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Proceedings and Trans actions
¢

OF THE

NOVA SCOTIAN

INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE,

1871, 1872, 1873, 1874.

VOLUME III.

4i 8 i
* HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA:
WILLIAM GOSSIP, 87 GRANVILLE STREET.

ENGLAND:
REEVES & TURNER, 196 STRAND, LONDON.

UNITED STATES:
THE NATURALIST AGENCY, SALEM, MASS.

1874.

Sesser

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eas
~

ca Se

5 ae ase

a
ony
—

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ars

SS

a.
-_PROCEEDIN GS AND TRANSACTIONS -/*~*

OF THE

. a Scotian Qustitte of Natural Science

OF

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

: VOL. IIL. 1870-71. PART I.

CON NTENTS.

Page
Procrepines. SEES ine ene Re ee 2 eR OM ce, ond oe ae oak SS 1
Wawa TONS Skee ew PRSUE EADS Oa Re MES OLE SERN afateice me tes 3

PMseUm ay MMMBER I oS hs. Tied ee ee oe ck ake ss bee Geek <tewuk ens ee

TRANSACTIONS : —_—

. I.—On the Geology of Nova Scotia, By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C.L., F.GS.,
Member of the Geological Society of France, §c., Director of the

PTO DINGLAL MORON Se P05 oe Moke tc ogi aa Owe nla os See ee 6
-IL.—On Nova Scotian Diurnal Lepidoptera — By J. M. Jones, Esq., F. iL S.,
President of the Institute of Nutural Science.... .......- 26244 18
“Ill, —On the Copper and Nickel Mines at Tilt Cove, New foundland. By Eutas
Mansrr, Eso: St. Johns, Neuf oundsbind . ik oo SIE a 2t
TV.—On the Gevlogy of Nova Seotia. By Rev. D Honeyman, D. C. L.,
(ee) EE aay. pte Oe Rea RARE oe GSE UE AEG G PESE WERE Uy UR cag oe eit, | dl
V.—On the Geology and Physical Geography of the North East Coast of
Kent, England. By Aurrep 8. Foorp., Fsq., London .......... 40
VL—On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By J, Bernarp Gitpin, A. B., M.
D., M. R. ©. 8., Vice President of the Institute of NMutural
PORCH FN a Rie. ci Oe Ree WO SER cE cps asl SPR SR We GE 46
-VII.—On the Geology of Nova Scotia. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C.L.,
POSS Ae GS cre arc eked tate GH Db eaten pty BS aL Site) OR tg alee apes 62

- VIiL.—On the Fricacer of the Dominion of Canada and. alien parts of

aa British America... By Grorce Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D., Professor

rae of Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifar, N. SF eS Ps ees 74
-IX.—On the Meteorology of Halitax. By FrevericK Autison, Fsq. ...-... 80

X.—Un the Meteorology of Caledonia Mines, Little Glace Bay, C: ans Breton.

pate py He Bogue sq 5 Nd oe ae eae de yee See Be eal 89

2 APPENDIX. —Notes of Excursion to Montague Gold Aiines \s She ae ot ent aye ee

oe sas, SCOTIA—WM. GOSSIP, 87 GRANVILLE ST.
-.. ENGLAND—REEVES & TURNER, 196 STRAND, LONDON
‘UNI TED STATES—THE NATURALIST AGENCY, SALEM, MASS.

1872.

Price. ee 5 caine es

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova Scotian Gustitute of Hatuval Science.

VOL TH. PART T

Institute Room, Province Building, Oct. 12th, 1870.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING.
J. M. Jones, Esq., President, in the Chair.
Inter alia.

THE following were elected by ballot :—

President—J. M. Jonzs, Esq., F. U.S.

Vice Presidents—Pror. G. Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D., Bernarp
GiLPin, Esq., M. D., M. R. C. S.

Honorary Secretary—W. Gossip, Esq.

Treasurer—W.C. SILVER, Esq.

Councii—_FRED. ALLISON, Esq., J. R. DEWouret, Esq., M. D., J.
RUTHERFORD, Esa. M. E., H. Moopy, Esq., Rev. D. Honnyman, D.C.L.,
F.G.S., &e., Ancus Ross, Esq., P. S. Hamitton, Esq., Jos. Bett, Esa.

ORDINARY MEETING, NOVEMBER 14, 1870.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair,

Tue President called upon Dr. Honeyman, who read dn introductory
paper ‘On the Geology of Nova Scotia,” as far as he has been connected
with it. (See Transactions.)

The President read a paper “‘ On the Lepidoptera of Nova Scotia,” with
especial reference to the neighbourhood of Halifax. The paper was illus-
trated with specimens. (See Transactions.)

The Rev. Moses Harvey, of St. John’s, Newfoundland, was proposed as a
corresponding member.

ORDINARY MEETING, DECEMBER 12, 1870.
BERNARD GiLpPin, Esq., M. D., Vice President, in the Chair.
The Secretary announced that the Council had duly elected the Rev.
Moses Harvey, as a corresponding member, and the Rey. Professor Elder, of
Acadia College, Wolfville, an associate member.

1

2 PROCEEDINGS.

A paper “‘ On the Copper and Nickel Mines of Tilt Cove, Newfoundland, ’
by Elias Marett, Esq. was read. (See Transactions.)

Also a paper “‘ On the Geology of Nova Scotia,” by the Rev. D. Honeyman,
D.C. L., F.G.S. (See Transactions.)

ORDINARY MEETING, JANUARY 9, 1871.
J. M. Jones, Esq., President, in the Chair.
A paper “ On the Geology and Physical Geography of the North East coast
of Kent, England,” by Alfred S. Ford. (See Transactions.)
é The paper was illustrated by a series of beautiful drawings and pen and
ink sketches. 5

OrpINARY MEETING, FEBRUARY 13, 1871.
J. M. Jones, Esa., President, in the Chair.

Rev. D. HonEYMAN read a paper “‘On the Geology of the Pictou Coal Field”
which led to an interesting conversation, continued until a late hour. The
paper was illustrated by a copy of a field map prepared for the geological
survey of Canada by the author. (See Transactions.) -

Dr. GrILpPIN’s paper ‘On the Mammals of Nova Scotia,’ was deferred
until the next ordinary meeting. (See Transactions.)

OrDINARY MEETING, Marcu 18, 1871.
J. M. Jonss, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Dr. B. Giupin, read a paper “On the Mammals of Nova Scotia—The
Caribou.” The paper was illustrated by drawings and specimens of the horns
of the animal in different stages of growth. (See Transactions.)

The President (J. M. Jones, Esq.,) read a paper ‘‘ On the Diurnal
Lepidoptera of Nova Scotia.” The paper was illustrated by a beautiful collec-
tion of specimens. (See Transactions.)

Interesting conversations followed the reading of the above paper.

OrpINARY MeExEtTING, APRIL 10, 1871.
J. M. Jones, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Dr. LAWSon read an interesting paper “‘ On Ranunculacee.” The paper
was illustrated by drawings and specimens. (See Transactions.)

OrpDINARY MeetT«ING, May 8, 1871.
J. M. Jones, Esq., President, in the Chair.

A paper “On the Meteorology of Glace Bay, Cape Breton,” by 1. Poot.
Esq.; and a paper “On the Meteorology of Halifax, in 1870,” by Frep.
Aison, Esq., were read by the latter author. (See Transactions.)

D.. Hi.

(3)

DONATIONS TO THE INSTITUTE.

Sept. 1, 1870, To AuGusT $1, 1871.

Peano ir Parker, MoT. 6. Ni Soc ccicee feds teeeame Pewonwe vee 020.06

BOOKS.

American Academy of Sciences—Transactions. Vol. 17.

Walter Lawson, Esq., C. E., Montague Gold Mines.— Explanations and
Surveys for a Railway from the Mississippi
to the Pacific. Yols. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9-

Date of Admission.
1869.

1869.
1863.
1864.
1863.
1864.
1867.
2868.
1871.
1870.
1869.
1868.
1863.
1865.
1863.
1868.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1368.
1866.

1868.
1863.

1866.

1867.

1864.

1865.

1869.

1866.
1868.

1870.

1865.
1865.
1863.
1870.
1866.
1868.
1869.

Feb. 15.
Feb. 16.
June 24.
April 3.
ano:
NOV. Ns
Sep. 20
Sep. 28
April 4
Mar. 30
April 29
Oct. 26.
Dec. ‘V7.
Oct. 4.
Jan. 6,
Jan. 95.
Feb. 2.
Jan. 26
Jan. uo:
June 27.
Dec. a.
Nov. 2.
Jan...
Feb 1.
ofrsogie 76
March 7.
Sept.
Dec. 30.
Feb. 3.
Nov. 25.
Jan. 10.
Nov. 17.
Aug. .29.
Jan. 6.
Jan. 20.
July 28.
Dec. 29.
June 27.

(4)

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax.

Allison, Frederick, Halifax.

Almon, Hon. M. B., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Bell, Joseph, High Sheriff, Halifax.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. 8., Newcastle-on-Tyne, England.

Brown, C. E., Granville Street, Halifax.

Cogswell, Dr., Dentist, Halifax.

Collins, Brenton, Halifax.

Compton, William, Halifax.

Day, Forshaw, Artist, Halifax.

Dakin, G. W., Halifax.

DeWolfe, James R., M. D., Edin., L. BR. C. 8S. E., Halifax.
Downs, Andw., Corr. Memb. Z. S., Dutch Village, Halifax.
Fleming, Sanford, C. E., Chief Engineer af Railways, Halifax.
Fraser, R. G., Mineralogist, Halifax.
Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. BR. C.S., Vice. Presipent, Halifax,

Gossip, William, Szcrerary, Granville Street, Halifax.

Haliburton, R. G., F. 8. A., Halifax.

Hamilton, P.S., Barrister, Halifax.

Hill PC. YD: C.., ealitax.

Honeyman, Rev. D., D. C. L., F. G. S., &¢., Director of the
Provincial Museum, Halifax.

Hudson, James, C.E, Superintendent of the Albion Mines, Pictou.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. §., Presrpent, Halifax.

Keily, John, Deputy Commissioner of Mines, Halifax.

Knight, Thos. F., Inspector of Customs, Dartmouth.

Lawson, George, Ph. D., L. L. D., Professor of Chemistry and
Natural History, Vick Presiprent, Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Lordly, C. E., George Street, Halifax.

Moody, Harry, Priv. Sec’y of His Honor the Lieut. Governor.

Morrow, James B., Halifax.

Morley, Lieut. R. A.

Murphy, ——, C. E., Halifax.

Nash, J. D., Halifax.

Nova Scorta, the Rt. Rev. Hibbert Binney, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Poole, Henry, M. E., Glace Bay Mines, Cape Breton.

Power, L. G., Barrister, Halifax. ’

Reeks, Henry, Manor Hall, Thruxton, Hamp., Eng.

Roue, Jno., Halifax.

Ross, Angus, Halifax.

a

1866.
1864.
1868.
1865.
1867.
1864.
1870.

1866

1863.
1870.
1868.
1864.
1865.

1868.
1866.
1870.
1866.

Jam, 8:
March 7.
Noy. 25.
April 20.
Aug. 16.
May 16.
Mar. 30.
Mar. 18.

Oct. 6:
Oct. 27.
June 13.
July 1.
Dec. 28.

(5)

Rutherforl, John, M. E. Inspector of Mines, Halifax.
Silver, W. C., Treasurer, Halifax.

Sinclair, John A., Halifax.

Smithers, Geo., Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, Halifax.

Whytal, Jno., Halifax.

Wesselhoft, Dr., Halifax.

Young, Sir William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, A. M., Digby.

Elder, Professor, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S.
Ford, Alfred S., London, G. B.

Marett, Elias, St John’s, Newfoundland.
Morton, Rey. John, Trinidad.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Berthune, Rev. J. §., Ont. Canada.

Chevalier, Edgcumb, H. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, gis
Harvey, Rey. Moses, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Hurdis, J. L., Southampton, England.

LIFE MEMBER. _
Hon. Dr. Parker, M. L. C., N.S

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Hove Scotian Sustitute of Datural Sciewer.

Art. I. REcORD OF OBSERVATIONS ON Nova ScorTran GEOLOGY,
SINCE 1855. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C. L.,
F.G.8., &c., Director of the Provincial Museum.

(Read Nov. 14, 1870.)

I now purpose to record the most important observations made

by me since the year 1855. This is the date of the publication of

the first edition of Dawson’s Acadian Geology. To this classic
work and the friendship and suggestions of its distinguished author,
I am indebted for an introduction to the practical study of Nova
Scotian Geology. I commenced by directing attention to the
“Geology of Arisaig, a locality and a township in the county of
Antigonish. Antigonish was the place of my residence. I made
the rocks of Arisaig a special study for several years. I have
examined them with the greatest minuteness. The position and
appearance of its rocks are familiar as the objects in my parlour ;
their fauna are my intimate acquaintances.

In my first communication ‘‘On the Geology of Arisaig,” read
before the Nova Scotia Literary and Scientific Society (the short-
lived predecessor of this Institution), I shewed from the character
of a large collection of fossils made in what was then considered to
be the upper rocks of the Arisaig series, and what are now designated
the Upper Arisaig (vide Acadian Geology last edition) that the
rocks are not Devonian as was then supposed, but the equivalents
of the Upper Ludlow of England, and therefore Upper Silurian.
While my paper was in the press Dr. Dawson informed me by
letter, that he considered the rocks in question as probably the
equivalents of the Lower Helderberg of the United States, and
therefore Upper Silurian. Prof. Hall subsequently, and afterward

-HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 7

Mr. Salter, on examining my collections in the Exhibition of 1862,
confirmed this opinion, so that this is now an article in the Nova
Scotian Geological Creed.

Prof. Hall and Dr. Dawson then distinguished a lower member
of the same series. One of the characteristic fossils of this member
is Graptolithus Clintonensis; it is therefore considered to be the
equivalent of the Clinton of the United States or Middle Silurian.
This is designated by Dr. Dawson (vide Acadian Geology last ed.)
the Lower Arisaig. I found in Arisaig rocks, intermediate between
these two members, strata having a distinct fauna, 7. e., different
from those of the equivalents of the Upper Ludlow or Lower Hel-
derberg and the Clinton.

Mr. Salter on examining my collections pronounced them to be
Aymestry limestone fossils. This band may therefore be considered
as the probable equivalent of the Niagara Limestone. At Doctor’s
Brook of Arisaig, and in the township of Arisaig, are shales which
appear lithologically distinct from the Clinton or Lower Arisaig of
Dawson, and were supposed to be non-fossiliferous. In them I
found fossils which however did not appear to be characteristic efo~
distinctive. They were considered to be lower than the Clinton or
Arisaig, as undoubtedly the strata were lower in position, and that
was all that could be said about them. In the meantime I discov-
ered a band of fossiliferous rocks to the east of Lochaber Lake in
the county of Antigonishe. In the upper part of the band or those
on the margin of the Lake, I found characteristic fossils of upper
Arisaig, e. g. Chonetes Nova Scotica, Hall. I found many others of
the same age, but not in situ, e. g. Dalmania Logani, Crania
Acadiensis. Farther back I found strata with casts of Petratia
Forrestert and of Trumpet shaped Cornulites, (Salter thus char-
acterised them,) which evidently occupied stratagraphically a lower
position than the upper Arisaig, although the fossils were by some
supposed to be Devonian. Mr. Salter considered the fossils to be
equivalents of the May Hill sandstone. Subsequently I found
Aymestry Limestone fossils in the same locality, showing that the
Middle Arisaig also existed here. I also, about the same time,
discovered another fossiliferous locality in Merigomish, County of
Pictou, where branches of French River intersect the New Glasgow

8 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

Road. I found strata with Graptolithus Clintonenses and other
Graptolites, Trilobites, Strophomena, Orthis, &c. In the drift
near Sutherland’s River I found abundance of upper Arisaig fossils.
shewing the existence of upper Arisaig strata in this quarter.
While making these discoveries I had also been developing the
Silurian of Springville, East River, Pictou. Having occasion to
visit this place annually I had become somewhat familiar with its
prominent features. It was, however, at the time of the Prince of
Wales’ visit to Nova Scotia that I made decided progress in the
investigation of the details of the locality. I then made a special
visit to Springville with a view to a particular investigation.

My worthy mare Jess, my associate in my distant Geological
rambles, apparently resolving that I should keep to work, took a
ramble herself, and left me for a month to pursue my geological in-
vestigations alone. I then discovered an interesting fauna in the
upper part of the series generically and specifically identical with the
Upper Arisaig. These were found immediately underlying the car-
boniferous at McLean’s and MaclIntosh’s. I found as at Arisaig, —
Ascoceras, Orthoceras, Theca, Bellerophon, different species, — {
Murchisonia, Avicula Honeymani, abundant, Modiolopsis, Clido-
phorus, Spirifer subsuleatus, Chonetes Nova Scotica, Crania Aca-
diensis, Rhynchonella, various, Homalonotus Dawsoni, Dalmania
Logani, Procts Stokesi, Calymene, Leperditia, Beyrichia, Favo-
sites. One prominent stratum shewed exactly the same association
of organisms as at Arisaig, viz: Homalonotus Dawsoni, in abund-
ance, with abundance of Spirifer subsulcatus, Aviculay Honeymani,
and Cornulites. The only obvious distinction is, that the Kast River
stratum shews a higher degree of metamorphism than the stratum
at Arisaig. At the North of the late Rey. Angus McGillivray’s
I found the Arisaig Niagara equivalent fossils. This ridge extends
up the river about a mile. The same farther south produced a
large Orthoceras, Strophemena profunda, Spirifer Crispus, Atrypa
reticularis, Rhynchonella didyma, Rhynchonella varia, Calymene
and Homalonotus, of species as in the same horizon at Arisaig. I
also found a lower band in a mountain in the rear with singular
Discina, Lingula and Homalonotus, different from these of the higher
members. This appeared to be of Lower Arisaig age, Dawson.

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 9

I found in Lime Brook a cast of Petraia such as at Lochaber, not
in situ, shewing the existence of lower Lochaber strata in this
locality. At the same time I found in the shales and limestones
of lower carboniferous age below Grant’s Factory, East Branch
East River, teeth of Cochliodus and Bellerophon decussatus,
according to Salter. This was the first discovery of Bellerophon,
in the lower carboniferous limestones of Nova Scotia.

While making the observations that I have recorded, I discoy-
ered teeth of Diplodus acinaces, Dawson, at least cotemporaneous
with the discovery by Mr. Poole at the coal mine near New
Glasgow, at the side of the road to Antigonishe. I described them
in the first vol. of the Journal of Education as reptilian. I
found a large tooth of Rhizodus at the Joggins, and discovered and
measured the carboniferous section on the shore north of Mabou
Harbor.

I may mention still farther that I found Lochaber Petraia in
boulders in the bed of French River, below the Presbyterian Church,
shewing the existence of Lochaber Petraia strata in this region, and
also Petraia and Lingela im situ in strata on the main road in the
Marshy Hope on the Pictou and Antigonishe county line, and at
MacDougall’s to the east of it, 7. e. nearly due south of Arisaig.
About the same time I discovered part of the singular Lingala bed
near Barney’s River. .

These observations recorded are the more prominent results of
amateur work, through which was accumulated the greater part
of these collections which interested Murchison, Philips, Bigsby,
Salter, Barrande, DeVerneuil, &c., and received Prize Medals in
the Exhibitions of London, 1862, Dublin, 1865, and Paris, 1867.
In August, 1861, I was engaged by the Nova Scotia Commission
for the London Exhibition of 1862, to make a representation of the
Geology and mineral resources of Nova Scotia. In prosecuting
this work I visited Cape Breton and added to the Geological Map
the Gypsums of West Bay in the vicinity of the Rev. Murdoch
Stewart’s, a beautiful carboniferous section with abundance of
regularly formed clay ironstone septaria, which attracted some
attention at the London Exhibition. ‘This is situated in a brook a
few miles toward St. Peter’s Canal. I sailed over the Bay and

10 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

found the so-called Marble Mountain, which has lately been brought
into prominent notice by the enterprise of Mr. Brown. I visited
Grand River, and found lower carboniferous limestones and a bed
of wad or bog manganese, which had been supposed to be coal.
I crossed over to Red Islands and collected a number of fossils.
The most remarkable of them is a recurved Conularia. At Big
Baddeck I found a mountain to consist of granite where I had
expected to find syenite or greenstone, which led me subsequently
to maintain that the Middle River or Wagamatcook auriferous
strata were of the same age as the Nova Scotian strata, or Lower
Silurian, and not Devonian as some Geologists maintamed. I
found marble at the head of Whycocomagh Lake, and the little
carpolite shortly after described by Dr. Dawson in the Transactions
of the Geological Society as Trigonocarpum Hookert. I found
this in a piece of sandstone on the shores of Port Hood. I
returned to Nova Scotia and was directed by the Commission to
give some attention to the Geology of the Gold Fields. I accord-
ingly made an examination of the undeveloped Waverley barrel
quartz. I examined the section of rocks on the Windsor and —
Truro lines of Railway, but not having time to make a detailed
examination, my observations were necessarily crude. I commu-
nicated a paper on the subject to the Geological Society. In this
paper I maintained the same view in regard to the Lower Silurian
age of the gold fields as Dr. Dawson had done in his Acadian
Geology. I may mention that in the discussion that took place
in the Society on the reading of that paper, there was a difference
of opinion expressed in regard to the age of the Gold Fields.
Sir W. Logan impugned my views, maintaining that the rocks were
Devonian. Sir Rodrick Murchison on the contrary, supported the
views that I maintained. I found subsequently that my observa-
tions were too hastily made to be altogether accurate. The descrip-
tion of the field itself seems accurate enough, and the succession of
the rocks between Lakelands and Windsor, but the order of rocks
from Lakelands to Waverley, and the supposed connection of the
rocks and the line with the Waverley Gold. Field, was altogether
imaginary.

After my return from the Exhibition, in the Autumn of 1863,

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. iis §

I proceeded to examine the rocks of Arisaig with the aid of the new
light furnished by Mr. Salter’s report, and the suggestions of other
eminent British and Continental Geologists and Palontologists.
I pitched my tent among the rocks and remained among them for
nearly three months. I investigated thoroughly the nature and
relations of the different parts of the series, studied thoroughly its
palzontology, added materially to my collections of its fauna, and
endeavoured to ascertain the range of the several families, genera,
and species, in time.

I communicated the results to the Geological Society in a paper
with map and sections, to be found in the Journal of 1864. It is
with some satisfaction that I have now to add that after the lapse of
seven years and after having made at least one other thorough ex-
amination of the district, I still regard this paper as a reliable hand-
book with which to examine Arisaig. JI may have something to
add to the observations then recorded, but very little to correct.
At that time I discovered a bed of Graptolites at Doctor’s Brook,
in the black shales underlying the Clinton strata of Arisaig. These
Graptolites include various diprionidean forms which appear more
to resemble the Hudson River Graptolites than the Clinton. I
extended these shales to McDonald’s cove to the westward, where
I found Cone-in-cone concretions and Lingula in nodules like my
Barney’s River Lingala bed, and thence to Arisaig cove to the south
of the pier and the north-east of the strata, with Graptolites Clinton-
ensis. I did not then find in the band an extensive fauna, and was
led to infer that the conditions under which the shales were deposi-
ted were not favorable to animal existence.

This is an inference that I have since been led to modify.
At this time I discovered the noble Cephalopoda of Middle Arisaig,
or the Niagara limestone equivalent, and I also discovered at
Doctor’s Brook the equivalent of the Lochaber Petraia strata. By
this discovery I was enabled to ascertain the exact position of those
strata in the system, to make a larger collection of fossils than it
was possible to make at Lochaber or Marshy Hope, and to ascertain
the mode and order. of ae occurrence. In my paper I styled this
A Arisaig— octor’s rook, McDonald’s cove and to the S. of the
Frenchman’s barn (rock). I also found connected with this,

12 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

another band (metamorphic) which I then supposed to be a part of
the same but altered. I am now, however, disposed to separate
them. I will return to this point again.

In the summer of 1864, I was engaged by the Government to
make a preliminary Geological survey. I then ascertained the
extent and distribution of the Silurian fossiliferous strata at Loch-
aber and the strata which appear to be succeeding these, which I am
disposed to consider as Middle Silurian. I also extended the Lingula
bed or the equivalent of the Doctor’s Brook shales at Barney’s River,
extending it to the Middle branch. I also found the Lochaber
Petraia rocks underlying the shales containing this bed and forming
the side of the mountain range which extends to the east and west
of the outcrop discovered, onward as I believe on the one side and
the other to Marshy Hope and French River, main branch. Here
the fossils appear to be as various and numerous as on the Arisaig
shore. At the western entrance to the Marshy Hope with conglom-
erate in enormous mass intervening between it and the extension of
the Lochaber equivalent just referred to, | found an outcrop of
similar strata, which appear to be a continuation of those already /
referred to as occurring in Marshy Hope near the County line. I
also directed attention to the east brauch of East River, Pictou, and
determined the Geological position of the bed of Iron ore there.

In 1866 I communicated to the Institute a paper on the Geology
of Antigonish, which contains an account. of what I had done in
that County up to the time when it was written, and the opinions
entertained in connection with the facts ascertained, vide paper in
vol. I, part 4. I also made an examination of the Geology of the
Londonderry Mines, and of the Gay’s River Gold Field, wide
Transactions of Institute, vol. I, part 1. In the Spring of 1868;
I was engaged by Sir W. Logan in connection with the Canadian
survey. The work prescribed to me was the collection of a suite
of specimens from the Arisaig rocks, and the tracing of these rocks
onward to the Cobequid Mountains.

In the performance of this work I was fortunate to make some
interesting discoveries, one of which has excited some attention
and discussion.

First of all I found in the section of Doctor’s Brook shale in the

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 13

Arisaig cove, all the organisms that I found originally at Doctor’s
Brook in great number and in a better state of preservation, with
corals of species different from any heretofore found in the Nova
Scotian rocks, abundance of crinoids and trizobites of genera
Phacops, and Calymene, in fine preservation, and Graptolites.
This discovery shewed that the strata which I had before described
as poor in fossils was on the contrary rather rich, and that the
circumstances under which these shales originated were favorable to
the existence of animal life.

In the succeeding strata or the Lower Arisaig of Dawson or
Clinton equivalent, I found two specimens of Conularia. I had
found the same organism in the same horizon at French River.
These are the only instances in which this pteropod has been found
in a position lower than the lower carboniferous in Nova Scotia.
I would here observe that Dana in his list of foreign Silurian fossils
not yet met with in America, specifies the Grammysia cingulata.
By referrmg to my catalogue of the fossils found in the Arisaig
Clinton, it will be there observed. Salter recognized it in my
collection of the London Exhibition of 1862. I also succeeded in
extending the Lower Arisaig farther to the east of Doctor’s Brook,
2. e. to the mouth of McNeil’s brook, any farther extension of these
in this direction must pass into the Strait of Northumberland.

In the beautiful section of the Arisaig rocks on the shore, a
little to the east of McAra’s Brook, there appears a set of red
strata dipping in a different direction from the variegated strata or
Lower Helderberg. As far as I can ascertain this red band of
argillites is non-fossiliferous. I found these strata dipping regu-
larly in McAra’s Brook and beyond it, and therefore of consider-
able thickness. ‘They are also found in McAdams’ Brook to the
east of McAras’ Brook. They are certainly not Lower Helderberg
and may therefore be Devonian. I would name them the McAra’s
Brook strata. Upon these the Lower Carboniferous conglomerates
lie unconformably—the line of junction being behind a mass of
amygdaloid. In my paper on Arisaig, I designated the Doctor’s
Brook Graptolite, and Lingula Shales B, and Dawson’s Lower
Arisaig B with an accent. There is a marked difference between
the two sets of strata in structure. At the mouth of Arisaig

i HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

Brook is their place of meeting, and I thought to make this also the
point of geological separation, but fortunately I found a nodule with
a distinct Graptolithus Clintonensis on the shaley side of the line ;
so if this is to be regarded as a distinctive Fossil, Doctor’s Brook
shale is also a lower part of Lower Arisaig, and is also Clinton.
The Petraia slates at Docter’s Brook are lithologically and palewon-
tologically distinct from the shales. They were considered by
Salter to be the equivalents of the May Hill sandstone of Great
Britain. There is every probability that they are the equivalents of
the Medina sandstone of the United States. Underlying these is
a metamorphic band—until lately I have regarded this as a portion
of what I have designated the Medina sandstone equivalent. I
now regard it as the equivalent of the Oneida conglomerate, U. S.
This includes the red Jaspideous rock of the Arisaig Pier and the
Frenchman’s Barn (rock) a considerable mass of rocks at Doctor’s
Brook, and similar rocks to the west of McNeil’s Brook on the shore.
Connected with these in the last mentioned locality, I discovered a
soft variegated rock which strikingly contrasts with the hard un-
yielding character of its associate. It is easily polished, and may
be useful for ornamental purposes. At first I regarded it as
Steatite, and then Rensellexrite. It is now considered to be a
silicate of alumina—agalmatolite. I subsequently found it also in
the same connection at Arisaig Pier, and it was afterwards found
near F'renchman’s Barn. In this locality there are veins of it,
yellowish and translucent. Here it has since been quarried to
some extent by a company formed for the purpose. It is reported
to be serviceable for pottery. These rocks are considered to have
been altered by the great dyke of greenstone, greenstone porphyry
and amygdaloid, which is in contact with it throughout the entire
length of the band.

It may tend to confirm my view of its equivalency if I quote
the views of Dr. Dawson in reference to the character of the rocks
in question: ‘‘It is a very instructive study to compare the soft
conglomerates and their interstratified trap at McAra’s Brook, with
the continuation of the same body eastward of Arisaig Pier
where they appear forced into hard quartzose rocks, in some of
which the original texture is entirely obliterated.” (Acadian
Geology, 1st ed. page 268.)

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 15

The only difference is that formerly the rocks were regarded as
altered Lower Carboniferous conglomerate, now they are regarded
as altered Oneida conglomerate.
This fine series of Middle Silurian, Upper Silurian and Devonian
strata exposed on the shore dip, in a general southerly direction ;
exposed in and near Arisaig Brook, Doctor’s Brook, and McNeil’s
Brook are similar strata; at least one of the middle members of the
series is found dipping in a general northerly direction. ‘The two
thus form a synclinal. On the east branch of Doctor’s Brook,
and a small southern tributary is an insulated patch of Lower Car-
boniferous strata consisting of a considerable band of limestone,
underlaid by conglomerate greenstone and porphyry. I have cha-
racterised it as insulated. I have tried to connect it with a patch
ef Lower Carboniferous conglomerate at Malignant Cove, but all
connection appears to have been cut off by intrusive greenstone.
Both are alike insulated by greenstone and separated from rocks of
corresponding age. We have now reached the ultima thule of all
geological investigation in this district prior to 1868. I now
pass from the band of fossiliferous rocks which is so instructive
and interesting to the Paleontological Geologist into another
set of rocks, from which organic remains appear to be wholly
obliterated. Before entering upon these, however, I would reca-
pitulate to a small extent by describing the boundaries of the fossil-
iferous Silurian rocks of the district. On the north they are
bounded by Northumberland Strait. Their eastern extremity is
MecNeil’s Brook on the beach of the same Strait. On the west
they are bounded by MeAra’s Brook, its Devonian slates and
overlying sandstones, interstratified trap and limestones. ‘The east
branch of Doctor’s Brook until it tarns south, and its main branch
until it turns to the same direction. Opposite Arisaig Pier are
parts of its southern boundary. The remainder on the south side
is obscure. Any continuation of these in a westerly direction lie
under the carboniferous formation of Pictou County. As I have
generally adopted the ascending order in my geological descrip-
tions, I would now in this order record my investigation of the
metamorphic band that lies to the south of the band already
escribed. My starting point lies to the south of Doctor’s Brook,

-

16 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GROLOGY.

about two miles from the coast on McDougall’s mountain south of
Bayfield’s Beacon, 1000 feet above the sea level, according to
Bayfield’s measurement. JI found the lowest rock here to be a
conglomerate, very much hardened .and shewing cleavage. When
I first observed this rock, I imagined that I had found a lower
carboniferous conglomerate in a very elevated and unusual position.
I consider this as the equivalent of the Oneida Conglomerate.
To the north of this and overlying it, are greenish quartzite strata,
which on the surface is chalk white, and yields to the knife.
Passing on the west, along the strike of the rocks, we come to.
McDonald’s Hill, having an equal elevation of 1000 feet.. In the
rear of this is the same quartzite, south of the Frenchman’s Barn.
Still proceeding westward, we come to the main branch of Doctor’s
Brook—here the same quartzite is exposed rising from the Brook
into lofty ridges. Farther west the mountain range continues south
of Arisaig Pier, having the same quartzite with grit apparently
corresponding with the conglomerate of McDougall’s mountain.
South of this, or under it, I found exposed in a field a considerable
outcrop of syenite. I found all obscure in the rear or to the
south of this. There is a table land with good farms, with the
wilderness to the south. Passing westward in the rear of the
mountains, I found this range apparently extending onward like a
titanic rampart toward Merigomishe. I observed an outcrop of
the same strata on a small bank south of McAdam’s Brook referred
to in describing the fossiliferous band of Arisaig. Observing a
brook in the mountains N. W. of this, I attempted to find a path.
Tf found a long, dreary and tortuous way in the shape of the bed of
the main branch of Mill Brook. Where this Brook intersects the
mountains, I found noble sections of the quartzite already pointed
out, and other strata. JI should have liked to have traversed the
brook throughout, but I was diverted from my path by a bear
which appeared to be disposed to dispute the right of way. As I
did not feel disposed to dispute the matter, I betook myself to the
steep side of the mountain, and at last regained the brook in
safety, and emerged from it between lofty sides of the mountains
with fine sections of argillites ; passed through the north side of the
mountain range with its outcropping argillites at the forks of the

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 7

brook 7. e. where the east branch unites with the main branch,
near a lower carboniferous brine spring. Returning to the start-
ing point at McDougall’s mountain and proceeding eastward, we
pass over the east branch of Doctor’s Brook, and climb Mackintosh’s
mouritain—we find diorite as the lowest rock with overlying argil-
lites ; these in the direction of their dip or northerly extend for some
distance onward to the shore, forming mountains. To the S. E.
of Mackintosh’s and McDougall’s rises McNeil’s mountain, having
according to Bayfield an elevation of 1010 feet above the sea
level, being by ten feet the highest mountain of the range. This
mountain consists of red syenite which rises abruptly on the south
side, with a marsh and wilderness without any appearance of rock
in the rear. The crown of the mountain is entirely syenite as
well as its sides, in the cultivated land that rises up against #, and
on the road leading to it we have as before, a succession of argillite
extending northward to a certain point. We shall leave it there
with the expectation of meeting it again.

I commence at the said point at McDougall’s mountain again.
I pass from the Oneida conglomerate in a northerly direction
across the strata and towards the shore. I think I can separate
the series into different members, but the operation is somewhat
uncertain owing to the absence of fossils. My progress is arrested.
The sides of the rock are precipitous, the ravine is of great depth ;
it extends east and west. From Doctor’s Brook east to Doctor's
Brook west it forms a valley for Arisaig Brook and east branch
Mill Brook. It is filled with sapling bushes, marshes, &c. It is
the highway for our old acquaintance bruin. The wool and bones
of sheep show that he improves his opportunities.

On the south side of the ravine are lofty rocks — diorite —
_ succeeded by a broad band of red slate, the exact counterpart of the
supposed Devonian slate of Lochaber. This broad band extends
to the insulated carboniferous patch already referred to at East
Branch, Doctor’s Brook, and its small tributary en the north which
extends to the vicinity of the fossiliferous band; it extends westerly
and terminates on the south side of the east branch of Mill Brook
almost due south of the mouth of McAra’s Brook. Here the lower
carboniferous sandstones also rest on it unconformably as on the

2

18 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA.

shore strata. It extends eastward under Doctor’s Brook. It
bifurcates and then trifurcates being divided by greenstones, its
_ branches pass onward, eastward, the northern branch terminates in
the fort-like rock at McNeil’s Barn, near Malignant Cove. ‘The
middle branch passes on and is lost among brush, &c. The
southern branch passes by not far from the point to which I
brought the shale from McNeil’s mountain, and proceeds onward
and appears to terminate on the south side of Malignant Cove
Sugar Loaf. Any continuation easterly must le under the car-
boniferous areas which extend onward to St. George’s Bay.

Art. Il. Review or Nova Scotran DiurnaL LEPIDOPTERA.
By J. M. Jonss, Esaq., F. L. S.

(Read, Nov. 14,.1870.),

NEARLY seven years ago, Mr. Thomas Belt read before this
Institute a paper entitled ‘‘ A list of Butterflies observed in the »
neighborhood of Halifax,” in which he included no less than thirty
species, the result of his observation and collection during the
years 1862-3. Since that time I have been able to add a few new
forms to the list, and also facts regarding the habits of the several
species, and trust the same may be found of service in advancing
our present knowledge of that interesting and beautiful class of
insects.

SWALLOW-TAIL, (Papilio turnus, Lin.)

This butterfly which is far more common during some seasons
than others, generally makes its appearance about the first week in
June. Mr. Belt says the Ist of June, but I have failed to note
its presence before the 7th of the month. A pleasant sight it is to
the eye of the entomologist to observe about the middle of that
genial month a lilac (Syringa vulgaris,) covered with its purple
masses of luxuriant bloom, on which may be seen many of these
pretty insects revelling in their honied sweets. Flitting alternately
from flower to flower, their delicate wings of lemon striped with
black, contrasting with the more sober colour of the flower, presents

JONES—ON. NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA. 19

a scene of natural beauty, sufficient to attract the attention of the
most heedless. That these insects have very acute olfactory
organs, I have had frequent opportunities of observing, and I can
safely say that they can scent the odour of lilac flowers when a
moderate breeze is blowing, for I have stood and watched them, at
a distance of 150 yards to feowaud Canadian entomologists state
that there are two broods during the summer in that part of the
Dominion, but in Nova Scotia, I think there is only one of this
species. A perfect community of these gaudy butterflies may be
seen occasionally hovering over and lighting upon wet spots on
roadways during the month of June, and I have observed that they
are by no means particular as to the nature of such moisture, for
I have several times seen them congregate in manure where horses
have lately staled. Gog in his very interesting work ‘‘ The
Canadian Naturalist,” remarks their fondness fon wet spots, and
says that he has counted as many as fifty-two in one such situation,
but no author that I am aware of has ever noted the circumstance
of their fondness for urine.

This species is found, more or less abundantly over the N. A.
continent as far south as Mexico, and as far north as Fort Simpson
on the Mackenzie River—according to Got it is also found in
Newfoundland.

h
Portia oleracea, (Har.)

According to Mr. Belt we have two kinds of this common
butterfly ; the first at the end of May, and the other in July. In
August abundant over potatoe patches.

This is one of the pests of the horticulturist, for it lays its eggs
and the caterpillars are hatched, upon the cabbage cauliflower,
and other oleraceous plants. In Nova Scotia we have however,
but little reason to complain of its ravages, for it is not what
naturalists would term abundant. It would have been a fortunate
circumstance had we only this one species of cabbage butterfly to
damage our crops, but as I shall show presently, we now possess a
perfect demon in this respect, which far outvies our native insect
in destructiveness.

It is distributed over the northern portion of the United States,
and the British Provinces.

20 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA.

mn ze
Poxtia rapee, (Steph.)

Although an Englishman and justly proud of the productions of
my native land, yet I must confess that in introducing to the
notice of the farmers and gardeners of Nova Scotia, this the well
known small cabbage butterfly of England, I am for once ashamed of
my fellow-countrymen, for of all the persistent destroyers of cabbage,
or cauliflower, perhaps this is the worst. All kinds of remedies
may be applied but still their green caterpillar does its work, and
whole beds of choice cauliflowers will become so leaf-eaten that
they will barely show a head larger than a dahlia. In my own
garden last summer I had a plot of some seventy or eighty
cauliflowers entirely ruined by this insect, and I heard repeatedly
from the country people in the market that they had suffered in a
similar way. It has only been known in the North American
continent within the last few years, having been introduced from
Europe. It was observed in Canada Proper some years ago, and
has been making its way eastward rapidly, until about three years
ago it first became known about Halifax. That it will increase
and-finally overrun the Province, is very certain, and farmers and
gardeners will now have to lament the destruction of their cabbage
and Cauliflower crops just as they do the red currants; and when
they consider that in this country we do not possess the sparrow
and tomtit, those inveterate enemies of insect life in all its forms,
it is really a matter for the serious attention of agricultural and
horticultural societies, whether it would not be advisable to intro-
duce these birds in order to counteract such injurious effects. The
citizens of New York, and I believe some of the Canadian towns,
have already introduced the common house sparrow of England,
and apart from its cheerful appearance and recall of home remem-
brances, the good it does in clearing away myriads of injurious
insects might be a sufficient inducement to recommend it to our
local authorities.

Colias philodice, (Godt.) ‘ Clouded Sulphur.”

This may be considered our commonest butterfly ; at least in the
neighbourhood of the Atlantic coast. They do not appear abun-
dantly in wet seasons. |

JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA. 21

First appearance, June 4th, 1866.
Latest, ‘* Ist week in November.

frequenting the flowers of the fall dandelion, (Leontodon autum-
nale) the only field plant left in bloom.

Although a field may appear covered with them, yet if a cloud
overshadows the same for even a few minutes, not a Colias is to be
seen. It is a happy circmstance that this species is not destructive
to our garden crops, merely resorting to the plants of the field for
nourishment in the caterpillar and zmago states. It resembles
greatly the clouded yellow (Colias edusa,) of England. There
are two broods of this species, the first in May and the last in July
or August. Mr. Belt says that there are probably three broods,
but as in the case of some birds which breed earlier or later
according to circumstances, I fancy the newly born specimens of
this butterfly which we see in September, are late cases of a
second brood.

Danais archippus, (Fabr.)

This may be considered a very rare species in Nova Scotia, only
a few specimens being observed each summer. In the autumn of
1863, Mr. Belt took a few specimens on the Citadel hill, and
about that time I saw a specimen in the hands of a child in the
Dutch Village. Mr. Downs, however, informs me on the
authority of Mr. John Winton, that it is not so rare in the valley of
the Shubenacadie. This large and handsome butterfly is very
common in the Bermudas, where I have taken several specimens
as well as the caterpillar which feeds upon the ipecachuan plant
(Asclepias curassavica). It is also common in Lower Canada,
United States, and I believe also the northern parts of South
America, for I have specimens which were blown on board a vessel
when off Cape St. Roque in Brazil, at which time perfect clouds
composed of this and three or four other species of butterflies
literally darkened the sky. These enormous gatherings of butter-
flies blown off the coasts of different countries, are alluded to by
Darwin and the naturalists who have personally witnessed them.
They are supposed to be migrating.

22 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA:

Argynnis aphrodite, Fab.
A. cybele, (Godt.)

This may rank second as a common species in our Province,
being very abundant during the latter part of our short summer.
It is in the month of August that the collector will find the most
perfect specimens, as later on in the early part of September they
are generally observed with damaged wings. ‘They appear to be
partial to the flowers of the blue michaelmas daisy, and occur more
frequently in the depths of the forest far away from cultivation than
any other species. It appears to be common in Canada, and the
northern part of the United States.

Argynnis myrina, (Cramer) ‘* Myrina Butterfly” ‘* American
Pearl bordered Fritilla.”

This is one of our commonest species, generally appearing in
the neighbourhood of Halifax abaut the beginning of the second
week in July. At the close of that month they are perhaps most
numerous, frequenting the warmer and healthier spots, where on the

blossoms of the white-weed (Lucanthemum vulgare,) they appear

perfectly ‘‘at home.” Another favorite locality is a log road in
the forest not far from the settlements, where the sun pours down
its hottest rays. Here in company with sundry ‘‘ skippers” the
pretty little Myrina flits from spot to spot, opening and closing its
chequered wings unmolested save when a stray entomologist passes
by. Mr. Belt reports two broods during the summer.

Melitea ismeria (Boisd.)

Mr. Belt records the capture of this species at Lake Loon and
Lake Thomas, Halifax county, in July, but puts it down as
‘‘scarce.” Harris in his ‘‘ Haunts of Man,” states that he had only
seen one specimen. It is not a northern species, but is chiefly
confined to the southern United States.

Melitea Tharos, (Cramer. )
M. tharossa, (Godt. )
4. Pharos, (Drury. )
Very common, generally observed in company with the former
species and the skippers.

JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA. 23

Grapta interrogationis, (Godt.)
G. aureum (Cramer. )
G. calerewm, (Gom.)

Mr. Belt caught one of this species in the Horticultural
Gardens in Aug. 1863. I have not heard of any other instance of
its capture in the neighborhood of Halifax. It is common in the
northern United States and Upper Canada.

Grapta progne, (Cramer. )
Vanessa progne, (Godt.)
V. ¢argenteum, (Kirby.)

It appears to be widely distributed over the northern parts of
America, being found within the arctic circle and as far west as
Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie.

This is a somewhat common species about Halifax, appearing in
a damaged state early in the summer. These early broken winged
specimens are those that have secreted themselves in some
sheltered situation during the past winter, and perfect examples of
the year’s breod are not seen before the beginning of July.

Grapta Comma, (Harris.)

This species appears to be so variable in its markings that
entomological authers are much divided in opinion as to whether
there is more than one species. Mr. Belt showed me two well
defined varieties, which he declared were persistent, as he had
examined numbers of each, and the markings always exhibited the
same difference. The commonest of England (Grapta C. album)
which is very similar if not identical with our species, is also liable
to variation of marking, so probably it is one of those forms
several of which are known to zoologists, liable to variation
according to external circumstances.

Two varieties are found near Halifax, yet they are very locally
distributed.

24 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA.

Grapta argenteum, (Kirby.)

Under this name a species is included in the Pawna Borealt-
Americana, and Mr. Belt places it in his list as one of our Nova
Scotia forms. Harris considers it as a variety of G. comma.
The shores of the Dartmouth Lakes and shore of Lake Loon are
given on Mr. Beli’s authority as its habitats. Mr. Belt observed
it as numerous in spring and autumn near the Dartmouth Lakes

and Lake Loon.
Vanessa J. album, (Boisd.)

This butterfly may be considered rare in the neighbourhood of
Halifax, and as far as I have been able to ascertain, equally so
throughout the Province. Two or three specimens are the most
I have seen during a season. It sppears to be equally scarce in the
northern United States and Canada.

Vanessa milberti, (Godt. }
V. furcillata, (Say.)

This species has not been observed in the neighborhood of
Halifax, but has been taken in Truro and Windsor, or farther to the
north. This small and prettily marked species is a true boreal
form, being found as far north as lat. 63° in the Hudson’s Bay
Territory. In Newfoundland according to Gom it is the most
abundant of all the species found there. It is also common in
Canada but rare in the United States.

Vanessa entiopa, (Linn.)
Papilio antiopa, (How.)
Engonia antiopa, (Hubn.)

This species which is extremely rare in England is the very
reverse with us, being found everywhere in abundance. (lt is
also found in Prince Edward Island, whence I have received a
apecimen captured at Charlottetown, and kindly forwarded by J. 5.
Carvell, Esq.) So early as the first week in April if the sun
comes out bright and warm, isolated specimens, hibernated through
the last winter, shew themselves in our gardens and flit through the
streets, delighting the children with their presence, a pleasant sign
of the coming summer.

JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA. 25

Pyrameis atalanta, (Donb.)
Vanessa atalanta, (Fabr.)
Papilio atalanta, Linn.)
Ammiralis atalanta, (Renn.)

This is a rare butterfly in the neighborhood of our Atlantic
coast. Harris thinks that this species which is common in Europe,
was introduced into America with the common nettle. It is
especially abundant in some parts of England and Wales, particu-
larly the west of Shropshire and eastern part of Montgomeryshire,
where I have seen numbers together on the purple flowers of the
common scabious in the month of August. It is found very far
north on the American continent, and as far south as Mexico,
including some of the W. I. Islands. It occurs but rarely in the
Bermudas.

Pyrameis cardwi, (Donb.)
Papilio cardui, (Linn.)
Cynthia cardui, (Kirby.)
Vanessa cardut, (Godt.)
Libythea cardui, (Lam.)

This species which may be considered one of the most errant
forms on the globe, being found in every part of Europe, Asia,
Africa and America, Australia, Pacific Islands, is also common
with us.. It appears to be equally at home on the icy slopes of
Hudson’s Bay or the heated plains cf Africa—in the centre of the
European continent or on the small rocky islets of Bermuda. The
only difference I have observed in the several insects from such
localities in the British Museum collection, is in the depth of colour
of the wings—those from northern climes being of a brighter and
fresher colour than those of the tropics. Probably the heated rays
of the equatorial sun tend to fade them.

Pyrameis Huntera, (Donb.)

. Papilio Huntera, (Abb. et Smith.)
P. Lole, (Cram.)
P. cardui Virginiensis, (Drury.)
Cynthia Huntera, (Kirby.)
Vanessa Huntera, (Steph.)

26 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA.

This species is quite abundant some seasons, but equally scarce
in others. It appears very late about the end of September, and
may be seen on the blossoms of the Fall dandelion (Leontodon
autumnale) as late as the third week in October. It is some —
years quite as common as the Painted Lady B. According to the
synopsis of N. Am. Diurnal Lepidoptera, published by the Smith-
sonian Institution, the United States specimens are as large as
P. cardui—--with us they are perceptibly smaller. The Citadel Hill
was a favorite resort of this as well as other desirable species, but
unfortunately that excellent preserve during the last few years has
been closed to this entomologist.

Nymphalis arthemis, (Drury.)
Nymphalis artemis, (White. )
NV. lamma, (Fabr.)
This fine strong-winged butterfly is by no means common in

the neighborhood of the Atlantic coast, nor do I think it is more
abundant in the interior. It is difficult to capture from its rapid

flight and habit of flying high, and it seems to be partial to the —

forest, where it loves to bask on some hardwood leaf, opening and
shutting its wings to the sun. I have observed it has a habit of
returning to the very same leaf it rested on when first surprised,
and if the collector remains perfectly still he will generally in a few
minutes time have another chance of netting the specimen. They
appear also to be partial to old roadways on the borders of the
forest. It appears about the first or second week in July, and I
have seen it still about on the 11th of August. It is a boreal form,
being found on the American continent as far north as lat. 63°
but seldom farther south than 43°.

Nymphalis disippus, (Gordy.)
NV. misippus, (Fabr.)
NV. archippus, (Cramer. )

Limenitis ursula.

Several species as a rule may be considered local in their dis-
tribution, being much influenced by the geological or botanical
features of the country; several species found on our barren

MARETT—ON THE COPPER MINES AT TILT COVE. 27

Atlantic coast being unknown in the interior or on the Bay of
Fundy shores, where the rich alluvial soil gives nourishment to a
more luxuriant vegetation. In the valley of Annapolis, during the
past summer, I had an opportunity of observing during a stay of
only two days the very great dissimilarity of its insect fauna
compared with that of the neighbourhood of Halifax. With the
exception of Lycena Americana, and one or two Hesperians,
I did not observe about Annapolis itself, any of our more common
species, where Satyrus alope and Erebier nephile, species never
seen with us were extremely abundant. _I feel certain that it only
requires more thorough investigation to render this distinctive
character more apparent. The North Mountain if traversed from
Digby Neck to Blomidon, would probably afford many rare if nut
new species.

Art. III. On THE Copper anp NickeL Mines at Tint Cove,
NEWFOUNDLAND. By Exias Marett, Esqa.,
St. JoHn’s, NiwFouNDLAND.

(Read December 12, 1870.)

Titt Cove, situated on the north side of Notre Dame Bay,
and about ten miles south of Cape John, a mere notch in the sea
wall, has nothing particular to distinguish it from any other similar
indentation on the same coast line of rugged lofty cliffs capped with
a growth of stunted spruce and fir trees. A wharf and a few
fishermen’s huts are alone visible on first approaching the land-
ing place. A few paces, however, across a narrow neck of land,
suddenly conduct the visitor into the midst of a busy thriving town,
which until lately, was part of the unreclaimed wilderness. ‘This
is the now notable mining centre of the ‘* Union Mining Company.”

The almost sudden transition, from a wild rock-bound coast, to
a neat, clean, and orderly town, is as pleasing as it is unexpected.
The town is built on the sides of a bowl-shaped hollow, the centre
of which is occupied by a lake, at the foot of lofty precipitous hills,
which completely encircle the place and shut out all view of the sea

28 MARETT—ON THE COPPER MINES AT TILT COVE.

or surrounding country. The Mine has been opened within the
last five or six years, and operations pushed forward with a vigour
and energy almost incredible. Before the opening of this mine,
‘‘ Tilt Cove” was inhabited by only a few fishermen and their
families; now, it contains a population of some twelve hundred
people, all connected with, or dependent on the works. Roads had
to be made in all directions, tramways laid down, wharves and
bridges built, dwellings, stores and workshops erected—everything,
in fact, had to be done to redeem from the wilderness a place
suitable for habitation and adapted to the exigencies of trade and
commerce. The settlement is now one of the most, if not the most
thriving of any in the colony. ‘There is a resident doctor, a clergy-
man (the Rev. J. Lockward) and a school master; a new church—
one of the handsomest and most substantial wooden buildings I
have ever seen in the colonies, has been erected for the benefit of
the inhabitants, by the liberality of the proprietors. The police is
admirable and order and quiet reign throughout. |
The mine was opened in 1864, and the progress has been so
rapid, that, in 1868 not less than eight thousand tons of copper ore —
were shipped to the mother country; last year (1869) about six
thousand tons were despatched ; the decrease in the quantity export-
ed does not imply any diminution in the amount of mineral brought
to the surface, but rather was occasioned by the state of the home
markets. At all events, the deficiency was amply made up by the
discovery of a rich vein of Nickel, greatly exceeding the value of
the copper, and of which thirty-three (33) tons were shipped last
year. In the present year, eighty (80) tons of Nickel have been
exported, and during my visit, from seven to eight hundred tons of
copper ore were despatched to England; while at the time of my
departure, one vessel was loading at the wharf and two others were
awaiting their turn. In order to avoid error, I ought, perhaps, to
mention that the ‘‘ copper” does not exist in veins but in deposits,
technically called by the Cornish miners ‘‘ pockets ” or ‘* bunches.”
The copper is shipped either crushed, washed and culled, or only
broken and culled, then transported to the ship’s side in waggons
containing nearly two tons each, by means of a tramway on a-
slight incline, in a rapid and expeditious manner. The crushing is

MARETT—ON THE COPPER MINES AT TILT COVE. 29

performed by means of a powerful steam engine. A difference is
observed in the washing of the copper and of the nickel ores.
The former are cleaned and culled by the process of jigging, but
the finely crushed Nickel is washed and picked out by means of a
graduated sluice, very much in the same manner as the gold wash-
ings; when dry, it is then barrelled up ready for exportation. I
was told that thirty tons of this valuable mineral were then ready
for shipment. The proprietors, Messrs. Bennett & McKay, are
said to have shared, after deducting all expenses, £32,000 of
profits between them, for the year 1868. Now that they have all
the plant, and with the Nickel vein in full operation, it would be
difficult to say how much more important the future results may
become. It is said that an offer of £200,000 was made for the
Mine by a London Company, which was declined.

The Geological Surveyor, Mr. Murray, says in one of his
reports: ‘‘ It would be difficult to imagine a place more conve-
niently situated for the commencement of mining operations than
this at Tilt Cove. The lofty vertical cliffs which rise on every side
give unmistakable evidence of the presence of mineral wherever it
exists ; which, were the ground of a more rounded or gentle cha-
racter, would necessarily be more or less concealed. All the work
hitherto done has been carried on in drifts at a higher level than
Windsor lake, thereby avoiding all necessity for pumping-engines,
or danger from inundations ; while the position of the place, by its
proximity to the sea, for embarking ore, is in the highest degree
advantageous. The rock with which the ore is immediately associ-
ated appears to be a chlorite slate, very ferruginous, with seams of
serpentine, and haying huge intercalated masses of a hard, compact,
greenish-grey crystaline rock.”

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of Tilt Cove is the Nickel
vein. ‘This is situated in the midst of a ferruginous hill, directly
facing the settlement, and which might, without stretch of imagina-
tion, be taken for an enormous mass of rusty iron, the refuse of
cyclopean furnaces.

The whole of the peninsula of ** Notre Dame” is highly
metalliferous, and is almost entirely taken up by adventurers
holding mining licences, or rather licences to search for minerals

30 MARET‘—ON THE COPPER MINES AT TILT COVE.

within certain prescribed limits. Everywhere along the sea cliffs
indications of copper and iron are plainly visible, cropping out
among the serpentines, which are exceedingly beautiful and varied.

If a line were drawn across the Island from Notre Dame Bay
to Cape Ray, the territory lying to the north and West of that line
would represent the metalliferous region of Newfoundland, at least,
so far as is yet known. The government survey is now in full
operation, and the surveyors are this year working their way across
the Island from Bay of Despair to Notre Dame Bay.

A few miles from ‘‘ Tilt Cove,” a second Mining Company—
that of «‘ Notre Dame,” has commenced operations, but as the mine
has been opened only within the last twelve months, the works are
much less extensive; though the prospects seem not inferior to
those of the Union Mine. There are several other places where
workings have been commenced on a small scale, but either from
lack of enterprise or of capital, the results have not been fortunate
and the works languish. .

There can be no doubt that the results of the geological survey
will reveal much that is both valuable and interesting, and hitherto —
unsuspected, and will] attract to the colony that which it stands so
greatly in need of—enterprise, capital, and population. With
failing, or, at the best, uncertain fisheries; there is great need of
new industries. The self-interest of a few individuals, acting upon
the ignorance of the mass of our people, has hitherto been the
means of keeping out capitalists and checking immigration. It can
scarcely be possible, however, that this state of things should be of
long continuance. And Newfoundland once thrown open will then
take her place and be welcomed as an equal in the confederacy of
the British Provinces, instead of being regarded, as she now is,
as only a ‘‘few barren rocks where the fisherman may dry his
nets.”—July, 1870.

October 25th, 1870.—Since the above was written the Rev.
Jno. Lockward has been in town, and told me that on account of
the failure in the demand for copper and nickel, owing to the
present war and other causes, the works at Tilt Cove are in a great
measure suspended, and a large number of the operatives dismissed.
It appears that the proprietors have not effected any sales this year

e

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 51

and consequently have large quantities of ores lying in their stores
in England. This check cannot be considered otherwise than as
a partial hindrance, which it is to be hoped will soon be removed.
The surveyors also have returned without accomplishing their
intended route, owing to the want of water and failure of stores.
I believe they returned upon their route when half way across.
It is true that we have had an exceedingly dry summer.

Art. [V.— ReEcorp oF OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY OF
Nova Scotia, since 1855. By Rev. D. Honzyman,
D.C.L., F.G.S8., &., Director of the Provincial

Museum.
“= (Read December 12, 1870.)

I PROCEEDED from Arisaig to examine the district about Anti-
gonish, I took the road that passes along Arisaig Brook and
Doctor’s Brook, through the mountains. South of these mountains
before descending into the lower ground I found a considerable
outcrop of Lower Carboniferous Limestone, shewing the existence
of the Carboniferous formation in this direction. Having reached
‘Antigonish, I commenced the examination of the subtriangular
area of rocks, of which the Sugar Loaf forms a part.

In this band there are two anticlinals and an intermediate
synclinal. The south side of the one anticlinal is overlaid uncon-
formably by carboniferous strata, and so is the north side of the
other. The axis of the southern anticlinal is in the line of the
summit rock of the Antigonish Sugar Loaf. This rock is green-
stone. ‘The line of the northern anticlinal is about two miles north
of the Sugar Loaf. The greenstone of this axis is exposed in an
outcrop on McDonald’s farm near the Gulf Road, and also in
McDonald’s Brook to the east. This axis extends eastward and
outcrops on the side of St. George’s Bay. It also extends west-
ward and outcrops in a bluff east of Saml. Cameron’s. This area
of metamorphic Arisaig strata is bounded S. W. and N. by
carboniferous strata. In a small brook at the side of the Gulf

32 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Road the limestone of the Doctor’s quarry and their underlying
conglomerates, are seen to lie unconformably on slates having their
cleavage joints glistening with scales of micaceous peroxide of iron.
The slates are the extreme outcrop of the south side of the southern
anticlinal; they dip at an angle of 55°, while the unconformable
conglomerates and limestones dip at an angle of 30°.

These facts are obvious, and the conclusion simple and prosaic ;
somewhat different it will be deemed from the poetic and lofty
imaginings of some theorists, who, without observing facts, have
seen the Sugar Loaf with its elevation of 710 feet (Bayfield) and
its congeners with a glorious saddle of thousands of feet of carbon-
iferous strata which have disappeared as if by magic, by the glorious
agents of denudation. These have succeeded wondrously in
establishing a connection between the various carboniferous areas of
Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, and of these conjointly with other
carboniferous areas of the American Continent in defiance of all
interposed obstructions and the sterling principles of Inductive
Philosophy.

The summit of the Sugar Loaf is about 14 miles from Anti- ©
gonish—the second axis at McDonald’s Brook is four miles from
the same town and the mountains at Walsh’s, the northern
exposure of the Silurian area. This appears to have been a small
subtriangular island in the sea of the lower carboniferous period.
There is a great band of conglomerates and grits with limestone
and gypsum on its southern side, which separates the Sugar Loaf
Silurian area from the great area of which the mountains of Arisaig
form a part. This lower carboniferous band connects the carbon-
iferous area which lies to the north of the Sugar Loaf area and
stretches to St. George’s Bay with the great carboniferous area
which lies to the south of the same area, and stretches to the Strait
of Canso. This band of conglomerates is an anticlinal—the axis
of this is concealed. It seems to be a continuation of the northern
axis of the Sugar Loaf area—the same axis seeming to pass into
the other Silurian area. Whether this is the fact or not, remains
to be proved by future investigation.

The gypsum deposits which lie to the south of the Sugar Loaf
area, and skirts it throughout its length extending along the

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 33

carboniferous conglomerate to the west, and skirting the other
Silurian area on the south, onward to James’s River, the longi-
tudinal extent being about fifteen miles, and extends to the settle-
ment of lower South River, breadthwise across the harbor. These
have manifested the existence of reservoirs of brine and saliferous
clays, having a thickness of at least six hundred and ten feet.
This accounts for the existence of the salt pond to which I referred,
and on the origin of which I speculated in my paper on the Geolo-
gy of Antigonish County, vide Transactions of the Institute, Vol.
2, Part 4.

In this area, situate on the south side of Antigonishe Harbour,
there is a very interesting exposure of syenites and overlying lime-
stones, which want more than a passing notice. A plan of these,
which I made for the Geological Survey, coloured, presented a very
curious appearance. The two rocks conjointly form a noticeable hill
of the elevation of three hundred feet above the sea level, according
to Bayfield. On the summit the limestone is parted by the syenite :
the one and the other contending for the supremacy. The lime-
stone forms the summit rock; the limestone is highly fossiliferous
throughout—the prevailing fossils are cyrtoceras, connularia, den-
tatium, and leperditia. Leperditia Okeni is very abundant.
The limestone here has this fossil in common with the Windsor lime-
_ stones. I believe I found this organism in the Windsor limestones
prior to its discovery by Mr. Hart, and I identified it as the Leper-
ditia Okeni in the Hunterian Museum of the University of Glas-
gow in 1865. When I was Commissioner at the Dublin Exhibi-
tion, I found its representative in the fine collection of Leperditia and
other entomostraca belonging to Dr. Hunter, Curator of the Mu-
seum. Another fact connected with the limestone in question is,
that it does not appear to be affected by contact with the syenite,
in the way that the Oneida conglomerate of Arisaig has been affect-
ed by contact with the greenstone. In contact with the syenite, I
found the limestone and its fossils without the slightest appearance
of alteration. I collected specimens of connularia from the sum--
mit limestone in as good condition as any connularia that I had
met with. This shews unquestionably that the syenite is differ-
ent in its origin from greenstone, and also that the process of meta-.

3

34 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

morphism, by which it acquired its present constitution, was com-
plete before it attained its present position ; and that the limestones
were formed directly upon the syenite in the bottom of the sea
of the carboniferous era. The conglomerates around Antigonishe
and Cape St. George have had a good deal of attention given to
them. I was long puzzled to know whence they derived the most
of their pebbles. One large mass on the shore of St. George’s Bay,
north of Ogden’s, contained a boulder of coarse red granite, such as
is to be met with at Sherbrooke and Country Harbour, but not nearer,
as far as was known or suspected. The grits of Yankee Grant which
are used in the construction of the Antigonishe cathedral, are micace-
ous ina wonderful degree. The question arose whence came the mica?
The grit in Malignant Brook, to the North of St. Mary’s chapel,
are equally micaceous, whence comes the mica? The sandstones
with carboniferous flora at Graham’s Brook, near Cape George,
were also very micaceous. In short, the farther the lower carbon-
iferous strata became removed from known granitic rocks, the
mica appeared to increase in proportion. All was made clear, or
nearly so, by the discovery of an interesting series of rocks on the
shore of Northumberland Strait, where I had long assumed the
existence of a continuation and connection of the conglomerates of
Malignant Cove and Cape St. George. This band, which is of
considerable breadth, consists of diorites, hornblende rock, ophite,
ophiocalcite, black quartzite, with quartz veins, having abundance
of crystals of silvery mica. Succeeding these are bands of white and
red syenite, having veins of green felspar. These syenites are spa-
ringly hornblendic. Without much hesitation I concluded that I had
discovered a band of Laurentian rocks, the ophiocalcites particularly
leading me to this conclusion. I had never seen the Laurentian
rocks of Canada, but I had seen and studied the fine collection
of specimens of Laurentian rocks in the Canadian and Newfound-
land departments, in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. This collec-
tion was exhibited by the Geological Commission of Canada. The
part of the collection in the Canadian department was distant from
the front of our court only the breadth of the passage, and the
Newfoundland part not six feet from the door of my office; so that
the collection and I became somewhat familiar in the course of six

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 35

months. I thought I had met my Canadian acquaintance at Ari-
saig. The discovery of Eozoon, by Drs. Dawson and Hunt, in
specimens of the Arisaig ophiocalcite has confirmed this opinion. In
all probability this band of metamorphic rocks is overlaid unconform-
ably by lower carboniferous strata. Passing from Malignant Cove
along the road to Antigonishe we meet with a good outcrop of sand-
stones These lie to the east of the terminal range of the Arisaig moun-
tains, e.g. Sugar Loaf and McNeil’s mountains already referred to. A
continuation of these sandstones eastward will pass south of the Lau-
rentian rocks, without giving much room for intervening rocks.
This region is forest. In this Laurentian series, it will be observed,
_ there exists mica sufficient to account for the micaceous character of
the grits and sandstones already referred to. Many of the pebbles
of the conglomerates also noticed may have come from this quarter.
The only desideratum is a rock which could furnish the red granite
boulder of the mass of conglomerate found on the shore of St.
George’s Bay. Although the rock has not been found, there is
every probability that it may be found there. Of this we are cer-
tain at least, that all the constituent minerals are there, although I
have not found them united in the same rock, so as to form the rock
required. Igo astep farther, and regard the syenite of McNeil’s
mountain with the middle and upper silurian metamorphic cverlying
it, and also the syenite with the overlying Leperditia limestone as
outcrops of the Laurentian series ; and then I would adopt Profes-
sor Hind’s view of the character and age of the granite, and regard the
Sherbrook and Country Harbour rocks as outcrops of the same se-
ries, and consider that one process of metamorphism affected the
whole of this class of rocks in Nova Scotia.

I find the following observation in Acadian Geology, Ed. 1855,
chap. 14, Devonian and Upper Silurian Systems, page 311, ‘* Gra-
nite composed of distinct crystals of quartz, felspar and mica.
Granite is a rare rock in this district, though found in great masses
in the other metamorphoric districts.

In my paper on the Geology of Londonderry Iron Mines, read
before this Institute in winter 1866-7, I noticed the existence of
granite among the rocks underlying the slates containing the iron
eres. These observations converge to the same point.

36 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

I have already observed that I found granite in 2 mountain at
Big Baddeck, and was thereby led to infer and maintain that the
auriferous slates of Wagamatcook, or Middle River Cape Breton,
lying at no great distance from the mountain, were Lower Silurian
metamorphic, like the slates of Nova Scotia Gold Fields. I would
now observe, that among the specimens of polished marble sent to
the Paris Exhibition from Nova Scotia there was a specimen of
green marble (serpentine) exhibited by W. A. Hendry, Esq.,
Deputy Commissioner of Crown Lands. This specimen attracted
some attention. It was particularly noticed by Dr. Sterry Hunt,
of the Canadian Geological Commission, and Professor Lesley.
Professor Wyville Thomson, of Belfast, also noticed it, and detect-
ed in it what he called Eozoonal structure. He asked me where it
came from, and from what geological formation. I replied, from
Cape Breton ; that I had not examined the locality ; that Dr. Daw-
son in his Acadian Geology had supposed that Devonian rocks pre-
vailed in the region. Considering that the specimen would be of
service in proving that the Hozoon Canadense was not organic,
he asked for the specimen and received it. The specimen excited
some commotion in London, among the Eozoonal controversialists.
Dr. Hunt cognizant of all this, ventured to make the following fore-
cast. ‘* A line drawn from Malignant Cove (Arisaig) Laurentian
to Newfoundland, will pass through Cape Breton, we may now ex-
pect to find limestones with Kozoon there.” (Professor Hind’s letter,
addressed to Hon. R. Robertson, Chief Commissioner of Mines,
Nova Scotia—Chronicle Newspaper.) Whether this specimen has
Eozoon structure or not, there is one thing certain, that the speci-
men resembled the Laurentian, of Arisaig, and there is every proba-
bility that the Cape Breton WEAR, na the Arisaig are of the
same geological age—Laurentian. With a view to a farther eluci-
dation of the subject, I requested Mr. Murray, student of the Pres-
byterian Theological Hall, when going to Cape North, C. B., last
spring, to bring for the Museum specimens of the prominent rocks.
Among the specimens which he brought there are very coarse
granites ;—two from Whitehead, Aspy Bay, one from a granite
rock situate about fifteen miles from Cape Ray, or seventeen and a
half miles S. S. W. from Whitehead. The felspar of the speci-

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEGLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 37

mens is flesh coloured; the quartz glassy white and red; the mica
black and white. Some of the plates of black mica are 1 x 4 inch;
ethers 14 x linch. The inland specimen of granite is the exact
counterpart of the specimen from the mass of conglomerate in St.
George’s Bay: this is a coincidence. Comparing a specimen of
the red syenite of the Laurentian at Arisaig, with a specimen of the
red syenite of the syenite and limestone mountain S. of Antigonishe
harbour, I find that the latter is much more hornblendic than the
former. I find in the specimen of the Antigonishe harbour syenite
a plate of green mica, the same as the mica of the specimen of gra-
nite from the Big Baddeck mountain. Mr. Hendry has kindly
located Wagamatcook Gold Field and the St Ann’s serpentine on
a map of Cape Breton, belonging to the Crown Land office. This
map is on a scale of 24 miles to the inch. Upon the same map,
Mr. Murray and Mr. Austen, ef the Crown Land department, have
located for me the rocks in the district of Aspy Bay, which pro-
duced the specimen of granite. On drawing a straight line on this
map from Baddeck mountain so as to bisect the line connecting
Whitehead with the locality having the granite, seventeen and a
half miles S. of W. from it—of course this is only to be consider-
ed an arbitrary line—I find that Wagamatcook auriferous slates is
five miles from the line on the one side, and St. Ann Laurentian
three miles from the same line on the other side. These facts are
somewhat striking, and may indicate Cape Breton as the meeting
place of undoubted Laurentian and auriferous silurian, and as
connecting Arisaig Laurentian with the granites of the Nova Scotian
Gold Field.

In this way we come to the conclusion at which Professor Hind
had arrived, by a shorter process, in reference to the Geological age
of the gneissoid rocks of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.

It will be observed that there are certain great geological
formations that lie between the Laurentian and Middle Silurian
which have no representative at Arisaig or the other localities which
it represents, viz., the Huronian or Cambrian, and the Lower
Silurian. Dr. Dawson in his Acadian Geology, lst Ed. pointed
out the band of rocks on the Atlantic coast which are the gold bear-
ing rocks as Lower Silurian. I imitated his example in maintaining

38 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

this view in the Geological Society in 1862. Dr. Dawson still
maintains his position in his Hd. of 1867. Prof. Hind has lately
advanced a step farther, and shews the granite to be gneissoid and
Laurentian, and the overlying formations which constitute the band
in question to be Cambrian, Huronian and Lower Silurian.

I have heretofore chiefly appealed to the evidence of fossils,
directly or indirectly, in proving geological age or succession.

In investigating the Nova Scotian auriferous band of rocks, this
kind of evidence appears to fail us. I have searched long and
diligently among the grits and slates of this series of rocks, for
fossils, but hitherto without success. I have found from time to
time, above the rocks, or in them, what I considered to be fossils,
or possibly fossils, the former turned out to be of carboniferous age,
the latter, mineral structure. I am afraid that the experience of
other observers has been somewhat like my own. It is then, as
heretofore, on other grounds that I regard the rocks in question, as
differing from the non-crystalline rocks of Arisaig, and as at least
contributing to fillup the gap mentioned. During my term of
service in the Geological Survey of Canada, I made what I believe
to be a complete collection of the Middle and Upper Silurian rocks
of the counties of Antigonishe and Pictou, These are to be found
in the Provincial Museum, along with representative specimens of
the rocks of the auriferous band collected at Waverly, Wine
Harbor, Halifax and Dartmouth, &c. There is no possibility of
confounding the two sets of rocks.

There is no rock in Antigonishe or Pictou that can be mistaken
for the pyritiferous and andalusite slates of the N. W. Arm and
Point Pleasant—the same may be said. of the pyritiferous grit called
whin. The argillites have altogether a different aspect from any
of the argillites of Antigonishe or Pictou. The Oneida conglom-
erate and the Medina sandstone, unaltered or altered, have no
resemblance whatever to the grit or whin. The Clinton altered
slates with their iron deposits, and abundance of quartz veins,
occasionally slightly resemble some of the auriferous argillites, and
have thereby attracted the attention of gold seekers, and given
occasion for newspaper announcements of gold discoveries. But
the slates cannot for a moment be mistaken for those of the Gold

/

HONEYMAN—-ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 39

Fields, by the practised eye, and the search for gold in these veins
of quartz has been a vain one, and the reported discoveries have no
foundation in fact. Arisaig, East River, Irish Mountain, Suther-
land’s River, and Antigonishe, have all had a short-lived reputation
of this kind. Cape Porcupine belongs to the same category except
that its reputation has assumed a permanent form, having been
perpetuated in the pages of the progress volume of the Geological
Survey of Canada, 1869. We read thus, page 745, ‘“‘In Nova
Scotia although the gold occurs throughout the coast series, it is
also said to be found at Cape Porcupine in rocks of the same age
as these upper slates (Silurian or Devonian.) This probable iden-
tification of a part of the gold formation of Nova Scotia, with the
altered Upper Silurian and Devonian strata of Eastern Canada,
gives an additional economic interest to these rocks whose metal-
liferous character has already been commented upon on pages 711
and 734.” -

One of the best sections of the Clinton argillites of the regions
referred to, is on the line of railway from Pictou to Truro, com-
mencing near the Gairloch station and proceeding onward towards
Truro. -A passing observer can easily distinguish the difference
between the argillites there exposed and the argillites of the Gold
Wields seen in sections on the Railway from the Grand Lake toward
the Junction and Still-water between Mount Uniacke and Windsor.
I would yet advance another reason, which I regard as shewing the
priority in time of the rocks of the Gold Fields. These rocks
e. g., between Freshwater and Point Pleasant, exhibit a higher
degree of metamorphism than those of the Arisaig Middle and
Upper Silurian series, (metamorphic,) with flexures and contor-
tions which the others do not exhibit, such as are to be seen in the
Lower Silurian of the Highlands of Scotland and in Wales.

This appears to me to be at least presumptive evidence of
unconformability existing between the Arisaig series and the Gold
Fields. It would have been more satisfactory if we had had the
one set of rocks directly superimposed on the other. ‘This, I
have been altogether unable to find. It may be considered that
I have been here labouring to prove what is universally taken for
granted. I have already stated that the opinion has been main-

40 FOORD—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

tained by eminent authority, and that the priority of the auriferous
formation to the Middle and Upper Silurian has not been univer-
sally conceded, or is altogether so evident as most people appear to
imagine. There appears to be some reason for supposing that
the rocks in question may be Devonian, as the only rocks found
directly superimposed upon these are the unquestionable lower
earboniferous. If this were taken as indubitable or even pre-
sumptive evidence of the position, it would carry too far and
lead to the conclusion that every argillite immediately overlaid by
lower carboniferous was Devonian, and we would thus be carried
back to a very remote period in the History of Nova Scotian
Geology, if any such period ever existed. It will be observed that
all that I attempt to prove is that the auriferous slates and grits of
Nova Scotia are older than the Middle and Upper Silurian, and
newer than the Laurentian, and may be Cambrian or Huronian, or
Lower Silurian or both. If they are Huronian and Lower Silurian,
as Prof. Hind seems to have established, then Nova Scotia has a
complete series of formations from the Azoic or Kozooic to the last
of the Paleozoic series, viz: Laurentian, Huronian, Lower Silurian,

Middle Silurian, Upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, New
Red Sandstone.

Art. V. Remarks ON THE GEOLOGY AND PuysicaL GuO-
GRAPHY OF THE NorTH-EAST Coast OF KENT ( ENGLAND.)
August, 1870. By Aturrep S. Foorp, Ese., Lonpon.

(Read January 9, 1871.)

My attention was first directed to that part of the coast of
Kent between Ramsgate and *Broadstairs, covering a distance of
about five miles, and consisting of the Upper Chalk Formation,
the cliffs being well exposed along the whole distance in a bold
escarpment, attaining an altitude in some places of from sixty to
eighty feet.

The most striking point observable in viewing these rocks from

*Formerly Bradstowe.

FOORD—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 41

the sea, is the effect produced by the enormous wasting power of
the waves. The whole line of the coast is deeply embayed, and
exhibits a series of projecting headlands or promontories. In some
places caves of considerable size have been formed at the base of
the cliff, hollowed out by the constantly wearing action of each tide.
These caves are apparently the cause of great masses of the chalk
giving way at the summit of the cliff; large boulders of chalk strew
the beach, and a flooring is formed in some places, by the consolid-
ation of these masses: in others the rock falls in, and makes an
inclined plane with the surface of the beach, sometimes ten or
fifteen feet in height.

Almost the entire length of the coast at low water is strewn by
large boulders of chalk; locally termed ‘‘the rocks,” extending
seawards for a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile; quantities of
seaweed —fucus —and barnacles, adhere to these boulders, thereby
protecting them from the force of the breakers.

On a closer inspection of the cliff, regular layers of flint are
seen in a horizontal position, at intervals of from four to six feet
apart,—parallel with the lines of stratification. Some of the layers
obliquely intersect the beds of chalk. The shape which the flints
assume is either tabular or rounded in the most fantastic forms,
having filled up cavities in the chalk, and taken the form of these
cavities.

* << The flat tabular flints, which are coincident with the
stratification, are of a different age from the similar layers which
are found filling cracks and joints. The former are contempor-
aneous with the chalk, and the flinty matter was deposited at the
same time as the chalky matrix; the latter are, on the contrary,
of more recent date, having been formed by the percolation of
infiltrating water holding silica in solution, into cracks and joints
which were formed in the chalk, during or after its solidification.”

It may perhaps be needless to remark that chalk is nearly pure
carbonate of lime, and may therefore be considered an earthy
limestone.

Mr. Henry Clifton Sorby (the distinguished Microscopist),
from an examination of thin slices of chalk under a microscope, has

*From Catalogue of Museum of Practical Geology, 1862.

49 FOORD--—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

found it to consist of from ninety to ninety-five per cent of the cases
of foraminifera, and of comminated shells. Considering that the
thickness of the chalk formation in England amounts to from six
hundred to nine hundred feet, we are hardly able to realize the
incalculable profusion of life which was required in order to build
up such a vast thickness and superficial extent of material.

% % * * % * % *% * *

A curious instance of marine denudation occurs at Margate,
consisting of a detached mass of chalk about forty feet high, known
as the ‘‘ Fort Rock,” (fig. 3.) Before this rock became isolated,
the sea had: made an extensive excavation around it, and at last the
soil above it crumbled and fell. On visiting the spot this summer,
I found the space from the edge of the cliff to the rock on all
sides to be at least ten or twelve feet. This marine denudation
offers. a strong contrast to atmospheric denudation, the former
produces jagged peaks, as in the Needle rocks at the Isle of Wight,
the latter results in undulating slopes, such as the North and South
Downs of Kent and Sussex.

It may not be out of place here to allude to the supposed
former junction of England with the Continent ; the following being
the chief grounds for the assumption :—

Firstly.—The close resemblance in the chalk formation of the
two opposite countries of England and France (which may be said
to be continuous,) at Dover and Cape Griznez, for example, (see
map.)

Secondly,—The extreme shallowness of the water in the straits
of Dover—the existence of sand banks—notably the *** Goodwin
Sands,” where the chalk has been found by borings underlying
fifteen feet of sand, resting on blue clay.

Thirdly,—The identity of the wild animals in historic times,
such as the wolf, which infested both countries; and lastly, the
discovery of fossil remains of the cave bear, hyena, rhinoceros, lion,

*Notz—An obscure tradition has come down to us, that the estates of Earl
Godwin, the father of Harold, who died in the year 1053, were situated here, and
some have conjectured that they were overwhelmed by the flood mentioned in the
Saxon Chronicle, sub. anno. 1099. The length of this sand bank is about ten
miles, by one and one-half in breadth.

FOORD—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 43

tiger, and other tropical mammalia, not only indicating a warmer
climate, but also suggesting the idea that these creatures must have
found their way from the continent by means of an isthmus, which
at that time may have united the neighbouring shorcs.

Subjoined is a list of fossils, and other specimens, from the
chalk, collected principally near Ramsgate, in illustration of this

paper.
Ananchytes ovatus.

Diadema ornatum.
Pecten nitidus.

“4 \ Terebratula subrotunda.

& Galerites albo-galerus.

, \ Ventriculitas in flint, (with Pyrites) and Selenite sulphate
vai of lime.

oon se

~ | Spongia.

Micraster, cor-anguinum, (in Chalk.)
Ditto. (in flint.)
Scales of Beryx ornatus (? )

At Pegwell Bay, the chalk thins out and finally disappears on
approaching a low lying tract at the mouth of a small river called
the Stour. The Thanet sand, a fine soft light colored sand, (the
lowest member of the Tertiary or Eocene group,) here resting on
the chalk, commences just below the surface soil; it is much
crumbled by the sea, the debris being scattered about the beach.

Some of these masses hardened by exposure, act as natural
breakwaters.

In many places, one finds in walking along the edge of the cliff,
that the footpath has been remade several yards further inland, in
consequence of large portions of the cliff having fallen in, and been
rapidly washed away by the sea. In some parts of the cliff, close
to the village of Pegwell, it has become necessary to build up the
chalk with brick-work in order to prevent its further destruction.

Miniature landslips are very frequent, both of the chalk and the
Thanet sand, dragging with them small trees and bushes growing
on the edge of the cliff, strewing the shore with roots and soil.

Having ascertained that the coast line from Herne Bay (a

44 FOORD—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

place still retaining the name of a bay, although it is no longer
appropriate as the waves and currents have swept away the ancient
headlands,) to the Reculvers displays a good section of the
Tertiary beds, I started off along the cliff, from the former place
to examine it. For the first mile or so the cliffs shelved gently
down to the beach, covered with grass and stunted bushes. Further
on continual disintegration of the soft clay and sands (partly due
to atmospheric causes), prevented the growth of vegetation of any
kind except a few patches of weeds. Landslips of considerable
magnitude are constantly occurring.

In one spot I noticed that at least a quarter of an acre 6 soil,
upon which potatoes were planted, had sunk about ten feet from the
top of the bluff upon which I stood ; and now rested on a platform
made by a previous falling in of the cliff. When about a mile and
a half from the Reculvers I reached a deep gorge, (called Oldhaven
Gap,) opening out on to the beach—the cliffs forming as it were
the walls of the Gap, attaining an altitude of from sixty to eighty
feet. At lengtk I arrived at the venerable towers of ‘‘ Reculver,”
and repaired to the ‘‘ King Ethelbert” inn, to recruit myself previ-
ous to a return to Herne bay, along the sea-shore. A brief ac-
count of the past history of this interesting spot will, I venture to
think, be acceptable to the Society, especially to those who are in-
terested in the subject of Archeology.

«* Reculver (Reculvium) was an important military station in
the time of the Romans, and appears, from Leland’s account, to
have been, so late as Henry VIII’s reign, nearly one mile distant
from the sea. Some time before the year 1780, the waves had
reached the site of the ancient Roman camp, or fortification, the
walls of which had continued for several years after they were un-
dermined to overhang the sea, being firmly cemented into one mass.
They were eighty yards nearer the sea than the church, and they
are spoken of in the Topographica Britannica, in the year 1780, as
having recently fallen down. In 1804, part of the chureh-yard,
(with some adjoining houses,) was washed away, and the ancient
church, with its two spires, was dismantled as a place of worship.”
(Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘‘Principles of Geology,” page 312.)

I recollect as a child visiting the spot in 1850, and finding some

FOORD—ON ENGLISH GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 45

human bones in the church-yard, which was then partly exposed on
the sea-ward side.

It is said that King Ethelbert chose Reculver as his place of re-
sidence, and that he was buried there about the year 616. The
church is now preserved as a landmark by the Trinity House, and
being situated on a headland, it is a conspicuous object to vessels
making for the mouth of the Thames.

As the tide was now ebbing, though slowly, in consequence of a
very strong north-easter, I turned back along the beach in the di-
rection of Herne Bay. A most interesting section was here exhi-
bited of the superposition of some of the beds constituting the
Lower Eocene formation. Fig. 1 shows the manner in which
these Beds are disposed ; and how much they have been denuded,
particularly the Oldhaven beds. The greater part of the rock ex-
posed to view between Reculver and Herne Bay consists of a yel-
lowish quartzose sand, very friable, but becoming more argillaceous
at the base; this is the Thanet sand. Large tabular blocks of in-
durated sandstone are interspersed at the upper part; these masses
become detached from the parent bed and strew the beach, serving
in some measure to retard the destructive progress of the waves.
A water-worn pebble of this sandstone, coloured with iron, is exhi-
bited.

Beneath the ‘‘ Thanet sands” is a highly fossilliferous deposit,
in which cyprina are met with in great abundance. These are so
brittle that it is almost impossible to obtain a perfect specimen.
The London clay is found capping these sands. It contains great
quantities of concretionary nodules of an argillaceous substance,
called septaria, which is in some places dug out of the clay, and
used for making cement. Selenite, (sulphate of lime,) also
abounds. Two specimens are shown, which I picked up on the
beach, much water-worn; the larger one being an arrow-headed
crystal, the characteristic form of this mineral.

The general appearance of the coast between Herne Bay and
the Reculvers is remarkably picturesque. The large boulders of
sandstone which bestrew the shore ; the imposing height and broken
aspect of the cliffs, with the surf dashing up, and loosening large
fragments of rock, that come tumbling down amidst clouds of spray ;
all combine to form a wild and beautiful picture.

46 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. -

Tradition tells us that in times long past, the fields with their
erops now on the verge of the precipice, were once nearly a mile
from the sea; but every year, nay every day, is preparing for them
a ‘* watery grave;” and where the husbandman now guides his
plough along the furrowed earth, the fisherman will some day (per-
haps not far distant) be seen steering his little craft through the

foaming waves.

N. B.—Reference is made in several parts of the foregoing
aper to ‘* Fioures” illustrating various deposits; but it is hardly ©
par 8 S p y

necessary to reproduce them.

Art. VI. On THe Mammatia oF Nova Scotia. By J.
BERNARD Ginprin, A. B., M.D., M.R.C.S.

(Read February 18, 1871.)

Lepus, ee ime. (Erxlebein, Shaw, Richardson, Dekay,
Audubon, Baird.)

Lepus, Hudsonius, (Palias, Bodaert. )

Lepus, nanus, (Schreiber. )
Lepus, Virginianus, (Harlam.)
American Hare, (Penant, Foster.)

THe AMERICAN HARE.

From measuring many specimens before me, the following are the
least and the greatest measurement 1 have made :—

duenath of JOY... 524 o- asinscigs acts mepaly"( es
Length to outstretched hind leg................ 24
Length of Rody. eh RES Lee DOr st
Lensth to outstretched hind leg. eae sae Bor ue:
Length of hind Neg... «..50+s'sdee grate seen eee Diape
ero OLWCAT adres tes etor-recns » oe aa eee oH
Ajensth-of head -...5.00.002.4. 0.50. ea eee ony

Their bodies seeming to vary more than their extremities. The

smaller were doubtless the young of the year.

In form they shew the

usual leporine characteristics of arched forehead, high back and great
length of hind leg, a crouching attitude when in repose with feet

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 47

concealed ; in swift motion a rapid galop of immense leaps, with hind legs
thrown far behind ; and in slow motion, the hind legs with the whole foot
to the heel resting upon the ground. The colour of one before me snared
1st November, 1870, is, head, neck, back, and upper parts, sepia brown,
with a yellow wash. At base these hairs are lead colour and covered by
lead coloured fur. Belly white inside of fore legs, and fronts of
thighs and legs to hind toes mixed white and brown. Inside hind legs
white. Tail white, with mixed sooty hoary on the top, throat and
fronts of forelegs yellowish brown, underneath the throat or chin
greyish white. A dusky line leads from the tip of chin, emargines the
nose and runs up to the forehead; there is also insideof this a white
margin to the nose. Whiskers black, about four inches long. Ears
outside fold or front brownish, the backs hoary, a narrow black edging on
two thirds of the ears terminated in the broad black tip, the inside of the
ear was furred about an inch downwards, giving a small white lining to
the black border, the rest naked. ‘The feet, both fore and hind, covered
by thick, yellowish rusty fur. ‘There were many coarse darkish hairs all
over the back, and the base of all the hair either brown or white was
lead colour. The eye was large and yellow, the nostrils frontal oblique,
concealed by nose. Upper lip deeply divided to above insertion of
frontal tooth with a naked membrane extending into nostril. The fore
feet had four toes with a rudimentary thumb, the hind feet four. The
toes both hind and fore are connected by a membrane to first joint and
are densely furred. This, snared in November may be taken as a
specimen of summer pelage, before the winter change. I notice that
Baird describing the same hare from more southern specimens speaks of
brilliant reddish or cinnamon tints. Ours exhibit none of those tints.
Should f colour a drawing of one I should use sepia and cover with a
yellowish wash. During the month of November, they change the brown
tints for a soiled and rusty white. The following description from one
before me, taken the middle of January, will serve as a description of the
ordinary winter pelage.

Colour of all the upper parts, white soiled by rusty; the lower parts
and hind parts, hair white as regards the belly, and soiled white behind.
The hair or fur is much longer and coarser on these parts. All the fur
beth upper and lower is lead colour at base, that on the back is rust
in middle and white at the tips. The nose and chin are always rusty; a
rusty circlet usually surrounds the eyes, and the front folds of the ear is
of the same colour. There is a streak of rusty down the front of fore
legs, and sometimes on the front of hind legs. All four pads and feet are
yellowish rusty. The tail is concealed by white longish hairs and the
sooty spot on its extremity nearly concealed by them. The backs of the
ears are nearly white, a black rim bordered by white and a black tip
remains as in summer.

Thus in studying the changes, we find the white belly, the
rusty pads and feet, and the borders and tips of the ears, remaining
unchanged ; all other parts turning more or less soiled white and

48 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the sepia brown changing into rusty. The variations in the
intensity of this colour in different individuals, are only numbered
by the individuals themselves. Some even in mid-winter remain
unchanged, and again I have noticed two or three nearly white and
stained by the sulphur wash so common in the winter weasel.
But generalising, pure white below, rusty white above, and pads,
nose, chin, circlets around the eyes, fronts of fore legs, and of ears,
rusty, may be called the winter pelage.

On the first of November you scarcely see any change upon
them except a little grizly on the forehead, or the fronts of thighs
getting white. By December the change is complete. The change
back again as the animal is not so directly under our notice is not
so well known. However in mid-May, I have seen the forest filled
by brown hares. Their gambols and attitudes reminding me of the
maxim ‘‘as mad as a March hare.” ‘This, no doubt is their
sexual season, and analogy would make us suppose they had
completed their summer coating. As regards the nature of this
change my observation leads me to suppose it is caused by casting
the old hair and having it renewed by a new coat. The spring
change undoubtedly is thus caused, and nature never employs two —
different causes. Those who maintain that it is caused by a sudden
change of colour, must explain how the end of each hair is only
changed, the base and middle remaining unchanged. In confine-
ment it is said they never change. I have no experience in this but
it is probably true, as I have seen, as before stated, individuals,
unchanged in mid-winter. This hare is very numerous in our
Province. Half-way in size to the Polar Hare, (L. glacialis.)
which changes into pure white and which inhabits Newfoundland
and Labrador to the Arctic circle, he is one half larger than the
wood hare, which inhabits Southern N. England (ZL. sylvaticus, )
and which never varies. ‘Though our hare strays into N. England
and is found near the Arctic circle, neither of these species are
known with us. His habits are solitary and so vigilart or shy that
you scarce put him up in the forest, yet the thous.uds that are
snared for the Halifax market, or the new fallen snow, covered and
crossed and recrossed by his tracks, attest his numbers. The
hemlock swamps are his favorite places, in the bunches of the long

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA~OF NOVA SCOTIA.’ AQ”

tussock gras8 there abounding, he makes his simple form—his.
food the various grasses, and when he can obtain it, the tender.
twigs and bark of the white birch. It is a common practice to fell -
a white birch in the forest to attract them. The next morning the
numerous tracks in the snow and the many victims, each snared in

his treacherous noose, attest their numbers about, though you may.

have searched the forest around the day before, and unseen, soli-.
tary, vigilant, each hidden in his shallow form, not one would

have met your view. ‘The tender buds of the black poplar and the

leaves of the pyrola are both said to afford them food. The female
brings forth her young in May or early in June, from four to six at.-
a litter. She is said to have two litters in the year in southern N...
England; but here, judging from the size of the young, I do not .
think she produces more than one, though of this I am uncertain.._
Entirely defenceless, depending upon her extreme watchfulness for:
her safety, she seems an easy banquet spread for our carnivora..-
The crafty fox and sly lynx prey upon her. The great tree.
weazels, the fisher and the martin, hunt her down. ‘The weazel

winds on her doubles, and men and idle boys cross her path with:
snares, and yet nevertheless such is her fecundity and vigilance that. .
she in her generations will see them all out. The number of sixty
thousand skins collected by one man at Halifax, during oue season,..
attest her present number in the Province.

_ Such is our varying hare; our forests abound with them, yet.
only twice, except at the April meeting, have I ever met them...
Once a half-breed dog put one up, and I had the opportunity of -
seeing two or three nice doubles, before she came into the open...
Here the stupid hound ran headlong over her scent, and she.
escaped. Once again I saw one, near an old saw mill, sitting on..
her haunches, her long ears pushed forward, and fore leg hanging .
loose. In the April before spoken of, I stood upon a tussock of’.
winter killedi¢rass and counted seven that I could have tapped with.:
my trout roi, and the forest all around seemed alive with their-..
moving forms. Nothing but sexual instinct could have produced-:
such a gathering. Usually she sits in her form in summer, brown,
as the dead grass and old hairs forming it, in winter white as the-
snow drift in which her tawny paws have scratched a hollow bed, :

&

50 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

in either place all but invisible, with her ever vigilant eye watching
every object, her great pendulous ears thrown toward every vibra-
tion, and her soft feet ready for a swift and noiseless retreat. No
wonder she escapes our observation, or that in the stillness of
the northern forest we marvel where the hordes are, that. last
night left their thousand footprints on that feathery rime that
covers the hard crusted snow, on each day’s night of those brilliant
sunny March days of our tardy Spring.

This ends our list of Rodentia, yet one introduced species must
be added to it. The domestic rabbit (Le cunicularius,) which
antroduced about seventy years ago on Sable Island, suffered to be-
«ome wild; and never recrossed by new individuals, has entered its
feral state. They have grown larger in size and have almost entire-
Jy assumed a common livery of silver gray with white collar. They
‘burrow in the sands of the Island, feed upon its rich grasses, and
wild pea vines, and apparently live without water, as colonies of
‘them live at least five miles from any fresh pond.

Wee come next to the Ruminantia, passing over the orders of
Edentata, Solidungula and Pachydermata, of whom we have no
representative in the Province except of the Solidungula, in the
‘horse introduced into Sable Island some hundred years ago, and
suffered to assume the feral state, and on which a paper has already
‘been read before ‘the Institute. | Our ruminantia include only two
individuals, but they make up for their fewness by their beauty,
‘and the majesty of itheir antlered proportions—the Cariboo and
‘the Moose deer. We cannot refrain from some few generalisations
‘arrived at in the study of a boreal fauna. We find animals of the
most opposite construction, braving a northern winter. It is not
as if there were animals fitted for the pole, and others fitted for the
equator, but as if both kinds were mixed together and tropical
forms live beside the arctic. ‘Thus we have the marmot, a true
‘boreal form protected from the cold by hybernation ; and the mouse
‘a cosmopolite but with the thin coat and naked leg also protected
by hybernation. We might say this is his natural protection,
unable to endure the cold he sleeps through it ; but we are met by
the fact of the shrews with still finer coats, and limbs so fragile that
they seem needles, bearing the lowest temperature, active and

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 51

nimble, beneath a thermometer of —15 degrees. The beautiful red
squirrel sports with his naked palms on snow, standing at the same
low level, whilst the ground squirrel is fast asleep in his well lined
burrow. We are apt to say of the ermine and sable that their thick
lustrous fur, well covered pads and ears, and strong carnivorous
diet enables them to endure the low temperature in which they
delight, yet we have side by side with them our spare vegetable
eater, the hare with its long naked pendulous ears, (apparently
the very subjects for frost bite) sitting in its snowy form, whilst
they have sought their burrows. Thus, though it is very true the
furry foot of the great day owl and winter falcon, of the northern
lynx, and the isatis, of the ermine weasel, ptarmigan, northern
grouse, and polar hare, are the true livery of the north, yet we find
animals equally bearing it with naked limbs and thin coats. It seems
that something akin to what geologists say has taken place in the
physical world, has also influenced the animal one. As the gerge-
ous tropical flora of the carboniferous period, attest to the sunny
days once ruling at the arctic circle, so too may the fauna have
been equally disturbed, and have left the remnants of their races
behind them in times far subsequent to those stony records.

No true boreal forms exist at the equator, and these remnants
of equatorial life, if they be such remnants, seem endowed like man
to retain life in every degree of cold or heat.

Since the above paper was read Mr. Welch, the asst. surgeon,
22nd Regt. has sent the Institute a paper read before the Zoological
Society, London, April 8th, 1869, entitled ‘« Observations on
L. Americanus, especially with reference to the change of colour,
&c.” In this very able paper the writer concludes that the change
of colour is gradual, taking about seven weeks, and is caused by
a new growth of white hair, and also by the summer coating
becoming white on its tips as well as thickening as regards
each hair, the cause being the suspension of the secretion of the
Pigmenium nigrum, and that there is no shedding process going
on. I have thought it best not to alter any remarks I have made,
but to make further observations, no doubt caused by reading Mr.
Welch’s paper. He has studied a much more boreal animal than
ours. His changes take place in October, ours in November. He

~

D2 - GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALIA. OF NOVA SCOTIA...

speaks of a pure white with leaden base, our animal never reaches .
this; a rusty white in mid-winter is all ours attains to. Our.
nearness to the ocean causes our climate to approximate to south-

ern New England, where the hares become in winter only hoary. ©
Mr. Welch has the eredit of publishing the first origmal, exact,

and exhaustive articles on change of colour caused by climactral

influences, ever given to the public. My cbservations were made

from the Halifax markets, which are abundantly supplied with. .
hares. Beginning the 18th October, I found one with two white: .
whiskers. On the 30th I found one with a whisker half white and

half black, but in no other respects changed. On the 9thiand 10th:
November, I examined many more, one had hair in front of thighs -
getting long and white, several more had the same appearance on |
fronts of thighs, but in addition, the rump and tail becoming -
“covered with long and white hairs, a white patch each side of the-
nose, a patch upon the forehead and backs of ears becoming hoary. |
One had a patch of white running up the side of the belly, in front .
of thigh. The whiskers were generally white. November 18th.a -
very large buck hare, had forehead to the eyes white, spot middle -
of forehead. and back of éyes white, backs of both ears and stripe ~
running down nape of neck, white. Some white and long hairs in

front of fore legs, (which are also becoming rusty) and shoulders ,
with long white hairs, the hind legs, with exception of toes and -
pads are soiled white, this soiled white has invaded the whole ramp

tail and is creeping over the hind flanks and down the back to -
about two inches. Under a strong glass, this soiled look is caused:

by: fong lack hairs scattered about. The brown fur still remain-~
ing is short and lustreless, still having many black hairs through it, -_
and the edges ill defined where it borders upon the white. The. .
toes both before and hind are light rusty, and all the pads, rusty .
white, and much thickened in patches; on opening the fur on the .
brown parts and examining it with a strong glass, the basal fur is ,
seen, and through it a short crop of white hairs, sticking up and ~
crossing each other in all directions is seen. In the pure white of ,,
the belly and where the change has taken place, this crop is not -
seen. Every where the long white hair is thicker than the old;
brown hair which comes out on pulling, about as easily as.the new., x

- GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 53

‘In this specimen, is a short crop of white hair, new long white
ones, and many long black ones, both in the changed and unchan-
‘ped parts. The light rusty streak on the fore arm, fore and hind
toes, is not I fancy a new colour gained, but caused by the absence
of the numerous small black hairs which in summer sprinkled upon
these parts give a sepia brown to them, but being absent a light
rusty colour pervades them.

27th November.—In this specimen the long winter coat had
“pervaded the whole animal: pure white below, soiled or rusty white
above, especially upon the dorsal ridge. The nose and about the
eyes rusty ; the cars hoary rust; the front folds deeper rust. The
tip of the hairs white, the middle rusty, the base plumbeous. The
‘back had still a soiled black look, which under a strong glass, was
caused by numerous black hairs about two inches long and black to
the roots. The whiskers are some black, others black at root, and
white at tip, others all white. The pads hind and fore are of a
deeper rust, and longer and thicker; the toes both hind and fore,
light rust. Under the glass the short black hairs which in the
summer specimens are numerous in these parts and causing the
brown sepia tints, are very few. The same cause is making the
fronts of the ear rusty. Though this specimen which was a large
buck had so nearly completed his winter change, yet I had to
search some fifty specimens, all in the earliest state of change,
‘before I could cbtain it—the mildness to this date, of the winter,
causing them to change slowly. In a specimen taken aboot 21st
January, that is mid-winter, there was a little rusty colour on the
nose, about the eyes, on the front folds of the ears, nape, chin,
fronts of legs and toes both hind and fore, and heels, the rest more
or less, white ; the beily, fronts of thighs, and rump, had long loose
hairs, plumbeous at base, white at tip ; the dorsal parts had shorter
hair, plumbeous at base, rusty in middle and white at tip; this
middle rusty, continually showing through the white tips gave the
animal a soiled rusty white appearance. All the long black hairs
‘of summer have disappeared; the bright rust of the legs, far
brighter than any summer tints, is produced by the absence of the
short black hairs, which in summer toned these parts down to a
-sepia brown ; the whiskers are black. I think the change in this

D4 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

may be considered complete except the whiskers. I have noticed
other specimens where the sides and dorsal regions were mottled
white and brown on the whole surface imstead of changing in
patches.

From these observations, we gather that the first appearance of
winter change occurs in front of thighs, and rump, that almost
immediately the backs of the ears become hoary, and white patches
appear on the sides of nose, cheeks and forehead, and that whilst
the white of the rump is stealing over the tail and up the back, the
white of the belly is rising to meet it, and the patches of white are
stealing over the face, the nape and fore shoulders; that in some
comparatively rare instances a general mottling of white and brown
takes place, instead of these regular approaches. The hare in his
full winter coat in Nova Scotia is pure white beneath and on thighs
and rump; rusty white on dorsal regions; nose, around the eyes,
front folds of ears, fronts of fore legs and hind legs, hght rust.
The pads and the narrow black edge and tip of ear remains
unchanged, the pads being soiled white or light yellow. On the
dorsal regions the hair is plumbeous at base, rusty in middle and
white at tip; beneath thighs and rump, longer and plumbeous at
base with white extremities. | With regard to the secondary cause
of these changes but little can be found in systematie writers. Mr.
Welch attributes, in his able paper before mentioned, to first a
new growth of long and thicker white hair which as it were
out-colours the brown, and to a change of colour im the remaining
brown to a pure white with plumbeous base, and that no shedding
takes place. From his description he has studied more boreal
specimens than ours, since he calls the animal pure white. Whilst
he has the analogy of the whiskers, which we know do not shed,
and which we study from time to time, now all black, now the tip
white, now all white, and whilst there comes to us a certain
conviction we are studying the same individual hairs, yet in other
animals which we have watched more closely there is an autumnal
ehange. Our horses as everyone knows, who rides them or inspects
the stables, have a large autumnal shed, a strawberry roan espe-
cially an old one, will have broad patches of hoary on his rump in
mid-winter. The cariboo sheds by handfulls in November, as also

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 55

does the Virginia deer. The very bright rust on the fore legs,
caused under a a strong glass by the absence of minute black hairs,
existing in the summer coat, can only be accounted for by shed-
ding. In the few polar hares I have studied, from Labrador and
Newfoundland, the entire animal is pure white except edge and tip
of ear black; a very faint rust on the fore arm just points to a
semblance with ours. The summer pelage is a beautiful pencilled
French grey, with the entire ear of a velvet black, at least that was
the colour of a skin from Labrador.

THE CaRIBOO.

Cervus tarandus, cariboo, (Linn., 1792.)

_ Rangifer, cariboo, (Aud., Bachman, Baird.)
Cervus, tarandus, (Godman, Harlam.)
Rangifer, tarandus, (Dekay.)

Cervus tarandus, Sylvestris, (Richardson.)
Tarandus, rangifer, (J. B. Gray.)
Cervus, hastalis, (Agassiz.)

From these synonyms we learn that the doubt still unsettled,
whether our Cariboo and the Lapland Reindeer are identical,
commenced with the great father of the science, Linneus. That
there should be seven or eight synonyms since his day, and that
such men as Dekay should call him Rangifer tarandus, and
J. B. Grey of the British Museum, Tarandus rangifer, and
neither accept Linnxus’ specific ‘‘ Cariboo,” argues little for that
simplicity of nomenclature now so greatly needed. It would go a
great way to solve the doubt, if a thorough and scientific descrip-
tion of our cariboo could be made and recorded; but for this at
present I have no materials, and so seldom now have we the
unbroken deer brought to town, I fear years might elapse. The
following description from my recollections taken from one live
one, and the carcasses of many dead ones must suffice :-—

A full grown cariboo stands about three or four feet at the withers,
the doe something less; the head is large and narrow, the forehead
having no dish in it, but straight, the lower line also straight ; the muzzle
entirely hairy. We miss the wide swelling forehead, the elegant curve

- 56 _GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

_and pointed muzzle of the more southern deer; the neck is short and
carried low with the hair long and flowing on its lower surface, the back
rather straight, powerful loins and haunches, body heavy and supported

by stout and thick legs, and large wide spreading hoofs of the eet
ae horn.

The animal stands with its weight resting upon the dew-claw,
or back hoof. Thus we see an arctic type; strong, low, broad,
‘fitted for fatigue, living in low, ever-green woods and swampy bar-
rens in summer, in winter running freely over the snow. Both
sexes have horns, the doe comparatively small; with great irregu-
larity of form, those horns are all. regular in two or three typical
marks. They have almost always one brow antler, broad and pal-
mated over the eye, the other corresponding antler round. A se-
cond brow antler fronting forward, a few inches above this; and the
main shaft of the horn tarned forward, more or less palmated, and
with more or less tines, all coming from the back or convex surface
of the horn. I possess a pair of horns, in which the two brow ant-
lers are symmetrical, resembling clasped hands over the forehead.
I possess another pair of very small horns, with one simple brow
antler, and but one-tine from a scarcely palmated horn. ‘This last
came from Labrador, and I think is a doe’s. -The other may be
either a Nova Scotian or Newfoundlander. 7
_ Between those two, which may be considered the ultra extremes,
the variety is endless. ‘The bucks cast their horns in January and
February, the does retain them a month or so longer. The colour
varies in summer and winter; the winter coat, that which I am
most familiar with, is thick and long, of one prevailing soiled yel-
lowish white. The hair on the neck, breast and belly, rather
whiter than on the back, and the rump and tail white. The legs
on the outside are brownish, and have a fringe of white hair over
the instep, and extending to the back hoofs. In summer, towards
July, this thick soiled white coat is removed, and in its place a fine
clove brown, sometimes bright yellow brown (according to Captain
Hardy) on every part, save the neck and shoulders, rump, tail and
belly, with inside of the legs which are white ; ‘the ears brown and
forehead white. Mr. Eagan informs me that in a September skin
he saw, the line between the white and the brown was well defined ;

x

-GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. BT

‘those I saw myself I took no notes of. In Captain Hardy’s (an
accurate observer) sketch, the whole neck is represented white and
Jong haired, but not reaching behind the shoulders ; whilst in Sir
Wm. Jardine’s coloured drawing of the Reindeer, the white extends
far backward to the quarters. Audubon also mentions a faint white
streak behind the shoulder. The legs of a doe killed in September
were beautiful mouse colour, with a wash of dun. James Luxy,
-(Alexis,) an Indian hunter, says that when the does have fawns,
that is July or June, they have a black ring about their eyes,
(Hardy’s black patch on the cheek,) and also the white of the neck
‘extends farther upon the side. (Sir Wm. Jardine’s coloured sketch
‘of Reindeers shows this.) Of two legs with hoofs before me, killed
winter 1871, the colour is deep brown, I should use sepia in draw-
ing it, with a white fringe around the coronet, running back to be-
-yond the dew claw. Thus in summing colour up: In winter, soiled
-yellowish white ; neck, rump, tail and under parts, pure white ; legs
‘white inside, outside brown, with white fringes. In summer, neck
extending into fore-shoulder, rump and tail, under parts and inside
of legs pure white, all other parts clove brown ; sometimes reddish
and yellowish, with black patch on cheek and eye, and white fringe
‘on hoofs. In colour then our own Cariboo assimilate closely to the
Lapland Reindeer.

In studying the hoof before me, nothing can exceed its beauty
of finish. The inside a perfect cavity, the frog all absorbed or
-dried away, the outside rim with a beautiful cutting edge. The
animal must stand almost like a woman upon pattens, on four rings,
upon any hard surface, in descending slopes, the dew-claw behind
would bear slightly on the surface. The whole too is enveloped in
a beautiful fringe of coarse hair, curling down over the black hoof
till it nearly covers it, and passing between the toes to form a thick
mop of coarse hair, wrapping the sole and dew-claws in a warm
cushion. On glittering ice or slippery slopes how secure this ice
foot, with its keen circular cutting edge; in soft snows, spreading
the toes it forms a broad cushion to hold up the deer upon its trea-
cherous surface, as well as to shield it from the cold. We are im-
mediately struck with an analogy most unexpected between the
hairy foot of the deer and the feathered leg and claw of the winter

58 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

falcon, and great northern owl; and we are apt to speculate how
the deer, passing north, has had his limbs thus clothed in hair, and
has departed from the typical slender, satin-skinned foot of his race.
Yet geological facts deny the assumption; they teach us that once
there was a world that produced nothing but bitter lichens and sour
mosses, scantily growing beneath winter suns, and upon glaciated
wastes, and that there came a thick-legged robust deer to browse
upon these mosses, with his thick coat and hairy hoofs, the first
type of deer the world ever saw, the companion of the U. speleus,
the cave bear, the extinct hyena, the rhinoceros, terchoorinus,
and the primordial elephants, all extinct but himself; so runs the
record of the geologist, carried out in his stone-flora, and by the
bones found in the upper tertiaries. How far the earth’s surface
was thus covered is conjecture, perhaps near to the equator. As
genial suns under a better climate produced more exuberant crops,
this arctic species gradually retreated from the pole. In Europe, -
he has retreated to Lapland; in Asia, to the shores of the Arctic
ocean, where herds are kept by the Tungeses; in America, a few
are left in Nova Scotia; more in Newfoundland; and the rest are
all driven back toward the polar circle.

Nova Scotia, with its latitude between 43 and 44 north, is their
lowest southern habitat now existing, and consequently the most
interesting place to study them in. The following are the dimen-
sions of a buck killed this winter, in Digby county, by my son;
they were taken upon the spot, thirty miles from the sea, marked
upon his waist-belt, and carefully taken off on returning home.

Length from tip of nose to tail,...... .......-.. 7 ft.
Heicht at foreshoulder, os. . <<). .00< «seem 4 ft. 10 in.
Girth at foreshoulder,))s4/fs". 2 aes cee eee 6 ft. 4 in.
Girth, thickest part of necks:.,«/.i0 4.51 7a sicienns Often ie
Length of hind leg, from hip,. sopra sos HO) Mtg aie
Length of fore leg, .. CE MICE os, on 50 dtea0) Ime
Girth of hind leg, largest a ob sae 0 nied oye 1 ft, 2 in.

do do ‘smallest PATE, joss 5:0’ ein int Wishe a eee (ite
Girth of fore leg, largest part, ): 0. ....0, = sib nt le

do do smallest part, ... .s.8 914s, Ol
Tip Of nese *0-eaT,'.....0555 6s. oo bk) tin eine Deen

He had no horns.

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 59

These dimensions are enormous, but are fully carried out by
Captain Hardy and other authors, though doubted by Sir John
Richardson, who, accustomed to the Arctic variety, weighing when
dressed sixty pounds, and which the hunter tossed over his shoul-
der, thought a cariboo weighing four hundred pounds must be a
mistake for another species of deer. I have now given his appear-
ance, colour winter and summer, structure of hoof, his weight and
dimensions, and in this have rather shunned authors, but taken my
own and the observations of eye witnesses. The only one I have
seen living was a young doe without horns; she was of the soiled
white or winter colour, and resembled Bewick’s wood cut of the
Lapland reindeer, and also Landseer’s exquisite etching of a cariboo’s
head, after Captain Back, (Fauna Borealis.) The plates from
‘¢Mammals of Zoological Gardens,” and of Sir Wm. Jardine,
copied by all writers, though no doubt good representatives of rein-
deer, were less like her.

It now remains to give a sketch of his habits in our own Pro-
vince. Formerly very abundant, and in our own time plenty, as
the skins brought to market some fifty years ago showed ; but few
skins and scarcely a carcase of meat in one or two years finds its
way now to town. Therefore if they are becoming extinct, it is
not by the hand of man. When I lived in the western counties, a
year or two would elapse before one was killed; we have no wild
animals which destroy them; wolves, happily extinct, are the only
ones to be dreaded. If then they are becoming extinct, it must be
by that noiseless way that wild animals fade out ,of sight, as their
feeding grounds become encroached upon ; they lose their reproduc-
tiveness, the doe has fewer fawns, the buck becomes early barren,
the devoted race dies out. Now, the food of this ancient deer ex-
ists as it did in Pleistocene times, perhaps on the very spot, but
in less abundance. Forests have sprung up, and grasses have given
verdant carpets to a warmer soil; the lichens and mosses his food,
(Cladonia rangeferina) (Sticla pulmonaria) (Usnea) are now
found in isolated barrens, or cariboo bogs as they are termed,
and they are every year encroached upon. The great cariboo bog
at Aylesford, the water shed of the Province, has a rail road run-
ning for five miles on its surface. The table land of the north

60 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

mountain, from Blomidon to Brier Island, once a favorite resort,
is now become strange to them; a part linger about the Cumber-
land hills, the lake basin of the Shubenacadie, the St. Mary and
the Tangier hold a few more; Margaret’s Bay and the basin of
the Avon might shelter a few, and finally the great western lake
basin, and barrens from whence flow the Annapolis, the Sissiboo
and the Bear into the Bay of Fundy, and the Liverpool, Shel-
burne, Clyde and Yarmouth, into the Atlantic, is their last hold.
Accustomed in ancient days to roam the Province, this restless,
wandering creature, is confined to those isolated spots, where he
scents the tainted gale of man, or hears his axe on the down wind,
-and with a snort seeks a deeper solitude, if haply one may be found ;
this must go far towards his extinction. ‘Thus our cariboo may be
said to range in those different lake basins, in herds of from two or
three to seven or eight ; the does to produce their young in June 3
and the rutting season to be in September. It is rarely that they
are killed in summer or fall, unless accidentally seen on the barren
and stalked. It is impossible to track them in summer woods ; on
the winter snow he leaves a wide track, and though from his fleet-
ness in running over the snow, on which his broad foot holds him
up, it is impossible to chase him with snow-shoe and dog, yet he
may be stalked silently, and come upon within a hundred yards to
windward, whilst pounding the snow with his fore foot from above
the lichens. The following is a brief hunter’s diary, sent me fresh
from the spot :—‘*‘ We struck the tracks on a barren; they were a
day old; followed them about two hours; then came upon them on
a barren, digging the snow with their feet, to get at the mosses they
feed upon; they were in plain sight for five hundred yards either
way; crept up to within one hundred yards, and missed them ;
they ran right towards me; killed one at forty yards; as they ran
by me killed another at one hundred yards; still running killed a
third at two hundred and fifty yards; at four hundred yards fired
and missed; still again at five hundred yards fired and missed.”
Thus here were six shots, and five loadings, from a single barreled
breech loader, whilst the deer were going five hundred yards. The
last two shots, fired from a single Enfield breechloading rifle, may
be considered forlorn hopes, sacrificed to the love of sport, as few

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. ~ 61°

/

marksmen are good for running shots, at four and five hundred
yards ; yet considering the cold, and the position covered by snow,
the firing was rapid.

