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MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
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Datos ayes Heskay b19 0

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PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
Nova Scotian Enstitute of Science,

HALIFAX, NOVA] SCOTIA

VOLUME XI.

BHO 2A) Oe.

HALIFAX:
PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., LTD.
1908.

CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS.

SESSION OF 1902-03 :—

Presidential address, by A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F.R.S.C. ....

ABavey, UTTAR TOA Cordis hE oe enn 15 5 oo ach oo olsmioioiae ec
Work otainliated ongamizationS =... ee 1
Generals pro vinci allwoOrks oa... settles oeiclelcreite t-te
INCOM EHHOINN Gs ale ga Sou een din lek eA oo pomlones eonas mo L
bray sro ANAS AEVONINONSS. <a, nna Se ona boro clu dotbo bode oo emo
(Clieaking “nigra yee oe ono ae evenoobbe Os ODO nob a uoOOnS
MxtimCuiannObeyellOwsteverars-saci-ylvee lems ienstkr seen: eer
IEE) KORG ove ANTE RSNA Enis canta Hoty cuote WG acl Oinocmalois iodo Sieole oie
REPOLE MO he oT evita Me taper te spses cilcecr rats, sree chone fer apie ete eer euskaie. ote tai'
Report of Kings’ County Branch of the Institute .............
GICET SPEOIeL OOS ane Meet eee eye: ete ate yore a ha, Sree. sno segeiewths he
OrdinamyeeMeeCuin Sheek. nee tee uae ict Chedeysr aie cin) a ister ice.
Major C. E. English—Guns and gunnery. (Title only.) ......

Prof. E. E. Prince.—The swim bladder of fishes, a degenerate
gland. (Title only; to appear in Part 2 of this volume.)
Prof. E. E. Prince——Colours of animals, their nature and
meaning wes (Kite only) ie nr. ens ea. ec vee stare st says
Dr. H. M. Ami.—Meso-Carboniferous age of the Union and
Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia, and of their
equivalents, the Mispec and Lancaster formations in New

iBGUNS wiclew = (Meiblenomnllivs,) ete nciaegete costes Soles ciace es 2 ake
H. 8. Poole, F. R. 8S. C—Note on Dictyonema websteri. (Title
COS) ey mene oe le ge ence Ear AL Sr Re Ma
H. Piers.—Three abnormal zoological specimens recently re-
ceived at the Provincial Museum. (Title only.) ......

C. B. Robinson, B. A.—Note on lichen-mimicing caterpillar.
Prof. J. E. Woodman, D.Sc.—Yellowstone National Park.

(Elvi lems Onlive) Mace vemeses sents aoe ote. Meehan aoe 8 cree ee Ge a aati aas
Dr. A. H. MacKay.—Botanical notes. (Title only,) ..........
C. B. Robinson.—Distribution of Mucus serratus in Nova Scotia.

GR slog onli tates se eit ela akots haya one cease gs gabe Seyi Suck h ey ose 2
P. R. Colpitt—wWireless telegraph. (Title only.) ..........

(iii)

xii

Xil

XV

XV

1V CONTENTS.

SESSION OF 1903-04 :—

Presidential address, by Henry S. Poole, D.Se., Assoc. Roy. Se.
Mines RGus, I. Rig Sa Cs oe. ec ke setae cee

Prooress) otj thes mS ticube me: oie tte ee enn
Application of science to: miming <4 .- === 22-2. y eee
Reporte Ol reais ime eras et et eles seo wee cene inea eteena
Repontaok libre amy caer 6 otc env eee eee fake eae
Report of Kings’ County Branch of the Institute ............
OfficersEforal'QOSAO 0A eres ites hoes Seka caption ae aor Cr Seene
Oxdim any Mee LIN CS trtwntg ewer eres to ieee wet meno eae
T. V. Hill—The creation and development of the inorganic
foundation of themearthe, (ine sonlliy:)aea9- ae. ee eys

Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Se.—Drainage development of rivers.
(i talc tarn 0) 01) go eet ce esis COMM GIR on hd aa celal ptr o) Na ore

EK. Stewart.—Address on forestry: (Title only.) ........... .,
R. H. Campbell.—Address on forestry. (Title only.) ........
Frank H. Reid.—Birds and the selection of their nests. (Title
OUT s\n she aawenene ee oath rant aiin, eee er rtay Sue digs ad cael nee Oh te Na

Dr. H. Y. Hind.—Importance of a knowledge of rock foldings
tosmuiners:. (iitle=onlliva Mise cnt. pcrk rae peer

Prof. J. E. Woodman.—Structure of the Meguma_ (Gold-
bearing) series, with reference to the theory of cro<s-

folds. (‘Title only.)

Prof. J. E. Woodman.—Bibliography of the Meguma _ (Gold-

bearing) series of Nova Scotia. (Title only.) ........
SESSION OF 1904-1905 :—
Fa BORD ETH bocoll' ore) cal t= earnings > ccianeraehe Ales iat ne te an cer aman AERO hr (ie MBL ci

Presidential address: (1) Progress of the Institute, (2) Bor-
ings in search of coal—By Henry 8. Poole, D. Sce.,

ARR. 8. Misoiis Gaide BP OIRSSs Gunes eo totes. snc chee meant
Report) ob Mreasurers sont sva ate eyes s ehe re lerets areca eee ee eee
Re port ¥ Ofs Lib rer amis eso cle atcacnonts taeeren wae bas ce aes ea eR
Report of Kings’ County Branch of the Institute ............
Officers: for 1904-19 0d. i sea se ciel Ghee eee ee
Ordinary “Meetings 2 2 ie 8. Gia kena cites cea ees Core eee
Voleanoes of the Hawaiian Islands.—By Prof. J. E. Woodman,

DSc.) Mbitle onlays) pe cy eo ee Reto cree Senne. 1 rea ne e
Structural analysis of the Goldenville anticline, Guys. Co., N.S.

Bye Els Micieamn sas (ibleyonlliv2) ect eien ieee
Note on crystallized gold—By Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Se.

(Lite: onliys) wee etre ete SNe PTR eR ee eRe en ae
Detection of vanishea coastal plains.—By Prof. J. E. Wood-

man, DaSes em (aitlexonilys)) carey tenis dene: Aeron

Weathering of building stone in Halifax.—By Prof. J. E.
Woedmans DSc sa (diitles onilive))iaec censi eae ie entire

" PAGE

Xvil
Xvill
XIX
XXIV
XX1V
XXV
XXV1
XXV1

XXVil
XXV1li
XXViil
NXVill
XXVlil

XXVill

XXXVii

XXXVil

XXXVli

CONTENTS. Vv

SESSION OF 1905-1906 :— PAGE
Presidential address —By Henry 8. Poole, D. Se., A. R.S.M.,
IBY Grats Sop belive ECan rer Sepetelecase tie ce) ahct ache eos, Ss chases Sista) sels XXXIX

Bere SembuGeIs aw Onsen casio acs cene Nt raya Amuetn clara: so tet suetes xxxlx

SPECULATIVE rb OU OILS Hy lecat srarvsptasiegsl ote Sy. fuatartons isn. <e/ays yelp Ix
REDORE OlmErCASULe nye Pace oens tapes te raelnege stn guetvene ale eis 5 i0e xlvi
TREW OT Uh Oleg, Esa aaa AINE «reyes coon eka) MALE eee var sateen ace suey seated aan Bite xlvi
Note on Dictyonema websteri (=D. retiforme.)—By R. Ruede-

THAN Pe es Fae ea kia.” Rectan cee ae Stately henacs Hades xIvil
OMGSrS OT. NOOSA GR estates ecspetnrayy evapo teadys aise cote cn Ss eats als xvii
Ordimanypemeebin rsync tatse ewe oe i sch teesie) Siactionshe GL se. ave ao xlvili
Mining, is it a science ?—By W. Lishman, M.A. (Extract from.) xlix
Fungi of Nova Scotia: first supplementary list—By A. H.

MacKay, iD; BRS. G., (See vol. xii, pt. 1; p. 119) ]
Halifax water works.—By H. W. Johnston, C.E. (See vol.

SUL PDL w PAC Cuiaa ye cee. lal cenetas a Aiton ces yaa ronceen ol Gute kt ]
Amphibian-like remains from the Joggins. Note by L. M. Lambe li
Notes on protective coloring—By Frank H. Reid. (Title only) li
Contribution to the study of hydroxylomine.—By G. M. J. Mac-

eng Wye (SES Ol Sala oue 70 Brea) og meee Gola bee» li
Occurrence of star-nosed mole and shrew in an eel trap.—By

WreealiseBishops. w(ubitlevonlya\m.. «ptetata a2 cus aha lii
The damage done to timber by Voredo navalis and Limnoria

hignorwm.—By R. McColl, C. H. (Title only.) ......... li

Phenological observations, Canada, 1905—By A. H. MacKay,
LL.D. F.h.S.c. (Printed in Proc. Royal Society of

(CEN DETCI TE) Wades Atha ii acne Neen) 2 one R AI SUE SSRN Receiver Ou armor, lii

vi CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS.
SESSION OF 1902-1903 :—
Is there coal beneath Prince Edward Island?—By Henry S8.

Poole PA GHSe WR SON). ohn ose aede ne, Sees

Sections and analyses of Nova Scotian coals.—By Edwin Gilpin,
Arey IIE IDS ANG Ts SH OS plbnsyaeore Covi MOINES AA popes odsos
Geology of Moose River gold district, Halifax Co., N. S.—By
Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Se., School of Mining and Metal-
huirey-D alhousiem@ollesey ev crs aerial lor aeeenee
The Mira grant, Cape Breton Co.—By Edwin Gilpin, Jr., LL. D.,
195 ign Shey Lhasyaelewore Ory Min. Ye gne Sone souanoceayooss
Contribution to the study of solutions of hydroxylamine and its
salts.—By W. H. Ross, B.Sc., Dalhousie College........
Middleton fungi, with general remarks.—By Reginald R. Gates,
Mt. Allison University, Sackville, N. B. ...............
Fungi of Nova Scotia, a provisional lst.—By A. H. MacKay,
LL. D., F.R.S.C., Superintendent of Education ........
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1902.—
(diesels alee ehye IDI INS INetsy OL Son quan ubonocoues
Ice-borne sediments in Minas Basin, N. 8.—By J. Austen Ban-
erott, Acadia, Colleges Wooltvallles Nese yep. cei eerie:

SESSION OF 1903-1904 :—
Distribution of bedded leads in relation to mining policy.—By
Prof. J. E. Woodman, D.Se., Dalhousie University ......
Notes on hydraulic lime and cement.—By Francis H. Mason,
BCS Ss Metall lian ost een ees oetes ismeh-ctcmcustok fei) kre tete
Local variations and other notes on Blue-eyed grass (Sisyrin-
chium augustifoliwm)—By Capt. J. H. Barbour, M. B..,,

URS SA MI i i eae (ee VANE rs aot sa elec vis aa egraato slcchy anaes ace
Sunken land of Bus (lat. 35 north, long. 53 west.)—By Henry
S Poole DaSe* ASsocmReisa View Ga Sebo nos Oo eter

Swim bladder of fishes, a degenerate gland—By Prof. E. E.
Prince, F. R. S. C., Dom. Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa
Earthquake of March 21, 1904, in Nova Scotia.—By Prof. J. E.
Woodman, D' Se:, Dalhousie University .-.:.........-..
Age of conglomerate capping the Cambrian rocks of Nova
By Henry S. Poole, D. Se., Assoc. R. 8. M., F.G.S.
Determination of elements of terrestrial magnetism at Halifax,
N. S., August, 1904.—By Prof. Stephen M. Dixon, M. A.,
Dalhousie: University: «tyra. inst eens eee noe eine
Faults at Battery Point, Sydney, N. S—By T. T. rulton, B. Sce.,
Bs cH Phe shga's alee eA ne cane aloes Steal re aa

Scotia.

PAGE

165

179

CONTENTS. vil

PAGE
Subsidence of Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. (Introductory
to paper by Mr. MeIntosh.)—By Henry 8. Poole, D. Se.,
TBE Gh ish Gi era on ciat oo oly ace Dole Bold protne nO GPa 9 aio CONTE Ibe 262
Question of subsidence at Louisbourg, Cape Breton—By Kenneth
McIntosh, C. E., St. George’s Channel, N.S. .........--- 264
Phenological observations in Canada, 1903.—By A. H. MacKay,
Lie Ds shVRe Ss Cs) Supt. ot Education a... te er = 271
Botanical notes in Nova Scotia——By A. H. MacKay, LL. D.,
1 MAIS Se Oke Seep & Behram eke Ctre-ceng ein ola Unicare oR irae 286
Structure and succession at North Sydney and Sydney Mines,
C. B—By Loran A. DeWolie, M. A., North Sydney ...... 289
Contribution to the study of hydroxylamine——By G. M. John-
SOS. NEKO Ny SIBLING, 5 cee Shia didn Ob Soca he plodoscieueooe 324
SESSION OF 1904-1905 :—
Pre-Cambrian volcanic bombs from near Lake Ainslie, Inver.
Co., N. S.—By. Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., A. R.S.M., F.G.S.,
RES Cop Oat ee cA SPE ROW Dooney fie ren een Pei te Aetenens, i's Sere 339
Notes on the ore deposits of South Cheticamp, Cape Breton
Iiclands Ny S:——By Wie Vion Grant) sreiees eo etaisis <=) acl sselle- 01s 347
Meteorological notes—By F. W. W. Doane, M. Can. Coc. C. E... 361
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1904.—
Tyee dak Ne yelehy, MILLA ADE Wielata ish Os Someen doce enmoccre 3/3
Edible wild plants of Nova Scotia—By Walter H. Prest....... 387
Section of Carboniferous rocks in Cumberland County, Nova
Scotia: (1) Detailed section of rocks from West Ragged
Reef to the Joggins Mines and Minudie,—by Sir William
E. Logan (republished); and (2) from Shulie to Spicer
Cove.-—by Hugh Fletcher, B.A. With introduction by
ELS Sg OOle rm) NSC tae aaice. et aie p a ee eed ree 417
intreduction:—By<. Wr: GH. \S:- Poole) js .'0.).3 se 2 es 417
West Ragged Reef to Minudie.—By Sir W. Logan... 419
Shulie to Spicer Cove-—By H. Fletcher ............ 500
COG ELST ES hs Ce aS Soe Atak on I nC Gee re ae i Se 549
Supplementary note to a paper on “ The Sunken Land of Bus.”—
Bye Henry ames BOOS DE See ais, ) Sn naa vase he te deal 551

SESSION OF 1905-1906 :—

On the flora of McNab’s Island, Halifax Harbour, N. S.: pt. 1,
general notes; pt. 2, work in special orders; pt. 3, nar-
cotisation of plants; pt. 4, occasional notes.—By Captain
Johny Ee Barbour Me be RAN MAC. ef Ie.) 553

Vill CONTENTS.

Catalogue of the birds of Prince Edward Island.—By John
I ETASM EU Memes ome oar ata notre Sr ah ao qe 6 oe alc
The Grignard synthesis: the action of phenyl magnesium bromide
on camphor.—By H. Jermain M. Creighton ............

Oil fields of eastern Canada.
Frost and drought of 1905.—By F. W. W. Doane, C. E. ........
Eels in water pipes and their migration—By Watson L. Bishop
Discussion on preceding paper.—By F. W. W. Doane, C. E.
es i By RE Browil- eee
Water-powers of the Mersey River, N. S.—By W. G. Yorston,
eB er 55 Saree igh ROS EPS Oe gd AN eT ER ce
Water-rolled weed-balls.—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F.R.S.C.

APPENDICES :—

f. “Listtof members) 190271903 3 jest ci aoe Seinen nce rane ene
iL. “List of members’. 1903-1904. 5 ee ak eae ae eeene ceeeeee
ITs, List of members, 9 042119 05) eee iene ieee as ee ree
IVa hist. of members) 1:9 05-19 0Gi 5 gees ic ieran rar reeeioe aie. he da eeeee

Tis ofspresidents)), AS62190 Gis eee er nacinen ene lees

By Re Weebillsy aD Senses:

WAGs vats

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Nova Scotian Enstitute of Science,

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME XI.
PART L.

SESSION OF i902-/803.
WITH 18 PLATES.

HALIFAX:
PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., Erp.
Date of Publication: 27th March, 1903. .

Prick to Non-Mremsers: One HaAur-Dou.ar.

—_

&

CONTENTS.
PAGE
PROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1902-1903 :

Presidential Address, by A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R.S. C..... cece eer eens f
The Institute's Work ces AA Mir UN RIAN IP ON tay BRE IES 1
Work of: Afiliated Organizations osc iiy ieee cece csvneews since signin ili
Generals Provincial ww OEkipe are we or aay Be, Uae enue aa lalate iii
Riecomimendatrortirectwane nce we as cee Ge sme aR ly Dang attetatels eins iv
Tniprowine HaAcuities rac meen okie cublomainet OMe NE As Rey Daya eave v
Checking Malaria ......... histade ete heaven latettrece eat oe Seana Sb iol inlet iiareiniuiatale vi
Hxtincbion OF Yellow: BGV er yuki. \s sisi: we ects Secaees sis cesicwis cise la eels Gawpiererelniars vi
ReporgiohLreasuren fhe Me ond Ae Meee lesa ae aasioe oaneoe eR cee ola poeta a) ED
Reportiots Librarian (tenn sews mates isis oidueie sin aie sats ite Saisie ete DOS Sie I a ae Vili
Report of King’s County Branch of the Institute...... -...:6 cc tees eeeee tenes! 9 fe Wa
PGicas For WAS sop iar Seawater esti ates etnies mer Nar eT aa it alata ee one x
Ord Many Megrines, 04.0 wx Mp Re Ce het alee tueh Mates oe em tcrelen tans it tielale biefe/afeei natal ae xi
Major English,—Guns and Gunnery. (Title only,)............6. ticeeeeeeeee xi

Prof. E. EK. Princeé,—The Swim Bladder of Fishes, a degenerate gland.
(Title only ; to appear in Part 2 of this volume.).. ....-..........e00e0ee xii

Prof, E. E. Prince,—Colours of Animals, their nature and meaning. (Title
TUNG sick Riaiavers ise cake’ singlet «en RMT eat al Sateen LN enare| phe Ok sth Ps atts) ae terete oi ena xij

Dr. H. M. Ami,—Meso-Carboniferous Age of the Union and Riversdale

Formations of Nova Scotia, and of their equivalents, the Mispec and
Lancaster Formations in New Brunswick. (Title only.)...............- xiii
H. S. Poole, F. R. S. C.,—Note on Dictyonema websteri. (Title only.)....... xiii

H. Piers,—Three Abnormal Zoological specimens recently received at the
Provancial Museum: (Title onbyc) ye cee ahead intone volcan bie mente ee neta Xili
C. B. Robinson, B. A.,—Note on Lichen-mimicing Caterpiller ................ xiii
Prof, J. EK. Woodman, D. Se.,—Yellowstone National Park. (Title only.).... xiv
Dr. A. H. MacKay,—Botanical Notes, (Title only.) ......... 6... see cece eee XY

C. B. Robinson,—Distribution of Fucus serratus in Nova Scotia. (Title
TAT Yea giere tale es iat ease CU MNES Ee SAE che ie tM arialn ae inal eee a alata eld lat or xV
P. R. Colpitt,— Wireless Telegraphy. (Title only.)...............cceeee es eeee xv

TRANSACTIONS, SESSION OF 1902-1903 :
Is there Coal beneath Prince Edward Island }—By Henry S. Poole, F. G.S.,

BORO Oe as BT ahah Me eis Arete ete) ea Ue jay an Wa IR teal 1
Sections and Analyses of Nova;Scotian Coals.—By Edwin Gilpin, Jr., LL. D.,
{SiGe En BpeCror OLA METMENS sie ins ccsiiercholatebsjaiarola aiid mele! sioie'e ites atalvinle mash euniaratets 8

Geology of Moose River Gold District, Halifax Co., N. S.—_By Prof. J. EB.
Woodman, D. Sc., School of Mining and Metallurgy, Dalhousie Col-

JOR piss eg cree Pe A AC BEN TREND SCENT los Pal Mat adele Ae ata a nite elele etal Git eV alehalols iled 18
, The Mira Grant, Cape Breton Co.—By Edwin Gilpin, Jr., LL. D., FP. R.8.C.,

TNSPECLOL OL MINES Wich cieniarsicelolaig ana tiat leis clarsrars coma aie lnla learned ciiel we bin a/stehatncieta . 89
Contribution to the Study of Solutions of Hydroxylamine and its Salts.—

By W. H. Ross, B. Sc., Dalhousie College.........-.. ce sees eee c cence ees 95
Middleton Fungi, with general remarks.—By Reginald: R. Gates, Mt.

Allison University, Sack villes Ns 5 sm isister orc cise lerdowiaites wetter lelshclialteleieiawins 115
Fungi of Nova Scotia ; a provisional list—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R.

8. C., Sipprinsanient OF WAUCHDION Wie oi eke rc ioe LCS eter: suletarelelaieiate 122
Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1902.—By A. H.

Ma ek ay. Talay Rs ARS SO Ae Airey ENR NN noe act aL da atelal al Males setae a haiaiats we 144
Ice-borne Sediments in Minas Basin, N. S.—By J- Austen Bancroft, Acadia

College; | WOlEville; ING Piescek Hote vs aoe tihlels bart the ck ae arse ee bya ata tatetats 158

APPENDIX I:
List of Mem bers, 1902-1908 0.5 35 cele ti ove ule nes sidein eae vine's aisle eines tbe uanies wen as

—_--

TRANS AC PIONS

OF THE

Aoba Scotian Gnstitute of Serene.
SESSION OF 1902-1903.

Is THERE COAL UNDER PRINCE EpwAkpb ISLAND ?—By HEyry S.
Boonmnd) see fe Gas. EK. Res: C.

(Read 18th May, 1903.)

The great activity of late in the coal trade of Nova Scotia
and a continuing demand have enhanced the value of coal pros-
pects, and have stimulated inquiry and search in every direction
in which rock structure may suggest, not only to the geological
student and the miner, but to the promoter and speculator, a
possible deposit of coal.

Among the regions in which it issupposed hidden extensions
of the productive measure may exist, the Gulf of St. Lawrence
is included. [or a long time it has been looked on as overlying
the major portion of an original coal field of which remnants
are found fringing its waters to the south and east, containing,
perhaps, in isolated sections, workable seams of coal.

Prince Edward Island lying in the southern part of the
Gulf, offers a means of access to any underlying deposits,
although the superficial strata of the Island, of later age than
the coal measures of Nova Scotia, show of themselves no indi-
cation of what is beneath, and are regarded as a cloak covering:
hidden treasures.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S, Inst. Scr, Von. XI. TRANS,—A.

(1)

i)

IS THERE COAL UNDER P. E. ISLAND ?—POOLE.

In Prince Edward Island the expectation in this direction
ean only be met by actual search in depth, and this may best be
done by bore-holes in places carefully selected. Matters have
gone so far as to receive attention from the Canadian Geological
Survey Department, and an experienced officer* has re-
visited the Island with that object in view. Withthis feature
of the question it is not proposed to deal in this paper, which
has for its object oaly a review of such suggestions as the strue-
ture of the several geological formations developed in the
neighbouring regions seem to present.

It is no part of this paper to consider the correlation of the
several series of deposits both above and below the productive
coal measures of Nova Scotia. The terms used are those which
appear most convenient, and are the same as those employed, in
the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, by Mr. Hugh
Fletcher in his papers on the surrounding districts. Although
disputes have arisen over these terms, and the propriety of their
selection has been questioned, they have this advantage,—they
leave no doubt as to the sequence of the several groups of strata
to which they relate. Whether they be correlatively correct or
not, is of no moment in this connection. The terms used are
taken to mean as follows :—

Permian.—Strata chiefly reddish sandstones with a base
of conglomerate showing at New Glasgow and else-
where; a few small seams of coal and bituminous shales.
The upper members more friable and more easily
eroded.

Coal Measures.—Strata containing workable beds of coal
with shales and fireclays chiefly black and grey, and
sandstones generally grey in colour.

Millstone Grit.—Strata conformably underlying the pro-
ductive measures, including coal seams, and grit often
coarse and reddish in colour.

*Dr, Ells, Summary Rept. Geol. Surv. Canada, for 1902.

IS THERE COAL UNDER P. E. ISLAND ?—POOLE. 3

Carboniferous Limestone.—Limestone associated with gyp-
sum, sandstones, marls, and local conglomerate ; fossil
shells, common ; coal seams, thin, few, and irregular.

Carboniferous Conglomerate.—Bazal beds often indicating
induration.

Devonian.—Including the plant beds of Riversdale, N. S.,
and Little River, N. B. The Albert shales containing
the characteristic Psilophyton.

In this inquiry, the material that is available and from which,
on consideration, a conclusion may be derived, consists of :—

(2) The rock formations surrounding the Gulf of St. Law-
rence;

(b) The character of the deposits containing workable beds
of coal in the measures bordering the area ;

(c) And the evidence of soundings in the Gulf which are

recorded on the shipping charts.

It is assumed that in Pre-Cambrian days the outline of
eastern North America took shape much as it is now, and at the
saine time the salient features as seen to-day of that part of the
continent were established. The edge of the - continental
shelf was determined and gave limit to the movements which
since then have, in large measure, been epeirogenic in character.

Synchronous with the alternations to which the region has
been subjected along the eastern edge of the shelf, a line of
marked weakness branched westward from the margin, where it
is sharply deflected eastward to the south of Newfoundland and
the Grand Banks. The latter are essentially a part of the con-
tinent, though at present under water and in touch only at the
Virgin Rocks, which are, it is believed, of Pre-Silurian age.*

If we view the several formations involved in this region as
units, it will appear that the amount of local disturbance each
has undergone is somewhat proportionate to the respective age:
the Permian least, the Millstone Grit moderately, while older

*It is not questioned that the Grand Banks have been largely added to by moraine

matter of the Glacial epoch, and have had accretions deposited from icebergs, but on a
shallow rock base, an integral part of the continent.

+ IS THERE COAL UNDER P. E. ISLAND ?—POOLE.

series have suffered much more. The disturbances that did
occur, being in proportion to the continental movements, and
local, were principally due to settlements under the weight of
an increasing mass on an imperfectly denuded and uneven
floor of deposition of a previous cycle.

The principal physical features seem to have been retained
during the several epochs in the area of the Gulf and its
surroundings. Ever since Silurian time the Gulf was an area
of depression in its relation to more ancient rocks, although at
some periods occupied by more recent and more easily eroded
deposits, elevated for a time above the general level of the ocean.
During the recurring cycles since Pre-Cambrian erosion gave it
shape, depression, deposition, elevation and erosion, regional in
action, have been each in turn at work, not always fully replacing
and not always fully undoing, the results attained by the oppos-
ing force. Wesee this in the marginal remains and in the islands
of the Gulf.

In very early stages of the earth’s history direction seems
to have been given to the subaerial erosion by the line of frac-
ture that branched westward from the continental edge during
periods of elevation which then established a system of drainage
for a large area. The same fracture affected the foldings con-
sequent on settlement of the deposits and the oscellations of the
plateau.

The geological history of the region it is assumed may be thus
summarized :—It was fashioned by deep erosion while Cambrian
depositions were proceeding, and folded by lateral pressure which
produced parallel ranges along the edge of the continent, the con-
tinuity of which was disturbed by the branch fracture to which
reference has already been made. Of the lines of partial relief to
the lateral pressure, one was established on the south side of the
coastal range in New Brunswick, thence it was diverted by the
fault spoken of to acourse nearly due east and west, leaving on the
north the highlands of Dalhousie Mt. in Pictou Co., and those near
Cape George in Antigonish. It thus formed the southern rim to
the Gulf region. Thence renewing their original direction the oro-

IS THERE COAL UNDER P. E. ISLAND ‘-—POOLE. 2

genic movements proceeded through the highlands of Inverness
to join the great fault of the St. Lawrence Valley and the Gulf,
and give an easterly margin to the area in question.

With the geological eycles that occurred prior to the Car-
boniferous era, we are not particularly concerned, beyond noting
the more and more marked persistance, as time rolled on, of the
dominant features, and the establishment then of systems of
drainage which have continued to the present day, e. g., that
through the Cabot Strait and between St Paul’s Island and
Cape North, which must have been long continued for the
érosion to cut down rocks as hard as these Pre-Cambrian, to such
profound depths, 2000 feet or more below the level of the sea,
itself some 1400 feet below the eroded top of the mountain
plateau. Then, too, the Pre-Carboniferous erosion cut through the
Pre-Cambrian rim to the Gulf area, where the ancient break had
occurred at the deflection between Cape George and Cape
Mabou. In the waters between these capes, soundings show a
submerged ridge, a remnant of the mountain range. A similar
old time denudation, doubtless, gave direction to the rivers of
Pictou. Yet again we have another opportunity to measure the
work of Pre-Carboniferous erosive agents in these time-defying
rocks. The eastern end of the coastal range bordering the Bay
of Fundy has its present termination in Caledonia Mountain,
but when the land stood at a higher level, the range extended
further to the eastward and beyond the passage across it of the
existing rivers, the Petiteodiae and Memramcook. Of the
extension beyond these rivers, remnants of former peaks project
through later formations at Lutz Mountain, Colhoun’s and
MeManus’s Mills. ‘These modern rivers have their beds cut in
rocks of Millstone Grit, Carboniferous Limestone and Albert
Shales; deposits here occupying a broad valley previously eroded
across the range of old rocks by Pre-Devonian streams, the pre-
decessors draining the extensive country lying to the north of
the range.

To what depth this great Pre-Devonian valley was eroded
is not known, but bore-holes in search of oil in the Albert Shales

6 IS THERE COAL UNDER ISLAND ?—POOLE.

have proved it to be over 1009 feet below the tide, and thus
presumably comparable in character to the broad valley in Cabot
Strait that drained the St. Lawrence region when the continent
was elevated far above its present level. That the continent
has stood vastly higher than it now does, there can be no doubt,
and to convert the present estuary of the great river and the
Gulf into a valley with a flowing stream capable of eroding its
bed, would require a general elevation of not less than 2,500 feet,
and possibly still more.

The Pre-Carboniferous erosion, which was of excession
magnitude, left for subsequent depositions a platform that,
through all after changes, has retained much of its original
horizontality. Nor has it been broken, except locally, by
fractures of secondary importance, and then only to a vey
limited extent. The cycles preceding the Carboniferous, supplied
the erosion that gave shape to Nova Scotiaas a peninsula and
formed the great bays of the coast, of which some still show
above the present shoreline remains of the Lower Carboniferous
deposits that evidently encircled and covered much of this and
neighbouring lands. Remains of these deposits are to be found
in the bays of St. Margaret, Chedabucto, Fourchu, Gabarus,
Lorraine, Mira, the Bras d’Or, St. Ann, Aspy, St. Lawrenee, ete.

Circumstances changing, and a new cycles entered on, there
must have followed a depression of corresponding magnitude
and conditions favorable for the deposition of the bay and other
deposits, the massive limestones and gypsums beds which are
spread over an extent of country some four hundred miles in
length.

After an epecyclical period and lessened disturbances which
left large districts of these later deposits still exposed to
denudation, a series of sedimentations set in, which in time
culminated in strata associated with the productive coal
measures,

We have now reached the crux of the matter, and have to
consider how wide-spread were the conditions favorable to the
deposition of coal seams, and in what districts did those con-

IS THERE COAL UNDER P. E. ISLAND ?—POOLE. ‘

ditions exist. Was the Gulf in any part an upland region
during the coal measures period ?

We do know from a study of the Pictou coal field that
there Were limits and parts where no workable coals were laid
down.* In Cumberland County, also, the Geolocical Survey has
demonstrated the gradual and finalsubstitution of 1 on-bitaminous
for bituminous deposits. A close study on the western coast of
Cape Breton, it is believed, will show like conditions there,—
basin-shaped districts which never were parts of one coal sheet
continuous over the Gulf area. The districts of coal measures
now found isolated above the shore line, were in some cases prob-
ably not separated by faults, but further exploration is necessary
to prove this. An examination of the admiralty charts suggests
that a surmise may fairly be made of the rock structure which
underlies part of the Gulf. The islands tell us something, and we
know that a well detined anticline, bringing to the surface Carbon-
iferous Limestone strata, extends from Shepody Mt., at the head of
the Bay of Fundy, towards Wallace, parallel with the Cobequid
range and the series of great folds in the gold-bearing rocks of the
Cambrian. This Wallace anticline is not seen to the eastward, but
its continuation, hidden under Permian strata, is suggested by the
presence of an elevated ridge shown by soundings to range east
of Pictou Island and southeast of Cape Bear of Prince HKdward
Island. [ venture to go still further a-field and to regard that the
basal rocks of the Magdalen Island, also of Carboniferous
Limestone age, and which, in comparatively recent times, were
much more extensive than they now are, extended, as indicated
by the soundings, parallel to the Cape Breton coast near to
Prince Edward Island, owing their origin to a folding con-
temporary with the Wallace anticline. Within the shelter of
these ridges possibly were the conditions alone favorable for
the accumulation of coal in seams of workable thickness.

Prince Edward Island and the major part of the Gulf area
lie outside the fold.

*The Pictou Coal Field, Trans. N. S. Inst. Se., vol. 8, 1893.

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF Nova Scorta Coats.—By EpwIn
GILPIN, JR., A, M,, ia. DY FOR. S Cete.ete:
(Read 18th May, 1903.)

I venture to submit the following sections and analyses of
Nova Scotia coals. The paper refers only to seams which are
at present being worked, and the sections and analyses have all
been recently measured and made. While the true value of coals
may be better determined by ultimate analyses and practical tests
for coking, evaporative power, ete., these results may be of inter-
est to the members of the Institute.

SECTIONS OF Nova Scotia SEAMS.
Pictou Country.

Intercolonial Coal Mining Company, Drummond Colliery,
Westville :

Main Seam, section taken 200 feet below No. 14 lift:

Feet. Inches.
TO COULN COOMSE asain eee) 2 2
aU COCl ae ae eee: Poh oe ee 3 S
Bine-clay 7 \ccshpeerte ae ae suite 0 5
UOp= ply «COMB wa nak smite essere oe 2 0
BeMeReCOML— eee oi ajie das aw anes 5 2
Stones: | Ee eee deg oe Re 0 5
IBERMC COWL | cemere ee ite ene Ce 2 8
SEONG racic weet 5 cee 0 5
BOLO ECOG Pen eo an es ioe 3 0
Potalscceueerel ie ear ee 19 1

Main Seam at No. 4 Slope, top level :

Feet. Inches
Coal \(GOdT sera ntti Seiaae i 2
Hine-clayate omeapn pected 0 5
Cogli.: ces a bi eee a ee ee 3 6
Py rtous partine es, + seen ee oe 0 1
COG catia Ne tint oe eset ees 2 10
‘Retialliay gac ae sac eae irae ee 8 0

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. 8S. COALS.—GILPIN. 9

Acadia Coal Company :

Acadia Main Seam at south level sinking, Acadia Colliery,
Westville :

Feet. Inches,

DOPBCOGN Re cua sia torte ati oboe e hail 0 10
UR COM Oa a th a ell de ate: 3 3 6
Soft carbonaceous shale ...... 0 3
OTE at OR SN We RU oy eee Se + 4,
COGL (COURSE) 6s «sig 00 asker 3 5 2 0
COG GEC eee etase ay tat eae 3 6

otal es 2 Ne eae 14 5

Deep Seam, at No. 4 balance, 1900 feet level, Albion Mines,
Stellarton :

Feet. Inches.
SG rahe ae Oe Re ioe 4.
OMI COGMSE riers ea 5 sre oe 65 3 8
OM sine et Ad SAR bes 12 0
AG Galeax wade Wisc ce weet 20 0

Third Seam, south level, 2000 feet from slope, Albion Mines,

Stellarton :
Feet. Inches.

COG ee oc ae eee ae 9 0
COME (COUESE) = ta ctadenises ees 0 9
Gla ONE cn cla ek ee ae 3 S

RG Grtlee 85 5302 Graz were ce is 0

Feet Inches,
Coal (Fleming Seam) ........ 4 2
Coal coarse (parting) 77... 5 0
COGS ati concen ake es of aie 6 0
Hard shale with ironstone no-
dules (not persistent) ...... 0 6
COW Ewes rien tt thee tees 5 0

10 SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN.
Six Feet Seam, Vale Colliery, Thorburn :

This seam does not maintain a regular thickness, varying
from 3 to 6 feet, within short distances. Thus in No.
1 balance, north side, it runs from 3} to 5 feet clean
coal. In Nos. 2 and 38 balances, same district of the
mine, it runs from 4 to 64 feet of good coal. In the
sinking it shows from 6 to 7 feet of good coal.

Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company :

G. Mackay Seam, Marsh Colliery :

Com (COURSE) neat. ae 0 i
COU Nise wutatctes ate doen tates 3 0
Coal CODESE) wee gare eo ee 0 4
UOMO” Ayrrtay as sak cua aonrare.< 0 1
COMP ee eats auc ete ome Ts 0 4

Mo Geile tie reas eealees ortetone 3 10

CUMBERLAND County.
Cumberland Railway and Coal Company, Springhill :
No. 2 (or West) Slope:

Feet. Inches.

West Seam,—west side ...... 8 0
Aberdeen Seam (extension of

West Seam) isnc eile 8 0

split e: Si
Under Seam’ ) ee ua a 4 0
Over Seam, \ [or East] Seam).. l 4 0
No. 3 (or North) Slope:

North Seam.—west side...... 8 =

North Seam,—east side ...... 4 0:

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN. II

Canada Coals and Railway Company, Joggins :
Feet. Inches.

COG Se iets Perel llne e Stara eaters ors 3 0
CIEIVe Shoubdosdasoosrooonens 1 2
Code ay creas eae A ease are 1 6

OUR E. aGtareiec Le erate : 5 8

Minudie Coal Company, Minudie Colliery, River Hebert :

Feet. Inches.
OG rem ocr rare ores ee a 1
| DVI er Ph aH ce NeuanI NG CBIR Looe 0 8
COM ere OS eg Oa ee i )
ARO Gallet acct ot eet eee 4 0

Strathcona Coal Company, Strathcona Colliery, River Hebert :

Milner Seam (?):
Fect. Inches.
6

Coal (with parting).......... 2
Jubilee Colliery, Maccan River.
OOM) Eaebon.coc6 shaneieroxehoce: wenne 2 0
Maritime Coal Company, Chignecto Colliery, Maccan :
Feet. Inches.
OULD AS i ts ORIOIST SERE O OOO 2 6
BUG e=Clay, Fe Mateus iota aces) 6,0 6us' S08 1 6
Coal (with parting). .....03 6. 5 6
Motel Ars. tase. tote tachotoavor 9 6

Cape BRETON County.
Gowrie and Blockhouse Collieries, Port Morien:
Gowrie Seam :

? Feet, Inches.
COG er Sok AERP eae eee. 4 10

12 SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN.

Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company, Sydney Mines :
Main (or No. 1) Seam at Princess Pit :

Feet. Tuches.
COGS na teenie «ols peleena a ees 5
Lloyd’s Cove (or No. 2) Seam:
Feet. Inches,
COUR Fn nad oo Bs eon : 2 3
CHAN cave arava, sis soho tu eielede «ess 0 2
COG, Vers cone teletaletes okey savers ees 0 6
CE Ao ain a Van ion hic cic ees ae 0 04
COd ae teen ee eae entra On 3 34
fo 24 ener er ese : 6 3
Main (or No. 8) Seam at Sydney Pond :
Coad Fae ctraleaue selec wa alee 4 74

Sydney Coal Company, North Sydney Colliery, Indian Cove :

No. 3 (or Indian Cove) Seam :

Feet. Inches.
Splint CODL —aieivsruitetes amass 3
CROC ace ee ae RS ee 4. 33

Dominion Coul Company :
Phalen Seam, at Caledonia Colliery, Glace Bay :

Feet. Inches.
SPO TIG orate carole Raed Me ate ay ere 0 Os
COG RO Bae ee 5 113
Parl date aS papers 0 0
COG Earcitaccicens ie Renee: 1 6
Potales. estan er eee 7 6

Phalen Seam, at Dominion No. 2 Colliery :
Feet. Inches.

COG ghee eas cnepar ee ee 7

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—-GILPIN.

Phalen Seam, at Dominion No. 8 Colliery :

Cog .eeeis vata toe ar 5 3
SS] CUMING a eiaierecra ee Tnewomes 0 OL
COG a aha taces Sar By cases waste 3 0
OEE Lracaretes wtebests 0" , 8 . of
Phalen Seam, at Reserve Colliery :
Feet Inches.
COG ois arennckiars Syahte SO REP ETES ‘ 8 0

Phalen Seam, at Dominion No. 1 Colliery :

Feet. Inches.
Coal - as oe #6 @ a 70) 2) SS U.S (Wi 6 (96 6 Oe) @ 8 O

Harbor Seam, at Dominion No. 2 Colliery:

Feet. Tnches..
SS] OU oc Bieee p De ene Riper canine ree 0 1
COGS ees re 6 5
Oba ucts Sos Se 6 6

Harbor Seam, at International Colliery :

Splint CO fae ek at Jem SO a Me er i ee ee et i ee Y 9) i
COG esha otucee Ce eee re oe 5 S
LENE SUlh cape aete ctaued sg te Fat tes Sos 5 9

Vicropia County,
Cape Breton Coal Mining Company, New Campellton :

Main Seam:
Feet. Inches.
SUT trader sccare, tyoieteraiane wpbesinalsasfets 0 4,
Oo ailiee ine cto eile er eterna on 4 0

PROG lteetaape sae sovlate ese cies 4 4,

13

14 SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN.
INVERNESS CouNTY.

Inverness Railway and Coal Company, Broad Cove :

Seven Feet Seam: Feet. Inches.
COGNSE COWL oat aie taeetene nets ; 0 Z
RVING wears ncenyonckeevcne dss os Ate oie 0 4
COG: Sel ee 6 i

ME OU alltscaveiancaete am cian oe 7 0

Port Hood Coal Company, Port Hood:

Main Seam : Feet. | Inches.
5S) OU Par geprormenen, Areas are Aa ®) 2
Coal ae... Bi Soe NC ea ee eye Rea ; 6 8
Splints Saws pease Peters 0 2

Mobaily Maser teen backers 5 a 0

Mabou Coal Mining Company, Mabou:
No. 1 (or Seven Feet) Seam :

Feet Inches.
Col SSR dase hea eee 1

Sale moanGles gard oietele 2716 0 1
CECI EAS eat Coen 1 6
SMG evade neon do Hoe oos 0 1
COG te 4® Gis SE acta eee 2 0
OLE dace ener ics ari inact nes nah A 0 1
COG eects eee 1 9
Totally Sevens < eaeebeg ep a tien one if 0

No. 2 (or Eight Feet) Seam : Feet. Inches.
PNaLeY COM. ge wes omens ates 1 0
Coal: wathishale< s.1¢,.te sete eae 1 5
Clay patina, «uci see 2
Coal and Swale a> cscs ene ee 0 6
Olt tie=Claiy cia. po ours ree 0
Gal sen Fee nee ee 3 3
Bi re-Clayy Sess scones ane BOO 0 3
COG RARE srs sthetene teats 0 9
COG ee FOR ei he 3 6

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF

No. 3 (or Fifteen Feet) Seam :

N. S. COALS.

(SI CGUAU RAUL) RA Gri doa Aah OO
COUT he eat Peete Heo ns scit eae a
Clay ppachim eres coe eter ni 2 =
PSUMLCURCOM Capoten’ = ace sje tots 24s
Cody Betta Me terns keh s ye

Shale PartimO ye oat .1 6 ales sels

Ot ee aiee OLE Pe ec eccekesais

COG Bee oo ere eas

COME Eee a ere hea tea tere as

WOR rota PE Ws eS

ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA

oevevee

Pictou County.

Volatile
combustible

matter.
Intercolonial Main Seam.. 25.73
Marsh: Colliery o.5 o. 245° 35.43
Wale: Colliery i045 ac: 28.80
Acadia, Westville........ 28.09
McGregor Seam ........ 28.37
Case, Pit Seat 4..0.7...0. 29.88
ED AIKE SCAN: Sasa 5, .crases Sie 30.69
Acadia Mines, average.... 26.80

*Moisture included in volatile matter.

Fixed
carbon.

65.36
55.48
55.30
60.77
61.15
59.34
53 34
62.20

GILPIN.

Feet. Inches.

2 0)

3 6

0 1

0 6

2 6

0 2

1 3

0) 1

4 0
14 ]
Feet. Inches.

2, 6

J 6

2 0

6 0
CoALs.

Ash, Sulphur.

8.20 eH,

9.99 1.26
14.50 92

9,99 1.24
10.50 1.43
10.78 87
15.97 on

9.70 1.15

15

16 SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN.

CUMBERLAND County.

Volatile

combustible Fixed Ash. Sulphur. Mak,

matter. carbon. ture.

LOMO INS “tp 6 sce enc eke 40.89 4833 10.78 5.72
Mintidiecets: © sateen ee e615 “6245 9160. “5:04 “ese
Strathconal @.c)soee okt. 31.60 ~ 52.25: 10:39- 44% Sy
Chipnectons cai. . ee cee oo3to~ 43,75." “995 2 5602 1.55

Springhill (straight in levels) :

No. 2 Slope, east side.... 34.09 5925 6.66 1.14
ns “ Minto Seam... 3744 56:85 5.71 2:36
ss “ Aberdeen, east 32.30 6049 7.31 1.02
S . ce west 31.08 58.30 1062 2.62 z
No 3 Slope, west, 3800ft. 35.36 59.72 4.92 96 :
‘ “ "9600 ft. 33.42 58:58 800 L12

ce cs

east, top, >
2600 ft. { 36.44 5854 5.02 1.10

= east; top, |
2600 ft-{- 36.05. 57.38 6:57 2:38

Average analysis Spring-
rll coal ieceens es. oe 384.51 58.64 685 1.59

Care Breton County.

Sydney Mines Main Seam... 36.27 57.05 476 2.01 192

Lloyd’s Cove Seam ...... S611 (5025 "2:83: 2a ae eee

Lingan Main Seam ...... 34.05 59.97 3.68° lvl 232

Phalen Seam :

Domimion: Now 322 22 S125> “6045. . 6.95) 283 wae

is Nie Dal ter S245 4 e“ORAa- 5.2): 4.1 9G 85

e INOS. eee S165. ~ 62:20 = 500. or 95

Caledonia: <:.f3e. tees 30:85,2 6205 6:40 22 .70

eserves ohuwctiwesor oo 30.750 63.70 £65, rel 90
Harbor Seam, at Inter-

motional’. 5 2%.0eehen oe S120) > 56S0- aballOr Gos 80:

Gowrie Seam, at Gowrie } : :
and Blockhouse Col. f 28.00) OO 20 ana

SECTIONS AND ANALYSES OF N. S. COALS.—GILPIN. 17

VICTORIA CoUNTY.

Volatile
combustible
: matter.

New Campbellton Main
Gute ee coh ala eth 35.50

Fixed

carbon.

51.55

INVERNESS COUNTY.

Port Hood Main Seam.... 34.67

Mabou, 7 Feet Seam .... 35.90
cs Gee es ee ORS

s se me ote TOU
Raa i eee Oo)

ec

Average of seams 35.82
Broad Cove, 7 Feet Seam.... 45.55

56.39
53.30
56.40
51.20
49.55
Seoul
47.09

Proc. & Trans. N. S. INst. Scr., Vou. XI

Ash.

8.95

Sulphur. Mois-
t

ure.
5.50 4.00
1.10 :
188 2.10
1.85 2.40
5.77 = 2.25
5.20 2.85
3.67 2.40
4,91 ae

TRANS.=B,

GEOLOGY OF THE Moose RIvER GoLp District, HALIFAX
County, Nova Scotra.*—By Pror. J. E>omMunD Woop-
MAN, 8. D., School of Mining and Metallurgy, Dal-
housie University, Halifax, N.S.

(Read 18th May, 1903.)

CONTENTS.

Introduction— PAGR | Faults— PAGE
WOGEEL OM ers eres as aaa, ierclo senate: 19 Classes of movements ......... ...... 42
Extent and topography .......... -. 20 Wrestfatlt (oo aacneds nn) Usct eee 43
Division into units of area. ........ 20 COUTSE iss). fiSs. 2a al ee ee 43.
Methods of approach to subject...... 2l Details of displacements............ 44
Nomenclatunel sn sassdence te ei seeeee 22 Direction of motions. 22 .0s-c.-cccee 44
IACKMOWILEGSIMOMES: oie eales «cis ciece iets eae 23 Middle:iaultiil ss cooeeeeeee or ee AT

Course and attitude... . ........- 47
Part 1. Structure. Displacementscsw ase se eee 47

Data for structural interpretation— Southern limit of dislocation ...... 48
INDRENCEUOL LOssile™ cee ee ae a1 ssential unity of Divisionsiiand iii 49
Lithological horizons .. .. .. ...... a4 Direction and character of move-
Interbedded veins, and distribution of : TIMOMG, ee eile tao enim, je alee einlel eres 49;

Strikes anddips) esse smebeesse cece 25 Mastitault 2.6% seca -cic ee eee eee jl
hse Course: aspect at east quarry. .... 5k

Sediments— Displacements in southern part of
General distribution........--..-..+-- 25 iiss Cee MIE RT Cc aN CS 5t
Characteristics Soden oAsoLOUotoNSa Ss 26 Explanation of movements, and pre-

Slsitesee 21220222 fee es ec arene = 26 sent attitude of Divisioniv ...... 52
Quartzites ......... Pe cacics neste Sorel 2G4| = Mim orate, ul taaeas a: sae a nee eee eee 53

@ontactsiof strata jane. 2s. ceecce oie es 20" Jointsr.cssacecce ey lao le eee 54

Folds— : Ea ic
Position of the two main anticlines... 27 Messmorp ait a Re
Union of anticlinal axes westward .. 27 Secoudaeeiee cae BOOGIE COC Or USm EY: iL
Stratigraphic position of Moose River Glenc arsaiGl = chi = sitet ements Re

GUStLI CEM ees ee PB eanit he ee TRUER Obs ec os em oniue a

Details at pueat Mine” ere aes 29 ‘ PAO NAYES 200 LODE sence ag FbCK u
ocation of axes in main district .... 3) 5 ae

Divisionseen ter ieee eee ee 39 Part 2. Veins
Attitude and character of strata .. 32 | Composition—

SenteEDE aun of structure ........ es @onstituents eee eee eee eee eeeeeee 59
yall} etonegnohowonnondviaosenens 3 Arrangement of minerals ...........-
Beri anuelne eee ngcnre ae a 2 see sd

Jestward pitch of north anticline 35 | pistribution—
Subsidiary fold, pitching east...... Soyer nes: 60
South maa fold fesse. SOMATIC URS ITISEE ton ee 60
Relation to Divisioni ......... ... SB Se ei meh RL 8g rr

Divisiontiitec a soos see see te ee 37 | Attitude—

INortinantichines oes. seraests oe cee 37 Relation to belts of strata ........ a An
Subsidiary compound fold.......... 37 Angulars ..... 8 coe Nee ee 61
Soduthtanticlinew sees eee: semen 38 Confinement to one side ofa fold . .. 62
Details from trenches .......-....... 38 G@renulations:. 4. (3-2 eee eee 63
Interpretation, and correlation with Relation to stratification............ 63

Divisione rseesee on -e Saieel eee 39 Variations in size andshape....... 63

IDivisiOnelver cod. eles eerste el eee ere 40 Kaulback belt of angulars ......_.. 64
Subsidiary and south anticlines ... 40 Effects upon secondary structures. 60
Axial dips and plunges ............ 41 Gross -Veinsi!. a. 2 059. cceceaeeenee i
Correlation with Division iii ...... 41 FROM Ss. Scie sek Sacre cet eee Eee 67

Summary of Moose River folding.... 42 Details:of- contacts: =<. se eeeeeee . 68

*The third of a series of papers on the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia; extracted
and altered from a thesis accepted for the Doctorate of Science at Harvard University
in 1902. entitled ‘‘ Geology of the Moose River district, Halifax county, Nova Scotia ;
together with the pre-Carboniferous history of the Meguma series,” The first two
papers appeared in the American Geologist, 1904, vol. x xxiii.

(18)

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 19

e

PAGE| Part 4. Swmmary of geological history.

Ratio of vein material to sediments .. 68
‘ Appendix,
Part 3. Metallic contents of the rocks. Detailed description of leads— PAGE
‘ DiVASLONM Sass ehieine ene sac vectacts 7
Pyrite— WIVISION NIC nomen csc eine vosreniatea ae acs
Relation to stratification planes .... 69 INonthianiti cline asses ie sme 78
Attitude in leads and cross veins .... 79 Comparison with “West Mine” 79
PATSONODVEIbO: «ces We Neg eteie sass way slaiceee wis 70 Subsidiary anticline ........----.... 8h)
WAN OPISULDNIGES 255 22 sick Ss no ceeles teins er. 72 Southanticline:: io) eee ee 81
DD IVASTOUITIONE Ee oc na. ferect o tacts oe ctor 82
Gold— Northianticline’ .4:.72.. 26 «ieee. 82
HimiS@daMON US ieee = <n ea iesie ons 72 Subsidiary anticline.... .. ....... 82
In veins: special enrichment ........ e4 South anticline. ..5-5.02.+--<--- Sao fe33
Relations to vein walls ..... andes. 18} MATES trench esmesiay cee mercies ee 83
Britannia and Kaulback pbelta’.. sec. 73 IDshvatah yn aoered anna ore sapEoceS Uae 84
DENG RY OOD OY HU DRESY. SOOO OR OAS S Soc OUNGA Bmp AED AH OGEDOGUEESOUD. Ghecedoac 86

INTRODUCTION.

Location.—The settlement of Moose River Mines lies in Iat.
44° 58’ 55” N., long. 62° 56° 40” W.; and is 37.5 miles
northeast (true meridian) from Halifax. Its rocks form a por-
tion of the upland, or Cretaceous peneplain, here very flat. The
surface over many square miles of this region is so even that
Sphagnum abounds, with moist soil below ; and for long distances
a well-driven pick will strike bedrock anywhere. On the north
barrens extend for several miles: to the other side lies more
timbered country, becoming swampy toward the Tangier granite,
with numerous lakes. Natural exposures are few, and the true
structure is discoverable only by means of underground work-
ings or surface trenches.

The settlement was made, as many others have been, merely
by clearing the timber off the level land and damming up a
small stream, Moose river, for power. Mining has been carried
on in a small way for many years, but no shafts have been sunk
below 500 feet. In the course of exploration, numerous shallow
pits and trenches have been cut, exposing the bedrock across
the strike of the strata. Many hundreds of feet of trenches
were opened for me in 1899, in the course of economic develop-
ment. A few quarries, located as they all are in rather critical
parts of the field, afford excellent opportunities for study. The
surrounding country is evenly covered with drift, nowhere very

20 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

thick and in many places less than a foot deep; and outcrops
for several miles are no more abundant than within the limits
of the settlement itself.

Extent and topography.—The main settlement extends
rather more than half a mile east and west, and a third of a
mile north and south (pl. 1, fig. a). One mile west a district
locally called “ West Mine,” (pl. 1, figs. a, b), has been opened
superficially for economic purposes; and here also it has been pos-
sible to do some detailed work, which has aided in interpreting
the structure of the main field. Little could be made of the
intimate structure in either part of the district without the aid
of subsurface workings, which range from shallow trenches and
larger quarries to shafts three hundred feet deep. No really
deep sinking has ever been done here.

The topography of the region is that of a plain with very
slight relief. The drainage is weak, although low falls are
numerous. Lakes abound. The general direction of the main
streams is northwest to southeast. Moose river, from which the
settlement takes its name, runs roughly south from Caribou, seven
miles north-northeast of the Moose River mines, where it has
expanded into several lakes. Between the two localities it has
a wandering course, often broadening into linear lakes, and in
places almost lost in swamps. At the northwest corner of the
settlement the river has been dammed to supply one of the
crushers, and again at the north for a similar purpose.

From the pond first mentioned, west for a mile or more the
surface is fairly even, rising to a height of twenty-five feet
above the river, but for the most part without distinet hills or
ridges. The disposition of the drift accounts for much of the
slight irregularity. East of the river the land rises twenty-five
feet in five hundred, then very gradually for a mile. The south
side of the district, however, was largely a swamp until 1898.

Division into wnits of area.—Like most of the proclaimed
gold districts of the province, Moose River has been divided by
the Department of Works and Mines into blocks, composed of

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 21

areas; each of the latter being 250 feet north and south by 150
feet east and west. Thus each of the six blocks composing this
district contains 1,000 areas, and measures 7,500 feet east and —
west in fifty areas’ width, and 5,000 feet north and south in twenty
areas’ length. The main settlement comprises a few areas in blocks
1 on the north and 4 on the south (pl. 1, fig. a, and pl. 2).
“ West Mine” is in block 6 on the north, and south of it lies
block 5 (pl. 1, fig. a).

Much trouble has arisen in the study and economic develop-
ment of gold-bearing properties in various parts of the province,
because the early surveys were carelessly made, and always by
magnetic meridian; and in many cases either the date or ~ the
declination has been omitted from the map. The declina-
tion has changed steadily, and in many districts resurveys have
detected errors in the older work, and the present area lines may
follow neither magnetic nor true meridians. This discrepancy is
especially marked where the lines have been run parallel and
perpendicular to the general strike of the rocks, as here. The
declination at Moose River in 1897 was approximately 22°
15’ W. The north-south lines run 5° west of this, or about
27° 15’ west of true north. In this paper all bearings are
referred to magnetic north.

Method of approuch to subject.—The survey of the Moose
River district formed part of an investigation into the pre-
Carboniferous history of the gold-bearing series. The spot was
selected for detailed study, partly because it appeared to be
typical of the series as a whole in many ways, and yet unique
in a few features—and in just those features favorable to the
study of the veins. I recognize that certain large problems in
Nova Scotian geology can never be solved until close, painstak-
ing, detailed work has been done on critical sections ; and while
the detail in this paper may at first appear excessive, the study
has been made deliberately, in the hope that it may lead to more
detailed work elsewhere in the series.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S Inst. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS,.—C,

22 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

The field studies occupied parts of several seasons. When the
first survey was made, in 1897, no maps of the district had
been published; but within a few months the mining map by
‘Mr. E. R. Faribault appeared [Geol. surv. Can., doc. no. 646 ;
scale 1: 6,000]. Iam much indebted to this for the positions of
certain veins which have not been worked since the present
study began, and for checks upon certain other features. The
map in this paper is more detailed than is customary, even in
large-scale mining maps, in its attempt to locate the axes of the
several folds; and has the benefit of a number of excavations
which were unfortunately not opened when the earlier plan was
published. It isa pleasure to note that, while pl. 2 differs in
many details from the government map, the later work confirms
in the main the general results of Mr. Faribault’s survey. This
last is to be expected; as his painstaking work has invariably
resulted in valuable maps of the anticlinal domes.

Inasmuch as this is a field study, petrographic and
chemical aids have been employed only as far as was necessary
for the main purposes of the paper; and many interesting pro-
blems involving their use have been neglected. It will be
noticed also that the larger theoretical questions are not included
in the following pages, except for a partial summary at the end.
This is because the length of the paper would be increased
unduly, were they treated in full; and the alternative is to
be followed of presenting a discussion of the general problems
arising from the study, in subsequent detached papers.

Nomenclature.—Throughout more than a half-century of
study of the gold-bearing series, no distinct geological names
have been used for it and its subdivisions. Almost simultaneously
with this paper another has been published, proposing a remedy
(Am. Geol, vol. xxxiii); and the nomenclature of that paper will
be employed by me in this and subsequent contributions to the
geology of the series. The gold-bearing series as a whole is
there called the Meguma series ; the lower, quartzite, or gold-

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 23

bearing division is named the Goldenville formation; and the
upper or black slate division, the Halifax formation.
Below is a list of terms used in the present paper, which
might otherwise be misunderstood by some, because of new-
ness or the local meaning employed.
Angular—(1) An irregular spur from a stratified vein, or
(2) a vein striking nearly or quite with the
strata, but intersecting them in dip. The
first meaning is in part local, as in some other
places these veins are called “feeders” or
“ robbers.”

Barrel—A corrugatiun: of stratified veins, and of strata ad-
jacent to them, usually on the plunge of
a domed anticline.

Break—Fault.

Lead—Stratified vein.

Pocket—A restricted portion of a lead or other vein, locally

highly enriched.

Regular—In the plane of stratification.

Roll—Generally a synonym for “ barrel.”

Surface—Glacial drift.

Whin—Sandstone or quartzite in this series.

:00 or :01.—1900, or 1901, dates.

Acknowledgments.—This research had its beginning in a
small study made for and with Professor N.S. Shaler of Harvard
University ; and throughout the continuance of this and of other
studies arising from it, he has aided it in every way, so that my
indebtedness to him is greater than to anyone else.

The help derived from Mr. Faribault’s map has been men-
tioned. Thanks are due also to Mr. B. F. Pearson and Mr. J. K.
Pearson, upon whose property much of the detailed work was
done, and who gave every facility for it; and to owners and
workers of the other properties in the district.

94 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

PART I.—STRUCTURE.,

DATA FOR STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION.

Absence of fossils.—No fossil remains of any description
have been discovered in the rocks of Moose River. The only
appearances suggestive of them are some concretions which pro-
trude from the surface of a quartzite ledge on area 132, block 1.
These have weathered less than the rest of the rock, through
the possession of a firmer cement. They appear as ovoid pro-
jections ranging up to three inches in length, two in width and
three-quarters in height. Frequently stratification bands can
be seen to pass through them, but these are faint. The weather-
ing has left the surface of the concretions rough.

In the slide they show no trace of organic origin. Their
appearance differs little from that of the other quartzites of the
district, except in a slightly coarser texture and more abundant
cement ; characteristics which decrease outward from a center,
and doubtless the concretionary growth is a function of them.
Two thin sections show grains of quartz cemented by silica and
calcite, with the usual secondary minerals, described later. The
grains are so situated as to leave no room for an organic nucleus,
now perhaps lost, but both specimens show an inorganic nucleus.
The cementation has centered around a few coarse grains of
sand, about twice the diameter of the other grains. In the
vicinity of these is a comparatively dense network of secondary
minerals, chiefly dark ones such as chlorite, biotite, and particu-
larly a dense amorphous iron oxide. Wherever the grains of
quartz are unusually large, there is a tendency to this increased
density ; but it centers chiefly around one spot.

Lithological horizons. —Of rock horizons, only one can be
found which, by reason of its distinctness and continuity, might
be used throughout the region asa datum plane. ‘This is the
slate belt containing the Jo. Taylor belt of leads. Unfortunately
the structure is such that this one is not visibly repeated across

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 25

the strike; and furthermore, the outcrops and artificial exposures
are not so placed as to make the exact delimitation of this
horizon easy.

Interbedded veins, and distribution of strikes and dips.—
Most of the interpretation of structure rests, then, upon two
series of data—the attitude of the stratified veins, and the dis-
tribution of strikes and dips in the sediments. In small areas
and for short distances, recognition of definite horizons in the
strata is also possible. The distribution, attitude and character-
istics of the bedded veins serve well within certain limits; but
beyond a fault these criteria may occasionally fail, especially if
the displacement be large, or the veins near a point where they
die out or cut across the strata to another horizon, as they do in
a few places. Yet veins are frequently the only horizon markers
available in measuring a fault. Taken in connection with the
distribution of strikes and dips of the sediments, and the litho-
logical character of the strata on the hanging and foot-walls of
vein belts, they form part of a fairly secure group of data.

SEDIMENTS.

General distribution.—North of the settlement, beginning
two or three areas beyond the Copper lead, the rocks are chiefly
quartzite for nearly three miles. Here and there thin slate
strata are intercalated, but the proportion of argillaceous
material is small. South of the mines, starting at the third or
fourth tier of areas south of block 1, quartzite again stretches
for several miles. The exact proximal limits of these whin*
zones cannot be given, on account of the few natural outcrops
and the absence of artificial openings; but the margin of error
is small.

Between these limiting whin areas is a broad belt character-
ized by lustrous black slate, often somewhat schistose; essentially

*This quartzite is called ‘“‘whin” by miners throughout the province. The term,
used throughout the gold mining part of the province for sandstones, arenaceous slates
and quartzites. was originally employed by Hutton in Scotland, to designate certain
sheets of trap, and in Cornwall still has a similar meaning.

296 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN,

different from the slate of the Halifax formation, which is well
exposed on the road north from the mines. ‘There are quartzite
strata within this zone, but they are comparatively few and
narrow. In them, as in the more abundant ones to the north
slate lenses with rounded edges are occasionally found. It is
the extent of this slate belt, at least 1,500 feet wide across the
strike, which constitutes one of the unique features of the dis-
trict. All the ore-bearing veins are situated in it, even though
many of them lie at the contact of slate with thin strata of
quartzite. .

The plunging of the folds east and west is not sufficient to
bring the bordering quartzites of the north and south around the
ends of the anticlines—at least, within the limits of the survey.

Characteristics: slates—The argillaceous material varies
from a soft lustrous slate to one that is as hard and dense as the
best roofing slates. In both the composition is chiefly kaolin,
finer in the former, and somewhat lighter colored in the slide.
Most of the characteristics seen in thin section are metamorphic.
The color in the field is due largely to the same cause, but the
firmness has for its primary source the texture of the mass,
allowing the metamorphic changes to act differently in different
eases. On the whole, the coarser the slate the less it has been
shattered by cleavage.

Characteristics: quartzites—The coarser sediments grade
imperceptibly into the pelites in places, but in the shde a sharper
line of demarcation is usually present than would be expected.
The quartzites have as their chief constituent fine and well
rounded grains of quartz. The cement is partly secondary silica,
but so much calcite is present that it is difficult to see in some
specimens what can be the origin of the granular gleam charac-
teristic of fresh quartzite surfaces, and highly developed in the
psammites of Moose River.

No distinctly felspathic material was seen in the slides, and
little kaolin in any but the finer whin. There is, however, a
considerable amount of muscovite and biotite. While some of

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 27

the mica is evidently secondary, other pieces, especially of biotite,
show by their rounded outline and their relation to the quartz
grains that they are clastic.

Contacts of strata.—The discontinuity of strata has been
mentioned. This is as marked in a small as ina large way;
for there are many lenticles of slate in the whin, from a few
inches in length to less than one, the ends of which are sometimes
well defined and rounded, but more often vague and serrate. In
no case has the microscope shown a local deposit of slate thin-
ning out to an edge. The upper and lower contacts are smoother
where not folded; but even these are frequently sinuous, merely
from almost microscopic differences in deposition. Under the
influence of folding and cleavage, the strata and lamin have
assumed very complex relations.

FOLDS.

Position of the two main anticlines.—One of the features
in which Moose River differs from other gold districts of Nova
Scotia is in being situated, not on one dome, but on three. It
has been stated that the rocks of the Meguma series lie in per-
sistent and roughly parallel folds, the axes of which run north-
east to east. Two of the anticlines pass through this field (pl. 1,
fig. a,and pl.2). The more northerly has a direction of N. 60° E.
(true) at the east end of the main settlement, and N. 69° E.
(true) at its west end. The other runs N. 65° E. (true) on the
east, and N. 74° E. (true) on the west. Thus both are converg-
ing westward at an angle of 5°.

Union of anticlinal axes westward.—The north axis can be
traced eastward through Fifteen Mile Stream settlement, appar-
ently dying out five miles northwest of Goldenville. The south
axis passes eastward through Beaver Dam and Ragged Falls
gold districts, running parallel with the other at a distance of
two to two and a half miles from it, and continues farther east
through Stillwater to Country Harbor. There it is lost in a fault
of large horizontal displacement, although the Seal Harbor anti-

28 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

cline is almost certainly a continuation of it. The eastward course
of the two folds does not come further into this study. Westward,
however, they are of special interest, on account of their con-
tinued convergence and final union a mile west of the settlement
(pl. 1, figs. a, b). The combined anticline stretches westward
through Mt. Tom, probably to Waverley. Its point of bifurcation
is partly a matter of estimate, as outcrops are few and little
trenching has been done; but enough observations are possible
to give reasonable accuracy.

Stratigraphic position of Moose River district.—The only
datum plane in the series available for broad structural study is
the contact between the Goldenville and Halifax formations.
North of Moose River lies a broad zone of the latter, and many
observations can be made between the two. South of the mines
there is no belt of black slate north of the Tangier granite, in
such line that a section through Moose River would intersect it.

On the road north from the settlement, although outcrops
are numerous at the roadside and in the surrounding barrens, it
is difficult to get the structure with certainty. All the exposures
are of quartzite, and the weathered faces and superficial parts
easily reached with a hammer rarely show slate lamine. The
whin itself is too uniform to have visible stratification planes.
Such observations as are possible give steep north dips up to the
edge of the upper formation. Two miles west of the mines a
traverse north is possible under better conditions. Here the
dips vary somewhat, averaging 75° N., and giving a thick-
ness of 16,730 feet. The Moose River anticline plunges
westward throughout this region, and to the eastward lower and
lower strata lie against its axis at the surface. If 75° N. be
assumed for the average dip of the Goldenville beds north of the
mines, as seems reasonable in view of observations at the traverse
to the west and three miles to the east of the settlement, the
lowest exposed strata on the main north anticline lie 16,900 feet
below the base of the Halifax formation.

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 29

South from Moose River, at least one anticline intervenes
between the mines and the edge of the upper formation; and
calculation based upon that traverse is rendered still more
uncertain by the scattered distribution of such outerops as are
structurally valuable.

Details at “ West Mine.” —It is at “ West Mine” that the
union of the two anticlines occurs. This region contains, besides
two or three natural exposures, two trenches and several shallow
shafts. The location of the axis before and after branching, and
of the openings, is shown in pl. 1, fig. b. On areas 187 and 188
the rocks show no sign of a double axis, where visible. By esti-
mate, the farthest point west at which the two axes should be in
the least separate, is 64 feet west of the east side of area 189,
and 156 feet south of its north end. As a matter of fact, there
must be a zone eastward for some hundreds of feet, in which
the division is accomplished,and before it can be said that there
are two distinct axes. The few natural exposures are some-
what disturbed, but farther east two axes are plain.

The data at West Mine are not so full as in the settlement.
The only sources of continuous observation would be trenching
across the strike and cross-cutting underground. The two
trenches already referred to were in disuse at the time of my
study, and gave only intermittent views of the bedrock. The

,

“surface” or drift varies in depth from one foot up to eight or
ten. The north end of the northern trench lies in area 214, six
feet east and 94 south from its northwest corner. The rocks
here have a high north dip, but were not well exposed in 1899.
The cut runs 77 feet S. 25° E., to a lead. South of this lie two
or three feet of compact quartzite, with a smooth contact; then
fourteen feet of dark slate interspersed with siliceous layers,
ending against more whin with a “rolling” or corrugated foot-
wall contact. These last strata strike N. 80° E. and dip 64° N.
The same attitude is found 29 feet south, where the rock has
been trenched for many feet along the strike to expose a bedded
vein. Thirty-three feet south again is the north end of an eight-

30 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

foot belt of slate,on which a shaft has been sunk. Between
these stations the rock appears to be quartzite, and south of the
slate three feet is the hanging wall of another narrow band of slate.
In area 187, next south of 214, the shaft which has been mapped
lies over a six-foot belt of veins, the belt being crumpled slate.
The strike here is N. 87° E., the dip 84° N. The trench shown
on the map runs 8. 42° E. Along this 175 feet south is the
first vein with a south dip. Thirty-three feet farther is a second,
and thirty-one feet south of it a third. The exposures were in such
condition in 1899 that the degrees of dip could not be measured
accurately, but they were high. The bedrock was only obscurely
visible anywhere along this trench. | From such indications as
could be found, and from questioning those who had dug the
ditch, the estimate was made that the axis Jies about 125 feet
from the north end of the trench. It strikes east and west, and
the estimate here agrees almost exactly with that given earlier,
from data a mile to the eastward. Throughout the traverse of
the region the rocks show a local crumpling and contortion
unlike anything seen in most of the districts, but such as might
be expected to accompany the division of an anticlinal axis, in
alternating competent and incompetent strata. For a consider-
able distance north and south, such outerops or prospect holes as
have been found from year to year show dips away from the
axis.

The minute details of this commercially unimportant field
have been given, because they throw light upon some problems
in the main settlement. For the location of the strata, veins and
structures in the main part of the field, pl. 2 can be used
throughout the remainder of the discussion of structure.

Location of axes in main district.—tIn the eastern part of
the region the structure, reduced to its lowest terms, is that of
two east and west anticlines, slightly diverging eastward, the
north fold plunging west and the south one east. Between
them, owing to the abundance and peculiar distribution of the
slate strata, there has been developed a local anticline, which

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 3l

appears to die out westward almost within the limits of the
field; and which quite certainly ends on the east within a short
distance, although another has been found seven miles from the
mines. ‘This is one of the unique features of the area, because
of the opportunity it offers for the study of the growth of folds ;
and is made possible by the presence of the broad horizon of
slate instead of the alternation of narrow well-defined bands of
slate and quartzite characteristic of the other domes.

The more northerly of the two main anticlines starts east
from West Mine with its axis taking a probable direction of N.
86° E. Where it crosses Moose river it has a strike of N. 89°
W. The more southerly fold starts east with a strike of N. 87°
W., and at the west end of the main field lies N. 84° W. This
gives an eastward divergence of 5° to the axes. Where they
cross the stream they are approximately 525 feet apart. The
vicissitudes of faulting are described elsewhere. It may be
recorded here, however, that east of the westernmost main fault
the north anticlinal axis does not change its strike; east of the
middle fault it lies for most of its way N. 86° W., probably
turning northeast somewhat, as do the beds to the north; and
east of the third main fault it starts N. 88° E., but soon turns to
N. 82° E. The directions of this and the other six axes, at the
extreme east end of the district, are estimates based upon
observations immediately west and some distance east. The
south anticline starts directly east from the west fault; but runs
northward somewhat, influenced but not intersected by the
middle fault, then strikes 8. 87° E., to the east fault. Beyond
this the axis is sinuous for nearly 500 feet, finally straightening
out in a direction N. 87° E. Thus the axes diverge eastward at
5° here, also. The distance between them is the same as at the
west end—525 feet.

Lack of outerops makes the position of the synclinal axis
between these folds problematical, west of the west fault. Inas-
much, however, as it is very definitely located everywhere else,
the position assigned, based upon data immediately to the east,

32 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

cannot be far wrong. East of this fault the nearest outcrops of
opposite dips are only twelve feet apart, so that the axial line
can be given with great accuracy. East of the middle fault the
axis 1s estimated with reference to a definite horizon which
appears on both sides of the break,—the Jo. Taylor belt of leads
—combined with certain other less definite data. East of the
east fault, also, exposures define the position of the line closely.
It will be noticed that here the distance to the south anticlinal
axis 1s much less—45 feet—than in any place to the west.

To understand the growth of the middle fold, it will be
necessary to state in detail the data available for determining
the structure. For this purpose, the rocks will be considered in
four divisions—i, west of the west fault; 77, between this and
the middle fault; v7, west of the east fault; and 2, including
the east end of the field.

Division i: attitude and character of strata.—Exposures in
division i are few, compared with the rest of the region. West
of the river the only shaft is that on area 66, supposed to be on
a continuation of the Britannia belt. The dip of the skids is
about 50° 8S. The rock on the dump consists largely of an
argillaceous quartzite, grayish green in color and highly lust-
rous. Mingled with this is a compact, shiny black slate. It was
impossible to descend the shafts at any of the visits,
North to the bend of the river is a continuous outcrop along the
stream bed. It is all quartzite, having only here and there
laminz by which to get the attitude. The two records on pl.
2 sum up all the knowledge that can be gained without excava-
tion. The strata at the more southerly station strike from
N. 85° E. to E—W., according to the precise spot of observation.

Kast of the stream the land is low and somewhat swampy
toward the north. On areas 133 and 168 is a ledge of much
weathered quartzite, but it is impossible to be sure of its atti-
tude. It lies along the line of probable westward continuation
of the north anticline, and doubtful evidence points to a north

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 383

dip on the north side, and a south dip on the south; but this
was not considered in plotting the axis on the map. Several
outcrops lie a few feet north of the Alex. Taylor lead, all but
two, which have been recorded, being of doubtful value for
structure. These two exposures are quartzite, so that there is
no slate on or near the surface north of the lead just mentioned;
but this is not surprising, as the slate rarely stands out well
under erosion. Northeast of the shaft near the center of area
132, is a ledge from which the concretionary “ fossils,” already
described, were collected. This is also whin, coarse in places
and with an indeterminate but distinctly low south dip. The
Alex. Taylor lead is important because, although the deepest
shaft is only forty feet down on a 35° surface dip, the lead
flattens out considerably in that depth. The next data come
from the Britannia, which gives an average dip of 45°S. A
small trench on area 69 showed in 1899 six belts of leads, all
with a fairly steep south dip, one measured as 67°. In 1901 a
belt of rather erratic veins had been opened on areas 68 and 69,
to a depth of 170 feet. The dip of the sediments varies con-
siderably in that distance, through irregular “rolling” of the
beds; but it is safe to call it on the average 70° S.

No other exposures are met north of the Touquoy crusher
except a number of leads in a drain on the east side of area 32,
observable only in 1899. They all have steep north dips, some
probably vertical; but the depth open to observation was too
slight to make sure of that. These leads, on account of similarity
in attitude, interval and composition, are taken to correspond to
the Moleskin and leads south of it in the trench on area 30; and
to the south, leads with a south dip, very like the Smith and
those near it, have been seen when the drain was fresh. Finally,
a bedded vein occurs at the south corner of the Touquoy crusher,
vertical and in vertical strata; and south of this are three south
dips, on area 33.

Division 1: interpretation of structwre.—The obvious inter-
pretation of these data is given in the section on pl. 3. The

34 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

north side of the north anticline is fairly to be inferred from
observable steep dips east of the fault. South of this axis the
dips are low for some feet, increase to 35° at the surface in the
Alex. Taylor lead but are still low below; then steepen steadily
to 70°, with an average of about 60°. South of the synelinal
axis the dips are known to be steep; and from veins in the
trench on area 32, and known east of the fault, in divisions ii
and iii, a probable average of 70° is obtained. South of the
south anticlinal axis, the dips begin at 90° and run out to at
least 70°. Farther east they are lower.

Two interesting features are shown in thissection. First, the
folds are all unsymmetrical, but irregularly so. The axial plane
of the north anticline dips 60° S., that of the other two folds
85° S., giving an overturn to the north in all. Second, the north
anticline is not normal and simple, but compound, having on the
south side very low central dips, and a distinct bulge about one-
third of the distance to the synclinal axis. | How far west this
bulge extends there is no means of knowing, because the coun-
try is undeveloped ; but eastward it grows into a distinet third
anticline, clearly defined, but evidently lying on the side of the
north fold. Although not fully developed in division i, this
bulge is divisible into an anticline with an axis dipping 53°
N., and a syncline whose axis dips 64° N.

Division w: north anticline—In division 11 the most
northern dip visible is that of No. 7 lead, between 70° and 75°.
The slate belt extends at least a hundred feet farther north,
according to those who worked this part of the district in earlier
years; and by estimate some distance beyond. Between No. 7
and the Little North, the rock is still largely quartzite, slate in-
creasing in proportion southward. Even as far as the Big North
whin is found to some extent. The dips north of the axis are
sufficiently represented on the map—low near the center and
increasing outward. The anticline has a comparatively flat top,
as can be seen well in the quarry on area 131.

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 385

Division ii: westward pitch of north anticline— Many
years ago the Big North was stoped out on the crest of the fold
westward on a plunge, the work going somewhat farther than
the shaft at the north end of area 132, or about 200 feet. Later
the crown was broken down in part, and the present quarry
made. ‘This plunge, characteristic of most of the gold districts
of Nova Scotia, begins on the east side of area 131 at 9.5° W.,
and becomes 12° on the west side of the same area. How much
higher the angle grows it is impossible to say ; for the west fault
cuts off both the Big North and Serpent leads, and it has never
been proved that the leads west of the break are the same.

Division w: subsidiary fold, pitching east—South of the
anticlinal axis in areas 130 and 131, the only dip except on the
plunge comes from a trial shaft in the center of area 130. Here
slate was encountered, almost flat, but dipping south enough to
give an average of 5° 8. According to this, the axial plane dips
70° S. in this part of the fold. At the south end of these areas
is the Archibald vein. This dips 48° S. at the surface; but it
does not lie directly in the bedding, as witness the discordance
of its strike with all the others near. The Bruce is, however,
“regular” or interstratified. From it to the south end of areas
70 and 71 the structure, revealed only by the quarry, gives folds
merely foreshadowed in division i. The dips are south for sixty
to eighty feet south of the Bruce belt (pl. 7 fig. c); but the
strike is erratic, varying from the normal—almost east and
west—at the north, to N. 20° E. in one place at the south. For
thirty feet farther the dips are slightly northward, the strikes
varying from N.10° W. to N. 30° W. Here, then, is a local
syneline, apparently dying out westward, and running east to
the fault. That part of division i (pl. 8) to which it corresponds,
is the flattening out of the south dips in the Alex. Taylor lead
and vicinity. The best estimate of the dip of the axial plane
makes it 83 N. ;

The anticline south of this trough corresponds to the change
from low to high dips toward the Britannia, in division i. It

386 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

plunges eastward, as shown by the curved strike of the Jo.
Taylor belt, and of the strata at the east end of the quarry,
immediately north of the anticlinal axis. The Taylor belt is found
on that side also, but does not reach the surface in the unex-
cavated part. The angle of pitch is difficult to measure or
estimate, but is about 15° E. All this part of the field is slate,
except here and there a stratum of quartzite, such as overlies
_the Jo. Taylor belt to a thickness of four or five feet. This belt
of leads takes part in the synclinal folding immediately to the
north. The axial plane of the anticline appears to dip 85° N.

Division w: south main fold.—Vhe synclinal axis south of
the quarry is measurable to within a few feet, for the two near-
est outcrops of opposite dip are scarcely twelve feet apart,
measured directly across the strike. This axis is continued from
west of the west fault, and its plane dips 83° 8. The rocks to
the south dip much as in the corresponding zone on areas 30 and
171, east of the middle fault. The angles are all high to the
south anticlinal axis, whose plane dips 82° S. Thence as far
south as the Root Hog the dips vary from 50° S. near the axis
to 70° at the lead just mentioned. The rock is slate from the
Jo. Taylor belt to the south end of the trench on area 970,
block 4, except for a few quartzite strata of no importance. In-
deed the small exposure south of the trench, and one near the
south end of area 930, block 4, indicate that the slate belt ex-
tends at least 650 or 700 feet south of the south anticlinal axis.
This trench is one cut in 1899 expressly to develop the structure
of the rocks and the distribution of the leads.

Division w: relation to division 1.—A comparison of the
cross sections of these two divisions (pls. 3, 4), shows that in ii
there is beginning to form a distinct subsidiary anticline on the
flat side of the northern fold. It is probable, judging from the
distribution of dips in and near the quarry on area 70, that the
local syncline does not extend to the fault on the west, and its
axis has been drawn with this belief. West of the fault there
is no syncline, and this one begins as a definite sag fifty or one

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 37

hundred feet east of the break, becoming more marked east-
ward. It will be noticed that the axes of the local folds dip in
opposite directions from those of the main ones; as is to be ex-
pected if division ii is a development of division i.

Division vii: north anticline.—In division iii, the northern-
most outcrop is a vein on areas 227 and 228. It is doubtful
whether this is parallel with the stratification ; and as it is some
distance beyond the main field, it will not be considered either
in map or section. Leads east of the middle fault which have
always been regarded as continuations of the Copper and Little
North have been worked, in some cases to a depth of 200 feet.
From the character of the gangue, and the adjacent sediments,
there is little doubt that those two and the Big North are repre-
sented in this division. The dips become noticeably lower
toward the axis, as is characteristic of the north anticline, which
has everywhere a full top and rounded north side. Between the
Big North, called the North Sutherland at its east end, and the
quarry on areas 73 and 74, there is only one exposure. This is
a small pit on the line between areas 126 and 127, where the
rock is slate, lying flat. As far as can be learned from those
who prospected this zone in earlier years, the strata are almost
entirely slate, resembling that of division ii north of the Jo.
Taylor belt.

Division vii: subsidiary compound fold.—In the quarry
on areas 73 and 74 is a horizon corresponding to part of the
larger quarry to the west. On the south the hanging wall lead
of the Jo. Taylor belt outcrops, overlain by the usual whin
stratum. The foot-wall lead of this belt forms much of the
floor of the excavation. On the north side the strata dip north
at angles varying from 20° to nearly 40°. On the south the dip
is 30° to 45° S. Between is a small but distinct synclinal sag
(pl. 8, fig. a). This, then, is the perfection of the fold prophe-
sied in division i and shown in an incomplete form in
division ii. Not only has an anticline been formed on the side

Proc. & Trans. N.S Inst. Scr, Vou. XI. TRANS,.—D.

38 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

of the large one, but this has itself been made compound by the
sinking of a syncline on its summit. On area 75 a small
quarry shows this puckering to a slight extent. In this case,
however, the dips on the north side are very low, not over 10°.
The same condition obtains in a tunnel which runs from the
floor of this quarry, eastward under the road to a new quarry on
area 76.

Division vii: south anticline.—South of the Jo. Taylor
belt, the dips vary on the same horizons, steepening westward
and becoming lower eastward. Thus the Dreadnaught slate
belt, which has a dip of 45° S., south of the quarry, has only 20°
one area to the east. The Dry belt, which dips 80° N. at the
north end of area 30, declines to 50° and 35° eastward. The
Moleskin changes from 70° to 35° at the extremities of its
developed portion. The bearing of this may be seen by comparing
with these dips the distribution of dips along the horizon of the
Jo. Taylor belt east and west of the middle fault. From such
comparisons it appears that both the middle and south anticlines
plunge eastward steadily, the former rapidly, the latter at a
Jower angle.

Little is to be said of the south dips on the south anticline.
The Comstock has 60° 8S. near the east end, becoming somewhat
steeper westward. The Root Hog was opened in 1899, and has
not been developed far enough to show a diminution of dip.

Division wi: details from trenches—The best data for
parts of this division have been obtained from two trenches cut
in 1899 on areas 30 and 71, to develop the structure. The Jo.
Taylor belt consists of several leads, of which the hanging and
foot-wall ones are easily distinguishable. The belt averages
seven feet in thickness. The hanging wall lead is exposed east
of the middle fault in a small pit at the end of the east embayment
of the quarry, area 71; in the smaller circular pit to the north,
and again at the south end of the north trench (pl. 7, fig. a).
Near the north end of this trench the foot-wall lead has a dip of
60° S. South of the axis of the small synclinal sag, it appar-

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 39

ently rises slowly, for in one place slate lies horizontal; and at
the axis of the anticline the lead comes up at an angle of 30°,
over a thin stratum of whin which underlies the belt. At the
trench this is narrow, and the lead is seen descending the south
side at an average angle of 10° but “rolling” heavily. Near
the south end of the trench the hanging wall lead has a dip of
5° S., but becomes steeper within a few feet. It is overlain by
the same quartzite which is seen in the quarry to the west, and
above this lies the Ferguson, a lead which at the south edge of
the quarry occupies a similar position. <A feature of these ex-
posures is the easterly pitch of the beds, continued from the area
west of the fault. The foot-wall lead plunges east 10°, and
the hanging wall 5°, where seen.

The south trench gives an almost continuous series of dips.
The greater steepness of the rocks, compared with observations
farther east, has already been noted. The axis of the south
anticline is determinable in this trench precisely. At a distance
152 feet south of the north end of the trench, a ledge appeared
in 1899 to give both north and south dips. Although only two
and one-half feet broad at the base, it had a dip of 50° N.
on the north, and a steep south dip on the south side. Blasting
revealed an arched lead, showing the exact position of the axis
(pli fig: 1):

Division wi: interpretation, and correlation with div. vi.—
In interpretating the data in this block in terms of a structural
section, two points must be emphasized. One is that in 300 feet
north from the quarry on areas 73 and 74, there is but one ex-
posure: the other relates to the interpretation of division ii.
There, upon what appear to be safe and adequate grounds,
a structure is worked out which makes the Taylor belt a horizon
equivalent to the Copper belt, or strata very close to it. The
former is found again in division iii; and if the interpretation is
correct, the equivalence must be continued. This shows a
change of shape to have taken place in the north anticline, and
in the position of the subsidiary fold with reference to it (pl. 5).

40 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

The latter is low, instead of resting high on the bulging side of
the former; and the main fold is therefore much steeper on its
south side. The south anticline remains nearly the same as
in the other two divisions, its axis here dipping 85° S. The
syncline to the north of it apparently dips 80° S.

The subsidiary fold is better developed than in division
ii. Its axes all dip 85° N. Since the bulge on the south side of
the north anticline is hypothetical to some extent, having only
one exposure for direct evidence, it is difficult to give its axial
dip.. The structure is best explained, however, by an inclination
of 70° N. for the axis of the syncline south of the bulge. Had
the section been made near the eastern side of the block instead
of the western, the south anticline would be found to have
pitched down to a somewhat lower level, with reference to the
others. The axial plane of the north anticline dips 85° S.

Division w.—In many ways division iv is not so well
known as the two to the west. The openings are fewer, shal-
lower, and for the most part in disuse. At the critical portion,
however, a large quarry has been opened, and two smaller ones
to the east. North of the Little North there has been almost
no prospecting. Between this and the North Sutherland the
rock is largely slate, and south of the latter is practically
all slate to the Miller lead.

Division w: subsidiary and south anticlines.—The only
dips north of the axis of the north anticline are the three leads
given on the map, and considered by those who worked them in
earlier years to be the equivalents of leads of the same name
west of the fault. South from the axis are, or have been, a
number of exposures with leads, now for the most part aban-
doned. All were cut very shallow, and information regarding
them is hard to get. The new quarry on areas 76 and 77,
lying along the middle anticline, gives the same structure as in
corresponding parts of division 111; but the southernmost of the
axes is farther from the center of the sag. The rock here
is a black lustrous slate with a few green bands. To the south

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 41

it is noticeable that the south syncline is one of low dips on
the whole, instead of the high dips prevailing to the west. The
south anticline has dips much like those in similar situations to
the west.

Division w: axial dips and plunges.—The southern and
subsidiary anticlines are still pitching east. The former plunges
steeply immediately east of the fault, but flattens out after two
hundred feet are passed. The latter pitches 15° E. in the large
quarry, 6° in the cut at the north of area 78, and 10° in
the square quarry to the south. Hence it too is rapidly flatten-
ing. The axis of the north anticline dips 85° 8. The axes
of the compound subsidiary fold have not changed their attitude.
That of the syncline north of this fold dips 75° N., having
steepened somewhat. The axes of the south anticline and syn-
cline dip 78° S. and 82° S., respectively.

Division ww: correlation with division vii.—Despite the
presence of the eastward plunge in the two southern anticlines,
which should bring newer beds to the surface eastward, the only
feasible interpretation of the structure, as represented by cross-
section (pl. 6), gives older strata at the surface. This is on the
basis (1) of the distribution of dips in the field, (2) of the
approximate equivalence of the Copper horizon with the Jo.
Taylor belt. There is so much change that on the subsidiary
fold the Jo. Taylor belt would be 260 to 270 feet above the
present surface.

The folds have not changed their character materially, but
their relative positions are altered. The north anticline is still
broad, and the local anticline is still close to the sharp
south main fold. But the distribution of dips in the field places
the north synclinal axis much nearer the north anticline, so
that, although the dips on the south side of the syncline are low,
the strata rise considerably upward. It is this that brings the
horizon of the Copper lead, or its equivalent the Jo. Taylor belt,
so far above the present surface at the crest of the south main
anticline.

42 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN,

Summary of Moose River folding.—The theoretical consid-
erations regarding these and other folds in the Meguma
will be given in a subsequent paper on the structure of the
series. It is sufficient here to recapitulate the conditions found
in the field.

The simplest structure of this type is the elliptical dome»
striking roughly east and west. ‘The modifications in Moose
River are such as to distinguish the region from all others :-—(1)
two main axes instead of one, giving two anticlines, both of
great extent along the strike and prominent in the structure of
the series; (2) their convergence westward and final union
within the limits of the district; (3) the presence of a thick
slate horizon, included in both folds and overlain by massive
beds of quartzite, instead of the alternate whin and slate strata
of other domes. This makes possible (4) the puckering up of
part of this slate belt into an intermediate anticline, itself com-
pound, and probably dying out east and west within a compara-
tively short distance ; (5) the plunging of the axes of the main
folds, not at both ends as in an ideal case, but one eastward, the
other westward; and (6) the plunging of the intermediate fold
eastward, or in the direction of divergence of the axes of
the main anticlines. It probably broadens and flattens out
until gradually lost; yet there is some evidence that it, or
another in its place, exists six miles east, near Otter lake, where
the two main folds are half a mile apart.

The vertical thickness of sediments invol ved, between No. 7
on the north and the veins in the center of area 970 block 4, on
the south, is only about 370 feet.

FAULTS.

Classes of movements.—The faults of the Meguma series fall
for the most part into two large types—cross faults, cutting
across the strike of the long folds at high angles, and often ex-
tending for miles; and radial faults, striking outward on
the plunging ends of domes. There are some that are outside

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICI—WOODMAN. 43

this classification, but it includes by far the larger number. Of
the radial type Moose River has none. Of the other class it has
several, three of some size. The evidence for these, and the
character of the dislocations, are detailed below.

The direction of motion along the fault plane, and the posi-
tion of each block with reference to the adjacent ones, are
difficult problems because the data are not at first glance always
consistent. The simple possibilities in any case may be grouped
under four heads :— (1) vertical motion, the east side rising
or falling with reference to the west ; (2) horizontal motion, the
east going north or south ; (3) oblique sliding, the east going up
or down and north or south. These are all motions of
mere translation. There may have been (4) a shearing, upon a
fulerum within or without the field. More than one of these
possibilities may be fulfilled in a single fault, and the whole may
be complicated by compression of the strata, equalized or differ-
ential. These conditions must be examined for each fault in the
light of the distribution of dips shown by strata, leads, and axes
of folds.

West fault: course.—This fault has been visible in the west
stope of the Big North lead, and obscurely at the west end
of the quarry to the north. In tracing out the BigNorth lead it
was lost at the break, and was thought to have been recovered
on the west side, twelve feet south. I do not think, however,
that it has been found, and this opinion is shared by most
of those who have worked the lead. ‘At this point, therefore,
the horizontal displacement is an unknown distance, quite cer-
tainly not much beyond twelve feet. In the west stope of the
Big North, the fracture dipped 85° E. Whether this is charac-
teristic of the fault as a whole there are no data for discovering.
From the Bruce belt, which was tunnelled west to the break, a
cross-cut was driven fourteen feet south, beyond the fault,
but without success. Hence the displacement here is at least
that amount. From the fault as exposed in the Big North to the
west end of the Bruce tunnel is 8. 5° E. The position of

44. GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

the fault at the south side of the field is inferred. The leads in
the drain on area 82 all have high north dips, as far as seen by
me, and correspond closely to leads in the trench on area
30. Directly east along the strike of the former, however, the
leads dip south. Hence the fault must run east of the drain ;
and probably not far east, because of the considerable change in
strike of the fault involved. Taking this into account, I have
plotted this portion S. 8° E.

West fault: details of displacements.—The horizontal dis-
placement at the north end of the section is believed to be small,
because the Alex. Taylor has dips which would be expected in a
lead at the distance south of the anticlinal axis here represented.
Were this axis much nearer, the surface dips should be less. At
the south end the positions of the synclinal and anticlinal axes
in division ii are known with great exactness. That of the anti-
clinal axis in division i is known quite closely, by reason of the
strata at the Touquoy crusher and the leads in the trench. From
these data the horizontal displacement of the southernmost axis
is calculated to be 50 feet. This gives a positive overlap of 10
feet, and offset of 47.5 feet to the left. These functions have not
been computed for the northern anticline, because so small and
so problematical.

West fault: direction of motion.—The determination of the
direction of motion along the fracture receives little aid from
the exposures in the open quarry on area 169 and the west
stope of the Big North; for here the fault is a zone, the gouge
of which is composed of pieces that have moved in various
directions. Dips must be used as far as they give evidence.

(1) In a vertical motion of translation, if the east side rose,
the axes of the main anticlines east of the fault would, upon
denudation to the present level, migrate southward. Such evi-
dently is not the case. If the east side fell, the axes would
migrate southward on the west. On account of the obvious differ-
ence in inclination of these axes the northern one, having a lower
dip, would migrate the farther, and the two axes would be

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 45

nearer together west of the break. The opposite condition ob-
tains. Finally, if not aided by some other movement, a vertical
one would leave the dips of the axes unchanged.

(2) A horizontal motion of translation, unaccompanied by
any other change, would keep the axes equidistant on either
side of the fault, and would not alter their dips. Here the axes
on the east, according to the best data obtainable, are forty feet
nearer together than on the west; and their dips are altered.

(3) An oblique motion of translation appears at first sight
to meet the conditions. By calculation, if the axes east of the
fault hold their dip, a movement of the east side up and north
118 feet at an angle of 60° from the horizontal would, upon
erosion to a level, give the axes of division ii the position which
they now occupy. But there are two other criteria. After an
upthrow and subsequent denudation, any horizon is farther from
the axis of an anticline than before. As no strata or leads in
the two divisions have been proved identical, this test cannot be
used. But, second, east of the break the dips of the axial planes
are different from those to the west. Unless disturbed by some
other movement, they should remain unchanged.

(4) A shearing might make the south end of division 11 rise
or fall with respect to division i, ona fulerum within the zone of
leads or north or south of it. Consider first the case of a ful-
erum between No. 7 on the north and the Root Hog on the
south. If the south side fell, the axes of the two anticlines
would be brought nearer together; the north migrating south for
a considerable distance because of -its low dip, unless the
fulcrum were near it, and the south axis lying a very short dis-
tance north or south of its present position, depending upon the
position of the fulerum. This obviously has not happened. If
the south rose, the axes would be farther apart, and the north
one would dip less than 69°, which is not true. Second, if the
fulerum were beyond the axis of the north anticline, and the
south fell, a shearing of such sort as would place the north axis
in division ii where it is and give it a dip of 70° S., would make

46 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

the south axis dip 85° N., instead of 82° S., and would not
bring the two into their present distance relations. If the south
rose, the axes would migrate south, and they did not. Similar
objections hold, upon the supposition of a fulerum south of the
field. Thus it appears that no one of the possible classes of
movements can account unaided for the present conditions; and
a combination of two or more would fail as surely.

If, however, the effect is considered of a compression of the
folds, acting in conjunction with the faulting, it is found that
any one of the four methods is available. But only two are
quantitatively probable :—(1) horizontal movement of the east
block northward with reference to the other; and (2) an oblique
motion on the east side up and northward, with compression
from the south. It is at present impossible to state positively
which of the two is correct, because we have not, as in compar-
ing divisions 11 and i, definite horizons by which vertical
change can be computed. If (2) be accepted, the proportion of
oblique motion to compression is hard to determine, because the
latter has altered the dip of the axial planes. In the case of (1),
the amount of direct sliding of the whole mass depends upon the
position in the north anticline of the falerum upon which that axis
has turned from 60° to 70°. If this fulerum lay at the present
surface of the ground, the east mass as a whole moved north the
whole distance of the offset of the north axis. If the fulerum
lay below the surface, the movement of the whole east block
was greater than this; if above the surface, it was less, and
may theoretically have been negative, or southward. In any
of these cases, compression horizontally accounts for all the
motion represented by the difference between the motion of
translation and the offset of the south anticline.

But steepening the dip of an axis in the course of compres-
sion inevitably alters the dip of the strata, on one side adding to
the increase of dip of the beds accomplished by the compression
itself. The steepening will occur on the side of the fold towards
which the axis dips; and will be least, perhaps almost nothing,

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 47

at the level of the fulerum and near the axis, increasing
outward and above and below it. Such evidence as we have
indicates that the south dips of the north anticline were not
steepened appreciably in the change from 60° to 70° axial dip ;
hence if (1) is to be accepted, the direct shding must have been
nearly the distance of the offset of the north axis, or about ten
feet, the axis steepening 10° about a fulerum placed close to the
present surface of the ground. Of the southern part of the sec-
tion, all that ean be said is that in addition to the ten feet
absolute movement north, there was a farther one caused by
compression, less northward and greater southward, amounting
at the southern axis to 37.5 feet at the most. This appears, of
the two, the more plausible explanation. In the course of
compression, the south anticlinal axis was decreased in dip
from 85° S. to 82° S.

Middle fault: cowrse and attitude.—The evidence as to the
functions of this fault are far clearer than of the one just
described. Its direction throughout its observed length is N.
19° E. At the north end it has been met in working the Cop-
per and Little North on the west, and these and the Little South
on the east. The last has not been opened west of the break
because, such is the lack of system in the development of these
districts, no cross-cut has ever been made for it. The workings
on these leads were abandoned in 1897 or 1898, and I have seen
the fault below ground but once. There it appeared as a zone
of fractured material, with a breadth not measurable at the time,
and dipping east at a very slight angle from the vertical. In-
deed, experience seems to show that most of the north-south
faults in this series, where their dip is measurable, incline east

Middle fault : displacements.—If the Copper and Little North
had kept their strike eastward to this fault, their horizontal dis-
placement would be 95 fect. But instead, they turn strongly
northeast. In other parts of the district, some turn thus in the
direction of motion, and some do not. The former, cases are
probably in the nature of a drag, except where the axis of the

48 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

fold plunges. In view of this, even though the turn extends
westward for a considerable distance, it has been thought best to
neglect it and to base the measurement of displacement upon the
general strike. But the south end of division iii is not faulted
at all, being merely dragged. Hence the axis of the north anti-
cline is plotted as displaced 70 feet, an amount proportional to
its distance from the south end of the faulted area. At the
Copper lead, a total displacement of 95 feet gives a negative
overlap of 20 feet, and an offset of 92.5 left. The north anti-
clinal axis has a negative overlap of 17.5 feet and an offset of
66.75 feet left.

At and near the eastern end of the quarry, area 71, the fault
could be seen in three places in 1899. The most northern was
a small pit nearly in the centre of area 71, where it dips 68° E.
(pl. 9, fig b). The strata east of the fault are here nearly hori-
zontal, for the more southerly of the two anticlines which form
the large subsidiary one broadens and flattens westward. The
second exposure of the fault was in a circular pit east of the large
quarry, and topographically several feet lower than the first.
Here it is essentially perpendicular. Its direction changes errati-
cally in the fifteen feet of section, being at the south end of the
pit N. 60° E., and at the north end E.-W. (pl. 11, fig. h). At
the east end of the quarry itself, or rather in a short cave exca-
vated eastward from it, the break is again visible. In the second
pit just mentioned, the hanging wall lead of the Jo. Taylor belt
comes up on the east at a high angle (pl. 9, fig. a). It is said to
have been tunnelled east to the small fault on area 72, meeting
underground workings east of that point. The total horizontal
displacement at this point is 37.5 feet. The overiap and offset
are difficult to measure, on account of the curved strike of the
Taylor belt west of the fault. If this were due merely to drag,
the problem would be simple; but north of the local anticlinal
axis west of the break th» strike is northwest, showing that the
strata really plunge downward toward the east (pl. 18.)

Middle fault : southern limit of dislocation.—That the fault

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 49

extends south of the quarry admits of nodoubt. But in tunnel_
ling the Smith belt east, it was not met, although the works
crossed the strike of the break. Instead of faulting to the north,
the belt departs from the normal strike, turning northeast, as
though dragged severely but not fractured. It appears, then,
that the fault stops short of this belt, probably close to it on the
north, and becomes at that horizon a very local cross fold.

Middle fault: essential unity of divisions i and wwt.—In
deciding what is the character of the movement which division
iii has suffered in its faulting, it will not be necessary to go so
fully into the theoretical possibilities as in the preceding case.
Divisions ii and ii are in some respects a single structural unit.
They are the only ones showing the Jo. Taylor belt. Both were
shoved north by the west fault, and the difference in attitude is
the result merely of a rupture within the block, at one end not
extending to the limit of the field.

Middle fault: direction and character of movement.—
It is evident at once that a mere motion of translation, horizon-
tal, vertical or oblique, will not account for the growth of the
fault. It is equally evident, when tested quantitatively, that
the only shearing possible under the conditions—the east side
going up toward the north on a fulerum at or few feet south of
the south anticlinal axis—would violate two conditions found in
the field. If the north end rose upon a fulcrum at the present
outcropping of the Jo. Taylor belt, so as to leave the latter where
it is found in division in, the Copper lead might lie at its present
position east of the fault, but probably would be farther north,
This is upon the supposition that the axis of the north anticline
has been tilted from a dip of 70°S. to 85°S., which has cceurred
But the axis of the south anticline would change its dip from.
82° S. to 83° N., instead of 85° S., its present angle; and finally,
the movement would not account for the changes in the character
of the north anticline and the subsidiary folds south of it.

Again, owing to the downward convergence of the main
anticlinal axes in division 1i, a shearing of the north end upward

50 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

would bring these axes closer together after denudation to the
present surface, whereas in this division they are farther apart
than to the west. From the axis of the main syncline to that
of the north anticline, the distances average nearly the same in
both blocks. It is noticeable also that the distances between the
two anticlinal axes in divisions iii and i are practically the same ;
and that the horizontal displacement of the south anticlinal axis
at the west fault, added to the amount of flexing northward
which it received south of the end of the middle fault, is equal
to the total horizontal displacement of the north anticlinal axis
by the latter fault.

Appeal must be made, then, to some other movement, influ-
encing shearing, to account for the structure of this division. It
seems clear that the force which produced the chief faulting
of the district, first broke off as a single block all the rock
between the west and east faults, shoving it north nearly
fifty feet. In the western part of the block, resistence ©
from the north compressed the folds to the extent of 37.5 feet.
The eastern part of the block, not meeting with so much resist-
ance, largely broke away from the western, along the line of the
middle fault. This break began at the north end, and died out
before it reached the axis of the southern anticline, because the
rock of division ii took up the compression so that it was slightly
felt so far south. There was, then, relatively no compression of
this eastern portion, the block moving north as a whole. This
explains the distance relations referred to above.

There was, however, a bulging upward of the northern half,
due possibly to resistance on the north which was unable to
compress the strata as in division il. This bulge had its southern
limit an undetermined but short distance north of the quarry on
areas 73 and 74. Thence northward the dips steepened to the
axis of the north anticline, which was tilted from 70° S. to 85°
S. The north end of this bulge must have been a considerable
distance beyond the field of the map, for the north anticline was
not compressed to an appreciable degree. Moreover, the angle

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 51

between the average dip of the strata on the north and on the
south sides of the axis is the same in divisions ii and 111. Thus
there is little distortion of the anticline by differential move-
ment.

East fault: cowrse; aspect at east quarry.—the east fault
runs N. 22° KE. It is visible in the west end of the quarry on
areas 76 and 77, nearly perpendicular, with a very slight incli-
nation to the east. It is inconspicuous, as slate lies on both
sides. The fracture is a narrow zone, occupied by soft gouge
and bounded by well slickensided walls. The testimony of these
slickensides is conflicting, because of the various directions in
which solid masses in the gouge moved in different places, under
the influence of the crushing and slipping strains. In the Com-
stock and Big South leads, the fault was met in earlier years
underground.

East fault: displacements in southern part of freld.—
Beginning at the south end in division iii, the position of the
axis of the south anticline is by continuation from a known
point in the western part of the block. It probably is not
dragged north by the east fault; forthe south anticline is evidently
pitching east in the eastern part of division iii, as shown by the
converging dips on both sides of the axis, and the curve of the
Comstock lead is sufficiently explained by this. East of the
fault the axis has been displaced 192.5 feet north. Its position
is closely defined by a lead lately uncovered, west of the large
abandoned crusher ; and one somewhat similarly situated south
of the axis. Their convergence indicates the continued eastward
plunge of the fold. The offset of this axis is 185 feet left, and
its overlap 62.5 feet negative. This is the largest displacement
in the district, and northward the distances become steadily
less.

The position of the main synclinal axis is indicated very
closely, the nearest exposures of opposite dip being only a few
feet apart. North of the large quarry only two exposures of
any kind are visible, till the North Sutherland is reached.

52 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

These both show low dips. The displacements of the north anti-
clinal and synclinal axes are plotted as intermediate between
192.5 feet on the south, and 110 on the north, the amount being
reckoned with reference to the observations farthest north and
south. This gives for the anticlinal axis a horizontal displace-
ment of 142.5 feet, an offset of 127.5 left, and an overlap of 57.5
feet negative.

East fuult: explanation of movements, and present attitude
of division iv.—The structure of division iv cannot be explained
by either horizontal or vertical sliding, or by shearing, unaided ;
for the present relations of the parts, compared with similar ones
west of the fault, are not such as should be found after any of
these classes of movements. The Little North is in division iv
farther from the axis than in the cross-section drawn for divi-
sion ili. If the axis continues parallel to the leads eastward to
the fault, since the dip of the axis has not changed, it may be
fair to consider that the difference in distance has resulted from
a vertical movement. This could be made by a rise of 52.5 feet.
on the east, in this part of the block. But if such were the case,
the axis east of the break would now be south of that part to
the west, because of its migration down the dip. It is probable,
in view especially of the divergence of strikes between the north
of the district and the remainder, in divisions iii and iv, that the
north anticlinal axis takes an intermediate course, as plotted.
On this basis, the north leads are so situated in division iv with
reference to the axis, as not to require an upward motion to ex-
plain their position. The alternative is a northward horizontal
sliding of the whole block to the extent of 129.5 feet, the offset
of the fault at the north axis; and a compression of the north
side of the fold to an extent of 29.5, measured at the Little
North.

The changed attitude of the southern part of the field in this
block, relative to the northern anticline, is such that only a
bulging upward could account for it. The northern limit of this
movement was at the center of that fold. The action did not

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 53

turn back the north anticline, else it would have steepened the
leads to the north, and lowered the dip of the axis. But the leads
on the whole are lower than to the west. The southern limit of
the bulge is probably not far south of the district. An upthrust
of which the south anticline were the center would leave the
axial dip unchanged. If this fold were not the center, the dip
would be made higher or lower according as the fold were south
or north of the center. The axial change is 3° to a lower dip.
Hence the southern limit of the bulge should b2 sought south of
the axis of the south anticline somewhat farther than the dis-
tance of that axis to the axis of the north anticline, which is
425 feet. There must also have been a compression of the
southern part of the block, accounting for the increased displace-
ment at that end. The amount recorded is 85 feet horizontally.
But the vertical upthrust of 260 to 270 feet, on an axis dip-
ping 85° N., would cause the south anticlinal axis to migrate
50 feet south when eroded to the present level. Hence the total
transverse compression here amounts to 135 feet, becoming less
northward. ‘To produce this result there must have been a
strong resistance on the north.

Minor faults.—In the underground workings, minute faults
are constantly being found. These are in every conceivable
attitude, some in the stratification, some in the cleavage, but
most with strikes transverse to both. They are identifiable by
slight displacements of known horizons and by slickensides.
They exercise a compensating rather than a cumulative effect,
and thus do not alter the structure of any portion of the district
to an appreciable extent. Certain effects of slipping along
cleavage will be considered later.

Of the smaller faults shown on the map, none are important,
All are nearly or quite transverse, none radiating from the noses
of plunging anticlines, and none striking parallel with the sedi-
ments. Many follow joint planes. The one on areas 173 and 174
is one which does not displace the beds horizontally, but at which

Proc. & TRANS. N.S Inst. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS.—E.

54 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

they turn from their former strike ; and another on areas 126
and 175 is of the same kind. These were met in the old under-
ground workings, and have not been visible during the progress
of this study. On area 72 is a very local fault cutting the Jo.
Taylor belt, and met in tunnelling in earlier years. On area 73,
at the west end of the quarry, a fault with a horizontal dis-
placement of scarcely four feet is visible. Here, as along most
of the faults, the east side has gone north with reference to the
west. On the south side of the quarry is a small break with a
strike N. 73° E., and a dip 87° 8. Slickensides show the south
to have gone east horizontally. The whole is, ike many others,
too minute to plot on the map. It is the nearest toa strike
fault of any in the district. At the northeast corner of the
quarry a slight dislocation runs northwest. On area 75, at the
west end of the quarry which occupies its center, slickensides
show a slight perpendicular fault or series of parallel ones, run-
ning about northwest. The direction of motion cannot be made
out. On area 177 a fault has cut off the leads which come from
the west. The displacement is unknown, because no develop-
ment work has been done immediately to the east ; but it must
be small. A fault of some length, which appears to die out at
both ends, runs through areas 77, 124 and 123. It does not
influence the south anticlinal axis. It is visible at the east end
of the quarry on area 77, as a perpendicular slickensided fissure.
The displacements of the axes of the local fold are reckoned from
the distribution of dips in the immediate vicinity. On area 123
the flat-lying lead is cut off by a break which must, however, be
very local. On areas 24 and 77 is a fault which has a displace-
ment of four feet at the south end, and hardly so much at the
north, where the Cowan lead is visibly dislocated by it. There
are probably many more faults, covered by the drift, which more
extensive development may bring to light.

