostemma and Halicnemia). Still I have some doubt in regard to the systematic position of this species, as 1t contains oxea in addition to the tylostyles, and as its mammiuform projections are very short. Polymastia bulbosa, B., X. congera, B. LXXIT. mammillaris, B., XII. (Vosmaer, 27, p. 14; Hanitsch, 7, p. 166.) ornata, B., IX. radiosa, B., XI. robusta, B., X. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p- 210.) spinula, B., XI. sprnularia, B., XV. Genus Quasillina, Norman. ‘‘ Sponge corticate, stipitate, with oval body, bearing a single osculum at the summit, and short stalk. In the cortex primary skeleton fibres ascend in parallel lines from the base, crossed at right angles by secondary ones. Spicules, large and small styl.” Ridley and Dendy, 14, p. 225. . REVISION ‘‘BRITISH SPONGIADA.”’ 203 Quasillina brevis, B., XI. (Ridley and Dendy, 14, p-. 226; Vosmaer, 21, p. 20.) Genus Halicnemia, Bowerbank. Sponge symmetrical, flat discoid, with marginal fringe of long spicules. Megascleres tylostyl. Microscleres (?) ; spined centrotylotes. Nort. Lam not sure whether the small spined centro- tylote spicules which Bowerbank describes in H. patera (but no figures) are to be regarded as micyos- cleres. Vosmaer fused this genus with Polymastia, but, as I think, without sufficient reason. Nor can, according to Hansen (10, p. 8), Halicnemia be fused with Radiella, as Marenzeller had done. Halicnemia patera, B., XV. Genus Cliona, Grant. Boring Suberitide. Megascleres tylostyles. No mi- crocleres. Cliona celata,Grant,X XXVIII and L XIV. (Hanitsch, | 8, p. 216.) Family Il. TEerayip2, Vosmaer. The ectosome is usually a well developed cortex with distinct fibrous layer. Megascleres styl or tylostyli, radially arranged. Microscleres, when present, spherasters or microrrhabds. Note. I include under this family also the genus Hymedesmia, B., as represented by H. stellata, B.., although this is a thin encrusting sponge without cortex. An encrusting sponge very similar to H. stellata, but possessing oxyasters instead of chiasters was dredged last year in Liverpool Bay, for which I propose the provisional name H. acuto-stellata. Its spiculation, but not its mode of growth, reminds one strongly of Azinella stwposa. Thus Hymedesmia ought perhaps be included under the Axinellide. 204 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Genus Tethya, Lamarck. Sponge of a more or less spherical form. Megascleres styli. Microscleres spherasters. Tethya lyncurium, Lin., XV. Genus Hymedesmia, Bowerbank. | Thin, encrusting. Megascleres tylostyles. Micros- cleres asters. Hymedesma stellata, B., XXVIII. c. Order. MONOCERATINA, Lendenfeld. Family I. Sponeipa, Schulze. Letwosella pulchella, Sowerby, LXV. (Lendenfeld, I? p, 204): Aplysina zetlandica, B., LUXX. (Lendenfeld, 12, p. 408.) Family II. SpoNncELIDa, Vosmaer. Spongelia fragilis, Mont., var. wrregularis, LUXTX and XCI. (Lendenfeld, 12, p. 662.) LITERATURE. 1. CARTER, H. J. Descriptions and figures of Deep- Sea Sponges and their spicules, from the Atlantic Ocean, dredged up on board H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’ chiefly in 1869. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1876. 2. DeNDY, A. A Monograph of the Victorian Sponges. Part I. The Organisation and Classification of the Calcarea Homoccela, with descriptions of the Victoria Species. Tr. R. Soc. Victoria, III, part tegt. 3. ———— Synopsis of the Australian Calcarea Heteroccela, with a proposed classification of the sroup and descriptions of some new genera and species. Proc. R. Society of Victoria (N.S.), V, 1893, pp. 69—116. 10 11 12. 13. 14 15 REVISION ‘‘ BRITISH SPONGIADZA.”’ 205 Studies on the Comparative Anatomy of Sponges. V. Observations on the Structure and Classification of the Calcarea Heterocela. Q. J. Micr. Science (N.S.), No. 138, 1893, pp. 159—257° . GRENTZENBERG, Max. Die Spongienfauna der Ostsee. Inaugural—Dissertation. Kiel, 1891. . Hacxen, EK. Die Kalkschwimme: eine Mono- eraphie. 3 Bde. Berlin, 1872. [References apply to Band II only. ] . HanitscH, R. Second Report on the Porifera of the L.M.B.C. District. Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc., Vol. III, pp. 155—1738. ——-—— Third Report on the Porifera of the L.M.B.C. District. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., Wolk lV, pp. 192-288. —-— Notes on some Sponges collected by Professor Herdman off the West Coast of Ireland from the ‘Argo.’ Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., Wools pp. 2lla—222; . HANSEN, G. ARMAUER. Spongiade. In: The Nor- wegian North-Atlantic Expedition, 1876—1878. Christiania, 1885. . LENDENFELD, R. von. Descriptive Catalogue of the Sponges in the Australian Museum, Sydney. 1888. A Monograph of the Horny Sponges. 1889. Das System der Spongien. Abhandl. d. Senckenb. naturf. Gesellschaft, Frankfurt a. M., 1890. . RIDLEY, STUART O. and Denpy, ARTHUR. Report on the Monaxonida collected by H.M.S8. ‘ Challenger’ - during the years 1873—76. . SCHMIDT, OscaR. Grundzuge einer Spongien-Fauna des Atlantischen Gebietes. Leipzig, 1870. 206 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 16. ScHunzE, F. E. Untersuchungen tuber den Bau und die Entwicklung der Spongien. II. Die Gattung Halisarca. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. XX VITI, : 1877, pp. 1—48. 17. Soutas, W. J. Report on the Tetractinellida col- lected by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ during the years 1873—76. 18. TopsEentT, E. Contribution al’étude des Spongiaires de Atlantique Nord. Résultats des Campagnes scientifiques, etc., fasc. II. 1. = Nouvelle série de diagnoses d’Hponges de Roscoff et des Banyuls. Arch. zool. exp. et. gen. (83), T. I, 1898, pp. XXXITI—XBLVIII. 20. ———— Une Réforme dans la classification des Halichondrina. Mém. Soc. Zool. France, VII, 1894, pp. 5—27. , 21. VosMAER, G. C. J. The Sponges of the ‘ Willem Barents’ Expedition 1880 and 1881. Bydr. Dierkunde, Aflev. 2, 1885. 22. -————— Spongien (Porifera). Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs. 1887. 23. WELTNER, W. Ueber die Autorenbezeichnung von Spongilla ermmaceus. Ges. naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 18938, No. I. 24, ————— Spongillidenstudien. II. Ueber den Bau der Gemmule einheimischer Spongilliden. Arch. f. Naturg. 18938, pp. 245—284. 207 Observations on the VITALITY and GERMINATION of SKEDS. By A, J. Ewart, B.Sc., DEMONSTRATOR OP BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL. [Read 11th May, 1894.] THE power which many seeds and spores of plants possess of retaining their vitality for long periods of time under the most adverse external conditions is one of the most interesting phenomena connected with plant life and reproduction. It has, for example, for some time been known that seeds of Phanerogams as well as spores of Bacteria are in many cases able to withstand prolonged immersion in Absolute Alcohol. Thus De Bary mentions (Lectures on Bacteria, p. 63) that spores of Bacillus anthracis or seeds of Lepidiwm satwum will germinate after as much as four weeks immersion in the above reagent. The following experiments were performed upon seeds only and were undertaken primarily with the view of distinguishing between the parts played by the dead seed coat and by the seed itself in the preservation of vitality. As is usually the case however, during the course of the investigation other phenomena needing solution presented themselves. The first experiments were performed upon Cress seeds in order to test the truth of De Bary’s observation of the great power of resistance shewn by these seeds to the action of absolute alcohol. Cress seeds- were immersed in abs. alcohol for periods of 3 weeks, 4 weeks, etc., and 9208 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. in 50 p.c. alcohol for 5 days, 7 days, etc. The seeds were then washed, counted and planted in pots. Hach pot was divided into two equal halves by a longitudinal par- tition on one side of which the seeds experimented with were planted and on the other a similar number of the same but normal seeds which had been kept in a dry place whilst the experiment was going on. The number of seeds which germinated in each batch was counted and the percentages calculated. In the tables the percentages given are always comparison percentages with normal seeds. Thus after 3 weeks immersion in abs. alcohol | 46 p.c. of Cress seeds germinated, of normal seeds 90 p.c., the comparison percentage therefore being 51 p.c. Cress. 3 weeks. 4 weeks, 5 weeks. 51 p.e. 10 p.e. None. Abs. Alcohol. | germinated. The effect of 50 p.c. alcohol contrasts very markedly with that of abs. alcohol. Thus Cress seeds planted after 5 and 7 days immersion in 50 p.c. alcohol were found to have entirely lost their vitality, none germinating, 1.e., the dilution of alcohol with its own bulk of water causes it to exercise a much more deadly influence not only upon Cress seeds, but as will be seen later upon other seeds also. The external layer of the integument of a Cress seed swells up in water to form a fairly thick mucilaginous covering over each seed. In doing so it absorbs a large amount of water and this water is forcibly interpolated between the molecules of the mucilaginous layer, separa- ting them more widely and hence increasing the size of the intermolecular interstices. In abs. alcohol no such swelling of the mucilaginous coat takes place and the VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 209 alcohol fails to penetrate the seed coat or penetrates it only with extreme slowness owing to the alcoholic mole- cules being larger than the intermolecular interstices of the external mucilaginous layer. In 50 p.c. alcohol on the other hand, this layer swells up somewhat, though not so much asin pure water. The enlargement of the intermolecular interstices is however sufficient to allow of the passage of the alcoholic molecules and the alcohol which soon penetrates through the inner seed coat to the embryo rapidly destroys its vitality. The greater deadli- ness of 50 p.c. alcohol is therefore due to the fact that it penetrates the integuments of the seed with much greater readiness than does absolute alcohol. Once contact is assured between the vital contents of the seed and the alcohol the destruction of the vitality of the seed is as certain with absolute as with 50 p.c. alcohol. After this preliminary observation a series of experi- ments were made with a selected list of seeds. Every experiment was checked by control experiments with normal seeds and in most cases the comparative percentage given is the mean of several similar experiments. The seeds employed were Peas, Haricots, Hemp, Linseed, Wheat and Barley, i.e., albuminous, starchy and oily seeds, with hard and soft membranous coverings, with hard and woody coverings and lastly with an external mucilaginous coat in the case of Linseed. In addition to abs. alcohol and 50 p.c. alcohol, for purposes of comparison the effect of water alone and of an aqueous solution of mercuric chloride, on the seeds was noted. The results of the experiments are drawn up for the most part in tabular form, showing the effects of different periods of immersion and also the longest period of time that the seeds could withstand immersion, in the 210 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. given reagent. The following table gives the results of the first test experiments made with Peas: Peas. Absolute alcohol. 