As the question now stands, Nova Scotia has a deer identical
with that of Newfoundland, Labrador, and what may be called the
southern limits of the polar circle, but larger than all. Lapland
and the north of Asia also possess a deer, supposed, but not iden-
tified, as the same species, both smaller than ours. Reindeer, cari- -
boo, and woodland cariboo, are their local names. In addition to
this, the extreme north possesses a deer smaller than any of those, ~
with much larger horns, and with no gall bladder, otherwise the
same. Sir John Richardson calls them a permanent variety, naming -
them Barren Ground cariboo. The absence of the gall bladder —
seems a very great divergence ; yet can any one tell me has our own ~
eariboo one? ‘The horse we know has none. Finally, bones found
on the upper tertiary of this ancient deer, and also in ages long -
subsequent, in the kitchen middens of the pre-historic man of the -
old world, as well as in our own of more modern date, undoubt- °
edly prove him to have lived side by side with forms that have for- °
ever perished ; again to have been the food of man of the stone age,
who crushed his bones and tore his blocdy flesh with their rude .
axes, where now their polished descendants carve in silver and steel,
and which pushed backwards to the snows and lichens of the Poles,
affords still the same rude banquet to the man of stone of the
nineteenth century. Most enduring form, most ancient type of all
deer extant, this broad-spreading, hair-cushioned foot, with its cut- .
ting edge, how many forms has it survived, how many new forms —
born of itself; of satin-skinned deer, with pointed toe; or African ~
sun-dried deer, with hoof a nut-shell—has it seen.

62 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

ReEcorD OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEoLOGY oF Nova Sco-
TIA, SINCE 1865. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. L.,
F. G. S., &c., Director of the Provincial Museum.

In the spring of 1869, I surveyed for the Geological Survey
of Canada, Middle and Upper Silurian and Lower Carboniferous
areas underlying the Pictou Coal Field. J commenced operations
at Springville, East River, Pictou, where I had already spent no
small amount of time. I now succeeded in extending the known
area of Silurian rocks very considerably, and in developing the
structure of this very interesting field. I advanced the Aymestry
limestone rocks with their fossils into the river, and found them
overlaid directly by black lower carboniferous limestone, as in
Holmes’ Brook: vide Acadian Geology, Ist ed., p. 243; 2nd ed.,
p- 316. Here we have the upper silurian and carboniferous
limestone in contact, without any strata intervening, as at —
McAra’s Brook, Arisaig, shewing that these upper silurian rocks
were exposed at the bottom of the sea of the carboniferous era,
when the limestone was formed upon it. I shall yet have occasion
to notice other cases of a similar kind in this district. I have not
observed similar occurrences in any other part of the Province.
I also extended the same lower than formerly, by finding Arisaig
Medina sandstone fossils in an old clearing N. of late Rev. A. Mc-
Gillivray’s, underlaid by a band of quartzite, which is possibly
the Arisaig Oneida conglomerate. This is the only locality where
I have succeeded in finding this formation out of Arisaig.

The extension (?) of this Oneida conglomerate and Medina sand-
stone underlies the limestone (new ore) bed at Fraser’s, one mile
and three fourths above Springville Presbyterian church. The ore
being included in the Clinton, between the formations just mentioned
and the Niagara limestone equivalent. This series has been thrown
into its present position by a great dyke of greenstone, which is
seen outcropping largely a little farther up the river. On the other
side of the river, S. side, are lower carboniferous strata, having a
considerable breadth of gypsum funnels. These extend to McDon-

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 63

ald’s Brook, a small branch of East River, where lower carbonifer-
ous sandstones outcrop. A continuation of these near Springville,
opposite the Bridge above Springville, shew a considerable area of
gypsum, with a continuation of funnels; all to the S. of this is
lower carboniferous.

The greenstone is homogeneous and ferruginous. It lies in the
axis of an anticlinal, which for convenience I shall designate anticlinal
No. 1. On the opposite side of this anticlinal, I found the lowest
strata highly metamorphic, and at the point of contact coalescing
with the greenstone. The Clinton slates above these are well ex-
posed in the Brook that passes immediately E. of the Presbyterian
Church. I did not find any fossils in these slates. The other
strata are covered by forest, until we get to Blanchard, in the vi-
cinity of the bed of fossiliferous iron ore, referred to in Dawson’s
Acadian Geology, last ed., p. 591. In John McDonald’s hill, I
found lower Helderberg strata with their characteristic fossils.
These appear to be the uppermost strata of this other side of the
anticlinal, and corresponding with the lower Helderberg of Spring-
ville, which I have already noticed. Situate in Blanchard, and
nearly opposite McDonald’s hill, with its outcrop of fossiliferous
lower Helderberg strata, is the bed of fossiliferous iron ore referred
to. This evidently lies in Clinton slate, having a high dip. This
series forms a synclinal with the preceding series ; below the bed of
ore are strata which I conceive to be the equivalent of the Medina
sandstone. ‘These are highly metamorphic,—the lines of stratifi-
cation being occasionally exhibited by weathering, and by beautiful
banded structure.

Below these is an outcrop of homogeneous and ferruginous
greenstone. The preceding strata are finely exposed in a brook
which, issuing from Blanchard, enters East River. The exposure
forms a bold section, with a fine waterfall. The greenstone last
mentioned proceeds onward parallel with the exposure of strata,
and in the rear of it, widening as it proceeds, and ending in lofty
mountains, having their termination at East River.

I would designate this greenstone as axis of anticlinal No. 2.
Near the point of contact of the slates and greenstone, where they
terminate near the river, is a considerable deposit of lower carbon-

64- HONEYMAN—ON: THE GEOLOGY CF NOVA SCOTIA. =

iferous limestone, lying on the middle silurian slate, and coalescing -
with it, forming a breccia. Connected with this is a band of green _
pyritiferous marble, which is exposed on the bank and in the bed of
the river, beside a bridge, and near the mouth of McDonald’s Brook,
which enters from the epee side. shall have occasion to refer _
to this brook again :

Proceeding far tes up the river, I found at Kennedy’s, on a road.
to Blanchard, a small outcrop of breccia, having limestone like a
paste, with angular pieces of metamorphic argillite. This outcrop
was about twenty paces in length, occupying an elevated position -
in contact with the greenstone of anticlinal No 2. Starting from -
the breccia and skirting the greenstone according to the course of »
the river, we come to Squire McDonald’s, and find above his house .
the termination of the greenstone, and below his store, on the bank ..
of the river, an exposure of a band of lower carboniferous lime-
stone, which, above the bridge of Pleasant Valley, forms a wall on >
the opposite side of the river, and re-crosses the river, where we *
shall meet it again. _

Returning to Blanchard, I find the bed of fossilifer ous ore to be -
of considerable thickness—forty feet or thereabout—and extendiug -
the length of McDonald’s property, but not beyond it ;—a supposed ~
extension of it northward being an outcrop of reddish slate. _
Passing over to the other side of axis No. 2, I found, beyond an-
interval between the greenstone on the other side of Squire -
Campbell’s marsh, a fine outcrop of slate, with abundance of eri- -
noids, and a Dalmania Sp? characteristic of the Clinton of Arisaig.
Proceeding onward to East River from this point, I found anther
outcrop of similar slates. I saw several outcrops of slates, but did
not particularly examine them. They extend to a brook which enters
East River, near the bridge at Pleasant Valley. They outcrop at the -
mill dam and up the brook for some distance. I now come to -
notice the relation that the band of limestone which I described as -
forming a wall on the opposite side of the river, bears. to the slates. .
that underlie it. The river separates this wall from the strata of ,
argillites which are finely exposed on the side of the river opposite
to it; i. e. on the north side of the river. Proceeding along this °
side of the river I pass five exposures of slate, and at last come to ,

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 65

the place where the limestone re-crosses the river. Here I find
them overlying metamorphic argillites, without any other rock in-

_tervening. These have all the appearance of lower Helderberg
argillites, much altered. I found no fossils in them. Their cleay-
age joints glistened with micaceous iron ore.

These limestones extend to the bank at widow Chisholm’s and dis-
appear. The last outcrop of limestone occurs about a mile farther
up the river, and above the road. This appears to be the extreme of
the carboniferous formation in this direction. The band of silurian
strata which underlies the limestone below Chisholm’s, is underlaid
by greenstone. ‘The line of contact is cut by the road that leads
from the Presbyterian church to the Blue Mountain. The green-.
stone is very long and wide. I do not know its boundaries. It
extends up the river to the rear of the last outcrop of limestone..
This greenstone belongs to an apparent monoclinal series. Farther:
up the river, at McPhee’s, I found another outcrop of strata with:
greenstone. This may be called anticlinal No. 3. From this the
silurian area becomes divided and bifurcates ; one branch being what:
I have traversed on the one side of the river, and the other extend--
in+ on the opposite side; the two being separated by the narrow
lower carboniferous area, to which the limestones that.F have already
noticed belong.

I examined the skirts of the silurian formaticn-on this the south:
side of the river. I found the first outcrop in the bed of the river, .
south of McPhee’s. The strata exposed consists. of black shale,
which appear to be near the lowest part of the.Clinton equivalent of”
Arisaig. Farther west the same strata are exposed in a brook at the:
dam of a saw-mill. Farther west they are.again exposed in a brook:
at Pleasant Valley, with an underlying band of lighter colour and
greater solidity, which appears to resemble the Medina sandstone:.
equivalent of Arisaig. Still farther west we reach McDonald’s::
brook, to which I have already called special attention.. This: is:
opposite the green marble, which I referred to as connected with:
anticlinal No. 2. In this brook there is a great exposure-of the=
strata under examination, and in addition to these a series forming ~
an anticlinal, which extends: to the.distance of two hundred and fifty-
paces from the river, making the greatest possible breadth of the

5

66 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

intervening carboniferous band very narrow. In this side of the
anticlinal, I found strata containing Clinton fossils, which en-
abled me to determine the equivalency of the corresponding strata
on the south side of the anticlinal, which include the specular tron
ore at McDonald’s. By this discovery, I was enabled to establish
a geological connection between this ore of iron and the fossilzfer-
ous tron ore at Blanchard, and the /imonite (iron ore) of Spring-
ville. In the axis of this anticlinal I observed a mass of green-
stone on the left of the road which leads to McDonald’s. ‘These
strata are farther exposed on the side of another brook below
Archibald’s. From the green marble the carboniferous area
widens and expands as it proceeds westward ; the silurian proceed-
ing westward until we find it cut by the Pictou and Truro railway,
by which the fine section of the strata is formed, which I have al-
xeady compared with sections of the strata of the Gold Fields.—
Vide Part preceding.

Returning to Springville, I proceed to describe my operations
an extending farther the knowledge of the geology of this district.
At McLean’s I found the limestone separated from the lower Hel-
<lerberg, by a band of lower carboniferous shale. This occupying
the position which I have found limestone occupying in Holmes’s
brook ; in the river at McPhee’s, Springville; and in the river at
Chisholm’s, Pleasant Valley. This shews that clay was being de-
posited, as one might expect, on upper silurian strata; while lime-
stone was being at the same time formed upon the same kind of
strata ; so that the two must be regarded as contemporaneous. I suc-
ceeded in extending the lower Helderberg to the north of McLean’s,
as far as the extremity of Irish Mountain. I found fossils of this
horizon at McMillan’s, and near McKenzie’s, in situ. At the foot
of Irish Mountain, at McMillan’s, I found the lower Helderberg
overlaid by lower carboniferous conglomerate. This outcrops in
the drain on the side of the main road, and in the little stream be-
low McMillan’s. On the back of Irish Mountain I found fossils
én situ, but not very distinct; and in Cross Brook, behind it, I
found Clinton strata, with characteristic fossils. I followed these
down the brook, where I found them extending to the north of
Trish Mountain and its lower Helderberg, resting on the green-

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 67

stone, a continuation of axis No. 1, and overlaid unconformably
by lower carboniferous grits and limestones. [ found also the
greenstone extending into the lower carboniferous formation, some
distance beyond the silurian strata. The northern extremity thus
ends in the lower carboniferous of McLellan’s brook, while the
southern ends at the southern carboniferous of East Branch, East
River ;—the length of the axis being six and a quarter miles.
The 1st part giving direction to the series of silurian strata,
as far as Holmes’s Brook, Springville; the 2d giving a different
direction as far as Mclean’s limekiln, or rather MeIntosh’s in the
rear of McLean’s; the 3d giving direction to the remaining strata
of Irish Mountain and Cross Brook. Returning to the part of
Cross Brook which is in my line of section, from the gypsum on
the west side of Irish Mountain to Sutherland’s river, I crossed the
Clinton strata until I reached McDonald’s, senr., where I found an
outcrop of Medina sandstone, with its characteristic petraia consi-
derably altered, resting upon greenstone of axis 1. Here the area
of the outcrop of greenstone is considerable, being about two
hundred paces across. Then comes a wide band of metamor-
phosed strata, corresponding with those of the other side of the
anticlinal, but much altered, and to all appearance destitute of fos-
sils. These extend lengthwise, and terminate partly on a mountain
east of the northern extremity of the axis; part pass over McLel-
lan’s brook into the mountains, called McLellan’s Mountain, form-
ing the western side. Against the back of these silurian strata,
lower carboniferous grits and limestone rest. The junction is seen
in McLellan’s brook, above Fraser’s. In this lower carboniferous
area lies the thick band of limestone on which the house of the late
Rey. Dr. McGillivray is built, and also an outcrop of black lime-
stone at the Cross Brook bridge, near MecGillivray’s. Some dis-
tance from this junction of lower carboniferous and middle Clinton (?)
strata, or about three quarters of a mile, as the crow flies, is a fine
section of strata, on the site of a saw-mill, having abundance
of lower Helderberg fossils. I was rather taken by surprise
when I came upon this fossiliferous outcrop, as the character of the
underlying strata did not lead me to expect it. This fossiliferous
band is exposed about the length of the eighth of a mile in the bed

68 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

and on the sides of the brook. It assumes the form of a syncline.
Part of it, therefore, belongs to another series of silurian strata.
This outcrop is doubtless an extension of the lower Helderberg of
Blanchard, on McDonald’s Mountain.

T sent a collection of fossils from this locality to the museum of
the Survey. This new series of strata, of which the lower Helder-
berg part is exposed, enters into the formation of McLellan’s moun-
tain. Simon Fraser’s mountain shews an outcrop of greenstone in
the line of axis No. 2. This line then runs in a south east direc-
tion, having first one outcrop of greenstone with red porphyry, and
then two other outcrops; and then it is possible that there is no
other outcrop until Blanchard is reached. Parallel with this lne
is a fine exposure of Medina sandstone strata, overlaid by Clinton
shales. On the side of the road ascending the mountain named, I
was very fortunate to find a mass of rock having abundance of
characteristic petraia and trumpet-shaped cornulites of Salter’s Re-
port, and an organism which I did not recognise, but which I con-
sidered to be possibly the pygidium of a trilobite. In similar posi-
tions I generally find the petraia in the form of casts—internal and
external. Here I find the organism itself, as I get it on the shore
between Doctor’s brook and Arisaig. I also found other specimens
throughout the outcrop, but they were by no means so abundant as
my first success led me to expect. I did not find any in the Clinton
strata of this band. These are doubtless an extension of the strata
of Blanchard, containing the bed of cron ore.

I did not find fossils in any of the other strata between this and
the fossiliferous lower Helderberg of McLellan’s brook. However
it is something to have characteristic fossils from the highest and low-
est parts of a series. I found the greenstone of axis No. 2 also
exposed in the church yard, near the Presbyterian church of Mc-
Lellan’s Mountain, and two considerable outcrops still farther north,
having an extension of the Medina slate of Simon Fraser’s mountain.
West of these is a considerable outcrop of slates, which probably
belong to the other side of the synclinal. These are succeeded in
the same direction by conglomerates, containing a dyke of green-
stone. It is quite possible that these may be a continuation of axis
No. 2, farther north, as I have not examined in that direction.

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 69

Returning to the greenstone of axis No. 2, on the line of Simon
Fraser’s mountain, we ascend to the summit, and find outcropping
the strata of the other side of the anticlinal. The numerous out-
crops shew that this band is of considerable width. These outrcops
also extend in a northerly direction, and run up against or to the
east of: Wier’s mountain,—the most northerly cutcrop being in
David McLean’s brook. The distance between the two extremities
of this anticlinal being nine and a half miles. These strata are all
metamorphic, being apparently destitute of fossils. To the north
of the extremity of second anticlinal, lies the lower carboniferous,
having an outcrop of limestone. This is situate on the north side
of a little brook at the seat of a saw mill. The lower carboniferous
strata are not seen in contact with the underlying silurian strata.

The general direction of the two anticlinals that I have described,
is north-west. The next in order takes a different course. I have
said that the last outcrop of the eastern side of anticlinal No. 2,
lies to the west of Wier’s mountain. This mountain is a great mass
of greenstone, being apparently bounded on the north by carbon-
iferous conglomerates, &c. The axial line of this mountain takes a
direction north east; while the axis No. 2 has a north west direc-
tion. On the south east side of the mountain, not far from Mr.
Wier’s house, there is an outcrop of metamorphic silurian strata,
which are undoubtedly the Medina sandstone equivalent. These
have a north east strike; they are continued onward in the same
direction, outcropping on the lower side of an old road, and then
they terminate at Sutherland’s river, forming a somewhat imposing
fall, which has been made the seat of a factory. Overlying these, un-
conformably, are lower carboniferous strata, conglomerates and grits :
these are well exposed in the river. The carboniferous formation
comes up against the lowest part of the silurian strata. We have
thus reached the extremity of the lower carboniferous of the Pictou
‘Coal Field. Returning to the silurian outcrop at Wier’s, we pro-
ceed south east to Cameron’s brook, where I found soft argillaceous
strata, like the Clinton of Arisaig, with abundance of characteristic
fossils! These overlie the metamorphic of Wier’s mountain. I
found no appearance of higher strata connected with those. Where
the brook enters Sutherland’s river, in front of and above the falls,

70 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

there is a singular meeting of rocks. Above the fall strata in the
river itself, there is an exposure of greenstone, which passes into
the bank of the river. Between the river and Cameron’s brook
there is greenstone, which forms a considerable eminence over
against the factory, on the side of the brook, and up the brook,
until it comes up to the New Glasgow road. South of the falls are
Medina sandstone strata, with their peculiar petraia and lingule.
Passing along the New Glasgow road towards Sutherland’s river,
on the left of the road, the greenstone which originates above the
falls on the right side of the road, and overlying the greenstone,
are Medina strata, with lenticular beds of orthids,such as are found
in similar beds in McDonald’s cove, Arisaig; and also beds of
athyrus, as at Lochaber. Overlying these at the old road, near
where it is cut by Cameron’s brook, are Clinton strata, from which
I got a beautifully ribbed organism, which is in the Museum of
the Geological Survey of Canada. Returning to the road I found,
opposite the school house, Clinton strata: these overlie the Medina
already mentioned, continued on to Sutherland’s river and beyond
it, which forms the site of McPherson’s grist mill. Under the
mill I found these Medina strata overlaid unconformably by lower
carboniferous grits,—the latter butting against the former. Pass-
ing on towards the falls we find, in these sandstones in the bed of
the river, a salt spring, the favourite resort of cattle; these may be
seen congregating here from all quarters. Invalids may also be
seen following their example, in the belief that the spring is, like
quack medicine, omnipotent for the cure of all diseases. Overlying
the Medina strata, and south of it, are Clinton strata. The former
is exposed on either side of the bridge, and the latter above it,—
both are fossiliferous. Farther south, up a branch of a small brook
that enters Sutherland’s river, above the bridge, is a considerable
fall, (Fraser’s.) The rock of the fall is Medina formation. Pass-
ing along the bridge towards Blue Mountain, my attention was
turned to lofty banks on the left side of the road. As soon as I
saw them I was struck with the resemblance they bore to the strata
of my Barney’s River lingula nodule bed. I made up my mind to
collect similar nodules out of them, and they forthwith turned up
in considerable abundance, of the same species as at Barney’s

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 71

River. I crossed the fields until I came to Sutherland’s river. I
found a fine section of the shales on the river, with the nodules
rolling out of them. In the shales were abundance of concretions,
similar to those of the black grapolite and lingula shales of Doc-
tor’s brook, Arisaig. This is the only locality that I have found
having shales identical with the lower Clinton of Arisaig. This
resemblance of the river shales to those of Doctor’s brook, and the
striking resemblance of the banks on the side of the road to the
lingula beds of Barney’s River, enabled me at once to settle
beyond dispute the horizon of the Barney’s River lingula bed,
which I had before done with some misgivings. The section
of black lingula shales is a little below the place where a small
brook that crosses the road enters the river. South of this exposure
of shales, on the west side of the river, rises a hill, where there is an
outcrop of greenstone porphyry. Still farther south, or about two
miles in a straight line from the bridge at the mill, is a mountain of
considerable elevation, called McDonald’s mountain. The northern
side of the mountain is porphyry, and the south is metamorphic
slate,—the two terminate on the east side in a noble bluff, which
is easily distinguishable from the bridge. I have not surveyed on
the west side of Sutherland’s river beyond this mountain. Entering
Sutherland’s river to the east of the mountain, and descending it a
little way, I found lower Helderberg strata, with characteristic
- fossils. The river course is almost in the line of the strike. These
rise in the bed of the river in magnificent forms, making rapids and
waterfalls which made me somewhat tremulous when attempting to
examine them. ‘This is, without exception, the most imposing
display that I have witnessed of lower Helderberg strata. I would
advise every Geological student to make a pilgrimage to this Geo-
logical shrine. They can be seen to advantage by making a descent
into the river directly opposite the first porphyry elevation, south of
the lingula shale section. The strata under examination pass out
of the river below the falls, crossing the little stream referred to
when describing the lingula shale section, making in this strata
a deep fall, a little below the Blue Mountain road. When
I examined it there had been a clearing just made, and a mill
was in process of erection. These strata then cross the road and

ie HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

pass northward on the sides of the mountain, where I collected
eharacteristic fossils. ‘They contimue their course until they termi-
nate near a small lake which supplies a small stream which descends
into Sutherland’s river, below McPherson’s mill. In this stream
there is a section of rocks which deserves attention. Above the
road it passes over a greenstone rock, and then crosses the bank on
the right with an exposure of lingula shale, whose relation to the
other rocks I was puzzled to understand. It is at all events the
last of the silurians on the north of the Sutherland river silurian
field. Farther up the greenstones rise in a gorge, making a nice
little waterfall. This greenstone reaches to within a little of the
lake, and then passes over im a northeasterly direction. On the
north east side of this little lake is an outcrop of silurian strata,
which is probably of Clinton age. Farther east we come to
McBeath’s, and find outcrops of lower Helderberg strata, with a
low northerly dip. Every heap of stones around furnish lower
Helderberg fossils. Passing on to the mountain that stands highest
in the range, east of Sutherland’s river, [ found the ridge of strata
on the summit to be lower Helderberg. South east of this are
lower elevations, having lower strata, metamorphic, which terminate
rather abruptly, with a steep descent; at the bottom of this runs
a small brook, which appears to be the continuation of the small
stream which enters Sutherland’s river, near its falls, as I have al-
ready noticed. As I have got back to this point, I would turn at-
tention to a singular arrangement of the stlurian formations im this
direction. The Helderberg strata of the river and of the fall of this
small stream, are seen to be underlaid by dark shales with lmeule.
These are exposed on the side of the road, and in the bed of the
stream: they are Clinton shales. Passing along the road toward
the Blue Mountain, I found beyond Holmes’s store an outcrop
of strata, on the left side of the road. Here I collected, 2m sztu,
characteristic lower Helderberg fossils. Now this happens to be a
continuation of the lower Helderberg strata of the lofty mountain
last referred to. So that we have two sets of lower Helderberg
strata, viz: the river strata and the mountain strata, both dipping
in a westerly direction, but diverging northerly, haying an older
formation lying between them. The converging direction being

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 13

southerly, they would appear to have their centre east of McDon-
ald’s mountain, near the place where I met with the strata at first
on entering the river.

The lower Helderberg outcrops that I have described in this
quarter, appear to lie on the sides of a triangle, whose apex is
opposite McDonald’s mountain, which has the course of the river
for one side, the continuation of the outcrop on the road, and the
mountain strata for the other side, and the strata at McBeath’s
for the base, and Clinton strata situate in part of the area. This
seems to show that there had once been a mesial fold in this area,
that the crowning Helderberg had been removed by denudation,
and that the underlying Clinton strata had been exposed as we now
find them. I examined for a considerable distance to the south of
the supposed apex, and found silurian strata outcropping all along,
until I reached the site of McIntosh’s saw mill. In this direction
all the strata are metamorphic. The outcrop at the mill, forming a
fine fall, appears to be of Medina strata. Descending the river, I
reached metamorphic Clinton strata in the river and on the east
bank of it, having abundance of veins of quartz,—one of the re-
puted gold fields that I have already referred to. This is evi-
dently a continuation of the metamorphic strata which I have
just noticed as underlying the lower Helderberg strata of the
mountain.

T have yet to connect the lower Helderberg strata at McBeath’s
with the Clinton of French River, where it crosses the road between
New Glasgow and Antigonishe, and to lay down the order of for-
mation at the mouth of Marshy Hope, and draw the silurian boun-
dary line from Mill Brock to the Marshy Hope, in order to com-
plete the line between McNcil’s brook, Arisaig, and McDonald’s
brook, East Branch, East River, and survey several important
areas included within these boundaries, before I can map out satis-
factorily the silurian systems of Antigonishe and Pictou.

It may seem strange that during my description of the area un-
derlying the Pictou Coal Field, I have made no mention of the
Devonian formation which is so often spoken of in connection with
the strata underlying this coal field. The reason why is this: there
7s no Devonian to be found there.

74 LAWSON—MONOGRAPH OF ERICACER.

Art. VITJ.—Monocrarn oF ERICACE# OF THE DOMINION OF
CANADA AND ADJACENT PARTS OF BritTisH AMERICA.
By Grorce Lawson, Pu. D., Lu. D., Professor of
Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read April 10, 1871.)

Tue order Ericace# embraces plants which for beauty are not
excelled by any that are known to Science, and although their
affinities are clear and the order is a perfectly natural and well
defined one, yet its members are so polymorphous that there is not
only great variety within its limits in habit and foliage, but also in
the structure and number of parts of the flower, and in the real
character as well as outward aspect of the fruit. Most of these
plants are shrubs, some tall and erect, others dwarf and procum-
bent; some have deciduous leaves, others are broad-leaved ever-
greens, the duration of the leaves often differing in species of the

same genus; some are humble herbaceous plants with a rosette of

evergreen radical leaves and annual flower-stalks; and some are
scaly leafless parasites. In the Whortleberry group the calyx-tube
is adherent to the ovary, forming a succulent fruit. In the Rhodo-
dendron and Heath Group, there is no adhesion, and the fruit is dry
and dehiscent, except in Arctostaphyllos, which has a succulent
fruit. In the Pyrola group the corolla is polypetalous; in most of
the other groups it is gamopetalous and usually but not always
regular, the petaloid divisions of equal size. In this order we have
the connecting link that bridges over the gap between polypetalous
and gamopetalous exogens, for it includes some plants that must be
referred to the one division, and some that as surely belong to the
other, thus showing that the distinction is neither an absolute nor a
natural one when applied to orders.

The largest and most showy plants of the order belong to the
Rhododendron tribe, of which many new species have been dis-
covered and introduced to gardens of late years. M. Maximowicz
has re-arranged the genera of this tribe in accordance with the
growing opinions of botanists that some of the old generic distinc-

LAWSON—MONOGRAPH OF ERICACEZ. 75

tions must be laid aside. His two primary groups are: Ist.
Phyllodocez, with a firm closely adhering seed coat destitute of
wing-like appendages, flowers in the axils of the older uppermost
leaves. Phyllodoce, Loiseleuria, Kalmia. 2nd. Eu-Rohododen-
drex, with loose seed coats prolonged into wing-like appendages,
flower buds surrounded by scaly overlapping bracts, and usually
quite distinct from the leaf buds. Ledum, Menziesia, Rhododen-
dron. In the last mentioned genus, Azalea and Rhodora are both
merged, as the characters depending upon regular or irregular
corolla, separate or combined petals, number of stamens, annual or
biennial leaves, membranous or coriaceous, and presence or absence
of scales, are not available for generie distinction.

The general features of distribution of these plants over the
globe were pointed out. ‘They are social plants wherever they are
found ; they cover immense tracts at the Cape of Good Hope, the
species of that region being the beautiful forms known in our
conservatories as Cape Heaths. ‘They are in other forms of the
same or closely allied genera, the characteristic plants of the
‘¢ moors” and ‘* heaths” of Northern Europe, ‘‘ with their purple
blossoms rich in honey.” ‘They are in like manner the peculiar
vegetation of our Nova Scotian ‘‘ barrens,” producing rich flowers
in early summer time, and later in the season, furnishing a bountiful
sustenance to the furred and feathered game of the country, and
offering to the rural population more fruit than they can either use
or sell. In Northern Asia they clothe the Himalayan slopes with
evergreen foliage and the gayest of flowers, and fill the atmosphere
with their too powerful odours. On the lofty mountains of South
America they creep as far up towards the summits as it is possible
for plants of any kind to exist. And in North America they stretch
from the arctic shores southward along the several ranges of
mountains, or step from peak to peak, over the whole continent.
It is in cold countries alone, and especially on the American con-
tinent that this order rises high in the rank of economic plants.

The paper embraced a detailed description of all the species
inhabiting the Dominion, with full information respecting their
distribution over the region. By means of extensive series of
specimens collected by members of the Botanical Society of Canada

76 LAWSON—MONOGRAPH OF ERICACEZE.

throughout the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland, Labrador, Manitoba, and the Northern
and Western regions so long occupied by the Hudson’s Bay traders,
the distribution of the various species has been ascertained with
some degree of precision from the southern boundary of the
Dominion northwards to the arctic shores, and westward to the
Rocky Mountains, but in regard to the Pacific side there was still
great want of information. The Ericaceous Flora of the Pacific
Coast shows in some respects a closer affinity than that of the
Atlantic to Asiatic and European forms; but on the other hand a
large number of our Dominion species belong to the old arctic
flora that encircles the northern polar regions.

Gaylussacia resinosa is our common Black Huckleberry, widely
diffused over the Dominion, but nowhere so abundant or so well
known as in Nova Scotia. Vaccinium macrocarpum is the Ameri-
can Cranberry, of which several varieties are now in cultivation ;
it abounds in the swamps of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Sable
Island, around the Gulf Shores, and generally throughout New

runswick, Quebec and Ontario, stretching westward through —
British territory to the Pacific, where its use is known, although
quite absent from the prairie country of the Western States. V.
Pennsylvanicum and corymbosum yield the well known blue berries.
Vitis Idea, a common form in Northern Europe, is frequent on
hills on both sides of the Lower St. Lawrence, and around the
Gulf Shores, Anticosti, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, &c., extending north to 70° and west to Sitka. In Europe
the use of its berry is not known; in New England Prof. Gray
speaks of it as barely edible, and Mr. Wood also, in his American
Flora characterizes it as mealy and sour. All that is true of it in
the raw state, but it is nevertheless one of our very best berries for
cooking, making a delicious preserve, and used all over the Pro-
vince under the name of Cowberry. It is extensively used also
throughout Rupert’s Land, where it is the Cranberry, and according
to Richardson ‘‘ excellent for every purpose to which a cranberry
can be applied,” being a great resource to the Dog ribs and Hare
Indians, as well as to Europeans. In Greenland, the Danish resi-
dents also use it as a preserve, according to R. Brown secundus, in

LAWSON—MONOGRAPH OF ERICACEA. 77

Florula Discoana. V. Oxycoccus extends across the continent, but
is not very common. YV. Mpyrtillus is confined to the Pacific region.
Chiogenes hispidula the Capillaire or Maiden Hair of Nova Scotia,
produces its white wax like berries so abundantly that they are
made into an elegant preserve, especially in Cape Breton. Arctos-
taphyllos alpina is a Newfoundland and common northern species,
not well known in Southern Canada, but stretching along the whole
arctic coast. In the specimens sent by Mr. McTavish the fruit is
black, but Sir John Richardson describes a red-fruited sort also.
A. Uya-urisi is common throughout the Dominion, apparently in-
creasing to the north and west, whence Dr. Schultz, M. P. P. for
Lisgar, sends it as the Kinikinik of the Crees, who, as well as
European fur traders, mix its dried leaves with their tobacco. Epi-
geea repens is the emblematical ‘* Mayflower” of Nova Scotia; ‘‘ we
bloom amid the snows.” It extends through the United States,
but only along the Atlantic seaboard, and is not uncommon along
the shores of the St. Lawrence Gulf, and although extremely rare
in Ontario, extends to the Saskatchewan. Its flowers exhibit
dimorphism, in reference to which several points were suggested
for investigation, and Mr. Jones, F. L.S., expressed the belief
that fertilization was effected by the large humble bee of Nova
Scotia. Gaultheria procumbens is a common Canadian plant,
yielding the fragrant oil of winter green, which has of late years
been much used by perfumers. This oil consists of an acid ether,
methyl salicylic acid, which, when distilled with caustic potash,
yields methyl alcohol and salicylic acid.

In Gaultheria procumbens a remarkable structure was described ;
there projects from each tooth of the leaf a long terete brown glan-
dular process, arising from a larger base. A similar structure is
seen in the G. Shallon of the Pacific Coast, but there is in addition
scattered over the lower surface of the leaves of that species brown
dots, which are the rudimentary bases of similar but undeveloped
processes. In the East Indian G. ovalifolia of Wallich (1523),
Hooker’s Icones, 246, these gaultherian processes, as they may be
called, are fully developed, not only on the margins, but over the
whole lower surface of the large leaves, each gland arising from a
large flattened disk-like base. These peculiarities do not seem to

78 LAWSON—-MONOGRAPH OF ERICACE.

have been previously described; they will probably be viewed as
presenting a case of development, the peculiar structures commen-
cing in our Nova Scotian G. procumbens, where they are confined
to the margins of the leaves, developing, as an intermediate stage,
in G. Shallon, where their rudiments appear on the lower surface
of the leaf likewise, and finally acquiring completeness in G.
ovalifolia, in which the whole under surface and margins are pro-
vided with them in the most highly developed form.

G. Shallon does not come eastward more than a hundred miles
from the Pacific Coast. Cassandra calyculata abounds in every
swamp about Halifax, and is not rare throughout the Dominion ; in
the far north it becomes more scaly. Andromeda polifolia grows in
Newfoundland, Labrador, Anticosti, but is chiefly a northern spe-
cies, extending to the arctic shores, and often bearing the black
blotches of Rhytisma Andromeda, observable on the cultivated
plant in European gardens. A. tetragona is an extremely arctic
species, forming a turf, which affords a scanty fuel to voyagers in
the most desolate regions ; it grows on all the arctic shores of the

old and new world. A aerimotdet which occurs on the White —

Mountains and Labrador, is one of our rarest plants. Kalmia
glauca is chiefly confined to the maritime Provinces, and probably
does not produce its flowers in Ontario. It was known to Euro-
pean Botanists long before being described in Hortus Kewensis ; it
is the K. linearifolia, Menzies, who found it last century ‘‘ in palu-
dibus juxta Halifax, Nova Scotia;” and specimens collected by
Sarrazin nearly two hundred years ago were found by Smith in
1786, in the then old Herbarium of Valliant at Paris. K. angus-
tifolia is one of the handsomest plants of our Nova Scotian barrens,
and seems to thrive best in the poorest soils, where it has plenty of
moisture, exhibiting with us a very different appearance from that
which it presents in inland localities. K. latifolia has been record-
ed by Sir John Richardson, Mr. Billings and others, as Canadian,
but there is no evidence of its existence within our limits. Rhodo-
dendron Canadense is an Atlantic plant, especially abundant in
Nova Scotia, where Colonel Hardy has found a variety with pure
white flowers. R. Lapponicum is chiefly of northern range. R.
maximum is not known within our liuiits, although Gray says it is

LAWSON—MONOGRAPH OF ERICACES. 79

an inhabitant of Maine. Ledum latifolium is not uncommon in
swampy grounds, especially in the maritime provinces, where it
blossoms profusely, and farther north the narrow leaved L palustre,
with twice as many stamens, seems to take its place. Loiseleuria
procumbens, a dwarf alpine plant of northern Europe is extremely
arctic with us, but finds a resting place on the lofty summits of
New Hampshire ; it is one of the fuel plants of the arctic voyagers.
Moneses uniflora is found at Mount Uniacke, by the Rev. J. B.
Uniacke, Rector of St. George’s, and other Pyrol# are not rare.
Pterospora is confined to Ontario. For the Scotch Heather, Cal-
luna valgaris, several localities have been ascertained in Nova Sco-
tia and Cape Breton, in addition to those previously published.

In conclusion the Author referred to the poisonous and intoxi-
cating properties attributed to some Ericacex. Kalmia angustifolia
is well known to our farmers as ‘‘ Lamb poison,” from the sickness
and occasional deaths caused to lambs that nibble the young shoots
in early summertime. Burnett has attributed poisonous effects to’
the honey of Kalmia latifolia in the United States. The following
notices of poisonous honey have been kindly furnished by Professor
Johnson, of Dalhousie College :—

From Xenophon’s Anabasis:—‘‘ Having passed the summit,
the Greeks encamped in a number of villages containing abundance
of provisions. As to other things here, there was nothing at which
they were surprised: but the number of bee hives was extraordinary,
and all the sailors that ate of the combs lost their senses, vomited,
and were affected with purging, and none of them were able to
stand upright; such as had eaten a little were like men greatly
intoxicated, and such as had eaten much were like mad men, and
some like persons at the point of death. They lay upon the ground
in great numbers, as if there had been a defeat; and there was a
general dejection. The next day no one of them was found dead,
and they recovered their senses about the same hour that they had
lost them on the preceding day; and on the third and fourth days
they got up as if after having taken physic.”

Pliny’s Natural History, Book X XI. Section 44.—** At
Heraclia in Pontus the honey made by bees in some years is most
dangerous. Writers have not mentioned from what flowers this is
collected: We shall record what we have discovered. There is a
plant called aegolethron [goat’s bane, literally ; probably the Azalea

80 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

Pontica, Linn., | from its killing beasts and especially goats; from
the flowers of this plant bees gather a dangerous poison, when it
decays in a wet spring. ‘The signs of poisonous honey are: it does
not thicken at all, its colour is rather red, its strange smell
immediately produces sneezing and it is heavier than harmless
honey. ‘Those who have eaten it throw themselves on the ground,
trying to cool themselves, for they burst into a profuse perspiration.
There are many cures which we will mention in their proper places.
But as the danger is great, it may be as well to indicate some at
once; such as old mead made of the best honey and of rue, and
salt fish taken frequently if it be thrown up. It is certain also that
this poison reaches dogs through the excrement, and that they are
put in like pain. However it is well known that mead made of it
when kept till old is quite harmless, and that women’s complexions
are not improved by anything better than by this when combined
with costus (an oriental aromatic plant) and with bruised aloe.”

Plinys Natural History, X_XTI., 45.—<‘In the same region
of Pontus in the tribe of the Sanni there is another kind of honey
which is called mzonomenon (maddening) from the madness it
produces. It is supposed to be collected from the flower of the
rhododendron, with which the woods abound, and when this tribe
give the Romans wax as tribute, they do not sell the honey because _
it is fatal.”

Strabo’s Geography, Book XII., Sec. 18, (Ed. Teub.)
«The Heptacometz (a people of Pontus) destroyed three cohorts of
Pompey which were marching through the mountains by putting on
the roads cups of maddening (menomenon) honey, which the twigs
of trees produce, for they easily slew the soldiers who were driven
mad by the draught.”

Art. [X.—On THE MertTrorotoay or Harirax. By FreEp-
ERICK ALLISON, Esq.

(Read May 8, 1871.)

JANUARY, 1870, was a month of unusual warmth, more than
7° above the average temperature of eight years, and not approached
by any January since 1863. The pressure was great on the whole.
Some of its more remarkable peculiarities are noticed in a paper
read by me before this Institute in May last. Cloud was rather

ALLISON——-ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 81

scanty, and winds strong from the usual north west quarter. The
total precipitation was very large ; the rain fall more than supplying
the deficiency of snow. We had no fog, five auroras, five hoar
frosts, three lunar halos, four gales, and but five days sleighing.
The strong east gales at the close of this month have also been fully
mentioned last year.

February came nearer the normal temperature. Its whole pres-
sure was yery light. I must again refer to last year’s paper for
notable barometrical disturbances in this month. Cloud far ex-
ceeded that of January, and its own average; prevulent north
west wind strong; great precipitation, being nearly double the
average amount, especially large in rain. ‘There was but one fog,
two auroras, and three hoar frosts, two lunar and one solar halo;
three gales were felt: that of 9th morning was strong from east,
and blew again at night from west. There was sleighing nearly all
February, from beginning to 25th.

The following month, March, was very similar in general tem-
perature, but the minimum of the year occurred on the 12th of
March. Pressure of the atmosphere still extremely small, with a
range rather limited for the season, and not much force of vapour.
For this month also some barometrical notes are contained in Pro-
ceedings of this Institute for 1870. The brightness of the ap-
proaching spring was well defined in March, when cloud was in de-
cided defect. Prevalent wind direction, N. N. W., and mean
force great. A decrease in rain and snow fall, but chiefly in former,
left total of the two not much above two thirds of average. Wild
geese passed on 19th, peach blossomed 24th, and wild pansies 28th.
Again one fog, and the large number of eight auroras; five hoar
frosts were noted, two lunar halos, three gales were felt—counting’
those of 17th and 18th as two,—all more or less eastwardly ; we
had eleven days of sleighing ; robins reappeared 30th.

April temperature returned to a figure much above the normal.
The minimum was high, 22°.6, and the maximum 66°.4. The
pressure mean 29.743, was but .001 below an eight years average ;
and the monthly percentage of relative humidity, 86.1, the greatest
in 1870, cloud still remains deficient. The prevalent wind was
E. S. E., a peculiar direction, and small force. Total preci-

6

82 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

pitation was a very little below the average; for while rain was in
excess, we had less than one inch of snow, and only on two days.
Fogs rose to the number of five, auroras five, hoar frosts six, thun-
der and lightning once—on 12th—first of season. A short gale
blew on morning of 20th, from E. S. E.; frogs sang on 8th, and
mayflowers were in full bloom 12th.

The mean temperature of May was a little lower than average.
On the 30th the great heat of 80°.2 was attained. ‘The mean pres-
sure was not far from normal, but rather weak, and the Hygromet-
rical means were decidedly small for the season. The month was
also very free from cloud, and wind force less than usual. With
these conditions it is not surprising to find the rain fall deficient.
An eight years average gives 4.33 inches; this May only 3.19;
snow fall was inappreciable ; and fair days twenty one, or six above
average. Of fogs we had four, auroras six, hoar frosts two, thun-
der and lightning on 9th and 12th; humming birds were seen 18th,
cherry blossomed 23rd, and the whole spring was rather advanced ;
the latest snow fell on 24th, melting as it fell.

June, compared with this month in past years, was not unlike

May, compared with its predecessors: being slightly cool, some-
what low in pressure, and decidedly bright. The month was still
more dry than the foregoing, only 1.69 inches of raln failing. ‘The
force of wind had previously been estimated. Now, having re-
ceived and placed in position an Anemometer, (Robinson’s im-
proved,) I was enabled to measure the velocity, which in June gaye
a mean of only 8.8 miles per hour, with a resultant direction
(calculated from direction and velocity) of south 70° west; three
fogs were present, two auroras, no frost—the latest this season,
both at five feet above ground and on surface—coming on 24th
May. Thrice was thunder heard, and lightning visible on two oc-
casions, from beginning of 20th to end of 21st, both being fre-
quently heard and seen; one solar halo, one lunar corona; white
lilac bloomed 7th, the purple 8th, the apple on 6th, and white
hawthorn 7th, red clover blossomed 6th, the horse chestnut 2nd,
the honeysuckle 11th, strawberries were ripe 20th, peas blossomed
17th, grass mowing began 30th; the whole season was now deci-
‘dedly early.

ALLISON—-ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 83

July was a warm month, 1°.85 above the average ; on the 24th
the thermometer reached 91°.5 and the 25th was excessively hot;
mean of six observations on that day 75°.27, being the warmest

of any day recorded in Halifax in at least twelve years. Mean
pressure continued low, and largely composed of force of vapour ;
the want of cloud was very marked, and winds light—mean velo-
city being only 8.1 per hour—resultant direction south 69° west.
Rain is not usually abundant here in July, but this had more than
any of the summer months of 1870—3.21 inches, or an excess
over the average of 1.02. I record four fogs, six auroras, thunder
ence, and lightning twice, two lunar coronas, and two rainbows ;
blossoms and fruits were still early.

As the summer progressed the relative heat was maintained,
and August in some respects closely resembled July, the pressure,
29.659, being almost identical, and amount of cloud one tenth
less ; the atmosphere was sensibly more dry however ; the wind had
veered farther northward, resultant direction north 77° west, and
mean velocity increased to 10.5 miles per hour ; but 2.20 inches of
rain fell, scarcely two thirds of calculated average ; number of fogs
was three, auroras five, thunders three, and lightnings three, one
Junar halo and one lunar corona. The advance of the season, in
animal and vegetable life, proceeded at about same rate as before
remarked.

The temperature of the year made a greater decline than usual
in September, which month had a mean temperature of 57°.20, or
7°.68 below August. The atmosphere never descended to the freez-
ing point, but on 30th 32° were registered by grass minimum ther-
mometer. The average date of first appearance of this phenome-
non is 19th September. Mean pressure did not yet reach its nor-
mal. Hygrometric results were about as usual, with still a great
deficiency of cloud, and wind not strong generally, resultant direc
tion was north 15° west, and mean velocity 10.6 miles per hour;
rain was .50 short; three fogs were observed, three auroras, one
hoar frost, as noted above, one thunder and lightning, two lunar
halos, and one solar corona, one rainbow, three gales. In the gale
of 4th wind reached 70 miles per hour, from six to seven a. m.
The progression of temperature brought the usual signs of declin-
ing summer, at a date quite as early as customary.

§4 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

October was decidedly a warm month, with a mean temperature
48°.14. Themean pressure was 29.825.005 higher than January,—
and the highest monthly mean in 1870. LElastic force of vapour
.294, and relative humidity 82.8. There was still a want of cloud,
though October is frequently a bright month m Noya Scotia. In
wind there was an evident increase of average force, the mean ve-
locity being 12.45 miles per hour, with a resultant direction north
42° west. The rain fall was heavy, and more than twenty five per
cent above the average, though coming on few days; .8 of inch of
snow fell; we had no fog except for half an hour early on 31st;
three auroras were marked, hoar frost on 7th and 24, three lunar
halos, hail on 26th, and a rainbow same day; there were three
gales from N. W., S. S. W., and S. ; first frost 26th, the atmos-
phere having been above 32° one hundred and fifty fiye days, since
May 24th; first snow 29th, first measurable snow 31st.

Mean temperature of November still remained above the aver-
age, while the whole pressure of the atmosphere was small, and
fell much from that of October. This pressure was composed
largely of force of vapour.. November, generally a cloudy month,
was rather less so than usual this year. The resultant direction of
wind was nearly due west, being north 87° west, and the mean
velocity in miles per hour receded nearly to that of September—
10.75 per hour. Rain fell to a depth of 5.67 inches, which is just
one inch above the average ; and 7.7 inches of snow fell, which is
almost double the usual amount. There were three fogs, five au-
roras, two hoar frosts, three lunar halos, and a corona; three gales
were felt from N. W., S. S. E., and S. E. ; meteors night of 14th.

The winter began very mildly ; December having a mean of ex-
actly 30° or 3°.61 over the average temperature. In this mild month
pressure was naturally very low, force of vapour and relative hu-
midity comparatively high. The mean clouding was large, and
considerably more than any other month in the year. Winds were
not strong on the whole, the mean velocity being 11.6 miles per
hour, resultant direction north 76° west. Rain was much above
the average, and snow below, though the latter contained more
water than is usual; so that the total precipitation was large. But
one fog was present, three auroras, seven times hoar frost, four

oes

eee ee

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 85

Junar halos, and two corens; we had four days of sleighing. The
thermometer did not fall nearer 0 than 4°.6 on Christmas Eve.

Annual results are thus briefly summed up: 1870, mean tem-
perature 44°.67. Above average 1°.33. Maximum heat, 919.5;
minimum,—7°.3; annual range, 98°.8 ; mean maximum, 53°.57 ;
mean minimum, 35°.92; highest daily mean, 75°; {lowest daily
mean, 7°.17; mean daily range, 17°.61; greatest daily range,
41°.7; mean pressure, (corrected,) 29.684; below average, .074;
maximum pressure, 30.484 in October ; minimum pressure, 28.405
in January; whole range, 2.029; highest daily mean, 30.347;
lowest daily mean, 28.694.

The mean elasticity of aqueous vapour was .278, and mean
humidity 78.3.

Mean cleud was 5.4, which is 0.6 less than a four years aver-
age; N. W. wind prevailed, with an estimated mean force of 1.8,
or 0.3 below eight years average.

We had 48.27 inches of rain, 4.81 above the average. ‘This
fell on one hundred and sixteen days, against one hundred and
eleven days in 1869, and one hundred and twenty three days aver-
age of eight years; 78.9 inches of snow fell, which is 6.6 inches
more than the average, and 13.4 inches more than 1869; number
of days of appreciable snow was thirty six, eleven less than usual,
but nine more than in 1869. The total precipitation, of rain and
melted snow added, reached 57.19 inches, 5.66 inches more than
the average, and 2.66 above the preceding year; of fair days, or
those entirely free from measurable rain or snow, there were two
hundred and twenty nine; two hundred and four is the average
number.

Days wholly or partly fogey were twenty nine,—in 1869 there
were thirty six fogs; fifty three auroras were observed,—in 1869,
thirty nine ; thirty three times was hoar frost formed,—in 1869, 37
times ; on ten days we had thunder, and on eleven days lightning,
generally together ; these numbers in 1869 were eight and seven;
I saw twenty six lunar halos, and three solar halos,—in 1869 but
twelve of the former and none of the latter; hail fell but once,
both in 1870 and in 1869; and four rainbows were noticed in each
year. Last year there were forty five days of sleighing, and in

8&6 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

1869 fifty days; the first snow flakes were ten days later than
average, and the latest since 1863 ; first measurable snow, however,
was ten days early ; the first frost twelve days late, and about four
days longer than the average.

Thanking my hearers for bearing with the recital of these
figures, I turn for a little while to another phase of meteorology, not
more important than statistics,—less so indeed in the sense that a
superstructure depends for support upon its foundation,—but more
generally interesting. A gale on the 4th September, 1870, is
mentioned in the above record, and probably not forgotten in Hali-
fax, as one of the most severe storms ever experienced here. This
was a cyclone, as proved by the followimg facts :

The 3rd September was damp and sultry. Between 9 p. m.
and midnight Barometer fell one-tenth; wind S. S. E., fifteen
miles per hour. 4th, 3.40 a. m. fine rain driven by a 4lb S. E.
wind, Barometer falling faster, and temperature high and almost
steady ; 4.5 a. m., the ball opened with a vivid flash of lightning,
quickly repeated and followed by low grumbling thunder. The
wind now rapidly increased, with violent showers, till 6 a. m.,
from same quarter ; rain then measured .19 inch, and fell subse-
quently in light dashes. At 6 o’clock the Anemometer was revolv-
ing at 57.9 miles per hour, force 17.3 lbs per square foot. Dur-
ing the next hour the gale, still S. E., was at its height here, com-
pleting 65.7 miles in that time, with some gusts at rate of 70
miles. It was in that period that the chief damage was done here ;
the carriage factory on the common unroofed, and many trees,
fences, &c., blown down. These accidents are not to be wondered
at, when it is remembered that the wind was occasionally exerting
a pressure of fully 24.5 Ibs. on every square foot. With some
variations wind was less after this, veering towards south. At 10
&. m. it was due south, and a comparative lull was experienced
from 104 to ll a. m. Barometer corrected for altitude, and re-
duced for temperature, reached the minimum, 28.952 at 95 a. m.
At noon the gale was partially renewed from S. W., and though
declining, blew strongly till 5 p. m., when direction was from W.,
rate 34.8 miles per hour, Barometer 29.542, and rose another tenth
in succeeding hour. Sky clear at 54 p. m., when gale had passed.

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 87

A fog next morning. All the chief features I have mentioned
agree perfectly with the theories of Redfield and Reid, embodied by
Dove, and the observations of numerous men of science. Note
especially the sudden Barometrical decrease, the shift of wind with
the sun, and comparative lull as the hurricane’s centre was nearest
to Halifax. The lightning flash, succeeding the rain, speaks for
the electric consequence of the latter.

Let us pass on to consider this storm at other points in and
near Nova Scotia. From Glace Bay, Mr. Poole (whose valuable
record I have just had the honour of reading) sends me the follow-
ing notes: 4th September, 1870, 8 a. m. corrected Barometer
29.740; 3 p. m. 20.333, wind 11 a. m. S. E., 50 miles per hour.

noon S. Es 68. ** a
lp.m.S.S. EH. 74 *§ es
2 « §,S.E.84 « “
3 S. 86 << 66
Bi Ger 72 ss cc
5 « §.S.W. 65 « «
6 « SW. 58 « “
7 «© W.S.W.46 « z

Rain from 9 a.m. till noon = .36 inch.

From farther north an officer on board H. M. S. ‘* Valorous,”
then in Charlottetown harbour, sent this report:

Barometer 4th Sep., 4 a. m., 29.97; noon, 29.01; midnight,
29.73. Wind, 4a.m., 58. E., squally, 3

Gi Se sods A to TF
noon, 9. b. EB. 5 to 8
4p.m. W.b.N. 5 to 8
Sy to NSW, 2 to 3

During the evening the wind there was variable both in force
and direction, swinging back even to west. ‘‘ Force according to
Beaufort’s scale’—where 8 represents a ‘‘ fresh gale.” At 9 a. m.
the ‘* Valorous” ‘‘dragged and got up steam;” at 10 a. m.
‘<¢ weighed and shifted berth.”

Several observers have kindly forwarded reports of this storm,
but our present purpose will be accomplished, and time best suited,
by reference to observations from a point S. E. of this. On board

88 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

the S. S. ‘* Robert Lowe” at sea, Lat. 43°92’ N., Long. 65°3’ W.,
‘¢the night” (of 3rd—4th Sept. 1870) ‘‘ was very dark, and the
wind from E. via S. to W., must have been at its height quite
equal to, if not exceeding the velocity given in the accompanying
paper”—say 25 lbs—‘‘ The sudden and fitful gusts were of enor-
mous force, more resembling the escape of steam from a high pres-
sure engine than anything else. Our Barometer reached at 4 a. m.
28.700.” <** Steaming head to wind throughout the storm our drift
would not exceed a radius of seven miles.” These four sets of
observations alone clearly shew a general EK. N. E. direction of the
storm path. Lowest Barometer, ‘‘ Robert Lowe,” 4 a. m.; Glace
Bay, 3 p. m.; or a distance of about 250 miles in 11 hours—23
miles, nearly, per hour was this cyclone travelling; but its speed,
it may be noticed, was accelerated as it progressed eastward. This
has been noticed in cyclones in the north temperate zone before,
(see Dove’s Law of Storms,) and I wish now to draw particular
attention to this fact. We cannot speak confidently of the rate of
velocity sustained across the Atlantic, without any ocean observa-
tions; but reasoning from what we do know of this particular
storm, and from comparison of other known storms, this cyclone
was due (or rather its south eastern edge) in the Bay of Biscay on
the evening of the 6th.

Now let us transport ourselves to that locality, and off Cape
Finisterre we find a British squadron cruising on that evening.
Shortly after 5 p. m. the Admiral Sir Alexander Milne had left the
turret ship Captain, and had gone on board his own flag ship. A
wind and boisterous sea were rising; at midnight a gale was upon
them; and before 1 a.m. of the 7th September the ‘‘ Captain” had
foundered, with more than a hundred gallant souls. Many of them,
from the Commander Burgoyne of the Victoria Cross to the noble
young Gordon the midshipman, too well known in Halifax for me
to dwell on this episode. Much has been said and written of the
construction and loss of this ship; but it is with the external cause
of that loss—the gale—that this paper has to do. Unlike the pat-
tern of the iron clad its formation could not have been avoided ; but
its advent could have been anticipated. Let the meteorological sys-
tem now finding favour have been carried to completion, and let the

2 Bie ass eam

Height above Sea, 132 feet.

N.
ee er ren ee
uly. | August. | Sept. Octr. Novr. | Deer. 1870.
Mean Temp{5°.26 | 64°.88 | 579.29 | 48°.14 Ls 89°.90 | 30°.90 + 30°.00 || 44°,
Difference f1'1°.85 ai 65 -.45 | +1°.58 +73 | +38°.61 “Aeon
Maximum T'91¢.5 K7°.8 802.1 702.0 H0°.7 47-.8 91¢,5
Minimum Ti46°.9 462.3 35°, 979 J 91°.4 4°.6 -79.3
Monthly andg5°,5 | .41°.5 | 429.3] 42°.9| 39°38] 48°.2 || 982.8
Mean Maxin5°.98 | 75°.82 | 67°.86 | 57°.80 | 45°.02 | 84°.6) || 53°.57
Mean Minimge.22 | 55°.14 | 47°.48 | 89°.86 | 82°55 | 287.80 || 35°.92
Highest Dail75°.0 | 70°.383 | 679.97 60°.67 | 52°.90 | 42°.90 | 75°.0
Lowest Daily52,03 | 552.89 | 47°.77 | 32°.80| 25°.80| 92.70 78.17
. Mean Daily |9°.75 | 20°.71 | 20°. 40 | 17244 | 1248 | 11°43 | 17°61
Greatest Daiga’. z | 30°.7 32-0 2929 Zio | 28°.6 41°.7
rare ots tao | | |
Mean Pressuy 660 | 29.659 | 29.769 | 29.825 | 29.689 | 29.605 || 22.684
Diderence fre (8!) 088.) —.068 |} \-+-.040 | =.045 |. =.118 |) ---074
Maximum P)_,906 | 29.906 | 30.199 | 80.484 | 80.394 | 80.256 || 89.484
Minimum Py, 285 | 29.294 | 28.705 | 29.170 | 28.968 | 28.9388 || 28.455
Monthly and |621 5611 (04 .4946])01.314 |. 1.481-) 1.48874) 122029
Highest Daily. 898 | 29.885 | 30.123 | 30.347 | 30.296 | 80.281 || 80.347
Lowest Daily. 462 | 29.859 | 29.1:6 | 29.445 | 29.116 | 29.621 || 28.604
| 4 |
Mean Elastic . 523 | 492 . 388 294 | 207 | 142 | 278
Mean Humidg3.8 | ; 80.6 82.8 | 83.2 | rer | 78.3
| | |
Mean Amour 4.1] 4.0 4.4 | 5 4 | 6.6 7.0 | 5.4
Difference fr¢-1.5 | -1.1 -1.5 -.8 -.5 +3 -.6
| |
| |
Prevalent Dii,s. W. | W.N.W.| N.N.W. | NW. | W.N.W./ NNW. |} NW.
Mean Force ¢1.0 teal 1.6 1.9 ey 7-4 Ne | ee
Difference frc_.8 —.6 ae -.3 el Sys Ais
|
Amount of B.21 | 2.20 | 3.33 | 6.75 | 5.67 | 4.81. || 48.27
Ditference fra 02 | -1.01 50 '41.64 |41.00 |41.10° |144.81
Number of di 8 8 Re aes) 22 i 12 | 116
Difference fra _2 a 3 ay | a = Sinall Ly
Amount of Si 0 0 Gt OES Teal 10.7 | 78.9
Difference fro 0 0 O'|.+0.1 | =68.9) | 324 ee Gl6
Number of di 0 0 0 1 y) | 35
Difference fra 0 0 ors | =) 3 _10
Total Precipif 21 2.20 3.33 5.85 6.28 6.06 57.19
Difference fro .Q2 | -1.01 60 1.63 [41.18 [41.23 ||+5.66
Number of D 23 23. 23 19 17 16 229
Difference fro +2 3 ae as 1s ae 4-25
Number of F 4 3 3 1 3 1 29
re A 6 5 3 3 5 3 53
if HO 0 1 2 2 r! 33
i eg 3 1 0 0 0 10
a U2 3 1 0 0 0 11
es he 2 2 3 3 6 26
ip 0 0 i 0 0 Osa 3
ES HO 0 0 1 0 0 1
oh 2 0 1 1 0 0 4
“‘ G 0 0 3 3 3 0 | 20
es D oO 0 0 0 0 4. || 45

General Meteorological Register for 1870.

EFIFALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Latitude 44° 39’ 20” North. Longitude 63° 36’ 40” West. Height above Sea, 132 feet. .
OBSERVED BY F. ALLISON.
1870. Jan’y. | Feb’y. | March. | April. May. June, | July. | August.| Sept. Octr. Noyr. | Deer. Ga
Mean Temperature ........--2+2 seeeees 29° 88 | 249.58 | 289.76 | 419.18 | 479.12 | 599.88) 659.26 | 64°.88| 57°.20 | 48°14 | 395.90) 80°90 || 449.67
Difference from average (eightyenrs)......| --7°.01 +.75 —-2°.87 -.49 =.13 | +1°-85 | +19°.65 =.45 | 19.58 +73 +8°.61 +-1°.338
Maximum Temperature . . 50°.05 47°.8 66°.4 Esto) |] tT 91°.6 87°.8 802.1 70°.0 60°.7 47-8 91°.5
Minimum Temperature...... —3°.3 =3°.1 227.6 27°.4 38°.4 46°.0) 469.3 8°. 4°.6 --7°.3
Monthly and Annual Ranges. . « 538°.7 50°.4 43°.8 §2°.8 48°.3 45°.5 41°.5 42°.3 439.2 98°.8
Mean Maximum Temperature . . 87°.86 | 82°.19 50°.48 | 58°.03 | 70°.82 | 75°.98 | 75°.82 | 67°.86 84°.6) || 53°.57
Mean Minimum Temperature. . . 20°.56 | 16°.24 82°.68 | 879.42 | 492.07 | 659.22 | 65°14) 479.48 237.80 || 859.02
Highest Daily Mean Temperature. 45°.87 | 89°58 50°.97 | 64°.80 | 72°.50 75°.0) 70°33 672.97 42°.0 75°.0
Lowest Daily Mean Temperature - soo} sit 9°.50 819.98 | 85°98 | 479.90 | 65%.03 | 552.80) 47.77 9°.70 Momler
Mean Daily Range of Temperature... ... 167.08 | 15°.90 Def | 20260 | 21875 |) 20875 | 202701 11°.43 |) 17°.61
Greatest Daily Range of emperature...... 41°.7 27°.9) 81°.8 88°.5 877.8 34°.3 80°.7 28°.6 41°.7
Mean Pressure, corrected.... = ..| 29.820 | 29.543 29.743 29.660 | 29.659 | 29.769 22.684
Diderence from average (eight years ---| +.106 | =.238 =.001 = 085) -088 | —.063 -. 074
Maximum Pressure............. .- | 30.467 | 30.289 30.311 29.906 | 29.906 |} 80.199 89.484
Minimum Pressure ..... ... 28.455 | 28.487 29.125 29). 285 | 29.204 | 23).705 28.455
Monthly and Annual Ranges. 2,.012)) 1.802 1.186 +621 -G11 | 1,404 2/029
llighest Daily Mean Pressure. . . ..-| 88.824 | 30.200 80, 282 29.88 | 29.885 | 30.123 30).347
Lowest Daily Mean Pressure.............] 28.940 | 28.694 297462) ) 20.359 | 29.126 28.694
Mean Elasticity of Aqueous Vapour....... +129) - 104 -129 229) - 262 432 -528 492 - 388 294 207 -142 278
Mean Humidity ........................ 66.5 65.9 72.4 86.1 78.5 3.1 83.8 79.6 80.6 82.8 3.2 Tioil 73.3
5 Zz
Mean Amount of Clond.................. 6.8 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.0 5.0 4.1 4.0 4.4 5 4 6.6 7.0 5.4
Difference from average (four years) -.5 +.2 -.5 -.2 =i 8) -.7 -1.5 -1.1 -1.5 -.3 b) +3 -.6
|
i

Prevalent Direction of Wind.............. N.W. N.W. |NN.W.| ES.2. | SiS.B. | W.S.W.] W.S.W. | W.N.W. | NNW. | NOW. | W.NLW.| NNW. |] NW,
Mean BorcevofWint eects ene eee ee 2.5 2.4 2.5 Mai 1.6 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.6 1.9 1.7 Doll 1.8
Difference from Average (eight years).....| -+.2 =. 1 +.4 -.7 -.3 =.8 -.8 -.6 -.3 -.3 -.7 -.3 -.3
AAO? AT IR: cons cosnecooooseosnGess 4.18 6.82 1.64 3.78 3.19 1 69 3.21 2.20 8.93 6.75 5.67 4.81 48.27

Difference from Average (eight years) ++1.23 |43.40 | -1.86 | +.67 | -1.14 | -1.21 /+1.02 | -1.01 -.50 -+1.64£ ($1.00 [41.10 ||+4.81
Number of days of Rain............ 14 7 5 13 10 9 8 8 7 12 11 12 116
Difference from Average (eight years) + 8 +1 -1 +2 -6 =3 -2 3 - -1 =2 +3 7
Amount of Snow .... ............. 14.9 29.6 14.4 0.8 Inap. 0 0 0 ) 0.8 7.7 HO. 78.9
Difference from Average (eight years).....) -2.21 |416.81] -2.4 -7.1 -.1 a 0 0 0 |+0.1 | +3.9 -3.4 +6.6
Nuinber of days of Snow............. ... 9 11 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 a 385
Difference from Average (eight years) -1 +3 -4 =3 -1 0) 0 0 0 =1 -2 =3 -10
Total Precipitation ............. 7.11 10.54 3.02 8.91 38.19 1.69 3.2] 2.20 3.30 6.85 6.28 6.06 57.19

Difference from Average (eight years).....|+-1.22 |+4.54 | -1.19 10 | -1.15 | -1.21 [41.02 | -1.01 -.60 |41.68 |4+1.18 |-+1.23 |/-+5.66
Number of Dry Days ................... 1k 14 22 17 2 21 23 23 23 19 17 16 229
Difference from Average (eight years). ... -4 2 +4 0 +46 +3 2 B) =3 +5 +3 +2 +25
emer OP IHG. 500 Geesuaceacese0 bas 0 1 1 5 4 38 4 3 3 1 3 1 29
fe Auroras ....... a 5 2 8 5 6 2 6 5 3 3 6 3 63

G Hoar Frosts..... 5 3 5 6 2 0 0 0 1 D) 2 7 83

os Thunders .... 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 8 1 0 0 0 10

Ss Lightnings ... 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 3 1 0 0 0 11

wD Lunar Halos - 3 5) 2 0 0 1 2 2 D) 3 3 6 26

a Solar Halos. .. a 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 3

OG bi iegosecssHoodeodae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

a Rainbows. ss s2ee) are 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 4

i Gales......... nod 4 8 8 1 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 0 20
Days Sleighing...........-..- 5 25 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 46

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 89

Transatlantic telegraph have flashed from this coast or from New-
foundland to Ireland the presence of the storm on this side, and its
probable oceanic path,—Valentia might have warned Brest and lower
stations, and the officer in command of a trial squadron, ‘‘ looking
for a gale of wind,” would scarcely have failed to communicate
daily with the French or Spanish coast for signals, and to take ad-
ditional precautions if aware of the approach of a cyclone.

I must not conclude without alluding to the probability of the
General Government giving encouragement to the system of mete-
orological observations which the Director of Toronto Observatory,
Mr. Kingston, and myself, have been for some time urging upon
them and the Canadian public.

Art. X.—On tHE METEOROLOGY OF CALEDONIA Mings, Lit-
TLE Guace Bay, Care Breton. By H. Poors, Esq.,
M. E., Superintendent of Mines.

(Read May 8, 1871.)

THE accompanying record of the weather, observed in 1870, is
in continuation of the meteorological registers forwarded for the
previous years back to 1867 inclusive.

The Barometrical readings are a little lower than in former
years. The highest reading being 30.560 on Ist January, and the
lowest 28.460 on the 1st February, being an extreme range of two
inches.

The mean temperature was 41.75, or 1.70 degree warmer than
the mean of the previous three years. The mean at night being
1.78 warmer, and at day 1.50 warmer than the mean of previous
years. The coldest night was only 2.5 below zero on 13th March,
and the hottest day was 89.5 on 24th July. Only three nights
marked below zero, though previous years had marked six, fifteen
and seven. The nights of frost were one hundred and eighty three,
being the average of former years, but the degrees of frost were
only 1499 against 1794, 2486, and 2171 degrees of former years.

90 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY.

The rimy frosts were forty seven against a mean of twenty six,
with eight times of silver thaw, against a mean of five times.
Hail was observed eleven times, and fogs sixty one, as compared
with a mean of hail six times and thirty one fogs. Lightning and
thunder were also more frequent, being seventeen times against a
mean of nine times. Twelve rainbows were observed as compared
with six in former years, and the unusual number of one hundred
and two auroras, instead of a mean of thirty three. Also thirty
four halos round the sun and twelve round the moon, instead of
an average of twenty two round the sun and five round the moon,
as previously. The mean force of vapour was 0.2691 inch, and
the relative humidity was seventy four per cent, one hundred being
saturation.

The wind continued to give a high mean of 17.4 miles
per hour, or a total number of 152,353 miles for the whole year.
The wind veered thirty eight with and backed seven times against
the sun, making full revolutions; while the prevailing directions
were one hundred and twenty three days from S. to W, ninety nine
days from W. to N., eighty five days from N. to E., and fifty
eigkt days from E. to S. In March the wind averaged 24.5 miles
per hour throughout the month. The equinoctial gale blew on the
17th, 18th, 19th and 20th; the greatest force being on the 18th
from 1 p. m. to 8 a. m. of the 19th, an average of 70.5 miles per
hour ; thence to 1 p. m. of the 19th, 89 miles per hour; and from
1 p.m. to4 p.m. 88 miles per hour; and from the whole 24
hours of the 19th, an average of 72 miles per hour. The direc-
tion of the wind was north, and nine inches of snow fell. A total
of one hundred and two inches of snow fell on fifty six days, which
melted and added to the rain gave a total precipitation of 62.625
inches of water on one hundred and sixty days.

Table No. 2 exhibits the rainfall compared for four years. It
shows that the least quantity falls in August, then July, June,
May, April, March, January, February, October, November, De-
cember, and the most in September. In 1870, May had the least
rain fall, 1.705 inch, shewing a reasonable excuse for the shortness
of the hay crop in that year. The greatest fall of rain in one month
was 11.265 inches in September 1867.

Wesr. 120 FEET ABOVE SEA.

| | 126/601

a SS SSS

111.569 189247019 | | | 19 | | | | | 1B

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, CALEDONIA MINE, LITTLE GLACE BAY, CAPE BRETON. 60 rr. ABOVE SHA. Lar. 46° 12’ N. Lone. 59° 57 W.

H 3) 9 g Rar. 4 Pp Ss ”
BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. 5 5 e oe 5 includes srow. | 2) # | |, : 3 ala Winp.
1 S45 Bl S32 a al Snow. Glens x g 3 = all, als | Turned, True N.
1870. | Corrected | ,Corree- |Mean | Mean} oles eee all sale sles. eee ee ee c = Sle] lel /=l2lgisis| «i =- |<
Pre for Vapor| Highest Lowest Mean SA 38) se es 3 a eel) ver |e = By g Bs 5 | =) 8 2/.¢/ 2 5 lS aa is 2 \Al ys
Ce rice ere a Mem (7 | Niet | Day | Siene | Dey PRB ee | BF |e | eg | ale (a|2| 2 lelelelale|e|4|Z|e|s|siee| 22) 2| 2 |e
|
| leol | | 1583 |77.3| 4.023] 712690 |19.16| 6.550 | 18 /23.95,13/ 30] 8041...| 3) a]..| al. |...|10] 5] 91... 2 | 1 | aa) 7| zl 6
20 /80.5 562 50/21.0/32.0) 710/18 14), 88| 450 |18}. 7.8| 4.023| 712 16) 6.550 2
Tobmeeny | 29.8004 |9,7269 [90.902 18 38.460) 1 22.50 17.0/28.0/ -2 3] 6 | 4/36 25/41 |25).1845/77.7| 8.420] 563780|16.78| 7.605 | 13 |23.25| 9|27| 421 1| 3| 1) 6 7...\...1 6| 3] a)... 4 |... | el of el 7
March...... ..| 29.6929 |29.6199 30.468 27|29.009 18196. 70|22.4|31.0 -2.511313 l12/ 30/80/44 | all1aa9|72.0| 8.403] 910440 e447) 3.980| 9 (6.50) 9131] 3091 21 cl. .l al chil al aol 5] 13/10] 3
April .....-.. | 29.9789 |29'8431|30.534 16/99 326 18 35.75/20.7/41.8| 9011729 |16|41/18 64 |11/.1908|69-1| 4.847/581300|16.15| 3.870| 18 | .75| a/: | 6...) 1)14}1]...|13] 5] 2j.) 5 |. | | ele 3
May .........-} 29.8400 /29.6789 30.910 $1|29.397| 4/40.90/93.6|48.2| 92 634 | 5|54\3069 |si|,2261\67.0| 5.744] 512940|13.79| 1.705 | 10 | 4125] 4 | 7 2)...] 9f...}...) 9] 8...1 1] 1] a || 5] sital 5
June.......7.| 29.8899 |29.5944|30.196 929.369 22 53.85/47.0|G0.7| 33] 448 [12/63 15 81 | 1/.8555|70.4| 9.082]511120|14.19) 2.475 | 11) .... |... | 2] 21...) 7/6]...| 9] 5h..[-]/ 5 ) 1 | ol 5] 7) 8
July. ......--.---| 29.8838 |29.4185 |30.101| 5/29 534/25,64.10|55.5|72.7) 99] 357 | 1|69| 9/89. 5j24|.4748|67.0[12.060|592100|15.91| 2.120) 9 | H)....e-| 3/2] 9] 8)..-41 6 |... | 151 6| 5] 5
Awa 29.8348 |29.3843 |30.066, 8|29.465| 6|63.35|56.7/70.0 43] 759 )e4|67|1183 | 1/.5105/72.9/12. 969] 57842015. 55| 3.810 | 14 J. | 4)... 48 ]2l 9] oho) 4 13| 10| 2| 6
September ....| 29.9264 |29 6013 30.370 30|29.333 4/54.25/48.2/60.8 35] 9146 (30/63 575 | 8).8851|72.2| 9.183/649020|18.03) 6.575 | 11 | .... “|| 8l--3[..-| 3]-2.141{ 9} 1] 4) ai] 6 12] 8] 8| 2
Ociober ....-..| 29.8746 |29.6530|30 420 24/29.304,21/46.00/40.8/s1.2 2828136.597| 60/1468 [12/2816\77.3| 9.168] 72810 21, 00| 6.195 | 12 | .50 | 4} 3)...) 3f...)4] 7] 4] all a | a | 19) a4} a] 4
Noyember ....| 29.7267 |29.5653 |30.489 22|28.97613/38.45)/35.0|41.9 2519|25 30) 47|16\55 |16).2214|80.7| 5.625/585930|16 27) 9.065 | 20 4.25 4) diel 4l..[4] 5[..{ 11 ai) 2 11| 8| 3| 8
December .....| 29.6288 |29.5318 |30.357 12/28.905'15/28.65/24.7|32.6 1025\17 |25| 39 1149 29|/.1570|84.8| 8.989|637150|17.13] 9.175 | 20 | 9.25 -| 8)... 1] 5)......| 5] 2) 2) a) 2 | 3 | ae) 5) 74
lll
| | ||
Mean sss... 29.8438 |29.6251|. ....| |...... lat 35.9| 47.5 z Bhs, | ... |. |-2601}74.0] 6.782] esssoeli7.40).. .. 3.3
Jan Feb | | Mar Heb || diy. ly. | e |
Betrameny et fs etivs| Sox a 30.560 1 28.460 rT ie -|-2.518| 6 | 4/69] 9/89.5)24).... |....]....../7617670) ... ./|62.625) 160102. 056l183/1499| 314711) s\e1l17\12|wsalio| 4) 38 | 7 l128199 Isslsg
Hie al | r152353) Miles |
ees | eS SI 2 eee ee ee eee eee
COMPARED WITH THE ABOVE.
| | | |
1867. | | | |
Mean ......-.-- 29.8524 |29.6704|...... Feb)... Wp |40.06 84.17/45.95).. ||... eel] .. [dng]... .|tuel.2488|72.87| 6.1941 643584{17.6 || 44a) tol... Subs | poodpabatakespaledbalesltoafrallearlloudleed boulleles
Bxtreme «..r..|he+0--.-|-...-..(80.768)1128.67630).....|... |.....(-—1031] 1 321)67/95| 85 |9ll.... 4)... a. s-0. 7722414) 58.090] 147] 125 [521722171] 723 5|5|25] 9]6 2616 3/0|| 36 | 17 |1e914ldalzs
\| rl 54448) Miles
1868. | ,
Mean... 29,8854 |29.6924|...... Mar -- = -|fth 39.29 33.6444. 84)... ii)... eb). July] {hly!. 9454/7430] 6.2381 675908|18.5 || 4.975112 5| 94.5165193 24861518 6/3 eslt2\6 3529' 7/2ll 35 | 5 \aoglio7izels4
Extreme... [e... 0... ... 25. 80.611| 628.809, 6|]..... ‘anc sae —18}4| 4 jo2i66|2| so |5i|.... |..... -+.. . (8110903 59.750] 152]... Gael ete PE UNG ebelcalbdbolediedlalkewellaecaliascleal dle
|| 0r162218)Miles |
1869. | | | |
Mean ..........) 29.8413 [29.6325|... [fe]... |Hth) 40.80 84.43:47.17]... ||... .jn)| . . /Sp |... .\ul.2696 68 10| 6.894] 612927/16.8 | 5.04il11. 7191. 75/48'1861794 637 8|6 41] 6/7|3927/6]3|| 36 | 9 |j124h04\81\56
BAGO snpacl|aaep oboe basdane 30.590|1128.886 4 |)... 5c ae |= 9)28| 1 le8i)69) 9 | 86 [29] ....\.....),..... 7355180| |60.490| 140]... eal aes eB eaaeledeell a eatedleaelaeccMaccle alle cle
| | r147102|Miles || |
Fe a ee ees ee ——_aaSe—_—nn_ ee ——
CLIMATE OF ALBION MINES, NOVA SCOTIA. Lar. 45° 34/ 30// Norra. Lone. 62° 42’ Wusr. 120 rerr asove Sra.
10 years......./29.7137|......./80.757| ls.608| l41.97/53.11150.91|_-99 98 Js. 967)/173111.s/ealtsoeuroho 19 112|126|66/61
Sal a hee | | |

TABLE Wo. 2.
RAIN-FALL COMPAREDs

April. May. June. July. | August.| Septr. Octr. Novr. Decr. Torat.

B) 2.560 | 11.265 | 2.920 | 4.780 | 5.745 || 58.090
-320 | 3.145 6.057 | 2.122 | 3.498 6.956 | 7.745 | 5.700 | 5.120 || 59.750
-420 | 7.400 | 5.300 | 6.400 | 2.725 2.870 | 7.220 | 5.065 | 5.655 60.490
-870 1.705 2.479 | 2.120 | 3.310 6.575 | 6.195 | 9.065 9.175 || 62.625

4.674 | 4.405 | 3 460 | 3.431 3.006 | 6.916 6.020 6.152 6.424 | 60.237

-085 -370 | 2.010 | 3.080

We Oro

7 8 1 4 2 12 3 6 9 |
7 2 10 1 3 11 12 9 6 |i
5 12 3 10 1 2 11 6 7
5 1 3 2 4 9 7 11 12

: 5 4 3 2 1 12 9 10 Wil
RN nd | | I

1 quarter—March, April, May.............. ... 14 053) First half-year
A ‘ aun: July, August................. 9.806 f 23.949 Year
. eptember, Octcber, November... 19.088) Second half-yer 6
ah 8 December, January, February.... 17.200 i Geese ye Se

36.288 Caledonia Mine, Cape Breton.

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 91

Other phenomena noted at this station :

January 27th.—A two year old seal shot at Big Glace Bay.

February 3rd.—Sleighs travelled over Big Glace Bay Lake.
5th.—First drift ice passing southward.

March 17th.—Wild geese at Lingan.

April 1st.—Great numbers of lobsters driven on shore at Little
Glace Bay. 2nd.—Grey birds seen. 3rd.—Robins. 5th—Whis-
tling duck heard. 10th.—A large moth seen. Herrings caught on
the 12th. 21st.—Codfish thrown ashore. 23rd.—Mayflowers in
bloom. 26th.—Heard yellowhammer, woodpecker, picres auratus ?
27th.—Gaspereaux caught in Big Glace Bay ; and frogs piping.
30th.—Saw four humble bees, butterfly, ‘‘ Camberwell Beauty ;”
heard a partridge drumming.

May 7th.—Saw a small hawk; blue herons, ‘‘Ardea Herodias,”
and yellow-legs, ‘‘ Totanus flavipes.” 10th.—A porpoise came on
shore at Glace Bay. 21st.—Wild strawberries, white violets and
coltsfort, ‘‘ Nardosinia palmata,” bloom. 24th.—Alder catkins
blossom. 28th—Swallows seen. 29th.—Dandelions bloom.
d1st.—Musquito hawk seen.

June 4th.—Swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio turnus,) seen.
5th.—White and Sulphur butterflies, (Pontia olerace et Colias
Philodice). 11th.—Wasps. 12th.—Apples in blossom. 17th.—
Caplin ‘‘ mallotus villosus,” struck in at Mire. 24th.—Caplin at
Big Glace Bay. 29th.—Gathered ripe strawberries.

July 6th.—Fireflies seen. 14th.—Dragon fly. 16th.—Pota-
toes and wild roses in blossom. 21st.—Mowed hay. 26th.—Saw
a bat. 29th.—Gathered peas and dug potatoes.

August 16th.—Golden plover arrived.

September 20th.—Sword fish seven feet long thrown on shore
at Big Glace Bay. 21st.—Six wild geese in the Bay.

October 9th.—A lunar halo with paraselene from 8 to 10 P.M.
27th.—First frost.

December 31st.—A flock of wild geese in Big Glace Bay.

a icin

APPENDIX.

Fietp Excursion,
June 21st, 1871.

Asovut twenty members, with their friends, met at the Steamboat
wharf and proceeded to Dartmouth in the 2 P.M. boat. They were then
conveyed to the Montague Gold Mines, about seven miles distant from
Dartmouth.

The day was beautiful and pleasant, and the Company enjoyed
themselves exceedingly. The road going from Dartmouth, passing along
the chain of lakes exhilarated the spirits and gladened the hearts by the
ever changing and quiet scenery. The road from the highway to the
mines was found to be rather rough, but by no means unpleasant.

Arrived at Montague we had ample material for geological specula-
tion. Dr. Honeyman defined the position, &c. of the strata, which at
first seemed somewhat perplexing. Walter Lawson, Esq. C. E. the
proprietor of one part of the mines and a successful worker of them, very
kindly conducted the party through the mines. Mr. Brown kindly
explained the processes of crushing, amalgamating, and retorting, which
was quite a novelty to many of those present.

The company were afterwards entertained by Mr. Lawson with
refreshments, and then returned to the city highly delighted and instruc-
ted by the excursion.

WoG:

Notes on THE Montacur Goup MIngs.

Havine been honored by the Institute with the post of guide in the
Montague Gold Field, before having made an examination of the locality
I proceeded to make some little preparation for the work assigned to me.
I tried to ascertain the position of the Montague Mines by examining
the only geological map of the Gold Mines in my possession, and there
found that the mines in question were situated east of the Richmond
station of the Nova Scotia Railway. J therefore came to the conclusion
that it was probable that the gold-containing rocks were a continuation
of the argillites and quartzites of the section at the station, 7. e., the
north side of one of synclinals or south of one of the anticlinal folds of
the lower silurian strata of the Halifax peninsula. I also asked W. A.
Hendry, Esq., Deputy Commissioner of Crown Lands to locate the
Montague district on one of the office maps. The position which he
assigned to it tended to confirm the conclusion at which I had arrived.

94 APPENDIX.

I was therefore somewhat astonished, when we found ourselves
advancing so much to the north of the narrows of Halifax harbor ; still
I expected that by changing the direction of our road we might come so
far south as to arrive at the expected position. I was, however, dis- —
appointed and my foregone conclusion became valueless. We found
ourselves transported to Montague, in a locality some miles to the north
of its supposed position.

The metamorphic lower silurian strata of Montague are quartzites
with interstratified argillites having auriferous quartz veins conformable
with the bedding and also interseeting it. The lode or lead conformable
with the stratification called the Belt lead, is the seat of the principal
works. This is found to be the richest gold-producing vein in the
locality. There are also works on a cross lead, from which a very
beautiful and rich mass was exhibited at the time of our visit. The
strata containing these have a southerly dip, being on the south side of a
synclinal, which, if continued westerly would intersect the section of
rocks at the railway on the west side of Bedford Basin, about two
miles north of Halifax.

Mr. Lawson pointed out to me the position of an anticlinal axis to
the south of the mines.

Our visit was too cursory to enable us to ascertain details of
structure. I looked for fossils but found none. JI observed in the
argillites, concretions such as are frequently found in argillite strata, and
which have often an organic nucleus. I expect to return to the locality,
for the purpose of making a better investigation.

This Gold Field is at present one of the most productive of the Gold
Fields in the Province. The persevering operations of Mr. Lawson
have been rewarded with distinguished success. He explained to me his
system of mining; there is no groping in the dark; the product of every
shaft is kept distinct; the exact amount of gold produced by each is
known so that the comparative productiveness of each is manifest; the
whole working is carefully measured and planned. The works are
superintended by Mr. Lawson himself. :

There is much mispicked or arsenical pyrites associated with the
gold in the quartz vein: the result of this is that a great part of the gold
escapes in the process of crushing and amalgamating, by the sickening of
the mercury. Among all the methods proposed for remedying this evil,
there have been none found adequate to meet the case. The cost of all
exceed the profit; the tailings when exposed to atmospheric action
become partially oxidised and cemented together by the oxide of iron.
It is to be hoped that some means will now be discovered by the ener-
getic proprietor of the mine by which the evil may be remedied, and the
precious metal recovered.

DS HL.

Aviad

NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL
SCIENCE, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

PatRon—His Honor the LirurENANT-GOVERNOR.

COUNCIL, 1870-1. =

See

Bf Pen | JoNEs, Esq., F. L. S., President.
oe ? “Gitpin, Esq., M. D., M. ReCwS. ; : ee
Bin?! Skaeson Ph Di Ls Le : Vice tvesateney
W. Go. ., Esq., Honorary Secretary.
W. C. Sinver, Esq, Treasurer.

J. Rornerrorp, Esae., M. E., | Rev. D. Hoxpyman, D-C.L., F. G. a, hy

Frep. ALuison, Esq., AnGus Ross, Esq.,
J. R. De Wo tre, Esq., M. D., Bos: HamiLron, Esq.,
‘H. Moopy, Esq,, © Jos. BELL, Esa.
{2

The Anniversary Mocice of “the Institute is held on the second Weiluesday
in October, of every year.
The Monthly Ordinary Mcetings of the Institute, when Papers are read, are
held on the second Monday evening in every month, commencing in Novem-
ber and ending in May.

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Bon Scotian Anstitute of Hatural Science

OF

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

OL. 111. 1871-72. - PART IL

CONTENTS.
Page
BPR MOMMEEN GN Gi kis teie SA gS a oat Raw BR tM wag cin k oie sas SBiebli do Em os 95
BGA ANE OVID BIS a5 2 cin seit ooh Fae a OU LP eee ee nile See oe anise eee see ene 98
TRANSACTIONS :—

Agt. I.—On Nova Scotian Diaraal Lepidoptera. By J. M. Jonzs, Esg., F. L. S.,
President of the Institute of Natural Science..........+...44: 100

II.—On a small and remarkable Lophioid taken off Halifax Harbor. By
Bs VES ies mew Ns 1h, nea tk Brahe ts Cobo ace aid aioe kes w 103

aH --On Pre-Carboniferous Rocks of the Pictou Coal Field. By Rev. D.
Honeyman, D.C. L., F. G. 8., Member of the Geological Society
of France, &c., Director of the Provincial Museum...,....+..+. 105
1V.—On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp Grupry, A. B., M.
D., M.R.C.8., Vice-Pres. of the Institute of Nutural Science. 109
V. —On Parallel Lines of Elevation in the Earth’s Crust. By Aneus Ross,

cS SARE ie IES Se i ER an IN i SER ay Bi gie ge Sac a Ae 126
ML: —On the Pre-Carboniferous Rocks of the Pictou Coal Field. By Rey. D.
hy TG Muy AN De CT Ge Re OGLE i wih viii wane wo Gv so od 141
& VIL. —On the Meteorology of Caledonia Mines, Little Glace Bay, Cape shes
By H. Pootr, Esg., Superintendent of Mines............-.. 143
VIIL.—Notes of Travel. Extracts. By H. 8S. Poors, Esgq., F. G. BActaes 150
1X.—On the Construction of a Beaver Dam in Digby County. By BernarD
IEP IN, CAP Bs ONE DS Mii Ce Sars 2%. oi, ween sd os a wae bee 152
X.—On the Comparative Anatomy and Pathology of the Human Teeth. By
Bk CORR WLS EDL Lis Rice deh aGpin Babee Seaham oS ais gis apes 156
XI.—On the Geology of the Iron Deposits of Pictou County, Nova Scotia. By~
Rey, oD, (HONEV MAN, WD Cp da. Ge ty OOis eee Ss faa ORAL
Veep. 8B —On the Flora of Nova Scotia. Part I, By Henry How, D. C. ee
; Prof. of Chem. and Nut. Hist., University of King’s College,
TATED EW oie Wry Uae eta ke tngiau tae ns bra aig oes ase Wate 174
XIII.—On the Meteorology of Halifax. By Freperick Atiison, Esqg....... 176

“HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA—WM. GOSSIP, 87 GRANVILLE ST.
“ENGLAND—REEVES & TURNER, 196 STRAND, LONDON.
ae aad STATES—THE NATURALIST AGENCY, SALEM, MASS.

1872.

. Price, Five Shillings.

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BES See

$ a ae
Seep ee
SSS ea eee eee a rca

poreres = ane S uigawegaars—.

at acty ‘
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— PROCHEHDINGS

Nova Scotian Justitute of Datural Science.
VOL TIL. RART- TL

Provincial Museum, Oct. 11th, 1871.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

J. M. Jones, Esaq., F. L. S. President, in the Chair.
Inter alia.

The following officers were elected by ballot:

President—J. M. Jones, Esq., F. L. S.

Vice Presidents—Burnarp Giipin, Esq., M. D., M. R. C. S., and G.
Lawsem, Ph-D.-E bh.

Sea etary—Rev. D. Honryman, D.C. L., F. G.8., &e.

Treasurer—\V. C. Sirver., Esq.
Council—FreED. ALLIson, Esq., — WesseLuort, Esq., M. D., J. R.
DeWo.re, Esq., M. D., J. RurHERForD, Esq., M. E., H. Moopy, Ese.,.
W. Gossip, Esq., J. Beit, Esq., ANGus Ross, Esq.

OrDINARY MeretTING, NOVEMBER 138, 1871.

Dr. Girpin, Vice President, in the Chair.
Inter alia.

The Secretary announced that Prof. J. Cope, President of the New Orleans
Academy of Science, Dr. W. QO. King, Vice President of the same Institution ~
and Jules Marcou, Esq., had been duly elected by the Council, as correspond-
ing members.

The Secretary then read a paper by the President, “ On a Lophioid Fish
recently caught off Halifax ;” and also one by himself, entitled, ‘‘ Stric/ures on

Logan and Hartley’s Geology of the Pre-Carboniferous Rocks of the Pictou Coal
Field.”

ORDINARY MEETING, DECEMBER 11, 1871.
Dr. Girrin, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.
The Secretary announced that the Council had duly elected as members,
the Hon. Wm. Garvie, T. J. Egan, Esq., D. Blackwood, Esq., Capt. Tulloch,
1

96 PROCEEDINGS.

H. M. 61st Reet., Dr. A. P. Reid, the Rev. Dr. Warren, James Whitman,
Esq.; and! as corresponding member, the Rev. T. Ball, of Prince Edward
Island.

A paper ‘“ On the Moose,” was read by Dr. GiuPin, Vice President. This
is the last of the series on the Mammalia of Nova Scotia.

ORDINARY MEETING, JANUARY 8, 1872.
Dr. Giupin, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.

A paper “ On Parallel lines of Elevation in the Earth’s crust,” was read by
AnGus Ross, Esq.

ORDINARY MEETING, FEBRUARY 12, 1872.
Dr. Gitrin, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.
The Secretary announced that the Council had duly elected as members,
the Rev. A. S. Hunt, Robert Morrow, Esq., Walter Lawson, Esq., C. E.,
James Foster, Esq., and Adam McKay, Esq., Engineer; as associate member,

Alexander McKay, Esq., Dartmouth; and as corresponding member, Prof.
James Tennant, F. G.S8., F. Z. 8., &e.

Dr. LAWSON then read a paper on the ‘‘ Naturalization of European —

Senecios in Nova Scotia.”
The Secretary also read a paper ‘“ On the Geology and Paleontology of the
Pictou Coal Field.”

OrpINARY MEETING, MarcH 11, 1872.
Dr. Given, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.

The Secretary announced that ANDREw Mooney, Esq., had been duly
elected by the Council as a member of the Institute.

Mr. ALLison read a paper on ‘‘ Meteorology of Caledonia Mines, Cape
Breton,” by H. Pooun, Esq., M. E.; also Notes of Travel in the Rocky
Mountains, by Henry S. Poouer, Esq., F. G. S., communicated by Henry
Poo.e, Esq., M. E.

Dr. A. P. Rerp also read a paper “ On the Solar Chromosphere.”

Dr. Gririn then read “‘ Notes on a Beaver Damin the County of Digby.”

ORDINARY MEETING, APRIL 8, 1872.
Dr. Givrin, V. P. in the Chair.
Inter alia.
The Secretary announced that E. Moseley, Esq., of Cape Breton had been
duly elected by the Council as an associate member.

Dr. CoGswELt read a paper ‘ On the Comparative Anatomy and Pathology
of the Human Teeth.”

PROCEEDINGS. 97

The Secretary read a paper “On the Geology of the Zron Deposits of
Pictou County.”
Dr. Lawson read a paper by Prof. How, D. C. L., entitled, “ Notes on

Nova Scotian Botany.”

ORDINARY MEETING, May 8, 1872.

J. M. Jones, Esa., President, in the Chair,
Inter alia.
The Secretary intimated that J. W. Longley, Esq., and J. J. Stewart,
Esq. had been duly elected by the Council as members of the Institute.
Mr. Frep. ALLIson read a paper “ On the Meteorology of Halifax.”
The President gave some observations “Qn Bermuda Natural History,”

made during his recent visit te Bermuda.
D. HeNEYMAN,
Secretary.

Date of Admission.
1869.
1869.
1864.
1868.
1871.
1864.
1867.
1868.
1871.
1872.
1863.
1870.
1863.
1863.
1871.
1865.
1872.
1868.
1871.
1863.
1868.
1863.
1863.
1866.
1868.
1872.
1863.
1866.
1864,

1872.
1871.
1872.
1869.

1872.
1872.
1866.
1872.
1868.
1870.

Feb. 195.
Feb. 10.
April 3.
Jan. 8.
Nov. 29.
Nov. 7.
Sep. 20.
Sep. 28.
April 4.
April 12.
May 13.
Mar. 30.
Oct. 26.
Weer. a:
Nov. 29.
(Oe) pip i
Feb. 12.
Jan. 5.
Nov. 29.
Jan. 9.
Feb. 2.
Jan. 26.
June 27,
Dec. 3.
Nov. 2.
Feb. 5.
Jan. 5,
Feb. 1.
Mar. 7.
July. 9.
April 4.
May 1.
Dec. 3.
Feb. 12.
Mar. 2.
Feb. 3.
Feb. 18.
Noy. 25.
Jan. 10.

EIST OF MEMBERS.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax.

Allison, Frederick, Halifax.

Bell, Joseph, High Sheriff, Halifax.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. S., Newcastle on Tyne, England.

Blackwood, David, Halifax.

Brown, C. E. Halifax.

Cogswell, A. C., D. D. 8., Halifax.

Collins, Brenton, Halifax.

Compton, William, Halifax.

Costley, John, Halifax.

Cramp, Rev. Dr., Wolfville.

Day, Forshaw, Artist, Halifax.

DeWolfe, James R., M. D., Edin., L. R. ©. 8. E., Dartmouth

Downs, Andrew, Cor. Memb. Z. S., Halifax.

Egan, T. J., Taxidermist, Halifax.

Fleming, Sandford, C. E., Chief Engineer Dom. Railways, Halifax.

Foster, James, Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Fraser, R. G., Mineralogist, Halifax.

Garvie, Hon. Wm., Chief Commr. of Mines and Works, Halifax.

Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C. 8., Vick Presipent, Halifax.

Gossip, William, Granville Street, Hahfax.

Haliburton, R. G., F. 8S. A., Halifax.

Hill, P. €., D. C. L., Halifax.

Honeyman, Rev. David, D. C.L., F. G.S., &c., Secrerary, Halifax.

Hudson, James, M. E., Superintendent Albion Mines, Pictou.

Hunt, Rev. A. 8 , Superintendent of Education, Halifax.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. S., Presrpent, Halifax.

Kelly, John, Deputy Chief Commissioner of Mines, Halifax.

Lawson, Geo., Ph. D., L. L. D., Vick Presipent, Prof. of Chem.

and Natural History, Dalhousie College.

Lawson, Walter, C. E., Montague Gold Mines.

Leitch, A., H. M. Dock Yard.

Longley, J. W., Halifax.

Moody, Harry, Pri. Sec’y. of His Honor the Lieut. Governor
Sir Hastings Doyle.

McKay, Adam, Engineer, Dartmouth,

Mooney, Andrew, Halifax.

Morrow, James B., Halifax.

Morrow, Robert, Halifax.

Morley, Lieut. R. A.

Murphy, C. E., Halifax.

3

1865.
1863.
1870.
1866.
1871.
1868.
1869.
1866.
1864.
1868.
1872.
1865.
1867.
1871.
1871.
187 1.
1864.
1870.
1866.

1863.
1870.
1868.
1864.
1872.
1865.
1872.

1871.
1868.
1866.
1S71.
1870.
1866.
1871.

1872.

May.
»Mar.
Mar.

bo
sty Gea eae

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Nova Scotia, the Rt. Rev. Hibbert Binney, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Poole, Henry, M. E. Caledonia Mine, Cape Breton.

Power, L. G., Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Reeks, Henry, Manor Hall, Truxton, Hamp. England.

Reid, A. P., M. D., Halifax.

Roue, John, Halifax.

Ross, Angus, Halifax.

Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax.

Silver, W. C., Treasuree, Halifax.

Sinclair, John A., Halifax.

Stewart, J. J., Halifax.

Smithers, George, Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, M. P., Halifax.

Tulloch, Capt. H. M. 61st Regiment.

Warren, Rev. Dr., Haiifax.

Whitman, James, Halifax.

Whytal, John, Halifax.

Wesselhoft, Dr.

Young, Sir William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

ASSICIATE MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, A. M., Digby.

Elder, Rev. Prof., Acadia College, Wolfville.

Ford, Alfred 8., London, England.

Marett, Elias, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

McKay, Alexander, Principal of Schools, Dartmouth.
Morton, Rev. John, Trinidad,

Moseley, E. T., Barrister-at-Law, Cape Breton.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ball, Rev. T., Charlottetown, Prinee Edward Island.

Pethune, Rev. J. S., Ontario.

Chevalier, Edgcumb, H. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, England.

Cope, Prof. J.C., PREsIpENT of the New Orleans Academy of Science.

Harvey, Bev. Moses, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Hurdis, J L., Southampton, England.

King, Dr. V. O., Vicz PresipenT of the New Orleans Academy of
Science.

Tennant, Prof. J., F.G.8., F. Z.S., &¢., Mineralogist to H. M.
the Queen, London, England.

LIFE MEMBER.
Hon. Dr. Parker, M. L. C., Nova Scotia.

TRANSACTIONS

Nova Scotian Mustitute of Natural Srience.

Art. I. Review or Nova Scorran DiuRNAL LEPIDOPTERA.
By J. Matruew Jones, Esq., F. L. S.

PARA te:

In presenting this concluding part of my paper upon the diurnal
lepidoptera of Nova Scotia, I have to remark in the first place the
typographical errors that unfortunately occurred in several parts of
the previous one published in the transactions of the past year.
Owing to my absence in the Bermudas during the time when it
passed through the press I had no opportunity ef correcting the
proofs; hence the unavoidable mistakes.

Debis Portlandia, (Fabr.)
Satyrus Portlandia, (Bois.)
Hipparchia andromacha, (Hubn.)

Of this rare species Mr. Belt secured two specimens near Elms-
dale. It appears to be a southern form, but strange to say while
authors declare it to be rare in the middle States of America, and
in Upper Canada, D’Urban states it to be abundant north of the
Ottawa, in the valley of the Rouge ; and here we have it also in a
latitude about as far north.

Hrebia nephele, (Kirby.)

This butterfly quite unknown near Halifax, is very abundant
about Annapolis, in the western part of the province, where in
the latter part of July I found it on the flowers of the common
thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum, Scop.) This genus of Dalman before

JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN LEPIDOPTERA. 101

included in that of Hipparchia is northern in its range, the several
species known on the North American continent reaching a very
high latitude even to the arctic coast.

Satyrus alope, (Fabr.)
Hipparchia alope, (Boisd. )

I found this species frequenting the thistle flowers near Anna-
polis in company with the former species. It was quite as common,
ifnot more so than that species. Mr. Scudder of the Boston
Natural History Society, has published a short paper upon the
various plants on which the larve of the diurnal lepidoptera feed,
in which this and Hrebva nephele are put down as grass and sedge
feeders. The sedge and rank grasses being very abundant in the
marshy tract east of Annapolis, may therefore account for my find-
ing the species so common there. :

Neonympha Boisduvalii.

This is the most recent addition to my collection. It was taken
by Mr. John Winton at Lower Stewiacke, Colchester Co.

Thecla nipha, (Hubn.)

Mr. Belt states that this species is not uncommon in dry,
sheltered places in May. I have not been fortunate enough to take
a specimen as yet. It appears to be a southern form being found
more abundantly in Georgia and Florida.

Thecla augustus, (Kirby.)
T’. augustinus, (West.)

] insert this species also on the authority of Mr. Belt, who says
it is common on dry shrubby banks, and when pursued falls among
the herbage. I have more than once endeavoured to capture a
species of Thecla which frequents the bushy slopes near the shore
at Point Pleasant, but from its extreme shyness I have never yet
succeeded. It is probably, from appearance, either this or the
previous species.

Argus pseudargiolus, (Boisd.)
Polyommatus pseudargiolus,
Lycena pseudargiolus.

Mr. Belt includes this species in his list, stating that it is

£62 JONES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

common in May and June, and that a second brood appears in July
and August. It is one of the smail blue butterflies.

Polyommatus lucia, (Kirby.)

This is a rather common species about Halifax, making its ap-
pearance about the first or second week in May. It is very similar
in size and markings to the previous species, but the dark berder on
the fore wings of the female of psewdargiolus is not so wide.

Polyommatus Americana, (D’Urban. )
Lycena Americana, (Harris. )

Harris I believe first drew attention to the difference of markings
between this and the small copper butterfly of Europe, Asia, and
Africa, (Lycena phleas, Fabr.) and raised it to rank as a distinct
species. The markings are very dissimilar when carefully viewed, '
although it would be hard to say that this species had not originated
in the foreign form or vice versa. It differs more particularly
from the European species in being of less size and having the
black spots on the fore wings much larger and well defined.

Harris (Insects injurious to vegetation, 2nd edit. p. 274) states
that the wings of this species are not notched or tailed. In my
Nova Scotian examples they are clearly so, having an indentation at
the extremity of the hind wings, one of the points of which is an
immature tail.

It loves to keep on the sides of roadways, where it alternately
rests upon the little flowers and the hot ground, opening and shut-
ting its wings as if in full enjoyment of its short life. Should
another of its fellows venture to approach too near its favourite
haunt, or indeed one of the larger butterflies, it immediately flies at
the intruder, and a regular battle ensues in mid-air, our little friend
generally coming off conqueror. It does not appear very early
in summer, but may be seen about as late as September on
clover and other blossoms of the field. The caterpillar of this
species feeds upon the common dock.

Polyommatus porsenna, (Scudder.)

This species of which I have only seen one specimen is very

JOXNES—ON NOVA SCOTIAN LEPIDOPTERA. 103

rare, at least about Halifax, and Mr. Belt found it equally so about
Waverley and Portobello on the Dartmouth side. It is a southern
species. The caterpillar feeds upon the hawthorn ( Crategus.)

Fam. HESPERIDZ.

Nisoniades brizo, (Boisd. )
Thanaos brizo, (Har.)

This is a common species about Halifax, to be found on open
barrens as well as shady spots in the forest. I have observed it to
be numerous in barren places on the blossoms of the blueberry
about the end of June. Morris in his N. American Lepidoptera
sets it down as an inhabitant of the Southern States, but it is clearly
as abundant in our northern latitude as anywhere else.

Hesperia hobomok, (Uar.)

Common in old roadways in the forest during the summer
months.
Hesperia mystic, (iKdw.)
Not quite so common as the preceding species in similar
situations.
Hesperia Peckit, (Kirby.)
Rather less numerous than the other species.
hree other species in my cabinet yet undetermined.

Art Il. Nore oN A SMALL AND REMARKABLE LOPHIOID RE-
CENTLY TAKEN OFF Hauirax Harpor. By J. M.
JONES, “S80., Ws. 2/8:

(Read Nov. 13, 1871.)
A FEW weeks ago Dr. Honeyman kindly drew my attention to

a singular looking little fish which had been taken at the mouth of

Halifax Harbour by a fisherman, and placed in the Museum. At

first sight it appeared to me to belong to the Triglas or Gurnards

from the appearance of the pectorals, which are so particularly
developed, but on looking for the three detached rays at the base

104 JONES—ON LOPHIOID TAKEN OFF HALIFAX HARBOR.

of these fins and finding them absent, I at once concluded that it
could not be placed in that genus. Finding it impossible to recog-
nize the specimen as belonging to any particular genus, although it
approached more nearly that of Lophius than any other, I thought
it best to communicate with Dr. Theodore Gill of Washington,
who is the chief authority on American fishes, and sent him a
sketch of the fish accompanied by the following description :—

Characteristics. —Head very large, high, compressed, cleft of mouth
horizontal and very wide. Jaws with cardiform teeth. Body naked,
attenuate, compressed. Head armed with stout sharp spines. Total
length, 2 inches 4lines. Pectorals with carpal bones slightly prolonged
ventrals in advance of pectorals. : |

Description— Length of head ..............-+000. 9 lines
Doenothays so sakes oe oe ee 64.
Wot tin ys tes uns ia. tere se AL &
Length of snont............ RE 43 ¢

Lower jaw longer than upper, flattened beneath, shovel-shaped, as if
formed to rest upon, with a single row of cardiform teeth. Upper jaw,
with maxillaries and intermaxillaries armed with similar teeth. Tongue
elevated, with a few small teeth on its surface extending to the root.
Nasal bones armed at their extremities with two minute spines. Orbital
crests armed with three acute spines each occiput with two larger ones.
Two small spines also occur at the posterior basal angle below the
pectorals. Frontal, from occiput to snout, flattened with a medial ridge
extending from the snout a little beyond the orbital line. On the sum-
mit of the head is a flexile filament, 34 lines long; at 13 lines from this
commences the first dorsal of three flexile rays, the first 43, the others
somewhat less. These rays are connected by thin membrane for about
one third their extent. The secoud dorsal is 4 lines from the first and is
composed of nine rays of the nearly equal length of 3} lines. Pectorals,
with carpals slightly prolonged, of nine branched rays, originating in the
bony cheek a short distance above the posterior basal angle, extending
the whole length of the body, exclusive of the caudal, and half as broad
as long when distended. Ventrals, of five rays, springing 6 lines from
extreme of lower jaw, and 14 lines anterior to the vertical of the
pectoral base. Anal, of nine rays, (5, 6,7, longest) distant from
ventrals 62 lines and terminating 14 lines from caudal base ; caudal, of
eight rays obtusely lanceolate, the centre rays six lines in extent, Hyes,
14 lines diameter, blue, having the pupil of a silvery tint; gill openings,
small foramens, immediately behind the pectoral base.

Colour.—Above, bluish-black, caused by a congregated mass of dark
speckles ; beneath, light horn colour, mottled more or less with similar
speckles; dorsals, pectorals, ventrals, and anal bluish-black; caudal,
dirty white.

HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PICTOU. 105

Dr. Gill’s reply was as follows :—

I recognize in the figure sent the young of Lophius Americanus (as I
think it must be) but it seems that you have overlooked the two
anterior dorsal rays and miscounted the pectorals. Have you not also
observed some minute filaments or tags on the head and body?

Now, as regards the two anterior dorsal rays and the tags alluded to,
I have little hesitation in saying that they are absent in this specimen,
and as the fish was in a very fine state of preservation when I examined
it, I do not think such processes could have been rubbed off in any way.
Another feature tells against its being the young of Lophius, viz. the
great elevation of the head which does not correspond with the dimen-
sions of young Lophioids of similar size given in Ginther’s Catalogue.
For the present therefore, and until my return from the Bermudas I
must leave the matter unsettled, intending to include this and several
other forms in a more extensive paper I hope (D. V.) to lay before
the Institute next year.

I must not omit, however, while on the subject of Lophioids, to
notice the fine specimen of ZL. piscatorius, or what our American friends
are pleased to call LZ. Americanus, (although it has no claim whatever to
be considered a distinct species from the European form), recently taken
at the Dockyard, and now under process of being skeletonized at the
Lumber yard for presentation to the Museum, by Capt. Tulloch, R. E.

The pectoral fins of the Lophioids are very singularly formed, as may
be seen by looking at a skeleton prepared by Dr. Honeyman, serving
the purpose of arms to rest upon while the fish remains stationary on the
look out for prey.

Arr. Til. On Pre-Carsonirerous Rocks oF THE PICTOU
Coat Fietp. By tae Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. L.,
F.G.S., &c., Director of the Provincial Museum.

(Read Nov. 18, 1871.)
ABSTRACT.

In the Report of Progress of the Canadian Survey, from 1866
to 1869, page 7, Sir W. G. Logan says im reference to certain
pre-carboniferous rocks underlying the Pictou Coal Field, ‘* No
evidence was observed by me on McLellan’s Mountain to shew to
what epoch these older rocks belong ; but masses somewhat similar
are noticed by Mr. Hartley on the west side of the East River, in
a position where they have been mentioned in his Acadian Geology

106 HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PICTOU.

by Dr. J. W. Dawson, who considered them to be of Devonian
age, and on his authority they will be so distinguished.”

I presume that this language is intended to apply to the area
indicated on the S. E. corner of the map which accompanies Sir
W. Logan’s Report, which is distinguished by the Devonian colour-
ing. Now, this area has its N. E. corner at the Falls of Suther-
land’s River, and its S. E. corner at the bridge at McPherson’s
mills, so that in addition to the Northern part of McLellan’s
Mountain (range) the area in question includes also a part of
Sutherland’s River. 3

In my last paper read before the Institute, ‘‘On the Pre-
Carboniferous Rocks underlying the Pictou Coal Field,” I conclud-
ed thus: ‘‘ It may seem strange that I have made no mention of
the Devonian formation which is so often spoken of in connection
with the strata underlying the Pictou Coal Field. The reason why
is this—there is no Devonian jo be found there.”— Transactions
1870-71.

This language was made to apply to the supposed Devonian
Rocks of Sir W. Logan’s report, as well as to the others.

The evidence upon which Sir W. Logan bases his conclusion, is
lithological, in the supposed absence of stratigraphical and pale-
ontological evidence. * :

The conclusion at which I had arrived was altogether based on
paleontology and stratigraphy.

I had occasion to examine the area in question about a year
after Sir W. Logan’s examination. I had often cursorily examined
the locality, and picked up Silurian fossils in it, so that ] had for
years been convinced that the prevailing rocks were of Silurian
age. On this occasion, however, I made a careful and thorough
examination, and was rewarded with many important discoveries.
In the area in question we have, 1. Quartzites and argillites of the
northern part of McLellan’s Mountain. These are so highly
metamorphic that I considered it useless labour to search for fossils
in them. Besides coming upon them from the south, I had no

*Note—In reference to this kind of evidence, Prof. Dana well observes that
in the absence of Stratigraphical and Palxontological evidence ‘‘ Lithology may

give us guesses but nothing more substantial.’ Mature No. Feb. 12, 1872,
page 33].

HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PIcTcu. 107

difficulty whatever in ascertaining their paleontological and
stratigraphical relations. I have already shown that the rocks in
question lie in the northern part of Anticlinal series No. 2. This
series with the rocks of the Middle and Upper, or Clinton and
Lower Helderberg of the E. side of Anticlinal series No. 1, con-
stitute the whole of McLellan’s Mountain range. I have also
shown that the key localities of the series are at Blanchard, known
from its bed of fossiliferous iron ore, and Simon Fraser’s Mountain
near the scuthern end of MclLellan’s Mountain. In the former
locality I discovered fossils on either side of Anticlinal axis No. 2,
proving that the rocks were altogether middle Silurian, with
possibly a small addition of Lower Helderberg, Upper Silurian.
At Simon Fraser’s Mountain the rocks on the W. side of axis No.
2 are fossiliferous, while their counterpart on the E. side, are so
highly metamorphic as to render the existence cf fossils doubtful,
although the stratigraphical relation is sufficiently obvious.

The fessiliferous strata occurs thus,—ascending, a broad band of
Mayhill or Medina Sandstone, quartzites of normal thickness, with
abundance of characteristic Petraca and Cornulites, (trumpet
shaped,) then Clinton shales which are hkely to produce fossils,
although I did not succeed in finding any, and then the Lower
Helderberg strata of Mclellan’s Brook, having abundance of
characteristic fossils. The rocks in the northern part of McLellan’s
Mountain are a continuation of the metamorphic middle Silurian of
the eastern side of Fraser’s Mountain. The axis and the continua-
tion of the fossiliferous strata on the western side extend to the
north and become obscure. About half a mile beyond the
Presbyterian Church of the mountain, the strata of the eastern
side are seen outcropping on the plateau until they seem to
terminate at McLean’s Brook on the side of the mountain. This
proves that the supposed Devonian Rocks of McLellan’s Mountain
are metamorphic Middle Silurian.