JOINTS.
It is a marked characteristic of the district, and apparently
of the series throughout, to have many local joints but no great

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 55

systems. Perhaps the most abundant run about north and south
magnetic, but they are not persistent for more than a few yards.
For the most part they neither aid nor retard open or under-
ground development. One of the best joint planes forms the
face of the westward spur in the east side of the quarry on area
74 (pl. 8, fig. a). No veining or mineralization has been seen
along most of these fractures, except a few cases of pyrite in-
crustations of a crystalline nature.

METAMORPHISM.

Dynamic character.—No intrusives are exposed in or near
Moose River, the nearest granite—the Tangier massif—lying
some miles south ; and all the metamorphism in this field is of
the dynamic type. In brief, it consists of the microscopic redis-
tribution of material in both types of sediments, the alteration
of shales into clay slates by cleavage, and of sandstones into
quartzites, and later into arenaceous slates by cleavage; and
finally, further local change of slates of both kinds into schists.
These alterations are not uniformly distributed geographically,
even in the same stratum. This may have a very direct bearing
upon the interpretation of the highly metomorphosed rocks at
the western end of the province.

Secondary minerals.—The cement of the quartzites is partly
secondary silica, partly calcite, with a small amount of iron
oxide in rocks taken from near the surface. The larger part
appears to be calcite. It is probable, from the appearance of
the slides, that all the cement, as it is at present, is secondary.
Biotite and muscovite are abundant in some slides; and a part,
perhaps most, of the mica is secondary. None of the quartz
grains show a direct elongation in the direction of cleavage.

The clay slates do not normally show any of these minerals.
On the other hand, chlorite is found to a much greater extent
than in the quartzites. The color of the slates depends in part
upon this, but yet more upon original conditions of deposition,
The rocks have, abundantly distributed in the direction of cleav-

56 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

age, knots of some light colored mineral. This is either calcite,
or quartz grains, or indeterminate masses looking like almost
decomposed felspar.

Arsenopyrite is not found in slides of slate, to any extent,
but is present in those cut from quartzites; and fails to show
stretching. Pyrite is abundant in both rocks. Usually it is
elongated with the cleavage; but in some cases the crystalline
shape is unaltered, and in others it has a ramified margin and
cellular interior, because of having crystallized in the massive
form and adapted itself toits surroundings. This variety often
encloses bits of biotite and chlorite. Most of the cetlular nature,
however, results from the presence of quartz grains.

Cleavage and schistosity—All the sediments are heavily
cleaved. The planes of fissility are parallel to the general
strike of the rocks; and in highly inclined strata, or those in
which original division planes are poorly marked, cleavage is
readily mistaken for bedding. The quartzite is poorly cleaved
as a rule; but near the surface, weathering has in many places
brought out the incipient fissility so as to give a tolerably good
sandstone slate. The pelite has taken the cleavage well ; but no
such perfection is reached as in roofing slate, for the necessary
uniformity of texture is wanting. In places even the slates
show little cleavage to the eye underground, but blasting brings
out the greater weakness along these planes, and the circulation
of shallow under-water has increased fissility near the surface to
a high degree.

The cleavage is everywhere highly inclined, but often several
degrees from vertical. In the quarry at the center of area 75,
it strikes N. 80° W., and dips 79° to 80° 8S. On area 182, at the
exposure from which the “ fossils” were taken, the direction is
N. 87° W., dip 52° S. At the west end of the quarry on area
131, where the Serpent lead was exposed in 1897, it lies N. 80°
W., with a dip 67° S. North of the district half a mile to a
mile, several observations show it to be nearly vertical.

he

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 57

Slickensides along cleavage planes are abundant, usually

taking the form of a smooth deposit of chlorite. In some open-
ings there is a distinct serration of the contact of horizontal or
low-lying strata. Examination has shown it to be due in a few
instances to crenulation of the laminz, developed so far as to
give strain-slip cleavage. But this is only in slate. Between
slate and whin, as in the quarry on areas 73 and 74 (pl. 8, fig.
a; and 11, fig. b), it is the result of slipping along ordinary
cleavage planes which happen to be nearly or quite perpendicu-
lar to the stratification. In this quarry the quartzite does not
show cleavage well, except at the east end. This applies especi-
ally to the stratum overlying the Jo. Taylor belt. In general
through the zone occupied by the subsidiary anticline, the
preponderance of pelite has allowed a good fissility to be
developed.

In the quarry on areas 76 and 77, the same stratum appears
in different places as a well cleaved slate and as a fine knotted
schist. As a whole the cleavage in this district ignores the
small crenulations of the slate. When, however, it comes down
on top of a corrugation in a quartz vein encased in slate, it often
curves, sometimes parting to one side and the other, because the
slate yields readily while the quartz is brittle (pl. 8, fig. b, and
15). This curving was well shown in 1897 in the west end of
the quarry on area 131, on a large scale.

In many specimens pyrite is seen lying in the cleavage
planes, but quartz veins never. This pyrite is not crystalline
or massive granular, however, but always stretched into a thin
plate, or at least so far as much to distort the shape of the orig-
inal erystal. This proves conclusively the later date of the
cleavage than any of the sulphide concentrations. Indeed, cleav-
age and jointing were the last great dynamic changes in the
sediments. Arsenopyrite has resisted stretching, for the most
part.

In thin section the quartzites show little appearance of cleav-
age. The quartz grains not only are not elongated, but when

58 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

irregular in shape generally have their longer axes parallel with
the stratification. This was noted in all the slides in which the
latter was visible. ‘The secondary minerals in these rocks do
not appear to form distinct bands giving cleavage or schistosity ;
and altogether the quartzites are quite massive when viewed
under the microscope.

But the slates are strongly cleaved, as well as slate laminz
in the whin. ‘The fissility results chiefly from a rearrangement
of the kaolin, so that it lies in the cleavage bands rather than in
those of stratification. It is aided, but probably not formed, by
secondary minerals. Those rocks which in the hand specimen
appear most schistose, even the fine knotted schists mentioned
above, have only a slightly larger amount of secondary material,
the schistosity being due to a microscopical wavy cleavage that
seems to be crenulated without much regard to the knots of
quartz or other minerals. It is this crenulation which, in part
at least, gives the lustrous and silky appearance to the schists.
Pyrite never influences cleavage.

Glacial pressure affected that part of the cleavage lying near
the surface in many places. The best example is along the
trenches in areas 80 and 71. Here all the top of the rock is in
places crushed into a mass of small cleavage plates, Which were
gradually worked into the glacial gravel by the onward motion
of the ice. Where this breaking up was not so complete, an
overturning of the cleavage from a south to a north dip has
taken place, accompanied by a great increase in the fissility of
the rock; due in part to the ice strain, and in part to a later
water circulation.

RECENT WEATHERING.

The weathering of the sediments consists largely of changes
in the sulphides. The pyrite and arsenopyrite alter, in some
cases giving sulphates, and in others not. As a whole the rocks
Stain little by this process. In some places the angular cavities
left by the crystals are quite abundant.

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 59

The fissility of both slates and quartzites becomes more
marked, the cleavage laminz separating with increasing ease,
the slates turning a paler color, and the quartzites whitening
much from the grayish green so common in the unaltered con-
dition. Where pyrite lies in abundance along stratification
planes, its weathering aids in separating the strata and causing
the appearing of open spaces between them.

PART II.—VEINS.

COMPOSITION.

Constituents.—The gangue in the veins of Moose River 1s
chiefly quartz, with some calcite. Most of the leads have shown
only quartz, and the cross veins appear to have no other gangue.
The Little North has much ealcite, and a few others have large
amounts erratically distributed ; but in no case does it form the
main part of the lead. Itis mixed with the quartz without
apparent system, sometimes occupying the whole width of the
vein, again next the country rock, often in the center; or in a
few instances interbanded with quartz in distinct layers. It is
surprising to find its cleavage planes often curved, giving a
resemblance to a light colored siderite. Tests, however, have
shown it to be calcite. The curving is gentle, but in a few
cases quite sharp monoclinal folds half an inch high have been
found. It is evident from a study of the adjacent rock that the
curving is a result of dynamic action subsequent to the forma-
tion of the veins.

Arrangement of minerals.—The quartz is rarely cellular or
drusy. A few druses show very distinct crystal faces on the
walls. The cellular portions of the gangue are especially white,
or are rusted by decomposition of a sulphide. Normally, how-
ever, the gangue is dark and ribbony, and uniformly dense.
The gold is associated with this type, on the whole, more than
with the other.

The leads never show a distinct comb structure. When
druses occur at all, they are in the interior of masses which are,

60 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

as a whole, nearly or quite homogeneous; and quartz crystals
appear never to have been found in layers, each with its longest
axis perpendicular to the vein walls. The ribbony type referred
to is the most abundant, and is best seen where, as often hap-
pens, thin laminz of slate are included in the gangue, lying
parallel to the mains walls.

The data relative to the ores will be considered under a

separate head.
DISTRIBUTION.

Stratified leads.—The veins of Moose River belong to two
groups, as regards their relation to the country rock—stratified,
called “leads” throughout the province, and “ cross” or unstrati-
fied veins. Connected with the former are the “angulars”
(sometimes contracted to “anglers”). The distribution of the
leads and angulars is erratic, the only system being their con-
finement within a zone represented by the width of the mining
district north and south. This is because the whole field is a
unit of slate, inclosed on either side by the overlying thick
quartzite. There is whin within this zone, but it is not so
abundant or important as in most districts in the series.

The nearest approach to a system is the scarcity of leads of
any size on the subsidiary anticline, below the Jo. Taylor belt.
Instead, the slate is full of minute stratified veinlets and seams
of pyrite and arsenopyrite. These are present more or less
throughout the whole thickness of rocks exposed in the district,
but are especially characteristic of this part.

It was early thought that the veins were more numerous
on the margins of the field, especially at the north, and decreased
in abundance toward the center; but recent developments show
that this apparent distribution was due in part to the chance
order of opening.

Erratic veins.—The erratic veins belong to no particular
series or age. They are unsystematically distributed, cut the
bedded leads at all angles, and cross each other. It may be
remarked here that in no case do veins which belong distinctly

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 61

to this class show signs of having been folded or disturbed to
any extent since deposition.

ATTITUDE.

In a large way, the leads are chiefly parallel with the
stratification of the country rock, thus partaking of all the
structural peculiarities of the sediments. They are folded with
the latter, and have been affected by faults as they have. This
has caused it to be possible, in interpreting the structure of the
regicn, to use these veins where the slate and quartzite were for
the most part hidden.

Relation to belts of strata.—In position, the leads may lie in
or between slate strata, or at the contact of slate and whin.
While in most districts the latter situation is the more common,
here it is not so. At many horizons there is no quartzite for a
wall, yet leads occur in the slate in well-detined belts. This
being the case, it is surprising to find the proportion of veins
that break across from one bed to another small—fully as small
as in other gold districts in the series. Where such irregularity
does occur, it is always within narrow limits, as from the hang-
ing to foot-wall sides, or vice versa, in a single horizon of slate
backed up by whin. Where no quartzite is present, the distance
of cross fracture 1s no greater. In the unstratified section of
such vein, the wall is usually slightly more irregular than that
of a bedded lead. Frequently only part of a lead has thus
broken across, the rest continuing conformable with the sedi-
ments. Such bifurcations have not, in this district, been especi-
ally rich in gold.

Angulars.—Closely related to these is the class of veins
called “angulars” or “anglers”. These are usually branches of
the main stratified lead, cutting irregularly across all structures,
and dying out at a greater or less distance from the parent mass.
They occupy fissures in the form often of irregular rents, which
are widest near the main vein and decrease in size away from
it, and evidently originated from the stratified lead. The char-

62 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

acter of the gangue does not differ from that in the parent vein.
In some instances, in a distinct belt there is no single lead that
is strictly interstratified ; and the whole belt is a series of inter-
meshing veins which run parallel to the strike of the country
rock, but across the dip. Such are the Dreadnanght and Kaul-
back belts. In Moose River, angulars of this class have no great
length on the strike, but in some other districts a belt of them
occasionally reaches a length of 2000 feet. Where an angular
of either type meets a main lead, pockets of ore are sometimes
found. Spurs from the stratified leads never, so far as observed,
break up vertically or across horizontally through several strata,
but are virtually confined to a single belt, whether in slate alone
or in slate between whin walls. They occur, however, indis-
criminately on hanging and foot-wall sides of leads and belts.
The best example of a belt of angulars is the Kaulback belt,
opened in 1901, and cut to the 170-foot level by August of that
year.. The leads here have the strike of the sediments—N. 85°
E.—but there is no vein among those occupying the belt that is
strictly conformable in dip for more than a few yards vertically.
Confinement to one side of a fold.—Although continuous
along the strike, and generally in depth as far as worked, the
leads of Moose River are, with two exceptions, not found on both
sides of a fold. Local miners often express belief that a certain
lead is the same as some other on the opposite side of an axis ;
but there is nothing to warrant this here except an occasional
general similarity between the two. One of the exceptions is
the case of the Great North (pl. 14) and the Serpent, which,
when the west stope on areas 131 and 132 was open, could be
seen turning from the north dip to the west and slightly to the
south. Lack of exploration prevents knowledge as to how far
it extends on the south. The second case is that of the Jo.
Taylor belt, the hanging wall lead of which turns from a south
to a north dip on the plunge in the quarry on area 71, and has
also been excavated on the north dip at the east end of the
quarry on areas 73 and 74. In the former, it is found only as

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 63

far north as the north side of the subsidiary syncline. In the
latter, it extends to the north side of the subsidiary anticline,
and appears to be pinching out at the north side of the quarry.
None of the leads first worked, on the north dip of the north
main anticline, have been found on the intermediate or south
anticlines.

Crenulations: relation to stratification.—Two detailed fea-
tures of the attitude of the veins are crinkling and “rolling”,
The former is very characteristic of this district, and is found in
both stratified and cross veins. It consists in a corrugation of
the whole width of the vein, coarse or fine according to the
thickness of the latter, and in strict conformity with the bedding
in the stratified ones. The lamination of the slates follows the
crenulations of the lead, exactly when near it, less faithfully
when farther away.

Crenulations : variation in size and shape.—The amplitude
and interval of the curves vary greatly, apparently depending
upon the size of the vein and the proportion of arenaceous
material in the country rock adjacent. The west side of the
quarry on area 76 shows this feature. Here, bounded only by
slate, are very many stratified veinlets of quartz. In some there
is a thinning of the vein from half an inch down to one-quarter
or one-eight of an inch in thickness. Accompanying this is a
gradual and proportionate diminution in the size of the corruga-
tions made by the veins. A few inches above and below, the
slate laminee are undisturbed; and all gradations are found
between this state and that close to the quartz, in which the
minutest crenulations of the latter are reproduced in the slate.
Another case is shown in pl. 11, fig. a, in which the vein is half
an inch thick on the south, decreasing to a mere film on the
north, the crenulations becoming smaller also in that direction,
A still better one was visible in 1901 at the 60-foot level of the
Kaulback belt, in the north tunnel, where the strata dip 60° S.
The vein in question is one of the belt of angulars, and at this
point cuts across the bedding for a few feet, then turns upward

64 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

parallel toit. It dies out completely before reaching the surface.
The lamine of slate close to the lead curve with it, but the
general stratification is unchanged (pl. 11, fig. ¢).

In shape, the crinkling varies from broad open folds to close
and overturned ones. ‘The latter, in inclined strata, are over-
turned uphill, as in pl. 18. The curves may or may not be
rhythmic. When even in interval they usually are uniform in
amplitude. When uneven in either way, there often is some
system in their irregularity, a rhythmic change such asin pl. 11,
figs. e, f, being common. In a larger way most of the leads.
show the same thing. Thus the Jo. Taylor, especially the foot-
wall lead in the quarry on areas 73 and 74, is corrugated evenly
and steadily for many feet across the strike. .Those show it
best, perhaps, that lie in belts bounded on one or both sides by
whin. Here the veins are crenulated strongly, the size of the
folds being still proportional to the breadth of quartz. The
sharpness of curvature is inversely as the thickness of the veins.
In these cases the slate is folded to a thickness depending upon
the size of the vein and violence of its contortion, and the prox-
imity of whin. Sympathetic folding of the country rock rarely
extends more than two feet away from the lead, on either side.
If whin bounds the belt within the distance to which this fold-
ing would tend to extend, the latter is arrested, never affecting
the whin. When, as often happens, the lead lies along one wall
of the belt, the adjacent whin prevents rolling of the strata on
that side. It is never strictly true, however, that the vein lies
next the wall. <A thin band or rind of slate intervenes, and is
frequently closely folded, slickensided and crushed by the intense
strains to which it has been subjected. This is not especially
well shown at Moose River, because whin walls are rare.

Crenulations: Kaulback belt of angulars.—A special case
is found in that class of angulars which run parallel to the
strike of the strata, but break across the dip. Some belts are
composed entirely of a network of such veins, instead of having
bedded leads. In these instances the belt as a whole follows the

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 65

stratification, while no one member of it does. In the best
parts of the Kaulback belt, several veins run parallel to the

bedding for a short distance, then oblique to the dip, then
parallel again, and so on. ‘The stringer described earlier as a
thinning stratified vein, is part of this system (pl. 11, fig. c).
Its upper edge stops 60 feet below the surface where cut in the
north tunnel ; and this terminus is lower and lower as one goes
west, the line of limit having a plunge of 40° W. There are
probably many such blind veins.

Six feet below the top of the drift in the level mentioned
above, this vein cuts across the strata, and continues this relation
from there down, receding from the axis of the anticline on the
side of which the strata lie, more rapidly in depth than do the
sediments. That is, the dip measured over a considerable section
is less than that of the strata. With all its cross-cutting the
vein retains its corrugation. On the whole the waves may be
shghtly larger where not parallel to the bedding. ‘This may be
due to the fact that in these portions the vein is considerably
thicker than when conformable. In such places it breaks up
into several stringers, which reunite later (pl. 12, figs. b, d).
This occurs at the south tunnel in the 60-foot level, in a
section in which bedding and cleavage are clearly shown. It is
noticeable everywhere that veins do not as a rule break upward
into overlying beds, but rather break upward into underlying
strata, asin pl. 12, figs. a, c. The exceptions are angulars
starting definitely upward from a bedded lead.

Crenulations: effects upon secondary structures. — Both
joints and cleavage are turned out of their course by the sharp
curving of resistant quartz veins, where the structures reach the
crest of a fold. Joints are but broadly curved, cleavage sharply ;
and some of the planes of fissility are deflected past one side of
the obstructing corrugation, some past the other, making a
curved divergence of the fractures (pls. 8, fig. b, and 14,
nD; 16);

66 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

Crenulations: cross veins.—Cross veins are in some cases
corrugated, but not so frequently as the stratified leads. These
curves have no relation to folds in the country rock, except in
angulars parallel to the strike but not the dip of the sediments.
They are more likely to be uneven in size and irregular in
amplitude and interval; and rarely become progressively smaller
with a thinning of the vein (pl. 11, fig. d). They are exposed
particularly well in the new openings of the Kaulback belt, in
the quarry on areas 73 and 74, and in that on areas 76 and 77.

Where the veins have a strike perpendicular or parallel to
that of the cleavage, it might be expected that slipping along
those planes, or the corrugation of the sediments close enough
to give strain-slip cleavage, would account for the phenomenon.
Instances of veins parallel with the strike of the cleavage (which
is close to that of the strata except where folds plunge), but
cutting the sediments in their dip, are confined to certain angu-
lars. Those veins which run perpendicular to the strike of the
cleavage must have two accompanying features, to be explicable
by the method just mentioned. If they have slipped along
ordinary cleavage planes, the strata enclosing them must also
have slipped ; but I have never found this to be the case, where
such veins have been visible. Furthermore, where the strata
are serrated, the serrations are small as compared with the
corrugations in veins, and fairly uniform, with no irregularity
comparable to that shown by the cross veins. If strain-slip
cleavage caused the corrugations, we should find some sign of it
also in the sediments, either cleavage or acute small-scale fold-
ing; but do not. The best cases in the veins occur where there
are no corrugations in the strata, and where the major planes of
division between the beds, which must be made uneven if
slipping has taken place along any cleavage, are perfectly even
in their dip. There is not the slightest deviation in the dip of
the lamin in proximity to the veins.

The more numerous instances of veins oblique to the strike
of cleavage and stratification cannot be explained by any theory

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 67

of slipping or corrugation of the sediments; because either would
produce structures diagonal to the vein, giving corrugations
which would not be persistent in the vein for more than a few
inches or feet, and which would appear to start on one side of
the vein, pass through it obliquely, and come out on the oppo-
site side at a distance along the strike of the vein. This has
never been observed. The oaly explanation remaining, therefore,
is that the cross veins lie in fissures which had their present
sinuous course at the beginning of occupancy by the vein
material. It is noticeable that this crenulation is not found in
quartzite, unmixed with slate; but is confined to slate and
alternations of the two. It is best developed where no quartz-
ite is present. It appears, then, that in the thinly laminated
pelites, at the time of intrusion of the cross veins, the rock broke
under strain most easily across the strata squarely or diagonally
in places, with the bedding in others, and in some backward or
downward rather than upward.

Rolls.—In the stratified leads, most of the corrugations run
horizontally or with a low dip. Where the anticlines plunge
downward, however, these corrugations, instead of following the
strike of the strata horizontally around the nose, take a course
intermediate between the dip and strike of the rocks. Thus
they may converge on the two sides of the nose of the fold and
in the direction of its plunge, but not so sharply as the strike
lines; and they dip, but not so steeply as the strata, nor in
divergent directions like them. To such corrugations the term
“roll” is applicable. It should be restricted to this phase, but
is loosely used for large crenulations of any kind in leads. The
true rolls are not well shown at Moose River, perhaps because of
the scarcity of well-defined rock belts.

Pinching and swelling, so often mistaken for rolling, are not
common at Moose River. Indeed, they are less abundant in this
series as a whole than in other countries; and never due, as often
there, to the sliding of one side of a sinuous vein upon the other,
or to the chemical enlargement of the vein by solution of its
walls.

68 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

Details of contacts.—It is chiefly in connection with corru-
gations that we often find the leads very laminated, the layers
consisting of alternate bands of slate and quartz. Usually the
layers of the latter are thick, of the former thin; but occasion-
ally the reverse is true. The quartz in these lamine is never
cellular, and is generally dark and translucent. It is noticeable
that the crenulation and rolling are accompanied by many frac-
tures, upward from the crests and downward from the troughs ;
and that very rarely are these occupied by gangue, or by pyrite.

In close detail, the margins of the leads are seen not to follow
the stratification, either in portions that are straight or in rolls.
Some of these contacts are shown in photograph on pl. 14.
Frequently in detail the vein breaks up into two or more string-
ers, or dies out and is replaced by another en echelon. In many
specimens laminee of slate are seen, wholly or partially detached,
and thinning out rapidly to an edge. Several of these slivers
may lie in close proximity in the lead. On the outside of the
curve of rolls and other corrugations, the country rock gapes
more or less, and into these fissures the vein material has pene-
trated ; but this occurs also where the stratification is not curved.

In the slides all these features, and indeed several more, are
shown in a very minute way, proving that in the finest detail
the contacts have the same characters as on a larger scale.

RATIO OF VEIN MATERIAL TO SEDIMENTS.

In most fields and most parts of this field, isolated outcrops
give a minimum amount of vein material in sight, across the
strike of the folds. In the central belt here, in which the three
trenches and large quarry were cut in or near 1899, continuous
exposures give a maximum of quartz, under exceptionally favor-
able conditions for the formation of veins. In this zone, south
of the north anticlinal axis, I have counted and measured 70
leads, in a distance of 750 feet, aggregating 300 inches in
breadth of vein material. This gives 1 to 30 in cross-section—
an extremely small amount. Yet this is higher than any

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 69

estimate I have been able to make elsewhere, and it is probably
fair to consider it as near a maximum for any considerable
breadth of rock. It is perhaps exceeded by two or three cases
near the Isaac’s Harbour district.

It is interesting to note, also, that in a portion where slate
appears at first sight to be the only sediment, a large amount of
arenaceous material is present. In the north trench it amounts
to 33%, in the second trench to about 45//, and in the quarry on
areas 71 and 72, where the slate is unusually abundant and clear,
to 15/, in cross-section.

PART It, METALLIC CONTENTS OF THE ROCKS,

PYRITE

Relation to stratification planes.—Pyrite is the most import-
ant sulphide, and the most abundant. In connection with it and
the arsenopyrite much of the gold occurs, in large part inti-
mately associated. The pyrite is here chiefly in small cubes.
and granules, rarely in clusters of crystals or large granular
masses. In the veins, however, granular accumulations are
not uncommon. Reference has already been made to the pres-
ence of pyrite along the major planes of division of the strata.
This is its most characteristic attitude in slates, or between slate
and whin, even when much folded. These major planes of separ-
ation mark the greater changes in conditions of sedimentation,
resulting in greater textural alternations; and the contiguous
strata have comparatively little cohesion. Hence, with the rust-
ing of the pyrites, fracture is easy along them. The minor
planes divide strata of greater similarity and cohesion. Within
quartzite, or between adjacent beds of it, the distribution of the
mineral is irregular for the most part, and the crystals lie in all
attitudes. Occasionally they occupy stratification planes in the
whin ; but rarely, for the rock is dense and homogeneous.

In the slate, the sulphide lies irregularly in the stratum, or
more often is found along minor or major planes of separation.

Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS. F,

70 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

It is most abundant in the last named situation, belonging very
evidently to the upper of the two layers, and becoming gradu-
ally less abundant upward. Often at the top and immediately
below the division plane, crystals are en irely absent. This is
well shown in the quarry on areas 73 and 74, especially along
the south side. In the small quarry on area 75, some of the
strata have the greatest accumulation of pyrite along a medial
plane, decreasing upward and somewhat less downward, with
still a layer between the beds. The grouping of pyrite along
the stratification planes is so constant in the slate, that in many
other parts of the country, where layers are too similar to give
the usual criteria of color and texture, and where bedding is
obscured by strong cleavage, it has been possible to use planes
of pyrite crystals with complete success in interpreting structure.

Attitude in leads and cross verns.—In the veins the mineral
is abundant but often erratic in distribution, in places pro-
truding into the quartz from the sediments. Within the vein it
is irregular, and never occupies a definite central position. Its
most important place, and commonest, is on the margins of the
veins in sheets. While these are found on both sides, they are
much more abundant on the hanging walls. This is brought
out well in the zone of oxidation, by the rusting of the iron;
below it is as real, but less apparent. The hanging wall lead of
the Jo. Taylor belt, on areas 73 and 74, shows this. The rule
does not hold in the irregular cross veins.

ARSENOPYRITE.

This occurs sparingly in the slate, abundantly in the whin,
and in the veins is erratic in distribution but present in spots in
considerable quantities. In the two first mentioned it is erystal-
ized; in the last, massive except in a few instances. Very
rarely a short vein is found composed entirely of a mixture
of pyrite and arsenopyrite, but in Moose River these are of small
size. In the sediments it is so rare in the slates as to be unim-
portant. Where present it is either in the stratum, or in a few

~——--

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN. 71

instances along the margin. In numerous cases a crystal has
been seen lying directly across the plane of separation, partly in
the upper and partly in the lower layer. In the quartzite its
distribution is without system. The mineral is here always
crystalline ; and its striated prisms, up to half an inch in length,
lie at all angels to the stratification planes, usually without
arrangement. In a few places the crystals line the parting
planes sparingly, but in general their position has no reference
to them. In one or two cases the longest axis of the crystal
crosses one of the major planes of division.

The distribution of arsenopyrite appears to have no relation
to the proximity of veins, except in a few instances. The
vicinity of the Britannia belt is thickly studded with coarse
crystals, largely within the belt, and to a decreasing extent out-
ward from it on either side. The veins themselves contain
pyrite and arsenopyrite in massive and granular lumps, and the
latter mineral somewhat crystallized locally. The gold in this
belt is very pockety ; and appears to have no present relation to
the proximity of the sulphides, which by assay are shown to
contain almost none of the metal. The habit of this belt is so
peculiar as to give local miners the idea that it could be identi-
fied to the east, with one or more faults intervening. Thus in
the south entrance to the quarry on area 73, the large lead in
the south of the trench was thought by some to be the main
Britannia, partly from expectation, partly because of the large
amount of arsenopyrite near it. In this case, however, the lead
itself contains none, and practically none is found on the south;
while to the north the mineral extends throughout the length of
the trench. At the east end of the district the Cowan lead has
been called the Britannia, because of the accumulations of
crystalline arsenopyrite. There is no probability that either of
these represents the real Britannia.

The unsystematie arrangement, difference in crystallization
in veins and country rock, and apparent lack of connection with
the pyrite for the most part, are the most important character-

72 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

istics of this sulphide. It has already been mentioned that this
mineral is never distorted by cleavage, while pyrite often is.
Also, the former never occurs on cleavage and slickenside planes,
while the latter frequently does.

MINOR SULPHIDES.

Pyrrhotite has been found very sparingly in the slate, but
there is too little of it to assign it a definite distribution.
Galena occurs in the bedded leads, and has been reported from
slate in immediate proximity in two cases. It is uncommon.
Where present it occupies the interior of the lead, in both quartz
and calcite, and is never more than an eighth of an inch broad
in single masses. It does not appear to influence the distribu-
tion of gold. Chaleopyrite has been found in irregular masses
in both veins and sediments. In the latter, in several instances
it has been stretched along the cleavage planes into thin plates,
or else was deposited originally in that attitude. The former is
more probable, in view of the polished surfaces of these thin
sheets. I have never seen it in joint or fault planes.

GOLD.

In sediments.—Gold occurs in both sediments and veins. In
the former it is held most in the slates, and often as much is
found at a distance from the veins as near them; but it is not
uniform in distribution, as shown by a large number of assays
made in 1899. The quartzite is not barren asa whole, however,
although it carries on the average much less than the slate. A
sufficient number of tests has never been made to prove any
distinct relation between the run of gold in the whin and the
proximity of leads. All the assays for this district were taken
within the general slate zone. It has not yet been determined
that the great mass of whin to the north carries any gold. In
the sediments as a whole, little of the metal is free. Almost all
is locked up in sulphides, even near the surface.

In vevns: special enrichment.—In the veins, however, a
large proportion is free within the zone of oxidation, and a small

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 73

amount below it, the percentage decreasing for some depth. In
the free state it takes the form of filaments or wires, leaves and
nuggety masses, small or large, and may be so fine as to be
entirely invisible. In some cases the free gold is accompanied
by sulphides, in others not. The larger masses are found usually,

”

but not always, in “pockets” or local spots of enrichment.
These are in some veins situated at or near the junction of angu-
lars, particularly from the hanging wall, and the bedded leads. In
other cases the metal is closely related to the presence of rolls,
lying most often in the swell on the hanging wall. A considerable
extent, either a whole vein or parts of several, may be character-
ized by the presence of these enriched spots, the spaces between
being wholly or comparatively barren. In this district such
accumulations are too discontinuous to form pay streaks, and
distinct ore chutes are not so common here as on the more per-
feet domes. Wherever they do exist, they follow the dip of
rolls. The Copper lead has one, with a very low west dip, in
division ii. The Little North has two, perhaps three, with the
same dip. These leads plunge west, and their rolls dip west,
the ore chimneys following these closely. The Big North has
one streak, on the west plunge, which was followed west to the
west fault and lost.

Relations to vein walls.—In some belts the gold is so finely
disseminated as to be invisible. Such concentrations as can be
seen, yet not sufficiently high to call pockets, are often found in
sheets of irregular thickness, lining the vein wall and projecting
thence into the gangue. Rarely they tongue into the country
rock. More often the sheets are smooth on that side, their
irregularity being entirely toward the gangue. Where the gold
lines the sides of rolls, it usually is bounded outwardly by a
rusted zone when near the surface. From this lining wiry
stringers, irregular masses and leaves project into the vein, often
along distinct fractures.

Britannia and Kaulback belts —These are two of the most’
instructive belts for the study of visible gold. In the former,

74 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

the only large accumulations were a series of pockets on a roll
in the main vein. Here the metal occurred chiefly close to the
hanging wall, running thence into the quartz. In this it lay as
interlacing stringers, leafy expansions, and knotty bunches.
Leaves were rare. In places the quartz was so intersected by
wires that it could not readily be separated from the gold with-
out fine crushing.

The Kaulback belt is composed entirely of angulars; but
these are in the main parallel to the strike of the sediments, and
are interstratified in parts. Evidently their origin is the same
as the bedded leads. As a belt they follow the sediments; as
individuals they do this only occasionally. In these veins the
gold is more often on the margin than elsewhere, but in some
places is abundant in the center. Certain characteristic appear-
ances are reproduced in pl. 17, figs. c,d, e, f,g. Figs. e and d
are typical of many cases, the gold lining the side of the vein,
extremely smooth toward the country rock, rarely standing out
into the slate, but serrated irregularly by projections on the vein
side. ‘These projections are usually small stringers, but occasion-
ally too thick and obtuse to bear that name. The main part of the
leaf is so thin that it can readily be peeled off from the quartz.
These two figures are from a small mammillary bulge on the side
of the vein. Such bulges are abundant. A little pyrite and
arsenopyrite were in the quartz, but the gold appeared to bear
no definite relation to them. In some instances, as in fig. g,

the gold leaves the vein margin entirely, and runs some distance
into the slate.

The gold of this belt is often closely associated with a steel
colored mineral, which nay be slightly altered arsenopyrite
but does not have all of its superficial characters. The surface
of the gold leaves is pitted with it, and it usually has a vesicular
character itself. Inability to take away any of the specimens
in which it was seen has made positive identification impossible.
Both pyrite and arsenopyrite are abundant in the veins of this
belt, in crystalline as well as massive form. This applies par-

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 75

ticularly to the latter mineral. Where bunches of these sul-
phides he within the quartz, the gold sometimes occupies the
margins and strings into the interior, sometimes is in leaves in
the interior. In this case it always has connection with the
margin. It is never seen against the side of a crystal of either
sulphide. Both pyrite and arsenopyrite have drusy cavities
when massive, but these are unoccupied, and give no evidence of
having ever been filled.

PART IV.—SUMMARY OF GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

The theoretical problems regarding structure of the rocks,
origin of the veins and the ores, metamorphism, and other
phenomena of the Meguma series asa whole, are being considered
in separate papers, and will not be touched upon here. Certain
events, such as the intrusion of the granites, have left no effect
in this district, and their study must of necessity be pursued
elsewhere. All that is intended in these paragraphs is an outline
statement, without elaboration or defence, of certain important
events in the history of the series, evidence for which can be
obtained in Moose River.

The sediments were deposited in comparatively shallow water,
in which currents distributed the detritus irregularly, giving a
marked discontinuity of strata. In this way, here and there
over the sea bottom and at different times, larger amounts of
pelite were formed; either alternating with sands regularly, or
more rarely having little sand dropped with the mud. Moose
River represents the latter type of what elsewhere in this
series of papers is called a “horizon of more abundant slate.”
Between these, geographically and stratigraphically, little but
sand of various textures was laid down. Thus such a dome as
Moose River has very definite limits, not only north and south
by the overlying whin, but east and west ; and its veins cannot
be expected to extend indefinitely in any direction, nor to
reappear on any other dome. The slate and vein-bearing
horizons are also definitely limited in depth as well as in extent.

76 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

The accumulation was on a sinking sea bottom, in a syncline
of deposition. The sediments at Moose River were among the
first of which we have knowledge, but evidently not actually
lowest in the series. The water may have contained lowly
organized life in some form, as. shown by the slight amounts
of graphitic material in the rocks.

With the great accumulation of strata came gradual lithifica-
tion, from pressure of overlying rocks and rise of the isogeother-
mal planes induced by the continual blanketing. It allowed
considerable secondary alteration of the shales and sandstones,
through increase in the solvency of the water of sedimentation,
and showing itself especially in the deposition of secondary
minerals.

Increased lateral pressure of necessity accompanied increased
sinking of the sea bottom. There ensued more chemical action,
and the beginning of the east and west folding. Simultaneously
came the earliest deposition of vein material, along planes of
weakness, which were stratification planes. At last the folds
became marked in height, and greatest where plastic shale strata
were abundant; and in the interstices between layers, and
occasional radial gashes upward from the folds, the veins and ore
had been gradually deposited, the latter in part remaining in
the adjacent country rock.

Later, the greater rigidity of the rocks under pressure
allowed jointing and faulting. Pressure kept the fracture planes
tightly closed for the most part. Cleavage had been begun
earlier, in an incipent way; but it had not developed into a
mechanical fissility until all the vein concentration had ceased.

Denudation had been active on overlying beds, and finally
reached the horizon of Moose River. Evidence elsewhere shows
that by far the larger part of the denudation, which was the last
great event in the history, took place before the close of lower
Carboniferous times.

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 77

APPENDIX. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF LEADS.

In the following description of the gold-bearing leads, the
data are given by divisions, as in the discussion of folds above.
The statements are not intended to be complete; for, in a district
mined in so desultory and fragmentary a manner as this has
been, it is impossible to get reliable data in sufficient quantity
regarding leads long idle. No mention of value is given ; and,
indeed, all statements of a pecuniary nature have been rigidly
excluded from the paper. The information has been gained
from every available source that is reliable—personal observa-
tion, Mr. Faribault’s excellent map, and miners who have worked
the leads in question in former years. The use of pl. 2 will
be necessary throughout the description.

Division 1.—This territory is much less opened up than that
to the east. The Alex. Taylor lead is three inches thick where
seen. At the north end of area 67 are two leads on the surface,
which have never been opened ; the northern five, the southern
two inches wide. The Britannia is a belt of two leads, with a
foot-wall of whin and no distinct hanging wall. The larger of
these veins is six inches wide west of the river, and very white,
and five inches thick in the main opening. The smaller lead
averages four inches. Both roll heavily.

The Kaulback belt consists chiefly of two veins at the
surface, two feet apart and stratified. Ata depth of twelve to
fifteen feet they break gently southward across the bedding,
diverging somewhat, so that at 170 feet down on the slope they
are five to six feet apart. They also turn slightly northwestward
across the strike of the country rock. At various points they
break up into stringers, sometimes reuniting again. South from
the more southerly of the two leads 28 feet, at the 170-foot
level, is a six-inch bedded lead, rolling strongly.

The vertical lead under the south corner of the Touquoy
crusher is very uneven in thickness, running from a few inches
up to nearly two and a half feet. Southeast of it, on the west

78 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

side of area 33, is a four-inch lead. Farther south a lead of
three inches has a shaft over it, and within a few feet comes
the South lead, of two inches.

There is little doubt but that many times this number of
leads outcrop on the surface of the bedrock. All the trenches
in this and other divisions, tend to emphasize this probability.
On the west side of area 69 a cut 55.3 feet long was opened in
1899, in a search for the Britannia be!t. It has since caved in.
The first five feet from the south end isin slate, with a steep but
undeterminable south dip. From five to twelve feet the rock is
occupied by a belt of angulars. At the latter station is a two-
inch lead. At 21.5 feet and 23.5 feet is a belt occupied by two
very small leads; at 39 feet is the north side of a whin belt,
and three feet farther is a narrow lead. At 52 feet is a lead of
three to four inches thickness, and at 55 feet a small vein heavily
corrugated. The Kaulback belt of angulars has already been
described. It is difficult to estimate the thickness of quartz
represented, on account of the many bifurcations of the veins.
On area 32, in a drain which begins at the north end of the area,
a number of leads were visible in 1899 after cleaning the
excavation, and more were seen in earlier years. South from
the north end 54 and 56 feet, the first leads are two which are
thought to be the Moleskin belt, from similiarity in the appear-
ance and relations of the quartz. No. 1 is one-fourth inch, and
No. 2 is two inches thick. The third lead is 78 feet from the
north end, six inches broad; the fourth 83 feet, 8.5 inches
broad ; the fifth 87 feet, four inches across; the sixth 90 feet
south, two inches thick; and the seventh is 9 feet south of the
area line, and 1.5 to 2 inches thick. They all have steep north
dips.

Division Ww: north anticline.—Beginning at the north of
this division is No. 7, six to eight and sometimes ten inches
thick, rolling heavily westward. The rock is largely quartzite
to the Copper (pl. 13), which has two leads, three and four inches
on the average, A slate belt of several feet was available also,

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 79

for crushing. There are said to be three leads between the
Copper and No. 7; but I have never seen them, as they were
met only in an old cross-cut, long since abandoned. Somewhat
more slate is found in the country rock to the Little North.
This again is really a belt of two leads, with two feet between
them, in which some whin occurs with the slate. Altogether
there are about four inches of quartz, rolling west at a very
low dip. Some little whin is to be found between the Little
North and Big North; but the rock is chiefly slate, with many
veinlets of quartz interstratified. The Big North (pl. 14) is in
a belt, with a whin hanging wall. The main lead lies on this
wall, and averages four inches thick; is very curly, and has
west-dipping rolls. The Serpent is perhaps the most irregular
lead in the district, in places as low as two inches or somewhat
less, in others as high as eighteen. It is extremely well corru-
gated, but unevenly, the thickest parts giving the largest and
roundest curves (pls. 15, 16). It is remarkable for the clearness
with which the relation between the crenulation, cleavage and
jointing are shown in the sediments. This lead, better than any
other, brings out the manner of breaking of the vein parallel
with the lamine of the slate.

Division 1: comparison with “ West Mine.”—It may be
well to turn aside here, although not in the geographical order
of treatment, to describe the leads at West Mine; for they
are stated by their prospectors to be equivalent, in part at least
to leads just described in the main settlement. At the head of
the north trench (pl. 1, fig. b) is a four-inch lead. In the four-
teen-foot belt a few feet south of it is a ten-inch vein on the
foot-wall, and many stringers north of it through the slate to
the limit of the belt. This is thought to be No. 7. The lead
in the east-west trench, with a steep rolling north dip, is
regarded as the Copper. The shaft south of this cut is over
the Little North belt, eight feet wide with three leads—one on
each wall and one in the belt. Southeast of this shaft is the vein
thought to be the Big North. Here is a six-foot belt witha

80 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

three-inch lead on the foot-wall, and a small one on the hanging
wall. Both roll heavily, as do also the rather rough walls, the
foot-wall rolling ten inches deep.

Comparing these, lead for lead, with thoge described from
farther east, we have little ground for belief in their identity.
The northern ones have about the right intervals between each
other, and are at equivalent distances from the probable position
of the anticlinal axis. But the distance from the Little North
to the Big North is far out of proportion. There is also a
dissimilarity of belts, most marked in the two just mentioned.
Altogether, I see no ground for classing them as identical with
the eastern veins. The distance between the localities is greater
than these leads are ever carried by direct observation. More
than this, no lead or group of leads has ever been proved to
descend the nose of a plunging fold and rise to the surface
farther along the strike; and the most plausible theories of the
origin of such veins render it improbable that they would do
this. Finally, the rocks at West Mine are pitching west, as in
the main district; and no proof has been found as yet, of an
eastward plunge between the two places. Unless one exists,
the former strata are structurally higher than the latter, and
not their equivalents.

Division w: subsidiary anticline.—Returning to division ii
once more, no leads are found south of the Serpent and north of
the Bruce belt, except a few filaments at the center of the anti-
cline in the quarry on area 131, most of which do not outerop at
the surface. The Archibald vein I have no personal knowledge
about, as its openings have been full of water for a number of
years. The Bruce belt consists of several thin leads, occupying
about a foot ia width. In the quarry, no leads are met north of
the Jo. Taylor belt (pl. 18) which was in early years tunnelled
under the western two-thirds of the quarry. The belt is seven to
eight feet thick, overlain by four feet of whin, and contains
six leads. The hanging wall lead is exposed here better than
farther east, the foot-wall one not so well. The corrugations of

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 8l

the hanging wall lead are chiefly on the east plunge, and are
continued east of the fault. The foot-wall lead is not crenulated
here so much as in the quarry on areas 73 and 74. The total
breadth of quartz in the belt is eight to ten inches.

Above the whin stratum mentioned les the Ferguson, three
inches thick, dipping 60° 8. From this a shallow trench was
cut in 1899 in the south entrance to the quarry, to expose any
leads present. Five feet south of the Ferguson it brought to
light a strongly corrugated lead, one and one-half inches thick,
pinching perceptibly eastward. Six and a half feet from the first
lead is another, one-quarter inch thick. At seven and one-half
feet lies a half-inch vein, which may be an angular ; at nine and
one-half a one-inch corrugated lead; at ten and one-half a
three-inch one; and at eleven a lead one and one-quarter inches
thick, with some stringers on its hanging wall. The last four
are all rolled closely together and in sympathy. At sixteen
feet is a one-inch lead which rolls so heavily as to reverse its
normal south dip in places. At 21 feet hes a quarter-inch lead,
and at 25.5 feet a three-quarter-inch one. At 32 feet from the
Ferguson is a large lead, six to twelve inches thick, with a strike
N. 87° W. and a surface dip of 63° S., becoming somewhat less
downward ; and claimed by some to be the Britannia. It is very
white, and lies in black graphitic slate; but has little or none
of the arsenopyrite characteristic of that lead farther west. The
slate for 80 feet north, however, has much of it in crystalline
form. On the southeast side of this entrance to the quarry are
several thin leads. East of the trench, on the excavated bank,
is a narrow one, striking N. 87° W. and dipping 60° S._ Prob-
ably it is identical with the one in the trench next south of the
proposed Britannia.

Division w: south anticline—Three leads lie immediately
south of the synclinal axis. In a hole at the north end of area
31 is the Bigelow, sometimes called the Big White, sixteen to
24 inches thick ; and two and a half feet south of it a nine-inch
lead, both very dense and white. Their attitude is nearly or

82 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

quite perpendicular. The Smith belt contains two leads, and an
angular on the foot-wall of the northernmost, in the shaft. This
is the belt which, when worked east, was found to curve around
the south end of the middle fault. A few feet south hes the
South Flat lead, five inches thick, parallel with the Smith. It
has been exposed for several yards in a shallow cut, and curves
on the strike, parallel to the former. Its eastern exposure,
where it was possible to get the dip accurately in 1899, is really
in division 111.

Division iii: north anticline.—On the east side of this
fault block, a few feet north of the Copper, is a four-inch lead
which does not, however, appear to be equivalent to No. 7.
The Copper still has two leads, giving a foot of crushing material,
including the slate which bounds it. The Little North has two
feet of crushing material in the west, and one foot in the eastern
half of the block. The Little South is a thin curly lead, with
soft slate adjacent to it, giving a foot of good crushing rock.
The Big North does not roll so much as at the west plunge, and
averages about eight inches in thickness. At the east end of
the block it is called the North Sutherland, although there is no
reason to regard it asa different lead. It thins somewhat to the
east, being only five inches across, east of the road. On area 28
is a one-inch lead.

Division vii: subsidiary anticline.—Between this lead and
the large quarry, no veins are exposed. Here the hanging wall
lead of the Jo. Taylor belt comes up steeply from the south on
the south side; and on the east end where it plunges, it runs
under the whin cap shown in pl. 8, fig. a. There it was gouged
out for nearly 200 feet east, with a small part of the belt under
it, leaving the rest of the belt and the whin cap. The foot-wall
lead forms the floor of the quarry over about two-thirds of its
width northward, thence sinking steeply southward on the south
side and gently northward on the north. It does not sag in the
syncline so much as the hanging wall lead. It is strikingly
corrugated, in waves of four inches amplitude and less. The

»

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN. 83

belt contains only five leads in this quarry, and the overlying
whin has thickened to nearly eight feet. The hanging wall
lead dips 40° N. on the north side of the quarry, and is thinning
out fast to a stringy film of quartz. Outside the whin cap on
the south the Ferguson is found, two inches thick where seen.

Division vi: south anticline—The Dreadnaught is a four-
inch lead on the west, twelve inches wide eastward, breaking
up more or less into angulars, and enclosed by slate. The Dry
belt, sometimes called the Tripe belt, is a slate band seven to
eight feet wide, with about a foot of angulars. The Moleskin
is a belt of two leads, three and four inches thick, with a whin
hanging wall. The Comstock, where opened on the east side of
the block, is five to seven inches. South of it is a four-inch
lead.

Division vii: three trenches.—Three surface cuts have been
made in this bleck (pls. 7, 18). The attitude of the beds in them
has been stated in the earlier part of this paper. In trench No,
1 (pl. 7, fig. a) only the Jo. Taylor belt isexposed. A portion of
the foot-wall lead is figured in pl. 9, fig. ¢, to show the character
of its irregularity in the western part of the division. This lead
pitches east 10°, the hanging wall lead 5°. ‘The latter 1s
very dark and ribbony; the former is white and cellular, with
much iron rust. It is here two inches thick. Immediately
south of the whin overlying this belt, the Ferguson comes up
at the end of the trench, very much crenulated, and averaging
one and one-half to two inches thick.

In trench No. 2 (pl. 7, fig. b) the first lead lies 32 feet south
of the north end, and is one inch thick, lying in a three-foot
belt of slate with a dip 72°N. Lead No. 2 is at 56 feet, two
inches thick, dipping 80° N. No. 3 is at 75 feet. It is a belt
of two, the north one two and one-half inches, the other a zone
of veinlets ; the two sets being six inches apart. It is probably
the Dry belt. Whin lies on the hanging wall. No. 4 is at 79
feet, one-fourth inch thick, with a high north dip. No. 5 is a
belt of three, the north one 84 feet 4 inches south, the middle

84 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN.

85 feet, and the south one 86 feet 3 inches. The first has a
thickness of one-half inch, the second one-half to one, and the
third one inch. They dip 50° N. No. 6 is the Moleskin belt.
It is composed of two leads, the higher 90 feet from the north
end of the trench, one-half inch thick, with a hanging wall of
whin; the lower, two feet farther south, one-fourth inch thick.
They dip 70° N. No. 7 is a perpendicular lead, at 96 feet, one-
half to one inch thick. No. 8 is at 99 feet, a three-quarter-inch
lead. No. 9 is at 100 feet, one inch thick, and appearing in
places to be two leads very closely associated. No. 10 is 147
feet south, a quarter-inch curly lead, already referred to as hav-
ing a double dip, lying as it does exactly on the anticlinal axis.
No. 11 is at 166 feet, a large white lead, twelve to fifteen inches
thick, dipping 50° 8S. South of the trench is the 8S. O. B. lead,
five inches thick.

Trench No. 3 (pl. 7, fig. d), on areas 31 and 970 (block 4),
was cut to overlap No. 2. South of its south end 37 feet are
two two-inch leads. North from its south end 21 feet is the
Hen Miller lead, six inches; at 85 feet is the Root Hog belt,
with leads one, two, four and six inches thick. At 110 feet is
a large lead of twelve to fifteen inches; at 131 feet a belt of two
leads, three and two inches. At 154 feet is an eight-foot belt,
giving leads of one, six, one, and four inches. At 172 feet is
the S. O. B., six inches; and at 202 feet a large angular. At
215 feet is an eight- to ten-foot belt of slate, with leads of six
_ and two inches. Beyond the trench, in the drain, is a three-
inch lead, the South Flat; and beyond this the Smith belt, a
three-inch and a two-inch lead.

Division v.—In this division the Copper and No. 7 have
never been prospected for. The Little North is here more like
its condition on the west side of division iii, giving two feet of
good crushing. The North Sutherland (Big North) is five inches
thick on the average. South of this, owing to the structure,
there are no leads which have been found to the west; and since
many of the workings have been in disuse for years, or have

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—=WOODMAN:; 85

been poorly made, I have not data for all. The Flat lead, area
124, is three inches thick. The more northerly of the two in
the center of area 77, east of the fault, is two inches thick. The
Big South (wrongly called Comstock by some) is a foot thick.
Two leads, six and one inch respectively, le a few feet south of
its east end. The Miller lead is three inches across. The Cowan
is an erratic vein, probably not strictly in the stratification of
the sediments. It varies much in thickness, running up to two
feet in swells. A six-inch vein hes so close as to be included
practically in the same belt. The former has a south dip, but
in places appears to dip north, owing to its large corrugations.
It and its belt contain much striated arsenopyrite like that in
the Britannia belt, and miners have considered them equivalent ;
but there is no possibility that they are.

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS.—G.

86 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT.— WOODMAN.

DESCRIPTION (OF “PLADES:

Plate 1. Fig. a—Outline map of the Moose River gold dis-
trict ; to show general geography, location of blocks, axes
of main folds, and situation of detailed map (pl. 2).
Adapted from Geol. Surv. Can., doc. 624.

Fig. b.—Detailed map of “ West Mine,” showing the
natural outcrops and artificial exposures, and the position
of the anticlinal axis.

Plate 2. Detailed map of the main part of Moose River gold
district ; showing positions of shafts, quarries, leads, expos-
ures of country rock, and anticlinal axes, with the attitudes
of determinable strata and veins. Scale 1: 2100, 1 inch to
175 feet.

Plate 3. Detailed cross section of division i.

Plate 4. Cross section of division ii.

Plate 5. Cross section of division iii.

Plate 6. Cross section of division iv.

Plate 7. Detailed sections from trenches and quarry on areas
30, 31, 70, 71 Block 1, and 97 Block 4. Fig. a, trench 1;
Jig. 6, trench 2 ; fig. c, quarry ; fig. d, trench 3.

Plate 8. Fag. a.—View in quarry on areas 73, 74; looking east,
showing synclinal sag on the subsidiary anticline. Above
the opening is the hanging wall whin overlying the Jo.
Taylor belt. The opening was made in excavating the
hanging wall lead, and below this lies the slate holding the
other veins of that group. The foot-wall lead forms the
floor of the quarry. The face is a joint plane. The cleav-
age, and the serration made by its intersection with strati-
fication, are also shown.

Fig. b.—Crenulated lead ; showing curving of cleavage
around the arch, and inward toward the center of a trough.
The white spots in the country rock are crystals of arseno-
pyrite. About natural size.

GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—WOODMAN, 87

Fig. c-—Specimen taken from the roll of a vein ; show-
ing the stratification curving beneath the roll, and
approximately parallel with it. About natural size.

Plate 9. Fig. a.—Section at intersection of middle fault with
south anticlinal axis of the subsidiary anticline ; on east
side of fault, in a small pit on area 71. Black band repre-
sents the hanging wall lead of Jo. Taylor belt, changing
from a south dip, and leaving the hanging wall whin.

Fig. b—In the same pit as fig. a; section showing
fault. The lead is viewed along the strike, but has little
dip at this point. In these two figures, gl = glacial drift,
gt — quartzite, sl = slate.

Fig. c.—Section at the north end of trench 1; show-
ing crenulations in foot-wall lead of the Jo. Taylor belt
(vid. pl. 7, fig. a, north end of section).

Plate 10. View in quarry on area 77, looking northeast ; show-
ing on north side of quarry the eastward pitch of the
strata, and on the east wall a fault plane (ef. pl. 2)

Plate 11. Structural details.

Fig. a.—Crenulated lead, just below Jo. Taylor belt ;
to show relation between size of vein and amplitude of
corrugation, and lack of sympathy of adjacent strata.

Fig. b.—Serration of stratification by cleavage ; quarry,
area 74.

Fig. e.—Crenulated angular, Kaulback belt (cf. fig. a).

Fig. d.—Ivregular vein ; west wall of quarry, area 73.
Inclined lines show cleavage, horizontal lines stratification.

Figs. e, f —Details of rhythmic crenulation of a lead.

Fig. g.—Diagramatic section, to. show the relation
between stratification, jointing, and cleavage, in the country
rock adjacent to a roll. The first follows the vein closely,
in full lines; the second is broadly curved, in full lines:
the third is but slightly curved, in broken lines.

Fiy.h.—Map of the middle fault, in the small pit at
east end of quarry, area 71.

88 GEOLOGY OF MOOSE RIVER GOLD DISTRICT—-WOODMAN.

Fig. i.—Detail of crest of the south anticline in trench.
2. The heavy line indicates a lead, capped by whin and
underlain by slate.

Plate 12. Details of Kaulback angulars.

Fig. a.—Section at 60-foot level, north tunnel ; showing
relations of angulars to stratification.

Fig. b—Map of part of the same angulars, taken at
approximately the same place ; looking wp at the roof of the
tunnel.

Fig. c—Details.of rolling and splitting of a stratified
portion of an angular.

Fig. d.—Details of a portion which follows the stratifi-
cation approximately. Vertical lines represent cleavage.

Plate 13. Copper belt, here composed of two leads, symmetri-
cally crenulated ; looking east.

Plate 14. Big North or Great North lead, looking west in the
stope on the west plunge ; showing crenulation, and relations
of stratification and cleavage to the lead.

Plate 15. Serpent lead, looking west on the west plunge ; show-
ing in the lead extreme contortion with crushing, and
parallel banding, and twisting of cleavage under the influ-
ence of rolls.

Plate 16. Serpent lead ; showing details of a thick portion.

Plate 17. Fig. a.—Contacts of irregular lenticles of slate in
quartzite.

Fig. b.—Enlargement along line a-b.

Figs. c.-g —Sections of vein margins, from Kaulback
angulars ; showing relations of gold to gangue and country
rock. ig. e, a portion of fig. c enlarged ; fig. g, a portion of
fig. e enlarged.

Plate 18. Map of areas 30, 31, 70 and 71, enlarged from the
original of pl. 2.

THE Mirra GRANT, CAPE BrRETON County, N. S.—-By EpwIn
GiLPin, Je. Ay ME ir Ds BeRe SoCs) eS; 0. Ere:
Etc., Inspector of Mines.

(Read 18th May, 1903.)

The establishment of large iron and steel producing plants
at the Sydneys has led to enquiries for iron ores in Cape Breton.
These establishments are practically independent of local ores.
as their supplies are brought from Bell Island, in Newfoundland ;
but they are presumably willing to take other ores if they can be
laid down equally cheaply at their furnaces. The presence of
iron ore beds, in strata of Lower Silurian age, on the south shore
of the Mira River, has been known for some years. The ore, a
bedded red hematite, of good quality, showed signs of its pres-
ence over a tract several miles long. Recent explorations have
apparently proved it to be presented in quantity permitting of
economic development. Some leases were issued by the Mines
Department, when it was unexpectedly found that the land on
both sides of the Mira River for several miles had been granted
at an early period in the history of the island as a ‘province
separate from Nova Scotia.

A judicial investigation before the Mines Department into
the extent of the mineral rights under this grant appeared at
one time to be unavoidable in order that the demands of rival
claimants for leases, ete., might be settled. This investigation
did not take place, but it appeared to the writer that a record
of the data, that could be found bearing on the grant, was worth
preserving for future reference.

The grant in question was issued by Lieutenant-Governor
DesBarres and his council, June 26th, 1787, to Jotham White,
George Rogers and their associates. White represented one

(89)

90 THE MIRA GRANT, CAPE BRETON CO., N. S.——GILPIN.

hundred loyalists who had petitioned for a grant on the shores
of this beautiful sheet of water. It was then settled by a few
tishermen, living near its mouth, and by a few families living
higher up the river on the site of a small French settlement.

The boundaries of the grant were as follows :—

“ Beginning at the north-eastern head of a cove on the north-
western shore of Mira Bay, running north five degrees east
three hundred and forty chains ; thence south eighty-five degrees
west one thousand seven hundred and sixty chains; thence
south fifteen degrees west eight hundred and eighty chains ;
thence easterly until it strikes the head of the southernmost
branch which empties itself into Milward Lake ; thence through
the middle of the lake northward until it bears west from the
northwesternmost angle boundary of a reservation for the Crown
(a naval reserve) ; thence south seventy-one degrees and thirty
minutes east four hundred chains along the north-western boun-
dary of such reservation ; thence north eighty-five degrees east
nine hundred and eighty chains, until it strikes on the south-
western shore of said Mira Bay at a pile of stones distant one
mile easterly from the entrance of Fielding’s, alias Catalogne,
Lake; thence westerly and northerly following the roundings
of the shore around the head of said Mira Bay. across the
entrance of Mira River, continuing thence easterly until it meets
the first mentioned boundary, containing in all 100,000 acres,
more or less, with allowance for roads, glebe, schools, ete.”

The grant included also “mines and minerals,” reserving,
however, “all mines of gold, silver, lead, copper and coal.”

After providing for quit rent, among other conditions of
settlement necessary to prevent forfeiture of the grant was the
following: that the grantee should, “ within three years, begin
to employ thereon and continue to work for the three years then
next ensuing in digging any stone quarry or mine, one good and
able hand for every fifty acres.”

It appears that few of the original grantees effected a per-
manent settlement on their allotments, and that

radually

ae
cao)

THE MIRA GRANT, CAPE BRETON CO., N. S.—GILPIN. 91

considerable portions along the shores of the river were occupied
by squatters.

About the year 1790 many highland estates in Scotland
were converted into grazing lands, and the resulting overplus of
population was compelled to cmigrate. The tide of Scotch set-
tlers turned towards Cape Breton in 1802, and continued until
about the year 1827. Had these settlers not come to Nova
Scotia, the development of the eastern part of Nova Scotia would
undoubtedly have proceeded at a very slow rate. Cape Breton,
at the time of their arrival, was practically a wilderness. Grants
of crown lands were issued up to March 30th, 1810; after that
date up to 1818, crown licenses, warrants, etc., were given.
This immigration seized upon the Mira district, which appeared
a fair land after the rugged hills of Scotland, although in reality
the land was not found, when cleared, to prove as fertile as
expected,

Settlers of all kinds were found here in addition to the repre-
sentatives of the original letters patent, holders of regular grants,
crown leases and licenses, warrant of survey, etc., and squatters.

The confusion of titles in the district was several times
brought to the notice of the Government of Cape Breton, and
later to the notice of the authorities at Halifax. Apparently
matters were allowed to drift until legislation appeared
necessary.

Chapter 33, acts of 1839, recited that this grant had been
issued by the Government of Cape Breton in 1787, that it con-
tained 100,000 acres, as would appear on reference to the
Register of Grants, book A, pages 206, 207 and 208, that the
conditions of settlement had not been observed by the original
grantees, that in 1801 certain of the original grantees and others
holding title under them, finding that it was impossible to have
the grant divided so as to give them their full shares, petitioned
to have the grant declared void so that they could obtain
satisfactory deeds of their original allotments, or an equivalent

92 THE MIRA GRANT, CAPE BRETON CO., N. S.—GILPIN.

The petition was entertained and on the finding of a jury, the
grant was escheated ; and a number of new grants were issued.

The act went on to declare -that it was doubtful if the
escheat was legal (the reasons not being given) and if the grants
subsequently issued conferred legal titles thereon.

The number of the original settlers now on the grant, and of
those holding under title from original settlers under the grant,
was very small. <A considerable number of settlers had, how-
ever, come in without title, as it appears that 1,300 people had
settled on these lands, who claimed to hold by possession 55,090
acres of the grant, to have cultivated 3,064 acres, and to possess
numerous live stock, besides houses, barns, ete. In order that
the hopeless confusion matters had fallen into might be straight-
ened out, it was enacted that all grants in the district in question
as well as the original grant, were absolutely void, and that the
title was revested in Her Majesty.

Provision was further made that it would be lawful for the
Governor-in-Council, acting on the report of a commission to be
appointed for the purpose, to issue free grants upon such con-
ditions as seemed proper, within the limits of the original letters
patent.

This act was reserved for the royal approval, which was
presumably extended. This bold attempt at rectifying the
innumerable disputes, pleased no one, as even unassailable
rights were thereby placed at the mercy of an irresponsible com-
mission, and, as was to be expected, proved impracticable, and
fresh legislation was sought.

By chapter 10, acts of 1843, the act of 1839 was repealed.
No further attempt was made to divide up the grant; a declar-
ation of rights only was enacted.

The act proclaimed (a) that all who possessed land in the Mira
grant under the letters patent of 1787, and any holding under
title from any of them should enjoy any such lands in fee
simple.

THE MIRA GRANT, CAPE BRETON CO., N. S.—GILPIN. 93

(b) That all grants, leases, warrants of survey, or other title
derived from the crown subsequently to the escheat (in 1801)
were confirmed and made valid for the purpose for which they
were intended.

(c) That all persons claiming under possession prior to the
passing of the letters patent (the original Mira grant), howso-
ever such possession may have begun, should enjoy such tracts
in fee simple.

(d) That all persons at the date of the passing of the act in
possession, and who had been in possession for, twenty years
prior to the passing of the act, holding the same adverse to any
persons claiming under any of the aforesaid grants, letters
patent, licenses of occupation, warrant of survey or otherwise,
should enjoy such land in fee simple.

The title to the remainder of the grant, estimated to amount
to between 40,000 and 50,000 acres, was revested in Her
Majesty, providing, however, that the Governor in Council
could consider any equitable claims of persons residing on such
remainder of the grant at the date of the passing of the act,
and might issue free grants to any of such persons.

This act simply left the different parties in the position of
getting their rights if they fought for them.

It will have been noticed that under the terms of the original
grant the iron ore passed with the soil, not being specifically
reserved. The opinion prevails among all who now own land
within the limits of the original Mira grant, that they own the
iron ore also.

The act of 1839, appeared to have made a complete end of
the grant, and of all its privileges and franchises. This act
was repealed in 1843, and those occupying about half the land
embraced in the letters patent were confirmed in their holdings
in fee simple, no mention being made either of a grant or of a
reservation of minerals. This act of 1843, being intended to be
an act which defined anew rights which were suspended under
the act of 1839, for the purpose of readjustment, indicated to

94 THE MIRA GRANT, CAPE BRETON CO., N. S.—GILPIN.

what extent the Crown was prepared to grant rights. It,
therefore, presumably could not be construed to mean that the
minerals were reconveyed as in the original grant, or in other
words to mean that it conveyed more than it expressed.

This silence in the act of 1843, on the subject of minerals
was apparently due to the following cause. The Duke of York
on August 25th, 1826, received from the Crown of England a
grant of all minerals held by the Government of Nova Scotia.
By the act of 1839, repealing the Mira Grant, the land was
revested in the Government of Nova Scotia, which had the
power of re-granting it for the crown; the minerals, when the
grant was repealed, fell directly into the grant of the Duke of
York.

Finally in 1858, the grant to the Duke of York was sur-
rendered except for the reservation to the General Mining
Association of London, the purchasers of the Duke’s grant, of
certain tracts valuable for coal mining. Thereupon all those
minerals which the action of the Crown had withdrawn from the.
government of Nova Scotia came again under the jurisdiction of
the province.

Chapter 2 of the Acts of 1858 defined the position of the
Government of Nova Scotia in respect to the minerals which
had been revested in it by the surrender of the Duke’s lease,
It reserved out of these minerals gold, silver, lead, copper, tin,
iron, coal and precious stones. It would therefore appear that
in the lands covered by the limits of the original Mira Grant,
the minerals recited above belong to the crown, a reservation
somewhat more extended than that mentioned in the original
letters patent.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS
SaLts.—By W. H. Ross, B. Se, Dalhousie University
Halifax, N. 8.

(Communicated by Professor E. Mackay, 11th April, 1904.)

On account of the difficulty and expense experienced in pre-
paring the inorganie compounds of hydroxylamine, they have
not received much attention until recently. The organic com-
pounds of hydroxylamine, however, being easier of preparation
have been prepared in considerable num! ers, and rather care-
fully studied. By the method of Divers and Haga? the cost
and ditiiculty in preparing the inorganic salts of hydroxylamine
have been considerably reduced Notwithstanding this, how-
ever, their preparation in a chemically pure condition is still
attended with considerable difficulty. This is due to the fact that
they are for the most part unstable when heated much above the
ordinary temperature, and also that, like sodium salts, hydroxy-
lamine salts do not give a precipitate with any of the ordinary
inorganic reagents.

The analogy which hydroxylamine has to both water and
ammonia makes it difficult to predict which it would resemble
the more in its physico-chemical properties. Accordingly, at the
suggestion of Dr. E. Mackay, I have undertaken the prepara-
tion of hydroxylamine and its principal inorganic salts, with a
view to studying especially their electrical conductivities. The
results which I have obtained on following out this suggestion
form the subject matter of this paper.

Preparation of Hydroxylamine Sulphate.

The preparation of hydroxylamine sulphate was used as the
starting point in the preparation of all the other compounds of

1 It is intended that henceforth papers embodying researches carried out in the
laboratories of Dalhousie College, either by students or by members of the staff shall,
when published in these Transactions, appear with the general title, ‘‘Contributions
from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University.”

2 Journ. Chem. Soc. (London), 69, 1665 (1896).

(95)

96 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

hydroxylamine. The method followed was that of Divers and
Haga. To start with, 900 gms. of sodium nitrite and the corres-
ponding amount of sodium carbonate were taken. The sulphur
dioxide was prepared by acting upon copper with sulphuric acid.
When this gas is passed into a mixed solution of sodium nitrite
and sodium carbonate a marked rise in temperature takes place.
To keep the solution cool, which is necessary in order to prevent
deecmposition, the vessel containing it was surrounded by ice and
salt. Further precautions were taken to prevent decomposition of
the solution by keeping it well stirred. The delivery tube was
made to act as a stirring rod. It cons'sted of a piece of glass tub-
ing shaped thus, 1—the longer arm dipping into the liquid,
while the shorter was made to pass through a cork and con-
nected with the generating apparatus by a fairly stout piece of
rubber tubing. The cork supporting this part of the delivery
tube was attached to a small wooden axle, fitted near the cir-
cumference of a horizontal wheel which was driven by a small
air engine. The wheel revolving carried the tube round with
it, causing it to describe a circular motion in the liquid. By
means of this arrangement, the liquid could be stirred much
more effectively than by having the delivery tube stationary
and using another rod to do the stirring. To prevent the end
of the delivery tube from freezing up, a piece of copper wire
was placed in that part of the tube dipping into the liquid, and
then bent up almost parallel to itself and fastened loosely to the
side of the vessel containing the solution. The circular motion
of the delivery tube caused it to have a motion relative to the
wire thus preventing it from becoming frozen up. During a
part of the experiment the solution was simply surrounded with
ice. As far as I could determine, the same results were obtained
at this higher temperature, so long as the liquid was kept well
stirred. The sulphur dioxide was passed in until the liquid became
slightly acid, and the odour of the gas became perceptible. This
operation took about one hour for every 100 gms. of sodium car-
bonate taken. The solution thus prepared was then heated gently,

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 97

after adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. Hydrolysis was found
to take place quite rapidly accompanied by a marked rise in tem-
perature. Care had to be taken not to heat the solution too
strongly at first, as it had a tendency to froth over. Effervescence
was seen to cease in a short time, and the liquid was then heated
to 90°. To complete the second stage in the hydrolysis, it was
found necessary to keep the solution at this temperature for
about 55 hours. When hydrolysis was completed, was deter-
mined by adding to a small portion of the liquid, an excess of
barium chloride. If on filtering and treating the filtrate with a few
crystals of potassium chlorate, no cloudiness took place on boil-
ing, then the oxyamidosulphonate was known to be wholly
converted to sulphate. The liquid was heated in porcelain jars
instead of glass vessels on account of their being less liable to
break, and also on account of the ease with which the solution
could be heated to 90°-95° without bumping.

The excess of acid in solution was neutralized by adding the
required amount of sodium carbonate. This amount was calcu-
lated by titrating a small portion of the solution with a portion
of the prepared sodium carbonate solution—methyl orange being
used as an indicator. The neutral solution was then evaporated
down until it weighed about eleven times the weight of the
sodium nitrite taken, On setting aside to cool, a large amount
of sodium sulphate crystals separated out. Successive crops of
erystals were then removed until no further separation of
erystals would take place from the mother liquor. The last
evaporation was brought about at reduced pressure to prevent
decomposition. The crop of crystals containing the largest pro-
portion of hydroxylamine was then taken, dissolved in water,
and successive small portions of crystals removed by evaporating
off the required amount of water at reduced pressure. This was
kept up until the whole of the solution was crystallized. No
crop of crystals, however, was found to be entirely free from
sodium. The crop of crystals richest in hydroxylamine was
then taken and recrystallised a great number of times. Although

98 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

I had a large amou.ré'Sf the impure salt to start with, and made
many crystallisations, yet I failed to obtain erystals sufficiently
free from sodium to be used in determining the electrical con-
ductivity of the salt. The purity of the salt was determined
roughly by heating a few erystals on a crucible cover. The
amount of sodium sulphate left behind after the hydroxylamine
sulphate had been volatilised, yave a rough idea of the amount
of sodium present.

The hydroxylamine sulphate obtained in this way, however,
was sufficiently pure for the preparation of the other saits of
hydroxylamine, and finally hydroxylamine itself. By treating
a dilute standard solution of the latter with the required amount
of a dilute standard solution of sulphuric acid, a solution of
hydroxylamine sulphate was obtained. This solution was evap-
orated to dryness on the water bath, first in an open vessel and
then at reduced pressure. The salt thus obtained was purified
by digesting with alcohol in an upright condenser. As both
hydroxylamine and sulphuric acid are readily soluble in alcohol,
while hydroxylamine sulphate is not, the latter was thus
obtained in perfectly pure condition by decanting off the alco-
hol, and repeating the process a couple of times.

Properties of Hydroxylamine Sulphate.

Hydroxylamine sulphate was obtained on erystallising from
water in the form of irregular transparent ‘crystals, which were
found.to be slightly hygroscopic. The melting point of the
crystals was found to be about 163°. This is somewhat difficult
to determine exactly, as they undergo decomposition at the same
temperature. According to Lossen they melt at 170°; while
Preibisch reports the melting point as being only 140°.

On heating above the melting point, the salt was found to
break up into water, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide and ammoni-
um sulphate—the greater part of the latter remaining behind
after the other products have passed oft.

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 99

The nitrous oxide was tested for by e: , ding with hydrogen
in a eudiometer. When a spark from an induction coil was
passed through the gas and hydrogen mixed in equal volumes,
it was found that, after exploding, the volume of the mixed gases
was reduced one-half. Taking a larger amount of hydrogen,
the reduction of one volume in the same way took place. ‘Two
ems. of hydroxylamine sulphate yielded 180ce. of nitrogen
under standard conditions. Hence the reaction which takes
place must be represented by the equation :

ACNE Oe Ea Of — (NE nS Oy 2 >. Oo OH, Ol 2
NO:
Preparation of Hydroxylamine Chloride.

Hydroxylamine chloride was prepared by adding to a solu-
tion of hydroxylamine sulphate a slight excess of barium
chloride. The solution was set aside over night to allow the
precipitated barium sulphate to settle. The clear solution was
then decanted off through a filter. On filtering a second time a
perfectly clear solution was obtained. This was evaporated to
dryness in the same way as the solution of hydroxylamine sul-
phate mentioned above. The residue left behind from the
evaporation of the liquid was found to consist principally of
hydroxylamine chloride, together with a little barium chloride
and sodium chloride. By digesting these salts with successive
small portions of absolute alcohol in an upright condenser, the
hydroxylamine chloride was separated out, leaving the sodium
chloride and barium chloride behind. On cooling, the hydroxy-
lamine chloride at once began to separate out from its solution
in alcohol in the form of white needle-shaped crystals. On
recrystallizing from alcohol several times, crystals were obtained
which gave no trace of either sodium or barium, and which
volatilized completely when heated on a clean porcelain surface.

Properties of Hydroxylamine Chloride.

The erystals of hydroxylamine chloride obtained from water
much resembled those of the sulphate, but were more inclined to

1v0 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

be tabular. The crystals from alcohol were needle-shaped, and
and were found to be not hygroscopic. The melting point of the
crystals was observed to be 157° This agrees with that given
in Graham-Otto’s Chenvie.”

Like the sulphate, hydroxylamine chloride decomposes when
heated to the melting point. According to Graham-Otto, the
products of decomposition are :—Ammonium chloride, hydro-
chloric acid, water, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen. Nitrous oxide
was tested for by passing an electric spark through the gas
mixed with hydrogen, as in the case of the gas given off
from hydroxylamine sulphate. Although the gases were
mixed in different proportions, yet no explosion could be made
to take place, showing the absence of nitrous oxide. Further, 2
ems. of the salt yielded 210cc. of nitrogen under standard
conditions. Hence the decomposition of hydroxylamine chloride
must be represented by the equation :

3 NH. OH Cl NH,.Cl-43 B.O 42H Clan

Preparation of Hydroxylamime Phosphate.

Hydroxylamine phosphate is only slightly soluble in cold
water, and hence may be prepared by adding a saturated solu-
tion of normal sodium phosphate to one of hydroxylamine
chloride. 200 gms. of the normal phosphate were dissolved in
400 ce. of water. To bring the salt into solution, it had to be
heated almost to boiling. At the same time 110 gms. of
hydroxylamine chloride were dissolved in 240 ce. of water.
As the chloride is very soluble, this amount of the salt
dissolved on simply warming the solution. It could then be
cooled down to the ordinary temperature without immediately
crystallising. In the same way the phosphate was cooled down
to 30° or 40° by immersing in cold water. On now mixing the
two solutions, crystals of hydroxylamine phosphate soon began
to erystallise out in a very peculiar manner. Instead of starting
at some point and branching out as in the case of most super-
saturated solutions, the crystals of hydroxylamine phosphate

1 Vo). 2, pt. 3, page 518 (Ste Aufl.).

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 101

seemed to form independently throughout the liquid, and then
fall to the bottom like flakes of snow. The formation of
hydroxylamine phosphate thus more resembles the erystallisa-
tion of a salt from its supersaturated solution, than the forma-
tion of a precipita e in a solution where two soluble salts react
so as to form an insoluble one.

About 75 gms. of the salt were obtained. On account of its
being but slightly soluble in water, it can be purified with less
difficulty than the other salts of hydroxylamine. Like the
sulphate, however, it was found to decompose when a concen-
trated solution was heated to boiling. Considerable care had to
be taken to prevent this when purifying the salt by reerystallis-
ing from water. On recrystallising eight times no trace of
sodium was found.

Like many of the other salts of hydroxylamine, the phos-
phate forms supersaturated solutions of wonderful stability,
On account of this property, I had considerable difficulty in first
preparing the salt. The two solutions were mixed while hot.
No phosphate erystallised out even when the solution was
allowed to stand over night, and stirred briskly. On cooling
down the solutions before mixing, as already mentioned, the salt
was finally obtained.

Properties of Hydroxylamine Phosphate.

Hydroxylamine phosphate is much more soluble in hot than
in cold water. It is almost insoluble in alcohol. Its crystals
from water are coarsely, or finely, granular according to
whether the solution from which they separate is very concen-
trated or less so. The erystals are not hygroscopic. When
heated in a confined space they explode quite violently. Heated
in a vacuum, the salt decomposes into hydroxylamine, water and
pyrophosphoric acid :

ZAIN; Ele) OED) sek 0 — 6) N .O: Ho OH, Ps ©,

When heated in an open vessel the salt was found to decom-
pose at about 148° into ammonia, water, phosphoric acid, normal
ammonium phosphate and nitrous oxide. The relative proportion

Proc. & TRANs. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. TRANS.—H.

102 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

of the products formed depend largely on the degree to which
the salt is heated, and hence the reaction cannot be represented
by a definite equation.

Preparation of Hydroxylamine Nitrate.

Hydroxylamine nitrate was prepared from the sulphate by
adding the required amount of barium nitrate. The solution
was set aside over night to allow the precipitated barium sulphate
to settle. The supernatant liquid was then decanted off through
a filter. On filtering a second time a perfectly clear solution was
obtained. This was evaporated to a small volume on the water
at a pressure of about half an atmosphere. The concentrated
solution thus obtained was then tested for barium and sulphate.
By adding carefully barium nitrate, or hydroxylamine sulphate, as
the case required, a solution was finally obtained which gave no
indication of the presence of either barium,or sulphate. This solu-
tion, on filtering, was then distilled ina small flask at a pressure
of about 20 mm. At this pressure both water and hydroxylamine
nitrate were found to distil over at a temperature below 50°. The
distillation was continued until only a few ec. of the solution
remained behind in the flask. A few ce. of the last portion of
the solution distilled over was separately collected and dried
over phosphorus pentoxide. The remainder of the distillate was
standardised by titration with iodine, and used in determining
the conductivity of the compound,—redistilled water being used
to make up the solution.

On account of its explosive nature, a pure solution of the
salt was only obtained after repeated trials. I first endeavoured
to distill off the water by heating on the water bath at 100° and
pressure of half an atmosphere, with a view to purifying the
salt by erystallising from absolute aleohol. At this temperature,
however, the salt exploded, leaving about 3ce. of water behind
in the flask. The solution was again prepared in tlie same way,
and, after being evaporated to a small bulk as before, was heated
on a water bath at a temperature of 80°. To hasten evapora-

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 103

tion the vapour was drawn off by suction. At this temperature,
with normal pressure, the nitrate exploded as_ before, leaving
about 5ee. of water in the flask. On preparing the salt a third
time, the final distillation was carried on at a pressure of 20mm.,
with the result that the nitrate was found to distil over with
the water, as already mentioned, leaving barium nitrate or
hydroxylamine sulphate, which might be present as impurities,
behind in the flask.
Properties of Hydroxylamime Nitrate.

Hydroxylamine nitrate is a thick colorless liquid at the
ordinary temperature. It may be solidified by placing in a
freezing mixture of ice and salt. It decomposes slowly when
heated to 80°. Heated more strongly it decomposes very rapidly,
giving off red fumes. The products of decomposition were found
to be nitric acid, water, ammonium nitrate, nitrous and nitric
oxides. The nitric acid was tested for by passing through a solu-
tion of ferrous sulphate. The volumes of the gases given off
depend largely on the degree to which the salt is heated.

Preparation of Hydroxrylamine.

Hydroxylamine was prepared according to the method of
Uhlenhuth’ by distilling hydroxylamine phosphate in a vacuum.
20 oms. of the salt carefully purified and dried was distilled at
a time. The distillation was made in a 100 ce. distilling flask
which was connected with an air condenser. This consisted
simply of the tube of a Liebig condenser. A second distilling
flask served as a receiver. This was connected directly with the
glass tube—no adapter being used. The side tube of the
receiver was connected by thick-walled tubing with a mano-
meter, which was in turn connected with the air-pump. The
manometer consisted of an upright glass tube one meter long,
having its lower end resting in a trough of mercury. A gradu-
ated scale was placed alongside the tube. In this way any
change of pressure, which might take place in the distilling

1 Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 311, 117.

104 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

flask, could be more readily noticed than by the manometer in
the air-pump. With the apparatus thus set up, the pressure
could be reduced to 15 mm.

A thermometer was placdin the distilling flask so that the
bulb dipped in the salt to near the bottom of the flask. Heat
was applied to the flask with a free flame. At a pressure of
15-25 mm., the principal part of the hydroxylamine distilled
over between 135° and 137°. This part of the distillation oceu-
pied about 20 minutes. The hydroxylamine distilled over asa
colorless liquid at the rate of about 2 drops a second. <A char-
acteristic of the liquid was the small size of the drops. formed.
The temperature was then gradually raised to 160°. Towards
the end of the operation, the temperature could be kept up to
this point with considerably less heat than was applied to the
flask at first. The distillation was stopped at the end of half an
hour. From 20 grms. of the phosphate 5.6 grms. of hydroxylam-
ine were obtained.

The product left in the distilling flask consisted of a thick,
viscous, glass-like mass. This was found to consist of ortho-
phosphoric acid, pyrophosphoric acid and a small amount of
hydroxylamine which failed to distil over.

The greater part of the hydroxylamine obtained was dissolved
in about 50ce. ef water and redistilled. At a pressure of 15-25
mm. both water and hydroxylamine were found to distil over at
a temperature of 33-35°. In this way a chemically pure solu-
tion of hydroxylamine was obtained, which was used to deter-
mine its conductivity. The solution was standardised by
titration with iodine.

On distilling some hydroxylamine phosphate which was not
chemically pure, the hydroxylamine which distilled over was of
aveddish color. During the distillation, the temperature was
raised to 180°, and the pressure allowed to fall to 50 mm. with-
out explosion. Allowed to stand over night, the reddish color
of the distillate was found to have entirely disappeared. The

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 105

color was, therefore, obviously due to oxides of nitrogen result-
ing from decomposition of the phosphate other than that which
leads to the formation of hydroxylamine.

Properties of Hydrorylamine.
,

Hydroxylamine resembles ammonia in many of its chemical
reactions. With a neutral solution of ferric chloride, it gives a
precipitate of ferric hydroxide, part of the salt being reduced
at the same time to the ferrous state. ;

Hydroxylamine also gives with salts of manganese and zine
a precipitate of the hydroxides of these metals, soluble in hy-
droxylamine chloride.

With salts of aluminium and chromium, it gives a precipitate
of aluminium hydroxide and chromium hydroxide, insoluble in
excess.

Hydroxylamine differs from ammonia in acting as a strong
reducing agent. Added in excess to an acid solution of a ferric
salt, the whole of the iron is reduced to the ferrous condition.

With salts of copper, it gives a precipitate of cuprous oxide
on warming.

Added to a solution of mercuric chloride it first precipitates
mercurous chloride, and then, on adding an excess, the latter is
reduced to metallic mercury.

Added to silver nitrate, it gives a black precipitate of metal-
he silver.

Its behaviour towards such oxidizing reagents as potassium
permanganate and potassiuin bichromate has been studied by
Knorre and Arndt.

Although hydroxylamine reacts with litmus, it was found to
have no eftect on either phenol-phthalein or methyl orange.

When kept in a warm room hydroxylamine slowly breaks
up into ammonia, water and nitrogen.

SN HON Ee oH O-: N-.

1 Ber. d. Chem, Ges. 33, 30 (1900).

106 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

Any decomposition is readily detected by the odour of am-
monia given off, or by adding to a small portion in solution a
few drops of a neutral solution of phenol-phthalein. A solution
of hydroxylamine in water appears to be stable at ordinary
temperatures. A portion of a solution kept for several weeks in
a warm room gave no trace of a coloration when treated with
a few drops of a perfectly neutral solution of phenol-phthalein-

Titration of Hydroxylamie by Todine.

The only fairly trustworthy method for the volumetric esti-
mation of hydroxylamine is that devised by Haga’ and modified’
by Adams? This volumetric estimation is performed by add-
ing an % solution of iodine in potassium iodide to hydroxylamine
solution in presence of di-sodium phosphate, as long as the former
is bleached—using starch as indicator. Although this method
gives better results than any of the others which have been
suggested, yet it was found to be far from satisfactory. The
end point is very hard to determine, as the blue color given with
the starch fades out immediately. It was further noticed
that the results obtained were influenced considerably by the
amount of sodium phosphate in solution.

In the following experiments the solutions used were :—
solution of hydroxylamine sulphate containing 8.2104 gms. per
liter (.); of iodine, containing 12.685 gms. per litre (%); and
of di-sodium phosphate, containing 59.7172 gms. per litre (¥).
The solution of iodine was standardised by copper.

According to the equation :
(N H;0 H),SO, + 21, =4HI+ H.SO, + N,0 + HzO,
5ec. of hydroxylamine sulphate solution =10ce. of * iodine
solution. When making the titration it was found that 5ee. of
* hydroxylamine sulphate would bleach 10cc. of * iodine solu-

1 Journ. Chem. Soe. (London), 51,794 (1887).
2 American Chem. Journ., 28,198 (1902).

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—-ROSS. 107

tion only after adding 12ce. of ¥Na, H P Oy, A larger volume of
sodium phosphate added gave rosuiltes too high thus :—

Vol, of (NH, O Hes 0; Vol, of Na, Ee O, Vol. of iodine
taken. added. foe required,
dee. 12ce: 10.04¢ce.
Bee 24 “ 1096.
Bes 36 “ tn De
ie 48 « 11.63 «
oe 60 NIA Ro a

When titrating, iodine was added until it gave with the
solution a blue color lasting fora moment. The same amount.
of starch solution was taken for each titration—being measured
from a burette. It was found that by adding unequal amounts
of starch irregular results were obtained. This was due to the
fact that by using a large amount of starch the blue coloration
was found to fade out less quickly than with a less amount,
making it almost impossible to identify the true end point in
both cases.

Haga, in his experiments on the volumetric estimation of
hydroxylamine by iodine, used sodium acid carbonate for pro-
ducing a non-acid solution. He showed that to vet best results
by this method, solutions (1) should not be excessively dilute ;
(2) should contain very little alkali salt; (8) should not have
more carbonate added during titration than is necessary to take
up the hydriodie acid formed.

To find the effect of varying the dilution of the hydroxy-
lamine salt when in presence of sodium phosphate, I made a
series of determinations varying the volume of the solution
titrated from 25 ec. to 250 ce. As far as I was able to deter-
mine, this range of dilution did not produce any effect on the
titration.

A series of titrations was also made with sodium sulphate
present in solution. Although amounts of this salt were added

? Journ. Chem. Soc. (London), 51, 794 (1887).

108 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

varying from 5 ce. to 25 ee. of a fifth-normal solution, yet no effect
was produced on the titration,showing that the presence of sodium
salts does not effect the estimation of hydroxylamine in a non-
acid solution of di-sodium phosphate.

Electrical Conductivity.

The method used in determining the electrical conductivities
of solutions of hydroxylamine and its salts, was that of
Kohlrausch with alternating current and telephone.

The Wheatstone bridge consisted of four resistance coils
which were certified by Queen & Co. of Philadelphia to be
correct to one-fiftieth of one per cent., anda platinoid bridge
wire wound on a marble drum. The small induction coil used
had a very rapid vibrator, and was kept in an adjoining room
that its noise might not interfere with the sound minimum in
the telephone. The cell in which the solutions were placed for
the determination of the resistance was of the form suggested by
Arrhenius. Before using, the electrodes were polished to a bright
surface and then coated with platinum black. This was done
by passing a current from three Edison-Lalande cells backwards
and forwards between the electrodes through a solution of
platinie chloride. This solution was prepared by dissolving 1:
part of platinic chloride and 0.008 part of lead acetate in 30
parts of water. The current was reversed every ten minutes,
and continued until the electrodes were covered with a good
coating of the platinum black. To dissolve out any platinic
chloride which might be adhering to them, they were suspended
in boiling water for a couple of hours.

The water used in making up solutions was purified by boil-
ing ordinary distilled water with a few grammes of barium
hydroxide. The water was condensed in a block tin worm. The
first portion of about 200 ec. that came off was always thrown
away. The water thus purified had at 18° a mean conductivity
of about 1.1x 10°, expressed in terms of mercury. Water

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. 109

purified according to the method of Jones and Lindsay’ by dis-
tilling twice, first from sulphuric acid and potassum_ bichro-
mate, and then from barium hydroxide did not appear to have
any greater resistance than that distilled from barium hydroxide
alone.

A constant temperature was maintained by placing the cell
containing the solution whose resistance was to be determined
in a large vessel of tap water kept stirred by a mechanical
stirrer, driven by a small hydraulic motor. The thermometer
was graduated to a fiftieth, and had its errors determined at the
Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin.

When starting to determine the conductivities of the hydroxy-
lamine salts, it was noticed that with each salt the conductivity
increased continually. In the case of the stronger solutions the
increase in conductivity took place slowly, but rapidly when the
solutions were very dilute. A one-tenth normal solution of hy-
droxylamine chloride was found to have the same conductivity
as one made up a month before. The conductivity was also
found to remain the same, although the solution was left in an
open vessel for some time, showing that the change in conductivi-
ty was not due to decomposition of the salt in solution. On plac-
ing the electrodes in the solution without being joined in the
circuit, the conductivity was found to have changed consider-
ably in a few minutes. It thus became evident that the change
in conductivity was due to the decomposition of the salt through
the oxidizing power of the platinum black. Bright electrodes
produced but little effect.

Hydroxylamine in solution was found to be oxidized by
Torce. Olral
one-fifth normal solution placed in a cell with the electrodes

platinum black much more rapidly than its salts.

dipping in the solution were found to be completely decomposed
in eighteen hours. Bright electrodes were also found to produce
a considerable effect. This made an accurate determination of

1 American Chem. Juourn., 28, 329 (1902).

110 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

its conductivity very difficult, and, as a result, the conductivities
given below for hydroxylamine itself may be only approximate.

The following table shows the change in conductivity pro-
duced in one-tenth and one-hundredth normal solutions of
hydroxylamine chloride by coated electrodes. The molecular
conductivities («#) are expressed in terms of mercury at 18°
multiplied by 108 :—

IN sip ee ECL: | N/E a NUE OMECE
H —
With current No current | With current No current
passing. passing. | passing. passing.
——— | -
Time. [L, Time. [ Time. ML | Time. |r.
Omin. | 867 Oneness Omin. | 991 Omin| 991
Late aties S71 De wos 1033
Ow: 875 lO 1074
eos SS] Sees 873 ores 1106 sige 1083
29 « 885 TH oe est dl
Dias: S88 Bag. OF 1149
he pee 890 By 08 877 3075 1168 3 Os 1134
| ain» OE 893 SB). We 1186
a Oise 896 Al) ace 1200
4s =e 898 | Aeris’ 881 Glass OG 1213 Als 9 SC 1181
|

It thus appears that decomposition takes place somewhat
more rapidly when the current is kept passing continuously
through the solution, than when it is turned off after each
reading.

On account of this change in composition, the conductivities:
of the solutions below had to be determined in a slightly different.
inethod from that ordinarily followed. A solution once used!
could not be used again to make up another solution of less:
concentration. This used a larger amount of each salt than
I had expected, and, as a result, none of the solutions made up
were saturated excepting the phosphate. One-tenth normal
solutions and those of greater concentration were made up by
weighing out the salt directly. One-hundredth normal solu-

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.-—ROSS. nalat

tions were prepared by adding to a half-liter flask 50 ce. of the
one-tenth normal solution, and then filling up to the mark with
water. Those of cne-twentieth and one-fiftieth normal were
obtained by adding to the cell directly about 25 ce. of the one-
tenth normal solution and water in the proper proportions.
Solutions of greater dilution were made up in a corresponding
way.

Before determining the resistance of a solution, the cell was
first rinsed out twice with a solution of the same strength. It
was then placed in the bath for ten minutes, in order to be
brought to the same temperature, with the electrodes joined in
the circuit and suspended just above the surface of the solution
in the cell. The current was then turned on, the electrodes
dropped into the solution, and the reading taken as quickly as
possible. In this way determinations could be made accurately
with coated electrodes up to one-hundredth normal. The plates
were then heated very gently until they had assumed a grayish
appearance. With the platinum black thus reduced the con-
ductivities of solutions were determined up to one-thousandth
normal. For solutions of greater dilution a third cell was fitted
up having the electrodes nearer together. They were heated to: .
bright redness, and then rubbed gently with a smooth cloth
until almost bright.

All solutions were made up at 18°, and the conductivities:
determined at the same temperature within one-fiftieth of a.
degree. The conductivity of the water used in making up each:
solution was determined, and subtracted from the observed con-
ductivity of the solution.

The constants of the cells were determined by means of
standard potassium chloride solutions, the specific electrical
conductivities in reciprocal ohms of 7 3, and & solutions, as

50
given by Arrhenius,’ being as follows :

k, at 18°, for 2 normal K Cl = 0.011203.
« iio ea SS < = 00057875.
« Cele ee «" =0.0023992.

1 Electro-Chemistry, p. 135.

11

2 CONTRIBUTION

ANG) ab) Die ere LUMO Ds

OF

In the following tables, the several columns are as follows :—

(1).

(2).
(3).

1B

Grammes of salt taken per liter (g).
Volume of solution per gramme molecule of salt (v).
Specitie equivalent conductivity at 18°, in terms of
mercury, multiplied by 108 (py, ).

1BE

Hydroxylamine Sulphate
[equivalent gramme
molecule, (N H, O H), S04}.

Hydroxylamine Chloride
{equivalent gramme

molecule, NH, O H Cl).

g Wi A!
0082104 10000 1205
.016421 5000 1189

041052 2000 1159
082104 1000 1130
.16421 500 1093
.41052 200 1030
8210 1U0 977

1.6421 50 920
4.1052 20 805
8 2104 10 716
16.4208 5 638

g Ve | [ly

|
.006952 | 10000 «| 1124
013904 5000 | 1116
03476 20000 1099
06952 1000 1076
13904 500 1046
3476) | | 200 1015
6952 100 989
1.3904 | 50 | 958
3.476 | 20 909
6.952 10 866
13.904 5 805
34.760 2 | 733

IU

IV.

Hydroxylamine Phosphate
[equivalent gramme
molecule, (N H, OH), P04].

Hydroxylamine Nitrate
[equivalent gramme

molecule, NH, OH N O%].

g Vv | My
|

.0065743 10000 271
013148 5000 270
.032871 2000 268
.065743 1000 266
. 13148 500 264
.3287 1 200 260
.65743 100 255
1.3148 50 247
3.2871 20 236
6.5743 10 220
13.1486 5) 198

"eee ct cose

009611 10000 1355
.01922 5000 1340
048055 2000 1 1318
09611 1000 1298
1922 500 1271
48055 2u0 1247
9611 | 100 1223
1,922 50 1191
4:8055;) *} 20 1126
9.611 | 10 1067

HYDROXYLAMINE AND ITS SALTS.—ROSS. ees
Wie

Hydroxylamine
[equivalent gramme
molecule, N H, O].

| g Vv Ry
03306 1000 | 22
06612 500 19
1653 200 15

| B06 100 i
6612 | 50 9

1.653 20 7
3.306 10 5

6 612 5D 4

From the above results, it may be seen that the nitrate
has a greater conductivity than the chloride, which in turn has
a greater conductivity than the sulphate. This is different from
what might be expected from a comparison of the corresponding
salts of the alkalies. In the case of these salts, the chlorides,
without exception, bave a greater conductivity than the nitrates.
The sulphates, however, as in the case of the hydroxylamine
salt, have the lowest conductivity. When making a comparison
with the salts of copper, cadmium, ete, it is seen that the
nitrates, as in the ease of the hydroxylamine salt, have the great-
est conductivities. It seems probable, therefore, that hydroxy-
lamine nitrate, differing from the other salts of hydroxylamine
in being a liquid at ordinary temperatures, also differs from the
chlorides and sulpuates in its greater dissociation.

In the following table the conductivities’ of a few salts of
sodium, potassium and ammonium are given for the sake of com-
parison with those of hydroxylamine :—

1 Whetham, Theory of Solutions, p. 407 (1992).

114 STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMIME AND ITS SALTS —ROSS.

Wile

Vv KCl | NaCl |NH,Cl|NH,OHCIK, S 0,|Na, SO,|(N H,),S0,

5 958 757 948 805 736 559 702
10 | 1047 | 865 1035 866 897 734 tea
100 1147 962 1142 989 1098 906
1000 1193 1Uu08 1190 1076 1207 998
So ee
wn °
= ° Z
a = o ee} =
; s S S au 2) sn S)
= Z ms ss se Fr =
a 4 Za Z A A Za
5 638 839 694 865 joe 12 4
10 716 983 817 atevets 1067 31 5
100 977 1122 907 Berets 1223 92 12
1000 1130 1180 952 Bye he 1298 260 92

Compared in this way, it is seen that the conductivity of the
chloride and sulphate of hydroxylamine is lower than the

corresponding salts of potassium and ammonium, being almost
the same as sodium. It may also be noted that while the
chloride and sulphate of ammonium have a lower conductivity
than the corresponding salts of potassium, yet, like hydroxy-
lamine, in the case of the nitrate it has a higher conductivity
than either sodium or potassium.

No data for comparison of the conductivity of phosphates
were obtainable.

From the results obtained on the conductivity of hydroxy-
lamine in solution, it is evident that although it has a very high
resistance, greater than that of ammonia, indicating weaker
basicity, yet it can not be classed, like water, as a non-
electrolyte.

MIDDLETON FuNGI*.—By R. R. Gates, M. A:, Middleton, N. SV.
(Read sth September, 1902 )

The study of our Fungi is a part of botanical science to
which comparatively little attention has hitherto been directed
by Canadian botanists, so that Canada is reckoned as one of the
regions which is still mycologically unexplored. The absence
of chlorophyll, which has been brought about by the parasitic and
saprophytic habits of these plants, distinguishes them from all
other members of the plant kingdom; and perhaps on_ this
account, being considered as the degenerate and depauperate
representatives of a once higher type, they have been accounted
of less scientific interest and economic importance than the
chlorophyll-bearing plants.

Investigations of recent years have shown that a relation
exists between the mycelium of fungi in the soil, and many of
the higher plants.. Widely occurring instances of mycorrhiza
are known. Thus Janse found that out of seventy-five plants
selected at random and examined, sixty-nine had mycelial
hyphe attached to their roots. These hyphe had replaced the
root hairs, root cap, and in some instances the outer layer of the
root tissue. Their advantage to the plant over root hairs seems
to be a matter of osmotic pressure in facilitating absorption.

We also have among Chlorophytes, examples of plants which
are being still further reduced, so that the whole root has been
replaced, the chlorophyll of the leaves being reduced in amount,
and the whole plant becoming incipiently saprophytic. ‘This has
‘heen called Symbiotic Saprophytism, and the isolated tropical

* This paper was read in the absence of the author by the Corresponding Secretary
of the Institute, Dr. A. H. MacKay, who presented alarge number of dried specimens,
and the compilation of lists of Nova Scotia fungi, which appears on page 122 of this
volume, with which is consolidated the list of about forty fungi determined by Mr. R.
R. Gates, from the vicinity of Middleton, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia. Readers are
therefore referred to Dr. MacKay’s list for Mr. Gates’ catalogue of species. The into-
ductory portian only of Mr. Gates’ paper appears here, as it forms a useful intro-
duction to Dr. MacKay’s synopsis.

(115)

116 MIDDLETON FUNGI.—GATES.

Lycopod, Psilotwm, which has no true roots, and whose leaves
are greatly reduced, furnishes an example. In the common
Indian Pipe, Monotropa uniflora, owing to parasitic habits still
further reduction has taken place, the chlorophyll being entirely
lost.

Thus we have plants which feed holophytically, 7. e., obtaim
their nourishment wholly from inorganic materials by absorption
through their roots as well as by the activity of their chlorophyll
in manufacturing carbohydrates from the carbon dioxide of the
atmosphere. These, of course, constitute the great mass of
plants. But as we have seen, owing to the absorption of organic
compounds ready prepared, by means of mycorrhiza, or on
account of parasitism, the chlorophyll of a plant may be gradu-
ally reduced in amount until it finally disappears, being no
longer necessary.

A similar process has taken place in the evolution of the
Fungi, except that they have probably been derived from the
simpler Algz. But the evidence of the reproductive methods
shows that this process of loss of chlorophyll and consequent
saprophytism probably went on simultaneously in several groups
of Algw. Thus the Fungi do not constitute a single homogene-
us group; but their origin has been polyphyletie.

The lowest group of Fungi, the Phycomycetes, on account
of their method of sexual reproduction, are believed to be des-
cended from the siphoneous Algz, probably from a type allied
to Vaucheria. There is, however, a great variety in the methods
of both sexual and asexual reproduction in this group; but
all have probably originated from the Chlorophycee. The
Ascomycetes on the other hand shows traces of descent from the
Rhodophycee, the evidence for which need not be presented in
a simply introductory statement.

The third great group of Fungi, the Basidiomycetes, including
our common mushoooms and toadstools, are generally regarded
a having lost all trace of asexual reproductive process. Certain
nuclear fusions which take place during the formation of the

MIDDLETON FUNGI.—GATES. 117

basidium, and its basidiospores have been regarded as_ sexual.
Strasburger objects to this view, regarding the process as merely
a nutritive one, stimulating development. He holds that a
second essential of fertilization is the union of diverse ancestral
qualities, and this cannot take place between nuclei so nearly
related.

Thus the question of the origin and relationships of the
Basidiomycetes still remains obscure owing to their having lost
a sexual method of reproduction, although in the structure of
the fructification, (7. e., the part bearing asexual spores), they
are by far the most highly developed group of the fungi.

Brefeld and his school regard the whole class of fungi as a
single one, deny the sexuality of the Ascomycetes, and derive
both Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes from the Phycomycetes.
Recent investigations are, however, opposed to these views, as it
has been shown that the formation of spores in the ascus by
free cell formation is essentially different from the method of
spore formation in the Phycomycetes.

Economically, two of the most important orders of the
Basidiomycetes are the Ustilagineze and Uredinew. These are
the cause of the destructive “smuts” and “rusts” on cereals :
but they cannot be discussed further here, although their life
history is of the greatest interest.

The group of Basidiomycetes which comprises the so-called
higher fungi, our mushrooms and toadstools, is the Hymenomy-
cetes. They are both parasitic and saprophytic, and their
mycelium is widely spread in dead and living plants and in
soils.

The leaf mould of our forests is permeated with it; and
every fallen log is preyed upon by series of fungi in addition to
the action of bacteria and weathering processes, until it is finally
reduced to a shapeless mass and mingled with the soil, there to
add its share to the nutritive material upon which the saprophy-
tic fungi in the soil subsist.

The spores of parasitic fungi, or “ wound parasites,” as they
are often called, when blown by the wind alight upon a spot on

Proc, & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Sct, VoL. XI. TRANS.—I.

118 MIDDLETON FUNGI.—GATES.

a tree where the cambium has been broken, and germinate.
Wounds of the cambium may be caused by the natural shedding
of the lower limbs of a tree, by fires, by windfalls, or in other
ways. In all these cases while the wound is being slowly healed
over by the growth of the cambial layer it affords an excellent
place of entrance for these “ wound parasites.” When a spore
has lodged and germinated, the mycelium at once proceeds to
permeate the tissues. It may continue its growth until it has
ramitied throughout the heart wood, and will then in some
species begin its attack upon the sap wood until it has finally
permeated the whole tree.

The mycelium generally grows in three directions along
definite lines :—vertically, radially and tangentially. By with-
drawing the moisture content from the wood it causes shrinkage,
and thus the wood is broken up into tiny cuboidal blocks. This
is the “doty ” stage, and the tree may become so weakened as
to fall a prey to wind storms which frequently “check” the
heart wood. In the radial lines caused by these “checks” the
mycelium in some species will grow abundantly, forming “ punk.”

The tree cannot resist the growth of the mycelium. Once
it has found an entrance it will continue its growth slowly for
many years, in some cases for a century. But the tree thus
attacked is soon rendered useless for timber, and ultimately
must fall. The mycelium generally continues its encroachments
upon the cambium, and finally breaks out in fruiting bodies
on the surface. These are the shelving hard woody fungi so
frequently seen on the trunks of infected trees. The majority
of these wound parasites belong to a family of Hymenomycetes
known as the Polyporaceew, characterized, as the name implies,
by the presence of numerous pores on the under surface of the
hymenophore.

The study of mycology then, has a very important bearing
upon the science of forestry. Canada may well consider this
study one of prime importance, as affording a scientific basis for
helping to solve the problem of the preservation of our vast forest
resources. Surely no more practical subject can engage the

MIDDLETUN FUNGI.—GATES. 119

attention of any one than aiding in the determination of the best
means of combatting these parasitic fungi, which are destroying
thousands of dollars worth of timber annually. This cannot be
accomplished without a study of the life-history of these plants,
their manner of entrance and the stages of their development in
the tissues of the tree.

Perhaps a certain feeling of revolt at being engaged in col-
lecting Toadstools and Putfballs, as they are commonly called,
nearly all of which are generally regarded as poisonous, has
deterred some from becoming mycologists. But after the first
introduction to this enticing field of work the interest grows
apace. The distinctions between species are often extremely
perplexing, and perhaps there is no better training in keenness
of observation than the determination of fungi. The great
mycologist Fries has remarked that species often appear to be
grouped around other species as satellites, and the various grada-
tions of relationship which seem apparent on examination of
closely s:milar species, is often striking.

The main characters made use of in the determination of
species of Hymenomycetes are the size and shape of the fructi-
fication or hymenophore, and the particular characters of its
parts. Some of these characters are the fleshy, fibrous or
cartilaginous structure of the stem, whether hollow, solid, fragile,
compact, spongy, ete. ; of the cap or pileus, the color and shape,
whether viscid, glutinous or dry, with or without a pellicle,
squamulose, warty, areolate, hairy, tomentose, smooth, ete. ; of
the gills in the Agaricacew, whether adnate to stem, adnexed,
free or decurrent, broad or narrow, ete. The presence or absence
of an annulus on the stem, and a volva or veil, are also import-
ant generic characters. The gills of the agarics are replaced in
Polyporaceze by pores, in Hydnacew by spines, in the Thele-
phoracee and Clavariacee by a smooth hymenium or spore-

earing surface.

The trama, or interior portion of the gills, exhibits one of
two characteristic appearances in cross section under the micro-
scope. In most genera the trama is floccose, consisting entirely

120 MIDDLETO: FUNGI.—GATES.

«

of filamentous hyphe, but the genera Russula and Lactarius
have a vesiculose trama in which numbers of the hyphal
branches have swelled out, forming vesicles intermingled with
the filamentous hyphee. Several genera also possess latex tubes,
but these are especially well developed in the genus Lactarius,
in which a wound causes a copious flow of “milk.” This milk
may be white, yellow, orange, blue, etc., or may change color on
exposure to the oxygen of the air. Many species of Lactarius
are edible and the flavor of L. deliciosus, which has a_ bright
orange milk, may be inferred from its name.

The color, odor and taste of the flesh is also frequently of
importance. Some genera and species are characterized by the
presence of sterile cystidia and paraphyses in the hymenium,
together with the club-shaped basidia which bear the spcres.
Four spores are usually borne on each basidium.

Thus there is a great deal of variety in the structure of the
hymenophore. The spores also frequently show differences of
specific value. The genera of the Agaricaces are generally
placed in five groups, having respectively, white, pink, brown,
purple-brown, and black spores. The shade and depth of color,
however, vary a good deal within each group. ‘The SIZE, shape,
and marking of the spores are also of specific importance. They
may be globose, elliptical, oblong, smooth, echinulate, warty,
ete., and are only microscopically visible. Their color is easily
seen when they fallin quantity or any good back ground, such
as white or colored paper with the proper contrast.

In regard to the various mycelia, comparatively little has
yet been done to determine specific or generic characters, and
perhaps in most cases none such exist. In some species, such as
Armillaria mellea, Vahl., an agariec parasitic upon certain
conifers and frequently found growing from stumps, the
mycelium cellects into numerous parallel strands, forming cords,
the exterior of which becomes blackened with age. These are
called Rhizomorphs. They may often be found as blackened
cords under the bark of old trees or stumps, and were formerly
considered separate fungi, and called Rhizomorpha subcorticalis

MIDDLETON FUNGI.—GATES. glk

Sclerotia are similar brownish bodies formed on the mycelium
for the purpose of resisting the effects of dry conditions. Gener-
ally, however, the vegetative mycelium consists merely of
irregularly branching septate hyphe, which in parasitic species
send haustoria into the living cells of the host, and absorb their
contents. Thus the mycelium affords very few characters for
determination, and in the present state of our knowledge very
few species can be recognized from their mycelia.

Another difficulty of determination is the great amount of
variation frequently found within a species, making it almost
impossible to accurately determine its limits. The color, size
and shape of almost any part of the hymenophore may vary, so
that the plant may be recognizable only by its general habit
and by certain distinctive, though evanescent characters scarcely
describable in words. Hence the great value of photographs,
drawings and water colours as an aid to determination.

As has already been mentioned, the mycological flora of
Canada is comparatively little known, and as new Species are
continually being discovered in the United States and Europe
where the greatest amount of work has been done, we may look
forward to a rich harvest for future Canadian mycologists.

Mech is being done in the United States to popularize this
subject by the formation of mycological clubs, some of which are
specially devoted to the discovery and testing of the numerous
and valuable edible species, and the publication of bulletins.
Among popular books on the subject may be mentioned
Atkinson’s “‘ Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous. ete.”, published by
Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N. Y., at $3.00, and Marshall’s
“Mushroom Book” obtainable from Wm. Briggs, Toronto, for
$3.00. These are splendidly illustrated with photographs, and
will serve as the best basis for the beginner. Numerous other
works, some of them in several volumes, are available for
students wishing to pursue the subject in greater detail. Among
these authors may be mentioned, McIlvaine (one large volume),
at $5.00, Massee (four volumes), Stevenson (two volumes), and
Saccardo (fifteen volumes).

Foner or Nova Scora: A’ iPRoWISIONAL. Jcist—By owe
MacKay. Lio De Rasa.

(Presented, 8th December, 1902.)

This hst is partly a summation of the papers published
already in the Transactions of the Institute by the late John
Somers, M. D., with whom the author was collecting at
Pictou; and the lists made by Mr. R. R. Gates of Middleton,
Annapolis county ; by Mr. J. M. Swaine at Truro and Antigonish;
and by Mr. C. Stanley Bruce at Shelburne. The general classi-
fication of M. C. Cooke is followed, mainly because nearly all
of the lists were made under the predominating influence of
his “ Hand Book of the British Fungi.” It is therefore to be
expected that future study may demonstrate some of the species
to be merely approximately named.

Some of the genera are now being worked over anew, and
even sub-divided. There is no attempt here to indicate the latest
phase of the classification of our fungi. It is simply a compila-
tion to point out to our stuaents who are now beginning to
interest themselves in the biological exploration of the Province
what has already been done. It will also serve as a basis for
the new work which we hope may henceforth progress more
rapidly than ever before, under the stimulus of a larger number
of observers who may be expected soon to test the accuracy of
the determinations already made while extending the list. The
future list based upon this provisional one should point out any
suspected inaccuracies of determinations, and conform to the
nomenclature and classification scheme of the latest generally
approved scientitic work on the fungi.