50 p.c. Alcohol. Mercuric Chloride. |Water. Aqueous Solution. 5 days. | Gerin. delayed 4 days. | Germ. delayed 1 day. None 60 p.c. 44 p.c. 46 p.c. germinated. 14 days. | Germ. delayed 6 days. | Germ. delayed 6 days. None. None. 40 p.c. 30 p.c. These results show that with Peas 50 p.c. alcohol is somewhat more injurious than absolute alcohol, that the prolonged action of water is more fatal to the seeds than either of these and that the aqueous solution of HgCl, is the most fatal of all. In performing these experiments there is one necessary precaution to be taken which may appropriately be mentioned here. The seeds must always be placed in relatively large quantities of the particular solution employed. Otherwise there is a danger, which is especially marked in the case of 50 p.c. alcohol and abs. alcohol, that the withdrawal of matters by the seeds from the medium or the addition of water extracted from the seeds to the medium may vitiate the experimental results obtained. The above table also indicates the delay of germination which occurs as the result of immersion inalcohol. This is probably due to the withdrawal of water from the seeds but since it is also shown by seeds immersed in 50 p.e. alcohol the delay in-germination cannot be entirely due to the withdrawal of water. Nor is it due to an increased impermeability of the seed coat caused by the action of the alcohol, for water passes more readily through the seed- coats of seeds which have been in alcohol for some time, than through those of ordinary dry seeds. The delay in germination appears to be caused by a diminution of the VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. ABS vitality of the seed produced by the prolonged action of the absolute alcohol. This diminution of vitality is partly due to the withdrawal of water and partly to a direct action of the abs. alcohol. If the vitality of the seed be at a low ebb, the alcohol may without actually penetrating the integuments kill the seed, but if the vitality of the seed be more pronounced the alcohol only exercises a depressing influence upon the seed without actually killing it. This diminished vitality is shown also in other ways. The plants developed from seeds which have been in alcohol for some time are not as tall as seedlings of the same age developed from normal seeds. The cotyledons of normal seedlings examined 10 days after germination has taken place are found to be shrunken, yellow, and almost entirely devoid of starch. The cotyledons of seedlings of the same age, grown from seeds, which had been in alcohol for three weeks were found to be large, swollen, and the cells still containing plenty of starch grains. ‘This is partly due to the smaller size of the seedlings causing less sugar to be absorbed and hence by allowing the latter to accumulate in the tissue of the cotyledon hindering the conversion of starch into sugar; but it is also probably partly due to a direct effect upon the fermentative activity of the cotyledon. Since the vitality of a seed slowly diminishes as it grows older, the effect of alcohol upon old seeds should be more marked than upon younger seeds. ‘This is well illustrated by the following example: _ Absolute Alcohol Normal Seeds. Comparison percentage. for 14 days. Peas, a few 38 p.c. germinated. | 95 p.c. germinated. 40 p.c. monthsold. 3 year old 20 p.c. germinated. | 73 p.c. germinated. 27 p.c. | Peas. 912, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The comparison between Peas and Haricots is a very marked one. MHaricots are killed by one to two days immersion in absolute alcohol; by one day’s immersion in 50 p.c. alcohol or an aqueous solution of HgCl,; they can withstand immersion in water for 5 days without apparent injury but they are killed by 10 days immersion in water. It must be remembered that these two plants belong to allied genera of the same natural order, the seeds being of the same type and the protective integuments of about equal thickness. A close comparison between these seeds should therefore afford instructive data for estimating the relative value of the different factors concerned in promot- ing and preserving the vitality of the seed. The following table gives the effects of an aqueous solution of HgCl, on Peas and Haricots, the seeds being planted direct after washing and also after one day’s subsequent soaking in water to remove excess of the salt more perfectly. Haricots 1 day. Peas 1 day. Peas 2 days. | Peas 3 days Aqueous Solution None. None. None. None HgCl.. Ditto after soak- None. 8 p.c. germinated. | 5 p.c. germinated. None. ing in water for 1 day. Similar seeds were after one and two days immersion soaked in water for a day and then treated with ammon- ium sulphide. This reagent throws down a black precip- itate of mercuric sulphide and hence all parts of the seeds into which the mercury salt has penetrated turn black. The seeds before treatment with the ammonium sulphide are sliced in halves so as to divide the embryo proper longitudinally and thus the exact distance which the salt has penetrated into both radicle and plumule can be VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. OTS observed. Peas which had been immersed in the solution of HgCl, for one day shewed after treatment with Am,5 a black rim nearly a millimetre deep all over the cotyledons, the plumule was untouched, the inner surface of the radicle very slightly blackened, but on the outer surface and tip the HgCl, had penetrated for one third the thick- ness of the radicle, i.e., right into the growing point in most cases. In a few of the Peas the blackening was restricted to a mere film on the outer side of both radicle and cotyledons and these Peas were still capable of germination. After two days immersion the Plumule, the Hypocotyledonary axis, and the central part of the base of the radicle were still untouched but the tip of the radicle was quite permeated. In the case of the Haricots the HgCl, penetrates the entire radicle and tinges the surface of the plumule in a single day. In two days the entire embryo is permeated by the salt. Both Peas and Haricots absorb water with about equal rapidity, the majority being soaked through in from 5 to 6 hours at ordinary temperatures. It therefore follows that the water penetrates the seeds with at least ten times the rapidity that the salt does and also that the integuments and substance of the Haricots are more readily permeable by HgCl, than those of Peas. One reason why the mercuric chloride penetrates the seeds so much more slowly than the water in which it is dissolved is probably because as it enters the seed it com- bines with the proteid constituents of the seed. That such a combination occurs is shewn by the change which occurs as the mercury salt penetrates the substance of the seed, the latter becoming whiter and more opaque, and also by the extreme difficulty of washing out the salt from the tissue of a seed which it has thoroughly perme- 914 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. . ated. Thus Peas and Haricots which had been in the watery solution for 4 days were skinned and the naked seeds placed in fresh water which was changed daily. After 14 days of such soaking, on testing with ammonium sulphide the seeds went still distinctly black. It 1s in fact practically almost impossible to wash away the HgCl, from seeds once soaked in its watery solution, any excess of the salt instead of being dissolved out for the most part simply soaking further in and finally permeating the entire seed. On examining microscopically thin sections of such seeds, treated with ammonium sulphide after soaking in water the entire integuments and the cell and walls of the tissue of the seed appear quite colourless, whilst the protoplasm is turned dark brown. The HgCl, has therefore been dissolved by the water out of the dead cell walls and integument but has been retained by the protoplasm with which it has entered into combination. That such a combination takes place 1s rendered probable by the fact that Peas placed in a few times their own bulk of a strong solution of mercuric chloride absorb the salt in greater relative proportion than the water and may so weaken the solution as to leave in it a mere trace of the dissolved salt. Mercury has a distinct affinity for Ammonia and Amides, readily forming compounds with these substances. If we suppose with Loew and Bokorny that living protoplasm is composed of an amide and an aldehyde group of mole- cules, then the fatal action of a mercury salt upon living protoplasm will be due to its combining with the amide group and thus fixing the molecular arrangement in a stable erouping, 1.e., killing the protoplasm. It is owing to this property that mercuric chloride derives its extremely poisonous character. The aqueous solution or in the case of certain oily seeds the alcoholic solution rapidly VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 915 kills all seeds though these are amongst the most resistant of vital bodies. Once the penetration and actual contact of the salt with the protoplasm are ensured, the death of the latter immediately follows. The effects of prolonged immersion in water upon different seeds, of which the subjoined table is illustrative, Ueeeupebanged: iia reoue solution 5 days. 10 days. | 14 days.