I stated formerly that the northern extremity of McLellan’s
Mountain is Blackwood’s Mountain. This mountain chiefly con-
sists of a great mass of greenstone. This forms the base of a
monoclinai series which lies to the south of the mountain. At the
foot of the mountain, S. side, is an outcrop of metamorphic slate

~

108 HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PICTOU.

apparently non-fossiliferous ; this extends to the north east corner of
the area and there terminates, forming the falls of Sutherland’s
River. This band is overlaid by shales having characteristic
Clinton fossils in abundance, e.g. Leptocoelia intermedia, Hall.
These strata are found at Cameron’s Brook, and on the side of the
old road, all being situated in the area in question. ‘hese sup-
posed Devonian rocks, then, are also Middle Silurian. J would
now turn to the south east corner of the area, and enter the area
from that direction ; we find the bridge built on strata containing
lingulae net characteristic. These are abutted by Lower Carbon-
iferons sandstone of the river bed. On the right side of the road
at the miller’s house the end of a trap dyke underlies the lingula
strata; nearly half a mile from the bridge the same strata are seen
outcropping on the right side of the road, and then passing over to
the left side. On the right side we have the same greenstone dyke,
and on the left abundance of orthids and other fossils characteristic
of the lowest part of the A. or Medina strata of Arisaig, and
then in an exposure of the same strata at the bridge of a tributary
of Sutherland’s River, Cameron’s Brook, described by Sir W.
Logan in page 6 of his report, I found several Petraia similar to
these of Fraser’s Mountain and Arisaig A strata. Following the
course of this tributary towards Sutherland’s River we have the
same strata with Petraia reaching to the Falls: there they overlie:
the same greenstone dyke. This Medina band is overlaid and
succeeded on the south by Clinton strata, in which we have the
exact counterpart of the Lower Clinton B of Arisaig with its black
shales, concretions and Lingula nodules. This shale is not
included in the supposed Devonian area.

I would observe that the greenstone dykes referred to may be
Devonian, as they are undoubtedly post Upper Silurian and pre-
Carboniferous, so that with this possible exception the whole of
Sir W. Logan’s Devonian Rocks are of Middle Silurian age.

The fossils that I have referred to illustrative of the paleontology
of these rocks, are in the Museum of the Canadian Survey, Gabriel
Street, Montreal, and in the Provincial Museum, Halifax, and
also my maps illustrating their stratigraphy.

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 109

Agr. [V. On tHe Mammatta or Nova Scotia. By J.
Bayar. Gibrin. A. B.,.. Me Di, M. Ra G5:

(Read December 11, 1871)

Cervus alces, Linnzus, Richardson, Dekay, Audubon.

Alce americanus, Jardine, Baird.

Cervus orignol, Mons. Derville.

Cervus lobatus, Agassiz.

Alces machlis, Ogilvy, Sclayter’s list, Zoolog. Gardens,
L’orignol, Cuvier.

Tue Moose.

Tne following description was taken from a very fine buli
exhibited at Halifax about six years ago. Supposing he was dropt
in May, he was then three years and four months old, and in full
summer coat :—

He stood between six and seven feet high from the crest of his withers.
His height about the length of his body from tip of moufle to tail. His
head about the length of his depth from withers to brisket, and his legs
about one and a quarter longer than this depth. It was evident ata
glance that his great height was caused, as has long been remarked by
writers, by the extreme length of the cannon bones (metacarpal and
metatarsal} of the legs. These distances were only judged by the eye,
but they were done carefully, and wiil serve for approximations. Mr.
Downs informed me that a young bull owned by himself measured, when
nearly completing his second year, five feet three inches at the withers.
A cow calf measured by myself, (25th July, 1859,) about two months
old, gave three feet six inches from top of withers, and four feet three
inches from tip of nose to buttock. .

In studying the form of the above-mentioned individual, we found the
head very large, owing to the immense overhanging and prehensile
upper lip, and huge inflated nostril, hairy with the exception of a naked
patch of the size of a crown piece at its extremity. The forehead slightly
convex, swelled directly to form a foundation for the horn, which here
was the small trifingered third year horn. The ear was large and ovate
with a fine tip. A fine bristly mane reached from betwixt the ears to
beyond the withers. The back line from the croup to the withers ran
nearly straight, but then rose rapidly, forming the withers, and sinking
again on joining the head. The older figures give this line as rising
rapidly from croup to withers, which is a mistake, as also Capt. Hardy’s
assertion that croup and withers are nearly equal: I think he means
croup and head. In the cow-calf I measured there was three inches
difference. Here J should think there was at least six. The loins
though short are largely developed, the transverse processes of the

110 GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

lumbar vertebra being very long. The tail is small and deeply hidden
betwixt the buttocks, “which are slender and very cervine in their appear-
ance. The hocks are flat but of great depth surmounting a cannon bone
of great length. The brisket is OF great depth, supported by a very
powerful lene, arm, which however has its muscle unlike the horse on its
posterior rather than anterior surface ; the hoofs are small and_ polished,
the animal standing on the tips with the hind tips well off the ground.
The neck from the fore shoulder to the head is clothed by a dense coat
of hair, which forms a mane from the chest along the neck to the chin,
hidden in which and depending from betwixt the angle of the jaws hangs
the ‘‘ bell,” a species of wattle, composed of muscle and skin, and cover-
ed with long hair resembling the brush of a fox. ‘The eye is dark with
little expression and set deep in its bony socket. The color of this bull
was in the highest summer coating of deep glossy black, and short as a
well groomed horse. The moufle and forehead had a brownish-yellow
cast, the cheeks and neck dark balck ; the ears were light fawn inside, a
little darker outside, the crest yellowish mixed grey and white, and a
yellow vrey patch upon the croup. The inside of the buttocks and all
the legs both inside and outside were bright yellow fawn, the black of the
body running down half way, to the hocks and to the knees, and ending
with an abrupt line ina point. There was also a black line running
from each hock and each knee in front, and widening to join the hoof.
This line has heretofore escaped observers. Captain Hardy doubts
it, and I can only maintain that it was so in this instance. We have

ia few oppor ee of seeing the summer coating. Jt was recognized
by the Indian chief James Meuse when 1 showed him my sketches, and
I have litle doubt may always be found. The winter coating is formed
of long hair so stiff as to stand bristly outward, and as each hair is lead
colored at base, greyish-white in the middle, and black at tip, the whole
animal has a greyish appearance. The crest loses its yellowish wash,
and the hair on the cheeks and neck is both darker and shaggier than on
the body. ‘There is still a yellowish brown wash upon the moufle, and
forehead, and the ears are brownish fawn. The beautiful yellow fawn
and black stripes of the legs disappear, and mixed grey cover them,
hiding the abrupt lines of black and tan. This is the usual color as
described by naturalists as he is usually taken im winter, when the bulls
are hornless, the cows having none. In the bull calt of the first year two
knobs swell out upon the forehead beneath the skin; in the second year
the true horn appears, a single prong six or eight inches long; in the
third year the new horn is usually trifingered, and a little flattened; and
in the fourth year assumes the adult form though small. The Indian
and hunters say they increase till the eighth year. The horn of an adult
bull springs at right angles from a broad knobby base on the forehead,
throws off one, two, or three brow prongs on tines and then rapidly flat-
tening reflects backwards nearly at right angles, forming a broad flattened
palm, the anterior convex edge of which is subdivided into more or less
numerous tines. There is some analogy between the number of these tines
and the age of the owuer, but not accurate enough for calculation. About
Seven or eight tines are the usual number. The largest pair of horn: I

GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 111

haye seen, measured five feet two inches in width, from tip to tip; the
heaviest about fifty pounds. Their colour is brown with bright burnt
sienna stains, and white edges to the tines. They shed them in
February, and I have seen the young velvet horn in April. I have seen
the young calves in June when they could not be ten days old ; they were
a lively fawn color, about two feet six inches in height, their heads small
and not indicating future ponderance. They kneeled readily to drink
or pick the grass; and I have seen them again between two and three
months old, when they had rapidly grown to three feet six iuches, their
heads still small, but the neck and withers putting on a dark shaggy look,
and the fawn tints becoming greyer. They usually all die when taken
_ from their dams, and are scarcely saved by being put to domestic cows.

Such is the description of this great boreal deer, that frequents
our pine forests, his most southern range. In early spring the
cows seek the densest cover, very usually the islands in our wood-
Jand lakes, or the higher spots cf our swampy barrens, to bring.
forth their young, the bulls meanwhile frequenting the shallow:
lakes and swamps. Here they wallow in the soft mud, feed upon.
the water lies and aquatic grasses, and escape the torment of
insects. The cool September days find them clothed in their
choicest nuptial suits of glossy black and golden tan, with well.
grown horns; and the sexes again seek each other—the cow now
with one or two calves by her side. The most terrific encounters.
ensue betwixt the males. The approach of two males in the still.
autumn night is heralded by such loud snorting bellows, and such.
crashing of branches by each male’s horns, as to resemble cart loads.
of plank thrown violently upon the ground. This bellowing to.
unseen bellow, this crash of unknown violence swelling upon the
night wind, is said to make the heart of the oldest hunter throb to.
his last pant. Usually, however, the slightest crackle, or the least
odor or scent of the hunter, sends this timorous creature back in a
retreezt so noiseless as scarce to be credited from. his loud advance.
Towards the end of the rut, some few bulls become infuriated,.
attacking the cow, equally as the bull—attacking everything.
David Eason informed me that, once after calling unsuccessfully a
long time, he left his cover and without his gun crossed a little
knoll that lay in the open before him. Almost immediately from
the crashing in front, he knew that a bull was before him, and he
had no time to reach cover or gun.. Sinking into some alders he

2

112 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

saw the infuriated beast betwixt two spruce pines, rearing on hig
hind legs to ten or twelve feet, and shredding every branch from
either tree with his horns, as he descended. Again and again did
he rear till his huge form was shrouded in a mist of pine leaves,’
recent branches, bark shreds and dust of the withered dead arms,
always hanging on the boles of pines. Many years had passed,
when he told me the tale, yet his description of the horrid bristling
crest, glaring eyes, and steaming breath from hideous swollen
nostrils, was too graphic for me to doubt the truth, or its effect
upon him at the time.

Towards November the cold winds and early snows, teach them
it is time to yard. So collecting in families of four to seven or
eight, usually two or three cows with attendant calves and several
bulls, they retreat to some valley betwixt hardwood knolls, for the
winter. If the browse is plenty, and the cover good, they wander
very little. The various maples, the poplar, ashes, dogwoods,
moose-wood, and alders, are their principal food. Seeing one day
in the forest some saplings shred away some twenty feet from the
ground, I asked Sam Copeland, an expert in all kinds of wood-
eraft, if porcupines had done it? No, was the answer, ‘‘ moose
browsing.” They ride down between their fore legs a young tree,
and browse on the top, then allow it tospring up again. If, as I
said before, the browse is plenty and they are undisturbed these
yards become beaten down almost like a farm yard, and the early
spring and melting snows finds them still in the same spot. But
now-a-days this rarely happens. Few yards remain undisturbed
by the hunters.

But this brings me to the description of their capture. They
were formerly taken by snares set in the forest, but this mode is
now prohibited by law. Another mode is by calling, that is, during
the rut the hunter imitating the voice of the female, and calling the
bull within shot. On a frosty evening or at dawn of a September
day, with a half filled moon hanging just above the tops of the tall
spruces, and giving light enough barely to a narrow horizon, with
the cool down wind blowing in your face, is the most favorite time.
On such an eve, or day dawn, a party will lie wrapped in their
blankets, over their rifles, concealed by a rock or shrub, while an

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 113

Indian standing motionless will imitate the cry of a female deer by
means of a birch bark trumpet. Presently a wandering bull
answers it; faint and far away it floats upon the night wind; but
each answer comes louder and louder. More plaintive and plead-
ing are the Indian’s wild guttural sobs. Presently he sinks into the
ground, as crash after crash, and snort after snort, tells him of the
near approach of the deluded bull; and a toss up of his hand gives
the sign for the party to fire. Simultaneously their double-barrelled
breach-loaders ring out, like platoon firing, as their eyes have
long been straining at and their rifles covering a dim shadow in
front. The huge shadow turns heavily and slowly fades into
darkness, with stumbling crash of branch and limb, and then all
know he is mertally hit.

‘< Find him to-morrow morning, this side little brook,” says the
Indian. Had he disappeared noiselessly, there would be the chance
of his not being hit; but there is no looking now, the moon has
gonedown. ‘Through the darkness and the night mist, they grope
their way to camp, knock the smouldering brands together, light
their pipes, and wrapt in their blankets soon defy the hoar frost that
is painting their sleeping forms. No description can show the
fascination of this sport. But to play the play aright, wood craft,
ardour, self denial, endurance of cold and wet, and, above all,
prompt and thorough obedience to your Indian hunter, are all so
necessary, that there are but few players in this sylvan scene.
Above all, it is unsportsmanlike; it is breaking the first law in
every code for the preservation of game; it is disturbing the game
in their breeding time. ‘To have a close time fer all birds, beasts
and fishes, for re-production, is the first and fundamental law of all
game legislation. :

Yet we have time only to touch lightly here, and proceed to the
next way of hunting, which is called still-hunting or creeping
here in America, but stalking in England, and which calls forth in
the hunter the highest qualities of his art. A white man needs a
slight snow to track his quarry within shooting distance; but it is
marvellous to see an Indian throw himself upon the ground, and
just where your heedless foot has passed, spread apart the dead
leaves, and show you the impression in the soft earth of a moose’s

114 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

foot. There it is plain enough now, in all its beauty: two sharp
pricks for the toes, two little parallel mounds, moulded by the
concave double hoof. Flat upon his face he is noiselessly worming
himself around to find its direction; and he presently tells you a
large bull has passed an hour ago,—he was going very slowly,—he
is about a mile ahead, in a south by west course,—that the wind.
is right down upon him,—that you must make a long circuit and
come upon him against the wind,—that you must put your pipe
out, not even whisper, and follow him at.a little distance, avoiding
every broken branch,—and that he will give you signs by his
hand ! :

Humbled by having such a page of forest lore taught you, from
what, to your duil Saxon senses, was rotten bog and dead leaves,
you follow your guide, now sliding betwixt the tree boles, with his
right shoulder overhanging, his gun carried well forward, and his
elastic moccasined foot avoiding every rotten branch. For an hour
or two, he carries you through swamps, through barren, over
hard-wood hills, and over wet meadows, until with a motion of his
hand he tells you that the deer is now half a mile direct to wind-
ward, and he points his hand: you look in yain, till almost con-
temptuously he says, ‘‘ them branches, move against wind,” and
then you see some branches rudely agitated by the unseen deer in
browsing. Down on his face he goes again, worming himself like
some hugh noiseless anaconda, dragging his gun after him; you
clumsily follow him till you get within a hundred yards. He
beckons you to him, and there you, lying upon your face, see with-
in range a huge antler, tossing up and down, a great yellow ear_
flopping up, er a grey crest of coarse hair, over the thick alders.
Your Indiam says, ‘‘ now!” and you give him one barrel of your
breech-loader. *‘ Too high—long range gun, always go high!”
he says, as a scud of hair and dry leaves, drifting to leeward, show
you have missed; yet the deer is not much alarmed, he sees and
smells nothing. Springing up he usually makes water, then goes
off in a long trot. As his huge fore shoulder comes out, bang goes
your Indian’s muzzle loader, followed by your second barrel; with
a frantic bound he breaks cover, and plunges into the forest.
Your Indian has reloaded,.and springing to the spot, whilst the

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 415

smoke of the gun is still lazily floating around, he picks up the
flakes of bloody hair, points out the blood spattered leaves, the
broad trail and the long slides in the wet moss, of the already
yielding limbs, and says in his quaint terse broken English, con-
trasting so favorably with what I have heard sportsmen call,
<< white fellows’ gab,” ‘‘ got it bad, worse sort.” As indeed the
bull has this time,—right through the lungs cutting the great blood
vessels, have both bullets gone. A half hour’s search shows you
your victim, sitting like a dog on his haunches, his mighty head all
too heavy for his trembling limbs, his tongue thrust out, and bloody *
foain snorted from mouth and nostril, in convulsive throbs. This
is indeed sport ef the highest order—yielding indeed in personal
danger to tiger hunting in the Hast; but in endurance, in self-
denial, and restraint, m quickness of eye and promptness, and
precision of hand, but, above all in wild luxuriance of northern
scenery,—either magnificent hemlock or pine, sweet sylvan, lily
carpeted lakelet,—whirling rapids caught by a beayer dam,—or
vast, purple-berried barren—nobody’s home but the owls or the
foxes—is second only to the chamois hunting on the Alps.

There is a third kind of hunting which we will briefly notice—
following the deer on snow shoes. When the learned Lescarbot,
in 1606, was at Annapolis, he tells us the Indians took him to see
- amoose pulicd down by large dogs about two leagues in the forest.
The Indians are gone, the Frenchmen have followed, yet the
moose and the big dogs still remain to the Saxon conquerors.
From that time this manner of chase has been handed down, and
two ‘hundred and fifty years afterwards, I have seen the big dogs
pull down a moose on this very ground. From the last week in
February to the middle of March, the snows from being heated by
the warm suns, and frozen at night, acquire a crust, hard enough
to bear dogs, and men on snow shoes, but which the moose breaks
through. Whenever this takes place, a party of settlers form a
hunting party. Four or five men with eight or ten dogs, (a half
Newfoundland crossed by a bull dog is the best, combining the
broad soft foot of the one with the courage of the other) leave their
homes by the dawn of a bright March morning. Each man
carries his gun, an axe, and eight or ten pounds of meat and hard

116 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

bread, slung on his back in a bag, with a tin pint mug hanging to
it. Perhaps a two hours walk through snow-paths, brings them to
where they suspect a moose yard. Each man now laces on his
snow-shoes, before dangling at his back, and the ardour of the
dogs can scarce be restrained. Some scent the snow, others
sitting on their haunches with their noses high in the air,
snuff every suspected breeze, others again standing completely
upright upon their hind legs. An old bitch will now give a cry,
and start straight as an arrow through the underbrush, and disap-
pear. She is followed by the whole, and soon the forest rings
merrily with their tongues, as they have struck the track, where
some moose perhaps an hour ago has passed, leaving deep holes in
the snow. Every one pushes to the front. The forest 1s one
vast white sheet spread before you, losing itself among the tree
boles. If the dogs are good, or the moose a young cow, they may
rush upon her, and hold at bay, till the hunterscome up. But if
she ever gets the start of them, they never reach her agam, till
twenty or thirty miles chase has brought her strength to the last
gasp. But this one is a strong and cunning quarry. He has got
well away from the dogs, their cries sound fainter in the distance ;
and the hunters recovering from their spurt, settle themselves to a
steady space. There is twenty or more miles before them; night
will fall upon their tracks. The dogs now fall in by twos and
threes, and follow in the back tracks. The cunning deer keeps
now in the soft green woods and fir plantations; the crust is less
sharp to his legs. But the going is heavy for the men. Two
hours, may be, he baffles them before they push him out of his
cover. He tries a swamp now and the whole party comes to a
stand. His tracks are lost beside a running brook. He has
bounded from the banks into the stream, leaving nota sign. The
party breaks into pairs, some hunting up stream, some down
stream, till a loud shout soon calls all to where he has sprung from
the bed of the stream upon the banks again. The white snow is
soiled by the muddy water dripping from his flanks, and the
hunters view with pleasure the blood stains from his bleeding hoofs.
Yet he is off with renewed vigour, and leads over hard wood hills,
down precipitous banks, and coming to one of those forest lakes

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 117

stretching, reach after reach, with many a jutting point, for a mile
or two, takes theice. Off goes every snow-shoe, and with mocca-
sined foot, they follow his deep scratches, and a blood red line
reaching from beneath their feet, till it loses itself in the far
distance. The pursued and the pursuers rejoice on the hard sur-
face, but it comes to an end, and he is again in the soft wood.
Many an anxious look is flung at the fading light, the long shadows
of the trees, and the red west, and again at his bleeding tracks,
smoking dung, great scoups goudged out of the snow by his teeth,
and deepening groove made by his tired hock in the snow. They
are pressing him hard, but the low wintry sun is leaving them.
As they are passing a running brook where water can be had, the
captain of the hunt says, ‘‘ we must camp, and take him to-mor-
row.” A fit spot is chosen,—a square perhaps twelve feet by five,
is marked out on the snow,—the snow is shoveld out by snow-shoes
till the ground is reached. This is speedily roofed over by uprights
stuck in the snow,—cross pieces, and poles reaching from the
ground to the cross pieces, and thatched by spruce branches. The
back and two sides are covered in, but before the front roars
already an immense fire. You line your snow hole with branches,
and creep into it, with the fire blazing about three feet above you.
In two or three hours it has melted the snow beneath it, and settled
down to your level. Had you not dug out your snow hole you
would have found yourself on the top of the snow, and_ before
midnight the fire in a deep pit below you. These hardy men now
boil their tea in their tin cups, fry a little pork on the end of a
ramrod, and, with hard bread, make their supper, and without an
extra covering sleep before their camp fire. JI have myself passed
the night with the bread in my knapsack on which I pillowed my
head frozen like a stone, my tin cup frozen to the brim, and my
green hide moccasin buried in the branches beneath me, to keep
them from the frost. A half mile beyond, as the noise of men and
dogs fades in his ear, has the tired deer flung his red and stiffened
limbs to rest on the snow. By day light the camp is broken up,
the dogs are laid on, and you pass his soiled and bloody
bivouac; but his great strength is failing him — his en—
durance done. Men and dogs push with irresistible ardour to

118 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the front, as every sign portrays his nearness, his dung still smok-
ing, branches vibrating where he passed, and a breast high scent
infuriating the dogs. The foremost hunter, (I have seen him bare
headed and stripped to his shirt sleeves, with the thermometer at
zero, ) soon wipes the sweat from his brow, to take sure aim at the
huge beast floundermg before him, assailed on nose and flank, and
ear, and hock by dogs. It is in vain that he makes such enormous
bounds, or that he has killed one of his tormentors, cutting his ribs
from his spine by a blow of his sharp hoof. Others rush in, aud
the snow that ten minutes before lay in its virgin purity is for
many a yard tramped down by the great deer in his agony, torn up
by the rioting dogs in their fury, reddened with blood, and matted
with coarse gray hairs. Your victim lies 2 moticnless heap in the
centre, perhaps his thirtieth mile stone. ‘This is a faithful chron-
icle of a successful hunt, and hard enough at that, but when to it
are added all the unsuccessful ones, the storms endured, the cold,
and especially the heavy rains, it must be confessed the sport is
hard. YetI have known men entirely fascinated with it. William
Dargie, now a magistrate, grown old, and cruelly cut up by
rheumatism, and Sam Copland, who met a woodman’s death, on
the snow and alone, were the best captains of the hunt, I knew.
This sport is now made illegal by the close season commencing the
first of February. It would be entering into a subject foreign to
this paper to discuss this matter.

We will turn, then, to the next subiect—the identity of our
Moose with the Eli of the ancients, and at present habiting Sweden,
Norway, and some parts of Northern Russia. Our moose inhabits
a belt of forest reaching from Nova Scotia in the east to beyond the
Rocky Monntains in the west, and from about 44 N. Latitude to
70 N. Latitude. Linnzus who described him first evidently con-
sidered him a variety of the Elk, leaving his specific difference
doubtful. Sir John Richardson inclines to consider him distinct,
and mentions the Elk as having a broader forehead. The Royal
College of Surgecns determined that there was no anatomical
difference between them. But lately Capt. Hardy, R. A., a mem-
ber of this Institute, returning from Nova Scotia to England, with
all his recollections of the Moose fresh, and also his measurements

GILPIN MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 119

and drawings, compared them with two young Elks from Norway
belonging to the Prince of Wales. In his opinion given in the
-* Wield” newspaper they are identical, and there are no specific
differences between them. In the absence of all osteological
differences by the Royal College of Surgeons, we must admit
them identical, as Capt Hardy’s opportunities of investigation,
and accuracy, as a naturalist, are second to none. (I may here be
allowed to deplore the loss our Institute has met with in this
accomplished gentleman returning home.) Granting them identi-
eal, we must return to the old specific of Linneus, ‘‘ alces,” he
being the first describer. Hamilton Smith has recently subdivided
the genus ‘‘ cervus,” also Linneus, into various sub genera, and
given the name alves to that in which the Elk or Moose is placed.
This has been allowed by all modern naturalists; and thus, not-
withstanding the alliteration, by the rule lately adopted by all
nations, we must call him alce alces, instead of cervus alces of
Linneus. Nomenclature and classification are subjects too profound
for field naturalists to do more than follow those whose profound
studies and enormous collections entitle them to be heard on the
subject.

I have now, as far as one paper would admit, studied this
great boreal Deer existing in our forests,—his appearance when
young, end adult,—his habits, and his wide spread habitat in
America, and his identity with the Hik of the ancients and Europe.
T have sketched lightly the various forms of his chase and capture

|

e
and in all this shunned authors, and given my own personal
experience. We have found him differing frem all known forms by
the shortness of the neck, and the length of his cannon bones. He
has again resemblances to the equatorial forms of the Klephant in
the short neck,—to the Giraffe in the length of leg,—and perhaps to
the Tapir in the prehensile elongated upper lip: but no affinity to
either of them. It is a form adapted to be always wading, and
here again he reminds us of the stilts or long legged wading
birds. In summer the shallow lakes and swamps are his abode.
Jn winter his long cannon bones are thrust into the snow. In both
places they serve him in seeking his food. An anatomical investi-
gation easily shows how the great weight of his horns are so easily

120 GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

carried,* as well also that the bones of the vast head are not heavier
than those of ordinary deer. The huge nostrils are cavernous and
hollow,—and the pendulous lips with no boney base. This elonga-
tion of the cannon bones, both makes him straddling in his gait,
and diminishes his speed when out of cover. The hind leg must
outstep the fore, and hence it must go outside of it, or straddle.
The very short cannon bone of the greyhound with the enormous
fore arm, and the approximation to it caused by breeding in
the race horse, the very opposite to the moose, show that their
forms are the best adapted to fleetness. But on the other hand he
strides over every obstacle, mounted upon his huge stilts. It is
probable this boreal form so existed with many now extinct forms
whose fossil bones are found in the post and upper tertiary deposits.
American naturalists have found his fossil bones in the upper
tertiary formations in Ohio; and as, so far, they have not been
found in the old world, we may claim our Moose as the original
type. |
With the Caribou it is probable that he was one of the earliest
fauna that arrived after the glacial period, and, as far as any exist-
ing causes show, he may be one of the last remaining. As in
Canada and New Brunswick, he cannot fall back upon back forests.
He is surrounded on all sides by cultivation or the sea; and in |
diminished numbers, he may possibly remain for ages on the
shallow lakes, impassable swamps and barrens forming our interior.
He can exist on a less range than the caribou; he is less intolerant
of the sights and smells of civilization. Nothing but the encroach-
ments of roads, of setlements and railroads, destroying his range,
can extirpate him. Our bears trouble him not, nor have we wolves
to band in packs to hunt him down; and notwithstanding the Game
Protection Society, our settlers do not diminish his numbers. The
work is too hard,—there are too few to risk the toil. Now,
though coaches do daily run, and taverns fling out their signs

*The back of the head being usually carried in a line with the top of the
shoulder, or withers, a strong tendon passes between them, thus throwing the weight _
of the head and horns upon the shoulders. Thus they are not supported by muscular
contraction. Otherwise the animal would pass his whole life in adjusting the load,
ever varying from nothing to fifty pounds thrown upon his neck.

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 121

where a few years ago I could scarcely push my horse,—though a
railroad is coming from Yarmouth directly through the centre of the
Province,—yet there are places so utterly sterile, so impassable
by granite boulder and marshy swamp, as to defy any engineer ; so
barren as to tempt no one; and here he will make his last hold.
He will remain unchanged ; and other men, in other garbs, with
other governments, will cover with their rifles his fawn colored
ears, or branching antlers.

As the princes of Europe follow the urus at the present day in
the Black Forest of Germany, so too may an indigenous line of
native princes in those days to come, stalk their huge deer in the
heart of Queen’s or Shelburne.

As with the ruminantia the papers I have had the honor to read
before you, on the mammals of Nova Scotia, end, I have thought it
well to republish a list of the whole mammals.

I think this list will include all, with the exception of a shrew>
or a mouse or two, yet to be added—I know of no other list except
my own, and in using the term identified by myself, I only wish to
add to it the imterest of personal Verification. I shall use the
classification of Dr. Baird (Smithsonian Institute), with the
synonyms of Sir John Richardson when procurable, thus using the
best American and English authorities, being satisfied that whilst
no one can be but charmed by the accuracy, exactness and minute
description of the great English traveller, on the other hand they
must equally acknowledge the exhaustive labor of the American
naturalist, though they may differ from him in some of his con-
clusions.

CHEIROPTERA,—Bats.

Vespertilio subulatus, Say, Richardson,—Say’s-bat.
Vespertilio cinereus, P.D.Beauvois, 1796, tn
oary Bat.

Vespertilio pruinosus, Richardson,

Dr Allen, (Monograph American bats 1846,) puts this last species in
the new genus ‘‘ Lasiurus.” It is very rare in the Province, whilst Say’s
bat is very common. Capt. Hardy gave me a bat whose interfemoral
resembled ‘‘ evotis” (Allen). I am unwilling, however, to make it this
species.

122 GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

INSECTIVORA,—shrews.

Sorex palustris, Richardson,—Marsh Shrew.
Sorex fostert, Richardson,—Foster’s Shrew.
Sorex platyrinus, Baird,—Kared Shrew.
Sorex thomsont, Baird,—Thomson’s Shrew
Sorex acadica ? Baird,—Nova Scotia Shrew.
Blarina talpoides, Gapper, Baird.
Blarina brevicauda, Say, Baird.
Blarina angusticeps, Baird. ©
LBlarina cinerea, Backman, Baird.
Condylura cristata, Baird.

Condylura macroura, Richardson, ‘ pines Me

Of these species Palustris would undoubtedly be placed in Baird’s new |
genus, ‘‘ Neosorex.” Ihave put a mark of interrogation after ‘‘ Acadia,”
as it is as yet undescribed, except by myself, and may turn out
‘‘'Thomsoni,” (see transactions, Nova Scotian Institute, 1864). These
long-tailed Shrews are by no means uncommon. Following other
authorities, I have distinguished “ Talpoides” from ‘* Brevicauda,” and
though there is undoubtedly great divergence in colonr and size of our
“‘ Blarina,” yet all the typical marks remain the same. I have been
fortunate in obtaining a specimen, I believe the second one known of the
very rare ‘‘ Angusticeps.” Of MolesI have never met with one in the
Province. They are represented by the one species of Condylura which
is common. These Shrews brave the coldest winter—their minute
tracks are seen on snow, at least four feet above the frozen ground,
beneath which are their holes; through this snow they must penetrate to
come to the surface. They are seen swimming in ice-mantled streams.
Hunters cutting an ice hole in a frozen stream for a drink have had
them darting from below almost into their months, and as suddenly
plunging in again.

CaRNIVORA,—Flesh eaters.

Lynx rufus, Guidensteadt, Baird,—Wild Cat.

Lynx canadensis, Geoff, Baird,

Felis canadensis, Richardson,

Canis occidentalis, Richardson,—W olf.

Vulpes fulvus, Richardson,—American Fox. .

Mustela pennanti, Erxleben,— Canadensis, Richardson,—Fisher.

Mustela americana, Turton, Baird, — Martes, Richardson,—
Marten,

‘ Loupcervier.

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 123

Putorius cocognanit, Bonaparte, Baird,—-Small Weasel,

Putorius richardsonit, Bonaparte, Baird,—Hrminea, Rich-
ardson. :

Putorius noveboracencis, Dekay, Baird,— White Weasel.

Putorius vison, Richardson, Baird,—Mink.

Putorius nigrescens, Audubon, Baird,—little Mink.

Lutra canadensis, Sabine, Richardson,—Ctter.

Mephitis mephitica, Shaw, 1792, Baird,— Americana, Richard-

Skunk. :

Procyon lotor, Richardson, Baird,—Raccoon.

Ursus americanus, Pallas, Richardson, Baird,—Bear.

son,

Of these fifteen species, we find the Loupcervier, a truly boreal lynx,
with its congener the wild cat, a more southern form, and no doubt of
much later appearance ; the wolf in his white or grey variety, endeavour-
ing in vain to re-habit the Province. During the last sixty or seventy
years they have constantly appeared, sinely and in pairs, at each
extremity of the Province, and then have been unheard of for years.
The fox, very numerous, of great beauty and lustre of fur, but subject to
nigritism and varying according to its intensity, from ithe red, to the
cross, the silver grey, and black. The magnificent tree weasel, the
fisher, its congener, the American marten, only lately separated from the
pine marten of Europe, and still more recently classed as a variety of the
Russian sable, (M. zabellina.) The ermine weasels, (though the common
short tailed weasel common in New England is here unknown), the
American otter, now separated from the European species, the skunk
and raccoon both later in their arrival (almost during our own times),
and of a southern form, and the truly boreal form of the American black
bear, perhaps our earliest carnivora, and destined to be the latest. His
vegetable diet of berries and roots, and his long winter sleep mark him
the inhabitant of sterile and frozen lands.

RODENTIA.

Sciurus hudsonius, Pallas, Richardson,—Red Squirrel.
Pteromys hudsonius, Gmelin, Baird,—Sabrinus, Richardson, —
Flying Squirrel.
Tamias striatus, Linn. Baird,—WSyster?, Richardson,—Ground
Squirrel.
Arctomys monax, Linn., Baird, Richardson,—W ood Chuck.
Castor canadensis, Kuhl, Baird, Richardson,—American Beaver.
Jaculus hudsonius Zimm., Baird,—M. labradorius, Richard-
son,—Jumping Mouse.

124 GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Mus decumanus, Pallas,—Brown Rat.

Mus musculus, Linn.,—Common Mouse.

Mus rattus, Linn.,—Black Rat.

Hesperomys leucopus, Rafinesque, Baird,— White-feoted Mouse.

Hesperomys myoudes, Baird,—Hamster Mouse.

Arvicola gappert, Vigors, Baird,—Gapper’s Mouse.

Arvicola riparia, Ord, Baird,—Meadow Mouse.

Fiber zibethicus, Baird, Richardson,—Musk Rat.

Erethizon dorsatus, Linn., Baird,—H. pilosa, Richardson,—
Porcupine.

Lepus americanus, Erxleben, Baird, Richardson,—Hare.

Of the sixteen species here enumerated we find a tree squirrel, a
flying squirrel, and a ground squirrel, all northern forms, two partially
hybernating, and laying up winter stores, the other totally disappearing
beneath the ground i in winter. We find also a marmot peculiarly north-
ern in his hybernation and gross fat. I cannot but think that Pruinosus
of Richardson will be found only a northern variety ef Monax. Speci-
mens are found here so very hoary, with the hair on the shoulders so.
much longer than on rump. I have also seen them flattening themselves —
on the sround, as Auduben describes Pruinosus as doing at the
Zoological Gardens, London. To the historical beaver succeeds the
sub-family ef mice. Of the three introduced species, the common mouse
has penetrated everywhere, the brown rat chiefly on the sea-board, and
the black rat very rare; I suspect seme, if not all, come to us from the
West Indies QGur indigenous species so far identified are the very
beautiful jumping mouse—the white-focted mouse with his closely allied
congener, the hamster mouse, differing enly in having a longer tail, and
cheek pouches,—and two voles. Ithink another vele may “be added te
our list. The jumping meuse and the voles all hybernate, the others but
partially, laying up stores of beech mast and grain in hollow trees, and
often found lively at mid winter. The musk-rat, porcupine, and varying
hare, all northera ferms, clese the list ef eur Rodents.

RUMINANTIA.

Cervus alces, Linn., Richardson,
Alces, americanus, Jardine, Baird, ° ¢ The Moose.
Alces muswa, Richardson,
Rangifer caribou, Ham, Smith, Baird, t Caribou, Picts

Cervus tarandus sylvestris, Bickardcer!

Our list ends with the truly meble, antlered and boreal forms of our
two species of deer. Of these the caribou supposed identical with the
reindeer of Europe, though not preven, but differing from the barren

GILPIN—ON THE MAMMALIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 195

ground caribou of the Arctic circle, is becoming extinct the most
rapidly. Though following Jardine and Richardson I have given the speci-
fic ‘*‘ Americana” and **‘ Muswa” to the moose, there can no longer be a
doubt of its complete identity with the Elk of Sweden and Norway.*
Captain Hardy, R. A., a member of our Institute, (than whom there can
be no more competent authority,) fresh from studying the moose in the
Nova Scotia forest, with all his recollections, drawings, and measure-
ments, has compared him with two young elks from Norway, the property
of the Prince of Wales, and pronounces them identical. (See ‘* Land
and Water,” Aug. 15, 1868, with illustrations.) In Captain Hardy’s
sketch the forehead appears broader than in the moose. This is the
point insisted upon by Richardson as the difference between the two
skulls.

In not adding Meriones (Jaculus) acadica, (Edn. New Phil.
Journal, 1856,) to the list, I owe it to so learned a naturalist as
Dawson to explain that the specimens upon which he founded his
new species, and which he obtained from Mr. Winton, Halifax,
were prepared for myself, and described as the young of J.
hudsonius, (Zimm.,) in a lecture before the Mechanics’ Institute,
Halifax, about 1850, and that though being unwilling to differ
from him, and still more unwilling to lose a mammal from our
Province, IJ still retain my opinion. Of animals not identified by
myself, but sometimes to be found in the Province, I think the
Virginian deer (Cervus virginianus) will be found in the Cobequid
hills, as I personally know they have been taken at Dorchester,
N. B., near the boundary line. There is a tradition of a wolverene
(Gulo luscus) having been taken in the same wild country. <A
large black squirrel skin (Sciurus carolinensis) with nigritism, was
given me from Cumberland. Of the Pinnipedia or seals and Cete
or whales, I have identified none. Krom the labours of Dr. Guill
we unexpectedly learn that our common seal is identical with the
European, (P. vitulina,) and the harp (P. groenlandica,) and
the grey seal (H. griseus, Neilson,) are all common to each conti-
nent. This identity running through the fish, amphibious mammals, _
the sea birds, and larger land mammals, seems a good proof of our
common glacial period and gradual emergence. Ofextinct species,
during historic time, we may enumerate the walrus, with its

*Since this was in press Sclayter in list of vertebrates, Zoological Garden, 1872,
gives alces, machlis, considering them identical.

126° ROSS—ON ELEVATION IN THE EARTH'S CRUST.

companion of another class, the great auk. Of prehistoric remains,
I only know the solitary gigantic thigh bones of a huge mammal
found at Cape Breton. Of those whose early extinction, perhaps
in our own times we may reasonably expect, we may enumerate
the fisher, (M. pennanti), now very rare, and next the marten,
(M. americana). Both these great tree weasels require dense
cover. The beaver, twenty-five years ago nearly extinct, is rapidly
recruiting. ‘The less vaiue of his skin since velvet hats have been
patented is not sufficient to account for his re-appearance. The
few or no Indians now trapping in our forests is perhaps another
cause. With these exceptions, allowing the same influence to
exist, I see no reason why we should not retain our present fauna
for centuries, including the large ruminants. Our last arrival was
the wolf, endeavouring in vain to rehabit his old domains, to whom
the skunk and the raccoon alone give precedence. All these
coming in to us from the wild region of the Cobequid hills. Of
introduced species, with the exception of the mice, we have only
the horse (HE. caballus), and the rabbit, (Lepus~ cuniculus).
30th these species have been allowed to assume the feral state on
Sable Island, a desert island about ninety miles south-east of Nova
Scotia, in the Atlantic Ocean. Whilst the rabbits in fifty years
have returned to one common silver-grey tint with white collars, it
is curious to remark how the horse in one hundred and fifty
years, the produce no doubt of the New England stock, has
returned to the habits and form of the primal stock, or wild horse
of antiquity, and reproduced all varieties of color, not only the bay,
black and chestnut, but the rarer colors of piebald, duns, isabellas,
blue duns, and duns with striped legs and black lists down the back.

2 bel
Art. V. Zones oF LINES oF ELEVATION IN THE EARTH’S
Crust. By Aneaus Ross, Esa.

(Read January 8, 1872.)

ELEVEN years ago I was living on Digby Neck, a prolongation
of the North Mountain Range, and a district which with its great

N PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 197

variety of quartz, and other minerals, and the obviously unsedi-
mentary character of the trap and basaltic rocks of which it chiefly
consists, is well fitted to stimulate curiosity and awaken thought as
to its origin. I remarked that it had a corresponding and parallel
synclinal or line of depression, along its more southerly side,
extending its whole length from St. Mary’s Bay to the Basin of
Minas (inclusive) ; and that the general direction of the Atlantic
coast line of the Province was approximately parallel to it; as also
the Fundy coast of New Brunswick, and the Atlantic coast line of
the United States, from Eastport to Baltimore, and from Cape
Hatteras to Florida. Further examination showed that lines of
elevation (and depression) parallel to these, formed the leading
features of the Continent east of the Ohio. Of these the most.
remarkable are the valley of the St. Lawrence, and the Appalachi--
an Mountain ranges. (See plate I. fig. 1.) Travelling afterwards
in Newfoundland, I found that the chief lines of elevation in the
Peninsula of Avalon had the same general direction. At Sandy
Cove, on Digby Neck, I remarked that the ravine like break in the
trap ridge, evidently at one time a seachannel, was not at right
angles with the ridge, but running north and south—the ridge itself
running nearly N. E. and S. W. I remembered that Trout Cove
(now Centreville, five miles further up the Neck) was similar in
this respect, and I found that the same was true of Grand and
Petite Passages. I found, too, that most of the River basins of
Shelburne and Yarmouth counties, as well as some of the river and
lake basins in Hants, had the same direction, thus indicating
another system of synclinals and anticlinals. The basin of
Hudson River and Lake Champlain and the basin of the Connec-
ticut, seemed correlated with this system. The trap ridge gave
evidence of another system of lines of elevation, to the extent at
least that produced an immense number of parallel fractures in the
trap, having the direction (approximately) ’ of east and west, and
filled by quartz, sometimes nearly pure, sometimes in the form of
jasper ; sometimes containing pockets having beautiful crystals of
variously colored quartz, and sometimes containing metallic
minerals. This system seemed correlated to the Cobequid Range,
and the line of depression which forms the great central basin of

3

128 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

the province, commencing at Minas basin, and extending to St.
George’s Bay.

Since gold has been discovered in this province, attention has
been prominently called to the fact that an important system of
lines of elevation in the gold bearing rocks, have the same general
direction—approximately east and west—and that the auriferous
quartz veins uniformly have this direction. Now, it is evident
to one even slightly acquainted with the Geology of the regions
referred to, that not only the fractures but the trap itself was forni-
ed long after the east and west lines of elevation in the Cobequid
and auriferous rocks had reached nearly their present position.

The only other system of parallel lines of elevation (and depres-
sion) in Nova Scotia, which now demands our attention, is well
illustrated by a basin with which all here are necessarily well
acquainted. I refer to our own Harbour and Bedford basin, and,
further on in the same line, the Avon River basin. An important
line parallel to this is the Strait of Canso. For further illustrations
of this system I may point to most of the river and lake basins ~
between Shelburne and Canso.

Having thus briefly indicated the chief systems of lines of
elevation in our own Province and vicinity, I will proceed to
discuss the general subject to which they introduced me, viz. the
great zones of parallel lines of elevation in the earth’s crust.

More than two-thirds of the crust of the earth is covered by the
waters of the ocean. The more recent formations cover most of the
remainder. Again the later formations were necessarily formed of
the detritus of the older, so that these, where exposed to observation,
must have suffered immense denudation, as is also shown by their
metamorphic character, as they could only have become metamorphic
when at a great depth below the surface. These circumstances
tend greatly to obscure the lines of elevation in the older
rocks. But obscurity yields to investigation. The higher
summits of lines of elevation protrude themselves above the
level of the sea, and afford no uncertain indication of their
course beneath its waters. The more primitive formations
are similarly found protruding through the later formations, or
these last have been removed by denudation, exposing the former

ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 129

to view. Nor are we always left to infer the lines of elevation of
the older rocks, from those portions of them which are exposed to
view, since as we have already seen they impress their lines
of elevation, to some extent upon the superincumbent later
formations.

By an attentive study of the lines of elevation in the earth’s
erust, in so far as I had the means of information, I find that all
the more important of them group themselves into seven great
zones of parallel lines of elevation; the axial line of each zone
being approximately a great circle of the earth, and characterized
by lines of volcanoes. The apparent development of these zones
is much affected by the fact that the northern hemisphere has the
surface of its solid crust considerably more elevated than is that of the
southern hemisphere. At the 45th degree of latitude respectively the
difference by a rough estimate is nearly two miles. But if, for the
sake of illustration, we imagine the north pole of the earth in
Iceland, and compare the elevation of the resulting northern and
southern hemispheres at the thirtieth degree of latitude respectively,
the average elevation would then be found to be more than two miles
greater in the northern than in the southern. Hence result the
following laws :—

1st.—That it is the half north of the equator of each zone that is
chiefly exposed to our observation.

2nd.—That of those zones whose axial lines do not pass near
the poles, it is on the northerly side of the northern half of the
axial line that the chief visible development occurs.

In each zone the proximity and elevation of the anticlinals diminish
gradually from the axial line outwards; and if zone No. 1 be con-
sidered the most recent, and the others as successively less recent in
the order in which I have named them, and comparing similar parts of
any two zones, the height of the anticlinals.is greater, the dip less, and
the distance between their axes greater in the more recent. Ina
transverse section of zone No. 1 or of any subzone of any of the
other zones, each plateau rises above the preceding in regular
gradation from the coast line (or other boundary of the zone or
subzone) until the greatest elevation is reached; and the same is
true of the mountain ridges separating the plateaus. By substitut-

130 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

ing swbzones for ‘‘ anticlinals” in the above, the relations of those
to.each other will be defined. |

Zone No. 1, or the Rocky Mountain system, has its axial line in
the volcanic belt extending from the Middle Andes, inclusive, across
Central] America, along the Rocky Mountains, Alaska, the Aleutian
Island, Kamischatka, the Kurile Islands, Japan Islands, Loo Choo
Islands, Philipine Islands, Palawan, and Borneo. The Islands of
Amsterdam and St. Paul, the Kerguelen Islands, the South
Sandwich Island and South Georgia, seem to indicate the comple-
tion of the more southerly part of the (approximately ) great circle.
A belt extending ten degrees on each side of this great circle,
includes two-thirds of the volcanoes of the earth.

On the northerly side of the more northerly portion of this axial
line, there is by far the greatest and most unbroken elevated zone of
the earth’s crust, commencing at the plateau of Bolivia, which has a
mean elevation of two and one half miles above the sea-level, it
extends to Thibet, which has a mean elevation equal to that of
Bolivia. The higher plateaus in each of these immense and nearly
antipodal table lands, as also in the intervening table lands of
Equador, reach an elevation of three miles; and the higher
mountain ranges adjacent to them, reach an elevation of from five
to six miles above the sea-level. This zone of table lands contains
all the plateaus on the earth that reach an elevation of two miles ;
and all the mountains of the earth that reach an elevation of four
miles are found immediately adjacent to these plateaus.

On the northerly side of the zone of table lands, is found a
zone of plains—by far the greatest and most unbroken of the
earth—extending from the mouth of the LaPlata to the Caspian
Sea, and at an average elevation of about one-tenth of a mile above
the sea-level. Their average breadth may be roughly estimated at
1000 miles, and that of the table lands at 1500. bey

Commencing at the N. W. extremity of the plateau of Thibet,
a zone of table lands extends to the Cape of Good Hope—a distance
equal to one quarter of the circumference of the earth. It seems
primarily to have constituted part of zone No. 7, which I have not
yet described, but to owe its present elevation to its connection
with zone No. 1, to which it is here approximately parallel on the

ROSS—-ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 131

northerly side of its axial line. It has its great plain, the Sahara,
on its northerly side. Taken in connection with the other zone
of the table lands to which I have referred, we find an elevated zone
extending three quarters of a circumference of the earth, over which
one may travel (from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope) at an
average elevation of one mile above the sea-level, though no other
plateau on the earth reaches an elevation of one mile.

Zone No. 2, the Appalachian, has its axial line in the volcanic
line apparent along the Northern Andes, the Lesser Antilles,
Sicily and vicinity, the volcanic Greek Islands, the Dead Sea
region, Pondicherry, and completing the more northerly half of
the great circle—the highly volcanic belt extending through the
entire length of Sumatra. In the remaining part of the (approxi-
mately) great circle, we find the volcanic belt of New Zealand and
the volcanic Islands of Chatham and Easter. Its apparent develop-
ment is chiefly on the northerly side of the more northerly half of
its axia! line, embracing the eastern half of North America, and the
South-west of Europe and Asia. Its highest plateaus reach an
elevation of a little more than half a mile in North America and
Europe, while in South America and Asia they owe their great
elevation chiefly to zone No. 1.

In North America the part of this zone above the level of the
sea consists of two well marked subzones, divided by the great lin€
of depression extending from the Strait of Bellisle to the Gulf of
Mexico. Of these the more northerly is the more extensive and
unbroken; the more southerly having its strata more plicated (see
Plate I. Fig. 2), and consisting largely of islands and peninsulas.
Similar remarks would characterize the developments of this zone
in See Asia; the more southerly subzone consisting chiefly
of the sim great peninsulas, Spain and Portugal, Italy, Greece,
Asia Minor, Hindostan, Farther India, and also many islands ;—
and the more northerly, continental in character, and having for
its chief lines of elevation, mountain ranges, such as the Carpathian,
the Caucasus and part of the Himalaya.

Zone No. 3, or the Parimean has its axial line in that very
remarkable line of fracture extending across Mexico in a nearly
east and west direction, a little south of the city of Mexico, and in

132 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

which many of the active volcanoes have appeared, for the first time,
in the present century, although along the old line of fracture.
Following this line of elevation along the Greater Antilles, we
reach the voleanic Lesser Antilles. Further on, near the coast of
Africa, we reach the volcanic Cape de Verde Islands. Crossing the
unknown interior we reach the volcanic district at the mouth of the
Red Sea. Still onwards and completing a semi-circumference of
the earth, we reach in Java the most active volcanic region known.
This belt extends nearly east and west from Java to New Britain
(inclusive), or an extent of three thousand miles. This axial line
seems to be about five degrees north of the great circle to which
it is (approximately) parallel. In America the apparent develop-
ment of this zone consists of four subzones: the West Indian, the
Venezuelan, the Parimean Proper, and the Bolivian, which last
constitutes the watershed between the basins of the Amazon and
the Rio de la Plata. In Africa but two subzones are entirely
apparent, one on each side of the axial line. On the northern side
are the various parallel ranges of the Atlas Mountain region, and
on the south, mountain ranges extending east and west, so far as
the country has been explored, from Cape Verde to Cape Guardafui.
In Asia the apparent development of this zone is great in conse-
quence of the elevation produced by its intersection with zones
Nos. 1 and 2. The Thian Chan, part of the Himalaya, and many
other mountain ranges, seem immediately connected with this zone.
In Australasia there are three subzones plainly apparent; Java
and the Flores Islands, &c., on the axial line of the zone, with the
Eastern Archipelago on the north, and Australia on the south.
Zone No. 4, or the Scandinavian, has its axial line in a volcanic
belt extending through the Azores, Iceland and Jan Meyen.
Spitzbergen, not, however, known to be volcanic, is in the same
line of elevation. Beyond this the Polar region is unexplored. In
the same line in Eastern Siberia are the Aldan Mountain ranges,
extending from the Arctic Ocean to the Sea of Okotsk. A line of
islands in that sea, and the long island Saghalien, carry this line
of elevation to the Japan Islands, which are highly voleanic,
as are also the Marianne and other island groups which continue it
to New Guinea (also volcanic), across which it is continued in a

4

ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 133

mountain range to Torres Strait. Across Torres Strait this line of
elevation is apparent in a volcanic island range. From Cape York
the Australian Alps extend to the southern extremity of this
insular continent. It is continued in an island range across Bass
Strait and in mountain range across the Island Tasmania; thus
completing (from the Azores) a semi-circumference of the earth.
The same line of elevation is again apparent in the highly volcanic
range of South Victoria. Passing over the unexplored South Polar
Region we find Graham Land volcanic. The Falkland Islands and
the coast mountain ranges of Brazil are in the same line.

Scandinavia and the British Islands are examples of the
development of this zone on one side of the axial line, and, as they
are well known, illustrate well the Jaw that the side of a zone or
subzone next to the axial line, shows the most plication—the bold-
est and greatest anticlinals. Greenland—comparatively unexplored
—represents its development on the other side of the axial line.
Brazil is the only other part of this zone which is well known, and
it also illustrates the law to which I have referred.

The Scandinavian zone is the region of ‘*fiords,’ which
characterize it alike in every part of the circumference of the earth.
It is also characterized by a prodigious development of trachytic
rocks, which, often being basaltic, form spires, and pyramids, and
caves (Fingal’s cave for example). Indeed the ‘‘ family likeness ”
that regions of the same zone present, however widely apart, is very
remarkable. specially is this apparent in the three zones with
which we are best acquainted, viz: Nos. 1, 2,4. It may confi-
dently be said that any one acquainted with their characteristic
features, would have little difficulty in recognizing each by the
general features of the face of the country, even without observing
the direction of the strike—that is of the lines of elevation.

Zone No. 5, or the New Zealand zone, seems to have its axial
line parallel to the chief lines of elevation of the New Zealand
Islands, passing through Tasmania, the Fiji Islands, &c., through
Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands, across North America from Cape
Mendocino to Cape Race. From Cape Race it is continued in a
chain of banks and volcanic Islands extending to Cape Juby.
From Cape Juby it would pass through the unexplored regions of

134 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF BLEVATION.

Africa to Cape Corrientes, and thence through the Kerguelen
Islands to Tasmania. ‘he New Zealand sud zone apparent trom
Macquarie [sland to the Friendly Islands (inclusive)—a distance
of about 2500 miles—and highly volcanic, is perhaps the most
renarkable.

Zone No. 6, the Sardinian, seems to have its axial line in the
voleanic belt of which Ktna, Stromboli and Vesuvius, are the
principal centres of apparent activity. ‘The Hawaiian Archipelago,
the Society Islands, and South Victoria, are other volcanic regions
through which this line would pass. In Europe, on one side of
the axial line, the chief line of elevation apparent in the islands of
Sardinia and Corsica, and the Peninsula of Denmark, is most
conspicuous. A series of parallel lines of elevation in Britain—
best known in the north of England—is also parallel to this axial
line. On the other side of the axial line the most remarkable
development is in the parallel mountain ranges which extend from
the Red Sea to the Black Sea, and of which the basin of the Jordan
forms one of the synclinals. The Oural mountains also seem to
belong to this zone.

Zone No. 7, the Hawaiian, has its axial line passing through
the very remarkable volcanic region of that Archipelago, (see
Plate 2), through Yesso (in Japan) across Asia; through Arabia
and Africa (near the coast) to Cape of Good Hope, and thence
through the islands of South Georgia, Tierra de] Fuego, and Easter
to the Hawaiian Islands. The Island of Madagascar and other
islands in the same range show the existence of a subzone, of
which the apparent length is about 2000 miles. On the other
side of the axial line and parallel to it are ranges of elevation
apparent for 9000 miles, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Sea
of Okotsk. |

It is obvious that the axial] lines of the several zones (being
approximately great circles of the earth) will each intersect every
other twice, and that the two intersections of any two axial lines
will be (approximately) antipodal to each other. These intersec-
tions are, as might be anticipated, specially remarkable for volcanic
activity, and where the intersections of more than two axial lines”
occur in the same vicinity, as might be anticipated, also the

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ROSS—-ON PARALLEL LIN@S OF SLEVATION. 134

volcanic »henomena are still more remarkable, and when these
intersecting axial lines are those of the latest (and greatest) zones,
the result is the mosi extensive and intense display of volcanic
activity which exists on the earth. Thus the intersections of the
axial] lines of zones Nos. 1, 2, and 3 produce, in the East Indian
Archipelago, the most volcanic vegion of the earth, and their
antipodal intersections produce in Mexico, Centra] America, the
Northern Andes, and the lesser West India Islands, the only other
volcanic region at al] approximating to % in extent and activity.
The intersection of zones Nos. 2, 4, and 5, gives ihe voleanic vegions
of the Azores and Canary Islands. (See Plate I, Fig. 3.) Their
antipodal intersection in Tasmania thoug» sadhicalinae sreat volcanic
activity eye is not now actively volcanic; but the intersection
of the axia! line of zone No. 2, witn the great: New Zealand subzone
of No. 5, is marked by » high degree of voleanic activity. The
intersection, apparently at one point, of zones Nos. 4, 6, 7, produces
the exceedingly active volcanic group of the Hawaiian or Sandwich
Islands. (See Plate 2.) Their antipodal intersection is in the
unexplored interior of South Africa.

Where the axial lines of two zones intersect each other the
volcanoes are found along ihe axial line of the older; thus where
the axial line of zone No. ! intersects that of zone No. 3, we find
in Mexico a line of active volcanoes across the country in the line
of No. 53, and in Java the result is similar. At the intersections
of the axial lines of zone No. 1 with that of zone No. 2 we find the
yoleanic lines of the Northern Andes, and Sumatra io the axial line
of zone No. 2.

Where three axial lines intersect each other at, or near, the same
point, the volcanoes are found along the axial line of the oldest
zone, though the systems of parallel lines of fracture of the other
zones are very apparent; thus in the Hawaiian Islands (see plate
No. 2) a line extending along the northern volcanoes of Hawaii to
the vorthern volcano of Ohau, represents the direction of the
axial line of the oldest zone—zone No. 7; while the other systems
of parallel lines marked on the map represent the lines of fracture—
thai: is the directions of the lines of elevation of zones Nos. 5 and 6.
Fig. 5, Plate No. 1 represents the direction of the lines of eleva-

136 ROSS—-ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

tion of zones Nos. 4 and 5 with accuracy, and as I had not seen it
until I had become convinced from observations of other parts of
these zones that they must intersect each other at the Azores, in
the precise directions which they are there represented as having,
I was pleased to find that figure in Dana’s Manual of Geology,
made without any thought of the zones of parallel lines of elevation,
but simply by observing the facts of the case, thus well illustrating
the correctness of the conclusions to which J had come by in-
duction.

The axial line of a subzone sometimes becomes volcanic where
intersected by the axial line of a later zone; thus where the axial
line of zone No. 1 intersects the sub zones of zone No. 4 on the
east of Asia, we find on one side of the axial line of zone No. 4 the
volcanic Peninsula of Kamtschatka, and on the other side the
volcanic Peninsula of Corea, and the more distant subzone of
which the axial line passes through the volcanic islands, Formosa
and Luzon. Where the axial line of zone No. 2 intersects the New
Zealand subzone of zone No. 5, that subzone is also volcanic.

The forms of the craters of volcanoes seem to be largely deter-
mined by the lines of fracture, and these are determined by
the lines of elevation; hence it follows that the forms of the
craters of the volcanoes of any group have a striking similarity
to each other, and resemble those of other groups, in proportion as
the producing causes, the intersections of axial (and related) lines,
are similar. The longer axis of a crater is found, not in the line
of the volcanoes, that is the older of the intersecting axial lines,
but in the later axial line (or parallel to it). Thus the Latin line
of voleanoes (Etna, Stromboli, Vesuvius, &c.) is in the axial line
of zone No. 6, the Sardinian, and has the major axis of its
volcanoes parallel to the axial line of zone No. 2, as these axial
lines intersect each other here. Where the axial lines of three
zones intersect each other as at the Hawaiian Islands, the result is
more complicated, but governed by the same law. Thus Kilauea
in Hawaii (the more important of the two active volcanoes in that
group) has its major axis in the line of zone No. 5—the most
recent of the three intersecting zones,—while the extinct volcanoes
of this group have their major axes in the lines of zone No. 6 (an

ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 134

older zone), and the volcanoes themselves are in the line of zone
No. 7,—the oldest of the intersecting zones.

There is a remarkable coincidence between the prevailing zone
of parallel lines of elevation in any given region, and the lines of
equal magnetic intensity in that region. Thus in the west of North
America and east of Asia they coincide with zone No. 1; in the
east of North America, in Central Europe, and in the south-
west of Asia with zone No. 2; in the Parimean region of South
America, and the Kong and Komri mountain region of Africa, as
also in the central regions of Asia, with zone No. 3 ; in Scandinavia
with zone No. 4; in the Ural Mountains, with zone No. 6; and
on the south-eastern side of Africa and the Yabloni Mountain
region of Asia, with zone No. 7.

Beaumont has the honor of having first developed the doctrine
of parallel lines of elevation. His observations apply chiefly to
Europe, and have great merit. He classifies the lines of elevation
in Europe alone into nineteen systems, assigning a definite age to
each. It seems to me that he obtains this large number, in con-
sequence of two*misconceptions, that were likely to occur in the
early study of this subject, especially in Europe, where the great
typical zone is not present at all to an appreciable extent. The
first mistake consists in his indicating the systems by ascribing to
them definite directions with regard to the cardinal points, and thus
failing to take into account the difference in this respect produced
by a difference in longitude; and the second that he did not suffici-
ently take into account the principle of successive epochs of activity
along the same lines of elevation. I find, however, that he has
attempted a generalization which would include all the chief
mountain ranges of the earth, and which I give in the words of E.
Lambert in his ‘*‘ Cours Eléméntaire de Geologie.”

Les lignes paralléles, considérées par M. de Beaumont, sont des ares
de grands cercles du sphéroide terrestre qui, prolongés, vont toutes
concourir en un point, qui serait le polé d’un autre grand cercle perpen-
diculaire 4 ceux des systémes; mais dans une petite étendue les arcs
peuvent étre considerés comme paralléles.

M. de Beaumont considers the parallel lines to be arcs of great
circles of the earth which, if prolonged, would all meet in a point

138 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

which would be the pole of another great circle perpendicular to
those of the systems, but that for short distances the arcs referred
to may he considered as parallel.

The defect of this admirably simple and complete theory is that
it is not in accordance with the facts. Jf confess some astonish-
ment, too, at his getting his nineteen European systems to conform
to it. The circumstance that gives it a certain value is that the
axial lines of the chief lines of elevation intersect each other in the
neighborhood of the two great Archipelagoes.

As » cule the regions in the vicinity of the axial lines of zones
or subzones of elevation are slowly rising, and the depressed
regions between them are undergoing still further depression. This
process may be best observed in Australasia and Pelynesia, where
the coral rocks and islands may be said to preserve a record of the
changes of elevation in regard to the sea-level. It seems to result
frora lateral pressure in the earth’s crust caused by a shrinkage of
the liquid interior from loss of caloric.

In deseribing the zones and pointing out the locality of their
axial lines, it will be remembered thai I found theme as 2, rule, to be
on the southerly side of the continents—the apparent development
ofthe zones being on their northerly sides. This in connection
with the greater intensity of the plicating forces in the vicinity of
the axial lines, explains why the southerly slopes of the continents
are steep and abrupt, with high mountains near the sea, and deep
sea near the land, and affording many peninsulas and islands. But
where in exceptional cases, as South America and Africa, there is
an axial line (zone No. 8) extending along or near its northern
part also, we find a rapid and abrupt descent from the Venezuelan
coast range and the Atlas mountains, to the remarkably deep
Caribbean and Mediterranean seas, characterized by Archipelagoes.

As the lines of elevation of zones Nos. 1, 2, 5, 7, have their
intersections with the equator at an angle of approximately 45 deg.
it follows that within some fifty degrees on each side of the equator,
very many of the more important lines of elevation have the direc-
tions of north-east or of north-west (approximately) ; and as the
lines of elevation of zone No. 3 are approximately east and west,
and those of the other two zones—Nos. 4 and 5—intersect the

ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION. 158

equator nearly perpendicularly, it follows that within the fifty
degrees on each side of ihe equator the remaining lines of elevation
will be east and west, or north and south (approximately). {ft will
be remembered that our own Province is one illustration: the four
systems of lines of elevation which } have indicated as being found in
Nova Scotia have, these directions; and any country in the world
(within iifty deg. of the equator) will constitute another. In the
Polar regions, and their vicinity, it is for an obvious veason
impossible to assign any definite directions to the Mountain ranges
generally.

From what has been said it appears that the structure of a

country—the stratification of its rocks—depends chiefly apon the
mode in which the various systems o% parallel lines of elevation
intersect each other there. The region of the Alps being at once
specially well known to geologists, and specially remarkable in itself,
is a good illustration. The lines of zones Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6,
ean be distinctly made out; hence its complicated structure.
Jt is evident that the various zones and subzones of elevation
largely affect thg:currents of the ocean, and of the atmosphere ;
thereby determining the denudation and formation of rock, and large-
ly affecting the distribution of plants and animals. ‘Thus the Atlantic
equatorial current, being finally stopped in its westwardly progress
by zone No. 1, forms a great current known as the Gulf Stream,
which bears the warm waters and some of the organic productions
of the tropical regions along the west coast of Europe to the Polar
Regions beyond Spitzbergen. If we compare the Sahara of Africa
with the silvas of the basin of the Amazon, we see the effect pro-
duced by having a zone of elevation on the eastern side of a tropical
country thus intercepting the moisture of the prevailing winds.

The intersections of several subzones sometimes form ~-basins
which have no outlet to the sea for their drainage, and therefore
form lakes, which, since their waters are carried off only by eva-
poration, and thus leave their salts behind them, are necessarily
salt. The most important basin of this kind is in the greatest sub-
continent—Asia-~Europe—and has an extent about equal to Europe,
the United States, or the Dominion. The more important lines of
elevation, especially when they have a direction approximately east

140 ROSS—ON PARALLEL LINES OF ELEVATION.

and west, form almost impassable barriers to the migration of many
plants and animals, on account of the low temperature everywhere
prevailing at a considerable elevation above the sea-level. The
Himalaya mountains present perhaps the best illustration. As the
more important lines of depression are in regions covered by the
sea, these also serve as barriers to the migration of most land plants
andanimals. Thus the narrow seas separating Asia from Australia,
separate regions whose fauna and flora are as unlike each other as
we might expect to find those of different planets. Scarcely less
relatively important have been the effects of the more important
lines of elevation and depression on the development of the human
race, as these chiefly have determined the migrations and nationalli-
ties of mankind. |

‘¢‘ Mountains interposed
Make enemies of nations, who had else,
Like kindred drops, been mingled into one.”

The course of civilization has been along the subzone of
Peninsulas belonging to zone No. 2, on the south-west of Asia-
Europe; and our American cousins would say thence across the
Atlantic to the Appalachian subzone, also of zone No. 2. Not
only is inter-communication by the more primitive methods much
more feasible along the prevailing lines of elevation of any region,
but these also usually determine the location of railways and
canals. The Caledonia canal constructed along a line of depres-
sion of zone No. 4, may be taken for an example. It would be
easy to show the great importance for the purposes of civil engineer-
ing, of an accurate knowledge of the lines of elevation and depression
of any country, nor is the importance of such knowledge relatively
any less for military purposes. Zone No. J seems to date, as to
the elevation of much of it above the sea, to the close of the
Secondary or Mesozoic period; zone No. 2 from the close of the
Paleozoic, and zone No. 4 from the close of the Azoic period. It
is probable that each zone, in its turn, had an apparent development
comparable to that of zone No. 1 at the present day—giving
approximate continuity to the land surface of the earth. That such
js the case may, I think, be proved from the distribution of existing
plants and animals and of fossil remains, but the limits of a paper

HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PiIcToU. 14]

forbid my entering upon the subject at present. The same reason
forbids my indicating more particularly the terrestrial forces which
seem to me adequate to produce the zones of parallel lines of eleva-
tion, and to have broken up each successively into subzones.

Art VI. On PrReE-caRBoniFERous Rocks oF THE Pictou
Coat Fretp. By tae Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. L.,
F. G. S., Mremper ofr THE GEOLOGICAL SocIETY OF
France, &¢., Director of the Provincial Museum.

(Read Feb. 12, 1872.)
ABSTRACT.

In my last paper I showed that Sir W. E. Logan’s opinion
relative to the Devonian age of certain rocks in the northern part
of McLellan’s Mountain, and the district of Sutherland’s River,
was contrary to the evidence of paleontology and stratigraphy. I
shall proceed further to examine the character of the evidence upon
which the opinion is based.

The supposed Devonian Rocks on the west side of East River
which are considered by Sir W. Logan to be ‘* somewhat similar”
to those of McLellan’s Mountain, are indicated on Sir W. Logan’s
map, by a Devonian coloured area on the north-west. These pre-
carboniferous rocks of Waters’ Hill are regarded by Dr. Dawson as
‘‘ probably of Devonian age”—vid. page 319 of Acadian Geology,
2nd Ed. It will be observed that this cautious expression hardly
warrants the positive conclusion which Sir W. Logan derives
from it.

At the time when I read the report I had not seen the rocks of
this locality, Waters’ Hill, in the north-west corner of the Pictou
Coal Field. I therefore examined the map already referred to
in order to get some idea of the relative position of the rocks in
question. I was astonished to see Devonian rocks having insulated

patches of millstone grit, and to find a limestone quarry in Devonian
rocks, as all the limestone quarries with which I am acquainted in
Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton besides, are of Lower Carboniferous

149 HONEYMAN—ON PRE-CARGONIFEROUS ROCKS OF PICTOU.

age. On veferring to iM. Hartley’s report, T round that the lime-
stone of this auarry was included among the oe
rocks. I visited the locality and examined the rocks Through
the kindaess of Mr. Dunn, of the Dvummond Colteapcal vas taken
by railway co the point where the line cuts Waters’ Till, Here~1
found Lower Carboniferous grits uaderlaid by olive coloured slates
and banded quartzites. The last are also overlaid by conglome-
rate. The slates and ceartzites exactly resemble the rocks of the
west side of anticlinal Ne. 2, as seen in the brook that proceeds
from Blanchard’s to East Branch, Kast River. or the Clinton strata
that contain the new bed of Blanchard, which are continued on the
west side of Kraser’s Mouatein, whose counterpart are ihe strata |
which are continced at Mel Lellan n’s Mountain, Sir W. Logan’s
Devonian rocks. his is certainly striking, and shows that Sir W
Logan was right in his comparison, although he was somewhat
astray in his conclusion.

I am not aware of the consideration which induced Dr. Dawson _
to express ihe opinion that the rocks of Waters’ Hill are probably —
of Devonian age, in preference to che opinion that they are probably
of Silurian age. I would aow, then, in consideration of
the absence or the Devonian in the extensive and well developed
region to the east of the Coal Field, and the obvious lithological
resemblance existing between the rocks of the Middle Silurian series
of anticlinal No. 2, infer the Middle Silurian age of the pre-car-
boniferous rocks of Waters’ Hill. Laithological, stratigraphical and
paleontologica} evidence, evidently favour this conclusion. Having
examined this interesting section of middle silurian rocks, | went
in search of the Limestone quarry. Instead of the top of the hill I
found it near the bottom. Ihad not the least difficulty in ascertain-
ing the geological relation and age of the Limestone. It is
evidenily a metamorphosed Lower Carboniferous Limestone, much
contorted with a beautifu) manganese florescence, or flowers, as they
are styled by the quarrymen, resting directly and unconformably on
the Middle Silurian slates.

The strata at East River, which have been indicated as resem-
bling the rocks of the section, are also overlaid directly and
unconformably by Lower Carboniferous Limestone with associated

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 143

green pyritous marble.—Vide Transactions, 1870-71, pp. 64. In
all probability the Middle Silurian strata of Waters’ Hill participat-
ed in the pre-carboniferous and post Lower Helderberg movement,
which elevated the strata of McLellan’s and Irish Mountains; and
thet—they consequently formed part of the Silurian boundaries of
the Lower Carboniferous Lagoon, which subsequently became the
Pictou coal basin. They evidently formed a barrier on the North
against which dashed the waves of the sea throwing up the beach
and bar which is now known as the New Glasgow Conglomerate,
preserving comparative quiet in the sheet of water within, and
affording protection and comfort to the marine Radiata, Mollusca,
and Pisces of the period, the Lithostrontia, Crinoidea, Brachiopoda,
Lamellibranchiata, Gasteropoda, Heteropoda, Pteropoda, Cepha-
lopoda, and Cochliodus, which have left so many enduring monu-
ments in the beautiful ornamented limestones formed in the inside
of the barrier itself,—in the limestones of McLellan’s Mountain
shore,—in the Gypsum of Irish Mountain,—in the Lithostrontian
and other Limestones of Springville, and in the Gypsum Lime-
- stones and marble of East Brook, East River.

Art. VII. On tae METEOROLOGY OF CALEDONIA MINEs,
LirrLe Guacre Bay, Care Breton. By H. Poors, Esea.,
M. E., Superintendent of Mines.

(Read March 11, 1872.)

In commenting upon the Meteorological phenomena recorded in
the accompanying table, which now embraces a period of five years,
I would in the first place draw attention to the general results
shown during that period.

The mean Barometrical readings corrected to 32° were 29.8428,
and corrected for 60 ft. of altitude and force of vapour, 29.6439 ;
and the mean temperature was 40.35. The mean at night being
34.466, and the mean at noon being 46.184 degrees of Fahrenheit.

The mean force.of vapour was -2560 inch; and -the relative
humidity was 73.50, saturation being 100. The mean. annual

a

144 POOLE—-ON METEOROLOGY.

velocity of the wind was 153,457 miles; or 17.5 miles per hour.
The fall of rain and melted snow averages 58.898 inches on 157
days; the fall of snow averaging 104.5 inches on 59 days. The
nights of frost average 185, or one half of the year. The degrees
of frost reckoned from 32 average 1998 degrees. Nights below
zero average 7.8; rimy frosts average 36.4; hail 6.8 2 silver
thaws 6.4; fogs 45; lightning and thunder 11.6; rainbows 9.2;
auroras 54; halos round sun 31.4, and halos round moon 8.6;
eorona 3.4; wind veered with the sun 37.6 times, and backed 12
times. The average direction of the wind was 126 days from
S. to W.; 105 days from W. to N.; 76 days from N. to E., and
58 days from E. to 8.

Upon comparing the mean of the year 1871 with the average of
the 5 years observations, it will be noticed that the barometer read
.0513 inch lower; the thermometer .51 degree lower ; the tempera-
ture at night being .236° and at noon being -724°. ‘The force of
vapour was .0037 inch less; and the relative humidity was 4.75 —
per cent more than the average. a

The velocity of the wind is unusually high at this station, and I
have therefore thought it desirable to comment upon the gales more
in detail, than in former reports.

In January the wind averaged 19.70 miles per hour for the
month. The greatest velocity recorded in 24 hours was 1257.60
miles on the 9th. The calmest day was 92.80 miles on the 12th.
The first gale began before dawn on the 6th, from 8S. S. W.
with snow and rain; corrected barometer 29.982 at 2p.m. Rain
ceased at 2 p. m. on the 7th; wind veered round to W. N. W. and
calmed down. ‘The thermometer did not register below 45 degrees
during the night of the 6th. The second gale began at 3 p. m. on
9th ; the barometer at 30.081, thermometer 23°, and wind N. by E.,
then N. E. to N., N. W., and W. with snow for the 24 hours.
The third gale was on the 25th, W. N. W. ‘The barometer read-
ing 80.067 ; thermometer —7° on 26th ; the wind blew from the N. |
all day: next day it backed to S. W., W., N. with snow and
moderated. poke,

In February the wind averaged 18.14 miles per hour. It was
unusually calm on the evening of the 17th, Wind registered 109.6

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 145

miles in the 24 hours from 8. S. E. The gale came on at night,
and at 8 a. m. of the 18th registered 1273.60 miles for the 24 hours
‘previous ; wind then S. W. and moderated ; the thermometer then
at 44°. The barometer fell from 30.122 to 29.260. 1.110 inch
of rain fell from 8 p.m. to 8 a. m. of the 18th. Another gale
commenced on the 28th at night with wind from N. W., barometer
rising up to 30.031, and lowest reading of thermometer at 10°.

On Ist March at 8 a. m., a fine display of parhelia with colored
arcs of halos with wind S. 8. W., then S. W.,S. E., S. S. W,
N. W., N. N. W., N. E., to S. S. E., when it fell calm at 6 p-m.
on the 2nd. Gale caine on again at night of the 3rd from S. W.
with rain ; changed to N. N. W. at midnight and moderated. The
mean velocity of wind for March was 20.09 miles per hour, the
highest registered was on the 22nd, 922.4 miles in the 24 hours; |
the calmest day was the 18th, 144.80 miles. The second gale
began at 1 a. m. on the 22nd from the S. E. with rain, then
paw., W: 5.°W., W., EH. Wind calmed: at 6p. m. ‘onthe
23rd; only marking 6.20 miles in 14 hours up to 8 a. m. on the
24th. ‘The barometer fell from 30.363 at 9 p. m. on the 20th to
29.157 at 9 p. m. on the 22nd. Between 1 a. m. and noon of the
22nd, 1.39 inch of rain fell.

In April the mean velocity was 18.40 miles per hour. The
highest wind was on the 18th, 1272.80 miles in 24 hours. The:
gale marked 58 miles per hour from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., N. by E.,.
N., N. by W. 3 inches of snow fell, and barometer read at 2
p.m. 29.391. Gale lasted till 6 p.m. on the 19th. The calmest-
day was 108 miles on the 14th with wind N. EK. Another gale
began at night of the 5th from N. E. with snow, it continued all
day of the 6th from N. N. E. toN. N. W.; the barometer marked
28.957 at 8a. m., and the wind gauge rsdiateied 68 miles ei
hour from 8 a. m. to 1 p. m.

In May the wind averaged 17.95 miles per hour. The first
gale was on the 20th when the gauge marked 872.80 miles in 24
hours from W.S. W., the barometer reading on the 20th at 8
a. m. 30.091, and on the 21st at 8 a.m. 29.933. The calmest
day was the 21st, or 99.20 miles in 24 hours with wind S. S. W.
A gale commenced on the 27th with rain and fog from N. W. at

146 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY.

2 a.m. until 5 a. m., with lightning and thunder from 2 to 3a. m.,
then snow from 10 a. m. to 4p. m., with wind from N. N. W.,
and the gauge registered 44 miles per hour from 8a. m. to 2 p.m.,
and 66 miles per hour from 2 till 6 p.m. Half an inch of snow
fell, being the last of the season. |

In June the wind averaged 12.18 miles per hour. The first
gale was on the 5th from the N., and cloudy. On the previous
day the wind was brisk and had veered round with the sun; the
barometer stood at 29.781 at 2p. m. on the 4th, 29.610 on the
5th, and 29.790 on the 6th. The wind travelled 970.80 miles in
the 24 hours. The next gale was on the 1lith and 12th. The
barometer stood 30.045 when the gale commenced, weather fine
with wind S. by E. toS. S. W., and registered 860 miles for 24
hours up to 8 a. m. on the 12th; the barometer then read 29.793,
wind S. S. W. with showers and S. at noon; on the 13th at &
a.m. the barometer had fallen to 29.454 with rain and wind S. 8.
W. and registering 1121.20 miles for the 24 hours; later in the
day the wind veered toS. W. and moderated.

July was the calmest month ; the average being 11.60 miles per
hour. The strongest blow on the 2nd only registermg 594.40
miles in 24 hours, weather fine, wind 8S. S. W., and barometer
reading from 30.097 to 29.846. The calmest day was the 24th,
the register marking 48.60 miles for 24 hours, wind N. N. W.., to
_ N. E., and barometer at 30.163.

In August the wind averaged 16.52 miles per hour. There
were high winds on the 9th and 30th, being 699.20 miles from
S. E., E., and N. E. on the 9th, and 656.00 miles on the 30th
from S. S. W.; but neither of them amounted to a gale.

In September the wind averaged 15.32 miles per hour. The
calmest day was the lst, marking 128.60 miles in 24 hours. The
strongest wind on the 27th, 668.20 miles, did not amount to a gale ;
the barometer fell from 30.035 to 29.572 with rain and wind
from EK. S. E., S., S. W., to W. by N., so that there was not any
equinoctial gale. |

The wind in October averaged 16.42 miles per hour. On the
7th there was a heavy rain from 10 a. m. to 12 a. m. of the 8th,
measuring 1.95 inch, blowing from S. S. W., N. W., N. by E.,

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 147

back to N. by W. The barometer fell from 29.859 to 29.616.
The next gale began at 8 p. m. of the 12th. The wind had been —
S. S. W. all day, backed to S. S. E. at night, and next morning
was W.S. W.; the total revolutions were 1076.60 miles in the
24 hours, and from 8 to 9a. m. the gauge marked 64 miles for
the hour. The barometer fell from 30.136 at 8 a.m. to 29.391
at tl p. m.

November was the most stormy month of the year; the wind
averaged 22.82 miles per hour. The first storm began on the
2nd, and lasted for three days, and was severely felt at St. John,
New Brunswick. The gale blew from W. N. W. with snow, and
the guage marked 797.40 miles at 8 a. m. on the 3rd; wind W.
N. W. to N. W., and marked 756.60 miles at 8 a. m. on the 4th;
wind backed W. by N. to W., and marked 779.20 miles at 8 a.m.
on the 5th. The barometer was at 29.894 on the Ist, and fell to
28.945 at 9 a.m. on the 2nd; stood at 29.325 on the 3rd; 29.424
on the 4th; and 29.414 on the 5th. The second gale began on
the 12th and also lasted three days, commencing from the N. N. W.
and veering to N. N. E. with rain and snow, the barometer mark-
ed 29.329, and gauge registered 1280.80 miles at 8 a. m. on the
13th, when it blew from N. to N. by W., and barometer marked
29.791. At 8 a.m. on the 14th the wind blew from N. by E.,
and so continued all day, the barometer read 30.046 and the gauge
marked 1368 miles. At 8 a.m. on the 15th the wind blew from
N.; the barometer stood at 30.088, and the guage read 680.60
miles for the 24 hours; after which time it moderated with wind
veering to N. N. E. and snowing; so that this gale continued with
a rising barometer. On the 16th the wind only registered 141
miles for 24 hours blowing from E. N. E., and barometer at
29.882. At 5 p.m. of the 17th the gale sprang up again from
_N. by E.; the barometer had fallen to 29.596 at 8 a. m., and on
the 18th at 8 a.m. it rose to 29.900, and the guage marked 980.80
miles with wind from N. N. E. On the 19th at 8 a. m. the
barometer marked 30.170 wind backed to N. W., and gauge
marked 710.80 miles. The next day was calm, marking only
81.20 miles in the 24 hours; barometer 30.187, and wind S. W.
by W. On the 22nd the barometer fell from 29.694 at 8 a. m. to

148 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY.

29.136 at 5 p. m., and 1.55 inch of rain fell in 35 hours, the wind
blowing S. E., S.S. E., S. and S.S. W. The guage marked
34.5 miles per hour from 8 a. m. to 1 p. m., 48 miles from 1 to 2
p- m., 73.74 miles per hour from 2 to 5 p. m., and 69.75 miles
per hour from 5 to 9 p. m., and 16 miles per hour from 9 p. m. to
8 a.m. on 23rd: total for 24 hours 923.20 miles. The next gale
began on the 25th at 10 a. m. The barometer had marked 30.477
on the 24th, and stood at 29.969 at 8 a. m. on the 25th, and fell to
28.856 at 6 p. m., the wind blowing from E. §. E. to E. by 8.
At 1 p. m. the gauge gave 42.5 miles per hour from 10 a. m.
From 1 to 5 p. m. it marked 65 miles; and a total of 1187 miles
for 24 hours. Some rain fell, but there was no: frost: while at
Alta City, Utah, 6 feet of snow fell, and the thermometer marked
—20; and at Ottawa —10. The gale continued on the 26th, the
wind blowing N. by W., N. N. W. From 8 a. m. to 10 a. m. the
wind marked 62 miles per hour; 10 to 11 a. m., 73.6 miles; 11
to 12-a. m., 65 miles; 12 a. m. tol p. m., 61.6 miles; 1-to 2
p. m., 69.4 miles; 2 to 4 p. m., 08.3 miles; 4 to 6 p. m., 50.5
miles ; 6 to 9 p. m., 39.1 miles, when it moderated, and only read
i147 miles; per hour from 9 p.m. to 8 a. m. on the) 27th the
wind veering N., E., S., N. W., N. KE. during the day. The total
miles being 807.60 for the 24 hours.

In December the average velocity was 17.95 miles per hour.
On the 4th the barometer 30.172 with wind S. W. at 8 a. m,
backed to S. S. E. and blew 808.40 miles in 24 hours. On the
5th at 8 a. m. the barometer was 29.231, wind S. E. with rain,’
which measured 1.20 inch from 10 p.m. to 10 a. m. The wind
blew 54 miles from 8 to 9 a. m. from S. From 9a. m. tol p.m.
37.5 miles per hour from 5. W. Barometer fell to 29.187 at 2
p- m. From 1 p.m. to 8 p. m. 28 miles per hour; and a total
of 696 miles for 24 hours. A gale began on the night of the 21st
from W. by S. and the barometer had risen to 29.345 from 28.981
at 5 p. m. of the 24th, and the thermometer marked —1° at 8 a. m.
of the 22nd, and wind gauge registered 812.80 miles for the 24
hours. On the 24th a gale sprang up at 5 a. m. from S. W., and
snow turned to rain; the barometer at 29.646. From 9 a. m. to
12 a. m. it blew 48.20 miles per hour; from 12 a. m. toa 2 p.m,

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 149

39.5 miles per hour, wind W. S. W.; from 2 to 3 p. m. 62.2
miles per hour. The barometer went up to 30.088 at 8 a. m. on
the 25th, and the wind had backed round two whole revolutions
during the night of the 24th. On the 27th the barometer was
29.996 at 8 a. m. and fell to 29.175 at 9 p. m. with wind from
S. E. to S. S. W. with snow and rain 0.58 inch; wind measured
793.40 miles for the 24 hours.

Of the 40 gales during the year, nine began between South and
West, of which five veered, and four backed. Twelve began
between the west and north, of which ten veered, and two backed.
Four began between north and east and all backed. Nine began
between east and south, of which seven veered and two backed.
The greatest velocity measured was on the 22nd November from
2 to 5 p.m., averaging 73.74 miles an hour; or from 2 to 9
p. m., the 7 hours averaged 71.47 miles per hour.

The calmest day in the year was the 24th July, when the gauge
only registered 48.60 miles in 24 hours; and for the days 23, 24,
and 25, they only marked 181 miles, ora rate of 2.5 miles per hour.

During the year the wind made 43 complete revolutions with the
sun, and 23 revolutions against the sun, which were recorded by a
string fastened to the pedestal as well as to the arrow of the vane.
The wind made two turns round with the sun on the 27th May, and
made two revolutions backward on the 24th December through the
night.

The other notes recorded in the year are:

January 24th.—Sleighs passing over ice, Big Glace Bay Lake.

February 12th.—Two Eagles ‘‘ Halialus leucocephalus,” seen.
19th.—Grey gulls and wild ducks.

March 7th.—Four wild geese in the bay. 11th.—Flock of
robins. 17th.—Seals seen on ice about 4 miles off.

April 7th.—Heard first greybird singing.

May l1st.—Flock of curlews. 3rd.—Heard woodpecker. 6th.
—Gathered mayflowers, ‘‘ Epigea repens,” in bloom. 7th.—
Cranes, curlews and yellowlegs. 8th.—Herrings and codfish
caught in the bay. 9tb.~ Frogs croaking. 10th.—Frogs piping.
12th.—Saw bee and snake. 13th.—Kingfishers seen. 18th,—
Gaspereau passing up Big Glace Bay. 19th.—Swallows seen.

150 POOLE—ON NOTES OF TRAVEL,

90th.—Musquito hawk heard. Poplar catkins in bloom. 21st.—
First butterfly, ‘« Camberwell beauty,” seen. 22nd.—Coltsfoot,
violets, strawberries, golden thread, birch catkins bloom. 23rd.—
Dandelions bloom.

June 16th.—Apples and plums in blossom. 25th.—Caterpil-
lars on gooseberries. 29th.—First firefly seen.

July 4th.—Wild strawberries ripe. 16th.—Garden straw-
berries. 19th.—Mackerel caught in herring nets. 23rd.—Gath-
ered peas. 26th.—Mowing hay.

August 3rd.—Dr. How, of Boston, coming from Mabou by
étage, saw a very bright Meteor pass through arc of about 30 degs.,
from 3 to 5 minutes later all the passengers heard a report like a
quarry blast. 4th.—Saw a shark in Glace Bay. 13th.—Curlew
and plover arrived.

September 15th.—Wild geese in the Bay.

October 9th and 10th.—Country full of smoke from Chicago

fire? 29th.—Cock-a-wee, ‘‘ Harelda glacilis,” in Big Glace Bay.

December 4th.—School of black fish (3 killed) came into Glace
Bay. 22nd.—Teams cross ice in Big Glace Bay Lake.

Arr. VIII. Extract rrom H. S. Poone’s LETTER, RESPECT-
ING A JOURNEY TO DEEP CREEK VALLEY ON THE NEva-
DA FRONTIER; 150 mMILES FROM SaLT Lake Crry.

(Read March 11, 1872.)

WE had to take the same horses and buggy all the way through,
as no relays can be got on the way. For the first 50 miles we
skirted along the margin of the Great Lake, which in all the south-
ern parts is exceedingly shallow; then we turned south up the
Skull Valley, and bid good bye to all signs of civilization. We
ascended the Cedar Mountains to the top of a pass 1800 feet above
the desert ; which seemed to lie at our feet, spread out for 100
miles to the north west, and 45 miles in the opposite direction ;
and to the left for 20 miles until short ranges of mountains hid its
continuations southward.

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METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, CALEDONIA MINE, LITTLE GLACE BAY, CAPE BRETON. 60 rr. ABOVE SEA. Lar. 46° 12’ N. Lone. 59° 57 W.
re 5 Boa 1 : Rain. 43 =,
BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. a $ ae 8 8 incites Snow. B set le E Z i g = see 2
= = a a P gE ali 3 = Als urned, rue N.
Ci Coldest. Hottest. oe a moss aS) & oe o/s P| 3 og |Z Fe z
1871. | Comet |e] Highest caveat, | ate Mean |/Mean| °° ee eee bee ee |e Tel ee ale PEeeeEREEE 2B je|Zldle
& 60 ft. | Corrected. corrected. Night |i Day. |(er ; on | 35 | 2 faci 2 4 ee a |el os] & lSlals Eee) e £/e2/2\e Salaaiie|2/2s
82°. above Sea. ee [Oe | Night | Daye | Night | Do BA TSR) = |e | & | 2 1a | 2 léle| 4 letlslesialaie(s Sea |S3 lc le lela
th. i | th. rd. th. | th. | |
January «....-- 99.6561 |29.5778) 80. 688/20/28.916 2322.03 17.5 a 51|| -8 |24 —38 |23) 45 | 7 50 |17||.1383) 87 | 3.515) 734050 Lo. 70! 4,840) 16 |25.00) 13) 27) 4973) 4!...) 1) 3...)...) 2) 2 1 iy al 2 || 11] 12) 3) 3
February . ...| 29.7417 29.6928) 30.314/24/28.771 4/19.15 14. 00/24. 10|-5.5 5) 1 | 5|| 35 /28) 44 | 1)).1089) 81 | 2.766) 609690 18.14) 2.630) 14 | 5.00) 9} 26 912) 3 Q}...| 4) Sie...) 40 4) 4) 4 5 1 7| 138) 5) 8
March ......... 29.8213 |22.7240) 30.363)/20)28. 951/28 129). 72, 24. 0035. 45| 10 | 1) 24 |16) 37 |18) 53 |11)).1573) 84 | 3.998) 747350 20. 09) 6.245) 14 |12.50) 9) 27 260. | 3}...| 4) 6)...1. 5} 9] 3)...]] 4 2110) 7 9) 5
April .........+- 29.7490 29.6436) 30.265 28/28.957)| 6) 32.48 26. 8038. 1711.5} 2) 27 | 1)| 83 |80 53 | 4) 1654) 81 4.203 662720 18. 40, 7.830) 16 |24.00) 12) 29) 175...) 4/2) 1) 7...1...1 7 7 1. 68 1 3] 812) 7
May || 99.7319 |29.5624| 30.849] 5/29. 126] 7/42.71/36.0049.49) 28 | 5 32 [27] 57 |23| 81 [21|.2295| 65 | 5.829 667690 17.95] 2.900) 16 | 1.00) 2 17) 15....1J)...|...| 7 3) 2] 7 6 1) 1) 7] 2 || 11] 13 6 1
June ... | 29.7855 |29.5207 30.045|11 29.454 13/92. 18 44. 2760. 10) 29 2) 41 3} 61 |30) 78 |29) .3248) 72 | 8.252) 438420 12.18) 1.560) 13 | ......]. 4) 3...) d)...).. 11] 3} 1 4 Chace icel|l — 1 9 6) 6) 9
July .| 29.8908 (29.4856) 30.283|30/29.428) 8 60. 50) 55. 00, 66.00) 44 2) 57 | 5|| 62 |29) 81 | 6) .4652) 74 |11.818) 431200 11.60, 5 Boo ..j14) 3) 1 5, 6| 1)..|) 5 2 || 14) 2) 9) 6
August 29.8652 |29.4295| 30 398)/23/29.453) 6/63. 20, ot. 50, 68.91) 44 |27| 59 /28) 64 [3183.5) 4 4957) 78 |12.592) 614970 16.52, -.| 5) 3} 2) 8 38) 2) 1) 1]... 13} 7 74
September..... 29.9255 |29.6190) 30.344] 9)22.456 17\/54. 25} 47. 93.60. 57 38 |13! 52 |14) 66 | 6) 75 | 6.38665) 75 | 9.209) 551680 15.32 .| 4}..| 5] 7 3) 1) 1) 4 2 || 12) 11) 4) 3
October ........ 29.9038 |29, 6757) 30.553 /25/29 .042)20) l46. 90 An 3252. 48| 25 |26) 36 |21)) 57 12) 71 |11)).2881) 78 7.320) 611020 16.42) Bl jer4) USB Red in 5) fe zt 2 | 13) 8 5) 5
November..... 29.6152 |29. 5040, 30.477)24 28. 856/25 32.98 29. 33.36. 63) 10 /30) 18 |30) 45 |22) 53 |22)).1712) 84 4.350) 821600 22.82) ve} Die af) 2yL 1 2 2 3 || 10] 10) 8) 2
December ..... 29.8122 |29.7551) 30.719 2328.981 pO geo ag Beet =1 |22| 9 |30)) 38 | 7 49 )24).1171) 80 | 2.976 667930 ee AF By cao|) UN) BAAN ah 2 5 |) 20] 3 6] 2
; | |
[Perel ena ee | Bee |
Mean.. ........ PAS) AIG) PE) 87) ooo s6ond|| — jlcsan05oe IBS) BE ORY AB) ZIG oneq | leoaood | ||exonod| © |) ono ASE ARA DTD |) CLAVKTO 78% cocccose| Fecood'o cond! o|[o' elfeaaoeel|o sl beclbeolbiod|o ol lote| lool bod bad|lo-cloa}}lsococe|scconallla ea llooe
Dec. Reb. ie ne Jan Jan Rep. Aug |
IDRASCING) Gooce|A00no daood|ossederc 0 30.719)28 28.771) 4 ||.. =8 |24| —8 |23]| 66 |6 188.5) 4||.......|.....--e.. 7558320). ...... 23.530 185) 1090,74 200.2043) 857) 4:10 71/14)15,67,57)15) 8]| 43 | 23 ||133|1008250
| | | fr151166 Miles :
COMPARED WITH THE ABOVE.
1867. ‘Seen I | | |
Mean ...... ...| 29.8524 [29.6704 ... ..(fb)...... Sp |40.06/34,17/45.95|....|lan]... [Der . ng]... [Atg]|.2488)72.87| 6.194] 643584| 17.6/ 4.841 12]... ||. |.. J... dedbalsckaledbaleclodicbelllscealiooo. Uhoc foelealos
Extreme .....|.. aoallo com otee 30. 768)11|/28.676 30)|..... Saale \-10 |31) 1 31) G7 \PAN I) | Dl oawedlo Ged} oe oo .|7722414 98.090 147 | 1250 521722171) 723) 5} 5/25) 9) 6/2616) 3} 0) 386 | 17 |/122)114/54)75
| 0154448 |Miles.! | |
1868. | | | || | i | |
Mean .......... 29.8854 j29.6924 ...... ilar}. .... eb 139.29 38, 64/44.84)).... (Reb)... .|Rebl]... Wily)... ily) .2454)74.30 6.233, 675908) 18.5) 4.97412.5) 945 /65/193 248615 18) 6) 3/2812) 6/3523) 7 2)| 35 5 129 |107|76)54
Extreme ..... Aad eta ee 130.611) 628.809] GI)... ||.... |..... -13 | 4) 4 j99/ 66 | 2] 89] 5).....)....7 . 8110903 59.750 152].....|..|... leben SA aNaBOe cael So eerie alt
| i | | 162218 |Miles | pete | |
1869, | | | | | | | ee | |
INTRA Garnenecas 199.8413 [29.6325 .. ... Deor}...... Reb!40.80 34.43/47.17 oe jam). Janj| ...\Sop}... . |luly,| .2696, 68.10 6.849 612927] 16.8) 9.04111. 7 917 548 1861794 637, 8) 641) 6 73927) 6 3 36 9 |'124|104/81|56
Extreme ......|.. pce acie peo: 59011|28.886! 4||... area ears | =9 j23' 1 |23) 69 | 9) 86 |29) ....)..... 7390130 150. ACO HAD |S na cloolonleonulecleclocds Idoloulodbabels calloosolasec|loa fac le aloo
| | | | 01147102 |Miles.| | feleiclied| |
1870. | | | | | | | |
Mean ..........| 29.8483 |29. 6251 hoo ae 7 Reb 41. 75)185.90/47.50)... lar. .. fReb|)... . uly)... . July)! .2691)74.00| 67.87) 634806 17.4) 5.21913.3) 1020 56)183)1499) 3.4711 861)17)12i192 34:12 4)) 38 7 |\123) 99)85)58
IBXtre me gees] ete Oo u pou: 560 PRED! ls ce alllese cullecae —2.513 6 | 4) 69 9,89. 5/24)! apn.odpopoa||oooan (7617670 |\62).625)160).....!..).. Salle ol{o aijfo alle {lero 62 non nv [aes le liege
| | | 01152353 Miles. | | }
CLIMATE OF ALBION MINES, NOVA SCOTIA Laz. 45° 34’ 30’’ Nour. Lone. 62° 42’ Wesr. 120 reer Above Spa.
10 years. | | ih
WIG an caer DOMGUAO tamer mara) mi weaver e iluesaamtec 41,971183.11)50.91)).... Seno eel | oeevaden Ihe etoiontl abice wy ohilies courepateces| arate rere pies A Breeeol loco =p bllatl loan-ol feroeec (e5| Poo] head) Heel peel bea keel Biol bee Rosborllloco-dl tag ‘ollloocll « ollaalje.b
xthembpsaecesa| rear esiels| ances 30.757 28.505 | 00 SiG 6 || pode 2 98 44,967) 173 | 1115 |63)187|247019)...|...]...]...)19}...)...]... Keelbacl|lo.co al] oor | 112)126/66/61
RAIN-FALL COMPARED.
Feb’y. | March. | April May. June. July. | August. Septr. Octr. Noyr Deer. | Toran
5.395 5.965 5.085 5.370 2.010 | 3.080 2.560 | 11.265 2.920 4.780 5.745 || 58.090
5.545 3.945 5.320 3.145 6.057 2.122 3.428 6.956 7.745 5.700 5.120 || 59.750
5,820 6.005 4 420 7.400 3.300 6.400 2.728 2.870 7.220 5.065 5.655 || 60.490
7.605 3.980 3.870 1.705 2.475 2.120 3.310 6.575 6.195 9.065 9.175 || 62.625
2.630 6 245 7.830 2.900 1.560 4 205 4.595 4,820 4,325 4,150 5.4385 || 53.585 :
5.399 5.228 5305 | 4.104 | 3.080 | 3.585 3.324 6.497 5.681 5.752 6.226 || 58.898
5 11 7 8 1 4 2 12 8 6 Q |
8 4 7 2 10 1 3 11 12 9 6 i)
8 9 5 12 3 10 1 2 11 6 Cla
10 6 5 1 3 2 4 9 7 11 - 12
D 11 12 3 1 5 7 8 6 4 10 |
8 6 7 4 1 3 2 12 9 10 iu ||
o_O HENRY POOLE,

Caledonia Mine, Cape Breton.

POOLE—ON NOTES OF TRAVEL. 151

The third day brought us shortly after dark to Granite Moun-
tain, some 2000 feet high, standing alone in the desert; here we
expected to find water, and so we would if we had not chosen the
wrong spring, and therefore had to eat a dry supper, and wait until
morning to seek another spring four miles distant, before we could
water the horses. A few dried up limbs of stunted cedar warmed
us before we rolled ourselves in blankets, and bid defiance to Jack
Frost.

The fourth day brought us to Deep Creek, and within gun-shot
of Nevada. Bidding adieu to the shelter of the mountain, we first
erossed a sandy tract, enclosed by a long mound of sand some 20
feet high, that encircled more or less completely the old Island
Mountain, as a barrier to the waves of the ancient shallow sea;
then we entered on the desert in the strictest sense of the term, and
crossed a bay of it, some twenty miles wide, level as a table, with-
out a mound, or wind-blown elevation, destitute of vegetation, even
to the absence of the sage-bush and grease-wood, without the track
of a badger or coyote. A slight fall of snow two days previous
had moistened the upper layers of salt mud, usually baked hard and
dry, which made hard travelling; the horses balling more than I
ever saw them do in snow, and the narrow tyres of the wheels were
made four inches wide.

While traversing this deserted though highly interesting region,
the mirage showed many unaccustomed pictures. We appeared to
be crossing a small island whose margins seemingly at no great
distance continually eluded our approach: the isolated ranges look-
ed like islands set in a sea of glass, upon whose surface every
feature, bold, bare, and rugged, was faithfully pourtrayed.

Well on in the afternoon we reached some springs quite at the
foot of the ancient beach, up which, after a short rest, we wound
our way for five miles, gaining an altitude of 1100 feet above the
desert. The beach showed many signs of periods of rest during the _
subsidence of the lake. Great beds of white limestone intercalated
with the gravel were cut through by the scour of the declining
waters.

I found the mines easy of access, at an altitude of about 7000
feet, and my report being considered satisfactory, the property has

152 GILPIN—ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BEAVER DAM.

been bonded for $45,000. Some of the ledges were in granite, and
carried galena containing $210 of silver to the 2000 pounds. One
location I visited, not bonded, had two shafts sunk 25 feet deep,
100 feet apart, both showing solid carbonate ores valued at $56 per
ton. The width of the deposit has not yet been proved, or the
length either. Returning we came by the old overland route, now ~
deserted, and got safely through the sloughs where, in olden times,
so much mail matter was used as ballast; we passed high crags of
black limestone; passing the ‘‘ divides” of the Dugway and Point
of the mountain into Rush Valley. We were,four days also in
returning: the last day doing 65 miles from 7 a. m. to 2 a. m.
We camped out also once on returning near the Dugway, and had
rather a cold night, for one inch of ice formed in the puddles from
the melted snow accumulated the day before. Other nights we
slept on the floor of cabins, or small shanties.

Art. LX. On rHEe CONSTRUCTION OF A BEAVER Dam In DiGBY
County, Nova Scorra, Sepr., 1871. By J. BERNARD
Gitpin, A. _B.,°M: D?, M:-R.74G2 ss:

(Read March 11, 1872.)

On the 14th September, 1871, we left the town of Digby, and
skirting along the southern ridge of those low Silurian hills which
under the name of South Mountain, Horton Mountain, and Ardoise
Hills, run north-east and south-west almost the entire length of
Nova Scotia, we came after descending their southern slope to the
lake basins forming the upper waters of the Sissiboo River, falling
into St. Mary’s Bay.

We passed Grand Lake, having now abandoned our horses for
canoes, and were floated gently over lakes, lakelets, rapids, and
still waters, till on the 18th we camped at South-west Falls, about
thirty miles south of Digby. Here the granite, that we had on our
left almost from Digby, occurring in dykes of porphyry, with large
crystals of white felspar, pervaded the whole scene. The lakes
were studded with granitic boulders, their milky-white shores were
granite sand, the rapids foamed through boulders, and we toiled

GILPIN—ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BEAVER DAM. 153

over rocky portages of the same. It had lost its porphyritic
character, resembling the Shelburne granite of the sea coast, except
here and there an erratic of the red or Egyptian variety—which lay
fastly disintegrating and poised on the summits of the white.

That the country still rose south of us for ten miles, and was
still granitic; and that on either hand we were bounded about
twelve miles to the right by the Silurian slates through which
the Sissiboo pours the most beautiful fall in Nova Scotia; and
about the same distance to the left by the Bear River hills, also
Silurianis ;—all we can vouch for, leaving it for the future Geologi-
cal Report to confirm if the granite is continuous with that on the
sea coast, or if it disappears beneath the slates of Fairy Lake and
the great Rossignol.

Soon after leaving camp on the 19th, James Meuse, our Indian
hunter, pointed out to us a beaver dam. The stream flowing
gently out of a long still water was narrowed to about twelve yards
by granite boulders on either side, one or two of which projected
out of the middle. Here was the spot they had chosen, their object
being to raise the water of the still water about eighteen inches.
They had first dammed the stream to a rock about ten feet from the
shore, then thrown the dam to a second rock lying up stream, and
from thence carried it to the opposite side. It resembled a brush
water fence, the water falling about eighteen inches, and pouring
over and through white bleached sticks and twigs of trees lying in
the water, with their butts up stream, otherwise laced and interlac-
ed in endless confusion. It was of a horse-shoe form, its convex
side lying up stream.

From observations as far as the height of the stream would
allow, and from the remarks of James Meuse, a very intelligent
Indian, I could only conclude that the beavers formed their dams by
first choosing a narrow part of the stream studded by rocks, and
then felling down trees up stream, which they floated down with
their butts up stream until they grounded in the narrows. Thus
soon a number of trees would be lying parallel, butts up stream,
and branches down, and interlaced in endless confusion. The
beaver then gnawed the butts off, and floated them athwart or cross-
ways the branches. In this he is assisted by the rocks in the bed

154 GILPIN—ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BEAVER DAM.

of the stream. An obstruction now being made to the water he
fills in the interstices with mud, with stones, and especially dried
grasses, which abounded on the margins of the stream, hay, as every
practical man knows, being a capital substance for stopping a water
breach. This structure was evidently of a late formation, and
small in comparison with those we read of in the north-west terri-
tories. It probably held a community of ten or twelve.

It is idle to describe the sylvan beauty of this scene: the sweet
music of the water trilling through its milk-white and endlessly
interwoven barriers,—the deep green of the waving grasses,—
above dam, the still water losing itself in a reach, or in the reflections
of the dark overhanging pines,—the perfect water carpet of lily pads,
and the solitude steeping this scene dedicated to instinct labor. Our
canoe was floating above dam, its graceful bow held lightly in the
interlacing twigs, and a few sweeps of the paddle carried us across
the still water, some five hundred yards to where the owners of those
mill privileges had built their homes. Standing in and out the.
water, there literally carpeted by lily pads, and embayed by the
thick water grasses, and cranberry bushes, were two domes. A
twist of the paddle and we grounded on its white and withered
thatch, the beavers escaping under the water.

On the sloping side, down stream, of a granite boulder, lay a
confused heap of white and peeled sticks crossed and re-crossed in ~
every direction, forming an irregular thatch. A little clay and
moss showed here and there between the interstices. ‘The whole
mass made a very flat irregular dome resting on the side of the
rock, with two horns as it were running into the water and conceal-
ing the water galleries, by which the beaver had access to the in-
terior. The long diameter was about twelve feet, the short six
feet, and the height above water about three feet. The entire mass
resembled a cart load of white peeled sticks thrown down against
arock. The same instinct that had taught them to make the dam,
convex side up stream, had here as I said before, taught them to
place the dome against the down-stream side of the rock. In both
cases to preserve them from the pressure of ice.

We had the grace to spare an inhabited house, but meeting a
deserted one, which wonderfully resembled an old barn with its

GILPIN—-ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BEAVER DAM. 155

thatch broken, and rafters bleaching in the rain, we cut with our
hands and axes through the top. It was composed of a layer of
sticks, clay, moss and grasses, very firm and about two feet in
thickness. Peeping in we saw a shelf running round the interior
which sloped to a central hole at, perhaps, an angle of thirteen, and
through this hole we got glimpses of the water, and the arch of the
submarine water galleries by which the beaver passed out and in,
Here all was desolation and ruin, but in an inhabited house, the

sides of the interior are gnawed neatly into line by cutting away

the projecting sticks, and lined with grasses and moss. ‘The shelf
sloping gently almost to the water’s edge, touched by ruin though
it was, seemed well fitted for the inmates to rest their head and
fore parts upon, whilst their hind paws and tail rest in the water,
a favorite position of the beaver. The higher and more interior
nart of the shelf with its warm lining of grasses made a snug bed.
Though we saw none, yet there must be air passages on the land
side above the water line (and therefore not used for galleries) to
afford air. So real was the air of labor and design wreathed around
their dilapidated pile of bleached sticks and mouldy clay, that the
speculations one has, half sad, of the old inmates ofa deserted house
as we wander past the fireless hearthstone, seized us as we floated
off. <‘*Got ten dollars out of that house year before last,

93

said
James Meuse, bending to the water’s edge, 2s he toiled in shoving
our canoe all but high and dry stranded on a carpet of lily pads.
Sometimes these domes are seen covered only with clay, and hard
frozen, the beavers seemingly caught hy the early frosts before
finishing their homes with their rough thatch.

Hearne, a most accurate writer, describes these structures as

g
eight feet in thickness, and a large dome constructed of many small
ones, or wings set off from the central one, some of which having
internal communication. No doubt he is correct, and the high
northern latitudes and greater abundance of the beaver, makes the
difference between the lowly structures I have endeavoured exactly
to describe as seen by myself. Seeing ahundred years have passed
since Hearne faithfully wrote, there can be no excuse for modern
works, aided by the most beautiful etchings, misleading their read-

ers, as they habitually do, even down to our own times.

156 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

Art. X. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PaTHOLOGY OF THE
Human TretH. By A. C. Coasweni, D. D. S.

(Read April 8, 1872.)

TEETH are the prime organs of mastication, so essential for the
proper trituration of food both in man as well as animals. In man
they have a secondary relation subservient to beauty and speech,
while with animals we find them used and adapted for seizing, tear-
ing, dividing, pounding or grinding the food, as well as formidable
weapons of offence and defence, aids in locomotion, means of
anchorage, instruments for uprooting or cutting down trees, as well
as carrying materials for building. Teeth are always intimately
related to the food and habits of the animal, and consequently
highly interesting to the physzologzst, important to the naturalist in
the classification of animals, and as zoological characters, are
enhanced, by the durability of their tissues, being often the only
remains discoverable in the deposits of former periods of the earth’s |
history.’ Our purpose is not to go into a strict classification of
these organs, but merely to name some facts in relation to the
peculiar formation, modes of attachment, and singular growth and
appearance in many animals, comparing their density and indestruc-
tibility to those of man.

In the Dental system ofthe fishes we find their number, form,
structure, substance, situation, or modes of attachment, present a
greater and more striking series of varieties than of any other class
of animals. The lancelet, sturgeon, and paddle fish are edentulous,
until the number vary and are multiplied in many fish, progressive-
ly, finding the mouths of many crowded with countless teeth. The
moveability of the teeth of some fish is peculiar, as in the shark, and
the singular fish called the angler—their base being tied by liga-
ments to the jaw, but they have no power of erecting or depressing
the teeth at will. In the wolffish, ‘*‘ Anarrhicas lupus,” the power-
ful crushing teeth, made blunt by use, with the roof of the mouth
almost covered, presents a subject of interest to the anatomist.
The muscles of these fish have enormous power, from the constant
exercise in crushing lobsters, whelks and other shell fish on which
they live.

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 157

The system of shedding and renewing is peculiar to the fish, also
in the Gangetic Crocodile called ‘‘ Garrhiel,” if at any time one of
the teeth be removed, it will be found hollow at its base, and partly
absorbed, presenting the appearance of a child’s deciduous tooth,
when partly absorbed, and at the base of this, a new germ of the
successive tooth. The rodents also present this wonderful develop-
ment of tooth structure, where the canine teeth are wanting. The
incisors two in number in each jaw are always growing, never
ceasing, while the animal lives, requiring constant exercise and
abrasion to maintain the normal form, and serviceable proportions,
as with the rat and rabbit.

If in either of these an upper incisor is lost, or distorted union
of a broken jaw, rendering articulation imperfect, the incisors con-
tinue to grow, until they project like the tusks of an elephant, and
following their curve the points sometimes return to their head,
penetrate the skull, and cause death. I saw the skull of a beaver
in the Philadelphia Dental College Museum, the tooth of which
presented the above appearance, having grown out of all propor-
tion, causing no doubt the death of the animal.

Higher in the scale we find in the genus Elephas the larger and
complex molars, never more than one or two partially in place and
use on each side, at any given time, for this progress of formation
and destruction, of shedding and replacement is constantly going
on, the molars or grinders succeeding one another from behind
forward.

Another peculiar and complex condition of the dental system is
presented by the potsonous serpents, in which teeth are associated
with the tube or duct of a poison-bag and gland.

These teeth are called potson-fangs; they are confined to the
upper maxillary, only one (if morein number) contain the poison
fang, the tooth presents a curved appearance, on its sides are
grooves connecting with the poison-bag, and on the animal seizing
its prey the poison is forced into the wound along the groove in the
tooth, causing death as soon as the poison is diffused through the
system by absorption.

- Beside means of offence and defence in some animals the long
_ fusks serve as weapons of attack, and as instruments in aid of

158 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH...

climbing the floes and hummocks of ice, like the walrus, while the
beaver use their teeth also for the purpose of cutting down trees
and carrying them in their teeth to build their dams. _ (Beautifully
illustrated by Dr. Gilpin at the last Institute meeting.) The teeth
of carnivora and granivora, or such animals as live on flesh, and
those who subsist on grain or a mixed diet, the organs of mastica-
tion assist to make the distinction, not only in their number but in
their density and mode of articulation, having special forms for
special uses.

The names also indicate their use as in man: the front teeth
from being commonly adapted to effect the first coarse division of
the food, have been called cutters or incisors,—the back teeth which
complete its comminution, grinders or molars, and the large conical
teeth situated behind the incisors, nearer the masseter muscle are
called the canine, or holders, tearers, or laniaries, such as we find -
in the dog and that class of animals; while the two between the
laniaries and the first molars are the bicuspids or double cuspids.
In the use of the teeth we find a difference between the granivorous —
and carnivorous animals: while with flesh eating animals or carni-
vorous there is only an up and down motion of the jaw, with well
developed cuspid teeth, while with granivorous animals a lateral
motion, and a deficiency of the cuspid teeth (in many cases) as in
the horse, sheep, cow, &c.

In man the jaws are short and the crowns of the teeth are of
equal length; no vacant spaces in the dental series of either jaw,
and the teeth derive their additional fixity by their close and
mutual pressure ; and from these facts, and others, finding also the
density of the teeth harder than all others, present in this aspect
the highest order of human organization. The structure of the
teeth vary from the lowest class to the highest, taking the fish (as
the sperm whale) they have no true enamel, while the elephant,
walrus, narwhal, consists of modified dentive called wory. Inthe
hippopotamus it is said the substance is hard enough to strike fire.
This is not an uncommon occurrence in excavating the human
tooth, as I have often seen the steel instrument coming suddenly in
contact with the enamel, cause.a spark of fire to fly off like steel.
and flint coming in contact. Comparative analysis of the enamel of

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 159

the teeth of the pike, ox, and lion with those of man give a large
percentage in favor of the latter, the phosphate of lime being
greatly in advance of the other.

Man. Lion. PIKE. Ox.

Dentine—66.72 60.03 Bh tea 59.57
Hnamel—89.82 83.33 63.98 81.86

In man we find a difference in favor 5% of the phosphate of lime
or enamel over the lion, while many teeth are composed only of
dentine and cement, like the great sperm whale, the cement taking the
place of enamel. The human tooth at first sight appears to be
composed only of dentine and enamel, but their crowns from the
gums are covered with enamel, while the roots are covered with a
“cement or crusta petrosa. The internal structure of the teeth are
nourished and supplied (of man) from the principal nerves run-
ning through the central portion of the teeth, thus we have a
longitudinal section of a cuspid tooth with various medifications,
tooth structure, nerve and its filaments. The three different
substances so readily seen in the chart are these three disposed
according to the purpeses required of thein.

First, we have the cementum or crusta petrosa ; second, the den-
tine, (known as ivory in the tusk of the elephant), and third, enamel.

The first, cementum or crusta petrosa, corresponds in most
especial particulars with bone, possessing its characteristic Jacune
or small cavities, and being traversed by small medullary canals ;
this is the first covering of the young teeth, and covers the fang of
the tooth which enters the alveolar process of the jaw.

The dentine or ivory consists of a firmer substance, in which
znorganice or mineral matter predominates Jess than the enamel.
This is traversed by a vast number of very fine tubuli, (as seen on
the chart,) which commence at the pulp cavity and radiate toward
the surface.

The size of these are immeasurably small, so much so that they
cannot receive blood, but no doubt like canaliculi of bone, imbibe
fluid from the pulp cavity, thus aiding in the nutrition of the
tooth. These tubuli when deprived of enamel covering become
highly sensitive, and are the small telegraph wires, giving warn-

5

160 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

ing of approaching danger to the pulp and nerve, which is the life
of the tooth. |

The third portion is the enamel composed of solid prisms of
fibres about 15600ths of an inch in diameter, arranged side by side,
closely adherent to each other; their length corresponds with the
thickness of the layer which they form; these two surfaces present
the ends of the prism usually more or less hexagonal, and in
its perfect state contains an extremely minute quantity of animal
matter.