The papers of the late Dr. Somers referred to above are the

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.

MACKAY. LS

following in the Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of
Natural Science :

(1). Nova Scotian Fungi. Vol. V, pp. 188-192.

(2). i - ‘pp. 247-253.

(3). : ‘ “pp. 332 & 333.

(4). Additions to N.S. Fungi. Vol. VI, pp. 286-288.
(5). cs 4 Vol VIL) pp. 18.& 19.

(6). Nova Scotian Fungi. Vol. VII, pp. 464-466.

For brevity, the authorities above named are indicated
in the list as follows:—Dr. John Somers=JS; Mr. Reginald R.
Gates=RRG; Mr. J. M. Swaine=JMS; C. Stanley Bruce = CSB;
and Dr. A. H. MacKay=AHMK. The remarks referring to
the edibility of species are based principally on Mellvaine’s
experiences.

The Divisions of the Fungi according to Cooke’s classification
are indicated by the capital letters of the alphabet, ¢. g., the
Sporifera=A; the Families by the ordinary letters, e¢. 4.,
Hymenomycetes=a; the Orders by Roman numerals, e. g.,
Agaricint=1; and the Genera by Arabic numerals, ¢. g., Agari-
Cust

Division (A).—SPORIFERA.
Family (Aa). —HYMENOMYCETES.
Order (Aal),—AGARICINI.
Genus (Aall).—AGARICUS.
(Sub-generic names used below for the old generic name.)
*( White-spored. )

Sub-genus : Amanita.

Amanita vaginata Bull. Under hemlock and pine, North West
Arm, Halifax, JS; Middleton, RRG. Probably Amani-
topsis vaginata of Roze. Not poisonous.

A. alnata Smith. Under spruce, Pt. Pleasant, Halifax, JS.
Probably Amanitopsis adinatu of Roze. Not poisonous.

A. vernw Bull. Prince’s Lodge, near Halifax, JS. Deadly
poisonous. Probably a variety of A. phulloides.

124 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

A. virosa Fr. Shelburne, CSB. Probably a variety of the
following species, and deadly poisonous.

A. phalloides Fr. — Prince’s Lodge, near Halifax, JS. Under
spruce, Pt. Pleasant Park, Halifax, AHMK. Anti-
gonish and Truro, JMS. Shelburne, CSB. Deadly
poisonous. Effects may not begin to be felt until from
six to twelve hours after eating. No antidote for the
phallin contained in it.

A. muscaria L. Pt. Pleasant, Halifax, Sept. and Oct., JS.
Common, Pictou and Halifax counties, AHMK. Middle-
ton, RRG. Antigonish and Truro, JMS. Shelburne,
CSB. Poisonous : sulphate of atropine, 1/180 to 1/60 of
a grain at a dose administered hypodermically, appears
to be the best antidote for the muscarin contained in it.

A. strobiliformis Fr. Pictou county, AHMK. Determina-
tion doubtful.

A. spissa Fr. Under larch, Willow Park*, Halifax, Sept., JS.
Not poisonous.

A. Cesarea Scop. Antigonish and Truro, JMS. Edible ;
but must be carefully distinguished from A. muscaria
and similar poisonous species

Sub-genus : Lepiota.
Lepiota procera Scop. Middleton, RRG. Edible.
L. glioderma Fr. Under spruce, Halifax, JS.

Sub-genus : Armillaria.
Armillaria mellea Vahl. On decaying stumps, Dutch Village,
Halifax, JS. Pictou County, AHMK. Antigonish,
JMS. Edible.
Sub-genus : Tricholoma.
Tricholoma equestre L. Under fir trees, Dutch Village, Halifax,
Sept., JS. Edible when cooked.
T. transmutans Pk. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

*The species whose habitat is given by Dr. Somersas ** Willow Park” were obtained
between Willow Park and the Three-Mile House (Fairview), Halifax. not at Willow
Park proper. The locality is in the vicinity of what is known as ** The Willows. ’

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 125

T. sejunctum Sow. Woods, N. W. A., Halifax, Aug., Sept.,
JS. Edible.

T. rutilans Scheff. Pictcu county, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB.
Edible.

T. columbettu Fr. Pt. Pleasant Park woods, Halifax, under
spruce, Oct., JS.

T. crassifolium Berk. Pt. Pleasant Park woods, Hfx., under
spruce, Oct., JS.

T. murinaceum Bull. Dutch Village, Hfx., Sept., JS.

Sub-genus : Clitocybe.

Clitocybe candicans Fr.. Common. Aug. to Oct. Pt. Pl. Park
woods, Hfx., Nov., JS. Edible.

C. nebularis Batsch. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

C. fumosa P. Pt. Pl. Park woods, Hfx., Nov., JS. Edible.

C’. clavipes Pers. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

C. opaca With. Pt. Pl. Park woods, Hfx., Nov., JS.

C. gigantea Fr. N..W. Arm woods, Hfx., Nov.; Four-Mile-
House, near Hfx., 15 inch pileus, Oct., JS, Edible when
properly cooked.

C. infundibuliformis Schett Middleton, RRG. Shelburne,
CSB. Edible.

C. flaccida Sow. Willow Park woods, Hfx., Oct., [doubtful,
but described in (2) ]. JS. Edible.

C. bella Fr. Pt. Pleasant, Hfx., under pines, Nov., JS.

. laceata Scop. Common. Hfx., JS. Pictou and Dartmouth.
AHMK.

Sub-yenus : Plewrotus.
Plewrotus ulmarius Bull. Truro, JMS. Tender parts edible.
P. lignatilis Pers. On beech trees mostly, near Three-Mile
House, Hfx., Oct., JS. Edible.

P. ostreutus Jacq. Truro, JMS. Oyster fungus. Very edible.

P. salignus Fr. On trunks of living poplars, Hfx., Sept., Oct.,
JS. Edible when young.

P. serotinus Schrad. Pictou, AMHK. Truro, JMS. Edible.

P chioneus P. On twigs, Dutch Village, Hfx., JS.

126 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

P. applicatus Bull. On small stumps, Dutch Village, Hfx.,
Sept., JS.

P. Coldwelli, n. sp. Described in the Hducational Review (St.
John) of March, 1891, page 172, and in the following
month, page 192. Professor A. E. Coldwell found the
Agaricus growing on a whale-bone in the Museum of
Acadia College, Wolfville. The bone was picked up
about two years before on the Yarmouth coast, and was
kept for a year and a half in a cool, dark plaec in the
Museum. With the specimen, the accompanying and
other drawings (which have unfortunately been lost)
were also sent and published. The flesh of the fungus
was hard throughout, white stem and pileus, greyish
underneath.

Pleurotus Coldwelli (x) on a desicated bone of a whale.

Chas H. Peck, State Botanist of New York, to whom the
Speclinen was sent, said in his letter of the 19th March,
1891 :—* The fungus specimen that grew on the bone of
a whale reached me this morning. The habitat is cer-
tainly a curious one, and one on which I should not expect
such a fungus to grow. But these plants, like others,
have the power to adapt themselves to some extent to
circumstances. As to the species, the specimen does not
agree rigidly with any description known to me, but is
apparently closely allied to Pleurotus pantoleucus Fr.

and P. pomett Fr. Its spores are of the same size and

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 12e

characters as the spores of these species. But for its
cxspitose habit and downy stem I should unhesitatingly
refer it to P. pantoleucus. The downy stem may be
accidental, for I find this same white down developed in
patches on the pileus in such a way as to make me think
it is not normal there at least. P. pometi has similar
spores and a villose stem, and in one variety 1s ceespitose ;
but its stem is radicating and the pileus more or less
flaccid, so that I would sooner think your plant an unusual
cespitose form of P. pantoleucus, or possibly an unde-
scribed species. If more plants develop, it might be well
to note whether the velvety white down or tomentum 1s
constant on the stem. The shape of the pileus in this
specimen is strongly suggestive of the pileus of P. panto-
leucus ; but it is evidently modified by having grown in
a clump, and the appearance in the figure is different ;
but the shape is also modified by place of growth, so that
I cannot rely on this. Should other specimens develop,
I would be glad to know of it, and especially if the downy
stem and czspitose habit should be moditied.” No fur-
ther growth of the fungus has been reported.

Sub-ygenus : Collybia.
Collybia vadicata Relh. On dead wood, Willow Park, Hfx.,
Oct., JS. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton, RRG. Edible.
C. platyphylla Fr. Middleton, RRG. Edible.
C. dryophila Bull. Pt. Pleasant Park, Hfx., on decaying leaves,
Oct., JS. Edible.
Sub-genus : Mycena.
Mycena flavo-alba Fr. Four-Mile House wocds, Htx., Oct.
(or M, luteo-a!bus), JS. Shelburne, CSB.
M. galericulatu Scop. Common. Hfx., Sept., JS. Pictou,
AHMK. Edible.
M. delectabilis Pk. Among moss in damp, peaty woods, Pen-
nant, Hfx. co., JS.

128 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

Sub-genus : Omphalia.
Omphalia hepatica Batsch. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.
O. umbellifera L. Willow Park, Hfx, Sept., JS. Edible.
O. campanella, Batsch. Middleton, RRG. Edible.
QO, fibula, Bull. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.
* * (Pink-spored ).
Pluteus cervinus Sheff. Common. Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.
Entoloma strictor Pk. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.
Clitopilus prunulus Scop. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept. JS:
Edible.
Claudopus depluens, Batsch. In pastures near Melville Island
Hfx., Sept., JS.
Leptonia lampropa Fr. In pastures, Hfx., JS.
Eecilia carneo-grisea B. & Br. Common. Hfx., Sept., JS-
Edible,

2

* * * (Brown-spored ).

Pholiota radicans, Fr. On the roadside, Hfx., JS.

P. capistrata Cooke, Roadside, MeNab’s Island, Hfx., JS.

P. squarrosa Mull. On stump, Halifax Common, Oct., JS.
Middleton, on the base of an apple tree, causing its decay.
Strong odour of horse radish, RRG. Edible.

Hebeloma fastibile Fr. Common. Hfx., Sept., JS. Suspicious.

H. vimosum Bull. Four-Mile-House woods, near Hfx., JS.

Naucoria melinoides Fr. Willow Park, Hfx., Oct., JS.

N. nucea Bolt, Pt. Pleasant Park woods, Hfx., under spruce
dar. Oetw dhs:

N. pediades Fr. In open spaces, Hfx., Oct., JS. Edible.

N. semiorbicularis Bull. Willow Park, Hfx., Oct., JS. Shel-
burne, CSB. — Edible.

Galera ovalis Fr. On eattle droppings in woods, Hfx., Nov.,
JS.

G. hypnorwm Batsch. Halifax, Oct., JS.

* * * * (Purple-brown-spored ).

Psalliota arvensis Scheff. Camp Hill, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 129

P. campestris L. Everywhere in cultivated land and pastures,
JS. Pietou, etc, AHMK. Middleton,,RRG. Truro,
JMS. Shelburne, CSB. Best generally known edible
mushroom.

Pilosace eximius (7) Pk. On decaying logs. “ Dingle,” North
West Arm, Hfx., Sept., JS.

Stropharia semiglobuta Batsch. Pictou, AHMK. — Middleton,
RRG.

Hypholoma sublateritium Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton,
RRG. Edible.

H. capnoide Fr. Pt. Pl. Park, Hfx, AHMK. Edible.

H. fasciculare Hud. Pictou, AHMK. Edible when specially
cooked.

Psilocybe semilunceata Fr. Growing under spruce, Pennant,
Hfx. co., JS. Doubtful.

P. spadicea Scheff. Halifax, Oct., JS. Pictou, AHMK.
Edible.

P. cernua Mull. Halifax, under willow, Oct., JS.

P. fenisecit P. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.

Psathyra spadiceo-grisea Schett. Pictou, AH MK.

ae a BLaek-spored, ):

Pancwolus separatus L. Common. Sept., JS.

P. campanulautus L. Pictou. AHMK. Doubtful.

P. retirugis Fr. Antigonish. JMS.

Psathyrella gracillis Fr. On cow droppings, pasture, Dutch
Village, Hfx., Sept. ; Willow Park, Hfx., Oct., JS. Edi-
ble as flavoring.

P. disseminuta Fr. Among sphagnum, Willow Park, Hfx.,
Oct., JS. Edible as flavoring with other fungi.

Genus (Aal2).—COPRINUS.

Coprinus comatus Fr. Public Gardens, Hfx., Sept., JS. Very
abundant on newly made refuse gradings, Halifax Com-
mon. Common in Halifax and Pictou counties on new
rich spots of ground. A most valuable edible species
AHMK. Antigonish and Truro, JMS.

130 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

C. ovatus Fr. Public Gardens, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.
C. sterquilinus Fr. On cow droppings in woods, Hfx., JS.
Edible.

C. atramentarius Fr. Middleton, RRG. Edible.

C. micaceus Fr. Common on dung and compost, Hfx., Aug.,
Nov., JS. Edible.

domesticus (Pers.) Fr. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

plicatilis Fr. In pastures, near Hfx. July, JS. Edible.

PP)

Genus (Aal3). BOLBITIUS.

Bolbitius fra,ilis Fr. On cow droppings, Willow Park, Hfx.,

Sept., JS.
Genus (Aal4).—CORTINARIUS,

Cortinarius turbinatus Fr. Pictou, Sept., Pt. Pl. Park, Hfx.,
AHMK. Edible.

C. collinitus Fr. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.

C. violaceus Fr. Pictou and Dartmouth, AHMK. Antigonish,
JMS. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

C., callisteus Fr. Willow. Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.

C. sublantus Fr. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept. JS. Pictou,
AHMK.

C. ochroleucus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

C. anomalus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

C. cinnamomeus Fr. In grassy spaces, Pt. Pleasant Park, Hfx.,
Sept., JS. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

C. armillatus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

7. lilacinus Pk. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept. Oct., JS. Edible.

C. albo-violaceus Pers. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

CO. Armeniacus Fr. Common. Hfx., Sept., JS.

C. castaneus Fr. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.

Genus (Aald5)—LEPISTA.
Lepista nuda Bull. Willow Park, Hfx., Sept., JS.
LL. canerascens Bull. Under spruce and pine, Pt. Pl) -Parks
Ebix. Octs 23S.
L. personata Fr. Pt. Pl. Park woods, Hix., Sept., JS.

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 131

Genus ( \al7).—HYGROPHORUS.

Hygrophorus eburneus Fr. Under pines, Pt. Pleasant Park,
Hfx., Oct., (stem swollen, volva persisting, pileus 44 inch),
JS. Edible.

conieus Fr. Middleton, RRG. Edible.

chlorophanus Fr. Dartmouth, AHMK.

speciosus Pk. Willow Park woods, Hfx., JS.

miniatus Fr. Antigonish, JMS. Edible.

ry a

Genus (Aal8..—GOMPHIDIUS.
Gomphidius glutinosus Fr., Common near Halifax, Sept.,
Octs;. vars roseus’ Pry in, woods Hix. Y3S. >. Pietouw:
AHMK.

G. glutinosus, var. roseus Krombh.

Genus (Aal9).—LACTARIUS

Lactarius torminosus Fr. Halitax, Aug., JS. Not safe.

LE. uvidus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

L. pyrogalus ‘Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

L. plumbeus Fr. Dartmouth, Hfx., AHMK. Poisonous.

L. piperatus Fr. Halifax, JS. Pictou, AHMK. Not gener-
ally safe, unless specially cooked.

EL. vellereus Fr. Halifax, JS. Pictou, AHMK.

L. vesimus Fr. Antigonish, JMS.

L. deliciosus Pk. Middleton, RRG. Truro, ‘JMS. Edible.

L. quietus Fr. In woods, Hfx., Nov., JS.

L. cyathula Fr. Fir woods, Hfx., Sept., JS.

L. affinis, Pk. In clear spaces under spruce, Pt. Pl. Park,
Hix’ Js:

L. lignyotis Fr. On turfy soil under spruce (its bright erim-
son surface resembling fine silk plush). Pennant, Hfx.
co., Js. Edible.

L. subdulcis Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

Genus (AaI10).—RUSSULA.

Russula adusta Fr. In pine woods, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible
when specially cooked.

RS? NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI,.—MACKAY.

R. sanguinea Fr. In pine woods, Halifax, Sept., Oct., JS.
Poisonous.

R. depallens Fr. Under spruce, Hfx., JS. Edible (McIlvaine).

R. heterophylla Fr. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

R. emetica Fr. Shelburne, CSB, Edible (MclIlvaine.)

R. veternosa Fr. Pine groves, Pt. Pleasant, Hfx., Sept., JS.

Russula alutacea, Fr. Under pines, Pt. Pleasant, Hfx., Nov. ;
woods, Pennant, Hfx. Co., JS. Edible.

Genus ( AaIl1).—CANTHARELLUS.

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. McNab’s Island, Hfx., Sept., JS.
Pt. "Pl: Park: Hifx, ABHIMK:. - Middleton, RRG* -7Anti-
gonish, JMS. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

C. aurantiacus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton, RRG. Anti-
gonish and Truro, JMS. Edible (McIlvaine).

C. floccosus, Schw. Under pines, N. W. Arm., Hfx. Oct., JS.
Middleton, RRG. Edible.

C. infundibuliformis Fr. Woods above Melville Island, Hfx.,
JS.

Genus (Aal13).—MARASMIUS.

Murasmius peronatus Fr. Halifax, JS. Edible after special
cooking.

M. oreades Fr. Borders of woods and woodsides, Hfx., Oct.,
JS. Pictou, AHMK: Edible.

M. terginus Fr. Willow Park, Hix.; Pictou, Sept, JS. &
AHMK.

M. alliaceus Fr. N. W. Arm woods, Hfx., Sept., JS.

Genus (Aall4).—LENTINUS.

Lentinus lepideus Fr. Pictou, Waverley and Dartmouth, on
raliway sleepers, fence posts and stumps, AHMK. — Edible
when tender.

L. cochleatus Fr. In misshapen tufts on decaying stumps,
Sherwood, [near Four-Mile-House], Hfx. co., Oct., JS.

Edible when tender.

L. vulpinus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. loo

Genus (Aalld5).—PANUS Fr,
Panus dorsalis Bose. Pictou, AHMK.
P. stypticus Fr. — Pictou, Oct., JS. & AHMK. — Poisonous.

Genus (Aal16).—XEROTUS Fr.
Xerotus degener Fr. On moss tussocks (very delicate, shrivell-
ing up quickly in dry weather), woods, Pennant, Hfx.
G62. JS:
Genus (Aall7).—SCHIZOPHYLLUM Fr. -
Schizophyllum commune Fr. Common on dead wocd, Hfx.,
Aug., Oct., JS. Pictou. and Dartmouth, common on
deadwood, AHMK. Middleton, RRG.

Genus (Aall8),—LENZITES Fr.
Lenzites betulinaw Fr. Commen on birch and stumps, perennial,
Htx., JS. Pictou, common, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB
L. flaccida Fr. On stumps and dead trees, Hfx., JS.
L. sepiaria Fr. On pine stumps, Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK.
L. abietina Fr. On larch stump, Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK.

Order (Aall).— PoLyPorel,
Genus (Aall19) Fr.—BoLetvus.
(Arranged according to McIlvaine).

Boletus paluster Pk. Willow Park, Hfx., JS. Pictou, (Bole-
tinus pdluster), AHMK. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

B. cavipes Kalchb. Shelburne (Boletinus cavipes) CSB.
Edible.

B. pictus Pk. Shelburne (Boletinus pictus), CSB. Edible.

B. Clintonianus Pl. Pictou, AHMK. Not poisonous.

B. flavus, With. Common, Hfx., Sept., Oct. JS... Pictou,
AHMK.

B. luteus L. - Under spruce, Willow Park, Hfx., Sept. JS,
Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

B. subluteus Pk. Pt. Pl. Park, Hfx., AHMK.~ Middleton,
RRG. Edible.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S: Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. TRANS.—J.

134 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

B.

B.
of

B.
B

. badius Fr. Under pine and hemlock, Willow Park, Hfx.,

th

wah

Americanus Pk. Middleton, RRG. Caps good when pro-
perly cooked.

punctipes Pk. Spryfield, Hfx. Co, AHMK.

granuatus L. Middleton, RRG. Generally considered
edible.

collinitus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. — Edible.

Sept., JS. Pictou, AHMK.

. chrysenteron Fr. Middleton, RRG. Edible.

subtomentosus L. Spryfield, Hfx., AHMK. Edible.

radicans Pers. Pt. Pl. Park, Hix. AHMK. Eaten by
Mellvaine. .

calopus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

retipes B. & C. Middleton, RRG. Caps edible.

pachypus Fr. Common in woods, Hfx., Aug. ; woods, Pen-
nant, Hfx. Co., JS. Not edible, but not known to be
poisonous.

separans Pk. Pt. Pl. Park, Hfx, AHMK: Edible.

edulis Bull. Pictou and Halifax, AHMK. Antigonish and
Truro, JMS. Very edible.

edulis, var. clavipes, Pk. Middleton, RRG.

Satanus Lenz. (7) Antigonish, JMS. Poisonous.

luridus Scheff. Common, Aug. to Oct., Hfx. [B. lividus
Fr., probably a misprint in (1)], JS. Middleton, var.
erythropus, RRG. Poisonous. Shelburne, CSB.

Dartmouthi, n. sp. (2) Collected 7th October on the forest
covered town site by the First Lake, Dartmouth, Halifax
county. Height 5cm, pileus 4cem, convex, yellowish
white becoming brown towards the margin. Flesh of
stem and pileus yellowish. Stem 7 to 8 mm. thick and
sohd, smooth with minute vertical reddish fibre lke stri-
ations, becoming more slender one centimeter from the
tube stratum, and reddish, showing traces of decurrent
tubes. Tube stratum nearly plane with a depression

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI—MACKAY. 135

before reaching the stem beyond which the tubes become
decurrent on the stem. Tube mouths red, angular, one
mm. in diameter on an average. The rest of the tubes
dark ochraceous. Spores 10 microns by 3 to 4, eccentric-
ally apiculate at one end. (A. H. MacKay).

Boletus magnisporus Frost. Spryfield, Hfx. co., AHMK.

B. scaber Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton, RRG. Shelburne,
CSB. Edible.

B. scaber, var. fuscus. Middleton, RRG. Edible.

B. chromapes Frost. Under fir and spruce, Middleton, RRG.

: Dartmouth, AHMK. Edible.

B. gracilis Pk. Middleton, RRG. Edible when specially
cooked. :

B. felleus Bull. Middleton, very bitter, RRG.

B. ampliporus Pk. (7). Pictou, Oct., JS.

Genus (AalI120).—POLYPORUS Fr.
Polyporus brumalis Fr. Dalhousie, Pictou co., AHMK.
P. leptocephalus Fr. On dead wood,-Willow Park, Hfx., JB.
P. perennis Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton (Polystictus
pereninis) RRG.
P. cireinatus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Edible when tender.
P. picipes Fr. Halifax, Oct., JS. Middleton, RRG. Edible
when tender.
P. elegans Fr. Hopewell, Pictou county, AHMK. Middleton,
RRG.
P. lucidus Fr. Pictou county, Common. AHMK. Middle-
ton, RRG. Near Halifax, H. Piers.
. sulphureus Fr. Dalhousie, Pictou county, AHMK. Anti-
gonish and Truro, JMS. — Edible.
. stlagnus Fr. On willows, Halifax Common, JS.
. epileucus Fr. On dead birch, Dalhousie, Pictou co., AHMK.
. chioneus Fr. Halifax, JS. Edible when young.
. cesius Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

flac bey ele tema

136 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI
P

i is
P.

P.

p

a.

_ abietinus Fr. Common in spruce and hemlock, Hfx., JS.

. medulla-panus Fr. Dalhousie, Pictou co., AHMK.

MACKAY.

destructor Fr. On decaying fir wood, Melville Island woods,
ld boeey a fe

adustus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

spumeus Fr. On poplars, Hfx. ; Deal’s, Dutch Village, Hfx.,
JS.

dryadeus Fr. Dutch Village, Hfx., JS.

betulinus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Antigonish and Truro,
JMS. Edible when young. On white birch, near Hali-
fax, H. Piers.

. applaunatus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. A specimen in the pro-

vincial museum is 25 inches in diameter.

. pinicola (Swartz) Fr. Antigonish and Truro, JMS.
. fomentarius Fr. On birch near Truro, July, JS. Pictou,

AHMK. On aspen,.N..W. Arm, ‘Hfx:)*H> Piers:
nigricans Fr. On birch, McNab’s Island ; on birch, “Sher-

wood,” Four-Mile House, Hfx. co., JS.
ulmarius Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

_ annosus Fr. On fallen hemlock trunk near Truro, July ~~

[description given in (1) because determination was

doubtful]. JS. 4%

_ radiatus Fr. - Near»+Melville Island; Hix., JS. -.Pieton; 3
AHMK. q

_ hirsutus Fr. Common. Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK. ‘
velutinus Fr. Pictou. AHMK. 2
versicolor Fr. On larch, hemlock, birch, ete., Hfx., JS. r
Pictou, Dartmouth, ete., common, AHMK. ss

_ zonatus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. =

Pictou, AHMK.

_ incarnatus Fr. On rotten wood, Willow Park, Hfx., JS.

Pictou, AHMK.

vulyaris Fr. On rotten wood, Willow Park, Hfx., JS. Pic-
tou, AHMK.
ossews Kalchb. Pictou, AHMK. %

ra

NOVA. SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY, 137

P. benzoinus Fr. On a hemlock stump, Dalhousie, Pictou,
AHMK.
P. resinosus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.
P. biformis Fr. On old fence logs, Pictou, AHMK.
P. marginatus Fr. Pictou, AHMK.
P. borealis, Fr. On old hemlock stump, Dalhousie, Pictou,
AHMK.
P. carneus Nees. On hemlock fence logs, Dalhousie, Pictou
AHMK. Middleton, RRG.
P. Pergamenus Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Middleton, RRG.
P. cinnabarinus Jacq. On dead birch, Pictou and Halifax
co., AH MK.
albellus Pk. Willow Park, Hfx., Oct., JS.
ignarius Fr. On poplar, Dutch Village woods, Hfx., JS.
Pictou, AHMK.
Favolus Ewropaeus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

?

wh

Genus (AaII21).—TRAMETRS Fr.

Trametes odora. Fr. (7) Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (AaI122).—DAEDALEFA Fr.

Daedalea quercina P.. On old trunks, Hfx., JS.
D. confragosa P. On dead willows, Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK.
D. unicolor Fr. On stumps, Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (AaII23).—MERULIUS Fr.

Merulius lacrymans Fr. On rotten plank in a cellar, Halifax,
JS. Pictou, in a cellar, AHMK.

Genus (AaII26).—POROTHELIUM Fr.

Porotheliwm Friesii Mont. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (AaI127).—FISTULINA Bull.

Fistulina hepatica Fr. (7) Pictou, AHMK.

138 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

Order (AallI).—-Hypnet.
$ Genus (AalIII28).—HypDNumM L.

Hydiwm imbricatum L. Boar's Back, Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

H. fragile Fr. Halifax, AHMK.

H. vrepandum L. Near roots of pines, Pt. Pl. Park, Hfx., Sept.,
JS. Antigonish and Truro, JMS. Shelburne, CSB.
Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

compactum Fr. Boar's Back, Pictou, AHMK.

zonatum Batsch. Pictou, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB. Good
for flavoring when young.

coralloides Scop. Growing on a birch chopping block, found
by M. Gibson, Halifax, JS. Edible.

ervnaceum Bull. Antigonish, JMS. Edible.

Ss & RS

Genus (Aal1129).—SISTOTREMA Fr.
Sistotrema confluens Pers. In Pt. Pleasant Park, Hfx., Oct., JS.

Genus (AalI[3)).—IRPEX Fr.
Trpex tulipifera Schw. On dead branches, Willow Park, Hfx.,.
Oct., JS.

Genus (AalII34)—ODONTIA Fr.

Odontia fumbriata Fr. On dead wood, Willow Park, Hfx., JS.

Order (AalV),—AURICULARINI,
Genus (AalV36). -CRATERELLUS Fr.

C. lutescens Fr. Willow Park, Hfx., JS (?), AHMK.

C. cornucopioides Fr. (7) Willow Park, Hfx., on the ground,
Oct., JS. Antigonish, JMS.
Genus (Aal V37).—THELOPHORA Fr.
T. laciniata P. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (Aal V38).—STEREUM Fr.
S. purpureum Fr. On dead branches, Willow Park, Hfx., JS.
Pictou, AHMK.
S. hirsutum Fr. . Common on stumps, ete., Hfx., JS.
S. fasciatum Schw. Pictou, AHMK.

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 139

Geuus (AalV39).—HYMENOCH-ETE Lev.
H. rubiginosa Lev. Common, Hfx., JS. °
H. tabacina Ley. On dead branches on ground, Hfx., Oct., JS-
Pictou, AHMK.

renus (AalV41).—CoRTICIUM Fr.

C. salicinum Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (AalV42).—CYPHELLA Fr.

C. fulva B& Rav. On dead sticks, Willow Park, Hfx., JS.

Order (AaV).—CLAVARIEI.

Genus (AaV45).—CLAVARIA L.

C. botrytis P. Common in spruce groves, Hfx., JS. Anti-
gonish, JMS. Edible.

C. coralloides L. On the ground, Hfx., Sept., JS. Edible.

C. cinerea Bull. - Pictou, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB. Edible.

C. cristata Holmsh. Pictou, AHMK. Antigonish, JMS.
Edible.

C. rugosa Bull. Pine woods, Hfx., Oct., JS. Edible.

C. awrea Schaeff. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

C. abietina Schum. Under spruce, Hfx, JS.

C. strictu P. Pictou, AHMK.

C. pulchra Peck. Beech grove, 3-Mile House, Hfx., Oct., JS-

C. inequalis Mull. Pine woods, Hfx., Oct., JS. Edible.

C. flava (2) Antigonish, JMS. Edible.

Order (AaV1I),—TREMELINI,
Genus (Aa VI49).—TREMELLA Fr.
T. lutescens Fr. Truro, JMS. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.
T. mesenterica Retz. On dead wood, Hfx., Oct., JS., AHMK-

Genus (AaVI51).—HIRNEOLA Fr.

H. Awricula-Jude Berk. On dead trunks of white pine,
Melville Island woods, Hfx., JS. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (AaVI54.)—APYRENIOM Fr.

A. lignatile Fr. On decaying wood, Halifax, JS.

140 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY.

Genus (Aa VI56).—DITIOLA Fr.
D. vadicata Fr. On decaying birch, Melville Island woods and
on pine leaves, Hfx., JS.

Family (Ab).— GASTEROMYCETES.
Order (AbV III). —PHALLOTDET.
Gen us (AbVIII63).—PHALLUS Linn.

P. impudicus Linn. Pictou, AHMK. Shelburne, CSB.

Genus (Ab VIII64).—CYNOFHALLUS Fr.
C. caninus Fr. In a drain on property of R. Morrow, Hfx.,
JS. Pictou, AHMK.

Order (AbIX).—TRICHOGASTRES.
Genus (AbI X68).—GEASTER Mich.

Geaster hyrometricus P. Pictou, ©. B. Robinson.

Genus (AbI X69).—Bovista Dill.

B. pluinibea P. North common, Hfx., Oct., JS. Pictou, AHMK.
Edible.

Genus (AbIX70).—LYCOPERDON Tourn.

L. giganteum Batsch. R. Morrow’s grounds, Hfx., Sept:, JS.

Edible.
L. celatum Fr. Common in pastures, Aug. and Sept., JS.
Edible.

L. pusillum Fr. Near roots of willows, North Common, Hfx.,
Oct.; JS.

L. -saccatum Vahl. N.W. Arm, Hfx., Oct., JS: . Edible.

L. cyathiforme Farlow. Pictou, AHMK. — Edible.

L. echinatum, Peck. Pictou, AHMK. — Edible.

L. gemmatum Fr. Common in fields and pastures, Hfx., Aug.,
Sept., JS. North West Arm, Hfx., AHMK. Edible.

L. pyriforme Schaetf. On stumps, Hfx., Oct., JS. Shelburne,
CSB. Edible.

Genus (AbI X71) —SCLERODERMA P.
S. vulgare Fr. Common on roadsides, Hfx., Aug., JS. — Pictou,
AHMK. Shelburne,CSB. Edible when specially cooked.

NOVA SCOTIA’ FUNGI.

MACKAY. 141

Order (AbX).—MyxXo0GASTRES.
Genus (AbX74).—LycoGaLa Mich.
L. epidendrum Fr. On rotten willow stumps, Oct: Hix = JS:
Pictou, AHMK.
Geuus (AbX76).—AETHALIUM Link.
AE. septicum Fr. On dead willow stumps, Hfx., Sept., Js.
Pictou, AHMK.

Order (AbXI).—NipvLaRIaAcer Tul.
Genus (AbX196).—CYATHUS Pers.

C. vernicosus DC. Pictou, AHMK.
Genus (Ab X197).—CRUCIBULUM Tul.
C. vulgare Tul. On dead twigs on ground, Willow Park, Hfx.,
Oct., JS.
Family (Ac.)—CONIOMYCETES.
Order (AcXII).—SPH 4RONEMEL.
Genus (AcXIT109).—SPH4ROPSIS Lev.
S. malorwm Berk. On windfall apples, JS.
Order (AcXV.)—PUCCIN AI.
Genus ( \eXV167)—Puccrnta Pers.
P. graminis Pers. Pictou, AHMK.
Genus (AcX V168).—GYMNOSPORANGIUM D. C.
Gymnosporangium junipert Link. “Lucytield,” Sackville,
Halifax Co., Professor George Lawson.
Order (AcX V1). —C 0MACEI.
Genus (AcXVII171).—USsTILsGo.
U. carbo Tul. (U. tritici Jensen.) On wheat, Pictou, AHMK.
U. avenw Jensen. On oats, Pictou, AHMK.
Order (AcX VII).—AECIDIACEI.
Genus (AcX VITIS2).— RassTELIA Reb.
R. lacerata Tul. On unripe fruit of Indian Pears (Amelan-
chier Canadensis) Hix., JS. Sackville, Halifax Co.,
Prof. G. Lawson.
Family (Ad).—HYPHOMYCETES.
Order (AQAX X). —DEMATIEI.
Genus (AAXX221)—CLaDOSPORIUM Link.
C. dendriticum Walir. On leaves and fruit of apples, pears
and other Rosazew [Note in (4) }, JS.

142 NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.

MACKAY.

Order (AAXXI1).—MUCEDINES.
Genus (Ad XX1226).— ASPERGILLUS Mich.

A. glaucus Lk. Common, AHMK.

Genus (Ad X X1I230).—PERONOSPORA De By.

P. infestans Mont. Common on potato vines, AHMK.

Genus (Ad X X1235).—PENICILIUM Link.
P. crustaceum Fr. Common, AHMK.
Division (B).—SPORIDIFERA.
Family (Be).—PHYSOMYCETES.
Order (BeX XIV).—MucorIn1.
Genus (BeX XIV 265).—ASCOPHORA Tode.

A. mucedo Tode. Common, AHMK.
Genus (Be X XIV 270).—SPORODINIA Link.
S. dichotoma Corda. Pictou, AHMK.
Family (Bf). —ASCOMYCETES.
Order (BEX X VITI).—ELVELLACEL.
Genus (BfX X VIIII286).— MorcHeEwia Dill.
M. esculenta Pers. Antigonish and Truro, JMS. Near Bedford,
Halifax Co., H. Piers. Edible.
M. conica Pers. Antigonish, Truro, JMS. Edible.
Genus (BfX X VIII287).—_GYROMITRA Fr.
G. esculenta Fr. Pictou, AHMK. Antigonish, JMS. ~ Not
safely edible.
Genus (BfX X VIII290).—MirrRuta Fr.
~M. vitellma Sac., var. <irregulare, Pk. Antigonish, JMS.
Shelburne, CSB. Edible.
Genus (Bf£X X VIII291).—SPATHULARIA P.
S. velutipes Cooke & Farlow. Antigonish, JMS. Edible.
Genus (BEX X VILI292).—Leorta Hill.
L. lubrica Pers. On ground under birch 3-Mile House, Hfx.,
Sept., JS. Whycocomagh, Inverness co, 25 Sept.
1902, Miss Benedict and Miss Brown. Middleton, RRG.
Edible.

Genus (BfX XX VITI293).— VIBRISSEA Fr,

V: truneorum Fr. Melville Island woods, Hfx.; JS.

HT:

L.

NOVA SCOTIA FUNGI.—MACKAY. 143:

Genus (B£XX VIII294).—GroGLossuM P.

irregulare Pk... Pictou, AHMK. Edible.

Genus (BfX X V11296).—Peziza Link.
badia P. Pictou, AHMK. Edible.
calycina Schum. Pictou, AHMK. — Edible.
warner. Pk. Pictou, AHMK.

. fulgens Pers. Pictou, AHMK.

coccinea Jacq. Beaver Bank, Hfx. Co., Lawson.
Genus (BfX X VITI297).—HELotTIuM Fr.
citrinum Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

Order (BEX XX),—PHACIDIACET.
Genus (BEX XX324).—HYSTERIUM Tode.
pulicare Pers. Pictou, AHMK.

Order (BfX X X1).—SpH2RIACEI,
Genus (BfX X X1332).—ToRRUBIA Ley.

entomorrhiza Fr. On larva of June Beetle, Pictou, AHMK.

Genus (B£X X X1356).—SPH2=RIA Hall.

Spheria morbosa Schw. “Black Knot” on the plum tree

1a &

=

mee §

(Plowrightia morbosa), AHMK.

Genus (BfX XX1336).—_HyPoMyces Tul.
luctifluorum Schw. Parasitic on fungi, Willow Park, Hfx.,
Sept. ; and on Gomphidium, Cantherellus, near Hfx., JS.
North West Arm and Dartmouth, AHMK.

Genus (Bf£X X X1338).—NEcTRIA. Fr.
cinnabarina Fr. On dead twigs in garden, Dartmouth,

AHMK.
Genus (BfX X X1343).—HyPoXxyYLon Fr.
concentricum Grev. On dead birches, 3-Mile House woods,
Hixe <Oct- hia:
coherens Fr. Pictou, AHMK.
verrucosum Fr. Pictou, AHMK.
fuscum Fr. Pictou, AHMK.

Genus.—SCORIAS.

Scorias spongiosa (Schw.) Fr. Growing on alder. Found by Mr.

W. Gibson on Bedford Range, Hfx. Co. Identitied by
Prof. W. G. Farlow, Cambridge, Mass, U. S. A., JS. On
fir leaves and branches, Yarmouth (Miss J. K. B. Kelley),
AHMK. Identified by Peck.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN Nova SCOTIA AND CANADA,
£002. By A. Hie Mackay: LL= BD:

(Received for publication, May. 1903.)

I present in the two tables following a summary of (1) the
detailed observations made in Nova Scotia, mainly through the
agency of the public schools, and (2) the more general observa-
tions made throughout the Dominion of Canada.

The object sought for in the Nova Scotian public
school system is the educational one; for the pupils of the
schools are the observing naturalists, the teacher being the
responsible compiler and recorder of the observations.

The smaller work of the general compilation and publication
of the averages of local observations is only the secondary
object ; but the results are now deemed to be more accurate than
those made by individuals only at each station.

References in my previous papers have been made to the
observations collected and published by Dr. Ihne of Darmstadt
from the continent of Europe ; to the school observation system
like our own, which is now being, with interesting results, tried
in Denmark, under the inspiration of Mr. Carl Michelsen, of
Skanderborg, and the practical guidance of M. J. Mathiassen ;
and to the Natural History Society work of British Columbie.

I have only just received the Report on the Phenological
Observations of Great Britain and Ireland for 1902, by Edward
Mawley, F. R. Met. Soc., F. R. H. S., which is published in the
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol.
XXIX. No. 126, April, 1903. This shows an advance in the
treatment of these observations over other publications seen at
date ; and our system of using “annual” instead of “ mensual ”
dates is exploited in a capital series of phenochronic graphs.

(144)

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1902.—MACKAY. 145

Nova Scorian PHENOCHRONS.

As these are based on about 350 sched ules, it will be observed
that, asa rule, a good many schedules are averaged for each of
the ten meteorological or biological regions of the province.
The individual schedules are annually bound up into a volume
which can be utilized by weather students in the future with
every facility.~ There are already a number of such volumes in
existence. And those of the last years have, to a considerable
extent, been analyzed and compiled by a staff of specialists so
as to give the phenochrons of the coast, lowland and highland
belts of each county. These sheets are likewise being bound up
in annual volumes. The Nova Scotian table published here is
merely the most generalized average of averages.

A close study of the tables showing individual observations,
will create the impression that observers are not always in a
position to note the phenomena of the seasons when they first
appear. In this respect the observations conducted by the
public schools are more accurate. For they are made by a large
number of individuals travelling nearly every day to school and
radiating from this central point of the community for a dis-
tance generally of about two miles. As the teachers stimulate
“observing” by noting the first one who brings evidence of the
first appearance of a flower, etc., there is a great deal of com-
petitive observation on the part of the young people. This not
only makes the travellmg to and from school more interesting ;
but is found to be a great aid to general “nature study.”
Accuracy is assured by the bringing of the specimen to the
school room when practicable.

But even in schools mistakes may occur through accident in
recording, and sometimes from lack of sufficient knowledge of
the natural history of the locality. In order to discover such
mistakes, and to enable directions to be framed in order to
minimize them, as well as for the purpose of studying and com-
piling regional phenochrons, the observation schedules filled in
by the teacher of each school is sent to one of a staff of special-

146 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

ists. Their criticisms are annually published in the Journal of
Education of Nova Scotia, which also contains the names of
observers and number of observations made in each of the
schools reporting. Under the advice of this phenological staff
several changes were made in the schedules issued after 1902,
which are known as the “ 1903 schedule.”
The names and addresses of the Nova Scotian phenological

staff at present are as follows :

C. B. Robinson, B. A., Science Master, Pictou Academy.

E. J. Lay, Principal, Amherst Academy.

J. E. Barteaux, Science Master, Truro Academy.

Antoinette Forbes, B. A., Windsor Academy.

Burgess McKittrick, B. A., Principal, Lunenburg Academy.

Minnie C, Hewitt, Lunenburg Academy.

G. R. Marshall, Principal, Richmond School, Halifax.

Stanley C. Bruce, Principal, Shelburne Academy.

A. W. Horner, Principal, Public School, Yarmoutb.

CANADIAN PHENOCHRONS.

The second table contains the observations of the following
members of the Botanical Club of Canada on the dates of the
first appearances of the phenomena briefly indicated only in the
table, although precisely specified in the schedules for recording
them ; and are published here in order to keep the series published
in the Transactions of our Institute continuous. The addresses
and stations of the observers are as follows, in the order of the
table :

T. A. Good, Woodstock, New Brunswick ; J. M. Dunean,
Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; John MeSwain, Char-
lottetown, Prince Edward Island; Dr. Cephas Guillet, Ottawa,
Ontario; Mrs. Frank E. Webster, Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario ;
Dr. J. H. Elhott, Gravenhurst, Muskoka, Ontario; T. R.
Donnelly, Pheasant Forks, Assiniboia ; Percy B. Gregson, Black-
falds, Alberta ; J. K. Henry, B. A., Vancouver, British Columbia.

NOVA SCOTIA AND. CANADA, 1902:-MACKAY. 147

The first column is the average of about 350 schedules of
observations made by as many of the public schools of the
province of Nova Scotia, and the active members of the club
among whom the following have been sending in reports: Rev.
James Rosborough, Musquodoboit Harbor, Halifax Co.; Miss
Louise MacMillan, Sydney Mines, Cape Breton ; Mrs. G. Ormond
Forsyth, Port Hawkesbury, Inverness Co.; and Miss Janet
Keith Bruce Kelley, Yarmouth.

The last column is the average of scattered observations
from about ten observers in different parts of the south of
British Columbia, five being from Vancouver Island or the
coast, two from the dry belt, and three from the mountain belt.
These observations were made on the schedule prepared and
published by the Natural History Society of the province, and
were communicated to me by A. J. Pineo, Esq., B. A., of Victoria,
and are published in detail in my report from the Botanical
Club of Canada to the Royal Society of Canada.

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‘OL OL T SNOIMAY—VILOOS VAON HO AONTAOUd—SWUOLSUAONA HL

154 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

CANADIAN PHENOCHRONS, 1902.
OBSERVATION STATIONS— WHEN FIRST SEEN.

= =
Day of the year 1902 corres-| 5 of (ae fale a S : 45
ponding to the last day of| * ralbe e ay e | S/O} ss
each month. oa z 5 2 Bel ies (Sie im (te el Mate [Le
Dalene Sey dally ncuner 212 So 4 |e 8 ered Or Ie . Pol eS
1) Ome Oe ANI es, 8 AS |p| S| Oslo Oia tle of ope ee
5 | March..... OeSeptsss ce 973) | thie | 2. Seles] SiS | Mole ee | sues
© py oral ome SS SY o}|}s pa 5 on 2
rafal Ari eases 120: 5OCtas sas aes 34] Se lo - lee Sey) & leis] 2 ae | 9 | es
BY|May...- <. 151 NOV eo 334| 95 | 8 Els 3 Slee -2 (sore) 2 | ox
Se dune «eee 18h Dect see 365 | BO | [SF S31 So] 2 las] S| | em
Zz < EO jo |/Olm Ja le | Mie d
1| Alnus incana, Willd........... 93.5} *95| 116| 123| 97/ 87|... |....|....| @59|a108.7
2| Populus tremuloides, Mx...... 103.5|*102 127| 96) *99 Bi 137; c135| Poel Saoee
3| Epigeea repens, L.............. 9429) 225i) FEVLO7 FICE) ce |( GG] eet le os | eee
4) Viola cucullata, Gray........ 11971) *102) 117) ...:}- 132 *110) 114) 1374-123) e97io. = =,
5| V.-blanda, Wall@ 3:.0 22.2. s.0c: 116.9}*102}-117].. .-| 120)*112; 103} 140'....] 100)......
GitAcer rubrumy liseccs cs seen 117.1|*115) 121) 123) 96 “10! 107 -| f92
7| Houstonia ceerulea, L......... WSES i aallo selec Piper bere be oneal bea 4 (PR sonalliees SNe
8| Equisetum arvense, L......... DOA es ean erics NOS) PUA eye ererareltterante SOE sees
9) Taraxacum officinale, Web....| 119.8] 122) 120) 130} 109 *196| 112! 138] 195]....|......
16| Erythronium Amer., Ker.....| 130.8|*122]....|....| 108 *142} 112]....]....]....] .....
11| Hepatica triloba, Chaix........ 0 by Ge Fae Sebi real [eMC teepeced treaty tl [aac bone cal peers
12}Coptis trifolia, Salisb.......... 128:3|"143ise sel. <<. | 120) #142) 28) eos ieee pee iaceee
13) Fragaria Virginiana, Mill..... 117.6 125| 147) 138] 111)*161| 120] 127] 156}. ..] 102.8 ~
14 ss (fruit Tipe)o.2 |. L666). 222 | |e ea GL eee 18315200 | em laeloo.s
15) Prunus Pennsyl., L. -... ..... 141.2! 143]. ...|....| 127!*138].133! 147) 143]9116'....
16 se (fruitiripeye 1 si223: Ui 2232 |e one 55, OF lester orsl| e22O | oles oem
Tal’ Vialecinium:Penn:, Lama... <--| V4 0) 145)" oe | S219) 2 )7128) Sea) sce
18 er (ruiteripe)siea) ZOE i ahewafectsal: so aekoleee|eeee 219). 321A
19} Ranuneulus:acris, L...... . .. 147.2] 149] 166}....| 140)*156) 153 120. 170|*130 119.6
740)| i) yo 2) 012) she! OP een a aecme oie 195.3)? VoL 27 |(o2 | od |e re een IQBS rs
21| Clintonia borealis, Raf........ USI | Seireed |e cll meee | eco] pe se Te ee eel eo BHR Pes
22| Trillium erythrocarpum....... 148:0)*143)) in|. 1251FISOPISS IM. alleys all iciereil eter
23| Trientalis Ameri., Pursh...... 147.4 145 | Ses ST ets VE Pols, oo 2 2 eae
24| Cypripedium acaule, Ait... .-.. GSH: | Ee Al lraee 137|*163} 142]!., . b170|}... |%121.8
Zoi Callas paltistris lias tea ares ses NGO LG real asst lastest Mat Wea Wate) heer! (ees aes Al baie alfa a o>
26’ Amelanchier Canadensis...... a Bae | 147)....| 120)*126) 124 144 oa ..« [0123/5
27! 2s (frwiteripe)!s4 P9420) resol Seales ae oar | Soha agus | Jet OOD) aeiae lieennerets
*When becoming common. a Rosa blanda b Cypripedium hirsutum.

ec A. alnifolii. ad Alnus rubra. e Viola palustris. J/A.macrophyllum.
g Prunus emarginata. h Trientalis Europea. k Calypso.

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA,

1902.—-MACKAY.

CANADIAN PHENOCHRONS, 1962.

OBSERVATION STATIONS—WHEN FIRST SEEN.

155.

|

‘Day of the year 1902 corres-
ponding to the last day of
each month.

(fruit ripe)... .

Rubus villosus, Ait

“

(fruit ripe)....

Kalmia glauca, Ait

Kean gustifolianibe..tcke wee sce

Cornus Canadensis, L

=f (fruit ripe)....
: Sisyrinchium angustifol..
Linnea borealis, L

Linaria Canaden., Dum .

Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L ..
Sarracenia purpurea, L ....
Brunella vulgaris, L..........
Epilobium augustifolium....
Rosa lucida, Ehrh........... ..
Hypericum perforatum, L...
Leontodon autumnale, L......
Prunus Cerasus (cultiv.)......
s (fruit ripe)....
Crateegus Oxyacantha, L. ...
GS Coccineas (lay. eo aaseeee ae
Prunus domestica (eult’d)

Pyrus malus (cult’d) early. ...

“ “

late .

| Ribes rubrum (cultivated)....

oe

(fruit ripe)....

R. nigrum (cultivated)

“When becoming common.
Rosa. ZC. nutallii.

Average dates for

Nova Scotia.

K. I, (1).

| Woodstock, N. B.
| Charlottetown, P.

A 5 |S ma a15 ae
r=} ala 3 |44 = ~ | as
Po}S is |e 8 14/9) 36
Nal Se ents On| aren (ere Weegee Se
se Ate) = a 3) —]
om— ~ Pees zc - od
SU reg Oe aS sg see x | =icg a ies agin
Oo .l © lm .| O Sas a ro) Sie
ret dt f= He) ae 2 x 5) few
ez} 8 IBS| 2 154! 2 r= oS &
a5/$ 150] 2 jad] & | © | =O
© Sih (Si ere ean S| ps eee
151,*166) 151] 170) 180) 769) 7141.6
*211 210| 148} 196.
153 *166)°155] -23%|--2-|----|senes-
*222
1711. 142 6199 |eeeeee
Tid eee ga ial nce ea be [ie nt
142 *166} 142 127| 1133.2
148 . 181/173). 160], > =| 5.
i
160)*193 137.7
176). 196s | eee tee eee
VTL IGS Glacee ees alececlee see
1 ear 4
160 *176} 166). 179.7
*192| 181 200|*171} 177.
166) 168) 173 j141) 7142.6
*193} 186). ANY (Sa Node
*310!.... 206 o- | eee
145 LOB trees oe
159023. :
SEF [eel ease 151
163| 140 *133!.>,.| 151]..¢.]....|...06-
iP She obeloso 158). Ole aee
|
154| 132 *144!....]....]....] 114] 128.6
..*131 144). 91) 113.9
TK So al eer en ieee es Nereaned
A134: 5, | PAGUS poe TSS cae

a Rosa blanda.

i Rubus spectabilis.

156

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

CANADIAN PHENOCHRONS, 1902.

OBSERVATION STATIONS—WHEN FIRST SEEN.

or g. | Number.
a

fer} So ot Ot
Be Shes nice

63

T7b
78a

Day of the year 1902 corres-

ponding to the last day of
each month.

JaDeecae a SUS Dulyeese ne 212
IRCA erortseens SOM MAUI Set see 213
March D0 Sepune-sace 273
Moriliees >: 12) OCG ee 304
Ma yocince oc 15S ONOVae 334
June Rey Wiel OXere vases 365

R. nigrum (fruit ripe) ..... ..

Syringa vulgaris, L (cult.).....

Solanum tuberosum, L

Phleum pratense, L

Trifolium repens, L

T. pratense, L

Triticum vulgare, L

Avena sativa, L

Fagopyrum esculentum, L....

Earliest full leafing of tree....

oe oe

Latest

Ploughing (first of season)....

oe “ec

Sowing

Potato-planting
Sheep-shearing
Hay-cutting
Grain-cutting
Potato-digging Hs
Opening of rivers se

Opening of lakes

Last snow to whiten ground..

ai LOM INVA nda
Last spring frost—hard........
° ee oi hoar..... 5

Water in streams—highest....

“e “

lowest....

First autumn frost-—-hoar.....

“ee ee

First snow to fly in air

s os ia re Z 2 £ =
alee a, GS | Sa|~ 1g
319g iga'S (2 pale [Sie ise
of | 9 Salen Is Sls =|Fl oc
< FIO 10 1OlM |e ie |MIF] 4
CQOT A ca cless | asl 1OS| 0a tees ola sesteaes Eee nS
160 8 161| 163' 195] 146|....| 163|....| 123] 165.6
[Sieg oss Ne states 200|....] 178.4
177.9 180 137.5
162 6 143 14 170| 125] 144.8
159.5 180'....] 151 152 133] 180.
DOB. O) acl e-<: bees he eitsa salt see leeie B05) sce] sages
DOIilaea le ee ees BO5| anon eet
194.9] 2 ly 177 102). ce | eee eee
137.5]. eles. 140} 3) 208 | ae ee ee
163.2\%2- slo \OE: (ee Se Deals ee eae ee
1046) chi sevahe es oo *121 113) “97/5 ee eee
117.2 106| 113|....}.2.% 121] 297|: | cakes
15:1} sees *136|....| 147| 193|-...|a. a
125.5] 100]. *132|....| 153] 175/....].....-
Jon G\eeoal- eleatees 205) ....)...- 2001s: [ekgerss
231.0|....| 231! 232....] a34)..°-[ 240]... .|... fe...
258.3 262|....|.... B05|. Uiesawe
72.7 5| 67| 95]. 831 10ll. <i o
FEE | ese me ee ot pred Daeeet ee 1ogleee lees oe
103.0 TE | ue eae T4@l valent 153). 98.2
193.2|....|... 92) 148}. 133° Sika
Tee eel ee 129] 149|....].... 144! ga] ous
154.9 Tai) aly Sass tee fate 144] 115! 3...
85.9 aacl ac leas bes 312|....].... ieee
245 0 330). 300! leaetes
264.7 258) 931!....).... 209 oa 296 2...
290.3 ml Sle Sis oa) 3684 ada! co
293.4 PAST One, i 305! 259 a) fiat

* When becoming common.

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA, 1902.—MACKAY.

CANADIAN PHENOCHRONS, 1902.

OBSERVATION STATIONS—WHEN FIRST SEEN.

Day of the year 1902 corres-
ponding to the last day of
each month.
4 hese SLY tne 212

SeleHeDae ae. D9e PANE ioe 243
| March... ... 90 Sept 273
Pop Aprile. 2 ae TZOMOGESS ass ot 304
BOOM ae rom Isl Noy: - 334
7, PUNE Po Tho) WOM Dey ea aie 385
78b | First snow to whiten ground...
79a| Closing of lakes................]
79b os VIMOLSisfs contre ase ke
8la | Wild ducks migrating, N......
81b ss sf Si etise
82a Wild geese Ss N..
82b = ss Sisson
83 | Melospiza fasciata, North ...
84) Turdus migratorius ss
85 | Junco hiemalis sf
86 Actitis macularia te
87 | Sturnella magna ss
88 Ceryle Aleyon Se
89, Dendrceca coronata td
90) D. eestiva oe |
9L| Zonotrichia atba
92 Tiochilus colubris OS are
93| Tyrannus Carolinensis **

94 | Dolychonyx oryzivorus *

|

95| Spinis tristis ss
96| Setophaga ruticilla
97, Ampelis cedrorum oC |
98; Chordeiles Viginianus ‘‘

99; First piping of frogs .........
100’ First appearance of snakes ...

Proc. & TRANS. N. S Inst. Scr, Vou. XI.

157

5 sales Py] g 2
SS\41— le 1sle (els |=| 8] 83
313.1|....] 298|....|....|....|....| 307 300] 310/......
346 S1sctslavals . ail (Le
354.3|....| 345] 344... [ae Rtas | sees
76.3, 80). res 97 a mite (ar Uae
Dal a [beatles ee 305 0 ena
- 76.1| 73 60| 62) 98 OBI; -SOte aes exes
310.3|--..|....| 263'....] 319!....] 307 soot, sfeaene:
85.4] 88|....) 90 74]. 1 eet fas oo
Gaal ral Celie eal Rene cealsionl le.
79.1| 87|....| 92 86] 67 eet eae a
120 Beles es eel ee ee, | Aa | eae
107.0|....|... 95 Boise shewesl pt cass
HET ie6) a be) Bee 14AQ |S alas Aloe in s Mew ae
1S7 Bh 1321 150| sez hater shee alee Reo eee
FETE bl Bane OO bP are ae
rece ee ae be ta Kee fea eats
146.1) 140)...-}-..] 187)....|-.-. Te aS eae re
138.7|-138|-...| ...} 140]..2.[.... Tate esc
132.9 138)... bE ree ere Pres Ee Pee
132.8] 108)....|.... Le1SO ice Ganaltesl aed] fees aes
197.7 142)... Hautsdeaises <| eae le lease
138.0, 94|....}.... AES opin OPM beam (eas Pa
126.7 142)....| 143) 142 3 Be a eee
gi.1 103 104) 101! 84, 91]... 104 is 46
pale ov uiol....1 117 A ee
Trans.—K.

ICE-BORNE SEDIMENTS IN Minas Basin, N. S.—By J. AUSTEN
Bancrort, Acadia College, Wolfville.

(Read before King’s Co. Branch of N. S. I. S., 21st April, 1903.)

The power of running water to carry along mud, sand,
gravel and fragments of rock to a considerable distance, is greatly
increased in those countries where during some part of the year
the frost is of sufficient intensity to form ice of considerable
thickness.

During a winter of average severity, a person standing upon
the government pier at Wolfville, King’s County, N. S., watch-
ing an ebb tide, is impressed with the immense amount of ice
carried down the Cornwallis River into Minas Basin. Within
the ice, which is very muddy in general color, pebbles and frag-
ments of rock may be seen entangled. This ice-borne detritus
may be referred to at least three different sources :-—

G.) Ice forms along the banks of the rivers which flow
into Minas Basin. During a slight thaw, small streamlets bear
gravel and sand down upon its surface. Upon colder days, if
there is not much snow on the ground, the wind sifts down its
contribution of fine material upon the ice. With a following
slightly higher tide, a layer of ice is formed upon the old surface,
and a thin stratum of detritus is locked up and ready for
later transportation. By the buoyant power of the water,
assisted by sudden changes of temperature of the atmosphere,
these projecting masses are broken off and are drifted away by
the curreat. Each miniature iceberg thus formed, tears away
some debris from the bank of the river.

Gi.) In some places, the shore-line of Minas Basin is marked
by clifts, which are exposed to wave action and the scour of
tidal currents. For example, at Starr’s Point and at Long
Island, the land platform terminates in cliffs of a dull red sand-

(158)

ICE-BORNE SEDIMENTS IN MINAS BASIN, N. S.—BANCROFT. 159

stone of Triassic age. Its chief constituents are rounded grains
of white to colorless quartz, decolorized and almost. lustreless
flakes of muscovite and biotite, anda few particles of decomposed
feldspar, and the whole cemented together by calcite. The calcite
fills the interstices of the rock, and forms a thin film about each
individual grain of sand. The frozen interstitial water acts as
a powerful force in the disintegration of this sandstone, cracking
the calcite, and thus loosening the more durable grains of quartz
and mica. Another instance may well be cited. Between
Avonport and Hantsport, for the greater part of the distance, is
a continuous cliff of purplish to black, finely laminated shale,
with interspersed layers of sandstone and clay ironstone. In
some places, the shale is capped by a thin layer of boulder clay.
Water freezes between the lamin of the shale, and breaks it up
into thin scale-like fragments. Large cakes of ice are left by
the receding tide beneath these cliffs, and on a sunny day, there
is a continual shower of this frost-loosened detritus upon their
surfaces. Sometimes landslides, on a small scale, of the over-
lying boulder clay pour down upon the ice a load of debris.

qu.) The ebb tide leaves many cakes of ice stranded on
the area which is left bare between high and low water. Dur-
ing the interval of time between ebb and flood tide, they are
frozen to the surface of the ground ; but only to be floated again
at high water. They then lift a thin layer of detritus from the
land area to which they have been frozen. One ice crust was
noticed floating about with a layer of sod, which, doubtless, had
been in this manner removed from the surface of the marsh.
Upon being floated, a layer of ice forms upon the lower surface
of the ice and the debris is thus enclosed. If this action goes on
for several days, it gives the ice a well stratified appearance.

During the second week in February, 1903, while studying
at Acadia College, the writer, under the guidance of Professor
Ernest Haycock, performed a series of experiments, in order to
ascertain the amount of sediment carried by the ice in Minas
Basin at that time. The winter was not very severe, and the

160 ICE-BORNE SEDIMENTS IN MINAS BASIN; N. S.—BANCROFT.

ice did not attain to the thickness which had characterized it
during some previous years.

At the mouth of Mud Creek, the thickness of between fifty
and sixty cakes of ice which had been left there by the out-
going tide wascarefully measured. It was impossible to include
in these measurements some of the thicker cakes of ice which
were floating down the Cornwallis River. The average thick-
ness, by this method, was found to be one and a half feet. This
estimate was a very conservative one, since the thicker cakes
of ice which are stranded, some even ten and twelve feet in
thickness, seem to lodge upon the stretch of marsh laid bare
upon the opposite side of the Cornwallis River. But in caleulat-
ing the average, the cake of greatest thickness measured was
seven feet thick, another was five feet thick, and the rest ranged
from this down to three inches.

Much attention was given to the seleetion of those ice cakes
which were carrying the average amount of sediment, and for
this purpose many more cakes of ice were broken open and
carefully inspected. Then thirty-four pounds of the ice contain-
ing an average quantity of detritus was melted and filtered upon
large filter papers in the laboratory. The sand and mud collected
on the filter paper was dried in an oven at a temperature of
90°C. The weight of the sediment found in this quantity of
ice was found to be 1.1 pound. Upon examining portions of
this material under the microscope, at least three distinct
varieties of diatoms were noticed. From an admiralty chart,
the length of the coast line of Minas Basin, was found to be about
120 miles, without taking into account the many small indenta-
tions and irregularities of the shore. The width of the tidal
flats exposed at low water, from the same chart, was estimated
to be about three-fourths of a mile. If these calculations are at
all in error, it is due to the estimates taken not being large
enough. The amount of ice in the Basin, at the time the experi-
ment was performed, was such that when it was low water the
tidal flats laid bare were covered with irregular ice masses, and
much ice still remained floating.

ICE-BORNE SEDIMENTS IN MINAS BASIN, N..S.—BANCROFT. 161

The results of the complete experiment here appears in
summary form, together with the conclusions derived from
them :—

One square mile = 5280 x 5280 = 27,878,400 sq. ft.

Average thickness of 59 cakes of ice = 145 ft.

Number of eubie feet of ie covering one syjuare mile
= 27,878,400 x 13 = 41,817,600 cubie ft.

The weight of one cubie foot of ice of salt water on an
average = 55|bs.
Now in 34 lbs. of ice, the weight of sediment found = 1.1 Ib.
Pind. ; us es ena tems eo blk

34
=i oe ee
Hence the weight of sediment in ice covering an area of one
square mile = 41,817,760 x 1.78 = 74,435,328 lbs.
Length of coastline, Minas Basin (approximately ) = 120 iniles.
Average width of tidal flats = 3 of a mile.
., Amount of surface (at the least) covered by ice
= 1 20>e2— 90:sq: miles:
.. Weight of sediment borne by the ice covering this area
= 74,435,328 x 90 =6,699,179,520 lbs = 3,349,590 tons.
This result shows the transported material to be much more
than might have been expected by the casual- observer. But,
after having performed the experiment, one has the feeling that
the result obtained is far from being an exaggeration of what
actually takes place. Where the stretch laid bare at low water
is greater than at Wolfville, as in Cobequid Bay, the ice attains
a much greater thickness. As “might be expected, the amount
of sediment carried by the ice varies with the severity of the
winter. During what may be called a broken winter, several
sets of ice may be formed,—a prolonged thaw nearly clearing
the Basin of ice, only to be followed by a cold snap with a new
ice crust.

162. ICE-BORNE SEDIMENTS IN MINAS BASIN, N. S.—BANCROFT.

The amount of sediment carried by this floating ice is greatly
emphasized to one if he watches the melting of some of the ice
clumps stranded upon the marsh by an exceptionally high tide:
In one case, the layer of sediment left after the melting of such
a stranded cake was six inches thick, and in the midst of the
detritus was a boulder of trap rock which weighed over twenty
pounds. Early in the spring, the marsh has the appearnce of
being covered with ant hills, this effect being produced by the
melting of these isolated ice cakes, and the deposition of their
burden of debris. These scattered heaps of sediment do not
seem to be easily levelled down by succeeding high tides. Tf
by the continued formation of laminz, deposited by the follow-
ing high tides, they should be buried, it would seem as if they
should be of some geological significance in the structure of the
rock formed, at a later date, of these stratified marsh sediments.
Possibly they would cause slight irregularities in the bedding, or
give the rock.a patched appearance. But this is largely
conjecture.

This material deposited on the marshes in this way is
caused by the standing of only a few stray ice cakes. A good
deal of the floating ice is carried out into the Bay of Fundy.
Much of it melts while floating in the waters of Minas Basin.
Some of it melts while resting on the area left bare between
high and low water. But wherever the melting takes place,
it necessarily 1s accompanied by the deposition of the burden of
detritus. The ice which floats about in Minas Basin during the
winter, is thus seen to be a very important agent in the trans-
ference of mud and silt, abstracted from the land, to the sea
bottom.

i A re |

Ce soe

i
- }

EMBERS of the Institute, and Societies in correspondence with it,
M would confer a great favour, if they would send to the Council, for
distribution to Scientific Institutions whose sets of the Institute’s publications :
are incomplete, any duplicate or other spare copies which they may possess
of back numbers of its Proceedings and Transactions. They should be
addressed: The Secretary of the N. S. Institute of Science, Halifax, Nova
Scotia.

THE attention of members of the Institute is directed to the following
recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological
Bibliography and Publications :—

‘‘That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner. i

“That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.

‘* That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when ~
possible.

‘“That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or
anonymous paragraphs.

‘‘That references to previous publications should be made fully and
correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of
rules of quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological
Society.”

Nc) Pi as tau nA

uA * mite 12)

, Phy

co

Barta o ane qe canning?

- HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.
is VOLUME XI.
hs :
ie iy PART 2.
We SESSION OF, 1908-1904.) 5)
‘ oa WITH 10 PLATES.
#} oN ey ‘ !

SMe alt ty ciel, “HALIFAX:
PRivTeD FOR THE INSTITUTE BY MCALPINE PUBLISHING ©o., Lap.
‘Date of Publication : etd June)’ ni

Alay

Su

i

Joba Scotian Enstit te at Seen ace,

4

}

CONTENTS.

P ROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1903-1904 :
Presidential Address, by Henry 8. Poole, D. S., Assoc. Roy. Sc. Mines,

WiGoiSG BAR ASs Ges lateade seca ets seventeen sale eae eatste Sac iaie la areca sem enue Cina xvii
Progress) ofthe Insyrbuber cassia wen sein ne, feces dole see mea es alelaate eheeite XVili
Application of Science to Miming ........-......20cc. eens coeee Kea belt xix

Report Of Treasurer is cists felons wcities cep ore CAI AE RES SE) PMU R a eL AL pa ET A Xxiv
FRODOLUOF HADLATIAM sire cite tee aiaich te pemealals eleleiieteae's aici d anit yalatal Calafate Sanus xxiv
Report of King’s County Branch of the Thektdke Sh se Vode seews tise meen pes xxv
Oflicersifor VO0S-1904 ss aoa aan ieantteaeiray Givin baits ich Palo, oe ere a hal edelnte tel er ats xxvi
Ordinary; Meetings oh: ctoeroe bene eae Uisep ist ater crated Ictale bw taster bias Rekcmetaate alate a Ries eee xxvi
T. V. Hill.—_The Creation and Development of the Inorganic Foundation

of the/ Earth, | (Title LOY 61 if) RAW TCA ee tee MTN REGIA Es MLN LMR eam eR EA 4-2 XXVii
Prof, J, i. Woodman, D. Sc.—Drainage Development of Rivers. (Title only) xxvii
EK. Stewhat, —Addiess on Morestry. (Title only) ...-....-...0eesesee eee rere XXviil
R. H. Campbell. —Address on Porestry. (Titleonly) ee ea asipes scat ee wee aioe SVT
Frank H. ‘Reid. Birds and the Selection of their Nests. (Title only)...... XXViii
Dr. H. Y. Hind.—Importance of a knowledge of Rock Foldings to Miners.

(PItleconly) eee se te Meets A IN Seelam Molaters A ioe pimseratnolele A eS akan: aetna dates XXvViii
Prof. J. Woodman.—Structure of the Meguma (Gold-bearing) Series, with

reference to the Theory of Cross-folds. (Title only) .........-.--.+-seee xxix
Prof. J. E. Woodman.—Bibliography of the Meguma (Gold-bearing) Series

of Nova Scotia... (Litle only). eee p iy esses sive incite ea wiweion ae pelea aiteistee/aa xxix

TRANSACTIONS, SESSION OF 1903-1904:
Distribution of Bedded Leads in relation to Mining Policy.—By Prof. J. EH.

Woodman, D. Sc., Dalhousie University..........0e- cece cece eee tee r eee 163
Notes on Hydraulic Lime and Cement.—By Francis H. Mason, F. C.S.,

Mictallumeiste. 5 scauesmnena rah, ansc me aeana ee eeacsauehienfesine MHA eS 179
Local Variations and other notes on Blue- eyed Grass (Sisyrinchium ;

angustifolium).—By Capt. J. H. Barbour, M. B., R. A. M C. ......-...- 191
Sunken Land of Bus (lat. 35 west, long. 53 north).—By Henry S. Poole, D.

SG ASSOC Rie WE Geiss Bak Ete oon ssephe aie Naipione lo inaste clatetetate ey ale imi aletelelate 193
Swim Bladder of Fishes a Degenerate Gland.—By Prof. E. H. Prince,

F. R. 8S. C., Dom. Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa.........--...0+--. 199
Earthquake of March 21, 1904, in Nova Scotia.—By Prof. J. E. Woodman,

Die Sts Dalhousie UDLVErsiby. a ds ieicicsc nbs aistas elanls Gu laid sigacie espa tesa ee 227
Age of Conglomerate Capping the Cambrian Rocks of Nova Scotia.—By

Henry S. Poole; D. Se.,; Assoc. R. S. M., F.GiS.). 6.2 ees OPS 236

Determination of Elements of Terrestrial Magnetism at Halifax, N. S.,
August, 1904.—By Prof. Stephen M. Dixon, M. A., Dalhousie University 245

Faults of Battery Point, Sydney, N. S.—By TIT. T. Fulton, B. Sc., B. E. 260

Subsidence of Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia. (Introductory to paper by

Mr. McIntosh).—By Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., F. G. S 2.2.0 ccc cece eee e eee 262
Question of Subsidence at Louisbourg, Cape Breton. —By Kenneth

McIntosh, C. E., St. George’s Channel, N. S.........-.. cee eee cere cere 264
Phenological Observations in Canada, 1903.—By A. H. MacKay, Lu. D.,

BERUSAC. Supt of Haucation c eiscanivacmielaaciace atte sj aciaine niieh ele cibalsls 271
Botanical Notes in Nova Seotia.—By A. H. Macituy) Lu. D., F. R.S. C.,

SUpPS. AOL WUAUCALION soa eiaisedac he Santas alee sleiee uiaeie ine e euatale pre kiclc oes etalen feleiate 286
Structure and Succession at North Sydney and Sydney Mines, C. B.—By

Loran A. DeWolfe, M. A., North Sydney... so.) 0i ee eens eee weet e ween 289

Contribution to the Study of Hydroxylamine.—By G. M. Johnstone
MacKay, B. A. (Published in this part by permission of the Council). 324

APPENDIX II:
List of Members, 1903-1904... ..-..ecseesers NAGAI RH ES ROARS ure steer SAintairetate v

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Hlova Scotian Institute of Science.

Se

SESSION OF 1903-1904.

DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS IN RELATION TO MINING
Poticy.*—By Pror. J. EymMUND WoopMaN, A. M.S. D.,
School of Mining and Metallurgy, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, N.S.
(Read 13th March, 1905.+)

For purposes of study, the gold-bearing veins of the province
may be roughly divided into two general classes, as regards
their relation to the country rock—bedded leads, with their
accompanying “angulars,” and cross veins. This grouping is in
part arbitrary, and real or apparent exceptions will occur to any
one acquainted with more than a few of the gold districts. But
it contains the essential elements of a true classification—the
genetic principle. For from another point of view, the veins
may be regarded as (1) those formed during the period of fold-
ing of the rocks, practically group one as given above ; and (2)
those formed subsequent to the folding, in cross fissures, joints,
or faults, which would be group two.

The phrase “ fissure vein” is to be avoided as far as possible
in discussing either of the two classes. For, in the first place,

e

*CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE SCIENCE LABORATORIES OF DALHOUSIE UNIVER-
sity —[GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY].

tPrinted in the present part by permission of the Council of the Institute. Origi-
nally read ata meeting of the Mining Society of Nova Scotia

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. TRANS. L.

(163)

164 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

we have yet to prove that any of them were formed after the
manner of “true fissure veins “—that is, by wide-spread and
deep-seated disruption of the rocks ; and second, whatever some
of the cross veins may be, others give distinct evidence of not
occupying true fissures, but only shrinkage or torsion cracks due
to local influences, and confined in strike definitely to a certain
portion of the strata, dymg out at either end as other strata are
reached.

Third, in one sense all are fissure veins; that is, all were
formed in pre-existing cavities or places of weakness.

The present paper undertakes only to consider some charac-
teristics of the mineral deposits under group one. Certain of
these have been emphasized, chiefly verbally, by Mr. E. R. Fari-
bault, of the Geological Survey of Canada. It is difficult to
speak too highly of Mr. Faribault’s work, extending over a long
term of years, and carried on patiently under most trying con-
ditions, not the least of which has been a totally inadequate
supply of funds.

Here the author begs indulgence for a momentary disgres-
sion. We are accustomed to grumble at the amount of study
alloted to this province by the Geological Survey. Observation
of work done in other parts of the Dominion convinces me that,
in proportion to its apparent economie importance, Nova Scotia
has received in the past, and is still accorded, more attention
from the surveying staff than any other part of Canada. The
Maritime Provinces are the only considerable division for which
were early planned, and are now being executed, meh-to-mile
geological sheets. Other regions have been mapped upon this
scale, or even a larger one; but they are limited in extent, and
generally embrace some distinct economic district, covered by a
few map sheets. Except the parts now in progress of being
surveyed, the areal geology of the province is mapped already,
in a manner not perfect, it is true, but eminently satisfactory
when the financial resources at command are considered. What
the Survey does not do, is to attempt problem studies of geo-

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN. 165

logic or economic units. Its work is still too largely areal.
Whenever the far-sighted policy is adopted of allowing it
an annual appropriation more nearly commensurate with
the needs of the Dominion, we, in common with others, will reap
the benetit. Until then, with others, we must wait for the
fulfilment of some of our ambitions for Nova Scotia. There is
reason to believe that the maps we already possess are used with
intelligence by a very small number of those interested in the
mineral economics of the province.

Returning once more to the subject, we find that the problem
permits of division into two parts—the relations of gold-bearing
districts to each other, and the relations between the veins. Let
us look at the distribution of bedded-lead gold districts as known
at present. The discussion is here confined to that part of the
province east of the great granite mass which, starting near
Halifax, runs north and west to near Windsor ; there meeting the
Carboniferous rocks, and thus cutting off the eastern sedimentary
part of the gold-bearing series completely from the western.
The reasons for this delimitation of the subject are that the
country is better known to most, the workings are more num-
erous, older and on a larger scale, hence give greater oppor-
tunity for study, and the rocks are much less influenced by
granites.

In this region, which is approximately 200 miles east and
west by 8 to 60 north and south, and embraces roughly 3,000
square miles, there are 26 well-marked anticlinal axes. Some
of these extend many miles east and west, and a few are very
local. In no way, however, do they run and die out en echelon,
after the manner of axes in the Appalachians. From south to
north, the anticlines on which gold districts lie, are (1) the Tangier
fold, with Ecum Secum, Harrigan Cove and Tangier; (2) the Ecum
Secum fold, a very local one, with a part of Ecum Secum ; (3)
the Lake Catcha-Salmon River fold, including Liscomb Mills,
Salmon River, and Lake Catcha; (4) the Mooseland-Gegogan

166 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

fold, including Mooseland and Gegogan (Lawrencetown may
be on a westward continuation) ; (5) the Wine Harbour
fold, with Wine Harbour ; (6) The Montague-Isaacs Harbour
fold, with Montague, Gold Lake, Killag, Goldenville, and
Isaacs Harbour ; (7) the Moose River-Beaver Dam fold, with
Beaver Dam, Upper Seal Harbour, Ragged Falls, and Moose
River ; (8) the Waverley-Fifteen Mile Stream fold, with
Waverley at the west, running through Moose River, where it
parts company with 7, to Fifteen Mile Stream ; (9) The
Caribou fold, containing Caribou, Cameron Dam, Crow’s Nest,
and Cochran Hill; (10) the Oldham fold, with Oldham ; (11)
the South Branch Musquodoboit fold, with an unnamed dome
and Little Liscomb Lake mine; (12) the South Uniacke fold,
with South Uniacke ; and (13) the Mt. Uniacke fold, with Mt.
Uniacke and Renfrew. Thus exactly half the anticlines have
domes which are being worked, or which have been operated
in the past.

It will be noted that there is a great variation, from one to
five,in the number of known domes on individual anticlines.
There is much difference, also, in the length of these anticlines
—from 4.5 miles, in the local Ecum Secum axis, to about 105
miles in the Waverley-Moose River-Upper Seal Harbour fold.
Further, the variation in interval between adjacent domes on the
same axis is considerable. The two nearest together, un-
separated by a fault, are Ecum Secum and Harrigan Cove,
about 6 miles apart. This is the only instance of its kind,
however, and Harrigan Cove has not a very good dome structure.
The two adjacent districts farthest apart without an intervening
fault, are Goldenville and Killag, about 34 miles distant.
Mapping the domes upon one large sheet, so that the relations
can be seen at a glance, it at first sight iooks as though there
were a tendency to an oblique northeast-southwest alignment
of domes, the districts lying slightly farther east on each suc-
cessive axis northward. Close inspection, however, shows that
the tendency is really present in but two cases, and may well be
accidental in these. To sum up, therefore, it appears that any

IN RELATION TO MINING POLIGY.—WOODMAN. 167

attempt to frame an exploration policy upon a supposed period-
icity of situation of the domes is likely to end in failure.

In rebuttal, it must be said that we may not be acquainted
with all the domes existing upon the various folds. This is
undoubtedly true; yet it but emphasizes the inability of dis-
tribution to contribute prophetically to our knowledge. On
tke other hand, it enforces one aspect of the case which should
appeal to moneyed men interested in the problem of developing
our mineral industries. All the main anticlinal axes have been
quite accurately mapped for the eastern half of the province by
Mr. Faribault, and the sheets for the most part published.
While small local folds may become known in the future, as the
second one at Salmon River was discovered after operations at
the Dufferin mine had proceeded far enough ; and while some
of these may prove economically important, yet it is improbable
that there are many arches unnoted by Mr. Faribault’s careful
traverses. But one or two cases of gold-bearing bedded veins
are so far known to exist in the troug’) of a synecline ; and from
the mechanics of the mountain building and attendant vein
phenomena, it is not to be expectel that such deposits will
oceur along the synclinal axes to any extent. So that, while
our evidence upon this important point is either circumstantial
or negative, it is probably safe to neglect these folds entirely
in exploring for new deposits. Moreover, many of the synclinal
axes outcrop in the overlying black slates, and therefore in
rocks in which abundant gold-bearing leads would not be sought.

Again, while a few instances of isolated bedded veins are
known in the transverse interval between an anticline and a
syncline, and at a considerable distance from the axis of the
former, they are rare; and they are not to be looked for to any
considerable extent. It is along and close to the anticlinal axes
that we know the deposits now worked, and that we should
expect to find new ones; and further, it has been heretofore
upon the bulged or domed parts that search has been made.

168 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

We know that in the existing districts there is a marked
tendency for leads to narrow, and often to die out altogether,
in passing from the plunging nose of the dome back to such
distance that the axial line runs horizontally. Conversely,
veins discovered so far back tend to become. stronger toward
and at the plunge. This principle is applicable to other than
distinctly domed regions. An examination of any of the anti-
clines will show the inquirer that its axis does not run con-
stantly horizontally, but undulates, plunging gently now east,
now west, for miles at a stretch. In some instances, as the
Upper Seal Harbour district, this long plunge is accompanied
by belts of leads of proved worth ; but in most sections so far
exploited, such leads lie where the plunge is accentuated, fre-
quently in both directions, into a partial or complete dome.
This does not prove, however, that leads are absent or even rare,
in the long plunging stretches of which we have been speaking.
It is most probably because of insufficient exploration that we
know so few instances like the Upper Seal Harbour district.
There are many stretches along all the anticlines known to
have the long gentle plunge, which may be as likely to have
paying belts as the few now worked. Further, the probability
of finding distinct domes in parts where they are not now
known is very great. Most of the present districts have been
discovered by accident, perhaps all; and none, so far as the
author is aware, by deliberate, systematie prospecting, extend-
ing over a considerable stretch of country.

The point in all this is that here is the most promising field
for exploration now open to us—the systematic testmg of
ground for miles along the plunging parts of anticlinal axes.
In order to achieve success in this line, the prospecting must be
undertaken progressively along the axes of the different anti-
clines, and must be careful and persistent. It will entail con-
siderable expense, for means must be employed to reach bed-
rock wherever the structural conditions warrant ; but in the
end it will undoubtedly repay the company bold enough to

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN, 169

undertake it. Indeed, there seems to be no other way to in-
crease greatly the known area of productive territory.

Let us turn next to the second part of the problem—the
relationships of the leads themselves. Just as among many
geologists there has been an unfortunate tendency to correlate
rock series with one another at a distance upon purely litho-
logical resemblances, which in reality may be repeated time and
again in the long history of the world, just so some economic
men have thought it possible that bedded leads in different
districts might be the same. And it would be a valuable piece
of information if we could verify it. This view is an old one,
earlier held more strongly than of late; and many of you dis-
believe in it. Nevertheless, as questions and assertions on the
point have arisen often, it 1s necessary to discuss it briefly.
Resemblances in the quartz, or arrangement of the gold, or
similarity in structural relations and intervals of the leads,
have all been used as arguments in favor of their supposed
continuity from one district to another. Perhaps the nearest
points between which such correlation has been attempted are
at Moose River, between the main settlement and the part called
“ West Mine.” A careful survey has led the author to believe
that the leads which plunge westward from the main settlement
cannot possibly reappear at the western locality. But this is
an isolated instance, although admittedly favorable to possible
continuity.

* In order to view the problem impartially, let us see what
evidence can be had from several districts, individually and
collectively. One of the most instructive is Caribou. Here are
many bedded leads, lying in a zone just below the contact of
the lower formation with the black slates, the so-called Halifax
formation, above. This region is, in fact, an ellipse of the
former completely surrounded by the latter, owing its existence
to the fact that a large syncline of the slates has been puckered
up by an anticline in the middle, the latter bringing older
rocks to the surface. On the south and east, at distances of a

ETO: DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

few miles, these old rocks again emerge from their cloak of
of black slates, but we look in vain for any evidence of the
bedded leads.

Perhaps an even more instructive case is presented by the
interval between the settlement of Moose River on the south,
and the contact of the quartzite or Goldenville formation with
the black slates to the north, southwest of Caribou. At about
tie longitude of Moose River there are five anticlines, from the
Carboniferous rocks of the Musquodoboit valley on the north
to the ocean on the south, and excepting the Moose River and
Caribou folds. These are the Gold Lake-Goldenville, Moose-
land-Gegogan, Lake Catcha-Salmon River, Tangier-Harrigan
Cove, and Southern anticlines. They are all south of Moose
River. Every fold except the Southern bears two or more
domes ; and three of the anticlines have Gold Lake, Mooseland
and Tangier within a few miles east or west of the longitude
of Moose River. Going from that district north to the contact,
one traverses an open barren for the most part, on which out-
crops are numerous. It is not likely that all the observers who
have made the traverse have been deceived as to the structure,
which appears to them to be that of a simple high north dip,
with no folds. Nor are they likely to have overlooked entirely
the large number of leads which should be there, if those of the
three districts named are continuous for any distance. For a
structural cross-section of the country shows that Moose River
les at nearly the lowest spot within the gold-bearing rocks laid
open to observation by erosion ; while Caribou lies at the sum-
mit of the quartzites, and the three other districts are situated
at structural horizons intermediate between these two. It is
easy enough to compute the horizons—that is, where the leads
should come—but they are not there. Instances might be
multiplied, if necessary, all giving testimony to the same end.
But it is enough to state that there appears to be conclusive
evidence of a universal discontinuity of bedded leads, in all
directions. Single veins have been followed for afew thousand

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN. 17]

feet ; but no lead has ever been traced out of its district to an-
other one, either on the strike of the fold, or transverse to it.

Not only is this point clear, but another equally important
one is proved by the same evidence—namely, the discontinuity
of the horizons of slate belts which the veins accompany, and
which are invariable characteristics of the domes. All who
work the leads of the various districts know that they are not
to be found, except in rare cases, away from slate belts; and
“whin bound” leads are generally shunned, This holds true
within the districts,—that is, on the known domes,—and equal-
ly outside these limits. No prospector wastes his time on
country definitely known to be all whin. Now, not only do
individual leads and groups of leads fail to “ carry ” over from
one district to the next, but the slate belts in which they are
enclosed fail to be continuous, either on the strike of the folds
or transverse to it. More than that, the general horizons
occupied by the domes, which elsewhere (The sediments of the
Meguma series of Nova Scotia. Amer. Geol., July, 1904 ; vol:
rex, pp. 13-34, esp. p. 17) the author has called “ horizons
of most abundant slate,’ are localized in each and every case,
confined to the particular dome on which we find them. This
is proved, as in the case of the veins, by structural studies.

The great importance of recognition of this fact is apparent
when it is seen that, according to this, each mining district has
a definite limit, not only longitudinally east and west, and
transversely north and south, but vertically downward. The
deduction has a direct bearing upon the problem of deep mining.
To put the matter more plainly, it will be necessary to look for
a moment at the origin of the leads and their environing slates.
The present distribution of the slate horizons shows that
each group of slate belts, each district, is isolated; and that
as far as known no two are to be correlated as of exactly
the same age. That is, no two were simultaneously and con-
tinuously deposited. Between adjacent domes, in all directions
the outcrops show prevailingly quartzite or whin. It appears;

172 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

therefore, that in a shallow sea of very ancient date, in which
for the most part sandy sediment was deposited, irregularities
of current action or of depth of water, allowed mud to accumu-
late to a greater extent in isolated spots, alternating with the
sand. Later, when all the strata were folded into the well
recognized east and west undulations, those parts which had
the largest percentage of shaly sediment, being most plastic,
folded most and stood up higher as domes. Obviously, they
must be limited in all directions by sandy beds. Tite upper
limit has been largely worn away near the axes. The lateral
margins are visible today to anyone who searches for them.
The lower lhmit would be reached somewhere, by boring.
Comparison has often been made between our auriferous
beds and those of Bendigo—sometimes in a way unconsciously
to mislead us as to the true conditions here. This is one of
the cases in point. In Bendigo we have, not many isolated
domes each with its own problems, but one great dome, with a
single general pitch but with subordinate undulations. The
dome is composite, made up of several minor folds ; and these
folds have irregular plunges and dips. The leads, there as
here, he in slate belts at or near the contact with sandstones ;
but there is a very constant relation between the lead and the
sandstone, which is lacking here —namely, the foot-wall is al-
ways sandstone, the hanging wall invariably slate.. The most
marked dissimilarity between the two countries, however, is in
the fact that at Bendigo the vertical as well as the lateral dis-
tribution of the gold districts is indefinite ; and it is on just this
point that we seem to be led astray. The large single dome of
which we have spoken is, as was said, made up of a number of
anticlines and synclines, striking north 16 degrees west, and
sometimes continuous along the strike for many miles. There
are 15 anticlines in about two miles of width, in the central
part of the 140 square miles of productive territory, with an
average transverse interval of 800 feet from crest to crest of
the adjacent arches. The dips average 65 degrees ; and while

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN. Lies

the folds are not symmetrical, they are not highly overturned.
The slates have a strong secondary cleavage dipping 65
degrees east, so that on one side of the fold it is parallel with
the bedding, on the other transverse to its dip. This explains
the “ false saddles” so common there, which have no analogy
in this country. Unlike the Nova Scotian cases, the dips are
constant on either side, giving steep straight shanks and narrow
sharp crests. This corresponds to what we have on only our
narrowest folds. Conditions analogous to Goldenville, Mt.
Uniacke, Renfrew, and many other districts do not exist in the
Australian field. The leads of Bendigo often lie, too, in “ inverted
saddles.” Indeed, the whole dynamic condition of origin was
different there from that in our own series ; and dynamic history
jn such cases has great influence upon profitable mining methcds.
The rocks there were evidently under much less weight of
superincumbent material, or were more rapidly deformed when
folding took place ; for the sharp folds have allowed far more
shpping of sandstone and slate past each other than with us.
The result has been a series of saddles which individually are
very thick on the crest, narrow rapidly downward, and die out
for the most part within a few hundred feet.

On the average, one-half the saddles in Bendigo pay. Their
vertical. interval is very variable. In the New Chum and
Victoria mine, 30 were passed in 2300 feet; while in “180”
mine only five were cut in 2500 feet, two of them lean.
In the Lazarus, 24 were met in 2400 feet, 13 gold-bearing. The
continuity of single leads along the strike of the folds is unheard
of elsewhere, one vein having been followed continuously for
ten miles. The deepest mines, over 4000 feet, show ore un-
changed in character. But it is to be emphasized that no mine
has made a reputation on the basis of a single saddle. In every
case vertical sinking has been resorted to, and one saddle after
another uncovered, as was brought out in Mr. Faribault’s first
paper on deep mining. No single leg there has been found to
extend very deep.

174 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

Aside from the necessity of sinking, the most important
feature which can be used, not for comparison but fer contrast
with our local conditions, is the absence of any “horizon of
most abundant slate”; and the consequent diffusion of the veins
not only over a very great depth, but laterally over practically
the whole extent of the great dome, about 140 square miles.
We have exactly the opposite—much deeper legs to individual
leads, but a very limited lateral and vertical extension to the
domes or zones.

It has been computed by one student of the series that the
difference in size between our folds-and those of Bendigo is
approximately as 20 to 1; and this has been used to prophesy
the possible conditions underground as regards intervals between
leads not now exposed at the surface, and length of leg on
individual leads. Such statistics must be used with the greatest
care, if at all: and in this case they are better discarded
altogether. For if we push figures like these to their ultimate
end, they act as boomerangs and discourage us completely. The
fact is, the two districts are dissimilar in many essentials, while
the superficial similarity of both contaiming bedded veins has
blinded students to the relative value of the totally different
factors entering into the equation of the two deposits. There
are other regions of bedded veins in the world besides these, and.
altogether too much importance has been attached to the really
accidental method of occurrence. To return to Bendigo, if our
deposits are on a scale of 20, we may expect to go 50,000 feet
vertically in some places to strike five leads, to use Lansell’s
“180” mine for comparison. Again, the 4,000 feet now reached
by several mines represent 80,000 feet in which we may expect
to find productive veins—which is too ridiculous for comment.
No! The fact that there happens to be about that difference in
the scale of construction of the folds in the two countries is
interesting, but utterly worthless for prophetic purposes.

We have seen that our own veins are, to some considerable
extent, localized within small domed districts; that these dis-

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN. hs

tricts show no evidence of repeating themselves at the proper
geological horizons, but are distinct units ; and further, that they
are definitely bounded on all sides. If one goes out from the
center of such a dome, he will proceed from a part in which
outcrops and underground cross-cuts show a definite alternation
of slate and quartzite belts, rather suddenly into a region in
which little if any slate is to be found. This is a typical
condition. In just the same way, if one could see a sufficiently
deep vertical section, he would find that thousands of feet of
quartzite, with little or no slate, alternate with a few zones in
which slate predominates ; and here would be found the bedded
leads. The non-appearauce of a bedded slate district on the
next anticlines transversely north and south of that district, is
itself proof of the presence of a very definite bottom to the slate
part of each dome. Moreover, it is known that mud sediments
are never deposited as enormously thick but closely localized
patches ; but that there is roughly a maximum thickness for any
given extent, and this is very small in proportion to the original
lateral distribution of the deposit. Judging by these conditions
in other parts of the world, the downward limit of the pro-
ductive part of our domes should not be many thousands of feet
below the surface in any case. In one district the author has a
feeling, unsupported by other than circuinstantial evidence,
that this bottom hes practically at the surface for part of
that field. Inasmuch, however, as no borings. have been
made or shafts sunk on the axis of any true dome to even a
reasonable depth, all the evidence on this point that can be
assembled with a view to helping us in the future, is external]
and circumstantial. The one established fact is that there will
be somewhere a downward limit to the occurrence of new
saddles, on each dome.

Thus far our study has been, perhaps, apparently pessi-
mistic. It is intended that the paper as a whole shall be any-
thing but that. It has been necessary to call attention to cer-
tain limitations of operations; and to sundry facts, and the

176 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

correlations of these, in order to emphasize what the author
believes to be policies which in the end will work injury to the
gold mining industry. And chief of these is the vague idea
that somewhere below we have a limitless body of ore, and can
ultimately mine about as far as we like—up, down, lengthwise,
or sideways. No one has greater faith than the author in the
ultimate suecess of the industry, when conducted on a large
scale, by modern methods, and with business enterprise yet con-
servatism. The past year has been spoken of by some as espe-
cially disastrous in this field. If by this is meant a small
output and a high gross cost merely, it is true. But this is a
near-sighted view of the matter. The peculiar status of the
industry today is due largely, although not entirely, to two
causes. First, we are in a transition period between the day of
one-man mines and small capital, and that of large capitalization
and large scale operations. We have not yet accustomed our-
selves to the change—nor, indeed, yet completed it. Some good
properties are too highly capitalized, yet have too little paid in
to meet ordinary current expenses of development and installa-
tion. With the large scale must come careful management, and
among other things the blocking out and_ testing of several
years ore supply in advance. Very. few mines indeed fulfill
these conditions. Second, in several large properties which
ordinarily can be depended upon .to give a good record. of
themselves, the year has been spent in exploration, development
work, or increase of surface plant. No wonder, then, that the
output is small and the cost high.

As opposed to the negative side of the gold problem out-
lined earlier, must be presented a few facts which should tend
to encourage the worker. First, while there is an undoubted
downward limit to the zone of leads which could be cut by a
shaft sunk on the apex of a dome, we have no evidence that im
any given district it is within the, range of moderately deep

mining

g, or that many valuable saddles may not be cut by sucha

shaft. The experiment has never been seriously tried. Second,

IN RELATION TO MINING POLICY.—WOODMAN. Needs

while a very definite surface lateral extent is known for each
true dome, there is many a district in which there are enough
paying belts to keep one or a very few large plants for more
years than any of us will see. Third, while there is a definite
downward limit to each leg of a saddle, at which the vein dies
out, it has yet to be shown that any one has reached that limit
ina characteristic case. The only vein in this class which has
been mined on the slope for a thousand feet of vertical depth
shows unchanged character of ore at the bottom. Mr. Fari-
bault’s contention cannot be too strongly reiterated—tkat the
depth of the vein left for our use depends entirely upon the
proportion which erosion to an accidental present level has not
removed ; and that this will vary with each vein. Other things
being equal, leads nearer the axis of a sharp fold should hold
deeper than those farther away. Yet at Caribou we have a
vein ata great distance from the axis, operated at over a thousand
feet vertically. The advisability of following individual leads to
a far greater depth than has been done must be emphasized to the
utmost ; and if the agitation for vertical sinking, good as it 1s,
has detracted from the interest in this method of working, by so
much it has done an injury to the industry.

What, then, are the constructive, practical applications which
can be made from the facts and principles of the distribution of
bedded leads ¢ Without attempting to arrange them in any
order of relative importance, some of them are as follows :

(1) There is a great field for exploration for new deposits.
This should be systematic, along recognised anticlines for long
distances. Special attention should be paid to structures similar
to that at Upper Seal Harbour, which are common. The
conditions of distribution there are in some ways nearer those of
Bendigo on a large scale than anywhere else.

(2) There is room for far more exploring within single
districts, but this is preferably done by underground cross-cuts.

(3) The present districts are even now held by too many
owners for economical working. There are few, even of the

178 DISTRIBUTION OF BEDDED LEADS

large fields, situated on regular domes and not too much
affected by faults, which could not be worked as one property,
from one, two or at the most three central shafts, far better than
by the present methods.

(4) Much more attention should be paid to deep working
on single leads or belts, on the slope. This is not to be taken
as indicating hostility to the best large scale method—vertical
sinking and cross-cutting; but it is to bring out the fact that
vertical sinking on an apex is not the only successful: method,

nor always the most desirable one.

(5) Boring and sinking on an apex should be used wherever
the shape of the property and the structure warrant. It is un-
doubtedly the ideal way to initiate a large mining policy on a
property capable of sustaining it. In this connection one
thinks, of course, of the Government aid problem. It is to be
said that conditions where the only case yet on record was
attempted are not normal. The district, as has been mentioned
earlier, is quite like Bendigo in certain ways; but it is not a
distinct dome, and this experiment should be tried upon a true
dome before declaration is made upon its feasibility. There are
few districts in which it would be advisable to make the trial
for purely experimental purposes ; but there are some, and one
of these should be chosen next. Those who realize the actual
conditions in the field should have just as much faith as ever
in the method, and in its ultimate success.

(6) Our ores are of so low grade on the average that large
scale operations will be necessary, to make them pay for
permanent investments. The industry is gradually being taken
out of the realm of pure speculation, where it has been for long,
and placed in that of legitimate business. To do this properly
requires, for one thing, large reserves of proved ore, which an
extremely small number of mines have at the present time.

Notes on Hyprauntic LIME AND CEMENT.—By Francis H.
Mason, F. C.S., Metallurgist, Halifax.

(Communicated by Dr. Poole, 11th April, 1904 )
SETTING oF HyprRAuLIc LIME AND CEMENT.

It is generally accepted that the ingredients necessary to
form hydraulic lime and cement are lime, silica, and alumina:
while in all probability oxides of iron, and manganese and
magnesia may, to a large extent, replace alumina without detri-
mental effect to the hydraulic properties of the lime or cement.

That it is not essential that the silica, oxide of iron and
alumina shall be in chemical combination with the lime, is at
once evident from the fact that the old Roman cement, described
by Pliny, Vitruvius and others, consisted of a mixture of volcanic
scoria and fat lime. Volcanic scoria is composed principally of
silicates of peroxide of iron and alumina, with small quanti-
ties of magnesia, oxide of manganese and the alkalies. It is
necessary that the scoria and the lime shall be in a fine state
of division and in intimate contact with each other.

The initial setting of cement is undoubtedly due to hydra-
tion, while the hardening is, in all probability, due to chemical
action.

Considerable attention has been given to the subject by a
number of able chemists, which has resulted in a very great
diversity of opinion The results of the researches of Le
Chatelier are probably the most generally accepted.

His method of proceedure, namely that of examining thin
plates of cement, at different stages of setting, under the micro-
scope by the aid of polarized light, and then building up similar
crystals synthetically to match, so to speak, does not carry with
it that finality which analysis of those same crystals would have

Proc, & TRANS N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou.: XI TRANS. M.

(179)

180 NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON.

done had it been possible to separate them mechanically for the
purpose.

Le Chatelier claims that the setting of cement is due to the
hydration of an aluminate of lime having the formula
4 Ca O3 Aly O3 which takes up 12 molecules of water ; while the
hydration of the silicate of lime CaOQSiO, which takes up 5
molecules of water, causes hardening.

The weakest point about La Chatelier’s conclusions are that
he finds the original cement contains the alumina in the form of
a tri-calcic aluminate and the silica in the form of a tri-caleic
ortho-silicate.

In order to get the tri-calcic aluminate, he has to first
decompose the tri-calcie ortho-silicate, at the same time liberat-
ing free calcic hydrate, with which he forms his tetra-calcic
aluminate thus: :

2 (SiO; 3 Ca QO) + 14:Hy O = 2 Sr O, Ca O> 5 Hs O1-+ 4 Ca
H, O, ; :

then

3 CaO; Al, O3 + Ca H, O; + 11-H, O =4 CaO; Al, Os ;
12. HO:

Thus he has to bring about the reaction which he claims
causes the hardening, before he can obtain the material causing
the setting.

It has occurred to the writer that while the setting of limes
and cements is evidently a process of hydration, the hardening
may be due to the transferring of the silica from the alumina to
the lime, leaving the alumina either in the free state or forming
double silicates between it and the lime. In other words, that
the function of the alumina in the setting of a lime or cement,
is mainly that of a carrier of the silica to the lime. If such be
the case, why should not other substances less basic than lime
act equally well? The reply to this must take the form of
another question ; has it been proved that they do not ?

The most likely sustances occurring in limestone to act as

conveyors of silica to the lime, are oxide of iron and manganese,

NOTES. ON.. HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT,.—MASON. 181

and magnesia. It is well known that highly silicious magnesian
limestones almost invariably possess hydraulic properties, and if
we examine the analyses of natural cements and hydraulic limes,
we shall find that while the percentage of alumina is erratic,
with certain notable exceptions the percentage of oxide of iron,
alumina and magnesia together are a much more constant
quantity.

Take four analysis by Knauss given in Thorpe’s “ Dictionary
of Appled Chemistry 7 -—

Peroxide of iron. 9.2) 12.4) Tals, 3.6)
Nui sa bay: repeeeeerenage ae 7.3719.2 4.6 +20.7 9.8 +18.5 5.6 -18.6
Magnesia........ 2.7| 3.7] 1.6| 9.2|
anne eens ease. 48.2 46.1 49.2 47.1

All these are reported to be good natural cements.

If, then, these substances only act as conveyors of silica to
the lime, the question at once arises, would it not be possible to
supply the silica in such a form, without the presence of these
substances, that the lime would combine with it readily 7

Landrin, in his researches, throws some light upon this
point. He found that while pure lime intimately mixed with
fine sand or powdered quartz possessed no hydraulic properties,
it did set when mixed with precipitated gelatinous or dialized
silica and in time attained a strength equal to the best Portland
cement. He further found that 30 parts of silica would take
up 38 parts of lime, corresponding to the formula 4 Ca O
3510, In this we have a cement without alumina, oxide of iron
or magnesia. If then, alumina, oxide of iron and magnesia act
only as agents for holding the silica in a form in which it is
readily attacked by the hydrate of lime, when that reaction has
taken place they become inert and act as diluents and tend to
weaken the final product, so that if it is possible to commercially
prepare a cement free from these substances, pound for pound
it should be of better quality than the highest grade Portland
cement.

182 NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON.

Unfortunately, where a quick-setting cement is demanded,
alumina is necessary, for all these straight silica lime cements
are slow setting under water, while they only attain their
greatest strength if kept under water, owing to the lime being
converted into carbonate by atmospheric carbonic acid when
allowed to set in air.

The writer has repeated some of Landrin’s experiments, using
pure lime and native infusorial earth, after submitting the latter
to gentle ignition, and obtained excellent products. Further,
he finds that recently ignited infusorial earth slowly but surely
takes up lime from lime-water when kept in a solution of the
latter. The infusorial earth, which is perfectly friable after
gentle ignition, becomes quite hard after an emersion in lime
water for three months. The strength of the lime-water must be
kept up during the experiment. 1.222 grammes of such earth
in three months took up .549 grammes of lime.

LIMESTONE FROM BaRRA HEAD, N. S.

The writer has for some time been experimenting with a
limestone from Barra Head, near St. Peter’s, Richmond Co., N.S.
The first sample brought to him was composed of a single slab
of highly carboniferous limestone, which, when burnt, gave the
following analysis :—

Parmie ye A eee ee ee, ene eee 70.10
SSE Cay ee Ce ARE cs casos eee ee ree 16.30
PEURVICENE as heyea me ap rey Ss pe centers et iby a hae et 6°50
Peroxidelor Aran 32. yk, Skee oa ee 1.36
Oxide-of iman cumese..= Saco seeatn eo a eae Traces
Ma omesi ai 2 attest scree ens aa sree semen meer 1.13
Noda ‘and--potashigs 25s yx se an he ete 61
Sul phuricsoxides S73 v.27) caste ote espe ieee 2.41

This lime set and hardened rapidly under water. The
writer visited the property in the fall of 1902 and brought
away two large samples of the quarried stone. Unfortunately
other things intervened and only partial analyses were made

NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON. 183

some time after the lime had been burnt and after it had taken
up a certain amount of carbonie acid.
The following are the analyses :—

TERRE ROOTS eae aa es hae 78.80 80.70
Soil ko, ER Pea Re ne aa ANE 12.20 11.00
INARA, Pee apt Dee chee co etere 1.74 1.76
Perric*0xider. oi 4... Mars the LOG, 1.14
MB OME SIAL Ay, «sie die alo le ns Feige! ho. 53

Test pieces were made, and while they would not set under
water, they set in two days in a covered jar over water and
continued to harden under water. When thoroughly hard they
were put out on the window sill of the laboratory and remained
there the whole winter without in the slightest degree suffering
from the continual freezing and thawing to which they were
subjected. In the spring they had obtained a hardness almost
equal to Portland cement similarly tre.ted.

This was so encouraging that the writer interested other per-
sons, and as soon as the hand diamond-drill was available four
bore-holes were put down, three to a depth of 50 feet and one
to 70 feet.

It was intended that eight holes should have been put down,
but owing to the severity of the past winter and the difficulty of
keeping the drill from freezing, only about half that amount. of
boring was accomplished.

The following are the analyses of average samples of each
core after burning :—

18 Ze Ss 4.
SECA Sak oe aes ME eas 11.45 9.25 11.80 di esr)
ARI(CTTy 50°C Paseo er ag nee 3.57 3.25 3.19 3.11
Herricomide-72 oy) ok aS 1.48 1.14 1.28 1.29
Manganese oxides........ 0.08 0.10 0.63 0.70
RTE SIA fy pas ne os 0.25 0.25 0.43 0.52
PORINICG ech 7 eset ont oo, or oe tc 81.25 83.55 79.60 80.00
Sulphurie oxide... so. 2... 0.44 0.42 1.61 rit

Not determined and loss... 1.58 2.04 1.42 1.47

184 NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON.

The sulphur existed in the form of iron pyrites which, when
burned in the oxidizing atmosphere of the muffle, was converted
into sulphate of lime and peroxide of iron.

It will be noticed that the analyses show the deposit to be
very homogeneous, and further, that the burnt stone has an
analysis very similar to Portland cement with 507, of added
lime.

Pats were made with varying proportions of quartz sand
which set rapidly in a moist atmosphere and hardened under
water.

Some of the lime was hydrated and mixed with twice its
weight of quartz sand, allowed to set for two days in a moist
atmosphere, then two months under water, then one month dry,
when i gave a tensile breaking strength of 140 lbs. per cubic
inch.

A briquette made from the samples taken of the quarried
stone, burned, ground and mixed with twice its weight of gold
ore tailings, was placed, mould and all, immediately in water
for two months, then placed on the window-sill for twelve
months, and on breaking, it gave a tensile breaking strength of
354 lbs. per cubic inch.

Mr. Fennell, manager of the Wouldham Cement Co., West
Thurrock, Essex, England, reported as follows on the adapt-
ability of this limestone from Barra Head for ‘the manufacture
of Portland cement :

THE WovuLpHAaM CEMENT Company, 1900, LimitEp,
Lion Works,
Established 1854, West THurrock, Essex.

29th Jan., 1904.

“T beg to state that I have thoroughly investigated the.
sample of stone recently sent me for examination, and report as
to its suitability as a material from which to produce Portland
cement.

“T have fortunately had considerable experience with the
manufacture of high-class cement from materials practically

NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.——MASON. 185

identical with that submitted, and may say that the sample
ent shows this stone to be most admirably adapted for the pur-
pose.

“Tt is practically identical in composition with the limestones
from which some of the best cement in this country is produced,
viz., the Lias beds occurring in Warwickshire and South Wales,
The following is an analysis showing the average composition
of the stone :—

Carhonatesot Mme 5284 Sec. ox... 84.82 per cent.
Total loss on ignition..... Greer La sees ape 39.00
Matter soluble in hydrochloric acid... 89.48 ss
Matter insoluble in ¢ a oe apno | Bs ‘S
Composition.
NS LIGps Nps ey gre ae ee . 9.94 ee
AG CITE et ree tees Se ee See 2.06
METRIC NOX IGG ss 0 bt Serpent SR eae 89 eg
Timesowe SEAS get oe sth Ro ak ae 47.14 g
DVO WIEST Bcc eee ONE aca Ste 13 %
Sulphuric-anhydride . S23 2 eoe27 Nil:
Sulphur (as sulphides) j000 22 22-2. SL een
Carbonic anhydride ss.) enacts Stor naan
Combined waters (sakes Soe wae. 09 es
Alkalies and loss... oso er ee 24 ef
100.00

“Tt will be noticed that the analysis, althcugh more detailed
shows the stone to be practically of the same composition as the
English Lias stones above referred to, the composition of which
is as follows :—

Moisture and organic matter......... 1.60 per cent.
Ni hitentsys oye ee tg POL Sesh eed Seaham bie i
EAC) MITT PAPE gece ol Sth aah decree oe 1.97 es
PCTTICIO RIM ees Oe, eaten en pase alors 36
Carbonate orsimtet. = = 5es cine oe 84.55 ‘
HOSS 25. ata oe es Pee geese oh cot

100.00

ee

186 NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.——MASON.

“Tt will be noted from the analysis that the stone contains
84.82 per cent. of lime, which is too high for a natural cement.
It therefore becomes necessary to employ with it clay of a suit-
able character, and there should be, occurring between the
layers of this stone, five or six clays of the requisite composition.
This material, in common with the British Lias_ limestones,
varies in composition in piece and piece, in this case the varia-
tion being, on the sample submitted, from 4 to 5 per cent. of
carbonate of lime.

“In dealing with the production of cement from this material,
therefore, it will be necessary to employ great care in the
adjustment of the proportions of the stone and clay, which could
only be done by the employment of a skilled chemist.

“The stone is readily pulverized, and it may be as well to
point out that owing to the natural inter-mixture with it of a
proportion of silicates of iron and alumina, or clay, it is not
necessary to reduce it to nearly the same fineness as when deal-
ing with Thames or Medway chalk, which is practically pure
carbonate of lime.

“For the purpose of practically demonstrating the value of
the stone as a material suitable for cement making, I have pre-
pared some samples of cement from it, with the admixture of
the necessary proportion of Medway clay. The following repre-
sents the composition of the clay used :—

Loss at red heat-(organic).......... 5.39 per cent.
Silaca ross. ce pemeeATAy SP lathe ms OL ng eee *, 62.41 a
ALUMINA eGo ea Ge ee ES095- = «
Pertic Oxide: 215s ayn 8 aes 10.35 :
@arbonate-Or, james =. Be seen cick: 1.68 AS
Al Kaltes ss aore ac aes a Socer Gee ye 2.40 ae
TOSS 5 IRE re oe a, ee ee +2808 i

NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON. 187

“In the preparation of these samples, the clay was dried and
ground with stone to such fineness as practically to leave no
residue when sifted through a sieve of 10,000 mesh per square
inch. The raw material thus obtained was mixed with water
and allowed to dry into cakes which were burned to a clinker,
coke being the fuel used in the burning. The clinker produced
was then ground to the same fineness and the cement resulting
gave the following analysis :—

MCA tas Sa ae Se hai ese ree 6 22.80 per cent.
Insoluble residue <2 225s See a een es

Ferric oxide | 12.30 «

Alumina |

PIG vie greece ate tres niche jueine ness 60.46 cs
IU FEU YC) SPE ipa as ee nag A MP Cane 1.04 “
Sul pitieiecnhiydride set Fakta | bs eapyene
Carbonic anhydride and water ...... 50 ss
Alkalies and loss....... Day as ates : 50 s

“ An examination of this cement showed it to be a true Port-
land in every respect. It was burned toa s. g. of 3.175.
Briquettes were moulded, to be broken at 2, 4 and 7 days old,
and the following results were obtained. Unfortunately, I have

not obtained the results for the 28 days:
2 days. 4 days. 7 days.