|3 weeks. | HgCle. 1 day. Peas. |60 p.c. germinated. | 8 p.c. | None. None. Haricots.| 95 p.c. iA None. None. Wheat. | 85 p.c. A 5 p.c. | None. None. Barley. | 44 p.c. 5 am 6 p.c. | None. None. Linseed. | 60 p.c. Be 36 p.c. | None. None. Hemp. | 65 p.c. . ah 60 p.c. | 22 p.c. | 18 p.e. None. 4 weeks. ligepse. are also of some interest. The seeds are placed in a quantity of water sufficient to cover them when soaked and left undisturbed until planted. The water in a few days especially with Peas and Haricots becomes highly putrescent. Nevertheless providing the integuments of the seed remain intact this water in spite of the Infusoria, Bacteria and putrescent gases it contains does not exercise so great an effect upon the seeds as might be anticipated. If however germination commences and the elongating radicle protrudes through the splitintegument the mortality among the seeds 1s greatly increased. It might be thought that if the water in which the seeds are kept instead of being allowed to grow stagnant were changed daily the seeds would have a greater chance of surviving its pro- longed action. As a matter of fact 1t was found that seeds (Peas and Haricots) treated in this way were killed 916 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. sooner than seeds kept in unchanged water. The reason for this is that in the former case the seeds receive daily a slight supply of free oxygen and this stimulates them to activity without being sufficient to supply their require- ments. The seeds are therefore first stimulated and then checked and this alternation exercises a more injurious influence than the prolonged but steady action of un- changed stagnant water. The table shows that seeds containing much proteid food material are the most easily killed by the prolonged action of water, more starchy seeds such as Wheat and Barley survive longer, whilst oily seeds such as Hemp and Linseed are the most resistant of all. The protective effect of the contained oil is especially noticeable in the case of Hemp seeds, for these actually commence to germinate when placed in a watery solution of HgCl,. The wall of the fruit splits and the radicle protrudes ensheathed by the inner transparent membranous seed coat. Soon the radicle is seen to shrink away from the ensheathing seed coat which now forms a loose covering around it. This is a sign that the radicle is killed. In an alcoholic solution of HgCl, no such attempt at ger- mination takes place. The young radicles of Hemp seeds germinating in water entirely fill the pocket formed in the sheathing transparent seed coat, which protects them for a short time until its elastic limit being reached, the membranous covering is broken and the radicle escapes. In a limited amount of water, kept in a closed bottle (as in the experiments from which the table was constructed), the seeds soon exhaust all the oxygen present so that although the majority of the seeds split open, the radicles are still ensheathed by the inner coat. Owing to this fact and also owing to the oily nature of the contained food material the young VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 217 plantlets although their germination has commenced can lie in a semi-dormant condition for as long a period as a month without being killed and without any further srowth taking place. After a period of immersion of from 6 to 8 weeks, however, the vitality of all the seeds is lost. With all the other seeds, excepting Peas, though they swell more or less, no actual germination or protrusion of the radicle takes place. For this they apparently require a greater quantity of oxygen than is contained in the small amount of water in which they lie. It follows therefore, that, with Peas and Hemp, since in such experiments their incipient germination goes further than it does with the other seeds, we should expect to find that water exerts a more injurious effect upon them than the known vitality of the seeds would lead us to infer. Thus Peas which are possessed of considerable vitality are but slightly more resistant than Haricots, and are less resistant than Barley and Wheat, though the vitality of all these seeds is, as is shown by later experiments much less pronounced. In the case of Hemp, however, the factors mentioned above interfere and protect the plantlet from injury, so that of all the seeds experimented with Hemp offers the oreatest resistance to the action of water, and this in spite of the fact that on such immersion the majority of the seeds undergo incipient germination. Experiments were also made to find out the effect of alternately soaking Peas in water and then drying them. The Peas were left in water until thoroughly soaked and were then spread out on sheets of blotting paper and left to become slowly air dried. As soon as they were quite dry a certain number were planted and the remainder were again soaked and dried and then planted, and so on. 218 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Ist soaking and drying. 100 p.c. ger- minated but in 29 p.c. radicles aborted and replaced by roots. 2nd; Integuments 2nd; Radicles 3rd; Integu.| 3rd; Radicles (4th; Integu. entire. 40 p.c. germin- ated ; in 26 p.c. radicles aborted and replaced by secondary roots ; in 6 p.c. no roots exposed. 100 p.e. ger- minated ; in 80 p.c. tap root aborted and replaced by second- unbroken. None. protruding. 12 p.c. ger- minated in all plumules only de- veloped. entire. None. secondary | atallformed, plu- | ary roots; in mule only de-/|10 p.c. plu- veloped; 8 p.c. | mule only normal seedlings. | developed ; 10 p.c. nor- mal seed- lings. On drying the Peas for the second time the radicles of a certain number of the Peas are found to have elongated and burst open the integument. On planting these after drying it is found that all of them germinate, but that in the majority the radicles thicken without elongating whilst from the thickened bases of the latter numerous secondary roots arise. The drying has destroyed the vitality of the exposed and extremely meristematic apex but not that of the base of the radicle. In a few cases the entire radicle is killed and the plumule only develops. On the third soaking the radicles of all the seeds still © capable of germination protruded through the burst integument, but the vitality of the seeds was now so much diminished that only 12 p. cent. germinated and in all of these the radicles had been totally destroyed. The seeds with unbroken integuments were found after the 3rd or 4th soaking and drying to be without exception incapable of germination. These experiments show that the seed may, even after germination has gone so far as the pro- trusion of the radicle, when slowly air dried, return to its previous dormant condition without its vitality being entirely destroyed. A second soaking and drying are, however, always sufficient to kill all such partially ger- Se 9 VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 919 minated seeds. The vitality of the majority of the Peas is destroyed by the alternate soaking and drying in water without any germination, as indicated by the elongation of the radicle and the splitting of the integuments, having taken place. One effect of the successive soaking and drying is to render the integuments of the Peas extremely permeable to water. The coats of Peas dried after the 2nd or 3rd soaking begin to wrinkle immediately they are placed in water whilst in two or three minutes the integuments are tightly distended by the water, which passes through them with much greater rapidity than it is absorbed by the cotyledons. The extreme rapidity with which the water penetrates may be partly due to the formation of osmotically active substances in the seed when previously soaked, but is also due to an enlargement of the inter- molecular spaces of the integument caused by the previous forcible passage of water through them. In certain cases it was found that in these and in other experiments where the vitality of both radicle and plumule had been destroyed, that the cotyledons were three or four weeks after planting still alive, and green, and that a portion of their starchy contents had been fermented. The vitality of the cotyledon is therefore independent of that of either radicle or plumule. In all such cases, however, the cotyledons eventually perish having used but little of the contained food material. In normal Peas it is often found that as many as five per cent. of the seeds on germinating form a radicle only, and on separating the cotyledons and examining the plumule the latter is seen to be decayed and was evidently dead when the seed was planted. In such cases the radicle may grow to a considerable length, six inches or even a foot, but the plant, if so incomplete a specimen 220 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. can be called a plant eventually dies unless as frequently happens a pair of buds situate between the axis of the plumule and each cotyledon develop and form a couple of upright pea stems, thus forming a complete plant. Appar- ently therefore when from natural causes, old age and the like, the vitality of a seed is diminishing, the plumule is the first to die, the radicles resisting for a longer period. Hence the radicles of Peas appear to have a greater vitality than the plumules, and this greater vitality is necessitated by the more exposed position of the former. If Peas are covered with water and tightly corked the radicles burst the seed coat and may elongate to twice their original length when their growth stops owing to the absence of oxygen from the putrescent water. Hven before the elongation of the radicle commences the supply of oxygen contained in the limited amount of water with which the seeds are covered is exhausted by the rapidly developing Bacteria, etc., and since no fresh oxygen can reach the seeds it is difficult