The pulp cavity is in the centre of the tooth; this contains the
nerves and blood vessels, branching off from the chamber of the
tooth, supplying each root or fang, and thus connecting through
the apex or apicial foramen, (almost as fine as the point of a fine
cambric needle, ) with the facial nerve receive their supply, which give
the teeth life and sensation, and enables these organs when wound-
ed or diseased often times to take on a healthy action, and forming
on which is frequently found secondary dentine, properly called osteo
dentine, or a new growth of tooth structure, as may sometimes be
found on the grinding surface of the superior or inferior central
incisors, where the articulation is such as to have caused the direct
contact of both upper and under, on the cutting edges, and by rapid
wearing away of the dentine, after the loss of the enamel, en-
dangering encroachment upon the pulp and nerve; and-for the
protection of this a wise provision, if sufficient time be given, is the
formation of this secondary dentine.

This growth of osteo-dentine is well illustrated by Professor
Owen in speaking of the skull and teeth of the elephant, as follows :

‘¢ The musket-balls and other substances or foreign bodies which
are occasionally found in ivory, are immediately surrounded by osteo-
dentine in greater or less quantity. It has been a matter of wonder
often how such bodies should become completely imbedded in the
substance of the tusk, sometimes without any visible aperture, or
how leaden bullets may have become lodged in the solid centre of a
very large tusk without having been flattened. ‘The explanation is
as follows: A musket ball, aimed at the head of an elephant, may
penetrate the thin bony socket and the thinner ivory parities of the
wide conical pulp-cavity, occupying the inserted base of the tusk ;

i or
cet

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 161

if the projectile force be there spent, the ball will gravitate to the
opposite and lower side of the pulp cavity.

-¢ The presence of the foreign body exciting inflammation of the
pulp, an irregular course of calcification ensues, which results in
the deposition around the ball of a certain thickness of osteo-
dentine. The pulp then resuming its healthy state and functions,
coats the surface of the osteo-dentine inclosing the ball, together
with the rest of the conical cavity into which the mass projects, with
layers of normal ivory.

‘‘ The portions of the cement-forming capsule surrounding the
base of the tusk, and the part of the pulp which were perforated by
the ball in its passage, are soon replaced by the active reparative
power of these highly vascular bodies.

‘¢ The hole formed by the ball in the base of the tusk is then more
or less completely filled up by a thick coat of cement from without
and of osteo-dentine from within.

«¢ By the continued progress of growth, the ball so inclosed is:
carried forward, in the course indicated toward the middle of the:
tooth. Should the ball have penetrated the base of the tusk ofa
young elephant, it may be carried forward by the uninterrupted
srowth and wear of the tusk, until that base has become the apex,
and be finally exposed and discharged by the continual abrasion to
which the apex of the tooth is subjected.”

To illustrate this more fully if a molar tooth with a superficial
cavity, highly sensitive from inflamed tubuli, be carefully filled with
a suitable material, preferring that least acted upon by thermal
change, and allow the same to remain three months at least, it will
be found on removal that the sensibility and pain no longer exists,
and in excavating and carefully examining a firm hard layer of new
dentine will be found covering and protecting what was almost too
sensitive and painful to bear, this may be considered as renewing of
tooth structure, and a supply of waste material as well as protec-
tion against unnatural abrasion. —

In the composition of the teeth, we have organic and inor-
ganic or earthy matter, the density varying chiefly as the earthy
matter contained in each.

162 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

Chemical analyses give the following as one result taking the
incisors of man. In one hundred parts—

CEMENTUM. DENTINE. ENAMBE.

Organic Matter— 29.27 28.70 3.59
Earthy Matter— 70.73 71.30 96.41

eed eee ——SSa

100.00 100.00 100.00

These differ, however, as to the result occasionally, according
to the organic constituents, and as the teeth have been divided into
six degrees of density in man, this difference is owing wholly to the
presence of earthy matter. Thus in children who have been sick-
ly and delicate, fed on improper unwholesome diet, a deficiency of
the bone forming material given in the food, and in those who also
inherit weak animal constitutions, from either or both parents,
may be found teeth of the poorest organization, chemically deficient
of the average earthly matter, the enamel varying little above den-
tine, enamel roots imperfectly formed, and a chalky calcareous |
appearance readily acted upon by the vitiated salva of the mouth
and chemical acids; these vehicles dissolve and destroy the organic
material, leaving only the gelatinous portions of the teeth to gra-
dually waste away: whereas, if the enamel was perfectly formed, it
would resist these chemical changes, and subserve the purpose of
the Creator for all the wants of our physical organization.

In comparing in ordinary bone the earthy matter, inorganic, ot
phosphate of hme so familiarly known as bone earth, we find
it constitutes only 54 parts of the 100, while in the enamel of the
human teeth, it is nearly 90 in the 100 parts, the enamel being
almost a mineral ‘in substance, ‘having only 33% parts of animal mat-
ter in the 100.

If for experiment we collect the several classes of human teeth
from that of the lowest per centage of inorganic material, calling
that No. 6, and ranging up to No. 1 the most perfect and dense
enamel 96 per cent of lime, place these in sulphuric acid and
water, equal parts, the result will prove after 24 hours which class
of teeth will resist the acid the longest, and in proportion to the
density of the enamel, so the dissolving of lime salts, leaving as the
result, the entire loss of the enamel, forming a white sediment,

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 163

while only the skeleton or organic remains of the teeth are left.
No. 6 of the lowest structure is deprived of its enamel; Ist, owing
to its deficiency, proving that the loss of these organs vary from two
reasons, viz: from the action of the chemical agents upon low form-
ed teeth. 2nd, the deficiency of earthy constituents in the early for-
mation of these organs. While the teeth of animals are made to
subserve their purpose during life, by the peculiar process of shedding
and replacement, well may we ask why it is that those of the high-
est class of organization in man should be so early lost; that
premature decay causes so many edentulous males and females
before the age of 20, and often as early as 12 and 18, the period of
full bloom and vigor, when all the physical powers require to be in
the fullest enjoyment of health, and activity? But it is a fact that
among the people of British North America, and especially in the
United States, where scrofulous diseases are transmissable, the
offspring of such parents invariably suffer from their injurious influ-
ences, and if this taint passes through the blood it is not to be
wondered that thousands fill up the bills of mortality of that fatal dis-
ease, ‘‘ scrofulous consumption ;” and if while those who live are only
improperly fed, have little outdoor exercise, excessive excitement,
irregular rest, and are at best almost walking skeletons, what can
be expected otherwise than an imperfect organization of every part
of the human body; while not only among the higher classes and
wealthier, but among the lowliest, many partake of the dele-
terious domestic compounds and luxuries, which contain at best
slight nourishment, which, if suitable for invalids, are entirely
unfit for those who are already possessed of weak and delicate con-
stitutions. Under these circumstances what can we expect, with
our hothouse, modern-improved mode of living, breathing the in-
door carbonized and sulphuretted atmosphere, in place of the
oxygenated atmosphere, the one only gift God has given to stimu-
late and purify our blood? It is not at all strange then that the
constant abuse and violation of nature’s laws should so rapidly fix
upon us ‘all the ills that flesh is heir to.” Therefore the loss of
the human teeth, like the worn out videttes of a beaten army, give
early tokens of functional or organic disease. It is the immutable
principle of nature to proceed in every step of her operations by

164 COGSWELL—-ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

degrees ; and finding causes for defects, let us endeavour to remedy
if possible these deficiencies. How true are the words of
Shakespeare :-—
“Tf all design begun on earth below

Fail in the promised largeness, checks and disorders,

Grow in our veins of action higher reared,

As knots—by the conflux of meeting sap—

Infect the sound pine and divert his grain,

Tortive and errant, from his course of growth.”

Is there a possibility of assisting in any way to overcome this
deficiency in the physical organization? If so is it not the duty
of every parent and guardian to look at natural causes and effe:‘s?
if the soil is not supplied with proper fertilizers it cannoé yield
its full return. So with the animal economy: it avails itself of
the nutrition required by the peculiar vital principle, acting wii in
and upon each constitution. It appropriates no. more and no less
than the vital principle stimulating the organs will permit, and, if
an insufficiency of bone forming material be not taken into the
system by the food, imperfect developement must be and is the
result in the human organization.

We will also find that so long as the constitutions of men diifer
from each other, so will there be the same great variety in the
physical character and pathological condition of the dentive organs.
The blood which is the fluid source from which the teeth, bones,
tendons, muscles, nerves, life, hair, membranes, in fact the
whole organized body are metamorphosed, so wonderfully adapted
for each that the mind fails to comprehend how these arrangements
are performed. Still we recognize the fact that blood is the life of
man, pure or impure.

It has been a subject of some discussion for some time, whether
the administering of phosphates in various forms as extracts, acts
in the same way upon the physical organization as food containing
the same.

We all will admit, however, it is far preferable to take food as
medicine when made palatable than in some of the compounds often
administered, either homeopathic or allopathic. While many may
be palatable, still the fact of one being food and the other medicine,
acts at least upon the ¢magination if not upon the body. The in-

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 165

sufficiency of bone forming material to children is the cause, no
doubt, why in so many cases we find such imperfect development of
the teeth, as well as the bones, of the youth in these days compared
to giants in their days, and whose teeth, ’tis said, never were
diseased, and the enamel of which, as I shall shortly give several
instances recorded, had remained centuries in a perfect state.

The substances most essential as bone producing in the young,
we shall quote from Carpenter’s Physiology :—

‘¢The phos. of lime is contained more or less abundantly, in
most articles generally used as food, and where they are deficient or
removed by any means, the animal suffers in consequence, if not
cupplied in any other way ; contained largely in the seeds of many
plants especially the grasses, also in flour, oatmeal, corn, &c. Now
if this bone earth, so often called, be removed by sieving, as is the
case in wheat flour and many other cereal grains, what is to supply
the system in place of it? ‘This property 2wst be in the blood to
feed the growing parts, or else a sure deficiency of the enamel.
The fact that insufficient coarse unbolted cereals are now consumed, —
that the outside of wheat, oats and other grains ground and used as
food has been thrown away is, no doubt, one reason why the pre-
sent generation have so imperfectly formed teeth.”

Professor Johnson’s practical observations on the above gives in
1000 Ibs of whoie grain, 170 lbs bone and salt.

Kime dtiour;..60, <= -*< a
Bran (QUE ese 2s ES

Here is a difference between fine flour, ordinarily used for
domestic purposes of 530 lbs more in 1000 Ibs of bone material,
also shewing the whole grain is one half more. A Mr. Betz says,
the weight of the bran or outer coating would, in the common
superfine flour, constitute the offal to be about 54 lbs to the barrel
of flour, while the ordinary weight of offal is from 65 to 70 lbs to
each barrel of flour. Now if we estimate the earthy constituents
to be 3 of the offal of bran we must consider there is an actual loss
at least, in every barre! of fine flour used, of 40 lbs. Now to
estimate a child’s consuming say a half barrel, annually, of flour,
we find it has been deprived of 20 Ibs. of the earthy substance re-
quired to form the bones and teeth.

166 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

What better proof of the value and perfect formation of the bone
and teeth do we require than among Scotchmen. A fact worth
remembering to those on this continent, is, that the Scotch oatmeal
contains the bran, while the oatmeal used in England is deprived
of it, and as for the Americans what little they do use requires to be
well sifted, well buttered, and then taken in homeopathic doses.
The Scotchman thought it better to bless the Duke of Argyle than
to resort to professional skill to remedy defects.

The indestructibility of the enamel of human teeth (compared
with all others) if properly formed, except by the action of disease
during life, or from the force of fire when the body has been burned,
may be substantiated from the following: Dr. William Buckland
the great geologist, speaks of the teeth found in the cave at Kirk-
dale, Yorkshire, in 1821, among which were those of the elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, tiger, hyena, and sixteen other
mammalia, the enamel of the teeth of these lower animals, were
almost always in bad condition, while the human teeth found were
the reverse. Dr. Buckland believes that if ever an antediluvian
man were discovered, the fact of his being man would be ascertained
by his teeth. Archdeacon Tache in a communication to the London
Times quotes a passage from a friend and brother clergyman in
Wiltshire as follows -—

‘¢ T have in my collection a part of a jaw bone, and two teeth in
situ, which belonged to one of the soldiers of the Tenth Legion,
and a tooth that once did good service among the molars of our
good King Alfred’s stalwart warriors, in that time when he finally
routed the Danes between 849 and 900, some 900 years ago at
least.” The soldier was not one who believed in carefully pre-
serving these organs, like an Irish woman who after having had a
molar removed and on being anxious to take it with her, was asked
by the dentist why she was so careful in preserving it? answered,
‘¢ Sure, sir, do you think I want to be huntimg round resurrection
day for my teeth.”

The teeth of mummies generally have been found in a perfect
state. Mr. Pettigrew, librarian to His Royal Highness the Duke of
Sussex, and a celebrated surgeon, famous for the great number of
Egyptian mummies he had unrolled, admired the perfect preserva-

.

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 167

tion of the enamel, and found the teeth invariably in an excellent
condition, the discoloration from the vehicles used in embalming,
generally disappears on exposure to the air. Shelden McKenzie,
D. C. L. of Philadelphia, in a paper read before the Philadelphia
Odontographical Society, relates the following among his travels :
‘‘ Near the harbour of Holyhead (in Wales) and within view of
the Stack lighthouse, is an overhanging cliff called Capal-na-Carrig,
which in the Celtic language means the Chapel on the Rock.
Tradition reports that a Druidical temple once stood on or near
this precipice. It is very much exposed to the weather, and
portions of the soil fall into the sea frequently; after a storm
visiting Holyhead in 1837 I found on the summit of this cliff
an immense number of human bones, protruding through the sandy
soil, and at almost every step, with my walking stick, exposed a
skull or some large bones. The bodies lay north and south, and
not east and west, according to the christian practice of placing
them. From what could be ascertained, at some very remote
period there had been a battle on the island, and the dead had
been buried where I found the bones. From these I collected
several hundred human teeth in a perfect state of preservation.”

The disinterment of the remains of William Rufus, who was
shot by Walter Tyrrel, is another instance of the indestructibility of
the enamel of the human teeth—from his coffin were taken nine
teeth, perfect, having been entombed 768 years.

We will glance briefly at some of the principal causes of the
loss of the human teeth, both in those imperfectly formed, as well
as those of perfect structure.

Among the causes of premature loss of the human teeth, next to
the chemical action of the vitiated condition of the saliva, is the
presence of a foreign body attacking generally the six under front
teeth, and the superior molars on each side. This deposit is salz-
vary calculus or tartar ; ; a low form of animalcule form gradu-
ally, and after years of accumulation, force the gums away from
these teeth, produce inflammation, suppuration, and ultimate loose-
ness, and entire displacement and loss.

Thorough cleanliness and the free use of coarse food and meats,
acting on and around the necks of the organs, would prevent this

168 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

accumulation. No better example need be given than in examining
the mouth of any one who from diseased organs on one side of the
mouth, use only the opposite, allowing the teeth not used to become
frequently entirely encrusted and covered with this substance.
Among the vegetarians of Japan it is said this disease is very
marked, as the food they chiefly subsist on is rice, beans, sweet
potatoes; but since foreigners have resided there the natives eat
meat. In the streets of the capital, there are numerous stands
kept by the wayside merchants, who supply the passers by
with this new foreign notion called beef-stew. Dr. Elliott, who
resides there, states that it is rare to find an elderly person with
teeth, and as for the daughters of Japan the practice and
horrible custom of blacking the teeth, after marriage, destroys
their beauty.

In the study of the pathological condition of the teeth, we are
also to discover if possible, wherein the harmony of demand and
supply has been interfered with, causing a premature loss of these
organs. Ina healthy and normal condition of the human system, |
we find if proper food be taken into the system, the teeth will not
only be perfectly formed, but healthily preserved, provided ordinary
care and cleanliness be exercised.

Cleanliness cannot be too largely written in letters of gold, not
only to the young, but to those of all ages. For in the carnivora
we discover that not only the foul mucous covering of the tongue,
but the tartar cf the teeth, consists of the dead remains of millions
of infusorial animalcule. | Leuenhoek long ago discovered this foul
mucous, while Mandel made known the chemical decomposition
found in the human mouth, so called tartar. By dissolving a
portion of this in water and placing it under a microscope, the
delicate scales are observable.

If these organs which the Creator has given to all, so useful and
necessary, and which should be as hard as adamant, aré*so readily
and frequently lost, is there not something radically wrong in the
present system of living, and the want of the proper care of the
teeth ?

It is most especially deplorable among the females of this coun-
try, and in fact continent, that descendants of European parents,

aa

COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 169

should be so afflicted with caries of the teeth and the decay of

_ parts formed of substances which enter into the composition of

some of our hardest minerals. Many females, ere they attain a
marriageable age, are obliged to resort to professional skill, replac-
ing the natural with the mineral, or enamel of the artists’ formation.
This ought not to be, God made all mankind alike, in no portion
of the earth are nations found who lose their hands, feet, or tongue,
and no cause why the inhabitants should lose their teeth. It is
not so in olden countries, from whence the progenitors of the pre-
sent race have come, nor is it so in the West India Islands. So
excellent is the structure of the teeth in savage nations, that some
tribes in Africa file all the front teeth, so that they shall be sepa-
rated and form sharp points, the better to tear the uncooked animal
food. The ancient Welsh took better care of their teeth by cleans-
ing, than many in our day of civilization. They used as a primi-
tive way a stick of green hazel to rub the teeth, and abstained
particularly from hot food of every kind, and in the fifteenth
century Richard the Third granted a pension to one Matthew Flint
for the purpose of caring for the teeth of the poor of London.

Art and professional skill combined may assist to restore what
the ravages of disease may have destroyed, but unless constitutional
weakness of these organs be overcome, the deficiency supplied in
early life by the lime salts or earthy constituents, care and cleanli-
ness in after years, it will be impossible for the rising generation to
be less able to the loss of the teeth, than those of the present.

Among the remote causes also of dental decay, I am firmly of
the opinion from a large number of observations, that the present
condition of the tecth of the father or mother at the moment of
conception, wiil nearly always be represented to a greater or less
extent in the offspring, and the teeth of the child during gestation
are affected for good or evil by the degrees of health possessed by
the dental organs of the mother; therefore if such be the case, the
greater necessity of administering more of those nutritive elements
which give strength to the osseows system, and perfect calcification
to the teeth. |

That parents should insist on it that their children not only eat
nourishing food, but also that it shall be hard, requiring consider-

170 COGSWELL—ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

able effort in mastication. Ifa muscle suffers for the want of
action, requiring its fibres to be put in daily use, so too will the
teeth—they require work. The mastication of hard substances
gives the periosteum of the roots a healthy stimulus, consequently
a healthy nutrition follows.’

One more fact and I have done. Dental Irregularities are
certainly more frequently among children of the present day than for-
merly ; this no doubt is also hereditary, to some extent, the parents
having lost in early years the molar teeth that first erupted, called
the six year olders. These are the first to be removed. In examin-
ing the mouths of 100 patients over 25 years of age, more than 75
per cent had lost these same teeth in early life. The principal teeth
removed from children are these same large molar teeth, the reasons
given when asked why allowed to go so far, is invariably that
parents are under the impression that these are the first teeth, and
if lost will be renewed, hence when these are lost at so early a
period of life, the alveolan ridge contracts, and the arch becoming
narrow prevents the proper development and articulation of the
remainder, producing as the result crowded dentures, and surely
early decay. This from my observations I find more frequently in
the city than in the country, this may be also owing to the more
luxurious habit of city children over those living in the country.

It is said of the celebrated Alsop, who gave us so many fables,
that his master on going out with some friends on a hunting excur-
sion, gave him directions to prepare dinner of the very best his
larder afforded. On returning from the chase a dinner was
found served up entirely of tongue.

On another occasion he was ordered to prepare a dinner of the
worst his master’s larder afforded.. And again also a dinner was
served entirely oftongue. Ausop being called upon for an expla-
nation of the singular transaction, said that he had obeyed his
master’s injunction in the first instance, inasmuch as the tongue was
designed for universal application, and when properly controlled
and directed it was capable of conferring the greatest amount oi
good, and therefore was the best thing in the world. On the other
hand, when not controlled and directed aright, it was susceptible of

HONEYMAN—ON IRON DEPOSITS OF PICTOU COUNTY. 1A

becoming an instrument for the accomplishment of the greatest
amount of evil, and was therefore the worst thing in the world.

So in conclusion, the teeth like Asop’s tongues, occupying the
same tenement, if properly cared for and directed aright, so that
they be neither ¢trregular or defective, may carry us to that period
of life which Shakespeare calls the seventh age—Sans teeth, sans
eyes, sans taste, sans every thing; but when not cared for and
directed aright become instruments of slow torture and agonizing
pain, until patience ceases to be a virtue, one by one they are
removed or prematurely lost, suddenly transferring youth into old
age.

I have endeavoured to show, from these few imperfect observa-
tions, that special agents affect these organs both in their construc-
tion as well as destruction; that a remedial treatment is desirable
and possible; that the remedy lies to a great extent within the
power of each individual; that the disease may be prevented, a
healthy condition preserved, life prolonged, and instead of prema-
ture loss, they will continue as the Creator designed they should,
co-extensive with other members of the body, endowed ordinarily
with the same degree of perfection as other constituents whieh
make up the human physical organization. |

Art. XI. On THE GEOLOGY OF THE Iron Deposits oF
Pictou County. By Rev. D. Honrnyman, D.C. L.,

F. G.S., &c., Director of the Provincial Museum.

{Read Aprii 8, 1872.)
ABSTRACT:

ty the Appendix to Reports on the Pictou Coal Field, Report
of Progress of the Canadian Survey from 1866 to 1869, page
408, Mr. Hartley says: ‘+ Several deposits of Specular ore were
examined. ‘These all occurred in a range of metamorphic rocks
lying ten or twelve miles to the south of the Coal Field. Gf the
age of their formation I cannet speak with certainty, but it is

’

probably Upper Silurian. The rocks consist of quartzites of light

2 HONEYMAN—ON IRON DEPOSITS OF PICTOU COUNTY.

and dark green, purplish, brown and black colours, and giving a
white streak. The quartzites are sometimes coarsely granular, but
as a rule compact and fine grained.

‘¢ This formation appears quite distinct in lithological character
from the series which has been described by Sir Wm. Logan and
myself as occurring near the Pictou Coal Wield at McLellan’s and
McGregor’s Mountains and at Water’s Hill, and which are believed
by Dr. Dawson to be of Devonian age. J made no attempt to
obtain fossils in these rocks, nor has any bed been observed likely
to contain them at the few localities examined ; but it seems pro-
bable that the fossiliferous beds mentioned by Dr. Dawson in his
Acadian Geology, pp. 568-70 are included in these series. These
beds from which a large number of fossils have been collected by
Mr. D. Fraser of Springville, are of undoubted Upper Silurian age.”

I would observe that the fossiliferous rocks referred to are of
the same age as the rocks of McLellan’s Mountain, and that the
fossils collected by Mr. D. Fraser, and the iron deposits, belong to
two different series of rocks, and that the fossils are of undoubted
Upper Silurian, and the iron deposits of Middle Silurian age.

IT would here observe that the distinction [ make is in accord-
ance with the division of the Silurian system made by the Geologi-
cal Survey of Canada. In their Geological Map this system is
divided into Lower, Middle and Upper. It also agrees with that
made by Professor Ramsay, Director of the H. M. Geological
Survey. He divides the system into Lower, Intermediate and
Upper. — Vide Memoir on the Geology of Wales.

The collection referred to, which I have examined, is from the
upper part of the ¥¥V. side of Antictinal series, No. 1. It includes
a considerable number of the Lower Helderberg fossils contained
in my list, and also a few of the Wiagara fossils of the same series.
Vide Transactions, 1870-71, page 8--Upper Silurian. The
Specular iron ore referred to lies in the south side of my Anticlinal
series No. 4, in the Metamorphic Clinton, so that it comes to be of
Middle or Intermediate Silurian age. Ihave elsewhere shown that
this is the age of the strata containing the Limonite, or Brown
Hematite which lies in the lower part of series No. 1, @. e. the series
producing Mr. Fraser’s fossils.

HONEYMAN—ON IRON DEPOSITS OF PICTOU COUNTY. ita

Mr. Hartley by a singular process of reasoning, infers the
probable Upper Silurian age of the Limonite from the probable
Upper Silurian age of the Specular ore referred to, vide Appendiw.
Mr. Hartley 7m the quotation, evidently regards the lithological
dissimilarity existing between the Specular iron bearing rocks and
the supposed Devonian rocks of McLellan’s Mountain and Waters’
Mill as the result of difference of geological age.

On paleontological and stratigraphical grounds I have proved
that all are of Middle Silurian age. Waters’ Hill being the only
possible exception. It is not difficult to account for the acknow-
ledged lithological dissimilarity referred to.

Qa comparing the strata of Clinton age at Arisaig with those
at Barney’s River and French River, Merigomish, where the rocks
in both cases are fossiliferous and nearly in an unaltered condition,
we find great difference in lithological character. My (B) or
Lower Clinton at Arisaig consists principally of homogeneous
shales of black colour, leading people to infer the existence of coal.
The same is their character at Sutherland’s River. At Merigomish
the same are greenish and soft.

At Arisaig (B and B’) Lower and Upper Clinton are so differ.
ent in their lithological aspect and paleontology, that I was
disposed to separate them, but fortunately I discovered in (B) a
nodule containing Graptolithus Clintonensis, Hail, the characteristic
fossil of (B’), and consequently I designated the two respectively
as Lower and Upper Clinton. At Merigomish (B & B’) are
hithologically similar, and are only distinguishable by their fossils,
consequently we have reason to expect Hthological diversity in the
two sets of strata when metamorphosed.

This is precisely what Mr. Hartley observed at East River and
Mclellan’s Mountain, and what he was unconsciously led to
misinterpret.

Zhe metamorphosed black slates containing the Specular iron
ore have by their colour, led to a search for coal, as at Arisaig, while
other appearances at East River, Waters’ Hill, and McLellan’s
Mountain have some correspondence with the other lithological
aspect of unaltered and fossiliferous strata of Clinton age.

174 HOW—NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN BOTANY.

Art. XII. Brier Nores oN THE FLORA oF Nova Scorta.
Part I. By Henry How, D. C. L., Professor of Che-
mistry and Natural History, University of King’s College,
Windsor, N. WN.

(Read April 8, 1872.)

Tue botanical notices given by Professor Lawson at the last
meeting of the Institute, reminded me that I have become acquaint-
ed with some facts respecting plants in different parts of the
Province which should be placed on record; and I now proceed
to offer notices of some of them to the members of the Institute.

1. A Fern hitherto unknown in the Dominion. At the meeting
in question, Prof. Lawson announced the discovery of Lastrea
fragrans at Cape Canso by Rev. E. H. Ball, and mentioned that
this is an interesting addition to the list of hitherto known Nova
Scotia ferns. The plant next to this in Gray’s Manual of the.
Botany of Northern U. S. (second edition), viz., Aspidiam
aculeatum, I met with in 1870 in a wood on Marble Mountain.
Bras d’Or Lake, Cape Breton, about 600 feet above the lake.
I conclude that this fern has not as yet been mentioned as found in
the Dominion, from its not being referred to in Prof. Lawson’s
Synopsis of Canadian Ferns and Filicoid Plants published in
Edin. New Phil. Journal 1864, or in any subsequent memoir |
have seen. Gray states (oc. cit.) that it is found on the moun-
tains of New Hampshire, Vermont, N. New York and northward.
It is a common fern in Great Britain, where it is now called
Polystichum aculeatum. The mounted specimen, one of the two
originally gathered by myself, I send to illustrate this note, is for
subsequent presentation to the Provincial Museum as an addition
to the Herbarium of Nova Scotia Plants procured from me by the
Provincial Commissioners for the Paris Exposition of 1867.

2. Anagallis arvensis, Linn. ‘This pretty little plant, well
known in England as Poor Man’s Weather Glass and Common
Pimpernel, is European, but naturalized in America. I found it
flowering in profusion near the Schoolhouse in Digby in 1868. I
have not seen it elsewhere in the Province.

HOW—NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN BOTANY. 1 5,

3. Hornbeam or Iron Wood. In 1868 a tree was pointed out
to me close to Moose River, Annapolis county, near Clementsport,
as almost the only one remaining of many ‘‘ hornbeam-trees”’
formerly existing in the vicinity. The two species Carpinus, L.,
and Ostrya, Michel, are included under the term ‘‘ hornbeam,”
but I cannot say which of these the tree belonged to. So far as I
remember it was 30 or 40 feet high at least, so that its size would
be that of.the latter, but its growing on the side of a stream would
accord better with the recorded habit of the former.

4. New station for Osmorhiza brevistytis, D.C. In the
Herbarium above alluded to is a specimen of this plant from East
Mountain, Onslow, Colchester county. I have since seen it grow-
ing on Marble Mountain, C. B., and at Redden’s, near the bridge
at Kentville, King’s county.

5. Actea alba. In Prof. Lawson’s valuable Monograph of
the Ranunculacee of the Dominion of Canada, and adjacent parts
of British America, read before the Institute in Dec. 1869, it is
mentioned that Actea rubra is widely spread throughout the whole
Dominion, but A. alba is south western. Gray states that this
variety is more common southward, extending to Virginia and
Kentucky. It grows at three places in this vicinity, viz., Windsor
Falls, Butler’s Mountain, and Nesbit’s Island.

6. Potentillas at Windsor and westward. At Windsor we have
P. Norvegica, P.Canadensis, and P tridentata in abundance, and
more sparingly P. anserina, and P. argentea; this last I have
only seen at one spot, but it is common westward, viz: at Kent-
ville and Coldbrook, King’s county, and on the road as far as
Digby. P. anserina 1 found at the head of Bear River, Digby
county.

7. Dalibarda repens. The Herbarium spoken of above con-
tains a specimen of this plant from Wilmot, Annapolis county. In
1868 I saw the plant at Jauvet Comeau’s, Bloomfield, Digby
county.

8. Nasturtium officinale. Water Cress. This plant is men-
tioned by Gray as found in the United States ‘‘in brooks and
ditches, rare, escaped from cultivation, naturalized from Europe.”
Last year I learned that it is plentiful in two brooks near the Three -

6 |

176 ~ ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

Mile Plains, between Windsor (town) and Newport. Buckets of
it were brought to an English colleague and myself, both of us
being glad to renew our acquaintance with our pungent favorite of
former days.

9. Moneses uniflora is mentioned in Prof. Lawson’s elabor-
ate Monograph of the Ericacee of the Dominion and Adjacent
Parts of British America, (read before the Institute, 1871) as
having been found at Mount Uniacke. I have met with it near
Windsor and at Wilmot. We have here also Pyrola elliptica,
and P. secunda. P. rotundifolia I have got near the Rectory at
Wilmot.

10. Hehium vulgare. Blue Weed. This European plant I
have got in a field of Mr. MclLean’s, about 4 miles from New
Glasgow, on the road to Merigonish, Pictou county. I «was told
that it grows only in that spot.

11. Of European plants observed near Sydney Mines, Cape
Breton, may be mentioned Urtica urens which ‘was said to have .
been introduced a little before 1859 when I saw it, Lepidiwm
ruderale and Huphrasia officinalis.

12. Viola rotundifolia. This pretty plant, the one yellow
violet, of which there is a specimen in the Herbarium before men-
tioned, I have only seen growing at the locality where that speci-
men was got, viz: at the Manganese Mine, in the woods at Teny
‘Cape, Hants county.

Art. XIII. On toe Metrroroxuocy or Hauirax. By FReEp-
ERICK ALLISON, Esq.

(Read May 8, 1872.)

“My paper this evening opens with a brief sketch of the Meteor-
‘ology of Halifax for 1871. The accompanying table of figures is
rather more extended than in previous years; since I have now
obtained accurate observations of most elements for nine years, and
can therefore venture to calculate normals with a fair guarantee of
precision. Certainly a more lengthy series will give results more

‘

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 177

aecurate, and perhaps slightly, varying from these; but we may at
present rely upon these deviations as closely approximating to the
truth.

As the tables are before you I do not generally recapitulate the
figures, but comment upon the monthly and yearly characteristics.

January, 1871, was slightly deficient in heat, with a maximum
and minimum temperature both low, the latter—13°.7—being very
seldom reached in Halifax. The month having been cold and dry,,
we naturally had a high mean barometer, and the extraordinary.
height of 30.643 was attained. N. W. wind succumbed to W. N.
W., and the mean velocity was very nearly 12 miles per hour.
Sleighing was confined to 14 days.

February, usually milder then Janwary, was last year slightly
colder, and the maximum remained low. We had no such cold
days, however, in February as in January. Mean pressure declin
ed considerably, and the relative humidity was much less. Though
some falls of both rain and snow were heavy, the month had a fair
share of brightness ; wind direction remaining the same, and veloci-
ty almost identical. Sleighing on 17 days.

March became very mild, and the thermometer never marked
below 16.2.. Mean: pressure was higher than normal, and did not
fall to 29. inches. Jain exceeded its normal by 25 per cent, and.
there were but 2 days sleighing. Prevalent wind veered to N. W..,.
with.a speed: of 12:29 per hour.

April on the contrary was cold and backward, with low maxim--
um; andia barometer mean below its normal; with excess of N.
wind and great velocity. Precipitation was much as usual, and we.
had one day of sleighing.

The characteristics of May might serve as a standard for that
month, with the exception of the great heat at its close, when the
thermometer marked 87°.2. This, however, did not bring the
temperature quite up to the normal.

June was a very cool month, but exempt from frost. Its pres--
sure was normal, and amount of cloud as usual. The peculiar
direction of prevalent winds is worth noting, although the same-
S. H. triumphed in 1869. Mean velocity was 7.30 per hour..
Wet and dry days were in their customary. proportion.

178 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

July was also below its normal temperature, and slightly above
its normal pressure. This month was cloudy and rather moist ;
with S. W. winds, the mean velocity of which dropped to the
lowest figure 4.87 per hour.

The temperature of August scareely varied from that of last
month. The normal heat of these months is also very close, August
being a little the cooler. But one thousandth of an inch separated
their pressures, and the precipitation was very nearly the same.
Wind, however, got up in August as far as N. W., and the mean
of speed slightly increased.

September was still cooler, relatively to its proper temperature,
but as yet no frost. Mean pressure was rising gradually. The
month had a fair amount of rain, but many bright days, and was
generally fine, without a gale. Winds prevailed from W. N. W.,
and reached 8.46 miles as their average speed.

October was comparatively the mildest month since March—
28°.3 being its minimum. Mean pressure was much the same as
in September. There was a deficiency of rain, and no snow. S.
W. winds generally ; and an average velocity of 9.99 per hour.
The gale of the 12th deserves a separate notice.

No month last year was so abnormal as November. It was
very cold: the mean being more than 5 degrees below nine Nov-
embers ; and thermometer falling to 8°.2. The barometer stood
low; on one day touching 28.905. N. W. winds prevailed, and
their speed was frequently high, attaining a mean of 15.39 miles
per hour. Rain was light, but nearly compensated by the excess
of snow, of which we had 10 inches, or twice the normal fall.

December remained cold, with a higher barometer, and 25
inches of snow, while but half the usual rain fall was measured.
Wind returned to W. N. W.., and this last month was again more
quiet, giving an average velocity of 9.69 per hour.

Summarizing 1871, we find a cold year—mean temperature
being 41°.94 against a nine years normal of 43°.18. March and
October alone surpassed their normals in this element. Greatest
heat was attained in May, and least noted in January. The range
for the year was 100°.9. This is decidedly wider than usual.

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 179

The mean amount of sky obscured was 6.0, which corresponds
exactly with the mean of 5 consecutive years.

W.N. W. winds exceeded any other, with-an average speed of
10.10 miles per hour. The rain fall—41.31 inches—was slightly
deficient ; but snow, of which we had 97.3 inches in its new fallen
condition, exceeded its normal by 22.1 inches. The total precipi-
tation, measuring rain and melted snow, was 51.14 inches. Of
days completely dry we had 220—average being 206.

I observed 54 auroras,—26 gales,—57 fogs,—88 dews,—43
hoar frosts,—6 thunders,—7 lightnings,—3 hails,—7 rainbows,—
10 lunar halos,—15 lunar corone,—1 solar halo; and on 48 days
only had we sleighing.

I will now take up the second branch of these meteorological
notes :

I propose this evening to examine a few of the popular beliefs
and sayings concerning the weather, and to endeavour to show how
far these may be correct or otherwise.

First, with regard to that much discussed Juminary—our moon.
By some all weather changes are referred to that source. Others
limit its influence by looking thither for prognostications of bad
weather only. For ages the connections of the moon’s position
relative to the earth, and its appearance as seen through our atmos-
phere, have swayed the minds of men always; by instinct,
peering into the veiled future. When we consider the undoubted
relationship of the moon to the ocean tides, we cannot deny it an
influence over our own planet as yet uncomprehended. On the
other hand, knowing that temperature is the base of all meteorologi-
cal conditions, and that the effect of the direct moonlight upon a
thermometer fully exposed to it, and free from terrestrial radiation,

is scarcely appreciable, I cannot adhere to the popular theories
concerning dispersion and accumulation of cloud being largely
attributable to the moon’s apparent size. Upon the first thought,
one considering that where there is light there ought to be sensible
heat—an erroneous supposition—would infer that the cloud vapours
should be rolled away by the moonlight ; and in some places it is a
common saying at or near the time of full moon that it will not rain,
or snow much, as ‘‘ the moon is too big.” This is a complete fallacy ;

180 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

and I will show from these Nova Scotian records, that both the
frequency and quantity of precipitated moisture are entirely inde-
pendent of the moon’s size. I take first a month from the past
winter—March—which, with its snow storms, will not soon be
forgotten in this Province. In the first 24 days of March we had
six separate heavy snow storms, besides two quiet falls, and several
light flurries; also one rain storm. They are here in order, with:
the moon’s condition at the time-noted!:—

A snow storm beginning at midnight of 2nd, and' ending after--
noon of 3rd. Moon 24: days old, and: above the horizon during
storm in early morning. On 5th, a snow storm from 6a. m. to 14.
p-m.3; moon 26 days old. Whole storm during daylight. On
7th, snow storm for short time in forenoon; and moon 28 days.
old. After a little snow, a rain storm during afternoon and even--
ing of tenth, with a moon | day past new. During afternoon and:
night of 12th a bitter snow storm, extending into 13th with heavy
squalls. Moon between 3-and 4 days old. 15th—the most violent .
snow storm of this stormy month, from 9 a.m. to 5-40 p. m.
Moon 6 days old, and within one of first quarter. A fall of nearly
two inches began before midnight of 17th and lasted till 10 a. m.
18th with the moon in its ninth day. In afternoon of 19th, with a.
10 days moon,. another quiet fall of nearly 3 inches of snow occur-
red. Lastly, in this series, before 1 o’clock of the morning of 24th
a violent snow storm set in, lasting, with little: intermission, till
late that afternoon. This was on the moon’s 15th day, and shortly
before it was actually full.

Examination of other months taken at hazard, shows like
results. August, 1871, will suit our purpose as well as any
month. Then we had rain, generally heavy, during Ist afternoon
and following night. Showery on the 3rd, and a storm on the 5th.
Violent ram on the 9th morning, and showers during 10th and
11th. Not so mueh wet weather in middle of month, but on 17th
there fell a fine misty rain all day. A rainy evening on the 24th;
rain almost constant from morning of 27th to that of 28th, succeed-
ed by intermittent falls on 30th and 31st, closed last August.

So that, reviewing these memoranda, rain, clouds, and clear sky
are noticed entirely independent of the moon’s age.. For instance,

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 181

taking up weeks, we had much rain, and the sky was invisible on
the Ist; thorough cloud and heavy rain on the 9th, with no clear-
ing till near midnight. The 17th a rainy clouded day. Very
little break in the clouds on the 24th, and rain in the evening.
Again on the 7th, 15th, 22nd, and 29th, the sky was either :quite
or mostly clear. Proving that at any stage of the moon’s circuit,
storms may occur, or fine weather be enjoyed.

Lhere are some theories regarding lunar halos, and corone—
commonly called indiscriminately, ‘‘ Circles round the moon”’—
‘which are interesting to examine, as these popular ideas are not
‘completely false, being based upon truth. These circles are gene-
rally believed to herald rain or snow ; and in so far as they betoken
‘a moist atmosphere‘these signs are correct. But moisture need
not be precipitated upon the spot where it is formed. First, let us
distinguish between the larger and smaller lunar circles—between
halos and corone. Halos themselves are of two sizes; always
either of 90 or 45 degrees, according to the younger Herschel. The
two sizes are generally seen separately, but may appear at once.
They are more common in winter than in summer, and sometimes
a month passes without one being seen. ‘The prismatic colours are
more or less distinct; here generally pale and undefined at their
edges, but the red always inside. Halos are formed by the rays
reflected and refracted by the icy crystals which make up the high
and feathery clouds known to meteorologists as cirri.

Coron are in fact interference colours arranged in this shape by
the moon’s light, with the blue nearest the centre; at times but
one, at times several of these circles are observed ; but always con-
centric and larger or smaller according to the size of the watery
globules in the atmosphere. As has been said the light thrown
from the moon and broken upon clouds passing causes this phen-
omenon, which seems to be a more sure forerunner of rain or snow
than the halo, as it indicates an atmosphere nearly saturated far
from Earth. Still even in this case precipitation need not immedi-
ately follow. I preceed to the proof.

In 1869, 12 lunar halos were here observed. In four cases we
had decided rain or snow ; in four cases cloudy weather with some
slight precipitation; and on the remaining four following days

182 ALLISON—-ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

clear weather. Observations of corone for that same year give a
large proportion of succeeding wet days, but not asa necessary
sequence. ,

In 1871—and I take years not immediately following, that the
series may be less partial, though necessarily brief—I counted 6
lular halos and 17 coronx. The former were exactly divided as to
their successors : three wet and three fine days. ‘The latter were also
very nearly so, being followed by 9 wet days, and 8 dry. Sum-
ming up these 35 observations, we find the halos preceding wet and
dry days, in the proportion of 5 to 4, and the coronx giving a per-
centage of result closely similar. By a wet day I mean a day on
which precipitation is appreciable—or in other words measures .01
inch in the guage. If we include fog and mist, and all kinds of
inappreciable precipitation in our calculation, the resulting dry days
will dwindle to one third of the whole, after the two species of
moon rings.

To separate truth from error, then, both halos and corone.
indicate moisture, and are therefore frequently followed by rain or
snow ; but not necessarily so, as the condition of the earth and the
different strata of atmosphere must be carefully considered, especi-
ally in connection with their capacity to hold moisture.

The phenomenon variously known as hear frost, white frost,
and rimy frost, is very widely considered to be a sure forerunner
of a change from fair weather to foul. ‘There is an atom of truth to
induce this belief, but I think that it can be shown that the general
deduction from this small source is erroneous. Indeed this belief
is directly contradicted by another, viz., that a dew at night is
followed always by a dry day. Both of these suppositions cannot
be correct, for the difference between hoar frost and dew is merely
one of season. Dew may be called the summer hoar frost, and
this the winter dew. I need scarcely say here that terrestrial
radiation is the cause of these deposits. By the casting off of heat,
the earth’s surface, as the sun’s rays fall more and more obliquely,
becomes cooler, till the dew point is reached, and the moisture of
the warmer air becomes visible. Naturally, then, we should
expect this phenomenon to occur every night; and it would do so
were all conditions always fulfilled; but a clouded sky is a blanket

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OP HALIFAX. 183

to the earth, and confines and throws back again its lost tempera-
ture. Brechan tells us that Glaisher has observed passing clouds to
raise the temperature of raw wool, much cooled by radiation, 15°
in 15 minutes. Wind also, by transferring and mixing strata,
obstructs terrestrial radiation, and dew or hoar frost deposits. We
see now why a clear calin night is most favorable to these occur-
rences. Considering the above causes, it needs little reflection to
see that neither dew nor hoar frost is a siga of either fair or foul
weather to come.

Let us take last year—1871—and observe what did actually
succeed these phenomena in the 131 instances recorded. I saw
hoar frost 43 times, and dew on 88 nights, with these results :-—
On 19 occasions the days following deposits of hoar frost on the
previous evenings were without precipitation, giving 44 per cent.
against the prediction, and 56 in its favour,—while after 36 obsery-
ations of dew appreciable rain fell, giving 41 per cent. adverse
to the popular creed, and 59 per cent in its favour. So that
regarding both forms of this phenomenon no certain conclusion, as
to their effect, can be arrived at, beyond the established fact that
their influence, if any, is not perceptible in the precipitation of the
24 hours immediately succeeding. In former papers—to be found
in the Transactions of this Institute for 1870 and ’71—I have
endeavoured to dispel the notorious idea that displays of aurora
are always followed by gales and foul weather; and that a high
barometer must mean fine weather, and a low standing column the
opposite. These conclusions have been hastily formed in the
public mind from insufficient data; and the instances when the
opinion has proved correct have left indelible marks upon the
judgements of superficial observers, while the contrary results have
readily faded from the willing memories.

The truth is that the branch of the science including prediction,
is as yet scarcely shooting forth. No man, unaided by telegraphic
reports, can from his own observations at a single station, at present
prophecy the coming weather, beyond 24 or 36 hours, with any
approach to certainty. For this purpose, we now need—and
probably always shall need—reports at least twice a day from con-
nected stations. Having these, and the climatic peculiarities of our

7

184 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.

own neighbourhood being fairly known, tolerable accuracy will
already attend the constant and careful consideration of a pains-
taking observer. Through the public press, and private ears, [
have lately urged the beginning of a weather signal system for
which this country is now ripe. If on a future evening I can report
to this Institute—from which I have received so much encourage-
ment for several years—the beneficial working of such a system, I
shall be satisfied.

While for centuries false ideas, mingled with tiny truths, have
gained general credence, let us now pursue an Gas course, and
place faith only in substantiated doctrines.

I conclude this somewhat rambling paper with extracts from
correspondence passing during last winter, illustrative of some of
the details of weather telegraphy. These first remarks came to my
hands from Mr. Kingston, chief meteorological Gy es: at
the central station for Canada —"Teveuee i—

‘« The present form of weather telegraphy is to record at numer-
ous points the readings of the instruments, and certain facts
descriptive of the weather, three times in the 24 hours; the
observations being made simultaneously at all the stations, and
regularly, in fine as well as in bad or threatening weather. Accord-
ing to the new Washington code the message from each station
consists of ten words, and, subject as they are in the States,
to numerous and varied combinations, the message there could
hardly allow of compression ; but I have little doubt that, with our
far more simple mode of operation the ten words could be reduced
to six. Hence, if you were to have reports from ten stations com-
bined, you would have, for each observation, one message of 60
words.”

‘<Tt will be the duty of the agent” (7. e. the chief meteorological
agent in each District, or Province; which post in Nova Scotia I
have the honour to hold) ‘‘ to superintend the translation of the
telesrams, and arrange the figures in the form of a weather bulletin,
' which exhibits the present atmospheric conditions, and the changes
since the previous report. Two or three copies of the bulletin
should be posted in conspicuous places ; and it should also be print-

ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX. 185

ed in the daily papers. It will be desirable hereafter to put up
large maps, with variable symbols, which may indicate in a visible
manner the progressive changes. In addition to receiving telegraph-
ic intelligence from the continent at large, it would be desirable
for each large centre of commerce, such as Halifax, St. John, &c.,
to be surrounded, as it were, by a cordon of ports at a moderate
distance, from which telegrams need not be sent regularly, but only
when they are asked for. This supplementary arrangement had
better be postponed till the larger system is in operation; but its
establishment should be kept in view as an important adjunct.”

Mr. Kingston gives further valuable information regarding ex-
pense; but as that is, and will be, subject to modifications of
different kinds, I add nothing on that head just now.

From the Meteorological office at London, G. B., I have lately
received the following useful suggestions. Mr. Robert H. Scott
the Director there, writes to me :—

‘TF should say that it would be best to place all the stations in
connection with the Central cffice.”

‘¢ The various nations here are establishing centres of their own.
These exchange reports daily, and send extra telegrams to each
other whenever a storm is reported. Each office then decides for
itself whether or not it will warn its own coast. This is the plan
we have introduced, and it is adopted by Holland and Norway ;
Sweden and Denmark are also about to take it up, and Russia will
probably follow suit. The French system of extensive generaliza-
tion gives a magnificent view of the general conditions, but does
not enable you to draw conclusions for local storms and weather.
It is also perfectly impossible for a distant central station to keep
its observers in check. Telegraphic errors are our béte noir, and
it is expensive work asking for repetitions over long lines; conse-
quently the French reports are seldom if ever corrected before
publication, and errors of an inch sometimes appear in their charts,
and are never subsequently corrected. I should, therefore, say
that Halifax ought to warn its own coast; speaking purely from
a geographical point of view. A central station in Canada can-
not get news of sudden changes in time. We send by post

186 ALLISON—ON THE METEOROLOGY OF HALIFAX.
lithographed copies of our daily weather reports, for exhibition at
seaports; but in our warning messages we hardly ever send any
actual readings at all. The storm signal we use is the drum, and
we hang up under it in a frame the order to hoist it.”

I hope next year to speak of the weather signal system of the
Dominion, in a more advanced stage.

eae.
Latitude 44° 39’ 20” North.2 feet.

Year
1871. Jan’y. | Feb’Nov. Dec. | 1871
|
Mean Temperature ............. a2) 29°.60 | 22°,2°.74 | 24°.63 || 41°.94
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... —.24 1°, 5°.09 | -1°.56 -1”.24
Maxmmnnm Pemperature .:........s00-0- 49°.4 | 47054°.8 | 48°.8 || 87°.2
Momimvimn Temperature... .,....-.+s0.s0- Bia?.7 | 7° (Bay ce 1 || eke
Monthly and Annual Ranges............:| 638°.1 | 55°46°.1 | 52°.5 | ee
Mean Maximum Temperature...........- 30°.62 | 30°. 8°.91 | 32°.61 || 51°.30
Mean Minimum Temperature ............ 18°. 72 | 130,79.18 | 15°.52 || 83°.98
Highest Daily Mean Temperature ........ 45°.87 | 40°.6°.47 | 48°.31 || 68°.85
Lowest Daily Mean Temperature.......... +6°.50 | -0°.0°.45 | 4° 41 || -6°.50
Mean Daily Range of Temperature ... ... 16°.90 | 17°.d°.73 | 17°.09 ie
Greatest Daily Range of Temperature ..... 38°. 0 | 32°28°.5 | 28.°6 eee
Mean Herrestriat Radiation ......22. 20.22) .22.2.efe sees ee ee | a etd
Mean Pressure, corrected . ............ 29.965 | 29.7-9.626 | 29.778 29.787
Difference from Normal (nine years)....... +.293 | -.0'--096 | 7.044 5 ge
Maximum Pressure .... .........0.00., 30.643 | 30.30.397 | 80.596 || 30.648
MPIMUBMINYEPEERSUTE ... ssc. occ ee ee ce 29.065 | 28.9'8-905 | 29.018 || 28.906
Monthly and Annual Ranges............. 1.578 | 1.4¢1-492 | 1.578 Lv
Highest Daily Mean Pressure ............ 30.613 | 30.3¢0.263 | 80.895 | 30.613
Lowest Daily Mean Pressure ............. 29.143 | 29.029-095 | 29.145 |; 29.008
Mean Pressure of Vapour................ mS .O: 159 ol eee
Mean Relative Humidity................. 8i.7 72 $1.0 79.7 |). 79.1
Mea Amipant of Cloud. ..5. 0.5... 264 essa 7.21 5.< 5.60 6.65 6.0
Difference from Normal (five years)....... +.738 -.¢-1.20 04 |
Prevalent Direction of Wind.............. W.N.W.|W.N.N.W | W.N.W. || W.N.W.
Mean Velocity of Wind. ..-........- 50.0. 11.95 | 11,415.39 9.69 J
AOU Tt 0c | ri tres 2.38 4,. 3-21 1.88 | poe
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... -1.40; + ¢-1.80 | -1.63 —
Rumber ef days Rain .... 2... sees ese ees 8 7 8 we
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... + 2 -5 =a -10
ity eae - a eee sce eee 14.7 19. 100 yal ee
iiference from Normal (nine years) ...... -1.: ‘Gree BPA meee
Number of days Snow ‘ eee ee : Lea Ne : io 1 6 2 13 jk 46
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... 0 + sf 2 ee -
Total PECCADIELMOM s,s 2. <2 smn eo ee de 3.73 5.¢ 4-18 4.89 51.14
Difference from Normal (nine years).... -1.92/ +.( -.82 ee ss
Number GUPOW AVS. 20. caine anes ce wees 16 ] 20 a er
Difference from Normal (nine days)....... -1 +5 Oita
SS |
BirtHer Cf AUTOM. 6.026... 05. «2 obec 0 Aig e 2 on
pee ss te 2 feb 4 a
“ fees. . rinse. 5 6 equa 3 a
rs DO WeM eaves 6. = oe beunmeee 0 Cie y -
is HawmeDrOsts +. 26.4. a6 conee ten 3 1138 4 =
Ks Winters 2 2 id nn 5 snk a Bee 0 (Bie E
es UL ES 7 ee 0 (ya : :
ie ee 0 Ge 0 :
fe: BUMUWR ois 8s. ns oe ss cs 0 ( @9 0 £
es Ly to: C1 re 2 1s 40 : nu
“< Parmer MOrOT 6. 5. sci okie: 0 HK : »
oa DME MREEMOR ae A. eos! o eee 0 | (2u:8 | 0 -
ee Days Sleighing ..............| 1) lee 14 =

General Meteorological Register for 1871.

ELALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Latitude 44° 39’ 20” North.

Longitude 63° 36’ 40” West.

Height above Sea, 132 feet.

OBSERVED BY F. ALLISON.
1871. Jan’y. | Feb’y. | March. | April. | May. | June, July. | August.) Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec. aoe
Mean Temperature ............. ... 22°.06 | 82°.99 | 86°.90 | 46° 68 | 569.18 | 62°.76 | 62°.58 | 54°.72 | 48°.44 | 82°.74 | 24°.68 || 41°.94
Difference from Normal (nine years) . . —1°.57 |4+-4°.28 | -1°.26 —.83 | -3°.52 -.58 — 58 | -2°.60 | +.26 | -5°.09 | -1°.56 -1°.24
Maximum Temperature ............. 47°.3 | 529.8 | 6298 | 879.2) 77°.9 | 829.1] 838°.0 | 80°.9) 71°.8 | 64°.8} 48°.8 87°.2
Minimum Temperature............ =1ont | 169.2) || 289.6: 28°.3 | 37°.8 | 45°.0| 44°.3 86°.1 28°.3 89,2) | -8°.7 18°.7
Monthly and Annual Ranges....... 5d?.0 | 86°.6 | 39°.2 58°.9 | 40°.6 87°.1}. 88°.7 | 45°.8 | 48°.5 | 46°.1 52°.5 100°.9
Mean Maximum Temperature...... 80°.81 | 41°.56 | 44°.55 | 58°.82 | 68°.48 | 78°.79 | 78°.85 | 649.98 | 56°.64 | 88°.91 | 32°.61 §1°.30
Mean Minimum Temperature ...... 87°.05 | 47°.19 | 54°.99 | 54°.80 | 46°.31 | 40° 16 | 27°.18 | 16°.52 88°.93
Highest Daily Mean Temperature .. 64°.23 | 63°.26 | 67°.54 | 68°.85 | 66°.32 | 60°.51 | 45°.47 | 48°.31 68°. 85
Lowest Daily Mean Temperature ae 88°.93 | 61°.51 | 64°.29 | 57°.32 | 44°.85 | 85°.85 | 10°.45 | 4° 41 -6°.50
Mean Daily Range of Temperature ... ... 21°.7/7 | 21°.72 | 18°.79 | 19°.04 | 18°.66 | 16°.85 | 11°.78 | 17°.09 (fee
Greatest Daily Range of Temperature . 82°)0) | 382°°8 | 279.2) |) 299.9 | 279.6 | 26902) 2389.5) 28.°6 88°.0
Mean Terrestrial Radiation.......... 84°.77 | 46°.03 | 58°.50 } 58°.10 | 43°.31 | 879.50 | 20°.94 |......../]..... «2:
Mean Pressure, corrected . ............ 29.965 | 29.749 | 29.784 | 29.694 | 29.728 | 29.748 | 29.814 | 29.815 | 29.885 | 29.874 | 29.626 | 29.778 || 29.787
Difference from Normal (nine years).......) +-.223 | -.024 | +.058| -.084 | +.030| -.008 | +.058 | -++.060 | +.047 | +.079 | —.096 044 || -+.026
Maximum Pressure_.... ........... ..| 80.643 | 30.870 | 80.345 | 30.218 | 30.286 | 29.984 | 30.212 | 80.369 | 380.347 | 30.464 | 80.397 | 80.596 80.643
Minimum Pressure .............-.. -| 29.065 | 28.911 | 29.094 | 29.002 | 29.081 | 29.272 | 29.368 | 29.311 | 29.451 | 29.0386 | 28.905 | 29.018 || 28.905
Monthly and Annual Ranges ..| 1.578) 1.459; 1.251 | 1.216] 1.255) 0.712] 0.844 | 1.058} 0.896} 1.428) 1.492] 1.578 1.738
Highest Daily Mean Pressure . . ...| 30.618 | 30.303 | 30.278 | 80.120 | 30.209 | 29.941 | 80.183 | 80.800 | 80.266 | 80.411 | 30.268 | 80.395 80.613
Lowest Daily Mean Pressure -| 29.148 | 29.008 | 29.165 | 29.181 | 29.154 | 29.475 | 29.454 | 28.480 | 29.537 | 2.484 | 29.095 | 29.145 29.008
"Mean Pressure of Vapour..............-. -118 099 152 -179 232 845 -462 -465 069 - 288 159 .118 || 248
Mean Relative Humidity................. 81.7 72.5 76.4 80.7 72.3 fi 81.5 82.9 81.9 81.3 81.0 79.7 || 79.1
I
Mean Amount of Cloud......... ........ 1.21) 5.40 6.49 7.43 5.38 5.65 6.19 5.88 4.79 6.18 5.60 6.65 6.0
Difference from Normal (five years)....... + .78 -.80 | +.63 | +1.06 | -1.85 -.04}) +.52] -++.69 -.99 —.42 1.20 --.04 0
Prevalent Direction of WET bososaocoga0ss W.N.W.| W.N.W.| N.W. N. N.W. 8. E. S.W N.W. | W.N.W.| SW. N.W | W.N.W.|| W.N.W.
Mean Velocity of Wind...-.............. 11.95) 11.86) 12.29] 18.28) 10.94 7.80, 4.87 6.72 8.46 9.99 | 15.39 9.69 10.10
Amount of Rain ....... tet eee sees 2.38 4.11 4.39 8.42 2.59 2 96 8.38 3.69 4.81 4.49 3.21 1.88 41.31
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... 1.40] + 61} 41.24} +.28) -1 55 -+.05 | +1.06 +.48 .87 -.66 -1.30 -1.68 -1.91
Number of days Rain.... .............. 8 6 8 11 10 12 12 14 8 8 7 8 112
Difference from Normal (nine years) ...... +2 0 +2 0 5 0 +12 +3 =») 4 -5 -1 -10
Amount of Snow ........ ote e ee eee L 13.4 | Inap. 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 24.8 97.3
ifference from Normal (nine years) +4.9 -.1 0 0 0 tv) -.6) +5.7 | +9.6 || +221
Number of days Snow ............ 8 0 0 0 0 0 6 18 46
Difference from Normal (nine years) =) -1 0 0 0)" tt) = +2 +3 -1
Total Precipitation....... steer e eens 4.88 2.59 2.96 8.38 8.69 4.81 4.49 4.18 4.39 61.14
Difference from Normal (nine years) +.77 | -1.56 | +.05) +1.06 | +.48 87 -.65 -.82 -.39 -.85
Humber of Dry Days..... Beet ee seen eee 16 21 18 19 17 22 23 20 14 220
ifference from Normal (nine days)....... -1 +5 0 =? -3 +2 +9 -++6 0 +14
Number of Auroras............ 2.05... 0 4 3 7 8 8 8 7 6 5 6 2 54
ps Gales .. 2 8 3 5 1 0 0 0 0 3 5 4 26
es Hogs : 6 8 4 2 8 7 15 9 2 1 2 8 57
eWSe ees eink 0 0 2 1 6 18 14 18 21 18 0 0 88
Hoar Frosts .... 3 11 8 5 2 0 0 0 2 8 5 4 43
a Thunders Scoodes 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 6
i Lightnings ..... 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 7
LUSH «yoann 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 i) 0 0 8
Rainbows..... 3 0 0 1 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 i
se Lunar Halos. ... 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 10
Lunar Coronz..... . 0 0 0 0 2 2 B} 8 1 1 0 3 15
SS Solar Halos...... .. ........ 0 0 0 0 fi) 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Days Sleighing .............. 14 17 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 48

NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL
SCIENCE, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

=

Parron—His Honor the LinutEnant-GoveRNnor.

COUNCIL, 1871-72.

J. M. Jones, Esq., F. L. S., President. Ripecs
BERNARD GILPIN, Esq., M. D., M. R. GC. S. Vie “dents
G. Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D. tce- Presidents. —
Rev. D. Honeyrmay,,D. C.-L, F. G. S., &e., Secretary.

W. C. Sitver, Esa., Treasurer.

Frep. ALLISON, Esq., H. Moopy, Esgq.,
W. WesseELHorT, Esq., M. D., W. Gossip, Esq.,

J. R. DeWorr,. Esq., M. D., J. Bett, Esq.,
J. RUTHERFORD, Esa., M. E., ANnGus Ross, Esq.

The Anniversary Meeting of the Institute is held on the Second Wednesday
in October, of every year.

The Monthly Ordinary Meetings of the Institute, when Papers are read,
are held on the second Monday evening in every month, commencing in |
November and ending in May. :

a

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

DE: 2? HE

: Aovia Scotian Institute of Aatural Srienc

HALIFAX, NOW

SAE ETRE IS EER SE ICS EE ESE eee

: VOL. ae 1872-73. PART IIL.

CONTENT pais
a MA MMADE MIE a5 co. 2 5 iglea,\ ote 2 lh oe, 8 As» See Pde PRES: DOD seme) 1M .. 187 to 190
Las or Mempens ........,........ Pose ouh pew ea 6s Sn ng a ea oe 191, 192

TRANSACTIONS :—

a I.—Notes on the Gecldity of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. By Rev. D.
Honeyman, D.C. L., F.G.S.; &e., Director of the Provincial

‘ MUIID IONE ok at a: BGS Swe 8 ae GA ES ht ars a tp eee La Oe 193
Ii.—On og Eagles of Nova Scotia.. By J. Bernarp Giupiy, A. B., M. Tks
MEE Oc ok PRO A AN Gs BA rae Bs es eee dame poke 202
III. The Great American Desert: By Henry 8. Poor, Esq, F. G.8., &e,
Pore basperier- bf MILNES Nts Cat cn Wace pea ee Eu es es 208
IV.—On the Stone Age of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp Ginpin, A.B., M.D.,
Esa Weide eRe Os Sk Et icbee Saba ies vi Jeet Mee oer 220
V.—On the Metamorphism of Rocks in Nova Scotia and. Cape Breton. By
“SGV; CIONIN MAN; DOL.) FG 86 Ge oe. ee, (eee ee . 281
VI.—On the Vegetation of the Bermudas. By J. Matrew Jones, F. L, 8.. 237
VII.—The Grouping of the Pictou Coal Seams, By Epwin Gmpin...:...... 281
VIII.—On the Meteorology of Caledonia Mines, Little Glace Bay, Cape Breton.
9 Ti PoOue Bao e OL Bae aes eee ee ha ar. 285
IX.—The Affinity of Races. By Wm. Gossip.........2...... -- PLE ae 288

_* X.-On the Progress of Weather Knowledge. By Frep. Atttson, Esq .... 305
XI.—The History of a Boulder. By Rev. D. Honrrman, D.U.L., F.G.S., &e. 321

XIE—The Economy of Timber and Preservation of Structures from Fire and
Decay. By A. P. Rei, M.D., M.R.C.S:, Edin., &e., &e.. . 326

cc | APPENDIX—

~ HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA — WM. GOSSIP, 103-GRANVILLE ST,
a. ENGLAND—REEVES & TURNER, 196 STRAND, LONDON,
= “UNITED STATES—THE NATURALIST AGENCY, SALEM, MASS.
a 1873. -

Price. FY zve Sh lings

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova Srotian Fustitute of Natural Sriewce.

VOL. UI. PART UI.

Provincial Museum, Oct. 9th, 1872.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

J. M. Jones, Esa.; President; in the Chair.
Inter Alia.

A voTe of thanks to the President for his very valuable services was pro-
posed and carried by acclamation. —

The following office-bearers for the next year were then elected.

President—J. M. Jonzs, Esq.

Vice Presidents—Dr. Giupin, and Dr. Lawson.

Treasurer—W. C. SILVER, Esq.

Secretaries—Rev. Dr. HONEYMAN, and Anaus Ross, Esq.

Councii—Dr. DeWo.re, Rev. Dr. Warren; Frep. ALLison, Esq.,
A. RUTHERFORD, Esq., WM. Gossip, Esq., Dr. Rerp, ADAM McKay, Esgq,.,
W. C. Sirver, Esq., Sheriff Bett, Dr. Lawson, Rev. Dr. HonEYMAN,
Dr. Gitpin, ANGus Ross, Esq.

A vote of thanks to the Halifax Press, for insertion of notices of meeting,
gr atuitously, and for readiness shown in the insertion of communications relat-
ing to the werk of the Institute, was proposed and carried unanimously.

B. Cochran, Esq., Postmaster, Halifax, Henry Poole, Esq., Inspector of
Mines, Henry Y. Clarke, Esq., were proposed as members,—Jabez Turner,
Esq., of Madden Grange, Peterboro, England, a Corresponding Member.

Dr. Rerp then made a few observations on the establishment of Salt and
Fresh water Aquaria. He showed the desirableness of having these valuable
auxiliaries to Public Instruction.

Members were agreed in considering Aquaria desirable, but were not pre-
pared to recommend their establishment by the Institute.

OrpInARY Mertinc, NoveMBER 11, 1872.

Dr. Gite, V. P., in the Chair.
lr was announced that Messrs. B. Cocuran, Henry S. Poour, and
Heyry Y. CLARKE, proposed as members at last meetiug, and Mr. JABEz
TURNER, proposed as Corresponding Member, had been duly elected by the
Council.

188 PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. HonEYMAN then read a paper ‘‘ On Crystalline Rocks of Nova Scotia
and Cape Breton.”

Dr. GILPIN read a paper ‘“ On the Hagles of Nova Scotia.”

Rost. Morrow, Esq., made a few observations on the anatomy of the
‘‘ Moose.” He stated that he had examined the Moose very particularly
during the past hunting season, and had ascertained beyond doubt that the
Moose had no gall bladder. This was in answer to a question that had been
asked at a meeting last Session, when Dr. Gilpin read his paper on the Moose.

Mr. Morrow also showed an illustration of the malformation of a kidney
of a Moose, while the other kidney was properly formed.

OrpiINARY MeertTine, Dec. 9, 1872.

Inter alia.

Tue following gentlemen were proposed as members: the Hon. Wm. B.
Vail, Provincial Secretary ; Mr. Edward Binney; Mr. G. A. Sandford; T. B.
Akins, D. C. L.; Mr. Alexander James.

The CHAIRMAN then made some observations on a specimen of Corregonus
albus from Labrador, directing attention to its structural peculiarities.

Dr. Rerp read an elaborate paper ‘On the Heonomy of Timber and the
preservation of Structures from fire and decay.” —

The paper was illustrated by interesting experiments showing principally
the manner in which wood, prepared by a solution of silica or otherwise, resist-
ed combustion. The reading of the paper was followed by a lengthy discussion
in which difficulties were suggested, and other processes for preserving timber
for special purposes described.

ORDINARY MEETING, JAN. 13, 1873.

SHERIFF BELL in the Chair.
Inter alia
Ir was announced that the Council had duly elected as members the Hon.
W. B. Vau, T. B. Axins, D.C. L., Messrs. Epwarp Binney, ALEX.
James, G. SANDFORD.
Mr. H. S. Poo read a paper “ On the Great American Desert, and the
effects of Subaerial action on the constituents of mineral veins in that region.”

ORDINARY MEETING, FEBRUARY 10, 1873.
Dr. GriuPiIn, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.
Tue following gentlemen were proposed as members: the Hon. James
McDonald, M. P., Mr. E. Mosley, Mr. G. P. McNab, Mr. F. H. Baker.
Dr. GILPIN read an elaborate and interesting paper, ‘‘ On the Stone Age in
Nova Scotia.”

PROCEEDINGS. 189

Rev. Dr. HoNEYMAN read a paper ‘‘ On the Metamorphism of Rocks in
Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.”

Mr. H. Poorer from Cape Breton being present, as about to take farewell of
the Institute, it was proposed, seconded, and carried by acclamation, “ That
the Institute express a sense of obligation to Mr. Poor for the interest he
had taken in its Transactions since its establishment, and of the regret at the
prospect of his leaving the Province, and consequently of his ceasing to be an
actual member.””’ A hope was at the same time expressed that Mr. PooLe
would still continue to take an interest in the prosperity of the Institute, and
favor it with occasional correspondence. Mr. PooLge gave some account of
his connection with the Institute. He was one of the few surviving members
who first met to organize this Institute, and he contrasted the circumstances
under which they then met, with the elegant place and surroundings of their
present meeting: He also intimated that he had presented his valuable Geo-
logical Collection to the Provincial Museum, where it would be available for
the use of the Institute, and gave assurance that he would still continue to»
take an interest in its Proceedings.

ORDINARY Meertinc, Marca 10, 1873.

Dr. Gitpin, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.

Ir was anncunced that the Hon. J. McDoNnALp, M. P., Mr. E. Mosse ey,.
Mr. G. P. McNas, and Mr. F. H. Baxer, had been duly elected by the:
Council as members of the Institute.

It was proposed and seconded, that Mr. H. Poole be elected Correspond--
ing Member, and Mr. Edwin Gilpin an Associate Member.

Mr. Epwin GiLrin having been called upon by the Chairman, read an:
excellent paper ‘“ On the grouping of the Pictou Coal Seams.”

Mr. Frep. ALLiIson then read a paper by Mr. H. Pootg, “ On the
Meteorology of Glace Bay, Cape Breton.”

ORDINARY MEETING, APRIL 14, 1873.

Dr. GiLein, V. P., in the Chair.
Inter alia.

Ir was announced that Mr. H. Poo had been duly elected by the Council
as a Corresponding Member, and Mr. Epwin GiILpPin an Associate Member..
Mr. A. Ross, Secretary, read a letter from the President, J. M. Jones,.-
Esq., containing notes ‘‘ On the Historical Features of the Bermudas.”
Mr. Gossip then read a paper “‘ On the Affinity of Races.” This paper
which was lengthy and elaborate advanced many interesting and curious

views, somewhat different from those generally received.

190 PROCEEDINGS.

ORDINARY MEETING, May 12, 1873.
Dr. Giupin, V. P. in the Chair.

Inter alia.
Mr. Peter Jack was proposed and seconded as a member.
Mr. ForsHaw Day, Artist, read a very interesting paper ‘On the
Specific characters of English and American Skies and Clouds.”
Mr. ALLISON read an excellent paper “ On Progress in Weather Knowledge.”
The Rev. Dr. HONEYMAN read “ The Story of a Nova Scotian Boulder.”

D. HonEYMAN,
Secretary

Date

1873.
1869.
1869.
1873.
1864.
1863,
1873.
1864.
1872.
1872.
1867.
1868.
1871.
1872,
1863.
1870.
1863.
1863.
1871.
1865.
1872.
1863.
1863.
-1868.
1863.
1863.
1866.
1868.
1872.
1873.
1863,
1866.
1864.

1872.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1869.

1872.
1872.
18738.

f Admission.
Jan. 11.
Feb. 165.
Feb. 15.
Mar. 10.
April 3.
Jan, 8
gan. 11.
Nov. 7.
Nov. ll.
Noy. 11.
Sep. 20.
Sep. 28.
April 4.
April 12.
May 12.
Mar. 30.
Oct. 26.
Deen 275
Nov. 29.
Oct. 4.
Feb. 12.
wanes \De
Jan. 95,
Feb. 2.
Jan. 26.
June 27.
Dee. 3.
Nove. 2.
Feb. 5.
Jan, 11.
Jan. 5.
Feb. 1.
Mar. 7.
July 45.
April 4.
May 1.
Mar. 10.
Dec. 3.
Feb. 12.
Mar. 2.
Mar. 10.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 191

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Akins, T. B., D. C. L., Halifax.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax.

Allison, Frederick, Halifax.

Baker, F. H., Halifax.

Bell, Joseph, High Sheriff, Halifax.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. 8,, Newcastle on Tyne, England.

Binney, Edward, Halifax.

Brown, C. E., Halifax.

Clarke, H. Y., Halifax.

Cochran, B., Post Master, Halifax.

Cogswell, A. C., D. D. 8., Halifax.

Collins, Brenton, Halifax.

Compton, William, Halifax.

Costley, John, Halifax.

Cramp, Rev. Dr., Wolfville.

Day, Forshaw, Artist, Halifax.

DeWolf, James R., M. D., Edin., L. R. C. S. E., Dartmouth.

Downs, Andrew, Cor. Memb. Z. S., Halifax.

Egan, T. J., Taxidermist, Halifax.

Fleming, Sandford, C. E., Chief Engineer Dom. Railways, Halifax,

Foster, James, Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Fraser, R. G., Mineralogist, Halifax.

Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C. S., Vicz Presipent, Halifax.

Gossip, William, Granville St., Halifax.

Haliburton, R. G., F. 8. A., Halifax.

Hill, P. C., D. C. L., Halifax.

Honeyman, Rev. David. D. C.L., F.G. 8., &c., SzorETARY, Halifax.

Hudson, James, M. E., Superintendent Albion Mines, Pictou.

Hunt, Rev. A. S., Superintendent of Education, Halifax.

James, Alex., Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. S., Presrpent, Halifax.

Kelly, John, Deputy Chief Commissioner of Mines, Halifax.

Lawson, Geo., Ph. D., L. L. D., Vick Presipent, Prof. of Chem.
and Natural History, Dalhousie College.

Lawson, Walter, C. E., Montagu Coal Mines.

Leitch, A., H. M. Dockyard.

Longley, J. W., Halifax.

McDonald, Hon. James, M. P., Halifax.

Moody, Harry, Pri. Sec’y of His Honor the Lieut. Governor
Sir Hastings Doyle.

McKay, Adam, Engineer, Dartmouth.

Mooney, Andrew, Halifax.

McNab, G. P.

192

1866.
1872.
1868.
1878.
13870.
1865.
1872.
1870.
1866.
1871.
1868.
1869.
1866.
1872.
1864.
1868.
1872.
1865.
1867.
1878.
1871,
1864.
1866.

1868.
1870.
1868.
1873.
1864.
1872.
1865.
1872.

1871.
1868.
1866.
1871.
1870.
1866.
1871.
1878.
1872.

1872.

np Oe

LIST OF MEMRERS.

Morrow, James B., Halifax.

Morrow, Robert, Halifax.

Morley, Lieut. R. A.

Moseley, E., Dartmouth.

Murphy, C. E., Halifax.

Nova Scotia, the Rt Rev. Hibbert Binney, D. D., Lord Bishop of
Poole, H. S., F. G. S., Inspector of Mines, Halifax.
Power, L. G., Barrisler-at-Law, Halifax.

Reeks, Henry, Manor Hall, Truxton, Hamp. England.
Reid, A.-P., M. D., Halifax.

Roue, John, Halifax.

Ross, Angus, SmcretTary, Halifax.

Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax.

Sandford, G. A., Halifax.

Silver, W. C., Treasurer, Halifax.

Sinclair, John A., Halifax.

Stewart, J. J., Halifax.

Smithers, George, Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, M. P., Halifax.

Vail, Hon. W. B., Provincial Secretary, Halifax.
Warren, Rev. Dr., Halifax.

Whytal, John, Halifax.

Young, Sir William, Chief Justice of ova Scotia, Halifax.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
Ambrose, Rev. John, A. M., Digby.
Elder, Rev. Prof., Acadia College, Wolfville.
Ford, Alfred S., London, England.
Gilpin, Edwin, Halifax.
Marett, Elias, St. John’s, Newfoundland.
McKay, Alexander, Principal of Schools, Dartmouth.
Morton, Rev. John, Trinidad.
Moseley, E. T., Barrister-at-Law, Cape Breton.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Ball, Rev. T., Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
Bethune, Rev. J.S., Ontario.
Chevalier, Edgcumb, H. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, England.
Cope, Rev. J.C., Presipent of the New Orleans Academy of Science-
Harvey, Rev. Moses, St. John’s, Newfoundland.
Hurdis, J. L., Southampton, England.
King, Dr. V. O., Vice-Pres. of the New Orleans Acad. of Science.
Poole, H., Derbyshire, England.
Tennant, Prof. J.. F.G.S., F. Z.8., &c., Mineralogist to H. M.
the Queen, London, England.
Turner, John, Madden Grange, Peterboro, England.

LIFE MEMBER.
Hon. Dr. Parker, M. L. C., Nova Scotia.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Nova Srotian Justitute of Natwal Science.

Art. 1. Notes on THE Groxtocy or Nova Scoria AND
Cape Breton. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. L.,
F. G. 8. &c., Director of the Provincial Museum.

(Read Nov. 11, 1872)

I PuRPOSE to direct attention to the results of a detailed exami-
nation of the metamorphic rocks of the interesting localities to
which my attention was directed last summer. The first in order
was in Cape Breton at George’s River, in the vicinity of the Sydney
portion of the great Cape Breton Coal Field. George’s River is
a small inlet of the Bras d’Or near the Little Passage, having
a brook flowing into it. When I arrived at the head of the
inlet, i observed an outcrop of red syenite at the bottom of the
mountain, and near it the remains of an old excavation. The latter
consisted chiefly of weathered serpentine. I then examined more
particularly the heap of material taken from a shaft recently sunk
at a short distance west of the old excavation. Here the prevailing
rocks were a beautiful white calcite and dark green serpentine. I
was at once assured that I had before me a counterpart of the
metamorphic, syenite, serpentine, and calcite, of Arisaig, Nova
Scotia. |

The other products of the shaft were small pieces of red jasper,
parts of a vein of iron pyrites of three or four inches thickness, and
a ponderous mineral of dark color chiefly, also iron pyrites. Of
another excavation farther to the west the product was a white
marble coarsely crystalline. Still farther on, for the distance of
probably two miles the sides of the mountains showed extensive out-

194 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

crops of marble. After this reconnaissance I commenced a regular
examination with the assistance of Messrs. Bell and McQuarrie,
starting about a mile to the east of the parts already mentioned.
On the shore of the Bras d’Or we found the beginning of the red
syenite of our former outcrop. Passing along westward we met a
series of outcrops of red syenite, and at last reached the summit of
a syenitic (George’s) Mountain, having an elevation of 890 feet,
according to the measurement of Capt. Bayfield. Descending the
mountain we reached our first noticed outcrop of syenite. ‘There
we found the syenite and serpentine already referred to in all but
immediate contact. Passing the excavations we mounted to the
summit, and found blueish-colored marble, rising iu lofty and pre-
cipitous walls. Proceeding onward we found the marbles parted
_ by bands of jaspideous rock ; then followed beautiful serpentinous
marbles and others. Our course was thus chiefly on the southern
side of the mountain range. Wishing to ascertain whether the
marbles and syenite were arranged as bands, we examined the
opposite or northern side of the range, a distance of 6 miles, and
observed continuous outcrops of red syenite, the limit of our exami-
nation being the second highest mountain of the range, having an
elevation of 700 feet. (Bayfield.) Re-examining the mountain
outcrops we found jutting out boldly between red syenite outcrops,
diorite, similar to that at Arisaig. I had here another evidence of
identity with the series of Arisaig. Subsequently we passed through
the mountain range in rear of the marble, and after passing over
outcrops of red syenite, probably a distance of a quarter of a mile,
we reached the rear of the marble massive walls of beautiful ophio-
calcite — serpentinous limestone. On the banks of George’s River
we find outcropping, thick beds of limestone having a lower carbon-
iferous aspect.

In order to shew the relation of these to the metamorphic rocks
already described, we have the aid of an excellent section of rocks
on the shore of the Bras d’Or, having the syenite already noticed
for its geological centre.

Beginning at the mouth of George’s River, north side, we first
exposed strata of limestone having a low dip. These are evidently
lower carboniferous ; they have abundance of small fossils chiefly

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 195

ertnoidal joints. These limestones when struck emit a strong odor
of petroleum. To some distance the section is obscure, and then
we find holes indicating the existence of underlying limestone.
Then comes the syenite centre. Next to this, is a considerable
thickness of greenstone; succeeding is a considerable thickness of
lower earboniferous shales, much disturbed and contorted by the
greenstone: in these are imbedded limestones. A projecting point
shews limestone and shales, apparently forming the termination of
a synclinal axis. There is also a thick bed of brachiopodous lime-
stone, familiar in Nova Scotian and Cape Bretonian lower carbon-
iferous Geology. They form a point on what we may call the
mainland and the south end of Long Island. (See map of Nova
Scotia.) These limestones are destitute of the petroleum odor.

Following the members of this section in their courses westward
we have the crinoidal limestone evidently forming the substrata of
the elevated bank on the north side of George’s River. The lime-
stones which I have already noticed as outcropping on the same
bank are a continuation of that indicated by the holes of the section.
This also has the strong petroleum odor. They directly overlie the
syenites, serpentines, and marbles, the first of which are a continu-
ation of the central syenite of the section. The greenstone extends
westward for nearly a mile, forming with the carboniferous strata
an elevation which partially obscures George’s Mountain on the
northern side. The carboniferous strata of Long Island are co-
extensive with the island, which is four miles in length. They dip
into the channel at a very high angle, enabling the steamer to skirt
the Island so as to make the minute details of structure in the strata
distinctly visible to the passenger.

We have these lower carboniferous strata thus lying directly on
the metamorphic rocks, but uncomformably. The carboniferous
strata are a part of the Sydney carboniferous formation, conse-
quently the metamorphic series which I have described are the
pre-carboniferous rocks of this well known coal field.

Closely connected with the limestones of George’s River are the
limestones and gypsum that skirt the shores of Boulardarie Island,
lying opposite. These limestones have also the petroleum odor.

196 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

I found in them abundance of the Hntomostraca, Leperditia, and
Beyrichia.

The examination of the metamorphic rocks of George’s River,
led to a re-examination of those related at Arisaig: of this I now
give the results. This locality is unlike the other m this, that it is
well known. It has been the subject of papers which are to be
found in the Journal of the Geological Society and Silliman’s
Journal, and it has been referred to in one of my papers read
before this Institute in 1870.

This publicity is to be regarded as premature, for although it is
four years since I made the discovery of this series of rock, it was
only last summer that I had the opportunity of making such an ex-
amination of them as I regarded necessary for arriving at satisfac-
tory conclusions respecting their proper character, so that I am not
astonished that the conclusions formerly deduced are not altogether —
so satisfactory as I could have wished.

I have already given general descriptions derived from a cursory
examination made under very unfavourable circumstances. I now
give a very minute description resulting from a thorough examina-
tion made with an intelligent assistant, and under the most favour-
able conditions. The whole series is here beautifully exposed in a
fine shore section, so that on this consideration in addition to
priority and completeness, it is to be regarded as typical. Like the
George’s River series, it has an easterly and westerly trend, so that
it is in a manner parallel to it.

For the purpose of further comparison I shall commence at the
north end of the Arisaig series, as I did with that of Cape Breton.

On the shore about miles from the north side of Cape George,
we have first syenites of three distinct colors, white, cream colored,
and red, with interbedded metamorphic quartzites of dark color.
These syenites are fine grained and have very little hornblende,
just enough to give them a syenitic character, and all contain crys-
tals of green feldspar. ‘This is the only place where I have seen
these in the province. Its venation is also peculiar as far as my
experience shows. Besides being of quartz they are pervaded by
numerous veins of calcite ; some of these are from four to six inches

thick,

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 197

The metamorphic slates which intervene are also intersected by
veins having a granitic composition, 7. e. quartz with abundance of
mica aggregations. These, in this character have some resein-
blance to the slates in the vicinity of Halifax, to which I have late-
ly been directing attention. Proceeding with the section, we have
diorites which project boldly into the sea; these pass into serpen-
tine having considerable beds of serpentinous limestone, which
extend into the diorite to the distance of about half a mile. This
is the bed of the supposed Hozodn, and the supposed evidence of
Laurentian age. Then we have diorite with quartz veins having
abundance of tale foliated, and in prismatic crystals. Next comes
diorite, perphyritic, with large crystals of amphibole. Then diorite
with numerous veins of quartz and saccharine limestone. This is
a character which it has in common with the syenite of the section.
After this is diorite with blue crystalline limestone in lenticular
beds and veins. Then hornblendic rock. Lastly, diorites with
crystalline limestones, serpentine and serpentinous limestones.

This series is beautifully connected in its parts by blending, and
by a sort of system of venation, the results of a common metamor-
phism, but still I regard it as composed of two divisions which
probably belong to two different geological periods.

I regard the syenite, as belonging to the azoic period; and the
diorites, argillites, ophites, and varieties of crystalline limestone,
serpentinous and bluish as belonging to the Lower Silurian period.

I consider that there is here a sort of parallelism with rocks which
I have lately examined in Halifax and environs. JI shall have
occasion to refer to this point in a future communication.

I would now show the relation which this Lower Arisaig series
bears to the Upper Arisaig series, and to an associated formation.
On the north-west side of the series there is necessarily obscurity,
as the rocks pass into Northumberland Straits. On the south-east
side the overlying rocks are lower carboniferous, consisting of
conglomerate, grits, sandstones, and limestones. Toward Cape
George they are succeeded by a considerable band of metamorphic
argillites, which much resemble those of the Antigonish Sugar
Loaf range. These as I have shown elsewhere, are in all proba-
bility Middle Silurian; they are well exposed along the shore,

198 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

and in a fine cross section in a brook at a distance of about a mile
from Cape George. There the band dips north. There are no
fossils in these rocks, but there is a small bed of crystalline lime-
stone (white marble,) which was doubtless a small fossiliferous
bed, and was rendered crystalline by the same action which render
ed the slates metamorphic. They are overlaid by a brecciated
conglomerate hardened, and having quartz veins. The last is
of lower carboniferous age. I was not aware of the existence of
this band of argillites, until last season. This is bounded on
the S. E. by a continuation of the lower carboniferous strata over-
lying the lower series. On the south-west there is trap and
lower carboniferous conglomerate intersected and hardened by trap,
with obscurity intervening between this and the upper Arisaig series
(Middle and Upper Silurian.)

The lower member of the series in question is extensively
distributed in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. The syenites
enter largely into the constitution of their mountain ranges,
forming their highest elevations. They are overlaid either by
middle silurian—fossiliferous or non-fossiliferous— or lower car-
boniferous. In several localities in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton,
I have reason to believe that both members of the series exist,
more or less complete. One of these is found in the Cobequids—
the greater number exist in Cape Breton. Greorge’s River has
been illustrated. I hope next season to be able to illustrate other
localities equally satisfactory.

I would, however, in the meantime make a particular observa-
tion upon one of these localities. In the serpentinous strata of
Whycocomagh, a vein of iron has been discovered, which is re-
ported to be of economic importance. There can be no doubt that
the containing rock belongs to the Lower Arisaig series. R. G.
Fraser, Esq., has kindly furnished me with specimens of the rocks,
which are unmistakably of the second number of the series. There
are serpentinous schist and marble. | :

I would now direct your attention to the opinions of other geo-
logists, on the subject before us, especially in reference to the
rocks of George’s River. Richard Brown, F. G.S., in his late
admirable work, ‘‘On the Coal Fields and Coal Trade of the

HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 199

Island of Cape Breton,” London, 1871, thus writes page 4, ‘the
limestones of this formation, (carboniferous) are well adapted for
agricultural and building purposes, and in some places, in the
vicinity of igneous rocks, furnish white, gray and variegated
marble of good quality in great abundance.” The ‘igneous
rocks” are the syenites and diorites described ; and the “ white,
gray and variegated marble,” are our white, blue and serpentinous
marbles.

In the geological map of Cape Breton, opposite the title page of
Mr. Brown’s work, and intended to illustrate it, I find the geology
of George’s River indicated by a broad band of carmine color,
(igneous) and then a band of light purple metamorphic and Silurian,
extending to George’s River. This covers all the region of my
survey from Long Island to George’s River, and inserts a metamor-
phic and Silurian band between his igneous rocks and carbonifer-
ous, which would interfere with the conversion of any limestone of
the latter by the igneous rocks into marble.

Dr. Dawson, in his Acadian Geology, specifies this district and
its marble, under ‘‘ Carboniferous System, Cape Breton County,”’
page 419. He says, ‘‘ An altered limestone which extends from
the neighborhood of Long Island on the Little Bras d ’Or, toward
the East Arm, affords a gray and white marble.”

This is substantially the same view in reference to the age and
origin of the George’s River marble, as given by Mr. Brown.

In answer to this view, I only adduce one incontrovertible fact,
which proves that the contact of syenite with lower carboniferous
limestone, does not produce marble. On the south side of An-
tigonish Harbor, there is a mountain consisting of syenite and
lower carboniferous limestone, having syenite in direct contact with
fossiliferous limestone throughout. On the summit the syenite and
limestone form a breccia. The limestone and its fossils, which
consist of connularia and entomastraca, are entirely unaltered.
Vide specimens in the Provincial Museum and in the Museum of
the Dominion Survey, Gabriel Street, Montreal.

In the Map of the Cape Breton Coal Field, Acadian Geology,
page 413, I find that the geology of the whole George’s River.
district under examination, is indicated by five parallel lines, and

200 HONEYMAN—ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the capital letter F, which are explained as metamorphic Silurian.
There is here also some discrepancy. I would observe that I have
no objection to the indication as far as the serpentine and marble
are concerned, provided it is explained metamorphic Lower Silurian

On companns these rocks with the metamorphic rocks of the
Paleoloaest series of Eastern Canada, as described in the Geology
of Canada, 1863, of the Canadian Survey, pages 597-618.

Canada. Nova Scotia. Cape Breton.
BENS AOL. VASPCL,» ci. jor as satoilln sislun suey . aspen, Geonges iver.
PA MEOB) caja Se Saar Salt gear Metom sean __Arisaig. ........George’s River.
Wealmatolite:c.: 2.4 eres. isk eligi orcs on o's pene aeRO came George’s River.
Diorite..........-. sisiinscicindeisia pains nue bic an oe NGS Dae George’s River.
Imbedded Hornblende pre

baesy tine. aeks ees ey TSA ID" «sion Ss) cinder nce
Crystals, ee Ss
6 Caen ee See MRM Nicer ive le. Ms ecrcee Sine,
PLt George’s River.
Serpenbime 62. ce) ee ele lebakid wh seals SOR ene
uh Whycocomah.
Calcareous Ophedite............ ..+ .....Arisaigy...2..Geerses liver:
HOMIE SEONG ice: 2 scars sacs le ELSE eee Arisaig..... sae George’s River.
Mom HOGS Se i) curciper wane istnes ay neg ae) eae apdeoganmonee ...Whycocomah.

To the Eastward the rocks of ) At Arisaig, syenites and diorites
upper Silurian and Devonian age, { are overlaid by middle and upper
are found reposing on those of the f Silurian.

Quebec Group. {

These coincidences are tou numerous to be accidental, and when
we consider that the rocks compared are at Gaspe and Arisaig on
opposite shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with Prince Edward
Island only intervening, identity can scarcely be questionable.

The evidence of fossils is a desideratum for the complete solution
of the problem of the age of these metamorphic rocks of Arisaig.
At one time it was supposed by some that this evidence was also
available. The discovery of the supposed Eozoon Canadense w:
considered as conclusive proof of the Laurentian age of the Arisaig
serpentines. It was afterwards found that the tubulation of the
Arisaig fossil was different from that of the Eozoon Canadense,
and it was considered by Dr. Dawson that the rock in question
might consequently be of later age. I must confess that I never
attached much importance to the discovery of the supposed fossil,
and consequently I always regarded its existence as proof of any -

HONEYMAN

ON THE GEOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 201

age, rather questionable. Sir Wm. Logan at first entertained
the opinion that the lower Arisaig Series, especially its serpentines,
were probably of the age to which I now consider them to belong,
but subsequently he changed his opinions.

There can be no question, however, that marine life was
abundant at the period when the rocks of the lower Arisaig series
were formed. The extent of the marbles, especially in Cape
Breton, proves this. These marbles were doubtless originally
fossiliferous limestones which were subsequently rendered crystal-
line by metamorphic action. J have already referred to a case of
this kind in the metamorphic middle Silurian, near Cape George.
The great development of these marbles shows that life then was
at least equal in prevalence to that of the lower carboniferous per-
iod, and greater than that of the middle and upper Silurian. The
latter under the most favorable circumstances, e. g. McAra’s Brook,
show limestones only in lenticular beds, a few inches in thickness,
while the carboniferous has limestones of considerable extent and
thickness.

I have shown that these marbles cannot be metamorphosed lower
earboniferous limestones. It is, therefore, a just inference that they
belong to another period which is known to have abounded in life,
to the lower Silurian which includes the limestones of the Calcif-
erous, Chazy and Trenton.

I consider that the syenites, diorites, porphyries and hornblende
rock, are indigenous, 7. e. resulting from the metamorphism of
sedimentary rocks, belonging to an age preceding the Silurian—
Azoic,—that they were subaérial during the Lower Silurian period,—
that by the tear and wear of these, the argillites and quartzite were
formed,—while at the same time the marine fauna of the period,
were actively or passively forming limestone, that all were
unitedly exposed to metamorphic or hydrothermal action, under
pressure,—that the argillites were ‘metamorphosed, the ser-
pentines formed, and the limestones crystallized,—that the
syenites and diorites were then fissured and pervaded with
veins of calcite and quartz,—that they were conjointly elevated
after the upper silurian and prior to the lower carboniferous period,
that they formed islands in the lower carboniferous seas, upon which

202 GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA. -

limestones, sandstone, shales and conglomerate, were deposited.
The crystalline rocks which have been examined, are thus brought
into relation with the auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia. The
syenites, (diorites and hornblende rocks?) are correlated with the
granites; the argillites, serpentines and marbles with the argillites,
quartzites, schists, and ironstones. Cape Breton is thus considered
to have a greater extent of metamorphic lower Silurian rock than
geologists have heretofore been disposed to concede to it, and of a
character which may in no small measure compensate for the proba-
ble limitation of auriferous deposits.

/

Art. Il. On THE Eaauss oF Nova Scotra. By J. BERNARD
Gitpin, B. A., M. D., M. R. C. S.

(Read November 11, 1872.)

HaviInG, in pursuing the subject of scutellation on the tarsi of
rapacious birds, been led to examine many eagles lately in this Pro-
vince, I have thought a short description of the known eagles in-
habiting it would be acceptable to the Institute. Although we have
a greater variety of Brown Eagles of various shades, or, as they
are termed, Gray Eagles, than of any other colour, yet all that have
come under my notice may be referred to two species and their
young: the eagle of the old world, or the Golden Eagle, and the
White-headed or American species. Although many of the brown
ones resembled, and even excelled in size the Washington Kagle
of Audubon, yet their bills and feet so exactly corresponded to the
White or Bald Eagle, that I had to refer them to the young of that
species.

Aquila chrysetos, (Linn., Richardson, Sclayter. )
Aquila canadensis, (Linn., Baird.)

Aquila fulva, (Temminck. )

Aquila antiquorum, (Cuvier.

Ring Eagle and Ring-tailed Eagle of Wilson and various
Kuropean authors, being the young.

GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA. 203

This noble bird is rare in our Province; perhaps six specimens
may be all I have studied. The late Dr. VanBuskirk kept one in
confinement several years. Mr. Downs had a pair trapped in the
Eastern Counties. I saw two mounted specimens at St. John, N.
B.; and Mr. Egan mounted a very fine one, killed at Pictou by a
woman. The adult bird is easily distinguished, and in the young
the feathered tarsi, absence of scutellation on the tarsi, paler colour,
and less robust, or as it were, less fatty look of legs and toes, dis-
tinguish it from the young of the bald. The most distinguishing
mark in those I have seen was the prolongation of the loose feathers
or hackles from the front and sides of the head to the shoulders.
These, tipped with pale golden, and semi-erect, gave the bird a
handsome crest, and added much to the intrepid look and stern eye,
brow, and well curved, well hooked beak. The other parts were
deep liver brown, the primaries black, and the shoulders rather
lighter than the back. The tails had always more or less of yel-
lowish white on the lower surface, making an indistinct crescent,
its head towards the vent. In this they resembled Bewick’s beauti-
ful wood-cut of the Ring-tailed Eagle. The whole plumage was
closer and finer than the bald’s, the motion quicker, usually in short
jumps, with less of that side to side walk, with head pushed
forward, tail kept off the ground, and wagging, that the bald
indulges in. |

The young of this species are described by various authors as be-
ing more or less light ferruginous, with white marks and blotches
upon the tail, which marks form a white crescent, but disappear with
years. In Mr. Egan’s specimen there was no white on the tail
coverts, and none beneath, or any crescentic marks, but there was a
little ash colour inside of the thighs. The one kept by Dr. VanBus-
kirk showed great ferocity. It attacked anybody approaching it,
striking their legs and ancles with its talons. Unless you had a
stout stick in your hand, your calfskin boot would soon be ripped
from your ancles. This same bird pounced upon and seized a large
tom-cat that was attracted under his perch by the fragments of meat
dropped about, and immediately devoured it, paying not the slight-
est heed to its frantic cries and desperate contortions. In its aus-

2

204 GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA.

tere, intrepid eye and brow, with swelling and golden crest, it far
exceeded the Bald Eagle.

Mr. Winton, who has taken a pair by trap, thinks they breed in
the Eastern counties. The best ornithologists of the day consider
this eagle common to the Northern parts of Europe, Asia and
America, and under the name of Golden Hagle, to include the vari-
ous synonyms of King and Ring-tailed Eagles, Fulvus Eagles, and
Eagle of the Ancients.

Ture Batp EAGue.

Halieatus lewcocephalus, (Linn., Baird.)

This fine bird is common to the Province, and breeds in our se-
cluded forests and rocky coasts. But it is so often seen in its im-
mature plumage, in which it has been confounded not only with the
last, but also with the Sea Eagle of Europe (H. albicella), that I
think it best to study its various immature plumages before giving
the adult. Systematic writers have also concluded that Audubon
has not succeeded in making a true species of H. washingtoniensis,
and that it is only the young of this species.

The prevailing colour of the smaller of a pair shot upon the
grounds of Wm. Cunard, Esq., was dark sepia brown on back,
head, neck, breast and lower parts; the brown a little lighter on
shoulders, and still more so on the tail coverts, which were some-
what soiled or splotched with white; tail above dark brown,
beneath the same, except the inner vanes, light brown, and the
inside of the tail feathers becoming white as they entered the vent,
which was also white. The long brown feathers covering the thigh
had a little white. The chin and throat were white, well streaked
with brown. All the loose feathers or hackles covering the neck,
both back and front, were white inside, with black tips, but it was
only on the front that the white showed through, the back showing
brown. ‘The primaries and secondaries were dark brown, and there
was a good deal of white inside the wing, the bill bluish black, the
cere yellow, and irides brownish. The bill was less rounded in its
contour, shorter, and with less elongated hook than the adult. The
legs were bright yellow, very robust, with a thick, fatty look. There

GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA. 205

were five large scales upon the front of the tarsus, five upon the
inside toe, thirteen upon the middle, eight upon the outside, and
five upon the back one; the rest of the leg was reticulated or rather
covered by roundish small scales. The claws were long, sharp and
black, and the soles rough with warty protuberances. The mate
of this bird, which was shot almost in the act of striking a peacock,
and with the remains of a pullet in her stomach, was larger, and
differed in having the tail coverts white, the tail on the under parts:
turning white, the body darker, and the bill turning yellow, with
the beak elongating, and curve finer. Thus, here were two imma--
ture birds, the one a little advanced of the other in plumage and
bill, mating together. In another specimen put up from a dead.
horse at Steele’s Pond, I found the plumage a light clay brown, but ~
otherwise resembling the others, the irides were brownish, bill’
black-horn colour, cere yellow. The very great size, the extended’
wing, nearly eight feet, the tail in the dried state fifteen inches and’
a half, and the whole bird three feet one inch, and exceeding an’
adult by six inches, (all these dimensions except the first being from
the dried bird, ) made me think I had found the lost H. washing-
toniensis, but the bright yellow feet and robust talons, though:
differing slightly in their scutellation, so exactly correspond with
those of the adult bald, that it left no doubt of its place. On the
third moult, that is in the fourth year, these birds, though breeding -
in the second year, assume their adult plumage. The head, neck,
and tail are now pure white, the other parts deep liver brown, with
the edge of each feather paler, giving that fine imbricated look to-
the plumage. The bill has changed from bluish horn-black to
bright yellow, its beak lengthened and contour rounded with a
slight notch on the upper mandible, and the irides a wine yellow.
The bright yellow robust legs and talons remain the same. ‘This
is the bird one meets not seldom on the rugged shores of the Bay of —
Fundy, perched upon a high overhanging dead pine. He boldly
stands your approach, lazily floating away as a branch of the with-
ered limb comes rattling down from his strong grasp. He is a
fishing eagle, and always found upon the sea coast, or near water--
falls on the inland, though he will eat carrion.

I was riding one morning among the pleasant hills of St:

206 GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Clements, when most protracted screams filled the air. Looking
above I saw an osprey or fishing hawk loaded with a fine large
fish, upon whose back a bald eagle was making stoop after stoop,
‘soaring up after every strike and striking agam. Presently the fish
tumbled out of the osprey’s claws and came skimmering down flash-
ing in the early slanting sun rays. ‘The eagle folded his wings,
‘dropped like lightning below the fish, and turning upon his back
caught it, whilst the poor hawk disappeared screaming.

Though Wilson gives instances of this bird carrying off lambs,
-and in one instance a child, there are no traditions of such daring
in this Province. His favorite food is fish; he strikes them alive,
‘but will accept them dead ; and we see him on this pursuit watching
‘from a blasted pinethe receding tide, or beating the long half dry flats
of the Bay of Fundy. Our largest specimen was put up from a
‘dead horse lying on the beach. ‘They are usually im good condi
‘tion, and no doubt the plenty of rich food, varied by hares,
squirrels and grouse he obtains in the forest, prevents him from
‘turning his yellow talons on lamb or child. They breed both on
‘trees, and in rock cliffs. This last fact, verified by Mr. A. Downs,
seeing them clinging to the cliffs in Grand Lake, is of note, as Mr.
Audubon claims this as distinguishing his waskingtoniensis from the
‘balds. Though as long ago as Wilson, it has been determined that
‘the brown eagles turn into balds in the fourth year, yet it is pleas-
‘ing towerify it ourselves, to see the different colours mated together,
‘or to watch them in confinement putting on the adult colours in the
‘fourth year, as we have done in the gardens of Mr. Downs, and

Mr. Leahy. As a sure test in determining our young specimens,
and preventing them from being confounded together, or even with
the albicella or Sea Eagle of Europe, which occurs in Greenland,
(and a strong tempest driving one here may occur,) the scutella or
large scales on the feet and toes are the best tests. The Golden
Eagle has none on the legs, and about three on each toe, the bald
eagle has usually five on the leg, five on the inner toe, from eleven
to thirteen upon the middle, eight upon the outside, and five upon
the behind toe. ‘These vary especially upon the middle toe, and
upon the leg ; but a series of perhaps thirty gives this approxima-
tion. The greatest variation occurs upon the tarsi on the leg, and

GILPIN—ON THE EAGLES OF NOVA SCOTIA. 207

though nearly every specimen has five lateral scales upon the front
yet in some they are so small and obsolete, that they have to»
looked for, whilst in others they are very large, and extend nearly
to the joints of the front toes, as in Audubon’s figure. This diffe
rence is especially to be noticed, because Audubon makes ‘‘ scutel-
Jation on tarsi and toes continuous with their length,” a specific
mark of his great Brown Eagle H. washingtoniensis, and he
figures it so in his great work. Subsequent writers as Cassim and
Baird have denied that it can be so, and indeed one cannot get
over the anatomical fact that no great scales can cover a joint, or
that the hind toe, if even the three front ones might, would be
incapable of a continuous scutellation; yet we have a satisfaction in
showing, I think for the first time, a very marked approximation to
Audubon’s figure. As regards the other specific marks of the
Washington eagle,—of his folded wing not reaching to the end of
his tail,—of his nesting in cliffs instead of trees, our young balds
possess them both.

16th June, 1873.—I examined a young bald. I supposed it to
be about two weeks old. It was covered with thick yellow down.
The primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries in pin feather, and about
two inches long, were sepia brown with lighter tips. The spurious
feathers were also showing. ‘There were three or four dark spots
on the back, and the tail feathers just showing, all the rest yellow-
ish down. ‘The legs were pale yellow; there were twelve scutelle
on the front of the tarsus, about twenty on the middle toe, and the
back of the tarsus was also scutellated. The bill was yellow tipped
with black on both mandibles, but the curve little developed and
resembling that of the turkey buzzard. The length of the body
from tip of bill to tail, eleven inches, and thigh and outstretched
leg to toe cight inches.

This bird was sent me from Digby county by my son. The
great development in number of the scutelle and their appearance
upon the back of the tarsus, in what may almost be called the
embryo, and also the striking resemblance in the head and bill to
the carrion buzzards, are both prominent facts in regarding scutel-
lation as temporary and non-typical, and also in Agassiz’s theory of
fhe young resembling the next luwer type.

;

208 POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT.

In conclusion, I have met only two eagles inhabiting the Pro-
vince, the Golden Eagle, the aguéla antiquorum, the bird of -
Jove, of Cesar, the type of the white, red, black, and double
headed Teutonic family, and of the first Napoleon; the second or
Bald Eagle, our great neighbour has adopted as their symbol.

We may say that the old world having first choice has the finer
bird, yet a great maritime country is well symbolised by a Sea
Eagle; and Nova Scotians may well say, glancing at our plundered
fishing grounds—a fishing one.

ArT. II. Tue Great American Desert. By Henry S.
Pooute Esq., F. G.S., &., Govt. Inspector af Mines.

(Read Jan. 18, 1878)

A. POPULAR lecturer recently speaking of the Great North-West
referred to a map on the wall, and pointing to a great region of
country which extends from the parallel of the north fork of the
Platte River to the Sierra Nevada, and from the boundary line of
British Territory to Mexico, spoke of it as the Great American
Desert. To the immigrant pushing across the continent to the gold-
en state, California, it formerly doubtless did seem to be all desert.
For after leaving the rich loomy soil of Illinois and Iowa, and
the rolling prairie of Nebraska, bright with many-colored flowers,
he entered on a region which grew more and more desolate as he
advanced towards its centre, and yet he seldom found any of it so
poor but that it afforded sufficient nourishment for his cattle, and
enabled him with their aid, after many weary months of incessant
toil, to reach his destination.

But it is not to that immense region, now better known, and no
longer spoken of as the desert, that I desire to draw your attention.
It is merely to a portion of it that lies nearly in the centre, and forms
but a small part of the whole of the country. Without doubt there
are in the region referred to by the lecturer, besides the desert that
is a desert beyond question, extensive tracts of most desolate and
forbidding looking country, as equally ill adapted for cultivation as

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. 209

the saline plains of the Saskatchawan, or a Bay of Fundy mud flat
at low tide. Still as there are many fertile valleys among the
mountains naturally well watered, and many extensive plains that
need only irrigation to make them blossom as the rose, the term
Great American Desert has become restricted to and is now only
applied to that comparatively small district, which les immediately
to the west and south-west of the Great Salt Lake in Utah Terri-
tory. The northern border of this region is skirted by the Central
Pacific Railroad; but before the trans-continental traveller from
the east becomes acquainted with its dreary expanse, he has to tra-
verse the passes of the Wahsatch Mountains, where his attention is
drawn to the bold scenery of Echo and Weber Cafions, and where
as he scans the rugged sides of those passes for glimpses of the
picturesque spots, or for unfamiliar views of towering crags and
overhanging precipices, he will perchance as he nears Ogden (the
junction of the Union and Central Pacific roads,) notice horizontal
and parallel lines more or less distinctly marked on the sides of the
Cafion. These lines on a nearer approach are seen to be made of
wide ‘‘ beaches”, or, as they are locally called, ‘‘ benches” of gravel,
which having a gentle inclination plainward extend in a series of
terraces from the foothills of the mountains to the bed of the cafion
and margin of the lake. The attention once called to this peculiar
feature of the landscape, the eye naturally wanders over the wide
view which is presented when the valley of the Great Lake is
reached, for further confirmation of the well known theory which
their appearance calls to remembrance :—that they are the ‘* beaches”
formed by the lake when its waters stood at a much higher level
than they do at present.

Through the clear air the continuations of these horizontal lines
are seen for miles girdling the mountain sides and the rocky
islands in the lake.. The more this feature of the landscape is
considered, the more conclusive does the evidence seem that each
terrace marks the position at which the landwash of the great sea
once stood, and that the present lake, large as it is, is but the rem-
nant of one a hundred times greater.

But it is on the borders of the great desert where a wider range
gave freer scope to the ancient winds and storms to stir up the

210 POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT.

waters of the lake, and scour its shores, that a remarkably well
defined beach is most plainly visible. Of so recent a formation
does it appear to be, when seen from a distance, that it forcibly
reminds the Nova Scotian of the wide beaches and broad spread
detritus that surround the islets and headlands of the Bay of
Fundy. ‘This desert and its neighbourhood greatly interested me,
on account of its peculiar physical characteristics and distinctive
features.

From Salt Lake City the most direct trail west skirts the south-
ern margin of the lake, passing close by some hot sulphur springs
that bubble up in the fine loomy mire of its margin, by the foot of
the Oquirrh Mountain range, where the waters of the lake wash the -
only stretch of beach to be met with on its southern and eastern
boundaries, then along a natural causeway which curves across the
flats of Tooelé valley and is evidently the remains of a former beach
ridge, similar in ‘character to the ‘‘ boar’s back” of Cumberland
county, only that it is composed of finer materials—gravel and
sand. At the head of the valley ten miles distant, at an elevation
of 600 feet above the lake, a very much heavier bar exists entire,
which damming back the natural drainage of Rush valley forms
Stockton Lake, a lake of fresh water. The trail then skirting the
promontory of the Onaqui Mountains, turns south up Skull Valley
and leads by a gradual ascent to the divide on the mountain range
which overlooks the Great American Desert. From this point at an
altitude of 1800 feet above the plain, I obtained a view of exquisite
grandeur. At the foot of the steep descent lay the desert, spread-
ing far end wide, with patches of snow on its surface, reflecting,
like pools of water, the rays of the setting sun. Immediately in
front and apparently at no great distance, though nearly eighteen
miles off, the Granite Mountain, the camping ground for the night,
lay alone in the desert. Beyond it were the low-lying ranges which
border the desert on the west, and further on the Mountains of
Nevada. To the right, more than one hundred miles away, the
high peaks of Southern Idaho were visible, beyond the northern
boundary. But the mind, bewildered by the vast extent of the
vista, could hardly direct the attention to localize the unfamiliar

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. 911

objects, before a low-hanging cloud, its upper surface as it were
spray of great waves, dashed by the tempest against the mountain
islands and frozen at the instant, rapidly approached, obscured the
plain and changed the scene like a dissolving view. This picture
was but of short duration, for the cloud quickly advancing soon
enveloped me in its misty folds, and left nothing but an ill-defined
view of plain and looming mountain visible.

From the Granite Mountain the trail speedily leads to the
lowest part of the desert, where no grease-wovd or even sage brush
grows, and where the mud baked in the dry season glitters with its
salt incrustation. Like the sediment on the banks of the Avon it
separates into thin layers, but when wet from recent rains is as ad-
hesive and slippery as mud well can be, balling horses’ feet much
worse than the damp snow does here in the month of March. This
mud has a perfectly level surface, and occupies the lower portion of
the desert. As the shore of this dried up sea is approached, a
gradual though all but imperceptible ascent being made, the charac-
ter of the detritus from being fine clay becomes more and more
sandy ; and the sand not baking on the surface as the mud of the
interior, gets blown during the dry season into hillocks, and little
mounds round each clump or isolated sage bush. It also takes the
form of long ridges stretching from point to point at the mouths of
bays, or encircling the quondam islands, often many miles from
their base, presents the character of sand bars, having gradually
sloping faces seaward, and with steep declivities landward, shuts
off what must have been immense lagoons from all but slight
connexion with the outer sea. A bar of similar character now
‘separates the desert from the high water line of the western
shore of the great lake, and as the elevation of the bed of the desert
cannot be many feet above the surface of the water in the sea, there
may be some truth in the Indian tradition, that long ago the
greater portion of this region was permanently under water. It is
well known that, after heavy winter storms, wide sheets of shallow
water stretch for miles over the desert. Dammed back from the
lake the water can only pass off by absorption, or evaporation. It

ae, POOLE

ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT.

has been shown by comparing the records of a series of years that
the level of the great Jake varies.

From the accounts of the early settlers, it appears that the
amount of rain-fall largely increased from the time of their first
arrival until a year or two ago, when a retrograde decade commen-
ced. They affirm, that during that period the level of the Great
Salt Lake rose as much as nine feet, above the height it occupied
at the time of their first advent into the valley; and also that in
consequence of the increased precipitation the waters of the lake
became less saline, in the proportion of 3 to 7—a proportion deter-
mined by the quantity of water required to yield the same amount
of salt in the pans. As a further confirmation of their statement,
they say that the islands in the southern end of the lake could, in
early days, be reached on horseback, while now they can only be
gained by boats.

A very interesting ‘‘ tide guage” is to be seen, in a mound on
the edge of the lake opposite the village of Bountiful. At the
present day only the top of the mound is above water, but ten years
ago the edge of the lake was so far from it that a settler thought
the surrounding land could be sufficiently drained, and otherwise
prepared for crops. He consequently began to cut drains and
break up the soil by ploughing and deep trenching, hoping in three
years or so, to find the surface sufficiently washed from salts to
allow of his planting wheat and corn. His hopes were disappoint-
ed, but in ploughing over the top of the mound, he turned up
fragments of rude pottery, and a stone similar in shape to the
hollowed stones now used by the Arapahoes and other maize-
growing Indians of the present day to bruise their corn. Similar
mounds were cut open in building the Utah Central Railroad
through the valley. It would therefore seem that when the seden-
tary tribes of Indians, who inhabited the valley previous to the
incursion of the Piutes and other predatory tribes, who occupied
it on the arrival of the whites, the level of the lake was even
lower than at the time when the Mormons first settled the country.
That the Salt Lake is not altogether lifeless has been recently
proved by the discovery of a crustacean—Artemia salina—in its

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN, DESERT. es Wes

waters. The species is very similar to that found in the salt pans
of Europe.

Returning to the desert where we left the trail, to consider the
variations of level in the Jake, the old overland stage route, after
passing the outlying belt of sand hills, traverses the ancient beach,
which starts from the mountain side fully nine hundred feet above
the lowest part of the desert, and extends seaward, if I may so
term it, for as much as four miles in some places, before the gravel
gives place to sand, and for many more miles before the region of
salt mud and utter desolation is attained. The whole face of the
beach shows evidence that many periods’ of cessation took place,
during the subsidence of the waters. In places, sections of the
materials which compose the beach are shown: beds of fine white
sand partly cemented, lie interstratified with beds of coarse gravel.
In sheltered ravines I have counted eighteen bench lines within an
elevation of two hundred feet. In other and exposed places the .
sloping faces would be of great leneth, and represent an elevation of
one hundred feet or more between the lines of change of grade, as
round the points of the old promontories, and in positions parallel
to the general course of the plain and valleys. These wide benches
would seem to mark the more permanent stages in the general
subsidenee, and the numerous lines seen in the better sheltered
bays, to point to intermediate stages of shorter duration, which
on the exposed shore became obliterated by the fluctuations of level
in the lake, and by the wash of waves during storms. Again in
large land-locked bays, as the present Camp Floyd valley, where
a stretch of country twenty-five miles long, by eight wide, has the
range of mountains lying parallel to the line of drainage; there a
uniform slope of about seventy feet to the mile is seen without any
bench lines or divisions into terraces, except it may be round the
mounds at the base of poiats of rocks, and outlying foot hills.