185 B45 450 Ibs. per sq. inch
185 340 470 ‘
210 410 485 « -

“Tt will be seen from the breaking strains obtained, that the
cement is one which shows a steady growth in tensile strength,
which is one of the most important and desirable features of a
good Portland cement. The sample was also tested for sound-
ness, and neither under the boiling water test or under the Le
Chatelier test did it show the slightest sign of expansion or

188 NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON:

blowing. The last named test is most searehing in character,
and is one which only a high class Portland cement would be
capable of withstanding.

“Pats of the cement which were guaged and placed under
cold water a few minutes after guaging, set hard and showed
no sign of cracking or buckling.

“ Accompanying this are samples of the ground limestone,
ground clay, the raw material (adinixture of stone and clay),
cement clinker, and the finished cement. In addition are pats
which have been subjected to the boiling water test, together
with the broken briquettes and also the mould of cement which
has been subjected to the Le Chatelier test.

“Tt may be borne in mind that in preparing small samples of
cement, the maximum results are never realized, and cement
made on a large scale with this material would give much
higher results under test.

“In conclusion I beg to state that this limestone is one of the
best possible materials from which to produce really high class
Portland cement.”

(Sed.) Ww. FENNELL.

IT am inclined to think that there is a mistake in Mr,
Fennell’s analysis of the stone. It will be observed that no
possible mixture of the limestone and clay of the analysis
given can produce a cement of the composition given by his
analysis.

There can, however, be no possible doubt that given a suit-
able clay for mixing, this limestone is admirably suited for the
manufacture of Portland cement; and further. that the burnt
stone by itself makes an excellent hydraulic lime.

The writer 1s now experimenting with two clays and a soft
clay slate found in close proximity to the limestone for mixing
purposes, and he hopes at a future date to prepare a paper on
the cement industry at St. Peter’s, Richmond County.

NOTES ON HYDRAULIC LIME AND CEMENT.—MASON. 189

The following figures of the amount of cement made in and
imported into Canada will be interesting. They are from the
“Canadian Mining Review,’ for November, 1903 :—

“ During the year ending June 30th last (1903) the Canadian
imports of Portland cement as given by the Department of
Customs in the Trade and Navigation returns, amounted to
2,316,853 ewt., valued at $868,131, divided as follows :—

From.Great-Britain.. <4... 2 516,796 ewt. $187,572
Sr United: Statese 35 sig 3k. 610,445 305,775

Se Delos oy coasts sapere 814,252 244.633

Ne -Opher-Countries<\< 0.) 375,360 13051
Moat tes Set. Sus ees 2,316,853 ewt.. $868,131

‘This would amount, taking the weight of a barrel of foreign
cement as 400 pounds, to an importation of 579,213 barrels of
an average value of $1.50 per barrel; to this cost must be added
a duty of 12 cents per hundred pounds, amounting, at the
average weight taken, to 50 cents a barrel. Now add to these
importations the amount of the Canadian production and we
have the following :—

Bbls. Value.
Imports of foreign cement... ..... 579,213 $1,157,737

Production of Canadian cement.... 594,594 1,028,618

Basten ete ee Cee ae ae 1,173,807 $2,186,355

LocaL VARIATIONS AND OTHER NOTES ON BLUE-EYED GRASS
(Sisyrinchium angustifoliwm).—By J. H. BaRrBour,
M. B., Carr. R.A. Mo'G., Halifax:

(Read 11th January. 190h )

The following few notes on the above plant may be new to
those interested in the flora of Nova Scotia and especially to
those who have examined all our local species, I think that
we should collect as much material as we can on variations, and
particularly local variations, in order to see how far they arise
and to what they point in the great scheme of adaptation to
environment and the ultimate question of ascending or descend-
ing evolution.

So far, I know very little practically about Nova Scotian
plants, as I have only had the past season in the country, but I
did attempt to make a small collection, and while doing so
was struck by the variation I saw in the flower referred to. So I
made more extended observations on this species, which I think is
one of your commonest flowers, just as common as the primsose
(Primula vulgaris) is in England, on which for several years I
made numerous observations on variation, the result of which
I published in the form of notes each year.

Before proceeding further, let me give you a_ botanical
description of the flower, which I dare say you know already,
and then I will point out the variation observed in some one
thousand specimens gathered this summer.

Nat. Ord., Ividacez. Perianth segments 6, blue, obovate,
notched at the end and _ bristle-pointed from the notches.
Stamen monodelphous. Stigmas thread-like, stem two-edged,
leaves grass-like, plant slender, roots fibrous.

(190)

VARIATIONS OF BLUE-EYED GRASS.— BARBOUR. 191

In one thousand specimens I noticed the following varia-
ions :—
60 specimens possessed only 6 leaves in the perianth.
20 ‘ pigs ror ey : ‘
10 e “ ENS ag < a

The number of stamens corresponded to the number of
divisions of perianth present.

The divisions of the perianth absent always belonged to
the inner segments of the perianth.

As regards colour variation of perianth, first of all let me
point out that the perianth is, as a rule, blue, and the outer
leaves of it on the reverse sides are always lighter in colour
than the reverse sides of the inner ones, the former being very
light blue or almost white on the reverse side, while the latter
on the same side retain their dark blue colour. Now, in the
specimens examined, I found that the blue colour of the perianth
is replaced by a distinct violet-purple in one hundred instances,
and that this variation occurred not in fading flowers but in
those in fresh, full bloom.

Another point I noticed, which is not a variation, but which
I think may be found useful for diagnostic purposes, is the
question of venation. Given only one segment of the perianth to
look at, the outer leaves of the perianth are always marked
by five distinct dark veins of blue, the inner only possesses
three such lines.

The three outer segments of the perianth are always a
millimetre or two broader than the inner three leaves, and the
notches on the inner three leaves nearly always deeper than
those on the outer three.

In about sixty specimens in a thousand you will tind
the bristle absent in the outer segment and replaced by a

fringe.

192 VARIATIONS OF BLUE-EYED GRASS.—BARBOUR.

I did not tind one specimen I examined showing any trace
of disease, and I only found one insect frequenting them, and
that was a small black dipterous one.

These are all the remarks [ have to make, except that these
observations were made in Bedford and Sackville districts,
Halifax County, N. 8., and the variation occurred more in the
open than in shade, and in low-lying places rather than higher.

Next year I hope to continue this series of observations on
variations among plants here and extend them to other orders

sulso.

THE SUNKEN LAND OF Bus (lat. 35 west, long. 53 north).—By
HENRY-S.-POOLE; Da Sc: AR. S. M.-F. G, Si FERS, GC;
Halifax. ,

; (Read 11th April, 1904.)

In latitude 53°, longitude 35°, the “ Atlantic Ocean Pilot ”
notes a reported shoal, styling it “The Sunken Land of Bus,”
but gives no further information on the matter. It does not
say whence the information, so laconically entered, was obtained,
It does not tell us who Bus was, whether he was a Dutch
navigator or related to the monk, Cesar de Bus, of note in the
sixteenth century. All the reference books to which I have
access are silent on the subject. But, in that locality, recent
investigations have proved the presence of shallower waters
than those about it, if not of a shoal, in the usual acceptation
of the term.

Through the kindness of Capt. DeCarteret, of the:cable ship
“Minia,” I am able to present a record of soundings taken mid-
way between Newfoundland and Ireland in June and July,
1903. The region is near, or possibly was even crossed, by the
lme of soundings obtained by Capt. McClintock for the first
Atlantic cable in 1857.

The present series has disclosed the existence of a mountain-
ous district in a locality where ocean’s depths were assumed,
from McClintock’s infrequent soundings, to be those of a fairly
level plateau with its shallowest waters 1550 fathoms.

The location of the region reviewed is accurately shown cn
the accompanying chart on a scale of six knots to five inches.
The chart was kindly ‘prepared by Mr. J. Adams, first officer
of the 8. S. “ Minia.”

As we are a maritime people, with a large proportion of our
population directly interested in all that relates to the ocean at

(193)

194 THE SUNKEN LAND OF BUS.—POOLE.

our doors, we are desirous of recording any new discovery
regarding its currents, its depths and shallows, and its inhabit-
ants and their haunts.

A few years ag) public interest was aroused in Atlantic
soundings by the discovery of submarine peaks directly north
of the Azores and near where, on old charts, the doubtful Chaucer
shoal is marked. To this locality was given the name of the
Faraday Hills. These hills were found to be surrounded on the
east and west and to the north by waters of 2000 fathoms and
over, thus giving to the mountain range an elevation of nearly
8000 feet above the general bottom of the ocean in that section
of the Atlantic.

The soundings by the “ Minia” last summer, recalled the
discovery of the Faraday Hills, and in a popular way a reference
was made to them in one of the monthly periodicals, but so far
as I am aware, no accurate statement regarding them has as yet
been published.

Memorandum of soundings on a line northward from the

Azores :
Latitude Longitude
ING W.
A depth of 770 fms. with deep water east
BING WESSEL AT ae cee siete eo eale Uiee a toda aloe 60° aoe
A doubtful shoal—The Sunken Land of Bus,
Atlantic Ocean Pilot, p. 240.20 0.05...5 ia Me 352
Hill region located 1903, by S. S. ‘ Minia,”
depth ‘630 dims, ihe sere on recur Did oo. 35° 12,
A doubtful shoal—Chaucer. .. 22. 2..050 8e.e..
Faraday Hills, depth 714-730 fms. &e ........ 49° 26° 28° 42
Corvo}.an: island! of the 8A zores::-. 20 eas a ee 40° 34°

In the foregoing table it will be noted that the shoaler
waters between the 40th and 60th parallels of latitude lie
in a due north and south course of the mean longitude of
32° west.

THE SUNKEN LAND OF BUS.—POOLE. 195

In addition to the accurate location of the soundings marked
on the chart, information derived from other observations was
also kindly supplied, and this may be thus summarized >—

Currents: An undercurrent constantly setting to the south-
west at a rate of about half a mile an hour, was determined by
the buoys which moved in that direction regardless of the sur-
face flow and the wind.

Deposits: The sounding tube and the mushroom anchors
brought up samples of various sorts of deposits, some that
adhered to the anchor like mud, are so noted on the chart;
others were of fine or coarse sand with, in some eases, small
dark coloured stones. Then there was ooze and small shells.

Blue mud: This name was given to a deposit which, when
freshly obtained, had a decided blue tint that it lost after
exposure for some time in the air. The blue layer underlaid one
of a yellowish cast and was alone obtained by the mushroom
anchors. The sounding tubes did not penetrate deep enough
to reach it. The tint doubtless was due to iron passing from
the ferrous to the ferric oxide. In two localities the deposit
was found to yield manganese, but in what form I am not able
to report, as the samples were transmitted to London. The
presence of the allied metals, iron and manganese, with a
growing calcareous deposit, has its interest for students of the
metalliferous zone of the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova
Scotia, in which occur in irregular masses deposits of both
iron and manganese.

Sand: This, so far as I am aware, was not the product of
quartz, but of the breaking down of the siliceous and calcareous
casings of organisms.

Pebbles: Of these a few were obtained in the sounding
tube. Their composition has not been examined, but their sur-
face is smooth to the touch and pitted by erosion. In addition
to these were fragments as large as the tube would bring up, of
voleanic glass showing the usual conchoidal fracture, and mixed
with the ooze were small grains of volcanic ash.

Proc. & TRANs. N.S Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. TRANS.—N.

196 THE SUNKEN LAND OF BUS.—POOLE.

Volcanoes: That the region is volcanic, the presence of
obsidian leaves no doubt, and this conclusion is also suggested
by the records of the grapnel work when the ship was drifting
for the cable. Steep declivities were met with which required
a rapid paying out or taking in the grapnel rope. So rough
was the surface found to be in long. 34° 52’ that that neighbor-
hood was abandoned and a fresh line of search was taken up.
Notes of some of the rapid changes in depth are to be found on
the chart, and the heights of the hills above the surrounding
plain are stated as elevations of 100, 250, 500 and even 1200
feet.

Mr. Adams further informs us that while lowering the
grapnal in one locality the tool struck an obstruction, hung for
a moment, and then fell over 300 feet more. He concluded
this was on the edge of a precipice and in consequence the
assumed contours at this point are set very close together.

The following report by John 8. Flett, D. Se, F. R.S. E., on
the rock specimens and some of the oozes collected by the S. 8.
“Minia” from the bed of the North Atlantic in 1903, 1s
extracted from an article by Sir John Murray, and is inserted
by the editor of the Transactions, although it appeared subse-
quently to the reading of the foregoing paper.

Specuemen a.—s. 8. “ Minia,” sounding 122, lat. 53° 12’ 15”
N., long. 53° 44° W., 872 fathoms. Fine, buff-coloured, crystalline
limestone, without traces of organic structures. It effervesces
readily with cold dilute hydrochloric acid, and under the micro-
scope consists of small crystals of calcite, forming a mosaic in
which there are brown patches stained with limonite.

Specomen b.—8.8. “ Minia,” sounding 120, lat. 53° 8’ 45” N.,
long. 35° 42' W., 844 fathoms. Olivine basalt, fine grained, not dis-
tinetly porphyritic. It contains olivine, brownish augite, and
lath-shaped plagioclase, with iron oxides, and the structure is of
the “subophitic” type. Not vesicular. The olivine has weath-

THE SUNKEN LAND OF BUS.—POOLE. 197

ered to serpentine and limonite. There are a few small pheno-
erysts of felspar.

Specimen c.—sS. 8. “ Minia,” sounding 4, lat. 53° 20’ N., long.
34° 40’ W., 1397 fathoms. Porphyritic andesite or andesitic
basalt. In this rock there are a few small phenocrysts of
plagioclase felspar and brownish angite and magnetite. It
contains no olivine, and is not vesicular. All the niinerals are
well preserved.
~ Specimen d.—s. 8. “ Minia,” sounding 63, lat. 53° 14’ 30!
N., long. 35° 15' W., 1440 fathoms. Perlitic tachylite, perfectly
fresh, with a few skeleton crystals of olivine, and phenocrysts
of plagioclase and greenish augite. The dark brown ground-
mass is very abundant, and is very free from microliths and
spherulites; here and there it shows small rounded steam
cavities.

Specumen 1.—S. 8. “Faraday,” station 62, lat. 50° 3’ N.,
long. 30° 46! 45" W., 1460 fathoms. Biotite gneiss, fine grained
and somewhat granulitic in texture. It is very rich in micro-
cline, but contains practically no muscovite; quartz appears in
fine veins or strings, which are parallel to the foliation, as
indicated by the biotite. Orthoclase is common, but soda-lime
felspars are scarce. The biotite is brown, and is not abundant.

Specomen 2—Same locality. Fine-grained granular basalt,
very similar to specimen b, but without olivine. It contains
many small phenocrysts of brownish augite.

Specimen 3.—Same locality. A sheared biotite granite or
granite-gneiss, showing cataclastic structures throughout, and
much decomposed. It evidently originally contained biotite,
but this has been entirely replaced by epidote and chlorite.

Sounding 50.—Brown or buff-colored gritty, containing one
pebble (a quarter of an inch in diameter) of black volcanic
glass. Insoluble residue, 43°77 per cent. Minerals: quartz,
(granitic, often brown stained, up to one millimetre in diameter,

198 THE SUNKEN LAND OF BUS.—POOLE.

mostly well-rounded, but the smaller fragments were often
angular or subangular); orthoclase decomposed and rounded ;
microcline (rare); weathered oligoclase ; also perfectly fresh
sanidine, oligoclase, andesine and labradorite (in angular splinters
and cleavage flakes). These last contained augite microliths
and glass cavities. Brown volcanic glass, occasionally fluidal or
finelv vesicular, frequently perlitic, but not spherulitic, colour-
less, transparent pumice in fine shreds and splinters with
concave outlines. Less common were magnetite in grains and
small octahedra; pyroxene of two varieties, pale green and
clear brown; chlorite; glauconite in rounded cryptocrystalline
ageregates; olivine, perfectly fresh, in angular fragments; one
small grain of pink garnet. Among the doubtful minerals
were hypersthene, zircon, and epidote.

Sounding 58.—A tough, pale brown deposit, with many
Toraminifera. Insoluble residue 54:14 per cent. Minerals:
small rounded quartzes up to 03 millimetre in diameter,
weathered orthoclase, sanidine, oligoclase, microcline, brown
glass, shreds of pumice, hornblende, green and brown augite,
magnetite.

Sounding 98.—Pale brown Globigerina ooze. — Insoluble
residue, 31:12 per cent. Minerals: quartz, mostly rounded up
to 0°3 millimetre in diameter; orthoclase, microcline, sanidine,
oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, fragments of colourless pumice
and of brown glass, green hornblende, augite (brown and green),
magnetite, olivine, epidote, glauconite ; also a doubtful isotropic
mineral.

Sounding 124.—Pale, creamy-white, coherent Globigerina
ooze. Insoluble residue, 20°62 per cent. Recognizable mineral
particles in this were very few, and formed not more than 2 or
3 per cent. of the sample. They were mostly brown and colour-
less volcanic glass, angular pieces of felspar, green augite.
Quartz was either absent or very scarce.

THE Swim BLapDpER OF FISHES A DEGENERATE GLAND.—BY
PROFESSOR Epwarp E. Prince, F. R. S. Canada,
Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries and Directorof
the Marine Biological Station of Canada, formerly
Professor of Zoology in the Medical College of Glasgow
Royal Infirmary.

(Read 9th February, 1903.)

On examining, after appropriate dissection, the abdominal
viscera of such a fish as a cod or herring, a prominent sac is
seen occupying a considerable space underneath the vertebral
column or rather underneath the kidneys and dorsal aorta (see
Plate 20, fig. 1, s. b.). In the herring this sac communicates, as
in most physostomous fishes, with the fore-portion of the alimen-
tary canal, really in this case the stomach (Plate 20, fig. 3, d.)
though as a rule with the cesophagus as in the carp (Plate 20,
tig. 2,). The canal may be closed, and in all physoclistous fishes
it wholly disappears. The perch (Plate 20, fig. 2), the haddock,
(Plate 20, fig. 1), the cod, mackerel, &c., exhibit no duct.
In some Teleosteans the swim-bladder is absent and in
certain sharks and dog-fishes it is represented merely by
a slight diverticulum in the dorsal wall of the gullet. The
swim-bladder is, however, of general occurrence amongst
osseous fishes, and its primitive character is proved by its mode
of origin as a direct pocket or evagination from the pharynx,
in the embryonic stages of fishes. The distinguished Scottish
anatomist, Professor John Cleland, indeed, expressed the view
that the parts of the digestive tract in fishes, so often difficult
to determine, may be, in part at any rate, decided by the point
at which the swim-bladder is pushed out. (See list of literature
referred to, No. 5).

A glance at the extensive and scattered literature, dealing
with this interesting organ, shows that very diverse views are

(199)

200 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

held concerning its nature and meaning. The famous Carl
Gegenbaur has referred to the existing uncertainty as to the
practical use of this structure (No. 8, p. 566), and one of the
most recent contributors to the subject says (No. 24, p. 125)
“even now there is much doubt as to the functions of the swim-
bladder.” From the days of Aristotle its use has been involved
in obscurity ; but the ancient father of comparative anatomy
ventured on the theory that its purpose was to aid in the
production of sound, and his successors have again and again
revived the theory down to our own day. The Italian, Borellh,
regarded it as hydrostatic and an aid to fish in floating( No. 2).
A third interpretation is that the organ is respiratory,
and in the Ganoids and Dipnoans, it is a complex, vascular, lung-
like organ, witb an undoubted pulmonary function ; but it is by
no means certain that the pharyngeal evagination or sac in
those highly specialised lung-fishes is homologous with the
swim-bladder, and I shall have occasion to pomt out that
exception may be justifiably taken to such a view as that of
Dr. A. S. Packard (No. 17, p. 444) who says, “ the air-bladder
being homologous with the lungs of higher vertebrates, the
pneumatic duct is comparable with the trachea of birds and
mammals,’ a view similar to that recently expressed by
Professors Jordan and Evermann (No. 11, p. 11) that the swim-
bladder is “a sac filled with air lying beneath the backbone of
fishes and corresponding to the lungs of higher vertebrates.” Pro-
fessor Arthur Thomson, on the other hand, has given his opinion
regarding the view just stated and says (No. 23, p. 397), “ that
the lungs and air-bladder are homologous is by no means certain ;
but the comparison is plausible.” A further view interprets the
swim-bladder as a barometer. Sagemahl (No. 21) regarded
it as such. so that like an aneroid instrument, it informs the
fish of changes in the atmospheric pressure affecting the sur-
rounding water. Minor modifications of these views have been
broached by other authorities; but a full examination of the
facts seems to lend little support to any of them.

°

A DEGENERATE GLAND.-—PRINCE. 201

It is important at this point to notice the nature of the
gaseous contents of the swim-bladder, so far as these have been
ascertained. Most of the older authorities declared that it was
filled with air, although Provencal and Humboldt, nearly a
hundred years ago (it was in 1809), published an analysis which
showed that, in some cases, oxygen filled the sac, while in other
examples only 17% to 5% of the contents consisted of oxygen,
and the greater portion was nitrogen. They thought that the
oxygen increased with the depth of the fish’s habitat, a view
which later investigations have proved to be erroneous. In the
fishes, for instance, brought up from the greatest depths of the
sea, during the cruise of H. M. S. “Challenger,” very little
oxygen was found in the swim-bladder, while in specimens
frequenting the surface waters that gas formed quite a con-
siderable percentage. (No. 4, Vol. I, p. 226). Fish from a
depth of 2875 fathoms showed not more than 4/ to 5/ of
oxygen in the swim-bladder, but, at the surface, specimens of
fish were found to have 347% or 35 of oxygen in the gaseous
contents of the organ. Configliacchio and Biot discovered a
large proportion of oxygen in specimens from fairly deep water,
and the most recent authority on the subject (Professor R. W.
Tower, of Brown University, U. 8. A.), states that at a depth
of from 35 to 70 fathoms the walls of the swim-bladder secrete
oxygen very actively. The organ has nervous branches, gastric
filaments, from the Vagus nerve, as well as a sympathetic supply,
and, according to Bohr’s experiments, division of the tenth nerve
stops all secretion of gas, while section of the sympathetic nerve
hastens the secretion of gas. Dr. Giinther (No. 9, p. 142) has
stated that, in fresh-water species, little oxygen gas as a rule is
found, nitrogen prevailing, with just a trace of carbonic acid ;
but in sea-fishes the amount of oxygen is much larger. In a
fresh-run salmon Dr. John Davy found 10% of oxygen, a trace
of carbonic acid, and nearly 90°/ of nitrogen, an observation
of a remarkable nature as the fish had only just left the sea,
probably. All observations tend to show that there is no

202 THE SWIM-BLADDER OE FISHES

foundation for an idea somewhat prevalent, that air or gas is
forced from the gullet of the fish through the pneumatic duct
into the swim-bladder. In those fish without a duct (Physoclisti)
that is impossible, and in them as well as in Physostomes, the
gas is evidently secreted by the vascular walls, the retia
moirabilva of the organ. The varying proportions of the gaseous
elements named, seem to show that no very important function
is subserved by them. Nitrogen, which in the animal organism
is excreted largely as urinary and feecal waste, has been found
to be absorbed under two peculiar conditions, viz.: when an
animal is in a state of inanition, and when an animal changes
its food and is accustoming its system to new forms of nutriment,
a fact of singular interest, to which further allusion will be
made on a subsequent page. The secretion, on the one hand,
of oxygen or, on the other hand, of nitrogen may depend upon
the special chemical conditions prevailing in the water being
breathed by fish. Of the purely chemical causes which control
the appearance and movements of fishes, one of the principal
has been found to be the abundance or scarcity of oxygen
mingled with the sea water. The absence of herrings from the
Arctic seas has been frequently commented upon. The minute
crustacean life which is so attractive, and so essential, it may
be added, to the vast schools of herring, is extremely rich in
the cold northern waters, yet herring do not appear to resort
to those regions, whereas on both sides of the Atlantic the
waters, adjacent to this continent and to the British Islands
and the European continent, abound with herring. The Atlantie
is more richly oxygenated than the Arctic seas, and this com-
parative lack of oxygen is no doubt the main factor m deterring
the herring from migrating thither. Experiment has clearly
demonstrated the dependence upon temperature of the absorbtive
power of sea water. Barometric pressure too is important in
determining the amount of atmospheric air absorbed, and as
this air loses its oxygen far more rapidly than its nitrogen in
its descending passage to deeper strata of water, these deeper

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 203

strata are of necessity imperfectly oxygenated, and unless
disturbed by moving currents, unable to support the higher
forms of animal life. As was shown by observations in the
Swedish fisheries, the presence or absence of the usual schools
of certain fish was almost solely influenced by the greater or
less amount of water rich in oxygen pouring into the Baltic
Sea from the open ocean. Active migratory fishes, such as
mackerel and herring, must be largely controlled by these
conditions, especially in waters more or less inclosed or separated
from the open oceanic areas.

The line of thought here opened up is one of great practical
as well as scientific importance ; but I have treated elsewhere*
of this and cognate matters affecting the environment of fishes
and need not say more in this place. Nitrogen, as compared
with oxygen, is of inferior moment in the vital processes,
especially the respiratory processes, of the animal frame ; but
the amount of oxygen present in the swim-bladder, especially
in fishes whose circumstances would seem to demand an ample
supply, is too insignificant in quantity to be important in the
oxidation phenomena going on in those organisms. The nature
of the gases, which occupy the chamber of the swim-bladder
would, indeed, seem to be wholly unimportant physiologically
and dependent upon contingent circumstances. Fishes without
a swim-bladder have, at any rate, no corresponding storage of
gases.

The object of this paper is to show how little support
prevailing theories (as to a hydrostatic, respiratory, barometric,
accoustic, or other function) receive from the facts, and that
whatever adaptations the swim-bladder may undergo, it is
clearly not primarily in function either hydrostatic, accoustic,
or sound-producing, respiratory, barometric, or for balancing or
floating purposes simply. I would point out in the first place
this most remarkable fact that, without exception, the anatomists
who have treated of the functions of this organ, have ignored

*No. 18. p. xlviii.

204 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

all reference to its special features in the embryonic or larval
stages of fishes. To understand the true nature and significance
of any organ it is necessary to study its development, yet no
authority, so far as I am aware has made reference to the
remarkable features of the swin-bladder in the embryonic
stages. Few have had the opportunity to study the larval
development of fishes possessing this organ; and my own
researches show, as might have been expected, how in the larval
stages the swim-bladder reveals its primitive character, and that
the variations in its form, position, connections, and minute
structure, observed in adult fishes, are secondary, non-essential,
and very seriously misleading. It is, however, on these
secondary and misleading modifications that authorities have,
almost without exception, based their views as to the nature
and meaning of the swim-bladder in fishes. On very flimsy
and inadequate evidence many eminent authorities have not
hesitated to attribute extremely varied functions to this organ,
and it is certainly remarkable that the most generally adopted
views have the least support from observation. Young larval
fishes in the sea swim in a reversed position, back downwards,
and it might be supposed that the development of the swim-
bladder aided them in “ righting” themselves, and progressing
dorsum uppermost, as they do later in life: but those without
the organ adopt the latter position as readily at the accustomed
stage as those possessing it. If it be hydrostatic it is difficult
to see why fish specially needing buoyancy, like the surface
frequenting sharks, the ponderous oceanic sunfishes (Molide),
often more than a ton in weight*, the huge tuany, the mackerel,
&c., should be destitute of it, while the shore-loving Gobiide,
Scorpenide, Triglidee, Gastrosteide, &c., have it well developed
and of large size. The Scizenid, including no fish frequenting
the deep waters of the open sea, have this organ in its most
elaborate forms. It is large in the fresh-water whitefishes

*This monstrous fish (Mola) as Packard siys, (No. 17, p. 462), ‘is like others of the
order, a surface swimmer.”

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 205

(Coregoni), the grayling (Thymallus ), the shallow-water Gastro-
steide and the river-ascending salmon, none of which seem to
need any such supposed potent help to give them floating power.
On the other hand, in the sea bass it is small, and in all the
Serranide it is adherent to the abdominal walls. No fishes
apparently need this organ less than the fresh-water suckers,
yet without exception the Moxostomide and Catastomide,
grovelling on the bottom of rivers and ijakes, have a swim-
bladder, consisting of two or three large sacs. To fish like the
cod and certain deep-water lake whitefishes. it appears not only
useless to aid them in rising in. the water; but may even be
fatal to them for when brought up from the bottom the
expanded swim-bladder may seriously disorganize the tish and
force the abdominal viscera out of the mouth. The halibut and
flat-fishes can rise in the water, though these fish, so much in
need of such an instrument of buoyancy, are not provided with
it : neither are the Scombride (with such exceptions as Scomber
japonicus as already pointed out) although to quote Mr.
Boulenger (No. 1, p. 65) this family are “unceasingly active,
their power of endurance in swimming being equal to the
rapidity of their motions.” The Cottide or Gurnard family
have a well-developed swim-bladder yet, as the authority just
quoted says, they are “bad swimmers and generally living at
the bottom near the coasts” (No. 1, p. 62) —just as the
Polynemidze have a large swim-bladder, yet are purely littoral
fishes, frequently hovering about the estuaries of rivers. The
immortal Baron Cuvier, struck by the erratie occurrence of this
supposed buoyant provision, admitted th t he saw no
meaning in it and was unable to understand the want of so
large an organ, not only in fishes which frequent the bottom,
like skates and flat-fishes, but in many others which apparently,
he said, were second to none in their rapidity and their facility
of movement, such as the mackerel.

Its position immediately behind the cephalic or branchial
section of the alimentary tract and its communication by an

206 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

open duct With the gullet, in almost all embryo fishes and in so
many adult forms, with the frequent presence of a blood-vascular
network, naturally suggested a respiratory use. It is not
surprising that a respiratory function has been very commonly
attributed to it. Many fishes are known to swallow air at
times. The stone-loach (Cobitis) habitually passes air through
its richly-vascular alimentary canal, as does the West Indian
Callichthys. After oxygenating the blood circulating in the
walls of the stomach and intestines, it escapes in bubbles
posteriorly. The sea-raven (Hemitripterus) also distends its
stomach with air, while carp and similar fish, in foul or muddy
water, swallow air in quantities. Professor Alexander Agassiz
pointed out that Lepidostews when 3 inch long, during the
second or third week after hatching, rises to the surface of the
water to swallow air, as it continues to do in adult life. Wilder
observed the same habit in the bow-fin (Ama) of the Great
Lakes, a regular exhalation and inhalation of air, after the
manner of salamanders and tadpoles, which come to the surface
of the water for air with increasing frequency as the larval
branchiz shrink and disappear. In certain Teleosteans, such
as the Labyrinthici, where this resort to respiration by means
of the walls of the alimentary tract might be readily anticipated,
there is instead a special organ, which develops in an accessory
branchiae cavity (Plate 23, fig. 7). Strangely enough, when
these fish such as Ophiocephalus and Anabas are no longer in the
water and are compelled to breathe air, the (closed) swim-bladder
is not even then utilised ; but the vascalar laminz of the supra-
branchial cavity are relied upon. Again, the Globe-fishes
(Gymnodontes), which have the habit of distending their bodies
by inflation so that the spines, studding their integument,
project on all sides as a formidable armour, do not use the
swim-bladder as one would expect; but either “inflate a sub-
cesophageal sac (which has a muscular sphincter, and extends
beneath the skin of the abdomen) rendering themselves balloon-
like,” as Professor Macalister says (No. 14, p. 85), or fill the

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 207

stomach, or in other cases, the distensible gullet, with air for
the same end. It is possible that these fishes having swallowed
air for purposes of respiration, the habit has been turned to
this other (defensive) purpose ; but the important point to note
is this that the swim-bladder has been utilised in these fishes
neither for respiration, nor for defensive inflation and flotation.
It is reasonable to suppose that in the assumption of a post-
branchial respiratory habit the cesophagus would be utilised.
That is the view of all anatomists ; but, if an organ, so frequently
present as the swim-bladder, be really respiratory, there must
in addition to this very exceptional and abnormal habit
among fishes of swallowing air, be developed an appropriate
blood-cireulation, 7. e. venous or impure blood must be conveyed
to the sae for the purpose of purification (oxygenation); but
this is an arrangement not existing in any fishes excepting
Ganoids and Dipnoi.

The features presented by the blood supply lend no support
to the “ respiratory ” theory. The essential feature of respira-
tion is the conveyance of impure or venous blood to a special
organ for purification (oxygenation)*, the oxygenated blood
passing away to the body, and leaving the carbonic acid to be
got rid of in the readiest way; but the swim-bladder totally
differs from such an arrangement. It is in fact supplied with
arterial blood almost direct from the aorta or aortic arch. In
such a formas the haddock ( Melanogrammus ceglefinus ) the two
epibranchial arteries unite, it is needless to say, to form the
dorsal aorta, and on each side anterior to the union is given off
a sub-clavian artery to the pectoral fins, and in front of the
sub-clavian on the right side are given off two visceral arteries
(the coeliac and the mesenteric) the latter going to the swim-
bladder, but in the sharks it goes to the spleen, pancreas and
intestine. From the swim-bladder the blood goes into the

*As Claus (Lehrb. d. Zool.) says ‘*The blood must necessarily absorb oxygen and
exhale carbonic acid. This interchange of gases effected between the blood ana the
medium in which the animal lives is the essential feature in respiration either in the
atmosphere or in the water.”

208 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

hepatic portal system. The oxygen which may fill, or nearly
fill the swim-bladder cannot be regarded as destined for the
purpose of charging with oxygen, or arterialising, the blood,
for that is already arterial, and has just been charged with oxygen
in the gills. Giinther states (No. 9, p. 142) that the oxygen is
really secreted by the surface of the swim-bladder, and there is
every reason to hold that view ; but such a process is therefore
secretory, not respiratory in the accepted sense. Again, it must
be noted that in such a fish as the haddock (Plate 20, fig. 1. sb)
with a swim-bladder having extremely vascular walls, and a
rich blood-supply, the organ is closed and the contained gas
cannot pass out by a duct, whereas in the carp (Plate 20, fig. 4)
with vascular fanlike tufts, in the pike (Hsox) with small compact
red bodies in which arterial and venous capillaries anastomose

and in the sturgeon, salmon, herring, We., though unprovided
with these retia mirabilia, the swim-bladder is not closed, but
has in most cases a very capacious opening through the dorsal
wall of the cesophagus. The fact, on which Professor Rolleston
laid stress (No. 19, p. 424), that in all species, when the branchize
are in full activity, the swim-bladder is supplied with the purest
arterial blood, lends little support to the supposition that it, in
any way, subserves respiration. Of course in Dipnoans, like
Lepidosiren and Ceratodus, the pulmonary function is undoubted ;
but the fact that the duct is ventral and not dorsal as in the
Teleostei is of the highest importance. What is there to make
improbable th: sugg-stion that these so-called lungs are new
structures correlated to the change in the circulation and the
more highly differentiated condition of the heart. Wilder, it
is true, states that in Ama and Lepidosteus he has found cases
intermediate between the dorsal and ventral connection of the
swim-bladder ; but even if this variation of the duct be regarded
as not wholly exceptional and abnormal, it cannot account for
a dorsally-placed organ like the swim-bladder becoming a
ventrally-placed lung, nor that a pulmonary artery, really a
branch of the inferior aortic arch, carrying venous blood, should

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—-PRINCE. 209

supplant the mesenteric artery which supplies the organ in most
fishes and that the blood leaving the swim-bladder should go
direct to the heart rather than to the portal vein. In Ceratodus
(a case of exceptional significance) the urteria coeliaca supplies
the swim-bladder, and the duct of the swim-bladder exhibits a
glottis.** True lungs, we know, arise as paired buds from the
ventral surface of the cesophagus (Plate 21, fig. 3), and it is
questionable to regard them as homologous with a dorsal diver-
ticulum such as the swim-bladder of fishes (Plate 21, figs. 1 and
2). ‘They may be, and probably are, structures arising de novo.
May not this also be true of the lung of the Dipnoan fishes, as
the swim-bladder and its connecting duct may disappear, and
have done so completely in many fishes /

Closely connected with the supposed pulmonary character of
the swim-bladder is the theory that it is an aid in sound-produc-
tion. A hollow vesicle filled with gas may act asa resonator. We
know that in certain fishes sounds are produced. Thus, as Dr. C.
C. Abbott pointed out, the mud sunfish (Acantharchus pomotis )
makes a grunting sound, the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedia-
num) a whirring sound: the chub-sucker (Hrimyzon sucetta)
utters a prolonged note due, ic is said, to the air forcibly driven
through the duct of the swim-bladder, the cat-fish (A meiwrus)
hums softly, the “ Drums,” ike Aplodinotus grunniens, make
a grunting or croaking noise, and such species of the Sciaenide,
as Pogonias make a loud drumming sound, especially loud in
the male fish, while the eel (Anguilla) is declared to utter a
musical note of a distinctly metallic character, ‘These sounds,
says Dr. $8. A. Packard, are homologous with those of reptiles,
birds, and mammals, being produced by the swim-bladder, which
that authority holds to be the homologue of the lungs. Dr. W.
R. Hamilton (9 a, p. 63) made however some experiments on the
croaking of the fresh-water drum-fish, which is provided with

*Since this paper was written I find that Professor Albrecht of Brussels laid stress
on the ventral connection of lungs and the dorsal position of the swim-bladder and its
duct, and strongly opposed the homology of the swim-bladder and lungs.

210 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

large pharyngeal teeth. “While moving its grinders as I supposed
the tish had done during life,” said Dr. Hamilton, “. . . an
exact imitation of the croaking of the perch was produced. I
produced the sounds in a similar manner within the hearing of
several Alleghany River raftsmen and Ohio River fishermen at
intervals during the day on which I experimented, without
allowing them to know how the noises were made, or that a
perch was used for the purpose and they all declared it was an
exact imitation of the croaking of the perch. . . . I cannot
conceive of any way by which the sound could be produced by
the air-bladder of the fish, as its physiological functions and
anatomical structure do not indicate its use as a vocal organ.”
Dufosse (No. 7) attributed to the extrinsic muscles vibrations
which produced sounds aided by the resonance of the swim-
bladder ; but in other cases he attributed the sound simply to
gas violently driven through the pneumatic duct of the organ.
The late Professor J. A. Ryder combatted this view which had
been urged to account for the noise produced by Aplodinotus :
“the usual view that the air is forced from one part of the air-
bladder to another in the Sciaenoids seems to me inadequate in
the absence of clearly worked out demonstrations. The group
is physoclistous, or has the air-bladder entirely closed” (see
note on p. 63, No. 9a). Sorensen (No. 22) regards the organ
as a resounding device, and thinks that it would have disap-
peared had it not so functioned. Yet the fact remains that
most fishes are silent, and fish such as the cod and carp have
never been credited with any gifts of voice, notwithstanding
the size and high development in these fishes of the swim-
bladder. The vastly greater number of fishes, which possess
the swim-bladder, more or less highly developed, produce no
sounds. They are silent and the organ occupying s> large
a space in the super-abdominal space is unutilised for that
purpose. It is also remarkable in the extreme that some of the
most active and buoyant fishes should be without this organ
(e.g. the sharks and the family Scombridx, or Mackerels, for

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 211

the most part). It is difficult to see why trout, carps, pike,
sticklebacks, and sturgeon, frequenting shallows, where a
hydrostatic organ is comparatively useless and unnecessary, are
provided with it, while the Sand-launce (Ammodytes), the
lump-fish (Cyclopterus), or the mackerel, should be without it.
Its erratic occurrence shows how unessential it is to fishes now,
however important it may primitively have been.

It is in the early condition, as seen in the embryonic and
larval stages of fishes possessing this organ, that the swin-
bladder is most interesting and suggestive. It has all the
features characteristic of a large but simple gland. Krause
distinguishes (No. 12, p. 206) four parts in a simple gland (1)
the mouth, (2) the neck, (3) the body, (4) the ccecal extremity,
and these may all be noted in the early swim-bladder, which is
really a blind sac provided with a duct, and usually having an
abundant blood-supply. Glands are always well supphed with
blood, as their function is to secrete some characteristic substance
from the blood passing through their vascular net-work. The
swim-bladder arises, in all cases, as a dorsal bud or po-ket of
cells on the upper wall of the hind portion of the cesophagus.
(Plate 1, figs. 21 and 2). At the earlier stages the gullet cannot
be clearly marked off from the mesenteron or stomach. Thus,
in a haddock, a few days besore hatching, an evagination from
the dorsal side of the alimentary canal is observed projecting
perpendicularly from the centre of the gullet. (Plate 21, fig. 4
sb). In the same microscopic section shown in the plate, a
ventral diverticulum also appears, viz., the rudiment of the liver
(l). The section was in a slightly oblique transverse vertical
plane, and therefore includes both organs. The lengthening of
the alimentary canal, owing to the rapid growth of the young
fish, soon more widely separates the swim-bladder and the liver,
and, it may be pointed out, causes the straight canal to twist or
curve to one (the left) side, and the balloon-shaped bladder
curves over to the right, (Plate 21, fig. 5, sb). For some days

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INST. Sci., VOL. Kae TRANS.—O.

oA THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

after hatching, the organ retains its simple cellular character, a
single layer of large endodermal cells, not distinguishable from
the cells forming the wall of the general alimentary tract.
Soon a layer of flattened mesoderm cells (Plate 21, fig. 5, mes)
creeps round and invests the organ, becoming later the connective
tissue layer or tunica externa. The mesoderm cells rapidly
become greatly thickened, as the larva grows, and the lining
endoderm cells assume a swollen glandular character. Thus in
Trigla, the gurnard, when } in. (6 mm.) long, the cells are so
enlarged as to crowd against each other, producing a very
irregular internal lining, forming thick rugz, the nuclei of the
cells being,
cells, the contents of the cells being clear and non-staining
(Plate 21, fig. 6). In a Gadoid, of the same Jength (6 mm.),
probably a pollack or coal fish, a similar appearance is presented ,
but the nucleus of each swollen cell is central not distally
excentric in position and the fine fibrous layer outside, really
very much flattened and attenuated mesoderm cells, shows dense
black pigment (Plate 21, fig. 7, p.) The presence of massed
pigment cells, forming a dark patch in the region of the swim-
bladder, is a marked feature in certain young gadoids (Plate
21, fig. 11).

In sections of a young Gadoid 7s inch (65 mm.) long,
probably a young cod a pollack I cannot now say which, for
these allied species are practically identical in internal structure
in larval life, the pigment layer is now more distinctly separated,
and the nuclei in the large clear cells lining the swim-bladder
are proximal and nearer to the thickened connective tissue layer.
(Plate 21, fig. 8). In slightly older post-larval Gadoids say 2
inch (9°2 mm.) long the cavity of the swim-bladder has greatly
increased, the large mucus cells, with proximal nuclei are more
regularly arranged (Plate 21, fig. 9), but a posterior portion of
the organ is now marked off, with thin walls and showing no
mucus-cell lining, indeed a dense thickened tubular section
separates the anterior and posterior parts, in the wall of which

moreover, distally situated near the free ends of the

A DEGENERATE. GLAND,——PRINCE. 23

an artery now appears, while the two urinary ducts or ureters
pass down each side of the swim-bladder posteriorly to the
urinary vesicle behind. In a young Callionymus } inch (78
mm.) long, the swim-bladder is capacious, and its walls thin,
and membranous ; but the floor is thick and its lining cells form
dense rugs not showing the clear mucoid character generally
distinguishing the internal cells of the organ in many species.
(Plate 21, tig. 10). The herring (Clupea harengus) of the same
size, but no doubt very much older than Gobioids or Gadoids
such as those just described, exhibits a very capacious thin-
walled swim-bladder, the epithelial layer of cells being reduced
in thickness. The larva was zz inch long (about 7 mm.)
and the notochord was extremely large, while the alimentary
canal was a narrow tube of very small capacity. Sections of a
Gurnard (Trigla) 3 in. (10 mm.) long, proved most interesting
as the walls show no less than five distinct layers and an
anterior portion with the usual mucus cell-lining was succeeded
further back by a blastema of deeply stained tissue in which
clear cells, possibly blood form-elements, are massed. Hach
rounded clear cell showed a definite deep-stained nucleus.
This appearance suggests that a high vascularity is already
characteristic of the interior of the swim-bladder at this early
stage. The capacious front portion still, however, retains the
glandular features, the large clear lining cells, each with a
proximal nucleus, resting upon a dense nucleated stratum,
outside being a complexly massed fibrous layer, external to
which is a fourth stratum of flattened cells, three or four cells
deep, the nuclei very marked, but much flattened, and outside all
is a thick conaective tissue layer (the tunica externa) composed
of long interlaced fibres. Thus in the front part of the organ
there are no less than five layers, (Plate 21, fig. 12, a. b. ec. d.e.);
but in the second portion the large-celled epithelium ceases, and
the four outside layers described are present. The pigmented
peritoneal membrane which encloses the organs of the abdominal
cavity appears below the swim-bladder anteriorly ; but further

214 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

back it ceases, and the organ lies directly upon the liver and
alimentary canal. The peritoneum never indeed surrounds the
swim-bladder, at any time during the life of the fish. If an
embryologist, or an anatomist, were for the first time confronted
with an organ having the characteristics of the swim-bladder
in fishes during their early larval life, he would, without
hesitation, pronounce it a gland. The salivary glands, for
instance, in the human subject develop in the six-week embryo
as a protrusion of the deeper epithelial layer of the mucous
coat of the oral cavity becoming hollow after its protrusion and
developing follicles, in which occur large transparent cells,
each with an excentrie nucleus stained by carmine while
the surrounding mass of cell-substance remains clear and
unstained. Other cells, called “ peripherie,” occur in the follicles
which are not mucous, but albuminous and stain completely.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter said (No. 3, p. 132), “It is believed that
the albuminous cells during the period of rest of the gland
gradually become metamorphosed and develop into the mucin-
holding cells.” I do not wish to attach too much importance
to the circumstance; but in one specimen of a cod, 114 mm.
(43 inch) long, the anterior portion of the swim-bladder was
lined, not by large clear cells, with a nucleus alone staining by
carmine ; but a dense deep staining mass of reduced agglomerated
cells as though the large cells had become metamorpho-ed into
something like the small dark granular cells which fill the
salivary acinus during the period of active secretion. The
swim-bladder, in its earliest condition, may be compared to a
large gland, not compound and complexly developed hke the
liver; but a simple sac or huge follicle, its fundus or distal
region lined by large epithelial cells, and leading into a non-
glandular second portion, which may indeed be regarded as
having subserved a storage function like the gall-bladder in
that great secreting gland, the liver, and finally leading by a
duct to the opening into the gullet which may or may not have
a sphincter muscle. This duct may in a large number of species

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 215

of fish wholly degenerate later. In the pike-perch or pickerel
(Stizostedion vitreum) exhibiting when adult a ductless swim-
bladder, still possesses the duct when the fish is 6 or 8 inches
long, and it is even then hollow for a great part of its length.
In the familiar stickleback (Gastrosteuws) the duct persists and
remains open for a comparatively long time, although in the
adult stage it disappears.

I have made reference to the salivary glands in speaking
of the glandular character suggested by the early features of
of the swim-bladder. Fishes exhibit no salivary structures
whatever, unless the lingual follicles in the Lamprey be of that
nature ; but if, as I think it is clear, or at any rate not impro-
bable, that the swim-bladder was primitively a gland, which
has lost the glandular function, then its function cannot have
been remotely unlike a secreting organ, active in providing a
medium for lubricating food in the anterior portion of the
alimentary canal. Such lubrication of the food became of
course unnecessary in fishes, such as the Sharks which practically
possess no oesophagus for the huge stomach opens directly to
the mouth and the food is gulped at once into that capacious
digestive chamber, the mouth with its array of teeth and the
wide gullet have chiefly the task of preventing the escape of
the seized prey. There are many glands in Vertebrates now
without use or whose use is difficult to understand ye they
persist. The small finger-like pocket in the rectum of Sharks
(the rectal gland) is not understood. In the Chimaerz or
Rabbit-fishes, closely allied to the sharks, it has degenerated,
and forms merely a slight projection on the intestinal wall. A
still more remarkable case is the thyroid gland in man, the
origin of which must be sought not in the fishes, but in the
still lower and more primitive Urochordata or Tunicates. The
hypobranchial groove or endostyle of the Ascidians, whose
cellular ridge, on the internal ventral wall of the pharynx,
secretes a mucus which entangling the particles of food, is
passed, by the dorsal lamina, to the digestive tract. The

216 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

endostyle has an alimentary function and is found in the
Enteropneusta (Balanoglossus). It is represented in the larval
lamprey, and in Amphioxus, an d, indeed, in some stages, in all
Craniota. As the tongue, in the higher forms, becomes more
important and grows, the endost vle is reduced and assumes the
character of a canal closed off from the mouth cavity. It
persists as the thyroid gland in the highest Vertebrates, indeed
in man himself, but its original physiological relations and
purposes are lost, and it becomes wholly disconnected with the
digestive canal. As Dr. T. M. Studler (No. 20) has shown
the right thyroid rudiment, ina 54 weeks embrys (Homo), is
still connected with the pharynx; but its fellow on the left is
further advanced and has lost its primitive connection.*

The swim-bladder is an outgrowth of the stomodaeum or
rather the posterior buccal portion of the alimentary canal, the
part which in a great majority of animals is very well provided
with glands. If it be, as I have ventured to suggest, a
degenerate gland, its anterior position is explained, much as its
connection may shift later in obedience to physiological and
anatomical exigencies, ceasing, indeed, to have any oesophageal
connection whatever in the physoclistous fishes. In such a fish
as the herring, it does not communicate with the pharynx, but
with the gizzard-like crop, while its posterior attenuated continu-
ation opens by a duct on the left side of the anus(Plate I, fig. 3, x.)
Its persistence in so many fishes, though it has disappeared in
so many, may be explained by its deep position. An organ
removed from the external modifying conditions, which may not
not merely reduce but obliterate useless organs comparatively
rapidly, do not affect so potently a deeply-seated useless organ
and the tendency is for such an organ not to disappear but to
be modified for a variety of functions. It is easy to understand,
therefore, not only its persistence, but its actual increase in size
and complexity in spite of its increasingly unimportant and

*Other glands might be referred to, such as the thymus which is largest in man
two years after birth and diminishes with age, while the thyroid, which is largest at
birth, may wholly disappear in the adult.

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. Deak
non-essential character. Its form and relations may become
most surprising in character. Its minute structure may show
the most perplexing variation. The delicate membrane which
forms the silvery tubular sac in the herring (Clupew) Plate 20,
fig. 3, sb., or the capacious ovate organ attached to the inner
surface of the dorso-lateral body-wall in Perca, Plate 20, fig.
3, sb, is in great contrast to the thick massive-walled swim-
bladder of the sturgeon (Stwrio) (Plate 23, figs. 1, and 2), or
the spongy, complexly meshed and vascular organ seen in the
Bowfin (dimia calva). Special muscles occur in the walls.
They are usually striped 7. e. voluntary, and under the control
of the fish ; but the duct possesses unstriped muscle, excepting
in the rare cases where a sphincter muscle is present for closing
and opening the entrance to the duct. Humboldt thought that
the muscles of the swim-bladder effected its compression, and
aided in the descent or ascent of fishes in the water, an idea
which M. Delaroche (No. 6) admitted, might be possible
though his own researches rather pointed, not to effecting by
the swim-bladder such a change in the specific gravity of the
fish as compared with the surrounding water, but rather to
keeping it at the same specific gravity as the watery environ-
ment and presenting the fish rising or sinking. M. Moreau,
in his later researches (No. 16) confirms Delaroche’s view and
adds that the equilibration 1s due to the external pressure of
the water upon the body walls, and he emphatically contradicts
Humboldt’s idea and asserts that the muscles on the walls of
the swim-bladder are not used to regulate or alter the volume
of that organ.

In general the walls of the swim-bladder exhibit four
layers in the adult fish viz.: (1) a ‘esselated lining
epithelium; (2) an inner fibrous layer, often silvery in
appearance, due to wavy fibres or to bright crystalline rods ;
(3) an outer thick fibrous layer, yielding isinglass, and especially
dense in Sturivo ; (4) a very delicate muscular stratum, which
may be so arranged as, it is claimed, to compress and drive the

218 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

contents of the posterior chamber into the anterior
chamber of the swim-bladder. The internal vascular structures
are very simple and confined to one portion of the swim-bladder
as in the conger, (Plate 22, fig. 1), which exhibits two red
rounded vascular bodies (a.a.) situated near to the entrance of
the pneumatic duct, or the blood-vascular network is spread
over a large portion of the internal surface forming, as in the
haddock, a dense reticulum of blood-vessels, or again these retia
mirabilia may be wholly absent. In size the swim-bladder
varies exceedingly, it may be small as in many of the herring
family but simple in form, (Plate 20, fig. 3, sb.) It may as in
the common perch (Perca flavescens) be still simple but of
larger capacity as compared with the size of the fish, (Plate 20,
tig. 2, sb.) Thus in a 10 inch perch the swim-bladder is no less
than 4 inches long and nearly an inch in diameter, while in a
perch 74 inches long the organ is 3 inches in length. Its volume
is not more variable than its shape and relations to other organs
in the fish possessing it. In very young post-larval fishes it
forms a prominent feature, glistening like a silvery gaseous
bubble of elongated shape through the translucent body (see
figure of Cunner } inch long, Plate 21, fig. 13, and Plate 23,
figs. 3. 4, 5, 6.) Instead of the simple ovate sac of the Perch
and Cunner, it may become extremely elongated as in the
Herring sending forward a pair of delicate ducts, which end in
two swollen sacs in the skull, close to the ear, one on each side
or as in the Haddock or Cod ceasing all connection with the
alimentary canal, the capacious sac may continue forwards as
two solid vermiform cornua terminating near the ears, (Plate 20,
fig. 1, corn.) In the Carp the pneumatic duct not only persists
but the anterior sac of the two-chambered swim-bladder may
directly connect with the vestibular sac of the ear by ligaments
and a chain of three bones, (Plate 20, fig. 4, 2. &. l.), really costal
modifications, the last and longest being attached to the swim-
bladder, (sb.). In the Siluroids the relations of the two organs
are far more complex, for the anterior vertebree may coalesce

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 219

and their lateral processes expand as a roof or bony shield over
the anterior portion of the swim-bladder. Even the South
American species Hypophthalmus, so universally regarded by
anatomists as lacking the swim-bladder, has been proved by
Professor Ramsay Wright to be no exception, the rudimentary
swim-bladder being present, completely paired (really two
separated vesicles), and partly enclosed in the vertebral body
and the walls of the neural canals and in the ossified tunica
externa (No. 26, p. 116), while it has connection with the
auditory organ by a chain of ossicles much reduced, but as Dr.
Wright points out, “after precisely the same plan as in the
other Siluroids,” (loc. cit. p. 108). On each side a so-called
malleus connects with a stapes, by an incus, with the lateral
wall of the atrium sins imparis,<the bones named being modi-
tied portions respectively of the first, third and second vertebree.
The stone-loach (Cobitis) like its congeners generally (the
Acanthopside) exhibits a bony case on each side of the most
anterior vertebre, in which the two globular chambers of the
swim-bladder are enclosed side by side.* The two protecting
bull are expansions of the transverse processes of the second
and third vertebra, (Plate 20, fig. 5, bb.), and hide from view
the chain of three ossicles. The tropical American and African
Characinide have a swim-bladder divided into two parts
connecting by a chain of ossicles, with the auditory organs as in
the Carps and Siluroids. The Cyprinodonts, diminutive carp-
like fishes very abundant in Canada, have, however, no such
auditory connection by a series of ossicles, while one Central
American species, Rivulus, has been found to be destitute of
the swim-bladder altogether. The carps (Cyprinidw) and the
pikes (Hsocide), and other families like the oceanic Halisauroidei,
possess a simple swim-bladder, often a two-chambered sac with
thin membranous walls, opening into the gullet by a tube, while

*The swim-bladder in Heterobranchus and Malapterurus exhibits the two rounded
sacs. (Plate IV, figs. 8, 9.).

220 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

in the physoclistous perches, of which Perca flavescens is a
familiar example, and in the Squamipinnes (the brilliantly
tinted chaetodons, W&e.), it is lkewise simple in form and
structure often showing a trace of anterior bifidity, (Plate 20,
fig. 2). It may still preserve its simple sac-like form, but be
paired as in Gymnotus, the electric eel, or completely bifurcate
as in the physoclistous Brotulide and Acanthuride. In the
simple swim-bladder of the cod or haddock, (Plate 20, fig. 1.),
a number of lateral processes fringe the upper margin of the
organ on each side, corresponding wlth intervertebral spaces,
while a pair of cyclindrical solid prolongations pass forward to
the auditory region; but in the Sciaenide, excepting Larimus,
which has a simple sac, the fringe of lateral processes becomes
elaborate. In Pogonias, the Drum-fish, they are broad, leaf-
like, and laterally unite on each side in a tube which opens into
the posterior end of the organ, (Plate 22, fig. 4.). In Johnius
they form a complicated fringe of ramose pectinate processes
and in the example of a Sciewnid swim-bladder figured by Dr.
Gunther over a hundred of these pectinate, much subdivided,
processes occur, (Plate 22, fig. 3.). Another type of swim-
bladder is represented in this family by such a form as that
assumed in Corvina, (Plate 22, fig. 2.) There seems, indeed,
to be no limit to the variation in the details of this organ in
various groups. The internal cellular or sacculated character
found in the swim-bladder of the Notopteridw seems to presage
the elaborate lung-like structure in some Ganoids and in the
Dipnoans ; but I have stated the grounds for not regarding this
latter organ as the homologue of the swim-bladder. It may be,
and for the reasons set forth in this paper I do not doubt that
it is the case, that the ventral air-bladder or subcesophageal sac
even in Teleosteans such as the Gymmodonta, extending beneath
the skin of the abdomen and opening by a duct, with a sphincter
muscle, into the gullet, is a new structure and not homologous
with the dorsally connected swim-bladder of Teleostei generally.
If the modern sharks have lost the swim-bladder, or show

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 225

merely a rudimentary trace of it in some species, and if so
many Teleosteans have become bereft of this organ and now
show no traces of ever having possessed it, I see no impro-
bability in the view I now urge that the Ganoids and Dipnoans,
possessing a ventrally-placed lung-like sac, have acquired it as
anew development, a new organ, and that it, not the dorsally
connected swim-bladder of other fishes, is the protctype and
homologue of the lungs of higher Vertebrates. This organ, -
arising de novo as it seems to me, was provided with a vascular
supply (a venous connection) quite different from that, an
essentially arterial one, which is exhibited by the swim-bladder
in most fishes. /

Regarding, then, the swim-bladder as primitively a gland
whose original use is gone, like so many disused organs in the
animal frame, can it be said that it has any use now, or have the
various functions attributed to it, hydrostatic, accoustic,
barometric, respiratory, &e., little or no basis in fact? I
have already pointed out that nitrogen has been found by
physiologists associated in the living organism with a state of
dormancy and inanition, and with altered alimentation, 1. @.,
change in the nature of the food. Both these states are charac-
teristic features in the life of fishes. Whether fish sleep or not
is a matter of controversy ; but that they may pass into a state
of dormancy, a condition of inanition, is well-known, while the
changes in the diet of fishes, at various ages in the young, and
at particular seasons in the adult fish, are recognized by all
authorities. The storage of nitrogen, secreted from the blood
circulating in the vascular network of the swim-bladder, may
be associated with either or both of these states, a state of
dormancy or inanition, or a state induced by a marked change
in the character of the nutriment or food consumed. In ven-
turing to interpret the swim-bladder as a glandular structure,
whose original function has gone, I have done so because that
interpretation best accords with its character in the embryonic
and larval condition of the fishes possessing it. To all the

222 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

other various interpretations which have been put forth, serious,
and to my mind, fatal objections exist.

In conclusion I may sum up the points on which I would
lay emphasis. The swim-bladder, in its earliest condition in
the embryo and the post-larval stages, exhibits the characteristic
features of a secreting gland, opening by a duct into the anterior
portion of the alimentary canal. It arises as a protrusion from
the digestive tract like the hepatic evagination which becomes
the liver, but this huge gland (the liver) with its capacious
bile-duct is on the ventral side whereas the swim-bladder is on
the dorsal side of the tract. The degeneration and disappearance
of the swim-bladder in so many fishes proves that it is clearly
not essential for flotation. Some of the most active pelagic
species like the Sharks, Sun-fishes, Mackerels and others are
without it, while fishes like the Pleuronectide and other bottom-
frequenting species likewise lack that organ, though apparently
so much in need of a hydrostatic device to facilitate their ascent
or descent in the water. Inshore littoral fishes and shallow-
water species (freshwater and marine) are almost without
exception piovided with it, though so little needed, in their case,
for floating purposes. If its hydrostatic utility be questionable,
it is clearly not for respiratory purposes, as in most fishes venous
blood is not conveyed to it; but blood which has immediately
before been arterialised and fully purified in the gills. Its
dorsal connection and position superior to the alimentary canal
indicates that it is not the homologue of the pulmonary organs
with their auct opening on the lower side of the cesophagus.
Professor Arthur Thomson pertinently observes, (No. 23, p. 391),
“The air-bladder lies dorsally and is almost always single: the
lungs lie ventrally, and are double, though connected by the
gullet by a single tube. It is not certain that these outgrowths
are homologous, though the air-bladder of Dipnoi acquires the
functions of a lung.” ‘That the swim-bladder aids in audition,
and in sound-production or voice, is suggested by the chain of
ossicles (the complex Weberian apparatus) in such fishes as the

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—-PRINCE. 223

Siluroids, and Carps; but it has never been demonstrated by
experiment that these fishes have hearing or sound-producing
powers superior to other fishes not possessed of this apparatus.
The sturgeon and cod, though provided with a large swim-
bladder are silent. If the swim-bladder, again, be barometric
why is it denied to so many fishes to which a knowledge is
necessary of the variations in pressure of their atmospheric and
aqueous surroundings ? The presence of the organ in different
families of fishes, as Gegenbaur points out, indicates some
important purpose, though it may be said that the persistence of
numerous obsolete and disused organs is most remarkable, the
thymus gland being a familiar example. An external or exposed
organ, which becomes useless may disappear rapidly like the pec-
toral fin of the lower side in the variegated sole (Solea variegata,
Donov.), but an internal deep-seated structure is more likely to
remain and become modified rather than disappear. Such
transformation and change of function the swim-bladder of
fishes has unquestionally undergone.

Iiterature referred to.

1. Boulenger,G. A. Brit. Museum Guide to Fishes, &c. London, 1898.
2. Borelli. De Motu Animalium. Rome, 16:0.

3. Carpenter, Dr. W. B. Human Physiology, 9th Ed. London, 1881.

4, Challenger Reports. Vol I, Phys. and Chem.

5. Cleland, Prof. John. Memoirs in Anatomy. Glasgow, 1889.

6. Delaroche, F. Ann. du Mus. d'Hist Nat., t. XIV.

7. Dufosse. Ann d. Sci., Nat., V. Ser., t , 19, 20. 1874.

8. Gegenbaur, Prof. oak. Elem. of Comp. Anat. London, 1878.

9. Giinther, Dr. A.C. L.u&. Introd. to Study of Fishes. Edinburgh, 1880.

9a. Hamilton, Dr. W. R. tee of the Perch, Bull. U.S. F. Comm ,
Vol. VII. 1887.

10. Holt , E. W. L. Eggs and Larve of Teleosteans. R.S Dublin, Vol. IV,
Ser. 2. 1891.

1l. Jordan and Evermann. Amer. Food and Game Fishes. 1902.

12. Krause, Dr, Allgemeine Anatom 1876.

13. McIntosh and Prince. Life Histories of Food Fishes. Trans. R. S.
Edin., xxxv. p. iii. 1890.

14 Macalister, Prof. Alex. Introd. to System. Zool. of Vertebrate
Animals. Dublin, 1878.

224 THE SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES

Monro, Prof, Alex. Structure and Physiol. of Fishes. Edinburgh, 1785.
Moreau. Ann, d. Sci. Nat. VI. ser., t. 4. 1876.
es Memoires de Physiol. Vol. 15.

— —
aN

17. Packard, A. S. Zoology. 3rd. ed. New York, 1881.’

18. Prince, KE. EK. 3lst. Ann. Rep. Mar. and Fisheries, Ottawa, 1898.

19, Rolleston, Prof G. Forms of Animal Life. Oxford, 1888.

20. Studler, Dr. M. T. Dev. of the Nose and Pharynx in Man. Amer.

Journ, of Anatomy, Vol. 1. Sept., 1902.

21. Sagemahl. Pisces. Bronn’s Klass. u Ordn, des Thierr, VI.

22. Sorensen, W. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. 29. 1894-5.

23. Thomson, Prof. J. Arthur. Outlines of Zoology. Edin., 1892.

24. Tower, Prof. R. W. The Gas in the Swim Bladder of Fishes. Bulletin

U.S. F. Comm. XXI. 1901.

25. Wright, Prof R Ramsay. Contributions to the Anatomy of Ameiurus.
Proc. Canad. Inst. Toronto, 1884.

26. Wright, Prof. R. Ramsay. On the skull, &c., of the Siluroid Hypoph-
thalmus. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. III. 1885.

LIST OF REFERENCE LETTERS IN THE PLATES.

a. anus mes, flattened mesoderm cells clothing
bl. gall-bladder. the swim-bladder.
b. b. bony expansions of vertebral ws, cesophagus,
processes. ov. ovary.
corn. cornua or anterior processes of pigt. pigment.
swim-bladder. pyl. pyloric cceca.
d. — duct of swim-bladder. pyl. 0. pyloric opening in stomach.

do. opening of do do in cesophagus, sb. — swim-bladder,
epith. large epithelial cells lining sp/. spleen,
developing swim-bladder. stom. stomach.

go. genital opening. sup. c. superior occipital bone of skull.
ht. heart. vert. vertebree.
i,k. 1. chain of ossicles from ear to 2. orifice of swim-bladder near anus
swim-bladder, in Clupea.
int. intestine. y. Opening of pneumatic duct in
k, kidney. swim-bladder,
Leap liver.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Plate 20.

Fig. 1, Haddock (Melanogrammus ceglefinus, Linn.) dissected to show the
ductless swim-bladder in situ.

Fig. 2. Perch (Perca flavescens, Mitch.) dissected to show the ductless swim-
bladder with slightly bifid anterior end.

Fig. 3. Herring (Clupea harengus, Linn ) dissected to show the swim-bladder
with anterior process, the duct (d) opening into the stomach, and the
posterior opening (x) on the left of the anus (a),

Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Dake Gp
Fig 10.
Bis slie
Fig. 12
Fig. 13.
Fig. 1.

A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE. 225

German carp (Cyprinus carpio, Linn ). The swim-bladder (s b) con-
nected by duct (d) with the cesophagus (ces) and with the ear by a
chain of ossicles (i. k. 1.). (Modified from Weber’s well-known figure).

Ventral view of skull and anterior vertebree of the loach (Cobitis bar-
batulus, Linn.), showing osseous bullee which cover the swim-bladder.
The bull are expansions of the lateral processes of the 2nd. and 3rd.
vertebre.

Plate 21.

Diagram, showing the diverticulum or rudiment of the swim-bladder
on the dorsal wall of the cesophagus of an embryo fish, viewed from
above.

The same, viewed laterally.

Diagram, showing the bifid diverticulum or rudiment of the lungs on
the ventral wall of the cesophagus of a frog. Viewed from below.
(Modified from Wiedersheim).

Section (trans. vert.) of the cesophagus of an embryo haddock (Me/ano-
grammus) inside the egg, three days before hatching, showing dorsal
diverticulum or swim-bladder (s b.) and ventral diverticulum or
liver (1) The section was cut in a somewhat oblique vertical p!ane.

Section (trans. vert.) of larval haddock, three days after hatching
showing more advanced condition of swim-bladder, liver, gall-bladder,

and covering of flattened mesocerm cells. x 200.

Section (trans. vert.) of portion of swim-bladder of gurnard (T’rigla
gurnardus) 6 mm. long. x 175.

Section do. do. of cod (Gadus morrhua)-6 mm. long.
x 175.

Section do. do. of pollack (Pollachius virens) 6°5 mm.
long. x 200.

Section do. do. of cod, 9 2 mm. long. x 200.

Section do. do. of gemmous skulpin (Callionymus lyra)
7 8 mm. long. x 200.

Forepart of larval haddock (from life), 7 days old, showing the swim-
bladder (sb.) above the stomach (stom.) and densely covered with
black pigment.

Section of portion of swim-bladder of gurnard (10 mm. long) showing
five distinct layers in the walls.

Post-larval cunner (Tautogolabrus adspersus, Walb.) showing swim-
bladder (s b) in transparent body of the fish. x 8.

Plate 22.

Dissection of stomach, swim-bladder, &c., of the conger (Conger
vulgaris, Cuv.) showing two globular vascular bodies (a. a ) near the
opening of the duct in the swim-bladder (s b.)

226 SWIM-BLADDER OF FISHES A DEGENERATE GLAND.—PRINCE.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.

J ayes walle

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.

JMR E TIC

Swim-bladder of Corvina (after Cuvier and Valenciennes),
a os *« a Scieenoid (after Giinther).
** Pogonias chromis (after Giinther).

Plate 23.*

Abdominal viscera of young sturgeon viewed from above, showing
capacious swim-bladder (s b.)

The same showing upper side of swim-bladder (s b.) cut away to show
the interior with opening of pneumatic duct (y.) and radiating fibres.

Newly hatched gaspereau (Pomolobus pseudharengus, Wilson) showing

large swim-bladder (s b.) and anterior cornu (corn.) x 20.
Post-larval smelt (Osmerus) 15. 5 mm. long.’ Xi dle
Post-larval Thwaite-shad (Clupea jfinta) 20 mm. long, showing small
elongated swim-bladder (s b.) XO

Post-larval goby (Gobius) 11 mm. long with conspicuous ovoid closed
swim-bladder (s b.) xe Os

Head of climbing perch of India (Anabas scandens) showing supra-
branchial organ above the gill-chamber proper.

Swim-bladder (s b.) of Heterobranchus divided into two globular sacs.

Swim-bladder of Malapterurus showing a third chamber posterior to
two incomplete rounded sacs, outer tunic partly lifted away and
exposing second layer.

*Figs. land 2 after J. A. Ryder (Bulletin U. S. Fish Comm. Vol. VIII, 1888.) ; 4 and
5 after Ernst Ehrenbaum, (Wissenschaft. Meeresunsuch, Erster Band Hef., Beitr.
3. Naturgeshichte einig). Elbfishe, 1894); 6 after E. W. L. Holt (Sci. Trans Roy.
Dub. Soe Vol. IV . 1891); and 8 and 9 after Redouté in Histoire Naturelle (Egypt):
Poissons, by Geoffroy St. Hilaire.

THE EARTHQUAKE OF MarcH 21, 1904, In Nova Scorra.*—
By Pror. J. EDMUND WoopMAN, A. M., S. D., School
of Mining and Metallurgy, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, N.S.

(Read 11th April, 1904.)

Early on the morning of March 21st, 1904, a widespread
earthquake was felt in New England, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia. On the whole, its violence was considerably
greater in the first named region than farther east. In the
Maritime Provinces, it was greatest in certain districts, rather
erratically distributed.

Such an earthquake naturally excited much interest, and
newspapers gave considerable space to accounts of its effects.
The United States Geological Survey began an investigation of
it, through Professor Harry Fielding Reid, of Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Maryland. For the purpose of compiling
all possible information in a systematic manner, a blank sheet
is sent to observers whenever an earthquake is to be studied by
the Survey. Dr. Reid requested the author to gather such data
as could be found for Nova Scotia, and in the pursuit of this
task the information was collected which forms the basis of this
paper. It is published with Dr. Reid’s permission.

It 1s impossible to thank, individually, all who have been of
service in this connection. Especial mention should be made of
that given by Dr. A. H. Mackay, Superintendent of Education
for Nova Scotia, who very kindly placed the Journal of Educa-
tion, the official organ of the department, at the author’s service
for distributing questions; and who collected the answers

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University.— [Geology
and Mineralogy].

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vou. XI TRANS.—P.

(227)

228 THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 21, 1904,

wherever possible. Names of many observers will appear in
the text. To all these, and to others, many thanks are due.
On the phenomena in New Brunswick, a short paper has
appeared by Mr. S. W. Kain (“Recent Earthquakes in New
Brunswick ”; Nat. Hist. Soe. of N. B., bull., vol. V, no. 11, June,
1904 ; pp. 243-245). It is to be regretted that more notes are
not available, especially in the gold districts or region covered
by them, between the Atlantic Ocean on the south and the
carboniferous rocks on the north. The author will be greatiy
obliged to any who send him information from such or other
places, and it will be used in a supplementary paper later.

For the purpose of serving as a guide to observers on future
occasions, the questions sent out are here reproduced. They
have been slightly amended from the original, to be better
adapted to the local conditions. Most of the information obtain-
ed thus far regarding this earthquake is too meagre to permit
of classification under the seperate answers, and will be given as
it was received.

QUESTIONS REGARDING THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 21, 1904.

I. Location of the Observer.—County and location in county ; township.

2. Situation of the Observer.—(a) Indoors (and on what floor of the
house) or in open air, on a wharf or boat, in a mine and how deep.
(4) Position and occupation at the moment of the shock.

3. Time at which shock was felt, eastern Standard time.

4. Nature of the Shock.—(a) Was any tremulous motion felt before the
principal disturbance and for how many seconds? (6) How many
principal or prominent disturbances were felt, and for how many
seconds did they last ? (¢) Was any tremulous motion felt after the
principal disturbance, and for how many seconds? (d@) Did the
movement gradually increase in intensity and then die away, or (e)
were there two or more maxima of intensity or series of disturbances ;
and, if so, what was the interval between them and the order of their
intensity? (/) Was the principal disturbance strongest near the
beginning, the middle, or the end of the series? (g) Was any ver-
tical motion perceptible, and, if so, was the movement first upward
and then downward, or vice versa? (#) What was the apparent
direction of the movement? (z) In what direction were objects
overturned ?

IN NOVA SCOTIA.—WOODMAN. 229

5 Duration of the Shock in seconds, not including that of the accompany-
ing sound,

6. Intensity of the Shock.—Was it strong enough: (a) To make windows,
doors, fire-irons, etc., rattle? (4) To cause the chair or bed on which
the observer was resting to be perceptibly raised or moved? (c) To
make chandeliers, pictures, etc., swing, or to stop clocks? (d@) To
overthrow ornaments, vases, etc., or cause plaster to fall from the
ceilings? (e) To throw down chimneys, or make cracks in the walls
of buildings ?

7. Sound Phenomena.—(a) Was any unusual rumbling sound heard at the
time of the shock, and, if so, what did it resemble? (6) Did the
beginning of the sound precede, coincide with, or follow, the begin-
ning of the shock, and by how many seconds? (c) Did the end of

‘the sound precede, coincide with, or follow, the end of the shock,
and by how many seconds? (d@) Did the sound become gradually
louder and then die away? (¢) Did the instant when the sound was
loudeSt precede, coincide with, or follow, the instant when the dis-
turbance was strongest, and by how many seconds? (/) Did the

sound change in character at or about the time when the disturbance
was strongest ?

8 Mtscellaneous.—Note any other phenomena which may be related to
the earthquake, such as effects on animals, on springs or streams,
any change in the wind, (if so, to what direction), permanent dis-
placements of the soil, etc. If the observer was on a boat or wharf

state especially the intensity, apparent direction, etc., of shocks and
- noises.

g. Name and address of observer.

Please answer as many questions as possible ; number and letter the
answers to correspond with the questions and forward to:

Dr. J. EDMUND WOODMAN,
Dalhousie University,
Halifax, N. S.

Observations on the earthquake follow. For convenience,
one or two are given from New Brunswick.

Moncton, N. B.—(Halifax Herald, Mch. 21). “A severe
shock of earthquake was felt here ten minutes after two this
morning. Houses trembled and furniture rocked, awakening

many people from sleep. The vibration continued ten or fifteen
seconds, but no damage was done.”

230 THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 2], 1904,

Some dishes are said to have been broken in St. John. At
Fredericton, many people rushed out, and lamps and dishes were
broken. At Woodstock also the shock was severe.

Yarmouth, N. S.—(Halifax Chronicle, Mch. 22). “ Many
people were awakened early this morning by the shock of earth-
quake. It was of short duration, but was plainly felt im differ-
ent parts of the town and country about two o'clock.”

Shelburne.—Replies to questions were condensed into the
following, numbers referring to question blank.

(2b) Lying in bed at the time, and awakened by the
trembling motion.

(3) About 1.15 a. m.

(4) Lasted about 15 seconds. =

(6a) No rattling.

(6b) Bed moved.

(6c) No pictures disturbed.

(6d) No moveable articles overthrown.

(7) No sound. [C. S. Bruce. ]

It was evidently not felt at Liverpool.

Lunenburg.—(Lunenburg Progress-Enterprise, Mch. 23).
“At Kentville and all through the valley it was felt, and in
some places the dishes rattled in the cupboards. The vibrations
were distinctly felt at Bridgewater and as far south as Lunen-
burg, where several of our citizens, among whom were Mr.
Fenwick Zwicker and Mr. George Miller, were awakened by the
rattling of dishes, and a sensation that something unusual was
happening. The vacillation lasted several seconds, and in every
place was five minutes past one on Monday morning.”

No other place on the south shore has yet reported the
occurrence except Mahone Bay, where a shght shock was noted
by a teacher.

It has been impossible to get information of a positive nature
from Halifax, the only data being contained in the following

IN NOVA SCOTIA.—WOODMAN. 231

by Mr. John MacAloney. His house is at Fairview, immediately
north of the Halifax city limits. “I was in bed at the time ;
know it was after midnight, as I heard the clock strike twelve
before going to sleep. Was awakened by feeling the house jar,
at the same time hearing a faint sound that I took to be distant
thunder. I attached so little importance to it that, had I not
seen the notice of an earthquake in the papers, I would not
have thought of the matter again.” He explained verbally that
the house felt the jar of every train, and he was very familiar
with that sensation. Neither the trembling nor the sound could
have been produced by a train. The house is bedded on solid
rock.

To date, no note of the occurrence has been received from the
country covered by the gold-bearing rocks, east of Halifax.

The most western locality on the north, from which data
come, is Digby.—( Halifax Herald, Mch. 21). “A slight shock
of earthquake was felt here, and all through the country, about
two o'clock this morning, quickly followed by another of short
duration. No damage whatever resulted beyond the alarm
occasioned some people. In some instances in the country dis-
tricts, people fled from the houses for fear they would fall.”

At Bear River, a few miles south of Digby, and on the edge
of the old rocks, the shock was distinct and heavy, sufficient to
twist a bed perceptibly in at least one instance. The occupant,
a wakeful invalid, knew it was tight against both end and side
walls when he first went to sleep ; and it was more than an inch
away from the side wall, but still against the end wall, after the
shock. Two periods of vibration were felt, and thé attitude of
the bed suggested west to east motion, which suggestion was
emphasized by the sensation caused by the trembling.

Bridgetown, Annapolis Co.—(Halifax Herald, Mch. 21).
“There was a very distinct shock of an earthquake felt here at
just two o'clock this morning. Several persons were awakened
by the trembling motion of the earth, which lasted probably
about ten seconds. No damage is reported.”

232 THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 21, 1904,

(Weekly Monitor, Bridgetown, Mch. 23). “ The earthquake
shock felt here on Monday morning . . . . The time
varies from 1.05 a. m. in parts of Maine to 2.05, the time it
occurred here.” Mention is made also of a shock at Belledale,
“between two and three o'clock,” severe enough to wake up
many.

A teacher reports the shock at Paradise West, and another
at North Williamstown in the same county. )

Annapolis.—(Halifax Chronicle, Mch. 22). “ About two
o'clock this morning (the 21st), a shock of earthquake was dis-
tinctly felt, shaking the furniture and arousing many from their
slumbers. The vibrations lasted several seconds.”

Cornwallis, Kings Co—(1) Center of Cornwallis valley,
equidistant from North and South Mountains.

(2) In a house, second story; awakened from sleep by
shock.

(3) About 2.00 a. m.

(4) Three distinct shocks.

(5) About twenty seconds.

(6) Pictures were displaced on the wall. Some doors were
opened.

(7) Rumbling sounds. [Miss Bessie Cochran, Church St.,
Cornwallis. ]

At Middleton and surrounding villages, including Nictauxz
Falls, a few miles south, the shock was severe, frightening
women and children. Here a bed shook violently sideways,
but the occupants were too agitated to tell the direction of
motion. No upward motion was felt. Total duration of dis-
turbance may have been five minutes. There were two prin-
cipal periods of vibration, with maxima only a few seconds
apart.

It was reported from North Kingston, Kings Co., by a
teacher, as also from Wolfville. No report was received from
Windsor, within a few miles of the latter place, however.

IN NOVA SCOTIA,—WOODMAN| 233

At Truvo, only one person has reported the shock.

(2) In bed, awake.

(3) Between two and three o’clock a. m.

(3a) No.

(3b) Two principal disturbances, lasting about ten seconds
each, with about five seconds intervening.

(3c) Yes. .

(3d) From west to east, distinctly.

(8e) No objects overturned.

(5) About 25 seconds.

(6) “It seemed as though someone took hold of side of
bed and shook it violently, lifting it up and down ;
as though it were taken hold of on the west side.
Everything was still, and then in a few seconds the
same thing happened again. It woke a person in
this house and another in the next house.”

(7) No sound noticed. [Mrs. 8S. V. Mack, Park St., Truro].

It appears not to have been felt at Westville, Stellarton, or
New Glasgow, in the Pictou carboniferous basin. Inquiry
shows it not to have been felt at Pictou. At one time there
was expectation of receiving data from one locality in Prince
Edward Island, but none have come, and it is probable that the
shock was not felt there. I have heard a statement, as yet
unverified, that it was detected at Springhill. It was not felt,
I believe, along the Chignecto shore from Joggins Mines to
Apple River.

At Middle Musquodoboit, at the home of Mr. Robert Kaul-
back, the table in the hall shook, and a bed. The motion was
from the side, and appeared to come from the west.

The Halifax and Sydney papers gave circumstantial
accounts of the shock in the Sydney district ; but careful inquiry
at Sydney, North Sydney, Sydney Mines and Glace Bay indi-

cates that there was no basis for the story.
“ * * « * .

234 THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 21, 1904,

Too few data are available for much discussion of the geo-
logical aspects of the earthquake; but enough are at hand to
indicate a few points of interest. Further consideration must
await the accumulation of information from a larger number of
sources.

(1) The variations of time are to be accounted for by the
differences between the two standard times, between the stand-
ard and local times, or errors of time-pieces. The correct time
is 1.04 to 1.05 a. m., eastern standard, or 2.04 to 2.05 a. m.,
maritime time.

(2) The shock appears to have consisted of two periods of
disturbance, of perhaps ten seconds, separated by five seconds
interval ; but there may have been some little variation in differ-
ent places.

(3) The shock travelled from west to east, roughly. This
is not only away from the region of greatest intensity, in the
United States, but is parallel to the general strike of the geo-
logical formations in Nova Scotia affected.

(4) It was felt with special severity along the line of the
triassic estuary.

(5) It was more effective along the strike than across it.
It was felt-on the south coast, and again on the north side of
the gold-bearing series for a long distance ; while there is no
information of its occurrence in the inland zone between.

(6) Its intensity apparently decreased eastward.

(7) There appears to be a close relation between intensity
and the presence of intrusives. The zone of greatest disturb-
ance isa long and very narrow east and west belt, from Yar-
mouth to about Kentville. This zone is occupied largely by
triassic sediments, and bounded on the south by the plateau
composed of siluro-devonian and gold-bearing strata, prob-
ably pre-eambrian. On the north is the triassic trap of North
Mountain; and the old rocks to the south have, near the

IN NOVA SCOTIA.—WOODMAN. 235

escarpment of the plateau, the northern edge of the great west-
ern granite massif, which runs from near Windsor to a point a
short distance east of Yarmouth.

(8) The line of disturbance on the south shore of the pro-
vince remains unaccounted for. Additional data may show the
back country to have been affected, or they may not.

(9) No information whatever has been given by observers
underground or on the water. It is particularly desirable that
data should be collected from these two sourcés, with a view to
establishing direction and relative intensity of shock, and
character of sensation, as compared with observations in
houses.

ON THE AGE OF THE CONGLOMERATE CAPPING THE CAMBRIAN
Rocks oF Nova Scotia.—By Henry S. Pooue, D. Sc.,
Assoc. R. 8. M., F. BR. S0C., Halafan.

(Read 16th November, 1903.)

Patches of a compact conglomerate, in places exceedingly
hard to excavate, occur resting on Cambrian strata at various
heights, in the neighborhood of Halifax. As the surface soil is
generally thin, it is easily seen that the exposures are of
detached masses, outliers of a deposit that originally must have
extended to a considerable elevation. How wide was the range
of the deposit has yet to be determined, but the variation in
height cannot have been less than two hundred feet, counting
from points well up on the peninsula to discoveries under water
at Richmond shipping wharves. This range in elevation and
location agrees with the investigations made by Mr. Walter H.
Prest, ") at Bridgewater on the LaHave river; and the deposit
bears, in some points, similarity to one found under like con-
ditions, well away from the coast at Gay’s River.” This
conglomerate early attracted attention for the gold which it
contained, and it was shown by Mr. C. F. Hartt in 1864 to
underlie the limestones and plaster of the Lower Carboniferous
age.

Dr. D. Honeyman, speaking of the Digby shore near the
border line of Yarmouth County, says: “I recognized the
strata at Cape Cove as a counterpart of the Carboniferous
auriferous conglomerate and breccia of Gay’s river in Colchester
County,” (Trans. N.S. Inst. Nat. Se., vol. v., p. 240); while
Dr. Bailey, referring to the same deposit, calls it post glacial®).

(1) Trans. N.S. Inst. Nat. Sc , vol. v., p. 240.

(2) Ib, vol. vii., pp. 42 and 4f. :
vol. v., p. 328 refers to the Grand Lake “ prehistoric pottery” showing
modern DOnerations:

(3) Bailey Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., vol. ix, M., 74.
(236)

CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF NOVA SCOTIA.—POOLE, 237

On September 24th, 1878, this Institute had an outing of its
members‘ and the secretary reported that on following the
shore from Purcell’s Cove towards Falkland village, on the
western side of Halifax Harbour, “ attention was directed by Dr.
Honeyman to a conglomerate recently formed by the accumu-
lated debris of granite, gneiss and slate cemented with oxide of
iron derived from pyritous gneissoid rocks.”

In volume vii of our Transactions for 1886, p. 44, Dr.
Honeyman refers to a remnant of Lower Carboniferous con-
glomerate, resembling that of Gay’s river, occurring near Grand
Lake station, that reaches within a short distance of the rail-
way. The glaciation of the argillite surfaces around, shows,
he says, the nature of the agency that has been at work in the
isolation of this remnant of the Carboniferous period.

These views of Dr. Honeyman were written subsequent to
his paper of November, 1885, on Glacial Action, wherein, on
page 254 of the Transactions, vol. vi, he treats of the breccia
at the head of the North West Arm, east side; and that lying
between Richmond and H. M. Dockyard on the west side of
Halifax Harbour. This he considered to be like other conglom-
erates, formed by the action of sea agency, and which he was
disposed to regard as the remains of an ancient formation, e. g.,
Carboniferous. Now he says he is persuaded that the rock is
a glacial debris, cemented together by oxide of iron. Sections
indicated the breccia filling the hollows of the underlying
argillites.

On putting these various references together, it would appear
that while Dr. Honeyman notes the strong similarity of the
isolated and lowest of the deposits which directly rest on
.Cambrian strata, he classes some as belonging to the Lower
Carboniferous period and others as of the Pleistocene, but how
he distinguishes between them he does not explain.

(1) Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., vol. iv, p. 491

238 AGE OF CONGLOMERATE CAPPING THE

No detailed consideration has been given to this basal deposit
in the writings of Dawson and Belt or in the reports of Professor
Bailey and Mr. Faribault for the Geological Survey of Canada,
and the only paper we have had bearing more than superficially
on the matter is one by Mr. W. H. Prest on the Glacial Succes-
sion of Central Lunenburg; a paper that shows careful examina-
tion of certain deposits met with in the actual course of pros-
pecting for gold leads under the guidance of experience and a
study of the latest literature on glacial phenomena.

Mr. Prest correlates the Halifax rock with the Bridgewater
conglomerate which he classes as the most ancient, one that
formerly masked a large part of the province, covering the
country to a considerable depth, as in the LaHave valley he
found it from sea level to two hundred feet above it. It isalways -
in contact and cemented to the bed-rock and almost immovable
without the aid of dynamite, and yet in spite of its extreme
hardness, it has been excessively divided and now is left only
in patches. In origin as glacial, he considers “the presence of
striated boulders testifies with no little weight, and from a
northern source proved by its contents, which consist of slate
from near by, quartzite from the northwest, granite from the
central watershed, diorite from the south side of the Annapolis
valley and trap from near the Bay of Fundy. In no more
striking manner can its immense relative antiquity be illustrated
than by comparing its highly oxidized condition with that of
the overlying till.’

So far no deposit of this character has been detected near
Halifax to rest on the granite intrusions, and this, perhaps, is
not a matter of surprise, for the binding material that cements
the stones together is iron oxide, evidently derived from the
decomposition of pyrite which is prevalent in much of the
graphitic strata. Indeed it is considered by the stone workers
of the place that a similar action is now going on where trickles
of water pass rusty from nodules of pyrite. The binding
together of the coarse material composing the conglomerate in

CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF NOVA SCOTIA.—POOLE. 239

question, has been very thorough, and the rock, strong and
durable, is in marked contrast to the rest of the superficial
drift classed with the Pleistocene which ordinarily about Hali-
fax shows little trace of cementation, although Mr. Prest found
interbedded bands of bog iron ore and cemented gravels in the
LaHave till.

As to the time of deposition, the general impression among
observers has been that the formation as a distinct rock was
subsequent to the earliest period of the ice age, when the older
rocks were rubbed down, furrowed and scratched by the pas-
sage over them of stones in the grip of Pleistocene ice. Now
the object of these remarks is to ask for a reconsideration of
this generally accepted view, and offer reasons for thinking that
the age of the lowest of some of the deposits on the Cambrian
may belong to a period more remote than the Pleistocene—a
conclusion that would be very effective in a consideration of the
vast antiquity of the main physical features of this province.

In composition much of the conglomerate appears to be
largely made up of fragments from the slate group of the
Cambrian. <A granite-pebble was found with some quartzite at
the Halifax Dockyard, but only a few well-worn pebbles and
small boulders of quartzite were detected in the conglomerate
on the Dartmouth shore. Very possibly the patches of con-
glomerate owe their preservation largely to their position on
the slates whence came the ferruginous cementing water, while
it may be that the original extensions of the same deposits on
the granite and quartzite, where there were no cementing
waters, more readily suffered erosion and were removed. This
point wants looking into, in order to read aright the full story
which this rock has to tell of past conditions. The few quartz-
ite stones that were noticed at Dartmouth were some three
hundred yards south from the edge of the quartzite group cross-
ing the Narrows, and being well water-worn contrasted with the
slate stones of the bottom portion of the deposit, which were

240 AGE OF CONGLOMERATE CAPPING THE

excessively weathered but angular in shape, and forming a
breccia of local and untravelled fragments.

All who have seen the contact on the Dartmouth shore have
noted the very ragged surface of the slate under the conglomer-
ate, how excessively weathered it is, the sharp edges of the
ridges standing up in a shattered condition and gradually blend-
ing with the mass of ‘breccia filling between them the V-shaped
gullies and fissures to a depth of several feet. The lower por-
tion of the deposit is undoubtedly local and distinctly brecciated,
while the upper part is of fragments more or less water-worn,
but still strongly cemented together. There is no gradual pas-
sage into the loose condition of ordinary till. Im very marked
contrast with the weathered surface under the breccia is the
eroded and often striated slaty lip of the depression that retains
the deposit at this place.

If a rapid review of the Atlantic coast be made, we have in
the extreme west a conglomerate deposit on the slates at Cape
Cove which Dr. Honeyman considered Lower Carboniferous.
On the LaHave there is one regarded by Mr. Prest as the oldest
glacial and of great antiquity ; at the head of Chester Basin are
other deposits of conglomerate associated with Lower Carboni-
ferous limestone ; at Halifax there are conglomerate outliers of
an age now up for discussion, while at the outlet of Kelley’s
Lake, near Grand Lake, and Gay’s River, are deposits hitherto
accepted as Lower Carboniferous. Then on the Cambrian and
Pre-Cambrian of the seaboard of Cape Breton at Gabarus, Flam-
boise, etc., there are, according to the Geological Survey, out-
lying patches of Lower Carboniferous strata.

Most of the known patches of this conglomerate about Halt:
fax rest on a highly weathered surface without trace of marine
denudation or glaciation; but of the deposit itself at LaHave
Mr. Prest has pointed out that the stones of the upper portion
are striated and therefore glacial. Hence, he has concluded
that his Bridgewater conglomerate is not Lower Carboniferous
but the very earliest deposit of the Pleistocene.

CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF NOVA SCOTIA.—POOLE. 241

There are two typical exposures in this neighborhood
worthy of close study. One is made by the railway cut-
ting at the entrance of North street station, and the other is
across the harbor on the Dartmouth shore opposite the Dock-
yard. Both clearly show weathered slate ridges rising up
shattered and settling to blend with the breccia filling the
intervening fissures.

The Halifax conglomerate occurs at the Imperial wharf at
Ferguson’s Cove and northward in spots to the last exposure of
rocks near Purcell’s Cove; on the west side of the North West
Arm about Melville Island; on both sides at the head of the
Arm, and half way up the hill on the side of the road to
Chain Lakes. Again on the Dutch Village road near the Three
Mile House; in the railway cutting out of North Street station,
and on the shore of the harbor north of the sugar refinery at
Richmond. At the latter spot the conglomerate is twelve or
more feet thick and is seen to rest on a smoothed and much
striated surface of slate. Ata greater elevation in the railway
cutting mentioned, the glacial abrasion has not removed the
previously weathered and shattered rock surface of a preceding
age, and a cemented breccia occupies the ancient runlets and
V-shaped channels in the weathered slates identical with the
exposure of the conglomerate at sea level on the opposite Dart-
mouth shore. When one considers the durability of the slate,”
and the very slight decomposition it has undergone on the
uncovered glaciated knolls, and then note the great depth in
these rocks to which the pre-glacial weathering extended before
the deposition of the conglomerate, one is forced to extend an
extreme age to the pre-conglomerote cycle of exposure.

The student of glacial phenomena will be interested in
noting in the drift composing the islands of Purcell’s Cove,
transported blocks of this conglomerate indicating the comple-

(1) The durability of the slate of this region is well illustrated by the tombstones

made of it and set up one hundred and thirty years ago, They show the light lines
scratched for the guidance of the sculptor as sharp as though made recently.

242 AGE OF CONGLOMERATE CAPPING THE

tion of a cycle of conditions which terminated in the disruption
of the conglomerate deposit and its transportation in the moraine
matter that came along the edge of the granite from the north-
westward. Also in excavations in mounds on the north side of
Tower Road, Halifax, where rusty and cemented slate fragments
form a distinct layer over the dark blue slate debris which
rests directly on the uneroded slate surfaces.

The generally accepted supposition that the conglomerate
outhers are all of one age, may be met by an assumption that
among the basal conglomerate of the Lower Carboniferous some
may have been glacial deposits. This is no new view, but the
evidence so far obtained is said to be inconclusive. In this pro-
vince we have on the Cambrian rocks conglomerates associated
with plaster and limestone of unquestioned Lower Carboniferous
age as at Chester Basin. Mr. Fletcher’s report on Cape Bre-
ton,') speaks of scattered patches of conglomerate, etc., resting
on pre-Silurian felsites—many of which he has no doubt are of
Carboniferous age. To that horizon also are placed the con-
glomerates resting on the Cambrian rocks at Gay’s River, ete.
It seems. therefore, reasonable at least to suspect some of the
conglomerate outliers on the Cambrian in the same range of
country, may be also older than the Pleistocene.

In the paper already cited, Mr. Prest puts forward the
importance of these deposits and the bearing they have on the
study of auriferous washings, and it is to be regretted that
other records have not been made in the same thorough way.
when tracing float or auriferous drift to its source in the near-
by solid lead.

However much observers may differ as to the age of this
lowest of the unconformable deposits on the Cambrian rocks,
all must be agreed that the physical features of the province,
as we now have them, were already rough hewn before the
deposition of the lowest of the Carboniferous, and that what-

(1.) Rept. Geol. Surv. Can., 1877-8, F., p. 23.

CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF NOVA SCOTIA.—POOLE. 243

ever the extent of subsequent deposits may have been succeed-
ing cycles in their denudation, did little more by their removal
than revert to the Cambrian surface of the Pre-Carboniferous
peneplane. The lines of main drainage are of subsrial erosion
established. before this period, and the general surface suffered
comparatively little by the subsequent passage over it of the
ice sheets, beyond the removal of much, but not all, of the
weathered and broken superficial material. The patches of
deposit we have been considering in their relation to the Cam-
brian at various elevations, make probable such a conclusion.

A visit paid to the neighborhood of the head of Grand Lake
and to Kelly’s Lake, lying back of Wellington station, disclosed
a conglomerate cemented with bog iron ore at the crossing of
the abandoned old road over the brook from Kelly’s Lake. At
the outlet of Kelly’s Lake, apparently daming back the waters
of the lake, occurs the conglomerate referred to by Dr. Honey-
man. It surface was seen to be rounded and a good specimen
was obtained smoothed and grooved. The character of the
rock, with its hematitic pebbles, bears a striking resemblance to
some of that about Gay’s River, and left no doubt in my mind
that it also was, as Dr. Honeyman regarded it, of Lower Carboni-
ferous age, while the deposit lower down the brook was Post-
Pliocene. The contact of the upper rock with the Cambrian
slates was not found exposed, but the strip appeared to be quite
narrow, while it extended for a quarter of a mile or more to the
westward. Other exposures of the bog ore deposit are reported
to occur in the neighborhood, and west of Wellington station.

During the past summer, attention was directed for com-
mercial purposes to deposits of bog iron ore which occur in a
strip of country two miles wide along the south side of the
Musquodoboit valley. These deposits are in low swampy
depressions of the blue black graphitic and ferruginous slates of
the Lower Cambrian, east and west of the Caribou gold district
with which they range.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Scr, VOL. XI. TRANS.—Q.

244 CONGLOMERATE CAPPING CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF N. S.

Deposits were found at Newcomb’s Corner, Fall River, etce.,
in a conglomerate largely made up of bits of slate, and prospect-
ing licenses extended some twenty-five miles.*

REFERENCES.

Prest (W. H.)— Surface Deposits of the western part of the Province, &c.
Trans. N. S. Instit. Sc., vol. ix, p. 163, &c,

Bailey (L. W.)—Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., vol, ix, M, p. 74.

Honeyman (D.)—7yvans. N. S. Instit, Nat. Sc. (See foot notes to this paper).

Faribault (E. R.)—Gay’s River Conglomerate. Sw. Rep, Geol. Sur. Can.,
1891, p. 39.

Selwyn (A. R.C.)—Gold Fields of Quebec and Nova Scotia. Rep. Geol,
Sur. Can., 1870-1, pp. 252-282. :

Selwyn (A. R. C.)—Gold Mining in N.S. Trans. Can. Mining Instit.,
vol, 11, 1899, pp. 162-6.

Hoffman (G. C.) - Rept. Geol. Sur. Can., pt. R, vol. xi, p. 24, (Nos. 16 and
17, analyses of two specimens of conglomerate from LaHave
River.)

Chalmers (R.)—The Gold-bearing deposits of the Eastern Township of
Quebec. Can. Mg. Review, Feb., 1897, p. 74.

Becker (G. F.)— Wiwaters and Bankets with notes on other golc-bearing
pudding-stones (Gay’s River Conglomerate). U. S. Geol. Sur.,
rSth Ann. Rep., 1896-7, part v, p. 178,

Fletcher (H.)—Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., e. g., 1877-8, p. 23-4 F.

Specimens.—Auriferous Conglomerate of Gay's River ; Provincial Museum,
Halifax ; H. S. Poole col , 1873.

“In the Summary Report of the Geological Survey for 1903, Mr. Faribault mentions
eleven localities from which bog iron ore was obtained, and which yielded to Dr.
Hoffmann an average analysis of the whole eleven specimens no less than 52 per cent.
of metallic iron. See Sum. Rept., 1903, p. 185.

On A DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL
MaGNeEtTismM aT Hawirax, N. S., Aucust, 1904. By
Pror. STEPHEN M. Dixon, M. A., Dalhousie College,
Halifaz.

(Read 21st November, 1904.)

The observations of the Magnetic Elements recorded in this
paper were made at Point Pleasant, Halifax, August 25 and
26,1904. The magnetometer and dip circle used were obtained
through Professor C. H. McLeod, from McGill University, the
chronometer was lent by Mr. C. G. Shultz and the theodolite
by Mr. W. A. Hendry, C. E.

As it is hoped that these observations will be followed by a
complete magnetic survey of the Maritime Provinces, and as
this is the first time the matter has been brought before the
Institute of Science, a brief sketch will be given of the
phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. In preparing this sketch
the writer has borrowed largely from the Magnetic Declination
Tables and Isogonic Charts by Dr. L. A. Bauer. The practical
importance of one of the elements, usually called by land
surveyors the variation of the compass, cannot be overesti-
mated in this province, where those who are interested in land
and mine surveying know the trouble that is continually arising
on account of the neglect of this very matter. In other coun-
tries terrestrial magnetism has been studied in connection with
geology and many interesting discoveries have been made.

-Magnetic surveys have led to the devising of magnetic methods
in prospecting for iron ores. To the student in physics and to
the astronomer, the subject is equally interesting, on account of
the relation of surface changes on the sun to variations in the
earth’s magnetism. The subject then is of general interest and
its importance has been emphasized by the establishment, in
December dast, by the trustees of Carnegie Institution, of a
Department of International Research in Terrestrial Mag-

(245)

246 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

netism. Dr. L. A. Bauer, Chief of the Division of Terrestrial
Magnetism, U.S. Coast Survey, was appointed to control this
department and an annual grant of twenty thousand dollars
alloted to carry out the work.

Magnetic Declination.

In Europe the science of terrestrial magnetism began with
the discovery of magnetic declination in 1492. In this year
Columbus, on his first great voyage, found that except in certain
places the compass needle did not point to the pole and that the
angle it made with the true meridian varied from place to place.
Eighteen years later, in 1510, George Hartmann made the first
recorded measurements of magnetic declination on land. At
Rome in this year, he found the declination 69 E. and at Nurem-
burg 10° E. In the succeeding years many observations of
declination were made, and in England the first work published
on the subject was by William Borough, “A Discours of the
Variation,’ in 1581. In this book the value of the declination
at London for 1580 is given as 10° 15’ E. By such observa-
tions all over the earth, at sea and: on land, the declina ion was
noted, and in 1599 Simon Stevin published at Leyden, under
the patronage of the Dutch admiral, Count Moritz, a list of
magnetic declination determinations. This early interest in
magnetic observation has been kept up by the Dutch. At home
and in their colonies magnetic work has been carried on
energetically, and at the present day the survey of Holland is
the most complete in Europe. Dr. L. A. Bauer has published “a
very complete list of magnetic declination observations made
before the year 1660, and points out that the declination over
the greater part in Europe in the sixteenth century was east of
north.

Dip.

The second element of the earth’s magnetism, the inclina-

tion or Dip, was discovered by Robert Norman, an instrument

s (1) Magnetic Declination Tables for 1902, by L. A. Bauer. U.S. Coast and Geodetic
urvey.

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904.—DIXON. 247

maker and hydrographer of London. Norman published his dis-
covery in a treatise called “The Newe Attraction,’ printed in
1581, and gives the value of the dip at London in 1576 as
71° 50... Norman’s discovery had been anticipated by George
Hartmann, for in a letter to Count Albert of Prussia, March 4,
1544, in which he recounts his observations of the declination,
he mentions that the needle, besides deflecting towards the east,
alse pointed downwards. Hartmann, however, did not suspend
the needle so as to observe the dip correctly and only recorded
an amount of 9° instead of about 65°, the value he ought to
have found.
Intensity.

The third element, the Intensity of the earth’s magnetic
force, was first measured by William Whiston. In 1720 a prize
was offered for the best way of determining longitude at sea.
Columbus, in 1592, had first suggested using the lines of equal
declination for determining longitudes, but Gilbert, who pub-
lished his great work “De Maznete” in 1600, proposed to
determine longitude by variations in the angle of dip. Whiston,
taken with this latter theory, constructed many dip circles, and
as a result of his observations, showed how the intensity with
which the earth attracted a magnetic needle varied from place
to place. As a matter of convenience, it is the horizontal com-
ponent of the earth’s magnetic force that is measured, and the
unit in which the measurement is made is called a gauss, after
the celebrated physicist who first showed how the absolute
intensity of the earth’s magnetism might be found.

Secular Change in Declination.

A magnetic survey of a country aims at making determina-
tions of the three elements at a sufficient number of suitable
localities. But when such a survey has been completed, if the
value of any one of the elements is compared with that deter-
mined at the same place on some previous occasion, a difference

248 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

in the values will be found, and the assumption of Gilbert of
the invariability of ‘the variation’ will be found untenable.
In 1634 Henry Gillibrand made a determination of the declina-
tion at Deptford and found it 4° 6’ E, whereas Borough and
Norman had noted 11° 15’ E as its value in 1580. Ever since
the announcement in 1635 of this discovery, this so called
secular variation has been carefully studied, but the cause is
unknown and Gillibrand’s words are still true, “it must all be
left to future times to discover.”

The changes in declination may best be studied by construct-
ing a diagram showing graphically the results of observations
at any one place. The curve shown in the figure has been
drawn by Schott and represents the changes observed at Paris.

7

aS 7a EN

al
|_|
eal
|_|
gi
|_|
gi
| |
z
| |
ei
|
N
fa
|

C. A. Schott’s curve showing changes in magnetic declination observed at
Paris since 1540,

When such curves are drawn for different places their
various forms impress us with the difficulty of discovering the
laws according to which this secular change takes place, and it
is evident that the changes in the other elements must be
studied at the same time.

(1) U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1882.

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904,—DIXON. 249

TIsogonic Charts.

For practical purposes the secular changes in declination have
long been studied. Owing to the use of the compass made in
navigation the ‘ variation charts’ must be always up-to-date, as
in cloudy weather the seaman depends altogether on them and
on his compass. On land the surveyor should be able to find the
declination and then running his course by geographical bear-
ings, avoid the trouble such as has already been caused in this
province by using the compass without recording ‘ the variation.
Variation charts are made by drawing on them lines passing
through places where the declination is the same—isogonice lines.
Halley, the celebrated astronomer, was the first to publish these
charts, though this method of mapping lines of magnetic declina-
tion seems to have been used by Christoforo Borri. Dr. Bauer
in 1895 discovered in the British Museum a copy of Halley’s
first chart, published in 1701, on which were marked the results
of Halley’s observations taken in the Atlantic on the Paramour
Pink, a vessel equipped by the British government for the first
systematic survey, 1698-1700. In 1702 Halley published
a second chart, on which were marked the isogonic lines for the
Indian and Pacific oceans. The map on plate 24 gives the
isogonic lines as determined by Halley, and on plate 25 are given
the isogonic lines for 1905 as computed by the British Admiralty.
On tracing these lines in either chart, we notice the two lines
of no declination, or agonic lines, which separate places having
east from those having west declination. The very irregular
distribution of equal values of declination is easily seen, the
chart for 1905 showing the remarkable circular agonic line in
China.

But except on land we have little real knowledge of these
isogonic lines. “No magnetic data have been obtained on the
ocean areas since the advent of iron ships, except from occasional
expeditions. Our present lines of equal magnetic declination
over these waters depend almost entirely upon data acquired in

250 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

wooden ships fifty to one hundred years ago.” — For this rea-
son, part of the programme of the Department of International
Research in Terrestrial Magnetism is a magnetic survey of
ocean areas. It is probable that very serious errors exist in
these charts near the coast lines of the continents. When the
declination has been determined at a large number of stations
over a small area, the isogonic lines are found to be very
irregular and the easy curves drawn on charts merely indicate,
as a rule, the general positions of the lines. On the coast of
Nova Scotia, on several occasions, shipwrecks have been attri-
buted to an unknown variation of the compass, and it has been
stated that the last great disaster at Rockall, when on the 29th
of last June the Danish S. 8. Norge was wrecked and about 600
lives lost, was due to the same cause. In Natwre of Sept. 15th,
Dr. August Krogh, of the University of Copenhagen, calls
attention to this fact and publishes letters from two captains
who state that they have observed changes in the magnetic
declination to an amount of from 9° to 11° in the neighbourhood
of Rockall.
Declination and Land Surveys.

The importance to the land surveyor of an accurate know-
ledge of the magnetic declination and its changes has been
already noted. In many cases the value of the declination at
the time when a survey has been made has not been recorded,
and in some cases, doubtless, the land surveyor has but hazy
ideas of the value of the declination and its changes. Much
time and money has been already wasted in disputes over old
lines, and still the method of describing lines by these magnetic
bearings is in use in this province. The author suggests that
true north and south lines should be laid down in all the
principal towns, so that surveyors might test their compasses
and note the changes in declination from time to time in the
particular localities in whieh they were working. Such a line
was laid down at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,

(1) L. A. Baver. Terrestrial Magnetism, March, 1904.

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904.—DIXON. Zor

by order of the Surveyor General of New Brunswick in October,
1874. In the year 1898, a magnetic survey of North Carolina
was made by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the
North Carolina Geological Survey. During the survey meridian
lines were established in the county towns, and the county
commissioners were so impressed with the value of the work
that in many cases they paid the field expenses of the survey.

Daily Variations in Declination.

Besides the great secular changes in declination we find
several small changes—periodic or irregular. The first of these
—the Daily Variation—was discovered in 1722 by Graham
who, from a series of several hundred observations made at
London, found that the declination varied during the day. The
average value of the are through which the needle swings is
about eight minutes, the true declination oceurring about 10.30
a.m.and 8 p.m. At Fort Conger in Grinnell Land an extra-
ordinary value of 1° 40' has been found for the daily variation.

Annual Variation.

The second of the small periodic changes to which the
declination is subject, is that known as the Annual Variation,
and is found by tabulating the monthly values corrected for the
secular changes. The average value for Toronto is about
half a minute. There is alsoa Lunar Variation, but this is even
smaller than the annual, being only about 15 seconds from the
mean.

Irregular Changes in Declination.

Besides these periodic changes in declination, it has been
found that owing to so called magnetic storms, the magnetic
needle is often violently affected. In these disturbances the
maximum deflections of the needle from the mean position range
from about 20’ and a variation of 2° observed at Mantilik in
1896 and an extraordinary deflection of 20° 1’ recorded by

(1) Lat. 64° 53’ .5 N., long. 66° 19’ .5 W.

252 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

Greely as observed at Lady Franklin Bay, 1882. A serious
effect of these magnetic storms is alluded to in a recent paper
by Sir Norman Lockyer, who says, speaking of ‘the well
marked coincidence’ between the variation of magnetic effects
and the quantity of spotted area on the sun, “This in later
telegraphic days is not merely a pious opinion which does not
interest anybody, because when the magnetic changes are very
considerable, and the disturbances arrive at a maximum, it is
very difficult to get a telegram from London to Brighton.”
During the great magnetic storm of Oct. 31, 1903, telegraphic
communication in Spain was interrupted from morning’ till
midnight. At 3 hrs. 20 min. the cable from Cadiz to Teneriffe
was so perturbed that the clerks grounded it to avoid the dis-
charge. This storm at Falmouth, England, was also of excep-
tional violence, the declination magnet there swinging through
an are of 2° 2... That there is a connection between disturb-
ances on the sun and magnetic storms is undoubted, but Lord
Kelvin, reasoning from the immense amount of electrical
energy which the sun would have to give out if it alone were
the cause of these disturbances, concludes that great magnetic
storms cannot be due entirely to the direct action of the sun.
“The probability is that a solar ray endowed with greater
or less energy than ordinarily and of the necessary kind acted
as the ‘trigger to the gun’ to set off mighty electric forces
whose presence in the upper regions is becoming more and more
manifest every day.’ Some of the effects of this solar influ-
ence have been noted, it is thought, during total eclipses. Dur-
ing the eclipse of May 28, 1900, members of the U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey noticed a slight magnetic effect which
might be attributed in some way to the changes produced in the
upper atmosphere when it was shielded from the sun’s rays.
To try to settle this question, an extensive series of observations
were made during the eclipse of May 17, 18, 1901. The obser-

(1) Paper presented to the International Meteorological Committee at Southport,
Sept. 11, 1903, by Sir Norman Lockyer, K. C. B.