at first to see whence the supply of free oxygen necessary to permit of the growth of the radicle is derived. It might be obtained from a store of intramolecular oxygen stored up in the seed itself which is used when germination begins. If however Peas be placed in a vessel completely filled with well boiled water from which all oxygen has been driven out, though they swell as usual the radicle does not elongate and burst the seed coat. The seeds therefore do not contain any stored intramolecular oxygen which might be avail- able for commencing the first stages of germination. The seeds when placed in ordinary water absorb oxygen and water together and it is by means of this oxygen that the metabolism necessary for the elongation of the radicle is able to take place, though at that time the water surrounding the seed is devoid of free oxygen. VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 221 Marked fermentative changes go on in Peas kept in de-oxygenated water and these are accompanied by a marked evolution of bubbles of gas, the water at the same time owing to the formation of organic acids, becoming of distinctly acid reaction. In the water after 3 or 4 days immersion traces of reducing sugar can be detected. The gas evolved consists of a mixture of CO, and H, the former being in the greater proportion. The fermentative changes induced in the carbohydrates of the seed have therefore gone so far as the Lactic and Butyric fementations and it is owing to the formation of these acids that the medium becomes distinctly acid. If after 10 days immersion the Peas are planted it is found that they have all been killed. Oxygenless water is there- fore more fatal than oxygenated water. The marked fermentative changes which the former induces seem to be extremely inimical to the preservation of the vitality of the seeds. In water which was oxygenated to com- mence with, as a consequence of the preliminary growth which the radicles for the most part undergo, the latter are freely exposed to the action of the Bacteria, etc., contained in the stagnant water whilst the plumule is protected by its position between the closely appressed cotyledons. Hence in Peas which have been kept in water for 5 days, the radicle is often found on germination to have been killed, the plumule only developing. Thus in one such experiment 75 p.c. of the seeds germinated, of these 50 p.c. were normal seedlings, in 15 p.c., the plumule developed normally, the tap root being aborted and replaced by lateral roots, in 10 p.c. no roots at all were formed, the plumule in this case dying after attaining a length of a few inches or so, whilst in those seeds in which the plumule was dead to commence with, the vitality of the radicle was so much lowered that it was 99292, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. unable to withstand the prolonged immersion in water, no seedlings having a radicle only being formed. The effects of prolonged immersion in absolute alcohol upon seeds are worthy of more detailed consideration. The following table give the results arrived at by experi- menting with Linseed, Barley, Wheat and Hemp. | Absolute Alcohol. /50 p.c. Alcohol. | 7 days. | 14 days. | 3 weeks. | 4 weeks. | 5 weeks. | 7 weeks. | 1 day. Linseed. | 83 p.c. | 20p.c. | 3p.c. | lp.c. | None. | None. Barley. | 90 p.c. | 45 p.c. | 40 p.c. | 16 p.c. | 6p.c. | None. None. Wheat. | tO pe. VS ple. 2) 299302050 wc. None: None. 1 day. | 2 days. Hemp. | None. | None. None. The rapidity with which absolute alcohol destroys the The outer membranous covering being discontinuous at one end offers no obstacle to the passage of the alcohol, whilst the inner hard sclerotic layer is distinctly porous. Any oil which may permeate this layer and the inner membranous coat is soon dissolved by the alcohol, which thus readily — penetrates to the embryo within. The oily tissues of the latter offer no resistance to the passage of the alcohol and vitality of Hemp seeds is especially noticeable. hence it is that a single day’s immersion is sufficient to destroy the vitality of all the seeds. Linseed owing to the presence of an external muci- laginous layer covering the seeds is enabled to withstand the action of the alcohol for a much longer period but once the coats have been penetrated the oily nature of the | central contents allows the alcohol to rapidly permeate the entire embryo and to destroy its vitality. As compared with either Wheat or Linseed, Barley shows a much greater resistant power. Its superiority VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 923 over Wheat is due to the fact, that the Wheat grains are covered simply by a thin membrane, which was originally the wall of the ovary, whilst the Barley has in addition to this an external membranous or rather scaly covering, formed by the adherent Palea. The fact that Barley survives longer than Linseed does shows that the mem- branous covering of the former is less readily penetrated by alcohol than the mucilaginous covering of the latter. A comparison of Peas with Cress or Linseed gives the same result. Hence we conclude that membranous or scaly coverings, composed of organized layers of cells, are more resistant than mucilaginous coverings, composed of disorganized layers of cells. In both Wheat and Barley as a result of the action of absolute alcohol cracks may be formed in the endosperm of the seed. These are the result of the withdrawal of water by the alcohol, but their formation, provided that they do not pass through the embryo, does not necessarily involve the destruction of vitality. It must be remembered that the effect of the absolute alcohol upon the seeds is twofold. The first effect, and this commences as soon as the seeds come into contact with the alcohol, is to cause a gradual withdrawal from the seed of the last traces of uncombined water which it may contain. This operates injuriously upon the seeds diminishing their vitality and may of itself alone cause their death. .The alcohol itself on the other hand only comes into action when it has penetrated the seed coat. This, the second effect, is to cause a rapid destruction of the vitality of the seeds. In order to clearly distinguish between these two effects and also in order to enable an estimate to be made of in what degree the preservation of vitality, 1s due to the protective seed coat and in what degree to the inherent 224 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. vitality of the seed itself certain special and more detailed experiments were performed with Peas. In these experiments as indeed in all previous ones also whenever the percentage of seeds which are still capable of germinating reaches a low figure, below 10 p.c. for example, it is necessary to plant a considerable number in each experimental trial. With the smaller seeds about 300, with the larger about 150 are sufficient to ensure accurate results. Using smaller numbers and especially in the later trials contradictory or irregular results are obtained. Thus if in a batch of 50 seeds only 1 p.c. are capable of germination the result given on planting will be either 2 p.c. or none, both of which are wrong. Bearing these facts in mind, and taking the proper precautions to avoid errors arising from this source, experiments were performed on Peas by placing some in absolute alcohol and others in a saturated solution of mercuric chloride in absolute alcohol. This salt is the most deadly one which could possibly be employed and its presence in the alcohol enables the penetration or non- ° penetration of the latter to be ascertained in two ways, firstly by comparing the number of seeds which germinate after similar periods of immersion in either fluid and secondly by testing the peas with ammonium sulphide. This reagent throws down a black precipitate of sulphide of mercury if a soluble salt of that base be present. The Peas are separated into two halves, cutting the embryo longitudinally and if the alcoholic solution of the mercuric salt has penetrated the seed a black rim will form around the margin of the cotyledons and on the outer surface of the embryo on testing with ammonium sulphide. The depth which the mercuric chloride has penetrated shews that the alcohol has penetrated as far, if not further. For since the salt is dissolved in absolute alcohol and since a a VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 925 the seed is dry and even if the integument or outer layers of the seed contained a trace of water it would be withdrawn by the alcohol leaving them perfectly dry, it follows that the only medium by means of which the dissolved salt can be carried into the substance of the seed is the absolute alcohol. The penetration of the mercuric chloride is therefore a measure of the penetration of the absolute alcohol. Peas. 1 day. | 8 days. { 5 days. {3 weeks. | 6 weeks. | 7 weeks.| 9 weeks. HgCle Alcoholic Solution. Sa pica aa pe. j-16 p.c. |~ 6 p.c. +) None: —— ee eee ee eee en ee es Absolute Alcohol.