These benches, indubiiably prehistoric beaches, cannot fail to be
noticed in others of the low-lying valleys of the country known as
the ‘‘ great interior basin,” and which includes all Nevada and half
of Utah; an area of at least 150,000 square miles. Besides the
prominent benches, noticed by every one, a close inspection in

214 POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT.

certain districts of the region reveals indications, not very distinct,
but suggestive of doubt whether the ancient sea did not extend to
even a greater altitude, than where the well-marked terraces define
its sometime boundary: a doubt which further attention to the
subject almost changes into a belief. The old overland road after
leaving the desert, and before entering the confines of Nevada,
crosses the Deep Creek, which flows through a narrow elevated
valley, on the sides of which at an elevation of 1800 feet above the
lake, great beds of gravel uniformly deposited, and evidently by
water, have the same parellelism which is so discernible in the
valleys opening into the ‘Desert and Great Salt Lake. The lines
of level which elsewhere cannot fail to catch the eye, are here
through time almost obliterated, and can only be detected when
viewing an extended range of country.

What has been the origin of these gravel beds? For beds of a
similar character are also to be met with in many other elevated
valleys. ‘They are evidently not fluviatile. Are they lacustrine ;
or can they possibly be marine? Lying as they do truly horizon-
tal, it is highly improbable that they can be marine, and were |
formed when the mountain ranges as islands were emerging from
the ocean. Were this possibly the case, then the whole of that
country lying between the Wahsatch and the Sierra Nevada must
have been bodily elevated 6,000 feet without tilting or breaking in
any degree the uniformity of these superficial deposits. And yet
if the valleys of this elevated region were not filled by the action of
marine denudation, we are forced to conclude, improbable as it
may at first seem, that they were by subaérial agency, and that
the agent which formed the benches was a lake of fresh water.*
A lake which must have extended over the major part of the greater
interior basin, and have had its surface at one time, nearly, if not
quite, 2,000 feet above the present level of the Salt Lake. It is

* In digging a well near Salt Lake City, fresh water shells were found some
forty feet below the surface in the gravel deposits, and on the north side of the
lake, the cuts on the railroad, through the gravel and sand, reveal the greatest
abundance of fresh water shells. The species that seem to have been most abun-
dant is Fluminicola fusca. Varieties of Limnea, Valvata and Amnicola, were also
discovered.—_HaYpEn.

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. 915

hard to contemplate what physical changes must have taken place
in the adjacent regions of the continent since the earlier days of the
present epoch when this immense lake existed, so to affect the
climate of a country which for a lengthened period undoubtedly
was humid, but is now arid for at least the greater part of the year.

It is evident that for countless ages this great inland sea
existed, and receiving the detritus washed from the shores of
the numerous chains of islands studding its snrface, distributed
it according to the size of the particles in the valleys adjacent ;
carrying the fine sediment to the centre of the valleys, and leaving
on its shores the coarser material to form the gravel benches which
now belt the mountain ranges. The thickness of these deposits is
as yet undetermined. The deepest wells yet sunk have only reach-
ed a depth of two hundred feet, and merely show that the materials
composing the benches are not all uniform in size. Beds of
coarse gravel give place and alternate with beds of fine gravel and
sand. Here and there through the deposit, boulders of stone record
the existence of ice at times in the days of this ancient lake. The
action of ice, probably in the form of glaciers, is also recorded in
the well rounded stones found in the gravels of the most elevated
valleys, which stones have been fractured and re-cemented together,
as are those of a similar character found in the terminal moraines
of existing glaciers. From the great width of the main valleys and
the precipitous sides of the mountain ranges, I have little doubt
but that the bottoms of the valleys were originally much below
their present position, and that they have been filled in with detrital
matter to the depth of many hundreds, if not thousands of feet.

An apparent further confirmation of the great altitude which the
surface of the lake attained in former times is to be seen at Bing-
ham Cafion on the east side of the Oquirrh Mountains, where at a
height of 300 feet above the present bed of the cafion and close to
the town, a portion of the old bed remains on the side of the
mountain. This bed had a steep descent towards the plain, and yet
became choked with great water worn boulders of the country
rock. In the clay and with the fragments of quartz veins which
fill the interstices. between the boulders much of the gold which
gives Bingham its celebrity as a mining camp, is found. It is

216 POOLE=—-ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT,

just probable that when the highest benches along the foot hills
were formed, they acted as a dam at the mouth of the canon, on
the free discharge of the mountain torrent before the general sub-
sidence began, and the old bed became choked with the great
boulders which now fill its course. ;

It is interesting to note that nowhere in all the region of the
great interior basin ar> there any outlets for the drainage of the
country. All the moisture which falls is carried off by evaporation.
It is supposed by some that there was an outlet for the waters of
the ancient lake by the Snake River Pass into the channel of the
Columbia River, which flows through Oregon into the Pacific.
Whatever may have been the destination of the water in old times,
the Great Salt Lake is now the receptacle of all the drainage of the
North Eastern portion, while other smaller lakes or sinks terminate
the existence of many torrents that rush impetuously and in great
volume from the mountain gorges in other sections of the country.
Generally these mountain streams flow but a short distance after
leaving the rocky bed of the cafion before they are totally absorbed
in the deep alluvium of the plains. Some, however, do flow into
perennial lakes that are either alkaline or saline; but to sink in a
morass is the general destiny of a mountain stream.

Springs also, which in certain districts are numerous, and often of
great volume, give rise to streams that originate only to share the
common fate, and be lost in their immediate neighborhood. Some-
times these springs burst up in the plain several miles away from
the base of the mountains. ‘Those of pure water frequently swarm
with fish

flows hot, and charged with sulphuretted hydrogen; and from

mountain trout and suckers. From some the water

others cold, and contaminated by contact with the alkaline soil
through which they rise.

The scarcity of water in this region contrasts strongly with the
numerous brooks and rivers we find intersecting this Province in all
directions. Water there is a marketable commodity, and is sold
either by the inch or hour. It is an object of first consideration to
the freighter slowly journeying over the country, to the farmer
striving to make a moderate income from the natural fertility of the

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. 217

soil, and to the miner desirous of the aid of steam to help him ex-
tract from the mine his expected fortune.

The scarcity of water restricts the growth of timber to certain

districts, and explains the application of the term ‘‘ treeless wastes,”
which has been applied to the plains.
In summer, showers are of much more frequent occurrence on the
mountains, and fall much heavier on the timbered ranges than on
the foothills and valleys. In general a summer storm which
drenches the mountain sides affords but at most a gentle shower or
temporary shade to the treeless plain. Even the snows of winter
fall lightly on the plain, while storms almost daily rage among the
peaks of the Wahsatch. Looking at any mountain range, it will
be noticed that the Southern slopes of the spurs, parched by the rays
of a constantly blazing sun, are utterly barren, while the opposite
sides, having a Northern aspect, are heavily clothed with timber.
The dark shade of the pine trees deepens the shadows cast in the
ravines, and heightening the contrast, throws the crests of the
mountain spurs into greater relief.

Wherever in the yalleys there is a constant supply of water, trees
will grow, as they naturally do along the courses of the streams or
artificial irrigation ditches. Again on the foothills clumps of cedar
grow wherever springs, which may not even show themselves at
the surface, keep the ground moist. I lately referred to the enor-
mous quantity of detrital matter which torn from the mountain sides
had been ground down, comminuted and carried off into the
depressions between the ranges until it had filled them up and made
the present great stretches of plain and valley. The period of time
necessary to produce changes so extensive must at least have been
great if not incalculable. The very changes themselves would
produce such modifications of the surface as to bring fresh elements
into the calculation, and reduce the most careful estimates to but
wild guesses.

Besides the silting up of the valleys other evidences remain to
show the extent of the denudation. Even on the mountain sides
there are monuments to point to the wear and tear due to the
elements. Castle rock and Pulpit rock in Echo Cajion, and the
‘red buttes” on the plains of Laramie, are some of these.

218 POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT.

Pinnacles also, either isolated or arranged in groups, stand out
of the rounded hill side or denuded plain, and resemble the roches
perchés on pillars of ice on the great mers de glace of the Alps.
Professor Tyndal has clearly explained how the blocks of stone
became perched on pillars of ice on the surface of the mers de
glace. Similarly these pinnacles capped with blocks of sandstone,
more compact and less friable than the conglomerate that composes
their shafts, were doubtless formed.

The harder and more enduring blocks of sandstone, fragments
of an overlying bed, have protected the more perishable red conglo-
merate from the disintegrating action of the heavy rains, while
the general level of the country was being reduced; and these
pinnacles remained to mark its position in times gone by.

Another interestiug record similar in character to that preserved
by the ‘‘red buttes” is the Devil’s Slide, as it is called, in Echo
Cafion. Two parallel dykes of syenite some four to eight feet
thick and close together, rise abruptly to a height of twenty feet
above the surface of the mountain side.

The extent of the effect of the subaérial agents on the constitu-
ents of mineral veins, in this region, furnishes still more conclusive
evidence of the great period of time which has elapsed since the
waters of the great lake receded from their more elevated levels
to their present position.

In the beds of certain of the cafions and on the mountain sides
where the strata are of such a nature as to retain the water, there
we yet find even at great elevations the constituents of the lodes as
sulphurets. But where by natural channels the water absorbed by
the ground in the wet season is allowed to drain away, the warm
air, containing of course carbonic acid, which filters in, has an
opportunity to act on the mineral substances contained in the vein,
decomposition is set up and oxidation of the sulphurets takes place
in a degree proportionate to the facilities offered by the structure of
the vein, and the tendency of the minerals to decompose under such
circumstances. 7

Now since even down on the foothills, the outcroppings of
galena lodes are found to consist of cerussite, with here and there

POOLE—ON THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT. 219°

a nucleus of galena, the purity of which has alone effectually resisted
the slow combustion which the favorable conditions for the admission:
of moisture, warmth, and air, have established in the vein where the-
more easily decomposable iron pyrites are intermixed with the galena,.
we are forced to conclude that a considerable length of time must

have passed away since these veins were first exposed by the:
subsidence ot the lake to the action of the agents of the atmosphere,

to allow the decomposition to extend to the depth to which by’
mining, it is often found to have gone.

In the veins in the limestones of Camp Floyd and Lyon hill,.
the outer portions are found to contain chloride and chloro--
bromide of silver, which in depth give place to ruby silver,.
and at still greater depths, to sulphides and antimonial silver ores.
The limestones being open have allowed the action of the elements :
to transform the sulphides and antimonides into oxides and chlorides
of silver, even to a depth of one and two hundred feet.

The Jordan property, the oldest location in Utah, has enormous -
deposits of carbonate ore, averaging 60 per cent. in lead,
cropping to the surface, which in depth, as soon as water is.
struck, gives place to unconverted galena. As much of this
galena is largely mixed with iron pyrites, which the decompo-
sition in the upper portion of the vein changed into sesquioxide of .
iron, 2 base rather beneficial than otherwise for the reduction of
the ore in the blast furnace, the value of the property which the:
appearances on the surface indicated is greatly reduced.

The ores from the great Emma mine also supply excellent
examples. The specimens on the table show all the stages of
change. The nucleus of each nodule being either of galena or of |
undecomposed sulphoantimonide of lead and silver, is encased by
partially oxidized compounds and carbonate of lead and oxide of
silver.

I have here a very interesting mineral, the remains of a rodent
encased in lead ore. It was found in the Silver Exchange on Lyon
Hill. The country rock there is limestone ; and fissures penetrate
it to a considerable distance. The animal, probably a ground
squirrel, to which this portion of a lower jaw belonged, must have-

3

220 GILPIN—-ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

found its way into the fissure to die, or the body must have by
.some means been carried in, previous to the washing down of the
‘lead ore from higher levels, or before the waters carrying the lead
«in solution precipitated it on these remains. A mineral vein is a
»most unusual position in which to find organic remains; and the
‘modernness of these clearly demonstrates the changes which minera!
‘veins are subject to under the favorable conditions which: this
‘region presents.

Art. ITV. Own THE Stone AGE or Nova Scotia. By J.
BERNARD Giupin, A. B., M. D., M. BR. C.S.,

(Read Feb. 10, 1878.)

WRiTERS upon the Stone Age of the old world ‘know nothing

‘of the habits, the manners, not even the forms of the prehistoric
‘men who fashioned those stone axes and celts, (almost their only
record) which have of late excited so great interest. The age of
Bronze is a myth. The age of Stone has swallowed every myth in
‘its fabulous -antiquity. Not so when we study our own stone
~period. We.know from contemporaneous writers their forms, their
habits, their clothing, their wars, their peaces ; we can bring to the
:mind’s eye the brown hands that toiled over pointing an agate, or
‘ground down the edge of an axe,—the dusky red man who fished
the short summer, hunted the long winter, eat of no bread, asked
nothing of the fair land he lived in, but shelter for his game, and

its profusion of wild berries which it cost him no toil to gather.
Among the gentlemen who followed DeMonts in planting in
the year 1608, the French colony at Port Royal, now Annapolis,
Nova Scotia, was LesCarbot. From an old and rare translation
(London 1712,) of his original work published 1607 in France,
from the library of T. B. Akins, Esq., I quote the following parti-
culars of the habits of our Nova Scotian Indians, at the period of
1603, now two hundred and seventy years gone, and what may be
called the end of their stone age. When it began, we can ecarcely
conjecture.

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.

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ae ds
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basslnesi ints

: j Po dl

4 at OR, | bos

Sp ata aol
et

GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA. Psleg |

Our Indian was clothed ; he wore a waist belt of leather prepa-
red from moose or caribou skin, an end or flap of which passed
between his legs and fastened behind; over this was a cloak of
skins, tied by a leather thong about the neck. In camp he usually
east this cloak off, and went with one arm bare. Neither sex wore
any covering upon the head, and the woman was clothed alike,
except that a belt kept her cloak tight to her figure. When ex-
posed on the water, or hunting in the snow, he put on long sleeves
of skin, fastened to each other by a thong, and long stockings
of the same, reaching and tied to his waist belt. These ‘* hosen”
were ornamented on the outside by tags of leather. These tags or
fringe is the universal ornament of the entire continent, seen in the
present suits of the Rocky Mountains, and found in the selvaged
and scarlet edge of the blue cloth stocking of our day. The
custom of tying the fur mitten about the neck is still preserved by
the Labrador settlers, though lost by the Indian. Stout moccasins
complete his dress. His wants were simple: food, shelter, and
defence. The easiest obtained food was fish, consequently he fish-
ed eight months of the year on the sea-coast. Smelts, herring,
shad, gaspereux, salmon, trout, and eels, were taken, by damming
the rivers with stone and wooden dams, and leaving an opening
through which the fish in passing and returning from spawning
must pass, and be taken by spearing, or in a basket. Shell fish
always furnished an inexhaustible supply. The ocean fish were
taken by bone heok, though already the steel hook was beginning
to supplant them. When the winter drove the fish to deep sound-
ings, then his food was the flesh of moose, caribou, bear, beaver,
with the smaller game of hares and raccoons. In moving from
the sea coast to the interior forest, he needed some vehicle to trans-
port his few properties; the skins and bark for his wigwam, his
rude pots, his bows and arrews, and weapons of defence or the
chase. ‘The canoe built of birch bark was always on hand. (A
smaller boat of platted willows covered with gum seems to have
been lost out of all tradition.) His shelter, his camp or wigwam
may be seen unchanged at the present day, with its poles drawn to
a top centre, its covering of bark, and its spreading circle below, or
in the rude circular stone walls which may still be seen standing on

229 GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the stony beaches of the Bay of Fundy, and looking as if they had
stood there three hundred years. For defence against his enemies
he made a stockade, that is he lashed the boles of contiguous trees
together in the form of a square, thickening them with branches
and other poles, and raised his wigwams inside the square. For
defence of his person in war, he bore a shield doubtless made of
wood and skins, and carried a bow, strong but not very fine, on his
back, with a quiver filled with long polished arrows feathered with
eagles’ feathers, and a war club in his hand.

Two hundred warriors naked to their waist belts, thus armed
stepped out before LesCarbot in dancing measure at St. John
River. They had come from Gaspe at the command of Member-
tou the great Annapolis Sachem, to join the St. John Indians, and
his own people in the war they were waging with the tribes beyond
the Kenebeck. It is singular there is no mention of scalping in
this narrative. Before this, LesCarbot saw them hunting the
moose with bow and arrows alone, and in all his narrative there is
- no mention of spears or javelins, though we find abundant stone
heads still. The use of tobacco was universal, using shallow stone
pans with quills and reeds stuck in them. This they must have
obtained from the tribes west and south of the Kenebeck, as they
planted none themselves. There was no planting east or north of
the Kenebeck, not from ignorance but rather from idleness as Les-
Carbot tells us. They ceased to plant, and to make stone clay
pots, when they could obtain kettles and biscuit from the French
traders, in barter for furs.

With the use of tobacco they had also almost consequent to its
use, the power of making fire, at all times and places. The dry
punk and the bit of agate was always theirs ; but it is probable that
the steel and the art were got from the French, who had traded
full fifty years before at Canseau. LesCarbot is silent about it.
They taught the willing French the use of tobacco, who used it to.
excess. Thus at the dawn of the iron age in Nova Scotia, we find
our stone age man a comely, fairly fed savage, clothed,—a fish and
flesh eater,—no toiler of the earth, eating only of that luxuriant
berry harvest, to which all our carnivori still hasten, not excepting
Saxon man himself, and which seems almost spread as an antidote

GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA. 223

to the non-bread-eating man. We find him a man without a
house, or key to his front door,—no dweller in cities, save when
danger sent him within a stockade of living trees thickened by
interwoven branches,—observant of the marriage tie, but with no
strong sense of chastity, or feeling of jealousy. Of religion in its
modern acceptance he had none; some indefinite belief in a future,
acting in no way on the present, and a few medicine men, and
soothsayers, was his creed, and his church.

In cooking he had arrived to the point of boiling, making pots
of pine and birch bark, hooping them about to enable them to hold
water. The water was heated sometimes by throwing in hot stones,
at other times by kindling fire beneath : no doubt the bark saturated
by boiling vapour resisted the fire. He also used coarse clay pots.
As regards his other fare one who has had the good fortune to
camp with them in the forest, would see the same process going on
before him as their tribes used two hundred years ago. Fish im-
paled on forked sticks and stuck in the ground about the camp fire ;
the entire entrails of a porcupine festooned on forked sticks, and
roasted till they cracked asunder; whilst the marrow bones of a
moose were cracked as perfectly, and the marrow roasted as nicely
as ever prehistoric Dane did it in the mythic times of kitchen-
midden.

In Newfoundland they boiled eggs to hardness, pounded them
to flour and preserved for winter, certainly a hint for modern
science in preserving concentrated food. He had not risen to the
art of making alcohol, one of the most universal, as well as the
first acquired arts of man; nor to letters. He was courageous,
liberal in giving, and kind and happy in his domestic relations.
‘«‘ There be some families,” saith LesCarbot, ‘‘ that had they not
been Pagans, the Lord would have entered in, and dwelt among
them.”

For the form and feature of our prehistoric man we must draw
upon his present descendant living now, almost under the same cir-
cumstances as his ancestors. The skull small, but well developed
in the frontal regions,—the eye small, slightly oblique, hidden by
the brow above, and the high cheek bone below,—the whole frame
slighter than the Saxon, with shoulders that would slope (and do

QO4 GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

in the young and women,) but are from their carrying burdens
raised upwards, especially the right. The leg is bowed but very
fine, the bend high up beneath the knee, and also like the famed
Roman tibia rounding forward. ‘The hands and feet fine, especi-
ally the instep of the last. A clay-yellow, slight, active, under-
sized figure, beardless almost, but with abundant coarse black hair,
with intelligent rather than bright eyes, slightly Roman nose, but
the nostrils very wide, strong angular jaw, and strong teeth.

Such is the fast fleeting type of our present Indian, and such no
doubt was that of our prehistoric man, but with feature and
~ expression intensified by their daily life.

Their daily scramble for food, their hourly fears of enemies or
attack, their half clad exposure to the elements, must have all
written their marks, now somewhat obliterated in their descendants.
The late Dr. Webster, of Kentville, found in old Indian graves so
many bones of the fore arm (radius) crooked, that he supposed their
shape was modified by drawing a bow.

To the question had not the age of iron come down upon him,
had he the power to maintain himself, or to improve his condition ?
we must answer, the progress would be so gradual, the contingen-
cies so many against him, that he had not arrived yet at any fixed
point from which he could not fall back. There is no recorded
instance of an inferior race improved by a dominant one. ‘They
disappear before them. Many assert they are unable, but it is
better to say the progress is so slow that it cannot be measured.

How this Stone Age was conducive to the highest vigor of mind
and body, the history of Membertou, the powerful Sachem of
Annapolis valley, so graphically touched by the French historian, is
a rare record of exquisite beauty. ,

One hundred years had gone down upon a head on which there
was no silver stain; the eye that surpassed the lively Frenchman in
seeing at a distance, had had one hundred years of outlook. He
loved wine because it made him forget his cares at an age when
men have few cares. His active brain was meditating for months
and years a war against the tribes beyond the Kenebeck; and
he brought his men from Gaspe and St. John River, joining them
with his own at a rendezvous at Grand Manan, and himself at that

GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA. vipa

wast age headed a victorious invasion. Though his sense of his
own greatness was such as to demand a salvo of cannon when he
entered their fort, yet this far-seeing old man saw at once the iney

itable end of his race. He accepted their religion, begged to be
taught their arts; he had been a great warrior, and a bloody man
in his day, and many years brought many enemies ; and he said ‘*I
sleep sound, I do not fear my enemies near my friends’ fort.”
When the end came to him, with it, as to most men of unabated
mind, came the thronging past. This old pagan, but new christian,
longed to rest with his old braves; he feared his soul would
not receive the consolation from the annual visit of the tribe to the
graves of their sires, but he yielded reluctantly to the worthy fathers
of Jesus, who knew how little his example would be unless crowned
with christian requiem. And so the young christian Henry (so
called in baptism after his brother monarch Henry of Navarre), got
his bit of churchyard mould with those salvos roaring over him,
which he loved in life, and with such as they honored a General of
France.

Far, far more befitting, had the old pagan Membertou, glorious
old type of the stone age, been wailed in the soft gutteral notes of
his women mourners ;—had the long procession of canoes, borne
him by the light of fires on a hundred hills, to that desolate isle, as
LesCarbot says, some twenty leagues away in the direction of
Cape Sable,—had his old braves put him to rest in his uncoftined
grave, swathed him in beaver skins, shrouded him in birch bark

and heaped over him stone axe, agate spear, or jasper arrow-head.
This spot lies yet at the foot of the great Rossignol. ‘‘ Fern clad
mounds,” (to quote our late member Capt. Hardy,) still mark
where the stone men sleep.

In wandering tribes such men mark only their own age. Men
must be brought together first, then come laws, letters or recorded
law, and the past acts upon the present. Accumulated capital to
keep them together, or agriculture, then is the first great step
towards civilization—a step which once obtained never goes back.
This made the thoughtful remark of Humboldt, ‘+ cereals were the
bottom of everything.” And not having attained this we cannot
say whether our stone men would have elevated themselves. Let

296 GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

us remembor that with their dying hand they presented the world
with two things, which from their universal use, and from the
influence they have excited in the policies, nay, in the very exis-
tence of nations, may mark hereafter an age for themselves—
Tobacco, and the Potato. The greedy Frenchmen sucked in the
new and intoxicating weed till they became insane, and LesCarbot
had not seen but heard of a marvellous root like small loaves, hang-
ing even to furty on one root, but of rare flavour.

We have now seen our men of the Stone age, let us look for a
moment on their country. Dense forests crowned the whole Pro-
vince to the water’s edge. Meagher’s Beach, the Thrum caps, and
Devil’s Island, now sandy spits, were wooded headlands to the
water’s verge. Such an excessive animal life filled the forest, filled
the air, filled the sea, nay, even the bottom of the sea, that no one
may conceive it, or believe it. The beaver abounded on every
stream; the moose came out in sight to browse on the great mea-
dows, which then as now were the great features of the Annapolis
valley ; sea birds covered the waters and darkened the air; and
every spring brought fish innumerable, with their attendant pursu-
ers, dolphins, whales, seals, and walrus, whilst the sands were
paved by scallops and clams. Such war as can be made by a stone
arrow, or bone hook, did our prehistoric man make upon this army
of animal flesh. He seems to have asked nothing of vegetable life
save the luxuriant berry harvest, which even yet spreads its purple
profusion on our barrens, and whose autumnal stores must have
been of incalculable benefit to the satiated flesh eater of the past
year.

Again, we often read of dominant races destroying by violence
the weaker of the age of Bronze thus dominating over the Stone,
by supposition as it were, and to account for these changes. But
we read in the history of our own stone men, that there was no
violence ; that the doom was velvety ; if it was inevitable; that it
begun with the belly; the Indians ceasing to mould stone pots,
when they got iron kettles ; and that it was indirect. The first iron
axe was laid, not at their necks, but at the wood of the trees; the
ploughshare entered not their souls, but the broad breast of the

GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA. OT

Province. With the trees went the game, followed soon by the
eaters of that game.

Let us leave that godly old Huguenot, Mark LesCarbot’s graphic
touches, and examine what remains our stone men have left behind
them. They have left no mounds; they never could have kept men
together long enough to build one. They have left many shell
mounds in every part of the Province, but near the sea. These
collections of oyster and clam shells mixed with bones of fish, birds,
and mammals, have not yet been studied with the care they deserve.
They are the collection of ages, and would well reward a thorough
investigation. They have yielded to a very slight search, arrow-
heads, stone chisels, and handles of moose horn.

Again, we turn up graves which may be called of the transition
period. Here the warrior rests with stone and iron arrow-heads
mingled. The latter were, some with a socket to receive the shaft, -
others with the tang elongated and pointed to enter it. Again, we
find the stone axe and rusting gun side by side. Thus proving
how early the French traders accommodated themselves to the
needs of traffic. Another grave was opened at Yarmouth whose
occupant must have been a great soldier before the Iron age. Full
forty stone weapons of beautiful and foreign work, attested his
greatness, and in part proved the tradition of a heavy fight by for-
eign invaders having there been done. These graves so common
about New Jersey are exceedingly rare here. Our usual finds are
from the fields and cultivated lands. The plough is continually
turning up stone arrow-heads, spear heads, axes, gouges, and chi-
sels ; but there are various parts of the Province more fruitful than
others. A great many are found at Yarmouth, apparently of stone
not found now in the province, and of a different work. Annapo-
lis, especially about the tide waters of the LeQuille River, perhaps
abounds in them the most, though about Shubenacadie, Musquodo-
bit, and Margaret’s Bay, there are good finds.

Of the various stones used—quartzites, hardened slates, quartz,
agate, jasper, amythest, trap, a yellow argillite, granite, sandstone,
and soapstone, are found. I have seen only one specimen of sand-
stone, a pipe-bowl, found at Lunenburg, and one soapstone another
pipe-bowl, found at Blomedon. I have never but in one instance,

ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

ve GaueaiNn

and that so imperfect that I could scarcely admit it, seen granite |
used. The hornstone pebbles, so common about the Bay of Fundy
beaches, though to us well adapted for arrow-heads, seem never to
have been used.

The stone instruments resolve themselves naturally into war and
hunting implements—arrow-heads, spear-heads, and javelins; and
into household ones—hammers, axes, gouges, chisels, hand wedges
and knives. There are other implements found, very few in num-
ber, and whose uses we cannot apprehend. A stone shaped like an
old fashioned gorget with a hole pierced through its flat axis, other
egg-shaped stones, like sinkers. The very peculiar stone tubes of
foreign stone found on the line of the Dartmouth canal, a very
peculiar last shapen stone in the Mechanic’s Museum, St. John,
N. B.; other flat stones with holes pierced through them; and
lastly, two circular stones, resembling a coiled snake, now in the
Provincial Museum. These last are so peculiar, and bear so
strongly on the universal snake worship papers lately put forward,
as in the absence of all tradition or history of such worship in this —
province, to demand a paper to themselves.

The arrow-heads are barbed and straight, some with tangs, oth-
ers without; some of beautiful work, others rough. ‘The very
characters of the old arrow makers are marked upon their work,
and some so small that they must have been playthings. To us
they seem all playthings, yet they were fixed to long shafts of great
polish, and feathered with the tail feathers of the eagle. An eagle
feather was worth a beaver skin, and LesCarbot saw at one wig-
wam five tame eagles with their tails cut off. The bow, probably

of ash, was coarse but very strong, and the French were amazed to

5?

see among the dead brought home from the wars, a man and a dog
transfixed by the same shaft. Those arrow-heads that I have seen,
were chipped in making like those of all lands, except one which I
own; that is polished like a celt, and is of hardened slate.

The spear-heads are the next numerous. They seem to have
been both spears to carry in hand, and javelins to cast. They are
also made by chipping, and are usually formed like the unbarbed
arrow. A long oval with cutting edges and tang on the handle to
fasten the shaft with. Many of these are so blunt and so broad,

GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA. ors)

that one can scarcely distinguish them from knives. The knife
has one convex and one straight edge, and is immediately known.
A very fine one of hard red slate is in the museum of the St. John
Institute.* They doubtless were fitted with wooden handles.
Among the spear-heads are the beautiful ones found at Yarmouth,
_ which have a centre line of elevation, and a beauty of shape and
finish, and foreign air. With the exception of a large barbed
arrow of amythest found on Digby Neck, they are the most beauti-
ful found in the Province.

These finish the chipped stone. ‘The next are hammers, axes,
gouges, chisels, and what I term hand wedges, all ground and pol-
ished stones. The axes at once divide themselves into those with
grooves around their centre, and the smooth ones. ‘These weapons
must have been used as wedges, and driven by mallets. They
never cut a forest tree down with one. Indeed the stone men med-
dled little with great trees, and they used fire when they did. They
made their stockades with living trees. For fire wood they col-
lected windfalls. It was a folly to see the prisoners and women
go leagues to collect dead wood, saith LesCarbot, when they were
living in the forest. On the other hand, they are well adapted to
splitting wood in all its forms,—to splitting bark from the birch
trees, and to scraping the raw skins, breaking the grain and form-
ing them into leather. When we find that the women did all these
matters, built canoes, platted mats, and skinned the game, we are
not surprised to find so many of them small, and running into hand
axes, or wedges. Many of them have a groove for the left hand
thumb to hold them by, when striking them with a mallet-head in
right.

The corracle or boat built of wicker has ceased even in any tra-
‘dition, but should not be lost sight of as an ethnological fact,
connecting them with prehistoric men of the old world. I have
attempted to restore handles to some of these axes, from our know-

* Joe Glode, an admirable hunter and Indian, now dead, once shot a moose in
the forest at Annapolis County, and having no knife, immediately took the flint
out of his gun, bled and dressed the carcase with it. The Indians were a long
time before they used percussion locks. The close cover and twigs of trees did
not suit their careless handling. ‘‘ See good many Indians no fore finger now,
never saw them before cussion guns,” was the sage remark of old Jack Glade.

230 GILPIN—ON THE STONE AGE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

ledge of those still in use. In cutting their skins and sowing them,
they must have used bone implements, now lost. Some northern
tribes fix the beaver’s tooth into a wooden handle, and even carve
stone with its hard enamel. Our Indian no doubt used that as
well as bone hooks, and perhaps bone fishing spears. We find no
stone fishing spears as are found towards the south, which makes
me suppose they made them of bone. The small cannon bone of
the moose is well adapted for this.

The chisels or wedges with long handles as well as the gouges,
I think were used also in making arrow-heads. The hollow of the
gouge preserving the fine edge. We now know these were made
by bedding the stone firmly in wood, and making each chip by a
smart blow. The gouge struck by a mallet seems well formed for
this work. Some of these chisels may have been fixed in handles,
and used as adzes. The pipe bowls speak for themselves. Their
numbers are very few in comparison ; and we end with implements
which either seem ornamental, as the gorget looking stones which
have been suspended around the neck—or the long oval stones
which may have been sinkers on fish lines. All these are very
rare. The finely polished stone tubes found in one instance only
at Dartmouth, have their fellows in the mounds of the Western U.
States. We may only conjecture how they came there, as well as
the stone coiled Snake, of which two only are known, and both in
the Provincial Museum.

Of all these, the arrow heads are the most numerous, then the
axes, hand axes and chisels, which are about as numerous as the
spear and javelin heads, — gouges and unmistakable knives very
rare, and the rest exceedingly rare.

The peculiar Serpent Stones in the Provincial Museum were
found upon the surface, about sixty miles apart. The largest is —
three and one half inches on its long diameter, three on its short,
with a very rude resemblance to a snake’s head coiled above the
tail. The other is about three inches in its long, and two and one
half in its short diameter, and closely resembling the other. They
are both of marble. There is no tradition of Snake worship, but
they evidently appear charms.

HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS. 231

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE.

. Arrow heads, full size, barbed, unbarbed.

. Knife blade, half size. ¢ Restored to modern handles as the Indians
W half si now make them, substituting a piece
. Axe, half size. Pe aeane

3

4

5

6. Unmistakable lance head, half size.

7. Pipe, upper part bowl, half inch.

8. Small wedge or hand axe, half size.

9. Serpent stone, half size.

0. Round plummet stone, half size, use unknown.

Art. V. On tHe MetTamMorpHism OF Rocks In Nova SCOTIA
AND CaprE Breton. By Rev. D. Honryman, D.C.L.,

Grey «0cC.
(Read Feb. 10, 1878.)

Aut the pre-carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia and Cape Bre-
ton are metamorphic; all in some degree have been subjected to
regional metamorphism of greater or less intensity. Some in addi-
tion have been subjected to local metamorphism. From extensive
observation I have been led to this conclusion. I find the Middle
and Upper Silurian having metamorphic characters of a certain
kind, which as a whole may be termed metamorphism of the third
degree. I find the Lower Silurian having different characteristics,
which dispose me to rank this metamorphism as of the second de-
gree; and I find Cambrian or Laurentian as having other charac-
teristics which give their metamorphism the first rank. I also find
a local metamorphism of rocks in the third degree, which elevates
them from the third degree to the second, leading to the inference
that the virtual cause of this local metamorphism has, under certain
conditions, effected all metamorphism, whether of the first, second,
or third degree.

In my last paper I noted as the western boundary of the Lower
Arisaig Series of crystalline rocks, the trap and conglomerate of
Malignant Cove and Brook. Here the trap from north to south
has a breadth of about half a mile, as shown by its outcrops in the
brook, on the road, and in the adjoining fields. Isolated by this

232 HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS.

igneous rock is a patch of Lower Carboniferous conglomerate.
This is divided in all directions by the trap which sometimes passes
into it like veins. This arrangement is well seen below the mill
dam. The consequence of this conjunction is that, conglomerate,
generally loose in structure and yielding, is made intensely hard
and resisting, forming a very rugged passage for the water below
the mill dam, and a very great obstruction to the road maker.
Here we have metamorphism of conglomerate by igneous action.
Following the exposures of this trap westward we reach it where it
comes in contact with the Upper Arisaig Series. This series is
rendered metamorphic generally in the third degree, by what we
call regional metamorphism. Here the trap forms a great dyke,
dark and rugged; it is continued for about a mile, and for about
half a mile it is interrupted, or passes under the sea; it reappears
on the shore and continues until it nearly reaches the Frenchman’s
barn; it disappears and rises in the sea immediately north of the
barn ; it disappears, reappears to the east of Arisaig Pier, is inter-
rupted, and then largely exposed, forming a great proportion of
the break water of Arisaig Pier and Harbour.

This trap is generally homogeneous, sometimes porphyritic, fre-
quently amygdaloidal, where decomposed vesicular. The crystals
of the porphyritic are felspar,—the amygdala are calcite,—one
cavity is filled with an agate. I found this in the trap at Doctor’s
Brook, some years ago, when dwelling among these rocks for the
purpose of studying them. It thus appears that this trap is poor
in minerals and very dissimilar to the traps of later age, e.g., of
Blomidon and Five Islands. On the north this trap is bounded by
the sea; on the south of the trap we have the Arisaig Middle and
Upper Silurian Series. Passing along the line of junction of the
trap and overlying sedimentary rocks, which form the lowest part —
of the Upper Arisaig Series, or A. the possible equivalent of the
Oneida conglomerate, we find on the east side of the Arisaig Pier,
opposite the break of the trap already noticed, low banks of the
third degree ; they are in marked contrast with the other parts of
the same band, and the overlying strata. Higher in the series we
have the slates, having cleavage and other characteristics of the degree
of metamorphism indicated. To the east of the arenaceous shales is

HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS. 233

an eminence—red, prominent, and visible at a great distance, form-
ing aland mark. At the north of this, and in contrast with it, is
porphyritic and amygdaloidal trap, which have parcellanized the
arenaceous strata, but only in such a degree as to render them
readily fissile.

On the north-west, the same strata, forming part of the pier, are
in contact with the massive trap already referred to, and have con-
sequently been hardened in an extreme measure. The massive
rock is jaspideous and uncleavable, being generally uniform, some~
times beautifully banded, and reticulated with veins of quartz and
sulphate of baryta. The boulders of this rock rolling on the
shore, when washed by the sea, are beautiful and varied ; they are
as hard as quartz, and susceptible of a high polish. The French-
man’s barn is another part of the same band. I have observed that
the trap lies in the sea on the north of this rock. ‘The north side
of the rock is a wall washed by the sea. This is an enormous mass
of jaspideous rock metamorphosed by the action of the trap. It is
also pervaded by quartz and sulphate of baryta veins.

At Black Rock where the trap from the east first meets with the
Upper Arisaig strata, we have also the same lower band metamor-
phosed and converted into a very hard brown jaspideous rock.
When broken this shows in cells, iron and copper pyrites, and
malachite. Connected with this I discovered in 1869 a soft rock
easily. cut with a knife, and having a greasy touch. This rock is
of brown and variegated colour, and is susceptible of a fine polish.
When I found it, I believed it to be saponit2, var. renssellaerite.
It is now believed to be a silicate of alumina, somewhat resembling
agalmatolite. The rock appears to be about twelve feet wide; it
has the hard jaspideous rock below and above. The stratum ap-
pears to be lenticular. Its next appearance is a little to the east of
the Frenchman’s barn: here it comes out of the sea. Its colours
are yellow, orange, and red; specimens are very beautiful when
polished. It passes on the south side of the Frenchman’s barn,
where it appears as a shaly rock, having singularly granular
nodules, which give it the appearance of conglomerate. Farther
west from the barn, the rock under notice has its maximum thick-
ness. Here it consists of mahogany coloured states, having the

234 HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS.

general characteristics, viz: softness and greasiness ; it is also sus-
ceptible of polish, but it soon tarnishes on account of the presence
of abundance of minute crystals of sulphuret of iron? It has slaty
cleavage. ‘There is also a considerable thickness of rock, which is
more compact. ‘This has been quarried to some extent, with the
expectation of obtaining a solid and ornamental stone. In this are
transparent veins which have all the appearance of true agalma-
tolite. Its next occurrence is at Arisaig Pier, where the finest
variety is found. ‘This takes a fine polish and retains it. The
only other noticeable rock of the band is on the south of the French-
man’s barn. It has all the appearance of a serpentine, but it is a
green and brown jaspideous rock.

Overlying this band of metamorphic rocks, is, first of all, fossil-
iferous strata of Mayhill Sandstone age—according to Mr. Salter.
I regard them as the probable equivalent of the Medina Sandstone of
the United States: these are partly arenaceous, sandy, and in the
usual condition of strata of this horizon holding fossils; the only
peculiarity is that in the lower parts there is abundance of cubical
crystals of iron pyrites. The only obvious consequence of Trap-
pean interference is the tilting of the shale. The Lower Clinton
shales overlie ; there argillaceous strata have also been disturbed but
not hardened, and this is also the case with the other overlying
formations. All show the effects of regional metamorphism, but
local metamorphism is confined, to all appearance, to the lowest
strata which I have described. By volcanic heat and the presence
of the trap which communicated it, aided by the moisture necessarily
contained in the strata, rocks have been produced, and minerals
which correspond very closely with the crystalline rocks of George’s
River, Cape Breton. In both there are jaspideous rocks and a
mineral not distinguishable from agalmalotite; the other hydrosili-
cate of alumina strata, show metamorphism equally or nearly so
with the hydrosilicates of magnesia, serpentines; and the want of
marble may be in consequence of the absence of fossiliferous lime-
stone in the original limestone strata.

In the case of the metamorphic strata of Cape Breton, the meta-
morphism is regional, as at Arisaig, this metamorphism being prior
to the eruption which produced the trap there observed. This

HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS. 935

metamorphism was the effect of hydrothermal action under pres-
sure —the heat being derived from the source of internal heat,—
the pressure being that of superincumbent strata, or of the waters of
the ocean. ‘This is the origin of the general metamorphism which
I referred to at the outset, to which all the precarboniferous rocks
of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton have been more or less subjected.

I have thus illustrated the subject of my paper, but I have still
some observations to make in connection with the trap which has
occupied so much of our attention. Passing from the Arisaig Pier
in a south-west direction, we reach the junction of the Upper
Arisaig Series, with the Lower Carboniferous—to the east of Mc-
Ara’s Brook. All the interval is covered by the sea, and conse-
quently any underlying exposure of trap is obscured. At the junc-
tion is the base, and a small part of a great mass of amygdaloid
trap, which a few years ago formed a prominent and picturesque
feature. This was.then overlying and obscuring the point of
junction which is now exposed. The prominent effect of this
intrusion is the change of the general direction of the dip of the
Upper Silurian strata, and elevation of the overlying and uncon-
formable Lower Carboniferous conglomerate. There is a distinct
slaty cleavage in the disturbed Silurian strata which is at right
angles to the plane of stratification. ( Vide specimen with fossil. )
Onward we find it occurring at the mouth of McAra’s Brook, and
then at intervals in connection with the Lower Carboniferous strata,
appearing as if interbedded. At McAra’s Brook, at the junction of
the Silurian and Lower Carboniferous grits, there is another out-
crop of the same trap. We shall leave it here, and return to the
trap at Malignant Cove and Brook.

We have followed the course of the trap dykes on the north of
the Upper Arisaig Series. We find another series of outcrops pas-
sing along on the south. This first meets the Silurian strata—
south from the mouth of Doctor’s Brook where the East Branch
turns to the south. This brings up the strata of Upper Clinton
age with its characteristic fossils; these have a northerly dip. It
passes an insulated patch of Lower Carboniferous strata, consisting
of conglomerate and limestone dipping in the same direction with

+4

236 HONEYMAN—ON THE METAMORPHISM OF ROCKS.

the Silurian strata; outcropping on the southern bend of West
Branch of Doctor’s Brook in several places, bringing up in its
course the same strata, with the addition of overlying Upper Silu-
rian strata, giving them all a northerly dip. It outcrops on the
elevated ground where the track turns to the north; this is nearly
south of Arisaig Pier. From this onward its course is obscured.
Its influence is manifest from the continuation of the elevated ground
—south of the ravine in which Arisaig Brook flows, which is evi-
dently the effect of the elevation of the Silurian obscured strata.
When we reach the end of the ravine from which a branch of Mill
Brook now flows, the trap is seen to outcrop to the south of
MacAra’s Brook, the eastern extremity of the Upper Arisaig Series.
This series is thus bounded on all sides by trap.

Returning to Malignant Brook, we find the trap of the Sugar
Loaf Series, the red metamorphosed strata of the Upper Silurian
of the Mountain Series on the south. ‘This is the southern part of
a band which is found undivided, south of the Upper Arisaig Series,
but is divided into three parts by the trap, on the east side of
the mountain part of the East Branch of Doctor’s Brook. On the
west side of this part of the tract this trap is largely exposed; here
it is associated with a dark brown porphyritic rock which underlies
the Lower Carboniferous patch already referred to. It then runs
to the. south of the red band, being often exposed in its course,
and then appears to terminate in a fine exposure on the side of the
West Branch of Doctor’s Brook, south of Arisaig Pier.

The lower part of this mountain series or Middle Silurian meta-
morphic, is bounded, by and underlaid by the syenite of McNeal’s
mountain, which rises to 1010 feet above the sea level. The dior-
ite of Mackintosh’s on the top of East Branch Doctor’s Brook, and
the syenites which lie in the rear of McDonald’s mountain, south of
the Frenchman’s barn, and in the table land south of Arisaig Pier.

You will have observed that the trap besides being the agent in
local metamorphism, has also been a great intruder and te
of the Upper Silurian and Lower Carboniferous rocks of this locality.
These have been tilted: and altered and elevated by its force in a
manner singular and perplexing. _ The two insulated patches of

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 39

Carboniferous strata, the position of the red stratum, and the isola- .
tion of the Upper Arisaig fossiliferous strata, attest this. Yet I-
believe that it has been a benefactor to our geology, as I consider -
that without it this interesting and typical series which is of so much |
service in the illustration of Nova Scotian Geology, would still |
have been hidden in the depths.

ArT. Vi. On THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. By
J. Matruew Jones, F. L. S.

THe Bermudas, sometimes known under the almost obsolete :
name of The Somers’ Isles, are situate in 82° 15’ north latitude, .
and 64° 51/ west longitude, being distant from the nearest land, |
Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, about 600 nautical miles.

The general features of the group present no remarkable attrac- -
tions; merely an elongated strip of land about 25 miles in length, .
somewhat in shape like the letter J without its horizontal summit, |
slightly elevated above the surrounding ocean, and broken more or -
less into a series of disconnected patches, which, although in
reality islets, are only slightly separated from the principal body of ©
land which may be called ‘‘ Bermuda proper.” On its northern |
side, this strip of land as seen from sea, presents a rugged coast
outline, composed alternately of cliffs of slight elevation and lowlands
faced seaward with a strip of shelving sand beach, or masses of
wave worn rock channelled and fretted by the ceaseless action of
the waves. The whole is surrounded by a barrier reef formed of
the same calcareous limestone as the islands, coated with serpule ;
which, although originally the coast line of the Bermuda land is
now wholly submerged at high water, save at one point to the
north, where on the line of this barrier reef stand four pinnacles of
rock about ten feet above high water.

The surface of the land, which is nowhere higher than 250 feet,
appears on trivial inspection to be composed of sand and soil in-
terspersed with rock, and.clothed.over its whole extent with stunted
cedars. In certain places where: the ‘land lies nearly on a level

‘238 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

vwith the sea and is not far removed from it, occur tracts of marsh
‘which having communication with the ocean through the interven-
‘ing rock, are more or less overgrown with reeds and sedges, from
‘out which in the drier spots the palmetto raises its plume-like
foliage. Not a brook or natural watercourse of any kind can be
.observed anywhere, nor will even the strictest search reveal a
-spring of fresh water of any kind, the only supply of that element
‘coming from the clouds.
The geological character of the islands is extremely interesting,
as their isolated position and irregular formation have always been
considered to partake of the mysterious. Although the superficial
aspect of the Bermudas at once proclaims wind-power as the chief
agent in forming the more elevated parts of the land, through the
medium of drift sand, we have every reason to believe from recent
observations that the Bermudas rest upon a basis of compact lime-
stone. The higher grounds are coated with a layer of sandy earth,
‘the sand generally predominating as we proceed upwards, finally
becoming almost fine sand and of course unfavorable to the growth
‘of plants. This feature, however, is not universal, for in some
‘parts of the islands we meet with depressions on the higher lands,
in which is found a shallow coating of light coloured red earth,
‘more or less mingled with sand and vegetable mould. This red
‘earth ofthe hills is different, however, both in colour and composi-
‘tion to that which is found along the shore line, and especially the
district of Walsingham ; this latter earth which is of a chocolate
‘colour, partaking more of the nature of clay, and possessing a
greater proportion of oxide of iron and alumina. It was in 1859
that our attention was first attracted to the large amount of oxide of
iron and alumina contained in this dark coloured ‘red earth,” for
haying on our first visit to the islands obtained a sample, we submit-
ted it to Dr. Albert Bernays, Analytical Chemist of St. Thomas
Hospital, who very kindly analyzed it and gave as the result
20.00 of oxide of iron and alumina. Later still, through the
kindness of Major General Lefroy, C. B., F. R. S., the present
Governor of Bermuda, we have been favoured with the analysis of
Messrs. Abel and Manning, which gives for four samples from
different localities the following results :

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 239

M

ABEL
Abtning).. oo4 ols ele He 11.74
Sesqui-Ox. of Iron.......... 7.63
MANNING.
Maite. AAEMING, 50.0 « « «), «4-0 2s Pichi oars 13.604.
pesqut-Ox. GEErOns ssc 7: <b2-80-
No. 2.. Alumina...... Pere ee ore 7.368.
Sesqui-Ox. of Iron......... 9.964.
ee oh. (AU WGI scala « sfoln sys. -8. 5 & oie 22.490.
Sesqui-Ox. of Tron......... 28.318.

Now the presence of nearly 30 per cent. of oxide of iron in the
soil of an island so small and remote from any continent naturally
perplexed us, as no clue could be gained as to its probable origin ;
nor was it until the recent deep sea explorations of the ‘‘ Challen-
ger,” that light was thrown upon the question. In ‘* Nature”
(vol. 8 p. 30) we find that om approaching the West Indian
Islands, more particularly in the deeper soundings, a peculiar ‘red
clay” gradually assuming a darker tint until it becomes chocolate
in colour, was met with; and that this red clay was found the
greater part of the distance from St. Thomas to the Bermudas ; and
moreover, it is stated that this red clay of the deep sea proved on
analysis by Mr. Buchanan, chemist to the expedition, to be ‘‘ almost
pure clay, silicate of alumina, and the sesqui-oxide of iron with a
small quantity of manganese.” This analysis tends to convince us
that the deep chocolate coloured red clay of the islands found in the
lower levels, and from high water mark some distance into the sea,
originally came from the ocean floor, and that when by volcanic
agency the Bermuda column was raised from the depths of the sea,
its summit, most probably broken in outline, appeared above the
surface covered with this red mud, which in the course of ages has.
but. slightly changed its composition. and yet possesses sufficient
evidence to prove its identity with that now lying contiguous to the
base of the Bermuda column. Further remarks, however, on this
subject are unnecessary in a botanical paper, which is only intended
to describe the geological character of the islands as connected with
their vegetation.

240 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

The large deposits of peaty mud of the marshes is also worthy
of note, as it may afford some idea of the time requisite to fill up
with such vegetable matter the deep cavities they originally pre-
sented. Although always proclaimed to be very deep, yet no
satisfactory information on the subject could be obtained until the
past year, 1872, when soundings were made by His Excellency the
Governor, in the Pembroke Marsh below Government House, by
means of a series of lengths of iron gas pipimg about lin. diam.
screwed into each other, the lower length having attached to its
foot a well-contrived auger, which, being wrenched around from
above, filled a chamber with the material it came in contact with at
the bottom. The deepest sounding gave 46 feet of this peaty mud,
and the auger borings afforded evidence of the mud reaching quite
to the limestone floor of the marsh basin, portions of the limestone
filling the lower part of the chamber and peaty mud the upper.

The Bermudian climate partakes of a temperate and tropical
character, for during seven months of the year, November to May
inclusive, the thermometer rarely rises above 75°, the minimum —
being reached in the months of February and March, but seldom
lower than 50°. During this period, which may be called the
‘cool season,” the weather is very variable, alternate storm and
calm, a circumstance rendered too notorious by the large number of
vessels which in a shattered or sinking condition are constantly
arriving. The other portion of the year from June to October in-
clusive, which may be termed the ‘hot season,” is peculiarly
warm, day and night almost alike in temperature from the radiation
of heat from a white sandy ground surface, almost wholly exposed
to the glare of a sun which ts constant—a cloudy sky bemg a some-
what remarkable event durmg the Bermudian summer. The sand
formation charged with this great heat during the hours of the day,
only loses a few degrees of heat during the night, so that the heat
is almost continuous, when it positively sets in, which is about the
middle of July. From this date, often until the end of September,
a frequent calm prevails, day succeeds day of perfect stillness; no
trade wind lends its refreshing influence in mitigation ‘of the heat,
and long continued droughts are prevalent, which combined with
the scorching rays of the blazing sun, blast all vegetable growth,

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 241

and render the more elevated districts arid and waste. The clim-
ate of the Bermudas is, therefore, not favourable to the growth ot
plants during summer as a rule, and it is only in the cool season
that any luxuriance of flower or foliage can be observed.

The origin of plant life upon the Bermudas, is a question not
very difficult of solution, after a careful consideration of facts
accruing from the continued observations of several years. The
islands are greatly influenced by the current of the Gulf Stream,
which brings to their shores numberless objects, animate and
inanimate, from the Caribbean Sea. Among such we may instance
the seeds of trees, shrubs and plants, which are continually
being cast ashore; while the occurrence of several forms, even
forest trees, just above high water mark, go far to prove their
drift origin. The hard seeds of the Leguminose seem especially
adapted to withstand immersion in salt water for a length of time,
and the fact of this order being better represented than any other
favours the presumption. But although several leguminous seeds
germinate on the Bermudas, there are some commonly cast ashore
which do not; such are the seeds of H’ntada scandens, and Mucu-
na wrens, which have never yet grown on the islands, notwithstan-—
ding their seeds are frequently landed near the trailing stems of
Canavalia obtusifolia. Probably the sandy soil of the beach is
unsuited to these species, which appear to grow on ‘river banks in
the West Indian Islands.

Many of the European weeds have doubtless been introduced at
the first settlement of the islands, when several consignments of
field and garden seeds were, according to old records, forwarded by
the original «* Bermuda Company” of London. Seeds in those
days were probably often carelessly gathered, and often mixed with
those of the weeds growing with them. As to the origin of the
cedar tree, which appears from time immemorial to have been the
principal feature of the Bermudas, it is somewhat perplexing.
Griesbach has carefully determined it as Juniperus barbadensis,
which is a true West Indian form; whereas it has always hitherto
been taken for a variety of J. virginiana, which is found through-
out eastern North America. Had it been the latter species we
should at once have instanced the cedar waxwing (Bombycilla

242 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

carolinensis,) as the agent, for these birds visit the islands nearly
every winter in small flocks, often being blown off the American
coast. A flock of these birds with crops well charged with cedar
berries, leaving the American coast before a westerly gale, could
land on the islands in twenty hours, if not less, and the seeds would
have lost none of their vitality. With the West Indian form it is
different. Few migratory birds visit the Bermudas from the West
Indies, on their return north in spring, keeping to the continent in
their progress; so we can only look to the Gulf Stream current as
a means of transportation in the case of this species. Many of the
trees, shrubs, and plants of North America must certainly have
been introduced by birds, a large number of species, natives of that
continent, annually visiting the islands. The waders and water
birds could easily retain small seeds in the mud adhering to the
soles of their feet, which would not be released until at the end of
their lengthy but soon accomplished flight, they alighted on the
shores or in the marshes of the Bermudas. Probably all the fruit-
bearing trees have been introduced by the inhabitants, as have also
the palms, with the exception of the palmetto.

Many additions have been made to the flora during the last two
years through the assiduity of His Excellency the Governor, who
from his first arrival in the colony has paid particular attention to
the growth of new trees, shrubs, and plants. During the past year
His Excellency has sown and distributed throughout the islands
packets of seeds from Kew, representing no less than 600 species,
principally of trees and shrubs suited to sandy coast soils, which
we sincerely trust may grow and thrive, so that in future years the
inhabitants may enjoy the benefit of a more suitable arborescent
vegetation, and remember with gratitude the name of their bene-
factor.

In the foregoing brief sketch of the physical aspect of the
Bermudas, we have endeavoured to exhibit the more interesting
particulars, in order that the readers of this paper may possess a
fair idea of this oceanic land which is rarely visited by naturalists ;
while in conclusion we cannot fail to mention the kind assistance
we have received from His Excellency the Governor, who in the
most liberal manner placed a long list of the plants of the islands

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 243

identified by himself and Dr. Hooker, at our disposal, and in
various other ways has, during our two last visits to the islands,
furthered our object of making this addition to our previous publi-
cations on the natural history of the group.

RANUNCULACE.

CLEMATIS Japonica, D. C. Hab. Japan.
RANUNCULUS MuRICATUS, L. Hab. Europe.
R. parvirtorus, L. Hab. Europe.
DELPHINIUM —— ? |

MAGNOLIACEZ.

MAGNOLIA GRANDIFLORA, JL. Hab. Southern States of America.
A fine specimen grows at Mrs. F. Peniston’s in Smith’s parish,
which did not blossom for twenty years after it was planted.

LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA, L. ‘‘ Tulip Tree” of North America,
where in favorable situations it attains a large size. The few
trees which exist at the present time in the Bermudas, are of
small size in comparison with those of the American continent.

ANONACE.

ANONA RETICULATA, L. <‘* Custard Apple” of the West Indies.
It grows well in the Bermudas, especially in Mr. Perot’s garden
at Hamilton.

A. muricaTA, Z. ‘‘Sour-sop.” Hab. West Indies. <A tree at
‘‘ The Hermitage,” supposed to have been planted about sixty
years ago, was never known to bear fruit until 1870, when
three fruit only ripened.

A. cHERIMoLIA, Mill. <‘*Chermoi Apple,” or ‘* Cherimoya.”
This tree which is a native of the western part of Central Ame-
rica, is rare in the Bermudas, although it grows well from seed,
and the fruit sometimes attains a weight of 2 lbs.

RoLuLINIA SIEBERI, D. C. Hab. West Indies.

(Anona reticulata, Sized. )

9?

SARRACENIACEZK.

SARRACENIA PURPUREA, J. Hab. N. America. Mount Langton
garden.

Q44 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

PAPAVERACEE.

ARGEMONE MEXICANA, LZ. ‘‘ Lady Thistle.” Very common in
gardens and waste ground which has been cultivated. From its
flowers is sometimes made a yellow dye, with which the islanders
colour ribbons and other small articles. It flowers about the
end of March or beginning of April. The plant appears to have
a very wide geographical range, being found in the northern as
well as southern States of America, West Indies, India, China,
and probably all over the tropical as well as temperate regions
of the globe. |

PAPAVER ? Varieties cultivated.

FUMARIACEZ.

FUMARIA OFFICINALIS, LZ. Hab. Europe.

CRUCIFERA.

Lepipium vircinicum, LZ. <‘‘ Pepper Grass.” A common weed
in waste ground.

IBERIS VIOLACEA, D. C.

COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS, L. ‘* Scurvy Grass.” Common every
where along the shore, sometimes attaining a large size, almost
a bush, in sheltered places beneath the cliffs of the south shore
at Devonshire Bay. In flower March and April. It is used as
a cure for diarrhce, and also for cleansing the blood.

C. ARMORACEA. ‘* Horse Radish.” Cultivated.

NASTURTIUM —— ? Varieties cultivated.
CHEIRANTHUS —— ? ‘¢ Wall Flower.” Varieties cultivated.
MarTrHioLa ? <‘¢Stock.” Wild among the rocks below

Gibb’s Hill light house, south shore of Port Royal. Varieties

also cultivated in gardens. :

_ Brassica ? <¢ Cabbage.” Varieties cultivated.

BETA ? <6 Beet.” Varieties cultivated.

SINAPIS ? ¢¢ Mustard.” A very troublesome weed growing
in cultivated ground. I think there are two species.

RHAPHANUS ? *¢ Radish.” Varieties cultivated.

Matcomia maritima, D. C. Hab. S. Europe.

- JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 245

CAPPARIDACEZ.
STERIPHOMA ELLIPTICA, Spreng. Hab. S. America.
RESEDACEZ.
RESEDA OpORATA, Spreng. ‘*‘ Mignonette.” Cultivated. Hab.
Egypt.
FLACOURTIACEA.

FLACOURTIA PRUNIFOLIA.

HY PERICACEZE.

HYPERICUM ? Pembroke Marshes.
VISMIA GUIANENSIS, D. C. Hab. Guiana.

CARYOPHYLLACEZ®.
DIANTHUS ? <«* Pink.” <«Carnation.” Varieties cultivated.
SAPONARIA CALABRICA, G'uss. ‘‘ Soapwort.” Hab. Calabria.
PORTULACE.
Portunaca oLERACEA, L. <‘‘Purslane” < Pursley.” Hab.

All tropical as well as temperate regions. A common weed,
generally found in cultivated ground. In flower end of March
and beginning of April. It is sometimes used as a vegetable,
boiled, and seasoned with pepper and salt. Pigs and poultry
are fond of it.

FICOIDEA.

Sresuvium portunacastruM, LZ. ‘‘ Sea Purslane.” In sandy
mud above high water mark. This plant is found on all tem-
perate as well as tropical shores throughout the globe.

MESEMBRYANTHEMUM GLACIALE, Haw. ‘‘Iee Plant.” Culti-
vated. Hab. Greece.
MALVACE.
Matva —— ?

Moprota carouinrana, G. Don. (M. multifida, Manch—
Malva caroliniana, Z.) Hab. N. America.

246 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

Sipa cARPINIFOLIA, L. (S. acuta, Burm.—sS. stipulata, Cav.—
S. glabra, Vutt.—S. Berteriana, Balb.—S. balbisiana, D.C.—
S. brachypetala, D. C.—S. trivialis, Macf.—S. lanceolata,
Rich. Cub.—S. obtusa, Rich.) ‘* Wire-weed.” One of the
most common plants of the islands, overrunning roads and
pastures. It is in flower nearly all the year round, and in rich
ground grows into a perfect shrub, some three feet high. The
flowers are sometimes used to make a healing ointment, being
boiled in lard, which is then strained and allowed to cool.
Horses are fond of this plant. In the West Indies the Sidas
are known under the name of ‘‘ broom-weed” from their tough
and flexible nature.

ABUTILON sTRIATUM, Dicks. Hab. Brazil.

Hisiscus rosa-sinensis, 1. Hab. East Indies.

H. cranpiriorus, Micha. Hab. Florida, Georgia.

H. murasiuis, Z. ‘* Changeable Rose.” Hab. East Indies.

Gossip1umM HERBACEUM, D. C. Hab. East Indies.

Paritium TILIAcEUM, A. Juss. Hab. All tropical sea shores.

THESPESIA POPULNEA, Corr. Hab. All tropical shores.

ALTH#A oFFICINALIS, Z. ‘* Marsh Mallow.” Hab. Europe.

A. nosza, L. ‘ Hollyhock.” Varieties cultivated. Hab. China.

BOMBACE.

ERIODENDRON ANFRACTUOSUM, D. C. (Bombax ceiba, Lun.—
B. pentandrum, Cav.) ‘Silk Cotton Tree.” Hab. West

Indies and equatorial America.

TILIACE.

TRIUMFETTA SEMITRILOBA, LZ. (T. heterophylla, Lamx. —T.
havanensis, Ath. —T. ovata, D. C. —T. ulmifolia, Desv.—
T. diversiloba, Prl. —T. angulata, Wall. —T. rhomboidea,
Griseb.) <«* Wild Hemp” of Barbados, and ‘‘ Bur-bark” of
Jamaica. All tropical countries.

T. autrHao.pEs, Lam. Hab, West Indies and tropical South
America. |

BERRYA AMMONILLA, Loxb. Hab. Ceylon.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. Q47

GUTTIFERE.

MamMrEa AMERICANA, L. ‘‘ Mammee Tree.” ‘‘ Mammee Apple.”
Hab. West Indies and equatorial America.

CALOPHYLLUM CALABA, Jacq. ‘‘Galba.” Hab. West Indies and
equatorial America. Fine examples of this tree grow on the
road side at Mr. T. Fowle Tucker’s, Devonshire Parish. They
were brought from the West Indies. The fruit is considered
poisonous by the inhabitants.

MALPIGHIACEZ.

MatricHia URENS, LZ. (M. martinicensis, Jacq.) ‘‘ Cowhage
Cherry ” of Jamaica. ‘‘ Stinging Cherry ” of Barbados. Hab.
West Indies.

SAPINDACEA.

Bricuia sapipa, Hoen. (Akeesia africana, Tuss.) Hab. West-
ern Africa.

SAPINDUS SAPONARIA, LZ. ‘* Soap-berry Tree.” ‘* Black Nicker
Tree” of Barbados. Hab. Tropical America and West Indies.
The first tree known in the Bermudas, originated from drift seed.
It may be considered rare, as few examples are to be found on
the islands. Flowers in January. In 1841 a plant sprang up
from a heap of seaweed, collected during the previous antumn
for manure.

Nepsetium Lircut, Don. (Dimocarpus Litchi, Willd.—Scyta-
lia chinensis, G.—Euphoria Litchi, D. C.)

Doponma viscosa, L. (D. Candolleana, 6£/.—D. arabica,
Hochst.)

D. ancustiroii1a, Sw. (D. bialata, Hth.—D. lmearis, #. Mey.
—D. Mundtiana, H'ckl.—D. Schiedeana, Schlecht.)

ZESCULUS HIPPOCASTANUM, J. ‘* Horse-chestnut.” Hab. Asia.

MELIACES.

Mezia Azeparacy, ZL. ‘* Pride of India.” ‘* Lilac” of Barba-
dos. ‘*China Tree” of the Southern States of America. Hab.
Asia. This is one of the few trees that loses its foliage in the
winter season. It usually flowers about the end of March, the

248 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

flowers appearing before the leaves. In winter it has a curious
appearance, having the seed berries hanging in bunches from
the ends of the twigs denuded of leaves. ‘The wood is brittle,
and high winds play sad havoc with the lengthy branches. Its
light and feathery foliage recommends it as one of the best of
shade trees, but strange to say although hundreds of young trees
shoot up every spring from the fallen seed of the previous win-
ter, the idea of transplanting them about the woodlands to re-
lieve the monotonous appearance of the interminable red cedar,
is never entertained by the inhabitants.

CEDRELACEZ.

SWIETENIA MAHAGONI, L. ‘> Mahogany Tree.” ‘* Caoba” of the
Spaniards. Hab. West Indies and Central America. The Ber-
muda trees are stunted in growth compared with those of the
tropics. The oldest known tree in the islands is at the entrance
gate to the house of the late Mr. Samuel Musson, at the Flatts.

CHLOROXYLON SwieTEniA, D. C. (Swietenia chloroxylon,
Roxb.) <‘*Satin-wood.” Hab. Hast Indies.

AURANTIACE.

Cirrus auRanTiuM, Z. ‘* Sweet Orange.” Hab. Asia. The
climate of the Bermudas appears to suit the Citri well, for the
trees are remarkable for vigorous growth and the flavour of
the several kinds of fruit is excellent. Of the sweet orange
some three or four varieties are cultivated, but to so small an
extent that the supply is nothing like equal to the demand. In
the year 1854-5 the orange trees became diseased from the at-
tack of a species of Coccus, and hardly an orchard escaped save
those of the parish of Somerset at.the western end of the islands.
In many cases not a tree survived the ravages of these insects,
and in one instance an orchard of fine young trees 300 in num-
ber about twelve years old was entirely destroyed. The fruit
sometimes attains a large size, and one of a dish of oranges
which took the first prize at the Bermuda Exhibition of January
1872, measured 132 inches in circumference, and nine of these
oranges weighed 104 lbs. These large oranges, however, are

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 249

generally coarse inwardly and are by no means to be compared
with many of smaller size for amount of juice and flavour. The
medium sized orange with thin smooth skin is always to be pre-
ferred before the larger kind having a coarse-grained skin. The
orange has been known in the Bermudas from their first settle-
ment, for the original Bermuda Company sent out seeds from
England in 1615. Seeds have also been brought at various
times from Madeira, Lisbon, and other places. The orange
season generally begins about the end of November and conti-
nues until the end of February. It may not be generally known
that the common sweet orange will stand severe cold. Mr. W.
M. Redhead (Lin. Soc. Journ. Bot. Vol. IX.) states that it
grows in the open air at the Convent of St. Catherine, Sinai,
where during the winter the frost is severe enough to freeze
water within the cells of the convent.

. AURANTIUM, var. BigarapiA, Duh. ‘* Sour Orange.” ‘* Sey-

ille Orange.” It is from this variety which is frequently found
growing in a wild state, that marmalade is made, but owing to
the want of the requisite knowledge in regard to the proper me-
thod of manufacture the preparation made on the islands is not
of a superior description. The trees yield abundantly where
sufficient space is allowed for sun and air to get to them. When
perfectly ripe the fruit turns to a dark orange colour.

. Nopinis, Zour. ‘* Mandarin Orange.” Hab. China. This

species which is by no means common, possesses a peculiar
flavour, if anything, richer than that of the common orange.
The fruit is smaller in size, and of a deep orange colour when

ripe.

. NOBILIS, var. MINOR. ‘* Tangierine Orange.” Not common.
. DEcuMANA, ZL. ‘* Shaddock.” <‘‘ Pimple Nose Tree” of Bar-

bados. Hab. Asia. Grows well and produces fine fruit.

. RACEMosUS, Ris et Pott. ‘‘ Grape Fruit.” Hab. Asia,common.
. BUXIFOLIA, Potr. (C. Paradisi, Macf.) <‘‘ Forbidden Fruit.’

Hab. Asia. Rare.

. LimeTta, Riss. ‘* Lime.” Hab. Asia. Grows wild all over

the islands. Also cultivated.

. Limonum, Riss. ‘* Lemon.” Hab. Asia. Two or three

250 JONES—oN THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

varieties. ‘The common lemon grows wild every where, but
not in such abundance as before the disease of 1854-5, which
attacked the lemon as well as the orange. ‘Thousands of fine
trees before that date existed throughout the cedar groves, and
the fruit was so abundant that it only ripened to fall and rot
upon the ground. A variety known as the ‘‘ Lisbon Lemon,”
is cultivated and more highly esteemed than others.

C.mepica, J. ‘** Citron.” Hab. Asia.

Cooxia puncraTA, Retz. ‘* Wampee Tree.”

Limonia cRENULATA, JD. C.

Mourrya Exotica, L.

GERANIACE®.

GERANIUM PUSILLUM, L. Hab. Europe; N. America.
G. ? Varieties cultivated.
PELARGONIUM ? Hab. S. Africa.

BALSAMINACEAL.
IMPATIENS HORTENSIS.
OXALIDACEA.

Oxatis cornicutaTa, LZ. (O. stricta, Sw.) Hab. Europe;
N. America. Rich moist ground. Not common: Flowers end
of March.

ZY GOPHYLLACEA.

GUAJACUM OFFICINALE, LZ. ‘* Arbor-vite.” ‘‘ Guayacan ” of the
Spanish West Indies. Hab. W. Indies and Central America.
Me.iantuus mason, D. C. Hab. C.G.H.

SIMARUBACEA.

QuassiA AMARA, L. ‘** Gall Tree” of Barbados.
ANACARDIACEA.

Ruvus ToxicopENDRON, Ly. ‘* Poison Vine.” ‘** Poison Oak.”

Hab. N. America. Common in thickets, mouths of caverns,
&c., especially on some of the islands of the Great Sound. It
is strange that this plant should prove so poisonous to some

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. Q51

persons that even a close approach to it is sufficient to cause a
severe attack of inflammation of the face, while others may han-
dle it, or even rub the leaves on their faces with impunity.
R. radicans is merely the climbing variety of this species.

Maneorrera inpica, L. ‘‘Mango.” Hab. East Indies. A fine
specimen some forty or fifty feet high, and nearly seven feet in
circumference at base, grows in Mr. Robert Lightbourne’s gar-
den in Warwick parish. Fruit weighing 13 ozs. each have been
taken from this tree.

ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE, J. ‘‘ Cashew-nut.” Hab. W. In-
dies and tropical America.

VITACEZ.

VITIS VINIFERA, LZ. ‘* Grape Vine.” Hab. Asia. The eultiva-
tion of the grape in the Bermudas dates back as far as the year
1615, when the original Bermuda Company sent out cuttings
with the following instructions to Governor Tucker : ** Wee have
sent you vynes and vyne cuttinges to be put in the grounds.
Lett them be fenced from cattle and conies, and kept cleare from
weeds, and multiplye them by puttinge all yor vyne cuttinges.
everye yeare into the ground, that you may have many acres in.
severale places planted with them 8 or 10 foots asunder. You
may leade them alonge or upright upon poles, or lett them.
runne from tree to tree, at pleasure.”

Whether the early settlers carried out these instructions, and’
formed vineyards, history does not relate, but it is very clear:
that in the year 1764 the cultivation of the grape was not view--
ed with much interest, for we find that in that year one Chauvet
who merely petitioned the Governor in Council to allow him a
small grant in aid of grape culture, was ordered to attend the.
bar of the House for his presumption.

That the grape vine grows freely and produces abundantly in
the soil and climate of Bermuda, when planted in a favourable.
situation and well manured and watered, is well known; but as.
the only fresh water supply comes from the clouds, and the soil
is often subject. to severe droughts, cultivation on an extensive.
scale would not succeed.

5

252 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

RUTACEA.

Rura GRavEOLENS, D.C. Hab. 8. Europe.
AILANTHUS GLANDULOSUS, D. CU.

XANTHOXYLACESA.
?

LEGUMINOS 24.

Mepicaco Luputina, L. ‘* Clover.” This little plant is very
common throughout the islands, more especially on pasture
lands. It forms a very nutritious fodder where herbage is
scarce, as it always is on the porous calcareous soil of these is-
lands. It thrives in the shallowest soil, and its small yellow
flower may be seen even on the rocky slopes where the merest
scrap of earth affords the plant a rooting place. Horses and
cows are very fond of it, clipping it as close as their teeth will
allow. It was one of the few plants mentioned by Michaux on
his visit to the Bermudas in 1806.

MELIOTUS OFFICINALIS, Welld. ** Melilot.” This plant grows
freely in different parts of the islands, especially in the valleys
where a good depth of rich soil prevails. Strange to say, in a
country like Bermuda where forage is so scarce and expensive,
no effort has been hitherto made to lay down pasture land on
which to grow this and the foregoing plant mixed with grasses.
I have observed it growing in favourable situations at least three
feet in height, where the common grass of the islands was only
of diminutive size.

SpaRTium JuNcEUM, D.C. “‘ Broom.” Hab. S. Europe. This
shrub has been lately introduced by Governor Lefroy, and is
growing well. Apart from the pretty appearance its bright
yellow blossoms will present amid the sombre foliage of the all-
prevailing cedar scrub, its peculiar property of binding together
drifting sand, will render it of great value on the southern shores
of the islands.

Rogsinta Pseupacacita, L. ‘White Acacia.” Hab. N. America.

R. DUBIA.

WISTARIA FRUTESCENS, D. C’. Hab. S. States.

ULEXx EvUROPauS, LZ. var. stricta. ‘* Furze,” or ‘‘Gorse.” The

XANTHOXYLUM

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 253

author claims to have first introduced this familiar English shrub
into the Bermudas, having raised healthy young plants from
seed taken from Southampton Common. It will form another
useful forage plant, as when cut up and bruised in a mill it is
much relished by cattle, and is very nutritious. According to
Grisebach it grows in the higher mountains of Jamaica, where
it has been introduced.

INDIGOFERA TINCTORUM, L. Hab. E. Indies.

Vicia sativa, Z. Common in pasture land. This plant is widely
distributed over the globe, being found in the temperate and
tropical regions of both hemispheres.

Latuyrus oporatus, D.C’. *‘* Sweet Pea.” Hab. Sicily.

Pisum sativum, LZ. <‘* Pea.” Hab. S. Europe. Varieties culti-
vated.

PuHasEOLUS ——? ‘‘ Kidney Bean.” Varieties cultivated.

ERYTHRINA CORALLODENDRON, L. (KE. speciosa, Andr.) Hab.
W. Indies and central America.

EK. wpica, Lam. Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

MYROSPERMUM TOLUIFERUM. Hab. S. America.

M. PERUIFERUM.

CaJANUS INDICUS. Spreng. (Cytisus Cajan, 2.—C. flavus, D.C.)
<¢ Pigeon Pea.” Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres. Common
on David’s Island.

CLITORIA TERNATEA, JD. C. Hab. East Indies.

Cytisus LABURNUM, D. C. ‘‘ Laburnum.” Hab. Europe.

CANAVALIA OBTUSIFOLIA, D. C. (Dolichos rosens, Sw.—Cana-
valia rosea, D.C. <‘* Bay Bean.” Hab. Tropics of both
hemispheres, on sandy sea shores among stones. Very common
on the southern shore of the Main island, trailing over the rocks
and stones above high water mark. It also grows well when

- transplanted to gardens. On the coast of North America it is
not found higher than the south of Florida, from whence its
seeds have doubtless originally come along the course of the
Gulf Stream.

PornciaNA PULCHERRIMA, L. Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

P. recia. Bot. Mag. Uab. Madagascar.

CASSIA BACiLLARIS, L. Hab. West Indies and central America.

954 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

C. erauca, Lam. (C. Plumieri, D. C.—C. planisiliqua, Lam.
—C. arborescens, V.—C. sulfurea, D. C.—C. discolor, Desv.)
Hab. ‘Tropics of both hemispheres.

C. rLoripa, V. (C. gigantea, Berter.—C. arborea, Macf.)

Tamarinpus inpica, ZL. (T. occidentalis, G.) ‘¢ Tamarind
tree.” Hab. East Indies. Several fine trees grow in different
parts of the islands. |

Hymenza Courparin, L. <‘* Locust-tree.” Hab. West Indies
and central America. A fine specimen grows on Mr. Somers
Tucker’s farm in Smith’s parish. Another fine example of this
noble tree grew on the Cavendish estate, the property of Chief
Justice Darrell. Under the branches of this tree the celebrated
Wesleyan minister Whitfield used to preach to the people when
refused the pulpits of the English churches by Governor Popple
in 1748. It was blown down during the heavy gale of Oct. 31,
1847, but a stone slab marks the spot where it grew.

BAUHINIA ?

DETARIUM SENEGALENSIS, D. C. Hab. Western Africa.

Mimosa pupica, £. Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

-ACACIA PANICULATA, Willd. (A. microcephala, ich. Cub.—
A. Clauseni, Benth.—A. martinicensis, Pri.) Hab. West
Indies and S. America. From the seeds of the common acacia
which has become a perfect nuisance in many parts of the islands,
are made very pretty baskets, necklaces, bracelets, &c. The
‘seeds are first soaked in water and then threaded with a needle.
The seeds are ripe about September.

‘Inga vera, Willd. (Mimosa Inga, LZ.) Hab. West Indies.

CERATONIA SILIQUA, D. C. “* Carob-tree.” Hab. Levant.

CHRYSOBALANEZ.

CHRYSOBALANUS Icaco, ZL. ‘*Fat Pork Tree” of Barbados.
Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

AMYGDALEZ.
ARMENIACA VULGARIS, D.C’. ‘* Apricot.” Hab. Levant.
-AMYGDALUS PERSICA, D. C. ‘* Peach.”
var. nectarina. ** Nectarine.”

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 955

Pyrus mauus, L. ‘‘ Apple.” Hab. Britain. Although the apple
tree bears fruit, it is of inferior growth and flavour compared
with that grown in northern latitudes.

PRUNUS ? Varieties cultivated.

CYDONIA VULGARIS, Jacq. Hab. 5. Europe.

ROSACEA.

SPIR#A SALICIFOLIA, 1. Hab. Britain.

FRAGARIA VIRGINIANA, HAr. Hab. N. America.

Rusus —— ?

Rosa ? Perhaps in no country in the world does the rose in
its several varieties thrive and blossom in greater perfection than
in the Bermudas. Both standard and climbing roses are ex-
tremely common, and of the most luxuriant growth. One
exception, however, must be made; the moss rose is a perfect
failure. From what cause it is difficult to imagine, but perhaps
the failure of the fuchsia also may arise from the same circum-
stance.

POMACE#. ?
Eriopotrya Japonica, D.C. Hab. Japan. <‘* Loquat.” Very
common in gardens.
CRATZGUS ?

SPIREACE.
SPIRZA JAPONICA. Hab. Japan.

MYRTACE.

JAMBOSA VULGARIS, D. C. (Eugenia jambos, £.) Hab. East
Indies.

EKUGENIA UGNI? ‘‘ Myrtle.”

ANAMOMIS FRAGRANS, Gr. (Myrtus, Sw.—Eugenia, W.) Hab.
West Indies.

PimentTa vuLeaRris, W. A. (Myrtus Pimenta, Z.— Eugenia
Pimenta, D. C.) <‘*Allspice.” Hab. W. Indies. A fine
tree grows on the estate of the late Sir William Burnaby.

Psipium Guava, fiadd. (P. pomiferum, £.—P. pyriforme, Z.
—P. fragrans, Macf.) ‘* Guava.” Hab. West Indies.

Myrtvus communis, Lam.

256 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. -

LYTHRARIEZ.
LytTHRuUM —— ?
| TAMARISCINEA.
TAMARIX GALLICA, Rem et Schult. ‘* Spruce.” Common on
the north shore near the Flatts.

ONAGRARIE A.

FUcHSIA ? Hab. Mexico; Chili. The climate of the Bermu-
das appears to be unfavourable to the growth of the fuchsia, as
it will not blossom freely unless placed in a sheltered situation,
which is a singular fact, when we consider that in Madeira which
is in precisely the same latitude though far to the eastward, the
fuchsia grows in the wildest profusion.

RHIZOPHORACE ZH.

RHIZOPHORA MANGLE, J. (R. racemosa, Mey.) ‘* Mangrove.”
Hab. Shores of the warmer regions of the globe. Perhaps the
most extensive mangrove swamp in the Bermudas is at Hungary
Bay, Devonshire Parish. On the opposite coast of N. America,
the mangrove does not occur farther north than the south of
Florida.

COMBRETACEH.

Conocarrus ERECTUS, LZ. Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.
Called «‘ Button-wood” in Jamaica. In mangrove swamps.

C. RACEMOSUS.

TERMINALIA CATAPPA, LZ. Hab. Tropics of Asia and Africa.
‘¢ Indian Almond-tree” of the West Indies.

LAURACEA.
PrRSEA GRATISSIMA, G. ‘* Avocada Pear” ‘* Alligator Pear.”
LAvURUS NoBILIs. ‘* Bay-tree.”
OREODAPHNE ?

CUCURBITACEZ.

BRYONIA ?

Cucumis sativus, D.C. ‘*Cucumber.” Varieties cultivated.
Hab. East Indies.

C. cirrutius, D. C. ‘* Water Melon.” Hab. Africa.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. Das if

C. moscuata, D. C. ‘* Musk Melon.” Hab. W. Indies.
LAGENARIA ? ‘¢*Gourd.” Hab. Asia. Varieties cultivated.

PAPAYACE.

Carica PAPAYA, L. ‘*Papaw.” Hab. All tropical countries.
The fruit is used as a vegetable, and the leaves are said to pos-
sess the peculiar property of rendering tender in a few hours the
toughest meat wrapped up in them.

PASSIFLORACEZ.
TACSONIA ?
PASSIFLORA CH@RULEA, D. OC. Hab. S. America.
P. tauriroLtia, D. C. Hab. West Indies.
P. qupRANGULARIS, J. ‘‘Grenadilla Vine.” Hab. W. Indies

and tropical America.

CACTACEZ.

Metocactus communis, D.C. (Cactus Melocactus, Z.) ‘* Turk’s
Head.” Hab. West Indies.

CEREUS TRIANGULARIS, Haw. Hab. W. Indies and central America.

C. cranpirLorus, Haw. ‘*‘ Night-blooming Cereus.” Hab. W.
Indies.

Opuntia TomENTOSA, D.C. ‘* Tall Prickly Pear.” Hab. South
America.

O. tuna, Mill. ‘Small Prickly Pear.” Hab. West Indies,
flowers May. Very common.

O. cocctnELLIFERA, Mill. ‘‘ Cochineal-plant.” Hab. W. Indies —
and central America.

PimrEsciA acuLEATA, Mill. (Cactus Pereskia, LZ.) ‘‘ Barbados
Gooseberry.”

CRASSULACEZ.

BrYOPHYLLUM caLycinum, Salisb. ‘Life Plant.” Hab. Tropics
of both hemispheres.

ECHEVERIA SANGUINEA.

E. METALLICA.

Risxs GRossuLaria, Roem et Sch. *‘* Gooseberry.”

R. nusrum, D. C. ** Red Currant.”

258 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

KALANCHOE %
Sepum acre, JY. VC. Hab. Britain.
SEMPERVIVUM ?

SAIFRAGACEA.

HyprancEA HoRTENSIS, D. C. Hab. China.

ARALIACE.
ARALIA 2

Hepera HELIX, L. ‘* English Ivy.”

UMBELLIFERA.
Daucus ?
Pastinaca sativa, D.C. ‘* Parsnip.” Hab. S. Europe. Grows
well.
THASPIUM ? <‘¢ Alexander.” This plant is useful in liver

complaints, the root being made either into poultices to allay
inflammation, or infused and the liquid drank. ‘The seeds are |
boiled and the decoction used as a draught to cleanse the liver.
Horses are fond of the plant in its green state.

APIUM GRAVEOLENS, L. ‘* Celery.” Hab. Britain. Grows well.

HELoscIADIUM LEPTOPHYLLUM, D. C. (Sison Ammi, J/acg.—
Pimpinella laterifolia, Z.) Hab. S. Europe.

PETROSELINUM sativum, D. C. ‘‘ Parsley.” Hab. Sardinia.
Grows in perfection in winter and spring, but dies off in the
hot summer months.

CAPRIFOLIACE.
CAPRIFOLIUM ? & Honeysuckle.”
LonicERA ? “¢ Rly Honeysuckle.”

SamBucus nigra, L. ‘* Elder.” Hab. Britain.
Visurnum Tinus, D. C. <* Laurestine.” Hab. S. Europe.
Flowers in January.

RUBIACEAE.

RANDIA LATIFOLIA, Lam.? ‘* Box.” Hab. West Indies.. Grows:
in abundance on the ridge above the Paget Sand Hills.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 209

GARDENIA FLORIDA, D. C. ‘‘ Cape Jasmine.” Hab. China.

G. FORTUNII.

G. NITIDA.

RONDELETIA ODORATA, Jacq. Hab. Cuba.

RHACHICALLIS RUPESTRIS, D. C. (Hedyotis americana, Jacg.—
H. rupestris, Sw.—Buchnera, Sw.) Hab. W. Indies.

CEPHALANTHUS OCCIDENTALIS, J. C. ‘* Button wood.” Hab.
S. States. In marshes. The bark and leaves are used for tan-
ning. Among the old acts of the Bermudian Parliament is one
passed in the year 1704 for the protection of the Button-wood
which must then have been highly prized. The penalty for
destroying button wood was fixed at twenty shillings for each
offence, ‘‘ or the value thereof in good tobacco of the islands.”

Cuiococca RACEMOSA, Jacg. ‘* Blolly Snowberry.” Road side,
near Tucker’s Town.

IXORA JAVANICA.

I. ruamuna, D. C. (1. stricta Roxvb.—I. speciosa, Willd.)

I. AMBOYENSIS.

I. acuminata, D. C. The Ixoras are natives of tropical Asia.

CoFFEA ARABICA, L. (C. guianensis, Sieb.) <‘* Coffee.” Hab.
Eastern tropical Africa. Grows wild about Walsingham and
different parts of the Islands. No attention is paid to its culti-
vation.

BORRERA g

VALANTIA MURALIS, D. C. Hab. S. Europe.

VANGUERIA EDULIS, D. C. Hab. East Indies.

COMPOSITZA.

EUPATORIUM FOENICULACEUM, Willd. ‘*Dog fennel.” Waste
ground which has been cultivated. A common weed.

ASTER TRIPOLIUM. MHab. Britain. Road sides, common. FI.
April.

ERIGERON PHILADELPHICUM, L. (EH. purpureum, A7t.) Flea-
bane.” Hab. N. America.

SOLIDAGO ? Low ground.

Baccuaris ?n. sp. Pembroke Marshes.

AMBROSIA HETEROPHYLLA, D. C. Hab. N. America.

6

260 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

ZINNIA ELEGANS, D. C. Hab. Mexico.

PYRETHRUM PARTHENIFOLIUM, D. C. Hab. Caucasus.

GAZANIA SPLENDENS. Hab. C. G. H. .

HELIANTHUS ? :

BIDENS

ARTEMISIA

SENECIo vuLeaRIs, L. ‘* Groundsel.” Hab. Europe.

CENTAUREA GYNOCARPA..

CicHorium intyBus, D. C. ‘*Succory.” Hab. Europe. A
common weed, much relished by pigs. Fl. May.

TaRAxicum DENS Lxonis, Desf. Hab. Europe. ‘* Clock.”

Lactuca sAtivaA, 1. ‘* Lettuce.” Varieties cultivated.

SoNCHUS a

?

?

SYNANTHERE A.

BorRIcHIA ARBORESCENS, D. 0. (B. frutescens jamaicense, L.
—B. argentea, D. C.) Hab. West Indies. Among rocks,
south shore.

| LOBELIACE.
LOBELIA

GOODENOVIEZ.

SCZVOLA PLUMIERI, L. (Lobelia 2.—Scéevola Lobelia, Sw.—
S. Thunbergii, Hckl.—S. senegalensis, rl.) Hab. Tropics of
both hemispheres.

ERICACE.

-AZALEA ? Varieties cultivated.

ILICIN &.

4dLex aQquirotium, ZL. ‘‘ Holly.” Hab. Britain.
I. vomitorra, J). C. Hab. Florida.

URTICACEA.

Ficus Evastica, Humb. et Bonp. <‘* India-rubber Tree.” Hab.
East Indies. A fine example grows in front of the late Mr.
Perot’s residence in Hamilton. Also at Mount Langton, where
the remarkable extent of the lateral roots is observable on the
hill-side above the garden.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 261

Artocarpus inctsa, Willd. ‘‘ Bread Fruit.” Hab. Pacific and
East Indian Islands.

A. itecrirouia, Willd. ‘‘ Jack Fruit.” Hab. Pacific and
East Indian Islands.

Morus supa, Willd. ‘* Mulberry.” Hab. China.

M. nigra, Willd. Hab. Italy.

PILEA MICROPHYLLA, Liebm. (Parietaria L.—Urtica, Sw.—
Pilea muscosa, Lindl.) Hab. West Indies and Central Ame-
rica.

Ba@umeria oryLtinprica, Willd. (Urtica L.—U. reticulata, Sw.

_ —Beehmeria litoralis, Sw.—B. lateriflora, Muhl.)

Urtica pioica, Z. ‘* Stinging Nettle.” Hab. Europe.

ARTOCARPEZ.
MaciurRaA AURANTIACA, Wutt. Hab. N. America.

ULMACEZ.

CrLtis occripENTALIs, L.. ‘‘ Nettle-tree.” Hab.. Southern States
of America.

PLATANACEA.
PLATANUS OCCIDENTALIS, Z. Hab. Southern States of America...

CUPULIFERZ.
Quercus, NIGRA,.Z.. Hab. N. America.

PRIMULACE A. |
ANAGALLIS ARVENSIS, Z. ‘‘ Pimpernel.” Hab. Europe. This:
widely distributed species is a very common weed in gardens,
and other places which have been cultivated. Large masses of”
this plant’ may be seen in flower beneath the cliffs on the. south.
shore of Smith’s parish, in Feb., Mar., and April.
Primuba sinensis, Lindl. ‘*‘ Chinese Primrose.”

MYRSINACE.

ARDISIA ACUMINATA, Wielld. (Icacorea guianensis, Awb].—Ar--
disia semicrenata, Mart.) |

A. HuMILIS, Vent. (A. solonacea, oxb.) Hab. East Indies.

262 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

SAPOTACE.

CHRYSOPHYLLUM CaINITO, LZ. ‘‘Star Apple.” Hab. West In-
dies and Tropical America. |

SapoTa acHRAs, Mill. (Achras sapota, LZ.) ‘* Sappodilla.”
Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres. Grows well in the Bermu-
das, and the fruit attains a large size, sometimes 13 ozs. in
weight.

Lucuma mammosa, G. (Achras, Z.) «‘Mammee Apple. Hab.
W. Indies and Tropical America.

EBENACEZ.

Diospyros Masota, Don. Hab. Phillipines.
D. vireintana, Willd. Hab. Southern States of America.

OLEACEAE.

OLEs EUROPHA, G. Don., var. longifolia. ‘‘ Olive.” Hab. S.
Europe. Common in different parts of the islands. A ‘* wild
olive” is mentioned by the early settlers as being abundant about
the islands.

LigUSTRUM VULGARE, ZL. var. sempervirens. Hab. Italy.

JASMINACEZ.

JASMINUM OFFICINALE, £. Hab. East Indies. Very common
among the rocks and mouths of caves at Walsingham.

J. FRUTICANS, G. Don. Hab. S. Europe.

J. GRACILE, Andr. (J. volubile, Jacq.) Hab. Pacific Islands.

J. SAMBAC, G. Don. Hab. East Indies.

APOCYNACEA.

THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA, Juss. (Cerbera Thevetia, L.) ‘‘ Yellow-
trumpet flower.” ‘‘ French Willow” of Barbados. Hab. West
Indies and tropical America.

Vinca RosEA, L.? Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

PLUMIERIA RUBRA, LZ. ** Red Jasmine.” Hab. Central America.

NERIUM OLEANDER, LZ. ‘* Oleander.” Hab. S. Europe. Very
common all over the islands. There is an old lady now living,
90 years of age, who well recollects when’ a school girl eighty

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 263

years ago, going to see as a curiosity the only oleander tree then
known in the Bermudas. It grew on the estate of Mr. Burch,
near the parish church of Warwick. There is a curious idea
prevalent among the islanders, that water left standing beneath
an oleander tree is poisonous to poultry drinking it, and
also that crab grass which generally grows luxuriantly under its
shade, is poisonous to cattle, an effect certainly not applicable
in all cases, as we have allowed a horse to graze at will beneath
these trees without any bad results. The oleander is now ex-
tensively used for hedging about cultivated ground to keep off
the violence of the winter gales from the crops, and as it grows
from cuttings very quickly to a good height, and from the flex-
ible nature of its branches is never broken by the wind, it
proves an excellent screen. About the middle of March it puts
forth its lovely blossoms in vast profusion, and fields and road-
sides present a glorious floral scene. The oleander has one
great drawback, however, in the great length to which its roots
extend, encroaching sadly upon the land it shelters. ‘This we
think might be prevented by trenching at about three feet from
the stem. The flexible branches are used extensively for hoop-
ing up barrels in which potatoes are exported. There are three
varieties ; the common or single rose coloured, the double rose,
and the white.
STEPHANOTIS. FLORIBUNDA, Bot. Reg. Hab. S. America.

ASCLEPIADACEZ.

ASCLEPIAS cuRASSAVICA, ZL. ‘*Silkweed.” ‘* Ipecacuanha.”
Hab. Originally a S. American form, this plant has become a
weed in all tropical countries. It is very common throughout
the Bermudas, its leaves forming the only food of the caterpillar
of Danais archippus. It is in blossom nearly every month of
the year.

Hoya carnosa, G. Don. Hab. Asia.

OrsEA MACULOSA, G. Don. Hab. C. G. H.

GENTIANACE.
ERYTHRHA RAMOSISSIMA, Pers. ‘Rice Plant.” Hab. Europe.

964 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

A very common weed. The plant is sometimes used to make
bitters, and tea made from it is said to afford relief in cases of
colic.

CONVOLVULACE.

Irpomma BaTaTas, Lamex. (Convolvulus £.—Batatas edulis,
Chois.) ‘* Sweet Potato.” Varieties cultivated. Hab. Ame-
rica.

I. nix, Ath. (I. hederacea, Jacg.—Convolvulus Nil, £.—Phar-
bitis Nil, Chots.) Hab. Tropical America.

I. Quamocuit, ZL. (Quamoclit vulgaris, Chots.) Hab. Tropics
of both hemispheres.

I. coccinea, £. (Quamoclit coccinea,, Moench.) Hab. W.
Indies and South America.

I. LERII.

BORRAGINACEA.

Corp1A Srpestens, Jacq. (C. speciosa, Welld.) ‘+ Scarlet
Cordia.” Hab. West Indies and tropical America.

TOURNEFORTIA LAURIFOLIA, Vent. (T. syringifolia, V.—T. Sag-
reana, J. C’.—T. surinamensis, D. C.)

HELIOTROPIUM PERUVIANUM, G'. Don.

H. curassavicum, L. Hab. Western America.

BoraGo OFFICINALIS, G. Don. —

LABIAT Az.

Ocimum Basiticum, £. ‘* Basil.” Hab. Tropical Asia and
Africa. This plant according to old records was grown from
seed by the early settlers in 1615.

MeEnTHA ARVENSIS, L. ‘* Field Mint.” Hab. Europe.

M. ROTUNDIFOLIA, Sw.

M. viripis, Welld.

SALVIA SPLENDENS, G. Don.

S. coccingEA, L. ‘* Nip.”

S. OFFICINALIS, LL.

NEPETA P).*eCatmn

ScUTELLARIA —— ?

LavanpuLa Spica, £. &* Lavender.”

CoLeEus ? Varieties cultivated.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 265

Tuymus vutearis, L. ‘* Thyme.”

RosMARINUS OFFICINALIS, G. Don. ‘* Rosemary.”

ANETHUM Fa@NIcuLUM, LZ. ‘* Fennel.” Grown from seed by the
early settlers in 1615..

HYDROPHYLLACEA.

NEMOPHILA INSIGNIS, G. Don.
N. MACULATA.
POLEMONIACE.

Putox Drummonpu, G. Don. Hab. Texas.

SOLANACEZ.

SoLanuM nigrum, JL. Hab. Europe.

S. rorvum, Sw. (S. ferrugineum, Jacq.) Hab. Tropics of both
hemispheres.

S. ovigeruM, Z. ‘‘ Ege Plant.” Hab. Arabia.

S. tusperosum, £. ‘* Irish Potato.” Varieties cultivated.

CAPSICUM ? Varieties cultivated.

PHYSALIS LANCEOLATA, Micha. (P. Elliotii, Kuwnz.—P. mariti-
ma, Curtis.) Hab. S. States of America.

P. peruviana, LZ. (P. pubescens, &. Br.—P. edulis, Sims.)
Hab. Warmer countries of the globe. The berry of this species
is known as the ‘* Cow-cherry.”

Datura Stramonium, ZL. ‘* Stinking-weed.” Hab. Temperate
and tropical countries. Common in waste ground that has been
cultivated. In yellow fever cases the leaves, first sprinkled with
vinegar, are used to apply to the wrists to cool the patient.

D. Mete., Z. Hab. Warmer regions of Africa and America.

D. suaveoLtens, Humb. et Bonpl. (Brugmansia, G. Don.—
Datura arborea, Hort.—D. Gardneri, Hook.) Hab. West
Indies and tropical America.

D. Fastuosa, L. Hab. Tropical regions of both hemispheres.

NIcoTIANA TABACUM, ZL. ‘* Tobacco.” Hab. America. Previ-
ous to the more extensive settlement of the Colony of Virginia,
tobacco was cultivated to a considerable extent in the Bermudas ;
but when the former colony began its career of tobacco culture,
the extent of country and fertility of soil enabled the Virginians

266 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

to eclipse the Bermudians in this profitable trade, which gradu-
ally declined in the islands, and has never been attempted since.
In the year 1670 one ship received as part of her cargo for
England, 250,000 lbs. It is stated, with what truth we know
not, that tobacco plants are sure to spring up where old stone
walls are taken down.

PETUNIA ? Varieties cultivated.

SCROPHULARIACEZ.

BuppiEya Americana, L. (B. occidentalis, #. P.) ‘* Snuff-
plant. Hab. Western part of America, California to Peru.
The odor of this shrub is very powerful and unpleasant, and it
should never be allowed to grow in any quantity by the public
roadside, as it is in Paget parish near the ‘* Head of the Lane.”
Fl. Jan.

B. MADAGASCARIENSIS, G. Don.

Verpascum tHapsus, L. ‘‘ Dock-leaves.” Hab. Europe. The
common mullein adds not a little to the scenic effect of the flora |
of the Bermudas ; for where such a paucity of wild flowers ex-
ists, its noble spike of yellow bloom rising full five feet high in
good ground, presents a peculiarly pleasing effect, and recalls
home scenes in days gone by, while rambling amid the sunny
glades of old England. The woolly leayes are used by cotta-
gers for cleaning plates and dishes.

Linaria vutcaRis, Mell. Hab. Europe. Very common in gar-
dens and waste land which has been cultivated. It is much
smaller than the northern form.

ANTIRRHINUM ? Varieties cultivated.

VERONICA SALICIFOLIA.

CapraRia BIFLORA, LZ. Hab. Tropical Africa and America.

RussELLIA JUNCEA, Bot. Reg. ‘‘ Heath.” Hab. Mexico.

MaurRANDIA Bagciayana, G. Don.

M. sEMPERFLORENS, G. Don.

M. ?

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 267

BIGNONIACE.

CRESCENTIA CUJETE, L. ‘* Calabash.” Common in low grounds.
The shells are made into cups and dippers.

C. cucurpitTina, L. Not common.

CATALPA ?

TECOMA PENTAPHYLLA, D. C. (Bignonia, West.) ** White
Cedar.” Hab. West Indies and Central America.

T. capensis, G. Don. Hab. C. G. H.

T. RADICANS, Juss. (Bignonia radicans, Z.) Hab. N. America.

T. srans, Juss. (Bignonia, L.—Tecoma sambucifolia, Ath. )—
Hab. West Indies and Central America. The Tecomas are
known as ‘* Trumpet-flowers.”

Biegnonta CHERERE, G'. Don. (B. heterophylla, Willd.) Hab.
S. America.

B. venusta, G. Don. Hab. S. America.

B. OBLIQUA.

ACANTHACEA.

THUNBERGIA ALATA, Bot. Mag Hab. Eastern Africa.
Tr. ?
JUSTICIA ALBA, Roxb. ?

J. ?
J.——?

GESNERIACE.Z.
ACHIMENES ——?

VERBENACEZA.
VERBENA ? Varieties cultivated.

ALOYSIA CITRODORA, Pers. (Verbena triphylla, Bot. Mag.—
Lippia citrodora, Lith.)

STACHYTARPHA JAMAICENSIS, V. ‘* Vervain;” supposed from the
Celtic ‘‘ Ferfaen.” One of the more common weeds. In rich
ground it grows quite shrubby two or three feet high. It is
useful in cases of yellow fever, the plant being boiled for tea,
which giyen to the patient promotes perspiration. In flower all
winter.

LIPPIA REPTANS, Ath.

q

268 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

LanTANa oporaTA, L. (L. recta, Ait.—L. peduncularis, Anders.)
Hab. West Indies and Central America. This shrub also
grows on the Galapagos Islands. It forms the principal under-
wood of the Bermudas, clothing every spot of waste ground, for
wherever the land remains uncultivated, or more particularly
where the cedar groves are not properly cleared, this shrub is
sure to spring up and increase rapidly. It has no beauty to
recommend it, and its brittle stems are of little use save for fuel
and placing as supports for the tomato vines to run over ; a pro-
cess very commonly resorted to by the farmers of the present
day ; but one only commendable for the service it renders towards
annihilating this worthless form. ‘The leaves are said to be a
febrifuge in yellow fever cases; tea made from them, when
taken hot, promoting perspiration in a high degree.

L. Camara, Z.? (Li. aculeata,, 2.) <‘‘ English Sage.” ‘* Red
Sage-bush.” Hab. North and South America; Southern States
to Buenos Ayres. ‘This species which a few years ago was
confined to a few localities, is now fast spreading over the
Islands. It grows much more luxuriantly in shady places,
particularly in cedar groves occupying rich ground. In such
places it will run up among the branches of the cedars to the
height of 20 or 30 feet. On the eastern and western sides of
Prospect Hill it forms dense thickets,

UCITHAREXQYLUM QUADRANGULARE, Jacq. (C. caudatum, Sw.—
C. coriaceum, Desf.) ‘* Fiddle-wood.” Hab. West Indies and
Central America. It would be well for the scenery of the Ber-
mudas if this tree was more generally grown, for when mingled
with the all-prevailing cedar it helps to render the landscape less
monotonous. But slight difference exists between this form and
CO. cinereum, L.

Douranta Piuminri, Jacq. (D. Ellisia, Jacg.—Hllisia acuta, L.)
Hab. West Indies and tropical America,

PETRA ARBOREA, [Afth. Hab. W. Indies and tropical America.

CLERODENDRON CAPITATUM.

AVICENNIA NITIDA, Jacg. ‘‘ Black Mangrove.” Hab. Tropical
Africa and America.

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 269

PLANTAGINACE.

Prantaco mason, LZ. ‘English Plantain.” Hab. Europe.
Common about the sides of the marshes.

P. nancnotaTa, L. ‘* Ribwort.” Hab. Europe. A common
weed in high ground. Horses are very fond of it.

P. Rucextu, Dec.? Hab. Southern States of America. Rare’
high and rocky ground.

| PLUMBAGINACEZ.
PiumBpaco capensis, Rem et Schult. Hab. C. G. H.

CHENOPODIACE.

CHENOPODIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, ZL. Hab. United States to S.
America.

SALICORNIA AMBIGUA, Michx. Hab. North America.

BASELLA CORDIFOLIA, Rem et Schult. Hab.. East Indies..

AMARANTACE.
AMARANTUS ? Varieties cultivated.
ALTERNANTHERA ? Varieties cultivated.

IRESINE HERBESTI.

NYCTAGINACEZ.
MIRABILIS LONGIFLORA, I?em et Schult. Hab. Mexico.
OXYBAPHUS ? ¢¢ Bour o’clock.” Hab. N. America. Com--
mon about old ruined houses.

POLYGONACEE.

RUuMEX ? The root of the ‘‘ dock” is used medicinally, being
found of service in cholera complaints.

Ruevm rwaponticum, ZL. ‘* Rhubarb.” Hab. Asia. General
Lefroy introduced this useful plant last year (1872) in the
garden at Mount Langton, and a bunch was exhibited at the
Industrial Exhibition at St. George’s, last May (1878.)

POLYGONUM PLATYPHILLUM.

CoccoLOBA UVIFERA, Jacg. ‘‘ Sea-side Grape.” Hab. Florida
to Guiana. Common in sandy places near the shore.

270 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

PIPERACE Zi.
PIPEROMIA ——?
EUPHORBIACE.
EUPHORBIA BUXIFOLIA, Lam. ‘* Tittimelly.” Hab. Tropical
America.

EK. CANDELABRA.

E. HETEROPHYLLA, L. Hab. North and South America.

KE. macunata, LZ. (HE. Burmanniana, Gay.—E. thymifolia, |
Pursh.—. depressa, Torr.) Hab. North and South America.

KE. SPLENDENS, Hook. Hab. Madagascar.

JATROPHA MULTIFIDA, L. ‘* Coral-tree.” ‘* Physic Nut.° Hab.
West Indies and tropical America.

JANIPHA Maninor, “th. (Jatropha, £.— Manihot Aspi et
utilissima, Pohl.) <‘* Cassava.” Hab. West Indies and tropi-
cal America. The climate and soil of the Bermudas are very
favourable to the growth of the Cassava, roots of one year’s
growth having been taken up six feet long and three inches in
diameter, and weighing 22 lbs. It is prepared much like arrow-
root, and is perhaps superior to that article as food for invalids,
when the preparatory process has been conducted with care.
The manufacture is tedious, and probably for this reason but a
small quantity is made, barely sufficient for the requirements of
the inhabitants.

ALEURITES TRILOBA, Forst. Hab. East Indies.

Ricinus communis, L. ‘* Castor-oil tree.” Hab. East Indies.

CROTON DISCOLOR.

C. varieGaTa. Hab. East Indies.

Hura cREPITANS, L. ‘* Sandbox tree.” Hab. West Indies and
tropical America. A fine specimen grows in old Government
House garden, St. George’s. |

PEDILANTHUS TITHYMALOIDES, Pott. (P. carinatus, Spr.—
Euphorbia carinata, Bot. Mag.)

STILLINGIA SEBIFERA, Michx. Hab. China.

PoINsETTIA PULCHERRIMA, Bot. Mag. <<‘ Fire Plant.”

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

BEGONIACE.

BEGONIA FUCHSIOIDES.
B. uyprocotyimroLtiA, Hook. Hab. Brazil.
B. REX.

JUGLANDACEA‘.
Jucians nigra, LZ. ‘* Black Walnut.” Hab. N. America.

SALICACE A.

Satix BaByLonica, L. var. Napoleana. Hab. Levant.
S. ?

Poputus auBa, L. Hab. Europe.

271

CONIFERE.

JUNIPERUS BARBADENSIS, L. (J. bermudiana, Lun.) Hab. West

Indies. [Combined by Endlicher with J. virginiana, L.,
which is quite distinct by having a short gland and no linear
furrow on the back of the leaves, and by the galbuli ovate-
obtusate. Note, Grisebach, W. I. Flora, p. 503.] The Ber-
mudian cedar has generally been considered as identical with, or
merely a variety of, the Virginian cedar, which form in its
several varieties is found throughout the eastern portion of the
North American continent. Grisebach’s identification therefore
bears out our theory that these islands owe more to the current
of the Gulf Stream and the prevailing southerly winds for their
vegetation than other causes. A. few drift seeds of this cedar
germinating, and the plants attaming maturity at any point of
the shore, judging from the extraordinary abundance of young
plants springing up annually on every spot of ground left uncul-
tivated, would soon over-run the group; a circumstance only
too notorious at the present day. The attachment of the Ber-
mudians to this their only forest tree is great, so much so that
a large extent of the richest land upon the islands has from time
immemorial been devoted to the growth of cedar alone. The
more extended and profitable cultivation of vegetables for the
New York markets, a trade which is increasing rapidly every
year, will, however, soon tend to lessen the number of cedars,

Oe JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

an event not altogether lamentable where their preponderance,
in the absence of other forms, creates a sameness painful to the
eye. In former years when ship building was carried on with
some spirit, the vessels were built entirely of cedar, which, from
its extreme durability, was well suited for the purpose, the only
drawback being its brittle character. The wood is much used
also for housebuilding purposes, doors, windows, beams, rafters,
&c. being made of cedar, and it is no uncommon occurrence to
see window sashes fifty or more years old looking quite new in
appearance. ‘The cedar also makes excellent fencing; a post
and rail fence when well made at first, lasting some forty years,
and curious enough the poles, although worn by the elements to
skeletons in that long course of time, yet perfectly sound at
heart. There are several very aged trees now standing in differ-
ent parts of the islands; that in the old churchyard of Devon-
shire Parish being perhaps older than any other. Cedars of
very large size must have existed in years gone by on the site of
the present marshes, for wherever drains or deep cuttings are
made through them, huge trunks are revealed. ‘The circum-
stance of cedars not being found growing in these marshes at the
present day is worthy of consideration, for it tends to substan-
tiate the generally received opinion regarding the subsidence
which is known to have taken place since the formation of
the group.* When the marsh land was higher than at present,
a moderately dry soil existed, and upon this grew a vigorous
erowth of cedars, but when the land subsided and the ocean
level became higher than the marsh land, salt water found its
way through the caverns or underground channels, and over-
flowing the ground, caused it to turn into a morass entirely
unsuited to the cedar, which, gradually decaying at its base, fell
at length to the fury of some passing gale. ‘The size of the
cedar varies much, according to situation, as it is only in the
valleys, where the richest soil exists, that the cedar attains its
full dimensions; on the hill sides and coast line where they are
exposed to the prevailing gales, they are stunted and in many

* See “‘ Nature” Aug. 1, 1872.

JONES—-ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMOQDAS. 273

cases contorted in form; indeed, so much so, that trees known
to be thirty years old and upwards, are only a few feet in height
and not more than three inches in diameter of trunk.

Pinus ? Several species recently introduced by General

_ Lefroy.

THusA oRIENTALIS, L. Hab. China.

Popocarpus saLicirotius, Al. Karst. Hab. West Indies and
tropical America.

CALLITRIS VARICOSA.

CYCADACE.
Cycas rEvoLUTA, Thunb. ‘‘ Sago-Palm.” Hab. China.

AROIDEE.

CoLocASIA ESCULENTA, Schott. ‘‘ Eddoe.” Hab. East Indies.

DierrenpacHia SEquine, Schott. (Arum, £.—D. Plumieri,
Schott.—D. neglecta, Schott.) ‘* Dumb Cane.” Hab. West
Indies and tropical America.

RIcHARDIA #THIoPIcA, Sw. (Calla «thiopica, Bot. Mag.) Hab.
C. G. H.

Lemna minor, L. ‘* Pond Weed.” Hab. Europe.

PANDANE.

CARLUDOVICA iNSIGNIS, Duch. Hab. West Indies. It is from the
leaves of a species of Carludovica that the celebrated ‘* Panama
hats” are made.

PaNDANUS opoRATIssimus, L. ‘* Serew Pine.” UHab. China.

P. muricatus, Spreng. Hab. Madagascar.

ARACEA.

CALLA
CALADIUM

ENDOGENS.

PALM.
SapaL Patmetrto, R. & S. (Chamerops palmetto, Miche.)
«¢ Palmetto.” Hab. Southern States of America. It is from
the strong leaves of this tree that the well known ‘‘ Mudian

O74 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

plait” is made. It is prepared in the following manner. The
young leaves are tied about their centre to prevent them being
torn into strips by the wind. When these leaves are fit for use
¢. e., before they have grown too hard and coarse they are cut
from the tree and placed in the sun to bleach. When suffici-
ently dry they are smoked with burnt brimstone in casks to
render them white. When ready for use they are cut into strips
and different forms of plait made according to taste. Of the
coarser plait is made labourers’ hats, the finer and more difficult
of manufacture being used only for ladies’ bonnets and fancy
basket work, specimens of which are sometimes produced of ex-
quisite finish.

OrzopoxA oLERACEA, Mart. ‘* Cabbage Palm.” Rare. Hab.
West Indies.

AsTRocARYUM AtRKUM, Gr. et Wendl. ‘*Gri-gri.” ‘* Gru-gru.”
Hab. Trinidad.

Arzca Carecuu, 2. Hab. East Indies.

RuAPIS FLABELLIFoRMIS, Willd. Hab. China. |

Cocos nucivERA, L. ‘*Cocoa-nut.” Origin. West coast of Panama.

MARTINEZIA CARYOTHFOLIA, Mart. Hab. Brazil.

PRITCHARDIA PACIFICA.

LIVIsTONIA MAURITIANA.

COMMELINACE A.

TRADESCANTIA virginica, L. Hab. North America.

T. piscotor, Spreng. Hab. We:i Indies.

CoMMELYNA commuNIS, L. Hab. Southern States of America.
CYANOTIS DISCOLOR.

GRAMINEZ.

ArunpiInaRnIA TECTA, Muhl? Hab. Southern States of America.

Bampusa vuteaRis, Schrad. (B. Thouarsi, Ath.—B. arundi-
nacea, Ait.) Common in the marshes.

ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS, /fth. ‘* Fox tail grass.” Hab. Europe.

PaNniIcuUM MOLLE, Sw. ‘“‘ Para grass.” (P. barbinode, Z7.—
P. guadalupense, Stewd.—P. meyerianum, WV. S.—P. sarmen-
tosum, towb.—P. punctulatum, Arn.)

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. ies

P. mMaxmoum, Jacq. (P. jumentorum, Pers.—P. trichocondylum,
Steud.—P. fasciculatum, P/.Carib.) ‘Guinea grass.” Hab.
Tropical Africa.

ZeA MAYS, Ath. ‘‘Indian Corn.” Hab. unknown, supposed to
be American.

ZEA JAPONICA.

Avrna Sativa, L. ‘‘QOat.” Grows well for a time and then
dies off before ripening seed. Oats are generally sown in ground
intended for a potato crop, and when about a foot in height, are
dug under in order to manure the ground for the coming crop.

TRITICUM VULGARE, LZ. ‘* Wheat.” Grows well in some places,
and produces fair grain. In former years it was more exten-
sively cultivated, and bread was frequently made in farm houses,
but of late years its cultivation has ceased altogether.

HorpDEUM VULGARE, L. ‘‘ Barley.” Grows well and ripens, but
is seldom cultivated as a crop.

SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM, L. (S. violaceum, Juss.) ‘‘ Sugar
Cane.” Grows well, especially in low moist ground.

Sporopotus inpicus, &. Br. (Agrostis, Z.—S. tenuissimus,
P. B.—S. elongatus, h. Br.) Hab. Warmer regions of both
hemispheres.

CuHiLoris PETRACA, Thunb. (Kustachys, Desv.—C. Swartzii et
septentrionalis, C’. Miill.) .

Cynopon pactyLon, Pers. This grass is widely distributed over
the tropical and temperate regions of the globe.

PaspaLuM pisticHuM, ZL. (P. litorale, &. Br. — Digitaria
paspaloides, Dud.)

P. riuirorme, Sw. (P. Swartzianum, Pligg.) Hab. West
Indies.

STENOTAPHRUM AMERICANUM, Schrk. (Rottbzllia dimidiata, Sw.
—R. stonolifera, Pozr.— Diastemanthe platystachys, Steud.)
Hab. North and South America.

ANDROPOGON SCHZNANTHUS. (Cymbopogon Schxnanthus, &.
et S.) Hab. East Indies.

PHALARIS CANARIENSIS, Ath. Hab. Europe.

8

276 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

JUNCACE.

JUNCUS MARITIMUS, Lam. ‘‘ Large Marsh Rush.” Very com-
mon in the wetter portions of the marshes.

LILIACE.

ALOE vuLeaRis, Lam. (A. barbadensis, Mill.— A. perfoliata,
var. vera, L.) ‘* Aloes.” ‘This plant is considered very use-
ful in yellow fever cases, the native nurses placing great faith in
its virtues. In a wild state it is not very common, its pretty
spike of yellow flowers which afford a honied treat to the chil-
dren, being only seen occasionally on the sunny slopes of the
southern shore. It is a native of the West Indies.