(2) U.S. Declination Tables for 1902. L. A. Bauer, p. 56.

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904.——DIXON. 253

vations were taken at stations all over the globe, but only three
of these were in the belt of totality. The results do not seem
conclusive one way or the other. At Karang Sago, the Dutch
observers noted a slight change in declination and in horizontal
intensity, and at Sawah Loento, the party sent by the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology observed a slight decrease of
east declination at a time when there is normally an increase.
These effects did not extend far outside the belt of totality. On
the other hand, nothing particular was noted by the observers
at the Mauritius, a station directly on the belt.

It is hoped that further information will be obtained on this
interesting question at the total eclipse next August. In this
eclipse the belt of totality will pass over part of Labrador and
so will be easily accessible. It is evident that observations out-
side the belt, but not far from it, in Quebee and Nova Scotia,
will be of great value.

The Dip and its Variations.

When a magnetic survey is made and the dip is measured in
different localities, it 1s found to vary in value from place to
place and from time to time. When the lines of equal dip are
plotted, we find them not nearly so irregular as those of equal
declination. One of these lines, that of ‘no dip’, the so called
magnetic equator, circles the earth not far from the geographical
equator. Along this line the dip needle remains horizontal, and
at all places north of it the north pole of the needle points to-
wards the earth, and the south pole of the needle dips down at
places south of this line, the dip continually increasing towards
the poles. The north magnetic pole is in Boothia Felix, and in
1851 Ross believed that he reached it, the exact position
recorded for it being latitude 70° 05’ 17” N. and 96° 45’ 48” W.
longitude. At this place Ross found that the needle pointed
vertically downward. Little was known about the south mag-
netic pole till quite recently, and the results of the observations
of the recent Antartic expedition are awaited with interest.

254 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

Captain Scott, of the Discovery, the British vessel which took
part in this expedition, besides establishing a record for farthest
south, latitude 80° 17’, reached a point on the line between the
south magnetic pole and the south pole in November 1°03. The
secular changes in the angle of dip are much less than those in
the declination. At London the dip reached a maximum of 74°
42’ in the year 1720, since which time it has continually
decreased, being 67° 9’ in 1900. Daily and annual changes in
the amount of dip are also noticed.

Changes in the Intensity.

As with the other elements, so the values of the Intensity
varies from place to place, and we find that the points where
the intensity is greatest are not coincident with the magnetic
poles, but that there are two northern “ foci of greater magnetic
intensity” and two southern. The secular changes in total
intensity are small. At London it was -4791 gauss in 1848
and ‘4736 in 1880, since when it has been increasing. The daily
and annual changes are very sinall.

Terrestrial Magnetism and Geology.

When a complete survey of the three magnetic elements—
declination, dip, and intensity—is made over a considerable area,
most interesting geological results are often obtained. The first
such survey was that of the British Isles, made in 1836-1838.
This survey was repeated in 1857-1862 and again on a great
scale in 1884-1892, observations being made at 882 stations.
The results of this survey were published by Sir Arthur Riicker
in 1896 and one section of his report deals with the “Relation
between the Magnetic aad Geological Constitution of Great
Britain and Ireland.” In this report it is shown that where
large masses of basalt occurred the north pole of the needle tended
to move towards them even from a distance of over 50 miles.
Hence, if local attraction is found where no magnetic rocks
appear on the surface, it is probably due to concealed masses of

2

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904.-—DIXON. 255

magnetic rocks and “ the lines which we draw on the surface of
a map as those to which the north pole is attracted, may, in
fact, roughly represent the ridge lines of concealed masses of
magnetic rocks.” — In all countries such magnetic ridges have
been noticed, and geologists now recognize fully the great
importance of magnetic work. As an example of this, it may
be noted that the magnetic survey of Maryland was inaugurated
by the State Geologist, Professor W. B. Clark, and a very large
share of the expenses was borne by the Maryland Geological
Survey. - This survey, which was carried out by Dr. L. A.
Bauer (1896-1900) is by far the most complete in America, in
fact the only country which has been surveyed with more detail
is Holland.

In Japan, a recent magnetic survey has been made (1898-
1896) and the three elements have been measured at more than
320 stations well distributed over the Islands. This survey was
carried out under the Earthquake Investigation Committee and
the results were published this year.” The maps have been
so arranged that it is possible to compare the distribution of
magnetic force with the geological structure of the country.

Magnetic Prospecting for Iron Ores.

Riicker’s observations on the assistance to be derived from
magnetic surveys in studying the geology of a country, were
anticipated in 1843 by Van Wrede, who first saw that mag-
netic work should furnish valuable information with regard to
the location of magnetic deposits. Practically nothing resulted
from this till in 1879 Professor Robert Thalen published a
paper “On the examination of iron ore deposits by magnetic
measurements, and since then much work has been done in
this direction in Sweden. In Canada also some valuable work
has been done by the Geological Survey and Department of
Mines. In the geological report for 1903° we find an inter-

(1) A. W. Ricker, Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. iii, p. 42.

(2) A magnetie survery of Japan, epoch 1895. A. Tanakadate. Journal of the Col-
jege of Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, 1904.

(3) Summary Report of Geological Survey of Canada for 1903, p. 122.

256 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF TERRESTRIAL

esting account of the method employed for mapping the Tem-
agami iron ranges. Observations were made of both dip and
declination with the Thilen-Tiberg magnetometer and_ the
formation was traced over a distance of 14 miles, even through
swamps where there were no outcrops. In several places the
surface was stripped to confirm the observations. This work
and a more accurate survey of the north-east iron range were
carried on by Mr. Erik Nystrom, assistant to Dr. Haanel, Sup-
intendent of Mines. The first account in English of Thiilen’s
method has been published this year at Ottawa by Dr. Eugene
Haanel.”
Work of a Magnetic Survey.

Sufficient has been said to show the importance of mag-
netic surveys. With regard to the work of a complete survey,
it will be evident that three seperate undertakings are necessary,
first, the determination of the elements at a sufficient number of
stations properly situated to furnish reliable information over
the whole area ; second, the establishment of ‘repeat’ stations,
where the observations can be repeated from time to time so that
the secular changes may be noted ; and third, the establishment
of magnetic observatories so that the diurnal and annual changes
may be determined and non-periodic disturbances marked. These
observations, except in mining districts, would be of a temporary
nature, observations being taken at them only so long as the
surrounding district was being surveyed. In Germany such
observations have for many years been maintained at some of
the chief mines and in these are taken photographic records of
changes in the declination so that the mine surveyor may take
the exact value of the quantity at the time he is running any line.
Several permanent observatories are also needed in Canada, and
one of these should be in a suitable position in these provinces.
The observatory at Torontois the oldest in America, having been

(1) On the Location and Examination of Msgnetie Ore Deposits by Magnetometric-
Measurements, by; Eugene Haanel, Ph. D. ;

(2) The Gerard College Observatory, Philadelphia, was the first magnetic observa.
tory in America and was in operation from 1840-1845.

MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX, AUGUST, 1904.—DIXON. PAS

in operation since 1841. In the United States one permanent
observatory has been established recently, that at Cheltenham,
Md., and the Coast and Geodetic Survey has also in its
charge three other well equipped observatories, Sitka in Alaska,
Honolulu in Hawaii, and Baldwin in Kansas. The first
two rank with the Cheltenham as permanent observatories, the
Baldwin observatory being merely a temporary one.” Several
other permanent observatories are in contemplation.

In the old world, the number of magnetic observations is
being continually increased. In a short time there will be eight
permanent observatories in France; the Japanese have six in
operation at present.

The choice of a site for a permanent observatory is a very
difficult matter. It is very hard to find a convenient locality
which will not be invaded sooner or later by electric car lines.
And it has been shown by Dr. Edler in 1899, that an observa-
tory must be at least five miles from an electric tram line and that
for delicate research work the distance must be twice as great.
Of the great European observatories, that of Potsdam alone has
been able to carry on its work properly on its original site, and
this is owing to a decree of the Emperor, which forbids electric
tram lines coming within 16 kils. The other observatories
have been already moved or are seeking new sites. It is only
a few years since the site of the Toronto observatory had

to be changed for the same reason.

The Observations at Point Pleasant, Halifuz.

The observations of the elements were made at Point
Pleasant as being a station which could be easily occupied
again The position was marked by a concrete pillar sunk 4
feet in the ground in which was bedded a copper plug. The
observations were taken between 2 a. m. and 4 a. m. on the
mornings of August 25, 26, 1904, so that there might be no
local disturbance owing to the running of the electric trams.

(1) Magnetic observations of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1902. Bauer and
Fleming, Washington. 1903.

258 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AT HALIFAX.—DIXON.

A small electric hand lamp was used for reading and for
illuminating the cross hairs when determining azimuth.

Results.
The Declination was found to be 21° 2’, local time 1h. 40 m.
a.m., Aug. 26, temp. 15° C.

This value has not been corrected for daily variation, the
amount being undetermined for Halifax. This correction would
be very small, as for all stations south of the 49th parallel it is
found that the yearly average diurnal variation is at a mini-
mum at about 2 a. m., being 0°0 at Madison, Wis., and 0°5 at_
Toronto.

The value of the Dip found was 73° 58; this was the mean
of two sets of observations, 74° 00’ and 73° 55/.

The Horizontal Force was found to be 1624, Aug. 25, 1904,
local time 3 a. m., mean temp. 13°°8 C.

The Azimuth was determined by observations on Polaris,
these reductions being made by the tables published in the
U.S. “ Manual of Instructions” issued by the Commissioner of

the General Land Office.

Isogonie Lines 1 Nova Scotia.

The table below gives values of the declination in the Mari-
time Provinces collected from various sources and from which
the isogonie lines have been sketched on the map in plate 26.
It must be remembered that owing to the small number of
observations, it has been impossible to obtain more than
approximate values for the secular change, and so the reduction
of the observed values to the present year is only approximate.
No attempt has been made to indicate the local variation, since so
few reliable observations have yet been made, and so the curves
show no irregularities. The map shows, however, the general
direction of the isogonic lines in Nova Scotia and is drawn to
point out the very great variation in the value of the declina-
tion in the province.

Table

TERRESTRIAL

showing

MAGNETISM

AT

HALIFAX—DIXON.

259

recent determinations and computations of

Magnetic Declination in the Maritime Provinces.

Lon. W.| Lat. N. | Date Declination. Recorder. Notes.

60 00 | 45 55 | 1900 ERAS ee eAtaCharti anaes Decreasing slightly.
60 12 46 09 1896 24 53 |G. R. Putnam*......

60 12 | 47 26 | 1900 DT MDS ges oven ieegee ee Brae fiat

60 23 | 46 17° | 1397 24 49 |J. H. Orlebar* ......

60 25 | 46 05 | 1897 Qt 45 Us Seer

60 47 45 33 1881 24. ola BeAGtGhanie--iecccns Decrensing 1 annually.
GL 00 | 45 25 | 1881 24 00 oe cr aes

6L 00 45 08 1900 23 20 TY eene, So ehnFe vets colsneve Stationary.

6L OL 45 3) 188l | 23 96 S. W. Very*

GL 20 | 46 4o | 1892 252550 2 (Bs Ace Chart) mois. Stationary.

6L 20 45 40 1881 24 10 ni she einen eeetrices Decreasing I annually.
61 40 | 45 0g | 1902 22 49 |E R. Faribault ....

6l 41 | 45 11 | 1904 dons) Aa ChALBE I sada. Slightly decreasing.
61 50 | 47 15 | 1833 22 36 |H.W Bayfield*

62 25 | 44 44 | 1904 Zee 50 ee Ae Charters Stationary.

62 33 | 46° 11 1843 21 58 |H. W. Bayfield*....

62 40 | 44 40 | 1892 QUE ON ae eAri@har titers ses

62 40 | 45°42 | 1841 20 19 '|H. W. Bayfield* ...

625953) |" 44-33 1892 Divgd sy alb An@hartue st or

63 08 46 14 1898 23 40 |Nfd. Survey* ......

63 20 45 15 1892 Bi o-00 ear @harture< coat Stationary.

63 20 | 44 30 | 1893 21 30 Hae Soe Pe ‘

63 20 46 30 1845 21 45 |H.W. Bayfield*....

63 22 44 42 190) 21 24 W. B. Dawson* :

63 36 44 47 1881 Pie Gl “ ees

63 43 16 34 1845 21 00 |H. W. Bayfield* =...

63 43 46 15 1840) 20 18 " as

63 48 46 24 1341 2) 12 "

63 50 46 10 1841 20 00 tt eee

63 53 44 52 19))1 VANE UY f KH. R. Faribault ...

64 00 45 30 1900 ego eib. A. Chante: ote. = Stationary.

64 03 4§ 48 1845 21 -10 H. W. Bayfield* ....

64 05 41 18 1904 20 On B. A. Chart ...... .| Stationary.

64 08 45 00 1881 Die bee Sas Wee Clyne we eae

64 2 44 20 1902 20 00 KE. R. Faribault ...

64 23 46 15 1839 19 59 H. W. Bayfield*

61 24 44 o4 1904 19 30 By A’ ners mates ets Stationary.

64 40 45 03 1900 QO mrt ec tee, sults wee se ee "

64 43 L745 1838 PALS EB? H. w. ‘Bay field* oe

64 43 43 50 1904 19 OD Bo Ac Chart ua... Stationary.

64 49 46 43 1839 19 50 H. W. Bayfleld*

65 Oe 43 10 1904 18 10 BoAwGhartiieccccus.: Increasing 1!’ annually.
65 00 45 50 1900 19 40 Stationary.

65 O04 47 06 1857 21. 24 Ueda Orlebar* aceite

65 10 43 35 190t 18 35 Bia Chanta.-penne Stationary.

635 31 44 44 1881 19 27 SAL es ae ee

63 39 44 53 1886 20ze 10; 1B. eA Chart es.re- 2s. Increasing 13’ annually.
65 40 43 45 1895 ipa Fitts pale A recto abe Stationary.

65 40 45 30 1838 16 538741) 0s Wal KIMSOMG a.

69 53 43 30 1838 Sr a Oa bad rena a oats sae cote Increasing 1’ annually.
66 00 45 15 1859 18 16 P. F. Shortland.

66 00 44 24 1881 18 43 Se We Viena a. ets

66 00 45 00 1895 19 00 BA Ohlins. Stationary.

66 03 45 14 1866 19.223 Jats Orlebye* 5-2 f

66 07 43 50 1881 Ve AG SAW. Men Ves: 2.05

66 10 44 35 1904 19 10 B2A=. Chartie:. a2:

66 30 44 35 1897 1949)" SAM Dixonyascs. =

66 38 45 16 | '1790 li 00 B Land Offic ...

66 38 45 16 1879 19 oa Brydone Jack ......

66 38 | 45 16 1892 20: 21S. ME Dixon 222 s5.:

67 30 47 00 1875 21 00 'N. B. Land Office...

* From Tables of Magnetic Declinations, by L. A. Bauer.

PRoc.

& TKANS. N.

S. Instr. Scr, VOL.

XI.

THE FAULTs OF BatreRy Point, SYDNEY, N. S.*—By T. T:
Futton, B. Se, B. E. (Mining).

(Read kth March, 1904).

The field work for the following paper was done during the
spring of 1903, in the course of studies pursued in the Summer
School of Dalhousie University.

The section under discussion is situated at Battery Point,
Sydney, Cape Breton. It extends from a point 200 feet south-
of the old railway pier, for about 1,000 feet in a southerly
direction. The faulted area begins 134 feet south of the begin-
ning of the outcrop, and is about 400 feet long. Some faults,
which in the accompanying section are shown as extending to
the top of the cliff, may lessen or die out toward the surface ;
for the strata are not always easy to correlate.

The rocks are in the Carboniferous Limestone (Windsor)
series. They are largely gray calcareous shales, with bands of
coneretionary clay ironstone, which vary from a few inches to
eighteen inches thick.. The ironstones have been employed to
determine the displacements, as they are easily distinguished.
The average strike of the strata is N. 42° W. (mag.), and the dip
11° N. The face of the cliff, near the top, is in many places
covered with talus, which rests upon especially resistant strata
that stand out below. It is this talus which makes it impossible,
in some instances, to determine whether the faults pass unchanged
to the surface or die out. In a few cases the latter condition
Was seen, in many the former. No other outcrops are available
to determine the extent of the faults along the strike.

“Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University—Geology

and Mineralogy.
(260)

FAULTS OF BATTERY POINT, SYDNEY, N. S.—FULTON. 261

The following table gives the data for each fault, beginning
with No. 1 on the the extreme north (left, in the section) :

Section Number. Class. Strike. Dip. Displacement.
di ereed he Normal. Noe? is. 48° S. 4”
VE) Up aera ‘ EH. —W. 5OeaS: 27
Ts eee: as N. 48° E. 60° S ae
EV... ss Ne 70°" Ei: 40° S$ die
Viae sss s N. 48° E. 60° S Be
afl AS ae ef N. 80° E. 50° S 33"
Wel ae Pena & N. 70° W. 48° S ee
NED Aas Reverse N. 54° W. 68° N. oe
XE a N. 48° W. T2eINe A tea 4
Ree, ss N. 75° W. 62° S. 5"
2G pees Z N. 68° W. 44° 8, ae
2 () Faerie Normal N. 82° W. G2 N: 4”
GG ee ey a NE fou, Wi 58° S. De
EDN ee & N. 45° W. 82° N. “tg
RVs ef N. 62° W. 60° S. exe
DIG CER Ear « N. 82° W. 58° S. ae
MV TESS eo ¢ N. 82° W. 85° N. 3°
ARNG ses Reverse. N. 68° W. 85° N. 6”
RONG es Normal. N. 60° W. LOOIN. 1’ 8’
MO te everse, ©: NOOR W: 68° N. 2 Oe
ONE ee, Normal. N. 88° W. 42° 8. l’ 6’
RE re Reverse. N. 86° W. 58° S. 6”
G0 il aaa Normal. N. 70° W. 70° N. 6”
NOTIN Fos, N. 85° W. Dod: ae
DEVE ee ee N. 80° W. 38° S. 6”
DON ss es e N. 80° W. 62°S. LO?
»:D-Sig 0 ae es N. 78° W. 58° N. 4”

SUBSIDENCE OF THE ATLANTIC Coast oF Nova SCcOogIA.
(Introductory to a paper by Mr. MeIntosh)—By HENRY
Ss Poor: DosesaeGs:
(Read 21st December, 1903.)

When the question of modern subsidence of this country is
mooted, reference is invariably made to Louisbourg as a spot
where evidence of an undoubted character has been obtained.
This view has been accepted, and, so far as is known, remained
unchanged for forty years. It is hence entitled to the respect
which goes with age, and has to be met, if it can be, by argu-
ments as weighty as would be required to establish a simi-
lar reputation for a new locality. Yet this is an age when the
reverence for traditions saves but few from re-investigation and
criticism, and this one regarding Louisbourg, is, I consider, open
to such a treatment.

It appears that the parent source of the statement respecting
Louisbourg was a paper by Dr. Abraham Gesner, entitled,
“ Elevations and Depressions of the Earth in North America.”
It was published in vol. xvii, page 386, of the Journal of the
Geological Society of London, 1861; only one hundred years
after the second and final fall of the great fortress on which
France had spent so many millions of franes to maintain her
hold of possessions in North America. Now when a further
period nearly half as long has elapsed, we are justified in expect-
ing that the evidence that carried conviction to Dr. Gesner
forty years ago, would be intensified and be now patent to all
observers. On my own part, a casual acquaintance with the
old town extending over the life of a generation, has left with
me no confirmatory impression, and lately led me to seek for
data on which the accepted conclusion has been based.

Dr. Gesner’s remarks were as follows:—“ Had Louisbourg
continued to exist up to the present time, its abandonment
would not have been the less certain; for the sea now flows
within its walls, and overflows sites that were formerly inhab-

(262)

SUBSIDENCE OF ATLANTIC COAST OF N. S.-—POOLE. 263

ited. Its submersion is plain and distinct. The rock upon
which General Wolfe landed has nearly disappeared. The
waves break against the south wall, which they have under-
mined and thrown down. .. . . . each succeeding tide flows
freely into the northern side of the deserted city. The lands
westward also bear testimony to an extensive submergence.”

A year ago, having heard that Mr. K. McIntosh, of St.
xeorges Channel, Cape Breton, had lately made a survey, the
first accurate one ever made of the old town and its fortifica-
tions, and knowing that he was a man of exceptionally keen
discernment, and withal a student of science, I obtained from
him the statement which is here appended.

This statement I submitted to Major O. C. Williamson, R.A.,
who has made a critical study of fortification and the fads of
each school and period, and he appended a few comments which
accompany it. ‘These, he would have extended, had he not
been suddenly called to take command of a battery in
India. However, coming from so good an authority, they may
be regarded as convincing that the French engineers purposely
built their foundations down to the level of low water; and
therefore that the partial submergence now noticed is no evi-
dence of subsidence subsequent to the building of the fortress.

There is still to be considered Dr. Gesner’s paper as a whole.
The statements accompanying those relating to Louisbourg treat
of the general question regarding recent elevation and depres-
sion includihg the quarternary period. These remarks of his
should be now read in the light of modern ideas on the
changes that occurred during the glacial epoch, and the sharp
distinction that has to be drawn between the movements of
the land in relation to the sea as a base level, acting in a verti-
cal direction, and wave erosion which makes a constant and
destructive lateral advance on our coast. It is clear that Dr.
Gesner did not carefully distinguish the actions of the several
agents of a destructive character that have been at work on-
the shores and structures at Louisbour g, and it would seem he
has imputed to the former changes that have been brought
about by the denudation resulting from the latter agency alone.

So far as Louisbourg is concerned, I submit there is there
no evidence of subsidence within historic times.

THE QUESTION OF SUBSIDENCE AT LOUISBOURG, CAPE BRETON.—
By Kenneta McIntosu, C. E., St. George's Channel,
Richmond Co., N.S.

(Read 21st December, 1903.)

Engaged during a portion of the year 1901 in making sur-
veys on the site of the old fortress of Louisbourg, Cape Breton
Co., N. S., I incidentslly took somewhat copious notes of topo-
graphical features, and although I made nothing in the nature
of a contour survey, still I am satisfied that the result of my
work is a plan, which, simply as a plan, is in some respects
instructive.

During the current year, 1903, I received a letter from Dr.
Henry S. Poole, on the reputed subsidence of land in the neigh-
borhood of Louisbourg, and asking for my impressions on this
question.

This being the first intimation I ever had that a recent sub-
sidence of land in that region was regarded by anyone as a fact,
I was under this disadvantage, viz., that my observations,
although copious, were not made with a view to throwing light
on this subject.

However, upon carefully scanning my notes taken on the
ground, I find it difficult to surmise upon what observed facts
the conclusion of subsidence could possibly be based.

In this connection, it will, of course, be understood that we
are utterly waiving any discussion of the subsidences and ele-
vations of the remote past, and that we are dealing with the
hypothesis of a subsidence in present progress, and it is scarcely
necessary to state that the question can only be decided, if at
all, by a comparison of the present height above sea level of
some portion of the shore which has neither been built nor worn
away, with its elevation above tide level at some remote period.

(264)

QUESTION OF SUBSIDENCE AT LOUISBOURG, C. B.—McINTOSH. 265

I am of the opinion that there are some features of the forti-
fications at Louisbourg yet remaining, by which we can make
a test of this point.

The peninsula upon which the fortress was situated has so
frequently been described that I need not give any lengthened
description of it, but it would appear necessary to note certain
features of a topographical and geological character.

Extending from the historic White Point easterly to Black
Rock, the whole shore is an alternation of beaches of rounded
cobble-stones and of hard enduring rocky reefs, the remnants of
redoubts belonging to an overpowered battle-front of the coast.

Inland along the same line there is an alternation of gravelly
hills and low flat peat-covered swamps, almost wholly destitute
of trees, and at a point nearly due south from the citadel of the
fort there is a continuous stretch of swamp formed of peat of a
depth varying from one to probably over six feet, and rising
from an elevation but little above ordinary tide to a maximum
height of twenty to thirty feet at the foot of the southern
glacis.

Rochefort Point, the eastern extremity of the peninsula, is a
rotk about fifteen feet in height, thinly covered with soil, but
from it along the harbour shore towards the west, bed rock, ex-
cept in the sea ledges, disappears, and the northern portion of
the ruined town and fortifications is evidently situated on a
considerable depth of glacial drift, more of the nature of gravel
than of clay.

On consulting a plan of Louisbourg,* dated 1745, by Lieuten-
_ ant R. Gridley, of Pepperell’s Artillery, we will observe a pond,
with a beach of considerable extent, lying between it and the har-
bour. At the southeastern extremity of this pond was erected the
Maurepas Bastion. It would be more correct to state that this
bastion was built out in the pond, since the waters of the pond
surround it on its front, its left flank, and its rear—and its

*A copy of Grialey’s plan is in the Provincial Museum, Halifax, N. S., anu a
reproduction of itin Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada, vol. ix (#891), see. 2, plate 4.

266 THE QUESTION OF SUBSIDENCE

position is such that the beach to the north of the pond might
well serve it as a glacis.

From the Maurepas Bastion towards the south, a wall, a
moat, and another bastion—the Bourillon—completely covered
the neck of the isthmus at this point.

Although any argument based on a comparison of the
heights of the pond and of ordinary high tide, must necessarily
be inconclusive as to the question of subsidence, still the
hypothesis does not derive support from the fact that the bot-
tom of the sluiceway, at the western extremity of the pond, is
now sufficiently high to carry away the waters of the pond at
all but abnormally high tides.

At present, however, a barrier of sand and stones lies across
the point of exit, and the drainage of the pond is by filtration
through the gravel of the beach, and this latter fact gives rise
to some reflections of a general character.

In the case of ponds along the ocean shore, separated from
the ocean by a beach, and into which no brook of any consider-
able volume empties itself, this percolation through the sand is
sufficient in the ordinary case to prevent the waters of the
pond from overflowing the beach. We have frequently observed
cases of this kind. And it may, too, be observed, that in the
case of any particular pond of this class, a certain fixed relation
exists, under normal conditions, between the height of the
water in the pond and the mean level of the ocean water outside.

The waters of the Bras d'Or Lake as compared with the
Atlantic Ocean, although a regular channel connects them, are
subject to this very law, and the stone structure at the St.
Peter’s canal locks is arranged with regard to this condition.

The reasons for this state of things are to my mind so plain
that I do not consider it necessary to explain them.

I trust Iam not making too long a step in the reasoning
process here introduced if I state that any elevation of the
Atlantic Ocean with reference to the Island of Cape Breton, or

AT LOUISEOURG, CAPE BRETON.—-McINTOSH. 267

better to illustrate our case, any depression of the Island of
Cape Breton with reference to the ocean, would have the effect
of correspondingly submerging islands and promontaries in Bras
d'Or Lake, provided, of course, that the rivers flowed as_ before,
and the channel connecting Bras d'Or Lake with the ocean did
not have an increased or a decreased capacity. Briefly, grant-
ing the conditions above stated, the relation of waters as to .
height would remain the same as before, even supposing the
mean height of the lake water was some feet above the mean
height of the ocean water in the first instance.

Let us now apply this law to the case of the pond at Louis-
bourg. The flow of water into the pond is small, and cannot
have changed for centuries; its present way of egress is, at
any rate, not more free than when a sluice-way connected the
pond with the Atlantic Ocean; consequently any subsidence of
the general area must be accompanied by a corresponding sub-
mergence of all objects standing out in the pond. Yet if my
memory does not deceive me, the gorge of the Maurepas Bas-
tion presents the same little pond in the plan by Lieutenant
Gridley, made in 1745, that my notes present in the year 1901
—there is no evidence of subsidence. We will now direct our
attention to the neighborhood of the sluice-way, at the western
extremity of the pond, and I will first state the facts as they
appear: at this end of the pond, and extending for some dis-
tance along its rorthern shore, the land, instead of being a
desert of sand and shingle as is the remainder of the beach, is
covered with grass to the line of wave action, and there are
still remaining, in its grassy swells, those characteristic zig-zags
so puzzling to the unmilitary eye, and upon which French mili-
tary engineers spent much thought one hundred and _ fifty
years ago.

Carrying our investigations further towards the waters of
the harbour we find a line of post-stubs, showing their ends
above the rounded beach-rocks, and here, again, the character-
istic zig-zag presents itself. Further investigation reveals the

268 THE QUESTION OF SUBSIDENCE

fact that the intervals between posts were planked and walled
with stones. If we have an unusually low tide, however, we
can sce a most interesting exposure. A structure of close-faced
cribwork presents itself. I should prefer to call the structure
cellular since the intersections of axe-hewn timber are at inter-
vals of about three feet, and a ledge of concrete still remains in
the beach overlying the timber structure.

The cribwork structure above referred to will be found to
have two faces presented seaward forming an angle of about
125 degrees, and the apex of this angle is at present som what
below the level of the lowese tide.

The lines of posts above referred to are continuations of
these sides ; and extending from the apex along the face of the
structure towards the west is a row of piles of round timber
driven as closely as possible to one another. This, in brief, is
what remains of the “ La Greve” or Beach Battery.

Turning again to the Atlantic coast we find a line of post-
stubs similar to those existing at the site of the Beach Battery,
lying between the Prince’s Bastion and the sea, and continuing
its zig-zags northerly towards the Bourillon Bastion, and for
some distance southerly towards Black Rock; and opposite the
extremity of the moat which fronts the Prince’s Bastion are still
to be seen in the beach the planks which formed the sluiceway
by which the waters of the moat escaped into the Atlantic
Ocean, and if the moat were in practical use today that sluice-
way is sufficiently far above tide level to perform the service
for which it was originally intended. Owing to the fact that
the ground originally at the point referred to was quite low,
and that the ground had evidently been taken from a distance
to raise the glacis, it is obvious that there existed a necessity
for leaving as small a margin as possible between the bottom
of the sluiceway and ordinary high tide mark. This, to my

(1) The Vaubon system of fortification used by the French, demanded a most
pedantic and fixed proportion between hvights and slopes of glacis and main work, so
[suspect the moat was made at as low a levelas possible There i; a similar French
moat at Mauritius where there has been no subsidence.—Major O. C. Williamson, R. A.

AT LOUISBOURG, CAPE BRETON.—McINTOSH. 269

mind, leaves but a very narrow margin of possibility for the
truth of the hypothesis of subsidence.

Let us now return to the Beach Battery, and here we can
anticipate the questions: Why does that battery appear par-
tially submerged today? Why should the French engineers
build batteries out in the sea when there was sufficient dry
land upon which to build thein /

To the first question we can easily reply, that the fact that a
row of ordinary piles was driven along its northern face has in it
more than a mere suggestion that the structure was originally
placed out in the water. There is the additional fact that the
timbers which constitute the cribwork structure do not he
horizontally. but. wherever they are exposed they are found to
have a seaward slope corresponding closely to the slope of the
sea floor upon which they rest. If placed on dry land these
timbers would in all probability be placed horizontally.

But as synthetic reasoning demands an hypothesis capable
of embracing all the observed facts, I would in answer to the
second question invite your attention to the supposition that the
Beach Battery was buiit to combat another foe besides the
British.

Reference to a present day plan of the harbour will show a
conspicuous concavity in that portion of the beach lying south-
easterly from the position of the battery and a prominence at
the point where its remains are to be found which must strike
the eye of the most casual observer.

These facts taken in concert with those already enumerated
in this connection seem to justify the following retrospect :—
The beach was gradually wearing away, and its drift caused by
the eroding action of the ground-swell arising from easterly
gales was constantly travelling along the shore towards the
west. This must be stopped and the wisdom of the engineer
who planned this structure has its monument in the fact

(2) In fact an ordinary “spur” for preventing denudation and not a fortification at
all, in original intention at any rate.—Major O. C. Williamson, R. A.

270 QUESTION OF SUBSIDENCE AT LOUISBOURG, C. B.—McINTOSH.

that the grassy mounds raised on the shingly inner slope of the
beach by the labor of man are today green, but are gradually
wearing away as their artificial faithful protector yields to time
and the warring elements.

In view of the considerations above stated it seems plain,
to my mind, that the partial submergence of the Beach Battery
today does not necessarily constitute an argument in behalf of
subsidence.)

It seems to me not a partizan view of the case to say
that the assertion that land on the eastern sea-board of Cape
Breton had subsided, could much more easily go unchallenged
were there no Louisbourg in the case with its ditches, its ruined
curtain walls originally placed within easy reach of the ocean
spray, and its batteries, as probable reference points to serve as
data from which to judge of terrestial stability or change,

(3) Such a ‘‘spur” would, if artificial, naturally subside in time.—Major O. C.
Williamson, R. A. ,

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CANADA, 1903.—By A. H.
MacKay, LL. D., F. B.S. C., Halifax.

(Read 9th May, 1904).

OBSERVERS ETC. FOR THE Frrst TABLE, Canapa, 1903.

Nova Scotia: The average of about 300 selected schedules,

Prince Edward Island: Mr. John MacSwain, Charlottetown:

New Brunswick : George U. Hay, D. Sc., F. R. S. C., Saint
John; J. Baxter, M. D., Chatham.

(Quebec: Miss A. M. Dresser, Francois Xavier, Brompton,
Richmond Co.; Miss J, M. Varney, Richmond, Richmond Co.

Ontario: Cephas Guillet, Ph.D., Ottawa; Mr. A. B. Klugh,
Guelph, Wellington Co.; Mrs. F. E. Webster, Creemore, Simcoe
Co.; J. H. Elliott, M. B., Gravenhurst, Muskoka.

Assiniboia: Mr. Thos. K. Donnelly, Pheasant Forks.

Alberta: Mr. Percy B. Gregson, Blackfalds.

British Columbia: J. K. Henry, B. A., Vancouver.

The first table of phenochrons contains the observations of
this staff of observers at the stations indicated, the observations
being confined to the “time when first seen” except where
indicated in a few cases.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, Second TasBLeE, Nova Scoria, 1903.

The second table gives the phenochrons for each of the ten
biological regions into which the Province of Nova Scotia has
been provisionally subdivided, each phenochron being the average
of a few or many observations within the region. Over 300
selected schedules of observations are represented in this sum-
mation.

The schedule of the school teachers who directed the
observations at each school were sent in at the end of the
school year to the Inspectors who transmitted them to the
Superintendent of Education for the province, who in turn
submitted them to the following staff for criticism, selection,
and compilation into “belt” and “region” phenochrons. The

(271)

2972 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CANADA, 1903.—MACKAY,

eritical comments of each of this staff of phenologists were pub-
lished in the April Journal of Education, 1904, pages 74 to 81,
for the benefit of the observers for next year.

PHENOLOGICAL REGIONS AND ComprILers, Nova Scotia.

Region I. (Yarmouth and Digby Co.): Principal A. W.
Horner, Yarmouth.

Region II. (Shelburne Co.): Principal C. Stanley Bruce,
Shelburne.

Region II. (Queens Co.): Miss Minnie C. Hewitt, Science
Teacher, Lunenburg Academy.

Region IT. (Lunenburg Co.): Principal Burgess McKittrick,
Lunenburg.

Region III. (Annapolis and Kings Co.): Principal Ernest
Robinson, Kentville.

Region IV. (Hants Co.): J. E. Barteaux, Science Master,
Truro Academy.

Region V. (Halifax and Guysboro Co.): Principal G. R.
Marshall, Halifax.

Region VI. (Cum. and Col. on Cobequid Bay): J. E. Barteaux,
Truro.

Region VIT. (Cum. and Col., North slope): Principal E. J.
Lay, Amherst.

Region VII. (Pictou and Eee ne Co.): W. P. Fraser,
Science Master, Pictou Academy.

Region VIII. (Richmond Co.) : Principal Geo. W. McKenzie.
Sydney Mines.

Region VIII. (Cape Breton Co.) : Loran A. DeWolfe, Science
Master, North Sydney.

Region IX. (Victoria Co.) : Loran A. DeWolfe, M. Sc., North
Sydney.

Region X. (Inverness Co. sloping to Gulf): Loran A.
De Wolfe.

The compilations of this staff were further reduced into the
form Lai in the second table, “'The Phenochrons of Nova
Scotia, 19038,” by Miss Jean Lindsay, B. A., Halifax. The
phenochrons of the several divisions of the province, as well as
the individual schedules are bound into annual volumes for
preservation and the convenience of future phenological students.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CANADA, 1903—MACKAY. 273

In previous reports attention was called to the phenological
work in other countries, especially that of Mr. Edward Hawley,
F. R. Met. Soc., V. M. H., in England; of Dr. Ihne of Darmstadt,
in Europe: and of the public school work of Michelsen and
Mathiassen in Denmark, on Nova Scotian lines. Nothing
strikingly new has appeared during the year abroad or at home
in this department. The Marine Biological Station of Canada
under the directorship of Professor Ramsay Wright of Toronto
University, was working at Malpeque in Prince Edward Island
during the year. Incidentally botanical work was done, more
particularly the determination of the microscopic flora on which
the oysters of the region feed. Mr. A. B. Klugh of the Welling-
ton Field Naturalists’ Club published valuable botanical papers
during the season, and the Guelph Herald distinguished itself
by the publication of an interesting series of botanical and
other natural histor y articles and notes from members of the
club. The Ottawa Naturalist had a specially valuable series
of articles on Nature Study. The Journal of Enucation of
Nova Seotia functions as the organ of the phenological observ-
ers of the province. The bibl liography of Canadian Botany
for the year was presented to the Royal Society in a special
report as usual.

The botanical nomenclature used is that of the latest edition
of Gray’s Manual, and the names of the birds are those of the
American Ornithological Union.

The tables are also published in the proceedings of the
Royal Society, as a part of the report of the Botanical Club of
Canada.

[At the date this is going to press (Jan. 1906) it is satisfactory to see that the
annual date instead of the mensual date is beginning to be used in Great Britain by
Mr. Edward Mawley, F. R. Met. Soe., V. M. H., as can be seen in his valuable and
interesting *‘ Report on the Phenological Observations for 1904.” The Nova Scotian
system now used throughout Canada, and demonstrated to beso clear and space.
saving in some of Mr. Mawley’s tables, is undoubtedly the simplest system for the
notation of dates and the recording and calculation of all phenochrons, individual,
special and general. In Germany and Denmark a step has been taken in this direction
by utilising the dates of the spring months for obtaining averages, means or ‘‘ middle
dates.” But this method confines comparisons to different series of phenochrons for
each month. The ‘‘annual” dates forma single series for the year; and after very
little use become as full of meaning as the popular ‘‘day of the month,” and very
much more convenient for recording and averaging].

274 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1903.
OBSERVATION STATIONS.

Sus ile f 4
Dpondilggs ontte Mab ay] Gal oe ee jaa |Elg |3\s
of each month. S3\5 x“ ed S S ara z G 5 a pa
Jamie aa 31. July PAD ay |e EME seca ett ced ae a | &
Pepa ae be Aug... 240s Sil ee |e ei) Sytner ies ateate
8 March .. 90 Sept ..273 ice See Ss) yl ice Nee sales
= April ...120 Oct..... 3127 ea/ S|S ils) ble l2)1 8) 2 lad 4/9
=| May ....151 Noy ....3344°°| 6 Dale 3 9S 8 Si s|e2\3 ES =
5 June... 1h Dee ....36 4 |G |BIGiGISEISIS ISIS EA lale
1 |Alnus inecana, Willd ...... 104|....}....| 109] 84) 73} 99! 80 106|....)*119)..
2 |Populus tremuloides ..... AITSHSTZS es conte lied Sask been 90| 90 106) 133) 130)...
3 |Epigeea repens, L.......... TOD | VSI rel 11S (9S TOO let OMe ODI coe peel aaa
4 |Equisetum arvense........ Pl anollaes8 ol GY] (sone| laude ajesctelloeiest|= DLO M2 preteens Los | GU)
5 |Sanguinaria Canadensis BOG | see |e | emai cee [Poem PELOO gec
Gu Vaolayblanda; 125-2. 12 eee 132) 113, 119} 117) 112)*132] 107)...-
7 | Viola palmata, cucullata .| 123)....| 129) 143] 120) 122) 118) 118)*119] 116}....| 140
8 |Hepatica, triloba, etc ..... DNS | eallar al yer ba | ee 98 eS eer 0 |e COT ea aren ee OU teen
Qa -Acer rubrum pice nes 126} 137)....]| 121) 119} 107) 104) 97)....} 106].- -|....| 96
10 |Fragaria Virginiana -.. .. 124) ....| 129]... | 119} 100} 112] 118]....| 105} 124) 144)...
11 - ** (fruit ripe)| 163}... |..-.] 179] 148) 151] 150) 158)....|....| 178) 17()....
12 |Taraxacum officinale..... 126) 142)....| 141) 119] 116] 109) 90)*100) 106) 133)....
13 |Erythronium Americanum| 133!....| 129) 143 112) 113) 107) 116/*100 104)...-}....].
14° Coptis trifolia.. 7.000... 131)....] 136} 143] 106}....| 120] 118 UG) .5 sail tere yl rotons
15 |Claytonia Caroliniana..... IPB laced osal Wee Genoa sees tect Nisan al see s|t nO) te A=
16 |Nepeta Glechoma.......... ITN cise leeices! Sant eetesloaae] ba Cellonde|lsapmiicews [anoles --|; 20s} —
17 |Amelanchier Canadensis .| 140]....| 136) 135] ...]... | 119] 129]*129) 124 149) 148). .
18 cd \(Eruit ripe)|196|oe-cl ce |e |e wae le a edaleer AOS! © e8| Snr eae) Opal Ges tetotars
19 |Prunus Pennsyivanica....|} 143]....| 151]....| 132] 124) 128} 132)*134) 127) ...| 144) 120
20 = SPMLLULG TUE) | 21S ae eal ae |e eel ees eel eA,
21 | Vaccinum Can. and Penn.) 141)....} 145} 143)....|....) 119] 120) .. | 122)....
22 % 2 (iri eipe) OG eel | tere ate hetero) eee | resents | ale eres
23 |Ranunculus acris. ........| 148]....|....} 136) 141 os 136] 136)....| 140) 119} 166
PA tell agen x2) 0(2) (eo BLO BE GIOLOD OOO Nya aioe, AN oterot| se perc all EL OUD he prea, | lee
25 |Trillium erythrocarpum ..| 147} ...| 136) 143} 134) 116 *126) 115]....| 131)...
26:|\Rhododendron: Rhodora. \.\\145) 2-53); 143) 85. loo. sinerae|qe es |e = «= |f- nel] ie all tet edie

* When becoming common.

+ The phenochrons for Nova Scotia are the averages of over 300 selected schedules,
the fractions being omitted. In some of the schedules from the Western Provinces of
Canada, the cognate western species are taken as indicated exactly in previous reports.

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA, 1903.—MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1903.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

75

Day of the year 1903 corres- g la; 4 $ :
ponding to the last day $¢| . ; ieee 2 5 is & o
of each month. Iss § a . Baligels\ z = aie

Mics ane ge Sie |S alas |S) o (8) siecle | ©
S |March.. 90 Sept....273 ZS LA & iS = Ogle eakscniice a ae S 2
A [Apa ted Oct... Be Saree] S/S) a} 2/8/31 8 | = lea] 3/8
= |May t : Saha ales o|s Sis
y |June....181 Dec ... 365) + 16 |S i/S/E/1/215 lc putes alien |
27 |Cornus Canadensis..... .. Jl VEG a Gy iee sel lasas *140) 143 146

23 fs “(fruit ripe)| 208 Soe EEA | ocean [Ge et PZ 198

29 |Trientalis Americana 150 “151! 157| 119] 150| 135] 144 144

30 |Clintonia borealis 152 151) 167 *142) 135 144) .

31 |Calla palustris .......... 159 155| 149} 117} 154'. 141).

32 |Cypripedium acaule ..... 159 167 147 E150 ean |p oO le rw lfeerersil Sans
33 |Sisyrinchium augustifol’m| 160}. 179} 139} 119} 138 158 166} ..
34 |Linneea borealis ......... 167|. W72\' W183) 5. . | 149] 149i es, | W543
35 |Kalmia glauca ............ 150!. 162 147}. IB lsueslloan o|foo0c
36 |Kalmia angustifolia ..... 168). 179} . 161

Sia CratceecusiOxvacanbiNarceeci) LOL LO2| ete alee cello) Irae) | (eset acres AS. Nsvetots| | ees

38 ‘Crateegus coccinea, etc....! 156'. oe 29 ie -ca leone |Peccrace | Wetate earexote! [tarsus
Bo LriSsvCrsiCOlOten. c-.jeceie n= 170}. 155 157}.

40 |Chrysanthemum Leucan. | 166.....|....|...-]..-. *156} .. 149}.

41 |Nuphar advena........... fe Sop |Ectes 142). slate 158} .

42 |Rubus strigosus........... 1 8 leecal oral teat 141) 145:*156) 141" 173)... }..-
43 ee te (fruit ripe)| 214). 2: |---|. -..|... 186} . 210

AAR MANGAUSLCLISGA=S AULT sar | LT fejetore lim edere [b> teres eerah- | tov etaliate eral =i e | escvereil terete [f=

45 |Rubus villosus ........... 166... AA eas 148) 149|*161} 141). 126
46 s * (fruit ripe)| 241 206)...

47 |Sarracenia purpurea ..... eee Dace inden aerial anise *161) 144)...

48 |Brunella vulgaris........-. 172}. DO | orev | eeerere 159} 154 153} ies

AQ WROSay LUCIO ag ecric si oe so - ie ee 153| 145). 166) 165) 164) 162
50 |Leontodon autumnale 5 ot IP aaa eames (ects ones) eee bene ieee loco! eares
51 |Linaria vulgaris .......... Ii} al laced aetna oral ene 35) Urol Sc oe | oeeeesl Cel leicio| acces
52 |Trees appear green........ 138! Pee Neccenl taser cece L2G NEL SS EN S2 Bre oe heres arabnatey hel falaters
53 |Ribes rubrum (cultivated) 42. eae oeahew ss AGS es eels Bo sap aek

* When becoming common.

+ The phenochrons for Nova Scotia are the averages of over 300 selected schedules

the fractions being omitted. In some of the schedules from the Western Provinces of
Canada, the cognate western species are taken as indicated exactly in previous reports.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INst. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS. S.

ad

276

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1903.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

3
Day of the year 1903 corres- = a Pe et all 2
ponding to the last day|% 3| ~ srl ase 3 5 ae Ne et
of each month. SSIS |w [Alsi sé eee, Tee Al ea ferg
as Sle Se ie ees as Nis) PRS IS eee
Jan = SL DMY, |. SZ12| NS a AeA meee] eee eo a oes lees
SWCD. i 59 Aug.....22/he/8 |: |¢/8/E/S/S] 8] 2lesisl 2
9/2 e| - « aa
© |Mar.... 90 Sept... 2738/25/54] & | 3 ate ach | Pep al ee fete ai) eh]
q {April ...120 Oct ....3019 5/2 5/0/42) 5/8)/F/B/ 8] 2 22 8] 8
EB yMay:...151 Nov... aa/2e1g9 3 |e] 8 a gis) 8 | 6 esp siin
y, |June....181 Dec... 36574 [SF [HI S|SIZISISIOIC EL lale
54 |Ribesrubrum (fruit ripe)| 199 moe 210 eines
55 |R. nigrum, (cultivated) 1 2 fee) Vee) (a NN aN I a Wit (ee ae be lene cl at)
56 # (fruit ripe)} 210). 193 RTSZ he scl eee
O(N Eranws, Cerasuse ence o- 147| 160)... 1 By] |e al Atel Le BoD) feteetel eee 109
58 Se H (ewiti ripe) |=205| sees alt et eal tee [Sets lessee
59 |Prunus domestica ........ STS SO SAVE 129) 2S |e eee |r alg
60) (Pyrusimalusires spe cae 151} 157|...-|....}| 136) 131] 131 *132). 117
61 |Syringa vulgaris ......... 162} 166}....| 158) 142} 139 | iis al 130
62 |Tr:folium repens .......... TGR AA eee 149 lige 143 164} 133
63 |Trifolium pratense ..... 160) - - 149) 141) 139.... 147). 139
64 |Phleum pratense .......... G4 ae eae oicarcl le senel| lca Seon laeee loBaol dese lear ollaxeciloace
65 |Solanum tuberosum ...... 182! . eo) ees ME = gal kos WRC al lies ae sls
66 |Ploughing (first of season)} 113]....].... 121} 80) 89 91} . 93] .
67 |Sowing, oe DOS Zileri ete 129} 117 1d ...| 105 103} 96).
68 |Potato-planting ‘ OR Bose loon) (beee 145, 126) 142,....} 138). 127| 115) .
69 |Sheep-shearing ‘“ 129 TBS sais aes esse 152) 166).
|

70 |Hay-cutting oa 200). .. fi sacle 199| 220).
71 |Grain-cutting “ a8 230 ere PAV lenge locsu|loaae 246| 228
72 |Potato-digging ‘ ae aerapiicyro heres: | eers4| leas 278 274) - 265; 220) .
73a| Opening of rivers “ MA SS easel Sone tale 671- 105} -
73b|Opening of lakes ‘ SU ees ol Meal eae BB ees | acres | tees ese | reer 128
74a| Last snow to whiten gr’nd} 116): 114} 95} 113! 94 84. 119, 140
74b ce todlysiniair™ 2. aletS0lsescleeee 11£} 121) 113) 111). 86) - 140
75a| Last spring frost—hard 140} 146]....| 101) 152 122'. 161} 142
75b Se ¥e —hoar.. P58 5 | orl eee ee al eee M24 excl ere 162} 142
76a|Water in streams—high ..| 89]....]....]....].... 79} . 79 247| 223).
76b a eS —low 193 |e sraul lie era aoe 158} .. 312

* When becoming common.

+ The phenochrons for Nova Seotia are the averages of over 300 selected schedules,
the fractions being omitted. Insome of the schedules from the Western Provinces of
Canada. the cognate western species are taken as indicated exactly in previous reports.

Day of the year 1903 corres- s oe
peeschaagnihh ss lee le ala| OS
Fane ae Tuly Bale sli a) =
|Feb.....59 Aug....242%)t</2 | -| 218 | 4
3 [kpni'...10 Oct... nse \eea| 2 || S|
5 |May 151 | Nov.....334/4 |e" (|? | 3 5 3S
5 |June....181 Dec ....36) 4/5 |glolaleé
“Tia First autumn frost—hoar.. “257 ee ate ae. aes
Tib re *; —hard..| 284)....]..
78a|First snow to fly in air 290 296
78b . whiten ground] 3/6] 351|....]....|..:- 331
79a|Closing of lakes ........ 339] ....)....|--+-|->-- 335
79b : MUVELS Meister 344 351)...-]--- 340
81a} Wild Ducks migrating, N.| 89) ...].... 90} 54| 61
81b - ‘ SHU salle shel lBooal seo 286} .
82a| Wild Geese migrating, N.| 78) 75|.. 71). 66
82b “ ue S.| 318} 246 285
83 |Melospiza fasciata, North.| 84] 87]. 100. 110
84 |Turdus migratorius ‘‘ 78! 85). 79| 65) 65
85 'Junco hiemalis ey 81] 96). 86) 56..
86 |Actitis macularia ss ASU peer ese 147).
87 |Sturnella magna oo TRAl| Pest alsaosl|Ss cal|eeoa| lore
88 |Ceryle Alcyon = P25 |"As se ee 128} 115;.
89 |Dendrceca coronata “ 137]. 141). 109
90 |D. vestiva e ibis} ee corsa Ua also ee
91 |Zonotrichia alba ee ING Sasa aoe 126} -
92 |Trochilus colubris pe MAT Seuscell ee MOD espe ets ere
93 |Tyranus Carolinensis *‘‘ 1S Hence ees Oe aallGeee
94 |Dolychonyx oryzivorus ‘*‘ | 136). 147 138 137
95 |Spinis tristis s 146 145} .
96 |Setophaga ruticilla ‘“‘ 133 148} .
97 |Ampelis cedrorum ie 144). 159).
98 |Chordeiles Virginianus‘*‘ 128| 164)....| 152).
99 |First piping of frogs ...... 100 sia .-| 111] 99} 82
100 |First appearance of snakes’ 100 “| Alas Sale Oa} ertcr

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA,

19038.—MACKAY.

9

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1903.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

Jey a .
eater Se Wes, lke
: : 2 | os |k < —Q
Sat ee Pie) n |o .
a} sa ~ | & |S ao |
oOo o Fl, .ld o
= a fH les} on = ec
e|@|/C)] sa law & | 2
Ea een Bae Onto Seas les
fa] Oo o g o 2 |
Se) frat | ey eS] eS es
SRI. Om |). | Gai ae
283 “245...
312
7425 Wana beta ees 252) 255
330) 2 )522)|' 299 255) 255} .
A | | a [epee 320).
Se Beye ai hice 320).
bh al dee 100} 93).
100} 86). 98] 93].
310
Cis} Oe BS balleoa .
75| 70) 60).. 103)°110)<...
TOVERGS| see ailtereverti| = ete
T22VAZ TLIO eres seeeali nee ol rete
101} 76) 131). OG ee calle. es
117) 99) 115). a 7 Ul aie (ears
PP eel lac
1819) 0 Y Pal (odes [aod ae
119} 109). ee
14.0 eeeecal cencen |r etre aie et=
TBS Wey hed HH ia et 8 |
TOME AH ee sllodud| ean) ocoel iaoes
115|Res} 129, . ae
135} 129).
136]....| Tid aes aa
141) 140). 148 =
bed baa (Od tte beige 103; 112 %
85} 78!. LOO ahem =

—————_—

+ The phenochrons for Nova Scotia are the averages Of over 300 selected schedules,
the fractions being omitted. In some of the schedules from the Western Provinces of
Canada, the cognate western species are taken as indicated exactly in previous reports.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

278

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280

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281

MACKAY.

SCOTIA” AND CANADA, 1903.

NOVA

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PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,

NOVA SCOTIA, 1902.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms
were reported on the day of the year specified.

OBSERVATON STATIONS.

|

1, Yarmouth and
Digby.

1822
1836

ee ever l[roee

ee eewee

ee wees

teeee

Z 2.
SH/_ |S ae
Gi|e |¢ 5
seul ose olbe doles

ON Ome 35 Zo =
ee /3.| 23/28 | 38
Sil es Slee ae comet ee
Snipe ease
a¢ ite ie) Ss Rigs
Ps | <A Ae est) Ea ee |<
rc ee 6 |e
Deets cite eae 182s (Geer
1832 | 1839 | 18319 | 18312

Steep) 184° lee
1883 Soe leet
TRON SOM Scnet
Se ohle [02a eal ae
pee ele tees ee
JOB AS] Nee Ae ate eM tae
RSE | Seale hel eo
doa ie as eae efi Pea aces

D008 |) ete me Ahead:
SG} OG clea el so vane
AT ed Meteegteet (erate hae ate ae ak De
BISON carraliese eal anlar

pert ae eee
DOBBS salon esto Ae ee
Bs Melee oe oe ieee Deri | Sess
299 7 \¥e ant 239 | 2392 |......

Ss 22| 8
-S1Es| e's |z
Eel Se ealee
= o = eT ye
OS |S 12, | ak
ee ee aly Se ee
BS |e) ge] 25
Zito Sy | feels) a
5 = 5 So
r i.) o> a
har 182 digueee
19918) 1898) oc 1833
NG atl Se eal se ee
TSS ole tee oe foe
SHAT ere ee. 187
Ihe cba gle ini cee a ee
189252180 ee 22,8 189
TOO ig heeveat eR ee
VOLe Sch heal ee eee
nag eee eee lace 195
CEM yeaee es 196
ee pe 1972
LOS: wecareel 2s eee] eee
202 ae
ae 203
Dae heteeen ees eae ©
Era Pts Fs ae
cone [eee DUS oN esae ce
216 BS Ey
DISS |e Oca ea eae
219 ie er ants ee
FP) 24| 2208 veneer lees
OOS Wi Seale eee 2212
ela ser sek eben reas 2942
rome Nae et Meme 225
9972 | 996 |...... 2272
P28 | 29R e | 2982
Oar winteten tal Sees 235
Py ie |e eel ae ee
EY Bl eects |e 239

Province of
Nova Scotia.

eete v) elate a

NOVA

SCOTIA AND CANADA,

1903.—MACKAY.

283

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. — (Continued).

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

me oO
3. 5 o>

s BW] ry = LS
g Cs 5 2 oO
3 2 os ae co) =
- ws (o} ~ Ww =)

Os =a a3 n & go |< 5s
sf ts) nD aN ED =
B® |'sz | ee | 33 | 32|°°
HO lms lee | tol tsd | ee
S ai os = Ss 3
eee SY LAE pal a Oc [ae tata OO” ee ee
Peete wits |. eo REE 249
bea eris eS [eae liebe leis 2, 270
AMS at Dee tees 271
aes 278 279 | 275 | 275
50h EE eee eae 9811 | 9818 | O81
renee TRAN O Sor "|e A | eo 8 ORs
Der aOR RI 8 Oy Ae eae
eet Plc |mete se ee laa. lee
2929 | 29229] 9994 | 999 |......}. ays
29319 | 29335) 2937 | 29938 | 293 | 2932
CL, ara [EN eee oa ane ea 294
Bee DAY fia (Posty Cid oo eee Be esto aee ame ae
DORE MOOG 25/ DOR darn es eS
Gms | GO SEs |i hoe ehalll aa teat leg

302) |

303 | 302 |..... 303 303 | ae
CTL ENT Br cara [at eal ERP alk ead
Wie Ses ee leben oe were lh cents |
311) fae ee ae Pe we Wesel
at pore me aay in|

rere SOG Me at ceatacs” hy eee Sc 5

Pe ee ee

Ta Z| oe
Cwm ls BE =
av ches fo} 35 ==
ene alecacml eo ae
=} rs rs) wu > SE
Os | Ge 1 =
= sR |ue =r)
SS 5 S| ‘ D oh
is) ao n>» ~~
Spo | Ree cee
Za |eoO}; aS]
5 c S
ore) for) =
Day in epee ceases | cuteness 245
D502 |eseees 5 ster
{2512
@ ips evepell =¥.e,a).67 0. = levee: ote \ 253
259 oars 256
Bispace tea fohceeae et oe eae es 277
QSOT al eters OG tee ita eerenes
28142] 2815 | 281 2817
282 282
OBL se aealh ho ae lnes ah
OLB EEO Ry en aoe 293
DO AIA tere aeyey lh eencvencse lane gations
2G iaea | tite teal esate ce ll tayctn eter
ects 298
SOEs ica seen| lt tetera 300
SS (aris (eect Iersteconrealio-ohe: =).«

sieeve) Mi hi.* 6:19) fee

Province of
Nova Scotia.

Ke
eI
i
H

284

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
NOVA SCOTIA, 1903.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms
were reported on the day of the year specified.

Province of
Nova Scotia, +

1483
149°

MQ

S
oe
- on
us) =e
gS Cs
= x
fe: os
o
= As
Ome = 3
Be | 24
a | So
Bigst |e dente!
1 HO }|ne

= ai

21
Pd a sie Rage &
St 862
LESS
Gira eee
93
Qhee ae
Fal eaten
114
Lee he 11534
1162
124 | 124
13s
135% | 13522
TS 7es| See cick:
138 | 1386
1392 | 13910
14019 | 14048
1418 | 14119
1423 | 14226
1432
eis: 144
aoe 145
147
| 1493 | 149

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

3. Annapolis and

= 0 ele 8

se eae

see

{-b)
jor
a ca
= NO
3 ES)
ke on a 5x2
Fo|l|as| oa.
ae | «5 3 =
Tele helledctecte we Toe!
SS |/35/|00
ae) as eae
MO },oaod | nZ
=~ 15 Tos)
eae
deel toed os
NY Rate | mats a need ene ace
USO: > .|8 ee Sovak
140% | V4010))) Boece
1416 14129 | 1412
1429 14216 | 1422

3 of 3
ABs oe tetas
ga [| "8 [ae]
Ss =o fy Z c.
OF Sa |e) a4
Sea OL a ee
Be |S] s2] go6
Aa )|eO;maa |
XK wo oS =
Spe Sal 30a eae
Be ee cae
Se ae ae
ee Na ieee alee ype
1022 nae eee
EEA Sr ate cae eee
T2142 cee |e
aCe tere hake [me
123. deel eee eee
L195 .\LIdSecne alee
Seon. 137
S980. lace en ol eae
140°") oe eee eee
14178) 1413 | 141 | 1418
14231 | 14911) 1492 | 1497
NCES Tea eS em ees 143
jase Hee a
Lage Sli alter es !

NONA SCOTIA AND CANADA,

1903.—MACKAY.

285

THUNDERSTORMS —PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. —(Continued).

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

n v >
< S : te en ole
35 | Se lrg =| a AS) OPly
ts a Re hear ar Nee Boel oti oe aa
Sie ars See res |e eee SS
Pe |e |8212 | S2| 28) eg | Ge | Ze
6. & Stes adn ei 2 at | poet oe eed om
= aS cy ag nO oO 5 5 aes &
at S55 2 So} 2s Sa) oiS) ~ 0 ao
Reco | Orc | se ace Rian | ra Be S| eee ee

1903. | a os ~ 1S SS nt 6
MNES Goer |e sero cee Ses | Reseed | assve etn ol seatene OLS [lO taki rater

159 PS alk U3 Noel (cect et hese ep V5 ON |eeterey 15} Pf ees
160% | 1608 | 16U27) 1602 | 160 | 1605 LGOS beens
HGH 21618 261 NG Resales eel eae ge LG1ES ee.
162? Mises BZ eres: G2 tend slat eeotel erent oe Peas
G5 24 |e oe sas Gs GPS mes sails ese ale cuemeeellitte a iets
NGG [et so Sasol PUK Ge eneeee lacs Soest re yaeets Sia. Ses cote ieee oe
1677 =

ee ee Gite, |Seee 5. GO eee ordi craps cv aporae owl weasel
170 =

Ve | oe tt oie [seater EFL | re ertatel[berde sete 3 IEA ect | eae
IT 7a | Papert tl ee oir a Peete PAN aes tree all hein: See | Sear beeen tenet te
Sesser NPG 3oe |e c ee | Se ene ee chars ers
Mya Scr Ree cesnets\| ete iat [retro eel Ace UG Sal Wc a eee
(GEL el seme 175 tea lasers 175 175 -.| 175
P7622 Nakie! || A76" jG! el 162 1 176 oh i6t 76" | 1764
i folie eee idea |Pa kere 177 iW hee ete Wie. Lane
ks aca Gn Ree WB Se eee: NPM tees ea oie 17ST 782
179° Ssicraa [Pens eneealneicus ana 179 DA licpersgate Sollee 1798
MS Oa sess fll rere SE Ree in a eeraes iets TSOM seas
1814 USD 2 ee Sivcccll ee ae LSM. | ease al aetacee 181

>is! pie «e)(ss7_|' =, oe!s\s)|,e ve ose) 0%) siare-c 8

9. Bras d Or Slope
(Inv. & Victoria).

10. Inverness Slope
to Gulf.

eee eee

BoTANICAL Nores In Nova Scoria.—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D.

(Read 18th May, 1903).

Apis, Apros (L.) MacM. Ground Nut.—Found by W.
H. Prest in Queens county.

Crataegus Robinsoni Sargent. Robinson’s Hawthorn.—A
new species found in Pictou county. Named after Mr. C. B.
Robinson, late Science Master in Pictou Academy. First col-
lected by one of his botanical students, Miss Isabella W. Mac-
Cabe.

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Salisb. Heather.—Spreading in
Pt. Pleasant Park, Halifax. Transplanted to Park at Saint
John, N. B., where it is growing. In the Public Gardens,
Halifax. Found by C. B. Robinson on the 23rd of March,
1903, at Bay View, near entrance of Pictou harbor, “about
300 yards from cemetery, a short distance from the road, and
20 yards from N. W. corner of brackish water beyond Sea
View (Bay View) Cemetery, on Pictou Road, near a little
brook.” Found previously near Pictou Landing, opposite side
of the harbor to Pictou town.

Andromeda Polifolha (L.)—Found by Mr. A. W. Fraser
near Sherbrooke, N. S. Also found near Halifax.

Gratiola aurea Muhl. Goldenpert.—Found on the sandy

margins of Lake Annis, Yarmouth county, by Dr. David
Soloan.

Gerardia paupercula (A. Gray) Britton. Small-flowered
Gerardia.

Found by Dr. Soloan on the margim of Lake Annis,
Yarmouth county.

Lappula Lappula (L.) Karst. European § Stickseed.—
Found at Fairview, Halifax county, by Mr. John MacAloney.
(286)

~I

BOTANICAL NOTES IN NOVA SCOTIA.—MACKAY. 28

Razoumofskya pusilla (Peck) Kuntze. Small Mistletoe.—
C. B. Robinson of Pictou, in ree made the following report
on this species :—

“During the summer of 1902 Mr. Clifton D. Howe, of the
University of Chicago, discovered the Dwarf Mistletoe,
Razoumofskya pusilla, parasitic upon Picea Mariana, at Bay
View, near Pictou. Subsequent search in that district has
shown that although it is rare on the whole, it grows in great
abundance between Pictou Landing and Rustico, upon trees of
every size; but of the one species (Black Spruce) over fifty
infected trees were counted.”

Cypripedium regine Walt. Showy Ladies’ Slipper.
And C. hirsutum Mill., Large Ladies’ Slipper.—Reported from
north Cape Breton (Inverness county) by Mr. Finlayson to
Mr. C. B. Robinson.

Smulax rotundifoha (L.). Greenbrier.—Found by Dr.
Soloan near lakes Annis and Brazil, Yarmouth county.

Tris Pseudacorus (L.) Yellow Flag.—Found at Arcadia,
Yarmouth county, by Miss Kelsey of Yarmouth.

Veratrum viride Ait. American White Hellebore.—
Found in west Halifax county by the late Mrs. Dominey,
teacher.

Dryopteris Lonchitis (L.) Kuntze.—At Aspy Bay, C. B.,
by A. H. MacKay, 1876. At River Dennys Cave, C. B., by
©. B. Robinson, 30th July, 1902.

Asplenium viride Huds.—At the Falls, Moose River,
Cumberland Co., about 1890. At River Denys’ Cave, C. B.,
by C. B. Robinson, 30th July, 1902.

Woodwardia Virginica (L.) J. E. Smith.—At North West
Arm, Halifax, by Harris, before 1876. Near lakes, Halifax,
Richard Power, 1900. At Cheverie, Hants Co., by Miss K.
E. MacKay, 1902; determined by C. B. Robinson.

288 BOTANICAL NOTES IN NOVA SCOTIA.—MACKAY.

Stypocaulon scoparium (L.) Kutz.—A marine alga. First
found in America by Dr. Howe at Pictou, and afterwards by
Mr. C. B. Robinson at Cape John (23rd April, 1903), and
afterwards at Pictou, Pictou Island, and at Pugwash, Nova
Scotia; and on the Prince Edward Island coast opposite.

TERATOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

Ranunculus acris (L.). The Tall Buttereup.—Misses
Curren and James presented a specimen from the Musquodoboit
Valley, Halifax county, in which a number of stalks were
united into a flat stem nearly an inch broad, with a number of
flowers sessile on the top. The branches and leaves belonging
to this flattened stem were peculiarly dwarfed.

Taraxacum Taraxacum (L.) Karst. Common Dandelion.—
Several scapes nearly a foot long were united completely into
a flat band like a scape nearly an inch in width, the whole
surmounted by a crowded buch of heads sessile on the united
first scape. Halifax county.

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum (L.). Ox-eye Daisy.—
Several stems apparently all united into an enlarged fluted and
inflated stem which was surmounted by a crowded bunch of
sessile heads. The leaves arising from the stem were peculiarly

dwarfed. Queens Co., W. H. Prest.

Iris versicolor (L.).—What appears to be a white mutation
or variety of the Common Blue Flag was discovered near
Guysboro county. Several specimens were found near the

Lochaber Lake by Mrs. M. W. Andrews of Isaae’s Harbor,
roots of some were taken up to be cultivated under observation.

THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT NorRTH SYDNEY AND
SYDNEY MINEs, C. B.—By Loran A. DEWoLFE, M. A.,
North Sydney

(Read 14th March, 1904)

CONTENTS.

Introduction— PAGE | Coal Measures—(Continued) PAGE
Okiginlopapersssues-caeiess weet aacen: 289 SUCCESSIGM EA wietocinate ssaniacstoceekicat eens 302
Location of field..... . Ae nine te reer 290 Details of shore section............. 307
General stratigraphy................. 290 Indian Cove seam. Pal Aa ttea OOS
FROPOLTAPHY ante sau cote seaaeen done: 290 Section to plows COVEN «Sf Anes Sige O08
Shoreline phenomena................. 292 IROSBIIS sate Soe cream ane co, Co!
SIEVO RAT ta sane pean eB aone Seat nae 292 Maineneaml\. sth ee 312
RVGRerenGes) hiscte sae oe noennes . 294 Details of section to Cranberry Head. 312

BIaiCks POM tia die. bactene tink reyes 316

Part I.—DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY,

= ‘ Parr II.—SUMMARY OF HIsSrory.
Limestone series—

Classes of rocks....... SRC EE Note Pe 294 | Limestone series—
Inland. observations -....... 00+. ..Ss% 295 TGINVESLONE Ane awed te ose rss Some iawn 317
Section ‘along shore................... 295 GyipSUMisae sec eee aene ee aeeeeee ea LO
SHECESSIONG ot ces oe ner reise tee ae 296 PrOnston e's ieee oni class sear 320
Ironstone contact beds................ 297

Millstone Grit —

Millstone Grit— Cross-bedded sandstones ............. 320
SUCRE ade) egansoade ie aaeeia vs wees 298 Coal. SCaMST see ce te ceo ane en etiee 321
Conglomeratesic ca. sist case gemiocice oe 298
Waal Fence liaate kes eesrs Sct 299 | Coal Measures—

OSSU Spear ieecicis teas eco aa on estates icke 300 Alternations of strata..... .......... 322
Waria GlOMNAG ip ccisaies~ sresiteierserears 300
Dynamic changes—

Coal Measures— Uplift against pre-Cambrianc........ 322
Contactistraba nase eise osc ees eee 301 Absence of post-Carboniferous strata 323
Divergence of outcrops........ ...... 302

INTRODUCTION.

Origin of paper.—The following paper is extracted from a
thesis accepted in part fulfillment of the requirement for the de-
gree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University in 1903. The
field work was done during the autumn of 1902 and the folllow-
ing winter; and it and the preparation of the results have been
conducted under the general direction of Dr. J. E. Woodman,
who also assisted in revising the manuscript Tor the press.

[Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University ; Geology and
Mineralogy.]

(Communicated by Dr. Woodman).

(289)

290 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

Location of field—The territory covered by the study les
along the northwest side of Sydney harbor. It extends from
the mouth of Leitch’s creek on the west, through North Sydney
and Sydney Mines on the east, to Cranberry Head; thence north-
west along the shore of Spanish bay to the entrance of Big pond ;
thence southwest to Sawmill lake, and to the Intercolonial rail-
way track where it crosses. It thus embraces roughly an area
ten miles by two.

General stratigraphy.—The strata belong wholly to the Car-
boniferous period; lying on the northwest side of an anticline of
these rocks which runs northeast from the pre-Cambrian of
George’s river end of the Coxheath hills, and plunges northeast
as well.

This fold dies out in Sydney harbor; and its strata on the
north leg change as one goes eastward, from a normal northeast
eradually to an east-west and finally a northwest strike. At
the extreme east side of the extension of the fold, there arises
an imperfect synclinal basin, containing the coal seams of
Sydney Mines, and freeing the strike of the beds from any
influence of the anticline.

From the west end of the field studied, and beyond, east-
ward one and one-half miles to Limestone creek, the strata have
been considered as belonging to the Lower Carboniferous lime-
stone, equivalent to the Windsor series of Fletcher, on the main-
land. From Limestone creek to Stubbart point, about six miles,
has heretofore been mapped as Millstone Grit | vide Brown;
also Geol. Surv. Can., No. 653, Sydney sheet, 134]. The
boundary between this and the overlying Coal Measures, which
extend thence eastward to the ocean at Cranberry Head, about
four miles, is very arbitrary as it has been defined up to the
present. |

Topography.—The surface of the land presents little marked
topographic variation. That underlain by the Windsor series
is low for the most part. While the same series on the
peninsula to the south, lying between the two arms of Sydney

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 291

harbor, shows sinkhole topography and blind streams, there
are none here. The Millstone Grit section is undulating but
in general more elevated than the others. In some places it
rises sharply from the harbor to a height of one hundred and
eighty feet, and its average elevation is about one hundred.
Between Sawmill lake and Limestone creek, at an elevation of
one hundred and thirty feet, two square miles are covered with
swamp and bog. Although low land occurs on all sides in
adjacent territory, the ground here remains wet throughout the
year.

In the Coal Measures the average elevation is approximately
eighty feet. Owing, however, to the much greater exposure to
marine action, the shore cliffs are higher than farther west.

Special interest attaches to the topography of the land north
and northwest of Cranberry Head. From Black point the
surface slopes down to Big pond. The shores of this body,
beside which the Nova Seotia Steel and Coal Company have
built their furnaces, are low and in some places even swampy.
On the north side of the pond is the new colliery (Sydney No.
3). Stretching down to the shore on the east is a level bog,
covering about three square miles. This swamp evidently was
once the bed of a post-glacial lake, in all probability somewhat
above sea level. A shore section of the bog shows that it rests
in part, at least, upon bedrock. How much the shore has been
eut back by wave action at this point, and where the initial
shoreline of subsidence stood, it is impossible to say. But the
bed of the lake, then probably filled up as now by vegetation,
was brought practically to sea-level ; and in three places the
cross-section of the bog is exposed to marine erosion.
Headlands on either side of the swamp have also suffered rapid
loss by this agency. But where the erosion is most rapid—at
Cranberry Head and Black point—the cliffs are lowering; for
the land as a whole slopes inland and toward the bog rather
than seaward.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INST. Sci., Vou. XI. Trans. T.

292 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

Here, then, was formerly a lake, surrounded by gently
sloping glacial debris, which itself les for the most part as a
thin mantle upon the bedrock. It was of irregular outline,
with at least three coves on three of its sides. These now reach
to the shore line, and the sea occupies what was once their ends.
The three coves are represented by (1) the sections exposed
on the shore between Black point and Cranberry Head; (2)
the shore of Big pond; and (3), the deepest, at Lloyd’s cove,
to which the sea at times has access.

An additional ten or fifteen feet would have admitted the
sea to the whole of this lake basin. In that event, Cranberry
Head and Black point would stand out as islands.

Shoreline phenomena.—According to the classitication of
Dr. F. P. Gulliver, the shore as a whole is in an adolescent
stage of development, following depression. Proof of this
depression hardly need be stated in detail—the presence of
estuaries like Sydney harbor itself may be accepted as sufficient
evidence. It may be said, parenthetically, that no positive data
have been gathered showing recent elevation here.

The adolescence is shown by the forelands of Allen point
and Jackson point, by South bar on the Sydney side of the
harbor, by bay bars at Lloyd’s cove and Big pond, and by shore
swamps near Limestone creek. Finally, the rapid wearing away
of the cliffs shows that maturity has not been reached. Indeed,
the mouth of the harbor is still in a somewhat earlier stage in
its cycle than the shore nearer the head of the estuary.

Glaciation.—The whole of the field has been glaciated, and
the topography reflects in a general way a pre-glacial relief,
subdued by filling up hollows and planing down eminences.
The general evenness of resistance is shown by the scarcity of

inland outerops.

Striations are rare, because of the post-glacial weathering
of the surface wherever unprotected by soil. At upper North

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 2938

Sydney they strike N. 38° E., and are crossed by later ones
running N. 58° E. One mile to the west, striae run N. 40° E.
The drift itself does not show by its contours the direction of
ice motion; but at upper North Sydney the surface is profusely
covered with granite boulders, whose source may have been
anywhere between north and southwest of this spot.

Glacial origin must be ascribed also, in part, to Sydney
harbor. The upper part of Southwest Arm is deeper than the
seaward part, or than the main harbor; and apparently shows
a true fjord character. The channel of this arm is from fifty-
four to sixty feet deep, while the main mouth of the harbor is
‘only forty. Not until one passes the mouth of the harbor and
reaches the open water of Spanish bay is depth found equal to
the deeper parts within the arm. The channel of what may
conveniently be called the old Sydney river, continues for four
or five miles out to sea, deeper than the general bottom. While
this may indicate only submergence of a normal river valley,
it may also have resulted in part from gouging, as part of
Southwest Arm evidently has originated. ;

Throughout the field, small lakes are abundant. Sawmill,
or Pottle’s, with an area of about five square miles, is the
largest. The lakes all have a longer diameter northeast and
southwest, parallel with the harbor front, and with the general
direction of the glacial striae in the district. This attitude,
taken with other evidence, such as the location of lakes along
contacts of strata, appears to point to a glacial origin. About
a mile east of Pottle’s lake is a small pond and bog, called
Ferris lake. It is connected with the former by a strip of
swamp about 300 feet wide, probably at an earlier time part of
a lake or brook bed. Ferris lake itself is in most parts but four
or five feet deep, and over most of its extent is merely a wet
bog. The whole area is about one square mile, of which water
occupies searcely 300 square yards. Some of the lakes are

294 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

kettle holes, while others may be due to an unequal distribution
of drift, creating new lines of drainage or diverting old ones.
References.—The following papers and books have been
used in preparing this paper :—
Brown, Richard.
*71. The coal fields of Cape Breton.
Dawson, Sir J. W.
78. Acadian Geology, 8rd ed.
Fletcher, Hugh.
700. The Sydney coal fields [ pamphlet, Geol. Surv.
Can., accompanying three revised geological.
sheets. |
Gilpin, Edwin, Jr.
86. Cape Breton Carboniferous. Nov. Seot. Inst.
Nat. Sci., proc. and trans., vi, pp. 289-298.
’88. Ditto. vil, pp. 24-25, 100-117.
"89. Ditto vii, pp. 214-226.
Robb, Charles.
°74. Report on explorations and surveys in Cape
Breton, Nova Scotia. Geol. Surv. Can., rep. for
1873-74, pp. 171-188.
°76. Ditto, rep. for 1874-75, pp. 166-266.

Part 1. DeEScRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

LIMESTONE SERIES.

Classes of rocks.—The study resulting in the present paper
ended on the west arbitrarily at the railroad track, from the
necessity of establishing an end somewhere. Thus the whole of
the limestone series did not come into the field. The strata ob-
served, however, can be conveniently grouped into three classes:
—(1) a very caleareous shale; (2) a much less caleareous sand-
stone; (3) beds of marl and impure limestone, containing large

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B—DEWOLFE. 295

but very variable amounts of lime. The shale, digested in HCl.
leaves an insoluble residue of clay amounting to about 754.
The sandstone contains from 75% to 90% silica. The marl leaves
a much smaller residue than the shale.

Inland observations.—These rocks are all exposed in a
railway cutting immediately south of Limestone brook. They
he conformably, showing good contacts between the sandstones
and caleareous shales, and dip 30° N. The sandstone here
breaks into large flags suitable for building purposes. Ripple
marks exposed on the under surface, wherever the underlying
shale has fallen away, show wind from the south. At another
horizon, a mile away, markings show an east wind.

The direction of dip here is important, as well as the
amount, which is greater than in the Coal Measures to the east.
The strata are under the immediate influence of the granitic
core of the Boisdale hills to the southwest.

From this cut downward along Limestone brook, the ground
is low and swampy, and gives no outerops. On Fletcher’s recent
map (:00) this brook is given as the boundary line between the
lower series and the Millstone Grit, except for about half a
mile where limestone is given on both sides. Finding no ex-
posures, I am unable to verify his conclusions. At the mouth
of the brook, however, the contact is at least two hundred feet
southwest of its stated position, for grit is exposed throughout
that distance. The map also indicates fossils near the bank of
the brook, nearly a mile from its source. I was unable to find
there any exposures of bedrock; but a large slab of drift sand-
stone contains some fossils.

Section along shore-—For about a mile eastward from the
mouth of Leitch’s creek, the banks are low and give no cliffs;
but the glacial debris is shallow, and the rock frequently out-
crops on the beach. These exposures show a calcareous sand-
stone with a laminated shaly structure, the rock crumbling

296 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

easily. It is possible that these strata alternate with concealed
limestones and marls, as farther east.

Eastward toward the top of the series the cliffs become higher
and more continuous. Beds of calcareous sandstone, calcareous
red and green marl, and gray compact limestone alternate
rapidly. The sandstone varies in compactness and texture, some
breaking into slabs of several square feet, but scarcely one-fourth
to one-half inch thick, while others form large cubical or
rhombohedral _ blocks. The last varieties are especially
well mottled with streaks and lenses of carbonaceous matter, so
regularly arranged as to give considerable relief to the usual
monotony of color in the cliffs. All the sandstones are red or
brown, except a six-inch bed of hard gray rock, almost a
quartzite, which overlies one of the gray limestone strata. Some
of the flagstones are well ripple-marked, the wind having come
from the east, and contain fine worm-like trails, too indistinct
to ascribe to any particular origin. Rain-prints are also exposed
on these beds. The weathering is often irregular, in one
instance the softer black carbonaceous matter having entirely
disappeared, leaving a skeleton reck.

The caleareous marl exhibits all degrees of cohesion between
clay and shale. <A bed of gypsum lies between two of marl;
and the overlying stratum of the three is practically all clay,
and contains a few small bedded stringers of fibrous gypsum,
each about one-fourth inch thick. The limestone is of a slate-
gray color, compact in texture, but not gritty.

Succession.—A section of this formation is more difficult
to get than of either of the others. The lower part consists of
about 200 feet of laminated, shaly, micaceous sandstone, with a
considerable proportion of lime. In some parts the rock may
fairly be called a limestone. Above this a nearly continuous

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 297

section of 179 feet in vertical thickness, beginning at the bottom
and ending with the Millstone Grit, is as follows :—

REGUS MON oa Meneret seg eke tesa Ae Gee ae ls 2: Tt.
SPAY s MIMESTONES "Wied aoa lels, wake oss aha ae Bie
pray, hard, sandstone 4-7. in. es — ~. 6 \-inches.
mottled brown ealeareous sandstone... 20
“red Scalcareous Gmarlk 0.8 sei ees 10
WV PNSU Wlnctainyscteavees aia erchate vy) lap eh ema; sc ouetss 8
» clay marl with gypsum stringers .... 10
ives tone wiercat, .te set eee ass 2
TG 1a pag Sages eter ae es “i ee tet ME Sa 8
thin bedded flaggy red sandstone .... 20
RAD eee ia tte eee eats open 10
brown rippled sandstone ........... 20
GECOM AMAT Soa aay cee woe eaN Gs 8
HAS OY "SAMASLOMO Aree a. ahs ncushe cor caw) prs 15
IMMeS TOME AMG IMAM D565 coe Margie wont ole 12
MOtHEC: SAMGStONe <2 no, Gee cae si 20

PROM SUOTUC Rane cue nbe stalks Licker ase eeT Meee = 12

179 ft. 6 inches.

Ironstone contact beds.—The last twelve feet of the lime-
stone formation consists ef a hard and somewhat felspathic
rock, light flesh in color, and containing a variable quantity of
hematite. The corresponding rocks on the opposite side of the
harbor contain more iron. The surface of the exposures softens
and crumbles to a depth of half an inch.

No topoeraphie change marks the contact of the two form-
ations. The exact contact is, indeed, concealed. On the map
sheet of the geological Survey of Canada (Sydney sheet, 134),
Limestone brook is regarded as the dividing line; but at its
mouth it is well into the Millstone Grit. Here Limestone
ereek, the tidal portion of the brook, makes in for about 200 feet
with a depth of eight to ten feet, after which it shoals to two or
three feet and swings westerly, almost parallel with the harbor.
This brings the mouth of the brook proper about 800 feet from
harbor front.

298 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

“MILLSTONE GRIT.”

Succession.—For want of data based upon sufficiently wide
field study, the various formations are retained in this paper as
designed by Fletcher’s map (Geol Surv. Can., Sydney sheet,
134), even though the reasons for delimiting them in precisely
that way are not clear. Within the so-called “ Millstone Grit,”
the succession upward is as follows, ending on the east at
Stubbert’s point:— — .

coarse~orit: and-\conglomerates csr 3. 2s 500 feet.
measures.: ndien ss aoe ons Sete ye ee 200
CONGIOMETALE iit aoe ees oe tes Pe Aer ees De
fine “laminated” sam dstone. +2 S35. 2.5 eee 10
COMPIONLE TALE Fo Fit eee a cast aca a0 sponse te wee Ra 30
sandstones Aa uccnasceen Be a ene a ho aan 10
COMP TOMIETALE Wo. S-tfe wie so ah ecae eae atone wakes 2
sandstone and arenaceous shale ......... 115
MCAS UTES MINA COMs eva chs Sih ken cketes Peete ae ee 1,000
SANGSTOMEs ©. cite he el oe eels oases perme 0) 0)
arenaceous. shale 5.4.18 a5. .s Seven ote 30
Gon SlOMeT ALE aiesw of. ce alka eree oe tae os icone. 5
BAIN GSEOMS tess ssc dnc oat coke a eet Rated See ates 300
WMCASTES SMV CMe ise eeu. mae ewe Gane 900
coarse sandstone, in part a breccia ...... 200
mrdene] ary: ob 56 ara etict bates 2 Shae Chae 2
comle (Ime rahaid seam). ape ct ee eee ie 2
shale and -SamdStGme 5 iccne« ics oentemuste eae 41
POO SMALL ei icicles Se a a eet 3
conwloterate A e.ck: Sc oN wast hee Goes 8
Coarse “Samdsponle.’ Ss Jes seo eee 5 A IZ8O
fine Fs Sir ca WARS RARER fe ae So 100
arenaceous slialle® 2%) caste eee eee eee 6
SAMASHOME Me eke se els ree tes Celt Coens 60
4,209 ft.

Conglomerates.—At the base of this formation, the texture
is on the average slightly coarser than is the case higher up.
Some strata grade into finer or coarser beds, but in most in-

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 299

stances the contact is an abrupt one. Not far above the base,
a few strata of mixed conglomerate and breccia have been found,
interbedded with fine sandstone. The rocks at this point are
very ferruginous, in some spots sending out small streams of
rusty water. The pebbles are almost entirely quartz. Sharp
angular pieces and rounded pebbles occur together, such as one
often finds upon the beaches of to-day. There is usually a sharp
line of demarkation between the conglomerates and sandstones,
showing that the conditions of deposition changed somewhat
abruptly. The mixture of angular and rounded pebbles sug-
gests the proximity of a cliff at the time of deposition.

Tt is difficult to determine the thickness of the conglomerate,
as only parts of the beds are exposed, but the best estimate
possible gives thirty feet as the total.

Coal.—Throughout the whole upper half of the formation
coal seams occur, ranging from one-fourth to two inches in
thickness.

About 386 feet below the base of the Coal Measures is a bed
of shale, the first encountered in the Millstone Grit. It con-
tains both arenaceous and argillaceous varieties, and a thin
layer of red marl. The lower shale grades upward into sand-
stone, and this again into shale, twenty-five feet thick. At the
base of this shale lies the Ingraham seam of coal, which,
however, is not exposed on the sea cliff. I am informed by old
residents that this coal measured two feet, and was worked
many years ago for local supply. It has long since been
abandoned. <A section of the associated beds at this horizon
would be as follows, in ascending order :—

TEER Canis et saat mes Mees es. ha ane cea Seo 2 feet.
coal Clnerahameseam yc 58 5 sie ace + ont 2
AREMACEOUIS, WSHAIe > sicko) Bsc os aa ease eae 6
SANT ASOT owe otic: th wee ere oo fe ac aa ne ese ere ali
AVETACCOIS SAL Cte: cc crene tenes eee 0 Bees 15
arealaceous. Hale Weta. 26 Bivetarcte ee See oie 0 10
TE eagetacdieg Beles ape eae ae ps eas wos sede og eee ser Sen Saas 3

coarse gritty sandstone and conglomerate. .

300 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

The total thickness of shale here amounts, then, to thirty-
six feet. This ‘“ Ingraham seam” is not to be confused with
the “ Ingraham mine”, to be mentioned later.

A new occurrence of coal has recently been reported. Mr.
John Redmond, Upper North Sydney, while boring for a well
on his farm, struck what is reported to be a two-foot seam.
The land is under lease by Rev. Father MacPherson, of Little
Bras D’Or. His brother informs me that the new discovery
consisted of two feet of good coal, which with shale, clay, ete.,
makes a belt of six feet. No openings have been made, so that
no information can be given at first-hand. If the occurrence is
real, it is noteworthy as showing coal at a greater distance
below the Coal Measures than has heretofore been recorded in
this part of the Sydney basin.

Fossils.— Vegetable remains occur at many horizons, the
most abundant being Calamites. None have been found erect.
Indistinet remains of Sigillaria are also numerous. In a few
places may be seen a net-work of leaves, sticks, ete., irregularly
washed together; but none distinet enough to show structure.
Impressions of large stems more than a foot in diameter occur,
but so nearly obliterated as to leave only a coating of rust,
without any detail of the original form.

Variation in dip.—Throughout this formation the dip
changes considerably. At Limestone ereek it is about 40° N.;
but eastward along the shore it becomes less, the average for
three miles being about 12°, and turns eastward. In the
vicinity of North Sydney and from there to Cranberry Head
the dip is northeast, becoming constantly less until in the Coal
Measures it is only 6°.

Back from the shore there are few exposures, most of those
found being in railway cuts. As these are not far from the
water, their dips are the same as in corresponding cliff ex-
posures. On Fletcher’s map an outerop is recorded as being

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 301

near the railroad, one mile east of North Sydney Junction,
with a dip 25° E. There appears to be no bedrock here; but a
large boulder was found, thrust up above the ordinary level,
and its strata in the attitude described. :

A dip section, to be accurate, would run northeast and
southwest, with a curve southward in the western part.

CoAL MEASURES.

Contact strata—Although the boundary between the two
formations have been placed at Stubbart point in maps hereto-
tofore published, there are many strata of coarse sandstone
above it, and several small coal seams below. The sandstones,
are, however, not so massive as those in the lower group, and the
however, not so massive as those in the lower group, and the
coal seams outcropping on the coast are unimportant as regards
thickness and amount. The boundary has been placed, then,
where a change oceurs from beds prevailingly arenaceous to
beds prevailingly argillaceous; and while its exact position may
be a matter of debate, its general location may be regarded as
established.

From the shore at Stubbart point the contact follows a
more or less arbitrary line northwest to Little Bras D’Or lake.
It is roughly traceable by a line of large sandstone boulders
which are scattered in profusion over the ground, and whose
presence has been attributed to the greater wearing away of the
softer argillaceous rocks of the Coal Measures, and the conse-
queat breaking down of the harder and topographically higher
Millstone Grit. Conclusions here, however, must be based
largely upon conjecture, as no exposures are to be found inland.
On the geological map of the Survey (No. 134) the boundary
curves considerably. This, and the curving of the coal seams,
would be due largely to the basin-like structure, but also in part
to topographic differences. Since the beds dip northeast at a
low angle, rising ground would extend horizon outcrops notice-
ably to the southwest. The surface rises rather suddenly from

302 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

the harbor, and slopes from the divide gradually toward Big
pond, thus giving to the eroded edges of rock horizons a cres-
cent shape.

Divergence of outcrops.—The separation of horizons at the
surface is noticeable from the harbor to Big pond. This is due
in part at least, to the differences in dip. On Sydney harbor
the dip is six degrees, while at Big pond and Black point it
averages four to five. This difference in beds so nearly flat can-
not but have some influence upon the location of the outcrops
of two horizons between which hes a constant thickness of rock.

The same condition obtains south of the harbor, at Victoria
mines and southeastward.

Succession.—Beginning at the lowest strata, on the east
side of Stubbart point, and going northeastward to the highest
rocks at Cranberry Head, the order is as follows :—

ft, sins
arenaceous-chalese. nz ouacee he ek ee so 20
marl and clay, with small coal seams..... Hew)
Mmitdercla yar 5 oeceseveea ee a ae Ae ete 2
CEG FW (A aia eae air BAe iat IRR (OR oce Nant Waly a ae oe — 10
SAMUSEONE <ctwn se cds Cee eects Tee ae ee
clralee tr tet tae oe pec a eek s Mucins get nae eee arr
coal (Stony seam; contains 6 inches of rock) — 3
BlralGs sie Se eae oe Sah ee a Ne ee ee een 10
SandStOme stentect See Aen ee oe ce pNeeMee S 12
Bhtale Sse SDS a SONA ee 4
SAIVABEOTEC:<« edna sn Son eee tAGOR, ape ea TS ee ne 3
ghia lear See Ro ae. 8S MSS ee oe Sa et oe eee eee ; 6
IMPULSE. LMeStOMer «.ntescie oak oe ace ete ra — 6
HOW TVA eset soi she ae ee awe ae ane ees 10
SVG ies) 4 Roe oeoee ee Be ue eeeceis Pee aes eae 30
COd Te Phe ee fee Rae ON Sigh pace GN Reem Rey gets — 6
ghialle te. hss ha oa an isos Suen Dae sete ae
Sam ShONG save) aos eek

2
8
GOR ais eee SR bear OE Sere a
0

© (© Le: © ene 8) 0; 6) ue) ele

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C.B.—DEWOLFE. 303

ite: a0
SHNMSHONE: evra: eis she oss ee oe cas pee pee 2
areillaceous’ shale ...... ..... Bader nee 25
Tae Wg Deen ee) Oe a ee SOU eg thee Bie neg arate, ats)
BTEMACCOUS NALS gosie ais Ges ace ok Meera eae 5
sandstone ..... Bit ee Pens At Deed et ee eas ie 15
BTOMACEOUS: SHALG. .tocc5 aw eictk corte nes ae 5
measures hidden ..... Seah THR Re ae 20
bituminous shale and coal, (Indian Cove
SEBMI) soc ote eas Sheri taraterap ey ees 5
shale. 2-2. MPa Taig Se RE A gi st CAD OSES 4
GANGStOMe. sect ice ee Re a ar hope ht a 15
ALOU ACEOUS aS HALO bs erase aes esc nie ee se ees 15
TIMESCOMES 28 cae eneete sees hoe eee wee Oe 3
shale -andacreds marl: nas. be ee es oy 6
SINGS OIE se oe he, see cates seca es at Pree wae 2g
Shialetand=redsimarlse. cach nck Gade en saccade 17
Sita epee stot Seng Pees cos os 3 iat Meee 2
Sheleeaima: re deal dey hon .cae ee rele eee! eos 12
MMASSIVE GAMGSLONE ni) cide viclsve nals See bo aaats 20
Gluyehanne omelet tea aes te eleeeh! oS eas 6
COAL aie cee AE oe le as nae A hin gE FIR a ae ae
areviWaceous SNAG 137 04h: ee ge otek Binge: 2
SAS LOMC Ace ae ae eared ty wee oat Le ai PO 15
ATEMACCOIUS- GRAIG Sant esas ree Se ancien a ee ee 6
Cle irtas 5 Bea aa Re pe ete ar ar oe 2
Gt ee nd REM it ah amet cs WR gba eT a — 8
arenilaceo Us «shale ser. «fs a ene ea to ow 2
fsb cle (SiG) Wve ARR PRT eee Pie ae ae a, ee Sra ea 26
arosllaceous, shale inne este ak. bee sce te 5
arenaceous shale ........ SEI te ae ee mye 2G
argillaceous shale and marl............. 36
0.21 unere Paak t eag aa ALE os a Seen er ae eee — 10
Bia (RR SER os RUE a ptr aca ie DR Iet a — 6
Sandstone st. cece «one Aix ees SET Men haere ie 25
ALSUACCOUS: SHALE eMedia here oe wk 25
arelaccousashalers om s-.2-u.cs So one Se ee 15
ATOMAGCCOUSSRIALO cones See chao cteiae alec 2
arerilaceomss sale Weis a ne cies. kee ein os = 2
SUS SMM a I omc LPN cng Sy Rolla te aot neh ees 9

304

THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION ~ AT

arcillaccous:.sliales ti. osc fueed eat kere lege
INEST: Bg oo A a Ae eee eee Bee ee
TOG SHEE one ee eke ao eae et ae :
greenh aman «Mas SESS Sees epee suNeaas es :
red arenadesaus sale ye eek ee
ATCHACEOIIS, SHBIE Hi. cate SO ae a ESC
SHMISSOTIO? Ca onagin ce te Eee eR Oe

ALCMACEOUS SN ALO.-G sie ume ee eee ease eh ssa
Sama Stonl@s stu: oF arccueas ere Ra eee Sones
argillaceous shale (erect trees and ape
plané. remlarMs:)1\ coisas a. wane ct neta
clay rep ot ae eee ce enema See ne ein re

ae Belen ad wie Sey 5, Roa Beda SaaS SSC eae

arenaecoust shales: swiccome ate we ce ee Sar
SAR OSEOME arin fircats cute aa nice teeey pies Nek meses
SHiatke soe 3. ear Reais eta a ee aaa ee
ME SEG TIO Secouae es. Secu ash Ose nae oe onreg ae ase
yaar) wand ?elay sige sa, 3 4 ite cote e ee em eeae
bituminous shale (with Naiadites)........
arcillaceous Shales .2)4cne tee See
bituminous shale (with Navadites)

arevilageous: shales ii5y 05h guc.na boas eet oie ees
Sand sherie.2 sins oe eer nea Wt Crake tere ae
argillaeepus: shale. U\ 4-22 aces teak s
Sandetane sizes ee. cece spa eahicegees
red. ‘marl? > Fini ae DEG heal wae uale homes Mere
Shades <r. co cis ccdiperdesnetaa onsen accent Mn Loans

eh
+

Ss | Keo |
WAADDAMWw or oo iw

ees ea

bo eH
SBONWomnwmNow»rgmhd o&

|

aes
“I

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Or dO Or Ot SD HD

yn

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©o He

1

“5

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 3805

£64210:
coal (with calcareous underclay)......... — 4
SUN Sete ROR ere ar pea Og ee a EE ra 3
PRMIVESTOMVG Meee a. ates tach ernie oe nee ok 1
SIE ESS Sak ly aa ee Be ee ae Ri Re ne ORE onde Bede 3
Piliegraner wa treo ah Fae ral eee 2
hha cues eens a ee Oy ore te ad Shee 26
MADD E MRS eRe ae Ons Pd OR Oa aa oh Oe eats Boe 4
COALSEPSANGSONE ris 15s sascha et ene 26
shale (with erect Calamites)............ 1
MUTESE OTIS SMe RPE kes cee wien Mes wee ee — 4
SHAlGrte SOS Ate ee lee Raye ee Ea ef
DINIERS TUMULSLON GE. te teed Ra Vs eS obo ess ks 20
ARETACEOUS LGA oat cudnt Oe ek. hee ees oie oll 4
limestone. “<<. 02.5 BEE Det oe Se aes Seay ee oe) ae
TREES MA CELE ES ae eae aR cigar Sai a ee a Pal Bar 2
BECWACBONS SUA Ges, or socks whack Gee a ee aaa 3
STENOTOFS (75) 6 Ve Seg tee fe Ye argue Pe chy ey ee te ES 15
AMCTIACCOUS 4. SHAIC do wkehe cca Sees es 15
argillaceous shale and red marl.......... 26
shale and underclay (Stigmaria)........ 2
COT Pee as SNe bgt best es Bee a 2
S] ERE Ge per are Rls SO RY Site aes ee Be 3 4
SyeUG U6 FeO 1 a a eR AREA Ce See 4
Sidley Steet te ORE AREF CE AEN noe 4
Gd een fit ane hag eels been we eee ocr cae a 2
SE eT SRS AE ANE AS OR ae Pie alent ee Se 26
SAIRS LOMO Ae es a aie eas oe 8
CSTR Ao de lagen Wore ap te ce Me Sy ES — 3
Or On AAs een ines Pate a ee A Be ee ES — 3
SUG (pe ested Bena ey Re eee A SRE GEOR TRE SN ah ea 2
DOE I i SEs eon eat pace ts eet PRONE oes ry io — 3
shale <a. Bb SPEC Se ae pee PED ce Ne Ara 1 6
coal Sie SAE Reet PRONE aS AI Se PE 2
Clayee aie set et ead ren nites. are Gee See. Sieg
GOFF d botp ie Mere gee aA er aa pe wept eae re 1 4
{GPM Lae cae oie ae a ren gC TRE 4
Sandstone «(QMAERY ).07 <5. cates sc bao wea 94
slate vand sate. clays 24 fas, oe oe BO, 3
Ra Resieete ts weit ies fee ae et Mente bop — 9

306 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

fb. */inc
Clays oes sns LAE CoE coin ae seen aia gr ede eae — 38
CORE rents 7. oka Bioneers Seis ahs Dearest a Chee — 1
shale cess uh Pes ae eee) cakes Sere: 6
Sandstone sia se ee Ate Deh eee Me eke 24
anal 534275. 2s Ae apenas ata meets Api en 20
Gaye’. aos, SF ee eae NE eT ae Se — 6
COD wae eine ee seis Bn aie Se saan te tate Mees eae — 38
shalesand mnderclay rare tiice occteye lens ae nt 5
Ot ae Gesrass ease ee toes susehis) lekietonien eoMelte = +
Shales screed peace meeuea tanec a ororenes a euer Mire oe Soe — 5
Co gies tax Cart Re at Sun marae ieee oe eet ees il — 7
sandstone ..... ee a Pere : 25
CLV ate eee Be raed Se Rt cnade eon ORE Sivek
GOAN aera Hat Nie cbt, crete hi oegeetesbtae vel <e sleet 1
strata mogthy -comecaled=s1m.:. ne stan oe ah 215
axodllaeeousy Shaler. siete sth viene eae eets 20
ALCMACOOUS: Shale x haste sta c.er coats e's aKe as Cat ea
areilaceous -slialel ac ose fcsc spe ttee eee eee 10
coal (Lloyd's Cove:seam)< 2s fo28 ee. 6
Dlnecmmarl ery aay. eles oneeneys econ: eet ee 10
aTrenaceous: Shales? sor cras aan eee, wee 2
SAMSEOMES OS oles ache acatiete ia het aad ae 5
shalevandunderclay 20 0-2. ekiia et ee eke 1
(SLT Lew eg oe RR MRC in a OH EN a Bias Se) — 6
plachewehle sia ter chor kw wicecnn Pech Panes ecm — 6
COB OES Oe tere ce Migsh eek ctatc oan senile aa gph — 2
ble tanvarl cy Sechrest a one 8
areraccous. shiale- iawn say o cu ate eee 10
lp laegetnacasts iF acer wc omas er Rhee en es eee eee 2
coarse conglomeratie grit | Swivel........ 6
BAMMAS HOME "foes eck e seas ies he POun tessa: saree 12
sulphurous marl (upper ten inches almost
TOG OCHS Nm oe ise sek, aee ee ee SERRA 6
argillaceous shale (thinning out laterally
ImtoO Samdstone cs a..a1q «tees ie eee a 20
gray fine sandstone: saci aiaeea soo sce ee 20
POC MAELO. Sia, Bar. ee oe Oe eee ewer Pea 2
ble amare seaso% Seco cinphavars Reais numa 5
Me TVA Theo Seah leet enoed eben eeea saeco outa ae ens 2

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 307

fis at,

| EUTOUS SUPOU0 2 Regen ae ae eae 5
MECH TINE Tra. iy onde ecto, 5 ates 5 cays is 98) 2. leg A aol :

ar alaeeoue: Salant crs ows) sha seta eh eee « srs 50
srenaccous: stigle’ Go. et ie es ee dee ee ae)
ereillarcousesiale vi... 2 .kc ee ane ot ake os 5
Tee AMeRTIU SIONS Alene conn Ns cates Ser ede shee SON 6
hlvermanl\.82° ic cake > Brida eee tictaer eeeraa 5
TEE Ane PIN ta Sa eae aoa Rs Oe ea a 10
ATONE OIG SMALE Y mn. iste cas achn avo) fens Sass o's 20
BANCO HOMOmaN Stace cueee a aerate he Susneudareeere os 4
PPCM ACO OU Sill ek Som seagay J, Sons aicteieve «ced wes 5
SECMMACCOUS: SMBIC atk chee oo eee oe wide ie. 115
MeN TaN like es eee tok US uel, eps oy NtoeRee <a OS : 5
SEPA CeO US Salers ain bise ole aussie ss Wears 3
Magog SR nk er ere 8 oe foe ARE tee 2
coal (lower seam, Cranberry Head)...... iL
A MMMACCOUS MAG, asec mei. vee Poss hs oo 3
STING ESE DT 2 ae pelea ere ae eR a ee 5
aredilaceous SWale? Mase cjn 9% ss «33 oa ta ols alah
THO SUR CIE NS ae NON a nee ee eee Sa 1
coal (upper seam, Cranberry Head) .... 3 6

shale (to top of Cranberry Head)....... 15

W13o 14; Gin:

Details of shore section.—Stubbart point stself is a
salient of cross-bedded sandstone, which has been able to with-
stand marine action better than the shales overlying it and.
outcropping to the east of the point. Passing to the Stony seam,
88 feet above, the cliff was so covered with talus at the time of
this study, that I was unable to examine the coal. Robb (’74)
says that it has a fossiliferous limestone base. If so, this is
the lowest occurrence within the Coal Measures, and none is
known in the Millstone Grit.

The two next overlying seams, one six and the other twelve
inches thick, are separated by sandstone which contains a num-
ber of Sigillaria trunks, six to eight feet in length. The sand-
stone grades laterally into shale, and thins out so that the coal

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INST. Scr.,. Vou. X. Trans U.

308 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

beds converge, but they do not meet within the limits of the
section.

Indian Cove seam.—About eighty feet of strata, in part
concealed, separate the last named seam from the Indian Cove
seam. This is four feet thick, has a micaceous underclay, and
a bituminous shale roof. The roof is caleareous and fosil-
ferous, containing large numbers of shells of Cytherea. The
seam is worked by the Sydney Coal company, under the name
of the ‘‘ Greener mine.” The coal contains a large amount of
pyrite, which has decomposed near the outcrop. The rusty
water from the opening on the shore is rapidly cementing the
beach material into a conglomerate. On the Big pond end of
the same seam is the long abandoned Ingraham mine, which
was worked nearly thirty years ago for local use. In the old
trenches remaining from this early work, a considerable quan-
tity of iron has been deposited, resembling ordinary bog iron in
appearance.

Section to Lloyd’s cove.—Above the Indian Cove seam, there
is a continuous rock cliff almost to Lloyd’s cove, a distance of
about two miles, and representing a vertical stratigraphical
height of 1125 feet, including 215 feet largeiy concealed, on
the east end. The argillaceous and arenaceous layers alternate
rather regularly, and contain a few thin limestones. The
approximate proportion of. each is :—sandstone 316 feet, shale
534 feet, marl 36 feet, limestone 10 feet, bituminous shale 3}
inches, coal 16 feet, concealed 215 feet.

To show the relative arrangement of these beds, a condensed
section of this part of the field may be of interest. Sandstone,
shale and marl are here grouped under the general term
“strata.” Indian Cove seam, with its fossiliferous roof con-
taining Cytherea, etc, has been described. Above this the

section is as follows:

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 309

ft. 1 3
SUP Cpe poe ee Oe ae nA ad wee 34
limestones nen fe ae 2 it ek ke pecs hk 3
St Pewee thet seeds eer a oleae ota ee ate ee 65
Conlive. aee.e peta ten Er DE 9.2 EF, OB 1 3
SUPE LAM eee arr eakicens, ek ero we ahh ate, rath
COR a eet ac 2M i ee ok ee ae SORA ee)
Sine CA ets Co dy eee ee ce cog te 90
CO lie rete ee egetec the ttis a ee meen tateansal clan: —— tO
SETAE CE eee che ret eee doe oS ees 75
LININGS LOMER A Sita Neel ess et anaeen tears Ris actos cose 8
SUT AU ey Sk oe ots Ss asta a a ccc erate Baar 18
IMIMESTONG: Aoyetcs whe treeieetcs See ae — 4
Stren eae co ietnce ice ee era ares ie A er ae tae, Peace 47
CXS a gO ort De and — 4
SUGAR te ie ee ee Tt ma an ety aie Base aaPra al 3
CO ri tenes pein ae, ane Remi ae ed ER 1
strata (with erect ecees) ema gate 33
coal (Sydney Main seam).. ....... 6
SG gn ne ae eM ea 54
limMmeEStONG-2 0-7 ae oes oe cin Be Ne ee ke 2 6
SULA LARISA. Ey ee aa eee aa 3
bituminous shale (with Naiadites)....... — 2
SLT en ior crags ary Male ts ee eel ees Rete ae ok 17
bituminous shale (with Naiadites)...... — 15
SULAUM Es Selctaih Sar eh Rene fo, 59
coal (with calcareous underclay). cre Seok eee 4
(S171 es Se ee Ss A tan OS ee ; 3
MEStONG ee ene ee oe eerste ee ohne ke eae 1
| Bid a Weare Om go RST ero A er aaa ae 3
HIMES LOMe vee os NC ek eee ee Be 2
strata (with erect Calamites).. ........ 71
Imestone :.: 55%: Se herttr enn gee dae cd Se ee
SULLA aes ea ek Ree we Bee ee ote aes DAD
MITIVESLOM Cay eee ie te tah Pores on ee — 4
SUA ee Ree eles cbiare sea ho Nee RS 63
COR Spe Mien ee NE ME Rc dle ah, a 2,
SELAU AR Eten Ae eh rer sasc) eee eae wags 2
COD Re AOR Wen seen Pe Ne heed MR PS — 2
SEAGER et ea a ed eds 29 3

GOn se see ick Pata MTS. eee aioe: ee ks ae ne — 3

310 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

mnderclayy 2. vee aes ee ciate 2
CORNY peor te meer sereee Soe ie ee See _-
shalejandsunderclay< ype ci bie eae 1
COALS ima, as ala eee ea) ene —
clay -~-Chapel pot) 2% 5-2 om feo: —-
coal | Ree antenna 1
Strate ot. ess cary Soa ae nee a 28
fireclay aio ee oa ee ee 3

coal \ Chapel point, °

clay
\ upper seam
Coal ier at: he parce atone. Maree ns

Siar tah wes Mey ee haa ak aa ena Ce eee ee 50

OO Se wc

Coal Ree ean Gee ee MR eee a ae ere —

Coal As eee NERS Phe p Snes ed gh eee Re =

ah
—_
2
(qe)
|
Io

In this section there are eight beds of limestone, with a
total thickness of ten feet, and nineteen coal seams with a total
thickness of fifteen feet. Every seam possesses its underclay
except one or two very thin layers; and Stigmaria rootlets
abound. Hence it can scarcely be doubted that these seams for
the most part have accumulated from vegetation in place. The
term “strata,” as used above, includes a few beds of underclay
with rootlets, but containing no accompanying seam, showing
that in some cases the vegetable matter was prevented from
accumulating.

All the limestone layers are very similar in character, except
the eight-inch one between the Indian Cove and Main seams.
This is very compact and semi-crystalline, and of a brownish
gray color. The others are coarse and bluish gray, somewhat
crystalline and frequently brecciated. All rest upon shale,

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, Cc. B.—DEWOLFE. 311

while all except one have shale or marl immediately overlying.
In the exceptional case, sandstone is above limestone.

Fossils—The strata next below the Main seam give the
best illustrations of erect tree trunks, of any on this coast.
There Sigillaria from one to three feet in diameter show eight
to ten feet of their length through beds of sand and shale. I
found none with roots attached, but in one case the trunk is
easily traced into the shale overlying a seam. ‘The trees visible
in these beds taper rapidly. The original bark forms a thin
layer of glossy coal, the interior being filled with shale or fine
sandstone.

Fern-like leaves and petioles are abundant in the sandstone
surrounding the erect trees, lying with so little distortion that
they must have fallen into still water or soft mud, and have
been buried before they became disarranged. In several cases,
leaves appear in the inferior layers, but no branches; and in
higher strata branches are found. The rising sediment may
have killed the tree gradually, leaving it at last shorn of its
leaves, but with branches intact. These fell later into sediment
newer than that which had received the leaves. The time came,
however, when the dead top fell also, and was borne away ; for
now the truncated bole stands with overlying masses of rock
which contain no trace of the missing wood.

While the sediment must have accumulated comparatively
rapidly, to bury trees before they could decay and fall, it did
not prevent other trees from taking root and growing ty a
considerable size. For erect trees are found in the same cliff at
but slightly different levels. They were probably swift growers,
but perhaps tenaceous of life and slow to decay. These quali-
ties would readily explain the conditions under which we now
find them. That the bark decayed more slowly than the wood
is evident from finding the former carbonized, while the space
once occupied by the latter is now filled with sandstone, or less
commonly clay or shale.