| 95 p.c. | 89 p.c. | 80 p.c. | 28 p.c. | 20 p.c. | 16 p.c. | None. An examination of the percentages given in this table shows clearly that the alcohol even after it has penetrated the integument of the seed and reached the embryo 1s not immediately fatal. The dormant protoplasm of the seed is not killed by the first traces of alcohol which reach it but resists the action of the alcohol for a short time if the amount which has penetrated is but small in quantity. If, however, the alcohol contains dissolved mercuric chloride the rapidity of its fatal action 1s much accelerated, though even here the amount of the salt which penetrates must reach a certain degree of concentration before vitality is destroyed. Thus after 21 days immersion in the alco- holic solution on testing with ammonium sulphide, the salt had penetrated at least as far as the outer part of the radicle, which became. slightly blackened shewing the presence of the mercury salt. Yet of such seeds 6 per cent. were still capable of germination. The majority of the seeds on examination shewed the embryos to be permeated by the poisonous salt and such seeds were of course incapable of germination. In several cases after so little as three or four days immersion the outer side of 226 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the radicle and especially the tip are deeply penetrated by the HgCl,. This is evidently due to the micropyle being open and readily allowing the alcohol to pass in and penetrate the tissue of the radicle, the apex of the radicle being permeated soonest, because the alcohol comes first into contact with it. Using the same method of experimentation it can readily be shewn that Haricots are much more permeable by alcohol than Peas are. Hence itis that one to two days immersion in alcohol is sufficient to kill Haricots, whereas Peas resist for a much longer period. The rapidity with which the alcohol penetrated the Haricots experimented with and destroyed their vitality was due partly to the fact that they contained a larger percentage of uncombined water, than did the Peas. In one experiment a number of Peas were placed in a quantity of 50 p.c. alcohol which little more than covered them. In a fortnight a little more than half of the Peas were soaked through and had become soft and slightly swollen. These Peas absorbed much more water from the mixture than alcohol, the consequence being that the percentage of alcohol was now much higher. All of the soaked Peas were on being planted found to be incap- able of germination. The unsoaked remainder were found to be only very gradually affected by the alcohol in which they remained. Thus after 3 weeks 60 p.c. and after 6 weeks, 40 p.c. were still capable of germination. These numbers are high because all weakly seeds and those with more permeable coats had been previously weeded out, the percentages remain high even after pro- longed immersion because the increased strength of the diluted alcohol is favourable to the preservation of the vitality of the seeds. Peas can withstand immersion in a mixture of 10 of alcohol to 1 of water for much longer VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. OON periods than they can withstand immersion in 50 p.c. alcohol, or in absolute alcohol. The reason for this is that such a mixture contains a sufficient percentage of alcohol to keep the seed dry, with the molecular interstices of the integumentary coat un- expanded and thus preventing the entrance of either water or alcohol, whilst the amount of water which the mixture contains is sufficient to prevent the drying action, which absolute alcohol exerts by removing from the seed the last traces of water which it contains, from coming into play. The following table gives a comparison between the effects upon Peas of absolute alcohol and alcohol containing a little water. Peas. 1 week. 83 weeks. | 6 weeks. | 7 weeks. | 9 weeks.}| 11 weeks. Absolute Alcohol. | 72 p.c germ. | 30 p.c. | 24 p.c. | 15 p.c. | None. None. 85—90 p.c. Alcohol. | 83 p.c. germ. | 58 p.c. | 42 p.c. | 40 p.c. | 31 p.c. | 18 p.e. At the 11th week, owing to the supply of Peas in alcohol being exhausted, the experiment perforce ceased. It has already been seen that the immersion of Peas in absolute alcohol, owing either to the withdrawal of water or to the actual penetration of the alcohol itself, causes a gradual diminution of vitality and finally death. This diminution of vitality seems to be accompanied, in the case of the radicle, with a diminution of its geotropic irritability, for in a few cases after immersion in absolute or 50 p.c. alcohol, on germination the radicle may grow upwards instead of at once bending downwards. If the seed be near the surface of the ground the radicle may grow up into the air and then soon withers. If the tip remains underground it will finally curve downwards though it describes a much wider arc than normally. The radicle only grows upwards when it was pointing upwards to 228 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIULOGICAL SOCIETY. commence with. It is therefore simply a diminution and not a reversal of its geotropic irritability which has taken place. Similarly with Haricots planted after 5 days immersion in water, the radicle of one of the seeds which was directed upwards, grew up without bending for a length of 1$ inches, then growing over an inch above ground when its growth stopped and it began to wither. The diminution of the geotropic irritability of the radicle seems to be rapidly followed by its death, for on planting Peas after immersion in alcohol, etc., for different periods, with the radicle directed upwards it is only in a few cases about 1 per cent., that any diminution of the geotropic irritability of the radicles can be made out to have taken place. The reason for this is that when the vitality of the radicle is so much diminished that its geotropic irritability is also affected, the total cessation of its vitality is not far off. Hence for the most part the radicles either do not develop at all or if they do bend downwards normally. One effect of planting Peas with the radicles pointing upwards is that their growth in length is slightly retarded. Thus two batches of 50 normal Peas were planted, one set with the radicles directed upwards, the other with it directed downwards. ‘The same number, 47, of each germinated and on measuring the radicles a week after planting, the total length of the radicles of the former was 140 inches, of the latter 159 inches. No such effect is produced upon the plumules, their total lengths being about the same in both cases. In measuring the curved portions of both radicle and plumule the length of the middle line of the side of the curved portion was taken, this being the mean between the lengths of the convex and concave side. In certain cases 1t was noticed that the roots developed from seeds which had been immersed in alcohol for 2 or VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 229 3 weeks, show much less tendency to form root nodules than the roots of normal seedlings do. ‘Thus on the roots of normal seedlings 10 days old a few root nodules were found whereas upon the roots of alcohol seedlings of the same age none were to be seen. On, however, performing further experiments it was found that the numbers of root nodules formed were relatively about the same in both cases. The difference between the two sets of seed- lings, in the first experiment, was therefore probably due to the unequal distribution throughout the soil in the pot of the root-nodule-forming Bacteroids, more being present on one side than on the other, the side in which they were in greater abundance happening to be that in which the normal seeds were planted. The effect upon vitality of excessive drying alone, is partly shewn by the following experiments. Seeds were placed in bottles, along with an open erect tube containing a number of large clean pieces of the metal sodium. The bottles were then stoppered and hermetically sealed, for periods of 8 weeks and 5 weeks respectively. At the end of the experiment they were opened and a known number of each kind of seed planted. In the same pot but separated from the former seeds by a partition an equal number of the same seeds, which had been kept alongside the bottles in loose paper bags exposed to the air, were planted and the numbers given in the following table are comparison percentages with these. The sodium which the bottles contain exercises a double influence upon the enclosed air. In the first place the oxygen present combines with the sodium to form an oxide of that metal, whilst any moisture which the air may contain combines with the oxide or with the sodium directly to form sodium hydrate, hydrogen being at the same time given off. In a short time therefore the bottles contain 930 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. a mixture of pure nitrogen and hydrogen gases both of which are inert. The effect of the absence of oxygen upon the seeds is ntl, as is shown by similar experiments performed with solid sodium hydrate instead of sodium. | Hemp. | Wheat. | Barley. | Linseed.{ Peas. 3 weeks. | 97 p.c. | 96 p.c. | 92 p.c. | 80 p.c. | 69 p.c. —$—$—————————————— ——————— 5 weeks. | 94 p.c. | 95 p.c. | 84 p.c. | 72 p.c. | 44 p.c. These results show that perfectly dry air does not exercise a sufficiently powerful drying effect to completely with- draw from the seed the last traces of water which it contains, owing to the fact that this water, the removal of which seems to very injuriously affect the vitality of the seed being in a state of partial combination (vide infra) is held by the seed with considerable tenacity. The dry air seems to exercise least effect upon the oily Hemp seeds and most upon the albuminous Peas. The greater drying effect which is exercised upon the Linseed as compared with the Hemp is probably owing to the mucilaginous external coat which the latter possesses and the thinness of the entire coat allowing a greater loss of water to take place. The Wheat, containing to commence with less water than the Barley, is less subject to the drying influence of the surrounding dry air. From the foregoing experiments the following general conclusions may be drawn. The power which certain seeds have of resisting the action of absolute alcohol is due to: (1) The relative impermeability of the seed coat. (2) The inherent vitality of the protoplasm of the seed and more especially of the embryo. This vitality is different in different seeds and in the different parts of the same seed. Thus in the case of VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 931 Peas after the vitality of radicle or plumule has been destroyed by the operation of some injurious influence, the remaining part of the embryo (plumule, radicle or cotyledons as the case may be) is in many cases still capable of independent germination. The special vitality of the protoplasm of a seed is due to: (1) The decreased amount of water which it contains. (2) The less complex nature of the protoplasm of the seed. The differences between ordinary protoplasm and that of a seed are very marked. Ordinary living protoplasm is very unstable, continually undergoing change, contains much water and is instantly killed by absolute alcohol. The protoplasm of seeds is stable, contains very little water and is not instantly killed by absolute alcohol. It