A. soccorrina, Haw. Hab. C. G. H.

A. tineua, Hook.

GASTERIA OBLIQUA, Haw. Hab. C.G. H

G. macuLATA, Haw. Hab. C. G. H.

HawortTuia ToRTUOSA, Haw. Hab. C. G. H. |

Yucca serRuLATA, Haw. (Y. Draconis, L.—Y. aloifolia, L.)
Hab. Southern States of America and Mexico.

Y. etoriosa, L. Hab. Southern States of America. ‘** Sticker
bush.” ‘* Spanish bayonet.” Drifting sands of Port Royal.

x ?

Acave Americana, L. ‘‘Bamboo.” Hab. S. America. Very
common. Why the islanders should call this plant ‘‘ bamboo,”
we know not, and repeated enquiries have failed to produce any
satisfactory reason for the appellation. ‘The fibrous leaves when
cut open and dried are used as scrubbers for floors, &e. Very
good rope has been made from the fibre.

. STRIATA.

. PICTA.

. XYLONACANTHA.

. MEXICANA, Haw. Hab. Mexico.

Fourcroya GIGANTEA, Vent. Hab. West Indies. (Agave

fetida, L.)
CRINUM CRUENTUM, &. Hab. S. America.
PHORMIUM TENAX, Willd. Hab. New Zealand.

> > > >

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. OTe

AMARYLLIS EQUESTRIS, A/t. (Hippeastrum, Herb.—H. occiden-
tale, Rom.—Amaryllis Belladonna, Sw.)

NERINE SARNIENSIS, Herbt. Hab. Guernsey.

N. PULCHELLA, Hook et Arn. Hab. C. G. H.

ZEPHYRANTHES ATAMASCO, Don. Hab. N. America.

Z. ROSEA, Bot. Reg. Hab. Cuba.

PANCRATIUM OVATUM.

Narcissus Jonquitia, Bot. Mag.

SANSEVIERA GUINEENSIS, Haw. Hab. Eastern Africa.

ORNITHOGALUM -———?

HYAacIntTHUS ?

ScILLA 2

Autium Czxpa, /. ‘*QOnion.” The cultivation of the onion occu--
pies a large share of attention at the hands of the Bermuda.
planter, as the soil of the islands appears to be well suited to»
this vegetable, and the high price obtainable during the sprmg:
months in the New York market, renders it probably the most
profitable of crops. The Bermudas, owing to their position.
eastward of the warm current of the Gulf Stream, have a winter:
climate far milder than the Southern States of the American:
continent, situate in the same latitude; and are moreover never’

b)

visited by those sudden changes of temperature during the early’
spring months, which do so much damage to growing crops even
in South Georgia and Florida. Once only in the memory of”
man have the Bermudas been visited by frost, the thermometer-
rarely falling below 50° even in February. The crops therefore
planted in December or January, regularly attain maturity in
April, the onion being ready for shipment about the first week
of that month, a date far earlier than it is to-be procured from
the Southern States. To the Bermudas New York must there--
fore always look for the earliest supply of vegetables, and it will
be well for the islanders to bear in mind the great necessity of’
maintaining a proper system of steam. communication with. the:
metropolis of the western world..

LiniumM CHALCEDONICUM.

L. canpipum, Willd.

L. SPECIOSUM.

278 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS, J.
DRACEZENA TERMINALIS, 1.
CHARLWOODIA AUSTRALIS, Sw.

SMILACEA.

? *¢ Sarsaparilla.”

SMILAX

DIOSCOREACEZ.
DioscorEA LUTEA, Mey. (D. heptaneura, Vell.—D. sativa, L.—
D. Cliffortiana, Zam.—D. multiflora, Pr/.—D. altissima, Lam.)
‘¢Yam.” Hab. West Indies and tropical America.

IRIDACEAE.
Iris vireinica, 4. Hab. North America.
I. viotacea, Bot. Mag. Hab. 8. Europe.
SisyrincuiuM Bermupiana, L. (S. anceps, Cav.—S. mucro-

natum, Michx.) Hab. Florida to the Arctic Circle.
TRITONIA ?

BROMELIACE.

PITCAIRNIA ?

MUSACEZ.
Mousa saprentum, Ll. Hab. East Indies. ‘* Banana.”
og is var. rosacea. (Mauritius. )
Two or three other varieties.
‘Musa parapistaca, &. ‘* Plantain.” Hab. East Indies.
M. cAvENDISHII, Paxt. Hab. China.
STRELITZIA ?

SCITAMINEA.

HepyYcHiuM ELATUM, Got. Reg. Hab. Nepaul.

RENEALMIA OCCIDENTALIS, Gir. (Alpinia, Sw.—A. jamaicensis,
Garin.) ‘* Shell Plant.” Hab. West Indies and tropical
America.

Canna InpicA, J. ‘Indian Shot.” Hab. West Indies and
tropical America.

C. coccinna, Ait. (C. occidentalis, Mow. —C. surinamensis,
Miq.) ‘* Scarlet Indian Shot.”

MARANTA ARUNDINACEA, L. ‘* Arrow-root.” Hab. West Indies
and tropical America. The culture of the arrow-root which

JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS. 279

has rendered the name of Bermuda so familiar in English homes
is rapidly declining owing to the cultivable ground being requir-
ed for the growth of onions, potatoes, tomatos, and other vege-
tables for the American markets. The arrow-root, although a
valuable crop, requires much labour, and above all, occupies
the ground for nearly a year, during which time the planter
could raise from the same ground two heavy crops of vegetables,
so that it is easy to understand why the growth of arrow-root
should receive so little attention at the present day. ‘There are
some planters, however, who haying obtained celebrity in the
manufacture of arrow-root, continue its cultivation, and to these
estates the public must principally look for a supply. The name
of Bermuda is doubtless often made use of by unprincipled
dealers both in Europe and America to promote the sale of the
far inferior article made in the West Indian islands, for it is
quite impossible that the comparatively small exportation of
arrow-root from the Bermudas at present can be equal to. the
demand for the ‘‘ Bermudian arrow-root,” even in Great Britain
alone. Much of the Bermudian arrow-root of the finest quality
is rendered most unpalatable through the strange practice of
packing it in boxes made of pine, which, even in a few days.
imparts the disagreeable turpentine odour peculiar to that kind
of wood. If the boxes were made of well seasoned oak, which
could be easily procured of any degree of thickness from the
United States, this sad mistake, which, singularly enough has
been continued for years, would be rectified.

ORCHIDACEK.

VANILLA PLANIFOLIA, Andr. Hab. Tropical America.
OncibiIuM ————?

EFILICES.

POLYPODIACE Zi.

AcrosticHum aurEuM, Z. ‘* Great Marsh Fern.” Hab. Coast
of South Florida. Very common all over the marshes.

PoLyPpopiIuM PECTINATUM, LZ. Hab. West Indies.

Preris aquinina, L. Hab. Europe. This form which is com-

280 JONES—ON THE VEGETATION OF THE BERMUDAS.

mon all over North America is equally so in the marshes of
Bermuda, where with the sedge and dog-bush it forms dense
thickets, making a noble covert for the rails and galinules that
visit the islands in the winter season.

ADIANTUM CAPILLUS-VENERIS, 1. Hab. Europe. ‘* Maiden-hair.”
Grows in profusion in all the shady nooks and corners of the
rocks, old buildings, &c. Caverns have their entrances lined
with this pretty form, and even the road side ditches are draped
with its delicate fronds.

A. FARLAYENSE.

A. cunEAtuM, Spreng. Hab. Brazil.

ASPLENIUM BIJIDA.

A. cicurarium, Haw. Hab. S. America.

A. MONANTHEMUM, Willd. Hab. C. G. H.

A. SHepHerpDi, Spreng. Hab. East Indies.

CysTOPTERIS ————?

ASPIDIUM ACULEATUM, Sw. Hab. Temperate and tropical regions.

A. PATENS, Sw. (A molle, Hunz.)

A. MOLLE, Sw. (A. sclerophyllum, Hnt.—A tetragonum, Hook.)
Hab. All tropical countries.

A. ExaLTatum, Sw. (Polypodium, L.— Nephrolepis, Schott.)
Hab. Tropics of both hemispheres.

ONYCHIUM JAPONICUM.

OsmuNDA REGALIS, Z. (QO. spectabilis, Willd.) Hab. Europe
and America. |

O. cinnaMoMEA, J. Hab. N. America.

O. PALUSTRIS.

Norts.—In the ‘‘ Annales du Museum dq’ Histoire Naturale’’ for 1807, occurs a very
interesting account of the unintentional visit of the celebrated French botanist Francis
Andre Michaux to the Bermudas, He set sail from Bourdeaux on Feb. 5, 1806 for
Charleston, his intention being to explore the Southern States of America. On March
23, the vessel was captured by H. M.S. ‘‘ Leander,”’ and sent to Halifax, Michaux
being the only passenger, who was allowed the privilege of going on board the Leander,
where he seems to have received every attention from Captain Wetheby, her com-
mander. Arriving at the Bermudas on April 7, they remained there eight days, and
Michaux was allowed to go on shore. He gives a fair account of the general appear-
ance of the islands, but his flora is very meagre, only comprising the following species:
Juniperus Bermudiana; Verbascum thapsus; Anagallis arvensis ; Leontodon tarax-
acum; Plantago major; Urtica urens; Gentiuna nana; Oxalis acetosella. The
‘* Sage bush ”’ is mentioned, but not identified; also a species of Verbena and a Medi-
cago. He appears to have regretted his inability to procure ripe berries of the cedar
owing to his visit being during the flowering season, as it was his desire to have intro-
duced the tree into the island of Corsica and the southern departments of France
which border upon the Mediterranean.

GILPIN—ON THE GROUPING OF THE PICTOU COAL SEAMS. 281

Art. VII. Tur Grouping oF THE Pictou Coan SEAMS.
By Epwin GILPIN.

(Read March 10, 1873.)

Our knowledge of the Pictou Coal field was for many years
confined to the district worked by the General Mining Association,
the south crop of the Pictou great seams. The crops of the main
and deep seams had been carefully proved by the Agents of the
Company, and elaborate analyses made, but their explorations had
never been pushed to the west of McCulloch’s Brook, and it was
considered that the disturbances met there threw the seams out of
the miners’ reach. In accordance with the generally accepted
theory, the seams underlay the town of New Glasgow at an inac-
cessible depth, and were covered by the measures ‘of the Upper
Carboniferous.

When the monopoly ceased in 1858, it was believed that the
lines of the General Mining Association covered all the available
coal, and consequently for some time little interest was taken in
prospecting. The discoveries of Mr. French in 1865 opened a new
district called the Westville or Bear Creek. This gave a great im-
petus to explorers, and large sums of money were spent on both
sides of the river. The reports of Sir W. Logan and Mr. Hartley
contain all that is known of the field, but the general public cannot
be expected to derive much information from the exact and statisti-
eal form in which it is compiled.

On the west side of the East River the Acadia seam was proved
for a distance of over two miles, and now supports three large col-
lieries ; two underlying seams were also found.

To the south a coal seam has been opened on, but not clearly
-eonnected with its right and left hand neighbours the Main and
Acadia seams. Opposite New Glasgow the coal measures are
found to dip south, and a large bed of coal has been proved.

The explorations on the east side of the river have opened a new
district underlaid by three groups of seams, the Upper and Lower.
In the latter are comprised the Albion and associated seams, while
the former contains the Marsh and McBean Groups.

282 GILPIN—ON THE GROUPING OF THF PICTOU COAL SEAMS.

There can be no doubt as to the existence of the main seam be-
neath these, but its south outcrop has not yet been clearly defined,
and its northern rise is covered by the strata containing the upper
groups. The work of tracing the seams in this field is much in-
creased by numerous faults and the depth of the drift covering.
The courses of the central faults are more exactly defined by under-
ground workings and exposures in water runs. A careful study of
the ground between the Albion workings and the conglomerate
furnishes a key to the position of the seams on the west side of
the river, and a starting point for their detection in the eastern
district. ‘The first signs of a change in the northern dip of the main
seam are found in the levels of the Foord pit, sunk 900 yards from
the south boundary. At the bottom of the pit the pitch of the coal
is 21°, but at the face of the north level 900 yards N. 44° W.
from the pit bottom, the strike approaches north and the dip lessens
to 11°. Still further to the west the dip workings of the Dalhousie
pits were found to pitch at an angle of 28°—coming to the surface
further signs of a change are observable. 50 chains north of the —
Dalhousie pit shales and sandstones are found dipping 19° N. 10°
KE. about 21 chains. North-west of this a seam of coal is found
exposed in a brook dip 42° S. 10° E. The measures here are dis-
turbed, and the axis of the synclinal is probably between the two
points, as no further dip to the north has been observed. A sand-
stone quarry near the Gairlock road bridge over McCulloch’s
brook gives the dip 25° N. 40° E.; following the brook down,
about 4 mile to the north of this, sandstones are observed with the
dip 14° S. 25° E. Going east the first crops of the reverse pitch
are found above the Nova Scotia Railway Bridge, lying at a heavy
angle to the south with the strike turning to the north-east.

These dips establish a line of synclinal running nearly west from
McCulloch’s brook and agreeing with the fault observed by the geo-
logical survey on the New Glasgow side of the East River, 500 yds.
above the railway bridge. The crop of the seam on the south
edge of the Basin is regular and at an easy angle, while the mea-
sures exposed near the conglomerate and close to the supposed line
of fault, pitch heavily to the south. This would indicate a sudden
and violent upheaval of the northern half of the Basin acting at a

GILPIN—-ON THE GROUPING OF THE PICTOU COAL SEAMS. 283

period later than that which brought the southern crops to the sur-
face, and the line of dislocation would be an upthrow going north.
The turn of the measures to the north-east would carry the main
seam under the town of New Glasgow, where it is overlaid by the
seams of the upper groups.

The highest group on the east side of the river is the Marsh
Brook, containing the Captain, Geo. McKay, and Millrace seams,
with 158 feet of contained measures ; their average thickness is four
feet. This group forms an irregular basin the north crop of which
rests on the great north fault, and the south crop is broken by
faults bringing up lower measures. At the horizontal distance of
480 yards to the rise of their eastern crop is the McBean group.
This series contains an eight foot seam and several others not yet
fully examined; one 2ft. 6in. thick underlying about 80 feet is
said to be of excellent quality. The following description may be
more easily understood by the aid of a section drawn from Mc-
Bean’s slope on the 8ft. seam to the East River pit. The distance
on this line between the crops of the Marsh group is 1? miles, they
come to the surface at an easy angle and have been opened by
slopes. The crop of the McBean has not been found to the rise of
these seams, and in a short distance to the west the strata dip
again to the north-west, and we are crossing higher measures till
within 1500 yards of the East River pit, where the pitch reverses,
and a short distance further on two openings have been made on
seams dipping south-east and called the Lawson and Foster. The
East River pit was sunk on an 8ft. seam also dipping east of south.
A short distance to the rise is the Richardson seam, and continuing
from the Pottery pit to the river bank we find the measures con-
nected with the main seam and underlying to the south-east.

Our section gives us two basins, the eastern of which contains
the Marsh group and the McBean dipping 33° N. 55° W. The
other is underlaid by the Foster and Lawson seams believed to be
equivalents of the Millrace and G. McKay, and gives the western
crop of the McBean. As no explorations have yet proved the crop
of the McBean on the anticlinal, its probable form is that of an un-
dulation, and its crops are over four miles apart. The marked re-
semblance between the Richardson 2ft. 9in. and the 2ft. 6in. seam

984 GILPIN—ON THE GROUPING OF THE PICTOU COAL SEAMS.

found 80 ft. beneath the McBean, adds to the probability that the
8 ft. seam of New Glasgow is identical with the McBean.

Turning again to the main seam we find it overlaid by 1130
feet of barren shales, succeeded by a small seam of coal, still as-
cending beds of sandstone alternate with the shale, and among them
two or three small seams of coal, one of which before alluded to
agrees in thickness with the Stewart seam believed to underlie the
Richardson ; should this be the case we can form an approximate
idea of the thickness of the productive measures.

Lying unconformably against the southern crops of the Marsh
and McBean seams are two groups known as the McLennan and
McLean. The latter contains four beds of coal with an aggregate
thickness of 25 feet. Little has been done to prove the position
and thickness of the seams belonging to the former group, the two
lower seams are each 4 feet thick and lie about 1650 feet above the
McLean group, thus closely agreeing with the estimated section
between the main seam and the supposed equivalent of the Stewart
seam. Should these prove the equivalents of the Albion seams, we
should find the crops of the Main seam beneath those of the McBean,
and the continuity of the group established across the Basin.

There are 1130 feet of barren shale above the Main seam, and
at least 400 between this point and the seam before mentioned.
Crossing to the Stewart seam we find that its strike would carry it
500 yards to the rise of the East River seam, which, together with
its pitch, would make the thickness of the intermediate strata 750
feet. We have thus the following table:

Main seam to Stewart seam...... eeoeee 1530 feet.

BH), River Sa o, ocis ete elesie oO ee

Marsh Group... spec alice SOQ) ac

Contamed in. Marsh Group «9-5 9- - pieces ee
Above Marsh Group. .. 2... 2s ass sen eee Oe
4990 feet.

Which would give the productive measures a thickness of at least
5000 feet.

The identity of the Widow McLean seams with those of the

3 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 285

Western district cannot be considered as settled, but the agreement
in thickness of the overlying seams, and the slight difference in the
estimated thickness of intervening strata, are strong evidences that
the existence of the lower seams will be proved over all the Pictou

Coal Fields.

Art. VIII. On tHe METEOROLOGY OF CALEDONIA MINES,
Laitrte Guace Bay, Care Breton. By H. Poors, Esqa.,

M. E.
(Read March 10, 1873.)

THE accompanying record of meteorological phenomena observed
at the Caledonia Mines during the year 1872, does not vary much
from that of 1871. The barometrical and thermometrical readings
are closely approximate, but the relative humidity, 82-46, (saturation
being 100,) was greater than in the previous five years, which is to
be accounted for by the largely increased amount of precipitation in
rain and snow; amounting to 74-955 ins., against a mean of 58-898
inches for the previous five years. The measured snow-fall was
173:35 inches, but the exact quantities of water contained in it could
not be correctly measured apart from the rains ; as sudden changes
in the temperature often prevented them from being recorded sepa-
rately.

The number of days on which the wind blew from S. to W. was
151; from W. to N. 66; from N. to E. 100; and from E. to S$.
49 ; shewing a larger increase of winds from S. to W., and N. to E.
than in previous years. Forty-seven gales were observed, in which
the Anemometer recorded velocities exceeding thirty-five miles an
hour; March, November, and December being the most stormy
months ; while in September there was only one high wind to record
on the 19th. continuing from 7 a. m. to 1 p. m., but which must
have been much more severe seaward, as vessels passing on the 21st
from the southward carried double reefed topsails.

On the 8rd. of January, ice made in the outer bay of Glace Bay ;
and on the 7th drift ice was passing to the south. There was a
gale on the 7th which sprung up in the afternoon from W. by S.

286 POOLE

ON METEOROLOGY.

and veered to W. N.W. on the 8th. On the 12th a gale began in
the forenoon from 8. S. E. and veered to W.N. W. On the 18th
a gale blew from S. W. to W. S. W.: and on the 25th it blew
hard from W. by S. On the 7th Feby. the gale was W. N. W.;
on the 12th and 13th, the wind blew upwards of 50 miles an hour
from N. by W., and again on the 18th from N. by W. On the
28th the wind gauge only marked 15 miles per hour during the fore-.
noon. March 10, a gale sprung up at 11 p. m. from S. S. E. and
continued on 11, 12, and'13, veering to WS. W., Wen...
N. N. E. to N. E. by E.; on the 14th it backed to W. 5S. W.,
with a gentle breeze; but on the 15th it blew severely from S. E.
(7 barns blown down at Baddeck,) on the 16th the gale continued
and blowing from W. to W. by N., and backing to W. by S. on
the 17th. On the 24th a gale commenced from E. by N., and
backed to N. on the 25th. ‘Two feet of snow fell in the woods,
and the drifts were 12 feet high. Wild geese arrived at Glace Bay
on the 30th.

On the 8rd and 4th April the wind blew a gale from W.N. W. |
to N.; on the 10th for a short time at night from S. W.; on the
17th, from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. from N. by W., the wind gauge
marked over 60 miles an hour; and on the night of the 27th it
marked 30 miles an hour. On the 6th Blue Jay and Robin seen,
and a Bluebird on the 8th; a Camberwell Beauty seen on the
23rd; a small Tiger butterfly on the 24th; Woodpecker on. the
26th.

May 3rd and 4th, a gale from S. W., and the ice went out of
Sydney Harbour. On the 28th a heavy rain at 4a. m. with light-
ning and thunder, the wind veering from E. N. E. to W. S. W.
Frogs croaking on the 2nd, Mayflowers in bloom on the 4th,
Snipes and Kingfisher seen on 7th, and Mezereon in bloom. Her-
rings caught in Big Glace Bay on 8th, Bees seen on 9th, Swallows
seen on 19th. White Violets blown on 24th, also Strawberries ; |
Currants in leaf 25th; Coltsfoot, Willows and Alder catkins bloom
on 26th; Gold thread (Coptis trifolia) on 28th; Snakes seen
on 30th; Dandelions bloom 31st.

Only one gale in June with heavy rain on the 3rd from N. E.
to N. W., and last of the drift ice passed. Mosquito hawk heard

iguom:

ow

~

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, CALEDONIA MINE, LITTLE GLACE BAY, CAPE BRETON. 60 rr. ABOVE SHA. Jar. 46° 12’ N. Lona. 59° 57 W.

Rarn.

5 airs ; 2/3 g 5 Winp.
‘THERMOMETER. 3 28 ee u sneltties Roe 2| 3 8 ae
piers Sia Bb er 3 EB “Saow. wes & i ir E a : 5 3 Turned. True N,
Correc. Mean | Mean Coldest. Hottest. eas ces ee 2. Eb 5 A a) 2 iS z a IE g ale a S E)2/Sla
SN sly aa eee aoa fe 22/22/22 | 22 | 2] 2 |a| 2 lela] & (SBleletSle| elelelelealaalls| | 2|2| umperor cats
Ea ea aa ere Night:| Dey: Wight. | Day. |] Night | Day. || $2 [ee] 52 | g> | a ls || 2 [2|2| 2 sleeele(slal Seeleleelfslalelela
th th th ii |
th | th | I, i 7 | | 94 20/16 -30)| 5-815] 17 | 18-5014) 28) 546) 2} 1) 1 2 1 2 | 21) 18) 10] 1) 2)7, 12, 18, 25
; 590| {4 98-19 tills-oalt4-5825-87) -5 | 8} 1 | 7 39 | 6| 50 | 5-160) 83.5] 2-946) Goss20116-80)| 5 Ge 4\ | a} 5} 5) 4).. 12, 18,
DOT eLIB 20026 BBD B20) peeeety ae Ta ober 4] 4 | al] $2 (uel 41 fo0|-1059| srl 9672| eaeazdli9.a4l| 6-005] 11 | 23-251 o| a8] sed] al vl 2) 11 al allanol di ata] o |... | el asl 7) aly ia. ia, 18
aoe oo oan oe patodl a8 coc ue ag ralig-7425-89| -0 il 14 12] 28 [29] 43 l11)|-1080] 84-7| 2:702| so7000}e3-30l) 8-155] 14 | 67-85113| 30] 556] 3) 51..|..| a)..|..| | s9)..| 3 | 5 || 6| 9 12] 4|10, 14, 12, 18, 16, 16, 17, 24, 25,
ee eae a) orbs 20.21430] 28-9931 4 g4-0(29-2039-98|| 19 | 6| 32 [18] 8 |11| 52 | 8|-1758] 80-6) 4-465) G53930l18-16] 4-565] 16 | 11-25) 9] 28) 97|..| 5] 2) 2 of. |.) 5] al al] 2 | 2 ll aa G| o| 3l3,4, io, 17, 28
oe eee lag-euael 80-2711] 29-8020 41 -08/35-55146-61| 27 7] 35 | 7| 45 [27] 67 \30|-2870| 84-9| 6-020) B58510117-70| 7-455) 21 |......{ 2 | x7]..) 2) a}. ju) ata] a} gh... 4] 2) 9] 5) 1a ala, 4, 08
aoe ng D9-e725| 20 25400| 29-408 4/51-56/45-0318-10) 84 | 5| 42 | 4] 60 >| 82 lea|-s4ss| g3-4) 8-860] 502180\18,95) 4060/18 |......]..) a...-10..] 40) 4) a) 4) 5...) 8 | 1 |) 8] 8140) ols
[29-7 ‘4017| 80-16) 9} 29-471128/61-00/53-80(68-20] 89 | 3) 58 | 2| 65 |1i| 84 | 1] -4428] 76-9) 9-284) 51621018 B7|) 4-920] 15 ai Val (lst al | el al/all 3 )....l al a) ol a'go, a1
aoe ee cose ao-ir7| 3| a9-44alarley.20l64-80165-a] 44 | 8} a8 | 4) 65 | 9] 86 l10|-4701| 84-7 |11-940| 514510113.791| 7-260] 14 as Seleftol alc} of ctl 7 | 2) a alasl sian
Guenter »..| 98900 (29-63501 30-36724) 29-4031 1/58-03152-3063-77] 43 [12] 57 24| 63 |15] 81 | 3|-4150) 82-6 [10-541] ap90805°95] 5-660] 12 pat eof] Be] 2 Gf. -f-.) 2 || 2 | 19] 2 8) ajo
Ocha ....| 99-9493 (29-7048) 30-48530| 29-3981 al4g-41/42-5054-32) 99 [31] 39 29] Go [15 68 | 8|-3045| 80-7| 7784| 503960115, 96] 6-925) 15 |..... 3} 13) 4!) a] 91.) sl a} 3] a0] 9}. | a] 2 | 2] 17) 3) 8] alo, 8, a7
Neen 2e ent l29.0988| 20-37918| 28 949| 2l32-60/20-7040-50] 18 [2s] 31 21 46 | 9] 59 \15|-1906] 80-1| 4-841| 672530118 6s 7-405) 19 | 5-00) G| 21] 109). .| 5| 1|..| 9] a/ 1) 8 ala] a] 2 | 2|) 46 4| 7] 3l1,9'7, 8, 18, 26, 80
ore er | 5y7e50 (29-6896) 30-1972] 28-794107|28-15|19-2027-10] -2 25) -0 \25|| 37 [10] 48 | 3|-1204| 85-9] 8185] 76638020-G0]| 5-780] 18 | 47-50\15| 26] 414] 9}..| ol | al a)..| 91 )..|..|| 3] 1] 19] 4| 3) 5110, 13, 19, 29, 24, 95, 28
Beg 2
Mean 29-7881 |29.5948).......|.-|.....-- .|s9-a798-7545.28)... |... |.]....}. |. -..}-258382-40] 6-261] eoonetir as) 6-240) 15).2 J aden fob b fel af apace fo fe fcbedaon
ae OS : Mar ba Jan, Jan Jal, An; er 1 eel eet | fa ania
fete eee |e 30.520) 4| 28.583iicl|.... |..... eee] -5 [8] 1 | 7] 65 fla} 86 [id]... BRISA Bel 7549690]... .||74-955| 185|173-35\701882259) 7/35{12| 6\7s'12110| 69/62) 7| sll 46 | 21 |/151) ecltoo| 49] 47 5
———————

COMPARED WITH THE ABOVE.

Bie H : 2-87) 6-194] 643584] 17-6]| 4-841) 19)
Mean ......- 29-8524)29 6704 ...... P| ..... .Rep|40.06184-1745-95].. Nan]. ...|Deol] ...|dvg)... [Augl|-2438)72-87| 6-194) 643584) 17-6) 4-841] 19)... 2 See Ro a fe el a ese ee ae eed [ee
76s\11| 28- vee | aces s.. |) 10/81] 2 31} 67 25] 85 |/9]] ¢..2] c.--).-.... 7722414) ......|58-090) 147] 125-0/52\1722171] 7/23) 5| 5/25) 9] 6| 26/16) 3] Ol] 86 | 17 |122/114| 54) 75
(SUT Hnt Bees hoseoseel bacueee 30°768)11| 28-676)30 We Pee
1868. E 9 3 9751125 |
Mean ......- 29:885429-6924| ...... Mit]... |P4/39-2033-64.44-84)|... [Rb]... [Rd]... ay)... . ly] -2454174-80) 6-233) 675908) 18-5) 4-975]12-5).. Bel |bel Bead bel bel ea beer be bel ls el Be bs || aoe [Pec [a //
Mriromarcsack Hear ieeclease «e's 30611) 6| 28-89] 6l|....|.....| ....|| 13] 4| 4 al] 66 | 2} 89 | 5|| ....] ....|..... iio9og Ae 59-750) 152} 94-5 65/193'2486)15|18) 6| 328/19) 6| 3528) 7| 2] 85 | 5 |i129/107| 76) 54)
ayamee oe 29-8413'29-63825 ee flan]... -- = - (Sep... .\Jalyl| 2696/6810) 6°849) 612927) 16-8) 5:-O04111-7) 0.2.1). fe. dey de od. fe clee}e | eo de e[eefe ell «= [eeeell. |. ]-. |.
Hin ance é r b 86 |29]).... | ....|...-..|7855180| ... ||60-490) 140) 91-75.48/1861794| 6|37| 8| 641) 6| 7| 3927] 6) 3] 86 | 9 |124/104) Bi) 56
ie | | 01147109) Miles |
Mean ee: Jf]... .(Re})... nly)... Moly! 2691}74-00) 6-787] 634806) 17-4) 5-21913-3)...... pAb solos (babdbdbolbdbdediael pepe bdlloooal) caslllaclloulloa|| cs
Extreme : a 8 89-5] veel ceeclees 7617670) ... .||62-625) 160, 102-056/1831499) 3147\11| 861)17/12|10234)12) 4) 38 | 7 |1128) 99) 85] 58
0r152353) Miles
Mean . [ivg||-2523/78-25] 6-402) 629860\17-34| 4-461115-0)......|. on lie dbdleltdbelealhc alee babe belll-vealkooallacifesildelloe
Extreme 88-5) 4l| . 2. ||... lene one 7558320 58°535| 185] 109-0,74'2002043) 8\57) 4|10'71\14|15| 67/57/15) 8) 48 | 23 |/133/100] 82] 50

\or151166) Miles

a

TABLE No. 2. RAIN-FALL COMPARED.

March, } April. May. |» June. July. | August. | Septr. Octr. Noyr. Decr. Tora.

5965 | 5-085 5°370 2-010 3°080 2-560 | 11°265 2 920 4-780 5°745 68090
3-945 5-320 3145 6057 2122 3428 6956 7745 5 700 5-120 59°750
6005 | 4420 7-400 3300 6-400 2-728 2870 7-220 5065 5'655 60-490
8-980 37870. 1-705 2-475 2-120 3°310 6575 6:195 9:065 9175 62°625
6245 7-830 2-900 1560 | 4:205 4-595 | 4:820 4-325 4-150 57435 53°535
8155 | 4565 7-455: 4-060 4-920, 7-260 5°660. 6925. 7-405 6-730 74955

5716 | 5-182 4-662 3°243 3808 3°980 6:376 5-888 6-027 6°310 61-576

11 7 8 1 4 2 12 3 | 6 9

4 7 2 10 1 3 11 12 9 6

9 5 12 3 10 1 2 il 6 7

6 5 1 3 2 4 9 7 11 12 4
11 12 3 1 5 7 8 6 4 10
12 2 it 1 3 9 4 8 10 T

HENRY POOLH,
Caledonia Mine, Cape Breton,

Tn the table above; No. 1 shows the month in which the least quantity of rain has fallen, and so on,
Tune being the dryest month, and September the wettest during a period of six years,

up to 12 which marks the greatest precipitation.

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. 287

on 12th. Clintonia borealis, and Cornus Canadensis in bloom on
15th, and first Salmon caught in Big Glace Bay. Wasp seen on
18th, Swallow-tailed Butterfly on the 21st; Caterpillars attack
~ Gooseberries on 24th; Apples, Crabs, and Plums bloom on 25th.

In July a gale lasted from 7 a. m. on the 30th to 5 p. m. on
31st, blowing from 8S. to W. S. W. accompanied by rain. Ripe
Strawberries gathered on 6th; Fireflies seen on 7th; three Curlews
seen on 21st. .

August 31st, a gale from E. with heavy rain which measured
3°745 ins. in 25 hours accompanied by thunder and lightning.
Many shooting stars on nights of 9th and 10th passing from E. to
W. The gale previously mentioned on the 19th Septr. was pre-
ceded by a rainstorm of 3.380 ins. from N.E. in 24 hours. Maple
and Dogwood leaves turned red on 6th; Wild Geese seen on 18th.

October 2nd a gale from $.S.E. with a double rainbow 3 p. m.
On the night of the 8th from S. ; on the night of 28th from N. W.
by W. Snow fell on 21st at Lingan. On 30th saw a butterfly.

Novr. 1st and 2nd, gale from E. A number of Turs (little
auks) picked up dead on the 4th on the shore; on 7th and 8th a
gale from $.E. Wild strawberries in bloom on 9th. Gale on 13th
from 8. toS. W. from 8a.m.to3 p.m. On the 26th it blew
from the West a gale from 8 a. m. to 2 p. m., succeeded by a
calm night; and on the 30th a gale from the S. E. was accom-
panied by lightning and thunder from 1. to 7 a. m.

On December 10th a gale blew from 8. W., the greatest force
marked being from 1 to 2 p. m. On the 18th a heavier and
longer gale prevailed from E. N. E., blowing hardest during the
night. On the 19th it blew a gale from W. N. W. in the after-
noon. On the 22nd during the night from E. by S. On the 23rd
horses were travelling on Big Glace Bay Lake. On the 24th a
severe gale with snow began at 3 a. m. from W. by §S,. and con-
tinued all that day and the next (Christmas day) from the same
quarter until 5. p. m. when it moderated, and blew from the W. at
9 p.m., when the thermometer marked 13 degrees, it having stood
at zero all through the day. On the 28th it blew hard from the
W.5S. W. during the afternoon, succeeded by a cold night, when
the register thermometer marked one below zero.

288 GOSSIP——-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

Of these 47 recorded gales 17 blew between the South and
West ; eight between South and East; eleven between West and
North ; and eleven between East and North.

The greatest velocity of wind registered in 24 hours during the
month of January was 882°8 miles on the 12th.

February 10614 ‘ 3 7th.

March Lathes ce) oblie
April (Aas oe eee title
May 966-2) 7014s “3 ord.
June 10" ae ors
July Sansa 1% BOthi
August 633°:2 * 6) Za
Septr. GGT2: > ely Slay
Octr. 870°0 <6 6 2 ita
Novr. 1112-0 «5 cs 7th.
Deer. 1343°4 «* ees) lobe

Art. [X.—Tue Arriniry oF Races. By Wm. Gossir.

(Read April 14, 1873.)

THE paper I am about to read does not recommend itself by
any new scientific discovery. It is ethnological in its character,
but speculative, hypothetical and discursive. It may serve to vary
the routine of our ordinary meetings, but I fear will be of little
yalue except perhaps as it may be an incentive to pursue the subject.
It presumes an affinity of races in the Eastern and Western hemis-
pheres, based upon a similarity of names, of etymologies and customs.
I can adduce no positive evidence to prove the connection; and
there are forcible reasons in the wide expanse of ocean between the
Continents at the present day, against the probability of inter-com-
munication at any previous period of human history. Still, if we
believe in the unity of mankind, the peopling of America remains
to be accounted for on hypotheses or theory, either of disruption
or derivation, or both, in the absence of complete evidence; and

GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 289

therefore I trust you will bear with me, although to say the least
the subject is of a most unpromising and impracticable nature.

My attention was directed to the affinity or relationship of the
human family in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, by the
following circumstance. About two years ago there appeared in
the Church Chronicle, published in this city, a well written
article, comparing a passage in Herodotus, on the customs of the
Carian women of Asia Minor, with what is recorded of the customs
of the Carib women of the Antilles at the time of the modern
discovery of the latter by Columbus. The similarity is somewhat
remarkable. The author of the article suggested that it might help
to account for the peopling of some of those islands, or of the
central portions of the continent beyond. But at the period of
which Herodotus writes, there could have been no communica-
tion between the Eastern and Western continents, and nothing
can be gathered therefrom to show affinity in any way. I believe,
however, and it is to this I would direct attention, that there may
have been affinity in the remoter past, of which these mutual cus-
toms were a relic.

The passage referred to from Herodotus, is as follows: ‘‘ Those
of them who set out from the Prytaneum of Athens, and who deem
themselves the most noble of the Ionians, brought no wives with
them when they came to settle in this country, but seized a number
of Carian women after they had killed their men, and on account
of this massacre, these women established a law, and imposed on
themselves an oath, and transmitted it to their daughters, that they
would never eat with their husbands, nor ever call them by the
name of husband, because they had killed their fathers, their hus-
bands and their children, and then after so doing had forced them
to become their wives. This was done at Miletus.”

When Herodotus relates any event or circumstance falling under
his own observation, his veracity is indisputable; but what he
relates from other sources is not always to be depended on. It may
be valuable as a reflex of the belief or opinions of his time, but
remains to be judged in the light of superior modern knowledge and
civilization. The story therefore of the Carian women, with ample
foundation in fact, has been mixed up with the inroad of the

290 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

Tonians, who slew their husbands. The truth seems to be, that
the Carians at that epoch being still a barbarous people, the women
were treated just as are the women of all such savage people—as
the Indians of North America—as the Caribs treated their women.
They were slaves to the men, administered to their wants, their
comforts and their pleasures, but were, if I may so speak, a sepa-
rate institution, with no community of interests or feelings except
as the stronger sex permitted. Thus we may readily believe that
the customs of the Carian women did not originate when they were
captured by the Ionians, or that the latter were responsible for them.
They merely followed those which had grown up with them, and to
which they had become inured.» In this respect they were on an
exact parallel with their uncivilized sisters in both hemispheres, and
were in affinity with them. The Carib women were socially deera-
ded when the Spaniards came among them, and satisfied with their
inferior position. Improvement, so far as they were concerned,
depended entirely upon the civilizing influences of settled life, to
which their nature had not attained. They were thus even far
behind the inhabitants of the larger Antilles. Historians describe
the Caribs as an intelligent people, and probably they were not
much inferior to the Ionians at the time of their migrations.

Lafiteu and other historians describe the Caribs as a distinct race
from the Indians who inhabited the larger Antilles—Hispaniola,
Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad. These last were evidently pre-occu-
pants of the Islands. They are represented as of common origin,
speaking the same language, mild in disposition and comparatively
cultivated, possessing the same institutions, and practising similar
superstitions. The Caribs who had conquered the smaller windward
islands, frequently made descents upon the others, and their depre-
dations were much dreaded. They were enterprising and energetic,
extremely jealous of their independence, ferocious, cruel, and
cannibals, devouring the bodies of their enemies. They knew
nothing of their origin, and had no traditions that pointed to it.
They delighted in war, and the conquest of all the neighbouring
islands, peopled by a race effeminate by comparison, would proba-
bly have been only a work of time, had they not been interrupted
in their designs by the Spanish discovery. ‘The radical difference

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 291

between the language of the Caribs, and that spoken by the natives
of Hispaniola and the other islands, is of itself convincing that
they were a distinct people. Some authors have supposed that
they came at first from Florida—that a colony of the Appalachian
race having been driven from the Continent, arrived at the Wind-
ward Islands, and exterminating the ancient male inhabitants, took:
possession of their lands and their women. Jut besides other
objections to this, it is sufficiently known that there existed numer--
ous and powerful tribes of Charaibes in the southern peninsula, .
extending from the river Orinoco to Essequebe, and throughout the -
whole province of Surinam even to Brazil. This gives some colour:
to an idea of their derivation from the Eastern continent. It is-
admitted that their own traditions referred constantly to Guiana,
where they were always at war with the Arrawak tribes, their-
hereditary enemies. It does not appear that they entertained the:
most remote idea of a northern ancestry.

Their customs were peculiar. Polygamy prevailed among them.
The climate made clothing unnecessary, and both sexes went stark
naked, without any sense of shame or indecency. The women were
mere drudges ; they did not eat with the men nor were admitted to an
equality with them; they ground the maize, prepared cassava, and_
gathered in the cotton. Both men and women had shining black
hair, the women’s being finer than that of the men. They dressed
it with daily care, the men in particular decorating their heads with
feathers of divers colours. Both had a fondness for red paint, a
peculiarity of savages all over the American continent, and every
where; and they covered their faces and bodies with arnotto so
extravagantly, that their natural complexion which was nearly that.
of a Spanish olive, was not easily distinguished under the surface
of crimson. Besides this, the men disfigured their cheeks with:
deep incisions and hideous scars, which they stained with black,
and they painted white and black circles round their eyes. Some:
of them perforated the cartilage that divides the nostrils, and
inserted the bone of some fish, a parrot’s feather, or a fragment of
tortoise shell; they strung together the teeth of their enemies slain.

in battle, and wore them as trophies on their arms. and. legs; they-
9

992 GOSSIP——-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

resided in villages, in cabins constructed like the Indian wigwam,
except that the covering was palm leaves instead of birch bark.
As to their religion, it is reported that they had not even a name.
for the Deity, although they seemed to entertain an indistinct sense
of a superior wise and invisible Being, of absolute and irresistible
power, and admitted the agency of subordinate divinities; they
even supposed that each individual had his peculiar protector or
tutelar deity. They had some notion also of practical worship, for
besides their funeral ceremonies, which embodied observances com-
mon in both hemispheres, it was their custom to erect in every
cabin a rustic altar composed of banana leaves and rushes, whereon
they occasionally placed the earliest of their fruits and the choicest
of their viands, as humble offerings to avert the wrath of incensed
‘Omnipotence. |

Thus far but few analogies will be detected that will refer the
Caribs to a Mediterranean origin. Indeed the description would
answer for any of the Indian tribes on and to the north of the
‘Mississippi, especially those of them who were not sun worshippers. |
We might go a step further and conjecture with some degree of
plausibility, that they were an offshoot, either of the Algonquin,
‘the parent stock of our Micmacs, or of the Iroquois races. The
former was the most widely spread of all the northern aboriginal
races, and was well known as far south as the mouth of the Missis-
‘sippi, which is an Algonquin word; while the latter had all the
‘characteristics of the Caribs, in their love of independence, their
‘warlike habits, their aptitude for conquest, and even their cruelty.
But if it were so the connection must have been far remote, and
-all remembrance of that and their separation had been lost. ‘They
shad no knowledge of each other, nor is it recorded that there was
‘any similarity in their languages.

The somewhat cautiously hazarded hypothesis of the writer in
the ‘Church Chronicle, that the Caribs came from the Eastern —
Continent, is not without supporters, although their theories aré
not based upon the same facts. Edwards, the substance of whose
history respecting them, I have largely availed myself of, ‘* without
attempting to controvert the position to which recent discoveries
seem indeed to have given a full confirmation, namely, that the

GOSSIP—THF, AFFINITY OF RACES. 293

Asiatic Continent first furnished inhabitants to the contiguous north
western parts of America, conceives the Caribs to have been a@ dis-
tinct race, widely differing from all the nations of the new hemis-
phere,” and is inclined to adopt the opinion of Hornius and other
writers, who ascribe to them an oriental ancestry from across the

‘Atlantic. I will quote as succinctly as possible the reasoning by

which this writer convinces himself of the truth of his position :—
<< If we reflect” he says ‘‘ on the limited extent of navigation before
the discovery of the compass, the prevailing direction of the winds
between the tropics, and various other obstructions, we may I think
very confidently determine that no vessel ever returned from any
part of America before that of Columbus—a conclusion however,
that by no means warrants us in pronouncing that no vessel ever
arrived from the ancient Continent, either by accident or design,
anterior to that period.” The probability of such arrival, he evi-
dences as follows :—

‘¢ There is no circumstance in history better attested, than that
frequent voyages from the Mediterranean along the African coast,
in the Atlantic Ocean, were made both by the Phenicians and
Egyptians many hundred years before the christian era.

‘¢ We know from indisputable authority that the Pheenicians
discovered the Azores, and visited even our own island (Britain)
before the Trojan War.

‘¢ Their successors the Carthaginians were not less distinguished
for the spirit of naval enterprise, as we may conclude from the
celebrated expedition of Hanno, who about 250 years before the
birth of our Saviour, sailed along the African coast until he came
within five degrees of the Line.

‘©It was the Carthaginians who first discovered the Canary
Islands, and it appears from the testimony of Pliny, that they found
in those islands, the ruins of great buildings, ( Vestigia Edijficior-
um,) a proof that they had been well inhabited in periods of which
history is silent.

‘* Not less clear historical evidence are the accounts of the Phe-
nician navigation down the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea to distant
parts of Asia and Africa, in ages still more remote. In the voyages
undertaken by King Solomon, he employed the ships and mariners

294 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

of that adventurous and commercial people. With their assistance
he fitted out fleets from Ezion-geber, a port of the Red Sea. Of
these ships some were bound for the western coast of the great
Indian continent; others there is reason to believe turned towards
Africa, passed the southern promontory, and returned home by the
Mediterranean to the port of Joppa.”

He thus considers it clearly proven ‘‘ that the navigation of the
Atlantic Ocean along the coast of Africa, both from the north and
south and even at a considerable distance from land, was well un-
derstood, and frequent in very remote ages; and that if we inquire
into the nature of the winds and currents on the African coast, and
reflect on the various casualties to which ships at sea are liable, even
in the most favorable season of the year, we must admit that it not
only probably happened in some of those ancient expeditions, but
even that zt was scarce possible not to happen, that vessels would be
driven by sudden gusts, or carried by adverse currents within the
verge of the trade winds; in which case if they happened to lose
their masts, they must necessarily run before the wind towards Brazil
or the West Indies.”

He quotes two remarkable instances of this nature which have
happened in modern times—the first related by Capt. Glass, in his
history of the Canary Islands, who observes—‘‘ that a small bark
bound from Lancerota to Teneriffe, was thus forced out of her
course, and obliged to run before the wind until she came within
two days sail of the coast of Caraccas, where she fortunately met
with an English cruiser which relieved her distress, and directed
her to the port of La Guaria. The other is told by Gumill (a
Spanish historian) which happened Dec. 1731, while he was at the
town of St. Joseph, in Trinidad, when a small vessel from Tene-.
riffe, with six seamen, was driven into that island by stress of
weather, the crew reduced to the last extremity. To these instances
may be added the discovery by Columbus himself, of the stern post
of a vessel lying on the shore at Guadaloupe. Martyr also men-
tions that at a place called Quarequa, in the Gulf of Darien, Vasco
Nunez met with a colony of negroes, who from the smallness of
their number it was supposed had not been long arrived upon that

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 295

coast.” Many other instances might be adduced, of much more
modern date, of accidental arrivals at the Western Continent.

Taken as sufficient evidence that the ancient Egyptians, Phceni-
cians, Jews, and probably a good sprinkling of the people of Asia
Minor, including the Greeks, became acquainted either as mariners
or merchants, with the western coast of Africa, and even with the
Azores and Canaries, yet these accounts go no further, and all else
is supposition. There is nothing on record except the apochryphal
Ophir, (which some have assumed to be a part of Central America, )
from whence Solomon imported gold and silver and ivory, apes
and peacocks, to suggest a probability that his or any other navy
of the period or previously, either by accident or design, touched at
this continent. Yet it is difficult to account for the civilization
that prevailed in Central America, so analogous to the ancient
civilization of the Eastern hemisphere, except that accident may
have thrown some of those ships on the coast, from which they
would find it impossible to return whence they came, and where
their crews remained to communicate so much of the arts of civiliz-
ation as they themselves were acquainted with, and thus to form
the basis of, or to give an impulse to that which existed at the time
of the modern discovery of the continent.

The Caribs had many customs and observances which seemed
to connect them with such an ancestry, without possessing that
degree of civilization which might be expected to accompany it.
Even their language has been quoted and compared with the Phee-
nician and Hebrew, in proof of their oriental derivation. None of
these, however, are conclusive tests. They do indeed carry them
back to an antiquity far more remote than those nations, and may
be adduced in favour of their being derived from one family, in
which respect they were only on an equal footing with the whole
American race. The historian Edwards, to whose work I have fre-
quently alluded, with reference to their language, says, ‘‘ It is scarcely
possible to doubt that the following words used by the Charaibes,
had their origin in the Old Hemisphere. [Examples on the black
board, but cannot be quoted here for want of oriental type—see
Edwards’ History.] It may also be observed, that Dawson in his
Acadian Geology, a chapter of which is devoted to prehistoric man,

296 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

claims a similar affinity for the Micmac language. I have placed
the examples he has given in juxta-position with those of Edwards,
[on the black board. |

Albert Gallatin, an American Secretary of State, who bestowed
much attention on the Indians, in an analysis of the various langua-
ges of the northern half of the American Continent, has shown that
they are all similar in construction, and making allowance for the
total separation from each other of many of the tribes, that they are
derived from one original language, which may be taken to be the
most ancient on the face of the earth.

Father Joseph Gumilla, in his account of the nations bordering
on the Orinoco, relates <<‘ that the Charaibes of the continent punish
their women caught in adultery like the ancient Israelites, by stonmg
them to death before an assembly of the people.” ‘There is no trace
that such a custom existed amongst the insular Caribs who, before
they had any intercourse with Christians had no established pun-
ishment for adultery, which was unknown as a crime. As such a
fact is not described by any other author, it may not be well founded.
It is supposed to have been brought forward to support an hypo-
thesis which has always been received with more or less favour—
that the aborigines were descended from the Jews. But were the
relation worthy of all credence, while it would be a remarkable
coincidence, it would not follow that the punishment was derived
from Moses’ Law, which doubtless in this as in many other instances,
was a counterpart of that instituted at a much earlier period in the
history of mankind, and again rendered necessary under the circum-
stances in which the Israelites were placed.*

They had other customs, observances and ceremonies, indicative
of high antiquity, which appear to have been possessed by the most
ancient nations bordering the Mediterranean. ‘They are described
as having voracious appetites, and yet to have rejected many of the
best bounties of nature. Of some animals they held the flesh in
abhorrence : these were the peccary or Mexican hog, an animal very
much resembling our swine, the manati or sea cow, and the turtle.
Labat observes that they scrupled likewise to eat the eel, which the
rivers in several of the islands supply in great plenty. The confor-

*The Mexicans punished the crime of adultery by stoning to death: but their code
of morality was much stricter than that of the Caribs.

GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 297

mity of these prejudices to those of the Egyptians, long before the
exodus of the Jews, and to those of the Jews in every period of their
national history, is remarkable. Yet one fact alone is sufficient to
prove that there could be no affinity except such as must have sub-
sisted in the earliest ages of mankind. There can be little doubt
from what is stated, that they made a distinction between clean and
unclean animals, which must have been impressed long previous to
the age of Noah. But the Caribs did not practice circumcision,
which was pretty general amongst the early Egyptians, and is an
imperative obligation amongst the Jews to the present day, and
would have been observed also by the Caribs had there been
any affinity with those nations. This omission attests that they were
not indebted to either for their origin, or to any accidental influences
by which the peculiar rites of Jewish civilization could operate to
change their mode of life.

Another curious custom proving their high antiquity, and bearing
upon the question of their affinity, which appears very extraordinary,
but is well authenticated, is related of them. On the birth of his
firstborn the father took to his bed with the baby, and fasted with
a strictness that often endangered life. On the birth of every male
child he was sprinkled with some drops of his father’s blood. La-
fiteu observing that this custom was also practised by the Tybaren-
ians of Asia, and the Iberians or ancient inhabitants of Spain, and
is still in use amongst the people of Japan, not only urged the
circumstance as a proof among others that the new world was
peopled from the old, but pretends to discover in it some traces of
the doctrine of original sin; he supposes that the severe penance
thus voluntarily submitted to by the father, was at first instituted in
the pious view of protecting his issue from the contagion of heredi-
tary guilt; averting the wrath of offended Omnipotence at the
erime of our first parents, and expiating their guilt by his sufferings.
Strange then as this custom was, and practised among other Ameri-
ean tribes, of which several instances might be adduced, it was like-
wise prevalent among some of the most ancient races of the Eastern
hemisphere. It is strong evidence of affinity with them, although
so widely separated ; but it does not imply that the new world was
peopled from the old. The traces of the doctrine of original sin,

298 GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

which Lafiteu finds in a custom thus widely dispersed, but of which
the meaning seems to have been lost, is however of some impor-
tance in determining the unity of mankind, and the subject in this
connection deserves more attention than hitherto it seems has been
bestowed upon it.

Their mode of burying the dead affords another important
instance of the primordial antiquity of the Caribs, places them on a
parellel in this respect with other American tribes, and without
furnishing any particular proof of derivation, establishes an affinity
with the most ancient races of the Eastern continent; and further
confirms belief in the unity of mankind, and their descent from
Adam and Eve. The most ancient Carians interred their dead
in the same manner, and it is probable with similar ceremonies.*
The investigations of archeologists in Europe, have resulted in
a Classification of modes of interment, which determines the com-
parative although not the remotest antiquity of offshoots of the
primitive stock farthest removed from centres of civilization; and
then the gradual introduction among them of progressive arts
and science. The stone age, the bronze age, and the iron age,
represent as well as customs of burial, phases of increasing know-
ledge, from the rudest condition of humanity, when all remembrance
and all tradition of previous civilization, even in degree had been
lost, to periods when improvement had been introduced from abroad,
and in process of time matured and perfected. In the most abject
condition there appears no connection either with an Egyptian,
Assyrian, or Phoenician origin, or with any previous era. Only a
few customs remain to determine the original unity. Yet as far
back as we can obtain any knowledge of the rudest tribes, and
beyond all knowledge of them, we find in other regions, highly
civilized peoples, cultivating art and science, and manifesting a pro-
gress, the origin of which can be traced by the Biblical record, to
be coeval with man’s creation, and quite apparent amongst the first
families of mankind. There ought to be no doubt then, from whence
the savage tribes derived their progressive improvement. ‘This
wisdom from on High, and the capacity to improve it, has never

*Thucydides—Delos.

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. . 999

been lost to the world. It has frequently changed its base, but it
has always advanced and spread itself abroad. We may say that
it was almost contemporaneous in Egypt and Assyria, in India and
Pheenicia, in all of which it may have been introduced (you will
excuse the hypothesis which has taken possession of my mind and
to which I shall again allude) by the sons of Noah and their pro-
geny. They preserved their genealogy, were perfect in their genera-
tions, and transmitted the high cultivation of a race that peopled
some particular region beyond the confines of Paradise, wherever
that may have been, down to the time of the Flood, to all the
countries to which they spread after that event. Some of their
descendants having at leneth arrived at the Mediterranean, they
found a land suitable for settlement, and a people with whom they
mingled, whose derivation, customs, and dialects may have been
similar to those of the American tribes, but who were perhaps
better fitted to accept the improvements that were tendered to them
by this regenerating race.

Tt is difficult at the present day to ascertain whether or not the
Mediterranean was affected by the Noachian deluge. An obscure
tradition or myth among the Greeks* points to suchan event. The
most ancient Egyptian monuments are quite oblivious of that catas-
trophe. The record however, of customs which may be considered
ante-diluvian are numerous. ‘They are found amongst the Carians as
amongst the Caribs, in their tombs. Far beyond the age of bronze,
when the people on the shores of Asia Minor knew of no other im-
plements than those they manufactured of stone, they buried their
dead, as the Caribs buried theirs, in a contracted posture, with
their knees to the chin, a practice that was first modified and then
changed, when bronze and iron cameintouse. Wherever mankind
had wandered by successive removals far from the primitive home,
had realized that the earth bare unto them only thorns and thistles,
and were led to a dependence on the wild beasts and fishes for sub-
sistence, their normal intelligence being entirely superseded by animal
instinct, this custom seems never to have been forgotten. All
throughout Europe it prevailed, and what is remarkable as proving

* The deluge of Ogyges.

300 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

an affinity and identity of race, in most instances the skulls of the
remote stone age men, both in Europe and America, bear to each
other a strong resemblance. They were dolichocephalic, or long
headed. In some instances, more frequent however in the western
than in the eastern hemisphere, flattened or distorted in infancy by
compression. If there be any here who desire to become acquainted
with prehistoric man, I would refer them to a recent work by Sir
John Lubbock, entitled «‘ Prehistoric Times.” The conclusion drawn
from customs of burial, is thus stated :—‘* There can be no doubt
that in the Neolithic stone age (7. e. the age which showed an im-
provement in the make of stone implements) it was usual to bury
the corpse in a sitting or contracted posture ; and in short it appears
probable, although far from being satisfactorily established, that in
Western Europe this attitude is characteristic of the stone age,
cremation of that of bronze, while those cases in which the skeleton
was extended may be referred with little hesitation to the iron age.”
It only remains to say that the Caribs of the West Indies, (and all

the northern tribes,) had got no further than the Neolithic age at.

the arrival of Columbus; although the bronze age was at their door,
and would soon have been upon them in the extension of Mexican
civilization. |

I might adduce many other customs and ceremonies of the Caribs,
which would imply a connection at some remote period, and a com-
mon origin, with the most ancient races of the Eastern hemisphere ;
but time will not allow, even if it were not a trespass on your patience.
I may mention, however, in conclusion of these observations on a
most interesting people, now almost entirely extinct, that they prac-
tised to a certain extent the art of agriculture. Strange to say they
knew how to prepare cassava, by neutralizing the poisonous proper-
ties of the manioc from which it is made, by a process similar to that
employed on the coast of Africa. They also cultivated the maize,

which is an African cereal, although apparently indigenous in

America. Strangest of all was their habit of chewing the betel,
preparing it with calcined shells, after the manner of the natives of
the East Indies. By what mysterious means they had acquired this
proportion of knowledge, we shall never be able to ascertain ; but if
they did not possess it from the beginning, in common with the ancient

ni.
=

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 301

nations of the earth, we may be allowed to conjecture with others,
that it may have been communicated by some accidental arrival on
their shores from the Eastern Continent ; or it may have been recei-
ved from the people of the adjacent islands, who were a distinct race,
and of whom nothing is more certain than that they preceded the
Caribs in their occupation of those beautiful spots of the earth.

PART II.

THE affinity of the most ancient races in the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres is much easier of proof at the present day, than are
the causes that led to their total separation. Yet nothing can be
more clear, affinity being granted, than that a separation at some
early period of the history of mankind, attended with extraordinary
circumstances, must have occurred to account for their perfect isola-
tion and the total oblivion of each other that had so long existed.
Nothing but a tremendous cataclysm, dividing the lands in the midst
and interposing an ocean between them, can satisfy this requirement.
Of such an event there is no positive record, or at least the record
does not fully warrant the inference. I shall again advert more
particularly to this branch of the subject ; but in the meantime desire
to direct your attention to the Mediterranean Sea, the countries on
the borders of which appear to have been specially prepared for the
reception and civilization of mankind.

There would seem to have been much greater facilities for mari-
time peoples of ancient times to pass into the Mediterranean from
India, Africa and Europe, than are afforded naturally at the present
day. ‘* Ancient authors entertained strong opinions on the subject.
Aristotle held that the Mediterranean had at one time covered a
large part of Africa and Egypt, and had extended inland as far as
the temple of Jupiter Ammon. This doctrine was maintained also
by Xanthus the Lydian, Strabo and Eratosthenes. The ancients
appear to have been led to this conclusion, by observing in various
parts of Africa and Egypt manifest traces and indications of the sea.
They found there shells, pebbles evidently rounded or worn smooth
by the action of water, incrustations of salt, and many salt lakes.
Some of these appearances were particularly frequent on the route
through the desert to the temple of Ammon.

302 GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

‘¢ The aacient writers maintained, that the temple’ and oracle of
Ammon never would have become so famous, if the only approach
to them had always been over vast and dangerous deserts. ‘They
insisted that the Oases had all originally been islands in the earlier
and more widely extended Mediterranean. In this remote period,
according to them, there existed as yet no communication between
the Pontus Kuxinus and Mediterranean Sea, nor between the latter
and the Atlantic. ‘The isthmus connecting Arabia with Egypt was
under water, and Eratosthenes believed that Menelaus had sailed
over this narrow passage, which is now the Isthmus of Suez. When
the waters of the Euxine forced a passage into the Mediterranean,
the great influx of water opened another outlet for itself through
what were called by the ancients the Pillars of Hercules—Spain and
Africa having been previously joined. In this tremendous convul
sion the ancient land of Lectonia is thought to have been inundated
and to have sunk in the sea, leaving merely the islands of the Archi-
pelago its mountain tops, to attest its former existence. According
to Diodorus Siculus, the inhabitants of Samothrace had a tradition
that a great part of their island, as well as of Asia, was ravaged
and laid under water by this inundation, and that in passing near
their island fragments of temples were frequently rescued from the
waves.”

If the belief of Eratosthenes previously quoted, were realized, a
passage would have been open to the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.
‘¢The Ethiopians pretended to have planted the first colonies in
Egypt, soon after that country had emerged from the waters of the
Mediterranean, by which it was traditionally reported to have been
covered. Tradition also refers to a northern passage to the ocean.
The belief for a long time prevailed that there was a communication
between the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azof) and the Oceanus or earth-
encompassing stream. The Argonauts were thought to have passed
up the Phasis into the Palus Maeotis, thence up the Tanais, from
the head of which they transported the Argo over land to a river
that fell into the main ocean, and thence directing their course to
the west to have come to the British Isles and the Atlantic, and to
have reached at last the Columns of Hercules.” These traditions
which have very little historic value, may however point to a time

~ a >

GOSSIP——-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 303

when the Mediterranean Sea may have had several outlets, and was
therefore more open to foreign arrivals of mankind than after it had
settled to its present outline and configuration. The only natural
passage now to the Atlantic, is by the Pillars of Hercules (Straits
of Gibraltar).

At the close of these disturbances, or during their continuance,
we may safely conclude that the habitable coast of Asia Minor was
occupied by wanderers of the primitive stock, who although more
remote in time, were probably as rude and uncultivated as the peo-
ple of Northern Europe whose remains in our day are of so much
interest to the archxologist. The affinity of these people with the
American race is exceedingly probable, but there appears to have
been a remarkable distinction between them. The western race
had no subsequent communication with the civilization from which
they had wandered, or, if the ancient remains on this continent
depend upon it, it was confined to a few centres where it was after-
wards overlaid or destroyed. ‘The last condition of things may
have happened in the era of the mound builders ; and its destruction
by the inroads of barbarian tribes of the same race. J inally it may
have revived in Mexico and Peru and Central America, where it
took thousands of years to recover itself, and had but recently begun
as it were to assert its strength, when the modern discovery of the
country again doomed it to destruction. The Mediterranean people,
on the contrary, had the elements of civilization introduced among
them at an early age. The Pelasgians who possessed it imperfectly
first came among this primitive race,.at what time cannot now be
determined. Their origin also is lost in mythological obscurity.

Inachus (Enoch or Anak great and powerful) son of Oceanus
and Tethys, significant of his being reared on the ocean, is said
to have been the first king of Argos. Phoroneus the Pelasgian, son
of Inachus and the ocean nymph Melia, is significantly styled the
first man—he gave the aborigines fire and social institutions. Car,
his son (or the son of Manes, or Man, the derivation is not clear)
is claimed by the Carians as the patriarch of their race. Mysis
and Lydus, are brothers of Car, and eponyms or patriarchs of the
Lydians and Mysians. Another descendant of Phoroneus, Pelasgus,
is said to have given his name to the Pelasgians. ‘These mythical

304 GossIp—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

genealogies, which are not to be depended on as a basis of his-
torical truth, seem, however, in their derivations, to point to arri-
vals from beyond the sea, from a region where art and science had
made some progress, and that those who communicated them
became kings and chiefs of peoples whom they benefitted by their
introduction. Ancient authors have supposed that the Pelasgians
came from Thrace, but there is no proof of any civilization having
then existed in that region. These authors knew nothing of this
continent, or the religious worship, manners and customs of its
people, or of any intermediate civilization which could have estab-
lished affinities either with the aboriginal races, or the Pelasgians,
or of their possible separation; or perhaps we might have handed
down very different opinions, both as to affinities and derivation.
From all this I have taken the liberty to assume.

T.—That wanderers of the Adamic stock peopled the coasts of
Asia Minor and other parts of the Mediterranean, about the same
time that wanderers of the same race were progressing towards the
central portions of this continent.

I1.—That some ages after them, either previous or subsequent to
the time of the diluvial catastrophe in which Noah and his family
were involved, a more civilized race arrived at the Mediterranean,
and under the name of Pelasgians spread themselves through the
wide extent of its coasts.

T1J.—That after the Noachian deluge, when the family of Noah,
whose mission it was to give an impulse to civilization, had multi-
plied, branches of them arrived at and settled on the shores of the
Mediterranean. Cush and Mizraim introduced their superior civi-
lization into Egypt and Ethiopia. ‘The Phcenicians or Kanaanites,
another Hamitic race, were amongst the first arrivals. They appear
more particularly to have understood the art of navigation, and to
have come from the Persian Gulf by way of the Red Sea. The
descendants of Japheth afterwards obtained a footing, and either :
by conquest or being deemed benefactors, acquired great influence,
and became eponyms of various tribes.

It is remarkable as evidence of the unity of mankind, and their
affinities, that these tribes or races of men, not far removed from
each other in time, comparatively, readily amalgamated—that they

GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 305

spake dialects of one original language, which very soon became
assimilated ; and that this language, altered, matured and perfected
through long past ages, still retains traces of derivation, that in the
opinion of archeologists connects it with the aboriginal languages
of this continent.

But while evidence of this nature shews that it might have been
easy to pass into the Mediterranean from countries adjacent, and
may be taken also as proof of the affinity of races, it is by no means
conclusive with reference to a communication with this continent.
It still remains to close the wide gap of ocean which separates the
two hemispheres and their peoples—the most ancient as well as the
most civilized. Here we shall find that tradition and fact combine
to prove, that at some very remote period of the world’s history,
the facilities of communication must have been much greater than in
more recent times ; and that the disturbances which separated the
continents, must have been caused by tremendous convulsions of
nature in some instances, and in others by gradual sinking of the
land. In connection with this subject it may as well be remembered
that when nature depresses in one locality, there is always a corres-
ponding elevation in another, nigh to or remote. The phenomena
which has obliterated the lands of the Pacific Ocean between the
tropics is very remarkable, and has been satisfactorily explained by
modern science. What the whole amount of this subsidence may
have been, or its effect in advancing or retarding the peopling of
this continent, will never be known; but enough is revealed to
enable us to estimate the greater by theless. Let it be remembered
also, that the Pacific islands were very early inhabited, and that the
nighest to this continent, Easter Island, where ancient remains
have been found, is not further off than a few days sail, while
between each across the ocean, a few days sail would establish con-
secutively, a communication. The affinity of the Polynesian with
the Malayan, and with some of the American tribes on the Pacific
side, may therefore, we think be conceded. For a description of
this wonderful phenomena of subsidence, which appears to have
been gradual, but which realized all the circumstances of a drowned
world, I cannot do better than refer to Dana’s Geology, where
In connection with Coral Islands, it is thus adverted to.—

306 GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

Dana observes,—‘‘ The Coral Islands of the Pacific are proofs
of a great secular subsidence of that Ocean. The line CCC (Phy-
siographic Chart) between Pitcairn’s Island and the Pelews,
divides coral islands from those not coral; over the area north of it
to the Hawaian Islands all the islands are atolls, excepting the
Marquesas and three or four of the Carolines. If then the atolls are
registers of subsidence, a vast area has partaken of it, measuring
6000 miles in length (a fourth of the earth’s circumference) and
1000 to 2000 in breadth. Just south of the line there are extensive
coral reefs; north of it the atolls are large, but they diminish
towards the equator, and disappear mostly north of it; and as the
smaller atolls indicate the greater amount of subsidence, and the
absence of islands still more, the line AA may be regarded as the
axial line of the great Pacific disturbance. ‘The amount of the sub-
sidence may be inferred from the soundings near some of the is-
lands to be at least 3000 feet. But as 200 islands have disappeared,
and it is probable that some among them were at least as high as
the average of existing high islands, the whole subsidence cannot be
less than 6000 feet. It is probable that this sinking began in the
Post-tertiary period. Since this subsidence ceased, for the wooded
condition of the islands is proof of its having ceased, there have been
several cases of isolated elevations.”*

Although there is much less evidence extant of connecting links
by the Atlantic between the two hemispheres, than by the Pacific,
notwithstanding that the latter is the more expansive ocean, it is
probable that a continuous land, or a chain of islands stretched
from the Canaries to the Antilles in the remote past, where there is
now a wide extent of ocean. ‘The Canaries and the Cape de Verds
lie in the same parellels with the West Indies and with the Pacific
Islands. Hypotheses and tradition must here be largely drawn
upon to supply the place of positive proof. The geological facts
presume that the West India Islands are the high lands of a sub-
merged continent. Ifso the subsidence must have been immense
that once took place over this wide tract of ocean; but there is also
evidence of compensating elevations even in the vicinity of the line

* See Dana’s Geology, p. 587.

GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 307

of disturbance. The historian Edwards, before quoted, says—

‘¢ Lofty as the tropical mountains generally are, it is wonderfully

true, that all the known parts of their summits furnish incontestible

evidence that the sea had once dominion over them. * * * Marine

shells are found in great abundance in various parts of those heights.

I have seen on a mountain in the interior parts of Jamaica, petrified

oysters dug up, which perfectly resembled in the most minute cir-

cumstances, the large oysters of the western coast of England, a

species not to be found at this time, I believe, in the seas of the

West Indies.” This fact would seem to indicate, that with a.
change in the height or continuity of the land, there has also been

a change from a temperate to a tropical climate, which is deserving -
of more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. It is

also well known, that with few exceptions, all the islands are.
volcanic.

This mingling of hypotheses and fact is the basis that remains :
upon which to establish a connection between the Eastern and’
Western hemispheres, and is as strong on one side of the ocean as
the other. The Azores, Madeira, the Canaries and the Cape de
Verds, are supposed to be relics on that side of an ancient submerg- -
ed continent—and of these the Canaries were at a remote period
inhabited by an inoffensive and comparatively civilized race, who »
from their pursuits, for aught we know, may have been of the:
lineage of the people of the Antilles, or the ancient Egyptians. .
The inhabitants of the Antilles, exclusive of the Caribs, had affini--
ties of customs with this race. Both made mummies of their dead
by a similar process. Their mode of embalming was not that of ©
the scientific Egyptians, but was far simpler and perhaps as effica-
cious. They dried the dead bodies in ovens, by gradual heat, and
when this was done they ranged them in a sitting posture side by
side, in caves, and so handed them down to posterity. Whether
they communicated this idea, or were indebted for it to some acci-.
dental arrival of Egyptians who imperfectly understood the process,
we are left to conjecture. They had other customs which appear--
ed to connect them with the most ancient races of the Eastern:
hemisphere—rites resembling those of the worship of Bacchus,.

10 ,

3808 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

which so infatuated the nations among whom they were introduced.
These appear to have been observed more or less among all the
American tribes. Other worship or mysteries they had, analogous
to those of Cybele. Both Bacchus and Cybele I take to be of pre-
Noachian age and corruption. ‘The Guanches of the Canary Isles
appear to have had much skill in architecture, of which remains
(which are noticed by Pliny) exist to attest to their material
progress.

Tradition has been busy in all ages with this region and the
surrounding ocean, and its influence upon the human mind is as
powerful as ever, now that the investigations of ethnologists
‘ave shown the possibility that it may be well founded. ‘The
Fortunate Isles (the Canaries) were supposed to be a portion of
the lost continent long previous to the discovery by Columbus
west of the same parellels. They are not more than twenty days
sail of the Antilles. ‘The Elysian Plains had become the Isles of
the Blessed, in the Western Ocean, in the time of Hesiod. Plato,
who obtained his information from the priests of Egypt, gives a.
description of the island of Atlantis, supposed to have existed at
a yeryearly period in the Atlantic Ocean. He relates as follows:
‘¢In the Atlantic Ocean over against the Pillars of Hercules, lay
an island larger than Asia and Africa taken together, and in its
vicinity were other islands and a large continent beyond. The
Mediterranean compared with the Ocean in which these lands were
situated, resembled a mere harbour with a narrow entrance. Nine
thousand years ago, before the time of Plato, this island of Atlantis
was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its sway extended
over Africa as far as Egypt, and over Europe as far as the Tyr-
rhenian Sea. The tradition of an ancient Athenian State, anterior
to the deluge of Deucalion is also related, which was governed by
laws not unlike those of Egypt. The Athenians (said this tradi-
tion) made war at this remote period against the inhabitants of
Atlantis, and defeated them. After this a violent earthquake,
which lasted for the space of a day and a night, and was accom-
‘panied with inundations of the sea, caused the islands to sink, and
for a long period subsequently the sea in this quarter was impas-
sable by reason of the slime and shoals. A certain Marcellus

GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES. 309

related a similar tradition with that of Plato. According to this
writer there were seven islands in the Atlantic Ocean sacred to
Proserpina, of these three were of a very large size, and the inhabi-
tants had a tradition among them that they were originally one
large island which had ruled over the rest.”

Since the discovery of this continent many authors find America
in the Atlantis of Plato. Anthon, from whose excellent Classical
Dictionary I have extracted the foregoing from ancient authors,
says for himself—‘‘ The advocates of this theory might easily con-
nect with the legend of the lost Atlantis, the remains of a very
remote civilization that are found at the present day in Spanish
America. We have there the ruins of cities which carry us back
to Pelasgic times, and the religious symbols and ornaments con-
nected with which remind us strongly of the phallic mysteries of
antiquity. Even the lotus flower, the sacred emblem of India (he
might have added the elephant also) may be seen in the sculptures.
These curious remains of former days are long anterior to Mexican
times, nor have they anything whatever to do with Phcenician set-
tlements, such settlements on the shores of America being purely
imaginary. In connection with the view just taken we may point
to the peculiar conformation of our continent along the shores of
the Gulf of Mexico, where everything indicates the sinking at a
remote period of a large tract of land, the place of which is now
occupied by the waters of the Gulf. * * * The mountain tops
of this sunken land still appear to view as the Islands of the West
Indian group, and thus the large continent lying beyond Atlantis,
and the adjacent islands, and to which Plato refers, may have been
none other than that of America. We proceed a step further. Ad-
mitting that Atlantis was situate in the Ocean which at present
bears its name, it would require no great stretch of fancy to sup-
pose that the Canaries, Madeira isles and Azores once formed por-
tions of it, and that it even extended as far as Newfoundland. The
Cape de Verd islands, though so much to the south, may also be
included.”

Thus far hypotheses, tradition and fact, with reference to an
exceedingly remote connection between the races of the Hastern
and Western hemispheres, and then its disruption. If it were

310 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

granted there need be no further controversy about the unity of
mankind; and the affinity of the races of Europe, Asia and Ameri-
ca, separated in the early age of the world, by tremendous convul-
sions of nature, and left, each in its own way, to fulfil its destinies,
may just as well be conceded. 3

Hitherto I have said nothing of Scripture testimony to the exist-
ence of this lost continent, nor does it embrace anything that is
directly significant thereof. It might however be expected, were
there any foundation for the tradition, that we should find some re-
ference thereto in the Bible. Well, we cannot feel sure that the
whole history of man, as there recorded, is not in fact a history of
Atlantis. It is not precisely defined where Paradise was situated,
nor its limits and bounds declared with any degree of probability.
The question has never yet been satisfactorily solved. It is there-
fore quite useless to attempt, by any fancied resemblance in the
world that is known, or by any process of reasoning, to identify
the Eden of the world that was destroyed. All the migrations of
the earliest race of mankind point to the east of Eden as the region
that was inhabited after the forced departure from that blissful seat.
East of Eden to the land of Nod, Cain emigrated, ceased his wan-
derings and built a city. The other children of Adam occupied a
country perhaps not far distant, as a similarity of names and a
limited genealogy of Cain’s descendants and other evidence, make
an amalgamation of the races tolerably certain. It is not so difficult
to mark the probable resting place of the ark after the deluge, but
even that, modern science, based upon the Scripture relation, has
changed from a belief anciently entertained, to a site more in ac-
cordance with Scripture history as well as tradition. The journey-
ing from the east of the descendants of Noah, who had greatly
multiplied, was no insignificant exodus from that site; and their

arrival at the plains of Shinar, does not imply that the Armenian

Ararat was the resting place of the Ark.

But we can if we please, and without doing violence to any
belief, with what is known of the lands that are left on both sides
of the Atlantic, with what we may conjecture of the convulsions
that have separated them and their races, and various species of
animals, and reduced them to their present condition, conclude that

eg

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. STF

Atlantis may have been the scene of man’s creation. The climate,
the rich productions, the mineral wealth, the volcanic strata of
these beautiful islands, favour the conclusion.

Here may have been the region where God planted a garden,
and placed Adam, and then Eve, to keep it, and where they roam-
ed naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed. In this
delightful country we may draw upon imagination, without fear of
satiety, for a picture of the lost Paradise, and the fiery obstructions
to its ever being regained. Beyond it, in the genial climate and
fertile soil, we can look upon Adam, in the sweat of his brow, till-
ing the ground from whence he was taken, and which God had
cursed. Soon thereafter, Cain, the first murderer and emigrant,
and his brother Abel, come upon the scene. We find the first born,
bringing his presumptuous offering of the fruits of the ground, not
as an acknowledgment of Divine mercy in still permitting it to
maintain the human family, but as an earnest that it yet bare some-
thing in that propitious clime, more akin to the products of Eden
than ‘‘ thorns and thistles”—an offering, in the spirit in which it
was made, to which the Lord had not respect. We can judge of
what his remorse must have been after the fatal act that brought
death into the world, and made him a fugitive and a vagabond on
the earth, and can hope for him that in after life he received conso-
lation from the Divine declaration ‘‘ If thou doest well shalt thou |
not be accepted.” Ages roll on, mankind multiply exceedingly,
the longevity is remarkable, although we know nothing of the mea-
sure of time in the antediluvian age. ‘The tree of knowledge bears
its fruit in the human mind; art and science progress. Iniquity
also abounds although it had not yet culminated. Men worshipped
the true God and called upon his name. Polygamy prevailed as in
later ages. We find Lamech with his wives Adah and Zillah,
endowed with superior talents, coupled with a certain ferocity of
disposition characteristic of the period, showing even then the inse-
curity of human life. Lamech who had slain a man by whom he
had been wounded, and a young man from whom he had received a
hurt,—probably not innocent blood as was that of Abel—deprecat-
ing revenge, or claiming exemption from retributive justice, on the
plea which preserved his great ancestor—‘‘ If Cain shall be avenged

312 GOSSIP—THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

seven fold, truly Lamech seventy and seven fold.” The world pro-
gresses in civilization, but faster in sin. This episode of Lamech and
his family is a rare study for the archeologist. It is the sixth gene-
ration only from Adam, and yet marks an era of progress. The
nomadic or shepherd life is followed by Jabal the son of Adah, who
possesses domestic cattle—his brother Jubal has invented musical
instruments. ‘Tubal-cain the son of Zillah has discovered the com-
position of bronze, and has made iron subservient to the uses of
man—which implies a previous discovery of the metals themselves.
The Jews have a tradition that his sister Naamah invented weaving.
These early instances of progress do not warrant a belief that the
primitive race of men were ever in that rude and sayage condition,
to which long continued wanderings had afterwards reduced them,
and to which the remains of stone implements and the kjokkenmod-
dings of the north of Europe attest that they had at length arrived.
The story of Lamech is not tradition but actual occurrence. It
bears intrinsic evidence of having been written and handed down,
as do all the events recorded from the Creation to the Noachian
Deluge. Viewed in this light philology may have made progress
during that epoch, and if so we need not wonder at the perfection
of written language to which some of the most ancient nations
attained in a comparatively short period after the latter event.
Between Lamech and Noah there were many generations of this
primitive race, as is testified by their genealogy in a direct line;
but it would be absurd to suppose that in all that long period from
Adam to Noah, the human family had not spread to every part of
the world—to this continent north and south on the one hand—to
Africa, Asia and Europe on the other. When their wickedness
had culminated at the primitive seat, and Noah had endeavored in
vain to restrain and reform them, he was commanded to build an
Ark, and the intelligence was communicated that man would be
destroyed from off the face of the earth. Portentous disturbances
must have given force to his warnings, and confirmed his belief—
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, subsidences, overflowings of the
dry land—as in the West Indies and Central America at the pre-
sent day—their very frequency perhaps, short of general disaster,
inspiring confidence in personal safety. They went on, eating and

GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES. aig

drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until the Flood came
and destroyed them all. Then the windows of heaven were opened,
the fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the rain was
upon the earth forty days and forty nights. This catastrophe is
very particularly stated to have commenced in the six hundredth
year of Noah’s life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the
month. Fifteen cubits (27 feet) upwards did the waters prevail,
or the land subside to that extent, and the mountains were covered.
It is a remarkable coincidence as concerns the Atlantean hypothe-
sis, that Josephus determines the year at the Flood to have begun
about the autumnal equinox; thus the 17th day of the 2nd month
(Marchesvan) would fall in our October, about the time when the
rainy season begins in the West Indies. The historian Edwards,
whom I have so frequently quoted, thus describes that phenomena :
—‘* An European who has not visited those climates can form no
just conception of the quantity of water which deluges the earth at
this season,—by an exact account which was kept of the rain which
fell in one year in Barbados [1762,] it appeared to have been
87,5, cubic inches, equal to 7 feet 3,5, inches perpendicular. Taking
the whole islands throughout, from 60 to 65 inches appears to be
about the medium of rain in seasonable years. If this quantity
should annually fall in England, the country would be deluged,
and the fruits of the earth destroyed. The power of the sun at
that distance from the equator would be too feeble to exhale a sufii-
cient quantity of it. Earthquakes also are not unfrequent; but
none haye been productive of mischief since the fatal one of June
1692, which swallowed up Port Royal.” To which I may add,
that perhaps the judgment on Port Royal for its wickedness was as
just as that which destroyed the posterity of Adam many thousand
years previously, and obliterated the continent which they had
inhabited for so long a period.

The immediate result of this great cataclysm was the transpor
of Noah and his sons to a region whose climate and productions
differed considerably from those of the country of endless summer
from whence they were tempest-driven. The conditions expressed
recognize a temperate clime, such as may well have existed in the
central parts of Asia. The olive grew there, for the dove returned

314 GOSSIP—-THE AFFINITY OF RACES.

to the ark with an olive leaf plucked off. They there received a
promise from the mind of the Lord, that seed time and harvest,
and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night
should not cease. A rainbow was given as a token of this cove-
nant. Noah became an husbandman and planted @ vine. If in
addition to this it is credible that the African desert in these
latitudes was then a wide ocean—that the Mediterranean’sea spread
over a much larger surface than at present—that the land of Egypt
was submerged—that the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf extended
where there is now dry land—we may have the compensating
elevations; and I see no difficulty then in further supposing, that
after a drift eastward of more than 150 days, during which the
waters prevailed—the ark may have rested on one of the heights of
the Hindoo Coosh—the distance involved being equal to about one
fourth of the circumference of the Globe in these latitudes.

We know that in this invigorating climate mankind multiplied
exceedingly

that in a few generations they journeyed thence a
host—that after some time they arrived and settled at the Plains of
Shinar—that with inconceivable stupidity, as appears to us, but
wondrous energy, a token of an impious design, they commenced
to build a tower whose top should reach unto heaven. That Nim-
rod became a mighty hunter before the Lord, built cities and
established a kingdom, &c., &., &c.

Thenceforth the history of the Noachian family is the communi-
cation of progressive civilization wherever they extended themselves
amongst the rude tribes of mankind—improvement, with all the
knowledge of art and science conveyed thereby, entirely confined
to the Eastern hemisphere. If the true history of the Creation of
man and of the Deluge was thus spread abroad—if none escaped the
Noachian catastrophe to this side, of those who were involved in it,
accidental arrivals of some of the descendants of Noah—Assyrians,
Egyptians, Pheenicians, Jews, or Greeks, &c. may have impressed
imperfect accounts of those truths, along with elements of civiliza-
tion, upon some of the pre-existent tribes of the western continent,
and given rise to traditions and beliefs extant at the time of Colum-
bus—but which, be it remembered, were considered only with
reference to their own ancestry. As the question stands, all the

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General Meteorological Register for 1872.
EIALIFAX, NOVA SCcoTiA.
Latitude 44° 39’ 20” North. Longitude 63° 36’ 40” West. Height above Sea, 98.5 feet.

OBSERVED BY F. ALLISON.

1872. Jan’y. | Feb’y. | March. | April. | May. June. | July. | August.) Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. eat

Mean Temperature.... -.-.-.:-++-+++- 23.64 | 28.99 | 22.91] 87.88) 46.22) 57.14] 64.77] 64.12) 58.60) 48.94] 37.71 22.23 || 42.35
Difference from Normal (ten eae) 20 +.72| -.383 | -5.22 =.25 | -1.16 | —2.52 | +1.29] --.87 | +1.16) —-.69 -.10 | -8.56.|| -.76
Maximum Temperature .... - 45.1 42.6 46.8 62.2 71.0 87.8 88.8 93.1 84.8 vaent 68.3 47.2 || 989.1
Minimum Temperature.......-. Py, 4.9 -5.2 19.5 28.2 88.4 48.3 47.9 | 42.8 31.1 19.8 -5.4 | -5.4
Monthly and Annual Ranges .. 47.3 37.7 52.0 42.7 42.8 48.9 40.5 45.2) 42.0 40.0 38.5 62.6 99.5
31.15 | 82.45) 33.25] 46.57] 66.94] 67.65] 77.69] 74.78 | 69.44 | 68.45) 44.41 | 80.87 || 51.99

Mean Maximum Temperature . .
Mean Minimum Temperature ...
Highest Daily Mean ‘emperature. .
Lowest Daily Mean Temperature ..
Mean Daily Range of lemperature. . .
Greatest Daily Range of Temperature ci
Mean Terrestrial Radiation..............

16.46 | 20.89] 18.77| 80.64] 8869] 4881] 55.14] 56.45| 50.92| 89.61] 30.11 | 14.27 84.65
41.58 | 32.89! 35.77 | 46.09! 57.96 | 72.59] 73.11] 78.82) 68.62) 62.60] 49.69) 41.56 || 78.82
4.64 9.85 8.86 | 31.22) 387.82] 49.95 | 57.91 | 58.95 | 58.68 | 86.76) 26.40} -1.49 |) —1.49
15.00] 16.76} 19 47] 15.98) 18.25 | 18.74 | 22.55) 18.82) 18.52] 18.3 14 80} 16.10 |) 17.69

2 31.2 32.9 28.5 83.8 31.1} 381.00 82.7 28.5 27.5 24.3 29.7 | 33.8
oa0000 28.76] 87.27 | 47.92 | 58.06] 54.65) 49.82) 37 29] 28.62)... ... I eetereyatey=ts

Mean Pressure, corrected,..............- | 29.657 | 29.659 | 29.605 | 29.694 | 29.754 | 29.810 | 29.758 | 29.881 | 29.879 | 29.912 | 29.798 | 29.787 || 29.766
Difference from Normal (ten years).. -.076 | -— 108} -.118 | -.031 | +.055 | +.058 .000 | +.118 | +.087 | +.105 | +.064 | +.052 || +.004
Maximum Pressure .| 80 485 | 80.461 | 30.289 | 80.197 | 80.258 | 80.174 | 80.094 | 80.194 | 80.314 | 80.449 | 80.417 | 80.462 || 80.461
Minimum Pressure 29.038 | 28.833 | 28.785 | 29.089 | 29.213 | 29.406 | 29.484 | 29.426 | 29.366 | 29.801 | 28.856 | 28.941 || 28.785
Monthly and Annual Ranges .. 1.397 1.628 | 1.454 1.108; 1.045 0.768 | 0.610 0.768 0.948 | 1.148 1.561 1.511 1.676

Highest Daily Mean Pressure. . 80.416 | 80.889 | 80 169 | 80.151 | 80.228 | 30.149 | 30.054 | 30.078 | 80.291 |'30.379 | 30 267 | 30.102 || 80.416
Lowest Daily Mean Pressure............. | 29.208 | 28.972 | 29.210 | 29.178 | 29.818 | 29.471 | 29.568 | 29.461 | 29.428 | 29.403 | 29.042 | 29.084 || 28.972
Mean Pressure of Vapour -118 -110 -108 166 254 -305 -451 1404 -404 -288 .184 111 1256
Mean Relative Humidity .... 80.2 80.1 76.4 73.2 80.9 83.4 74.5 82.9 81.6 79.3 78.7 82.5 79.5
|
Mean Amount of Cloud .... ....-.... q 6.04 5.79 6.82 5.82 7.49 7.15 5.07 6.57 6.49 78 6.57 22 | 7
Difference from Normal (six years). ..... -.37 -.384 —.08 -.46}) +.62 | +1.22 250 41.15 94 ate eon oe | a
Prevalent Direction of Wind , g 0 . | N. W. N.W. | N.N.W. | N.N.W. N. $8.5 N.W. iS} ls ais - al NW.
.W. -N.W. | N.N.W. 0 .. .W. WwW. S.W. S.W. N.W. N.W. || N.W.
Men Velocity of Wind... 11.98') 12.86) 1605) 13.77 | 11.02} 6.07) 2.12] 2.58) 38.61] 4.18] 9.80) 5.84 8 24
JAIMIE OTR ogc coe cnet es aaanear 2.58 2.40 0.76 Dit 4.44 4.23 2.88 6.82 ea 4.88 6.23 2.87 | 42 an
Diflerence from Normal (t a sil. ei ; “a 2 “8 g 2 i
iNjonito ai ata Rai: Sore MED a | ell o ee -2 eB - eS +.27 | +1.19 | + 51] +8.21 | -2.28 -.14 | 41.55 =.57 || —.81
Difference from Normal (ten years)... .... —-- 1 _9 ai ay 4 a a | us 8 13 13 4 116
ENTERS OUSHONT | ona sonesdn eso ucaecan 13.1 19.3 43 0 ONoh eras 6 wa 0 = Spill +1 ot -5
Difference from Normal (ten years) i =2.5| +5.2 | 93.8 6.9 P- : 0 0 4.4 82.3 || 112.9
Number of days Snow .. Soe ell 6 ia art = ‘ Sill 0 0 0 0 =.5 +.1) 15 8 | +83.9
Difference from Normal (ten years) i al 4 0 43 aa y 0 0 0 0 0 6 15 | 47
Total Precipitation ....... “|. 8288 4.49 5.87 2.85 4 44 4, a 9 a a 0 <2 | +2 +4 || 0
Difference from Normal (ten years -1.59 | -1.18 | +.85 nil, i 2 9 2788 fp Be Bode aeekst 6.65 6 16 || 54.06
Number of Dry Days ....... 21 18 19 =) AP “ “ple a + “51 | 13,21 | -2.28 3.23 | $1.49 | +£1.25 || 4-2.81
Difference from Normal «ten years) +4 42 abil ae 8 = 20 18 22 18 13 13 || 21.0
ets ee | | | re 5 -1 =2))/ = 52 -2 | ay) ail | iba
——__—_—_____— d oat | |
Number of Auroras . 4 i |
er of AULOTAS .. 22.2.2. es... 4 5 2
| Gales) «3 leas , ; z : 6 4 6 6 8 1 55
es Fogs .. yi 2 1 2 7 “hi 0 0 0 0 4 2 26
i Dews - | 0 0 1 5 Y 2) 9 1 4 0 8 47
rs Hoar Brosts. . : 11 13 8 9 ) 17 18 24 18 4 0 91
“ Miuaers «2s. ‘al eaa ‘| H 2 0 0 0 0 9 10 gy |i
. Lightnings ... (ee 0 0. 1 9 A 8 0 1 1 | 0 1 4 «414
bs Boils eee 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 2 1 1 0 1 18
a inbows......... 0 0 0 0 1 S 0 0 0 0 | 0 | 0 2
Lunar Halos .... 4 1 0 1 fl 2 1 0 Oo; @®] of @ 4
i Lunar Corone .. 1 2 3 3 i i 0 0 0 | 1 ih} 0 9
is Solar Halos ....... 0 0 3 0 3 3 1 0 2 iL) 3 1 W7
Days Sleighing 15 29 31 4 0 a 0 1 1 0 | 4 | 0} 183
0 0 Ol ol @) ap il os

rt

ALLISON

ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE. 310

affinities of the American races with those of the Eastern hemis-
phere, which are relied on to establish the unity of mankind, are

evidently of a much earlier period, and can be predicated with

greater certainty, than those which are adduced to show a derivation
of the former from the ancient civilizations with which history
makes us acquainted. :

We must await with patience the complete solution of the
problem. Through the researches of learned men the early history
of mankind is becoming better known than heretofore. ‘The ob-
scurities of mythology and tradition are being permeated by the
light of science and the evidence of facts. In our own day, we
know more perhaps of primitive and prehistoric man, and can
speculate with more probability upon the operations of his mind,
than the ancients themselves. To use the language of one of the
followers of the celebrated African traveller, Dr. Livingstone, who
had just got a glimpse of the wonders of civilization—‘‘ We are the
ancients, and all that has gone before us is but as of yesterday.”

ART. X.—QOn THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE.
By Freperick ALLison, Esq.

(Read May 12, 1875.)

In 1848—now a quarter of a century ago—I began taking some
observations of Temperature in this Province in a very rude man-
ner, with an ordinary thermometer fastened to the side of a large
building. I thus detail my own beginning, as it happens to coin-
cide with that of many others; and the experience of a large
number of present regular observers is similar.

In Nova Scotia, and even in all parts of the Continent of
America, observations of climatic phenomena were then in their
intancy. The Smithsonian had initiated a good work at Washing-
ton, but the best position of instruments, their construction, and

hours of observing, were known to comparatively few. The

British Government had established the Toronto Magnetic Obser-

_ vatory, where meteorological phenomena were also observed, and

a
f

316 ALLISON—ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE.

thus laid a foundation for the system now developing through
Canada; but the most simple laws of weather were yet disregarded
by the public. I do not intend to allude to Great Britain and
Europe just now, beyond saying that the difference between the
knowledge of then and now, is fully as marked in those countries.

In 1873 how different is the condition we find ourselves in.
Not looking, at the moment, at the other Provinces, I have in this
Nova Scotia alone, regularly reporting to me monthly, these sta-
tions of weather observers, viz: Yarmouth, Digby, Wolfville,
Windsor, King’s College, Beaver Bank, Truro, Pictou, Cape
North, Sydney, Glace Bay, Cow Bay, Guysboro’, Seaforth, and
Halifax ; besides St. John’s, Harbour Grace, Fogo and George’s
Bay in Newfoundland ; and Charlottetown in Prince Edward Island
—while four other Nova Scotian stations are, I hope, only tempo-
rarily discontinued—making twenty-four in all. But the multipli-
cation of observers is but one evidence—and a slight one—of the
progress of weather knowledge. The knowledge gained of the
instruments of our equipment has been immense; of course this
information has been mostly obtained from abroad, chiefly from the
experience of the scientific workers of Great Britain. |

The placing these instruments in the best positions to obtain
equitable readings has occupied a large share of the attention of
‘many meteorologists. Our own Chief Director, G. T. Kingston,
at Toronto, has made some valuable improvements and suggestions
in this respect. In the Barometer, one of the earliest instruments
in connection with our science, comparatively little improvement
has been necessary. The addition to it of a recording apparatus—
in fact making a Barometer also a Baragraph—is to it, what it may
be called to all instruments, a mechanical adjunct rather than a
scientific improvement. Apart from self-registration, the Fortin
Barometer with metallic scale, tube not less than 0.4 inch internal —
diameter, and zero of scale adjustable by reflection of inverted cone
in cistern, when mounted plainly and in a room of equable tem-
perature, and read by a Vernier, seems to leave little to be desired
in the primary and useful instrument.

Perhaps no greater injury is done to the establishment of clim-
atic truths than by the use of erroneous Thermometers. It is so

ALLISON—ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE. 317

easy to throw a portion of mercury into an ordinary glass tube and
attach the latter to a scale graduated carelessly, thereby manufac-
turing an interesting but pernicious toy—while it is comparatively
difficult to expend the necessary time, skill, and money upon a true
Thermometer, that we can scarcely wonder at the very wonderful
pieces of mechanism which are popularly received as measures of
Heat. I have several times found so-called Thermometers differing
from the standard full seven degrees, while scarcely two Thermo-
meters taken haphazard from a Jarge stock will agree exactly.
Our climate is quite liable enough to extraordinary changes of
Temperature without our calling in art to assist nature in that
respect. At our first class stations we use no Thermometers whose
readings have not been compared with a verified standard. A
large bulb in free air, narrow tube, porcelain scale, without back-
ing, and the graduations carried across the tube itself, are essential
to correct marking and reading. Makers of whom I can by expe-
rience speak as very good, are Casella, Negretti and Zambra, of
London; Acre, of Edinburgh; and Green, of New York. The wet
and dry bulbs, and maximum and minimum registering Thermome-
ters should be placed about five feet above ground, sheltered on all
sides from direct, reflected, or refracted sun’s rays; under a screen
constructed with slats, or louvre boards on three sides, and to the
south of two layers of boards or fences, at intervals of several
inches.

Having merely glanced at the principal instruments now in use
by meteorologists, I pass on to discuss for a short time the effects
so far obtained in this country from the systematic observations
now established. Itis evident that the primary objects of continued
series of meteorological observations is a settlement of the normal
climate of the country—especially in its chief elements of Tempera-
ture, Pressure, Wind and Precipitation. Having learned the mean
condition of the place and the extremes to which it is liable, the
organic life, the animal and the vegetable customary to the climate,
and possible under such conditions, may be more readily ascertain-
ed. But it has been proved that very frequent observations of
Pressure and Temperature—say hourly, or even tri-hourly, are not
absolutely required at more than one station within a large extent

318 ALLISON—ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE.

of country. Stations at which these frequent readings are taken are
called in the Dominion Organization ‘‘ Chief Stations,” and em-
brace at present seven cities, to which number but few more need
ever be added, except in Manitoba and British Columbia. From
these chief stations the variations for the ordinary posts may be
calculated with sufficient exactitude.

Besides the determination of the regular and extreme climate at
any given point, another very important object is the connection of
the differences between two such points; in other words, their
relative bearing upon each other. This consideration is very useful
in summing up the probabilities of ensuing weather. Before this
audience I need not dwell upon the importance of weather forecasts,
beyond the mere gratification of the restless curiosity, natural to the
human kind. To encourage the advancement towards certainty in
this direction, should be the effort of every one who tills the ground
and who feeds upon the produce of that tillage; of every one who
lives by the traffic of the sea, and earns his meat by toiling over the
boisterous waters—a life peculiar to so many of the inhabitants of
our wave-washed Province. Such knowledge should in brief be
striven after by all mankind. This comparison of different climates
and its result, the determination of atmospheric changes, and storm
paths, make necessary the telegraphic branch of meteorology now
just emerging into existence in this Dominion. That such informa-
tion can be obtained, and climatic laws therefrom deduced, as will
ultimately bring the forecasting of coming weather very near per-
fection, no one who has carefully observed the directions of atmos-
pheric fluctuations can for a moment doubt. For instance, at noon
on Friday last the 9th inst., what weather could be more fair than
that enjoyed then in Halifax. A sky perfectly clear, a barometer
standing high at 30.255 inches, temperature 66.5—the mildness of
a well advanced spring—a gentle northerly breeze, and to a super-
ficial gaze every promise of a continuance of fair weather. True,
a certain haziness of atmosphere giving unnatural distinctness to
some substances, and bringing apparently nearer remote objects,
might have warned the man versed in local signs of a coming
coange; though apart from scientific grounds he could give you no

ALLISON——ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE. 319

satisfactory reason for his suspicion. Also the Barometer had
fallen somewhat from the greater height of the preceding day; but
was still much above the normal, so that those trusting only to its
bare and uncompared reading could not reasonably expect bad
weather. But the telegraph told us of heavy rain and high N. E.
wind at New York, and of threatening clouds farther east and north
that morning; of eastwardly rain and heavy clouds again down the
St. Lawrence Valley—all Barometers to our immediate west falling
fast. The limits of this paper would not suffice to set forth the
details of reasoning from proved scientific truths leading to the
belief of a N; KE. progression of this rain and wind, but recognizing
the almost sure consequences of the above facts, and convinced by
them of the usual cyclonic nature of the disturbance, I anticipated
the S. E. wind, and rain present in Halifax on Sunday, and doubt-
less fresh in the recollection of my hearers.

Farther, regarding Telegraphic Meteorology, I am in hopes
that, taught by experience gained from European and American
systems, Canada may be able to improve on both of these. I must
consider the practical working of the British Meteorological office
superior to that of Washington; but, happily for us, we are so
situated politically, geographically, and meteorologically, that we
may introduce much of their cautious system into our Country with
greater facilities for its successful use. Especially does it seem
prudent for us in the infancy of our organization to provide that
the drum (the best method of warning of probable storm) be hoist-
ed for a period of forty-eight hours as in Great Britain, rather than
follow the constantly changing bulletin of the United States. The
greatest difficulties that we have to contend with here, are the want
of more numerous ordinary and reporting stations—the want of
longer series of observations even at the best of our posts, and the
imperfect arrangements of the Telegraph Companies. The first
want J trust may be soon remedied, that more volunteers may be
encouraged to assist in advancing the public knowledge of all
branches of meteorology. With their assistance Barometrical
gradients can be established, and all the varying elements continu-
ally studied, until a much more thorough knowledge of the compa-

320 ALLISON——ON THE PROGRESS OF WEATHER KNOWLEDGE.

rative pressures, temperatures, &c. may be obtained, and a two-fold
benefit is derived from these, viz: first, the determination of gene-
ral comparisons between all stations—neighbouring and remote—
and second, in telegraphing opinions and warnings, the progressive
rate of changes going on at any particular time may be accurately
marked and their arrival at the various points predicted within very
narrow limits. ‘The second need is very important—longer series
of observations—the use of those in general is at once evident; if
seven years readings are good in calculating normals, eleven years
are better. But a specific use of prolonged series is to fix more
accurately the occurrence and effect of abnormal phenomena, and
thus, in studying the probable appearance of any change at a given
station, to be able not only to form an opinion from established
laws affecting a whole Province, or even a larger portion of the
Continent; but to eliminate from those wider deductions, errors
which may arise from individual position, and to give their full
value to local circumstances whose influence may not be felt for
more than a few miles, but within that small area may be quite
sufficient to induce purely local phenomena, or even to divert from
its course the whirling storm at one time, while at another they
cease to exist and leave the district entirely controlled by the rela-
tive conditions normal within itself and adjacent areas.

The last obstacle I mention is one readily susceptible of great
improvement, being a purely mechanical defect ; and I believe that
when once the whole importance of these labours is publicly appre-
ciated, and Government is seriously extending a thorough scheme,
the owners of Electric Telegraph Lines will also give to these
bulletins and warnings the necessary facilities of transmission,
causing the telegrams between Toronto and Halifax to occupy much
less than the four or five hours, which I regret to say is at present
consumed over that distance.

Without elaborating the very fruitful subject of prospective
meteorology, I close this hurried paper by summarizing the progress
of weather knowledge in Nova Scotia as an advance from the efforts
of a couple of observers in 1869, to the establishment of 24 stations
in 1873, placed now in connection with the Canadian Government
System, included in the department of one of the most intelligent

HONEYMAN—-ON THE HISTORY OF A BOULDER. 321

and hard-working ministers—Hon. P. Mitchell of the Marine and
Fisheries—who successfully carried through Parliament at its pre-
sent Session a grant of $37,000 for meteorology ; and under the
chief directorship of G. T. Kingston, M. A.,—head of Toronto
Observatory—whose guidance and extensive scientific attainments
are sufficient guarantees for our future successful progress.

Art. XI. Tue History oF a Boutper. By tHe Rev. D.
Honeyman, D.C. L., F. G. 8., &e.

(Read May 12, 1878.)

Our Boulder lies partially interred on the side of the road,
between New Glasgow and Antigonish, about a mile and a half
east from Sutherland’s River Bridge. It is nearly thirteen years
since this boulder first attracted my attention. Its hard weather-
beaten face was traversed by a dark brown line which led me to
suspect that it had a history to relate, which had yet been untold.
In shorter time than I have taken to pen these sentences, my ham-
mer and chisel had verified my conjecture. A familiar hieroglyphic
appeared which at once informed me that the boulder was not a
thing of yesterday,—that it had been clay deposited at the bottom
of the ocean,—that it had been deposited there in an age long gone.

The hieroglyphic was the pygidium of a trilobite—Dalmania
Logani—which lived, died, and was buried at nearly the close of
the Upper Silurian Period,—which is known by English Geologists
as the Upper Ludlow, by American Geologists as the Lower
Helderberg, and by ourselves as the upper part or D, of the Upper
Arisaig Series. I observed that this boulder was not solitary;
many smaller ones were scattered on the sides of the road and in
the fields: all were alike weather-beaten. Many enclosed beauti-
ful forms—beautiful, but brittle. Trilobites, Phacops and Pretus
and Homalonotus, of a new and undescribed species. ‘There were
heads of Phacops having eyes in a beautiful state of preservation.

All told the same story as the tail of the Dalmania Logani—

Say HONEYMAN——ON THE HISTORY OF A BOULDER.

Hall. The abundance of boulders led to the belief that the rocks
which produced them were at no great distance. Shortly after the
discovery of the boulder, I had made another discovery. In a road
cutting, at the bridge of a branch of French River, east from the
site of our boulder, are soft shales locally known as ‘* pencil stone.”
-In these I found Graptolithus Clintonensis—Hall. This is the
only locality where this fossil has been found away from Arisaig.
It indicates the Clinton age of New York, or Middle Silurian. In
addition these shales produce several trilobites—several braehio-
pods, e. g. Leptocoelia intermedia—Hall, Leptaena depressa,
Lingula oblonga, Discina, Cornulites, or tubiculous worms, a
Conularia, Pteropods, and an Orthoceras, a cephalopod. This,
I have elsewhere named Upper Clinton, B’.—In another road
cutting at Barney’s River, and yet another on a branch of the same
river, to the east, I found abundance of nodules—all with one or
two exceptions encasing beautiful Lengude of several species.
This is the second of three localities where beds of Lingula nodules
have been found. The first is Arisaig, the second is Barney’s
River, and the third Sutherland’s River. These shales [have in my
‘* Geology of Arisaig” characterized as B, and elsewhere as Lower
Clinton.

In the bed of French River and at the road side at Barney’s
River, I found boulders with Petrata, and trumpet-shaped Cornu-
lites. Here was evidence of the existence of still lower strata, or
the A strata of Arisaig. After search the strata whence these were
derived, were found up Barney’s River. Here was bold and solid
strata, forming flanks of the mountains. Here I found nearly as
great a variety of fossils, as in the corresponding strata A of
Arisaig.—These are found extending eastward to Marshy Hope,
and westward to French River. They underlie the Lower Clinton
and Upper Clinton shales, already referred to, and overlie Crys-
talline rocks—Syenites, Lower Arisaig Series.

The Clinton strata from Marshy Hope to French River, west-
ward, are overlaid by Lower Carboniferous. Here, then, there is
an irregularity in succession—the Upper Silurian and Devonian
being absent.

The strata which produced our boulder yet remained undiscovered.

HONEYMAN—ON THE HISTORY OF A BOULDER. 323

When surveying the Precarboniferous rocks of the Pictou Coal
Field, in 1869, I found strata to the east of Sutherland’s River,
about three miles south of the boulder. These dip northerly at a_
very low angle, and are of the age of the boulder, having the
same fossils. It is doubtless from some part of these that the
boulder came. Their extension in the direction of their dip would
underlie the boulder at no great depth.

The Homalonotus which I have already referred to is character-
istic of the part of the Upper Arisaig Series, which has been deter-
mined by Mr. Salter, the late distinguished Paleontologist of H. M.
Geological Survey, to be the equivalent of the Aymestry limestone
of Wales. ‘There is probably the other member of the upper part
of the Upper Arisaig Series in the locality yet undiscovered. So
that between Sutherland’s River and Marshy Hope* we have pro-
bably the whole of the Upper Arisaig Series with the exception of
the lowest, or Arisaig Pier portion, which I have regarded as the
possible equivalent of the Oneida conglomerate of the United States.

Our boulder strata and those underlying them, were formed in
the bed of the ocean, at ever varying depths, from the detritus of
the Crystalline ‘rocks of the Lower Arisaig Series, which I have
already referred to as underlying the Petraia strata up Barney’s
River.

The boulder also tells us that it has undergone great hardships
since it was deposited at the bottom of the ocean. When trying to
detach a piece of the rock along with the fossils, I found that it
would only break at right angles to the line containing the fossils.
This tendency is called slaty cleavage.

Now this indicates that the original strata of the boulder with
those underlying it, had been let down deeper than when deposited
and subjected to heat as well as hydraulic or other pressure, and
had consequently been metamorphosed. The preservation of the

*At the entrance to the Marshy Hope there is an outcrop of Arisaig A. (Mayhill
sandstone) belonging to the Antigonish Mountain, a Marshy Hope Series. This is
overlaid directly by part of the conglomerate of the Merigomish Carboniferous forma-
tion. So that along the line of junction of the Precarboniferous and Carboniferous
formations of Merigomish, we have an irregularity of a accession corresponding with
that observed in the Pictou Coal Field. Vide ‘‘ Transactions ’’ 1870-71.

11

324 HONEYMAN—ON THE HISTURY OF A. BOULDER.

fossils, however, shews that this metamorphism has not been of the
highest degree. Having been subjected to this process for a long
period, or while the Devonian age lasted, the hardened strata were
raised from the depths before the commencement of the Lower Car-
boniferous Period.

The Boulder strata form the eastern extremity of the Prenat
boniferous strata, underlying the Carboniferous area of Merigomish.

I have already stated that the Carboniferous formation directly
succeeds the Clinton strata, between Marshy Hope and French
River. We have now the same directly overlying the Upper
Silurian. Here then is another irregularity in succession. ‘

The strata of our subject were thus exposed to the stormy seas
of the Lower Carboniferous Period—their detached fragment, rolled
on the shore, aided in the formation of the materials of the con-
glomerate which now overlie these strata. This conglomerate is
_ very ferruginous and contains a bed of spathic iron ore, which is
considered to be of economic importance. !

Outcrops of trap rising in the conglomerate show that our boul-
der had a narrow escape from local metamorphism. If it had been
subjected to this ordeal in addition to regional metamorphism,
the line which distinguishes it might have been converted into a
streak, and an important part of its history would have been wholly.
illegible, also the boulder itself would have failed to attract parti-
cular attention.

The absence of the usual Lower Carboniferous Lime and Gypsum,
appears to indicate that the existing conditions were unfavorable for
their deposition.

The coal beds of Merigomish Island show that a Tropical. -vege-
tation once crowned the succeeding strata, while the thinness of the
beds seems to indicate that the vegetation was. far from being
luxuriant or lasting.

The extension of these Paleozoic strata became the foundation
of a new order of things, the New Red Sandstone, Mesozoic or
Triassic formation. of Prince Edward Island.

Previous to this, however, or during the Carboniferous Period,
time of incalculable length had passed. Elsewhere the Carboniferous

HONKYMAN—ON THE HISTORY OF A BOULDER. 325

formation exhibits many oscillations of level, alternations of water
and land, aquatic Fauna and terrestrial Fauna and Flora, periods of
vegetation of tropical character and marvellous luxuriance, forming
beds of coal varying from extreme thinness to enormous thickness.

_ After the formation of these beds, there appear to have been
troublesome times, especially in the vicinity of our boulder posi-
tion. ‘These times have left enduring memorials in the adjoining
Carboniferous area, the Pictou Coal Field. The map of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada indicates a network of faults and troubles
in this locality.

One consequence of all this appears to have been a limitation of |
conditions favorable to the formation and distribution of the deposits
of the Triassic Era ; as the only area possible from the boulder point:
_of view, is that of Prince Edward Island. |

In this Triassic region, there lived, died, and were buried, Di--
nosaurs—formidable reptiles, having ‘¢ ornithic or bird affinities ;”"
one of these the Bathygnathus borealis—Leidy—has left a jaw’
armed with formidable teeth, to tell of its existence and character. .

Dreadful shakings are now felt—the earth reels and staggers—
volcanic thunders are heard'in the west. The western Triassic:
region is convulsed, lavas are poured over it throughout a length:
of 139 miles, forming trappean mountains throughout, among which:
-Blomidon stands conspicuous. All becomes still and silent. From
this time our boulder would seem to have had a respite from trouble
for a long, long period.

Nova Scotia is at rest while Europe, Asia, and other parts of
America, are sinking and rising, becoming sea bottoms and dry
land, in numerous alternations, being alternately peopled by mon-
sters of sea and land—becoming their cemetries, and then their
monumental mountain elevations.

Now—
‘‘ Like a whirlwind o’er the deep

Comes desolation’s blast.”
It rains, it snows, it hails; it snows, it rains, it’ hails; it hails,
it snows, it' rains’; it freezes,—long, long winters,—short, short:
summers,—alternations interminable,;—glaciers, wide spread and:

326 REID—ON THE ECOMOMY OF TIMBER.

of enormous thickness—thundering, tearing, levelling, plowing
—flowing slowly, majestically, continuously, while ages roll.

It is now the climax of desolation and destruction.—Slowly, but
surely the dismal Empire declines, and after the lapse of ages, it
passes away. Mountains have become plains, plains have become
lake basins, and river channels. Around are roches montonnés
and blocs perchés—rock surfaces polished and striated. Drift ac-
cumulations cover the sides of mountains, obscure the rocks of
plains and valleys. Our boulder has now an individuality—the
result of glacial action, although it is still obscured by overlying
drift. The glacial debris becomes the soil of noble forests. These
~with lakes and rivers adorn the scene of former desolation. A colony
of giant mammals, from the south, descendants of the pre-glacial
races, roam through the forests, and recline on the lake margins.
‘The red man appears, and possibly exterminates the Mastodon
Ohioticus of Cape Breton, becoming the lord of the forest, with its
new race of mammals—Moose, Carribou, Foxes—black and red—
Bear, Wolf, Loupcervier and Wild Cat.

Acadians arrive and divide occupation with the Micmac. The
Briton comes and assumes the supremacy. He takes possession of
the land, builds a city, erects towns and villages, constructs roads
and railways, exposes our boulder to the eye and hammer of the
Geologist, who having read its history, leaves it. Henceforth,
«© Requiescat in pace.”

ArT. XII. Tur Economy oF TIMBER AND PRESERVATION OF
STRUCTURES FROM FirE aND Decay. By A. P. Rein,
M. D., M. KR: C..S., Edin. &es keene;

ECONOMY OF TIMBER.

‘Tuts subject should receive the greatest consideration from us at
present, :as our lands are being rapidly cleared of their timber, and
more for foreign than home use. This though helping to swell our
exports, and bring financial wealth into the country, is not an un-
mixed benefit, for we are squandering a patrimony in a way that

REID—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER. Oot

will soon exhaust our supplies, and demand from us an expenditure
of a far higher sum for its equivalent than we have received, besides
depending on a foreign or distant source for our supply. ‘The ex-
ercise of a little judgment in this matter would be of great future
avail, without being a present hindrance. Take a case in point.

The Province of Quebec has 1000 acres of valuable forest for
one that we have; yet for years it had been the object of the old
Canadian Government while fostering the largest lumber trade to
provide for its ultimate continuance.

To guard the future as well as the present is the duty of every
Government ; whereas the aim of the Commercial mind is to get the
largest amount of wealth in the shortest time, little heeding the pros-
pects of the successor. Thence the conflict between the Govern-
ment and the zndividual,—the former, having commanding power,
should prevent the latter from injuring the commerce or trade of his
successor.

The old Canadian Government did this by selling the land in
small quantity, by the acre, and in perpetuity to intending settlers
or cultivators, and by selling the timber by the square mile to those
who did not want the land, but what was on it. It was sold for a
term of years and by auction, so that the largest revenue was ob-
tained while shewing no partiality to intending speculators. The
object of this sale of timber, and not of land, was to favour the
erowth of timber, because when the largest trees are removed from
a forest the smaller ones rapidly increase by growth, and the supply
will not much diminish. There is an additional tax on each log
that is brought down to the saw-mill. These regulations have been
in force for very many years, and have worked well for all parties.

Nova Scotian legislation has not been of this conservative ten-
dency, because but little value had been put on timber, and compa-
ratively little had been introduced to market: —in fact our legisla-
tors did not know either the quantity or quality of Nova Scotian
timber. They are now awakened to the fact, when it is all but too
late ; however, much can yet be done to foster this industry, and I
will throw out a few suggestions.

That all owners of 1000 acres of land, and upwards, who do not
earry on lumbering operations, shall be compelled to pay a tax of

328 REID—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER.

cents for each acre yearly. This would prevent the accumu-
lating of land in the hands of those who do nothing with it. .