312 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

In all this section, sand beds are replaced laterally by shales,
or thin out into them. The clay must have accumulated until
the water was coniparatively shallow, then sand spread over it,
thinning out as depth increased. After this had gone on for
some time, the sea bottom was depressed and into the deepening
water only mud could be brought. The clay overspreading the
sand and extending beyond it enclosed a wedge of sand similar
in shape and situation to those now exposed.

Main seam.—This seam is not well exposed in the cliff, so
that information concerning it had to be gained from the mines.
It is six feet thick, overlain by soft flaggy gray shale contain-
ing particularly good plant remains. The following are especi-
ally abundant :—Neuropteris cordata, Cyclopteris acadiana,
Pecopteris, Alethopteris, and leaves of Cordaites.

Details of section to Cranberry Head.—Fifty feet above
the Main seam lies a limestone horizon two and one-half feet
thick, and crystalline. Three feet of marl and shale separate it
from two inches of black bituminous shale, containing a multi-
tude of fish scales and shells of Naiadites. Twelve feet above
is a second similar layer, in which the shells compose nearly
the whole mass. The species represented are Naiadites elong-
atus and N. laevis. They are supposed to be proof of brackish
water or lagoon conditions.

The shell beds are succeeded by shale with a little sand-
stone to a depth of fifty feet, which in turn is followed by
four inches of coal with a calcareous underclay. Three feet
above the coal lies one foot of limestone. The underclay could
not have got its lime from washings from this bed, for in that
case, the intervening shale would also be calcareous. This is
not the case ; consequently the underclay must have accumulated
its lime independent of the bed above.

From this level to the top of the visible layers at Cranberry
Head, clay ironstone nodules become more abundant. In some
beds, they make up nearly one-fourth of the whole material.

The strata at the particular horizon now reached are less

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 313

uniform in their nature and arrangement than either above or
below. Sandstone shades off laterally and vertically into
arenaceous and argillaceous shales, and vice versa. These
horizons then must represent a comparatively prolonged period
of rest, during which the debris arranged itself according to
coarseness—the coarser sand being deposited nearest shore,
while finer and finer material was laid down as depth increased,
until at last only the finest clay was deposited. As this went on,
the cliffs wore back until they were so far from the earlier shore
that the coarsest sand did not reach that water at all. Then only
the finer sand, and at length clay, spread over the original
coarse sand. This would produce a gradual change from coarse
to fine material both seaward and upward, so that now sand-
stones and shales of all varying textures merge into each other.

Tracing the strata upward through three feet of shale and
two feet of lime, another layer of shale follows containing erect
Calamites. Nearly all the shale here and for a long distance
above, is argillaceous. Changes usually take place suddenly
from coarse sandstone to fine clay without the intermediate
stages that one might expect. Next above the shale with
Calamites, in addition to two thin bands of limestone, are twenty
feet of blue gritty sandstone, very much cracked. Since there
are no faults or folds here, or any other structure different
from that of the preceding beds, it is possible that this sand
owing to some peculiar conditions held more water at the time
of deposition than the other beds. Later, the drying of the
stone caused shrinkage cracks producing the effect now visible.

The next sixty feet of strata present evidence of deposition
on a more uneven bottom or in the presence of more erratic cur-
rents than any other part of the whole field under discussion.
Shales have been cut away and filled with sand, in a remarkable
manner.

Proceeding to the next overlying strata, several small seams
of coal are found distribute] as in tabular section on pages 304
and 309. The sandstone overly ing the sixteen-inch seam is a good

314 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

building stone, a considerable quantity of which has been
quarried for local use. It is rich in fossils of the genera
Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Here, too, I found a cast of the
pith of a Calamodendron. It very much resembles the stem of
Calamites, but is distinguished by the absence of leaf-sears.
The Calamodendron, as now found fossil, appears to be the pith
of a stem which had a thick bark and woody coating.
This pith doubtless decayed first, and the hollow stem filled
with sand or clay. Later the outer part disappeared, leaving
a stone cast of the interior. Although this quarry stone con-
tains numerous fossils, very few remain distinct enough to
determine their species. Sigillaria trunks are found varying
from two to eighteen inches in diameter.

Nearly all the coal seams have clay or shale above them.
One, however, the last but two before Lloyd’s Cove seam, is
overlain by very coarse, gritty micaceous sandstone. Condi-
tions succeeding the formation of this coal must have been
somewhat different from those succeeding previous beds. The
ordinary fine clay and shale usually overlying the vegetable
matter came from the gentle filling up of swamps with fine
material during a period of slow gradual subsidence. The coarse
sandstone. on the other hand, must have been deposited in
moving shallow water near shore. This may very likely have
come about by a sudden but comparatively slight subsidence
after the prolonged interval of rest during which the coal had
accumulated. For, if depression had not been sudden, the water
would not have attained sufficient depth to produce waves capa-
ble of moving and spreading out the coarse sand without any
intervening layer of clay. Nor could the depression have been
very great, for then the water would be so deep that coarse
sand could not be carried out any distance over the sea-floor.
A second possibility is the influx of sand from the action of
storms breaking over the low bars into the lagoon behind. In
this sandstone, false-bedding is extremely common, but with
no particular current direction. Its presence indicates the

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 315

probability of vertical oscillation rather than flooding as a
source of the sand. Much of the material bears evidence of
deposition in shore coves where current eddies would give
more irregular bedding than would be possible on a straight
shore.

Lloyd’s cove making in directly over the measures just
deseribed, cuts off observation of the next 200 feet of strata.
Crossing the cove, however, the section becomes continuous,
remaining so to Cranberry Head—the end of the land surface
of this district. Lloyd’s Cove seam itself is cut off from view
by detritus from the old workings. It is six feet thick, but is
cut into three parts by two thin layers of clay. There are two
slopes working at present on it, while it is cut at a depth of
eighty feet in the “ Princess” pit.

The next coal’seam is separated from Lloyd’s Cove seam by
eighteen feet of shale. It contains only five inches of coal,
divided into two bands by eight inches of soft shale. From
here to Cranberry Head the strata consist largely of shale, with
a few bands of sandstone and marl. The total thickness from
Lloyd’s Cove seam to the Head is about 300 feet. At the head-
land, two coal beds occur, with fifteen feet of shale and fireclay
between them. The upper seam is three and a half feet thick ;
the lower, one foot. Under the lower seam are one foot of fine
clay and two feet of fireclay with Stigmaria rootlets, the whole
resting upon gritty shale. The fine shale overlying the upper
seam is extremely rich in fossils and leaves of ferns and Cor-
daites, ete. No other rocks in the whole region except the roof
of the Main seam can equal it in its fossils. Some of the plants
found here are Sphenophyllum schlotheimii, Pecopteris arbo-
rescens, Odontopteris, Sphenopteris gravenhorstii, Pecopteris.
Many Cordaites leaves here measure three inches across.
About ten feet of strata still overlie the upper seam, before the
top of the Head is reached. When the land wears back thirty
feet more, however, not a trace of this coal outcrop will remain
above water.

316 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

Cranberry Head is about forty feet high, standing upon a
sandstone base. Since water level on either side finds soft
shales, these have worn away, leaving the outstanding firmer
sandstone. The front of the head, too, is parallel with the
strike, and the dip is directly seaward. These conditions give
less chance for wave attack than would otherwise exist. Not-
withstanding this, the head mus: eventually wear away.
Brown, writing in 1871, said: “ A block, 20 yards square and
15 yards high slipped off from Cranberry Head, forming an
island.” Although this was not very many years ago, no trace
of the “island” now remains. Moreover, as the sea works
landward, the cliffs are becoming lower; for here the land
surface slopes away from the sea.

Black point.—Around Cranberry Head no new measures
are exposed, for the shore either follows the strike or cuts back
into beds already seen. At Black point, about a mile from
Cranberry Head, are good exposures of coal and strata. The
point is sandstone, much broken into cubical blocks, which aids
the sea action in rapidly eroding it back. Three coal beds crop
here. The lower is one and one-half feet thick, with a foot of
fire-clay, resting upon sandstone. Above are six inches of fine
clay and marl, then coarser shale ten feet to the middle seam,
which is one foot thick. Sixteen feet higher is the third seam,
three feet thick, with coarse sandstone above and clay and shale
below. All these clays contain Stigmaria rootlets, while the
sandstone contains Sigillaria and Calamites. Mr. Charles Robb
says these Black Point seams are the same as those cropping at
Chapel point. Their enclosing strata go far towards proving
his conclusion to be correct. This is especially true of the
coarse gritty limestone overlying a coal bed at each point. I
have found no other coal seam without clay or shale immeuiately
above. In default of this evidence, however, one would be
disposed to call the Black Point beds new ones. owing to the
increase in their thickness and in that of the intervening strata

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B—DEWOLFE. 317

between the two places. But it is not hard to believe that such
- diversity could occur in that distance, for a difference of some
inches in coal and of some feet in strata is often seen in the part
exposed in one cliff. Moreover, the Indian Cove seam, for
example, where it is now worked near the outerop, is four feet
thick ; while in some other places it has been cut through in
two feet. The Main seam presents undulative and varying
thickness as it is worked at different points. With these facts
in view, it is quite probable that the Black Point and Chapel
Point seams are the same.

Part II. Summary oF HIsTory.

The rocks included in the area under discussion are all
sedimentary. Nearly all give evidence of deposition in shallow
water. This could happen throughont such great depth only
in the case of a slowing sinking land. There are a few indi-
cations of more rapid or sudden sinking, but rocks formed
under suddenly changed conditions are a very small part of the
whole deposit.

LIMESTONE SERIES.

Limestones.— The total thickness of strata from Leitch’s
creek to Cranberry Head is about 6400 feet. The lower beds
at Leitch’s creek are a laminated calcareous sandstone resting
upon limestone. The presence of limestone containing marine
fossils is proof of formation under the water of the open sea.
After this condition had remained for some time the waters, which
must have been shallow, became partly flooded with sand.
Its deposition was probably slow, thus allowing it to be so thor-
oughly impregnated with lime. Since this sand now forms a
bed nearly 200 feet thick, gradual depression must have taken
place for a long time. At last some change in the supply of
detritus brought clay instead of sand, now forming a bed of
red shale two feet thick. This is succeeded by limestone which
could have come from two sources. Either it cculd have been
carried from some land reef of limestone by water containing

318 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

carbon dioxide derived from decaying vegetation and deposited
subaerially, by evaporation of water or by loss of carbon dioxide,
or it may have been formed under the sea from shells. The
presence of land or marine fossils would decide the question
one way or the other. I have failed to find them, but Mr.
Brown and Mr. Robb report marine fossils. This makes it an
ordinary shell deposit. Re-elevation at last brought an end to
the formation of limestone, and renewed the supply of sand
which in turn was succeeded by clay as before. After a pro-
longed period of clay deposition the waters at length became
clear, and gypsum was deposited.

Gypsum.—Two theories have commonly been advanced as
to the origin of gypsum beds :—(1) formation by the action of
sulphuric acid on limestone ; (2) precipitation from water solu-
tions by other silts, or by partial evaporation. In the case
before us either method could have operated. The rocks both
above and below are limestones containing iron. The most
fundamental compound of iron occurring in nature is ferric
sulphide, iron pyrites. By oxidation or through organic
influence, this iron is often changed to oxide or carbonate, and
finally in a state of solution impregnates other rocks. The
sulphur goes to form sulphuric acid. The presence of iron in
these rocks points to a probable presence, then, of sulphuric
acid. It being supplied, and the limestone already at hand for
it to attack, gypsum could result just as we find it.

On the other hand, since it is so regularly bedded in material
evidently accumulated under water in a territory of alternate
elevation and subsidence, there is no valid objection to the
precipitation theory. In some parts of the world, beds are
undoubtedly of this origin, where they alternate with rock salt.
The absence of an overlying salt bed here can be readily
accounted for, from the evidence of seashore and marine deposi-
tion where water could not be sufficiently concentrated to pre-
cipitate its common salt. It is possible, moreover, that the land

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 319

was never sufficiently elevated to form inland seas, where
gypsum could be deposited as a result of evaporation. Ona the
whole, the sulphuric acid theory would seem more probable.

A third method of gypsum formation is sometimes attributed
(according to W. P. Blake—Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1901,
p- 715), to collections on dry arid surfaces after the manner of the
caliche. Since the structure here, however, points to totally
ditterent conditions from those belonging te such formations, we
may dismiss the subject.

Whether the gypsum was deposited by the concentration or
sulphuric acid method, clearly it indicates, like the limestone, a
temporary exclusion of the clay supply. Later this supply was
renewed, forming the next layer of marl; which, however, was
somewhat irregular, as proved by the stringers of bedded
gypsum running through it.

Tbe changes outlined above succeeded each other alternately
for long periods, since lime, shale, marl, and sandstone alternate
until an additional thickness of two hundred feet have accumu-
lated. That it is all calcareous, indicates its deposition under sea
water. Ripple marks and rain prints occur at different levels,
while material in some cases is uniform for some considerable
depth, proving slow subsidence. The occasional sudden
change from lime to sand or shale, proves intermittent sudden
changes of depositional conditions. This is further evident
from ripple marks at a contact of fine shale and coarser sand-
stone in the railway cutting previously mentioned. The fine
shale was deposited in comparatively deep water, or on a mud
flat. With a sudden elevation, however, sand was laid down on
the shore, for the ripple marks are in the first layer of sand
overlying the shale.

At length these oscillatory movements ceased, and for a very
long time slow and continual subsidence prevailed, without any
intervening elevation. The depression was just rapid enough
to allow accumulation to keep pace with the sinking sea bottom,
so that shore or shallow water deposits are continuous for great

320 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

depths. The advent of this permanent period of sinking
marks the beginning of the formation of the Millstone Grit
series.

Tronstone.—Between the Limestone and Grit is a bed of
impure ironstone. It is possible that this was formed in part
later than the adjoining beds as a bedded replacement deposit.
The limestone being more soluble than the overling grit, would
gradually dissolve away by water following the contact line.
The grit is a coarse grained permeable rock, while the limestone
is of much finer texture. Water leached from the overlying
beds, then, soaked down and overspread the limestone surface,
carrying away lime in solution. Iron compounds already
existed in the limestone, while additional quantities would be
brought in from the grit above. These were deposited in the
form of iron oxide in the place previously occupied by lime.
This is apparent from the fact that all the caleareous sandstones
are red or brown from iron, while the overlying grit is gray as
if leached ; and also that the rock containing the iron is silicious
to clayey, similar to that containing the lime.

MILLSTONE GRIT.

Cross-bedded sandstones.— With the introduction of the
Millstone Grit, variety ceases. In one or two cases an irregu-
larity occurred, sufficient to accumulate beach detritus, which
now appears as small beds of conglomerate. In general, how-
ever, sand was laid down in shallow water. It graduated from
coarse to fine, both laterally and vertically, but the change was
seldom abrupt. A few sudden depressions succeeded periods of
rest, as is seen In comparatively fine sand resting on conglom-
erate. False bedding is common, and nearly always in the
direction of the dip. Shore phenomena are also evident, from
horizontal stems of Calamites, Lepidodendron, and Sigillaria,
where they were probably thrown down as driftwood as at the
present day. Now and again tangled masses of leaves and
twigs occur as if brought there by some current.

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 321

Coal seams.—True coal seams are small and few. One
often finds coal bands extending only a few feet, and not more
than an inch thick. Since they usually contain no underclay,
and are of limited lateral extent, they probably represent small
masses of leaves and driftwood buried quickly. When true
seams do occur, they possibly do not extend far, but have been
formed in small restricted shore swamps, much after the manner
of the thicker seams of the Coal Measures. The conglom-
erates contain more iron than tie surrounding grit. <A
conglomerate layer, be it ever so small, usually exudes rusty
water. Th's is due partly to the cementing iron, but is to be
explained in part also by the fact that the more porous con-
glomerate acts as an underground drain by which the grit
continues to be further leached of its iron.

The Ingraham coal seam is the only coal that has been
worked in the Grit. It must have been formed during a period
of temporary elevation of the bottom, or in a cove that had
been shut off from the sea. If it had formed during a period
of rest, when the land had risen merely by accumulation of
detrities, the intervening beach stage with its conglomerate
might be expected. This does not exist. The more probable
view, therefore, is that since this bed has not been traced far,
it is of small extent and formed ina large cove that had been
closed up by a bay bar. As the land sank, the bar grew in
height until a silting up of 25 feet of shale and underclay in
addition to two feet of ccal had accumulated. Then the sea
again broke over the bar covering the whole area with coarse
sand which now almost approaches conglomerate. No part of
the bar, if such existed is now visible.

From here to the top of the Grit series no important change
in the structure takes place. At Stubbart point, which has
been fixed upon as the boundary between the Grit and the Coal
Measures, alternations of shale and sandstone again appear.
The oscillations which had marked the period of the Limestone

322 THE STRUCTURE AND SUCCESSION AT

series, but which had almost totally ceased during the formation
of the Grit, were resumed. They continue throughout the
deposition of the Coal Measures proper; but on the whole,
greater elevations were attained here than in the other series,
hence greater periods of growth of terrestrial vegetation.

COAL MEASURES.

Alternations of strata.—The alternations of sandstone and
shale have already been commented upon. Since the rocks often
contain erect trees and undistorted ferns, they must have been
deposited in shallower but quieter water than those of the
preceding series. The presence of small shells, mostly deter-
mined to be fresh water species, and the absence of purely
marine limestone fossils, all go to show periods of vegetable
growth and sediment deposited in inland swamps and lagoons.
The beds of coal and shale often being covered with sandstone,
however, may show subsidence or floodings at frequent intervals.
Mr. Brown reports finding rill marks, rain marks, and foot-
prints of land animals near Lloyd’s cove and in shale overlying
coal. These discoveries, with their distribution, prove the prox-
imity of ancient shore lines.

All these beds in turn have had their period of depression
beneath the sea, where the pressure of the ocean and the over-
lying strata has brought about those changes necessary to form
solid shale, sandstone and coal. At last, however, they again
were forced up by the orogenic activities which gave rise to
the Coxheath and Boisdale hills, and became part of the great
compound Sydney basin to the east.

DYNAMIC CHANGES.

Uplift against pre-Cambrian.—To the southwest of the
Sydney district as a whole are two mountain cores of pre-
Cambrian rocks. One of these forms the Boisdale hills, the
other the Coxheath hills. Both were uplifted at the close of
the Carboniferous. In some portions of the province, as Cum-

NORTH SYDNEY AND SYDNEY MINES, C. B.—DEWOLFE. 323

berland county, Permian strata have shared in the general
deformation; or as in Pictou county, have been slightly
deformed, but less than the Coal Measures. Thus there appears
to have been a general orogenic disturbance at the close of the
deposition of the Coal Measures, with less, and perhaps more
local, warping during or after the Permian.

As no Permian is met in the Sydney district, the exact date
of uplift cannot be fixed; but it is to be presumed that it was
at the close of the Coal Measures, or Carboniferous proper.

The effect was to make a large syncline in the form of a
partial basin, with its margins well defined on the northwest,
west, southwest and south. This was broken up into subor-
dinate basins largely by the influence of the two cores of old
rocks referred to above. The Coxheath core most affected the
area under discussion ; and its effects may be seen in the north-
west dip of the Carboniferous near the head of Sydney harbor,
changing gradually to the normal northeast dip as one recedes
from the source of influence.

Both the mountain cores gave to the enwrapping sediments
the attitude of local anticlines, plunging sharply northeast, and
dying out near the present shore of the island. These folds acted
merely, however, as local interruptions to the general basin
structure.

Absence of post-Carboniferous stratu.—Except the Triassic
area in the western part of the province, there are no rocks t)
be found between the Permian and the Pleistocene. In the
Sydney district, as elsewhere, it is presumable that the land was-
above water constantly after the end of the Carboniferous.
The evidence here is purely negative—absence of subsequent
formations ; but throughout the province as a whole, the drain-
age patterns made by the streams point to a very ancient

emergence of the land.

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. X. TRANS V.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.*—By G.
M. JOHNSTONE MacKay, B. A., Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia.

(Read 9th April, 1906).

The following investigation, carried out in the laboratories
of Dalhousie University, was undertaken at the suggestion. of
Dr. E. MacKay. The chief object in view was the study of
solutions more concentrated than those investigated by W. H.
Ross.’

Preparation of Hydroxylamine Sulphate.

Considerable difficulty was found in preparing large quanti-
ties of hydroxylamine sulphate, and as about 600 grams were
required, a port on of the salt used was purchased.

The method adopted was that of Divers and Haga? as
modified by Maxwell Adams, which method appears to be more
satisfactory than the older methods.

On looking over the literature on the subject, several con-
flicting statements were found. Thus Divers and Haga say
that the mixture to be sulphonated should consist of sodium
nitrite and sodium carbonate in the proportion of two molecules
of the former to one molecule of the latter ; Maxwell Adams on
the other hand, says one molecule of sodium nitrite to two of
sodium carbonate, while Lengfeld* gives more than two mole-
cules of sodium nitrite to one of sodium carbonate.

All three proportions were tried, but the two latter were
found to give no satisfactory result. Maxwell Adams’ directions
probably contain a misprint, and should read “ one part of sodium

*CONTRIBULIONS FROM THE SCIENCE LABORATORIES OF DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY
—[CHEMISTRY]

1. Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., XI, I, 96.

2 Jour. Chem. Soe (Lond.) 69, 1665 (1896).

3. Am. Chem. Jour. 28, 198, (1992).

4. Inorganie Chemical Preparations.

(324)

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 325

nitrite to two parts of sodium carbonate,’ which would give
approximately the same proportions as Divers and Haga, which
correspond to the equation
2NaNO, + Na,CO, + 480, + H,O = 2HON(SO,Na), +CO,.
The method of procedure was as follows :—

500 grams of commercial crystallized sodium carbonate and
237 grams of commercial sodium nitrite were dissolved in
800ce. of warm water, and the solution, contained in a glass
eylinder about 10 em. by 30 em. in size, placed in a freezing mixture
of snow and salt. When the temperature fell to —5° C., sulphur
dioxide was passed into the solution from a siphon, the delivery
tube acting as a stirrer by being attached to a swivel gear fast-
ened near the circumference of a wooden wheel kept in motion
by means of a small air engine. When the flow of sulphur
dioxide was so regulated that the temperature did not rise above
—3°, sulphonation took from 6 to 8 hours. When the solution
thus became neutralized, it was poured into a large flask, a few
drops of sulphuric acid added, and the whole heated to between
90 and 95 degrees in a large water bath until the hydrolysis of
the sodium oxyamidosulphonate was about complete, the process
requiring about 50 hours.

The solution was then almost neutralized with sodium car-
bonate, cooied to O° C, evaporated, cooled again to —8°, and a
saturated solution of tertiary sodium phosphate added, when
the comparatively insoluble hydroxylamine phosphate would
separate out.

Contrary to the experience of Divers and Haga, on adding
the few drops of sulphuric acid to the sulphonated solution to
start hydrolysis, no marked rise of temperature took place.

The following variations in treatment were tried without
marked improvement in the yield:

The addition of more water to the solution before starting
hydrolysis ;

The addition of a larger quantity of acid to start hydrolysis ;

326 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.-—MACKAY.

The addition of sodium carbonate during hydrolysis to
neutralize the large excess of acid formed ;

Increase of length of time of hydrolysis until disappearance
of last trace of the oxyamidosulphonate, 5 or 6 days.

In order to be able to pass sulphur dioxide into the solution
more rapidly without raising the temperature above —3’, a copper
vessel forming an annular ring was designed so that the freezing
mixture could be put around the outside of the solution, and
also in the central bottomless cylinder. The solution to be
sulphonated, in the annular space, had thus a large surface
exposed to the action of the freezing mixture. The delivery
tube was rotated in the ring as before.

Little or no hydroxylamine was obtained in this way, how-
ever ; and a great deal of time was spent in trying to improve
other conditions before it was found that the copper had a
specific catalytic reducing action on hydroxylamine salts, con-
verting them mainly into ammonium compounds.

Preparation of Free Hydroxylamine.

For the preparation of free hydroxylamine the method of
Uhlenhuth? was followed. When the chloride was used as the
basis of preparation, it was necessary to convert it into the
phosphate. 500 grams of tertiary sodium phosphate, prepared
from the secondary sodium salt by adding the necessary amount of
sodium hydroxide and recrystallizing, were dissolved in 1000ce.
of water and added to 273 grams of hydroxylamine chloride
dissolved in 600ce. of water. About 200 grams of hydroxy-
lamine phosphate separated from the hot filtered solution on
cooling. As there was such a large volume of water present,
and as the reagents were pure to start with, it was not necessary
to recrystallize.

From 20 to 50 grams of the dried salt, the amount of salt
varying with the amount of hydroxylamine required, were put

1. Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 311, 117 (1900).

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 327

ina distilling flask fitted with a thermometer with its bulb
dipping into the salt. An air condenser about 400mm. long
and 10mm. in diameter with about 50mm. of smaller glass
tubing joined on to the end, which passed through a rubber
cork into a wide mouthed bottle of 250ce. capacity, was attached
to the flask. Through another hole in the cork there passed a
glass tube to which the exhaust apparatus was connected.

As it was necessary to weigh the pure hydroxylamine, a
small tared weighing bottle was placed in the receiver immedi-
ately under the condenser so that it would collect most of the
hydroxylamine.

The apparatus was exhausted by means of a “Geryk”
vacuum pump, a U tube filled with pumice stone soaked in
sulphuric acid followed by a calciuin chloride tower filled with
fused sodium hydroxide and finally by a tower lying on its side
spread with phosphorus pentoxide, being placed between the
receiver and the pump in order to prevent access of hydroxy-
lamine, sulphuric acid or water vapor to the oil valves. A mer-
cury manometer was connected in parallel with the drying tubes.

After the apparatus was exhausted to 6 or 8mm. pressure,
heat was gradually applied to the flask, hydroxylamine passing
slowly off until a temperature between 115° and 125° was
attained, when, under the same pressure, the greater quantity
of the hydroxylamine was expelled. Distillation was stopped
when the thermometer rose to 140° as it was desirous to obtain
as pure a product as possible, although Uhlenhuth aliows the
temperature to rise to 170° with the pressure as high as
40mm.

The hydroxylamine, of which about 4 grams would be
obtained from 20 grams of phosphate, would condense in the
weighing tube, and when jarred or cooled would form perfectly
clear crystals, thus showing itself to be practically pure. There
was generally, however, a slight odor of ammonia notice-

able.

328 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY.

Preparation of Solutions.

The best method for the analysis of hydroxylamine, accord-
ing to the investigations of Maxwell Adams,’ is the titration
by iodine in the presence of tertiary sodium phosphate. He,
however, states that it is not very trustworthy.

My experience has been the same. Working with a standard
solution, concordant results could be obtained by always using
the same amount of phosphate, but where an unknown amount
of hydroxylamine was present in the solution, there being no
guide as to the amount of phosphate to be added, very unsatis-
factory results were obtaired. The end point is also very
uncertain, the blue color of the starch fading out almost imme-
diately.

Accordingly in making up my standard solutions, I pro-
ceeded directly from the weight of the crystalline hydroxy-
lamine itself, which should give more accurate results than
standardization by the iodine titration.

As the solutions when once used in the conductivity cell
could not be used again on account of decomposition, each con-
centration required was made up separately. In the case of
2,5, and 10 normal solutions, 50ce. and 25ce. graduated flasks
were used, and as all of this was needed to rinse the cell and to
fill it, a comparatively large amount of hydroxylamine was used.

The flasks used in making up the solutions were 500ce.,
A00ce., 250ec., 150ce., 100cc., 50cece., and 25cec. 50cce. and 25ce.
pipettes, a 1Jce. pipette graduated to 1/10ce, and a 50ce. burette
were used for diluting. All were carefully calibrated at 18° C.

The various concentrations were made up in the usual way,
by dissolving a weighed quantity of hydroxylamine in so much
water, removing a portion in a pipette, adding required amount
of pure water to bring to the reguired standard, and then filling
up to the mark with the solution which had been removed in
the pipette.

1, Loc. cit.

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 329

New solutions were made up each day as there was evidence
of slight decomposition on standing.

The water used was purified according to Hulett’s? method.
5ec. of sulphuric acid and 5ee. of a saturated solution of potas-
sium dichromate per liter of water were added to ordinary
distilled water in a large flask with a block tin condenser thrust
into the neck and held there by means of a cork made of a
mixture of asbestos and plaster of Paris. The water thus
obtained was redistilled after addition of a small quantity of
barium hydroxide. The water finally received had a mean
conductivity of 1.6 x 10 expressed in Kohlrausch’s new unit.’
The best water obtained had a conductivity of 1.05 x 10-° and
was used for the more dilute solutions. The conductivities
obtained were corrected by substracting the conductivity of the
water.

Measurement of Conductivity.

Conductivity was determined by Kohlrausch’s method with
alternating current and telephone. <A bridge of Kohlrausch
pattern, with four resistances, of 1000,100, 10 and 1 true ohms
was used, and wire of resistance 1.4 ohms wound on a marble
drum. Both wire and coils were certified by the maker, Queen
& Co., of Philadelphia, to be accurate to within .017% and 027,
respectively at 17.5°, and to have a temperature co-efficient of
.000267 per ohm per degree centigrade.

The bridge wire was calibrated according to Stroubal and
Barus’? with ten german silver wires of approximately equal
length, soldered to stout pieces of copper wire.

The induction coil was of the form reecmmended by Ostwald,
and was kept in an adjoining room so that the noise of the
interrupter would not affect the ear.

As pointed out by W. H. Ross‘, solutions of hydroxylamine
and its salts are decomposed by platinum electrodes. It was
Ztschr physik. Chem , 21, 297 (1896) and J. Phys. Chem. I., 91 (1896).

Kohlrausch u. Holborn ; Leitvermoégen der Elektrolyte, 1898.

Wied. Ann, 10, 326, (1880).
Loe. cit.

eerr

330 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY.

found that when a solution of hydroxylamine of fair concen-
tration was put in the ordinary cell of the Arrhenius type with
electrodes covered with platinum black, that a vigorous reaction
set in with evolution of bubbles of gas and a greal deal of
ammonia fumes, due probably to the reducing action of the
occluded hydrogen. Even with bright electrodes considerable
decomposition occurred, the resistance of a solution in contact
with the platinum decreasing from 500 to 200 chms in 18 hours.

It was thought that it might be possible to use some other
metal electroplated on the platinum which would not decompose
the solution so much. Accordingly, the following experiment
was tried with pieces of the more easily electroplated metals
about 18 sq. ca. in area.

Each piece was placed ina beaker and covered with 20ce. of
an approximately N/10 solution of hydroxylamine, and allowed
to stand at a temperature of 25° for 44 hours. Each beaker
was then washed into a 100ce. flask, and duplicates of 25ce.
each run out from a burette and titrated with iodine solution in
presence of sodium phosphate. Averaging the two results and
correcting for end point, it was found that 25cce. of each solution
required the following amounts of iodine :

Onicinaljsoluti@iae 3 -r.ct et 11.1ce. N/10 I solution.
Solution with tin plate ........ whist

é ‘> Solacimiuiiny Gi oasee< selORS

a SP IGIIVICT.: ge tte ac eas ORS

xe = SniekelSplate ti... B59)

“ mercury ....about 8.0

“ oe COMPO aur .n. at ecees 0.0

It was thus shown that tin decomposed the solution little or
none at all, and that copper decomposed it completely, the other
metals arranging themselves in the above order. On_ these
grounds an ordinary cell of the Arrhenius type was tin plated
from a solution of tin chloride, ammonium oxalate and oxalic
acid at a temperature of 65° according to Classen’, a greyish
white coating being obtained.

1. Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 331

This cell showed itself to be greatly superior to that con-
structed of bare platinum, but still slightly decomposed the
solution. Thus in a couple of hours an approximately N/5
solution in the platinum and tin cells decreased in resistance as

follows :—
With platinum. With tin.
Initial resistance...... 3555 ohms. 3717 ohms.
Final Ke cba ere A x3 1 Oye S201)
Difference ...... ae 2919“ SiGe wk

For solutions 1/10 Normal and more dilute, a second cell
with pure tin electrodes of larger size and closer together, was
fitted up by fusing pieces of stout tin wire to two tin plates
about 25 sq. em. in area, and arranged in the same manner as
the Arrhenius cell. The wire was protected by glass tubes
passing through holes in the wooden cork and held in place by
sealing wax, and as the wire could not be fused into the glass it
was left bare for about 25mm. above the electrodes. Of course
with this arrangement it was necessary to always introduce the
same amount of liquid into the cell so that the same area of the
surface of the wires would always come into play. Twenty-five
ec. measured from a pipette was the amount used. This cell did
not give such a good minimum point with the telephone as the
electroplated one.

Before making an observation the cell was first carefully
cleaned with pure water, the electrodes suspended at some dis-
tance over an electric lamp to dry, the cell rinsed with the
solution, the requisite amount put in, and the whole placed in a
large thermostat of the form recommended by Ostwald’, with a
stirrer rotated by a small air engine. A thermometer graduated
to the 1/50 of a degree and calibrated by the Physikalisch-
Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin, was placed in the bath. By
the addition of cold water, or the application of a very small
flame under the bath, the temperature of the whole could readily
be kept constant to within 1/50 degree of 18°, at which temper-

1. Ztschr. phys. Chem., 2, 565 (1888).

332 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY.

ature the measurements were made. When the electrodes were
dry they were connected in the circuit and suspended immedi-
ately over the solution in the cell for about ten minutes, when
they were dropped carefully into the liquid and a reading made
as quickly as possible, the time taken being about half a minute.

After the lapse of about 6 minutes another reading was
taken, the change in conductivity being as follows :—

Strength of Molecular Conductivity
Solution. Conductivity. after 6 minutes.
INE Sacre ee ere SOEs Ie Re mmatgo ate as 1
IN/ MORES as: Phy ho ae Serene EN “32
NJ DORE eee AO) cL eo eee bate 43
INS Oseneerscn nee SYA My eee A ret 55
IN OO eee eteae Os specs cet 86
INF ZOO; Se (Gos Nati lent er seach ies 1:80
NY 500s 2 Co ay fer oe 1°85

It thus appears that greater relative decomposition takes
place in dilute solution. This may be due, however, to the fact
that in concentrated solutions minute bubbles of gas adhere to
the electrodes keeping the resistance higher until dislodged by
shaking.

The conductivity of the pure hydroxylamine, owing to the
small amount of material available, had to be determined in a
very small cell of about 6ce. capacity. It was made by ham-
mering out into thin plate the ends of two tin wires, and passing
them through a piece of paraffin, which served as a stopper to
the cell. The wires were filed to thin diameter where the top
of the solution would come into contact with them, and a
diamond scratch was run around the outside of the cell so that
the same amount of solution could always be added. The cell
itself was merely a weighing tube, and the hydroxylamine was
collected in it directly from the condenser.

For the measurement of the conductivity of water, a cell of
the Arrhenius type was used with electrodes platinised accord-
ing to the formula of Lummer & Kurlbaum.?

1. Wied. Ann., 60, 315, (1897)

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 333

The cells were standardized by means of N/50 and N/100,
solutions of pure recrystallized potassium chloride made with
pure water.

The following results were obtained, the specific equivalent
conductivities being expressed in reciprocal ohms multiplied by
the number of cubic centimeters containing one gram equivalent
of hydroxylamine.

The results obtained by W. H. Ross, with bright platinum
electrodes, are given in the last column.

The other columns are :

(1) Grams of salt taken per liter.

(2) Volume of solution in liters per gram molecule of

hydroxylamine.

(3) Specific equivalent conductivity expressed in Kohl-

rausch’s neW unit.

(i) g (2) v (3) pv (4) (Ross)
SOE 7G eee OO004e ce Oo lige sere
16573200. 22... gente oe HOTS ates.

GGL 280s. a. nsct Osorio wm ese W0QTean sk
33-0640 TOF Sage cst 3 Obl te
eG Neen 7a Vier ek eae 1093)-.on i:

GG MD Seay ote fen ana ea AO eyeaeyn 4

BU B064 ocd oo 10°0 OR Peadect: +5

WG) ce era. 20-0 sub yeti te fc 7

6612. BOS Ore saat. cle. De Mayai one 9
S20Gm tee NOOO! 2 Seta. s WiGueece es 1:2
MGB Ss to 20050 ae ee. 1c? i ares a 1:5
OGG leis ee ot HOOROM be tastes): Tein! ceric) 1:9

In consideration of the relatively small decomposition of
hydroxylamine solutions in presence of tin as compared with
platinum, column 3 may be taken to give more accurate results
than any hitherto obtained.

In determining the conductivity of the pure hydroxylamine,
the small cell, containing about 5 grams of the substance, was
warmed in water at a temperature of slightly above 33°, the
melting point of hydroxylamine, until the crystals had liquefied.

334 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY.

The tin electrodes, joined in the circuit, were then inserted and
a reading taken as quickly as possible. So slight was the
decomposition that the liquid solidified again in a few minutes.
The specific conductivity expressed in reciprocal ohms was
approximately 83 x 10°.

It thus appears that hydroxylamine has a conductivity
between that of liquid ammonia at 30° C., 150 x 10°, and that
of hydrazine hydrate, 34 x 10°. On the addition of water, at
the concentration of ten gram moleczles to yhe liter, there is a
specific conductivity of 8310 x 10°, which decreases continuously
on dilution. In the molecular conductivities there is a minimum
point between the concentrations 2 normal and 10 normal.
This may indicate that at high concentrations hydrates are
formed which are dissociated on further dilution. Unfortunately,
owing to lack of time, I was unable to further investigate this
anomaly.

Freezing Points of Solutions of Hydroxylamine.

The method used for the determination of the depression of
the freezing point was that described by Loomis.’

The thermometer used was of the ordinary Beckmann type
and had been calibrated by the Physikalisch-Technische
Reichsanstalt, Berlin. It was graduated to 1/100 degree and
could be read directly to 1/1000 degree by means of a reading
microscope with a micrometer eyepiece.

The freezing tube consisted of two parts, an inner tube with
re-entrant bottom, 28cm. x 2.8cm., and an outer tube providing
an air jacket of about 1.5mm. thickness. The inner tube was
supported in the outer by means of rubber bands. The ther-
mometer was held in position in the inner tube by an ebonite
cover and a rubber cork a few centimeters below, through both
of which were glass tubes to allow the stirring rod of thin glass

1. Phys. Review, 1, 199, (1893); and 9, 257, (1899).

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 3385

rod bent in a ring at the bottom, to pass through. <A platinum
stirring rod could not be used owing to its decomposing power
on the solution.

In the determination of the freezing point of the solution,
these tubes were surrounded to their neck in a glass vessel
35cm. high and llem. in diameter, called the protection bath.
This stood in a large earthenware jar containing snow and
water. The bath was kept at 0°3 degrees below the freezing
point of the solution under investigation. The vessel was pro-
vided with a stirrer made of stout copper wire, and was covered
with a thick wooden cover.

Two more glass vessels of about the same size as the pro-
tection bath were also used. One contained a mixture of snow
and salt at a temperature of about—10’, and was used to super-
cool the solution whose freezing point was to be determined.
The other contained water at a temperature of +5° and was
used to melt the ice formed in the tube.

The hammer of an electric bell supported over the protection
bath and driven by an Edison-Lalande battery was used to tap
the top of the thermometer before the reading.

In determining the freezing point, the inner tube was filled
up toa mark on the glass with about 50ce. of the solution at
about 0°, and placed in the freezing bath where it was kept
with continuous stirring until ice formed, when it was removed
to the melting bath and stirred until nearly all the ice had
disappeared. It was then again removed to the freezing bath
and stirred until the mercury after falling commenced to rise
when it it was quickly transferred to the protection bath, the
hammer set in motion, and after two minutes of continuous
stirring and tapping, during which time the mercury assumed
its highest position, a reading of the thermometer was taken.
The whole operation was then repeated 6 times and the mean
of the different readings taken.

336 CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.— MACKAY.

By judiciously controlling the degree of overwarming, the
overcooling could be kept within 1/10 of a degree. As the
overcooling seldom exceeded this, it was not considered neces-
sary to make any correction for change in concentration, as the
degree of accuracy otherwise attained would not justify it.

The solutions used were made up according to volume at
18° C., and the molecular depresssion calculated according to
Arrhenius. The water used was the same as that used for the
conductivity measurements, and the freezing point was deter-
mined each day in order to eliminate errors due to variation in
the barometer.

The following results were obtained :—

Grams of NH2OH used per Number of liters Depression of Molecular
liter of solution. per gram molecule. freezing point depression.
sor OGLOE hs ateet eee Ti ojewatyaeate, ahs eae (ce ome ete a E2767)
OS Dork ust eereree. Dr hsitgatenenoae S900 5S. acl
GaGlZSe vi. - eee iy eg ones “S007 65... =12180
SOO OA re Moe sete. Oe ees sees ‘13808 jal
T2659 2) cee ees ie 20k SS Bes “O95 0k eet GO
GO earns DOP orcs eae ae 03 91 eee Ie
Sepeh OO cristae Stee OO Ee icateraa: O20 A ce OA
“A GiGi: dee encaeee BOO. sncee sreneytue O045 ccs, aoe

These results are in general agreement with the conductivity
measurements, at corresponding dilution, in showing the slight
dissociation of hydroxylamine solutions.

For the sake of comparison, it may be of interest to give the
values of the molecular d pression by ammonia in aqueous solu-
tion as found by Jones’, and also the specific equivalent conduct-
ivities for ammonia, and potassium hydroxide, taken from
Whetham’s’ tables.

1. Zeitschr. phys. Chem., 12, 623, (1893).
2. Theory of Solution, 1902.

CONTRIBUTION TO STUDY OF HYDROXYLAMINE.—MACKAY. 337

Molecular depression of ammonium hydroxide in solution :—

Grams per 1000ce. Normal. Lowering. Molecular Jowering.
Electra neta ta AG 10023108... 0008.22 se. 232943
mM Ores se cere x me O04 86ers 009s aed loon
#45! BY i eemneaae are HOOGSA ieee JOAD eae -OS00
fol (Oy hie an ea era er AO0903 5% oan 018572 2 2046
CRO SO ON most hs SOUT oe eee LO229 OS 2T
ESO MDO I. aes ss FOZ 90s se. OO hO aah SOCK
Lessa t0 oes Seti NOSSO an oh (OU (he O GOS
ARO Dites Sane cuts S0500G > te 22 0984.57 oe Neos

Specific equivalent conductivity of solutions of ammonia,
potassium hydroxide and hydroxylamine, expressed in Kohl-
rausch’s units :

NUMBER OF GRAM EQUIVALENTS | s

PER 1000cc. Bote Ol es vila ae |) Loa eae

Specific equiv. coud of NHyg OH.. 03; 02) .... -03) .05 .09
oh ue INGE 3515) <i ere 05, .25 Be3 | aerreb ats 239) We27

oe et KOH ee ASRO MOS OOO \eerecte 182.6 | 195.7

| |

OFZ 0.1 U5 .03 .02 OL .006 .005 | .002
0.1 0.3 (Uae S| ens cere 0.5 ORS | erecex 1.3 1.4
Gan DIGoe 3.3 46 Heo, || sere ences 9.8 12 3 oe 20.2
Deters suas 210.1 | 217.45 | 220.9 oer 225.8 227.6 Son oial\e eee ae

The results obtained in the present paper may be summar-
ized as follows:

(1). By the use of tin electrodes, the conductivity of solu-
tions of hydroxylamine has been more accurately determined
than hitherto.

(2). The molecular conductivities show a minimum point
between the concentrations 2 and 10 normal.

(3). The specific conductivity of pure hydroxylamine has
been determined.

; ; Wet 2a
i a BO Gals lr eee Li" Sue OG bas teats
, — "3 ca : Pi EG 7 : i}
: poae Sere a
iz +4 “Bay - Pais
7 aay oT = a

4 \ 7 > : “ =) ' 7 vA H
> \ ‘ r Se 7 7 4 =
“hs c : ; ; eo eee Se eee

.
' +
: :

= . —

~ = = te
a way
- - «

>

| 4
. 1
a ‘ .
= } i
t S
af
j
:
, ‘
I ie ey |
= a « a
+ 7
ae .
=
hs im
i: Z < F
: ir
2 r.
= ¢
‘ : 4 a ers re
7 * ~
;
A

HE attention of members of the Institute is directed to the following
recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological

Bibliography and Publications :—

‘*That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner.

** That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.

‘That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when
possible,

‘*That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or
anonymous paragraphs.

‘* That references to previous publications should be made fully and
correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of

rules of quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological
Society.”

THE

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Kova Scotian Enstitute of Science,

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME XI
PART 3.

SESSION OF 1904-1905.

HALIFAX:
PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., LTD.
' Date of Publication: April, 1908.

Price to Non-MemsBers: One Harr-Dorrar.

CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1904-1905:

UA NINO ALE NERE TUN GLa ii, Ore cn Rca YS ULL Ch a ta a eave XxXxi
Presidentialaddress: (1) Progress of the Institute, (2) Borings in search of

coal.—By Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., A. R. S. M., F.G.S., F. R.S. C....... Xxxi
RMeporbiof Preasgurenis |: yiileeids eae eae ISN ee Ue he aS NER eM RRR Xxxiv
Reporbiol Mabrarian ores Wee cy ae Nes Len apnoea nea hae TE eR Xxxiv
Report of King’s County Branch of the Institute.............0...c.eeeee eee Xxxiv
Officers For 10S 1905 ie a OR BEAU A TAGES Me ASN eae ee UA a XxXXV
ORDINARY (MEETINGS) ). ib ea hilo ks AZ 78 Sor au area MICE SEN int ofa anima mice AI XXxXV
Volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands.—By Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Sc.

(CBitke Onlky) sos foctis CCS ES Sh BAS i ee aa i Tas ea ce ene we Oe xxxXV
Structural analysis of the Goldenvilie anticline, Guys. Co., N.S.--By F. H.

Mebearni i (Litleonliy,isy 9b gi ee SN Ary TAA Aaa neg cea xxxvi

Note on crystallized gold.—By Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Sc. (Title only)!.. xaxvii
Detection of vanished coastal plains —By Prof. J. E. Woodman, D. Sc.

(RTC Te reonaty, ise ake 0 Noi Oe cae ea Rh CIN, oa) aT aR ce eal hae xxxvii
Weathering of building stone in Halifax.—By Prof. J. B. Woodman, D. Se.
CEible on by yeas ieee ag ee neal ZEN a Jum Sal ina a eae erg XXxXVii

TRANSACTIONS, SESSION OF 1904-1905:
Pre-Cambrian volcanic bombs from near Lake Ainalie, Inver. Co., N. 5.—

By Henry 8. Poole, D. Sc., A. R. S.M., F.G.S., F.R. S.C... ..e cease 339
Notes on the ore deposits of South Cheticamp, Cape Breton Island, N.S.—

By MVS Grand rire ener lok ee or aR Te ARNEL aa een A a 347
Meteorological notes._By F. W. W. Doane, M. Can. Soc. C. E. .....-....05 361
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1904.—By A. H.

Dili Kel 2 hse) OS B Fel SW Bal Saal OR rR lire ae atan OER Vly A Su oN SRN Uli 373
Edible wild plants of Nova Scotia.—By Walter H. Prest ..........+.00--005 387

Section of Carboniferous rocks in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia:
(1) Detailed section of rocks from West Ragged Reef to the Joggins
Mines ‘and Minudie,—by Sir William E. Logan (republished); and
(2) from Shulie to Spicer Cove,—by Hugh Fletcher, B. A. With intro-

duction/Dy)! MUS Poole Dy SCase ies wetine iale uc Mareiele aiatih lece pe iee es cera iielatet eee nea 417

Introd uction:——By Dra Wu Se OOle her sires vide oaks sie cine ae woklaLai eit 417

West Ragged Reef to Minudie.—By Sir W. Logan................+- 419

Shulie to Spicer Cove.—By H. Fletcher ......... 0.2.0.2. csc iec ee ceeeee 500

COMTOM ES sass oie ehas ce hat eo ia ete a lecarG IN Hele ates iek oye Cootm ake oh) ala i ctenlene olla’ a fete apa 549
Supplementary note to a paper on ‘‘The Sunken Land of Bus.”—By

Henry S. Poole, D. Sc..... SORE Rater fee J FLED PARR BA) DIT alae Aa Be TROON SRR oy ge) 551

APPENDIX III:
Liet-of members) 1904-1 905 is Few selelerccn pata adie wap aleteiaie an sleteee ae al ietele Siete Rian ix

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Aova Scotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1904-1905.

PrrE-CAMBRIAN VOLCANIC BOMBS FROM NEAR LAKE AINSLIE,
INVERNEsS Co., N. S.—By Henry S. Poo.Le, D. SC., ASSOC.
Ra ies We Ge (Se iP oR -S :

(Read 17th October, 1904.)

Among the rocks of Cape Breton, N. S., classed in the
Report of the Geological Survey of Canada of 1882-4 as pre-
Cambrian, in a deposit on the east side of Lake Ainslie, are
some globular balls associated with modified forms presenting
marked features. They differ in so many respects from con-
eretions ordinarily seen taking spherical shape in sandstones,
plaster and shales, that these balls could not be grouped with
them and thus dismissed. It may first be noted they are found
with pyroclastic rocks, and next that such concretionary
structure as they do present is in most cases merely superficial ;
they are associated in a bed which has cavities coated with
matter that has flowed while in the condition of thick mud or
paste and retained the forms then taken as ridges and layers
of varied consistency. The balls have an indurated appearance
with a smooth surface, and vary in size from that of a pin’s
head to a cricket ball. Rarely over three inches in diameter,
the largest seen was a flattened oval of 7 in. by 5 in. by 3 in. that
apparently had lost, through impact or pressure on contact with

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VoL. XI. TRANS. W.

(339)

340 PRE-CAMBRIAN VOLCANIC BOMBS

others, an original shape more nearly spherical. The crushing
it was subjected to, would appear to have taken place when the
interior was still in a semi-plastie state and the crust alone was
broken into irregularly shaped plates, the edges of which were
more or less displaced. The distortion of form which the balls
suffered on impact varied in degree with their size and plasticity.
Some retained their form unaltered when they dropped to
earth, others appear to have had an exterior sufficiently viscid
at the moment of contact to coalesce, while yet others suffered
deformation without cohesion, or had their crust fractured,
while the displaced pieces were held together by the pasty
condition of the interior. While I have said the external sur-
face of the balls is smooth, this statement requires qualification,
as parts have a rough or broken appearance where they have
been in contact with others. A few show wher: a spherulitic
structure with fibrous radiations has been developed, a form
recognized as incipient of crystallization in igneous rocks of
the more acid constituents. ‘There was also to be seen on one
or two specimens a faint trace of venation somewhat similar in
character, and this feature has also been detected on the ridges
of flow structure with the associated ash bed. Contact pro-
bably gave to the surface of the softer balls a cup-shaped
depression, or flattened or simply depressed it, the ultimate
form retained by the balls doubtless being determined by the
relative hardness of the impinging bodies. Some of the forms
found were oblong with rounded ends and somewhat constricted
in the middle ; they had a dumbell-like appearance fitting into
the inequalities of one another with, in many cases, such slight
adhesion that at a light tap of the hammer a group of them
would fall apart.

Of the largest a fragment has been put in the Provincial
Museum It presents a curiously pitted appearance all over its
surface, giving to the plates, into which the crust is cracked, a
likeness to the scutes of ganoid fishes; and taken alone it
might. be supposed to be part of a fossil.

FROM NEAR LAKE AINSLIE, N. S.—POOLE. 341

‘The pitting is fairly uniform and about of the size and
depth given to the depressions on the top of ladies’ sewing
thimbles. An appearance somewhat similar may be produced
by stirring on a glass plate or other non-absorbent surface a
thick mud of proper consistency, and allowing it todry. When
mud is rightly prepared and globules of air are incorporated in
the mass, there is left on evaporation a coating having a
pitted surface like that on this stone. ‘To account then for this
pitting phenomenon we may assume that the final concentric
coating possessed such a consistency and the usual cementing
qualities. I may add that Mr. M. V. Grandin, of Cheticamp,
informs me he has seen the same external structure on fragments
of lava on the slopes of Vesuvius.

On fracture these balls show an interior of irregular com-
position sometimes with cavities, parts being granular and easily
pulverized and parts being like that of the outside coating, of
a fine homogeneous material. The cavities were not found
to contain crystals, but one was lightly bridged over by a
crust not a 32nd of an inch thick. ‘The concretionary exterior
may be somewhat shelly, and shows that it has gathered
additions splashed on in drops or patches. These are easily
distinguishable by the shght irregularity of form thereby
produced, which is often enhanced by a variation in col ring.
That the accretions have been of varied degree of fluidity, is
“made evident by the extent to which they have spread out
over the spherical surface, and their appearance would remind
-one who has visited a pottery establishment, of the action of
‘slip’ on the clay forms in the hands of the potter.

Besides the deformation due to impact or pressure, it will
be seen they have suffered fracture under two distinct condi-
tions, one in common with rocks in general from shrinkage in
some ordinary form, and the other exceptional and attributable
to sudden violence while in a non-homogeneous state such as
is possessed by many articles of domestic confectionary like

342 PRE-CAMBRIAN VOLCANIC BOMBS

chocolate drops and meringues. Pieces of the fractured crust
of some of the smaller balls appear to have fallen out and been
lost at the time.

I have yet to speak of another feature, and that not
of any lesser interest than the foregoing. Parallel to the
major diameter of several of the balls, there is a more or
less complete striation or grooving around the circumference.
The grooves may be single or double, and have a width of as
much as an eighth of an inch, while the striz are more numer-
ous and in a belt of fourteen or more on a scale of even less
than thirty tothe inch. In the specimen on the table this
equatorial linear engraving can best be seen when light is made
to fall parallel to the axis of rotation. It is further to be seen
passing under the remains of an adhesion giving priority to
its formation ; but how this engraving was produced, or how
the tool which made the lines was held, I am at a loss tosugvest.

We may now consider how came these balls of matter,
doubtless volcanic ashes, to acquire their present form, and
under what conditions would it seem most probable they
were produced? Whatever may be the ultimate concensus
of opinion, it seems to me their formation can best be con-
ceived by comparison with that of a modern volcanic bomb,
and is due to swirling gases of an explosion giving a
gyratory motion to the ejected particles of attrition and their
aggregations.

Messrs. Chamberlain and Salisbury, in their recent work on
geology,* write :—* The larger masses of lava ejected into the air
are often caused to rotate by the unequal force of the projection,
or by the unequal friction of the air, and to assume spheroidal
forms. . . . These rounded projectiles are known as volcanic
bombs.” Of the ejected dust from Vesuvius they further say—
“ A finer variety [than lapilli] of the nature of sand, much used
in making Portland cement, is locally known as puzzolana.”
This latter quotation is made as bearing on the rapid cementa-

*T, C. Chamberlain and R. D. Salisbury, Geology, 1904, vol. 1, p. 386.

FROM NEAR LAKE AINSLIE, N. S.—POOLE. 343

tion which apparently took place in the crust of our Ainslie
bombs under consideration. Another extract from the writings
of an authority on voleanic rocks I make as apposite to the
question at issue. Professor I. C. Russell, writing on the
eruptions on Martinique in 1902, says—“In addition to the
angular fragments of fresh lava, minor quantities of more or
less spherical masses of similar material, which were projected
into the air while yet moderately plastic, have also been
observed. While the term voleanic bomb has been applied to
much of the ejected material, it is evident that only the some-
what spherical masses referred to deserve to be so called, and
even in such instances there is doubt as to the propriety of
using the term. ‘Typical voleanic bombs have a round or oval
form with extended and spirally twisted projections at the ends
of the longer axis, the spherical or more commonly oval form
and the spirally twisted extremities being due to the rotation
of the mass during its serial flight and while yet plastic.
The nearest approach to a characteristic bomb are certain rudely
spherical masses of lava with cracked surfaces and without
protections to which have been given the name of Breaderust
voleanic bombs. Evidently these poorly shaped bombs are
composed of fresh lava which was sufficiently hot to make it
somewhat plastic at the time it was blown into the air, but was
too rigid to acquire the typical shape frequently to be seen
about certain basaltic craters. The absence of characteristic
bombs on Martinique and St. Vincent is in keeping with the
composition of the lava thrown out. The fresh lava is an
andesite having in a general way the composition of refractory
brick, and unless very highly heated would not be plastic.
Not only are true voleanic bombs absent, but dots and splashes
of plastic or fluid rocks such as are common about many vol-
canoes that have erupted easily fusible material are also lacking.”
In the case of the Ainslie bombs, the composition is more
acidic than andesite, and there is an entire absence of fusion in
the mass, without any trace being observed of the spiral pro-

344 PRKE-CAMBRIAN VOLCANIC BOMBS

jections belonging to characteristic bombs. We have therefore
to assume some marked change in the conditions to meet their
peculiarities, for the special interest which these balls of
undoubtedly igneous origin possess, lies not merely in their being
voleanic bombs of very ancient geological hovizon but iu the
presumption that they indicate phenomena of unusual type and
a rapid cementation of voleanic ashes of a composition differing
from those of ordinary modern volcanoes which, generally highly
basic, make a mud which of itself does not possess the property
of speedily setting as a cement.

The value of intimate grinding to an extreme fineness is
well known in the manufacture of commerical cement, but
conditions could not be reproduced which are eftected during a
voleanic explosion when the separation of impalpable dust 1s
under the influence of the chemical agency of superheated steam
and other gases, and which for the moment, it is here assumed,
existed when these bombs were taking their natal flight. The
late exhibition of vuleanism at Martinique and St. Vincent
makes the contemplation of a rapid setting cem nt within
reason, but requires that the composition of the powder be
otherwise than that met with in the ejecta of the Lesser Antilles.

A complete comparison is not at present possible, as no
ultimate analysis of the Lake Ainslie ash-bed has been made.
That it materially differs from that of the dust from the Wind-
ward Islands is evident. Analysis showed the latter to. be very
basic, with an average of 55// of silica at St. Vincent, and 62/
of silica at Martinique; while from the accompanying letter
from Dr. Hoffmann of the Geological Survey it is clear the silica
contents of the Lake Ainslie rock is very much higher.

OTTAWA, AUGUST 8TH, 1904.
My dear Mr. Poole. (

I duly received your letter of the 30th ult., as likewise the
specimens therein referred to. With regard to the “coneretions
of felsite.” In so far as composition is concerned, they co. sist

essentially of silica, with a little alumina, ete.,ete. The amount
of alumina, in the specimen examined, was comparatively small

FROM .NEAR LAKE AINSLIE, N. S.—POOLE. 345

and would represent but a small proportion of felspar. Thin
splinters of the material are with great difficulty fusible before
the blowpipe, becoming in fact only just, and no more, rounded on
the thinnest edges. This also would tend to show that the
amount of felspar present is but small. There is not, so far as
I am aware, any fixed ratio between the quartz and felspar
in what are commonly designated felsites. Hence the material
in question might by many, if not most, be referred to as felsite
—and possibly permissively so. They exhibit an unmistakable
concentric structure. [I am disposed to refer to them as “ slightly
felspathic quartzose concretions.” When next writing would
you kindly mention locality of occurrence, and I will then place
the same in our museum collection—duly crediting you with
the presentation.
I remain,
Yours faithfully,
G. CHAS. HOFFMANN.

The locality where these bombs were found is on the Gair-
lock mountain road, half a mile from the east shore of Lake
Ainslie, on the slope of the hillside within the loop which the
road makes opposite the entrance to the ravine and within a
stone’s throw of the barite mine on the lands of Johnstone.
The barite veins occur in a reddish volcanic ash or quartz-felsite
and the bed of bombs appears to be at or about the contact of
the ash bed with a band of basic voleanic rocks. The limits of
the trap rocks are easily distinguished, as its beds are all dark
in color while that of the quartz-felsite varies through light
shades of yellow and pink to those of a reddish cast, weather-
ing even to whiteness with minute crystals of sanidine (7)
sparkling on the faces of fracture.

The deposit was very superficially exposed and where it
had been long subject to surface influences. It seemingly was
on edge, and apparently considerable excavation would be
required to lay bare the bed where it had not been disturbed
in order to establish the relation of the basic lava flows to the
highly silicious tuff to which evidently belongs the special
portion of the deposit containing the bombs, and a further

346 PRE-CAMBRIAN VOLCANIC BOMBS.

investigation of the relation of these very distinctive varieties
of igneous rocks would be desirable.

The views respecting the formation of these bombs which I
would offer for consideration are these, that during the propul-
sion upwards of the erupted dust and steam, there was a rapid
growth of these spherical forms, augmented during flight, after
partial cooling had taken place, by additions received from
instrusions of fresher and hotter blasts meeting the descending
bombs ; that the agglomerates resulted from the clash of matter
still in the formative stage and the process of cementation was
very rapid and took place during the time of flight, the drying
of the crust being completed in many cases even before the
bombs fell back to earth.

‘

NOTES ON THE ORE DEPOSITS OF SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE
BrETON IsLanD, N. S.—By M. V. Granpin, Cheticamp.

(Read 17th April, 19035.)

One of the most interesting and instructive mining districts
of Nova Scotia, especially for the ssudy of certain peculiar
structural features of ore deposits, is that of Cheticamp.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The district lies in Inverness county, on the north-west side
of the Island of Cape Breton, about 110 miles north-east of
Pictou, from which place it may be reached by steamer during
the season of open navigation. During the winter, however,
the most direct route is by mail-coach from Inverness—the
terminus of the Inverness railway—a distance of about forty
miles.

It comprises a tract of country about 13 miles in breadth,
extending aiong the Gulf of St. Lawrence in a north-easterly
direction from Factory river to George’s brook—a distance of
16 miles; its area being about 200 square miles. The most
trenchant and conspicuous natural division of the district is
into a narrow seaboard plain and a plateau lying to the east
and north-east of the plain. But for the purpose of this
description the great gorge of the Cheticamp river, which
traverses the district from south-east to north-west is taken as
the dividing line between North and South Cheticamp. The
principal metalliferous deposits are located in the southern
division which embraces almost the whole of the plain and
more than ‘half the plateau area included within the district.
The barite and other deposits of the northern division have
been made the subject of investigation by Dr. H. S. Poole, so
they wi not be described in this paper.*

*See bulletin to be shortly issued by Geological Survey of Canada.

(347)

348 THE ORE DEPOSITS OF

The plain, which embraces the island of Cheticamp, covers
but one-tenth of the area of the district. It stretches along
the shore between Factory and Cheticamp rivers—a dis-
tance of nine miles, and rarely exceeds two miles in breadth.
Its surface is traversed in a rorth-east and south-west direction
by long low undulations, which towards the east and north,
along the foot of the grand escarpment of the plateau, break
up into hummocks and high ridges.

The harbor, which was originally a narrow strait running
parallel to the undulations and severing the island from the
nainland, but now silted up at the southern end, is about 34
miles long and a little over a quarter of a mile wide. It is the
only well sheltered harbor on the western coast of Cape Breton
and requires but little dredging to keep it open. Ice, however,
commences to form during the latter part of December and lasts
from then until the latter part of April or early part of May,
during which time navigation is entirely suspended. From this
cause and the absence of railway communication with other
parts of the province, the development of the resources of the
district has been much retarded.

The plateau, with its almost severed stumps, comprises the
remaining nine-teuths of the district. It is a portion of that
great dismembered branch of the grand Appalachian group
which embraces the larger part of northern Cape Breton. The
front line of the tableland runs approximately parallel to the
coast-line, except at a little south of the middle where it is
broken by an embayment into which extends a tongue of the
plain traversed by the Cheticamp river. North of Jerome
brook, the plateau and its stumps rise precipitously out of the
sea or from narrow level terraces; south of this brook it rises
almost equally as abruptly from the plain. The average height
of the plateau is about 1100 feet. Its surface, especially along
the edge, is frequently deeply trenched by huge gorges and
ravines cut by innumerable brooks and streams in their descent
to the sea.

GRANDIN. 349

SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.

The drainage system of the district corresponds in_ its
principal lines with the general slopes of the surface, which are
from south-east to north-west. The main artery is the Cheti-
camp river, which enters it from the east a few miles north of
the middle, runs south-westerly towards the centre for about
2} miles and thence north-westerly for nine miles through a
deep, dangerous and almost impassable canyon to its beautiful
salmon pools where the gorge widens. From thence it con-
tinues approximately the same course for three miles, when
after cutting through Black mountains it debouches on the
Cheticamp plain and flows northerly to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The river is, like mountain streams, rapid and shaliow, and is
nowhere navigable, except for small boats near its mouth, It
receives many large brooks from the north and south. One of
its most important southern tributaries is the L’Abime brook,
in the drainage basin of which the principal metalliferous
deposits of the district are situated. This brook has its origin
in some ponds and swamps about five miles in a south-easterly
direction from its junction with the Cheticamp river. For 23
miles from its source it flows quietly across the plateau, after
which it descends wildly through a deep ravine for the remainder
of its course. One of the principal feeders of the L’Abime is
the McLeod, which joins it from the west, a mile above its
mouth. About three-quarters of a mile above its junction
with the L’Abime and shortly after commencing to deeply
trench the plateau, the McLeod brook receives the Grandin
brook from the south and then descends in a north-easterly
direction in a series of cascades through a deep wide gorge.
The Grandin brook is a very smal] stream and flows northerly
through a narrow ravine.

The plain is mostly cleared and under-cultivation. The
slopes of the gorges and ravines of the plateau are clothed with
many kinds of woods, conspicuous among which are the birch,
maple, beech, spruce and fir; but on the higher and more level
surfaces of the tableland the prevailing vegetation is stunted

350 THE ORE DEPUSITS OF

spruce and fruit-bearing bushes interspersed with the rank
herbage which flourishes in the great wastes of marshland.

The district possesses a most remarkable diversity of scenery.
Its most striking feature is the grand escarpment of the plateau,
rising from sea and plain in lofty mural and castellated cliffs,
majestic talus-slopes and precipitous and craggy acclivities.
Its coast-line scalloped into long and grateful curves, presents,
especially the northern part, a succession of bold headlands and
picturesque bays and coves. Along its shores may be seen an
endless array of strange, fantastic and beautiful forms carved
by the sea out of its many-hued rocks. From the higher
summits of the region, glorious panoramic views are unfolded
of plain and plateau. Looking towards the former, spread out
like a map at our feet, we see sparkling streams winding across
it to the sea, and over its surface dark copses of fir alternating
with bright green patches of cleared land. Turning towards
the plateau, stretching as far as the eye can reach we see a great
wilderness of pristine forest, moreland and rock. Here and
there its surface is seen cut into labyrinths of gorges and chasms
with foaming torrents, tumbling cascades and deep secluded
salmon and trout pools.

GENERAL GEOLOGY.

The relationship of the rocks to the forms of the surface
can only be briefly referred to in this paper.

The trend of the coast-line and that of the undulations of
the plain, the course of the escarpment, the position, size and
shape of the harbor and the island, have all been largely
determined by the strike and the nature of the underlying rocks.
The law of the survival of the strongest and fittest holds good
in physiography as in biology. The softer rocks have suftered
the inost from erosive agents and left the harder as the salient
features of the district. The granitic rocks which consutute
the front of the plateau have acted as protecting barriers to the
softer schists which lie beyond them, and have determined the
tread and retarded the recession of the escarpment.

SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.—GRANDIN. 351

The courses of the principal streams appear to Lave been
mainly determined by the original slopes of the surface ; but
those of the smaller brooks and torrents have been influenced
chiefly by fault lines, the disposition and lie of the schists and
the relative resistant power of the rocks.

Two great systems of rocks are represented in the district—
the pre-Cambrian and the Carboniferous. The classification of
the former into series has not yet, on account of the complexity
of the problem, been attempted. The Carboniferous are divided
into two series :—the Lower and the Middle. Broadly viewed,
it may be said that the pre-Cambrian rocks occupy the plateau,
and the Lower Carboniferous the fringe of hummocks and
ridges along the foot of the escarpment, and the plain. The
rocks of the Cheticamp Island are regarded by Mr. Hugh
Fletcher as Middle Carboniferous.

The pre-Cambrian formation consists mainly of granites,
syenites, felsites, gneisses and schists. Granitie rocks, cut by
dikes of trap, predominate along the edge of the plateau.
These give place towards the interior of the district to patches
and belts of schistose rocks alternating with or surrounded by
massive igneous rocks. The whole formation has been much
pleated, sliced horizontally and vertically by shear and thrust
planes, and in consequence of these mechanical movements and
the chemical action thereby set up, most of its rocks have been
converted into varieties of gneisses, schists and other foliated
rocks.

The massive igneous rocks are frequently metalliferous, but
it is the schists that have so far proved the principal ore-bearing
rocks of the district and in them the important deposits have
been located.

A powerful fault, traversing the district from north-east to
south-west and following the course of the escarpment, separates
the pre-Cambrian from the Carboniferous. The latter is repre-
sented by conglomerates, sandstones, shales, gypsum and lime-

.

352 THE ORE DEPOSITS OF

stones. Conglomerates and sandstones, more or less metamot-
phosed, form the high ridges which run parallel te the edge of
the plateau. Along this boundary fault, these rocks are highly
tilted, generally dipping seaward, but sometimes bent back upon
themselves. They are also frequently faulted, crushed and cut
by trap dikes. In places they give promise of workable deposits
of copper, but elsewhere in the district the Carboniferous rocks
are apparently barren. These metamorphosed sandstones are
succeeded by thick beds of gypsum and limestone which form
the hummocky land. The geological features of the plain and
island are comparatively simple. The rocks of these tracts are
principally sandstones and shales. Those flooring the plain, dip
seaward, while those of the island have a general dip towards
the mainland.
THE LABIME ORE-BEARING SCHISTS.

The principal metalliferous deposits of the district are
located in a belt of schists occupying the drainage basin of the
L’Abime brook. They are easily accessible from Eastern
harbor by road. (See map.)

The belt consists saainly of serecite, chlorite and hornblende
schists, which appear to have been produced by the metamor-

phism of an original stratifie] series—their plains of foliation
being guided by the stratification of the original materials. A
definite order of succession can be made out among them -and
their groups of serecite and other schists traced continuously
over long distances.

The structure of this area is an extremely complicated one.
In the uplifting of granitic masses to the east and west of it,
the whole tract was subjected to enormous mechanical move-
ments which not only threw its rocks into wave-like folds
but dislocated them by reverse faults and cut them into slices
by shear and thrust planes. The longitudinal axis of the folds
strike approximately N. N. E. aud S. S. W. In the central
part of the area they pitch S. S. W. or S., whereas in the

GRANDIN. 3853

SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.

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ip

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is

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etch Map Part of South Cheticamp C Breton..
mencace

Miles

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354 THE ORE DEPOSITS OF

northern part they are, when observed, inclined to the N. N. E.
or N. This pitching of the axes may have been caused either
by their being broken across the strike or by transverse east
and west upheavals. The lines of movement run in certain
definite directions and principally along lines of shearing
and. thrust planes. They may be grouped into two systems at
least :—(1) Those running N. N. E. and 8. S. W., and (2) those
trending E.S. E. and W. N. W. or E. and W. and approximately
at right angles to the first system. In a general way it may
be said that the vertical lines of shearing or cleavage-foliation
run parallel to the strike and the thrust planes coincide with
th2 stratitication-foliation planes of the schists.

To still more complicate the structure of this complicated
belt of country, cross undulations and contortions have been
developed on the flanks of the main folds which cause great
irregularities in the lines of outcrop.

These movements appear to have developed considerable
volcanic activity and the schists were cut by dikes of felsite
and diorite which in places seem to have some genetic association
with the ore deposits.

THE PRINCIPAL ORE DEPOSITS.

Grandin brook copper deposit.—The ore deposit in which
development work is in the most advanced stage, is that of
Grandin brook, which is situated on the edge of the plateau
near the junction of the McLeod and Grandin brooks. The
work consists of a slope at its most southerly outcrop, several
lateral openings made at intervals for about 900 feet along the
right bank of the Grandin brook ravine and the stripping of
the vegetation and debris from the precipitous cliffs in which it
outcrops in the McLeod brook gorge. It consists of several
beds, aggregating probably not less than 250 feet in thickness,
of serecite and chloritic schists impregerated with copper pyrites.
These beds are locally known as the “copper schists,” and rest
on the schists which outcrop in the McLeod brook and which

SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.—GRANDIN. 355

are of considerable but undetermined thickness. The McLeod
rocks possess somewhat similar lithological characteristics to
those of Grandin brook and like the latter carry metallic
sulphides disseminated through most of their beds. There is,
however, as a rule, a marked difference in the nature of the
sulphides carried by the two groups. Arsenopyrite, which is
the dominant ore of the McLeod rocks, is conspicuous by its
absence in the “copper schists.” The nature of the rocks
overlying the deposit has not yet been determined, as the hang-
ing wall has not been reached; but the data so far collected
indicates they possess characteristics similar to the underlying
beds. The “copper schists” at their outcrop in the Grandin
brook strike N. N. E. and S. S. W., with an average dip of
45° to the E. S. E.; but owing to the axis of the fold pitching
S. S. W. at about an angle of 10°, the deposit is tilted up
towards the north at its outcrop in the McLeod cliffs and then
it has been ground down by detritive agencies to a thickness
of about 40 or 50 feet. The characteristic cross-folds and
contortions of the L’Aibme schists are well illustrated at the
deposit. Fig. 1 gives some idea of the tumultuous nature of
the smaller contortions. The same pressure which produced
the cross undulations, not only caused horizontal displacement
of the beds, but caused the layers to slide over each other, by
which movements cavities were developed. Many of these
cavities have no doubt been modified in shape by the corrosive
action of circulating fluids, but their original shape has generally
been fairly well preserved. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the man-
ner in which the lens-shapes were produced. Fig. 2 represents
the corrugated beds before, and Fig. 3 after the sliding move-
ments had taken place. ‘This structure is characteristic of all
the L’Abime deposits ; but is not so well illustrated at Grandin
brook as at Iron Cap and Galena, as owing to the minuteness
and the great abundance of the contortions of the “copper
schists ” the lenses are usually extremely small. Fig. 4 shows
another structure, common to all the deposits, which has been

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vou. XI. TRANS. X.

356 THE ORE DEPOSITS OF

developed by forces pressing on the end lines of stratification.
Both these forms of cavities were no doubt produced in imost
cases with but comparatively little horizontal displacement of
the beds and layers. Below the zone of oxidation they are
generally found filled with copper- and iron-pyrites or quartz,
but at the outerops where their metallic contents have been
leached out they can usually be more easily studied. The
copper-bearing solutions appear to have gained access to the
cavities by travelling up and along the planes of jointing,
shearing and foliation, as there divisional planes are frequently
covered with thin sheets or films of ore. These thin sheets and
minute lenses constitute the bulk of the ore at Grandin brook.

The surface characteristics and products of copper deposits
may be seen at Grandin brook. At and near the surface, to a
depth of from 5 to 15 feet, the metallic contents of the schists
are often completely leached out leaving the rock in a cellular
and porous condition. ‘The schists at the surface are rarely
stained, being, although normally of a greyish or greenish color,
bleached nearly white. A few inches below the surface, how-
ever, they are generally discolored by limonite. This leached
zone gradually passes into one in which green carbonates
predominate, and this in turn into one containing a mixture of
partly decomposed copper pyrites and carbonates which rapidly
gives place to an unoxidized copper pyrite zone.

The outcrops of all the L’Abime deposits are somewhat
difficult to fellow, as although admirable sections are occasionally
laid bare in brooks and cliffs, they are usually covered with
superficial deposits, forests, dense thickets, swamps and _ bays.
The tendency of the ores to decompose and become leached out
where the rocks are exposed to surface agencies, and the general
resemblance of the rocks to each other, also add considerably
to the difficulty. The course of the outcrop of the “ copper
schists,’ however, has been traced by means of “ float” and a
few exposed sections for a distance of nearly a mile.

SOUTH CHETICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.—GRANDIN. 357

The Grandin brook deposit is owned and ‘s being developed
by the Cheticamp Copper Company, Limited, Halifax.

As all the deposits of the L’Abime area resemble one another
very closely in the mode of occurrence of their ores only the
peculiarities or exceptionaily well developed structural features
of the following deposits, will be described.

Mountain Top.—The Mountain Top deposit outcrops in the
deep gorge of the McLeod brook near the mouth of the Grandin
and immediately beneath the “ copper schists.” It consists of
four distinct beds of schist which in descending order are as
follows :—

1. Chlorite. Not explored. Thickness not determined.

2. Serecite, 43 feet thick.

3. Chlorite, aS lene Ke

4. Serecite, about 50 “ 3

These rocks outcrop on or in close proximity to an anti-
clinal axis which pitches S. S. W. at about 10°. Along the
crest and flanks of the fold, undulations have been developed
with their axes parallel to the axis of the main fold. No. 1 is
harder than normal varieties of chlorite schist and carries
auriferous arsenopyrite associated with chalcopyrite in lenses
and veins of the compression type (Fig. 4.) The lower chlorite
No. 3 is very much softer than No. 1, and is remarkable for
its crumpled and contorted folia. It carries arsenopyrite and
pyrrhotite in lenses and veins similar to those of No. 1. In
No. 2, the ore is also distributed in much the same way, and
consists principally of auriferous arsenopyrite. No. 4 is a very
hard serecite approaching quartzite in appearance and hardness.
The planes of shearing which are here well developed are
grooved and fluted in the most beautiful manner so that portions
of the rock have some resemblance to prostrate Corinthian
columns. Veins of the compression type predominate in this
bed. The ore is more concentrated for about 10 feet below its
junction with No. 3, and from this zone samples of arsenopyrite

358 THE ORE DEPOSITS OF

have been taken carrying as high as $90 in gold per ton. But
although these phenomenal values have been shown, the deposit
is essentially a big low-grade proposition, as are the other
deposits of the L’Abime.

The outcrop has been traced over a large area, but work
has as yet been confined to its outcrop in the McLeod gorge.
This property is owned by the Richfield Mining Company,
Limited, Halifax.

Iron Cap.—Next to the Grandin brook deposit, Iron Cap
is in the most advanced stage of development. It outcrops
500 yards E. N. E. of Mountain Top in precipitous cliffs along
the right bank of the McLeod brook which here flows easterly
600 feet below the general level of the plateau. The deposit
consists of a bed of chlorite schist of undetermined thickness
carrying auriferous arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite. The bed has
been stripped along the brook for a distance of about 200 feet
exposing a section of about 25 feet in thickness. The schists
are here seen to be bent into an anticlinal fold and to dip east
and west of its axis at low angles. A tunnel has been driven
into the ore-body for about 100 feet at the end of which the
schists make a sudden plunge to the south. The section
exposed may be divided into two zones: (1) an upper zone in
which pyrrhotite predominates and (2) a lower one in which
arsenopyrite is the principal ore mineral. Large lenses which
owe their shape to the sliding of corrugated masses of rock
over one another and almost horizontal veins filling cavities
produced by compression (Figs. 2, 3 and 4) are well developed
here. The ore, although it has not shown the phenomenal high
values of some of the Mountain Top ore is more abundant and
more evenly distributed through the rock-mass. The series of
chlorite schists, of which this deposit is a member, has been
traced over a wide area and at all its outcrops it is found to
contain metalliferous ores. It 1s owned by the Richfield Mining
Company, Limited, Halifax.

SOUTH CHELICAMP, CAPE BRETON ISLAND.—GRANDIN. 359

Galena. Galena,’ from @ structural point of view is one of
the most interesting and instructive of the L’Abime deposits,
It is situated in the L’Abime gorge about 900 feet below the
general level of the plateau and a mile N. N. E. of Iron Cap,
It consists of a ! ed of garnetiferous serecite schist (locally called
the “ grey schist”) carrying galena associated with zinc blende
and arsenopyrite and outcropping in cliffs on both sides of the
L’Abime brook which here flows north-easterly. The schists
are at this deposit bent into a synclinal fold with characteristic
longitudinal and transverse undulations well developed. Several
openings have been made on the right bank of the brook which
facilitate the study of the structural features of the deposit.
At these openings the prevailing dip is approximately N. N.
W. at about 28°. Overlying the “grey ” at the most westerly
opening (No. 1) is a hydromica schist of bluish color (locally
called the “blue schist”) which is seen at the next opening
towards the east to impinge upon and intertongue with the
“orey ” as the outerop of the latter ascends the bank of the
brook. Higher up the bank, but stratigraphically lower than
it appears at No. 1 opening, the “ grey ” is seen intertongueing
with the “ blue.” Lower down the brook in the cliff on the
left bank, fragments of the “ grey” are seen intercalated among
the “blue.” This faulted condition of the schists could only
have been caused by a lateral thrust which broke and drove
the severed beds over their original continuation and_ forced
their jagged ends together. (See fig. 5.)

The ore minerals are found *n lenses and veins in the “ grey ”
schist in much the same manner as they occur in the deposits
already described ; but at Galena they are also found deposited
in sheet-like masses along the thrust plane at the contact of
the “blue,” and “ grey” schists. They are also found occupy-
ing rents of a somewhat lenticular shape which cut through
the planes of foliation and which appear to have been formed
at the time the thrusting took place.

360 ORE DEPOSITS OF SOUTH CHETICAMP.—GRANDIN.

The “blue” schist contains very little ore. It is a more
compact and close-grained rock than the “grey” and does not
appear to have been as much disturbed as the latter and fewer
cavities were therefore developed for the reception of ore.

The thickness of the “grey” has not yet been determined
as its base is nowhere exposed either by natural sections or the
development work. From measurements taken in the slope,
however, it would appear to be not less than 25 feet. This
deposit is owned by the Cheticamp Gold Mining Company of
Halifax.

Silver Cliff—The most interesting structural feature of
Silver Cliff—an argentiferous galena deposit situated on the
L’Abime brook about 14 miles south of “Galena ”—is the
development of incipient secondary foliation by shearing—the
rock splitting into thin corrugated slabs alonz planes perpendi-
cular to those of stratification-foliation. The ore-bearing schist
is here a chloritic variety which has been violently disturbed
and severely plicated. It rests upon a corrugated sheet of
white quartz, below which is seen a dark hornblendic rock
(probably a diorite) which shows shistose structure but imper-
fectly developed. This deposit is owned by the Inverness
Mining Company, Limited, of Halifax.

From the foregoing facts relating to the mode of occurrence
of the L’Abime ores, there would appear to be no doubt that
the deposition of the ores took place after the formation had
been folded, faulted and sliced, and not prior to, as has been
reported, and that the ores were deposited along the lines of
movement rather than along the planes of foliation or stratifi-
cation and, therefore, while the beds of schist are faulted, it by
no means follows that the ore bodies have been dislocated to
any great extent.

METEOROLOGICAL Notes.—By F. W. W. DOANE, M. CAN. SOC.
c. E., City Engineer, Halifax, N. S.

(Read 16th May, 1905 )

The last notes read before the Institute in connection with
precipitation (“Rainfall Notes,” Trans. N. S. I. 8., vol. x, p.
399) recorded observations to December 31st, 1900. Since
that date several new “ records” have been noted.

RAIN.

The rainfall at Halifax for the month of June, 1901, is
given by the Dominion Government Meteorological Agent at
6.959 inches, of which 4.099 inches fell on the 24th in 13.7
hours. This is not the heaviest rainfall on record as a reference
to our Transactions, vol. ix, p. 282, shows that on Oct. 19th,
1896, 4.394 inches fell in 14.3 hours. The rate of fall is about
the same in each instance, viz: .3 inches per hour. The
maximum rate during the storm cannot be ascertained as
automatic gauges are not provided.

The storm on June 24th, 1901, extended over a large area.
It was very heavy, not only throughout Nova Scotia, but in
the United States. The rain began about six o'clock in the
morning and continued until after one o'clock. At 9 a.m. the
gauge showed .33 inches. The figures given convey no idea
to the average reader of the severity of the storm. During
the greater part of the storm thunder roared, lightning flashed,
the streets were deluged and torrents swept down the steep
hills destroying the roadways. The rush of water carried down
stones as large as a man’s head and heaped up earth and road
metal in mounds and ridges two feet high on the street railway

(361)

362 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE.

tracks. The sewers on some streets became surcharged so that
the water spurted from the manholes to a height of several
feet. Seldom has a continuous downpour lasted for so many
hours.

The Director of the Observatory at St. John, N. B., reports
a record-breaking thunder shower on July 15th, 1901, at the
close of one of the hottest days of the season. The fall was
.58 inches, nearly the whole of which fell in about 10 minutes.
The Director estimates that during the greater portion of that
time the fall exceeded the rate of 3} inches an hour. The
measurements were made with an ordinary gauge as the obser-
vatory was not provided with an automatic register.

The total precipitation in Halifax in February, 1901, was
.966 inches. The smallest tall previously recorded for that
month was 1.61 in 1878. In May, 1903 only .676 inches fell
the next smallest being 1.769 in May, 1894.

SNOW.

The winter of 1904-5 will long be remembered for its exces-

sive snowfall. The first sleighs appeared on the streets of

Halifax during the evening of December 183th and runners
were in continuous service until March 27th. |

Snowstorm followed snowstorm in rapid succession until
streets, roads and railways were piled high, blockading traffic
and paralyzing business. Each heavy storm was pronounced
the worst by far for the past twenty to fifty years, yet each
succeeding storm seemed worse than its predecessor.

In the city the street railway company managed to get their
lines open after each storm, except in the western suburbs, the
track from Coburg Road to Willow Park being snowed under
on February 11th by a heavy gale and storm and remaining
closed until April 5th. On portions of the main line the snow
piled so high that the sweepers could not throw it clear and on
some streets the track became walled in by four feet of packed

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE. 363

snow. Streets became impassable and teamsters were obliged
to utilize the cleared sidewalks in order to reach their destina-
tion.

In the country, blizzard after blizzard blocked the railways
until not a whee’ turned for days on any line in Nova Scotia
except on the Yarmouth to Barrington line. Slight thaws
following the great falls of snow caused the water to lodge
along the rails the snow preventing it from running off. Then
frost came suddenly, the thermometer falling below zero and
miles of rails beeame incased in a solid mass of ice, which could
be removed only by the thaws of spring or the pickaxes of
hundreds of men. The smaller roads succumbed during the
first week in February, the heavy storm of January 31st having
stolen a march on the “ weather man” whose prediction was
“fair and cold” and tied them up as completely as if they had
never been completed.

Then on top of a month of snowstorms which had _ partially
paralyzed railway communication in Nova Scotia and practic-
ally put an end to all trade between the capital and provincial
points, came another storm, the severest of them all (Feb. 15-17).
The Intercolonial Railway flyers were buried on Folleigh
Mountain and the line to Sydney completely closed, through
traffic not being in good working order again until the 27th.
The Dominion Atlantic Railway was unable to get a train
through from Halifax to Yarmouth until March 9th.

In Halifax business of all kinds suffered. The raging,
howling blizzards sent. blinding drifts sweeping in every direec-
tion. The milk train was cancelled for the first time since it
became known as such and the condensed article sold at a
premium. In order to relieve the tightness in the meat market
two cattle dealers were obliged to bring their droves through
on foot from Annapolis County. Funerals had to be postponed
until the roads could be made passable. Buildings suffered
from the depth and weight of snow on roofs which strained

364 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE.

them and caused them to leak and in some cases to collapse.
Men, women and children moved about the streets on snow
shoes.

Outside the city the conditions became even more serious,
and places depending on the railway obtained relief none too
soon. Hundreds of cars of freight were stalled along the Inter-
colonial Railway, numbers of locomotives were isolated, coal
hoppers innumerable were imbedded in deep snow drifts, water
gave out in stalled engines and trains were without heat,
causing passengers to suffer much inconvenience and discomfort.

Schools, churches, electric light stations, foundries, &c., had
to close. because wood could not be hauled and coal supplies
were exhausted. Meat, flour, oil, butter, milk, eggs and feed
became scarce. Farmers were obliged to destroy cattle and
horses because they could not obtain hay and had difficulty in
getting water for their stock. Lumbermen were forced to
abandon their work in the woods in consequence of the depth
of the snow.

In Windsor the water supply became short. In Sydney
several departments of the steel works were compelled to shut
down, being handicapped by the scarcity of cars and the impos-
sibility of moving out their product and by the lack of fuel and
other supplies buried deep in the monster snow drifts.

The administration of justice was interfered with, the’
presiding judge being unable to reach Sydney for the regular
sitting of the supreme criminal court. The aid of the legis-
lature was required to straighten out the tangle caused in this
instance, parliament being in session.

The mail service was completely demoralized. Steamers
were pressed into service between St. John, Yarmouth, Halifax
and Sydney, while nearer towns, Windsor, Lunenburg, Bridge-
water, &c., were reached by team before the railways could be
dug out.

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE. 365

The loss to the province was enormous ; trade being tempor-
arily paralyzed, and the prices for supply of fuel, food and other
necessaries increased rapidly as the stores decreased.

In olden times when snow fell deeply (but, perhaps never so
deeply), and communication was wanted the roads were used, but
in these days in winter only main roads are kept open, and
when the snow falls deeply people stay at home or go by rail.
In but few districts are supplies put in to last the winter
through. The railways. are depended on to provide from day
to day or week to week. A winter such as that of 1904-5
demonstrates the extent to which the whole economic system
of the country now hinges on the railways and how with all
our progress we are still merely the plaything of the elements.

A eall from the pulpits of Wolfville and Kentville brought
volunteers to attack the ice and snow fetters of the Dominion
Atlantic Railway. Professors, teachers and students from King’s
and Acadia Colleges, Horton Academy and Acacia Villa rendered
valuable assistance in clearmg the line, while ladies helped on
the work by ministering to the wants of the laborers. The first
train to Kentville after the disastrous blockade got through on
February 27th with four cars of coal. The line to Sydney was
opened on the 22nd, but the railway to Yarmouth (Dom.
Atlantic Ry.) defied the best efforts of man until March 9th.
Even after the railroads were opened snow continued to fall
and drift into the cuttings, walled in by perpendicular banks
of snow level with the roof of the cars. One incident reported
in connection with the snow blockade on the Folleigh Mountain
is worthy of note: A farmer who was working his weary way
along a country road with a pair of horses and load of hay was
stopped at a railway crossing by a 12 to 14 feet cut in the
snow which had been opened by an Intercolonial Railway train
leaving the sides perpendicular. The crossing problem was
solved by backing the snow plow into the cut and driving the
team over the bridge thus temporarily provided.

366 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE

It was feared that the snow which, without rain or soft:
weather, had piled so high, would be melted by a rain storm
when great loss would have resulted. Rivers would flow
through the streets and along car tracks and sidewalks, flooding
cellars, as few gutters or catchpits had been kept open. Bridges
would have been carried away and roads and railways washed
out, making transportation dangerous to life. Fortunately the
sun did the work gradually and practically unaided, until the
danger was passed and the great snows of 1904-5 had dis-
appeared.

A comparison with past meteorological history shows that:
the past winter has been the worst snow “winter on record.
While it takes second place in total depth of snowfall, it takes
first place in minimum depth of rainfall. In the winter of
1881-2 the snowfall (the deepest on record) was 124.72 inches.
and the rainfall for December, January, February, March and
April, 20.543. In 1904-5 the figures are 123.92 and 9.959.
While the difference in depth of snow is a fraction of an inch
only, the difference in rainfall is over 10 inches. The snow
falling in 1904-5 came in severe storms, and from December to
March there was almost no rain and practically no thaw. The
result was that the snow piled up to a greater height with each
storm, while in an ordinary winter rains and thaws dispose of
the surplus snow.

The accompanying tables show in detai] the snow records
since the establishment of the Government Meteorological
Station at Halifax. A study of these tables shows that during
the 36 years the heaviest snowfalls have occurred every 10 to
12 years, viz.: in the winters 1871-2, 1881-2, 1893-4 and
1904-5, the fall in the last three being practically the same.
It may also be noted that there were at least three years in
succession above the maximum.

As there have been two heavy years only this time, there
may be another due in the winter of 1905-6.

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.—DOANE. 6

fed
~I

Comparison with the precipitation of other years would also
seem to indicate the possibility of a dry year in 1905. The
last heavy snowfall, 1893-4, one of the greatest on record, was
followed by the smallest rainfall.

Year. Rainfall only. Total precipitation.
1872 42.270 54, 060
1882 47.619 62.022
1894 34.567 45.808

Acknowledgement is due to the Dominion Government
Meteorological Agent at Halifax from whom valuable assistance
was obtained in the preparation of this paper.

368

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES—DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT

YEAR. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872 1873.
|
MontTH Rain. Snow.| Rain.|/Snow | Rain. | Snow.| Rain. |Snow.| Rain. |Snow.
January ........ 3 040 140 5 180] 149 | 2 380] 14.7 2.580} 13.1 | 4 780] 26.6
February .....- 3200 8.4 6 820] 29.6 4 110] 19.3 2.400) 19.3 | 0 490] 10.7
iMarchmeesieer: 4110 29.3 1.640) 14 4 4 399} 15.1 0.760] 43.0} 2 460) 15.5
SATs tare ere 2210 27 3.780| .8 |! 3 420) 134 2 770 .8 || _1.930| “6:5
Mialysi2.soeieenken 5.510 5 3.190] T. 2590} T 4 440| TT | 1.580) 7.4
ibliGeeceseabis 31920 sceuer WET) Gace ss 25960 |eeace 4.230 ae 2) O60 one !
Truly Vico wees: DERN sdaree S1210l eae 3.380 eee ASSO eee 3.900 || semace
August VSCOM ones 2 ON Soso6 SUGOi eee 6 820 And50 (leeee
September ..... WEG) roscoe SHOU] soods|| <ofilOleasaac UE £10 ae 4.480] ... ..
October ......... 7.030, 2.3 6 750 8 4 490) ..... 45380 |B eRShGS0 eee
November ...... 519), 3.5 5.67u| 7.7 3.210} 10 0 6 230) 4.4] 7 400) 58
December ...... 5.140, 4.8 4.810| 10 7 1 880) 24 8 2.870] 32.3} 2.210{ 18.9
Totals..... 46.42) 65.50 | 48.270] 78.9 | 41 310! 97 3 | 42 2701 112.9 | 45 270| 91.4 |
Total Preci- E
pitation.. 54 530 56.160 51.140 54.060 55.440
YEAR. 1880. 1881. 1882 1883. 1884.
|
MonTH. Rain. Snow | Rain. Snow | Rain. |Snow.} Rain |Snow | Rain. |/Snow.
Tanuary. anoseee 5.393) 23.4 OMB Ne 3160] 36.80 | 2400 2530) 3.616] 7.90
February ....... 3.242) 188 2.939} 23 9 1.672] 42.77 | 2.428) 1432 | 4.701] 14.60
Match Acne 1015) 23.5 5.915) 6.4 5.458] 16.10 | 3641' 13.00 | 3.814] 32 20
rill ss eee ee 4.197] 7.0 3.236| 2.6 3.679] 11.45 | 2933] 7.70 | 6.895] 3.18
IME goeu ab pose ACS eee tee GLIGM| <sesoae 4 Galle. SIG1S eee 31629) cane
Unease Sonee 1.343 5301 eee 550 7leaeeee 31309 eee: 3.773
eTUllyae sccm reece BG bosose Bild) secaoe OTe BLE loans oc SOA ee
INGER Boos He 4|| CH) séedse 3062 |iereere 3:925 1) once 5.342 SUM aoanoe
September...... AW eanaee BO) & Laon RO eae ae 31864 see 1 788 ;
Octobvere-. ee 47590) 4:206)) 33. =: 7.403 6 ey Wass 3.083} 0.10
November ......| 4.344] 3.6 3.120) 13.0 0.832; 560] 2.628} 850! 5652] 3.40
December 3.213] 11.8 6.574, 4.6 1312] 21.40 | 4.008] 26.70 | 7.416] 17.08
Motalsiscece 44.043! 88.1 | 45.8321 59. 47.6101134.12 | 48.560! 95.5 | 55.432| 78.46
Total Preci-
pitation. 52.853 51.755 |__ 162/022 58.112 63.278
YEAR. 1891. 1892 1893 1894. 1895.
MONTH. Rain |Snow.}| Rain |Snow.} Rain. |Snow | Rain. |Snow | Rain. |Snow.
January ... .-.-| 6:099] 22.84 | 5339, 982] 3.10] 16.80 | 1.732] 53.90 | 7.32L| 28.10
February .....- | 6.910] 18.00 9.845) 17.60 20 37260) |) 92/87] Sie 00s| a le22s esos
March) o27iy-c-i. 1.567) 11.18 | 4433) 15.53 | 1.73 | 5.60. | 1.723] 19.60 | 3963} 19.68
24) yl GapoeanapeD 3.528] 4.82 | 2.480) 1.73 | 3.63] 5.80] 3.422) 22.26 | 3896] .60.
May .......- -.- ee | Re a eon! aes GOS ||isrteey | eLSTOO esse 4\089| Fras
UNTO apccpeanteon 45S ieee S638 ene iS wewomen 3.803 $ MBB Ab coe
July ..... 44003 eenes DIAN wesdae 4.75 1059 | Peeeee Be pone
August .... ... 3385|oee se GENE Wheaoe Oo eee 3.993] ..... 5.502)... .
September... . | 3.052 Be fami ey 0 eer BESO) eae AMO sen. 2491 eee
October ... ..... 9:616|) 005!) 3)472: =. 5.64 31863|c-.. 4: 5.437) 1.90
November ...... 23388 |e O10) eee eed 60) ICC 5142210051633 | enSe225| meee
December’......| 3984] 092 | 2.352, 7.01 | 8.15 | 20.10 | 3,900] 6.62] 5519) 2.97
Totals .....| 52.888! 57 81 | 48.521 51.69 | 49.98 | 87.60 | 34.567] 112.41 | 53445] 87.07
Total Preci-| a
pitation.. 58.669 53.690 58.74 45 808 62.152

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES—DOANE.

369

HALIFAX, N. S., 1869-1905.

1874. 1875. 1876 1877 1878 1879.
Rain.|Snow. Rains Snow: Rain.'Snow.| Rain./Snow.| Rain. | Snow. | Rain. | Snow.
3.860} 15.7 0.610, 28.71) 1341) 21.10) 0.840) 33.10) 6.987 5 35 0.070 43 30
2280) 29.9 | 2.929, 2968) 3133] 33.23] 1024) 7.99) 1977 7.20 0.631 23.70
3.630 37 0 711| 14.02) 5.774 56) 7.423} 12.3 9.489 7.95 5.082 11.20
19:0) 26.5 2.958 4.20} 2 13u 9.95] 3.621 1.70 3.476 0.26 2.291 11.90
4.760 OL SMitladsee =i) ore O90) 4.024) .- ..| 3759 wtiee ANGST l-errerhee
EALEAD Late S206 TiN oc 2:<- atatet i) pou SSL. 4.477 ALOE Slicers
DP IG0|\Oraa 5.612 SH Ee oaaae A044 G8 ieee eSB) ego oe 3:643) |||) senens
ako (Uneeece BAT sboess 1.999 B5030)) eons s be PY) 4.827 area
5040, ... 22060 lee aerate Gt0O Ee secre 3.164 3 US800) ||| sees cc 2.596 Beenie
ZAGO oo 2c2< 9:976) ...- 4.067 0.01) 6.623 0.9)) 5.061 stuie 4.753 4
Solo! | 72.1 5.134 3.90} 7.397 Hay kell omen 6.853 0.56 2.997 18.26
4.420) 11.0 0 884 7.30) 0.618 25.58) 3.027) 14.49) 4.2381 8.38 2179 18 50
45.240; 890 42.493), 87.81) 44.335 ~ 96.37 By) 977 70 30] 53 779 29.70 35.149 126.86
54.180 51.274 53.972 57.54) 56 740 47.835

1885. 1886. 1887. 1838. 1889. 1890.
Rain. Snow.| Rain |Snow.| Rain.|Snow.| Rain. Snow.| Rain. | Snow. Rain, | Snow.
3928) 24.60) 8.03u 6.40) 5.320 2380) 2.862 25.80] 4.041 3.5 1.48) 24.80
1.820) 32.70| 2.162} 16.8y] 4.633 21.02] d.304! 9.80) 4.931 12.5 2.946 16.99
1.649) 22,40) 1.837) 2190} 2.539 19.1U 3.770) 5.40) 1.576 4.7 8 543 13.46
3 470 0.50, 0.443 3.8u| 5838 03.08] 2.455 12.2] 6510 8.93 2.598 3.60
Daeeelleracins S819 |i eeeecu CAVA) Soa ge 2.857 E20 te Or OU Loe || walosater lars aH) al 2ohco6
PTCA) ee ee 2.708 PARA Soe A939 |e eee 3.759 TAO ee rorctaes

SWE eee (J6Y4)| Gadson 2.045 Faisal OS OU repterers 2° GGS! | cseia) ere 2.141
oH tse ae 42526)| 2.22 Stdoll|2 eect 1000). ~ =e. 2 663 ANC: Planet aes
ZAG ee ets 4.459 ais 3.3038 SOL eee 1399) 3) cescnas bao: ae |eouge
GI2Z80 ono 2 105 0:30 | 2031058 |eaee 6:859 5 seo DTG 4) «Satake ele 6603) | Seat.
5.383 1.40) 5.204 030) 6.718) T 6.772 -30' = 6.995 1.5 3.596 1.2u
7.393) 13.00} 4.149} 13.20) 3.618} 502] 7.764 .10| 2.708 2.8 6.082 11.20
47.269. 93.60) 50.967) 63.20) 49 681! 74.52] 60.914; 53.80) 45.266 ; 33.93 | 52.978 71.25
56 629 57.287 57.133 66 294 48.659 60.103
1895. 1897 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901
Rain |Snow | Rain./Snow.| Rain.|Snow | Rain |Snow-| Rain. | Snow Rain. | Snow.
0.260} 14.60} 3.433] 24.63) 2.370} 1699) 3.943) 1°.40| 7.582 9.5 3.503 32.4
1.852] 23.47) 0.744) 21.54) 2.444) 19.78] 1.333} 22.80) 4.677 6.0 069 9.0
7.238| 15.48} 3.852) 16.18] 2.718] 13.50) 5.445| 17.33) 5345 5.7 3.043 23
1.108 3.05) 5.443 7.68) 6.752 5.94) 2.908 3.70| 3.289 5.3 6.235 8
DAES 2] | Breer 4.591 022) 2.366 eine 3.657 0.20} 4.234 ere da SER || Sooce
EWN) Sages, G070|bs-e By fss]\ ano) Ae Ast! sonaac 2 626e eee ee 6.959
8.729 3.661 clas OO2) 5.747 MEST 2 teen, fer: Nesey Nl Mee ear
aHib ell Besoc O18D| aise. s ieee Gaili| eer ee 1.542 aytay | eos ao Wma || oaodor
1 PALL 24 Pees ae 1E1GS eee. 4.158 5 ool 37 aa ee 5.043 Gi8izZi || Sec -e
15.039, Sal Uae ee sean | 4.845 ei) O91 WESBO | \eeesio icc 4.884 sae
3.439; 957) 5.961 0.90 9.881 3.67; 4.460 1.20) 6.370 4.1 2.558 e
2.618 6.30) 3.356 1.86! 2.329] 17.37} 3.166] 18.72) 1.276 19.8 5.483 30.9
62.615! 7247| 44.221| 73.01| 52.7641 77.16] 45.468] 75.45. 53.702 50. 4 50 394 78.4
69.862 51.522 60.480 53.013 59.697 58.096

METEOROLOGICAL

NOTES—DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S., 1869-1905—Continued.

YEAR.

MonTHa

January
February

September
October. fic: «--
November ........
December

Totals-:..-+..
Total Precipi
tation

ae \ -
Rain. | Snow. | Rain.

1902,

51.916

1903.

Snow.

3.432
2.022
6.474
5.403

676
3.493
4.313
4.247
4.237
6 368
9.228
3 210

53.103

59 125

1904.
Rain. | Snow.
3.518 | 2380
2978 | 31.50
4602 | 9.60
4.992 | 15.20
pics ae een eee
DiGES tlio hee
Raa |e
Bsa0 I soe
CEA | cas
BOS wleiee ts
5.007 1.00
1.859 | 27.30

“46.654 | 108.40

57.494

NoreE.—In the preceding tables ‘**T” indicates Trace,

1905.

Rain. | Snow.
3.630 46.60
1.586 37 40
1.644 11.60
1.240 .02

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES—DOANE. STI

SNOWFALL AT HALIFAX DURING EACH WINTER, 1869-1905.

: 5 5 | 5 | ie
WINTER OF _| 9 'S = 4 = s : z
Seer eel sees ent) bees ees
TSAO OSes a 2.3 3.5 | 48 | 14.9 | 29.6] 144! 08 ah 70 30
(7 6 pies eae 08 Fpl MONE ibd gel) USssol led alt look T 81 70
Payer ee: 5 | On 24-Se| 13st) 1983, |. 4a0 Ih Os Tl | Uo
Peyote ere Wh Ae | SRS ORG TO tS Solimbro) Pan Osea
So: ee See 58] 189 | 15.7 | 29.9| 3.7 | 26.5] 0.1 | 100.60
(S94oyo0 k= 21 | 11.0 | 28.71] 29.68] 14.02} 4.2] ....] 89.71
WSia-76s cose ors. --un! 3:9] 73.| 2k1 | 33.93). 5.60] 9:95) 0.9'| 8L98
1976-97. see 0:01-|) “T)-25:58) 33.10) °7.90) 12.30) 1.70) ~*-. | 80259
PSHECTS co cee: 0.99 ...| 14.40] 5.35] 7.20) 7.95] 0.26) 36.06
PSPS ose Ges ODE O98) 43.30): 23:70) 1-20-1190 99 04
1879-80) .....| TL | 18.26] 18 50] 23.40] 18 8u| 23 50} 7.00 109.46
(SSOLR10 . eee 3.60) 11.80) 8 70] 23.90! 6.40] 260 57.00
Pee 1-82 02> 2 --2. |e. 13.00 460136:80/%42:771" 16-10) 1145 24 72
TRG283— .... | 5.60] 21.40! 25.30! 14.32) 13 00] 7.70] ....| 87.32
MSHA Chae egal) ae... | Sia) E70) “7.90 1460) 32:90 3-18!" <. 2.1 “93.08
Passe e eo) Ses -010 | 3.40] 17.08] 24.60] 32.70] 22.40] 0.50) ....| 10078
ae: ee .... | 0.40] 13.00] 6.40] 16.80] 21.90] 380] ....| 62.30
cs: anes 030 0.89] 13 20| 23.80] 21.02] 19.10} 5.58} ...| 83.80
ESOT Ser race Gil 5 U2) 25.80] 980) 40] 12.20) 0.20] 58.42
Fass-89) 2 .c2- 5 | OL 30s TONLOle S550) 1250" 470) - S293), +2. 25) 30:08
TRE9-90. Scce. c . _... | 1.50] 280] 24.80] 16.99} 13 46) 360] ....| 63.15
1990291 © 2.5. ...- | 120} 11.20] 22.84) 18.00] 11,18] 482] ....] 69.24
PAQIECO Le nts O:0s-) LSet Gis2" 9580" 17740l 15 53. 1.73) ol. 8 Aes
SOOO Smee ees | fe |yened 7.01} 16.80] 37.60] 560} 580] ....| 7281
1893-941 . ... . | .... | 1.50] 20.10] 53.90} 7 00] 19 00} 2226] ....| 123.76
L941 9a <<a oe: .... | 3.63] 6.62] 28.10] 33.82] 19.68] 060] ....| 92.45
4595-96 ok eae. 190-|) code) > 2:97" 1460)'93:47)-15.48) 3505|.°..2 |< 61.47
1896-97 . ......| .... | 9.57| 6.30) 24.63] 21.54] 16.18] 768] 0.22] 8612
T9798 been. ial (0.90) 1.86) 16.90} 19.78) 13.50) 5.94), 2.22) 58:88
TRGePGG ee! tos .... | 3.67| 17.37| 11.40] 22 80] 17.33] 370] 020| 76.47
CO teen cee —-1-30}-18-72'-—9 50|- 6.00) 5270) 5: 30\-..4: |. 46.52
LSDQ01- =... . s.0/ s222 |-- 4.10) 19/80/3240! 9100) 5.30). OSD 2...) 71.40
BOGOR ee soe kn oe) SOLOO I SpE IT 50) eet! COBO 4, 59050
1602-08 923 oe Leah SP OMSOl ns: 70 1GS0 G10) O80 cre..|) 58,80
LOGO eae | .... | 3.70] 13.80] 23 80} 31.50; 9.60] 15.20] ....] 97 60
1904-05 ..... |... '° 1.00! 27.30] 46.60] 37.40) 11.60! 0/02) .. .! 123.92

Proc. & TRANS, N.S’ Inst. Scr, Vou. XI. TRANS. Y.-

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES—DOANE.

COMPARISON OF SNOWFALL AT HALIFAX, N. S.
(36 years).

Maximum. | Minimum. | Mean
psa ocean |e) Be
MonTu. 3 ; Ss REMARKS.
is Nae fc eee ag ==
by Pas onl a | a —
| |
October ecceer 2.30! 18690.010, 1876, 0.18)..... ‘Fall in nine years only.
November ....|13 00) 1881,0.300) 1888 3. 44' 1 0 ‘In 6 years no fall recorded.
December ....|32.30 18720 100, 1888 13.85 27.3
January ...... 53.90} 18943 500, 188921. 22/46.6
February ..... 42.77| 1882.6 000) 1900 20.8037.4
Marcher. 43.00 1872/3. 700) 1874 13 63)11.6 |No fall in 1902.
ANNA GSH ac ood 26.50 1874 0.260) 1878, 6.28) 0.02 Fall recorded in every year.
WEN cnn 008 7.40) 1873'0.100! 1874' 0.25'..... Fall in nine years only.

.134.12 in 1882.
. 29.70 in 1878.

Maximum snowfall in one vear ..
Minimum =‘ oe

Mean a 36 years... 78.53.

Mean oy one winter .. 79.70.

Maximum ‘* one winter .. 1881-2. 124.72— 567 above: mean,
19 14-5, 123.92—557
1893-4, 123.76—55 % or
1871-2, 111. 00—39% ss

Mininmum gs one winter 1888-9, 30.03—387% on

Maximum ‘5 two winters. 1903-5, 221.52 aver 110 76—39% above mean
1893-5 21621 ** 108 ma BC
1871-3, 214.40. “* 107.20 - 357 se
1881-3, 212.04 ‘ 106 02— AS Ge

Maximum ‘‘ three winters. 1871-4, 315.00 ‘* 105.00— 39 ss
1881-4, 305.12 ** 101 70—28% x
1892-5, 289.02 “ 96. 31—207 ss
LS02-5, 280532, 5 93! 44—167 ae

RAINFALL (o7/y) AT HALIFAX, N. S., DURING WINTERS OF GREATEST
SNOWFALL.

c | |
ST MGgSnTED 3 = E J \Tota’ for Dec , Jan.,| Total for Jan.,
=| S 5 = -: | Feb., March, Apl. | Feb., March, Apl.
Sete er eee
1871-2.. {1.88 |2.58 |2.4 |0.76 la7 10.39 8.51
1881-2... /6.574/3.16 |1.672|5 458)3.679 20.543 13.969
1893-4.../8.15 |1.732)2.871]1.723 3.422 17 898 9.748
1904-5. ..11.8593.63 '1.586/1.644 1.24 9.959 8.100

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA,
1904 By Ace e: MKCKiAy. ii DoF OR. S705 Halifax.

(Read 16th May, 1905).

In Nova Scotia the public schools have been doing good
work in phenology. Over three hundred accurate and full
schedules of observations were sent in from as many school
sections representing every county in the province. These were
referred in groups to the following phenological staff for
examination, selection, and compilation ; and the eriticisms on
faulty observations were published in the Journal of Education
for the benefit of observers in future years—from page 72 to
85 of the April issue, 1905.

Region I. (Yarmouth and Digby), A. W. Horner, Princi-

pal, Salem School, Yarmouth.

: II. (Shelburne Co.), C. Stanley Bruce, Principal,
Academy, Shelburne.

og II. (Queens Co.), Miss M. C. Hewitt, Science
Teacher, Academy, Lunenburg.

ee II. (Lunenburg Co.), B. McKittrick, B. A., Princi-
pal, Academy, Lunenburg.

s III. (Annapolis and Kings), E. Robinson, Principal,
Academy, Kentville.

Es IV. (Hants Co.), Miss A. Forbes, B. A., Academy,
Windsor.

es V, (Halifax ‘Co.), G. R. Marshall, B, A., Prin-
cipal, C. A. School, Halifax.

es V. (Guysboro Co.), J. B. McCarthy, B. Se., Science
Master, Academy, Halifax.

é VI. (Colchester and Cumberland), J. E. Barteaux,
Science Master, Academy, Truro.

(373)

374 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

ee VII. (N. Cumberland Co.), E. J. Lay, Principal,
Academy, Amherst.

f VII. (Pictou Co.), W. P. Fraser, Science Master,
Academy, Pictou.

x VII. (Antigonish Co.), F. G. Morehouse, Principal,
Schools, Antigonish.