is probable that the ‘“ protoplasm” of a seed is not the same thing as ordinary living protoplasm. It may be intermediate between the relatively simple dead proteid and the much more highly complex living protoplasm. The simpler substances into which the protoplasmic molecules of a ripe seed are thus split up do not separate from each other but remain (Kerner von Marilann) within the spheres of attractive influence of their respective molecular groups so long as the seed retains its vitality. When germination occurs a recombination of these groups takes place and living protoplasm is formed. If through any cause the groups of elementary compounds become separated beyond their spheres of attractive affinity no such recombination is possible, i.e., the vitality of the seed has been destroyed. The injurious effect of removing the last traces of water which a seed contains is probably due to such a change being brought about, perhaps by the removal of one of 932 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the substances (namely, water) belonging to the dissociated molecular group. The action of absolute alcohol upon a seed destroying its vitality as it penetrates the integument might also be due to the same cause, either breaking up the molecular groups, or withdrawing from the protoplasm the last traces of water it contains but might possibly be a direct action upon the proteids of the protoplasm. Prolonged treatment with absolute alcohol renders proteids totally insoluble, sooner or later. The action upon the proteids of the seed would be of a similar nature, these gradually becoming more and more insoluble. This would explain the delay of germination seen in seeds planted after pro- longed immersion in alcohol as being partly due to a direct effect upon the proteids of the seed rendering them shghtly more insoluble and hence less readily available for immediate use. This effect could never be very marked since the actual penetration of the alcohol is rapidly followed by the death of the seed. As we have seen the delay in germination is for the most part caused by the withdrawal of water and this does not necessarily involve the actual penetration of the alcohol. Besides it must be remembered that however prolonged the treatment with alcohol may be, provided that the seed germinates into a healthy seedling, the food material is as completely absorbed from an alcohol seed as from a normal one. There are only two theories possible to explain the excessive vitality and great resistant power shewn by Phanerogamic seeds. The first, which has already been mentioned, assumes that the mature seed is not really a living body but simply possesses a potential power of creating life and that this hfe when created runs along certain lines determined by the hereditary nature of the reconstructed protoplasm, VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 233 Opposed to this is the view that the seed actually contains living protoplasm of a somewhat modified char- acter, the vital functions of which have been reduced to the lowest possible ebb without actually ceasing. Were this so, since living protoplasm must respire, sufficiently delicate tests would detect the exhalation of minute traces of CO, from mature seeds. In order to test this a number of clean dry Peas were placed in a flask through which a slow current of air was drawn by means of an aspirator. The air first passed through flasks containing watery solutions of sodium hydrate by means of which all traces of carbonic acid gas were removed and then after passing over the Peas was led through a solution of barium hydrate in water. At the end of the experiment which was conducted for 10 days in one case and for 15 days in another it was found that no precipitate whatever of barium carbonate had been formed. The Peas had therefore not given off the slightest trace of carbonic acid gas, for it was calculated that if each seed had given off CO, at sc,t00°" the rate at which itis exhaled from a seed in active germination, the whole of the seeds together would have given off sufficient CO, in a single day to precipitate all the barium hydrate solution. The fact that dormant seeds are not affected by the total absence of oxygen from the medium surrounding them, also shews that in the dormant seed all vital processes are totally arrested. The fact that the maintenance of protoplasmic life necessarily demands a consumption of energy, whilst the seed shows absolutely no signs of such consumption is an indirect proof of the statement that the proteid constitu- ents of the seed are not in the form of living protoplasmic matter but are to all intents and purposes entirely lifeless though possessed with a potential power of revival and 934 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. reorganization. It follows therefore that whenever a seed. -germinates it 1s not a mere wakening of its dormant vital activities that occurs but an actual creation of life takes place. This creation of life is due to the building up of the living protoplasmic molecule from its dead constituents and can only take place when the molecules of the latter are proportionately and appropriately arranged with regard to one another. The original creation of the living pro- toplasmic molecule was probably due to the necessary molecular constituents becoming accidentally arranged in the appropriate manner, their combination being effected under the stimulus of radiant energy in the form of heat. The problem of creating life by artificial means will therefore be solved when we discover how to reproduce by mechanical or chemical means the arrangement of the constituents of the protoplasmic molecule which prevails in the dormant seed. LATENT PERIOD OF GERMINATION. In experiments upon germination the commencement of germination is usually measured from the first protrusion of the embryonic radicle. The time which the radicle takes to protrude is dependent upon the rapidity of its growth, the amount of water which the seed absorbs and upon the nature and thickness of the integument, and hence the pro- trusion of the radicle only takes place sometime after germination has actually begun. Germination really begins when the reformed protoplasm of the seed com- mences to respire and hence to evolve CO,. In the following experiments conducted upon Peas, Haricots and Hemp, the first evolution of CO, was taken as indicating the commencement of germination. The seeds were placed in a flask through which a slow current of air was drawn by means of an aspirator. The air first passed VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 235 through a series of flasks containing a solution of caustic soda in order to remove all traces of CO, and then after passing over the seeds was led through barium hydrate water. Any CO, evolved from the seeds will throw down a white precisitate of barium carbonate in the barium hydrate solution. Air was allowed to pass through for a few hours and then sufficient water to cover the seeds was poured into the flask containing them by means of a third tube leading into it, which was then sealed up.* Similar seeds were at the same time placed in water in order to determine how long the water takes to thoroughly pene- trate them. Air was now drawn through the flasks every 15 minutes for a quarter of an hour until the evolution of CO, was detected. The temperature was 18°C. during all the experiments. It was found that with Peas the first marked discharge of CO, occurs 83 hours after the water has been poured over them, though slight traces can be detected half an hour earlier. After a single hour’s immersion in water the seed coat is markedly wrinkled, showing that water has passed through it, whilst in from 2 to 3 hours in most cases the coat is separated from the cotyledons by a distinct layer of water. This is because the water passes more rapidly through the seed coat, than it does into the cotyledons and hence accumulates between the two, stretching the seed coat. Later on the cotyledons swell up and in from 5 to 6 hours are entirely soaked. On drying the seed, removing - the integument and breaking the cotyledons across, the broken surface is seen to be quite moist and watery. It *In arranging the apparatus for these experiments and in preserving absolutely airtight connections the assistance of my brother, Mr. R. J. Ewart, was of great use to me. 236 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. is not therefore until at least two hours after the seed has been permeated with water that the evolution of CO,, indicating the commencement of germination, begins. The true latent period of germination is therefore in the case of Peas at least two hours in duration and is probably longer. During this period the protoplasm of the seed is being built up and re-organised and the outward sign of its complete re-organization is the commencement of respiration. It will be noticed that in calculating the latent period over half an hour has been allowed for the time the CO, takes to diffuse outwardly through the integuments of the seed and to escape and accumulate in the air of the flask. The elongation and bursting through of the radicle, on the other hand, takes even under favourable conditions from 2 to 3 days and hence occurs considerably after the actual commencement of germination. With Haricots it is found that in five hours a few, and after 6 hours most, of the seeds are soaked but a few of the seeds take as much as 7 to 9 hours to be completely soaked. It should be noticed however that the first seeds soaked will, ceteris © paribus, be the first to evolve CO, and hence the latent period should be measured between the least time taken to soak any number of the seeds and the earliest evolution of carbonic acid gas. The first marked evolution of CO, takes place in 10 hours, though slight traces come off half an hour before this. The latent period is therefore of from 3 to + hours duration at least and is probably longer. The first emergence of the radicle on the other hand does not take place until 3 to 4 days after the seeds were soaked. Tt will be noticed that in the case of both Haricots and Peas the time which elapses