Where real farming is being carried on on the property, the tax
to be on the excess (if any) over 1000 acres. I place the maximum
at 1000 acres as it would not be oppressive on small land owners,
or farmers who generally have much more land than they cultivate,
more than can be cultivated owing to marsh and barrens.

That those who carry on lumbering, or saw mill operations, shalt
pay instead of the tax for wild land a tax of cents on every 25
feet of length of logs—irrespective of their diameter. Logs taken
from the top part of the tree to be estimated at only half value, and
half the tax.

That if in any case the sum accruing from this tax should not
come up to the amount which should accrue from the land, if no
operations were carried on, the difference to be made up to this
amount; but if it come up to or exceed this, then no specific tax to
be collected.

I would recommend the tax to be on logs, irrespective of their
diameter, to the end that lumbermen should only cut the large tim-
ber, which, while preventing the degeneration of the forest, will
continue the supply indefinitely.

This is needful for two reasons; first, because much of our soil
at present in forest is only fit to raise forest timber; and, second,
to favour shipbuilding, where a less size of timber is required, and
this supply would thus be continued where saw logs had become
exhausted,—and it is far more profitable for the Province to export
its timber as ships than as sawed lumber.

That on logs or timber solely to be used in shipbuilding in the
Province, the tax to be only one-fourth of that above referred to,
or less owing to locality ; the proceeds to be used in making wood
roads, or improving the streams or harbors on which ships are built,
to the end that this industry be assisted.

I believe it would be unwise to put any tax on lumbering opera-
tions, that would tend to diminish them, or jeopardize capital that
has been thus expended; and I would suggest that after the ex-
penses of collection have been paid, the balance should be put
into a special fund to be expended in means to benefit this industry.

ON ne en ee

REED—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER. 329

There are a great many small streams and rivers in Nova Scotia
(I may say all of them) that it is extremely difficult to lumber on,
on account of the exceedingly rough rocky bottom and the small
amount of water they carry ; and. the Government could in no better
way further the interest of the Province than to expend a sum of
money yearly in blasting out rocky obstructions, and building dams
and timber slides, on the most frequented streams. These improve-
ments would save ten times their tax to the mill owners, in the
large sums they now pay for log driving, besides the very large loss
they sustain in logs that are scattered along the banks of the rivers,

which cannot be made use of, and become much deteriorated from

exposure, besides being a dead loss of about 10 to 30 per cent. of
their raw material and capital for from two to three years. Practi-
cally a large per centage of logs are always so situated as not to be
at command. Laws of this kind would tend to foster our lumber
trade, while at the same time preventing very much waste that now
exists. The crown timber lands yet to be sold should be auctioned
by the square mile for 7 or 10 years for lumbering purposes.

Government should appoint an officer to superintend this depart-
ment of our trade, a man thoroughly posted in lumbering and ship-
building operations, to give reliable information and suggestions to
the Government on the best method of carrying it on; such as
making outlay, variation of tax on shipbuilding operations, (owing
to locality,) and to attend to other duties in relation to the forest,
to be again referred to.

Shipbuilding requires a great deal of timber, but a kind of little
value for saw-mill purposes, and with care could be continued in-
definitely. To this every attention should be paid, as the demand
for wooden ships will continue to be much better than of late years,
owing to the failure of iron sailing ships.

As another means of economising our timber, greater encourage-
ment should be given to the manufacture of wooden wares, thus
giving a larger home expenditure with a diminished demand on our
supplies ; for in addition to supplying the home demand they could
be made large items of export, as now obtains in many parts of the
Dominion. This variety of industry is being rapidly developed ;

330 REID—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER.

and though we may hail ‘‘ Saw Mill” Companies as a boon, yet
of far greater value is the Furniture, or Pail and Tub Factory.

There is a great deal of waste land in the Province, that with a
little care and judicious inspection could be made to furnish timber
either by trimming undergrowth, or by planting land that could
grow pine trees even better than fir, alder, and scrub. This would
have the additional advantage of making our streams perennial,
instead of dry, a good part of one-half, and frozen the other part of
the year, with freshets, chiefly, intervening.

Thus our climate would be kept from deteriorating, which has
been proved to be the case where forests have been cleared over
large areas. They modify frost, heat, rainstorms, freshets, droughts
and destructive lightning discharges. We must diminish the use of
wood on railways as fuel—this is now being done—and for sleepers,
which must be done, by some preservative process, that will arrest
their decay and in so far prevent accidents. ‘This, however, will
cure itself as it has in England, where railway sleepers of inferior
wood well preserved, last for more than thirty years and still sound ;
with us they serve for two or three years, when they become so
much decomposed as to be dangerous.

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER FROM FIRE AND DECAY.

From Decay.—Timber exposed alternately to dampness and
dryness, suffers injury or absolute destruction, owing to the amount
of exposure, lapse of time, and kind of wood; and various methods
have been adopted to overcome this difficulty. Charring the exposed
portion, was supposed to be of benefit, but it will not prevent the
entrance of water and air which destroy the interior.

By steaming or boiling timber, which coagulates the albuminoid
substances and washes away soluble salts, there is given a modicum
of preservation which is not a commercial success for this purpose.

Jt is known that the resinous and odorous woods—pine, lignum-
vita, cedar, &c.,—will endure the longest, and efforts have been
made to add to other woods substances of this character, but the
greatest difficulty has been to cause resinous and fatty substances to
permeate the pores of all kinds of timber, and without which the
outside protection does not much avail.

REID—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER. aan

When creosote which prevents decay in all albuminoid substances
was discovered in tar, the idea at once presented itself of using this
means, either as crude tar from wood, or from coal, which is simi-
lar, or their products. This is by far the best method yet known to
prevent decay. The tar cannot be made to permeate the wood,
and when applied externally it prevents moisture from escaping,
and in so far favors decay ; hence its use has been abandoned. A
crude, cheap, liquid creosote is obtained from tar by distillation,
which can be made to permeate timber, and has remarkable preser-
vative powers. It is now the substance most extensively used in
England for this purpose.

If we could thoroughly permeate timber with creosote, tar, resin
of any kind, soap, paint, or oil, we can preserve the wood thus
acted on, but it is rendered more inflammable, and under any cir-
cumstances is costly.

Many metallic salts when forced into wood, preserve it from
decay, and render it less inflammable. ‘The most active agents are
Corrosive Sublimate, Sir Wm. Burnett’s Chloride of Zine,
Sulphate of Copper, Pyrolignite of Iron and Phosphate of
Baryta; but their cost greatly excludes their use. Sulphate of
Tron is cheaper, but of less value.

Common Salt has great preservative power, and is much used
in shipbuilding, and might be much more used with good effect to
ward off decay.

There are three ways of using these substances :

1st.—Applied to the surface which is of little use.

Znd.—A French Process of making a hole in the tree, and in-
troducing the substance in solution. By this method before the
tree dies the salt will thoroughly permeate it, and while preserving
the timber, will, with some salts stain it very beautifully. The
objection to this, apart from cost, is its impracticability on a large
scale where lumbering is carried on.

3rd.—Placing the wood in large strong vats and forcing the
solution into it. This is the most available method.

Preserving from Fire.—In this country this result would be
even preferable to protection from decay, but the means which con-
fers the former does the latter as well.

Ban REID—ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER.

Chemistry has furnished us with substances that possess this
property in a marked degree. Common Alum is very good.
Filling the pores of timber with Sulphate of Lime or Plaster of
Paris, by double decomposition, is also good. Twungstate of Soda
is better than either, but its price militates against its use. Silica
either alone or combined with an alkali or alkaline earth, is the best
substance as yet known, and is most frequently used as Silicate of
Potassa, or Soda in solution. Fuch, of Munich, Bavaria, in 1823,
first made known the remarkable properties of these compounds and
used them as preservatives of stone from decay, and of wood from
fire and decay—and as well the best groundwork and fluid for the
fresco Painter. ‘The theatre of Munich was the first edifice pro-
tected from fire and decay and ornamented also by these compounds.

Ransome in England in 1845-56, patented the use of soluble sili-
ca for the making of an artificial stone, and the preservation of stone
and timber; and it is at present largely used for these purposes.

One of my objects this evening was to show the value of Silica,
—injected into the pores of the wood, when united with Soda or
Potassa, or decomposed afterwards by lime in solution, when so
introduced, and the saturation of the timber with common salt at
the same time. Or by simple application of the solution to the
exterior, either alone or with clay, whiting, or Plaster of Paris,
which makes a cheap and effective fire paint.

When injected into pine timber, and afterwards dried, I find it
is not difficult to increase the weight 50 per cent. and confer great
powers of indestructibility. It could be introduced with very
great facility into telegraph poles, wharf logs, and undressed
timber, by the method used for the introduction of Sulphate of
Copper into telegraph poles in England, viz: by hydrostatic
pressure. ‘The fluid being elevated a number of feet above the
ground, and a tube connecting it with a cup, which by means of a
Caoutchouc connection is tightly secured around the large end
of the log, the sap of the timber is expelled and replaced by the
preservative.

I will briefly summarize the advantages due to silicating timber :

1. To prevent wet and dry rot.

2. To increase the hardness and density.

REID—-ON THE ECONOMY OF TIMBER. gaa

3. To preserve its elasticity.

4. To prevent shrinking and warping in drying.

5. To prevent the cracks and splits that are common in thick
lumber.

6. To confer on it non-inflammability owing to the heat produc-
ing a coating of glass around each fibre, thus preventing access of air.

7. To make timber at the same time a good non-conductor of
heat.

8. To prevent the joinings in frame work from giving away as
is now the case, long before the timber is much weakened by the
fire, which expedites the work of destruction, and endangers fire-
men’s lives.

9. To make fireproof Mansard Roofs.

10. To have cheap and good houses, with low fire insurance
rates.

11. To make stronger and more lasting wooden ships.

12. To almost prevent that awful calamity—fire at sea.

APP HN Diese

CONVERSAZIONE.
JaN. 20, 7 P.M, 1873.

A Conversazione was held in the Provincial Museum, and other
apartments, and halls, of the New Provincial Building. At 8 o’clock
about two hundred persons assembled in the spacious hall of the second
floor, where a platform was erected and seats arranged.

At 8.15 His Excellency the Lieutenant Governor Sir Hastings
Dore, the Patron of the Institute, took the Chair.

The Rey. Dr. WARREN then read an interesting paper, ‘‘On Atmos-
pheric Air, Physically considered.” The paper was illustrated by a series
of beautiful and successful experiments.

Dr. A. P. Rerp then made instructive observations, ‘‘On Coal and
its Products.” This subject was well illustrated by appropriate and
striking experiments.

The Rev. Dr. Honryman read a paper “On Preadamite Life.” The
paper was illustrated by numerous specimens and diagrams.

Professor Lawson, L. L. D., gave a short Lecture ‘On the Dev elop-
ment of the Cellular tissue in Plants. rie ee was well illustrated
by a large series of beautiful diagrams.

His Excellency the Chairman concluded with a few felicitous obser-
vations.

The audience then proceeded to the Museum, which was brilliantly
lighted. -

After examining the interesting collections, His Excellency and the
ladies and gentlemen adjourned to a refreshment room, where a table
was spread with an ample supply of refreshments.

Having enjoyed this feast the company separated, and the Conver-
sazione terminated about 10. 30 P.M.

The Council unanimously passed a vote of thanks to the Rey. Dr.
WARREN, Mrs. Warren, and Miss Crarke, for‘the admirable manner
in which they had furnished the refreshment table and otherwise minis-
tered to the enjoyment of the members of the Institute, and their friends.

D. HONEYMAN,

Secretary.

XN

APPENDIX; 335

THE ‘‘CHALLENGER” SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION. VISIT TO HALIFAX.

H. M.S. Challenger, Capt. Nares, arrived at Halifax on the ninth
day of May last, from Bermudas. The Challenger is fitted out for a
scientific expedition round the world, more especially with reference to
an exploration of the ocean in various latitudes, and to ascertain the best
situation for successful observations of the transit of Venus in1874. She
has on board Professor Wyville Thompson, of Edinburgh, Chief of the
Scientists; J. Y. Buchanan, M. A.; H. M. Mosely, M. A.; John
Murray, Esq.; Dr. Willemoes Von Suhm, and J. T. Wild, Esq.,
all distinguished in their several professions. By the kindness of the
first named gentleman, who has several warm personal friends* in
Halifax, formerly connected with him in scientific pursuits, and
perhaps as an incentive or provocative to the study of Natural Science,
every facility was afforded to the ladies and gentlemen of the City
for an inspection of the ship, and a view of the submarine wonders
that had up to that time been collected. These had been dredged at
depths varying from 150 to 3500 fathoms—from the coasts of Portugal
and Spain, the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Isles, across to the West
Indies and Bermudas, and thence to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Very many
took advantage of the permission to visit a ship furnished with every
appliance for the great work in which she is engaged.

The magnitude of the expedition may be best estimated by the fact,
that, exclusive of outfit, the annual outlay by the British Government
during the time employed. is estimated at £60,000 sterling. It*is to
be hoped that the results will be commensurate with this lavish expen-
diture in the cause of science; but to say the least, the large amount
of experience realized, the many points of interest settled, the correct
soundings of the ocean arrived at, will be of vast national importance.
The object of the expedition, it is expected, will have been completed by
the autumn of 1874.

Apparata of the most perfect description that human invention has
yet attained to, have been employed to promote the success of the expe-
dition. The sounding gear is admirably efficient, both for ascertaining
the extreme depth and the temperature of the ocean. Bottom has been
reached at between three and four thousand fathoms, over four miles.t

*Professor Lawson, Dalhousie College; and Rey. Dr. Honeyman, Provincial Geolo-
gist,—both Members of the Halifax Institute of Natural Science. =

tAt the greatest depth (8,875 fathoms) ‘‘ the bottom brought up was reddish mud,
containing however a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime;”’ at lesser depths this
red mud was of a deeper colour, and extensively diffused, composing the whole matter
of the collected soundings. These extreme depths were found to be not inconsistent
with the existence of animal life, but not favorable to its development. The red
clay is described in Dr. Thompson’s notes published in ‘‘ Nature,’’ as a large and im-
portant phenomena. ‘‘In the section of the Atlantic from the Canaries to the West
Indies, it occupies about 1900 miles.” It is probably identical with the fertile red
earth of the Bermudas, and the brick earth of Jamiaca and other West India Islands,
characterized by various authors as of exceptional fertility. —.

306 APPENDIX.

The temperature at various depths is correctly ascertained by a very |
clever thermometrical contrivance, which is difficult to be explained with-
out the presence of the instrument itself, or a: diagram in illustration
thereof. Strange to say at the greatest depth the water is found to be
intensely cold, which is supposed to be owing to an under stratum of cold
water, perhaps a condensed polar current. May not the extreme con-
densation of the liquid element at such a depth be alone accountable for
this degree of cold. The pressure must be enormous. Sometimes the
thermometers in spite of the strong enclosure and the equable bearing of:
the water, are shivered into fragments. A strong metal tube was shown
which had enclosed a thermometer, that in consequence of an unobserved :
defect when put overboard, on coming again to the surface was found to
have suffered a complete collapse, the thermometer entirely destroyed.
Accidents like these are inseparable from all such services, and operate
as cautions to prevent their recurrence. The sinker, about 400 Ibs.
weight, attached to the sounding line, and calculated to carry it to any”
depth, resembles an Armstrong shell, bored lengthwise. It is fitted
with a mechanical contrivance projecting from it about eighteen inches,
a tube, which on reaching the bottom, having collected a portion of its
material, is forced upward through the sinker, which then immediately
becomes detached, and is left behind. Every time that deep sounds.
ings are taken the Challenger drops one of these as a memento of
her visit. ‘The line is recovered by the aid of a donkey engine of consid-
erable power, which yet has sometimes to be assisted by urging the ship
backward or forward, as may be expedient.

The dredging apparata is larger or smaller according to the depths.
It is a strong net with an iron frame and open mouth, and drags along‘a:
trail composed of a broad swab of loose ropes, which Professor Thompson:
informed the party was very useful in collecting material which had’
been passed or loosened by the dredge itself. very mechanical facility
is taken advantage of in paying out the line, both in sounding and dredg-
ing. The reels are fastened to the waists of the ship, and the large
quantity of rope wound on them attested to the great depth already:
reached, and to the provision for finding at the ‘‘ lowest depth” ‘* a lower
deep,”

It is remarkable that at the deepest soundings, animal organisms are:
found ; zoophytes, and sponges, but nothing of a vegetable nature. At*
depths of four to five hundred fathoms, crustaceans of remarkable form:
have been dredged, new in type, without eyes, but with processes ex-
tending from the head which may make the sense of feeling very acute.
Some of these of a pale pink colour when captured, were changed by the:
light to a yellowish white—and alcohol absorbed all colour.

After the sounding and dredging gear had been looked over, the:
divisions of the ship set apart for.the labours of the Scientists’ of the exhi-
bition, were visited—the chemical department, the photographic. and.
natural history departments.. Several of the Professors were absent in.
Canada; but the interest was well sustained by the kindness of Professor”
Wyville Thompson, who opened up the wonders of the great deep to the’
observation of all who chose to take pleasure in them.. The blind crus-

APPENDIX. oot

taceans, zoophytes of new and remarkable species, corals, sponges,
echinoderms, of varieties unknown before, were presented to the gaze of
the visiters. Allthe forms were recent. Admirable drawings of these,
taken while recently captured, were exhibited, of great interest to natural- -
ists. The observers could only see and admire. Geology was repre-
sented by a large boulder* dredged at 300 miles south of the coast
of Nova Scotia, which Dr. Honeyman, our Provincial Geologist, and
Secretary of the Institute, after careful examination, recognized as a
piece of Shelburne granite, carted off to sea in long past ages on an ice-
berg detached from the coast glacier of Nova Scotia, and deposited where
it was found, to be recovered as a curiosity in the nineteenth century of
the Christian era, and to help the solution of the glacial theory. There
were also specimens of ocean deposits, and cretaceous collections from
great depths.

To mere scientists, these rare specimens were the most interesting
objects on board, and what they had especially come to see; but there
were others which judging from the admiration they excited were equally
attractive. Each officer of the ship is entitled to a copy of every photo-
graph taken in connection with the expedition.t On adjourning fora
brief space to the ward-room, or as it may be styled in steamship parlance,
the saloon, which is tastefully fitted up, several books of photographs, of
all the remarkable scenes in the countries visited, and of the costumes
and customs of the people, from the rock of Gibraltar, Lisbon, the Azores,
Madeira, the Canary Isles and Bermudas, to Halifax, were politely ex-
hibited and eagerly scanned by the ladies, and explanations afforded by
the gentlemen connected with the ship, to the manifest pleasure and
gratification of both parties. Thisconcluded the visit, which had extended
from 10 a. m. to between half past twelve and 1 p. m., when the party
left the ship highly gratified with all they had seen and heard, and the
courtesy extended to them,—and with an earnest hope that all the objects
of the Expedition might be successfully accomplished, bidding God speed
to the voyagers, and a happy return to their native country and friends.

W. G.

*By some mistake this boulder, which was to have been left as a present to the
Halifax Museum, as illustrating the glacial action which at one time had involved
Nova Scotia in a close embrace, as it now involves Greenland, was carried away in the
ship, and reposes somewhere at the entrance of the harbour—where like the Irishman’s
‘* tay-kettle,”’ it is safe because we know where it is.

+ During the stay in Halifax, the Scientists, accompanied by Dr. Honeyman, took
several interesting photographs of the glacial strie, and other geological phenomena,
at Point Pleasant, and on the shore of the Tower Road.

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NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL
SCIENCE, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA, |

Parron—His Honor The LizEurENANT GOVERNOR.

| COUNCIL, 1872-3.
J. M. Jones, Esq., F. L. §., President. pha ae
BERNARD GILPIN, Esq., M. D., M. BR. C.S.,

Pror. G. Lawson, Ph.D, L. L. D., 1 Vice-P be cuiae
Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. Liss G. S., &e., arene ase?
Aneus Ross, Esa., * [ee
W. E. Sitver, Ese., Treasurer. Fenians tae

J. R. DEWoxFE, Esq., M. D., | Wn. Gossip, Esa.

J. RUTHERFORD, Esa.
FRED.
Jos. BELL, Esa.

The Anniversary Meeting of the Institute is held on the second Wednesday

Rev. Dr, WARREN.
ALLIson, Esq. ApAmM McKay, Esq.
ass ASS fein ee .

SL ye

in October of every year.

The Monthly Ordinary Meetings of the Institute, when Papers are read,
are held on the second Monday evening in every month, . commencing in

November and ending in May.

Og: AEA Pedal egi gs vies. CEO 50) pee ee

- eHOCRRDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF ThE

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

ae Se ap a A a a a Da ee ala

i.’ UL. 7 ISTIC | PART IV.

od A ee

CONTENTS.
ae erga Page.
PROCEEDINGS...07.... 2.) a ap MERITS See SIRE gee Bre» ve ees 002-040
4 st oF MEMBERS pee ak PLVE is UL car tno cgay od Me eas nd omc ec eee «2841, 442
NSACTIONS:— fiat vie .
eee Mola. Couch. By J. Benn seb Gitpin, Esq:, M. D., © .
BARRE CO ARR is sey teria yh Ok gid gee rely CW eins tie Kook SOM we ebrE 342

Pa. By. Epwin mec MOAN BGs Oi et ec Cee aie 357
‘i IV, os Canadian Species of Rubi ‘and their Geographical Disteibation By

-2 (Grorar Lawson, Ph. D., L. L.D:; Dalhousie College. ..... ses 864
v. =+On the Fibrin: of of the Blood. By A. ‘Ross, PAG a ee le oe wee ses 867
- Wi.—Canadian Weather Telegraphy and Storm Signals. By FRep. Aes
Patan Me A Ghief Afeteorologiéal Agent). Sine ce poe as en ws O10
‘VILL—0n the Seals ‘of Novarscotia. By J. Bernarp Gupix, A. B., M. D.,
. 5 NR iS Pe nao Ces edie d ins bale ee, eee ew hd eee ues .. OF

. af A By Rev. D. Hosexsiax, D, C. L., FG. 8.5 &e. 385
x neon 1873, Malis,
Ae MOSCA MeteorolopicatMyent . Pes ike deny Ceealeg Pole Ma oe ORC e Waage eee

: Oe. — Observations on some oscil Bones ans in New Brunswick, ee als

2 of Canada, By J. Biuarp Grupin,. B. A., M. D., M. RB. C. 8: 400
XI.—Agriculture ey to Chemistry. . By A. P, Req. M. D., LR. C3.

-Epin BNE ARYA AR Re cone ea areata ct py Sa las Shiai gC gre hae aha oe kc tee Sls ie i ae le ee 404

SL Evolution. By Ayaos Ross, BBY ie Be Ma ea so yes 4 Nin SR ee ae ep 410
.——Cheinical relations of Heat with Experiments. By Pror. Lawson, Ph.
el Gy Ds De gale College ISAT Sai WPL Dee EN iene A fe Bh) -» 436 ~

pots

Prive, Five Shitlings

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova Scotian SJustitute of Matuval Srience.

VOL. II PART IV.

Provincial Museum, Oct. 8th, 1873.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

J. M. Jones. Esq., President, in the Chair.
Inter Alia.

THE following officers were elected by ballot:

COUNCIL.

President—J. BERNARD Gipin, Esq., M. D., M. B.C. S.

Vice Presidents—J. M. Jones, Esq., F.L.S., and James R. DEWOLF,
Hsq., M.D.; L. RC. 8. E.

Secretaries—Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C. L., F.G.S., &c., and ANneus
Ross, Esq. .

Treasurer—W. C. SILVER, Esq.

Prof. G. Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D., Rev. Dr. Warren, Wm. Gossip,
Esq., Sheriff Bett, R. Morrow, Esq., FRED. ALLison, Esq., AUGUSTUS
ALLISON, Esq.

OrDINARY MEETING, NOVEMBER 9, 1873.

Dr. Giipin, President in the Chair.
: Inter Alia. .
The President read a paper “ On the Orthagoriscus Mola, (Sun-fish) caught
in Halifax Harbour.”
Dr. HoNEYMAN read a paper “ On Nova Scotian Geology.” Intercolonial
Railway.”

Orpinary MEETING, DEC. 9, 1873.

Dr. Giupin, Pres., in the Chair.
Inter Alia.
The SECRETARY announced that the Rev. A. Brown and W. Henry

: WADDELL, who had been proposed as members at last meeting had been duly
: elected by the Council.
.

540 | PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. A. Ross, the Secretary, read a paper by Mr. Edwin Gilpin, M. E.,
““ On the Carboniferous District of St. George's Bay, Newfoundland.”

Dr. A. P. Rerp read a paper “ Agriculture allied to Chemistry.”

The PresipENT announced that the Council had decided to hold a Con-
versazione sometime during next February.

OrvpINARY MEETING, JANUARY 12, 1874.
Dr. Giupin, Pres. in the Chair.
Inter alia.

Dr. LAwson read a paper “ On Canadian Species of Rubi and their Geo-

graphical Distribution.”
Mr. A. Ross read a paper “ On. Dr. Girards’ views on the Structure of the

Fibrune of the Blood.”

- OrpINARY MerEtTING, Maron 9, 1874.
Dr. Giurin, Pres., in the Chair.
| Inter Alia.

The SECRETARY intimated that the following gentlemen proposed as
members at the last Ordinary Meeting had been elected by the Council, viz:
Messrs. C. F. Fraser, MAyNARD Bowman, G. R. Feira, SAWERS STIRLING,
RosertT Brunton, Rev. J. B. UNIACKE.

Mr. FREDERICK ALLISON read a paper ‘‘ On Storm Signals.”

The PRESIDENT read a paper “ On Seals.”

ORDINARY MEETING, APRIL 13, 1874.

Dr. GitPin, Pres., in the Chair.
Inter Alia.

The SECRETARY intimated that the following gentlemen proposed as
members at the last Ordinary Meeting had been elected by the Council:
Messrs. D. H. Pirts, AYLWIN CREIGHTON, HENrY Cotrorp, G. P. Brack,
J. W. MARLING, JONSTON Hunt.

Dr. HonEYMAN read a paper “On Nova Scotia Geology.” Cobequid
Mountains, &c.

ORDINARY MEETING, May 11, 1874.
Dr. Giurin, Pres., in the Chair.
Inter Alia.

Mr. Anens Ross, read a paper “ On Evolution.”
Mr. Ropert Morrow read a paper “ Larly Notices of the Lsquimaux.”

D. HonEYMAN.

Secretary.

Date of Admission.

1873. Jan.
1869. Feb.
1869. Feb.
1873. Mar.
1864. April
2853... Jan.
iSio, Jan
1874. Dec
1864. Nov
1874. Feb.
1872. Nov
1867. Sep.
1868. Sep.
1871. April
1872. April
1868. May
1870. Mar
1868. Oct.
1863. Dec.
1871. Nov
1865. Oct.
1872. Feb.
1863. Jan
1863. Feb.
1863. Jan.
1863. June
1869. Feb.
1866. Dec.
1868. Nov.
1872. Feb.
£2132 Jan:
1863. Jan.
1866. Feb.
1864. Mar
1872. July
1872. May
18738. - Mar.
1872. Feb.
1866. Feb.
1872. Feb.
1873. Mar

an

Ik.
15.
15.
10.

e

—
Now

to ob
~I O89

i
ay es he Sea

ae a

os

LIST OF MEMBERS. - 341

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Atkins, T. B., D. C. L., Halifax.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax.

Allison, Frederick, Halifax.

Baker, F. H., Halifax.

Bell, Joseph, High Sheriff, Halifox.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. S., Newcastle on Tyne, England.
Binney, Edward, Halifax.

Brown, Rev. A.. Halifax.

Brown, C. E., Halifax.

Brunton, Robert, Halifax.

Cochran, B., Post Master, Halifax.

Cogswell, A. C., D. D. S., Halifax.

Collins, Brenton, Halifax.

Compton, William, Halifax.

Costley, John, Halifax.

Cramp, Rey. Dr., Wolfville.

Day, Forshaw, Artist, Halifax.

DeWolf, James R , M.D., Edin., L.R.C.8.E., Vicm Pres., Dartmouth. -
Downs, Andrew, Cor. Memb. Z. S., Halifax.
Egan, T. J., Taxidermist, Halifax.

Fleming, Sandford, C.E., Chief Engineer Dom. Railways, Halifax, -
Foster, James, Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C. S., Presipent, Halifax.
Gossip, William, Granville St., Halifax.

Haliburton, R. G., F. 8S. A., Halifax.

Hiil, P: C., D. C. L.,; Halifas.

. Hind; HY: FR. G. 8., Windsor.

Honeyman, Rev. David, D. C. L., .F. G.S., &e., Satine’ ‘Halifax

Hudson, James, M. E., Superintendent Albion Mines, Pictou.

Hunt, Rev. A. 8., Superintendent of Education, Halifax.

James, Alex., Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. S., Vice Prestpent, Halifax.

Kelly, John, Deputy Chief Commissioner of Mines, Halifax.

Lawson, Geo., Ph. D., L. L. D., Prof. of Chem. and Natural?
History, Dalhousie College.

Lawson, Walter, C. E., Montagu Gold Mines.

Longley, J. W., Halifax.

McDonald, Hon. James, Halifax.

McKay, Adam, Engineer, Dartmouth.

Morrow, James B., Halifax.

Morrow, Robert, Halifax.

Moseley, E., Dartmouth.

542

1870.
1865.
1865.
1872.
1870.
1866.
1871.
1868.
1869.
1866.
1864.
1868.
1872.
1874.
1865.
1867.
1878.
1873.
1€71.
1864.
1866.

1863.
1868.
1873.
1864.
1872.
1865.
1872.

1871.
1868.
1866.
1871.
1870.
1866.
1871.
1878.
1872.

1872.

Jan.
July
Aug.
Nov.
Jan.
July
Nov.
Dee.
June
Jan.
Mar.
Nov.
May
April
April
Aug.
Jan.
Jan.
Nov.
May
Mar.

Oct.
June
April
July
Feb.
Dec.
Mar.

Nov.
Noy.
Sept.
Nov.
Oct.
Feb.
Nov.
April
Feb.

Nov.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Murphy, Martin C. E., Halifax.

Nash, John D., Halifax.

Nova Scotia, the Rt. Rev. Hibbert Binney, D. D., Lord Bishop of
Poole, H. S., F. G. 8., Inspector of Mines, Halifax.

Power, L. G., Barrister-at-Law, Halifax.

Reeks, Henry, Manor Hall, Truxton, Hamp, England.

Reid, A. P., M. D., Halifax.

Roue, John, Halifax. .
Ross, Angus, Secretary, Halifax. |
Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax.
Silver, W. C., Treasurer, Halifax.

Sinclair, John A., Mayor, Halifax.

Stewart, J. J., Halifax.

Stirling, W. Sawers, Halifax. |
Smithers, George, Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, Halifax.

Vail, Hon. W. B., Provincial Secretary, Halifax.

Waddell, W. Henry, Halifax.

Warren, Rev. Dr., Halifax.

Whytal, Jobn, Halifax. :
Young, Sir William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, A. M., Digby.

Ford, Alfred S., London, England.

Gilpin, Edwin, M. E., F. G. S., Halifax.

Marett, Elias, St. John’s Newfoundland.

McKay, Alexander, Principal of Schools, Dartmouth.
Morton, Rev. John, Trinidad.

Mosely, E. T., Barrister-at-Law, Cape Breton.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ball, Rev. T., Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.

Bethune, Rev. J. 8., Ontario.

Chevalier, Edgcumb, H. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, England.

Cope, Rev. J. C., PresipEnr of the New Orleans Academy of Science.

Harvey, Rev. Moses, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Hurdis, J. L., Southampton, England.

King, Dr. V. O., Vicu-Pres. of the New Orleans Acad. of Science.

Poole, H., Derbyshire, England.

Tennant, Prof. J., F. G.S., F..Z.S., &c., Mineralogist to H. M.
the Queen, London, England.

Turner, Jabez, Madden Grange, Peterboro, England.

LIFE MEMBER.
Hon. Dr. Parker, M. L. C., Nova Scotia.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Nova Seotian Hustitute of Datural Science,

Art. I.—Orruacoriscus Moria. Couch. Taken HALIFax
Harzor, Ocr. 1873. By J. Bernarp Gitpry, Esa.,
Mia. Mion. G5:

(Read November 9, 18738.)

Tris singular oceanic fish measured, extreme length five feet
six inches; breadth, half way between tip of nose and dorsal fin,
three feet one inch; eye, diameter three inches, and eight inches
from tip of nose; dorsal fin two feet two inches in height; anal
one foot eleven inches. Color, upper part dorsal anal and candal
fins and back, bluish black. Lower parts of cheeks, chin and belly
soiled white. The soil being caused by small black points on the
white. In reflected lights the whole white parts had a bright
pearly lustre. In form orbicular, and much compressed, perhaps
(though not measured) not more than ten inches in its thickest
part. The back and belly both with a sharp carinated edge. ‘T'wo
roundish ridges commencing above and below the eye lost them-
selves about the middle of the body. The upper forming a kind of
eye-brow, the latter making a pouting lip and cheek. The mouth
was roundish, small with a feeble look, and an interrupted band of
enamel served for teeth to both jaws. The nostrils were two
lunated slits on each side of what resembled nasal bones rather than
intermaxilliaries, and which were moveable. ‘The iris was in a
sunken orbit of three inches in diametre in death, (though no.
doubt in life protuding) it is silvery and half covered by a fattish.
membrana nictitans. The gill was also a sunken eliptic orifice
below which a dark purple spongy substance showed. The pectoral:
fin was immediately behind the gill, orbicular small, having several
radiating ridges on its substance, nearly immovable and lodged in:
a hollow of the body. The skin was covered with large granula-.
tions or small tubercles, pearly in a reflected light. There was no:

344 are GILPIN—-ON ORTHAGORISCUS MOLA.

Jateral line. The dorsal and anal fins both had rays in faint
longitudinal marks. The part of the body behind the fins tapered
gradually away, the upper half was divided into four irregular
lobes, the lower part too irregular a line to classify, and contained
a sharp point near the bottom. I could not detect anything ap-
proaching to fin rays edging what may be called the tail, except
that the tubercles or granulations covering the whole body were
larger and more numerous on the free edge.

Gunther speaks of a spine or horn on the forehead, this was
wanting, though there was an approximation to it in a sharp pro-
tuberance. His spine in the tail was also only a-sharp place. <A
faint brownish wash on the breast was the only approach to Couch’s

colouring, nor was there that decided black band around the tail as
described and figured by Dr. DeKay. ‘These probably are the
markings of the young. I was unable to disect the whole fish from
its putrid state. The liver was very large, pale yellow, and oily ;
the intestines simple and short, and the whole body of the fish
formed by an oily cartilagenous substance about two inches thick on
the belly, three or more on the back. The skin was intimately
joined to this, as not to be separated by a knife; but pieces cut out
and exposed to the air, slowly dissolved in oil, leaving the skin
entire. This substance was beautifully white, cut with a fine pearly
edge, and resembled adipocere.. The whole fish was of one un-
dulatory elastic mass. The bones as far as I could perceive were
cartilagenous and cut easily with a knife. In profile the fish
resembles the single screw propeller used in the service, and no
doubt the motion gained by rotation, is in the fish obtained by the
oscillation in opposite directions by both fins, the tail part having
motion enough to steer. The fishermen relate accounts of its great
velocity when attacked and roused, though usually it it is surprised
basking upon its side and sleeping.

Cuvier informe us that the skeleton of this order! Ge fakes
fibrous, yet its ‘‘ tardy indurations” to use his own expression—

udimatary ribs, and absence of suture in the maxillary
bones bring it exceedingly near the cartilagenous fish, and causes
one to wonder how motion can be transmitted through its unwieldy
undulatory elastic mass.

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 345

Art. II.—Nova Scotian Grotocy. INTERCOLONIAL Ral_-
way. By rue Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C.L., F.G.S.,
Member of the Geological Society of France, Hon. Mem.
of the Geologists’ Association of London, &c., Director
of the Provincial Museum.

(Read November 9, 1873.)

Leavine Truro by the Intercolonial Railway, and proceeding
in a northerly direction, at the distance of about half a mile, we
see a fine section of an extensive gravel-bank which has done good
service in ballasting the line of Railway. This bank is of Post-
pliocene formation. ‘The material has been largely derived from
the rocks of the Cobequid Mountains lying to the north. Before
reaching the DeBert Station, we pass over a long level track which
shows numerous sections of the same formation, and many beauti-
ful sections of the Triassic formation. The latter are seen in the
lower parts of the cuttings, and in the openings of the various
tunnels cut for the drainage. I would observe that elsewhere we
have intervening between the Post-pliocene and Triassic forma-
tions, the Pliocene Miocene, KEécene, Cretaceous, Wealden,
Oolite and Lias; so that in passing at once from the Post-pliocene
to the Triassic, we have an enormous break in succession and
unrepresented lapse of geological time. At Folly River Bridge
we still have the Triassic. The strata are seen in a magnificent
section on the eastern side of the River. _

In the second cutting, before reaching Londonderry Station,
there is a fine section of coarse conglomerate. ‘This is the lowest
member of the Triassic series. This conglomerate was originally
shingle, formed of the debris of pre-existing formations accumu-
iated on the shores of the Post-carboniferous Sea.

After an obscure interval occupied by a filling, we have another
cutting of strata of the carboniferous period. If the prevailing
Opinion is correct, that what is sometimes called the new red sand-
stone of Nova Scotia is altogether of Triassic age, we have here
another break in succession, the Permian formation being absent.
The proof of absence, however, is altogether presumptive, so that it

046 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.
is quite possible that the new red sandstone is partly Permian as
well as Triassic.

We have now a great stretch of cuttings, showing a series of
sections of sandstones, clays, grits and conglomerates. The last
form a very marked feature both in extent and coarseness. The
walls of conglomerate are high and threatening. They are close
upon the road, masses are easily detached, obstructing the Railway
Trains. The great characteristics of our carboniferous formation
are not apparent in these sections—coal, gypsum and limestone
are absent. ‘The flora of the period are occasionally met with.
The coarse conglomerate extends a considerable distance beyond
the overhead bridge. This also is formed of shingle derived from
the pre-carboniferous rocks of the Cobequid Mountains accumulated
on the shores of the seas of the carboniferous period.

The last exposure of the carboniferous formation occurs in the
opening of a brook tunnel. The rocks are soft black and grey
shales, with concretions. Rocks are now unexposed to a distance
of 700 feet, and then we have exposures of grey, metamorphic and —
uncrystalline rocks to a width of 2150 feet. |

I believe this band to be of Middle Silurian age; others may
regard it as Upper Silurian or Devonian. We have no direct
evidence to settle this question, it is only by analogy that any view
can be supported. General analogy is in favour of the probability
that the band is of Devonian age, as the rocks immediately underlie
the carboniferous. Special analogy for many years seemed to
favour this view. The reasoning was thus :—On the opposite side
of the Cobequid Mountains are strata which are regarded as the
anticlinal equivalents of the strata in question. At Earltown, in
the County of Pictou, these equivalents contain fossils corres-
ponding with those of the Typical series in Arisaig which were
considered to be Devonian by Paleontologists. Before my exami-
nation cf the Londonderry Mines, part of the band of our section
in 1866 (wide Transactions of the Institute 1866-7) our views
of the age of the Arisaig series of rocks had undergone a great
change. Distmguished Palzontologists on either side of the Atlan-
tic had so correlated the fossils of the Arisaig series that the

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.. 347

Devonian had altogether disappeared from Arisaig, and the series
became divided into Middle and Upper Silurian.

In the part of the rocks of the Londonderry Mines correspond-
ing with the rocks exposed in our section, I observed a supposed
lithological resemblance to the lower part of the Arisaig series, and
I designated it accordingly. I supposed that a higher portion
which is obscured in our section, was the Upper Arisaig. Regard-
ing it as possible that the band might have a wider geological range
than the Arisaig series, I still considered that a higher part or the
part next to the Carboniferous might be Devonian. In this case
the succession was regarded as wnbroken. Now, however, as the
Devonian has almost, if not altogether disappeared from Nova
Scotian Geology, there is none found even to suppose its exist-
ence in the band of our section. I expect that the farther exami-
nation of the section through the Cobequids will show that there is
every probability that the rocks under examination are of Middle
Silurian age. If this is the case, we have here another break in
succession, caused by the absence of the Devonian and the obseur-
ation of the Upper Silurian.

The Upper Silurian of the other parts of the band has been
here denuded by the seas of the Lower Carboniferous period, and
overlapped by the conglomerate already described, the consolidated
shingle that accumulated on the wasted Upper Silurian strata. |
observed nothing very marked in these Middle Silurian ( ?) strata.
Leaving these we enter upon another band of rocks, these are
exposed in a series of beautiful sections to a width of 10,400
feet. This series of rocks consists chiefly of diorites and quartzites.
The diorites are of different shades of green, and are crypto-crys -
talline ; the quartzites are often banded. Near the commencement
there is a gneissic stratum—farther on there is a bed or vein of
green calcite mixed with diorite. In one of the diorite sections
there is a thick vein of quartz. The lithological characteristics cf
this band effectually separates it from the preceeding. ‘There is no
part of the ‘‘ Upper Arisaig Series,” either at Arisaig or elsewhere,
that shows diorites similar to those of our section. The crystalline
rocks of Arisaig or what I have elsewhere named the ‘‘ Lower
Arisaig Series,” alone exhibits diorites of similar character.

348 , HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

The green calcite of our section indicates conditions which
seem io correlate the rocks of our section with the ‘‘ Lower” rocks
of Arisaig. The intimate connection existing between this band
and the next in order on the line of Railway, points in the same
direction. JI have already experienced considerable difficulty in
correlating the corresponding rocks in Arisaig. There was no
difficulty in showing that they were older than the ‘* Upper Arisaig
Series,” z. e. that they are older than the Middle and Upper Silu-
rian periods. The difficulty was in ascertaining—how much older
they were. I considered that I had established their lithological
resemblance to the metamorphic rocks of the Quebec period of the
Canailian Survey. Assuming that the Lower Silurian age of the
Quebec rocks had been established, I had considered that there was
little doubt that the marble and associated rocks ‘of Arisaig were
also Lower Silurian.— Vide Trans. of Institute 1872-3. I find
however, that the age of the Quebec rocks is still a questvo vexata,
and it is maintained that they are older than the acknowledged
Lower Silurian. )

Troceeding farther along the line of Railway we have another
greal. band, having a width of 24,000 feet, or about 44 miles. Of
this 11,500 feet is in the County of Colchester and 12,900 feet in
the County of Cumberland.

‘Che sections of rocks of this band: on the I. C. R., are com-
paratively few and low. ‘The rocks are almost or altogether
obscured by the great gravel and sand-banks. The rocks that are
seen in the sections or openings of stream-tunnels are granitoid—
grey and red syenites and diorites. There are also crypto-crystalline
dioiites and porphyries. The crypto-crystalline diorites are not
distinguishable from those of the preceding band. ‘The transition

Norr.—Since I read my paper to the Institute, I have had an opportunity of
examining the geological formations of New Brunswick. The resemblance exist-
ing between the great Limestone-bearing formation of St. John and the Marble-
beaiing formation of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton is so striking, that I have very
little hesitation in regarding them as identical. The resemblance between the
formation of St. John and that of Arisaig is even more striking than between
Arisaig and Cape Breton. Profs. Hart and Bayley, and Mr. Matthews have

ies satisfactorily that the New Brunswick formation is older than the Lower
Silurian.

HONEYMAN—ON NUVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 349

of diorite from granitoid to crypto-crystalline is readily seen in the
bed and sides of a small stream which crosses the Railway at the
south end of Folly Lake, and also in Rocky Brook on the north
side of the same Lake.

In this brook the diorites are intersected. by numerous small
veins of red syenite. The red syenite, farther on, is seen to be
penetrated by dark green cypto-crystalline diorite, in veins.

The sections between Jobe’s and Higgin’s Brooks are beautifully
variegated. There are crypto-crystalline diorites of various shades
of green with brown porphyries and bright red syenites. The
structural aspect of these rocks is sufficiently perplexing, while they
seem as a whole to be ‘‘ indigenous” or metamorphic—some of the
erypto-crystalline diorites and the porphyries seem to be ‘‘ exotic”
or igneous. |

The gravel banks which obscure or partially cover the rocks of
this band, seem to merit more than a passing notice. The sections
on both sides of the Railway indicate the thickness and extent of
the accumulations of gravel. An examination of the material, e. g.
boulders, gravel and sand, shows that it is chiefly, if not wholly,
derived from the surrounding rocks. .

The extent of the accumulations, their breadth and depth, show
that the waste of rocks must have been very great. The roundness
of the material shows the amount of rolling to which it had been
subjected, while its stratification indicates that water was the agency
engaged in arranging the banks.

The formation of the material may largely belong to a period or
periods anterior to the Post-pliocene, while its diminution and par-
tial transportation southwards was the work of the agencies of the
latter period.

It is possible that prior to the Post-pliocene period, Folly Lake
occupied the greater part of the hollow that lies between the moun-
tains that rise on the east and west, that it extended to the north as
far as the carboniferous formation and was embanked by it, that it
rose to a higher level than at present, and received the waters, with
debris, of the streams that flow from the mountains on either side,
which are now known as Wallace River and its tributaries. At
this time the only outlet of the lake may have been Folly River

300 : HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

which flows southwards and empties its waters into the Basin of
Minas. The present limitation of Folly Lake, the formation of the
beautiful valley on the north, the present watershed, the divergence
of the waterflow, and the existence of Wallace River, may therefore
be regarded as possibly Post-pliocene, while the gravel beds may
be regarded as the representatives in formation and time, of these
formations that occur between the Triassic and Post-pliocene, as
well as the Post-pliocene itself. We thus give work and attribu-
table results to these mountain agencies which we find now in
operation and which we have no right to regard as quiescent from
the Triassic to the Post-pliocene period.

Proceeding from Folly Lake we cross the Wallace River.
Gradually an enchanting view opens up. On the right is the deep
valley of Wallace River with the mountains rising on its eastern
side and the river flowing along at their foot,—as it still opens up,
it reveals a lovely panorama extending far and wide, which excites
the admiration of all travellers. We have reached the apparent —
extremity of this granitoid band. Its last outcrop is seen in a
small nameless brook on the left side of the road. I have already
observed that this is 12,900 feet from the county line.

Since leaving Truro we have made an enormous descent,
geologically, while topographically we have ascended 600 feet above
the sea level, the height of Folly Lake. Since leaving Folly Lake
we have descended topographically 124-45 feet, our position being
now 485-55 feet above the sea level. We are now on the northern
side of the Anticlinal. As we proceed farther we descend topo-
graphically and ascend geologically.

The band succeeding has a width of 8,300 feet. Its first ex-
posure is in the opening of the Tunnel of Smith’s Brook. The
rock is crypto-crystalline diorite. The finest exposure is in the Rail-
way cutting to the north of the brook. This cutting exposes equal —
sections of rocks on either side of the line, their maximum height |
along the road is 83 feet; the minumum 56 feet. The variety and
beauty exhibited by the walls are very striking there are magnificent
slickensides, the glistening of the rocks make them brilliant in the
sunshine. ‘There are red Porphyries, crypto-crystalline diorites of
various shades of green—one band of diorite shows occasionally

HOXNEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 351

erystals of red feldspar, it is Porphyritic. There are also banded
jaspideous rocks. The rocks seem to have a dip of 48° N. 30 E.
The jaspideous rocks and the absence of granitoid rocks make me
separate this band from the preceding, just as I separated the one
preceding it on account of its quartzites and want of granitoid
rocks. The diorites of either band and the porphyries of Smith’s
Cutting might readily be regarded as the associates of the granitoid
rocks and a part of the central band.

Proceeding still further we observe on the side of the Railway
outcrops of purple coloured grits, some of these having abundance
of crystals, of yellow felspar were for some time mistaken for
porphyries. .There are also massive boulders of very hard purple
conglomerate, with inclosed pebbles of scarlet jasper. ‘There are
also outcrops of purple jaspideous rocks and crystalline diorites.
Besides these there are other rocks which it is difficult to charac-
terize. At the Wentworth Station there is an obscure interval
which is probably the approximate position of a conglomerate of
rather peculiar character. A little below the Station on the road
to Wentworth are seen large and small boulders of this conglomerate.
These are composed of diorites and jasper pebbles, firmly cemented
together. Some of the diorite pebbles are amygdaloidal and
amygdaloid — porphyritic. The amygdals are calcite and the
erystals red felspar. I have seen nothing like this conglomerate in
any other part of Nova Scotia. The whole of this band of rocks
must have been formed under strange conditions. In many res-
pects it seems to resemble the Cambrian Formation of H. M.
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Vide Ramsay's Geology
of North Wales. Ata farther distance of 100 feet north of the
Wentworth Station there is a remarkable cutting of rocks. This
cutting is 1100 feet in length. The walls on either side of the
track are equal, their maximum height is 28 feet. I give the
section with approximate measurements.

Obscure. Fect.
1. Dark green Crypto-crystalline Diorite.............. 30
Peek “soft, ale cipro bc; Fons dees article wha ea pA es ; 20

Peymionites with shale parting jc acs ojsiu svar aioe ate a's) maiele 8

a HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. |
MpieraclsnoWale facie oes elie Set ee 56
5. Diorites with Pyrites and Crystals of whitish Felspar. . 16
6. Black Slates and Shales, very pyritous, cleavage and

jointed, having abundance of Fossils, dip 45° 15/

NUD: Baek Bae PP Sa su ee, 3 40
7. Diorite—pyritous........ sic Gs = le ale) date eet Eyyeote 24
8. Black Slates and Shales with ‘lite dip 41° N.
5 Wide ve aes ta fie Bees LOO
9. Dioriteipyritous, A eee eee, teehee eee 14
LO: nShialen {ese ens ah SRT: Sch aD Se ee 140
Lah. Diorites> ae ae ig Sab ahe ate ae MA ee ee a GU
IDSA Shale. Gees ELTA ee ee be ee 6
13) eDiorite “heats Basha ie eee MOS ORRE Kidde, gee 30
TAL Ghalewiieseik eee el Oe ee 10
Vertical thickness cf the whole ............... 615

It will be observed that the Lithology of thie section is singular .

from its alternation of very hard and very soft rocks. The familiar
diorite of the former sections occur no fewer than seven times, but
instead of the quartzites, granitoid rocks, porphyries, jaspideous
rocks and conglomerates, we have substituted very soft slates and
shales. ‘The dip in the other bands described was either obscure or
uncertain. Here the dip of the slates and shales is unmistakable

and the slate beds are divided into blocks by cleavage joints, occur-

ing at right angles to the dip. The occurrence of Diorite, No. 7,
between slates 6 and 8, with so little variation of the dip together
with the conformability of the other diorites, the softness of the
shales and other considerations to which I shall afterwards allude,
induce me to believe that the beds of diorite were contemporaneous
in formation with the slates and shales of the section.

I would here observe in reference to this form of diorite that I

have not elsewhere found it in Nova Scotia associated with uncrystal-
line rocks. The only other instance of its occurrence is at Arisaig,
in the ‘*‘ Lower Arisaig Series,” where it is seen associated with
granitoid diorites, hornblende rock, limestone, ophites and ophio-
calcites. Here as in the central band of our section of the Inter-
colonial Railway, the crypto-crystalline passes gradually into the

HONEYMAN——ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. ooe8

granitoid diorite. Vide Transactions 1872-73. Thave not found
it in connection with the ‘‘ Upper Arisaig Series.”

In slates and shales, No. 6, I found abundance of fossils. The
prevalence of Lingula and Orthis testudinaria led me at first to
think that I had found a formation corresponding in age with my
lingula beds in the County of Pictou, or the B. of my Upper
Arisaig Series. The farther discovery of Graptolites, led me to
suppose that we had the equivalent of the graptolite shales of
Doctor’s Brook, Arisaig Township, or the lowest part of B. of
Arisaig, or the base of the Lower Clinton. One difficulty in the
way of this correlation, arises from the absence of A. Arisaig or the
Mayhill sandstone equivalent. Wherever the lower members of
the Upper Arisaig Series are found in Eastern Nova Scotia this is
always present. Supposing, however, that.this case may be excep-
tional. With a few exceptions the fauna are different from the
familiar forms of the Arisaig series. The exceptions are Calymene
Blumen_bachii, Terebratula affinis, Strophomena de_pressa.
These are Lower, Middle and Upper Silurian forms and indicate no
particular Silurian horizon. Orthis testudinaria is a form of very
frequent occurrencé occurs in the B’ or Upper Clinton of Arisaig,
but it is also a Lower Silurian form. Diprionidean forms of
graptolites, e. g. Climacograpsus occur in the Doctor’s Brook
shales, or the base of B. of Arisaig, Lower Clinton. The existence
of Climacograpsus at Doctor’s Brook was a paleontolovical diffi-
culty, inthe way of correlating the containing strata. Prof. James
Hall in his work, ‘*On the Graptolites of the Quebec Group,”
makes the Hudson River group the Upper limit of this furm, Vide
Table. This led me in my paper ‘‘ On the Geology of Antigonish
County,” to regard B of Arisaig as of Hudson River age, and A as.
Utica State. ihe

Subsequently, however, I came to regard the graptolites of
Doctor’s Brook as a colony from the Hudson River—Jower Sil-
urian. I was led to this conclusion when I made a systematic and

Nott.—This form of diorite occurs frequently in the Huronian rocks of St.
John, N. B., and also associated with the Lower Silurian slates at the end of the
Miispec Road near the old Episcopal Cemetry.

304 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLGGY.

thorough examination of Arisaig in the summer of 1866. I then
extended the graptolite and lingula shales of Doctor’s Brook to the
cove south of Arisaig Pier. Here I found the shales having a rich
and varied fauna. They were in close contact with the slates
and shales, whose characteristic fossil is the Graptolithus clinton-
ensis. I found that while the two setts of strata were lithologic-
ally distinct, the graptolithus clintonensis passed downwards into
the lower shales, and consequently I distinguished the latter B as
Lower Clinton, the former B’ as Upper Clinton, and so regarded
the graptolites of Doctor’s Brook as a colony. I regard the
climacograpsus of the slates of the Intercolonial Railway as char-
acteristic as the associated Lingulae are forms different from those
of the Upper Arisaig series. They strikingly resemble Trenton
Limestone and Hudson River forms. The other fauna are all
different from those of Arisaig, and are new to Nova Scotian
Palewontology. I therefore distinguish this as the ‘* Wentworth
Group,” and regard the formation as approximately Hudson River,

U. S., or Bala, England. ‘The position that I assign the group in |

Nova Scotian Geology, is between the Upper and Lower Arisaig
series, 2. e. between the fossiliferous and crystalline.

The Wentworth fauna of my collection are Orthoceras 2 sp.
Cyclonema, Avicula, Cyrtodonta, Modiolopsis, Strop_homena,
Leptaena,Chonetes, Camerellu, Rhynchonella, Atrypa, Lingulae
Discine, Cornulites, Tentaculites, Asaphus, Calymene, Dalma-
nites, Crinoidee ,Graptolithus, Climacograpsus.

The Graptolites, Lingule and Discinae are beautifully pre-
served, many of the others have been pyritized, and the remainder
are in the form of casts.

Preceding on the line of Railway we have, after the Wentworth
section an obscure interval between Little Whetstone Brook and
Big Whetstone Brook, and then two sections of metamorphic
rocks having a width of 2000 feet.

\

Norr.— Considering that rocks of the Intercolonial Railway have a greater
resemblance to those of Saint John Co., N. B. than to the eastern part of Nova
Scotia, with the exception of ‘‘ Lower Arisaig,” I am disposed to ally this part of
the Cobequids with Saint John, and to regard the Wentworth slates and their
fauna as the successors of the Saint John slates and their Primordial fauna

pe? Se Pe ee

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. Be.

These rocks are exposed in the upper and lower openings of the
Tunnel of Big Whetstone Brook; in the upper the rocks are
brownish slates, in the lower they are massive diorites, similar to these
already met with. In the beginning of the next cutting are slates
with a bed of diorite, associated with a brown porphyry. These
slates produced a large lingula of the Middle Silurian type,—the
strata have a high southerly dip, being apparently synclinal to the
‘¢ Wentworth” group. The stratification is obscure. The bed of
diorite and porphyry is assumed as conforming with the possible
dip of strata. There is an apparent physical division between the
two, or a depression which extends into the mountains. Big
Whetstone Brook flows through it. At the end of the cutting is
another dark brown porhpyritic rock. After an obscure interval
there is another cutting, having at its commencement a thick bed
of green diorite and then slates, without any farther occurrence of
crystalline rocks.

After another obscure interval we come to a cutting having on
either side sections of lower carboniferous conglomerate with
overlying sandstones. The conglomerate is largely composed of
boulders of the preceeding crystalline rocks. One boulder of —
porphyry embedded, was remarkable on account of its size—its
weight was.estimated at two or three hundred pounds. In the
overlying sandstones were found embedded several masses of red
syenite. One of these which we detached was very large—at least
two hundred pounds weight. It was surrounded by carboniferous
flora, compressed calamites and cordaites, some of these remained
adhering to the syenite (vide specimens in the Provincial Museum.)
These syenites must have lain on sandy flats surrounded with
vegetation, both having become simultaneously embedded in the
sand, and intimately associated. These are the earliest flora of
the Cumberland Coal Field. The nearest red syenite rocks are
two miles distant. These facts were noted as remarkable.

Descending Big Whetstone Brook at the junction of the Lower
and Middle Silurian, we pass from the massive diorites in the lower
opening of the tunnel, and then through slates, and then we come
to grits of Lower Carboniferous age—succeeding these are sand-
stones. In these sandstones I found abundance of razn prints,

2

356 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

rill marks, casts of ferns and reptilian foot prints in abundance.
These foot prints are of varying shapes and sizes, some of them are
truly formidable. Some of the reptiles had walked over the rain-
pitted mud in a soft state and left deep impressions: others had
walked over it when less soft and left impressions less deep ; others
had traversed the mud when it was netted with shrinkage cracks
and left faint impressions. One had set his foot on a fern leaf
which lay in his path, another between two long series of right and
left steps has left a continuous tail-trail.. These are to be found in
the Museum.

It was fortunate that the Intercolonial Railway took its present
course after passing Smith’s Brook. To the right, at the distance
of half a mile, we find at a bridge of Wallace River, that the
lower carboniferous conglomerate lies directly on the continuation
of the rocks of Smith’s Cutting, so that in this direction the con-
glomerate, diorites, fossiliferous shales, &c. have all been denuded
by the lower carboniferous seas, and covered by their shingle
(conglomerates. )

To the (left) west, at a distance of three miles, we find that the
work of destruction has been more complete, as the lower carbon-
iferous conglomerate lies directly on the syenite. The interesting
pre-carboniferous rocks of the northern part of the Intercolonial
Railway in the Cobequids, is only a remnant left to show what once
existed, and to reveal facts in geological history altogether at
variance with our hitherto received opinions of the geological
structure of the Cobequid Mountains.

In my examination of this and other sections of the Cobequid
Mountains, I was accompanied by Mr. Andrew Jack, and occasion-
ally by Mr. Frank West and Mr. Robie Cogswell. These gentle-
men added many interesting fossils to our Wentworth collection.

I am very much indebted to # , Archibald, Esq., C. E., for.
the use of the Intercolonial Railway working plans and sections,
by which I am enabled to give accurate measurements of the
various groups of rocks and sections.

GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE’S BAY. 307

Art. III.—SKxetcH oF THE CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST.
Greorce’s Bay, NewrounDLAND. By Epwin GILPIN,
M.A., F.G.S., Member of the Newcastle Institute
Mining Engineers.

(Read December 9, 1873.)

THE south shore of Newfoundland, from Isle Aux Morts to Cape
Ray, is composed of dark slates and quartzites, pitching at a heavy
angle to the south, and much disturbed by veins and masses of
coarse feltspathic granite. The metamorphism has been very great, .
and the action violent, the intrusive rock being often twisted into
curious knots containing fragments of the resisting slates. I was-
unable to form any idea of the age of these strata, but they closely
resemble our Lower Silurian rocks in the neighbourhood of their
trap.

Since my return, a small crystal was given to me as coming
from Port au Basque. It is of a bluish colour, containing phos--
phorous and a large proportion of iron; it hardly answered the-
description of Vivianite as given by Dana, but seems to correspond
more closely with the mineral Triphyline. Any of the phos--
phates occurring here in sufficient quantity would be of great
economic value, as the locality is one of the most accessible in New--
foundland.

The long narrow reefs and islands that skirt the shore, forming.
the ports of Channel and Deadman’s Harbour, have been worn out
by the action of the waves upon the beds whose strike is generally
parallel to the line of the coast. About six miles inland from Port
au Basque is a high range of hills, forming a spur of the great
interior plateau of the island, and running parallel to the shore
until it terminates in Cape Ray. The land rises gradually to their
foot in small hiJls, many of which are composed of granite. The
width of the hill range is about ten miles at this pomt, but it already
exhibits the distinctive features of the plateau, being covered with:
swamps and spruce underwood draining into large ponds and lakes...
The rivers rising in this water shed, flow in all directions toward the -
sea; leaving the highlands in a series of cascades and rapids, their.

398 GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE'S BAY.

windings among the boulder strown valleys afford capital breeding
ground for the salmon so abundant on this shore. At Cape Ray the
lowland diminishes in width to three miles. And in front of the
Cape supports three large conical hills called the Sugar loaves.
Their bare granitic flanks, thrown into relief by the dark back-
ground, form fitting portals to the great silurian plain of the St.
Lawrence. Behind rises the precipitous front of Cape Ray, its dark
slates relieved by the patches of perennial snow in the deep ravines.
Between the highland and the most northerly of the Sugar loaves
are traces of a great fault, which Professor Murray of the Geologi-
cal Survey claims to have traced across the island.

As we pass to the Cape we see the dark line of the plateau
trending away inland to the eastward, till its searpement grows dim
and is lost to the eye beyond the head of Bay St. George.

The next highland that we notice is Cape Auguille, an enormous
ridge of intrusive rock running obliquely toward the plateau, but
sinking beneath the carboniferous strata before reaching the Codroy
River. Between these two Capes is the carboniferous district of the
Codroy Valley, triangular in shape, its base resting on the sea, and
its apex pointing to the east. ‘The measures on the shore dip
inland, and consist of red sandstones and shales with at least two
large deposits of gypsum. Were the dip of the measures undis-
turbed we would expect to find the productive coal strata at no
great distance from the shore, but the gradual approach of the
boundary rocks continually brings up lower beds. This accounts
for the large development of Lower Carboniferous measures exposed
in following the Codroy River to the eastward.

Two small seams of coal with beds of black shale are said to
crop near its source, but no systematic exploration has yet been
made. From the facts observed on the Barasois Rivers, it is possi-
ble however, that they may indicate the commencement of an area
of productive measures.

On rounding Cape Auguille we are at the mouth of St. George’s
Bay, a magnificent sheet of water 60 miles long, and 40 wide at
its entrance. We again meet the carboniferous strata affording a
beautiful section at their point of junction with the older rocks of
the Cape. The dark slates pitching steeply to the north, are

GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE'S BAY. 309

overlaid by the unconformable carboniferous, whose dip is to the
north-east, but at an easy angle. In the cliff close to the point of
contact are seen signs of an upheaval of unknown extent; a little
further to the north is another of about fifty feet, followed by three
more with from twenty to forty feet of dislocation. The strata are
red and brown sandstones with beds of black shale; the force of
the upthrow has carried the latter through the lighter coloured
stones, so that the lines of fault are marked on the cliff in narrow
gores of black pulverized shale.

From this point to the head of the Bay are frequent exposures
of the Lower Carboniferous, in many places disturbed, but with a
general dip to the south-east. As the strike of the beds approaches
to a parallelism with the shore, measures are made slowly, so much
so that opposite St. George’s Town, a distance of fifty miles, we
still find beds of conglomerate, whose warm color recalls their
counterparts when of triassic age. A clear idea of the measures of
the district can be obtained by ascending the Barasois River, which
pursues a general south-east course towards the interior. At its
mouth is a large cliff of red sandstone, succeeded by their limestones
and conglomerates ; about three miles from salt-water the river has
cut its way through an immense bed of gypsum and red marl.
Although identification is rendered impossible owing to distance
and intervening dislocations, it is probable these deposits are on the
same horizon as those of the Codroy Valley. The gypsum crops
again five miles to the westward and is exposed on Fissels River
ten miles east of this point. A line drawn from the gypsum of
Kippens Brook, north side of the Bay, to the mouth of the Codroy
River follows closely the line of crop of these beds and furnishes an
important key to the whole district. Still ascending the River we
pass beds of Conglomerate, some of which appear to be repeated by
faults. In certain of the beds are found large fragments of magnetic
iron ore, plainly derivable from the great deposit of black oxide in
the older rocks. Gradually they pass into finer grits with beds of
sandstone and bluish fireclay. About eight miles from the shore is
the crop of a small coal seam in the vertical measures of a fault.
The next four miles is through a series of anticlinals with signs of
many dislocations, pursuing a general north-east and south-west

360 GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE'S BAY.

course, and occasional crops of very small coal seams from two to
ten inches thick, with underclays bearing stigmaria. The first
regular coal seam is now met, its thickness is two feet nine inches,
with a band of ironstone balls in the roof, as it is between sand-
stones there is not much probability of any increase in thickness.
The measures are lying at a very heavy angle, with a strike
approaching north and south. Higher up the measures become
flatter with another seam three feet thick, then follow coarse gritty
sandstones for about two miles.

Beyond this point the current of the river slackens, the banks
become low and afford no exposures. ‘Thickets of alder and long
grass shelter the wild geese which at the time of my visit were
breeding in great numbers. We are now at the foot of the plateau
and find the river leaping in a cascade from the side of the Silurian
mountains. }

Climbing the nearest hill we endeavour to trace the course of
the river and imagine its source far up in the Table Land. As we
gaze into the unknown interior, range after range of hills rise up
before us; their flanks, covered with spruce underwood, and bare
storm swept summits looking down upon the little lakes, each set
in a soft green swamp, over which the Carriboo can scarce pick his
way. The dark bitter waters unmoved by any wind, reflect only
the wild fowl and clear cut hill tops. Such is the source of nearly
all the Newfoundland rivers. In spring they pour from the snow
fed swamps an impassable torrent, and dwindle away in summer to
‘a mere thread.

Retracing our steps to the sea coast we find a similar section
exposed on Fissel’s River, ten miles to the eastward. Between
this point and St. George town are large hills of drift, sometimes
over one hundred feet high, and pointing towards the gap in the
hills through which the Main River flows. South of the town
about six miles from the shore, is a spur of the older rocks containing
an immense deposit of Magnetite, identical in appearance with the
fragments mentioned as found in the conglomerate. The specimen
of Magnetite in the Museum, given by Mr. Bishop, is from this
locality.

GILPIN——CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE’S BAY. 3861

The prevailing indraft of westerly wind, and the contour of the
Bay causing a tide to flow in on one side and out on the other,
have deposited huge sand banks at the mouth of the Main River.
In many places these banks show beds of black sand, varying from
one to thirty inches; doubtless research would expose thicker beds
in localities not now subjected to the action of water.

The origin of these iron sand ores is to be found in the crystal-
line rocks, from the disintegration of which they have been derived.
The action of the waves, by virtue of the greater specific gravity of
these sands, effects a process of concentration, so that considerable
layers of black sand are often found on shores exposed to wind and
tide. The composition of these black sands vary according to
locality, but as found on the St. Lawrence consists of magnetic
oxide of iron, with a large mixture of titanic iron ore, and more or
less of garnet. The purest specimens hold about forty-five per
cent. of black oxide.

Indian Head is a mass of trap forming the south side of the
coal field of that name. A visit to the measures exposed on the
Indian Brook was impracticable, but on the authority of Prof. A.
Murray, Chief of the Geological Survey, undoubted coal measures
are found there. A small seam is known to crop near the shore,
but the coal is of very inferior quality, hard and full of stone.

Five miles to the westward at the mouth of Kippens Brook, is
one of the most magnificent exposures of gypsum in the world.
The brook flowing obliquely across the crop of the bed, has bared a
great cliff, four hundred yards long and one hundred feet high, of
soft white gypsum of the finest quality. Parts of the cliff contain
alabaster of unusual clearness. The specimens sent from this
locality to Boston and Philadelphia were much admired. ;

Following the brook upwards, the measures which at the gyp-
sum pitch to the east, gradually bend round to the south, and we
find ourselves in the bed of a synclinal which has been frequently
shifted to and fro by upheavals. The measures consisting of sand-
stones and shales with beds of grit, rise towards the hills on each
side. After a few miles the measures become level and are con-
nected with those of Indian Brook. There is a large tract of level
land extending for several miles beyond this point, as yet unexplor-

362 GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE'S BAY.

ed. Here search should be made for coal, as the measures already
passed are evidently those of the horizon underlying the productive
strata.

The next object of interest is the peninsula of Port a Port,
forming the north side of the bay.

From Cape St. George to the Gravels the south shore presents
an almost unbroken wall of limestone, dipping to the north at an
easy angle in a series of lateral undulations, varying in length from
a quarter to two-thirds of a mile. The profile of the shore on the
south side is a perfect contrast to that of Hast and West Bays.
Long continued action of waves on rocks dipping inland does not
make a shelving beach, as the undermined cliff falls into the sea,
and the outline of the shore becomes straight.

Crossing to East Bay we find the limestones still dipping to the
north, and the action of the sea against their pitch has made long |
beaches cut into numberless small coves. Part of the limestone
has been worn away more slowly, and gives the shore a very
strange appearance. At first one would imagine the massive ruins
of some colossal building had been piled along the beach. At
one point we see a number of detached pillars standing at intervals
of almost mathematical regularity ; sometimes capped with a round
ball of the same material, or squared as if they were the lower part
of some huge portal. Then come great rounded blocks piled one
above the other, forming a perforated mass through which a car-
riage could be driven. ‘The solid background of the cliff has been
cut into circular semi-detached columns, marking a future row of
these sculpturers of the sea. Such is the appearance of the shore
for miles, every change of position bringing out fresh and stranger
forms.

In one place there are two large caves hollowed out just above
the level of low water. We explored the larger of the two. After
following a narrow low gallery of over two hundred feet, we found
ourselves in a spacious vault, worn perfectly smooth by the water,
and glistening in the light of our torches. Another gallery led
further into the cliff but could not be followed more than a few
yards, as the roof grew too low to allow our passage. The other

GILPIN—CARBONIFEROUS DISTRICT OF ST. GEORGE'S BAY. 363

cave is about thirty yards long, very low in places, and terminating
in a similar vault.

Close to the cave a large deposit of barytes is exposed on the
beach. The vein is several feet wide, running north and south;
its quality is excellent, being compact and free from impurity.
The whole of this district is crossed by small veins of crystallised
cale spar, sometimes containing galena; they are of workable size
only at one place, in Kast Bay, where a mine has been opened and
vigorous operations pushed forward. ‘The vein is exposed in a
land locked cove, worn out by the action of the sea on the soft bed
rock. The foot wall of the richest portion of the vein, yielding
about fifteen per cent of lead, has been defined. The total width
of the plumbiferous rock is over twenty feet. The ore is the com-
mon sulphuret of lead, with copper pyrites, calc and fluorspar.
I was informed that the per centage of silver present was incon-
siderable. ‘The limestones on the east side of the cove contain a
beautiful shell bed, affording the characteristic Lower Carboniferous
fossils, and near this is an argillaceous sandstone filled with indis-
tinct fragments of broken plants.

On the point of land separating East and West Bays are found
abundant indications of petroleum; it oozes from crevices in the
rock, and can be secured in considerable quantities. No attempt
has yet been made to trace it to its source.

In this connection, a notice of the position of the Pennsylvania
Petroleum may be interesting. Beneath the conglomerate are a
series of thin bedded sandstones and shales, the latter often an olive
green color. These may be readily recognized as belonging to the
Chemung and Portage groups of the New York Geologists, and
known in Ohio as the Waverley series. Under this is a bed of
bituminous shale from two hundred to three hundred feet thick,
called in New York the Hamilton shale, and known in Ohio as the
black slate. Much oil is found in this bed. Dr. J. S. Newberry
considers that the indications of oil in higher measures are derived
from this reservoir by percolation through the more porous strata.

T have glanced over the more prominent geological features «f
the Bay, they are of unusual interest both to the geologist and
miner. Almost the whole series of the carboniferous measures are

364 LAWSON

ON CANADIAN SPECIES OF RUBI.

exposed, and can be studied under every condition of disturbance.
The lowest of the measures passed over are those of Long Point,
then cume the East Bay limestones. The exposures from Cape
Auguille to the Barasois Rivers fill the interval between the Gravels
and Kippens Brook. The gypsums of Codroy, Barasois and
Kippens form an important horizon. Above this come the sections
of the rivers and Mr. Murray’s coal fields of Indian Brook, which
may be represented by the imperfect exposures of coal measures
fourteen miles from the mouth of the Barasois River.

Although the deposits of coal have not yet equalled the expect-
ations of investigators, the presence of iron and lead in unusually
large deposits, together with the indications of other minerals, marks
this Bay as the future scene of extensive mining operations. The
summer is clear of fog, and the winter ice lasts only from January
to April, so that St. George’s Bay has a material advantage over
many places lying further to the south.

Arr. IV.—On CaNnapIAN SPECIES OF RUBI AND THEIR GEO-
GRAPHICAL DistrinuTion. By Grorce Lawson, PH.
D., LL. D., Dalhousie College.

(Read January 12, 1874.)

(ABSTRACT.)

Rusus was described as a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Rosacew, an order which embraces about a thousand
species and a countless number of varieties of artificial origin. An
unusually large number of these plants are natives of temperate
countries in the northern hemisphere. Rosacew has furnished our
gardens with numerous ornamental plants, such as the hawthorns,
pyrus, roses, sweet briars, almonds, spireas, potentillas, amelan-
chier, geums, &c., whilst our orchards are indebted to the order
for the varieties of apple and pear, cherry, plum, peach, quince,
and many others. To the botanist some groups of the Mosacee
have a specially vexing interest, on account of their proneness

LAWSON—ON CANADIAN SPECIES OF RUBI. 36)

to vary in the wild state, and the consequent difficulty of deter-
mining what are really distinct permanent species as distinguished
from varieties. This is particularly the case with regard to the
European Jtubi fruticosi, many of the long recognized species
of which are so closely related that some of our best botanists now
rank upwards of twenty forms, too well marked and too constant
to be mere varieties, as so many ‘‘ sub-species,” under the specific
type of Rubus fruticosus. The European Raspberry, R. Idzus,
stands out from them all, a solitary, isolated species, that has
no intimate relation to any of them, and no tendency to vary
in their direction. In fact the relatives and derivatives of this
species are to be sought for out of Europe. It is known to be
spread over the whole north of Europe and Asia, even so far as to
Mandschuria and Japan, but to be absent from the American
Continent. Here we have its representative so called species, R.
strigosus, our common raspberry, while this and other Canadian
species have their representatives in Eastern Asia. As the result
of a most elaborate investigation, Mr. F. W. C. Areschoug has
arrived at the conclusion that the European raspberry, as well as
the North American forms most closely related to it, grew primitively
in Japan and adjacent countries. (Botaniska Notiser, 1872,
and Journal of Botany, 1873.)

The remarkable similarity between the flora of Eastern North
America and that of Eastern North Asia, has been prominently
brought under notice by Professor Asa Gray long before its true sig-
nificence, or the questions which it suggested were fully appreciated
by botanists. His views are that our present vegetation in Eastern
America, or its proximate ancestry, occupied the arctic or sub-arctic
regions in Pliocene times; that plants of the same stocks and
kindred, forming a nearly uniform flora round the arctic zone, (as
uniform perhaps as our present arctic flora) , made their forced migra-
tion southward upon widely different longitudes, and receded more
or less as the climate grew warmer, and different associations of
plants thus established themselves in regions suited to them, but
not in any other. In the light of Professor Gray’s theory, and the
special results obtained by Mr. Areschoug, Professor Lawson
described in detail the various species of Rubus inhabiting the

QB

366 | LAWSON—-ON CANADIAN SPECIES OF RUBI.

Dominion, tracing their range on both sides of the Continent, and
also in Asia and Europe, and pointing out the structural modifi-
cations which they presented. He regarded R. occidentalis, R.
intermedius, R. Ideus, with Leesii and its other European forms,
and R. strigosus, as well ag all their sub-species or subordinate forms,
as forms of one specific type, distinct form, and not necessarily related
in origin, but only in some points of structure, to the other mem-
bers of Areschoug’s North American type.

Details were given to show that R. villosus was probably a
Southern species, whilst Canadensis was more Northern. — Rk. tri-
florus is more intimately related to the European saxatilis than is
generally believed by botanists. R flaccidus appears, from its
observed constancy in Nova Scotia, to be entitled to rank as a
sub-species of R. hispidus, which seems to have been originally a
mountain species, rather than an arctic one.

R. Chamemorus, although an Arctic plant, and, in Europe,
confined to the mouutains of the North, abounds at the sea level
in Nova Scotia, producing the berries sold in the Markets under
the name of ‘* Bake Apple.” It was stated that the present range
of many so called Arctic plants in Europe could not be regarded as
coincident with their primeval range. A long period of civilization
had driven out many swamp plants, which now only exist in the
sheltered recesses of the Northern Mountains, just as, year by year,
on the American Continent, the same or similar species are slowly
meeting with the same fate ;—these are the outpost remnants that
speak of a wider and more Southern distribution in former times.

The effects of forest fires, of animal agencies, of railways, of
lumbering, mining and agricultural operations, in extending the
distribution of some of Rubi, and circumscribing that of others,
were also referred to.

Specimens of the Canadian species were shown and described,
also specimens from various parts of Europe and Asia for com-
parison, showing the gradations from the thickly felted species of
tropical India to the delicate membranous leaves of those growing
in the Arctic regions and on the Scandinavian Mountains.

et ila Ras

rw

ROSS—ON THE FIBRIN OF THE BLOOD. 367

Art. V.—Tue FIsRiIn OF THE BLOOD—ITS CONSTITUTION AND
FUNCTIONS AS EXPLAINED BY Dr. CHARLES GIRARD
oF Paris. By A. Ross, Esq.,

(Read March 9, 1874.)

AccorpinG to our text books of Anatomy and Physiology, the
fibrin of the blood is a ‘‘ proximate principle,” structureless and
held in solution by the s2rum ; its uses and real nature not definitely
known.

I desire to call attention to its true structure and functions as
explained by Dr. Charles Girard of Paris.*

When blood is drawn and allowed to cool rapidly, it forms a
elot, the fibrin separating from the serum, and forming a semi-
fluid, haying no definite structure, but seeming somewhat thready
(hence its name), and enclosing the red and the white corpuscles.
Dr. Girard suspecting the true nature of fibrin, made an experi-
ment for the purpose of determining it with very remarkable and
valuable results. I give a free translation of his own words.

‘© T took a full grown deer, in perfect health, and opened a vein
and artery so as to effect a gradual extinction of life from loss of
blood. The heart in these circumstances lives longer than the
other organs; its movements, in losing their intensity, permit a
small quantity of blood to remain in its cavities under the gradually
decreasing influence of life. The result is that the fibrin there
continues distended with serum, and when placed under the micro-
scope, without having lost its warmth, the cellular nature of the
fibrin becomes as distinct as that of the vitellus. The cells are
seen to be little transparent globules, having opaque points or
nuclei in their centres.”

I now proceed to give a resumé of his views of the origin and
morphological relationships of fibrin.

Every organic tissue is composed of cells variously modified.

The lowest form of mature organic life, and the earliest form of
each individual organism is equally a single cell, and the further

* «Ta Vie au point du vue phisique,” and ‘ Principes de Biologie appliques
ala Medicine.”

368 | ROSS—ON THE FIBRIN OF THE BLOOD.

development of any organism consists in the multiplication and
addition of cells and their modification into the several tissues,
while nutrition consists simply in the replacing the worn out cells
by new ones, and the assimulation of these with the tissue into
which they have been incorporated. Cells are of two kinds—
primordial and derived—the primordial being the result of the
union of oil albumen combining according to their reciprocal affini-
ties, and the derived resulting from the development of the nucleus
which appear soon after their formation.

The experiments* of Ascherson shew that the simple contact of
oil and albumen at the ordinary temperature of the blood of animals,
immediately results in the formation of cells, of which the albumen
forms the envelope, and the oil the contents. Cells so formed,
artificially, resemble so closely, as to seem identical with, the pri-
mordial cells produced within the animal, but pass through none
of those phases of development which characterize the latter.

Researches on the formation of the ege in the various classes
of the animal kingdom, have shewn that there is a time in its
history when it cannot be distinguished from the ordinary cells
constituting the organic tissues. It however undergoes a special
development. Nuclei appear in its interior, and are developed into
true cells which similarly develop within them new cells: When
the third generation of cells has appeared, the first cell envelope
disappears, setting free its contents. And this process goes on
until the mass of cells which constitutes the vitellus or yolk of the
ego is produced. It is well known that the white of the egg with
which we are familiar in the eggs of fowl is merely a supply of
albumen provided for the nourishment of the chick, and like the
calcareous covering which in such eggs constitutes the final en-
velope, is not a necessary adjunct to an egg. In the white of the
ego, when it exists, ‘‘ floating cells” are found, which have become
detached from the vitellus, and consequently undergo an abnormal
development. Similar ‘floating cells” are found in the vitellus
during the progress of segmentation.

* Archives of Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicines, edited by J. Muler,
Berlin, 1840, p. 44.

ROSS—ON THE FIBRIN OF THE BLOOD. 369

The pulp resulting from the digestion of food is chyme. That
portion of the chyme which is taken up by the lacteals is called
chyle—a fatty liquid. It meets the lymph—an albumenous liquid
collected from all parts of the body by the lymphatic system
before they are together carried into the venous system; and it is
at this first contact of the two liquids that the primordial cells are
formed ; but such cells may also be found in the chyle alone, inas-
much as it also contains albumenoid substances.

Passing through the lungs the cells assume the red color which
is characteristic of arterial blood, and their nuclei are rapidly
developed into new cells, which in turn give birth to other cells,
which becoming freed constitute the fibrin of the blood, or protein
cells, the common basis of all organic structures. Such of these
cells as are not incorporated into the tissues within a certain period,
undergo an abnormal development and then constitute the white
corpuscles of the blood, which are morphologically identical with
the various epithelial cells, as also with the ‘‘ floating cells” of the
egg and embryo. ‘The cells composing the vitellus are true protein
cells like those constituting the fibrin of the blood, and similarly
derived from a primordial or parent cell.

In polyps, and the inferior orders of radiates, mollusks and
crustaceans, the nourishing fluid circulates in the form of chyme;
in the higher orders of these sub-kingdoms in the form of chyle;
and it is only in the vertebrates that blood properly so called is
found. Blood consists of a liquor composed of albumen and water,
containing various salts in solution, and in this liquid, floating as free
cells, the protein or fibrin cells so minute as to require to be mag-
nified 900 diameters, in order to be distinctly visible; the red cells
or corpuscles, much larger in size and so numerous as to give color
to the mass, and the white corpuscles less in size than the red, and
comparatively very few in number. When the blood gives up its
protein cells to the tissues, the albumen and water remain, and this
last with its salts being eliminated by the perspiratory and other
glands, the albumen is taken up by the lymphatic glands and
earried back in the form of lymph to the general circulation for
further service.

a

370 - ALLISON—ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY.

ArT. V.—CaANADIAN WEATHER 'TELEGRAPHY AND STORM
StenaLs. By Frep. Atuison, M. A., Chief Meteoro-
logical Agent, N. S.

(ead March 9, 1874.)

I—_WEHATHER TELEGRAPHY.

THE system of the Washington Signal Department, with which
that of Canada is in co-operation, consists in collecting by telegraph,
three times daily, reports of the state of weather observed at the
same absolute temes at numerous stations, (at present about 70,)
and in forming thereon opinions of coming weather, which are sent
by telegraph to the points concerned.

The wider the area of observation, the more correct are predic-
tions likely to prove; and hence it is obviously to the advantage of
the two countries, that the observations made in one should be
placed at the disposal of the other. |

Prior to July, 1872, as no pecuniary provision had been made
for Weather Telegraphy in Canada, our operations were confined
to sending to Washington regular tri-daily telegrams from Toronto
and Montreal, and also, during six weeks, from four other stations.

Since Ist July, 1872, by aid of an additional grant of $5,000,
regular tri-daily telegrams have been received at Toronto from six
Canadian Stations, and have then been transmitted to Washington,
there to be combined with the telegrams from the U. S. Stations,
and thus contribute to the efficiency of the system in which we, as
well as our neighbours, have so deep an interest.

As $5,000 is less than a quarter of the sum which I considered
necessary for working the system in the present year, and wholly
inadequate to procurring from the United States the regular
tri-daily telegrams necessary for making forecasts at Toronto, the
only direct service which I could render to our own ports has been
to supply them occasionally with warnings based on special tele-
grams from Washington.

That these wanrings, have, on some occasions, reached their
destination too late, is due entirely to defects in the transmission.
A remedy for these defects will doubtless be found ; and as all that

ALLISON—-ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY. 371

I hoped to effect with $5,000 was to lay the foundation and not
to complete a system of storm warnings; the delays, though much
to be regretted, form no reasonable cause for complaint.

As delays to some extent take place also in transmission from
Washington to Toronto, the maximum degree of efficiency in
Canadian telegraphy will not be attained till we are in a position to -
collect at Toronto all or nearly all the regular tri-daily telegrams
from the United States, so as to make our own forcasts; but as in
a work of such magnitude gradual development is safer than sudden
expansion, I propose, during the year 1873-4, to rely chiefly on
the Washington forecasts, and to apply our funds to the improve- -
ment of those forecasts by increasing the number of the reporting ~
stations in Canada, to the erection of signal apparatus at various -
points along our coasts, and to perfecting our arrangements for the
prompt delivery of warnings.

IT.—STORM SIGNALS.

On receipt of a telegram from Toronto to the effect that a storm, :
is apparently approaching the neighbourhood of Halifax, a storm :
drum will be hoisted at the yard arm of the storm signal mast-
erected on the Citadel by the Dominion Government. Storm |
notices will also be posted in the Dominion Building and in the. :
Merchants’ Exchange Reading Room.

A lantern showing a white light will be placed within the drum .
when it is hoisted at night.

The ‘‘ storm” signalled must, for the present, be understood in .
a general sense, neither force nor direction being specified.

If there be good reasons to expect a heavy gale it will be thus
stated in the notices ; but the absence of such a statement will not
show that a severe gale will noé occur.

The drum and notices will usually remain up about twirty-six .
hours, unless ordered down by telegraph, and will remain up longer —
if a telegram to that effect is received from Toronto.

If through faulty transmission the telegram does not arrive -
before the commencement of the storm, the drum will nevertheless .
be hoisted upon the receipt of the warning, in order to show that -

3

B12 ALLISON—-ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY.

the disturbance is not merely local. The display of the signal drum
does not convey a distinct prediction, but simply indicates the
existence of a storm elsewhere, and that the probability of its
reaching the neighbourhood of Halifax is sufficient to call for
vigilance. It must be understood that the utility of the drum for
warning ships about to leave port is not impaired if the storm
should be diverted from the immediate vicinity of Halifax.

Taking the above extracts from report and notice, by G. F.
Kingston, Meteorological Superintendent, Toronto, as my texts, I
propose to read a few notes on the present telegraphic branch of the
meteorological system. For better understanding the present, it is
advisable to look back briefly at the past. After the branch of
climatological statistics, (on which I have here and elsewhere
endeavoured from time to time to give some information) had been
rooted but a short time in Nova Scotia—and still more briefly in
many other portions of the Dominion—some pressure was brought
to bear upon the leaders in this department to publish telegraphic
reports of weather changes and warnings of approaching storms.
This was the hasty action of the mass which always clamours for the
so-called ‘‘ practical results,” never giving time for the truth cun-
tained in a theory to prove itself, and consequently falling into
error from forgetfulness that Nature’s mills though ‘‘ they grind
very slow, they grind exceeding fine.”

In 1872 I proposed to the Chamber of Commerce in this city,
to publish a daily bulletin of the chief characteristics of the weather —
here and at several stations in Canada and the United States; but
there was an opposition in that body, partly from some who wished
Government to undertake the whole expense of the enterprise, and
partly from others who did not understand the objects to be attained,
. or the manner of their attainment. At that time Government was
not prepared to inaugurate solely on its own account, and without
the co-operation of the chief cities, the system which the next year
it found itself enabled to begin. A little was however accomplished
that Autumn in the way of receiving a daily bulletin from seven

ALLISON—ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY. 313

stetions, and I feel grateful to those gentleman who deserve the
thanks of the community for the assistance they rendered towards
taking even that preliminary step.

But last year the greatest strides in telegraphic meteorology
were made by the Department of Marine and Fisheries utilizing a
portion of the Government grant in erecting storm signal staffs and
constructing drums at many points throughout the Dominion.

In addition to the drum warning, a notice of the probable storm
is posted in the Merchants Exchange Reading Room, on receipt of
a cautionary telegram from the central office at Toronto. As yet
it is evident that the public do not recognize the full intent and use
of these notices. ‘But that,’ from experience of other countries, was
to be expected ; and they will gradually learn, while we must work
on in patience, constantly endeavouring to gain knowledge and to
improve the system, so as to make its services more useful.

Regarding Nova Scotia at least, that there are grave defects in
the present method of transmitting warnings must be allowed.
These I am labouring to remove, and have lately communicated my
ideas, as to improvement in that branch, to our Representatives in
Parliament ; that during the approaching Session at Ottawa, they
may urge them upon the Department of Marine and Fisheries,
under the control of which Canadian meteorology has been placed.
I have good hopes of' their success.

The present method of giving storm warnings is this, Washing-
ton warns Toronto from data collected throughout the Continent ;
and Toronto, in turn, forwards the Washington forecasts to Halifax.
Some of the objections to this mode are obvious, especially the
length of time necessary in the first place to collect and arrange
observations—many of which are ultimately useless for forecasting
in our district—and subsequently the roundabout route pursued by
the telegrams to us, subject to the frequent delays and defects
which accompany telegraphing on this Continent; and particu-
larly liable to the detentions caused by the scarcity of night
offices. J have no hesitation in saying that the forecasts could be
better calculated for Halifax and other parts of this Province at this
station, were it put in frequent communication directly with the
proper points; not from any imperfection in arranging data at

314 ALLISON—-ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY.

either Washington or Toronto, but simply because those observers
are not so favourably placed for this district of observations. But
the more obvious hindrances to continued accuracy in this branch,
are not all nor even the most grave of those at present encountered.

To give correct opinions as to ensuing weather, it is an essential
requisite that not only the temporary conditions of any atmospheric
area during the disturbance under consideration be known, but
that the normal temperatures and wind directions, the permanent
hills and hollows of pressure, and even the geographical configura-
tion, may have been the subjects of long study and intimate
acquaintance. In this respect the local observer has an immense
advantage. For myself it is nearly twenty-six years since I first
gave attention to meteorology. This period has been much broken ;
and the observations of my earlier years are frequently inaccurate,
from faults in instruments and position. But I now have eleven
full years of trustworty records for Halifax; and during the latest
eight of these, the observations have been made in many months at
bi-hourly, in some at tri-hourly, or at farthest at four hours inter-
vals; so that, in statistical knowledge, the station may claim to be
well equipped. Also there have been sent in to me from efficient
observers, scattered through Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, P. EH.
Island and Newfoundland—besides a few in the Upper Provinces—
many years of excellent registers. Thus constantly observing
myself, and receiving this copious information, I cannot fail to have
gained a stock of facts which lay open at my feet the regular
conditions and extreme eccentricities of this climate. By no means
disparaging the attainments of others at a distance, the office here
must then have peculiar facilities for warning our own Province,
merely from its position alone. In spite of the present disadyan-
tages above mentioned, the Washington office has been very
successtul in its auticipations, as I now shall show.

Without going any farther back, that I may not overburden
this paper with bare statistics, I merely take the past month of
February ; premising that the proportion of disturbances expected
over this Province, held about the same ratio to the facts in the
preceding four months since the storm staff has been erected as in

ALLISON—ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY. 315

this under discussion ; while I regret to say that the number of late
warning telegrams was also a similar share of the total.

During February then, we had seven storms. By the word
‘<¢ storm” I mean a gale of wind reaching at least a velocity of 20
miles per hour, for any one hour or more, accompanied by rain or
snow, or neither—the latter case being very rare. A velocity of
20 miles per hour equals a pressure of 2 lbs. per square foot; as
the square of the velocity in miles per hour, multiplied by .005,
gives the pressure in lbs. per square foot, V? x .005 = P. With
this pressure it is calculated in the Royal Navy that a ship close
hauled could just carry close reefs and courses.

On the 8rd. ult., light snow began to fall early. A snow storm
began at noon; wind S. E. 15 miles per hour. Gale began 8 p.m.
At 9 p.m. blew 21.5 miles per hour, and at midnight 30.7, having
backed to KE. At 14 a.m. of 4th., wind reached its greatest rate
of 42 miles per hour; decreased gradually till 3 a.m., and at 4
o’clock lulled. Snow fell fast till 1 p. m., with slight flurries in
evening. From noon to 9 p.m. we had a very high wind from
N.W.., not quite a gale, but the reverse of the cyclone. A warning
was sent from Washington but did not reach me till 4th, 11.35
a. m., 24 hours late.

On the 10th another snow storm began 7.5 p.m., but not so
violent in any respect as the last. At midnight a N. E. wind was
blowing 14.3 miles per hour. At. 3 a.m. of 11th, 20 miles were
attained, and at same hour the snow ceased. Generally, after
backing a few points, gales veer, lull, and come out from opposite
quarter. They are cyclonic as the last mentioned. But in this
storm the wind continued moving through N. to N. W., and
finally to W.; blowing strongly from N. W. between noon and 3
p.m. of 11th. Telegram received 11th, 1 p. m., or at least 18
hours late.

At la.m. of 14th, a S. gale was blowing at 20 miles per
hour—at 3a. m., 21.2 per hour—at 6 a. m., 23.7—at 9, 28.6—
at 10;:27:/1—at- TL, 27at noon, 26.7 from S.iS. W-., and: at 3
p. m., had fallen again to 20 miles and quickly subsided. Light
rain fell in showers during the morning, and more heavy and con-

376 ALLISON—ON CANADIAN WEATHER TELEGRAPHY.

tinuous in the afternoon. Notice was received here at 11.35 a.m.,
or 11 hours after storm was upon us.

On 16th, at 11.50 a. m., I was warned to hoist the drum; the
wind then being S. H. at 15.5 per hour. This rate was not
exceeded during this disturbance, but considering the evident
proximity of a much heavier blow, the notice would have been
prudent if sent from 12 to 20 hours sooner. Heavy snow, sleet,
rain, fog, and drizzle were all present here that day.

Between 11 a.m. and 6 p.m. of 20th, we had a short and
sharp blow from S. W., at times rising to a gale; and accompanied
with violent rain. Of this Washington sent no advice.

A caution was received on the 23rd at 1.30 p.m. I doubt the
expediency of sending this telegram at all; but certainly, if sent,
it should have been forwarded much earlier. A light snow fell on
that day from 7.45 a. m. to 8 p. m.; and a wind, from N. E. to
S. E., never exceeded 14 miles per hour. Midnight was calm and
foggy. :

On the 26th snow began to fall gently at 0.30 a.m. From 1
to 10 a. m., it snowed fast. The wind backed from S. at midnight
of 25th, to N. at 2 p. m. of 26th; blowing very unsteadily, and
very rapidly at intervals, but never passed 14 miles in one continu-
ous hour. The warning was not delivered here till 9.10 in the
morning, when the greatest velocity was being attained; but still
it was a fair forecast, and had the telegraph done its duty throughout,
would have been in my hands before midnight of 25th.

Of these seven storms, six were foreseen at Washington; but
only one warning was sent from Toronto to Halifax in time to be
useful here ; and that was marred by telegraphic delay. No caution
was sent in one instance only that of the 20th. I have thought it
unnecessary to dwell here upon the fact that notices, though late,
are of use in demonstrating the wide range of storms beyond the
locality warned ; especially in shewing seamen the path and progress
of these atmospheric disturbances; as that discussion would open
up a field differing from that immediately under consideration.

GILPIN—ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. B14

ART. VII.—ON THE Seats or Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp
STEN, AS B.; MoD, MM. RVe2s:

(Read March 9, 1874.)

FAMILY PHOCID.

Calocephalus vitulinus. F. Cuvier. Gray.
Phoca vitulina. Linn. Gill.
Phoca concolor. Dekay.

Common SEAL. Harpor SEAL.

Pagophilus Groenlandicus. Gray.
Phoca Groenlandica. F. Cuvier.

SADDLE Back. Harp SEAL.

Halicherus grypus. Gray. Nilsson. Gill.
Halicherus gryphus. Bell.
Phoca grypus. O. Fab.

GREY SEAL.

Cystophora cristata. Gray. Nilsson.
Phoca cristata. F. Cuvier. Dekay.

Hoop SEAL.

Of these four species, two may be called residents of Nova
Scotia, the Harbor Seal, and the Grey Seal. The others are only
chance visitors, or are brought down the Straits of Bellisle on the
ice, by the Arctic current to the northern shores of Cape Breton,
in early spring. Another species not uncommon to Newfoundland,
called Square Flipper by the fishermen, may also reach us; I never
have had an opportanity of identifying them, but suppose them to
be the Phoca barbata of Gray’s list, B. Museum.

318 GILPIN

ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
Calocephalus vitulinus.

THE Common oR Harpor SEAL.

A skull of this species from Sable Island lies before me. It
measures eight and one half inches in length. The teeth are, upper
jaw three inscissors one canine and five molars; the first are very
small. On the lower, two incissors one canine and five molars.
The upper teeth are much worn, but on the lower jaw the beautiful
Iobed structure, so well described by Bell and Nilsson, is well
exhibited—the large lobe in the centre, one small one in front, and
two behind. These together with the peculiar structure of the
nasal bones, the outer edge prolonged beyond the inner, the deep
notch in the palatine bone, the palatine foramina in the maxillar
bone and the oblique position in the jaw of the molars themselves,
so exactly resembling the seal of the Muropean seas, leave no doubt
of their identity. Thus the habital of this seal is from New
England to Greenland—to Iceland coming down to the British
and French seas, and extending, according to Pallas, to the Caspian
and Lake Buikal. Though Godman described this seal as P.
vitulinus, and Dekay coming after, called it P. concolor, apparently
with no other reason than the prevailing feeling amongst American
naturalists of non-identity of old and new world species, yet we
owe to Dr. Gill, Smithsonian Institute, in a paper published
about a year ago, to have exactly determined the fact, which he did
by comparison of skulls sent him trom Sable Island. I regret I
have no exact notes of its outward appearance. Many measure six
feet, though five feet is the more ordinary length. The head is
roundish and face whitish, with a dark spot above the eye, from
which, three or four bristles spring, the fore flippers have five well
developed fingers connected with webs, and armed with five claws
of dark horn color. The hind flippers have also five fingers webbed,
with five claws smaller than the fore. In the fore, the middle is
the longest; in the hind, the two outside are the longest. The
wrist is much more developed from the integuments than in other
seals. The eye is very large and flat. There is an external orifice
in the ear but well covered by the fur. The nostrils are linear with
a deep line between them, and the lips are tumid and ornamented

GILPIN—ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 379

by numerous bristles. The color of the live animal wet, as he
habitually is, with the fur plastered down smoothly to his figure, is
a sluty ground, deeper upon back and lighter upon belly, on which
are more or less penciling of black, sometimes spots, sometimes
running into lines, usually a complication of both. When dry,
the fur becomes more erect, and the light slate becomes greyish
fawn. When you examine the dead skin at the fur dealers, you
find a pale sea green pervading the whole skin with the dark pen-
celling on it and the hair erect and dry. A seal coming out of the
water to bask in the sun, is nearly black, but as he dries he gets
lighter and lighter until he is almost fawn. I could tell by his
appearance, almost, how long he had been out of water.

A young whelp apparently a week or ten days old was dark
slate upon the back, lighter on sides and belly, with about a dozen
round black spots on his sides. The face in the adult is lighter and
the flippers darker than the body. ‘This seal is common to every
port of Nova Scotia. JI have seen them in the Annapolis Basin
and ihe Bay of Fundy. They are found at Yarmouth and along
the eastern coast, and a few every winter pass the crowded wharves
of Halifax, and are seen in groups on the ice at Bedford Basin, or
riding to sea on its fragments as the ice is swept seaward by a heavy
north-wester in early spring. But vigilant and shy, it loves lone
-unfrequented shores, and thus Sable Island is its great stronghold.
Here, at least, some thousands perpetually dwell, and some years
ago [ watched their habits with great pleasure. On the north side
of the island you only met with single ones or pairs roaming inside
the bars about five hundred yards from shore, whilst on the south
side, exposed to the whole swell of the Atlantic, we found them in
herds. I supposed their food was plentier on that side. They would
follow me on horse back for miles, the whole herd accompanying
me just outside the breakers, with their heads turned towards. me.
Sometimes their curivsity tempted them inside the breaker, when
they always dove to escape the foamy dash. It was a pretty sight
as the sharp edge of the wave curled up and thinned out before it
broke, to see three or four of them through the transparent water,
as it lifted them above the sea level and showed them struggling to
avoid its creamy dash. But though so much at home on the sea,

380 . GILPIN—ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

they all love to bask upon the warm sands. ‘They were very fond
of the placid waters of the inland lake, and taking advantage of an
opening from the sea forced in by the late heavy weather, hundreds
of them would be sporting on its shallow waters or lying in scores
on its yellow beaches. They looked at a distance like stony reefs,
so motionless was their rest. At dawn of the early May mornings
we found the new born whelps, born of the night, lying on the
shores. ‘They were very dark, very velvety, about two feet long,
with most lustrous eyes deeply steeped in sleep. These little sea
babes snaped and snarled and made every hummochy exertion to
escape seaward, the mother meanwhile swimining in restless circles
a half gun-shot from shore. Being placed in the water for the first
time no doubt, it instinctively flattened itself, dived and reappeared
upon its mother’s back, who soon carried it far from our baneful
presence. We must have broken in upon her nursery laws, as the
whelps generally do not take the sea till twenty days old, and then
very cautiously, trying the shallow pools first. About the middle
of July these whelps had grown to four feet in length, (they mea-
sured to my breast) and weighed about sixty pounds. They were
constantly on shore and seemed to require a great deal of sleep.
They slept constantly upon their backs and very sound, whilst the
old ones slept upon their bellies, their head slightly turned upwards.
As their hind flippers were also turned up, this gave them the ap-
pearance of beached canoes ata distance. In all the representations
of seals I have never seen this attitude depicted. I could always
approach a young one, but the old, ever vigilant, went off in their
hummocky gallop, using certainly their fore flippers, but more the
abdominal muscles, at such a slapping pace that a smart gallop
brought me to the land wash with the whole herd struggling in the
creamy breaker, that now twisting my poney’s legs from under
her, was warning me to pull her out. They usually accompanied
me after this for three or four miles, keeping even with me just
outside the breaker as I rode along the solitary beach. The whelps
at the end of July, being worth from two to three dollars for their
skins and oil, are mercilessly run upon and clubbed. We shot
many from the shore and our boats. A seal rising his head above
water keeps his eye intently on you, presently he turns to dive,

GILPIN

ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 381

throwing the round arched up back of his neck towards you. This
is your mark, if you put your charge of seal shot well in here, a
large circle of blood and oil instantaneously spreads itself on the
water. In the centre, bobs up and down the tip of its nose, shot
dead but slowly settling to the bottom. A young seal of this
species, taken in Halifax Harbor in May, and probably three or
four days old, was about two feet long and dark blue on back,
slaty blue sides and belly with a dozen or more black spots beneath.
It easily turned itself round by its fore flippers, but used its
stomach muscles in going ahead, the hind flippers were trailed
behind as if useless. The nose was blunt with a deep sulcus
between linear nostrils, cheeks tumed and ornamented by bristles.

Pagophilas Groenlandicus.

THe Harp.

I insert this seal on the Nova Scotia list not upon my own
personal knowledge, but very common in Newfoundland and Labra-
dor. ‘The arctic current dividing north of the Straits of Bellisle,
sweeps down the ice by the western shore of Newfoundland, and
thus packs the northern shores of Cape Breton. In the Spring of
1874, this ice was filled with seals, seen and taken readily from the
shore, which I presume to have been both Harps and Hoods. The
Harps of Newfoundland are identical with those of Greenland, the
North Sea and Shetland Isles. The whelps are often brought to
Halifax by the sealers, but usually all die. In studying one
belonging to Mr. Downs, I observed that he constantly swam when
under water upon his back, coming thus to the surface and turning
over to dive again.

Halicherus grypus.

GREY SEAL.

When on Sable Island I noticed a large seal that frequented the
bars in herds of twenty or thirty. They kept by themselves, were
very vigilant, came in December, whelped in February or March,
and stayed about the Island till August. ‘There were none killed,

O82 GILPIN—ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

and the only observations I could make were that the large ones or —
males had fine bristly tumed cheeks; the young were white, not
yellow, and that they were generally double the weight of the —
common seal. The old males winded me before I came in sight
over the sand dunes, and a rapid gallop brought us altogether m
the foaming land wash. Deep trails were worn in the sand, from
the wide sand-baths they were luxuriating in, down to the wet tide
wash. The men told me the whelps changed their coats a few days
after birth, and before they took the water. In a paper published
about two years ago by Dr. Gill, Smithsonian Institute, he identi-
fies this seal with the great grey seal of the Scottish and Inish
coasts, so well described by Bell and Nilsson, who first separated it
from the common seal. His observations were made upon the —
skulls and skins sent him by Edward Dodd, Esq., late Superinten-
dant of the Island.

Cystophora cristata.
Hoop SEAL.

In May, 1874, an old female hood seal was taken on a bultow
line in one hundred fathoms water, Sambro banks, about twenty
miles from the Nova Scotia shore. It was brought into Halifax
harbor where I saw it. It measured,

Nose to end of tail...... bea) eld C8 oh nie SiR omime lies
To.end, of flippers...i..:.6 i’ » » sitiieile yee een A mme mes
Tip Of MOsewto) CY skre-)s.c1 eis eee 6 inches.

Tip of nose to fore flipper......- ».+2.. -2 deeb o Inches.
Leneth of fore flippers... 2-3. . 2 +s erase Omens
Length of*hand “flipper. 00. Wire eee tbe memes

ibeneth tof tail. acs oe. we slecs sono MemeSs
Diameter of eye... sis42si. 4 345 by eee .2 inches. 4
Mustasche bristle........ o actathe este elon . .2% inches.

In general appearance this seal was very round but tapering —
off suddenly to the tail. The head seemed small, neck long, but —

:
en
all swelling lines marking head from neck, as seen in most draw- 2
;

ings, were obliterated in fat. There was no mark of a hood upon —
the forehead, except a protuberence of the nasal cartilage, causing —
a slight prominence of the profile. The eye was large and flat, —

be

GILPIN—-ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 383

with a nyctitating membrane from the inner corner. I could
easily pull the uper lid over the eye, though Dekay says of his
specimen it had none. Close behind the eye, was an orifice for the
ear well covered with hair which ran down its interior. <A finger
might easily have been put into it, but less than an inch from
the surface it would be stopped by a membranous valve like
tragus. The muzzle blunt and hairy, slightly tumed, was orna-
mented by rows of thick brownish bristles. Three bristles of the
same kind were above the eye. ‘These bristles were wavy, from
slight prominences or thickning alternately on either side. The
nostrils were perpendicular, parallel or scarcely converging below.
The fore flipper was two feet three inches from end of nose, very
small, (ten inches long) scarcely showing the carpus from beyond
the integuments, and divided into five distant toes with webs
between. ‘The toes were all armed with sharp nails or claws, the
longest, one inch and a quarter long, pearly white and very sharp,
and just reaching beyond the fur. The first toe is the longest, and
they gradually shorten to the fifth. The fur is longer upon the
flippers than on the body, yet it looks very small comparing it with
the rise of the body. The hind flipper is fourteen inches long,
containing five toes connected by webs, each toe has a small pearly
white rudimentary nail and the two outside toes the longest, the
middle shortest, and the webs when stretched out a darker color
than the fingers. The tail was about eight inches long and dropped
between the hind flippers. There were four abdominal mamme hid
in the fur and about flve inches apart in two rows. As regards
color, when wet the head fore and hind flippers are black. The
back and sides have irregular black patches running into each other on
a greyish blue ground. The neck has a checquered look from the
spots being smaller and the belly a lighter hue, from there being
fewer of them. When dry this greyish ash becomes pale fawn,
that is in life, the seal basking in the sun. The dead skin seen at
the fur dealers has a greenish hue added. In life the whole surface
has a smooth plastered look which in the dead skin becomes rough
and uneven. Nearly all the colored drawings of seals represent
them in life but colored after the stuffed specimen or dead skin at
the dealers, and hence has arisen the confusion of color and the

384 GILPIN—ON THE SEALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

apparent diversity in the accounts of Naturalists. The skull
measured nine and one half inches in length, and six and a quarter
in width. The bones very massive and muscular ridges large.
‘The palatine foramena came out at the junction of the maxilla and
palate bones, and a shallow canal passed forward from them.
Edge of palate transverse with no notch. The intermaxilla bones
were very large and the nasal cartilage greatly developed at the
muzzle. ‘The teeth were, upper jaw two inscissors, one canine and
five molars; the lower jaw the same except only: one inscissor.
The crowns of the molars were much worn, but the cutting edge
maintained a lobular form, and the outside of the enamel had the
fine ocinilation described by previous authors.. The molars were
widely separated from each other, as were indeed all the teeth,
though in a less degree. This skull compared exactly with the
ficure in Gray’s ‘‘ Catalogue, Seals B. Museum.”

This seal is only a rare visitor to our shores. As I have before
said the common or harbor seal and the great grey seal are our only
residents. But as the Walrus, now a much more arctic species was
once common here, there can be little doubt that all the North-
eastern American species once dwelt on our.shores. The early
French writers as well as the English traders to New England, can
scarce find words to express the. teeming life of seals, dolphins,
porpoise and whales which fed upon the migratory fish that literally
thickened the seas around. ‘They have all passed away. The fish
have nearly followed them, leaving as problems how an arctic
climate and loss of, genial heat, may have modified their former
somewhat equatorial habits and forms, as some moderns asert the
whales which once sported in our sun-warmed shallow waters,
dare not now pass the warm Gulph Stream. I have followed the
classification of Gray B. Museum, giving the synonymes of Ameri-
can authors.

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEULOGY. 385

Art. VIII.—Nova Scotian GroLocy, BY Rev. D. Honrymay,
DC Lin, Wy Gre Dn, ome

(Read April 13th, 1874.)

COBEQUID MOUNTAINS, &c.

About three miles west from the Wentworth Station, of the
Intercolonial Railway, (vide, preceding paper by the author) we
find ourselves on the north side of the Cobequid Mountains, and
onthe road from Greenville to the Londonderry Iron Mines. Here
we find the lower carboniferous conglomerate and the red syenite.
Any intervention of the bands of rocks which occur on the Inter-
colonial Railway, between Smith’s Brook and the carboniferous of
Caldwell’s Brook, as I previously noticed there, have been denuded
and overlaped.

Near Purdy’s Inn, West Chester, on the road from Amherst to
the Londonderry Mines, we find the lower carboniferous conglo-
merate and the red syenite occurring in a similar manner. This
position is six miles distant from the preceeding. The outcrops
along both roads, southward to their mceting point, are of granitoid
rocks: syenites and diorites. Between this point and the county
line there are outcrops of granites. The granites are evidently
massive, they are fine grained and of dark colour. South of the
county line we have outcrops of the next band; these exposures
exhibit much greater variety than was seen on the Intercolonial
Railway. In one exposure the strata are beautifully banded. The
dark green homogeneous diorites having interbedded red and green
gneissoid strata; other exposures show massive homogeneous
diorites; others show gneissio and quartzite strata, and the last
exposures, a little below the bridge on the east side of the road, shows
dark green diorite, which may readily be mistaken for uncrystalline
rock, the hammer however shows that it is characteristically hard
and crystalline. These are succeeded by uncrystalline rocks, as on
the Intercolonial Railway. By exposures we find that the band in
this direction is about half a mile wide. About the middle of it
there is a great deposit of ankerite. At the time of my last visit,
in 1866, this was not worked. It is now used as a flux instead of

380 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

the limestone formerly used. Besides being a flux it adds 25 per
cent. of iron, the iron thus produced is adapted for chilling.

The extension of these strata, east and west, contains the depo-
sits of limonite. The largest deposits lie to the west of the ankerite..
In the same band there occurs a red hematite, which is used with
the limonite and ankerite. These deposits all appear to be in the
upper part of the band, and are probably of Upper Silurian age.
The greatest width of the band is in the region of the red hematite,
There it seems to be about a mile in width. Succeeding this band
is the carboniferous of the Intercolonial Railway. The slates of
the ankerite are overlaid by lower carboniferous conglomerate,
those of the red hematite by lower carboniferous limestone. ‘This
difference of rock seems to account for the difference in width of the
Silurian band in the localities, as conglomerate forming con-
ditions are destructive, and limestone forming conditions conserva-
tive; the one being formed from the tear and wear of rocks on the
shore, the other being formed in the depths by marine lime-forming
invertebrates. This conglomerate and limestone may therefore be
regarded as cotemporaneous. It is not unusual to find lower
carboniferous limestones lying directly on pre-carboniferous rocks.
The Pictou Coal Field furnishes many examples.— Vide Transac-
tures, 1870—1-2 Papers, by the author.

Following the course of Great Village River, from the London-
derry Iron Works, we have a fine section of this carboniferous
band, more distinct even than that of the Intercolonial Railway.
In this, about three miles from the iron works, we have a quarry
which once was the haunt of reptiles of the middle carboniferous
period. Dendrerpeton acadianum, Owen, or his congeners.
From this locality there is a sandstone slab in the Museum, which
has three fine setts of casts of right and left reptilian tracks, one
sett traversing it longitudinally and the others crossing and recross- _
ing nearly at right angles. - We have thus met with reptiles on
either side of the Cobequid Mountains, of the same period, but in
different geological horizens, the one being of the lower and the
other of the middle carboniferous formation. Not far from the quar-
ry we have the commencement of the new red sandstone, permian
and trianic. This is also well exposed on either side of the river as

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEULOGY. 387

far as the Great Village, exhibiting the same characters as on the
Intercolonial Railway. Beyond the Great Village all is obscure.

We would again traverse the Cobequid Mountains from the:
north, beginning at the county line, t&% miles west of the Inter-
colonial Railway, and on the road to Five Islands. We are on the
north side of the central band. The underlying rock, as shown by
the outcrop, is granite. This granite is coarse and porphyritic,
the mica is black, the felspar is reddish white ; it is different from:
any other granite that I have met with in Nova Scotia—in position.-
I have found it frequently in boulders, and specimens have been
brought to the Museum from Cape North, in the Island of Cape
Breton. This granite is succeeded on the north by lower carboni-
ferous conglomerate, in the same manner.;as are the syenites of’
West Chester and Greenville; the Silurians, of Wentworth, being
still absent or overlapped. It is thus probable that forty square
miles, at least, of crystalline and uncrystalline rocks have been:
denuded and obscured on this side of the Cobequid Mountains by
the lower carboniferous seas. This lower carboniferous conglomerate
is the southern base of the Cumberland Coal Field. Crossing the
Mountains towards Five Islands for a long distance no outcrops
are seen; the surface boulders and soil seem to indicate three or
four miles of underlying granite, similar to that of the outcrop
already noticed. Farther on we have frequent outcrops of granitoid:
rocks—syenites and diorites. About two miles from Five Islands
the outcrops are of bedded crystalline rocks—gneisses and quartzites.
The extension of these to the east, on North River, shows syenitic
gneiss with crystalline limestone (marble). This marble is well
known, it has been quarried to some extent with the expectation of
obtaining masses fitted for sculpture, but without success.

The position of this marble and its associations are sufficient to
indicate its relationship to the marbles and serpentines of Arisaig,
N. S., and George’s Mountain, C.B.— Vide Transactions, 1872-3.
Paper by the author. _ The syenitic gneiss, in the vicinity of Bass
River, seems to belong to the same band of rocks. ‘This seems to
overlie the strata which contain the barite veins of Five Islands..
It will require still farther investigation to determine these points.-

The peculiar lithology of the barite containing-rocks, and their great.
5

388 HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

contortion, are difficulties in the way of settling this question,
although these apparent difficulties may not amount to much in the
face of systematic and thorough investigation. The barite has
been somewhat extensively mined for the manufacture of white
paint. |

From the river below, the lofty, extensive and precipitous
exposure of rocks, with its numerous pigeon holes, (adits) and
shoots for conveying the mineral to the river, and picturesque sur-
roundings, present a scene striking and imposing.

Returning to the mountain road we have, succeeding the crys-
talline, a band of uncrystalline rocks—slates and shales, an extension
of the slates and shales of the Intercolonial Railway section and the
Londonderry mines. These present no feature of importance.