« VIII. (Richmond “Co.))G: “W. MacKenzie) By A:
Principal, Public Schools, Sydney Mines.

« VIII, [IX., X. (Cape Breton, Victoria and Inverness
Co.), L. A. DeWolf, M. Se., High School,
North Sydney.

The phenochrons of each of these compilers were again
averaged into the ten columns of phenochrons for each region
of the province by Miss Jean Lindsay, B. A., of the Education
Department, as they are given in the first table following.

The general phenochrons for Nova Scotia, and the observa-
tions reported by the following observers from stations within
the other provinces of the Dominion are given in the last table:

New Brunswick : George U. Hay, D. Sc., Saint John.

Prince Edward Island: John MacSwain, Charlottetown.

Prince Edward Island: J. M. Duncan, Kensington.

Ontario: Cephas Guillet, Ph. D., Ottawa.

Ontario: Mrs. F. E. Webster, Creemore.

Ontario: A. B. Klugh, Guelph.

Saskatchewan : Rev. Charles W. Bryden, B. A., Shellbrook.

British Columbia: J. K. Henry, B. A., Vancouver.

These tables were published in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Canada ; and as two or three errors have since been
detected in figures in the first table referring to Nova Scotia
under Nos. 48 and 79b, they are corrected herein.

I~

3

MACKAY,

190-4.

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA,

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> | e/dsicolS pica] *~ |g] 6 las
iS) Fl) eOSsle Ole 6 PS issl ales
: ick Blesleacl SF) Bl au |5o
a Bow) plsk oo Es wf) 2 |g
5 REM B/Acl as
g s|b3| a ep [Bele | € 5 ear)
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‘(panunyuog)— f06L “SNOUHOONHHd VILOOS. VAON

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA,

1904.—MACKAY.

THUNDERSTORMS —PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, Nova Scotia, 1903.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were
reported on the day of the year specified.

1. Yarmouth and
Digby.

Shelburne, (Queens
e and Lunenburg.

”

Annapolis and

Kings.

3.

© chao she I\s,ehe (0) a's

24912

4. Hants and South
Colchester.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

—
2)
=
r=} ee
e O
mo
“x Oo
Ss 2
4
ps
Bs
mo
S
ites)

a

o
ay
iS}
Ses
i —
S)
on)
= iro)
=)
og
es
fey)
OOD
a

o]s 2 eeee

eee eee

7. North Cum., Col,
Pictou & Antig.

2332

2357

Cape Breton.

8. Richmond and

9. Bras d’Or Slope
(Inv. & Victoria),

SRS sn

eee

10. Inverness Slope
to Gulf.

-rovince of
ova Scotia.

jee

2292
23027
2314
232+

380

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

IN

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OpseRvATIons, N. S., 1903.—Continued,

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were
reported on the day of the year specified.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

1
5.
so) Shee
2 Os
Ar} of
Boo aie
BE | 2A
Apes ess)
HOlne
= ~
es 2502
251 | 2512
959 |
ee leas
OG Till eee
DO Neneeoe
5 es gnome
2853 | 2834
289 | 289
2907 | 2908
2915 | 2912
299
"310 | 3102.

ereee-|e

ecoeresl[eoe

sec e ee

3. Annapolis and

ones 6) 6

eemehe>

3

=

2. Lr}
Sia) Sis
aa il we
Seen
Bao | ao
= 1S
250% |.....
2514 | 2512
252 sae
(SET ic ee
Ee A Onn
bs eae 279
ae, 280
ie a oo
290

2992 | 2998
Sea nae
“3112 | 3119

312

_o ee | 8228

ie S. Cobequid Slope

(S. Cum. & Col )
North Cum., Col.,
Pictou & Antig.

see w ee

8. Richmond and
Cape Breton.

= o
on
a5 =
aS lhe
a7 O ay
Act o—
ray aS
~ D ch
Bot ss) tl Maes
eS =
250
Ae aie 259
263
eae Pari
«| 272

See ees

Nova Scotia.

29025
29118
2997
304

NOVA SCOTIA AND CANADA, 1904.—MACKAY. 381

THUNDERSTORMS— PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, Nova Scorra, 1904,

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were
reported on the day of the year specified.

OBSERVATION STATIONS

|

“ Se ie
zg |S2le | rg Oe ei ee ee ls
Si sy se eu fedaan Pes Ou} eins (2 Se leg ae
= ree ee esate) aaee Sian 1S rine Oe? Se Ih 23
= FE|S Be | ee a msn eave | Ore || Oea in| bce
Shs |e eas fink cert eee fp be te Per Ie = Near ra ety <I Barer pe er 62
SS) en sapes | SelS6o | Se | fel ae | fo) ge
alten Ores S a2 =a : u>Y on >
eS el Vegas. “| feces Seneca eet alense
Pete Ox as || <4 neo ae aa eyes oy eat es NP a we
= nN 0 + 1S © ~ DH a = 1904.
ee See SE etree tee oe es egced ee unite cco cag el gS tk 4 4
je a pea a eee ie a ea Et ee iid sr Pa he (pe Co eee De
Omar a mene ane alm rarl itm Alec sal ig cm [aes 3) 38
Be. Stee EU A Ren baste a gees We |
ee ane calle a er ae : 56 56
Bas Sal eee 60 GO Se feee aes a 602
Bares 612 Pee aliens. cate swe! 612
ae ass 6248 623 | 6218 Bosca ere renee oe
631° | 63! | 6319) 6319| 63° | 63%] 63%] 632)..... 63 63141
64 G46 Ieee 646 | 64 | 64 6411
ee ERAS lho ah lace OL Sete Fl eae 66
Gira i eee ea [beh ois CATS a ane ae, 67
efi) (aoc CSIR ee ee yee Ree es 68°
Se 70 Sate ee: re let acl
a5 Oo are Moen al ara 7l Tle etealea ores pe ncn 713
tn (aes cee WOR aes Nant litera eee 72
7a) oa, 28 Fe es ic ane (Pa ae MR ed Weaet Re er 73
5 2b on eee Dea ieee TAGE lee ia, Nha sis een ae
ZI7L een aan ant 77 17
sae Pease eben bee ae Sly os eshilacSh 812
Seis WOO) | a te SORE erie at one kl ek teehee 220
B75 le sree Ere 83° ay 838
27 | et eg | em al 882 Sc yell ase
1 nas Salad Me aera Ne a Me eee CA a YI been (seal
AGS col easel tate QO ee 92
LA oa ee 93° aa PR Seamer nega les anole OSe
eines ee G4 Pisa Alene 94
att | aaa ake Oe ie etd PN ob sae oad | Aaa 95
pales tea ual ne Starr oh Arak 92 eae mil bers narlbaete var [eae ot 972
ESE LOT OMY | LOWE ee See LOL lees OL. {le tOn 10126
1022 | 102° | 1¢2%5} 102 | ..... NO2135| e102 24 ee eee ee tllitezes sy LODe*
L032 2103: | Pocealet ss 10S) Peer T0320 ee 103 | 103 103”
HD Os kaj cae kW [Atanas ae | apna fie Aetweey e aay a Pa 104
ROE eee eee ane leer cee 109 | 109° | 109 |..... | 1098
iD ROSY akc necte ll tone ele merrell) SOS
hae 111 Meech | een a Aelia ea ST
Dat eve 2 Leen, “leery poe er (ea 112 112
A coe Sere ores 114 Ese || heen ce aoe eminence ae 114

382

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, N. S., 1904.— Continued.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were
reported on the day of the year specified.

Shelburne, Queens

1. Yarmouth and
and Lunenburg.

a
30
=
"1458 | 1458
146 | 146
ie 1472
148°
eet ais
156 | 156
157. | 1574
Teele ses.
ile eee
Birra 166
sy pe 1673
168 | 1683
169 | 169

3. Annapolis ard

OBSERVATION STATIONS.
: eae Ze
eo) Onin iO! == Ds ay :
A As | OP) go] ee | S| Mee
PD ees: ES) = as = 7) o 2
gehen ceed, eeeu alleen glia 2p
Eon eo.) Seal S|) Subs hee Peta
Steel omen enie ey ci eal eee aS a4 2S
a Ol os.o Ia a | ers W- ges eo tes 256
gee ila aS Sle ics a aS Aes,
CIS) =} ee — x acs a & & gS
MO |S | nl /4h | eo}; al | Yur
+ iS al ie D a = 1904.
oro Liao Wcameeees | tiesee aol tl |] 7 117
rae Ere ee eal ALO) ae Hes Le 119
129 120 Wee. 120° | 120 1202 | 1208 12915
12]? a3 NOE Es oe labeaoe 121°
bee On 122 HO | ee aialld 129+
ee rs ies oscars 123 Leo a aiupieient 123
Syste 124 12412 Breese fois ]2413
ee oe 125 125
126 2G 2G eee laorenete linactones 126?
Begs eee Sieh Sea Me tener 128? 2S alerceeraeee 1283
Titel opetaee Bere oollcchstem eal teens 129 129
PE SO ea ae ae 13 at OPES Ree oneal austere 1302
137 nae a Tiere. Ie ede s7/ A Nee et ol lhots a 1374
138 SS els eae Bene PAAR ag ie ee ea 138?
a A AWN sen Yl ie ipee ae LEO i kies crams Wl patere cote 140
Ne LO ee 5 aes Neo Ge as miele eee 8 lon seo ae 14146
Pi cab Ere Ger sl ene OMA pal CER 144° | 144* 1447
145% Maley Pe See 4a Mase 145 14516
1467 146 146 Een Wr een 14611
eee ee re eel IE NN eo et 1477
<a 148? 148° eee eon oe 148° 1489
ac 149% | 149 1494
Ase Be Nat [ie We eae beeeke ae ae 150
Roe a eee a ere Eee erelt ellay le 151 151 151*
BAe 154 154 Peale See 154?
SDs elle aaseserl | teevere te 155 15 D2" Seen chloe 155+
LOGY Piles een SPER Rail et Pega eayen ets 156°
SE alle concrete eae al, ese 157 Alene anette 157°
Page| kone 15s eo] anal Perens illate
BEAN | See acral PRene earl tetas cil Fete cated ol ic eres Oe 161
seme Sy SBA eco Pal GPs eee 162
site, ITS Waeeos al alee «Reams 163°
Seaskd Wet eee UGA We Siepsiect | Peorcrevenecl liciecensaiealhstersere 164
IL G}os ePaper: eal Perak cock ors orate 165? 163°
ae ee ney ectccol (At ccs al tema ce are Rikicie een acme ae llig rk oe 166
1672 | 1674 Ler 167 Se EAA OTy 16711
1689 168+ NGS* 16822". S25 168 168 168®
1692 a a bead: ene 169 | 16914

NOVA

SCOTIA

AND CANADA,

1904.—MACKAY.

385

THUNDERSTORMS—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, N. S., 1904. —Continued.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were
reported on the day of the year specified.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

Digby.

n

3 eb

met |) aS
2 |?
25 4
Re |
sm Qe
aS |e Sren
ors a.5
me | a4
a of
Soe 170°
172 Sis
Tyo V OS) eee
174 174°
WISE leek ae
176# ee
Fife Hersoot e

i}
~
S
cS
NM
mH
= 0
ah
35
a0
Cie)
oO
>
17012

Wee
174°

oS z
mS 1S
eat ers 8
wo ~.=
= ae | fs
=. ee Ex
es: od ce
“xO S ae LO
ee Q 2s as
Set iiop SS) | 52
3/0 =
es aR Sy
ee ay
Ned at I~
an 1709 | 170”
oa eats 1714
Ae 172 7

ar een (ae
Se WeaT iaigae
7: 782 pa.

a
a
ac

eras

a
=e
On
site|

= 2
Oo Ba

3 8

S)
ie)

9. Bras d’Or Slope
(Inv. & Victoria).

to Gulf.

10. Inverness Slope

oe
sales)
3S
eu yn
26
a
YEAR,

1904.

17084
171i
17210
173%
17485
17514
17622
177
178
179
1812
182

ee

584

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1904.

‘WHEN First SEEN.”

+Creemore, Ont.

*euehel|[lelieteas

OBSERVATION STATIONS.
Day of the year corres-
ponding to the last day of] =
each month. 5 ais ;
Z, i
PAT ermneictee ol ee Jullysn. 5 2s asst Bs
Feb. 2209) | PAugh i242 al elie
March .. 90 Sept..... 213) 8 Soaps
Aprile 60120 sp @euees 2.304 hee || Coulson
fi May i. -cey lol We Noveren ce 334/5 | 2 =,
g jJune... .181 Dec. ... 365 5S s ie
= | For leap year add one toeach| 52] 4 | € 5
7, except January. < 2S |e
| Allnsrineaina. Willits sete ee terete 106 9} 118] 120).
2|Populus tremuloides ......... WES. 25), W328i no
3) Eiplgceame pens, Wit .1.:o1s/\e1ct-ts er. 109.1) 125} 120} 116,
4|Equisetum arvense .......... 128 .$}. 131
5|Sanguinaria Canadensis ..... le eellee an lbosa
6|Viola blanda............ 126.3} 131}. 127
7|Viola palmata, cucullata, ete. 130. | 130). 134
8|Hepatica triloba, etc ......... 223 lO lever eerote
9) Acer inubrumina ye secon 128.8] 125} 132} 136)
*10 Fragaria Vi irginiana. neSOROOE 127.7| 131) 146) 136
1] ae (fruit ripe). {161.9} 162)....]....
12/Taraxacum officinale ... ..... 13.6) 139} 135} 139
_15|Erythronium Americanum....|137.7) 125)....]....
14|Coptisitrifolia: 2.5552. cs<dcac - 133.2)... 137
15|Claytonia Caroliniana........ 128.1]... saat
16|Nepeta Glechoma............ Weeieele ondileacn loos
17| Amelanchier Canadensis.... .|187.1} 139). 139
18 ss SEU Gnew yin rel os) PAROC Mie 66 allooecllocets
19|Pr unus Pennsylvanica ...... 144.5] 149 139
20 ee (fruitinipe)|| 21539 ece lect:
21 Vaccinium Can. and Penn. 141.7] 146). 148
22 a (fruit ripe) 20 FAG} 52a tecttral lacie.
23\Ranunculusiacnis= 211-4... +- 147.5).. 156
Ora vase DEM Sesy-yerertsietes tector teey ie 156.9) ... 170
25/Trillium erythrocarpum...... |145.9) 139 141
26) Rhododendron Rhodora ..... 145.1) 139 151
27|Cornus Canadensis..... ..... VAD rete etc 147
28)|eaee se (fruit ripe) |212.6] .. oe
29/Trientalis Americana ........ 148.5) 146 159
30/Clintonia borealis ........... 151.5| 149 160
3)l||Gaillanpallustirisin - stecieers cree ASE lereatel oorere 131
32/Cypripedium acaule.......... 157.1} 162 162,
33'Sisyrinchium angustifolium...|158. |....!.... 172
34|Linnza borealis ....... ..... GPO enoulloacc 168
35|Kalmia glauca ..... HAE Scod|lsscullococ
36: Kalmia angustifolia. Wee ecolleenc 172

a. Alnus rubrum ;

*When becoming common, except 1 and 11.

+When becoming common.

138]...

ee sy

=

2/°
SS) ae (aa)
‘S| ae <r
ol ele
te] ~ =)
ey eae
2) 2) 3
olm |e
V7 75a.
IRBlsspllecar
127|....1102.
117 eaae
129
132 sae
123 SOGD
125 100b
132
112
WV A
144
117 areys
Marae _|108
132 ohete
lide
135|....| 80.
151|....|134-
128
163 133
“Aa
W485 es sitercre 5
IGE So ee loos:
156
SES Esse
VAS} ost saline

b. Acer macrophyllum ; c. Prunus emarginata.

NOVA-SCOTIA AND CANADA,

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,

‘WHEN First SEEN.”

OBSERVATION STATIONS,

Day of the year corres-

| ponding to the Jast day of} 2
each month. So

Zz

Jan. oldalys 212s
Feb . 69) Auge. 5- 242)
March 90 Sept 273) 3
‘April 120 Oct... .. 304] 3

- (May... >. 151 Nov 334 =
@ Junie sss... See Decay 365| 50
= a
= |For leap year add one to each) 9
Z, except January. <
37\Crategus Oxyacantha 2. <7... 162
38|Cratzgus coccinea, etc ...... 157
39|Ivis versicolor. . : 164
40|Chry santhemum Leucan..... 164
41|Nuphar advena.............. 164
42/Rubus strigosus ........ Sere |L6O
43) = SE fs (fruit ripe)... .|217
44)Rhinanthus Crista-galh ...... 172
45|Rubus villosus .... ........ 166
46) °S ye (fruit ripe)... |239
47|Sarracenia purpurea ....... 168
48/Brunella vulgaris............ 173
AQiRosa lucida, =. 2s.- asso. 179
50|Leontodon autumnale....... 167
51|Linaria vulgaris... .......... 176
52/Trees appear green ........ 136
53) Ribes rubrum (cultivated)... .|141
OAS SS a (fruit ripe) .. .|203
55/R. nigrum (cultivated) .......{142
56 2: (fruit ripe}......../209
o7|Prunus‘Cerasus: 2,-2.0. - 147
5S (ean a << (inuiteripe)/ 2s. | 210
59|Prunus domestica .......... 151
GOiPynusmmatusys < ce eles <sie- = 2 150
Gli Syxinga; vulgaris. . <2). + 3. t.4- 157
62/Trifolium repens............. 157
63/Trifolium pratense........... 155
64|Phleum pratense ............ 157
65 Solanum tuberosum.......... 176
66|Ploughing (first of season)....!119
67|Sowing 128
68|Potato- planting ‘* 126
69|Sheep-shearing ‘‘ 129
70|Hay-cutting gs 205
71|Grain-cutting ‘ 248
72|Potato-digging ‘‘ 266

d. Rubus spectabilis.
*When becoming common.
tWhen becoming common.

Scotia.

tov

Down UMa.eHDoO4U

iP He CO He OC 20

NABER WHWUIWRUW—

~

1904. —MACKAY, 385
CANADA, 1904.
ea
t=) er
needs = rane
« =| jae = 79) :
NE eel peceltzass, econ ssh || enies
e) fe| =] a. S > aS
Pelle Ora Coe Wy ceva | | res all as
ao > So ~ (o) = ro) >
S|) 35 S || rst ec Ss
ro | Si et We ees | SB
SO wes ||) sles a Seale lero resi pes
Dp = oO 25) (S) = a 3
Ss © 4 (=) _ <p) 7) >
MAG lier 5. 3 s 1491 Riicheceilauatens
soso MON ieeBe 148
162'. 175 188
; 1G]. 169) 5a
- Sao 1Sy lie 162 eee
170} 151). 155 74d
Siareil\ol creielll axe. oval seis [letes eke 152
Ealnyetes ee eos
eke Ie elise | 158) aeclene
al Vee oe 178)
BY NO Vileecemelicpaes
TGW) 2 AOE
127b] 146). "100
STs Peele nt bee leas
EG ays) [e aeoet lees ie "104
| Val 129000 103
NEO) MEG Sk oliaaoalle =c NIP.
HGUPVSS | ees ceselliaee alee: 125
Nate soolloas Pap
159}+128)]... 140
eae | aang rl Be
124 5
127 ee ape ahalltacs love
alts ges. ails stole 145 NBMesao
Leey sl ltssare elltete we cal|overes 144 staves Scotere
SF Oca terra 194 L9G] eer
Baan lodadio coal laaac 202%) err wiatéie
Satie Rea te DIG) sa aeee oe ite oie Mveallciers

586

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,

“WHEN First SEEN.”

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

CANADA, 1904

1904.—MACKAY.

Day of the year corres-
ponding to the last day of| = =
each month ° :
Jan 31 July 212 = eles j
eelewerien e eee eet) 5 ae e
INGLY, doped Gl AMIE, Soe. 242) 2 . oy re : aS
March O0 Sept gt273 (03 8 | atesal cs = | on
April, 2120 6 Oct-.-... 304) fr |e | eS ve one
RE WMay erat 2 151 Noy B34) ae keel Sal eel eee
@ |June... ..181 Dec . 365 aS | s 5 e g 2 = A
E | For leap yearaddonetoeach|2y|> | 2| 2/8/23 |S |3] &
= J > q 5 S 3
7, except January. = Ta Ses Whey is tS es ISS
734|Opening oi rivers (Ist ef season)| 88.5). 103 . ‘| eee He yes
73b|Opening of lakes sf LOZ UR Wesvalan ae heteee Rete meee Ba
74a|Last snow to whiten ground ./112.2)....|....]... |...: |----|---- 82
74b os ot ae 118.4... Pope) Wiihomrores leet 82
75a) Last spring frost—hard . ESSE O ae SOs call be Geeta tera lee
‘Tob es hoa *sser LS9FS i636 a2 ee ers erell eee
76a|Water in streams—high. =| O2me lees 107
76b| * ss ION picioo ae 186 8... sae ull ee tert leeaaelle
77a|First autumn frost - hoar ..../271.9.....| 252! 252 227
7ib go se hards: 5-7, 1296) 3-281: <i e 280) ar re tel cee eee eae
78a)First snow to fly in air.... ./299.6'.. 262) 301)
78b es whiten ground . {308.3}. 306 .
79a Closing of hakestee ane BAS Outer. |e
79b Rivers 340.9). 344 ces ulee
8la Wild ducks migrating, N 88.3)... 124) 123)...
81b) y soos |PAs Tle store Se aeee
82a Wild geese ss INF pros t alll ketal) ote 69 OF erat:
82b| < Be Sodas os) Gio PASO cee |icaebre baie 8|(S-c ;
82 Melospiza fasciata, North SUE ee SS 192) 585) 86)" 838i
84 |Turdus migratorius, ‘‘ 88 1"... 90) 92; 84 8d) S83iL11
85 |Junco hiemalis, ee Sia ee 90| 92} 93....|Res
86 |Actitis macularia, ‘ | Pear See l/ssevenei|terenateu|” aha
87 |Sturnella magna, as Tealevilee aQar 33} 112
88 Ceryle Alcyon, ES t.9) 7. Ways. 97
89 |Dendrceca coronata, ‘‘ 1345 Hee emit)
90 |D. estiva, $e W346: 2 128 126
91 |Zonotrichia alba, ae 119 4).. is 146
92 |Trochilus coiubris, ‘‘ 14'5;-6)2- 141
93 |Fyrannus Carolinensis‘‘ 140.1).. 126
94 Dolychonyx ory zivorus** 133.8). . Bocelele
95 |Spinis tristis, es 143.7). ..-| 151/Res.
96 Setophaga ruticilla, « Sy/coulnicio a! ier epee 128... 140
97 Ampelis cedrorum. — ‘ NED |e 147
98 (hordeiles Virginianus ‘ [odes PIG ee 155 sono
99 |First piping of frogs ....... 108.7}. 114 123 10s, Mizsei
100 |First appearance of snakes. 116.2). 168". SOB ses

80 No Thunderstorms:

Charlottetown. P. E. I. :—63, 121, 141, 148, 202, 210. 231, 262.

Kensington, P. E.
Creemore, Ontario :—129,

I. :—63,

194, 202, 2146, 255, 273.

121, 148, 170. 182, 202, 230, 242, 262.

EDIBLE WILD PLANTS: oF Nova Scotia:—By WALTER =H.
Prest, Bedford, N. S.

(Read 13th March, 19035.)

These notes on the edible wild plants of Nova Scotia are
the result of my early experience in the backwoods, and are
offered with the hope that they may prove of benefit to those
whom business or accident may lead temporarily beyond the
reach of the resources of civilization. While some of the wild
fruits here mentioned, such as the blueberry and cranberry, are
of commercial value, others are included because they may assist
in sustaining life at a critical time. While lost in the forest,
persons have perished through a want of knowledge of the
resources which nature has bounteously provided in many
sections at certain seasons of the year. As these resources are
more animal than vegetable, the latter class has been much
neglected. Therefore, the result to a lost man, unprovided
with weapons or the means of snaring, trapping or catching
game or fish, might be perhaps serious. I propose, therefore, to
tabulate these edible plants, so far as known to me, and de-
scribe as freely and popularly as possible, all that have come
under my personal notice. To Dr. A. H. MacKay I am indebted
for several of the more difficult scientific identifications. As,
however, the best scientific description, especially during the
fruiting season, would be almost useless to the average man, we
_ will be forced to largely fall back on nature’s testing apparatus,
the eyes, nose and mouth. .

The nuts and seeds, with few exceptions, do not repay the
labor and time spent in gathering, except in extreme cases ;
therefore an astute back woodsman searches the hillsides for the
stores of food buried by ground squirrels for winter use. These

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr, Vou. XI. TRANS. Z.

(387)

388 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

industrious little animals dig burrows usually in the side of a
small knoll (or cradle-hill as it is often called). The entrance
is about | in. wide, and descends about 1 ft. at an angle of 40°
to 50°, though often nearly vertically. After a tortuous and
somewhat horizontal course of 2 ft. to 5 ft.,a chamber nearly
1 ft. in diameter is made. In this is the nest, packed round
with nuts and seeds of various kinds. Several branch burrows
also contain the same kind of food, often to the amount of three
or four gallons.

A knowledge of the appearance, location, and edible qualities
of the plants described herein, though not always ensuring a
bounteous meal, will, without doubt, keep off the pangs of
hunger so frequently dwelt on in tales headed “Lost in the
woods.” To a backwoodsman of ordinary intelligence such
stories sound like gross exaggerations. A pocket knife, a tin
kettle, and a few matches, provide means of existing in a forest
which would be totally inadequate in a city. The addition of
a little sugar and salt would place him beyond need, and if he
has any skill as a trapper the animal world would also be
largely at his mercy.

Note-——The descriptions in this paper are intended to be
given, as far as possible, in plain, untechnical language, so as
to be easily understood by those for whom the paper is pri-
marily intended, namely, persons with little or no botanical
knowledge. The writer does not wish to be considered as at
all attempting to present technically accurate descriptions,
which may be found in various systematic works. The nomen-
clature is mainly that of Gray’s Manual of Botany.

FRUITS AND BERRIES.

I, Vacerniwm Canadense Kalm., and Vaccinium Pennsylvan-
cecum Lam. Canadian, and Dwarf Blueberry.

Two species much alike; but the former has downy leaves
with entire edges, the latter little or no down and finely-toothed

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 389

edges. 5 in. to 24in. high, many branched, brownish-grey main
stalks with green leaf stalks. Leaves, oblong and pointed, { in,
to 14 in. long, } in. to }in. wide, thin, light green. Berries blue
to blueish-black, with thin skin, purple juicy pulp and many
small seeds. Sweet to slightly acid, globular, 75 in. to 7o in. thick.
A wholesome and valuable article of food. Eaten raw or easily
prepared. Sometimes the delicious sweetish fruit is in heavy
clusters.

Grows on open barrens and dry partly wooded land, some-
times covering large districts with its abundant growth. Forms
a large item in the exports of Yarmouth county. Ripens in

July and August.

2. Vaccinium uliyinosum L. Great Bilberry.

Bush 4 in. to 10 in. high. Branches spreading and tufted, but
not so thickly branched as blueberry. Leaves oblong, narrowed
at the base, } in. to 1 in. long, pale beneath. Berries purple to
black, juicy pulp with small seeds, sweetish taste, slightly oblong
and pear-shaped with thick end next stalk, 75 in. long. Pleasant
and wholesome food. Does not grow in clusters as do blue-
berries.

Found on barrens with blueberries, very rarely in swampy
land. Not plentiful. Grows chiefly in the western and north-
ern counties. Too rare to be considered an important article of
food in this country.

3. Vuecinium macrocarpon Aiton. Large Cranberry.

A creeping vine, 6 in. to 30 in. long, from which the fruitstalk
ascends 3in. to 6in. Leaves oblong, sin. to Yoin. long, ever-
green, dark-brownish green above and pale beneath, with
turned-back edges, thick and somewhat ridged, attached
directly or almost so to the vine, two bracts on fruit stalk.
Berries, 1 to 3 on each fruit stalk, red when ripe, round to
slightly oblong, }in. to }in. long, riperis late and remains in

390 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

goed condition until next May. Very acid, but one of the
most digestible of our sour berries.

Easily domesticated in fields or prepared bogs. Sometimes
very abundant in meadows and along stillwater brooks; but
often found in dry fields and on sandy hills and flats. Gener-
ally distributed in Nova Scotia.

4. Vaccinium Oxycoccus L. Small Cranberry, “ Bog-berry.”

A creeping vine, 4 in. to 10 in. long, very slender, with thread-
like fruit stalks, Leaves ovate or egg-shaped, few and irregu-
larly disposed, 75 in. long, with curved margins. Berries round,
vo in. thick, with a few small seeds, generally one berry on each
fruit stalk, which seldom stands erect, very sour, changes from
white with greyish-brown spots to red when ripe, ripens late
like the large cranberry, but remains good until the next May.
Very palatable, but cequires much sugar.

Found on moderately wet open bogs, only on a certain green
or reddish-green moss, but never on dry soil or water-covered
meadows, as the large cranberry. Either too much or too little
moisture is fatal to its growth. Generally distributed, but
rarely very plentiful.

5. Vaccinium Vitis-Idea L. Foxberry, Mountain Cranberry,
“ Cowberry,” locally “ Partridge-berry.”

Vine 6 in. to 10 in. long, tufted creeping stems, with erect ends
lin. to 3in. high. Leaves alternate and closely set on stems } in.
long, wide oval, not pointed, slightly notched at ends, dark green,
thick and hard with turned-back edges, smooth and shining
above, light green, smooth, with very small black spots below.
Berries round, }’ thick, dark red, acid and very slightly bitter,
mealy, juicy after becoming ripe, seeds few and small. Berries in
bunches of from 2 to 5, very productive. Important as an
article of food, but requiring much sugar.

On bare headlands, barrens or other exposed situations,
usually near or on the sea coast, seldom found on wet soil or

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 391

far inland. Widely distributed and plentiful in the eastern and
northern counties, scarcer in the western counties. Ripe in
September; remains late, but does not keep as well as the large
eranberry.

6. Gaylussacia resinosa 'T. & G. Huckleberry.

Bush 1ft. to 10 ft. high, many branched, thin limbed.
Leaves oblong, # in. to 1} in. long, ight green above and below,
thinner and larger than blueberry leaves, often spotted with
red. Berries round, black, ;4 in. to ;vin. thick, more seedy
than the blueberry, but more juicy, sweeter, and better flavored,.
one. of the most palatable and agreeable of Nova Scotian wild
fruits. Bushes well laden, but fruit distributed more evenly
and on longer fruit stalks than the blueberry.

Associated on barrens and partly wooded land with blue-
berry, but unlike the latter often capable of growing in more
shady places. A valuable food, but will not keep long. Widely
distributed and plentiful. everywhere throughout Nova Scotia.
Ripens in August, after the blueberry.

7. Viburnum lantanoides Mx. Hobble-bush, locally “Moose-
bush.”

A shrub 6 ft. to 9 ft. high, with spreading branches, grow-
ing in pairs from main stalk and larger branches, the pairs
alternating at right angles to each other. Bark, brown to
brownish-grey on all branches except the growths of the present
year, which are covered with a light green velvety bark, con-
tinuous to the ends of the leaf ribs. The old bark is spotted
with minute white warts. Leaves in pairs opposite each other
on leaf stalks, 2 in. long, 3in. to 6 in. diameter, round, but
curved inward at junction with leaf stalk, thick, soft, smooth
above, scurfy to downy beneath, somewhat wrinkled, leaf-ribs
large, leaves toothed irregularly and slightly pointed. Berries
in widely spreading flat topped bunches, 3 in. to 5 in. across, no
berries on outer row of flower stalks. Changing from red to

392 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

black when ripe, #5 in. to # in. thick, somewhat flat, and con-
taining a single hard flat seed about half the size of the fruit,
thin skinned, with moist soft black pulp, very sweet and easily
digested, decays soon, unless eaten by birds and squirrels.
Ripens in August.

Grows in deep shady woods, in moderately dry soil. Widely
distributed, but not very abundant.

8. Viburnum Opulus L. Cranberry-tree, Bush Cranberry.

Shrub 5 ft. to 12 ft. high, with many branches. Bark light
grey. Leaves 3 to 5 ribbed, strongly lobed, lobes pointed, base
of leaf wide, sides notched. Berries 75 in. long, round, bright red,
very sour but pleasant, with a single thin flat smooth seed.
Smooth skinned, juicy, remains uninjured until spring.

In low or moist rocky lands, or beside streams, but not in
swamps, meadows or pine timber land. Preserve made of the
berries is sometimes to be had in the Halifax country market.
Plentiful only in a few districts of the northern and western
counties.

9. Viburnum cassinoides L. Withe-rod.

Bush 5 ft. to 8 ft. high, thin, tough, wiry, branches few,
which ascend at slight angle with main stem; much used for
basket making. Bark light brown. Leaves 2 in. to 3 in. long,
oval, pointed, wavy margin notched into rounded teeth, dark
green, not shining nor very thin. Berries slightly flattened,
75 in. to # in. long, with a bluish bloom, smooth black skin and

pulp, with a flattened stone, sweet, but pleasant tasting,
able and easily digested, and of considerable value as an article

of food. Their dark color makes them objectionable to some

agree-

whose fastidiousness exceeds their common sense.

In nearly all meadows, swamps, wet barrens and low open
lands, often in great abundance. Widely distributed.

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 393

10. Cornus Canadensis L. Dwarf Cornel, Bunch-berry, locally
“ Pigeon-berry.”

Slender green red-ribbed stalk 24 in. to 44 in. high, rising
from long tangled creeping roots, evergreen. Four large white
petal-like bracts surround the cluster or bunch of small incon-
spicuous flowers. Leaves 4 to 6, ovate, pointed at both ends,
1} in. to 2 in. long, arranged in a whorl at foot of fruit stalk,
light green, smooth, grooved above and ribbed below, two scale
like leaves clasp the stem lower down. Leaf stalk very short.
Berries in a bunch, round, red, #4 in. to 7in. thick, smooth
skinned, fleshy white or pinkish pulp of sweetish taste, contain-
ing a single large, hard, round, white seed, which is hard to
separate. Its value as a food is therefore slight in spite of its
abundance. The seed, however, is easily crushed between the
teeth.

Grows in mixed woods in moderately dry soil where ground
is not too thickly covered by leaves. Ripens in August and
September. Very plentiful and widely distributed.

11. Chiogenes hispidula T. & G. Creeping Snowberry, locally
“ Maidenhair,” “ Capillaire.”

Slender creeping vines, often grows in thick and matted
masses. Leaves evergreen, oval, 75 in. long, not notched, margins
curved, light green, smooth above, bristly below, leaf stalks
extremely short, has the aromatic taste of the birch or tea berry.
Berry white, r5 in. long, shightly oblong, with many minute seeds,
dry and mellow with a sweetish spicy flavor, without visible
fruit stalks. Nova Scotia’s most delicious berry; either eaten
uncooked or as a preserve. Ripens in July and August.

Grows in mossy woods or shady bogs where not too wet.
Generally distributed and fairly abundant, though their small
size makes them unimportant as an article of food. Make very
delicious preserve.

394 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

12, Gaultheria procumbens L. Creeping Wintergreen, Check-
erberry, locally “Tea-berry,” “Deer-berry,”
“Partridge-berry.”

Stalks 2in. to 4in. high, connected beneath the surface.
Leaves in a crown of 2 to 4, smooth and dark green, ovate,
slightly pointed and minutely notched, # in. to 1} in. long, edges
curved, hard, thick, light green below, strongly aromatic odor
and taste, containing a volatile oil known as wintergreen, used
as a flavor or perfume. Flowers small pinkish-white and cup-
shaped, in bunch of 2 to 3 beneath leaves, which are nearly
edible. The juice of the chewed leaves is very invigorating.
Berries bright red, round, end indented and containing dark-
colored bristle in centre, iy in. to 75 1n. thick, pulp dry and spicy.
Does not complete its growth in one season, remains on stalk
over winter, and increases in size and ripeness next spring.

Dry barrens, open or burnt woods, and old pastures. Widely
distributed and abundant, available at all times except July to
September.

18. Prunus Pennsylvanica L. Wild Red Cherry, Bird Cherry.

Small tree 7 ft. to 20 ft. high, with many straight thin bran-
ches. Bark smooth, light reddish-brown; outside thin and paper-
like, but tearing easily in strips around the trunk, inside green
and intensely bitter. Leaves very oblong and sharply pointed,
notched, thin, shining light green and smooth on both sides, on
leaf stalks ]in. long. Berries not in a long cluster, round, 1’5 in.
to 15 in. thick, smooth skinned, red, juicy, very sour, somewhat
clustered, but on fruit stalks 1 in. to 14 in. long; contains a single
round hard seed with bitter kernel, which is more or less unsafe
to eat. Ripens in July.

On the driest and rockiest soil, on barrens and burnt or open
woods, never in swamps. Widely distributed, and often
extremely plentiful. Much eaten by birds.

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 395

14. Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry.

A large tree, 15 ft. to 50 ft. high, often used for cabinet work.
Bark rough and dark grey on trunk, with reddish-brown
branches, thin outside bark, and very bitter inner bark. Leaves
very oblong, tapering to a point, a little larger and thicker
than the leaves of the wild red cherry, dark green and shining
above, a little lighter and duller below, on leaf stalks nearly 2 in.
long. Berries in a long cluster, round, #7in. thick, purplish
black, pulpy, juicy, sour to slightly bitter but pleasant and
digestible, contains a single slightly oval hard seed. Ripens in
August.

Found chiefly on rich intervales, Musquodoboit, Shubenac-
adie, and other valleys. Not very plentiful, though widely
distributed.

15. Prunus Virginiana L. Choke-cherry.

A shrub 5 ft. to 10 ft. high, consisting chiefly of separate
stems from the same root. Leaves oblong, abruptly pointed,
3in. to 4in. long, dark green, sharply notched. Bark rough,
greyish-brown. Berries in a long cluster, crimson-brown or
nearly black, round, 7 in. to 34 in. thick, moderately sour, juicy,
astringent, pleasant, digestible, with single slightly oval hard
seed ; arranged thickly and regularly to the number of 10 to 16
on long fruit stalk. Ripens in August.

Grows around the edges of cultivated land, roads, intervales,
seldom found in uninhabited districts. Widely distributed, and
plentiful in the western counties; scarce in the east except in
the older settlements and towns.

16. Pyrus arbutifolia L. Choke-berry.

A bush 14 in. to 7in. high, branching tough stalk. Bark
biownish-grey. Leaves oblong, pointed, finely notched, thick,
dark green to brownish-green, smooth above and slightly downy
beneath. Berries deep reddish-purple or nearly black, with

396 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

lighter colored juice, the stains of which are very difficult to
efface, nearly round or slightly egg-shaped, 75 in. to sin. thick,
smooth skinned, juicy, sweetish-sour, astringent; in heavy
bunches, though each berry has a separate long fruit stalk.
Pleasant and digestible. Contains several small seeds.

In meadows, wet intervales, or moist places in open woods
and barren land. Widely distributed and abundant, especially
in the southern counties.

17, Pyrus Americana D.C. American Mountain Ash.

Tree 8 ft. to 25 ft. high, straight and regularly branched.
Bark greyish-brown. Leaflets 24 in. long, taper pointed, sharply
notched, bright green above, pale green below, 13 leaflets on
each leaf stalk. Berries in flat-topped clusters, round, size of
field peas, bright red or scarlet, has a peculiar astringent sour
taste unlike that of any other berry, therefore unpleasant to the
great majority, pulpy, juicy, with few seeds. Grow in great
flat clusters nearly on every branch, often covering the
tree in a canopy of scarlet fruit. In autumn it is our most
beautiful tree, much used as an ornament for lawns and gar-
dens. Ripens in September, remaining uninjured long after the
first frosts. Seldom used as a food.

In moist woods, hanging over river and lake banks, which
it greatly beautifies. Particularly abundant in Yarmouth and
Sheiburne counties, becoming less plentiful going east.

18. Amelanchier Canadensis Medic. (2 or more varieties).
Shad-bush, Service-berry, June-berry, June plum, locally
“Tndian Pear.”

(a). Tree 6 ft. to 30 ft. high, branches ascending at a slight
angle with the trunk, thin limbs and open foliage, close tough
wood. Bark moderately. smooth, light grey with dark grey or
light brown stripes, running verticaily. Leaves oblong, pointed,
2 in. to 24 in. long, sharply notched, heart-shaped at base in some

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 397

larger varieties, thin, dark or dingy green. Berries deep red-
dish-purple, round, on Jin. leaf stalk, size of large peas, 10-
seeded, very sweet and pleasant tasting, containing more sugar
than any other native fruit. These, with huckleberries and
witherod berries, are the most easily digested and nourishing
wild fruit of Nova Scotia.

In low woods and along banks of streams and lakes where
alone it is abundant. Is scattered elsewhere. Generally distrib-
uted, but more plentiful in the western than the eastern counties.

(6). Small bus’) or twig, with 2 to 5 thin branches. Bark
brownish-grey. Leaves oblong or oval with round end, notched,
light green. Berries purple, oval, slightly longer than thick,
isin. to 75 in. long, very sweet and juicy, superior to any other
variety in taste and size, and well worthy of domestication,
10-seeded, scattered irregularly over bush, never in clusters.

On level and not too rocky barrens, and dry open lowlands,
mixed with blue and huckle berries; seldom on river banks
with the larger varieties. Generally distributed, but not very
abundant; more plentiful in the western than in the eastern
counties.

19. Fragaria Virginiana Duchesne. Wild Strawberry.

So well known that for practical purposes it needs no des-
cription. Pleasant and digestible, very abundant. Ripens in
July.

Found almost everywhere in cultivated grounds, barrens and
open woods, usually never far from settlements.

20. Rubus strigosus Mich. Wild Red Raspberry.

Very abundant and well known, description superfluous.

Around cultivated grounds, in pastures, open woods, and on
barrens far from settlements. A juicy, delicious. and: easily
digested fruit. Ripens in August.

398 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

21. Rubus villosus Ait. Common or High Blackberry.

Well known accompaniment of cultivation, description un-
necessary.

Found nearer settlements, but not so abundant as the rasp-
berry. Generally distributed. Ripens in early part of Sep-
tember.

22. Rubus Canadensis L. Low Blackberry, Creeping Black-
berry, Dewberry (7?)

Thin trailing prickly vines. Leaf stalks with 3 leaflets,
prickly, oval, pointed, sharply notched, thin and smaller than
those of the high blackberry. Berries black, not in bunches,
much smaller than those of the high blackberry, much like it in
structure, taste, and juiciness; pleasant and easily digested.

Found chiefly in rocky, low, but not swampy ground, on
flat barrens or in open woods, especially after the underbrush
has been burned. Common in Nova Scotia, but not very abun-
dant.

23. Rubus triflorus Rich. Dwarf Raspberry, locally “Dew-
berry,” and “ Mulberry.”

Vine 3in. to 6in. high, reclining or upright, with 2 or 3
branchlets of 3 leaves each. Leaves oblong, pointed, doubly
notched, thin, smooth, 1 in. to 1}in. long. Berries } in. thick,
red, with few and almost separate lobes, each containing a seed.
Juicy, vinous, and pleasant.

Wet mossy woods or moderately wet bogs partly tree
covered. Nowhere in great abundance though quite common.

24. Rubus Chamemorus L. Cloud-berry, locally “Bake Apple.”

Single stem 2 in. to 9in. high, with 2 or 3 leaves on 14 in.
leaf stalks half way to top of stems. Leaves almost round,
roughly 5-lobed, 14 in. to 2 in. across, rough and slightly hairy.
Berries 1 to 3, usually 1 on each plant on separate fruit stalks,

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 399

at first hard and light red, changing to a dark amber color when
ripe, }1in. thick, consisting of a fewer, but larger, lobes than
raspberry. Has a thick rich yellow juice, which leaves little
residue, slightly acid, pleasant, wholesome and easily digested
though somewhat seedy. Ripens early in August.

Found only on dry mossy bogs (savannas, so called) in the
eastern part of Nova Scotia. More plentiful in northern Cape
Breton. It reaches its greatest size and perfection in Labrador.
Nova Scotia is near the southern limit of !ts growth, and it is
rarer now than forty years ago.

25. Ribes lacustre Poir. Swamp Gooseberry.

Small bush 1 ft, to 2 ft. high, erect or slightly reclining,
stem and branches full of sharp spines, bark light grey. Leaves
3-lobed, lin. across, light green, downy, leaf stalks short.
Berries round. dark red when ripe, #5 in. to 75 in. thick, covered
with small prickles, in bunches of 2 and 3 growing chiefly on
sides of stem; pulpy, juicy, moderately sour, with several large
seeds. A pleasant food.

In open rocky or burned woods, old pastures or waste land.
Common, but not very abundant.

26. Ribes oryacanthoides L. Hawthorn Gooseberry, Northern
Gooseberry.

Berries roundish, smooth, 4 to }inch in diameter, reddish
purple when ripe. Low bush, spines solitary, light colored, }
to 4 inch long, sometimes none. Prickles scattered or wanting.
Leaves petioled, three to five lobed, nearly as broad as long,
under surface and stalk generally bearing some down. Flowers,
one to three on stalk less than } inch, nearly } inch long. Fruit
more dainty and pleasant than the garden gooseberry when
ripe.

27. Ribes prostratum L’Her. Fetid, Wild or Stinking Currant.

A reclining or creeping vine-like bush, ends of stems above
being upright. Bark grey, when bruisod emits a peculiar and

400 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

intensely strong odor objectionable to some people at first, but
not so disagreeable as elder. Leaves somewhat heart-shaped,
but 5 to 7-lobed, lin. to 2 in. across, lobes pointed, doubly
notched. Berries round, size of small field peas, red, slightly
bristly, juicy, contains a few large seeds; in clusters of 8 to 20
on fruit stalks 24 in. to 4in. long; smell less strongly than bark
or leaves, sour with a peculiar taste related to smell, but in
spite of this is enjoyed by many people.

In rocky open woods or barrens. In greatest abundance
where land is most rocky. Very abundant in southern and
western counties of Nova Scotia and southern Cape Breton.

28. Ribes rubrum L. Wild Red Currant.

Stems straggling or reclining. Leaves somewhat heart-
shaped, 3 to 5-lobed, notched. Berries round, a little larger
than the stinking currant, smooth skinned, red, resembles the
garden currant in size, taste, and foliage, without the strong
smell of the former ; makes a delicious preserve.

In open woods or waste land, in deep soil. Very scarce in
Nova Scotia, found by me only in the northern counties.

29. Ribes foridum L’Her. Wild Black Currant.

Creeping stems, slightly spinous. Leaves much like those
of the red currant. Berries round, black, same size as Ribes
prostratum, bristly, with slightly musky smell and_ taste.
Barely tolerable as a food.

In rocky open woods and moist barrens. Scarce in Nova
Scotia.

30. Mitchella repens L. Partridge-berry, Snake-berry, some-
times locally “ Wild Ivy-berry.”

Slender evergreen vines, 4in. to 12 in. long, scattered and

creeping. Leaves round, 75 in. long, scarcely pointed, arranged

closely and regularly along vine, dark green and shining above,

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 401

light green below. Berries round or slightly flat at end, 75 in.
to 7 in. thick, with 2 eyes or flower marks, the only common
doubly marked berry we have, scarlet, almost tasteless or
slightly sweet, nearly dry, fleshy, white pulp, remaining unin-
jured over winter and improving with time. Has 1 or 2 large
seeds. Of little value as food.

In dry shady mossy woods where other plants are rare.
Generally distributed, but not plentiful.

31. Sambucus Canadensis L. Common Canadian or Black-
berried Elder.

Shrub 4 ft. to 9ft. high, leaf stalks branching at almost
right angles with stalk, woody, with large core of white pith.
Bark, outside grey and paper-like, inside green and tender with
a strong and disagreeable smell when bruised; often used for
making a salve. Leaves 7 to 11 on each leaf stalk, 4 in. long,
oblong, taper-pointed, notched, smooth. Berries round, #6 in.
thick, dark purple, our smallest berry, in thick, flat-topped
bunches of 20 to 60; with purple juicy pulp, 3-seeded, peculiar
acid taste. Liked by some people, disagreeable to others on
account of taste. Probably nourishing if taste can be overcome.

In rich soil, open woods, burnt land, around old fields and
brooks. Widely distributed, abundant in some places.

32. Sambucus pubens Mx. Red-berried Elder, “Boltry.”
With large pyramidical clusters of red berries. Character
very similar to those of the last mentioned.

33. Aralia nudicaulis L. Wild Sarsaparilla.

Stem 8 in. to 10 in. bigh, dividing at top into 3 leaf stalks,
stems annual. Leaflets, 15 in number, viz., 5 on each leaf
stalk, 2 in. to 4in. long, oblong, taper-pointed, finely notched,
altogether distinct from fruit stalks, though growing from the
same long white far-reaching aromatic roots. Berries roughly
round, dark brown to black, } in. thick, with a few shart spines

402 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

around top of berry, watery, sweetish, not unpleasant, few seed ;
in large bunches or flat-topped clusters on tall fruit stalk.
Food value shght.

Widely distributed and fairly abundant.

34. Aralia racemosa L. American Spikenard.

Herbaceous, much-branched, from 38 to 6 ft. high, in rich
intervale soil. Leaves compounded of 38 or 5 leaflets, each
roundish, heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the apex, 2 to
6 in. long, and sharply and finely toothed on the margins.
Flowers in clusters, made up of numerous umbels, each floret
small and greenish. The fruit, when ripe, consists of compound
clusters of beautiful reddish-brown or purplish berries with a
pleasant taste and peculiar aromatic flavor characteristic of the
plant and its large rootstalk, which is used for flavoring home-
made beer in some places. Not common.

35. Smilacina bifolia Ker. Two-leaved Solomon’s Seal, locally
“ Cowslip.”

Leaves and fruit on one stem, 3 in. to 5 in. high, roots creep-
ing. Leaves, 2 in number, 2 in. long, | in. wide, heart-shaped,
pointed, longitudinally ribbed, base almost clasping stem, some-
what downy. Berries red, round, 7 in. thick, with 1 or two
large seeds, very juicy, taste resembles somewhat the importea
liquorice, with vinegar added. In bunches of 5 to 12 on each
stem, on very short fruit stalks. Food value slight.

In damp or moderately dry deep soil in shady or partly

open woods. Generally distributed, and in some places abun-
dant.

36. Taxus baccata L. Var. Canadensis Marsh. American Yew,
Ground Hemlock.

Stems 2 in. to 6 in. long, reclining and often thickly tangled,
evergreen ; bark and foliage resembles the large hemlock, except
that the needles are larger. Berries round, the size of a large

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 403

pea, smooth and tender skinned, pulp colorless, resembling
uncooked white of egg, juicy, sweetish, pleasant taste, large cup-
shaped hollow in top containing a single hard smooth greenish
seed, thus ditfering from every other Nova Scotian fruit. Ber-
ries scattered, growing on main stems rather than on branches.
Digestible, but not abundant enough to count on as a food
supply in a time of need.

In cool damp woods and ravines. Resembles a cone-bearing
bush and therefore may be passed without notice. Most abun-
dant in the western ccunties.

ary

387. Empetrum nigrum L. Black Crowberry, Heath-berry.

Slender dark-colored spreading vines, many branched, ends
erect 2 in. to 4in. high. Leaves oblong, not pointed, scarcely
7 in. long, set thickly along stems. Berries black, size of small
peas, juicy, with mild sweetish taste somewhat like sarsaparilla
berries, 6 to 9 seeds, palatable, though not of great value as a
food.

In great abundance on dry savannas or undulating open
barrens where the soil is thin. Widely distributed throughout
Nova Scotia, especially the eastern part.

.

38. Streptopus roscus Mx. Rosy-flowered Twisted Stalk.

Annual, branehing stem, 10 in. to 20 in. high, green tender
stalk slightly bent at each leaf stalk. Its 2 to 4 branches often
assume an umbrella-like form, being curved outwards and
drooping at ends. Leaves, long, oval, taper-pointed at both ends,
1} in. to 3 in. Jong, light green, tender, finely haired, longitudi-
nally ribbed, growing close to stems, alternate, 10 to 20 on each
plant. Berries oval to almost round, 75 in. to {> In. long, red,
smooth-skinned, with pulp like white of egg in appearance,
very juicy, with séveral large white seeds, hanging singly or in
twos to thread-like fruit stalks to the number of 8 or 10 on
each plant, almost tasteless.

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scl., VoL. XI. Trans. AA.

404 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

In damp or cool shady woods. Generally distributed, but
not very plentiful. Unimportant as a food.

S. amplzxifolius D. C., with clasping leaves, whitish
underneath, and greenish-white flowers; has similar oval ber-

ries, slightly larger.
39. Crataegus coccinea L. Scarlet Thorn, Hawthorn-berry.

Bush 4 ft. to 8 ft. high with small thorns, many branched.
Leaves oval, somewhat lobed, thin, sharply notched, truncated
base. Berries light coral red, slightly oval, with some seeds,
light colored mealy pulp, mild sweetish sour, edible but not
important as an article of food.

In dry soil in low woods. Generally distributed ; most plen-
tiful near coasts and settlements.

40. Urategus tomentosa L. Black-thorn, Pear-thorn, locally
“ Thornberry.”

Low tree, 4 ft. to 12 ft. high, many branched, with thorns
lin. to 24in. long. L2aves larger than last species, oval,
sharply notched, abruptly narrowed at base. Berries light
scarlet, round, or slight pear-shaped, few seeds, Sin. thick, pulp
pinkish-white, moist though mealy, pleasant tasting and easily
digested.

On rocky river banks in burnt or open woods. Generally
distributed, but not very abundant.

ROOTS AND BULBS.

41. Apios tuberosa Mcench. Ground-nut, Indian Potato, “ In-
dian-bean.”

A reclining and climbing vine. Leaflets 5 to 7 on eich leaf
stalk, round base, taper-pointed, 2in. to 3 in. long, dark green.
Blossoms brownish purple, pea-shaped, in cluster along flower
stalk. Pods pea-shaped and many-seeded. Flowers early in
September. Long roots, swelling into tubers resembling sweet

OF NOVA SCOTIA.-—PREST 405

potatoes. ‘Tubers grey, lin. to 2 in. long. Roots, 2 ft. to 16 ft.
long, containing from five to fifty tubers. Each plant has
several roots. Tubers tough and albuminous, somewhat strong
tasting, but not more so than some cultivated potatoes. Nour-
ishing, but needs much cooking. Parboil with salt, then roast.
In dry intervale and rocky lake and river banks; but never
far above water level, and never in the shade. Available any
time.

Plentiful in western Nova Scotia. Have never seen it east
of Halifax, though it may exist there.

42. Aralia trifolia Decaisne. Dwarf Ginseng, Ground-nut.

Annual, 3 in. to 4+ in. hign, 3 leaf stalks at two-thirds height.
Leaflets 3 or 5, oblong, narrow, taper-pointed, notched on mar-
gin. Flowers in close set bunch at top of stem, white ; blooms
in latter part of May. Tubers set deep in ground at end of
long tender white stalk, round, white, with 2 or 3 minute root-
lets, starchy, pungent sweetish taste. Passable as a food only
in extreme cases. Cut open and boil well.

43. Dentaria diphylla Michx. Two-leaved Toothwort, Pepper-
root.

From 4 to 12 in. high, divided into 2 or 3 leaf stalks of &
leaflets each. Leaves, roughly oval, coarsely toothed on mar-
gin, pointed, dark green. Flowers white. Roots, 3 in. to 7 in.
long, irregular in size, 7's in. to } in. thick, white, tender, crisp ;
hot, like pepper, but pleasant when eaten raw.

In rich moist soil in limestone lands and intervales. Gener-
ally distributed, but not very abundant.

44. Typha latifolia L. Common Cat-tail, locally “ Bulrush.”

Stem 2 ft. to 6 ft. high, a tall column of overlying leaves
with small central core, | aves long and grass-like. Top of
fiower stalk ending in a beautiful brown seed spike, 6 in. long,
and resembling, when ripe, a cat’s.tail. Above this projects the

406 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

pollen producing portion of the plant to a height of 4 in. higher,
At junction of stem and root is a’ starchy edible pith, tasting
like tapioca. Eat roasted or boiled—but to extract all nourish-
ment dry and grate the root, soak in water or boil, and strain.
A valuable food, but not abundant enough to be important.

In quiet, shallow ponds or miry swamps. Common through-
out Nova Scotia. Abundant only in some districts.

Lb. Osmunda cinnamomea L. Cinnamon Fern.

Fronds 14 ft. to 4 ft. high, springing from a common root.
Flowers and seed on a mass of curled fronds in centre. Edible
part is core of root which is tender, white and sweet; found
just below the surface. Root is massive, scaly, and fimly rooted
and difficult to extract. Roasting or boiling in salt improves.
Edible part 14 in. long.

Plentiful in every swamp and wet tract of land throughout
the prevince.

LEAVES.

46. Rumex crispus L. Curled Dock, Sourdock.

Stems 1} ft. to 3 ft. high, upper part leafless and seed-bear-
ing. Leaves spread from root and base of stem, 5 in. to 12 in.
long, pointed, arrow-like, smooth with strongly crimped mar-
gins. Seeds with wings, which are heart-shaped or almost
round, and nearly } in. wide, in long tapering cluster of several
hundred at top of stem. Root long, spindle-shaped, vertical,
orange-colored.

In fields, pastures, waste lands, in woods around old lumber
camps. Very abundant. Leaves tender, somewhat sour, used
as a green boiled with salt, pleasant tasting and digestible
especially from May to August. Generally distributed.

47. Rumex sanguineus L. var Viridis. Bloody-veined Dock,
Sourdock. .

Stems long, slender, leafless, spring from base of leaves.

Leaves long, slender, pomted at both ends, except lower leaves

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 407

which are heart-shaped at base, tender, sour, pleasant. Boil in
salt as before. Seeds winged, a somewhat triangular oval,
rounded at ends.

In waste and cultivated lands, old roads, and lumber camps.
Generally distributed and abundant.

48. Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf. Dandelion.

Low spreading leaves, 6 in. by 1 in., irregular, curve- toothed
margin, exudes a mikly juice when broken, very bitter, used as
green, boiled. Disagreeable to some on account of its rather
bitter taste. Flowers cluster golden yellow, composite, 1 in.
across, on erect hollow tender stems 2 in. to 6 in. high, seeds
downy, closely packed on crown-shaped base to number of 100
to 150.

Very abundant in and around all cultivated lands and roads.

49. Chenopodium album L. Lamb’s-quarters.

5 in. to 13 in. high, erect and branching from a central stem.
Leaves 1 in. to 2in. long, pale green, tender, juicy, glistening
mealy surface, oblong, pointed at both ends, irregular or notched
margin, palatable and pleasant. Boiled as a green for the table.
One of the best.

Common in waste and cultivated land, old clearings. Gen-
erally distributed. Abundant only in a few places.

50. Oxalrs Acetosella L. Common Wood-sorrel.

Leaf and flower stalks spring from a creeping scaly root
growing along the surface or beneath the leaves and moss.
Leaves, 3 at top of each leaf stalk which is 2 in. to 3 in. high,
strongly heart-shaped with wide end toward stalk, } in. to } in.
across, slightly hairy above and below, juicy and sour. Parboil,
then boil whole plant with salt. Unimportant as a food.
Flowers 5 sepals, 5 petals, 10 stamens, white with pink veins,

zo in. to ro in. across, each on a separate stalk 2 in. high. Seed

408 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

pods hanging, pear-shaped but reversed, brown, } in. long, with
8 to 12 seeds.

In deep shady woods. Abundant everywhere.

51. Fagus ferruginea Aiton. American Beech.

Tree 30 ft. to 60 ft. high, spreading branches. Wood dark
colored, hard, vearly growths not easily seen. Bark smooth,
light grey, without an outer skin. Leaves 2 in. to 4 in. long,
ovate, pointed at both ends, coarsely notched ribs start altern-
ately from mid-rib, smooth above, hairy below, especially on
edge of leaf, acid and tender when young, soon become bitter
and tough, need much boiling and make an indifferent food.
Available in May and June.

Abundant on dry land and in deep soil. Generally distrib-
uted.

52. Pteris aquilina L. Common Brake, Bracken.

The young curled fronds, when a few inches high, are tender
and palatable. Boil well, as asparagus, which it much resembles.
Best in May, soon becomes tough. Also Osnvunda cinnamomea
L., Cinnamon Fern, No. 44 preceding.

53. Allium schenoprasum L. Chives.

Flower stalk 4in. to 9 in. high, with round bunch of light
purple flowers and pointed sepals. Leaves 4in. to 7 in. high,
awl-shaped, hollow, separate from flower stalk, taste and smell
like onions or garlic, useful more as a seasoning than as a food.

Found in low wet lands near sea shore or rivers. In north-
ern Nova Scotia. Have not seen it in the southern or western
counties.

54. Medeola Virginica L. Indian Cucumber-root.

Stem of plant 1 to 24 ft. high, bearing a whorl of about six
or more several nerved leaves from 2 to 6 in. long, and tapering
to each end, about its middle, and a smaller whorl immediately

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 409

below an umbel-like cluster of from 2 to 9 greenish-yellow
flowers, with it ovary cells and styles in 3’s, and its stamens
and perianth in 6's. Berries, dark purple, nearly 4$in. in
diameter. It grows from a tuber-like root stalk from 1 to 3 in,
long, which has a flavor suggesting cucumber.

Not very abundant, and its food qualities not sufficiently

tested.

FLOWERS.

55. Rosa blanda Aiton, Early Wild Rose.

Stem branching, with scattered spines, 1 ft. to 4 ft. high,
flower stalk smooth. Leaflets, 5 to 7 on each Jeaf stalk, oblong,
pointed, pale green, a little downy beneath, notched on margin.
Flowers, 1 to 3 on each flower stalk, petals 5, stamens many,
light rose color, fragrant, edible. Seed-pod round, red smooth,
din. to din. thick, many seeded. Blooms in June.

In rocky soil, barrens, and river and lake banks where not
too wet. Common in all parts of Nova Scotia.

56. Rosa lucida Ehrhart. Dwarf Wild Rose.

As the description and range of this species is much like
the preceding, it is difficuyt to distinguish. The flowers of both
being edible, a mistake in identification is of no consequence.

57. Epigea repens L. Mayflower, Trailing Arbutus.

Trailing matted vines from 6 in. to 24in. long. Leaves,
wide oval, } in. to 14in. long, bristly inside, evergreen. Flow-
ers at end of leaf stalks in clusters of 3 to 8, tube-lke with 5
clefts, bristly inside, stamens 10 with slender filaments, anthers
oblong, sepals long, scale-like, pointed, nearly distinct, flowers
75 in. to zy in. long. Fxhales a delicate perfume, white to pink,
edible. Blooms in April. Nova Scotia’s earliest flower.

In open woods, dry barrens, dry rocky or sandy soil. Abun-
dant everywhere in Nova Scotia under above conditions.

410 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

NUTS AND SEEDS.

58. Fagus ferruginea Aiton, American Beech.

Described in No. 50. Nuts 3-sided, abrupt at base, pointed
at top, in. to $in. long, in pairs, each pair forms a 4-sided
pyramid, and are enclosed in a coarse bristly 4-parted husk,
open at top, and growing on extremity of branch. Nut shell
brown, easily opened, kernel rich, sweet, and easily digested.
A favorite food of squirrels. Very abundant in October. Does
not produce regularly.

Generally distributed, but most abundant in the eastern

counties.

59. Corylus rostrata Aiton. Beaked Hazel-nut, Filbert.

Tree-like, 3 ft. to 6 ft. high, branching near top, root often
bent at right angles to stem. Bark, light-brown with light-grey
spots, spotted appearance quite noticeable. Leaves oblong or
somewhat heart-shaped, 1} in. to 2} in., pointed, soft and slightly
downy, doubly notched. Nut round or slightly oval, with
beaked top and thick shell, } in. to ? in. long, sweet and easily
digested. Enclosed in a long bristly husk with ragged end, in
the base of which lies the nut. Husks hang singly or in twos
with rudimentary husks attached, and when green is juicy and
extremely sour.

In dry or moderately dry open woods or barrens. Gener-
ally distributed and abundant. f

60. Quercus rubra L. Red Oak.

Tree 50 ft. to 90 ft. high, and 1 ft. to 3 in. in diameter, with
heavy spreading limbs. Wood heavy, strong, porous when dry,
white in outer part with red heart. Bark grey and strongly
corrugated, but not so regularly as the ash. Leaves 4 in. to 6 in.
long, with 5-pointed lobes. Nuts round with small spur on end,
flat base resting a scaly truncated cup. Size 4} in. to $in., with
lui e white kerne , very bitter, which almost precludes its use

OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 411

even in extreme cases, otherwise it would form a valuable
article of food. Bitterness can however be modified considerably
by boiling in salt or grating finely and soaking in water, and
then roasting.

In dry and moderately wet soils. Very abundant in the
western counties; rare or absent east of Halifax.

61. Polygonum convolvulus L. Black Bindweed, “ Wild Buck-
wheat.

A climbing tree, 3 ft: to 10 ft. long, with slender stem and
triangular leaves, long and pointed, climbing through fallen
trees and bushes. Seeds very small, black and triangular, with
dry starchy kernels. A poor substitute for common buckwheat.

In old clearings and open woods. Abundant in many
districts.

62. Pinus Strobus L. White Pine.

Tree 60 ft. to 100 ft. high, evergreen and coniferous, with
rough corrugated dark grey bark and often sweeping trunk;
sometimes heavily branched. Wood white with red heart, soft-
est of Nova Scotia coniferous woods, as well as most durable.
No other Nova Scotian tree resembles it. Leaves, five from the
same sheath, needle-shaped, 1} in. to 2} in. long, cones gently
swelled in middle and pointed at outer ends, 4 in. to 5 in. long,
Seeds } in. to 7s in. long, sweet, soft, slightly resinous, inside of
and at base of cone scales, nourishing and easily digested, but
not liked much.

In all sorts of soil except the wettest portion of swamps.
Generally distributed and often abundant, but difficult to gather
Available until spring.

63. Pinus resinosa Aiton. Red Pine.

* Tree 40 ft. to 70 ft. high, coniferous, straight trunked with
branches at right angles to trunk. Bark red, rough, not so
regularly corrugated as that of the white pine. Wood harder,

412 EDIBLE. WILD PLANTS

more resinous, and darker in color than that of the white pine
Needles, 2 from the same sheath, 3 in. to 5 in. long, and in far
larger bunches than the preceding species. Cones pear-shaped,
with ends reversed, 1? in. to 23 in. long, with short spurs on
lower outside edge of each cone scale. Seeds enclosed at base
of scales, } in. long, sweetish, theugh resmous. Difficult to
gather.

On dry barrens or sandy rocky soil. Abundant in western
half of province, rarely seen east of Halifax. Available until
May.

64. Acer, several species. _ Maple.

Tree 15 ft. to 60 ft. high. Wood firm, white, durable when
dry. Bark black to grey with flaky outer bark. Leaves
deeply notched, with radiating ribs ; some species turning many
colored in autumn. One species, A. Pennsylvanicum, with
striped bark, has leaves 5 in. to 8 in. across, turning to a bright
yellow. Seeds winged, often in pairs, not always very palat-
able, are gathered by squirrels when beech and hazel nuts are
scarce ; are more digestible than pleasant tasting. Ripens in
October.

In all but the wettest aud poorest soils. Abundant every-
where where conditions are suitable.

FUNGI.
65. Agaricus campestris L. Common Mushroom.
Appearance well-known. Description unnecessary.
Never found in a forest except, perhaps, near an old lum-
bering camp, Abundant in long settled parts of the country.
66. Lycoperdon. Puff Ball.

lin. to 1} in. thick, skin rough and dark grey, without roots.
White, dry, pithy or spongy inside, gradually turning black
after completing its growth, earthy or musky smell. Parboil

OF NOVA SCOTIA ——PREST. 413

twice. A poor substitute for nuts. Squirrels search for and
eat them only when other food is exhausted. Grows just
beneath the surface of moss or leaves without any visible sign
of their presence, yet the squirrel detects them easily.

In moderately moist soil in shady woods. Widely distrib-
uted but not very abundant. Edible from August to October.

[Dr. A. H. MacKay has tested a large number of Nova
Scotian species when cooked, some of them superior to the
“mushroom.” The edible list of fungi is a long one; but it
requires an expert to distinguish them. This is very important,
for a few common species are terribly poisonous. |

PARASITIC PLANTS.
67. Monotropa uniflora L. Indian Pipe, locally “Death-plant.”

White semi-transparent stalk, 24 in. to 5 in. high, with
highly organized flower of five petals, without smell, stalk with
thin transparent scales or leaflets, tender and almost tasteless.
Parboil, then boil or roast, comparable to asparagus.

In dry or moderately dry soil in thick woods, June to
August. Generally distributed and abundant.

JUICES AND EXTRACTS.
68. Acer saccharinum Wang. Sugar Maple, Rock Maple.

Tree 40 ft. to 60 ft. high, branches usually crooked and
irregular. Bark dark grey, rough, flaky and corrugated, but
not so much as the oak or ash. Wood extremely hard, fine-
grained, and durable when dry. Leaves 3 in. to 5 in. in diam-
eter, deeply notched into 5 unequal pointed lobes with 5 main
ribs radiating from centre (turning color in autumn). <A
sweet sap is obtained by boring or cutting into the tree to a
depth of }in. to 2in. A spout of wood is fitted into a cut
made below the boring, and this conducts the sap into a wooden
trough or dish of birch-bark. It is then boiled down, about 4

414 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

gallons of sup making 1 pound of sugar or a larger quantity of
syrup. One tree will make from 2 to 5 pounds of sugar a
year. Supposed to be superior to cane sugar. Sap runs only
in March or April.

In moderately dry soil, though sometimes found in low wet
land. Common, though not abundant, except in few districts.

69. Ledum latifolium Aiton. Labrador Tea, locally “Indian-tea.”

Leaves which grow directly from main stem are oblong,
Ijin. X in, light green, smooth above with light brown
woolly growth beneath, margins curved downward. Aromatic,
somewhat bitter and pungent, though pleasant. Formerly much
used as a substitute for tea, and a remedy for dysentery. Steep
20 to 30 minutes, slightly narcotic. Flowers few, large, white,
5-parted corolla, many stamens and petals though not com-
posite.

In open bogs, savannas, barrens where not too dry, and
also in partly wooded swamps. Abundant everywhere.

70. Gaultheria procumbens L. Creeping Wintergreen, Moun-
”?

tain Tea, locaily “ Tea-berry

For description see No. 12. Leaves often used as a substi-
tute for tea. It, however, requires much boiling. A very
pleasant beverage, but somewhat astringent.

71. Chrogenes hispidula T, & G. Creeping Snowberry, locally
“ Maiden-hair, “ Capillaire.”
For description see No. 11. Leaves,and vines steeped for $
hour makes a pleasant drink.
72. Fragaria Virginiana Duchesne. Wild Strawberry.
See No. 19. Leaves a substitute for tea.

>

73. Rubus strigosus Michx. Wild Red Raspberry.

See No. 20. Leaves a substitute for tea.

OF: NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST. 415

74. Betula lutea Michx. Yetlow Birch.

Tree 40 ft. to 70 ft. high. Wood clear, white, and fine-
grained. Tall clean trunk. Bark yellowish-grey when young,
becomes dark and rough when old. Leaves elongated heart-
shape, pointed, thin, soft, well-ribbed, slightly downy or bristly
beneath. The young twigs are very aromatic, resembling tea-
berry or creeping snow-berry. These, well boiled, give a
delicious flavoring for beer, or a substitute for tea.

On dry deep soil. Very abundant everywhere.

75. Juniperus Sabina L. var. procumbens Pursh. Creeping
or Ground Juniper.

A thick, prickly recumbent bush, with hard curved needles
4 in. long, light green above and greenish-white below. Low,
spreading over large spaces, with many herby, resinous, shghtly
bitter seedy berries, which turn from light green to blue when
ripe. Used as a blood purifier and a substitute for tea, as well
as a flavoring for beer.

On dry open ground, barrens, or sandy stony plains and
slopes. Abundant.

76. Rhus typhina L. Staghorn Sumach.

Large shrub or tree, 5 ft. to 20 ft. high. Moderately rough
greyish-green bark. Stems once used for dyeing. Consists of
an outer layer of nearly white wood. covering large core of deep
greenish-yellow color, unlike any other Nova Scotian tree in
this respect. Branches few and massive. Leaves 3 in. to 5 in.
long and }in. to #in. wide, pointed at both ends, strongly
notched, soft, hairy above and below, especially the latter,
arranged in regular order along the sides of long leaf stalks, the
whole showing at a distance as a beautiful feathery mass of
foliage. Seeds oval, size of truncated grains of barley, hard,
covered with minute purplish-red bristles. These are impreg-
nated with an intensely sour juice from which a pleasant acid

416 EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.—PREST.

beverage is extracted by boiling. They grow close set in
bunches, resembling at a distance rough tapering pods, each
3 in. to 5in. long and 1 in. to 1$in. thick. Each bush carries
from 2 to 20 seed clusters. These clusters in the fall become
much infested by worms.

Generally distributed, but much rarer in the eastern than in
the western counties. Particularly abundant in the interior of
Yarmouth county.

77, Geum rivale L. Purple or Water Avens, “Wild Chocolate.” ©

A single erect stem, 6 in. to 12 in. high, with drooping
peculiar purple flower $ in. in diameter. Full of stiff hairy
bristles projecting beyond the short round petals. One
or two leaflets on flower-stalk. Leaves, 3 or 4, spring from
root around flower-stalk, resemble geranium leaves, but are
thinner, though they perhaps are more like the leaves of the
Bake-apple. See No. 22. Roots from 2 in. to 6 in. long, and
tin. thick, dark purplish-brown inside, with many rootlets.
Taste somewhat like chocolate, but astringent with a very
slight addition of acid. Was once used as a substitute for
chocolate. Boil well, and add sugar.

Common in open mossy bogs in eastern Nova Scotia, more
rare in the western counties.

A SECTION OF CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMBERLAND COUNTY.
Nova Scotia: (1) DETAILED SECTION OF ROCKS FROM
West RAGGED REEF TO THE JOGGINS MINES AND MINU-
DIE, BY SiR WILLIAM E. LOGAN, (republished); AND (2)
FROM SHULIE TO SPICER COVE, BY HUGH FLETCHER, B. A.,
of the Geological Survey of Canada.

Introduction.

BY SEENRNa Ss OOLE, DiSG) he G-Se
President of the N. S. Institute of Science.

The continuous exposure of Carboniferous rocks along the
Cumberland County shore of the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia,
early attracted the notice of observers, and in 18483 it was
measured in detail by the late Sir William Logan. His section
of 14,570 feet of strata was published in 1845 as an appendix
to the Reports on a Geological Survey of the Province of
Canada.* Copies of this section, however, cannot now be
obtained. Students ask for them and so do others who are
attracted to the locali y by the present boom in the coal trade
and the possibilities of the field whose rocks are so well exposed
in the so-called Joggins section.

To meet this demand, the council of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science has decided to republish Logan’s section
verbatim et literatum. Following the reprint of this section
is given, with the sanction of Dr. RB. Bell, the Acting Directoa
of the Geological Survey of Canada, a hitherto unpublished
detailed section of the rocks from Shulie to Spicer Cove, by Mr.
Hugh Fletcher, who has made a life’s study of the geology of

* Message from His Excellency the Governor General, with Reports on a Geolo-
gical Survey of the Province of Canada, presented to the House on 27th January,
1845. Montreal, 1845.

(417)

418 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER

Nova Scotia. That gentieman has also taken great trouble
to prepare the accompanying map. *

The base of the section is occupied by rocks of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone series. They form an anticline from the
shore of the Bay of Fundy opposite Shepody Mountain across
the country to Pugwash on the Straits of Northumberland.
Resting on them, with a southerly dip towards the Cobequid
range, approximately parallel to the articline, lies the series of
strata detailed in this section. Going southward, in ascending
order, the highest members are reached at Shule, and there
Logan’s section ended. Mr. Fletcher continued his examina-
tion, over the repeated measures to the flank of the hills, where
at Spicer’s Cove a continuous bed of conglomerate, the waste of
the igneous rocks of the axis of the range, terminates the area
under review.

The best exposure of the base of the Joggins series is on
the west side of Maringouin peninsula where at the Pink Rocks
the gypsum deposits are closely overlaid by marine fossiliferous
limestones and marls dippiny southerly. Then succeeds the
series of the Middle Carboniferous, of red sandstone, shales and
marly beds, in turn overlaid by the unbroken grey beds with
which are associated some bitumenous shales and dark fireclays
with small seams of coal from Ferris Cove to the Squaw’s Cap,
a repetition of the measures of the Joggins section north of
Boss Point on the other side of Cumberland Basin.

The portion of the series remaining on the point of the
peninsula, can be traced across Shepody Bay through Grindstone
Island and Mary Point, where the strata are deflected to skirt
the New Brunswick coast to Cape Enragé.

A visitor to the Pink Rocks on Maringouin will find a
partial repetition to the n orthward, and structural features well

* The Nova Scotian Institute of Science takes this opportunity ‘to acknowledge
on behalf of the practical and scientific Interests of the province, the public apprecia-
tion of the work performed by Mr. Fietcher, and of the zeal he has brought to bear
en the study of our much complicated rock structure and the compilation of details
relating to Nova Scotia.

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (1).—LOGAN. 419

worthy of examination. There is at Hard Ledge an exception-
ally well exposed syncline with its axis inclined*15° towards
Shepody Mountain, and an unconformity with members of the
so-called Permian series. When in the neighborhood one
should not fail to see The Rocks of Demoiselle Cape below
Hopewell; conglomerate cliffs, caved by the sea, and on a grand
scale carved into pinnacles and buttressed.

Mill Cove, the base of Logan’s measurements, les opposite
Minudie, and between them, it is said, gypsum beds occur
agreeing with the horizon of the Pink Rocks of Maringouin.

Section of the Nova Scotia Coal Measures, as developed at the
Joggins, on the Bay of Fundy, in descending order, from the
neighbourhood of the West Ragged Reef to Minudie, reduced to
vertical thickness.

[Made by Sir WILLIAM E. LoGaN, in 1843 and published as an appendix in

the first Report of Progress of the Geological Survey, for 1843, beginning
at page 92, and extending to page 156, with figures on pages 157 to 159.]

ile

Ft. In.
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone or grit, with

some conglomerate beds, of which the matrix is sand-

stone and the pebbles consist of white and of red

veined quartz. These are generally as large as peas;

some are of the size of pigeons’ eggs, and a few as

Veamaceeecie a He MSC OG) eee anh cco enacbs a, gibi hak wm es HS 30 0
Drab sandstone of a ftne grit, but rather too hard for

PUISIEICLS OTIS tee IES cS age hae, ye oe ye kt ae
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale, with eel

bo
=)

layers of sandstone of the same colour and quality
SUE ROSS SUR. AERIS EIEN ce im An RRO ROSE en 15 0

Proc. & Trans. N. S. INst, Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS. BB.

420 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Drab sandstone, with small layers of chocolate coloured ee

shale,...... eae SeeeS ar ne amepere Ae tea) een 20 0
Dark red argillaceous shale, with some green spots,.... 10 0
Drab sandstonesm two to three, bedS.s>...- ee reer Vai)

Drab sandstone of a coarse grit ; the bed has an uneven
DOLCOMM sl ere SEP rn PR SR ee ea oe BB ege (3)
Dark red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale, with a

few bands of sandstone,..... ae tek 2 a re ae 205 20
Dark-red argillaceous shale,.........-. Shaklee Gan tomy ere 10 O
Drabmsandstomes.. ee 6 ce Lp esas ores Ae ey: be ARSE Cewaneee (has)
Dark red shale and drab sandstone in irregular beds ,.. 20 0
Drab or greenish cray sandstome, ...5..-. -2). .- Bit, (a Oman
Redvarcillaccous’ shaleva.cccr-te snseas tee ear ni ener 9 0
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone in several

layers, separated by bands of dark red or chocolate

coloured arcillo-arenaceous shale.) 2 32 es eee 20 0
Greenish gray or darb coloured sandstone of a fine grit, 4 0
Soft measures, concealed, probably dark red shale,..... 20 0
Coarse greenish gray sandstone, or rather a conglomer-

ate with a fine matrix of sand and with fragments of

plants) converted imto coal,. 72-02 ee Beem) A)
Measures not well seen,...... Ra tea Ph Cert etc Sea shy =
Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds anc

plantsxconverted: imtocoals so evcn. ce = oe eee 60 O
Darks redaslvaler me wrkion vostro oh = et Cans tee ere 15 40
Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds,...... 10 0
Dark red shales 20 See Osco etn Sane Ee Ee By (0)
Greenish gray or darb coloured sandstone, with conglo-

MetavemoCd Settee ae eee aA aes A BEAL Ee ts cae eX!)
Darksred:cslallie: tsii.car lacs ncseh es oe Pas Meee ets aoe x ORO
Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds,...... 52 0
Dark red shale, with bands of red sandstone,.......... 14 0
Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds,...... 25 0
Dark-red shales. ae ee eee OE eRe, | aso OPO

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (1).—LOGAN,

Greenish gray sandstone, with plants converted into coal,
Dark red shale, with thin beds of sandstone,..... ....
Greenish gray sandstone, with thin conglomerate layers,
Dark red ‘shale,...... ‘
Greenish gray sandstone, with Wade of conglomerate, .
Dark red’ or’ chocolate coloured shale;. i..........3...
- Greenish gray sandstone, with much conglomerate and
fragments of drift plants coated with coal

Dark red or chocolate coloured shale

52) .5) <0) 0) (oie) xe) oLrene

OO! CRO} De O80 810 “OG? OO

Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds and
carbonized drift plants,....
Dark red shale,

Sei a0) ie) (si |e), w\ 7a) ©) 8 (0) <0) fe! 0} af ce) ehis) oe} .e ils

oO) lef ety ei einer.) (©)7,81 e409) (6) 0) (6) "04 (0! 10l4'¢) 10!) Bole”) 0. (6) [@ilee) 6 ‘e) 0! 16" 0, 16

Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds,..
Greenish gray sandstone, with bands of red shale,... .
Greenish gray sandstone, with conglomerate beds and
carbonized drift plants of large diameter, say one foot,
and wholly converted into coal. In many cases the
action of the surf against the base of the perpendicular
chtf has worn deep holes or caverns, where the stems
lie prostrate in the reck. The plants are sigillarie,
so are nearly the whole of those already mentioned as
met with in the grits or conglomerates. Fragments
of calamites are occasionally seen,,.
Red or chocolate coloured shale, he
Greenish gray sandstone of a conglomerate character,
with many carbonized drift plants imbedded in it.
Some beds of grit in this, towards the bottom, have
been found fit for grindstones,
Dark red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale,......
Greenish gray sandstone inclining to yellow, chiefly of
a coarse grit and free texture; some of it must be
cailed conglomerate, the pebbles of which, consisting
of quartz of various colours—white, yellow, and red,

30
10

20
60

421

oO o,o oo oc ©:

fo)

Seo) 2] oe &

i)

a)

422 CARBONIFEROUS- ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

with black chert and lydian stone,—are some of them
as large as hens’ eggs, a great many as large as
almonds, and the majority as big as peas. Some of
the beds have been found fit for grindstones. This
sandstone constitutes the point of West Ragged Reef,*
Mpasures<concesled.2- «2 2f1 hee tA ee Renee

Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone of a coarse grit,
Dark red shale with green bands,.....-...... eee ars
Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit, some of which
is fit for grindstones, but some parts are conglomerate,
with red and white quartz pebbles, generally as large
as peas, some of the size of pigeons’ eggs, and a few as
large as hens’ eggs; some parts exhibit large spherical
concretions rather harder than the surrounding
TMC Tails ewes eceecee Igy dare enr anes hore oa
Dark red aliale’ with green bande tasickireey Seana eee ee
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone of a coarse grit,
Dark red and ne green shale, with some bands of drab
amd StOme sss: ferns Gstare Steen sores anoestetees te tan rae
Greenish gray aderbne Ol ArcOatse eritse sean
Darkiredkshale: i240 5 oa eee Ete ATR PE Re oot ee SN Seca
Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit, with some
cCarbonizedvdriit yplants\..mce tee ae rere ee
Greenish and red shale. This is on the west side of
South Brooks work ivens= 7a a Se as ee ee
Measures not well seen, being occupied by the brook, but

consisting chiefly of greenish gray sandstone,.... ..
Greenish gray sandstone, with bands of greenish aren-

aceous shale and red arenaceous shale,-............
Red argillaceous shale,........... es Mite teas’ ss tee

Greenishi cray sandstonessc5 chants phe ss eee
Red arenaceous shale,...... Aa ads AEE SE ENS ra

Ft.

3

In,

Ao eo ©

jo)

coco ©

*In this reprint, place names are printed in a more prominent type than in the

original, in order to facilitate reference to the section.— Editor.

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (1).—LOGAN.

Redrancillaceaus sual watchs o oys: she's Poco ausis Pin soe Bisse 6
Red.aroillo-arenaceous-shialés. cc ¢<.c.6r. sas ss ca va eee a
Greenishyeray.Sandsponess. 5 2 aj. Sats vole oto a sie e 50s ops
Red-arcillo-arenaceous=shale, 2.2... 64s is eee ee os
Grecniis haOrpy SAM GASLONe ter th nr epee en anee eyes = tearm
Ked argillo-arenaceous shale, .... . ....0- ees oe |
ReeN Ish, CEA asa MO SLONO A anaes e.. oig ais 9 beeen
Red argillo-arenaceous shale,... ...... Biase iar o's) creer els
Greemishya ray SAMdStONG. a2, f sy sa0d cicts- dup Scr, arn cic 2
Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with green bands,........

OOF DI COrH bw bY

Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit,............. 1
Measures concealed. This is where the North Branch of
GOPM UO TUES “OCCUS . yrccn eres 2 Sas ces Sak
Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit, with some beds
of conglomerate, having red and white quartz pebbles,
the largest of which would weigh about two ounces, . 20
Red argillaceous shale,......... BecUNae Mee eStats 12
Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit, some parts of
which are fit for large grindstones, eommonly called

water-stones by the quatrymen,..............5... 76
Greenish gray sandstone, with divisional layers of aren-

ACCOUS Sal Chere el Sona hanes eel oe em ke Ne 4
Red argillaceous shale,......... a cM leaeien Saratiay scene ts = 19
Red argillaceous shale, with greenish gray arenaceous

Shale Mb EMestoper.e sic hl ot sdectenvecn seaadelras te stom eo ie 19
Greenish-pray sandstones! .3c Viste by dee es eels 1
Red argillaceous shale,........ 4
Greenish gray sandstone;..... ...... beter sel: 2
ivedeanvillaeeous shale, e = occ ns cole et hw clea the Mets cists 6
Greenisizoray, saNGstone,. 0.0 a. an be Sta as Gat, wes erates 5
Red argillaceous shale and green arenaceous shale, with

a few bands of greenish gray sandstone. This deposit

isschaetivy nedushale sts is atte sha eves chs tek 2 B2

Greenish gray sandstone,..-. .*.:.:01. settee ets hard epee 24

SOS ey Se OS oe) Soy

S298 oor

424 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLELCHER.

Hit.) in:
Red argillaceous shale with green bands,............. LOT OD

Greenish gray sandstone in four beds, separated by bands
of red argillaceous shale of one to two feet thick,.... 27 0
Red argillaceous shale,..... spate S a PAE : 11 0

Greenish gray sandstone, with one foot of shale cowardls
thes bottont ec ieasac® oe sace thon aks ee ee eee i W)
Red argillaceousishaley.po.mias Wcities oe ee eee & 10

Greenish gray sandstone in three small beds separated by

red shale; occasionally the sandstone occupies the
whole -of-thesthickmesss: -c.¢ sano rets nes pre ee a)
Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with green bands,........ 27 0
LOWiaerO

Recapitulation.
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstones, with conglo-
merate beds and large carbonized drift plants,...... 947 0
Dark red or chocolate coloured argillaceous and argillo-
aienaceous shales,... ..... San CEA TA oe 670 O
LOL ied
2.

Gray aremaceous shales s .0.14%.scjasss cn es Ae 50

Greenish gray sandstone. This is an unequal band, and

there are doubtful indications of the leaves of stiqmar-
UE SUCOUMCS <A Ut CSCO Dis 245 Sc: the) esi canna ee 8 0

Reddish and greenish gray argillaceous shale, with some
bandsrot-arenaceous Shales. eystaiac. ahead eee 23210

Greenish gray sandstone of a coarse grit fit for water-
SUOMESSS oy risetiss Be asco cad See ee ee eer aie)

Red argillaceous shale, with some bands of arenaceous
SCY) (2 See pena ec RY pier PEAT Nar ORDA ntNay. StceGtg oa 8 ed. Sp)
Measures;concéaled: 2.425 cate see ae ets ee eee PAgiem 0)
Greenish gray sandstone,........... SE iar so 3. «0

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (2).—LOGAN.

Measures only partially seen, and containing some aren-
HECCOUS Shale yo a Fes oh Be Re IS veel ae Sir hisers
Reddish yellow sandctones.<. 2.5 isis oe cs bea s oe ee
Measures concealed, but shown by the shape of the
SUrLaAce.tO.We SOLbc. 5. sch = 2s een A gaat x 18 ee eee irs
Reddish yellow sandstone of a coarse grit, fit for water-
SE OMEG ana cts pte ere eat Sry ek Maresh a les eae oo abies wa ah SIS Beet
Red argillaceousshale,.............. A yee shale aha
Reddish yellow sandstone of a coarse grit, fit for water-
SUOMES salen cr cel es hae haeells LE ASM Sesion ours sae ar ehratoys
Red argillaceous shale, with greenish gray arenaceous
slialezimbhneer bedShs ois aac ers cee Sees ae tee eee ae
Greenish gray sandstones)... <6... 3 Set et cs
Red argillaceous shale,..... St ET Ea er ene 5 ies
Greenish eray sandstone, + a2 ai woke Gok se ote heats
Dar lkwonreenysitale te, a tethers taper ya cee aes & ho oe
Gray sandstone,..... OPM esa a Sane Pee SPER Jas
Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with greenish gray aren-
aceous shale, and some few layers of sandstone,......
Greenish gray sandstone,............ Soecenre

Greenish gray arenaceous shale and sandstone, with red
anderrayeareillaceoust shales... s..t:0.0ia sence sceatera 2 .
Red argillaceous shale, with green arenaceous shale,. .. .
Gray sandstone fit for-ermdstones,.. 280 2 sess. 2 oe
neduand soreemrsalent 8 oot Geet cbeis erakite plats eeee ears
Greenish gray sandstone,.......... ee aor ee eae
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale,...............
Greenish gray sandstone of various qualities, chiefly of
coarse grit, fit for large grindstones or water-stones ;
much of it, however, is fie enough for small stones ;
both are made from the Reef,..... By eens erage ae a:
Red argilliceous and greenish gray arenaceous shale,.. .
Gray sandstone fit for grindstones, the bottom part of a
coarse grit. This constitutes Ragged Reef Point,....
edearcillacenuansiale, «gad nan te cd be Ada os oe :

“TI Ot

oN
15

35
15

SONOS) Sores

SS

Se OSI &] ©&

426 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In,
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones,.......... LO 0
Red argillaceous shale, with one foot of greenish gray
GANASCOME: 252 SIS welts oop ME ae Ee Coe a DE ees 5-0
Greenish gray sandstone fit for grindstones ; the top of
the-bedissume Vem, c 4a eco met oa baceca en eon ee Pre (0)
Red argillaceous shale, gray arenaceous shale, and a few
bands of greenish. eray sandstone,. .. 25.2... ..45u 5 15 0
"Red argillaceous shale, 20%. sc...) Bsns cibeeeete tree snake anak ae
Greenish) oray. sandstones. a ceaen och alee ecto tesa 2:0
Red argillaceous shale, with green bands, ..... Lilie, wc gO mE
Greenish gray shaly sandstone, or perhaps arenaceous
Slrail@ Pera ton ogc a toute nae ghee ae ois Lory aceon eee (a)
Greenish gray sandstone fit for grindstones, with a few
calamites nearly at right angles to the plane of the
beds, as if in situ, but forced over at the top,........ 36 0
650 0
Recapitulation.
Drab coloured sandstones without conglomer-
ate tbeds we seer Son bee A Oe ie en ee 219 O
Gay /SAMGStOMESS 1, 1 cat ens aes oa tthe eee Shao
Reddish. yellow sandstones,.................. 23) 20
—— 328 0
Red, green and greenish gray argillaceous and
arenaceous shales. ic.) ste sew sito me eee ees 322 0
650 0

(Indications of stigmarie ficoides exist near the top, and
of upright calamities at the bottom.)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (3)..—LOGAN.

Black carbonaceous shale ..... Se EY EE AR a ir 2

Greenish gray sandstone, with stigmarie ficoides, (this
would be called wnderstone by the Welsh miners) .. 3

Gray argillaceous shale, with impressions of ferns and

OiMeE PlAMES, 2 (LOMSLOME) NS Jans mle gop helo as Gaeta carne 2
1. CoaL of inferior quality—a regular seam,.......... 0
Greenish gray argillaccous shale, with stigmaria ficoides

(Hea ESAS Oa she oe ae OE ne ee ee aR a ae |
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with stigmurie Ronides

and<sronstone= balls*(ainderstone).. oi. .6 ea vie re ene a
GrecwIsiGeTHy, SAMIStOMS js: rents carelds ee de Se eunere ee:
iRed~or-chocolate. coloured: shales.) 40%. <.abre.c)s ars 5 6
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones, with a bed

of red shale in the middle......... Sass totatsy teeue dase foun LO
Red shale, with a layer of sandstone......... ee ed oe
Red shale, in three beds..... I ahstae alae ts LA ee
Greenishjeray sandstone, in. four, beds... .j..6....... 6
ixedy argrllaceoms Shale ys x15<.0icneie «ois oe De a reer:
Gray sandstone, in small layers........ ae rah Sy fins 7
Red@ishsoray<Sandsyome. 3 edcc0tse sce ese lgore nie aoe Oe er”.
Greenish gray sandstone, in small layers ..... Space (6
Reddish and greenjsandstone .........0...0.000% Scat G3)
Reddish and green shale .......... Seed gie carotene 1 SEM
Reddish sandstone—soft ........ cite eba tart Serato tes rll
Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with balls i ene: 3
edeandsereen= sandstones... 42.04 <% +. ALAS Oe eee
Measures concealed, but supposed to be soft......... 52
Red and green shale, with balls of tronstone..... eee
Sravesand shone randeshale:.1t.0.%, ope ehiee vistessioars eae. seo
Greenish: gray sandstone ~ oso. sid iniaceraSunietsise wae eis
Greenish gray sandstone and red shale............ She at

Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for grind-
SAIN S pe os oe neo avarpea ar ys Te CAS eh cater) AF vv oss aay a sy tase tecideo”

oO ©

SOTO 3S Oo OOS) Oo, ONS SO) @. CO - Ore

o

428 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.-—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In
Red shale’ 1.1.0.7 \es seeps lo eee eae eae ea ae ee se)
Greenish gray or drab sandstone, fit for grindstones;
the top is uneven, and the whole is rather of a coarse
grit. This constitutes South Ragged Reef........ 20 0
Red shiale=. oo ctets cists i ee ac rey aan ee je hO
Reddish; crave Samdstoue cass ctuds seek eeans tee AeA 20
Red=arerllaceous- shales. .p rn ueieterssipmee eae 3. 6
RL GY Dias ar Fie a Ny RE herent the Piney ate Oar yh Sr Oza
Dark gray carbonaceous shale ............. 0 4
COAT eRe are EO eee Re EEE Ona
— 0 6

Red shale; the upper part is of a tough quality, and has
stigmarie ficoides in it (understone)..... Pckiseas ee leit 0)
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, occasionally
separated into two beds. This sandstone appears to
thin out within the distance of 100 yards on the

SUTCII Ce pra ge a ae REE Sopa Adaesbeeealls Sor, oe)
Fredshiallenny «073 sist. ch wey ote piaeeteioe, eae eee ens ee Bt)
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone........... 5 0
BE IS OAT A hia setanion lt Prone oto maep oan eee ea ere eae Sciive se OS
Greenish gray sandstone and reddish shale, with stig-

MOTE FiCOLdes: (UNAETSLONG)) eae Ae ees ee eee |)
Reddish-creen areillaceousshale: ws a-ha dee
AES GOAT Bees srk aati s separ iho Shia tr eo Ia a eee AR aca Late ea Omee

Reddish and green argillaceous and arenaceous shale,

the green colour prevailing, with stigmarie ficoides

CUME ET STONE) T Fae afl tacky ee uctsaees erat ere ame Ke 1)
Reddish and green argillaceous and arenaceous shale,

themed: ponevail ime s-3% unas tua the shinies Mick the te eon ee 6150
Red shale, separated by thin bands of sandstone; the

top is of the tough crumbly quality of underclay, but

NO! SUG MOTLE <aTe: visible see aanem «potvsRe yarn ee eee 20 0
Gray sandstone and shale, the sandstone of soft quality. 11
Dark ed. ghiale> 2225. A ei eee eres ee ee ener Ope 6

co)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (3),.—LOGAN.
Tough arenaceous shale, with stigmari@ ficoides in the
upper part in two layers, a hard and a soft one
(umderstone) 6.60... cece eee eee eee
Red and green crumbly tough shale of the quality of
underelay, but no stegmarie visible..............
Greenish gray sandstone, in four thinly laminated divis-
ions, separated by red and green shale........... :
Gray sandstone and red shale in thin beds...........
Red. and ereen ‘shale « ..<..:. 6.24% Spee bre toehs Soe eh oh
Greenish gray sandstone, with red and green shale....
Greenish gray sandstone, in regular beds of three feet
FLING FAI Og Ea aca a nt PC oe Nae
Red shale, varying from two to seven feet thick......
Greemishioray Sandstone 42). a2 \scse 26 6/2 skoyanvesais es ote e\ 0
Cree ui chile: Sale ies nds 4 ham Linn iors 5 ee eh oeones ores wes Bs :
Gray candstonevandy shale a: co: cicve-ssten-sscmobya epeucetosle nse
Wark yorcenisin red shale: Lai sa shee Sos 5 eh tno tow ox
Greenichveray samdstome ie .)5.25. 0 .je.ct00 oie es tein esis a
Darkeoreenvand ted shales 4.52 625 sane ce oy wee sos
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for
SLIMaAstones, LORMIMe, ATCCL, f.1i58 + «vee cos ye woalelacs 4 eee
eddhishselvale ys rains ae wily utc ate ans scyse ere 2 o1siee tate
Greenish gray sandstone, in three beds, and gray shale
imabeds sob “One koot caches. 4.2 ste Seec cows astra oe
Gray shale, with two beds of greenish gray sandstone of
OME VOOR CACY arteatrotencg ney sated Sconsuaeariecsos Ao» tees Ss
(Into the above penetrate two upright stems (calam-
ites), two inches in diameter; and replaced by sand-
stone with a coating of coal; they start from the top
of the succeeding bed.)
Wark: oray vareillaceous*shale.: 5.2... ae aie oo ede eres
Drea OR 5. S55 svatey. ER eee ik Lee Ree Ue ee ea
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale (fire clay?) with stig-
MUNEY {LCOULES «.( UMA eTSLOME in) ts 7s d40% Ge Sc deus oe

Ft.

30
10

ean
~y

BeDoO RH BP oO

20

20

429

In

S

SSS Ss OSS SSeS

SS

6

430 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Gray argillo-arenaceous) shale. <2 oki. 22s).ceyseee ok
Gray Sandstone’ oink ann aun oreo etek rou diame
Gray arenaceous shale, in two equal beds...... sentir

6. Coan
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides. .
Greenish gray sandstone ....... ieniers aah ae Sayeeda iota tame

ej (e) (0; (p) io) jaye fe) Leis) (6) ‘oie 18)/[e) 10 100) 0) e)yelle’ 70, © jelenie) (6)! oe) 0 16) (6) 16) es one

Graycargullacaous shale ye coir x Ali encase wa boc loestonenses :
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie ficoides
(UMACTSUONE) Sa icdria oe) whens 1 pees ene p Re ieee
Gray argillaceons’ shiaile isi. -sd eccgiiee «uate reteus eke oto syeets =
Reddishveray samdstome s.aeieis + clei oeeiseoee eke :
Gray arcillacequs-shalow sine cece ee ee ee ee
(In this shale, and running into the sandstone above, is
visible a calamuate at an angle of 45° to the plane of
the deposit. It appears to start from the coal below.)

GeO OM NE arias mile Lee ear te ease asmee ere OF et
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie
HUCOLDCSN( UNGERGICY Nn cx acne ease ernest aL eEAG
COM ae Menus tepttatiens Stor enseis aig rhein 0 2
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie
Cunderclay) s . 06 0s eis oe es SL eeee eeseetaeeee 0 4
COAT Ryo Parison a eens weal ap Le aad sar a aba tata tameeste Ont

Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay)..
Greenish gray crumbly sandstone, with stigmarie at the

UC) OF ERE ang Cho atig onc Ooi Dioec earns Dobe ain oF OFoES IE chaos shes
Red cainaletsyc marcas We eten tis isch nate sleet eee
Greenish gray sandstone ...... ase eeen ee RE emery Go

Red shale, with some few beds of sandstone.........
Red shale and reddish gray sandstone, in beds of one
to, thea. feet s.ct:5 nes « s car omens ous: SSR hanereete
Reddish gray sandstone, in thin layers, alternating with
KEG SMALE Ss sana s1stene oars cage eee aegis Fee aos cS ekers
Red and green arenaceous shale ....... islis' eae ahem

eFwmponwnonr

me et Co bO

bo bo

12

12

SP) Kaye) >)

SB Qo &

WEST RAGGED- REEF TO MINUDIE (3).—LOGAN.

Ft
SRE ONG EN sae dct Cok pes ladel rian schle a wes ol Bvanane oes 0
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie _ficoides

PRU UCICESE ONC) aig Atta eon ectrep thot artvsher saNeyeleua tife« die isle shea 3
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie ficoides

( CHEBPARSTOTION PRED tease SOen icp re UNOS nee Cae a aan 2
Hard argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmariw ficoides

(QED TAR SITTERS ee AACE 5
Redeshalecc. © Sa. oo sie ops PR ola Mag earn oko tel'eh se lal'o 3 ace 20
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, forming a

ROSIE Aga Be A iene Ge eee man athe Men Ge OOP NO ROME ara MP 20
| SG A ASIII Ke ai es Une eid Ek era eC AC ae reece 23
veel Cnet var SATIGStOMEC: Vsr.tus) 24 tetera atececcwelia atenc sellers 5
Red shale and greenish gray sandstone; not much sand-

SLADE SAPS os Ol Oe 6, OS DRO Cl eG) Coy oa cold mec 30
Red argillaceous shale and greenish gray sandstone,

MIOGeUSHNGstOne, LANG OSLO ceodavares Aes) aw 55) safe. oases 30
eedrarantlaceous: SHAG ty. cuctetecstere! ato! ecer6 otic oh er siebe “ota we i
Pe caliichismmraye SATICSUOMNG 07 c)6 o.81s63)e 0 ues o obese oso 1
iedearcallaceous, shale... iiuis 3 ce, © son: vlerdie Soyo ate e's. 3
Rem lis th jor Ay SOA SOME 2) uate ctenouy s\ ooo) Stane uot) orci s =m 2
Redearcwilaceouse shales. -eelciaea ay .i2.c) os ofecays sO wht oqerae 12
Greemishtoray SAUGStOMEe fo... cio ckece st a'e ols sia os.e'e Ss 15
edesamorlaceousy Slee 5.5, i shale ie. jokes a's Perel 2 oeie, 45.0% 20
Jee (6 (GUE! SUS RE HANOISHITOv UY ame kcec ne Pea en i reir ee 2
iedmandaereemivshtalen a stots wilsrciys a)sts ine eek issn si Oe ele 8
Camis MORAY: ISAM OSLOMEY, S92 ibirareco otal elt wo se af cvorapene alo es) 0 6
| A300 isl 0 (aaa ar Bie soeyste Gre cneterhs = Ghani Wonca ee
rreenish gray sandstone= ©... 22. 2. ea er : 2
eds arcilllaccouse Siale eile crc cscutute nis ol ain es oan ia.
Sresmisheray iSAnOSLOMS a. 3). 52.0 + eleloie tore’ «siete» aessee 3

Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones, which are
now quarried from it. This constitutes North

FEC AT COR ALUCC gine Bava tO et are tel cee) Bes Bea ae ote eee 12

So Ce Sore Si SG) Oro) Soa SS

432. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Reddish gray sandstone, in beds of one to three or four
feet, separated by beds of reddish shale of one to two

TEC ee erecta oe seer aheboe Honoree arake he hie, 'o Wiese tence Mere
Red slialepactncre sesomeateencs BEE ee NN ae A aeseaneete ee
Reddishssandstome sy: o-.-1-1 stn: Sip nace Wat ots SIAR ce
Red argillaceous shale ....... ross Shea Sa bs -
Greenish gray sandstone, in beds of two to three feet,

with beds of red shale of one to two feet..... cdl crake
Riedaaxpalllaceonsishiaile 1. acqeusen- tise eees Relic euce Fy te
Reddish sandstone, separated at the top into moderate

layers) by red Shalem ..c se... -- Sa See ES Gee selene
4010 Ec) asl (Tapa omie meee urine he Setaie tsar tore Be ae sapien
Reddishssamdstome ss. & vce casiens eueeuers wierede Cewieye of Saree
Redsarcillaceousishale: sa stececte ences er enone

Gray sandstone and red argillaceous shale, in alter-
nating beds; the sandstone has a reddish tinge

HOW AEC. “tines OW spelt sap eretene suena ae sae sepekencnene tener
Gray sam d stone: os wre tse tote oaid cr onovenel ere oo:
Reddish arcillaceousweliale: 22.0. .y.r.1r eiceeiale eerie
Grayisanidstome assy. sale sans ooo ee rena Sete los a eee
Reddish-argillaceous shale 27. 22. ese aoe
Crave sandstone = yuserapsuscicte rat ortt ale sae RM Pe
Reddishy and! voray *shiales <2 <n oie ete ote Satta: tee
CinaiyerS AMG StONC He «cay. ol asaace-s deg euesorene. costes Sue eaei
Reddish argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls......
Gray sandstone ..... errs reas Sie ay OT Senet Ait ee
Green ‘and'-red argillaceous shales... «.e-~ os eee

Hardvareallo-arenaceous shales.. 3. oSoc6 we mer eee
Gray argillaceous shale, with cronstone balls. This bed
has something the appearance of underclay, but the
SHOMarie are NOt GIStIMCt etnies. 6 te oe 3 wert
Wands O50 theca NNT RRL REONA Coren ro eanehcuncrerigct rey ce CRPRLOL Sart OcyTo hb
Gray arenaceous shale, with dronstone balls, and_ stig-
MUATUE fUCOUAES.( UNGETCLOU Ne. ne nee aie a eae eee rene

Ft.

oo
=)

eS po eo SS Fwd OR Oo Fe

~I

In.

oo O° ©

oO

ooo Oo

SSS SSSI ES I)

>)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (3).-—LOGAN.

reddish: erayeareillaceous tshialet <7. 2... 5. 6 sf 0s sco we

10. Coax and carbonaceous shale ......... ‘OLE S
Gray argillaceous shale, with wonstone balls

and stigmarie ficoides (underclay) ...... 22 0)

COT Pecaiera sired tenices yr eeuciaes Ae aes Rv ier fetes 0 2

Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie ficoides
(underclayy = fin none m. Re oR ene aera Sedo ca aietece
Reddish and green argillo-arenaceous shale, ironstone
balls. This has much the character of underclay, but

the stigmari@ are.not well marked................
Gray, Samdstone, 5-5 .theiects «0:5 93 ass By aga Ge hays cheasioc
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls he ee eae
Greemsh gray Samdstome. 1... 5 ieee oo) viele seeiensit 3: te
Gray. areillaceous: shale 2... c.16.6% os sees Reet Mege? 8.8

(From the succeding layer of coal there springs up an
erect sigillaria. It is 1 ft. 6 in, in diameter, and
penetrates the shale and sandstone above it, five feet
of the plant being visible.)

HWP ONL xartat sFocenel =: Aint) oval clue skein esis Soe tacts Sis Oa eS

Gray sandstone, with sligmarie ficoides (underclay) . .

Gray argillaceous shale, with wronstone balls and stig-

MUM PUCOUAES s(QINACTCIGY 8. Halse aos enn ae
Blacks carDOWaceows SGC. soo thes. 2 ae Oe)
WOM Tele suse tees, Bees sre CO Re ly ae Oe

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls and stig-

marie ficoides (underclay) .......... ee eae es
Greenish gray sandstone ....... Sorroreuueiiate ahs enters 6
Gray argillaceous shale .......... aCe ede ee
© Nearer teeta. he aie oS pied. Siestev op ged 8, ae evra Oy AN

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls and stig-
TUM UU ICC OTA CSe(UMOCT CLAM.) ©. iko.s «ef son taereisie «318 ico, oon
Gia chewull eree@uishGilins Bree wdina co acmodc cena occ :

2

12

EL HR 09

fom) Or

Swe)

Ou bb

433

In.

0

10

eS oo eS

[su)

i) Gs ee)

SES)

434 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Bice eine
digs Bue W107. Daa sti ete 1d A Me Suh Con rw Sse, CVS Stas CG 0 4
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with ‘ironstone
balls and stigmariew ficoides (underclay).. 1 6
CORSE aun er atey ea aches eater cee Ba, Sows ede 02
20)
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls and stig-

MGNUG JUCOUMES. ( WIGET CLAY ma re a's curs eles see eens 920
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with tronstone balls and

stigmarwe ficoides (underclay) ..........5.25055% a 8)
Greemish onay Salmdstomess ctor. . elms ree cietere oles seers 130
Greenish gray sandstone and red and gray argillo-aren-

aceous shale. The sandstone is not in thick beds.

Ironstone balls and stigmarie ficoides are found

through: the: witole :deposit 4% ).'.".).lenre ots cee ene 40 0
Greenisin-oraysaretlaceous: shale. ci... sca. eieee owe
Te CATV ONACCOUS SNOIC wie. eit Ae eee Ve

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls

and stigmarie ficoides (underclay) ...... pera)

COAT Aes ee uate at tne te baateus ta ne eer aad ye) ai
L hones

Gray argillaceous shale, with tronstone balls and stig-

MLOMLE” JECOLACS™ (UMGCT CLAY \) hale tase neste. ene ae a= Q
Greenish gray sandstone, with three bands of red and

gray shale, loaded with dronstone balls............ 12. 0
Gray -argillaccouse shale: 3.2.6 seid sao gene eed: sino tele
BG, Coan andscarbonaccous shales. 7. oven wen. Gee O- =
Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls and_ stig-

UBUE PEOUMES “(UNAGLTCLAY) ~ 202 Noise ihe eee oe ene (Gye!)
Greenigh *oray: Sandstone**.9c%--m mitch eae. cee eres 10 0
Red and: green shale ......... Hi ene A Nene eet hs 3 220
Rough gray argillaceous sandstone ................ 2
Red amd"ereen-shale *'22/-.: si eee A esecaee ole G, aoe
Rough greenish gray argillaceous sandstone.......... 16
Red and green shale ..... 5 aeity Sb tats MN tea ees ee 2, a0)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (3).—LOGAN.

Gireenish oray Sandstone, . o/c. ccs cides nln ere as
Red sand green-arcillaccous (shale! \)...... 2/2). «3. 54 <yssts
icp OAC re cee ereass) ait Miata leitch te a He) sale, S75) 6\'e-a¥ Oh eal
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
ficordes (underclay) ...... Be aS aise 4 0
COR no's et ents 6 ake < fceter as 0 4
@aroonaceons Sale... ye. = seers srs: sh 0 4
CONE SE oes orci Cin recicheaa oro ho Candace Oa 10s ES

Gray sandstone, with 3 inches of soft gray argillaceous

shale at the top, and penetrated by stigmarie ficoides

(UAT SEOTIEN ai. as 2t hes oie eset ataieron 2 ees oe aes ieee
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale ........ 65.20 22.06¢3
SC OAT ee Mes eee Nae shar oe os ete fae 3) de age ne a eo eee UE Bras Sy STS
Gray arenaceous shale, with stigmarie. (underclay)...
Gray arenaceous sandstone, with stigmarie (underclay)
IVecmamdwereeny SAIC tues. sa cs. cue ace e)cLeyehsnencla dt ake estes sais
Greenish gray sandstone, in several layers..........
Red-and green argillaceous shale:.........6...6..-
Gray sandstone, with stigmarie (understone)........
Red and green argillo-arenaceous shale .............
HSRC DATA Fac oo 5 os ide iat ase or oe Bye sea gonageran Gelsr a alte eaeiclatr tee
Red argillaceous shale, with stugmarie@ (underclay)...
Greenish gray sandstone and red shale alternating, the

sandstone in 7 beds of 2 to 8 feet, the shale in 5 beds

of 4 to 3 feet ..... BA se desde etd omet NEET ava oe ee eee
edsandoray areilaccous shale: 205. ccs sta craciee es
iGreenishveray. sandstone. dicts. fee as naire Pde eyes
Greenish gray shale and sandstone :.......=........
Greenish cray SAMdStOnee s aa..j)4 shor wcae ss cela re s cdete <ssvens
Greenish ray shales. le .).vss <jsiets shh aisca siete atele ote sled ese
Greenish ieray. Sandstone: 427-0. sen seer ea (oo shehe & eecekene cus
Measures: COmCeR IE 5. ota (Seve sac) 4 -nrmie carers $8 shoe, Saud aoe

4 10

oo
S| er ea te Se] ees Se) 8)

4

bo
FSS SSS

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INstT, Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS, CC.