between the placing of the VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 237 seeds in water and the emergence of the radicle is about 24 times as long as the duration of the latent period. The times given by the above experiments are of course merely approximate, being really the shortest possible duration the latent period can have. It is probable that the latent period should be calculated as commencing not from the complete soaking of the seed but from the first penetration of water. If this were so the latent periods of germination of the Peas and Haricots would be from 6 to 7 hours and from 8 to 9 hours respectively. Similar experiments were performed with Hemp as an example of an oily seed. Here the first protrusion of the radicle takes place in from 15 to 20 hours, the first evolu- tion of CO, in5hours. Itis very difficult however to tell, owing to the oily nature of the seeds, when the central contents are soaked. If half of the husk is floated on water inside uppermost and a few particles of sugar are placed on the upper surface, these are seen to melt in under 10 minutes, proving that water has passed through the husk in this time. In some cases the passage through of water takes shghtly longer than this but in all cases the hard and woody layer which forms the main part of the husk and which protects the soft internal contents from injury must be very readily permeable by water. The latent period will therefore be, allowing for the factors previously mentioned, at least 4 hours in duration if calculated from the first penetration of water. The latent period of germination of Hemp is therefore considerably shorter than that of Peas. It is possible that in oily seeds, such as Hemp, the breaking down of the protoplasmic molecule into its constituent compounds is not so complete as it 1s in a starch containing seed such asa Pea. Hence the latent period of germination during which the protoplasmic —————— 938 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. molecule is being built up again will be shorter in the case of Hemp than in that of Peas. The fact that the vitality of oily seeds is much less pronounced than that of starchy seeds, could similarly be explained as being due to the fact that the molecular structure of the vital contents of an oily seed approximates more nearly to that of protoplasm and that these vital contents are hence less capable of resisting the action of injurious external influ- ences or of preserving their peculiar molecular arrangement unchanged for long periods of time, than are the less complex vital contents of a starchy seed. OxyYTROPIC IRRITABILITY OF Roots. The first experiments were performed with Peas. These were suspended by wires fixed to the under surface of a large cork which loosely covered the top of a large glass jar. The latter was half filled with water which having been well boiled for some time was devoid of oxygen. The Peas were fixed so as just to touch the surface of the water, half of them having the radicle pointing upwards and half with it pointing downwards. The Peas had been previously well soaked in water so as to ensure rapid germination and were kept in a well shaded position. When the Peas germinated it was seen that the radicles which were to commence with pointing downwards, grew downwards for a short distance but then bent laterally or curved sharply upwards. Most of the radicles which were pointing upwards grew in that direction for a much longer period than usual before the downward geotropic curvature took place, but when the radicles reached the surface of the water instead of growing down into it they either bent upwards or grew along over the surface. It was hence evident that some influence was at work VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 939 overcoming the natural geotropic irritability of the radicles. If similar Peas are germinated over water which is kept in a well aerated condition, the radicles whether to commence with they are pointing upwards or downwards erow downwards into water, which does not now appear to exercise any repellant influence upon them. The difference between the water in the two experiments is that in the first case it is charged with CO,, devoid of oxygen and loaded with bacteria, etc., whilst in the second it contains but little CO,, relatively few bacteria and a plentiful supply of oxygen. If the aeration of the water be stopped when the radicles have penetrated a little distance beneath the surface, the supply of oxygen which the water contains is soon used up. The still surface of the stagnant water absorbs oxygen from the supernatant air only with great slowness, and this is all used up before it can diffuse to the depths beneath. Hence the growth of those roots whose tips are more than an inch below the surface of the water either ceases or goes on but slowly. The fact of any growth in length of the root being possible under such conditions is probably due to the fact that those parts which are above the surface of the water absorb oxygen in abundance and the excess diffuses longitudinally and is finally transferred, in part at all events, to those regions which are especially in want of it. Any growth which does take place in such roots is all in the downward direction being never deflected more than 45° from the perpendicular. This is because at a short distance below the surface of the water the percentage of free oxygen is extremely small and the percentage of oxygen in the layer of water immediately above the tip of the growing root will only differ in an 940 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. infinitesinal degree from the percentage contained in the layer of water immediately beneath. Hence the tip of the root, which is the only sensitive part, 1s equally affected on all sides by the fluid with which it is surrounded. There is therefore nothing to counteract the normal geotropic irritability of the radicles and these grow downwards, though but slowly. On the other hand those radicles whose tips are near the surface of the water are affected by the layers of water immediately above being richer in oxygen and _ bend upwards, either growing along the surface of the water or in some cases emerging above it and growing for some distance upwards. If the stagnant oxygenless water over which Peas were germinating was well aerated and kept in an aerated condition the radicles soon bent downwards into it, although it must still have contained large quantities of carbonic acid and an abundance of bacteria. The repellant influence which the water had previously exerted could not therefore have been due to the presence of an excess of dissolved carbonic acid, nor could the curvatures have been produced by an irritant action of the bacteria con- tained in the stagnant water. The curvature is produced by the absence of oxygen in the medium which the radicle is about to penetrate and is the outward and visible sign of what may be termed the Oxytropic, or oxygen seeking, irritability, of the young radicle. It is worthy of remark that the oxytropic irritability of the root may under appropriate conditions exercise a ereater influence upon the direction of growth of the root than its geotropic irritability. In certain cases a curvature occurred before the tip of the radicle had come into actual contact with the surface of the water and it is a little difficult at first to see the reasons for this apparent VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 941 ‘physiological action at a distance.’’ It might be caused by the under side of a slightly curved root being in a somewhat damper layer of air than the upper, or by its being more exposed to the water vapour given off from the surface beneath. This would tend to keep the cellular tissue of the lower surface in a slightly more turgid con- dition than that of the upper and would hence tend to cause an upward or lateral curvature. It is hardly possible however that the difference in turgidity, if any, so produced could be large enough to markedly affect the normal tendency of the root to grow downwards. It is more probable that the curvature is produced in the same way as it is in the upper layers of the water, the radicle bending to those regions where oxygen is most abundant. Ina still atmosphere the diffusion especially of a heavy gas takes place but slowly, hence the layer of air which hes immediately over the surface of water contains much less oxygen and much more carbonic acid gas than the layers of air above. The radicle therefore when it enters this layer may curve upwards in virtue of the Oxytropic Irritability which it possesses. Experiments were next made to find out whether the presence of combined oxygen, in the form for example, of a solution of potassium nitrate, would suffice to prevent any oxytropic curvature. This latter 1s a stable salt and only yields up its oxygen at high temperatures. Hence, since, as might be expected, on germinating Peas over a weak solution of potasstum nitrate in boiled water-it was found that the radicles behaved just as in the case where oxygen was totally absent, it is therefore the lack of free oxygen in the medium which the radicle is about to penetrate which inhibits or rather antagonizes and over- powers its geotropic irritability. Similar experiments were performed with a weak solu- 942, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. tion of potassium permanganate. This is a salt which readily parts with a portion of its combined oxygen and it might be supposed, would be able to supply the radicle with the oxygen necessary to permit of its growth and downward curvature. Itis found however that the salt itself exercises a repellant irritant action upon the radicles, whilst if these remain immersed in the solution for some time they become covered with a brown deposit, and are finally killed by the action of the permanganate solution. The same experiments performed with Hemp and Wheat seedlings gave similar results. Owing to the fact that in the case of Hemp the entire seedling including the cotyledons escapes from the enclosing husk it is necessary to fix the seedling shortly after germination has taken