At last we come to Harrington River, on the right side of the
road, with its section of the carboniferous band of the Intercolonial
Railway. Here we have a considerable thickness of slates, which
very much resemble the slates of the preceding band. They are
unconformable to the Upper Silurian. Many of the strata are
beautifully ripple marked. These are succeeded by black strata,
having shales with modiola, patches of scales of palwoniscus with
modiola and cordaites (?) These are unmistakably lower car-
boniferous. The section of this formation extends onward to the
mouth of the river, where it is overlaid by the new red sandstone.
This band extending to the shore is terminated by Trap, an
extension of that which constitutes a great part of the Five Islands
and Gerrish Mountain. The trap of these Islands is celebrated on
account of its minerals. That of Gerrish Mountain has a vein of
magnetite—magnetic iron ore.

The trap at the end of the section has elevated the strata in this
direction, and given the new red sandstone the form of a synclinal.
On the road side, about a mile to the eastward, we find an exposure
of the same band, having a southerly dip. This has received its
direction from the trap of the Islands.

Gerrish Mountain is the eastern extremity of the trap which
crosses the Bay of Fundy to Blomidon, and extends westward to
Digby and Briar Island.

HONEYMAN-~ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 389

INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY.

On referring to the Section Book we get the following measure
ments :-—
Folly Lake 602 feet above the sea level—

Crystalline rocks of Smith’s cutting..........907.
Rocks of ‘‘ Wentworth” cutting....... ...... 490.
Middle Silurian cutting, near Caldwell’s Brook. 453.
Lower carboniferous conglomerate. .........450.

If we consider the conglomerate as having been formed on the
approximate level of the sea, at the beginning of the carboniferous
period, then the position of Folly Lake at that time was one hundred ~
and fifty two feet above the sea level. The rocks of Smith’s cutting
fifty-seven feet, of Wentworth forty feet, and the Middle Silurian
rocks, next the conglomerate, three feet. The Mountains of the
Cobequids, which now rise to the height of eight hundred feet, were
no higher than three hundred and fifty feet, and West Chester
Sugar Loaf, the highest mountain in this range and in Nova Scotia,
which now rises to a reputed height of one thousand two hundred
feet, was elevated seven hundred and fifty feet above the surface of
the waters. McNeil’s Mountain, Arisaig, the highest in the east
(one thousand and ten feet) rose to a height of five hundred and
sixty feet ; and the loftiest of the mountains of Cape Breton (nine
hundred feet) were only four hundred and fifty feet in height.

CORRELATION.

T have already directed attention to the probable relationship of
the crystalline, uncrystalline, and fossiliferous pre-carboniferous
rocks of the Cobequid Mountains. From a Dominion point of view
I would now turn to England.

On examining Prof. Ramsay’s great work ‘‘ on the Geology of
North Wales,” I find in page 90, fig. 20, a representation of an
almost exact counterpart of the northern part of the Intercolonial
Railway section. The Wales section runs thus:

1,—Syenite.
2,—Speckled felspathic and talcose flaggy beds, Llandeilo’
and Bala beds.

390 HONEYMAN—-ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY-

3,—Felspathic ashy conglomerate.
4,—Slate.

5,—Felspar porphyry.

6,—Blue slate.

7,—Felspathic trap.

8,—Blue slaty beds.

‘In places the trap No. 7 is slightly hornblendic, and although
probably intruded between the beds it may possibly be a regularly
interbedded lava flow,” page 96. In explanations on Plate 28,
Section No. 3, the syenite, porphyries and greenstone are referred
to the Lower Silurian. :

The adding of a new Fauna to the Silurians of Nova Scotia
seems to be a fitting time for making a few observations on the
Fauna already known.

By common consent the fauna of Arisaig is regarded as typical
of the Middle and Upper Silurian of Nova Scotia. All however
are not agreed on the points of range and relationship.

With the aid and counsel of J. W. Salter, Esq., late Palzon-
tologist of H. M. Survey of Great Britain, I made a subdivision of
the Arisaig Series in 1863—Vide Paper by the Author “On the
Geology of Arisaig.” Geological Journal, 1863.

The division then made was alphabetical and British as follows :

ey earn arse ne Se Mayhill Sandstone—Salter.
et or 'intsls oxslern Lower Ludlow.

CL ecccee covcee sr ymestry Limestones——oalker
D ....0. 2226 eeeeee Ludlow Tilestone—Salter.

After the lapse of 10 years and a great amount of labour and
research, I consider that the alphabetical division ts the only unobjec-
tionable one that has been proposed, and that the only modification
of the British division required is the omission of the ‘ Lower
Ludlow,” which was not suggested by Mr. Salter. Previous to Mr.
Salter’s examination and correlation, I had correlated D. with the
Upper Ludlow of Wales, and Dr. Dawson had at the same time cor-
related C. and D. with the Lower Helderberg, U. 8., and B’. with
the Clinton, U. S. D. and C. are farther distinguished by Dr.
Dawson, Upper Arisaig, and B’. Lower Arisaig. Extensive obser-
vation has proved that Mr. Salter was correct in giving the Arisaig
Series a greater range in time than that given by Dr. Dawson.

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY. 391

At Arisaig the Mayhill sandstone of Salter occupies the lowest
position in the Series, and it has the same relative position in the
several localities where it occurs in Nova Scotia. Its characteristic
fauna is perfectly distinct from that of the others. Its lithology
is also peculiar. While the other fossiliferous strata of the group
are argillaceous this is highly siliceous—parts are simply sandstone.
In one locality the strata are siliceous and the contained fossils
are silicified casts. I have no difficulty whatever in recognizing the
Mayhill sandstone strata from their relative position and lithology,
when I find them, and the characteristic fossils appear as a matter
of course. In previous papers I have given my reasons for distin-
guishing B. and B’. into Lower and Upper Clinton. I have
followed the example of Hall in dividing the Arisaig Series into
Middle and Upper Silurian. I have also been in the habit of
correlating it thus :

Eingland. United States.
mye Mayhil Sandstone... )4.. « Medina Sandstone.
B. sheet a s Lower Clinton.

LDC ie ed ca Re fog ST Mie eee Sa Oe A Upper Clinton.

C. Aymestry Limestone..... . . Niagara Limestone.
Wes Upper Gudlows. craks. 3 Lower Helderberg.
O22) Sige ee np eee Middle Silurian.

Cy Oe aS eeties LE SE ae .. Upper Silurian.

In correlating the Arisaig Series with the United States divi-
sions. I have found it difficult to correlate D. with the Lower
Helderberg, notwithstanding that I had access to the best American
authorities, and lists of figures. I am not surprised that Hall and
others regarded the fauna of D. as Devonian, as they appear to
have a greater resemblance to the Hamilton and Chemung than to
the Lower Helderberg. The facies of the fauna of D. is strongly
English, I experienced no difficulty in recognizing it in the Upper
Ludlow of Murchison’s Siluria. I believe that it is only through
England that it can be correlated with the Lower Helderberg of
- the United States. C. is easily correlated with the Niagara lime-
stone of the United States. B’. is with common consent admitted
to be of Clinton age, United States. Ihave designated B. Lower
Clinton, for reasons already given. I have not been able to correlate

392 HONEYMAN- OX N2VA SCOTIAN GEOLOGY.

A. Mayhill sandstone of Salter, directly with the Medina sand-
stone, United States. As it is distinct from B. and B’. Clinton and
underlies it, it is reasonably regarded as the approximate equivalent
of the Medina sandstone, United States. In addition it is also a
sandstone. Sometimes I am disposed to subdivide and to make the
metamorphosed part in conjunction with the trap of Arisaig Pier,
and other parts of the shore—Oneida conglomerate, United States.

I have referred to another division of the Arisaig Series into
Upper and Lower, the Lower Helderberg equivalent being the
Upper and the Clinton the Lower Arisaig. There are two applica-
tions of the word Arisaig. There is the Arisaig Township and the
locality Arisaig. In the former sense it is much too restrictive as
it ignores a great part of the Arisaig Series—besides a typical series
of crystalline rocks which I have elsewhere designated as ‘“ Lower
wAyrisaig”’ and carboniferous rocks. In the latter sense it includes
too much, as the “ Lower Arisaig” of the Division alone lies in
Arisaig, while the ‘‘Upper Arisaig” is in Moidart. On these
grounds I consider this division as untenable.

From the considerations already stated I have long regarded
the Silurian fawna of Nova Scotia as Anglo-American. When
Mr. Salter examined my Arisaig collection at the Lomdon Exhibi-
tion of 1862, he marked particularly the English fossil Grammysia
Cingulata. Upon the authority of Professor Dana,—this is a
foreign form which has not been found elsewhere in America. In
England this fossil occurs in the Ludlow tilestone. In Nova Scotia
it occurs in the Upper Clinton of Arisaig. So that the Nova
Scotian Grammysia Cingulata is older than the others, and may
therefore at present be regarded as the ancestral Grammysia
Cingulata.

In England and elsewhere Sir R. J. Murchison’s division of
the Silurian system into Upper and Lower, has been generally
accepted. In America eminent Paleontolegists, e. g. Hall and
Billings, have divided the system into Lower, Middle and Upper.
This is the division adopted by the New York and Canadian
Surveys. Professor Ramsay in his Geology of North Wales,
proposes a modification of Sir R. Murchison’s division. Between
the Upper and Lower Silurian he distinguishes an Intermediate

HONEYMAN—ON NOVA SUOTIAN GEOLOGY. 393

Series. This includes the Llandovery rocks, page 2. He adds:
«‘ The lists of the Geological Survey show that about ninety species
of fossils are known in the Lower and Upper Llandovery strata of
Wales and its neighbourhood. These, taken together, are, on the
whole, so distinctive that it has been proposed to divide the strata
in which they occur into a middle Silurian Series, page 231.

The difference between Professor Ramsay’s Middle Silurian and
our Nova Scotian Silurian is, he begins with the Mayhill sandstone
(Upper Llandovery) and descends ; including the Lower Llandovery.
I begin with the Mayhill sandstone and ascend, including the
Clinton.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE Upper ARISAIG SERIES.
LocALITIES.

D. Upper Ludlow, England. Lower Helderberg, United Statesf
Arisaig and Lochaber, Antigonish County. Springville,
Trish Mountain, Blanchard, Merigomish, McLellan’s Brook.
Sutherland’s River and Earltown, Pictou County. !

C. Aymestry limestone, England. Niagara limestone, United
States. Arisaig and Lochaber, Antigonish County. Spring-
ville, Pictou County.

B’. Upper Clinton, United States. | Arisaig, East River, Blanchard,

Irish Mountain, Sutherland’s River, French River, Cobe-
pee quids.
Lower Clinton, Arisaig. Barney’s River, Sutherland’s River.
Mayhill sandstone, England. Medina sandstone, United
States. Arisaig, Lochaber, Marshy Hope, pire s River,
MclLellan’s Mountain, Sutherland’s River.

pee

It will be observed that the Counties of Antigonish and Pictou,
include all the above mentioned localities where we find rocks
containing Arisaig fossils. In the ‘* Webster Collection,’ in the
Provincial Museum, there is a small collection of fossils which
appear to be of the Arisaig type, although these are not recognizable
characteristic fossils. It is possible that they are from localities in
the western part of the Province, mentioned, in “* Dawson’s Acadian
Geology.” These localities I have not yet examined.

ON METEOROLOGY.

894. ALLISON

Art. [X.—Mereoroutocy 1873, Hatirrax, N.S. By Frep.
Auuison, M. A., Chief Meteorological Agent.

Havine already in another paper this season, laid before the
Institute the progress of Weather Telegraphy and Storm Warnings
in Canada, in this communication I merely rehearse the results of
observations at Halifax in 1873, taking them up where dropped in
December 1872. The succeeding January opened with a high and
ascending Barometer, which was generally maintained. After the
snow fall of the last night of the past year, the Temperature fell
considerably, giving a clear and cold New Year, with excellent
sleighing. The month was not, however, very cold; its mean
Temperature being 23.959 or .56 above the corrected mean of
January for eleven years. N. W. wind, as usual, preponderated,
with but little velocity. The total precipitation, 7.83 inches, was
very large. Rain and snow both exceeding, but especially the
latter. We had 3 auroras, 2 fogs, and miscellaneous phenomena
not numerous. But once the wind reached a gale on the morning
of 28th, accompanied with six inches of snow. Heavy sleet and
snow were falling the previous evening. At night the wind backed
from §. E. to N. N. W., and snow increased in the morning till
8h. 15m. when it ceased. Thunder and lightning at 4a. At 6h.
30m. a wind blowing 83 miles per hour, and then fell. The
following day grew very cold, and at Th. 30m. a. of 30th Tempera-

ture was 14.°4 below zero—the minimum since 7th January, 1866.
| February showed a marked decrease of pressure, and somewhat
‘below its own normal. It was steadily cold 2.°80 below the.
mean of February, and being nearly 3° colder than the preceding
-January—an unusual occurrence—there being in a long series but
very little difference between these two months, and January on
‘the whole the coldest. Prevalent wind N. W. A noticeable
‘decrease in rain and snow took place—only 0.49 of an inch of the
former being measured, and 10.7 inches of the latter; so that the
month was a fine one, though very cold. Two gales took place;
neither very heavy. The 8th began with sleet, then heavy rain,
and §. E. gale in morning. A shower in the forenoon. Fog at

tegister for 1873.
|

SCOTIA.

| West. Height above Sea, 98.5 feet.
— a | Z :

Ine. | July. |August.| Sept. | Oct. | Noy. | Dee: ie
Es ee ee ee ee
Mean 5.37 | 63.43 | 6287 | 56.81 | 49.37 | 33.32 | 25.38 || 42.2
Ditfere3 90 =05 =a ~57 | +1.02 | -4.08 —.37 —.U8
Maxim36.0 87.5 87.4 85.0 70.8 59.2 | 53.9 87.5
Minim35.3 41.8 43.8 38.5 29.8 6.83 | —29 1) ree
Month50.7 S5e7 le, ASG 465 41.0 52.4 | 56.8 101.9
Mean 7.82 | 76.79 | 75.99 | 68.63! 59.96 | 40.92 | 33.34 52.92
Mem 613 | 5450 | 53.99! 48.541) 41.06 | 25.77 | 16.55 33.55
Hiches7.20 | 69.22 | 69.54 | 66.25 60.77 | 50.24 | 48.71 || 69.54
Lowesp.02 | 52.97 | 51.27 | 49.44 | 38.56 | 138.80 7.99 || -2.18
Mean 11.68 | 22.29 | 22.00| 20.09 | 18.90 | 15.15 | 16.78 19.37
Greatepé 3 Be | ake 31.8 9.7 | 380 42.0 42.0
Mean 4.88 | 53.05 | 51.55 | 46.57 | 37.74 | 25.20 |-----+-+||-++00-0-
Mean ,795 | 99.854 | 29.888 | 29.914 | 29.965 | 29.718 | 29.907 || 29.818
Differ(o35 | +.087 | +.109 | +.065 | +.144 | -.010 | +.156 || +.051
Maxini2s> | 30.129 | 30.214 | 30.347 | 30.424 | 30.362 | 30.647 || 30.825
Minim.320 29.436 | 28.889 | 29.306 | 29.309 | 28.716 | 28.898 || 28.676
Montl.962 | 0.693 | 1.825 | 1.041 | 1.115 | 1.646 | 1.749 2.149
Highe,206 30.081 | 30.185 | 30.297 | 30.313 | 30.328 | 30.608 | 30.639
Lowes.409 | 29.549 | 29.207 | 29.437 | 29.483 | 28.817 | 29.166 || 28.801
t | :
Mean|330 | .466| 453 371 £299 165 122 279,
Mean 74.9 | 79.8 | 79.4 79.0 81.8 80.0 rye 79.0

pes |
Mean§.97| 5.88 | 5.69 | 3.49 | 5.38 ee ou. 6:30. | ewe
Peers os | +97 | +193 | -21 | -11 | +82} ~36 | -.20

|
|

/
]
]
]
‘7
I
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I

|

General Meteorological

HALIFAX, NOVA

Latitude 44° 39’ 20” North.

OBSERVED BY F. ALLISON.

Longitude 63° 36/

legister for 1873.

40’ West.

SCOTIA.
Height above Sea, 98.5 feet.

1873. Jan’y. | Peb*y. | March.) April. May. | June. | July. |August.| Sept. Oct. | Noy. Dec. eae
Mean Temperature.....-.----.+-- +--+: 23.54 | 20.58 30.09 38.07 | 48.00 55.37 63.43 62 87 56.81 49.37 33.32 25.38 42.24
Differenee eon Normal (ele, en years) +.56 —2.80 | +178 | —.05 +.56 -3 90 =.05 = 35 =M/ +1.02 —4.08 =.34 = 88
Maximum Temperature..---------+---+ 52.4 43.3 48 0 62.7 81.5 86.0 87.5 87.4 ; 70.8 59.2 03:9 87.5
Minimum Temperature...-------- 14.4 | -12.0) 3.8 24.1 240 35.3 41.8 43.8 29.8 acs se) || =l44
Monthly and Annual Ranges.----------- 66.8 | 55.3 44.2 38.6 57.9 50.7 45.7 | 43.6 ALO Poe 56.8 TAOS)
Mean Maximum Temperature. ---- 32.57 | 30.52 38 27 48.12 62.07 67,82 76:19) || 75.99) 59.96 40.92 33.34. 52.92
Mean Minimum Temperature... - -- 14.35 10.50 22.66 31.11 | 37.39 46.13 54.50 53.99 41.06 25.7 16.55 33.55
Highest Daily Mean Temperature. 47.77 | 35.47 37.74 45.19 61.25 67.20 69.22 69 54 60.77 50.24 | 48.71 69.54
Lowest Daily Mean Temperature - 2.18 -1.11 17.54 31.97 31.76 45.02 52.97 51.27 38.56 13.80 7.99 -2.18
Mean Daily Range of ‘Temperature . 18.22 20 02 15.61 17.01 24.68 21.68 22:29 22.00 18.90 15.15 16.78 19.37
Greatest Daily Range of Temperature. .-- 3912 32.1 31.5 316 40,1 363 30.8 | 41.9 29.7 31.0 42.0 42.0
Mean ‘Terrestrial Radiation, ............|.-...... |ps2500c8||peoncsne |]Soeenocd 35.23 44.88 53.05 | 51.50 37.74 O20) Noanc conalll|acocccce
Mean Pressure. corrected,. ..-.--.--- 29.890 | 29.669 | 29.670 | 29.724 | 29.821 | 29.795 | 29.854 | 29.888 | 29.914 | 29.965 | 29.718 29.907 29.818
Difference from Normal (eleven vears).| -+.142 | --.085 -.044 =.001 | +.111 | +.0385 | -+-.087 | +.109 | -F.065 | --.144 -.010 | -++.156 +-.051
Maximum Pressure,.---..-.....-..... 30.8% 30.378 ) 30.327 | 30.234 | 30.339 | 30.282 | 30.129 | 30.214 | 30.347 | 30.424 | 30.362 | 30.647 || 30.825
Minimum Pressure, -----..--- 28.683 | 28.676 | 29.122 | 29.296 | 29.320 | 29.436 28.889 | 29.306 | 29.309 | 28.716 | 28.898 28.676
Monthly and Annual Ranges,.- 1.695 1.651 1.112 1.043 | 0.962 | 0.693 1.325 1.041 1.115 1.646 1.749 2.149
Highest Daily Mean Pressure 30-310 | 30.279 | 30.054 | 30.262 | 30.206 | 30.081 | 30.185 | 30.297 | 30.313 | 30.328 | 30.608 30.639
Low est Daily Mean Pressure .........- | 28.801 | 29.161 | 29.228 | 29.345 | 29.409 | 29.549 | 29.207 | 29.437 | 29.483 | 28.817 | 29.166 28.801
| |
Mean Pressure of Vapour, -..-------- eee? 105 142) 75 236 330 | 466 453 371 2299 -165 122 272
Mean Relative Humidity,..-..--....... | 82.4 83.5 82.4 | 77.1 69.7 74.9 | 79.8) | 79.4 79.0 81.8 80.0 17.7 79.0
| |
Mean Amount of Cloud, .-..........-. 5.57 5.69 5.66 6.75 5.19 5.97 5.88 | 5.69. 5.49 5.33 5.80 6.30 5.78
Difference from Normal (seven years) —.72 —40 —.16 +.40 -1.44 +.03 2%, | 123) =.21 -.11 =.82 —.36 =.20
|
Prevalent Direction of Wind.......... Jie I) ONT | Slo We | Ise Wi |] IST NY. N.W. S. W. S.W S.W. | NW N.W. | N.W. N.W.
Mean Velocity of Wind,.............. 4.92 5.38 8.45 7.99 6.45 | 5.98 5.76 5.61 4.52 5.55 7.03 5.62 6.11
|
Amount of Rain, -.--.-.-....-. +2070 4.78 0.49 2.46 1.93 1.58 2.96 3.90 4.45 4.48 8.638 7.40 2.21 45.27
Difference from Normal (eleven vears),|-+1.02 | -2.64 -.41 -1.06 -1.45 —07 | -F1.39 +.76 +.72) |-+3.20 | --2.47 —1.12 +1.99
Number of days Rain, .-.--....... 9 2 8 12 11 17 16 1 12 14 10 8 130
Difference from Normal (eleven years),! + 3 -4 +3 ) —4 +4 +5 0 —-2 +2 =o 0 +8
Amount of Snow,..-....-............ 26.6 10.7 15.5 6.5 7.4 0 0 0 i) 0 5.8 18.9 91.4
Difference from Normal (eleven vents) +10.0 Hal -3.0 =il, il +6 6 0 0 0 0 =F 4 17 \|-411.3
Number of days Snow. 9 9 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 5 11 51
Differ ence from Normal (eleven yeurs). -1 +1 +4 =3 nS 0 0 0 0 2 +1 0 ate
Total Precipitation,.................. 783 | 1.61 4.09 2.86 23H 2.96 3.90 | 4.45 4.48 | 8.63 7.98 4.31 || 55.44
Difference from Normal (eleven years),|+-2.15 | -3.69 | -.87 | -1.02 | 1.67 | —07 |+1.39 | +.76 | +.72 |+3.20 |+2.56 | -.55 || 3.39
Number of Dry Days,................ 15 1s 15 16 19 13 15 920 18 17 17 16 199
Difference from Normal (eleven years), =o 2 =3} 2 3 an =i 0 =) 3 +9 +49 6
3 4 7 6 10 4. 7 5 4 4 1 0 aD.
1 2 3 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 4 3 17
2 2 3 4 6 6 7 6 6 4 0 4 50
0 0 0 2 6 5 15 18 19 13 3 0 81
B IMHO S)5 50500000000 10 8 12 9 5 0 0 0 0 6 7 10 67
se Thunders,.....- 1 0 0 0 1 il 3 5) 5) 0 0 0 10
a Lightnings 1 0 0 1 1 1 4 5) 9 1 0 0 13
ke LEE 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Rainbows, nonce unneco.ooed 0 0 0 1 0 il 2 0 0 1 0 0 5
wy Lunar Halos, ey 0 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 3 1 8 14
a Lunar Coron... +... +... 1 1 ‘ 3 4 1 2 2 5 6 0 0 28
: tol Wlaleshoe 0 0 3 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 l 1 9
- Days Sleighing, ......... 28 28 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 39
| ‘

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY. 395

noon—and clearing with wind veering W. in afternoon. On the
22nd we had snow in the morning. At 8 a. fine rain and sleet till
10.30 a; and occasional sleet showers and snow squalls p.m. A
gale blew from S. E. early, and from S. W. to W. afternoon and
evening. On 23rd it still blew very hard from W. S. W. and W.
all day. Other phenomena were about their averages.

March still kept rather low in pressure. Its temperature was
higher than usual, and presented a marked difference from the
abnormal deficiency of heat in March 1872; being as 30.°09 to
22.°91; nor did the Thermometer touch 0—which it does in this
month in two years out of three. ‘The whole precipitation 4.09
inches was a very little below the average, but the deficiency
happened both in rain and snow. Velocity of wind was much
increased, with a general N. W. direction. The aurora was observ-
ed seven times and fogs three. Three times the wind reached a
gale. On the 4th when, after nearly six inches of snow the pre-
ceding night with strong N. KE. wind, it backed and blew from
N. N. W. At 6h. 30m. of morning of Sth, the minimum thermo-
meter registered 3.08. On the 21st we had snow and sleet in the
morning, and 8. E. gale till 11 a., then heavy rain nearly all day.
Height of gale was at 9 a., when it blew 32 miles per hour. Wind
veered gently S. E. to 8. W. between 6 and 7 p., but blew in 8.W.
gusts during night. Barometer was lowest at 6p. Last sleighing
on following day, on 22nd. On the 30th another gale was experi-
enced, but not so strong. The wind was hardest from $8. 5. E. at
2a. = 22.5 miles per hour. It gradually fell till 4 a. when it
was quite moderate. The rain was heavy that morning from 1 to
da. Fog closed in from 9 to 10 a., and then the wind rose again
from 8. to S. W., blowing strongly all day with rain and snow
squalls occasionally p.m. . Cleared morning of 31st with W. breeze.

The mean pressure of April was as close as possible to the nor-
mal of eleven years, being 29.724, or but one-thousandth part of
an inch below. The temperature also, 38.907, was most regular;
and only .05 below its normal. The N.W. wind still wasin excess ,
and the velocity 7.99 but very little less than that of March—the
most windy month of the year. But 1.93 inches of rain, which,
with a snow fall of 6.5 inches, gave a total melted of 2.86 inches,

396 ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY.

being not 75 per cent. of the average precipitation. Six auroras,
and only four fogs, and one gale were recorded. This storm began
12th, 10 p.m. and lasted till 2 p.m. of 13th, from N. E., S. E. and
E., with rain showers. First Robins were seen 3rd. Dent de Leon
cut 10th. Camberwell Beauty Butterfly at 10 a.m. of 12th. The
N. W. Arm was completely frozen over on 18th. Full blown
Mayflowers were plucked on 23rd. Swallows were seen 25th.

In May the pressure rose considerably above the normal; and
the temperature was slightly above the average. N. W. winds
prevailed; with comparatively small force from any quarter.
There was again much deficiency in precipitation. Only 1.58
inches raise, or about half the average. While the extraordinary
amount of 7.4 inches of snow fell this May—6.8 inches coming in
one heavy fall on the 3rd;—but still making, when melted but
2.94 inches, together with the rain, and resulting as I have remark-
ed in a large deficiency for the month. Ten auroras, six fogs, and
six hoar frosts were marked. No gale occured in May—the wind
never exceeding eighteen miles per hour. Latest snow fell on
the 15th.

The June pressure was near the expectation of that month,
being 29.795. The temperature was generally very low, and the
mean but 55.937 against 59.927, the normal deduced from eleven
years. Once more the N. W. was the prevalent wind, with amean
velocity from all directions of 5.98 miles per hour. The fall of
rain 2.96 inches nearly touched the average of this usually dry
month. We had four auroras, six fogs, no hoar frosts; but on the
drd., the unusual event of a gale in June was noted; not strong,
certainly, but still it blew hard from 6 a. to 6 p., and at 7.30 a.
21.6 per hour was read. There had been dashes of rain and hail
the previous afternoon; and the pear tree had come into full
blossom, among which much havoc was made. Apples blossomed —
on 8th. Horse chesnuts 18th. Lilacs 16th.

Again in July the pressure of the atmosphere deviated but little
from the eleven years mean ; being slighly in excess. The mean
temperature was a good instance of how nearly correct the deduction
of a normal from a long series becomes. 63.948 being that result,
and 63.°43 the mean of this J uly. The maximum of 87.°9 occur-

ALLISON—ON METEOROLOGY. 397

red on the last day, but the 22nd was the warmest throughout.
Much more rain—3.90 inches—fell than in this usually dry month;
and sixteen days were wet instead of the average eleven. The
chief direction of wind at last changed to 8. W., with a mean
velocity nearly corresponding to that of June. No gale as usual;
but seyen auroras and seven fogs were recorded, with three thunder
storms besides reflected lightning. Acacias blossomed on 22nd.
New potatoes not in market till 30th.

In August high barometers for the season were noted. The
mean rising .109 above the average. It was rather a cool month,
though the maximum only fell short of that of July by .1, and the
minimum of this month was 2° higher than that of its predecessor.
The wind continued to prevail from 8. W., with nearly the same
mean velocity as during the whole summer. The 4.45 inches of
rain were slightly in excess; but these twenty days of complete
dryness, thus reaching the average of August in this particular.
Auroral displays began to decrease, but four were observed.
Twice was thunder heard and lightning seen. Six fogs occurred.
We had one gale, which was much more violent in Cape Breton
and the East, but here was strong through night of 24/26. At
thirty-five minutes past midnight it was blowing 34.1 p. hour, and
at la. the corrected barometer stood at only 28.867. On 24th
there was heavy rain early with thunder and lightning. Rain again
heavy from 11.30 a. to 9.45 p., and light showers all night and
during day of 25th. A N. gale began 24th, 6 p., veering N.N.E.,
very strong at midnight and continued 25th till 9a. when declined ;
but the wind was very high all that day, backing to N. W. in
evening.

September pressure was rather great, and the month was some-
what cool for the season; temperature rising however to 80° on
the 28th, and never falling below 38.95. Still S. W. winds pre-
dominated, with a mean velocity of but 5.52 p. hour—the least of
any month in the year. The rain was almost identical with that of
August, and again rather more than the average. Four auroras,
six fogs, two thunders, two lightnings, and one gale were recorded.
This latter was not remarkable and lasted but two hours from
S. S. E., on the morning of the 5th. There were heavy showers

398 | ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY.
*

early and again in afternoon with thunder and lightning, and fog and
drizzle in evening. Wind veered through 8.W. to W. during day.

The mean pressure of atmosphere in October rose farther above
the normal, and was 29.965. The month was mild—more mild
than May, to which its normal temperature closely approximates.
On the morning of the 3rd, the first hoar frost of this autumn
appeared, and on the 18th the temperature of air first fell to 32°.
The prevalent wind returned to N. W., but with little velocity.
Though quiet, the month was very wet; and the great rain fall of
8.63 inches was measured, being 3.20 inches above the mean fall,
and 3.75 inches over the preceding October. Not a flake of snow
fell this month. We had not one gale, which is unusual, though
the same was remarked in 1872. Auroras, four. Fogs, four.
Hoar frosts, six. And once lightning was seen, with the heavy
rain of the dth night.

In November the mean pressure declined greatly, falling to
29.718; which is, however, very nearly the average. Temperature
also decreased to a remarkable extent, resulting in a very cold
month. The mean was 33.932, 4°.08 below the average. N. W.
winds, as usual, prevailed; but not with a great velocity generally.
Rain continued to fall in large quantities with 5.8 inches of snow;
giving a total precipitation nearly equal to last month, and almost
50 per cent above the normal fall of November. One aurora, and’
seven hoar frosts, but no fog was recorded. Four times the wind
rose to a gale, viz: 8/9, when heavy rain fell nearly all the former
day and in showers in evening. Snow and rain and aS. gale at
midnight, which veered S. S. W. and was at its height at 1a. of
9th, and then fell early. On 13th when it blew from S. W. to W.
S. W. in the morning, after snow, followed by heavy rain the pre-
vious day, with wind from S. E. to S. W. On 18th gale began
from E. N. E. at 3 a., and continued through E. to 8. E. till noon
of 19th. On first day rain fell from 2 a. to noon, and on second
snow began at 4 p., quickly turning to rain, which continued till
midnight, when wind was very light from S. W. ‘The fourth gale
blew from 10 p. of 24th till 5 a. of 25th from E. S. E. to S. S. E.

Snow beginning on afternoon, turning to rain at night, and ceas-
ing at 6 a,

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY. 399

During the closing month, December, the barometer was fre-
quently high, once even reaching 30.647; and resulting much
above the normal. The temperature was slightly deficient in heat
for this season. The thermometer marked below 0 as early as
midnight of 15th, and at 1 a. next day the minimum of the month
was touched—2°.9. The predominating wind remained N. W.,
and still the velocity was low. Rain was far below its average, and
snow slightly in excess, the total precipitation not attaining the
normal. We saw no aurora in December; four times fog, and ten
times hoar frost were present. We had three gales. On the 4th,
after a foggy noon and showery evening, a S. W. gale began at 8 p.
The gale and rain ceased 5th 3 a., wind veered to W.S.W. On
the 20th a snow storm began about 4a. Rain and snow mixed
fell during the forenoon, with E. 8. E. gale from 9 to lla. On
the 28th we had heavy rain and aS. gale in morning, and then
wind veered through S. W. till the gale again sprang up from W.
at 5 p. and blew till midnight.

The mean of the whole year 1873, was somewhat in excess in
pressure of the atmosphere. ‘The normal temperature of air in
Halifax is 42°.92, derived from eleven years’ observations. Last
year gave 429.24; being therefore rather a cool year. The mean
pressure of vapour was .272, and relative humidity 79.0. The
mean amount of cloud was 5.78, or .20 below the normal. N.W.
winds greatly outnumbered any other, being the prevalent direction
in nine months, (S.W. excelled in July, August and September)
and observed 461 times out of 2920 observations. The mean
yearly total of precipitation at this station, deduced from the same
eleven years above alluded to, viz: 1863 to 1873 both included,
is found to be 52.05 inches. Of this 43.28 inches fall as rain,
and 8.77 are obtained from melting the snow, which normally falls
dry to the depth of 80.1 inches. 1873 was a wet year in every
respect, but not excessively so. 45.27 inches of rain fell on 130
days; and 91.4 inches snow on 51 days. 199 days were quite
dry, or afforded no appreciable precipitation—205 being the mean
number. Miscellaneous phenomena were observed as follows :—

Amntonase an. es susteya « 5d Gales@y.ia 3 Bata wae ddG
FOgs wescee venues: 50 Wows cjitatoutea tas 81

400 GILPIN—OBSERVATIONS ON SOME FOSSIL BONES.

Eloar Brosts: 2650 6.30% 67 Thunders wes 2s. 10
Te hinings 4. \- <2 13 Hails: nu phe. 2
VAIO OWS. ia encfeyahesene.s 3) Lunar Halos .c.s:.. 14 .
Lunar Corone ..... 28 olar lallos sce. 9
Days Sleighing.....89 :

The maximum temperature I know to be recorded here was
93°.1 on 9th August, 1872; and the minimum —15°.8 on 27th
January of this year. In 1873 the highest was 87.°5 on 31st July,
and the lowest -14°.4 on 30th January ; giving an extreme range
of 101°.9. The warmest day was the 3rd of August — mean
69°.54. The coldest the 30th of January—mean —2°.18.

ArT. X.—OBSERVATIONS ON SOME Fosstn BONES FOUND IN
New Brunswick, DoMINION OF CanaDa. By J. BERNARD
Ginpin, B. A., M. D., M. B.C. S.

TueEseE bones were taken from one of the cuttings of the Inter-
' colonial Railway on the Jacquet River, Bay de Chaleurs, New
Brunswick. After cutting through sand and gravel for about
twelve feet, a bed of clay was reached. In this the bones were
bedded. Abundance of the following fossil shells were found with
them : |

Balanus hamert. Ascanius.
Fusus tornatus. Gould.
Buccinum undatum. Linn.
Natica groenlandica. Perry.
Leda truncata. Gould.

Mya arenaria. Linn.

Mya truncata. Linn.
Tellina groenlandica. Beck.
Tellina proxima. Brown.
Saxicava rugosa. Linn.

The cutting is forty feet above the level of the sea, and one-
fourth of a mile from it, and on the north side of the river. The

GILPIN—OBSERVATIONS ON SOME FOSSIL BONES. 401

opposite or south side has the same exposure and fossils. The
clay is postpliocene and of the Lake Champlain period. I am
indebted to my friend Dr. Honeyman, who visited the Jacquet, for
these facts.

The fossil bones consist of eighteen vertebra, a small portion of
the atlas, about twelve fragments so thick and so marked by nearly
obsolete sutures, as to prove them portions of the base of the skull,
the petrous portion of one ear, about one-half of the lower jaw, a
fragment of the sternum, fragments of both scapulas, one humerus,
radius ulna and phalanx, one or two ribs, and numerous fragments
of ribs, and spinous processes of vertebra. They are entirely free
of animal matter, of a light fawn color and so dry or chalky as to
leave a dusty mark upon everything they touched. From compari-
son with some of the recent bones in the Halifax Museum of some
of the smaller Cetaceans, and with the beautiful plates of the bones
of the Boston whale, (B. musculus) by Dr. Dwight, Boston N. H.
Society, there can be no doubt but that they are the remains of
some ancient small Cetacean inhabiting the Champlain clay period.

Of the eighteen vertebra, four are dorsals, ten lumbar, and four
caudal. The four dorsal are all more or less incomplete in the
neural arch, and transverse processes or diaphophices. The largest
one measures in its centrum or body, two and three-fourths inches
trausverse section of articulating surface, and two inches in length.
The height of the neural arch is one inch and three quarters, and
two and one-half breadth of the floor of the arch. The spinous
processes in all are incomplete. In all these four, the diaphophices
or transverse processes spring from the sides of the neural arch,
above the body of the vertebra, but each one a little lower down
than the one preceding it. The ends of the processes show strongly
marked articulating surfaces for the ribs.

Of the fourteen remaining, ten may be considered lumbar.
The largest measures four inches long and three inches transverse
diameter. They are all deficient in neural arch and transverse
processes, but from a depression on the upper surface you can
make out the floor of the arch. This in the largest one measured,
measures only an inch and a half transverse diameter, whilst in
others nearly of the same size, but lower down in the series, it

402 GILPIN—OBSERVATIONS ON SOME FOSSIL BONES.

measures only half an inch. From studying, what of course must
be a very broken series of the remains of transverse processes, we
can make out a general principle, that as in the dorsal they spring
lower and lower from the neural arch, so also in the lumbar,
they spring lower and lower from the body of the vertebra until
they become lower than the centre of the vertebra itself. Thus
the neural arch with the spinal cord runs slightly oblique to,
rather than parallel with, the line of transverse processes. Of the
four remaining caudal vertebra, two only have a small process to
mark the transverse process, but they all have a slight depression in
the upper surface, making the floor of the neural arch, and chevrons
from the lower surface. These chevrons though much decayed,
have remains of a double process, projecting like two horns from
the anterior articulating surface of the vertebra, into’ which, evi-
dently, a single process from the posterior articulating surface of
the vertebra next preceding it had fitted. The smallest caudal
vertebra measured one and one-half inches in length, with the
long diameter two and one-half inches. There were many frag-
ments of bones composing the base of the skull, with marks of
sutures, a petrous portion of the bones of the ear, and about. one-
half of the right jaw, the latter well preserved. 3
This fragment measured three and one-half inches in: length afl
two inches in depth. ‘There were three large neural foramena and
the symphasis showed that it was blunt or round, and that there
were small teeth about half way down the jaw from it. ‘There area
few fragments of spinous processes which show that at their anterior
roots were processes pointing forward. A fragment of the sternum
remains, nine inches long, irregularly triangular, and haying on its
left side very deep marks of articulation with the ribs. It is slightly
convex on its external surface, and slightly concave on its internal
surfaces, and was evidently much longer. ‘The fragments of both ©
scapulas remain. They are unevenly convex on the external,
unevenly concave on the internal side, but very flat, with no spinal
ridge. The acromion and coracoid processes are well developed,
but upon the same plane as the large humeral articulating surface.
From the fragments, it seemed that it had resembled a pole-axe, the
head being the cavity for the humerus. The humerus is very com-

GILPIN——OBSERVATIONS ON SOME FOSSIL BONES. 403

plete, with the head large, the shaft short and thick, and the muscular
marks and processes very bold. It has two articulating surfaces at
the lower end for the ulna and radius. Its length was four and one-.
half inches, and breadth at the head two and one-half. A very
perfect radius, broad and flat, with a convex anterior, concave pos-
terior edge, and two articulating surfaces at its lower extremity,
length four inches, breadth one inch and a half,—a fragment barely
enough to show it to have been an ulna, its olecranon gone, and
one small phalanx completed the bones of the upper extremity.
Of the very numerous fragments of ribs, but two or three remain
so entire as to show their original shape. Their articulating sur-
faces both vertebral and sternal are large, an appearance of neck
longer or shorter is in all, and whilst one of the shortest or sternal
measures nine inches, the largest or abdominal with a very flattened
extremity measures two feet.

Fyrom comparing these bones with recent specimens of Cetx
both Delphinus and Phocena, in the Halifax Museum, and with
the excellent plates of B. Musculus, by Dr. Dwight, Boston
Natural History Society, there can be no doubt that they are the
remains of a small Cetacean. ‘The fragment of the lower jaw so
exactly resembles the cut in Dana’s Geology of Beluga Vermontana,.
as to hazard the conjecture that they are closely allied, if not
identical, with its remains found also in the same deposit but many
miles distant. We also notice the want of parallelism between the
line of spinal cord, and that of the diapophises, which is shared
also by a recent skeleton of a Delphinus in Halifax Museum,—the
process projecting forward from the root of the spinous process,.
which also obtains in the recent Delphinus where it anchyloses with
the preceding spinous process—the peculiar articulation of the
chevrons and the want. of spinal ridge in the scapula, this ridge
first appearing in the Dudongs or herbivorous Cetz, which, singu-
larly enough, has pectoral mamme instead of abdominal, and in
suckling clasps its young to its bosom.

Of the age of these bones as they were found in the Chacala
clay deposit, or that period when the river terraces were furmed),
we may inter that he had lived and died in some ancient ocean,.

from which the present ocean level has receded, or its bed has:
6

404. REID—AGRICULTURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY.

been elevated, and then the sands and gravels and clays of the
terraces heaped above his remains,—that he was a fossil, unchanged
and undisturbed, centuries perhaps before the Mastodons and Mam-
moths, whose bones were found in the peat deposits of N. America,
including the tooth and thigh bone found in Cape Breton, which
has been referred by Geologists to the later genus, had begun their
existence.

Art. XJ.—AGRICULTURE ALLIED TO Comes Be ASP.
Rrip, M. D., L. B.C. 8... Hpi, eee

(Read before the Institute Dec. 9, 1878.)

In taking up this subject, I do not expect to give anything new,
or broach any form of theory, but rather to give a resumé of the
previous and present ideas that to a great extent rule with those
who have paid most attention to the scientific cultivation of the soil.

Previous to the present century these sciences were held to have
but few links in common, the authorities in either, with few excep-
tions, did not trespass their imaginary boundary line. Even Sir
Humphrey Davy in his lectures on the ‘‘ Elements of Agricultural.
Chemistry,” (1802-1812), did but shew that there was a relation
between the sctence of Chemistry and the aré of Agriculture.

Strange to say Boussingault, in 1836, after long study, experi-
ence and observation, came to the conclusion that the value of
manure was to a great extent indicated by the amount of nitrogen
and ammonia it contained—a theory that was rudely shaken to the
winds by the accomplished Liebig ; but it has again asserted itself,
and is not likely to be displaced, for experience has proved the
security of its foundation, and the accuracy of the study and obser-
vations of its founder.

In 1840 Liebig propounded a most comprehensive, clear and
definite theory of plant nutrition that took the agricultural world
by storm and ruled for years, but it vanished, and was even given
up by its illustrious founder, long ere his late decease. I will very
briefly run over its landmarks, for it had much to do with the
extended and accurate observations of the past thirty years.

REID—AGRICULIURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY. 405

The old idea, advocated by Sir H. Davy, was that plants derived
their gaseous nutrition (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen)
from humus, a constituent of all productive soils. Boussingault
taught that plants obtained these elements both from the air and
soil, but could not solely depend on either source for their require-
ments. That notably the nitrogen and ammonia in the air had to
be supplemented by these substances if not existent in the soil.

Liebig taught that the food of the chief mass of the plant
(carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) consisted solely of carbonic
acid, water and ammonia. ‘That these were altogether obtained
from the atmosphere, which was abundantly supplied by the decay
of animals and vegetables, their decomposition giving off these
substances to the air. That thus is produced much more oxygen
than plants can use, and hence this gas so absolutely necessary for
the maintenance of life had its supply kept up by plant growth.
The decomposition of carbonic acid depositing carbon in the tissue
of the plant and giving off oxygen to the air. That the only
substances furnished by the soil were the ‘‘ ash constituents” of the
vegetable, or the mineral matter it contained. That these alone
were all that were necessary to be supplied to the land, as they were
all that were taken from it. That manures were only of value in
proportion as they contained the mineral or ash constituents of the
crops they were intended to nourish.

All of these ideas of Liebig are yet believed to be and are cor-
rect, the only error being that they were made too exclusive.
Plants do absorb and assimilate carbonic acid, water and ammonia
from the air, but they require a portion from the soil as well, and
hence manures containing these, or equivalents, are demanded.

The ashes of the plants or mineral constituents are derived from
the soil, in which they must exist in a state capable of being dis-
_solyed in water, and there is need for their return in this form to
keep up productiveness. In this particular a good soil is an
extensive deposit that may be drawn on for many, many years,
without showing very marked deterioration. For good husbandry
exposing it to the air, causes the insoluble salts of silica, potassa,
lime, phosphates, &c., to be decomposed, and in addition much
ammonia is absorbed from the air and retained, this being a property

406 REID—-AGRICULTURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY.

of all well tilled soils. ‘The other gaseous or aerial constituents,
and a large portion of the nitrogen are not so renewed, and hence
need the most frequent repletion and must be furnished in the
largest percentage by the most profitable manures. In fact we
have returned to the previous theory of Boussingault.

The ash of plants contains potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, iron,
phosphoric and sulphuric acids, silica, &c., &¢., derived from the
soil. Liebig taught ‘‘ supply these in a soluble form in sufficient
quantity and the plant demands nothing more in the way of food;
with these it is able to assimilate carbonic acid, water and ammonia
from the air, without them it cannot.” Liebig’s ‘‘ Mineral Man-
ures” were the natural outcrops of such teaching,—much was
expected from them, but comparative failure resulted.

Farmers voted sientific agriculture a delusion and returned to
the good old way that had been handed down from father to son for
ages, and yet they could see that their lands were getting run out
though knowing not how to correct their condition.

No country demands more from its soil than Great Britain, and
no people are better qualified to reduce theories to a financial basis ;
hence it is natural that we should look to England for correct
practical as well as scientific agriculture. To get the grains of
truth out of the mass of chaff abounding in all theories, and as well |
to still farther enlarge the domain of our knowledge, an experi-
mental farm at Rothamsted, England, was carried on for over 20
years (from 1843 to 1864, when reports were given) by Lawes
and Gilbert. They gave to the world the most practical and
scientific agriculture that had yet obtained, and whose results stand
the test of continued experience. Every conceivable theory and
experiment was tried and the results given in plain and explicit
fizurea and opinions. To these as I am able to understand them,
and as briefly as possibly, I would wish to direct your attention.

Continued crops of the same kind without manure and from
the same soil, exhaust the suluble ash constituents demanded by
that plant and as well the organic elements it requires for food, and
that are present in more or less quantity in all soils.

Rotation of crops is good husbandry, because different plants —
require different mineral food, and a soil deficient for one plant

REID—AGRICULTURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY. 407

may have abundance of what is wanted for another. The waste of
one crop that decays on the land or is returned as farm yard manure
furnishes food for the one that follows, and the tillage, by exposure
of the minerals of the soil to the air and sun and rain, promotes
their decomposition and consequent solubility, while facilitating its
power of absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere. In this way is
utilized a portion of the vast reserve of minerals or ash constituents
present in all soils, the soluble part of which had been more or less
removed by previous cropping.

Regarding the influence of manure, it euieies some variation
owing to the kind of crop, and different manures are suitable at
different stages of the growth of the same plant. Phosphoric acid,
potash and ammonia are largely demanded by all crops, and soils
are most rapidly exhausted of these constituents.

Farmyard manure is the most universally applicable, but its
supply is very limited in proportion to its demand. It can be aided
or even supplemented by the judicious use of substances containing
nitrogen, such as guano, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda,
rape cake, &c., and those containing phosphoric acid, such as
apatite, coprolites, bones or animal matter, superphosphate of lime,
mixed phosphates containing lime, magnesia, potash and ammonia,
as in ‘‘ artificial” manures, guano, and those containing potash, as
the ashes of plants.

Wheat and cereals demand a very large proportionate amount
of ammonia and next of phosphoric acid—silica, lime, etc., being
generally present in sufficient quantity. Potash is also largely
supplied by most soils.

Turnips and root crops, though having as large a percentage of
nitrogen as cereals, and also the marked property of absorbing
ammonia from the atmosphere, and thus getting a quantum of
nitrogen, do not require it so much as manure. It is very service-
able after the plants have attained a vigorous growth, and should
be combined with carbonaceous manures and placed not too near
the seed, as their presence is prejudicial at an early stage, though
most necessary when approaching maturity for the development of
the weight of the bulb. The soluble phosphates are the most
demanded by turnips and root crops at an early stage of growth to

408 | REID—AGRICULTURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY.

promote active development, but are not needed as they approach
maturity for they do not increase the weight of the bulb.

Phosphates alone used as manure are not successful. The
amount of phosphoric acid m the turnip crop is not larger than it is
in the wheat crop, yet experience teaches that a direct supply of
soluble phosphates is more influential in promoting the growth of
the turnip than wheat, and hence they must exercise some important
function in its development. |

To give an idea of the amount of material obtained by crops
from the soil as minerals, and the amount of soluble mineral or ash
constituent present, and that obtained from the air and soil as
gaseous or aerial, or as often termed organic constituents, I present
a table which I have compiled from those given by Magnus and
Lawes and Gilbert,—and as well as analysis of the soil. The
quantity of each constituent is given in pounds weight, and they
exist of course in combination though spoken of as in the free state.
Straw and grain are included in the analysis. |

Dry Crop.

Phosphoric
Acid
Potash
Lime.
Magnesia
Silica
Totals
Nitrogen.

Per acre of soil one foot deep,

soluble in acid—lbs...... 7581 | 8983 [85794 {10180
Average annual Wheat crop (35

bushels), lbs. per acre....| 8-78 {12-78 | 4-72 | 1-89 | 61-3 94
Wheat 30 bushels peracre—lbs.| 238 29 9 6; 102) 182, 51 | 4080.
Barley,40 << a Ce 20 30 12 i 88 | 171 | 50 | 8891

17920 |80468 | 10

Oats, 44 *“ as re 16 31 12 8 90 | 184 | 56 | 3515
Beans, 384 * fs gf 29 52 32 ili) 6 | 102 \113 | 8777
Turnips, 10 tons ‘*° es 20 89 60 4 Oo | ASO i! 29D F
Clover, 5000 lbs. per acre ....] 28 75 | 221 | 32 11 | 878 1124 14150

In no part of the Domimion are correct ideas of the chemistry
of agriculture more needed than in Nova Scotia, where many farms
are quite run out. I have seen thousands of acres lying waste in
different parts of the province, and on enquiring the cause from
those in the vicinity they said, ‘‘ the land was spent and not worth
the trouble of tillage, though it had at one time been good.”

The rotation of crops and manures which obtain in England are
not on that account necessary for Nova Scotia, but the principles

ee a Te

REID—AGRIUULTURE ALLIED TO CHEMISTRY. 409

which dictate and the occasions which demand rotation are precisely
the same. The composition of our soils may vary from those of
Great Britain, but good tillage and judgment in the selection of
appropriate manures for plant food are as necessary for the one as
the other.

To assert that Nova Scotian farms want the same manures and
crop rotation as Rothamsted would be haphazard, but to say that
our farms want as good tillage and as careful experimenting is
simply a statement of fact.

The soils of Nova Scotia are extremely varied, and their chemi-
cal analyses are not alone sufficient upon which to build a perfect
system of agriculture. Because though chemistry may give all the
constituents in their natural state of aggregation, it cannot positively
state the influence on’ each of tillage and exposure to the air with
the acquired solubility of its minerals. However it can suggest the
most likely experiments to be tried in the way of manures and
crops. |

A rotation of crops applicable to most soils is the alternating of
cereals with roots, vetches and clover, as these possess marked
superiority in absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, and as well
of assimilating the nitrogen, and thus enrich the soil for a grain crop
by the products of their decay, while their accompanying tillage
has increased the soluble minerals from the vast insoluble reserve
that makes up the mass of clay and sand and loam to which we
give the general name of soz/. Careful and intelligent agricultural
experiments by the agricultural societies on the granitic, plaster,
and alluvial soils of our province, would before many years bring
unwonted fertility to our farms, and the demand for manures,
whether phosphatic or ammoniacal could be freely supplied by the
resources of our own province.

There is an old and very erroneous saying that ‘‘ any kind of a
man is good enough to make a farmer of,” but even limited experi-
ence will convince that there is no human calling that can give as
good and continuous return for the capital and intelligence invested,
as the farm. I could not say to Nova Scotian farmers buy a book
and immediately set to work on what is wrongly styled sctentijic
farming, for failure would be the probability. But rather study up

410 - ROSS—ON EVOLUTION.

the best authorities on agriculture, and set apart five or even one or
two acres upon which to experiment with all varieties of crop and
manure that would hold out prospects of success. Thus there
would be no fear of incurring any serious loss or disappointment.
It takes energy and patience with study both of chemistry and
agriculture to make a good experimenter on a plot of one acre, and
this method alone when thoroughly and repeatedly worked out can
give success on the more extended area of the farm.

Young men designing to enter on an agricultural career would
need to devote as much time to education if success is to be assured,
as would be needed if they intended adopting the professions so
called. For it is an extensive and complicated subject, and can give
scope to the most accomplished intellect in studying its mysteries.

Chemistry does and will do much for agriculture; it explains
the changes taking place in and products resulting from vegetation ;
it gives, in competent hands, the composition of the active consti-
tuents of the soil and suggests the most appropriate additions
thereto, or in other words directs EXPERIMENT, the crucial and
TRUSTWORTHY TEST.

When the demand becomes sufficiently extensive for commercial
success, 1t will produce the necessary plant food in soluble form
from apatite rock, phosphates from the so called marle deposits
existing in the province, from the bones and animal substances that
now go to waste, from ammoniacal gas liquor, sewage, sea weed,
and such like, that are mines of wealth to the farmer as well as
manufacturer, when the occasion calls forth some of the resources

of Chemistry.

ArT. XII.—Evoxuution. By Aneus Ross, Ese.

acu animal* begins life at the same point of departure—the
egg—with every other, and certainly all the Vertebrata, in the early
stages of their development, pass through apparently precisely the
same transformations, but all except man at some stage become
specialized: he alone continuing a course of harmonious develop-

* Except certain of the lower Grades in which a whole community is developed
from the product of a single egg, by budding, subdivision, &c.

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 41]

ment until arriving at maturity; and all that is known of the
animals that have existed on the Earth indicate that the metamor-
phoses, which each mature animal now living has undergone, (in
its individual development,) are types of the changes which have
taken place in the Kingdom, Sub-kingdom, Class, Sub-class, Order,
Sub-order, Family, Sub-family, Genus, Sub-genus, Species, Sub-
species, Variety, and Sub-variety, to which it may belong.

The distinctive peculiarity of existing animals as compared with
_ those of past Epochs, therefore, is that their organization is more
specialized, so that as we go backward in time the distinctive
peculiarities of the natural groups gradually disappear, intermediate
forms and increasingly generalized or ‘‘ synthetic” types continually
appear, bridging over apparent chasms. Thus the Genera Hquus
and Elephas, each consisting of but a few existing Species and
widely separated from each other, and from every other Genus of
living animals, are found to be in close relation with many allied
and intermediate forms, the remains of which are found in the rocks
of the Recent, the Quaternary, and the Tertiary Periods; the types
becoming more and more synthetic as we go backward in time, and
the relative size of the brain cavity gradually diminishing, until in
the earliest Tertiary it becomes comparable to that of the Reptilia,
The most remarkable differentiation in the Equine family is in the
structure of the foot; passing gradually from the four toed Genus
Orohippus of the Eocene, through such intermediate forms as the
three-toed genus Anchitherium of the Miocene, and Hipparion of
the Pliocene, which had three toes, but only the middle one well
developed, the other two not reaching the ground, to its present
representative Equus, including the Horse, Zebra, &c., with its
single toed foot.

Birds are a highly specialized Class of Vertebrata, having how-
ever closer structural affinities with the Chelonia than would be
supposed from external appearance. One of their marked peculiari-
ities is that they are all toothless. Few remains of the earlier Birds
have yet been found, but among them is Jchihyornis dispar, of the
Cretaceous Period, which shews'a complete set of teeth! The
embryo of certain living Birds also have teeth, thus illustrating the
law that the metamorphoses which the existing individual undergoes

412 * ROoSS—OoN EVOLUTION.

are representative of those which the group to which it belongs has
undergone. In other respects J. Dispar had well marked Reptilian —
and even Ichthic characteristics, in other words was of a very
synthetic type. The Archwopteryx macrurus of the Jurassic
Period had, in accordance with the same law, still more marked
Reptilian characteristics.*

Of all Vertebrates the Sub-class Amphibia is the most obviously
suggestive and instructive in the metamorphoses which it undergoes
after leaving the egg, shewing, in the common Frog, for example,
how a creature approximating to the typical organization of the
earlier Fishes, living only in the water, breathing by means of gills,
subsisting chiefly on vegetable food, without limbs but with a
muscular system adapted to use the tail in swimming as the sole
means of locomotion, develops into an Amphibian without a tail,
possessing true limbs of indeed remarkable homological symmetry,
well developed lungs and voice, all the change in the circulation of
the blocd implied by the presence of the lungs, and all the great
changes in the muscular and other systems of organs implied in the
use of well developed limbs and in making insects its only food,
while other Families of this same Class illustrate, in the mature
condition, almost every stage of the process by which so great a
change is accomplished. Nor can it be without a deep significance
that in all the higher Vertebrates—in Man himself, somewhat similar
metamorposes take place in intra-uterine life—the embryo having
gills (not fully developed) before it has lungs, although as the blood
is not aerated within the embryo they can have no direct use.

All Vertebrates are Quadrupeds, and each limb, if complete,
has five digits, but while in the Ungulata many have but two well
developed digits to each limb, and in the Equine Family all but one
have become atrophied, in the Order Ophidia, the limbs are com-
pletely atrophied and functionless (with rare exceptions), and not

* The tail is 11 inches long, and 34 inches broad. It consists of 20 vertebra,
and has a row of feathers along the sides. These few feathers are in pairs corres-
ponding with the number of the vertebre, and diverge from the axis at an angle
of 45°; the last pair extends backwards nearly in a line with the last vertebrae,
and 34 inches beyond it. The wing appears to have a two jointed finger. The
breadth of the wing was made by feathers as in birds, and not as in a Pterodactyl
by an expanded membrane. The feet are like those of Birds.

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 413

apparent externally, that Order being in this as in the ‘ vegetative
repetition ” of vertebrae, the most asymmetrical and specialized of the
land Vertebrates, so that the poison bag possessed by some of them,
was scarcely needed to make the ‘‘ Serpent” the fitting emblem of
Evil in every Mythology. In accordance with the general law
which I have indicated, this highly differentiated Type does not
appear among the early representatives of the Class, not having yet
been found earlier than the Cretaceous Period.

The remains of Fishes, the lowest and earliest, the most nume-
rous and the most various or differentiated Class of Vertebrates, are
found in rocks of the latest Silurian Epoch (and upwards), of two
Orders, the Selachians or Placoids, and the Ganoids. ‘The first of
these, of which the Port Jackson Shark is one of the best living,
representatives, was approximately homologically * symmetrical,
had an internal cartiloginous skeleton, and was covered externally
with shagreen or roughened skin, protected by a spine at each fin,
and had teeth consisting of broad bony plates, somewhat similar to
those which formed a complete bony external skeleton in the only
other then existing Order of Fishes—the Ganoids. ‘These last were
less symmetrical than the Selachians, and although at first the
internal skeleton was cartalaginous, yet afterwards in the Devonian
the Coccosteus, has the internal skeleton osseous in the jaws and
vertebra, and afterwards other families have internal skeletons still
more ossified. The Coccosteus and Pterichthys Families are re-
markable as being the first examples of asymmetry, by the limbs
being functiouless, the former having no apparent fore limbs, and
the latter no hind ones. The Teliosts, or Fishes with true bony
skeletons and covered with scales externally, appear for the first
time in the Cretaceous Period, and are the predominant Type
among living Fishes. - Some existing Families have no functional
limbs, while others are distorted in the most remarkable manner.
Thus the Flounder, as also the Plaice, Halibut, &., ‘is twisted
half around and laid on its side. The tail too is horizontal. Half
the features of its head are twisted to one side, and the other half
to the other, while its very mouth is in keeping with its squint eyes.

* Man being taken as the type.

414 ROSS—ON EVOLUTION,

One jaw is straight and the other like a bow, and while one contains
from four to six teeth, the other contains from thirty to thirty-five.”

It is interesting to note the development of true teeth among the -

oldest, so far as is known, of Vertebrates—the Skarks, for while
the earliest had pavement teeth—broad plates like the dermal plates
of their contemporaries the Ganoids, other Families of Sharks in the
Carboniferous had narrower and sharper teeth, while in some exist-
ing Families they are quite sharp. In the Ganoids the dermal plates
vary much in character and disposition. Some of them had pave-
ment teeth. The Sturgeon, an existing Ganoid, has no teeth.
Most Ganoids since about the close of the Paleozoic Period, have
shortened and bilobed or hetrocercal tails when mature, but when
young have homocercal tails, like the ancient Ganoids. The Ptero-
sauria, higher Batrachia, later Aves, higher Stmiade, and the
Anthropide, have the tail completely atrophied.

The Teleosts deposit their spawn before fecundation takes place,
while the Shark is in fact placental, bringing forth its young in a
well advanced condition. Other existing Orders, of which however
there are but few living representatives, show how exceedingly
varied and wide in its limits is the organization of Fishes, for while
the ‘‘Mud Fish” has a heart with two auricles, external rudimentary
branchiz, internal functional branchie, and true lungs, being thus
much above the ordinary level of Fishes, the Amphioxus lanceolatus
has no heart but only contractile arteries, no kidneys, a sac like liver,
no vertebral arches, no distinct brain, no auditory organs, neither
a cartilaginous nor an osseous skull, nor a mandible, nor any limbs,

and even the Order represented among living Fishes by the Lampreys |

and Hags, though much more highly organized than the last men-
tioned, seem devoid of any indurated tissue. And here I would
remark the great imperfection of the Geological Record, since
generally speaking only highly indurated tissue could be preserved,
and thus whole Orders, even, of Cartilaginous Fishes have probably
perished, leaving no fossil trace, and if they should happen to have
no living representatives, as is known to be the case with some
Orders among the Reptilians, then no definite record of their
existence may now remain. And if whole Orders have no fossil
representative, because devoid of well indurated tissue is it not

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 415

probable that the earliest representatives of some existing Orders
may have left no remains, especially as we have seen that the earliest
fishes were devoid of any internal indurated tissue, and in the case
of one of the earliest known Orders the Selachians, there was not
much well indurated tissue in the exo-skeleton ; so that it is proba-
ble that it will ever remain impossible to trace back the various
Orders of Fishes until they approximate so closely as do the earliest
known representatives of the Sawropsidia or the Mammalia.

The Labyrinthodontia, an Order of extinct Amphibians which
flourished abundantly throughout the Carboniferous Period, combine
characteristics of existing Orders of Amphibians with those of the
early Ganoids, while the Jchthyosauria, the Plesiosauria, the
Pterosauria, and the Dinosauria, are extinct Orders of Reptilians,
which connect together the various Orders of existing Reptiles,
and these again with Amphibians on the one side and birds on the
other, so that all non-Mammalian Vertebrates are thus connected,
and considering how imperfect the Geological Record as now
known is, not only from its necessary imperfection, but also from
the limited character of explorations yet made, enough is known to
suggest, if not to warrant, the opinion that originally the differ-
ences were only *‘ Generic” or even ‘‘ Specific” in value.

The interval which separates the non-Mammalian Vertebrates
from the Mammalia as found on the great Continents, that is Asia,
Europe and Africa, is wide indeed, for of the three Sub-classes into
which, from their structure the Mammalia are naturally divided,
only one—the farthest removed—is found there, the Monodelphia
or true Mammalia. Of the two remaining Sub-classes Didelphia
or Marsupialia, and Ornithodelphia; the first, though once
abundantly represented on each of the Continents, is now nearly
extinct in America, and is found abundantly represented only in
Australia, where its isolated position has protected it from the
results which elsewhere have followed its contact with the more
differentiated and with the more highly organized tribes of the
greater Continents ; and it is here also that the surviving represen-
tatives—the Ornithorhyncus and the H’chidna—of the Ornitho-
delphia are found.

If the interval separating the Marsupialia from the Sauropsidia

416 ROSS—ON EVOLUTION.

seems insufficiently bridged by the two Genera, only, which are
known of a single Order, the Monotremata, the only surviving
Order of the Sub-class Orntthodelphia, it should be remembered
that every principle of analogy would lead us to anticipate, that
when that Island Continent shall have been well explored geologi- —
cally, the remains of other Genera, Families, and even Orders will,
as in the case of the Ganotdea and Labyrinthodontia among the
Ichthyopsidia, restore to us the connecting links which in Mesozoic
Periods gave an easy transition from the Sauropsidia to the
Mammalia.

Of Moliusca, the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods, of which
the Genus Nautilus is the only living representative, possesses
some points of very special interest, as having chambered shells and
continually moving outward as they grow, the shells, which have
also the very great advantage of being exceedingly well preserved
as fossils, present an epitome, perfect, so far as it goes, of the
entire life of the individual; so that there exists a singularly well
preserved representation of the entire Order,—from its apparent
origin in the Lower Silurian to the present day, when it has almost
become extinct,—alike as regards the successive Species and the
successive phases in the development of the individual of each
Species. Orthoceras, of the lowest Silurian Epoch, the earliest
and simplest known type, had a shell in shape a straight cone, and
had simple concave septa. It was followed by such forms as
Oyrtoceras and Phragmoceras, with shells resembling a bent
cone, and with septa having shallow lateral lobes. After these
comes Gyroceras, in which the bending of the shell has so much
increased as to give it the form of a loose coil, and in which the
lobes have become deeper, followed by ‘others in which the coil has
become close, and the latter lobes more angular, until the shell
has become involute and the umbilicus has been obliterated, as in
Nautilus ziczac, of the Tertiar Ys and the living representativeg of
the Family.

Lhe Ammonite series, in which a similar succession of forms
occur, are remarkable for complication. of their septa and the profu-
sion of their ornamentation at the time of the Jurassic Period, when
they had the greatest number of Specific forms. But this is true

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 417

only of the adult individual, for the earlier stages of the life of the
individual represented accurately in a modified form, the earliest
Species of the Series to which it belonged taking on successively the
characteristics of the successive Species of such series until it arrived
at maturity; in the keeled group changing from four rounded to
eighteen foliated lobes, and in form from an open coil to a com-
pletely covered umbilicus, while in regard to ornament it takes on
the characteristics of the Series to which it belongs in regular suc-
cession during the successive stages of its growth: ‘In other
words there is an unceasing concentration of the adult characteristics
of lower Species in the young of higher Species, and a consequent
displacement of other embryonic features which had themselves,
also, previously belonged to the adult periods of still lower forms.”
While the shell-covered Tetrabranchiates, have long been continually
decreasing in numbers, in specific forms, in size and in ornamenta-
tion, the naked Dibranchiates, rival in size the largest of the extinct
Letrabranchiates, or the largest existing Fishes or Reptilians. Many
existing Dibranchiates (such as the Cuttle fishes and Squids) have:
an internal skeleton or osselet, either calcareous, horny or mem-
branous. The Connularia, fossil osselets, which occur from the
Trenton Epoch (of the Lower Silurian) to the Liassic Epoch (of
the Jurassic Period) inclusive, are still abundant and are repre-
sented at present by such huge forms as Megaloteuthis harvey?,
the oldest remains of the Dibranchiates ; but since only the osselets
are preserved it is plain that if the earliest Cephalopods, like
the earliest Fishes, had no indurated internal skeleton, (and we
know that in the Calamaries it is often not calcareous and that
the Octopide are destitute of it, and the shell is represented by
two small rudimentary stylets encysted in the substance of the
mantle), they may have existed abundantly without having left any
definite traces. It is for a similar reason, doubtless, that the
Ascidians though their structure would seem to indicate that they
had a very remote origin, have never been recognized as fossils.
Indeed it is probable that up to the time—the Devonian Period—
when the highest of the then existing [chthyopsidia began to have
osseous tissue developed in their internal skeletons, no-internal
indurated tissue ever existed in the highest or central type of any

418 ROSS—ON EVOLUTION.

Epoch, and it is probable that such highest type was always naked,
or nearly so as at present, but possessed teeth, pavement or plate
like at first, but gradually acquiring the more differentiated forms
since the later Silurian Epochs. Now if this were so, it satisfac-
torily accounts for the fact that previous to the time of the Fishes
with an exo-skeleton in part at least osseous, no animals so far as
known, at all approaching to homological symmetry in type, have
left recognizable remains ; and that while the early Ichthiopsidians
(in their grade) of remarkably homological symmetry, are well
represented, the earlier (and more homologically symmetrical)
representatives of the various Orders of the Sauropsidia, and of the
Monotremata aud Marsupialia, and of the true Mammalia, until
the beginning of the Tertiary Period, are so very sparsely and
imperfectly known to us, is doubtless due to the fact that these last
inhabit dry land and could only be preserved when some accident
burried their remains in‘strata of such a character as would preserve
them, so that not one of them would be preserved for every thou-
sand that would be preserved of the marine Species. It must also
be remembered that they were probably much more limited as to
habitat and numbers. Doubtless similar reasons account for the
comparative scarcity of fossil remains of Quadrumana, known to
have existed throughout the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary, and of
Man, known to have existed in Britain before the last Glacial
Epoch there, and in France during the Epoch characterized by the
existence of the cave bear. It should be well understood that Man
differs physically in no way from the other Mammals, except that
he is more advanced and is the central and only completely sym-
metrical existing type. :

With regard to the other Orders of Mollusks, I will only
remark that all the marine types are, at an early period of their
development, free swimmers and possessed of functional eyes,
although many afterward become sessile, and many blind before
they reach maturity. And if the land Species do not so apparently
exhibit this phase of development, it is because they pass through
the corresponding transformations before leaving the egg.

The Pteropoda which swarm about the great banks of floating
scawasd of the mid-Atlantic, and form in the open seas of the

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 419

North the food of the Whalebone Whale, represent (approximately)
in their adult form the free swimming stage of the Grasteropoda.

The Zunicata (Ascidians) perhaps the most synthetic type
known to us among the Mollusca, are remarkable as containing
the proximate principle, cellulose, the basis of vegetable structures,
and also as being, perhaps, the highest type of animal life in which
individuals are reproduced by budding, so characteristic of the
ftadiates, both animal and vegetable. They have also peculiarities
of structure which ally them with Amphioxus lanceolatus, the
lowest known Vertebrate. The lowest known Genera of the
Lunicata are the Appendicularia, resembling a tadpole externally,
and swimming freely by means of the tail. These when mature
represent the immature forms of the higher Zunicata, before they
become fixed or attached to rocks and their tails are absorbed ; thus
shewing the same tendency to shortening of the caudal extremity
which is found in the higher and later representatives of almost
every organic type. The Appendicularia then at the base of the
Tunicata, are perhaps the most synthethic of organic types having
structural peculiarities which ally them to the Vertebrata, the
Mollusca, the Articulata, and the Radiata, through the lowest
types of each of these respectively.

The common Ant, after reaching the three stages successively,
in which it represents the three classes of Articulata— Vermes,
Crustacea, and Insecta—loses its wings before it begins to find
food for itself or for the community. To what purpose then does
it possess so exquisitely complicated an apparatus by which it sports
for a few hours in the sunshine only to have its wings dried up
and destroyed, thus not only losing any advantage from the
expenditure of vital force necessary to the production of wings and
muscles, nerves, &c., necessary to use them, but also exposed to all
the dangers of becoming the prey of insectivorous creatures while
on the wing and afterwards, before being cared for by the parent
ants, or of being carried out of reach of the community by the
winds, &c.? To what purpose unless it be merely because it
is impossible for it to reach its adult condition except through
those phases which characterized the adult condition of its prede-

cessors, just as all Vertebrates are furnished at one time in their
7

420 ROSS—ON EVOLUTION.

development with gills, though at the present day only the lowest
Classes have any use for them, and many of the Amphibia only
before reaching the adult state. In succeeding Species of Ants
the wings may become embryonic and functionless.

In the Radiata, the planula (egg) of the Polyp, the Jelly-fish,
and the Star-fish, (representing the three chief divisions) are quite
similar, and in its early development a jelly-fish resembles a polyp,
while a star-fish passes through stages in which it resembles first
the polyp and then the jelly-fish.

The earliest (and lowest) known representatives of the Echino-
derms were the Crinoids, whose remains are found abundantly in
every formation from the Lower Silurian to the present day, when
they are represented by such Genera as Pentacrinus. All existing
Echinoderms pass through a Crinoid stage, and the higher and
later Families pass through grades, representing the lower and older
successively until they attain their own proper grade at maturity,
when reproduction by the production of planule occurs. In Penta-
crinus, again, the individual, after reaching its Crinoid stages,
passes through stages representing successive crinoid Genera lead-
ing up to itself. |

The mode in which most individuals of this Class are produced,
not by direct development from the egg, but by budding from other
individuals, so that a whole community has its origin in a single
egg, shews that in this as in some other respects the Radiata have
structural peculiarities akin to Plants. It is perhaps worthy of
remark that in Madrepores the top animal is always larger than the
side animals, whether in the stem or the branches, as are the buds
of a tree, the buds in either case being most vigorous in the most
direct line, or in other words, less vigorous in direct proportion
to the number of differentiations from the direct line of the
original polyp. |

At the base of the lower Silurian, the Cephalopods, Articulates,
and Radiates, disappear together, and save a few Fucoids a little
lower, no well ascertained organic remains have been found in
examining the rocks downwards through several miles in thickness.
It was for this reason that Hugh Miller perceiving that the lines of
organization (if I may use the expression) approximate as we trace

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 421

them downwards in the rocks—backwards in time—speaks of the
life of the past as suggesting the idea of an dnverted truncated
cone.

Dana estimates the maximum thickness of the Tertiary rocks at
two miles, the Mesozoic at two miles, the Carboniferous at two-
two-thirds miles, the Devonian at two two-thirds miles, and the:
Silurian at four miles—thirteen and one-third miles in all. Accord-
ing to Sir Wm. Logan the Cambrian and Laurentian Formations
have in Canada a thickness of about seven one-half miles, and it is
at the base of these that Hozoon (so called) has been found,
forming a fitting apex to the cone.

The Protozoa, at the base at once of the animal and vegetable:
Kingdoms, are found, if Hozoon canadense and Eozoon bavaricum:
are really of organic origin, as claimed by Dr. Dawson and others,.
far below, that is, of an earlier period, than any other well recog--
nized organic remains. Most of the existing Protozoans are:
microscopic. They have been classified as Plant-like, Radiate-like,
Mollusk-like, and Articulate-like; a classification which indicate:
plainly in these—which it can scarcely be doubted are representative:
of the earlier organisms in the same sense that the Fishes of the-
present day are representative of the earlier Fishes, that is differen--
tiated asymmetrical modifications of the earlier types—there exists.
a tendency to the differentiations which are fully developed in the:
great groups of organic structure next above the Protozoa, alike:
in rank and in the period of their development.

The lowest Plants (Alge) are reproduced by spores (seed or:
eggs) which develope powers of motion, swimming about freely by
means of vibratile cilia, until, after a time, each Sabha itself to a:
rock or other object, and develops into a plant which has no longer:
the power of voluntary motion, even in its free extremity. Very
similar is the planula of the Polyp, having like locomotive powers.
until it too fixes itself on some object, retaining,.however, the power-
of motion in its free extremity. Indeed very many forms that were:
once classed with the Protozoa, are now known to be only the:
mere embryonic forms of the lowest Plants, Radiates, or Articu--
lates, just as the embryonic forms of the higher Radiates have been
classed as Polyps, and of the higher Articulates as Worms.

4392 RUSS—ON EVOLUTION.

The simpler Protozoans seem to consist of a single cell or of an
ageregation of simple cells, without any of that differentiation of
tissue which characterizes the higher Orders of animals, and though
some of the higher Protozoans secrete silica, and others, carbonate
of calcium, yet not so as to form a tissue; so that these first of
Animals exhibit a protoplasmic basis for animal life such as exists
in the earliest stage of each individual animal (or community of
individuals in the case of such animals as are produced in numbers
from the product of a single egg) in the earliest stage of the egg.
As we rise in the scale of animal life, or, as we follow the succes-
sion of fossils upwards in the formations, or as we follow the
progress of differentiation in the egg (in the higher animals) we
find in each a corresponding localization of function, and suitable
specialization of tissue. It is true that in comparing the first two
it is necessary to allow for the greater specialization of the later
animals as compared with the earlier of approximately the same
grade, while we labor under the serious disadvantage of having so_
little of the tissue of earlier animals well preserved or in any way
directly indicated ; and that in comparing the latter with the others
it is necessary to allow for the fact that in the egg neither armor
for defence nor weapons for attack are needed, nor is there any
functional organization for reproduction. But allowing for all
these the analogy seems perfect.

Dana estimates the comparative duration of the Post Tertiary,
Tertiary, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic Periods, as approximately
expressed by the numbers 1, 2, 4, 14, respectively. Sir Wm.
Logan’s estimate of the thickness of the Cambrian and Laurentian
rocks of Canada, be taken as the maximum thickness of these, it is
probable that they represent a period equal in duration to the
Palzozoic Period. So that the various fossiliferous rocks may be
estimated to have occupied a Period equal to thirty-five times that
of the Post Tertiary, which was probably not Jess than half a
million years, so that for the accumulation of the twenty-one miles
in the thickness of the various Zoic Formations, it will be safe
to estimate the minimum duration at fifteen millions of years,
though it may have greatly exceeded even this immense Period.
But was the Epoch of Hozoon, indecd that of the ‘* dawn ” of lite?

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 423

and are we to consider this Jarge and very complex community
of animals as the primordial type? or should we not look rather
for a series of types of increasingly complex, and numerous commu-
nities of Protozoans leading up to this? and is it not probable that
for no inconsiderable period previous to the existence of Hozoon
Canadensis, Protozooa flourished in great numbers and of great
size, the sole living occupants of the Earth?

The obscurities of embryology may be enlightened wonderfully
(though I do not remember ever to have seen it remarked) by
studying carefully the embryology of that Class of each Sub-kingdom
in which individuals of certain Orders change or partially change
their habitat, during the free life of each, from water to land, since
in those Orders in which the young are brought forth on land,
they must have reached a very much more advanced stage before
leaving the egg,-than in those in which the young become free in
the water; and there is thus afforded admirable opportunity of
comparing allied forms in the same stage of development, in the
one case within the egg, whether intra- or extra-uterine, and in the
other while living an active free life in the water ; these last occupy-
ing, from every point of view, an intermediate position between the
first and the Species in the past history of the Earth in which the
mature individuals, living of course in the water, represented the
same stage of development.

All existing Radiates have these remarkable peculiarities, that
they are all sessile at some stage of the life of the individual, and
that none of them exhibit any of what we call the five senses, but
only simple sensation—the common basis of them all. All Radiates
that live in the water, when they first leave the planula are free ~
swimmers, and all the higher Orders of them become free again and
continue so during their mature life. Land Plants of the higher
Orders, which are radiate in structure, and competely sessile in
habit, seem almost destitute of sensation, and of the power of
motion in their free extremity, and also of the power of digestion,
although Drosera and some cther Genera exhibit all three. The
sessile Orders of Articulata and Molluscoida are remarkable for
the fact that as each individual reaches the sessile stage it loses its
sight, and the tendency to Cephalization, which is a marked

424 ROSS—ON EVOLUTION.

characteristic of the Orders of Animals, which preserve the power
of free motion, and which progresses in each in time from the
earliest period in which we can trace it as a distinct Order, by
means of its fossil remains, to the present day. ‘This is manifested
by the increasing comparative size of the brain cavity, the lessening
and sometimes complete atrophy of the posterior extremity or tail,
also by the concentration of the limbs around the anterior extremity
and their adaptability to serve its purposes. A shortening of the
jaws and increase of the facial angle is also usually characteristic of
progress in time among higher Orders of Animals ; and in Man, as
is well known, it is one of the most obvious distinctions of the
higher Races. |

In Man the process of cephalization has its fullest realization.
The facial angle, that is, the angle made by a line passing from the
forehead over the upper jaw, meeting another line passing along
the base of the skull, is in the best developed specimens, nearly a
right angle. It is true that in the lower Races it is considerably
Jess than this. In the most anthropoid of the Apes it is still less,
and it is remarkable that it is less in these when mature than when
young, shewing that they in common however, as has been already
shewn, with all Vertebrates lower than Man differentiate from
homological symmetry as they approach maturity. Next to these
come successively other groups of Monkeys of the great Continent,
all of which have the same number of teeth as Man, and compara-
tively narrow noses, hence called Catarrhines, while the Monkeys
of America, except a peculiar group, have one tooth more, a
grinder, on each side above and below, longer jaws and broader
noses, hence called Platyrhines. In Man only is the attitude
entirely erect, the fore limbs being thoroughly adapted for use as
prehensile organs,—instruments of wonderful adaptability as minis-
ters to his will. In these respects there is a corresponding gradation —
among the monkeys, the Catarrhines having the thumb opposable
to the fingers, and the hand generally rather adapted for use as a
hand than a foot, and many species are like man without a caudal
appendage, while the Platyrhines have not the thumb opposable,
but have long prehensile tails. Other groups of Monkeys are still
more differentiated, and have been described as Squirrel-like or as

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 425

Fox-like—these last being somewhat carnivorous in their habits.
The remains of Monkeys have been found in the Eocene in
America, and these are found to be of less differentiated types than
existing American Monkeys, and have characteristics which ally
them to the existing forms of the next lower grades of the Mam-
malia, the Carnivora and the Ungulata or Herbivora, and it is a
curious and instructive fact that each of these Orders was at first,
without exception, plantigrade, that is, walked on the entire foot as
does man and do Monkeys, so that the later digitigrade types were
reached in each case by a gradual differentiation. Insectivores,
Rodents, and Marsupials present a similar series of types, the lower
being plantigrade and the higher, and later, digitigrade. All the
Edentata and Monotremata are plantigrade. All the Mammalian
remains of the Eocene are of highly generalized types.

Didelphia consists of Series differentiated so similarly to those
of Monodelphia as to have the same names applied to them, viz:
Marsupial Monkeys, Carnivores, Herbivores, Insectivores, and
Rodents. That Didelphia had at the time of its greatest expan-
sion marine representatives, corresponding to Cetacea and Sirenia
among the Monodelphia is altogether probable. A somewhat
similar parallelism exists between the various Orders of Reptiles
and Amphibians. Indeed as we trace each great group forwards
in time we find a constantly progressive differentiation outward
from the general to the particular, or special, from the ominivorous
for example, to the more and more completely herbivorous, carni-
vorous, or insectivorous, and from these to others having still more
specialized habits as to food, and all the corresponding peculiarities
of organization and instinct.

Again there is the tendency outwards as to habitat—to occupy
the land, the water, or partly each of these, and that in every
climate. Each of these differentiate into flying and non-flying, and
some of each of these into climbers, and some into burrowers -
in fact each subordinate group as it expands has a tendency to
repeat from its own starting point all of these differentiations, and
a thousand minor ones; so that each of these differentiations may
be more or less fundamental than other co-existing ones. Thus in
the Chieroptera the adaptability for flight seems more fundamental

426 ROSS—ON: EVOLUTION.

than that for a particular variety of food, since some exist on almost
every variety, while in the Flying Squirrel, and G'aleopithecus the
adaptability for flight seems of a much less fundamental character.

There seems to have been a steady increase in the size of
the larger animals of each succeeding grade, corresponding to the
increasing induration of tissue ; in the water from the Selachian or
Shark of the Upper Silurian to the hugh Cetaceans of the Recent
Period ; and on land from the Labyrinthodontia of the Devonian
to the Recent Mastodons. The larger animals of each grade seem
to have been exterminated by the larger animals of the succeeding
higher grade, these having the advantage in the struggle for life in
respect of intelligence, activity, strength and ultimately even of
bulk. Thus the largest types of each grade, except the highest,
have been constantly and successively in every sense undergoing
extermination, so that, as we go downwards in grade, we find the
existing representatives smaller until we reach the Protozoa where
they are mostly Microscopic, although when each grade was in —
maximum it had representatives comparable in size, though not
quite equal, to the largest of the succeeding grades. Now as we
have seen that directions taken by the different Orders of each
Grade, have been approximately parallel or similar, each to each,
and as the lower and earlier grade had begun to differentiate
soonest it is plain that only its more differentiated types would be
well out of reach of this competition of the higher, and that thus the
less differentiated types of the lower would be constantly and
successively undergoing extermination, and thus only the most
differentiated types continue to exist, except when the more synthetic
types are preserved, by zsolation from the access of types of a
higher grade, or by a difficulty of access arising from any other
cause.

The Great Continent, particularly the northern Grand Division
of it, Asia-Europe, has been during the later Tertiary, the Post
Tertiary and Recent Epochs the theatre par excellence of progress
in every organic type, which is represented there. It was not
always so, however for North America in the Eocene seems, both
in regard to its Plants and Animals, to have reached a stage only
reached in Europe and Asia in the Miocene, no doubt by a migra-

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 427

tion thither of the Plants and Animals of North America, implying,
of course, a continuity of the Continents at that time. But while
North America has made little progress comparatively in the
differentiation of its Plants since the Eocene, it has been far different
on the Great Continent, which is consequently now far in advance of
North America, and though the differentiation of the higher Animals
in North America has been much greater comparatively than of
its Plants, yet in this respect also it is in every way inferior and
behind the Great Continent. South America may be said to
represent in a general way the Eocene of North America, and
Australia the Cretaceous of North America and the Cretaceous and
the Eocene of the Great Continent, while New Zealand with its
gigantic birds as the highest type, represents an earlier Mesozoic
Epoch, and the Gallapagos Islands with their gigantic Reptiles,
probably represent a still earlier Epoch. In each of these cases the
comparative cessation of progress referred to, seems to have been
the result of isolation from the then Great Continents—the chief
centre of progress and of differentiation, or in other words, of
progress upwards and of progress outwards,—outwards, not only
in space but in those adaptations which have given to each great
group representatives suited for every possible mode of existence.
South America has more recently been again united to North
America, but climatic causes have prevented a rapid migration of
North American types.

These are a few typical illustrations of a principle illustrated
everywhere, since in fact every considerable Island or Archipelago
illustrates it, and even on the Continents, great mountain ranges,
deserts, &c. serve as barriers to the migrations of land Species,
and the Continents themselves to those which inhabit the sea, while
to those which inhabit the shallow waters, the ocean depths present
a barrier hardly less impassable than to land Species. It must be
remembered too that each great group has its own centres, and
subordinate groups theirs also, and that these all vary in position
with the varying changes of climate, elevation, &c. As a single
example of local centres for subordinate groups, the Humming-bird
may be given, of which more than a thousand Species inhabit
South America, though none are known ever to have existed out

428

ROSS—-ON EVOLUTION.

of America. Species of the same Family found in localities long
isolated from the chief existing centre of differentiation, for that
family are usually smaller, less vigorous, and less fully differenti-
ated than the others, resembling the immature forms of the more
differentiated Species.

A most interesting and suggestive fact in the distribution of
Organic Types is the existence in Regions more or less recently
isolated from each other, of representative Families, Sub-families,
Genera, Sub-genera, Species, or Sub-species, according apparently
to the length of time the isolation has existed, and to the rapidity
with which differentiation takes place in the particular Group
selected for comparison, and that in lands long isolated from each
other the Organic Types are very different, however similar may be
In Europe and North America,
which have probably been separate since the Miocene Epoch, many

the climatic and other conditions.

Genera exist having a certain number of Species in the one corres-
ponding to a certain number in the other, each to each.

I quote from Prof. Wyville Thompson: ‘On either side ‘of
the Isthmus of Panama the Echinoderm order EL'chinidia, the sea-
urchins, are abundant; but the species found on the two sides of
the Isthmus are distinct, although they belong almost universally
to the same Genera, and in most cases each is represented by
Species on each side which resemble one another so closely in habit
and appearance as to be at first sight hardly distinguishable, I
arrange a few of the most marked of these from the Caribbean and
Panamic sides of the Isthmus in parallel Columns.

EASTERN FAUNA. WESTERN FAUNA.

Cidaris annulata, GRAY. Cidaris thouarisit, VAL.

Diadema antillarum, Puiu.

Echinocidaris punctulata,
DEsML.

Eechinometra michelini, Drs.

Echinometra viridis, A. AG.

Lytechinus variegatus, A. Aa.

Diadema mexicanum, A. AG. —
Echinocidaris Stellata, AG.

Echinometra van brunt,

A. AG.
Echinometra rupicola, A. AG.
Lytechinus semituberculatus,

A. Ac.

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 429

Tripneustes ventricosus, AG. Tripneustes depressus, A. AG.

Stolonoclypus ravenilit, Stolonoclypus rotundus,

A. AG. A. AG.
Mellita testudinata, Ku. Mellita longifica, Micu.
Mellita hexapora, A. AG. Mellita pacifica, Vur.
Eincope michilint, Ag. Encope grandis, AG.
E’ncope emarginata, AG. E’ncope micropora, AG.
Rhyncholampas caribbearum, Lhyncholampas pacificus,

Aa AG. DA 2, Ge
Brissus columbaris, Ac. Brissus obesus, VER.
Meoma ventrosa, Lux. Meoma grandis, GRAY.

Plagionotus pectoralis, AG. Plagionotus nobilis, A. Ac.
Agassizia excentricia, A. AG. Agassizia scrobiculata, V Au.
Mera atropos, Micu. Mera clotho, Muicu.

The Isthmus must have been raised into dry land in Tertiary or
Post Tertiary times. It is difficult to doubt that the rising of this
natural barrier isolated two portions of a shallow water fauna which
have since slightly diverged under slightly different conditions. I
quote A. Ag.: ‘* The question naturally arises, have we not in
the different Faune on both sides of the Isthmus, a standard by
which to measure changes which these species have undergone
since the raising of the Isthmus of Panama and the isolation of the
two Faune?”

But it is not only in distinct ‘‘ areas” that we find ‘‘ representa~
tive” Groups, but they occur successively in the same area, since
in successive strata are found representative groups of Species, at
wider intervals, of Genera, and at still wider of Families. It is
interesting to note in this connection the gradual differentiation of
a Sub-kingdom by the steady increase of its Families, Genera, &c.,
the expansion and differentiation occuring in its central and charac-

teristic types, while those types of a more intermediate, synthetic,
or connective character, tend to become extinct unless saved by
some exceptional circumstance, as isolation, &c.

No Sub-kingdom has left so good a record of itself in the Rocks
as the Mollusca, and according to Woodward the number of
Families for the Formations is approximately as follows: Silurian

430 ROSS

ON EVOLUTION.

20, Devonian 24, Carboniferous 30, Triassic 35, Jurassic 49,
Cretaceous 56, Tertiary 62. The Genera for the same Formations
in the same Order were 53, 77, 79, 81, 108, 148, and 192 respec-
tively. The decrease of such Families as have become extinct, or
seem in process of extinction, is a similarly gradual process, and
occurs first in the Genera, least typical of the Family, or most synthe-
tic in type; so that both increase and diminution seem to follow an
organic law, which may be illustrated (though of course the analogy
is far indeed from being perfect) by the growth of a branch of say
a fir tree, and in the case of the Families which have become
extinct the gradual withering and successive death of the branchlets,
until finally the topmost bud, and with it of course, the branches
succumbed to the crowding and pressure of the superior and sur-
rounding branches. Of course the regularity of this process in the
family is interrupted by the fact that in isolated areas the older
types may be preserved and even extended.

Another difficulty in defining the limits of Species arises from
the fact of the intercrossing of Species of the same Genus, and
although the product is usually sterile except with either of the
original Species, yet the incorporation by this means of an element
from one Species into another, seems incompatible with the idea of
the two Species having been originally distinct and without any
genetic affinity ; but the difficulty of entertaining such a supposition
becomes still more striking when the product of such intercrossing
uf Species is fertile ¢nter se, as in ‘a case described by the late Prof.
Agassiz, and where it is evident that the new Species (shall I say
since there is no other possible way of classifying it) might continue
to exist, in its entirely distinct form, throughout a Geological Epoch,
if brought to a South Pacific Island, where it would be alike free
from competition and from admixture with allied Species ; indeed in
the case referred to below it seems likely to be continued as such in
a domestic condition for economic reasons. Agassiz says: ‘‘ There
are, however, two animals entirely distinct as to specific characters
—the hare and the rabbit of Europe; (I do not speak of those of —
the United States, respecting which such observations have not yet
been made): these animals have been crossed and offspring’ has
proved to be fertile, not only with the original Species, the hare

ROSS—ON EVOLUTION. 431

and the rabbit, but the cross breeds themselves, the individuals
derived from the crossing of hare and rabbit have been fertile
among themselves. Thus a new breed, which thus far exists only
in domesticity, has been produced and is known under the name of
leporide in the Paris market, where it is as common now as the
hare or rabbit. This new breed differs in the colour of the flesh
from both hare and rabbit, the former being dark the latter white,
while the leporide has an intermediate condition of meat much
esteemed for its flavor and delicacy.”

The total number of known distinct existing Species (so
called) of Animals and Plants is about half a million. Of these
it may be said that the higher the grade to which they belong, and
the higher the group within that grade, the shorter lived or less
persistent is the Species, and the wider the limits of its variation,
so much so that in the case of many it is difficult or ¢mpossible to
decide as to the limits of each. Indeed every attempt to define
absolutely what constitutes a Specific distinction, has resulted in
failure, and we are left to accept the opinion of Agassiz, that a
Species is an ideal ‘‘ entity,” in no way different in kind, but only
in degree, from Genera, Family, Order, &c. A hundred illustra-
tions might be given of the difficulty, or rather the impossibility of
determining absolutely whether certain groups should be considered
as constituting a Genera consisting of a number of Species, or a
Species consisting of a number of Varieties. I avail myself of the
case of Jiwbus, so well elaborated by Prof. Lawson, and doubtless
fresh in the recollection of members. (See Trans. pages 364-6.)
‘¢ This is particularly the case with regard to the European Rubi
jfruticost, many of the long recognised species of which are so
closely related, that some of our best botanists now rank upwards
of twenty forms that are. too well marked and too constant to be
mere varieties, as s0 many sub-species under the specific type of
Rubus fruticosus.”

_ In estimating then the total number of existing Species, the
impossibility of defining the limits of each Species is in itself an
insuperable barrier to complete success. It must also be remem-
bered that while the land surface of the Earth, and the shallow seas
are far from having been completely explored, the deep sea forms

432 ; ROSS—-ON EVOLUTION.

are almost unknown, although the researches of the ‘* Challenger ”
Expedition has shewn that they are abundant, and as the nature of
their habitat must effectually prevent the rapid ingress of later,
more highly differentiated, and more typical forms, that is, forms
typical of a larger group, they will be fouud to be more synthetic,
and antique in their more general characteristics, such as those
pertaining to Order and Family, but at the same time more differ-
entiated iu their more specific characteristics, such as those pertain-
ing to Genera and Species, as was found to be the case with those
already discovered. The wonderful development of the organs of
vision of the more predatory and active Types and their atrophy in
the case of the others, is a striking illustration of the possibilities of
differentiation in adaptation to circumstances, though paralleled by
the differentiation of the imperfectly sighted types of earlier times
into the (usually) better sighted, higher, and more active Types of
the present day on the one hand, and into the sightless sessile Types
on the other. Any attempt to estimate the numbers of extinct
Species must necessarily be very vague from the necessary imper-
fection of the Geological Record, as well as our as yet imperfect
acquaintance with it; but enough is known to make it certain that
the extinct Species were many times more numerous than those
now existing, so that it is clear that many millions of Species have
been created, during a period of millions of years; and this was all
accomplished in the most gradual and systematic manner possible,
both as to creation and extinction ; the apparent exceptions occurring
in exceptional circumstances, and themselves conforming to their
appropriate laws, and being therefore of that kind which have been
said to ‘‘ prove the rule.” It is not therefore surprising that while
all, who have any considerable knowledge of the subject, are Evolu-
tionists in the sense of comprehending that creation of the successive
types exhibitgthe gradual evolution or unfolding of certain ideas,
a very large majority of the leading Men of Science of the present
day believe that the Creator formed the various Species, so called,
by the operation of His Laws from a single protoplasmic prim-
ordial Type, rather than by a direct, miraculous (in the ordinary
sense of that word) creation of as I have said of many millions of
Species spread over many millions of years, and goyerned in the

ROS8—ON EVOLUTION. 433

minutest particular by laws involving complications, a few of which
J attempted to indicate. It is perhaps worthy of remark that if
Species were created by an immediate act instead of by a continuous
process, and each put into a particular spot of the land or water,
which was to become its home, they must, unless created in consid-
erable numbers, have been miraculously preserved also, inasmuch
as otherwise, in many cases, they would be sure to be exterminated
almost immediately. Again, a belief in the miraculous creation of
each Species almost necessarily leads to a belief in the creation of
representatives of it in distinct and often widely distant centres, as
was held by the late Prof. Agassiz, and also to this difficulty,
that since the various Races of Mankind, exhibit differences equal
to and even greater than those which are considered Specific in the
lower animals, we are driven to the conclusion, which was reached
by Agassiz, viz.: that Man consists of distinct Species and may
have had many while he must have had several distinct centres of
creation. I quote the words of Agassiz: ‘* Now, then, what do
we find among men? Similar differences again. For men have
not all the same complexion, nor do they all exhibit the same
characteristic features. And here let me urge upon you this fact,
for we cannot consider the relations of mankind to monkeys unless
we are aware how widely men differ from one another. While
they have all the characteristics of humanity, there are yet among
them differences about as striking as the differences which distin-
guish some of these genera of monkeys from one another—as
striking unquestionably as the differences of some of the species of
monkeys from one another. And I am bound to say that unless
we recognize the differences among men, and we recognize the
identity of these differences with the differences which exist among
animals, we are not true to our subject. And whatever be the
origin of these differences, they are of some account, and if it ever
is proved that all men have a common origin, then it will be at the
same time proved that all monkeys have a common origin, and it
will by the same evidence be proved that men and ménkeys cannot
have a different origin. This is the appalling feature of the subject
—that the characteristices which distinguish the different races of
men are of the same nature as the characteristics which distinguish

434 ROSS—-ON EVOLUTION.

the different kinds of monkeys. And it was for that reason that
early I maintained that the different races of men must have had an
independent origin, because I saw the time coming when the
question of the origin of man would be mixed up with the question
of the origin of animals, and a community of origin might be
affirmed for all. Now, I hold that the idea of the community of
origin of man and monkeys and the other quadrupeds is a fallacy,
the foundation of which I shall try to explain presently. But if it
is error to consider man as derived from monkeys, we must admit
that men are not derived from a common stock, because the differ-
ences which exist among men are of the same kind and quite as
striking as the differences which exist between monkeys, and
between the lower animals.”

Now, I need not say that a disbelief of the original unity
of Man is irreconcileable with Christianity, so that if as Agassiz
affirms, a common origin for the Races of Mankind necessarily.
implies a common origin for the various Species of each Genera of |
Monkeys, and for each of these Genera and Man, then, from a
theological point of view, we would be driven to accept the view
which assigns a common origin to Man and the Monkeys, and if
to these then to all the Vertebrates, and ultimately to all organic
Types.

I have thus endeavored, in intervals snatched from professional
study and daily avocations, to sketch in outline this great subject,
in undoubting faith that fidelity to truth is the only true fidelity to
Religion and to God. :

When Man began to arm himself with weapons against the
greater Animals within his reach, these had reached their maximum,
and began to be speedily exterminated before his attacks, for while
in the earlier Post Tertiary the greater Continent and North
America were the homes of the greatest Megasthenes (or higher
Vertebrates) that ever lived, almost equally great Edentates flour-
ished in South America, and similarly vast Marsupials in Australia,
‘while Cetaceagns probably the largest, without exception, of animals
that ever lived, flourished in the Polar Seas. Of all these most of
the largest have perished already, while as Man improyes his arms

ROSS—-ON EVOLUTION. 435).

and adds to his intelligence, the greater animals which he refuses-
to take under his protection are rapidly disappearing before him.

The process of extinction, therefore, has been proceeding during”
the Recent or Human Epoch with a constantly accelerating andi
unparalleled rapidity. But while Man is rapidly exterminating:
most Species which are within his reach, and which he does aot
choose to protect, the number which he takes under his protection
is continually increasing, and it so happens (though of course there
is no chance in the matter) that the Species, which for economic
purposes he takes under his protection, are precisely these which»
are the representative types of the Families or great Groups: to»
which they belong,—the topmost buds of the greater branclies- of ”
the tree of life. They are thus the natural centres of differentiation, .
possessing at once the greatest vital power and the greatest possi--
bilities of variation, hence also of cultivation and of naturalization.
oF every part of the Earth,—processes which I need not say are-
being accelerated yearly, almost daily, with the increasing facilities.
for locomotion which are so characteristic of the current century ,—
processes which have already afforded results the most invaluable
to mankind, and promise incalculable advantages in the future.

But it is in Man, himself, the representative of the entire Group
of organic types,—the topmost ‘‘ upright” stem of the Tree of
Life, that al] the possibilities of differentiation and of culture cul-.
minate, and J do not therefore share the gloomy anticipation of
Prof. Dawson, that there will ‘‘ ensue a period of decadence until
it (the human race) becomes extinct,” but believe that in Man as in
the lower animals, while the inferior and more synthetic types will
be successively exterminated, the higher and more differentiated
types will be continually expanding, and that the ‘* meek shall
inherit the Earth.”

8

456 LAWSOXN—CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF HEAT.

Arr. XUl.—Cuemican Revations ofr Heat. Witn Exrert-
MENTS. By Prorressor Lawson, Pu. D., L. L. D.,
Dalhousie College.

He explained the nature of heat as a form of force, co-relative
with light, mechanical energy, electricity, magnetism, and chemical
affinity, showing the one to be convertible into the other. These
forces influence matter; upon the varying degrees of heat depends
the condition of matter, whether it exists as a solid, a liquid,
or a gas. Water is solid at low temperatures, when we give it
more heat, raising the temperature to 32°, it becomes a mobile
liquid; if the temperature be raised to 212°, the water has its
condition changed to that of an invisible gas, which we commonly
call steam. As soon as the excess of heat above 212° is removed,
the gas (or steam) passes back into the liquid state, and then if
further reduced (below 52°) into a solid, which is the presént
condition of all surface water in this part of the world, except
in the deep sea or in deep lakes, &c., where it has not been cooled
down to that temperature. In still waters, however, a foot or
two of the surface forms our ice-bridges and skating ponds).

Illustrations were given to show that when a liquid passes into
a gaseous state it absorbs heat, which it necessarily takes from
surrounding bodies, and makes them cold. Ammonia, ether, alcohol,
vinegar, all readily volatilise, pass into the gaseous state, and the
absorption of heat, to enable them to do so, necessarily produces a
sensation of cold on the skin. The most remarkable body shown
was sulphur dioxide, which, when poured on the back of the hand,
evaporates instantaneously, produces intense cold, and freezes the
flesh if used in too great quantity. The freezing of the hand in
this way presents all the uncomfortable and dangerous symptoms
of natural freezing at an excessively low temperature in an extreme >
climate. The evaporation of sulphur dioxide in a current of aer
produces a still lower temperature, freezing mercury, which does
not solidify till the temperature goes down to 39° below zero.
All these temperatures are of the Fahrenheit scale, the only one
known in Nova Scotia except in scientific laboratories, where the
Centigrade system is coming into use, and must in time prevail.

LAWSON——-CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF HEAT. 437

Professor Lawson entered into a full description of sulphur
dioxide, which is always produced as a gas when sulphur is burnt
in the air or oxygen; it is also produced in the burning of coals
containing pyrites or sulphur compounds ; and the wilting of house
plants, and probably the occurrence of coughs and colds in winter,
are to some extent due to its occurrence in sitting rooms. Its old
name is sulphurous acid gas. It is known also by the names of
sulphurous oxide, sulphurous anhydride, &c., but every one is
familiar with it by smell, as that of the ‘‘ smell” of burning sulphur.
The gas extinguishes flame, and the burning of sulphur is a com-
mon remedy for extinguishing a fire in a chimney. However,
several metals will burn in the gas, decomposing it—as, for example,
potassium, which forms polysulphide, sulphate, and thiosulphate ;
when simply heated to about 2200°, it is decomposed into free 8
and Q. It has decided bleaching properties, and is used for wool,
silk, sponge, isinglass, and other animal substances that would be
injured by chlorine; also for straw hats and willow baskets. A
solution of the gas will remove fruit stains and wine stains from
linen. It acts as a disinfectant, an antiseptic, and has been used
in preserving meat; it is also an arrester of fermentation, on
account of which wine and beer casks are sulphured, and sulphites
are used in breweries and sugar factories. It preserves vellum and
catgut. One of its most remarkable effects is that produced by
its inhalation ; it is not only iritating, like hydrochloric acid gas,
and suffocating, like chlorine, but, when inhaled in a concentrated
form, it ¢mmediately produces catarrh and sore throat, with all the
ordinary symptoms of the natural malady, from which both the
Professor and his assistants (Messrs. Lindsay and Stewart, medical
students) had suffered more or less during successive investigations.

The gas is 24 times the weight of atmospheric air (sp. gr.,
2°25). It is very soluble in water, which absorbs about 40 times
its bulk of the gas at ordinary temperatures; the solution, when
exposed to air in a bottle, changes slowly to solution of H2 SQ4.
At low temperatures a crystallized hydrate of sulphurous acid is
obtained. In preparing the gas for condensation, the tubes must
be kept dry, otherwise this hydrate forms in them and ‘stops them
up. At zero F, which may be readily attained by a freezing

-438 LAWSON—CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF HEAT.

‘mixture of old frozen snow and salt (newly-fallen snow does not
-answer well,) the sulphur dioxide gas is easily condensed to a
liquid, which is heavier than water, sp. gr.=2-38). The boiling
‘temperature of this liquid, however, is 14°, and when in sealed
‘tubes (if the temperature be raised to 60°, that of ordinary air) it
‘exerts a pressure of 24 atmospheres. At between 105° and 110°
below zero the liquid freezes into solid crystals, which are heavier
than the liquid. To succeed perfectly in showing the boiling of
the liquid dioxide by heat of the hand, it is necessary to have a
twist of cotton, enveloping freezing mixture, around the top of the
tube, to provide for rapid condensation ; or the tube may be fitted
with an encircling short piece of much wider tube at the top to
contain the freezing mixture.

The next experiment was a very remarkable one. A platinum
crucible was made red-hot, the dioxide was thrown ‘into it, and
immediately passed into the spheroidal state, water was added, and
the red-hot crucible became filled with ice—the whole having cool-
ed down in half a minute from red-hot to a temperature far below
freezing, and under favorable circumstances it would reach 40°
below zero, so that even mercury could be frozen.

Professor Lawson, in referring to the great opportunities which
we have in this climate of studying the effects of heat, exhibited a
large bottle containing several pounds of glacial sulphuric acid, that
had separated and crystallized spontaneously from a solution of
ferrous sulphate in oil of vitriol during the recent severe weather.
The small portion of solution Jeft in the bottle had a sp. gr. of 1.612.

we? EN Dt oe

CONVERSAZIONE.

A CoNVERSAZIONE was held in the New Provincial Building, on Thurs-
day evening, February 12, 1874.

The Rey. Dr. WARREN exhibited a beautiful series of dissolving views with
Oxycalecium Lantern.

The Members of the Institute and their friends, having then taken their
places in the Long Room of H. M. Customs, which had been kindly given up
for the occasion by (the late) E. M. McDona tp, Esq., Collector.

His Honor the LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR the Patron of the Institute, who
occupied the Chair, made an appropriate and admirable address upon the
work of the Institute, and urged strongly its claims upon the support and
encouragement of the people of Nova Scotia. He showed the great impor-
tance of the work and gave prominence to the fact, that the workers gave
their time and energies without remuneration, and rather with pecuniary
sacrifice. He also showed that by their Publications they were disseminating
at home and abroad a great amount of valuable information upon the
resources of the Province.

The Hon. CuarrMan then called upon Dr. HoNEYMAN, who gave a short
lecture ‘On the Deep Sea.” He gave an account of the progress of enquiry
into the character of the depths and their inhabitants, as exhibited especially
by the expeditions of H. M. S. S. Porcupine, Lightning and Challenger.—The
observations made were illustrated by specimens from the Museum Collection,
particularly those kindly presented by Prof. WyvitLe Tuomson when the
Challenger visited Halifax.

Dr. Giirin being called upon read an interesting and eloquent lecture
* On a Fossil Whale,” which had been excavated in the previous Summer in
the Jacquet River section of the Intercolonial Railway. The descriptive
part of the lecture will be found in the Transactions.

The Rev. Dr. WarREN succceded. The Reverend gentleman remarked
that that evening they had been invited to look at God’s wonders in the deep
sea; and said, he would now direct the attention of his audience to another
ocean in which we live, move, and have our being, claiming moreover for it an
importance, magnitude, and utility second to none in the universe. He then
pointed out in graphic language its numerous uses in the economy of nature ;
aud further showed how the health and happiness of animate creation are
necessary involved in the purity of its life-giving, life-sustaining, or life-
destroying fluid.

440 CONVERSAZIONE.

Having spoken of some of the peculiar properties appertaining to this
subtle gaseous matter, he proceeded to illustrate several great scientific law$
by a series of striking and instructive experiments, all of which depended
more or less upon the Elasticity of Air.

The subject as treated, clearly proved that Science and Recreation are
not incompatible.

Dr. Lawson then gave a short lecture “‘On the Chemical relations of
Heat. An account of this lecture by the Author will be found elsewhere.

This part of the proceedings was finished by an admirable resume of the
address given by the Chairman. .

After this there was a promenade in the Museum, and refreshments in the
Office of the Inland Revenue, which had also been kindly vacated for the
occasion by the Inspector and Collector Messrs. PATTERSON and TUPPER.
Here Mrs. WARREN and Miss CLARKE provided for and ministered to the
wants of the Assembly. Mr. 8. A. Porter, Organist of St. Paul’s, and a
select band, kindly furnished the music for the Conversazione—performing
select pieces at intervals during the evening.

The Institute is under great obligations to Dr. WARREN, in undertaking
the management, for the trouble taken, and the zeal displayed, which conse-

quently resulted in a very excellent and delightful Conversazione.
H.

INDEX TO VOLUME IL

PROCEEDINGS. ...+. ae eee evade id ali'ts: din Sis earn G5 3 /a'al sua Mele Ree Pp. 1, 95; 187;
PEER EEMAINIBEES . . o oc'c cingnce cece cess ccesos aoc = aie sia haieiarare ete 4, 98, 191,
TRANSACTIONS.
GEOLOGY.

On the Geology of Nova Scotia. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C.L., F.G.S., &c.....
SUC TG AEST oe ae es ar a ee pre Br eae BIS SN gee? Pa id.
peg aD CBee aisle =) </afe lobe (oc 'n! = nyo) 0)6 '3i etapa na 2/haine ele ae ee id.
Precarboniferous Rocks of the Pictou Coal Field...............000- APIA SA id.
SE NDL BY Te OE ES SSSR os ae See ee oP Oye Poros rhea orci ¢ id.
On the Geology of the Iron Deposits of Pictou County...........seeeeseee- id.
Notes on the Geology of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton... .....seeeceereees id.
On the Metamorphism of Rocks in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.........-.. id.
The History of a Nova Scotian Boulder........-..2esceecees (ini aya ote apenas id.
Nova Scotian Geology. Intercolonial Railway.......cceescerccecccecceces id.
Second Paper. Cobequid Mountains, &e. 3.2/0 2-steec caasscees ema id.

On the Copper and Nickel Mines at Tilt Cove, Newfoundland. By Elias
Marett, Esq., St. John’s, Newfoundland... ssccsccccesseucesecscens

Geology and Physical Geography of the North East Coast of Kent, England.
Byes liredis. bora. Hsq., London: ...'s .-~\on/eiil angeles SAA a reeae
On Parallel Lines of Elevation in the Earth’s Crust. By Angus Ross, Esq..... .

The Grouping of the Pictou Coal Seams. By Edwin Gilpin, Esq., A. M.,
[BSG Bee (ee ln Ae ee Per memEr Orns yr per moriane saci rc
On the Carboniferous District of St. George’s Bay, Newfoundland........... id.
Notes of Travel.—Extracts.—By H.S. Poole, Esq., M.A., F.G.S., &..........
Pietorest American Desert .....-....sececcsevccnaune TES ene mic id.

ZOOLOGY.

Nova Scotian Diurnal Lepidoptera. By J. M. Jones, Esq., F.L.S..... shale sire
SPREE g LCUPIOTS fa) ahe oslo) 2x 5 5 ¥ie\n'o'n'e'm 0: abel staaalnteiha teeta alala wate aietate acer id.
On a small Lophoid taken off Halifax Harbour-........ sececcceseceeeeees id.
On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernard Gilpin, A.B., M.D., M.R.C.S.
PIE MOIE SN BCD. cs cis'e'a)o.'s «!eic, wislainiao)a\d eta\mintne siaimletata eoe]slejeieiatae ee id.
On the Construction of a Beaver Dam in Digby County, N.S...............id.
On the Eagles of Nova Scotia.........-.-..0e sh bewiemierat alr ialalay dake situa aia ee
Orthagoriscus Mola. Caught in Halifax Harbour............sesececceees id.
On the Seals of Nova Scotia..........e00. dj aedminiessraceteletn oa an ain ole wore win diamine

839.
041.

Page.
6

ol

62
105
141
171
193
231
321

100
108

109
152
202
343
377

~

449 INDEX TO VOL. III.

On Fossil Bones found in New Brunswick ............ Ain sale Res inthis id.
Comparative Anatomy and Pathology of the Human Teeth. By A. C. Cogswell,
Esq., DoD, Sos osc s dee avs Welt oe oe eek ee bys a ajanelae Meas sy eae
Girard on Fibrin in the Blood. By Angus Ross, Esq...........eseceeceess ia
Evolution........+. sae asnce- eiiew wie, = mater! ale stelle ee a staleleiainrale nies alee la id.
BOTANY.
On the Ericacez of the Dominion of Canada and adjacent parts of British N. A.
By George Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D., &...... Tepe ll, pre
On Canadian Species of Rubi....... bs cia ees 6 0/4 ale e/arn (eh ehaieie ounjer ala iol etait id.
On the Flora of Nova Scotia. By Henry How, Hsq., D. C. L., §c....... aha detantele
On the Vegetation of the Bermudas. By J. M. Jones, Esq., F. L. 8....,....- Ai
ETHNOLOGY.
On the Stone Age of Nova Scotia. By J. B. Gilpin, Esq. oa Do yh. Fei (Cascais.
The Affinity of Races) By Wim. Gossip, "Wsq.. ccs oe cumceieuls so ee 2 9 eae ae
METEOROLOGY,
The Meteorology of Halifax with General Meteorological Index for 1870. By
Fred. Allison, Esq., A. M., Chief Meteorological Agent, N.S.........
Id. Ads DOTA cb bo Ras od tia a Re ace id.
On Progress of Weather Knowledge and Index for 1872 .......... UAE AERA EGS J id.
Canadian Weather Telegraphy and Storm ee Jaye ahatetata he ales eens patted a Ad.
Meteorology and Register. for 1873 004/645. Pod. 28 Saleen ee ee A hake tds
’ Meteorology of Caledonia Mines.—
Little Glace Bay, Cape Breton—1870. By Henry Pocle, Esq., M. E......
Id. id. PBT Lab iets Baise o eR MS re eS arene id.
Id. id. DS7Z. cue ke eae seein ie ew on fee cate Cierra id.
CHEMISTRY.
The Economy of Timber and Preservation of Structures from Fire and Decay.
. By A. P. Bei, lsq., M..D., MaR,.C: Sims cies. oo: oe seis steele
A Priculiaxe applied. to Chemistry... so% alike nlehsie atetie a a laletal obtciasche ce aetna id.

Chemical Relations of Heat. By George Lawson, ne Ph, D.,,.U.) De iaece tis

APPENDICES.

Notes of Excursion to Montague Gold Mines... ......6 000s cs edavcaeenuees H
The ‘* Challenger ’’ Scientific Expedition. Visit to Halifaxieii.d sibs. bis ess dba ies ,
Conversazione. 1873). ocean on OL oe bi. Suet al SN oi btalaighs olsen ee

ComversazionG 1ST 4... ores dies o-beldirseiiv eines ovis o 0.0 6 Aiea nnn sia f

Page.
4038

156
367
410

74
364
174
237

220
218

80
176
515
370
O94

89
148
285

026
404
436

93
335
384
439

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