place. Hemp seedlings do not seem to be so sensitive to the absence or deficiency of oxygen as are Peas, their oxytropic irritability being less marked. The radicles even when deeply immersed go on growing, though the rate of growth is much slower than usual. In the case of the Wheat seedlings we are of course dealing with secondary roots but these also shew a similar irritability, for on coming into contact with water devoid of oxygen, they either grow along the surface or grow upwards and away from it. As soon as they reach a certain length owing to their thin and slender nature their own weight causes them to bend downwards but that is quite a different thing from the apically produced curvature caused by exciting either the geotropic or the oxytropic irritabilities. As in the case of Hemp and Peas if the tips of the radicles are immersed two or three inches beneath the surface upward curvatures cease to appear. VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 943 PERMANGANATE METHOD OF ESTIMATING GROWTH IN LENGTH AND CURVATURE OF RADICLES. The experiments were performed chiefly with Peas, as with these the best results were obtained, owing to the rapid growth and relatively strong vitality of the primary radicle. The radicles of Peas, of lengths varying from one to six inches were immersed in a solution of potassium permanganate, made by dissolving a few grains of the salt in one pint of water. This forms a solution which is neither so strong as to injuriously act upon the radicles nor so weak as not to produce the desired result. Ina period of time varying from 2 to 6 hours, the time varying according to the strength of the solution and the condition of the radicles experimented with, a brown deposit is formed over the entire surface of the immersed portion of the radicle. This is due to the decomposition of the per- manganate, oxide of manganese being deposited on the root, free oxygen being given off and probably being at once absorbed by the radicle, whilst caustic potash is set free but at once turned into potassium carbonate by the carbonicacid gas given off by the radicle. In some cases the deposit is formed more thickly just over the meristematic region of the growing apex. This is not, however, due to ~ the greater exhalation of carbonic acid gas at that point causing a greater deposition of the oxide of manganese but is due to the organic material and micro-organisms which protected by the root cap, accumulate there, causing as organic material a greater decomposition of perman- ganate and hence a greater deposition of the oxide than elsewhere. If a Pea or Hemp seedling of a few days erowth be entirely immersed in the solution, at the end of an hour the entire root system is browned whilst on the stem and leaves no deposit is formed, and even after several hours, when the solution has penetrated and the 944 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. deposit been formed, through and through the tissues of the root, only a slight deposit is formed on the stem and leaves. This difference is due to the presence of a resistant cuticle on the stem and leaves and the experi- ment is an easy way of shewing that the surface of the root is absorptive for watery solutions of salts, whilst the surfaces of the stem and leaf are so modified as to resist the infiltration of water. On examining the root microscopically by means of transverse sections no actual granules of deposit are to be seen internally or externally with either low or high powers. The deposit is not on but in the external tissues. The walls of the epidermal and outer cortical cells are seen to be distinctly brown and the protoplasms and nuclei of these cells have also assumed a brownish tint. This colouration is due to a deposit of the oxide of man- ganese in an almost molecular state of subdivision. On treating the sections with warm dilute hydrochloric acid the brown deposit is dissolved, the cells and cell walls becoming quite uncoloured and the solution thus obtained readily gives the borax bead test for manganese. If the radicles are left in the permanganate solution for too long a period of time they become browned throughout their entire thickness and are at the same time killed. But if the roots are removed from the solution as soon as 1t has penetrated the epidermis and the layer or two of cortical cells immediately beneath and are then placed im a fresh well aerated nutrient saline solution, their growth tempor- arily checked by the immersion in the permanganate solution is soon resumed. ‘The central unpermeated part of the root alone grows and increases in length, the outer dead part remaining of the same length. The conse- quence is that the outer brown coat splits into rings over the growing region or regions and between these rings VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. QA5 lengths of the internal white tissue are exposed. On exam- ining thin longitudinal sections of such roots the first stage in the exposure of the subjacent unaffected portions of the root is seen to be effected by a kind of sliding growth of the internal regions beneath the outer. The inner layers as they go on growing stretch and split the outer brown layer or layers and the tissue thus exposed being released from the pressure of the outer layers which formerly compressed it bulges somewhat outwards. In a short time what is now the outermost living layer of the cortex assumes the regular outline and apparent function of the epidermis or ‘“‘ epiblema’”’ and may form root hairs. This power of adaptive modification shown by the exposed cortex is due to the inner cortex of these regions being still capable of growth and hence more or less meristematic and it is shown more markedly and rapidly by the exposed regions nearer the apex than by those further removed. The greater the growth of any particular part of the root the more widely will the rings of browned tissue be separated from each other. Hence the first crack is formed just behind the root cap and in a short time a number of rings are formed over the terminal part of the root. The following is an illustrative example : In one day after the resumption of growth; the distance from the root cap to the first ring was 5°8 m.m.; from Ist to 2nd ring 1 m.m., from 2nd to 3rd ring *5 m.m., and from 3rd to 4th rng‘*1m.m. In two days the first region had increased to 1°54 m.m., the second to 1°9, the third to ‘6, the fourth to ‘16 whilst the distance from the fourth to a fifth rng was ‘08 m.m. The whole of the rest of the length of the root did not elongate at all and remained with an unbroken brown covering. The experiments thus show very clearly the restriction of growth in length to the apical region and more especially to the region a little 946 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. way behind the punctum vegetationis. Adding together the lengths of all the white exposed areas will give the total increase in length of the radicle in any given time and this may thus be compared with the growth of any single region. In a root placed so as to induce a curvature the rings are seen to be nearer together on the concave than on the convex side. In a given experiment the distances between 6 successive rings were on the concave side 1, ‘9, 1°5, °5, °8 on the convex side 1°9, 2.1, 2,1°5, °9 In this case and in many others also the rings were not straight but wrinkled especially on the sides of the curving portion shewing that the growth was not taking place at the same rate all over the surfaces of these regions. This is an example of irregular heterauxesis and seems to be most manifest in those portions of the curving region where the rapidity of growth is intermediate between that on the concave and convex sides. There are three objections to the method described above. Firstly, the rings formed may not be of the same breadth. This can however be allowed for in taking any — measurements. Secondly, the number of rings formed is rarely very large, six being a good average whilst growth in length soon is found to take place only in the portion of the root in front of the first ring, this the apical segment becoming excessively elongated and soon including all the growing regions. Hence if further measurements are required the surface of this part of the root must be rebrowned by immersing it in the Permanganate solution once more. Thirdly, the action of the Permanganate is to kill the outer layers of the root, this of course being a serious objection. On the other hand it must be remembered m.m. respectively. VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 9AT that the action is the same all over the root and by using a solution considerably diluted and restricting the time of immersion as much as possible, one is able to obtain radicles having only the outer layer or two browned and yet this is sufficient to obtain the results mentioned above. The permanganate method of measuring and estimating the growth and curvature of radicles is however more suitable for general experiments, class demonstrations, etc., than for accurate detailed experimentation. A good specimen will shew the various phenomena of growth in length and curvature. It will shew very plainly the endogenous origin of secondary roots, these appearing as little white prominences burrowing through the outer browned cortical tissue and in addition the specimen may be preserved in spirit as a permanent preparation. IRELAND Plate T. SCOTLAND ENGLAND IRELAND IRELAND LANCASHIRE \t-aneip ete Vol. VIII. PI. Ul. L’poo! Biol. Soc, ans. NIYG LYOd LY WNOIYVOOV GNY NOILVLS TVOINOIOIg iin = aia ng era agg 2. ee een ea K Srp ; —— : io =a = = is Eee pa heesineare ae at ees set sete Seer — a ; : : : Z a 5 ; encarta eran tlh Ree te yn a a a aS Pe 1 do ee A 6 = = ss SS ee oan ce Tan ia L.M.B.C. AQUARIUM—PIPES. Vol. VIII. Pi. Vv. ns. L'pool Biol. Soc. FRONT ELEVATION. SIDE ELEVATION. aW.H., May, 1893 AUTOMATIC PUMP AT PORT ERIN. ite tweetehls MEP dg = & = ' 2 - ¥ ‘ 1 7 { A ‘ ae ‘ ; s 1 ay 5 =o 7 a ‘ 4 . Sn — ¢ e . ¢ t ~ J shee > =. my 2 3 c ; : AD Cl a = =! ' ~— sl a} - cs i J z aa: ’ hy are f s ed Lae : - “ mi he / , * ERR. 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