436 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO,.-LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Greenish: oray sandstome-44 oe <5.4%. ¢. Senn eee
Measures concealed 4.21724 sen eee eee
Greenish*eray sandstome: (en scn lee ey hee teers
Measures concealed. Here occurs Dennis River*.
Greenish eray sandstone, sist. nce atonhue cee eles ene
Measures concealed, but supposed to be shale.........
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for grind-
stones. There are quarries in it on the Sourn Reer,
SS TEINCINTES VIEGIGVEDIRA, vse teelevane feregsnet ts orebe siete in veal See eee
Red arcillo-aremaceous? shale’ .ais.)2 ee eee wc rele ee
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for grind-
stones. Some are quarried from the bed on the Nort
ERs) NING TVR ites reese ee lets cleat cire tne tee ene tee
Measures concealed, but supposed to be argillaceous
Stale tes) Nee se A esosussayts tera ectehoe.n, ¢ artery eae ces atest eens
Greenish gray or drab sandstone, almost fit for grind-
SIMOLOCS SC SEERA ith oO Ors. 5 Ske hD-Gl or Diicna G Obanc Ono cova io ec. ares.o-8
Greenish eray argullaceous shales. Sei... so eee
Greenishseray samdstomer 5... bi 5.94%. wtole ategs eee
Wark eray arvillaceous shale! co! . os wn istetetye we eels a
ZA) AC OME geet ons Linen tYsUEO, ceva ie aeec ona sey 3 oa ONY See eae
Red and green shale, with stigmarie ficoides, (under-
CHL Waiaxes Pears Moet tes noo. ous shod esener ante ree ote eee eee
Greenish orayy camdstone 2. 6.2". ..2' tiecese ioe Snauener eve Cees
Red and greenish gray argillaceous shale, with cronstone

LOCAL Kskhg ren tmdeMtaativate 120 A) ct ais SRR ABE Mgrs ae

Canbondceors Sivalere tts eBoy 2 i202 sisijelepstatrest tas ioe aoene
Gray crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie

JLCOULES: (UME CRCLGY)) IG. tree ere fore) ue otek orete etree Sra
Greenish gray sandstone ......... eee an A A :
Reddish shale, with vronstone balls ......... cee
Greenish eray, Sandstomer ays. acu aeess «or £. anerae

Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls..........

* Now McCarren’s Brook.—FKditor.

Be ow O DO He HT

18

14

Lae Oo ee bb

i)

H EL Et bo

SS] Qe) =)

oe oe ore

ao oo ©

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (3).—LOGAN.

Greenish gray sandstone, with red and green shale
studded swith: wmomstome Iballe: tt ciives. doi au Leate anlar atte
Red and greenish gray argillaceous and arenaceous shale,
in beds of five feet, with greenish gray sandstone, in
bedsrot oneste three: feet. ss ar alndi ed oa os Aisi
Reddish and greenish gray argillaceous shale, with
EOMS OME MANS As eerie qetsicare ss Systane, 6 sevaslexe sire we
Greenish gray sandstone, soft, with bands of red aren-

ACQUIS COMA G as arai'e aps eetre lee als BR a iwig ate’ rset es
Red argillaceous shale .......2.. SAEs pee Bs Nah ae
OMe OAM, el Ree WTAE sra.ciat chs Sees oes bib c wa Mubhe ony honk eet:

Greenish gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
(emer clay) Wa 8 ese n s Eeetd inion teaytatorte eats gece
Measures concealed ........... Seemed ghee store Toga e

Greenish gray sandstone of good grit ..............

Measures :concealed ccgs 5 arents fice ahs carn 'a,ss Eye eke alate cis
Greenish gray sandstone of good grit.............. =
Measures concealed ........ eee are EE A STS
Greenish eray arenaceous shale... 066). 262% she jel oie
iMicastressconcealed s,s e008. fest uted ere as 3 the ies ehes
Measures concealed, but probably sandstone ...... Bt

Measures not perfectly seen, but consisting in part of
ereenish gray sahdstones...) 2.0)... paler Risritboueleners
Greenish gray sandstone, with impressions and casts of
calamites. This layer is almost fit for grindstones,
but not sufficiently regular to be worked profitably. .
Measures not well seen, supposed to be red shale......
Red and greenish gray argillo-arenaceous shale, the red
prevailing, with some bands of greenish gray sand-
SHON TOn SIX LOmUWOLVGLIMCHES: Gy, 2 6 4s ion a cites sees a
Reddish and greenish gray sandstone, in beds of three
to ten feet, separated by layers of red and greenish
gray arenaceous shale of one to two feet. This forms
Dmnwis: River “POrmnt %.....% Sees ek vope aia vere atb Ie aion.

15

99

aw

40

d1

4388 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Greenish gray sandstone, scft and ragged, in aggregated ii
. beds of one to ten feet; the aggregations separated by
beds of dark red and green argillaceous and arenace-
ous shale of one to two feet, having ironstone balls;
impressions of plants, among them szgillarie and
calamites, prevail in the sandstone .............- 60
Dark red and green argillaceous shale, with six beds of
red and greenish gray sandstone; the shale is loaded
withernonscone, alls... elsh suey nesta rskeeraeeee 40
22. Cos andrcarbonaccous shale. = 4. ..anccmie ante 0
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale of a tough quality, with
stigmarwe (underclay) ........ Geeta sigue teense
Dark red and green argillaceous shale, with a band of
Sa S FONE: iS...) sic skal wisps wie wrsre RUS Buc oe a eetiee emcee 16
Gray argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with cronstone
nodules and some thin beds of sandstone ......... lO
Gray sandstone, with stigmari@ (understone) ....... 2
Dark gray shale, with wronstone nodules ............ 22
GrayeSandstone~ io .25 «dese eeliehe Moke ere eee sya,
Gray sarcilllaceous (shale. (ahs ./ecsi nc» cveksie leptniadeaioedt pale
Gray ASAmdSCOney 1s anced east: feel stereo tmee ceouecr eee suaaeall
Greenish’ joray, arenaccous shale... ace eee 6
Gray sandstone, in layers of four inches each ........ +
2,134

RECAPITULATION.
COAne Mee 2 ISCAS Apart ton crews cris tec eee De 3b
Carbonaceous shale associated with the coal seams, and

In one instance without coal ........ 3°10
ee aS

Underclay or understone, being beds of various material,
immediately subjacent to the seams of Coal and Car-
bonaceous shale, and universally penetrated by the
branches and radiating leaves of the stigmarie

In.

QJ eo oe So 2 S&S

Ht

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE

(3'.-—LOGAN.

ficoides. Every one of the Coal and Carbonaceous

seams rests upon a bed of this description, and in two

cases stigmarize beds exist without superincumbent

coal.
is as follows

Sandstone — Gray. 6 yee ra cjasae n= ies 23
EAD wieaztae crpokt ower oho s 43
Argillaceous and arenaceous shale, hav-

ing often the character of fireclay—
ESV penne ed er eee te Senate keitere 58
CGircomishiecrayalyey safer ons Siok. eevee 7
Red and occasionally green ...... 42
Sandstome—Gray ...........00: 82

Greenish gray, chiefly fit for ae
SUGIUES yep ences she ciouadnadons. 80 se OOK,
Reddish, of various shades ....... 204
Shale—Gray-Argillaceous ..... : 92
FAPCUACCOUSE wopeyarat teh ieto

Red and green—

AMONG CEOUS, tie tee veh hee te et OOF
APEMACCOUS. oaera scl oie @ : 104

Measures concealed, supposed to be chiefly

The material constituting the stigmarize beds

Ft.
3
0
66 3
4
0
0
107 4
173
0
0
0
943
6
0
136-6
0
9
——668 9
805
shale... .203
Draliss

(Among the organic remains visible are one oblique and

two upright calamites, and one upright

sigillaria.

One topstone bed of shale contains impressions of

ferns. )

439

In

1

440 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.

4
; : ‘ Kite line
1. Bituminous limestone, with shells and fish
SCGLOS eat ete Miele SRG pe RR eee 4 0
COREA earn emer eee aie se eee 1.0
sy 0)

Greenish gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
fCONAES 2 URE TICAY \O shone ee eee Oe AO)
Gray sandstone, in courses of six and nine inches, with

tronstone balls and stigmarie ficoides (understone). 2 6
Grayearcullaceous shalenN..c.09att stots cinnamon ak 0)
Gray-ysamdstone Vivace ek te aie ite head eee ee is 0)
Grays arcillaceousisshale A tapomeu rcs ee ae eee ah
Gray sandstone of a rough texture 25.0... 2-0) eee Ly EO
(From the succeeding bed springs an upright stem

(sigillaria). It widens towards the bottom, and pen-

etrates into the sandstone above. )

Gray argillaceous shale, with aronstone balls ....... 5 ROMO.
Gray sandstone and arenaceous shale .............. a)
Gra ytarcnaccousrshaless:. . 37. Acnuiewlseiens co cnet Ze 0)
Hard gray arenaceous shale, with stigmaria ficoides

(CUM CTCL A Pee Ae Se in to's ve ba tsi 1S RE REE eee 1 6
Gray argillaceousssitalencs :..c.: « dysn-shaeere eyes homealone 20 0
2. Coat and Carbonaceous shale ..... sonia ee Ne Pee 4)
Soft gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie

jucotdes (ainderclaip) anne oa A shisha’ aes. ote nekomonee epaneey (0)
Hard gray arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides

CURDETCIOY NN ce cxcpesoo suas Sten easier ss. Nenssl cya eatle tener 2.00)
Gray argillaccous shale: eto 6 ne. soleus asm ears RO)
3) Cosniand (C anbonacecows single wget: .)..- «-v-ueites hte ae 0 3
Hard argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides

CUD ORCI GAY ak ya oh Maporty oh) Seon. Minne pene WAR: GYRE aye AO

a
S
cq
99
_
fale)
Vile
res
=
99
O
Oo
ro)
=
es
TR
T|M
Ss
[aw)
—
HS
S

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN. 441

Ft. In.
A NC LONES Aicoica: t acps tenneeace Be cise ect tens Ue)
Carbonaceous Shale. ..3.. 6.2.00. eb OF 6
CHOY CF sy Sea et PAD Ce ea ae ae eae Ob el
Carbonaceous shale 2056.20 «ids nse 0 4
COS Cae gS ate een aor rea ee Oeel
Corbonaceous: shale... 2 tens enn 0 8
Cee feiednuseahy Oakes dee ecel ian als Mah OQ. 2
An Tif
Gray argillaceous shale, no stigmarie@ visible, but
across the bed appear two parallel regular
cracks, about + of an inch wide each, and
about 18 inches apart, filled with coal, the
fibre of which is at right angles to the cracks.
This may be the section of an upright stem.. 1 7
OAs ohare. a ters Etctas fiton Sroryenehois pie ord UR ate a Ss 0 8
4 10
Hard gray argillo-arenaceous shale with stigmarie
UCOLACS MONAT CVAY Peta os asta a bie'e send Br Pe 4 0
Greenish argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls...... 12720
Gray sandstone 1m several layers .).22.. 659. o-.bs.q< sr: 170
Red and green argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls.. 20 0
Gray sandstone and green shale in alternating layers.. 24 0
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale ........ 3: 6
(From the sueceeding bed rises an upright sigillaria one
foot in diameter; two feet of it are seen penetrating
the bed above. )
Gray -areillaceous shale... ss. eens ses eee Pees Aa eG
Gray sandstone in thin beds ............ ke oa eee 8 0
Gray tareillaceous chalensts 22. teeters eee ame ee 8 S20
5. Bituminous limestone, with shells ......... eg)
EO Aa reese he, Sl arto ace tka ch yee eae 07) 704

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with ironstone
balls and stigmarie ficoides (wnderclay). 0 6
Carbomaceous ssliales +x <4 </s0l opel chs eer eee 0. Of

442 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with tronstone
balls and stigmarie ficoides (wnderclay).. 1 6
Canbonaccouwus sivale: erik. Secatolen axsvenet enaliorae Or ca

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with aonstone

balls and stigmarie ficoides (wnderclay) 2 6
OAs ose yocshex ators oh ones bes a eatte G Vatdemo nat seater otto 0 6

il

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmariv leaves
(CAMLER CLONER Palen alls. oo: Sabin ae es aNet le alee eyes Hal he cae 2
Gray arenaceous shale, with stigmarie leaves (under-

Clan ane OR as Rak chayalt cig d abe Sicha coisas epee ane ge Ree Caen 6
Gray arenaceous shale and rough argillaceous sandstone 9
Greenish® cray iarenaceous, shale, ...15!..~ 3... sien eaee 5
Gwaryisamdstonen .ciuinimas wes ahe. o/s weore sted Oke etener See 3
Red and green argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls.. 7
Grane come hy caind stomey Greet.) ciel. ste) si aee sense etage 1G
Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls; thin beds of

arenaceous shale and sandstone in the middle...... 10
Re dbas ans tones, (2452s san hardcon a lore ucfeerel ol areoetelareve a eponedeuenore il
Red argillaceous shale, with cronstone balls.......... ot
Ted: sam dspam eens a deter.) ace ane dh emcee RM neater on Meese il
Red and green shale, with ironstone balls and some

AMEN ACCOUSH ECS AA tuto cop asi + e-a weberer ote tarhar abet dale 18
Gira, camds omen eqmtgeeierases ns. «sp oie eustoeteionaey erin 2
Gray samenaceous \shallemacoss. +... ois sateen cunts a
Greenan dtined sahialen cy ccmetwssetc sr. < a0», o fo) tte ues eR ede 3
Gray sandstone ...... Bere aueiis «halts et eeaeaneaan 3
(From the upper part of the succeeding bed there arises

an upright sigillaria. )

Gray iarcillaceoussshale® 2 spevsticis wren eicicks Scnonene 17
Gray argillaceous shale, with a layer of sandstone.... 3
Grays Sam ds tone in.xcausye-; crank setsneske eeemen ote one snoncebencteene 0
Greenish eray argillaceousishialen (21) <.5.)6 ater atta tere: ar
Gray (spin disGome se nis.5/s.-05,0 1 ard aynels co eiene coteleus ere ik

In.

bo

So ey oS SS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).x—LOGAN.

Gray argillaceous shale, with zronstone balls and a few
bands of arenaceous shale ..... spt eereemaan sete 5A
Grea OONACCGUS SWUNG 1.0 ses xd e.e <0 's 9 oe she aie ily 0)
Bituminous limestone, with shells ......... 0 10
Oni te eee Oe tes ae es 0 4

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-
GUL) Rete AAI ens Sa cgapey soba = SiabeNs we ins ety note

Rough gray argillaceous sandstone, with the branches
and leaves of stigmari@ ficoides (underclay).......

(An upright stem penetrating the above bed springs
from the one below. )

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone nodules ......
AG iieiavade AN Cette earch ars ste fer eNeetisuatie ronson alate eats pe cl eco eh
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone nodules ......
Giray. dire COOUS SAG) fv si.8e) see hang.w's ecelous ela’ Seales oat e
CLA AeS AAS LOMC aya ymca tha he ct ive neat erat anas stat machehs)era.te
Grayparcilllaceousy strate): tes )A eis 51s 0 eiiiatsfn, oo taneelore-¢c8
Mtey SATU SUOMI) cay cree cere oaths evan swelfeiiono cn ore 4) 60 Bat stents
Tiere O Allene Picrten dese cut fle kt ahs i's, di ead Sra ayeiny abacoty ial 0 10
GC ar-Donaccous Shale! 2. unis anes = oper evans 3 0 2
COUT Aare ce Pana, tains ea ahnehee Vol ators soa 0 10
COrbOnaceous <SHOleGS safe ashes ste pe 2 5 2 te) 02
COUN tis ate eee ia ees Be ree Sa 2 0
Coax and Carbonaceous shale)... °.. eau O06

Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay). .
Gray argillaceous shale, loaded with a multitude of
UFO TESU OT Cae Neues Sate ty corre R ce oroyes ss ela vay ateh saa wnia es ols « ;
Gray argillaceous shale in beds of 1 to 3 feet, with sand-
stone and arenaceous shale in beds of 1 foot; iron-
stone nodules are very numerous in the whole......
Gray argillaceous shale, with aronstone nodules......

* Joggins ** Main Seam.”—FEditor.

bo

bo

“I

bo

eee S&S S&S

6

444. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft:
Gray: Sandstone Antec uits os La -entagey mines eee emer ele 3
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone nodules....... 10
GLay~ Gand shone Japacaearsn putircs ose ae ec tances eae it
Gray carsillaceousushalle: 725-25 5.0 uae ears a eee. see
(From the succeeding bed springs an upright sigillaria

of 1 foot in diameter; the lower part commences to

spread. )
Gray argillaceous shale, with dronstone balls and some

BAN SHON ree (Abs tek hoch os: sie aaa ine ic er eR Voor aeae 2
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls.......... 5
B; MC OM a eartionih econ ou opele Lo certs : 0 2

Gray argillaceous shale Quo ane ac eeucpeies 0 4

WOT Miata we heaters ak veumes aero 0 38

Carbonaceous shalevand (Coal ...ici ras weve Dee

COR is ae tee. Pate eae sue she, CEN RN Ot

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls

and stigmariew (underclay) .......... bes
Cio pAcTi oii ite nar ig alan ee Uae eee ae He)
7

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with ironstone balls in

abundance and stigmari@ ficoides (uwnderclay)..... 6
Gray rough crumbly sandstone ............. Seat death oes 9
Dark oray shale awathwinonstong Walls. soe. cee al
Gray, aremaceousslialle er ass wicca 2 smear eeacued srs eee Meee 3
Giray.isanid stone: +, earnest enn! bio hss eae eenS ote 3
Red argillaceous shale (chocolate coloured) ......... 10
Gita, SAMdSbOMe! ” gic st Nectar tag becet tects sa aeanoas Caste cee eee 1
Red argillaceous shale as before... <.0..0.60¢++2008 10.
Gray. roueliesandstome =... aaa an « whet a Sse eee 3

Red argillaceous shale, as before, in beds of 1 to 4 feet,
with cronstone balls, and separated by beds of gray
Samdstome: Ol A POOt es siete chs eaetens. stone nt fel oi oon sepa ae 20

Gray rough sandstone, in beds of 1 to 2 feet, alternat-
ing with beds of red or chocolate coloured shale of 1
LOOL 1) Ue ae She ehenattere ee TIS Se ee 15

SS) ia eS) +

SS 2] S&S Oo aE oaS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

ry

et tet

Cre aves@ni San OShOMe ys «cig tas se 9 slsiaionel exe. see
LSWECU SLEW 0 Dy is et en os MOR I a
Creda Rome Sa MOStOMe:, ci. a ae, arccelstn re he-cvio, «ace ace seneeeeds z
Gray arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay)....
Gray crumbly arenaceous shale, with tronstone balls. .
CLEAN pe LOMACCO UG, SI ALE Sse t-ccGhsyar ol ame Son ol cnaneve wlerty bal
Graycerunbly sandstone: <.2.10 cesta ards ada tee es

© i © Ss

Cran arenlaceous Shale. i 5218 sce. saya ood) sia seaka see» eletereok
Gray sandstone, with stigmarie and upright calamites

CDOS ADC 0 eas Poti Wi ae Me EE PRT eT ee
Gray argillaceous shale, with vronstone balls.........

OrrEH

Gray rough crumbly sandstones. 202 64//sh.e a sae ees
Gray argillaceous shale, with zronstone balls and_ stig-
UIUC LCODLES |( MMOH CLO NA 42 eee a feyornrie 2st 5 es 10
UaaCosuiand=Caorbonaccous: side Pee iit wate ed... se 1
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides
(EMEC VAIN, Gis “Sus Ste aah ln AON cy Scl 4) SRUREEN aban seks ore Gases 1
Gray rough sandstone, with stigmariew (underclay)....
Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls ........
ed MisleisamdstOne x. ce.. 2. 5, 2-s:2, suetentia- se vgcsnsrew/a lle ones
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale, with zron-
SLOW. tes AUST cckacsennsitetonth pause ae bse eueheieNete to stanae an etre 5
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-
GURU Nabe Nsenten Wulye Suenos ers Bee tae Peptic’ Matton 92) secre onaree money eee neaNe a
Red argillaceous shale and gray arenaceous shale
10. Coax and Carbonaceous shale .......... OrrZ,
CAnCONGCeOUSs ShGLG i222: hook Saimeis ne waite OF
GOAT crags t tucareh ote, cre atanshene ol ae eanancrelerah itera: 0 4

bo bw WS bb

OO

Argillo-arenaceous shale, with stagmari@ ficoides (under-
BLU eg a pen ape ten au alee fo oa so su ics doko 5h Stes Oma) Aye EE D aiid o! Nhe al
Measures concealed, probably underclay. Here occurs
BPEL ML ROORE We cones .c "5 abe oy swends aio Bie oh a ea To ON: 5
imedjand-ereen. shale as before. 0.00% 6 eda sje cate Sr edhe 9

SOC ORB OOF

in
=)

6
10

446 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

3

Bor wor WwW owrTd © WHE

Graye Sam dStome: % sui sone ns, cacuoy kessacvot che euerers eaten
Red argillaceous shale and gray arenaceous shale.....
Redvand oreen) shalleyras |belorei:. utes everson ner
Gray aremaceouyslialleyr. sayy cya > ar sealeresne tel Cope
Redeand joreen shalenwas WelOre maatj are cr serrate erecta
Goerpiaucrbalelslvouley (5 chy Caen tr ah yok eresieS < tc
ined and ‘ereenchalenas belore. <5 .\.\.eie ele acre
Gray SartdstOme ge sy.cesee cc ona. 2720s fous euntenerel erie ote chate Sener
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale.........
Glas SaMdstomen eax cies cyicssa. + ets A isthe Cre wenelene rete eet
iRedsand:ereen shale. as before). sky sciore- eile eee
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale .........
Graysaremaccous: shale seni Ss cia eae uote ee 14
Gray sandstone, rough and imeven ©. as. «ee 12
(From the top of the succeeding bed spring several up-

right calamites, 3 of them in the distance of 2 feet,

and 8 more—the whole 11, in the distance of 20 feet.)
Gray crumbly argillaceous shale, like wnderelay but no

StIGMarice Wisi le 12". xe. sce 3 cya ene eens tae oeea
Greenish, Samdsiomes Woo a. si wresejane «esol adele enapetn eens tee
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale ........
de: Cox sand Yeanbonaceous: shale, . ciicuae\amsd elem

SIS)

Gray argillaceous shale, with stugmarie ficoides (under-

CUA) Dias cht ok PROM RSEN onto. 8 16 15 14 Oe maar open ee neem

~J

Gray rough sandstone and arenaceous shale, in alternate
Mb asyetsh 2 cote o crie Ges eee che chek Sco: dhe Sate c aAe eR eae al

bo

Greenish ray: candstomen sci s ts <,. + > « « «erences ote ears
Gray -arcillaceouts: shale yyw y neat wie ioi> 0. easiest
Grayranenaceoms Smale (ejecseichets a eee aia) fees evens
Strong gray arenaceous shale and rough sandstone. ...
Gray, arcillaceous shale) «27 cr occraereiolos > «cree eck eee
125) Coamtand carbonaceous sWaler ger. 21s. 2.20) poetene
Gray argillaceous shale, witht stigmarue ficoides and
ironstone balls (underclay) ........00eeeeeees

HRoPrarH

bo

level
=)

i=)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

Ft
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmariw (under-
SODTUC)h Meayeseey nats De eee tpi ce esa re tele: Metis co bapa ERE 3)
Dark enayareillaceous: shale 2 nt.02. 5241s ss de Seer 8
a CGAL ANG (CATUONACCOUS. SLOLE grea os sss «4 ols Mee 0
Gray argillaceous shale, witth stigmari@ and ironstone
RPSL SA CAEL EMU, \ a3 fairl oes o f2h at'y aorreus sey shorts m= onsale cane 2
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with sligmarie (under-
TLE Doh ERT RO SOE ne SRE LAS et Pe EE Sd 2
ediand=creen shale; es-belores ni a2 sees oie's stone ats 16

Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie (under-
SUOMUCN I Bitten Paras 4 Se eats ek iota Venla ouaktrs arate set ee 1
Red and green argillaceous shale, with stegmarie ficoides
(UTNE TCLOM/\) qantinete re are Meee SOR ce Sy Het salt 5 Eaton oar tes Bt
Grayecandstone. and shaletd.s aie ih coste meh eects:

Oo et -T

Red or chocolate coloured and green argillaceous shale
Crayesott rsh lys samdstone y ii -.4s Acree se ere one
Measures concealed, but supposed to be soft ...... ea
Greenishworay Soft sandstone, aif. 2.05. mats oto vo ele we
Measures concealed, but supposed to be soft ........
Grays SOnGStOne m...6% 2 osge st certrevsjote aeons Sales shee
Measures concealed, but supposed to be soft ..........
eedcislvencen samtd StOMer sc..2 s/s. raf s8) apes cea ahora nee =

wow rR NORTH

Ceye sandsyones amd Shale’ 22.7201.) sy< sveue,aysie jose crue oes
edwarod laceotise halen. ..o .csc\etoiey se ateeeds iene erste tates
HEC ATEMACEOUS, SALOr A: cash thet Sa cieinichs eile Siat-ege Aievete eee
Grays cand stone ts paras hades 2 stroked oo ar otal ei aioe a,
Gray arodllacsous shales. oes. te us ca elers aiaiianc lense) one
Cree gamldeeted Inaley yns-ptah scatterers ote's\ patuey bletacaoy oe
Gray sandstone, with a bed of argillaceous shale ......
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls.. 1
HredidishwoncemecamdstGne! 4.x. joie canis er iaue etka d+
(In this are upright calamites—3 of them in the
space of 1 foot.)
Grayearerllaceous: shales 4. diede cic joie ake o tiny cuts hates 2

Tw WOHH HH

-

448 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Bes aint
Gray rouch ‘sandstone ta. I) 7.4. Packs ee ey abt ht EO
Gray argillaceous shale ........ Siesta Rn ey de!)
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone; grindstones
have been quarried from this, but they are too hard
for the best quality. This constitutes Coan MINE
ERO UNGER ae ee eee eee rita are er er Arne se 3)0). 2 C.
Gray argillaceous shale, with balls of aronstone...... 30)
Greenish’ eray, Samdstone 5.7... athin =. en nisin 4% viel lel lane 0
Gray argillaceous shale, with balls of aronstone...... 8 0
TAS COMM es, oh. Revagerte steele Pes aties SeROeS
Carbonaceous shale. 5622.66 att Cie OM ae
Com eM aa Seis hs eae eats and RRR
0 8
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with
stigmarie ficoides (underclay) ... es)
CaTOONAGCOUSTSIWGLGs hott aa hist craetetes 0 4
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with
shigmarie (underclay).......... 1 0
Carbonaccous Snale tn. a. neice FOS
COTE aie or Oa enn lei fae Rte ese tes aca Ogee $2
2° 2a reeo
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides
(ainderctayp). voces Brraiie, 6° lied eC ae Je mid hs aS ee
Greenish gray sandstone ........ 5 epee ete one eerie
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with bands of sandstone 2 0
(From the succeeding bed there spring up erect cala-
mites, penetrating the above bed 2 feet; 2 of them are
within 2 feet of one another, and there are 7 more in
the space of 8 feet.)
W., \Carbonaccous tSNale neo erates eats ie gh ea
COALS iin iws Rides a) Capetown Ree Lott was PaO!
1 4

Gray crumbly sandstone and shale, with stigmarie
(undenclaip) setae iin ne & ee oleate Banta coe eh)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—-LOGAN.

Gray crumbly sandstone, very like wnderclay, but no

SHIGUNOTUCE -VIBIDNC -» ve-c ois we ieigterete' store dee /d wanes Sorters
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-

GLAU) Pierre od: Pole etswe Sotons Bees pb dh oo 5. So aioe eae ab
Greenish oray sandstoner. 20.4.4: + ee). se saree
Dark red’ shale; with cronstone balls... 653.502. o's
Greenish eray sandstone: +... -.5c6 eters. space ae se eset a
Dark ted shales). fy o5 e600 whe! GR era Wakao wie tweens
Greenish -eray-. sindstome. s0.-..-sc5 os sles ew ele es AE!

Dark red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale.....
Greenish gray sandstone, and red or chocolate coloured
shale of an argillo-arenaceous character ..........
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie and
some beds of sandstone with stigmariw leaves cross-
ing them(wnderclay) ......4... bedisrodatewece tas fo ous
Gray crumbly sandstone, with beds of argillaceous
shale, and ironstone balls, very like underclay, but
TOM SLUG MIVOTOCOY VASMUSM peared wane cesta eecleee Tor we aden wets
iG: =Cosn and carbonaceous shale int. 3st le st .6 :
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, witth stigmarie (under-

ENUD)) SR Re eR APTS RH A AS ene Peet Sees AR Aen
Greenish gray sandstone .......... fis Sroe ns emaaiienece er
Gray -argillaceous;shalé! .:.).'... 2.) TA RA ME ee gee
Gray sott sandstone... 1.1... tn EMA eee ola:
Grayearvillaccous shale .2 0.2 hase: large salted esse aCbis
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmari@ (under-

CLAS e ate ste AGES See chavs em sis Oy A pitte estat ia. oi
Grave aronllaceous: slaaletc.c. vo. ssiace fet lncaeea vars Sac 6, ¥

i COME; amd Carbonaccous shale... 2 .=2a.% 0042s."
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, witht stigmari (under-

CURL fa) MAME eae heh fe Top sce ov hale ied sBixioy mk Spots ons ea she
Gray argillaceous sandstone ....... Bed ere MI sore
Grays are ulaceos SMale! s.5:3 sc5 5 te3-cka ays ss wre-esels oiehs le
HS BNO OSGi MeN oie se tesa ohana er bias oa oiyo ays a ot =e oeeaaps irene

e
450 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (wnder-

CUA) ack hice ons tier he ake ellis he eae eNene ean Sronedeesdcitetel ouaterene
Gray. soft: flagey: Sandstone: 2% 1.4. of -tasecus eet) seen:
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie(underclay) . .
Gray arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (wnderclay)...
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, witth stigmarie_ (under-

CLG Rea aeeets sess peahisraiae: wiieese pel sees gaat oS NR RLS chal sy, estas
Gray soft flaggy sandstone, with stigmarie at the top
(QINDETSTOMC we en icmshalciatone’is. obohviens la csieweeene Y sips oi daviet tS ol oe
Fine gray argillo-arenaceous shale ............ Havinte
Greenish eray sandstone es joe. 61 < seers Wk abaued aie
Dark eray-argillaceous shale) i... 6.1 eee ae = Oe ‘
19. Carbonaccous. shales ince 2. tae. « Sspetekeioe: js, 2MEO
Bituminous limestone, with shells and fish
SCOVCS wipe sacl Nave Cae out ante Rate arnt ene gaat ey (Zea
CGOAIN anal cceots scene co: SaeENe rants oustee Tacarscaeere Sinko Oeva

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmariw@ (under-
COA ia a. chet See, see re honst st anyarsley de ofeeteshens Toes ae
Greenish ray, sandstones -1... 51s s,ccete ols ouee eres iene
Gray sargallaceots sWale® ..c:. iy.) 0s. crssapofere te ets et oP Neods
20... Black butumanous shale... svc: ppb eas A)
Black bituminous limestone, with shells..... 1 6
COAENM ahs. ¢.dhonvns Geeae Be caitlie. «3°»: sORCS aeMeaseenel OD a6

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides
(epmiderchaiy). -siara «cea sesmeurectone.. 3 ics abet ocean eon
Greenish oray /Samdstome sete eis: 1s oo vaso ste ene ake
Gray argillaceoms tshliale i. Are stisis is oir set ot eee ous
(From the top of the succeeding bed springs an up-
right sigillaria 10 inches in diameter; 2 feet, 6
inches of it are visible.)
21. Coat and carbonaceous shale ........... Onno
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie
(armoler Clade /oetaansatsetere artis mecca ete ees ies

Ft.

e (aby is (Se) |

oS eR HB OO

12

H bo

In.

SS oO S& OS

SSS =

=)

—)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).-—LOGAN.

Ft.
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie
(UEIELE TO LEA, eras sac han we ay hob ce ck atat Oo has 5) 0 of en .0
Graye-arrillaceoust-shiales etc.) s sists sie i es 4 0
ROA Tes ep ecco ner ah suas tuene, lever es © deter e Sista Be’ sla Tel one OES
15

Gray argillaceous shale, witth stigmarie@ (underclay). 2
Gray argillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie (under-

CULES) eee op ok OM eae OTS (ol si ol est Webel eensin eheis, bong evay op oRG 3
Gray argillaceous Shale: sects scsleais oe bs eo ee oe i)
Greenish gray, crumbly ‘sandstone... 5 i. 6 2 26. ew ere oe a
Gray. argillaccous shale, i: weiss .Gekee «ec so wns 5
229 OOAss and .CarOOngCeOUs -ShOLe. 5 i 2s. eielo ml 0
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay). 1

Greenish gray agillaceous sandstone, with stigmarie

ETUC CR TIAN Pass Src vnh on cae rays NSS eS hy Os ei add HI eh Se 2
Greemisineetdwn Saud ShOnMe rs ay. ter sisnesisie a ley ote ote eat olin es 3

(From the succeeding bed springs an upright sigillaria
4 inches in diameter; of it 5 feet are seen. On the
beach there was a transverse slice of a sigillaria 1
foot 6 inches in diameter, with fragments of plants
on the divisional surfaces. )

PBEM ACEO USS INAOMS |. .eSlceis Move Gee eset One otal anloe stene Ne 2
23. Carbonaceous shale, with some layers of
OBA EONS AGMA Ns Phe oo ned a ia.teale oR Sl apreatintg cel eG 4 0
Coax and carbonaceous shale ............. 0 4
Bituminous limestone, with minute shells
BIO, SELQMLOTIO? UCOIUCS. tee ek: Jelasc ao 0 4
Coax and carbonacgous shale.............- 0 4
ite: | 5
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, witht stigmariw (under-
BLOT), ai OCR PERN ee il
Gray crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, very like
underclay in quality, but no stigmarie visible...... 2

Proc. & Trans. N. S&S. INST, Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS, DD.

451

In

Or

Sy eee = =)

Se)

0

452 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under- eben
Gray sandstone ss. sc hess bee emt Oe ee ee 3 80
Gray crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, or sandstone,

SWAN AOR SIAN) OCH ONT As (UCLA METI) Veprenrse theta 8 olor eeces 6 o.6 6 0

(From the top of the succeeding bed springs an upright
sigillaria. Its roots spread out into the shale. It is
coated with coal, and the material of the interior cast
is not of uniform quality, being partly sandstone and
partly shale. The shale occupies a transverse portion
about 6 inches thick, and is rather less than half way
up the stem, of which about 6 feet are visible, run-
ning into the underclay above. From the root of the
plant, as if it had wound round or been pushed aside
by the root, proceeds a stigmaria branch. It runs
horizontally a short distance, and the turns up ver-
tically. The leaves proceeding from the vertical por-
tion, are not at right angles to the branch, but in part
at least assume a vertical direction, and run parallel
with it; those emanating from the groved side (in
ordinary cases the under part or belly of the branch)
taking a downward, and those from the back an up-
ward course. The leaves issuing from the sides may
be at right angles to the branch, and run horizontally
into the bed, but being thus concealed they could not
be traced. At first sight the stigmariz branch had
much the appearance of being a continuation of the
root of the sigillaria, but close inspection shewed
that the two, although touching, were distinct. The
former rested on the latter nearly one-eighth of a
cirele, but being then suddenly cut off, it may when
entire have wound much farther round, and the ear-
bonaceous envelopes of the two plants were clearly
discernible. See fig. 5 [of the original cuts. ] )

Gray arpillaccous: shale ~. 2. ..Se ce oo youre eee 10 0

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

Ft.
94, Bituminous limestone, with shells and cone
EC OTC He REC Mah ek Re, dees othe tegen ba)
Coat and carbonaceous shale ............. Oneal
if
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie ficoides
QL ere Ay) aiane oy eee ed echt a eh ete @ ifani chest e 9-0 6 olan ate 2
Ghose Gamble WEES Soak ae boc ame ao omemiom: do c 3
Dae CoAtm and COTVONGCCOUS SILGLCS 5554s fess ee ctiere-s 0

Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmari@ (underclay). 2
Greenish gray sandstone, with stigmarie leaves (under-

CBI) ee See a a Ate Re se I See GP RL ONE I 6
Greenishis oray “sandstamers. .f 42 ..0s cr.pscrapelete ste tenstev er 9
Greenish gray sandstone and shale ...............% 4
Gray argillaceous shale, with dronstone balls........ 2
Greenish gray sandstone, with some beds of arenaceous

5) OTIS Ors BEAN ipa cut Oe CORO se oRt Bek eS ere tere CORE rer 20
Gray A aroulaccous Shale es wt tiene es cgerys sooo ean 2
Greenish voray® saMdstome 75.5: sehera'shone, occrs, «| eiendlsesi savas 35
Gray sare lllaceousmsliale 2125. a .tih leis ai scape ese 10
Sire EEN NG LSC) 2 ate cae ar hr PU Oe se Nec A ga Cd

(From the succeeding bed springs an upright sigillaria
1 foot 6 inches in diameter; it penetrates through
the sandstone. )

Grayoaredllaccous shale is) tress oe econo oom aero s 2
Creenisheerays Sandstone oanc.. ses sent). epee e eee alee ee 10
Gray warcillaccous..shiale, cs, Y.70.-cc cos tos Ae net oe 2
eC GONG CEO USE SIUMLG a ruc a(t eat aatyarace) = Sse a area ene s 0

Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay).. 3
Gray crumbly sandstone, being probably argillaceous ;

it contains stigmarie@ leaves (underclay).......... 8
Gray argallaccousashalle M84). 4 era srs Me Wareta <b at denote 2
pipe OKOV. GU Meher bacie gh CNPy ERR Aa is rr Saran APU Peat ee oa 0

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie leaves

CGondenclay Waa ter cates See ee TEE RRR Oe 5

453

In.

SSS)

Ser &) OS)

CORPO C ©

454 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Greenish gray sandstone, with shale dividing the beds;
in the lower part is an upright calamite which springs

fromthe succee dime: bed Oii.ms sets ces.er ere anes ene
Gray argillaceous and arenaceous shale, witht ironstone
balls and a few Ibedsvof sandstone +o). .2. 02...
Greenish gray sandstone in 3 beds, divided by argillo-
ATEMACCOUS SALE Siri S sss oa eaeer ers sien eee AE
Gray. aroillaceous shale "ss oscctna) seinen 4 oie
Gray argillaceous shale, with «ironstone balls and one
COULSEs OL HSA SL OMery ci ous jsp years Lenser toners aes one
Greenish joray (sasdstOme paisa sa eee eiece eyerotler oun tiatenesaye
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone nodules......

28. Bituminous limestone and carbonaceous
shale in alternate layers of 1 to 3 inches, with
plants, shells and yisiv Scales... tetas ore G20
Coat and carbonaceous shale — not

rien: (Coal © A "cro Pere te wegen teats sles Ore O
Coat and carbonaceous shale—a area
dealeote Cody. ok...) sraseuatnete tere ele chee 4 0
= fF 0
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
(CHET: oo BRIS ARO DONO. iCeticnc Sel serene Ban EO
Carbonaccousmsnale 0. Pc aes = 0
CONUS: ai). .ofe Senora ns Mas anal Neeats Ona
Leo
Gray rough sandstone, with stigmarie leaves (under-
AKT) ia Pah CP CAPA ey Sch BN eats oe) ate eee mete 2
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone pailee
Gray, Sandstone Mote er stan eee icles ele epeee ne

Greenish gray argillaceous shale with nodules of «ron-
Stone disseminated’ (hvOUSW MTG terns fers. aye tet ieee
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with ironstone balls and
Sra lseamis not GONE. itn steht snotnie tee iN s ere

Ft.

18

o>

I

In.

oS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN. 455

. n.
(From the succeeding bed rises an upright szgillaria; ae
the roots spread on the top of it; the diameter of the
plant is a foot; only 1 foot of the length is visible. )
29. Coat and carbonaceous shale ; the coal being
a small seam on the top of the carbonaceous
See potas ty cra eae ates oiakeck paisley serch ley 8 eet)
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
and «ironstone balls disseminated through
MG ((LULORCLAI) a eters has, «Riso: than aitecet aval: >.< Ze
(CLOVIS Ory Ee Rea Pee Seer ae a eee ee eco
COnDONACCOUS SUGICs achat) gee ees ee Ono
(CONG Uk Se aR mare <A RAMSAR ae Rr ro Or 1a.
Carbonaccous “shale: 20... 20.2 oo: 0 4
Conse ont et ees Ne ii sat eke cada as 0 10
4 0
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stugmarie
leaves crossing the bed (wnderclay):..... B50
Carbonaceous shale, gray argillo-arenaceous
shale, with stigmarie and small seams of
COM Bac ees Sem kegs Coen aae iia he. ih earep ey 6 0
Coat and carbonaceous shale ....... OneeG
Gray argillaceous shale ............ 0 6
RUAN ae Fes Spo ree pata. 2 etait ea Me ees 0 6
116
Gray argillaceous shale (underclay?) ........ 0 10
Bituminous limestone, with plants, shells and
WUSMES COLES gan e renee Se bonne sae ae Ne Or3
24 7

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, witth ironstone nodules
and stigmarie leaves (wnderclay).............05- ih 0
Gray arenaceous shale and sandstone; the sandstone
exhibits some stigmarie leaves crossing it, and in the
shale are ironstone nodules (underclay).......... 20.7 0
(From the succeeding bed rises an upright fluted stem
(sigillaria) 10 inches in diameter, of which 12 feet
are visible; and 2 upright calamites.)

456 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

BOP OOM RE Rte ees cE he ee eek epeanes
Dark gray argillaceous shale (wnderclay?)..
Ooau and carbonaceous shale .............
LO 6)/-S Danae ore atari Coo Paneer aeae A AN oe Ah LaLa eS
CanDOnagceGusisalownn tee ON aha tere ree
ONT ES Pe oes og Wha et eree gram one

Gray sott clay. (underclay))..% ts. cette ©

@) le feves ere

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale and sandstone; the shale
contains balls of ironstone at the bottom; there are
stigmarie leaves visible towards the top; towards the
lower part of the bed of sandstone there is an upright
calamite of 2 inches diameter, of which 18 inches are

SVUSH I tee Vor ate taal oo tele seh teri None Asta

Gray sandstone, with impressions of prostrate sigillarie

underneath ..,s suis eevee bate c eis otetteumerne
$1. Coan, and carbonaceous shale... 2.70. 2s.
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie
OAD OIZ CD OT 0 Ean eerie atc aries tate 2 Sea ONS

Gray argillaceous shale with streaks
CODA ae NA Me oie oo, cee see al ae O06

Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls and
stigmari@ leaves (underclay) ............
Bituminous limestone, with stigmarie, shells
amid’ fiSWISCQLES aie ks ih Gudea eet os. sesh

Gray sandstome®,.5cilwts . eae som igie ies wievatens
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls
Gray sandstomeur (oe is-chs ye ote esteem tne Se
Gray argillaceous shale, with cronstone balls. .

1 nO,
0 dees)
0 78
a 0
Ore2

ove} (ce) e140, ¢

ee eee

Ft.
6

15

bo

In.

0

Se ere W&

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

AG rau emGS LONG Seren Geeta cya erat ee ero epeyss = Scnlion= mt urego
Gray areillaceous shale. :. 24. teas. nese woe ace ee
SAO (OCR BR yee eon rte Rie (ln Cena anc choi eee Oees
CAND ONECCOUS SIEGE veh oto litany sea ees avo = o8) ee Ot
RO OAR ine eee cr patra Yh cH USS 2) Suctisha a wigseiiarceys 5 vss Ors
Wanbonaccous Sidle jn. sos. s(n set pels So, os Oa
(OG oe Ses A Ra Par gr nS eer rc ko Sie eee 0 4
Carbonuccous sale a. 5. 3 acta a species yet ate) ayo ters O33
COUR i nero Ook Fone hanes neme Oni
Carvbonmccous SRO mies the «ose s oersis she aes OF al
(CUO ie tn ah re eee ORS Pe ee ener a soar Osea
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-
QED «aie ae ee OW RC BOE CRT Ee SCRE We
Greenish gray argillo-arenaceous sandstone, with stzg-
MUNG) [TEOLUAS (OU dCl Gene He 1.6 pen Cece Meese -

Greenish gray argillo-arenaceuos shale, with stigmariw
GU APAC TCL GIy te nese = canine etn ete Renal ser an ovaveleueys vcuelicis aie ate
Greenish gray sandstone, with stigmaria (underclay) . .
Greenish: arcillaceous: shale ty: oj sts «+ efsicrel enemies
Reddish sandstone, with dividing bands of red shale of
SeIMCHES GOs OO esate ps eS si ceesavake a) sue evans ste lors
Reddish sandstone. The bed is of irregular thickness,
the bottom swelling out suddenly in many places. The
bed-holds carbonized, planters: si .cac Jee + =
(From the top of the succeeding bed there springs an
upright sigillaria. Two feet of the length is seen,
but it is cut clean off at the top and at the bottom by
the measures, which pass both without disturbance.
See fig. 6 [of original cuts. ] )
Red sarcilaccous psaalow. ce aang chs « tives cds) ol
Reddish arenaceous shale, with thin bands of sandstone
Reddish and ereenish sandstone ..........21.sn.20-2-
Red and green arenaceous shale with zronstone balls,
Somes Dads Os sSAMGStONe: cs suatene ssc secre pints i

t= In:
6 6
4 0
2 4
4 0
tO
Lo
4 0
6 O
20 0
es ee)
HO
Bee
4 0
he |)

458 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN. CUMB.: CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Red! and. green sandstome 3.0... <est-r bie -teetases ee eee 12
Reddish and greenish argillaceous shale, loaded with
ironstone balls, and having bands of sandstone .... 10

Reddish’ and ‘greenish ‘sandstone: 2.1.17. ee che 10
Red and green argillaceous shale, loaded with zronstone
MOGMIES Ne aide scan este hens bans abel Olsen srecskerarsbelereteers tees 10
Red vand:-ereen Samadstore ich. t/t). telat orotetatanatohetelioe atl 5
Greenish gray argillaceous shale <....5:..5.52 225. 15
Greenish oray, sandstone is-.-sstotter. sai ose siessaen seein oe 2

(From the sueceeding bed there starts an upright sigil-
laria 4 inches in diameter; it is planted 2 feet in it,
penetrates the sandstone above, being 4 feet in length
altogether. )

Greenish gray -argillaceous shale): jac: rhe. ererteteretete 6
Bos CAnVONaCeOUs “SHALE 1... ache seetorn © «) shared ay a0)
COTE aH ead 2 Rae crore ot Mees talaga tone ene aesliene Ora
1
Grenish gray argillaceous shale, with stigmari@ leaves
(under chay Ag Si RE ce seca eee eee ote are nee 4.
Red and gray sandstone, with arenacous shale ...... 7
Red argillaceous shale, with a band of sandstone...... +
Red sandstone, with bands of red arenaceous shale.... 10
inedv and lereen arotlaceousmehialer a. 7c. ese sete ey 20
ineddish sandstone,” wuss. wtsaye Ae cus ss. dales eet gal weno 1
Red and green argillaceous shale. .4 5. 002. ae oe ae 3
Reddish sandstone in uneven layers, with reddish bands
OL amenaceous, suale? ssa nyes cosy sce eaten erence 18
Ked-and green areillaccous shales. y 4. 0: ee ane 18
Reddish sandstone 7 neck. cet sane see wo ele ore eee oe 2
Red. arenaceotis “eh alemcacj ui nates mien oie ome Peas 8)
Red and green argillaceous shale ./...........05.0. |
Reddish samdstomes 22, c\ercac tevemsctst-ta ehene tc onl eet enaee eee 1
Red and green arenaceous shale .................6. +
Reddish sandstone vat mien ls oe aese eae eee ae il

Soom >

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

Red and green arenaceous shale ...............04-
ted dash Samd some mer 1s mists ce styctensic ties «tein t's saat eas
ed arenllilaceoms shales... <ia1s 32 ete eae i-o*) oe, * + rect ennuel
Red and green argillaceous shale, with bands of sand-

GOING How Wiech ayers Seeliey siser oheror eitotly el ihed « colsychiadieas) site: «+1 \/ec ekienier oh alte
MECC AMOS COME ya rege cy dup oh ines) elastase tones heat sien: ol Sale oltecanelye
Red and green shale, with bands of sandstone .......
Red and green sandstone .............5. Beye cgs iene
Red and green argillaceous shale, with bands of reddish

SAUNAS HONG ta.c sept ccses allgyetisheg hE ays, ov ed euene 6 eiaaa anor
Red and green sandstone and shale ............5...
Red or chocolate coloured shale, with large balls of red

argillaceous ironstone ........ NSGrao occ Woe Be Am
Red and green sandstone, separated by bands of red and

green argillaceous shale of about 1 foot each .......
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale, with some

balls of red argillaceous ironstone ..........4+-- :
ed dishwcamad Stone. cs tiacar cos iencte ey Sistema person esis Spore torre see
Redeanoillaceous shales. yo... 2. cla aecenter+ either 5)
A RRelap Ses GOING +4, -f ey ace canes tahoe fees op /oces-n) <tiaedes ane ist eet s1jcom tye
ded; arcillaceeria Shales). obec 5 uve lds aloes Sie sutra jeeees
eedaeh SANGSLONG 2) iP ist.siey. ove je soles Grease Saye DTS EE
Red argillaceous shale, with a band of sandstone .....

Gray sandstone with ironstone nodules and stigmarie
ROAVER I CUIMACTOLGA) ng ec coaeg aus sere Oh Wales tone os ator hs

(From the succeeding bed rises 2 upright sigillariw. The
roots of one of them spread out just on the top of the
bed, and 2 feet of the plant are visible. The roots of
the other spread out likewise, but they sink deeper
into the shale by 2 feet, and the plant penetrates
further into the superincumbent sandstone, See fig.
7 [of the original cuts. ])

Red and gray variegated shale, with small balls of zron-
stone and stigmarve (underclay) ........ We eaten

ep wo He bl

raat
bo

pen
So

460 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CU.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Gray sandstone: wfc ialeichs oe ote) oo etenaeeta Monel enone
Greenish shale, with ironstone balls and stigmarie

fiCOLdeS (UMA CR CLAT iterate i.to¥ehs Ween ee ei he a
34. Carbonaceous shale and coal ........... 0% 2

Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with
ironstone balls and stigmarie branches and
leaves ; one of the branches replaced by iron-
Stome- Fis -6 wheat some 525028. cap rsh Pardo 4 0

Carbonaccous tsitile nascar etree ree 0

bo

Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with black streaks and
SULGIMVAGUO Ts (ACT CGI amine ne meat eee at ert eee

Gray sandstone, with stigmarie (understone) ...... :
Red and green argillaceous shale, with stigmarie
Cunderclap)\. os 35 echcgeuehetsaa itehetat s Veins crores sto
Grayacrumbly sandstones ira fcisrstae ses rattins ses eee 5
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-
CLO) Sain talMlele ate sahet ars topes ok ties tener eptecg) oh etnes re ae Haran Bhs
30. CATOONACCOUS SSN GIG’ Ve fc oneue seat oe eee :
Red and green argillaceous shale, with stigmari@ leaves
ab tine Gop (aememe nel dap) ce seve Me ne mtet, & eee eee
Argillaceous vronstone aim abed-a)..22 tals tate oe ee
Red “and green argillaceous shale 2... ...2-.-..5 4.

Gray sandstone, with stigmariw leaves (underclay)...
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with dark bands;
argillaceous iron ore nodules abound, and towards
the top stigmarie branches and leaves are visible
(umdenclay) oa). «wee. Meigs Naeny seat oh aneoe ey ot eee
Greenish gray crumbly sandstone .............. Rey
Gray argillaceous shale, with zronstone balls. In this
there is visible an upright stem (sigillaria), 1 foot in
diameter ; the top only is visible, and it is at the top of
the ed Faas ehe Gone, ose se serehannye Noel euche eeaunh son eae eee abuse

Ft.

2

oo

et e ©

bo

ao Oo

12

In.

0

2
3)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN. 461

Fits) In
36. Black bituminous limestone, with branches
and leaves of stigmariew well marked and very
TIUIIULLO SLCC LSE es eens Seo Sanka e aan t aie oe sens epee i ela
Carbonaceous shale and streaks of coal .... 0 38
fhe 56

Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone (underclay?).. 4 0
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie and

WORISLOMED Walls: (AGenClay) cus kesh ieiedaevacsiera ae trle 6
Gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls ........ 5
Gray gaken aceousslalenc i cen ore hee sisicsohete- case. sv ohevslleys
Gray varonllaccous: cliales ciecsiio cysis venice aie, at sweden alse stats ee)
37. Dark bituminous limestone, with shells

wep lacedisby, Wy EUbes utc) are sapseacate rw.leehs, «ays Ors
Coax, and carbonaceous shale .. 2.2.02 .%.:2. Or LO
Gray argillaceous shale, stigmariw (under-

CLO), ees stants cane een and Haare eG Ste Lee eA 6
(OU eae Bok ona ae ENED On eat er ee 0 6
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie

(uintdenclay We Bey wane as © alas shetsiaierceeys Jeg)
Dark bituminous limestone, with stigmarie

branches and leaves, and also shells .....
Gray arcillaccous;.shaley0)<04 4 «ihe sens heat
CLO pa hc A CRBs Wence PCERRI PUALC? Sure Sang Re OF coer 20

SS
Oo 9

Gray argillaceous shale of a crumbly character, with

tronstone balls and stigmariw (underclay) .......
Greenish eray rough sandstone... 6. s'as se oa
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with cronstone balls.....
Grcenishipomayy sandstones yaa shyt siteboas cheeses alls suas
Red arvdillaceousp shales falc aise a soins excess Uae?
Gireenishis Ray Sama StOMe <2.lyau chee, pees sect (2 Sedenes'e oe (ene
Red argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls ..........
Red and green sandstone, with bands of red argillaceous

shale under: 6 auches thickice1-cer ane. 512 e010) sce beee aa 6 0

TIP oO
=)

ow > eR
S

462 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Red argillaceous shale, with bands of sandstone under i
8 inches thick ..... Fon a cee ats Met ise ue ere ae 20
Reddish sandstone, hard <:..2.2...... cysts depohdeentnepetemeiel
Red argillaceous shale, with balls of Dpainite PMA Spe Se!
Reddish sandstone, hard ..... Lahr egeen re oe ae Arosa Cl)
Green-arcillaceousishmle. i shercc eenee ise. cee Heian
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized fragments of
Guraeht- plamtsee weston 5 artcctaets clase mee meg “Sree ty eke oe al
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with a red band near the
WOWy Petter dls esse Atle nenet eh Me peg Mets ec heoke Sa -Leu Re meatccae newer erste 10
Be OO Maer tala. otis ven staan uence tua koo Met SE Or al
Black bituminous limestone, with shells and
plants, stigmarie branches and leaves.... 0 6
COMME pecs ausirste ianayee Se leaen hyeetema bane eees So Olan
0
Red argillaceous shale, studded with ironstone balls;
stigmarie not visible (underclay?) .............. 10
Reddish sandstone ens so iy ake Ste eee eens sree
Green arenaceous shale, with red argillaceous bands... 15
Red gndvereen sandstone 22s). ce ie eee en ee 2
Red argillaceous shale: ses es ie setea were eens olisce weal
Green arenaceoue ssn ale sca «penta cre Stoleeietote rey uaneactens es!
Red argillaceous shale ....... SOT RE evens es Bees. Cc5)
GreenyarcnaceousrStale. s.ctcesc. os. 6 do 9) steer eas aiey e emenae il
Red) -argallaceous, wsinalle™ 505-115 2 sen she, siener sue Se cetorees Sapa
Gray bituminous limestone, with minute shells ...... 0
Red argillaceous shale, with wronstone balls ......... alat
Green and dark gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone
Ibaililigs eae visi ge ohebapee ceiens em eee nee he eee ene 14
Red and green argillaceous shale, with cronstone balls;
in this are some dark bands of shale ............. 25
Greenish gray sandstone, with a confused mass of car-
bonized drittplamts aii. << srtsleosewi es cies ee euneeeeers 10
Greenish gray sandstone ..... Saag ae RAT RT st eituch eee
Red argillaceous shale, with a band of sandstone..... 2

In.

le)

Sage Qo oa eco oa S&S

fon)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN. 465
BG in:
Gray and black shale ....... Se ey Geena Ras Maes aan)
CarVOTGCCOUSWSI CLC ele yh addy csp a ities se deapenetatermeens 0)
Red and green argillaceous shale, studded with ironstone
balls; no stigmarie visible (underclay?).......... ho, 1/0
She bagi OL OY" G Oy Rest net Core a ne Aetna en gna 0 O04
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmariw.. 0 6
Dark gray limestone, with stigmarie
branches and leaves, and minute shells... O 4
0 104
Red and green argillaceous shale, with stigmari@ leaves
(TOA LTT Mee SOR POW, CORR AO EAD ree Cro ERI RM IC B iO
edganc) oreonysan AShone: oaeic) vealueatae ia etal. cease sp 0
Red argillaceous shale, with some green and gray
bands; the whole containing thin bands of sandstone 18 0
Greenishteray sandstone #ij..-- i ile wins oS ceca 8 0
Dark red and green argillaceous shale, studded with
UOTESLONC DANG) Meee Ra Ve pene os wath wel ks erate eet ee ees 15-0
Gray hard argillaceous sandstone ......... Mets exe aie)
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with zronstone balls in
considerable number, with some red argillaceous beds 20 0

40. Black bituminous limestone, with shells. 0 14 6

Char VOMiceous SIMIC. Ja. « oS mae se oleae 0 O84
Black bituminous limestone, with shells. . Osa:
Gray argillaceous'shale ............. eth Oba
Black bituminous limestone, with shells... 0 2
Gray argillaceous shale, with tronstone balls
CGunderclagy? yu. = ws ade esto MU esis Sama, oP ee)
OT yet Paurs Ye te ay, 5 ate Fo fe Se Echoes ile. Se Oz 1

Carbonaceous shale, with thin seams of coal 0 38
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stig-

marue ficoides (underclay) .......... ie 0)
Black bituminous limestone, with shells and
SURG MUET Ue stort Sa care fei See hace poise Wlansia th, sem OO
Carbonaceous shale and thin lane of Cogl 02, 2
3:

464 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO,—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In.
Green argillaceous shale, with many coarse nodules of

clay ironstone, all small, and impressions of stig-

marie leaves crossing the bed (underclay)........ a0)
41. Black calcareo-bituminous shale with shells 0 8

Black calcareo-bituminous shale, more cal-

Carecous,cwiths sMellsiies'. Sbvew. cn tustons ence One
Black calcareo-bituminous shale, less eal-
Careous. wit My SMEllS cieetels Stern aere oars tia

Carbonaceous shale, with lamine of coal.. 1 6
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie

(om enclag Vos £. cconts ators fc kien e orale bre sane)
Carbonaczousssnalewe cctacsc oes eee Ors

Gray argillaceous shale, with stugmarie (underclay) 2 0
Greenish gray argillo-arenaceous shale, in alternate
hard and soft layers, with stigmarie leaves (under-

(CL LDN ek eee a REE ON REMC ie eRe Cy GIS 2256
Greemishveray samdstome ).S..)1. cine ele eiseienseae oes 200)
Dark gray argillaceous shale, studded with aronstone

TOC TIES aS) 4 asides sere lseavers ats aievic st stahe) «geaepetete serch ste 4 0
AD Gr Onaccousishales Sie sick tyes alee Oat

Black bituminous limestone, with shells

replaced "by spyriteshe cats. «alone helene ieee 02

SGA Mes Stern Siete aren pe ease scout Motes se algae 0-3

Carbonaccous: Shale Ay promise ene oitela ey. oie dag)

COM See Aah kee ihe nee Me treneae a ity ee ice i; 20

Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie

(Cumaden clan, sc cucrsccsny okays tea Manteo! aao ke iO)

COAT RRS ie eR ayes ore meee BONN oc ehs Onn2
4 2

Dark gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (under-

CHAP es) acieto thoes cb apsna te toh pate pare denererermene dy eyes er pe tee 0.
Red argillaceous shale, with some green bands, and

studded! swath cronstore balla ve c-itnctete <ootyese tne teneue 25 0

Reddish sandstone... sess snesctoe. orate hei ree neenrore 5 Een

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

Red argillaceous shale, with stigmarie (underclay)..

CavOORaCCOUSESH GLA et. vss) .8a ecetene = oS, «sl ssi oueh ements
Red shale, with stigmari@ (underclay) ..... 0 3
Gray sandstone, very hard, (ganister, as the

Laneashire miners call it), with stigmarie 0 8
Red argillaceous shale, with stigmarie

MUL CLO, Aan er eee es che eu aspen Bas ls an
Gray sandstone, very hard, with stigmarie

(igamvister or Wnderstone) | crt Sens, seers « 0 10
Gray argillaceous shale, with stigmarie

(LOL CCLORY Om hr es eea ptt Ulsan at eels eS 0 10
Gray sandstone, very hard, with stigmarie

ULDEIC SHO ONES eR Sry EE CE lie @
Gray sandstone, very hard, with stigmarie

leaves running across the bed, (ganister or

MUA CRSGOTION! A era, Sond s tava Borage Sites Nese a Basa BAA)
Red argillaceous shale, green at the bottom .........

Gray arenaceous and argillaceous shale, with greenish
gray sandstone containing prostrate carbonized
DIAS Rae eaPeeeR pear ne Ke al Seer oe chats Dae aventes shes

(Into this bed penetrate several upright Palanites
which start from the one subjacent, on the top of
which one 3 inches in diameter is seen to spread its
roots, and 21 more are visible along the face of the
bank in the space of 20 yards; their diameters vary
from 4 inch to 4 inches. )

Dark gray argillaceous shale .......... Moots aierea
Gray sandstone ..... Beret eee Nea sears Saneteeetvay ch th giahiges
Dark. eray areillaceous shales... 225-2. - « aie ia¥e
Gray SAMOS LONE y bets treet Susi, ale bole, ay oo, wep Seats coe yest vee slic” #ie

Dark gray argillaceous shale, with ronstone balls and
Danas Ot Sarde Omega Aiaite~ oval corso pep soaegete «oe
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls. ..

a OS)

oo

466 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.

44, Carbonaceous shale ....:......+++++-. IEG
Dark eray areillaceous shale 222.22 ss Pass)
Carbonaceous shale, with ironstone balls... O 4
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with dronstone

allan pete asta cgecreta ia. ostanses ey ccke Rete eer 6 0
Black bituminous limestone, with shells.... 0 14
Dark green argillaceous shale .-.-.-..-.. Oma
QOD. peas eee ee a ade oes eer at coce 0 Of
Black bituminous limestone with plants and

TIVINNUES WSIVELUS Mal ote teats htt ce pelt ake xogeenets 0 O04
Olea bye 2 peer tet Rohak i CAI tera toh Monica car oo Od
Black bituminous limestone, with stigmarie

EMG OUMers ol AmbS Meas hr aciets aleyavenecawehoe tate One
GOAL Tis SR manna o iar am oveentele, suateiecs Osace
Black bituminous limestone, with stigmarie

branches and leaves, and fragments of

OU aes CIEE) Sete eeene Cel Guia Sea meamces 4) Aor Owe2
(G[cou oepeeap ye ee Wer ot cP is eer stecta nt Rely ta Faas 0 O8

Fr

SS

Gray crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, with indistinct

stigmanume leaves (underclay) io... 4.33.2 een ee
Red and green crumbly argillaceous shale (wnderciay)
Red tandsoneemsanids tome) -/yuc ste cotel> 1-0 a ener) cee eryens
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale .........
Reddashsandstomie: he 2pscemeciea ues aise. team nuanre kone
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale .........
Greenishyeray ‘sandstone 3): 2. see & ocr ene
Red argillaceous shale, with thin green beds and some

patches of sandstone. 2. 5'..4 4) castes» secs peeeneeee

Red shale, with a considerable number of small beds of
BAMOSLOME (9: AIeN sus oh Sot etay career ae eon eee
Greenish gray sandstone, with upright calamites about
2 inches in diameter; some of them are traceable for
4 feet in the upper part of the bed; 6 of them are
visible; the top of the bed is reddish in colour. .....

In.

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN. 467

Ft. In.

Red argillaceous shale, studded with ironstone balls.. 10 6
Gray hard argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie

(underclay) ........ ee Sges SIR a acs o's Be Syste 0
Ktedzarsillaccous:shale <2... 0... 24%. alto. ges elevate I
AE MCOTOONGACOUS SN ELE coe, a6 Ao oc oss atcie apne « 0 10

WoOnme aM aterm ais score ye oe siete ha Re 0 O48

Gray hard argillo-arenaceous stone, with

shgmarie (underclay) .. ses. .2 oes: 2 0
Wo Miavednatler: wn ete cette Baynes eo ohare 0 04
Green argillaceous shale, with stigmarie
(ECTS 7OULI7) Rae Ce Ree r ea TG
OOM re oaie ay A ectae Ay ws bigies's yeoe oles < O V3
— 10 2
Greenish gray arenaceous shale with stigmarie

@indenclay) ie i. NOE AE le rots 6 kaise 3. 0
Red arenaceous and argillaceous shale, with

RAMOS ONO co. tcc Sem ONG ake as ee ZO)

Red: sandstone of a soft-quality ....2...4 2+ O96
2509 94
RECAPITULATION.
“OOV Ss tyaaih dee Es ae \ern 0a ta ae er era a BG os
Carbonaceous shale associated with the

above coal seams, and in one _ instance

SSATUGLC SOT AAC OPE) De ge eee ee ey 36 4
Gray argillaceous shale interstratified with the

coal seams in 8 eases, in two of which the

shale is 1 foot and upwards thick without

exhibiting any remains of stigmarie...... 4 41
Black and grey bituminous limestone touching

the coal and carbonaceous shale, often inter-

stratified and containing the remains of

fishes, shells and occasionally stigmarie.

In one instance the limestone has no coal

with it; in 16 cases it is associted with the

Bente Wee richie seat Na) « 6ic6. os aca 2, 4)0. Sid ed esi08 23 3

ip iaay)

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst, Scy., VOL. X1.

TRANS, EE.

Undereclay or understone, being beds of various

materials, immediately subjacent to the
seams of coal and carbonaceous shale and
bituminous limestone, and invariably pene-
trated by the recumbent branches or radiat-
ing leaves of the stigmariz ficoides. Every
one of the seams of coal and carbonaceous
shale rests upon a stigmaria bed, with the
exception of one instance, where 4 feet of
gray argillaceous shale, destitute of the
plant, is interposed between the stigmaric
bed and the coal, and one instance where the
stigmarie are doubtful. There are twelve
instances of stigmarize beds without super-
incumbent coal. The material constituting
the stigmarie beds is as follows:

Ganister, a hard silicious stone

Sandstone—

Gray and crumbly, sometimes a doubtful
He CANVAS Las owaiay'ai coese Shame loret int ego renees ae
Greenish OMA sco cansiala co or hae rote eet ee

Arenaceous shale, fit for fire clay—

Garay eee cer eran neta ona) ciate Vel ote » oe eens een
Gireemish raya gare ts sels «aie «foes a ele een
PRGA gees Fc ene Sten tre ea Soe ae crouse aeatans
Argillaceous shale, sometimes fit for

fireclay—

Cute daresay is RACY rion Seon toad Haar ar 99 .4
Greemishmonay = ust stenstet: eine eis fos 28 «0
Greene Panton sos Oe ee eee Oe: 12 10
Red and ereeny {tc sae7 noe eer 45 0
TRO OE ak ce A ro, Mi cnn temtiae ner geeaet Goes

468 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER

Ft. In:
10
0

76 10
i
6
0

220. 6
5

—— 504 3

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (4).—LOGAN.

Sandstone—

Gray in colour, and much of it of a
crumbly nature, resembling the
quality in which the remains of
stigmaris are found ..........259

Gree NTS CNN ofa t/ seh ae stain aes 4 6

Greenish gray or drab coloured,
some of it fit for grindstones, and
patches of it containing carbon-
izededritt plants... -t- He SA ae 232 6

Red and green, less durable in qual-
ity than the drab coloured stone. 69 0

Reddish, similar to the preceding in

bo

AUPEAlnUtyes Weiss Ms. alse Gato! nce ce 67 38
Red or chocolate coloured, easily
yielding to the influence of
pee CHIC ecsaye Al wee csen hataren oe lneien Ho 6
647 11
Shale—Arenaceous— |
STAM Ahoy or Aecgd asa aieet ate el
Gray, with ironstone balls.. 13 0
104 0
Greenish *oray” apr teasers. se oe A)
AG eeGtN ee) es As dey daslor seme tecraysita oe eC oites erate 18 6
MEAG gem atti aa eens Suh e G.e Maie IG Wits)
iRedsandvercen\ (i... 2.2 42 0
Red and green, with iron
stone) balls "3.0. A: esaeie ols 4 0
46 0
189 2

Shale—Argillaceous—
GRAY ot pen aiote, eames 2 5s 224 8
Gray, with ironstone balls ..199 4
424 0

Ft.

469

In.

470 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
Greenishivoray aanci ssi 32 0
Greenish gray, with iron-
Stone “balls: - yet aetere aye it @
—— 49 0
GSCI a cin 5 cae pct elles 5 coh Ne go ea ECR 38 «6
Red and yoreem™® jes seve 153) 6
Red and green, with iron-
Stone “ballllagersi iis oe wisrcaet< ANS 6
202, 0
Red or chocolate coloured ..230 6
Red or chocolate coloured,
ironstone Walls). 2.2.4. - 82 0
312 -6
1096 0
2539
(Among the organic remains visible, are to be enume-
rated 15 upright sigillariz and 56 upright calamites. )
5
Red argillaceous shale, with wronstone balls ......... 6
Red sarenaceous” sliale =. 2 5 s..1 5S coetays, 0 tiem test eran Oe 2
Red argillaceous shale, with beds of arenaceous shale.. 16
Rede samd Suan: totes cacgamwin ote a sous otc oa Rena ee 1
Redvaverilaceous: shale wise Ss ais w sivestg ce oleortepeue een 22
edt sandstone:s secs Goa oe tes hiss ey eee ene 1
Red <argillaceous shale: 22.0 2:4. decent ohne seee a
Red argillaceous shale, with a bed of sandstone ....... 38
ved: sami dietome sah ates, oes shorehatesete teen etae ol one cee ene al

Red argillaceous shale, with a bed of red sandstone.... 50

Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale and
SAMASEOMGNN car Goo octeetenw wate wilnal chested eet keL sea eee 19

Red: sandstone: 12)... w.asan Pers Sensis hes Dictate ake. at ae 1

In.

IFoo oe. 2) 2 oo ©

con)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (5).—LOGAN.

Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone?).....
Greenish gray soft sandstone, with fragments of plants

CAE POLLO wpe ee cote he certian strata t eo ease: on bo eee
IMieasimresmconCealedi rays cs he v.is pias ceteusls a 6 as om eee
Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone ?), a bed of

SAMS OMe TAL LMOFLOD goce.c.01e efailestein este 6. «.e:le-°s: evn «sas ls
Greenish ohaye sandstone bere Gi. eer sre oie ec si © age
Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone?) .....

Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone?) a bed
obered) sandstonecat the top: a+ been ee von de tence
GN SAINGASEOIG ANS tein tac tepene Re eicie eos hee coae erciieiae Sear isl as
Measures concealed, (red shale?) .................
PRECMNSa MUG LONE tt. 05) 41. deseo ne, dette ak ae aerate eos
Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone?)......
Red shale, with some red sandstone ................
Measures concealed, (red shale and sandstone?) .....
ed dich sortay, saMdstome, ios acme ays ses apie oetns eee
iMicacumes Concealeds 5.5 ea ich ies os tassels ae es ates
Red and gray sandstone of a soft quality ...........
Red arenaceous shale and sandstone ...............-
Reddish gray sandstone of a soft quality ............
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale .............
GEG ke SEU CUO RST POD OS ig ye Gr age IE te ema
eduaroilldceous shale ache scan ct. due Oe Sr och Be eee
Ecdmcomd Stone ota ni nies, VN asus Gb wes Gace b ae acd oe Sees «
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale ..............
Redesandstonevand shale: . 005 S.o005 «4 catvene 6 ene
medachale and Sandstone “s. .6 +. cesses oad one ane «
Measures concealed, (red shale?) ................4.
Measures concealed, (red sandstone and shale?) .....
Measures concealed, (red shale?) ..... ae AR
Red shale and sandstone ............ Vase ae Owe
ued Said s Olies Pen eat eae AS ee ein Oe Ea ene
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale .... .

SYS)

SES RSL On ONO OOF SS: So So Sle Solo 1S) So oso S

472 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red sandstone. 12
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale..... 138

Red arenaceous shale, with some beds of red sandstone. 12
Red arenaceous shale, with some beds of red sandstone. 43

Red Sandstone V5 xin, cress wi cthehcuous nae raet ste oie cake aaa alie¢
meu arenaceous shale sve, 5:2) Bronce sie eve one SIE 14
Measures)comecaled mc.) sag wis <,« srchoeune aceon eee 30
Red ssamdstome: nhc ¢ ie ssc ect tckee copa dene suey ou weno 6
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale and
SAMA SOME! ae alo A oie at oe hase oicaseiete cr ova eae 6
Reddishy ray, isamdstone scat. ons teers each cua oir 9
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale and
SamMdstomen ters uso enh cere Siolaye Ae a econey ig See eee 5
Redssamdstomer 242 stec.7: ahaa cctsy yo eyaieed ane cat eee 2
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red sandstone. 44
ited shaletand ‘sandstonmey.s 1.2151: 5:;... ni. sonep econ 12
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale and
SATLCStOHO! x 2-8 anne cesses Gili totic eres eee 33
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with some beds
Olgred sandstones 2. casi tuies hasta cee’. crate Anna ae 132
Od SamGStoMe. Ver k8 ate cis <usaye-e coe ape enen he evanceeneee 3
Red arenaceous shale and sandstone ............... ary
Greenish gray sandstone, with patches of concretionary
PITIRER OMG Waiiee a. Seo hence edocs eevee archers withel ae et sceae nee 13
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale .............. 51
Reddishesandstone: <i: oassicts ho te oe ate ato eee aly
Meadsmres concealed: aiid sauces eet ie ery teks, See ee 37
Reddish green sandstone ..... ENCE EERE ES 24
Measures concealed ............ rab iNdes sr ades eevee neem 17
Reddishveray. sandstone. (5) ccst 3 ih amayeie oh tan ace 18
Mieasures* concealed? tiie. ts sices) ays suc ses tenate seg ee Oe 19
Reddish, ‘samdstome <6 <0 1gae tare me cre ote eee 5
Measures concealed, probably red shale ............ 73
Reddish gray sandstone, soft, with fragments of plants
CATDODAZCM a ie arc sislsiinyere ate eure otis ie hrateat shake ye eee 22

In.

So eo CoG eo ce oe eS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (5).—LOGAN.

Ft
Measures concealed, but supposed to be red shale ..... 37
Red and green sandstone, with probably some patches of
eancretionary limestone 6 o5. shied Gisiete ciel oute 37
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with bands of
SOnIGIST 0 012 Meare y open n Meneree et eet cet eee RE EOE 38
red maamdstone.<. si b:.e-sheua chao aren cie Fes owen 2
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with bands of
BHAT SLOME Manic ce oio ea che seat ere teeaciier ate arte eens SAG Toes age 18
Ixed"sands tone ~ 2.050.075 @ seus Retest ote ceva aiscs SPT 3
ved warcillaceous, stale: .. 25/54 Wevsjav«,apyeyn le elon Gost ein 1
Greenish. gray sandstone’ .. ...j2.. 0:06 006 otc sop t te eee 9
Green-arorllaceous: shale; os 5.o04 p<isys sar ceeye acste ons Pe 2
Greenish) pray SamdsStome: «<0... 5c )sste!soveans alersieeins Nid 5
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with some beds
of red sandstone ..... Rea Cae ale ete! 50
Gecemish ray Sandstone... ..sniseceis cere rot spares svecmh ens, T

Greenish gray sandstone, with concretions of limestone
giving it much the appearance of a conglomerate ... 1

ited sareillaceous™ shale #206). ire 3.3.07. 4G + amentana ihenste go? 1
iredwand OTeen, SANASLOTIC’ os ./o-5.2 6.5 eee e so ont apo a eetwees 6
Gareth cule: 1 jae laden fect lect cain eerste? Q
Greenish oray.-sandstone =... 2, fc712 <5 ave. stot Sete 1

Grenish gray sandstone, with many calcareous concre-
tions, giving it much the appearance of a conglomerate 6
Red arenaceous and argillaceous shale, with some beds

(can CSLOMe, 5 sega ie eerie cAahetet renege oat oct Bee ie Ave
Red argillaceous shale and sandstone ...........0+. 16
Red arenaceous and argillaceous shale, with some sand-

SEINE WOE cette est MOS tiaras cs eRe aidan ttn nS acura cones sha enehats 8
iRedsargallaceous: shale 7.94) s/o.20 iso isi eerie eo ees 6
Red arenaceous shale, with some bands of sandstone... 6
iedusamastOne + seek, sacs Mate to i aed ge tie eke 12
edsarpilldecousclalem. oc aicners ha. epee oe are ae ee 1

Redesaimastone . aoe roe ee he ee ee ee if

co) Sere owe ©

=

aS SoS

Sa] 2 S12) =

474 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with a two feet
bedicot ~samdetone: By Weise te ie eee 29

Red sandstone, thinning off and replaced by red shale. 5

Red'cargrllaccoussshiale. ¢- Gin h ceene ecce er 5)
Red=sandstoneau tater, toate moet et ee ees 2
Red targillaceousastale: o2 sche ark ae eee 3
Red -arenaceous, shale® 22.0 o5 40 lb ee ee one Puree eek 1
Red=areullaceoms while shies eee oe see oe 3
Red arenaceous shale and sandstone .............. 3
Red sarcullaccous: shale: tescnccie 6) ite eee 22
Reddish! tsandstone izs.4 hex ne eae ee 7
Reddish sandstone with a one foot bed, having caleare-
ous concretionary nodules, and resembling a conglom-
erate, with carbonized plants on the top ..... Fs (5
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale :............ 20
te d@esand stoners: wie en central eee see eu oe ae ape tc
Red arenaceous shale and argillaceous shale ........ 12

Red sandstone and shale, half of each .............. 12
Red sarcillaccousshale 2.2. ae eae eee ie 5
Redisaremaceous: cliale:vn..9c).t0 eto tehe ote he ee it
ied Geemdstanen .i-0/1bcccse eos ee pret ears dae eee 5
med earenaceous, shales: 2.0.5 ace oa ccs a
Redmsandstomet | Ai async. is posta mie tence. ee kere 3
ed sarenaceois:cshale tii eee. ay) ene on ; 3
eed@eamdistone tyr act ste ae oa ke oe ete eae
Red argilllaccoustshaley. sthisecree ca tees 6 eee oe ae
Reed: ‘Samad stonme™ wots cis eos stee hans cee ee 1
ied “arenaceous shale. .8.05 2.000 7 2 SSeS 5
ed samdstonie’ vers chin cen ek: Tee SS ee ee ae i
Redeargillaccous’ «shale. i522. 222k Raes fete 6
Red tsamdstomen .sseces eos se luenehk ae tis to) Sueno On nee eee if
Redtareitlnceous, sliale:s Hay aires Seki! oy) ee cestagoas enna 28
Redvarenaccous sales: 402.4422 ics ete tit ee 2
Red tarcillaccous: shale. 4,22 .eseas ces oe Since ene 15

bo
i=)
(oa)
bo

In.

Soo ooo Soe oo Seo Se Soo oO eo Se © 2 &

S

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN.

RECAPITULATION.

Sandstone—
Greenish gray, with occasional drift

plants=carbonized 24) ../52 22": Son 28 0
Greenish gray, with concretionary
limestone, having the aspect of
conmlomerntes =U 560. Sieh s 70" 0
——— 46
Reddish gray, with occasional drift
plants: carbonized == .a 22%) sis. Se 104 0
Reddish gray, with concretionary
IbboaQeyonive: BAe oy ae ee re AE: 16 0
Shale—
mech ane aAGeOUs.: »skivates cheats oy oes 640 0
ied sarenmaceous: Reracijenwe.le be be ole: 230 0
Green, saroillaceouse 2.0.5 <9. tse lee oo

Measures not well exposed, but probably composed
on medeshale and «sandstone... 1. 20s sith

G6

Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for
grindstones of good quality, which are extensively
quarried from it. This is called the Sourn Reer.. 50

ited, aremlaceous shale <o 20.5. sn%s 6 Sie1as o,2,sue 9 Se one 14

ucdbs Samm Stone em meant a Neat eta eicndiswen oe eeiao a ieie\= oles

Measures concealed, probably red shale ............

AVECMoANIGSHOMCS a yees a Sn adiye ies eye aae sear ea a ieee Me

Red sandstone, with probably red shale on the top ....

Ft.

475

In.

ESS S&S oS S&S

476 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Kt. In.

Measures concealed, but said to be red argillaceous and
arenaceous shale, with occasional beds of red sand-
100) JC mS Me eR Oko aA PIE NEC Ane 4 om oee-barv et Boch 103

Dark gray argillaceous shale, with a small quantity of
fine grit in it. This would be called a fine bluestone
in some parts of South Wales. At the Joggins, there
is usually a bed of it above a good grindstone reef.. 4

Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for grind-
stones of the very best quality. The whole reef has

been quarried away up to the bank “cm. - ean 36
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones of bool qual-

ity... Chis has\been aniuch quarried | 2.2. > see Ky.
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones. This has

been very smuch.quarried .\.).4 41 i. oa oeiecuse nee 7

Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones. This and
the preceding greenish gray sandstones constitute

what.1s-called thesNorrm (Rmmr jie... one 9
Red: and green argillaceous shale...) 2c cloaane aes 18
Redisandstone of a sott.quality x)... ie:.u por or enous 6
Rediarollaceousyshale,.:': 0,2. ri. ate eases) os eae ens 14
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale, with 6 bands

Obmned samdsvone. 2) 0 hie ea. cote Menace beeta ose ee 27
Greemishy oray sandstone. <i :.0.03). 6 ois veep os sdetene oars 7
Redarcilaceous shaler.:. sires. shins eats eae eres 6
Reds Gamdstone,-scin 8 heehee oo Ocho ale whaloden ate cesta 4
Red-arendeeous shale yatta. coco eiwndeiabeaetelton, otehoe 1
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale ............. 10
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale and red sand-

stone, im: altermmatime: heds.v sitar.) .hectsle sesh = Queeeneaens 12
Red argillaceous shale, with 2 small beds of red sand-

SHOE: Reranch ek or sunsets ecm iror each ot cetoofien’s (cl nator eae caeeeeene 21
Red sandstone, with bands of red argillaceous shale... 9
Red arenaceous shale, with bands of red sandstone.... 6
Rednsandstormes ca acti scat ot et ducre ce hacen, deus ong seen al

SOR ogonon© Seo ©

fo)

Soo ofS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN.

Ft.
Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with thin bands of red
arenaceous shale and red sandstone ...:........... 30
Black calcareous bed, no shells visible .............. sae
Red and. green variegated argillaceous shale ......... 6
Crreen™ aremaceouss Shale 653i. wisi... to's! «9 aie aiinneve nse tose a
Red arenaceous and argillaceous shale, in alternating
Pela ras ase regs er ar chars eres ae PAC alee a Bs fs ch Alan a egareiome 4
Redvargillaccons shale, - 2.25.22 .023- Rue ale ts aes omens 6
veddish poray, sandstomGuaqanany-t/icleceicdsie sts «+s ayo 8 6
Red argillaceous and arenaceous shale .............. 10
Red and green variegated shale and sandstone ...... 15
Red and green argillaceous shale ................-, 4
Red and green variegated sandstone .............++ 2
edgarciilaceousysligle: 3.1 acsch sae eee eral! sh 5 ides. euedsecsisi 12
Red and: green calcareous amd i. a3. 02s0s eed) -6 es 0
Green arenaceous shale, mixed in patches with red are-
HACC OMS SAC )4- at hawust se rnsvencee ne shies Ramen oier sete STs 9
Red arenaceous shale of a crumbly character ........ 12
Dark gray argillaceous shale, with ironstone balls..... 5
Gal coneous (Saleen. dt coeLs won snjs ores eee a ile a)
Dark gray: argillaceous shale ........¢....% ie)
WOR Clay, hie sete aicteks nero EB ristteetea bases One?
4
Reddish and dark gray argillaceous and arenaceous shale,
crossed by sligmarie leaves (uwnderclay) .......... 6
Grayearcillaceousi shale: i «cc «51a a'e cays cite eee HiePeee 2
Dark gray argillo-arenaceous shale, of a fine smooth
len yee SHON Nin rin aine eee lon. Malaea aici eek fet 7
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone, fit for grind-
SSAULDU ONS si Feb. ong ON 3 OGL GMO RR CRED Os GIO) PLC eM NCR: CHR ERC EET 10
Gray arenaceous shale of a fine quality, in even beds.. 8

Dark gray argillo-arenaceous shale, of a fine smooth
quality, such as usually covers grindstone beds .... 3

477

In.

ASS oS oS So © So oc —- ©

SoS S&S

478 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones. The top
part contains large spherical concretions of harder
sandstone, with a rusty exterior, and concentric varia-
tions of colour. This constitutes Bacon LepGe ....

Greenish gray sandstone, with a vast number of drift
plants with a coating of coal. It holds also patches
of limestone concretions, which have much the aspect
OL a COMPIOMETALOT <f..0- citstot errr tee eee

Dirty green caleareous concretionary bed. This has so
much the appearance of a conglomerate bed with lime-
stone pebbles, that there is some doubt whether it be
not so. It is a very irregular bed and holds carbon-
IZA Olah OH 6 fC aC GE eA Aone resens SKn Gio c

Reddish green argillo-arenaceous shale .............

Greenish arenaceous shale of a hard quality, probably
fireclay, crossed by stigmari@ leaves (underclay)...

Red and green variegated argillaceous shale, with 2 feet
OLRSamMadStOnely 2 sey cere on areas one Lees eee

Red arenaceous shale with green spots ...........---

Green-arenaceous: shale. i. o0u.c0 san ldawie oh coe eer

Red anremaceous shales 2 skeet. eat eee hens rennet

Green-arenaceous Shale jac... cen. orca eiepeemoerr botays

Red sareulllaceoussshiale.! 5.0 <0..2:5 5/315: open edo

Red:and green arenaceous shale... 2.2.02. 05-22.

Red areillaceous shale 00: trve. i. co custen <lersebals ayaa

Greenish eray arenaceous ‘shale: .i2..... 47-32

Red and green arenaceous shale ...... eee ee ALON

ved farcallacecousislalewiy. ves tehuets ers gn-neia hal emcee

7reenlish Yeray arenaceous shale . 222-24. .22 5 mee

GreeniClayawidnn dk bse ceo eey eerie fos tees are

Redearollaceouswelale’ wags dees enet er ores een.

Reddish? sandstone? s.227. 27%. 2° PURSE te eae te

Red arcullaccoussshalee.s0) pena ct ete orate en eee

Grave arcallaceousy shale. cay: picasa uss tante eye

Ft:

54

10

oe)

In.

=>)

SS eS SS eo SS oS oor] SF >

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN. 479

Ft. In.

2. Coary clay, probably coal further in the bank .... 0 1
Red and green argillo-arenaceous shale of a soft quality,

crossed by stigmariw leaves (wnderclay) ......... 3 0

Red and green crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, rather
harder than the preceding, crossed by stigmarice
WEAVE Se UIMECTOLAY)) «Sits he eke Mal Pushes ss 6 os 9 eo 6 0

Reddish sandstone, no stigmari@ visible ............ OPE

Red crumbly argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie

UAC CLO reser hot sain tae as SR iasare so eh Sweet aaa 2 0
Red argillo-arenaceous shale of a tough crumbly nature,

with stigmarie strongly marked (wnderclay) ...... 2 0
Red argillaceous shale, with thin green bands and

nodules of ironstone, a tough, crumbly mass ....... 6 0
SS CMU ONGCCOUS. SUQIC. <.siosics eae 25 8 8S oe Opn
Greenish argillaceous shale .............. 0 6
COMDOMACEOUS. SICGLO So cite cysts sats vossnses =, eats snicte a Oe A
Greenish argillaceous shale ............... 20
WGrOCWOCCOUS FSIKMIC: naahwcts open Nh soe Sia 0 3
Greenish argillaceous shale in thin leaves .. 0 1
Coaly matter and carbonaceous shale ....... O83

o' 9

Green argillo-arenaceous shale of a soft quality, crossed
by stigmari@ leaves (underclay) ..........2605. 3-0
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, rather harder than the
preceding, with sfigmariew leaves and many nodules
of ironstone at the top where the bed is more arena-
eoousi(Umnderclay)” suck elton sa hc. Anais ee eens 4 0
Gray sandstone, with stigmarie@ leaves (underclay).. 1 0
Green argillo-arenaceous shale of a rather soft quality,

with stigmari@ leaves (underclay) ............ 4 0
Ay Coan, and: carbonaceous shales: che ee oh 5 Ss O23
Green argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmariw leaves

Cinderela Pees ere we on hard ealeeta Se ee 2 0
Red and green tough crumbly arenaceous shale, with

stigmarie branches and leaves (wnderclay) ...... 2 #0

480 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In.
Red and green tough crumbly claystone, with balls of

argillaceous iron ore, stigmarie@ leaves crossing the

bed. Cundenclay Ge mas Nees sts eI ene coke par O)
Gray rough sandstone and tough crumbly red and green —

arenaceous shale; one stigmari@ branch visible with-

out leaves, but leaves exist in other parts of the bed

(aumalen clap oe cio 5 see Stak acta oye wea 4 0
Red and green tough crumbly clay, some very like

underclay, but no stigmarie leaves visible ........ 2-0
Dark gray argillaceous shale, no stigmarie visible, but

the mass toughvand, erumabliy: jai cttlet Ne oe ett a aad)
Reddish argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie —

branches and leaves (underclay)*...:...5...050. 270
Red sandstone with ereen<spots ¢ o:j.% 20 So. ees 339 ul)
Red and green variegated sandstone, the green in

SIOOUS? chose ae bese aldotelis« ienscaitenle sp anaicie ee eee re 3. 0
Gray argillaceous shale ..s..200%. LE hs Choe rate 3. 0
5: COALY smmatter»..5 cease. ow. ne etn eteg meee een eee “0° 04

Greenish arenaceous shale, with stigmarie branches

and leaves, the recumbent branches crossing one ano-

ther and running in all directions (underclay) .... 8 0
Greens sandstone 2) ex ot tee ek ee re eae
(From the succeeding bed there starts an upright szgil-

laria about 1 foot in diameter, only 2 feet of the

bo
oO

length are visible. )

GHAC GTO ONGCEOUS! SIUGIC™ 21s io 2 re Lene ele ig whevelelevare SSS
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie leaves :

CDCI CTO? IDs MOA UR se tw IE Berens Tes en en dB cs cu 6 0
Greenish gray sandstone, with stigmare leaves (wnder-

CUI) Oa Ws cho KE A cos, ROC TONNE RAL Re ER eae eee 4 0
Greenish gray sandstone, with stigmari@ branches and

leaves *(ainderclaypy >: 8.5... Sse molmicrpameo! a

Red argillo-arenaceous shale, with stigmarie leaves |
CUndeg clan Vi Bars. eae etsy mole tere Sagooandtams eteaetes es 3 0

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).-—LOGAN. 481

Ft In.
(In these 15 feet of underclay there is a beautiful exhi-

bition of stigmariz. They are not very abundant,
that is to say, in such profuse confusion as usual, but
each plant is very distinct. One branch floats along
just beneath the surface of the 2 feet bed mentioned,
and 24 feet of its length are finely exposed without
interruption. The leaves radiate from it distinctly,
and individual leaves can be followed down 5 feet,
crossing both the hard and the soft parts of the de-
posit continuously, and others can be traced 2 feet
upwards. Where the branch enters a projecting part
of the bed, its measurement is 2 inches vertically by
3 inches horizontally, and where the other extremity
is lost beneath the beach the measurement is about
the same, so that I could not come to any conclusion —
as to the direction in which the branch issues from
the stem, if it has one. See fig. 8 [of the original
cuts. | )

Greenish gray or drab sandstone in irregular beds ... 70 0

Greenish gray sandstone, with a vast quantity of drift
plants lying in confusion and coated with coal. In
one of the beds there appears a bundle of no less
10 plants squeezed together side by side, as repre-
sented in fig. 8 [of the original cuts.] Each has a
core of sandstone surrounded by a good thick coating
of crystallized coal. They run through and through
a projecting ledge of 10 feet (see fig. 9 [of the origi-
nal cuts|), and le rather oblique to the plane of the
bed, but conformably with its elementary layers.... 30 0

Greenish gray sandstone, with some spherical concre-

tions of a harder quality, with a rusty exterior 50 0
Greenish oraydsandstome.. 2 a... 6aus.oe sw tie se sores ae 22 0
Dark eraytarcillaceouss shale i. /is ic orca e Soca aes OMG

482 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.
Ft. In.
Greenish gray arenaceous shale, with some fibrous
impressions like stigmari@ leaves crossing the bed
(eumdencl aay) res cae eo Bi sks pvevs) noi ge eo ML ATO oer Vos
Red argillaccoug shale Mad tc uz- See eee ee
Greenish) gray sarenaceous. shale (vrais ae ceils

RS) SS

Red argillaceousiishale +; ic !aiil. woreat animes see
Green arenaceous, slidle oy 5. nfs spamaetayetecgit ite Aslan
Greenish gray sandstone, with spherical concretions . .
Greenish gray sandstone and shale .:..........%.

SS) Sr Sys ep ep)

Greenishworay (sandstone... .te).eucieyo dome ee
Gray arcallaceoustshiall @-c/e-nyer. «oct oe ene gem nee

ea
S

AVA VOUS CULT OV SS ACLS COME reaveize credo keutel citemeltet cue Maniatele
Gray rougl bly sandsto

oO OO FR Oo e WY
—)

on)

Gray. calcareous. sandstones... sous. eee ce ee
7. Bituminous limestone. 0.3. .22..05.%-0% 0
Gray..argillaceous rshale: .. 10 73)0/ erent oe =) Mae
Gray> caleanaous. bed). 2.0.61: econ ate Ove
Carbonaceous shales \ eile a9 ie chars 0
Bituminous limestone, with shells and fish
scales > fish, jaws OCCUls 212 (7b. os xe
Carbonaceous shale, being a mass of platted
plants, apparently grasses ............. 1430
COM. GS Ral seek. ech eB eee ed ae Ratatat Onas

=)
2

Gray argillo- arenaceous shale, with stigmari@ (under-

CUA eee asi (ap 8s 8s olka: Ses cen tse aire pn ORME ae
Gray darenaceous: Shalev. gicss briskine cheiele one
Greenishyeray isandstane.ay: i). sai 2 atau eee ee
Gray arenaccous: Shaler, .cnlaciane sateen Ante ee
Greenish gray sandstone

“I Or Cr

e)ain'e! Felse\e)ep-e) ‘es 'e\e. (e) 6: (0) el Se) 18) ehcenie) (0) ef e:

Gray arenaceous shale

oS w/w eH b&w

Greenish gray sandstone ....

@ {.e)\,e) (8! ‘e) (ee e100! 0) ¢) .6).0. 40) 0,4) e heuie

Gray ~ soft arenaceous, shale: %.. 9.2.12 cmer ae eee

as

Greenish gray soft flaggy sandstone, with ripple mark. 10
Greenish gray soft flaggy sandstone ............... 4

SS) Sey eh Se oa

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).——LOGAN.

Ft
Gravararenaceous (Shale fea) 81. te a! shes re is «tsb aces epeeeels 4
Gnreenmishveray, sandstone: 22). 4/55 scans. Nigick tet: a
Greenish gray soft flaggy sandstone, scarcely standing
nes Mae BEST NAS eect cepey Sh eate aa Tat roa. Sh Moroes 14
Greenish gray sandstone, in regular beds .......... 27
Measures concealed, but no doubt soft, probably argil-
laceous shale, with a mixture of arenaceous ...... 100
Crayyrenaceous shales s.'. 082 Vee else ss was de aks 8
Gray areillaceous: shale ties... 4). 42 siotenucn a 6 a8. crate 6
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones. This has
been quarried to a considerable extent, and worked
deep into the bank. It is the best quarry of this
reef, but the stone is rather too hard ............ 10
Greenish gray sandstone of grindstone quality ...... 6
Greenish gray sandstone. This has been worked for
erindstones, but the quality is rather hard ........ 14
Greenish gray sandstone fit for grindstones, but rather
too hard. This bed exhibits spherical concretions in
some parts, some of which are 6 to 8 inches in diam-
eter. These grindstone beds constitute what is called
pion OPW CLO Var Sonoda saca sete WigeSeh Here a Ode Soe 18
Greenish sree SAME SOME s\Gr2feis 2 sie os spate lee cee ae B34
Greenish gray sandstone in flaggy beds............. 49
Greenish gray sandstone of a stronger quality ...... 8
Greenish gray sandstone in flaggy beds ............ iL
Greemishy oray sandstone’ js 4)5 sc a0 hadola ae epee oe 34
Greemishy ery areillaceous shale +00.) : i. wales > 3 es :
Greenish gray sandstone. This constitutes Boss Pornr 42
Greenish) ory, SAMASTONE os 25 8 roe ols atslesl ets’ oe wt ah 6
Greenish gray sandstone, with drift. plants coated with
Cecio Art eR Ws Neidio see ie Ai koite = eek dia la tele we eters 12
Greenish gray sandstone in regular beds ............ 28

Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants 7

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS. JSFF.

S

484 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Greenish gray sandstone in more regular beds ..... :
Greenish gray sandstone, with drift carbonized plants.
Greenish gray sandstone, pervaded by a tangled mass of
Carbonize | dietkb splatitsns.0.).<.s.tofetet-Peteh-Meteser Nene eneesters
Greenishioray samdstonen..\ ch. vee te Stevetns
Gray arcillaceous’shale! 2... J. 2. toi ee le
8. Cor oceumr ime mmupatelies erates settee <i ore
Gray argillo-arenaceous shale, with the aspect of fire-
clay, with stigmarie branches and leaves very dis-
tinctly exhibited (underclay) ...........-..+4-.
Gray arenaceous shale -.....0...00 62.0... 22 eee
Greenish gray argillaceous shale, with nodules of clay
tronstone disseminated in considerable quantity... .
Gray sarcillaceousishialemi 3m a ctardsyeicrenecleio aie siet one:
Greenish teraysandstomes: Won. EUe ose et me ee
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants
In COMMUGION Fb vetnaktak ercsas Mhac eis st eet eiteneto rn
Greenish ‘onay sandstone arr. cc eke otras wy
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants
TTL SCOMM STON Ue cect ate eee Meee setae goatee wee meee
Greenish eray samdstome > 120. tens. toe hs ere tae
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants
TY COMLUSIONS Uiiters Ser aoe heee 5 Mecano Aaa
Greenish yoray sandstone! S2ts a. 001s oer we cealenciees
Greenish gray sandstone, with spherical concretions of
Gi lnanrchen: "Gi uallarb sya expe sccetskets basceeas?cbehe, eNotane tepeteene eee
Greenish gray sandstone, with a few carbonized drift
IOI OY f= ak per eer AtseaE A bee a varra MMeSeZ Ln bdr cer alc
Gray Haremaceous, shales, <ctinviciste ae camer
Greonisheray sandstone wy, ass 20 ee oe
Greenish gray sandstone, with a confused multitude of
Carponizedsariit plantsesess shee sear ener
Greenish gray sandstone, with a few vasbonited drift
follanaitse sc stereo Onn cee ocean seehe earore ne Geen Orme ae

i

So oS

hoje

oS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN.

Ft.

Greenish sandstone, with calcareous concretionary
nodules, having much the aspect of a conglomerate,
with limestone pebbles. The bed is very uneven... 1

Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants 13

Greenish gray sandstone, in even beds ............. 12
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants 10
Greenish oray Sams vOmen ats 12s cil, tenet cate «pn auscoea ae 51
Gray argillaceous and red argillaceous shale ........ 23
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones, but rather
hard. This constitutes Boss QUARRY ............ 10
Creenishieray sandstone: 42% 42% .isvok ait eee oes ages 25
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants. 6
Greemishapray sandstone... 148 a... nuts es ae cis ae 24
Greenish gray sandstone, with nodules of clay iron-
stone, casts of calamites and other plants.......... al
Gray arenaccous shale: sc eisai cianice siete aol. 2 wars +
ved ancallaceous shale | sys (ctor seuss eens Sagar Sfes 6
Greenish gray arenaceous shale ..... siengetnle. setiens ier eeo 3
Grayearellaccous stale) Setae< iss cde) ae els bier sara, es aS 12
Grayrarcnaceous shale: 7.51.16. shs)e0s 2 seks oho ers ote ai ipreb has 3
Yellow sandstone, very soft and yielding to the weather 4
Grave ane illaccous shale sh. .3c).2'cte a ss oiaionstevs sales +! ape ies ib
Yellow sandstone, very soft and yielding to the weather 21
Greenish gray sandstone in even beds .............. 4
Gray arenaceous shale ..... eRe ue tats apes exot ents 2k obese 4
Greenish gray sandstone, fit for grindstones ........ 18
Graynarenaceous shale 9.5..% 2.05. .c!snce cel gy adet Nauk 4
Greemishvoraye sandstones « v.[5 lo 5.372. sie onchsdelt! ue aiaiaseice: ¢ ff
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized drift plants 9
Greenish gray sandstone in regular beds ............ 21
Gray arenaceous shale and -sandstone............... if
iS EeaIti sil Chaya SAMOSuOlRes fis". o's hes sieisteae ier sevetoue aia 13
Grayargillaceous shale. 3 6.78 2/. ie os oe tensor al

Greeiishvordyssamdstone | 2. <s%.0 cs sake ciate More ok 27

485

SOS Oo —)

a)

SCPoC?O QO 0 O20 G2OQDeooorococneoones

486 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.-—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft- In
Gray argillaceous (sla ei 2) ioiothn25 310) sete pevecealsqauenecan 1 FOan0
Greenishjeray sandstone.) iu wpe 6 wus ome poge ison eeiedeicds 30 0
Greenish bed with concretions of limestone very much
resembling a calcareous conglomerate ............ 570
Gray arcillaceoussshalle tic)... Wess eeictaiele eve diene 5 30
Greenish bed of calcareous concretions, very much
resembling a calcareous conglomerate ........... } yD ae
Gray arenaceous shale, with some bands of sandstone... 23 0
Greenish eras Gamdstone; 4p; ietsus.aicistuiesh outed senna ee 64 0
Greenish seray sand ston oig.n.cyal-t vs eotte 6 clita @ntiat oie PEM
(Here there appears to be a small fault. It does not
disturb the strike, but the dislocation, if there is any,
is not ascertained. I do not think it can be many
yards. )
Greenish oray sandstones. cis)! -uelra ter deree eteueite oo lee 34 0

Greenish gray sandstone, with many carbonized drift

Pl AMS tices a otty< Veter sre asoleehwtepa gee Ss aorta one ake psearete 14 0
Greenish gray sandstone, more regular in the beds .... 16 0
Greenish gray sandstone, with some carbonized drift

lambs ease Shs wietiilee Bn ene ght ae ws Ganleie whepeuatons selomaee neds 1840
Greenish gray sandstone, with many carbonized drift
()plants: im, ereat ceomustomeyy 5... a icy.pent eri ore Qe
Greenish bed, with caleareous concretions, having much

the aspect of a calcareous conglomerate .......... E20
Greenish gray sandstone, with many prostrate carbon-

AZO yerTEL ol aM ta cy alah les age le nor vette ave awe Pe).

Greenish gray sandstone, a solid mass without divisions 21 0
Greenish gray sandstone, with a vast and confused col-
lection of carbonized drift plants, one lying prostrate
measured 25 feet in length and about 1 foot in diam-
eter, at thejsmalliend: .25c)...4 Una ite ae egenste: Loe 0
Greenish gray sandstone more regular ............ LT, 20
Greenish gray sandstone with carbonized drift plants,
and holding small patches of coneretionary nodulous
limestone very like conglomerate ........... ronatey oO MnO.

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN.

Gray arenaceous shale, with small clay ironstone balls
desseminated. This has something of the character
of underelay, but the stigmarie are not distinct....

GraysarenaceousisWales ct. 0 stair) eee! stele tone ieperenene

Grayearcillaccous: single (srt. cts, cused oe ao se ctenatenes

Graysarenacecousnshales. star. = 7 <' g.cets 4's c 4s ors eenale

Gray argillaceous shale, with some balls of clay iron-
SGOMCHA SAN Meter DtSNL SOR Netex er ofor eG sin er site.2 oh o's efoto

Gurayearemaceousushale::., 3/2. stars. grace stats ltcr=\. cckefohahens

Gray argillaceous shale with 2 beds of arenaceous shale

Greenish gray sandstone in regular beds ............

Greenish gray sandstone, with cabonized drift plants,
and occasional patches of concretionary nodulous
limestone, very like conglomerate ........-......

Greenish gray sandstone with carbonized drift plants. .

Greenish gray sandstone fit for grindstones .........

Gray concretionary limestone, very like a conglomerate
with caleareous pebbles

Greenish gray sandstone

©) (0) @. (¢: oe! ie: e 16 (ef 9; @lerie) 0 s0 © @/'e 6 6 fe ¢, 6

Lead gray concretionary limestone with carbonized

drift plants, and mixed up with calcareous sandstone
Gravearcillaccous shale 1225 <0. ae ac,s ciate emtens
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale ........
Dark gray coarse limestone, no organic remains visible
Gray argillaceous shale

9. Coaty matter and carbonaceous shaie

©, 6: 6) a) e ewe! 6. e),\e) «10, 5004.6) ©) '@).0) (0) e) ee) 0) 6

oh (e) (fi 16) 10) ©, 19.6) |) 0:40

Gray argillo- arenaceous shale, resembling fireclay, with
" the leaves and branches of stigmarie ficoides strongly
marked, the branches recumbent, and near the top of
the bed ironstone balls are disseminated through the
Geposiin (ana enclany | solze sik. cule tet ia's ease. eye emi ieue
Gray argillaceous shale and greenish gray sandstone. .
Gray arcillaceonassitale vy isl ctale teens tvs erica yet
Red argiilaceous shale. ih. cis ty tittle

Soro) o-oo

S Ser OS

488 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In
Greenish ‘argillaceous shale ............ AAS amb Ari ce dt. fee
Greenish *otay- sandstone ssi. coh teveree opie eet ae 96 O
Greenish concretionary limestone ................. ed)

Greenish gray hard sandstone with a number of large
spherical masses still harder. Some of them are 1
foot in diameter, and in section exhibit beautiful
deep black and bright red concentric circles towards
the exterior. These spheres are said to be occasion-
ally 4 feet in diameter. This constitutes Docrisu
TEBE er tee acres eee tise cere Uc Moye et Sea ce eae Rar 20 0

Greenish concretionary limestone, the caleareous con-

eretions are lodged in an argillaceous matrix ..... Ie)
Gray.areillaccous shale a0 cee ie sieyess Se eee 127°0
Greenishyeray, samdstone (ccm sc sys se wie, erage ore GTOe
Measures concealed, but supposed to be soft ........ 3 0
Dark gray argillaceous shale with disseminated clay

UGORSL OME AD All Sythe arses wees ds ces Ae ic open tere Were 100
Dark gray argillaceous shale with a course of clay iron-

stone balls at the bottom, some of them 6 inches in

CliBMMe TOR Arar: connec ors ateate hom Mucrah eit yes te cdanere aan i)

Black carbonaceous shale, with shells in some parts... 4 0

Darkvoray arcillaccous: shale. 20s. ws ce rcese ee ae sien 0 10
Dark gray argillaceous shale with a course of poor
ironstone balls at the top, making about $ inch ..... on)
Greenish gray sandstone fit for grindstones ......... ili Go)
Greenish concretionary limestone, having much the
appearance of a calcareous conglomerate .......... Gan)
Greenish onay, camdstome: Gn air weve ofa aes ei aa!)
Greenish gray sandstone with carbonized drift plants,
calamites and others squeezed flat ............... Sy al)
Brown argillaceous shales crv ccc cho fer on ect ay
Greenish orayssamdstome: jc. cecieists tes <-osy fener iee etal 1 aE0
Reddish: ray ishiale: ic, \yatscicuswcs nde win ieceepeye ls A a be (0:
Measures concealed, probably shale ................ ev)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6).—LOGAN.

Ft.
Red or chocolate coloured sandstone .............. 3
Red or chocolate coloured arenaceous shale .......... it
Red or chocolate coloured sandstone and shale ....... 21
Fete a SormelStOMGe gpidc ko Aleceea eas et Oke oro. wales el ai'go lek eae 1
tea toc iailesraey mere ne teins iat Mince esau ails dhaioy a sncahelie oom al
POMS AITO SLOT AT a teal eceio> aremeL Meee oe te bine, ichin! 9. at optonees 6
ecesGlenclnclsee erect er eS ba eek cpegieta: cs tere wary oS! 81 ailosiel ol oats al
Relea SCOT Bet A cuca) os sevsnatele. cutis Crederaue, Nase oie 4 oe whats 2
Red caTmenaceoustshale= 06 s:ors..6 sheleneie ti aieyenche o 2 ols Josue. ai i
lever heist ane hv ovals: aye eens eee Neca men ra ae oP LO
pe ecn all omens or hah cit ce oncre Stode cob dads OS Gen untendyacse rts teres 2
Head ead SOMO =: sre, ls oye, ola ehets-S ley ove ce bale ede ois tees 8: ahs 0
HRveroldes inet leees tere reenact sr tncue rare ale cetyl slereasinl sua edavedeus Shs fone veys 0
Wancks ereems limestone, 2 5... 1eje1e ger eialet= (y= = =e 0
RedechialG eye a te. crc et keene oka ke Powe che otonees 3
ede sSamOSbOMe. 24). ane oc cene oe ieiatese © Sacteahace ite cand’ ots 2
edrarcillaceous shale. 42... vats does ties es = ool 6
Gueenreh areillaccous slaale: . 41. nt. olrc ch owes ae os 0
Red or chocolate coloured! shiale...0. ft.a ec de. oe sok Al
Red or chocolate coloured sandstone .............-- 1
Red or chocolate coloured shale .............-5220- 8
Black bituminous lumestone . oo. cc ee te ee es 0
Red or chocolate coloured shale... ...:: 22... 2.0% 04). al
Black bituminous lumestone .........0.0000eewees 0
Red or chocolate coloured argillaceous shale ......... il
Black bituminous limestone, with fish scales ........ 0
BOW MIS TECasOLG SIMALEy y+ es ..re: hades wicks oudea cysts 4 llores 52
ivedkor chocolate coloured shale 4.5. 22s. io eh « ee = 18
Greenish; orayssandstome! 27.16 io.iieineersjs 2 ons «vere s 9
Rvedmrslia lew wget ri Ue caters seters Gitar baa 29) eieletl ate By
Black bituminous limestone, with fish scales ........ 0

ES OQ Oo Ss & SS &] ©]

fon)

wonoWoddred Ff ow

sy SoS oa) =)

Cy Sy Sy KS) ep): fen)

490 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

RECAPITULATION. P
Bt ins

Goats ame9 seams. Atak precio eeenetelstens 0 10
Carbonaceous shale associated with the
coal, and in one instance without
coal, and then containing remains
Oils RSIELISE, eck ceases tetave: oi cnctevaites scewetsy «nis
Bituminous limestone with remains of
fish, and caleareous beds, associated

~t
ie

with the coal and carbonaceous shale

seams in one instance, and in six

instances independent ........... 4 10
Greenish and gray argillaceous shale,

associated in some instances with the

Underclay or understone, being beds of
various material, immediately sub-
jacent to the seams of coal and
carbonaceous shale, and invariably
penetrated by the recumbent branches
and radiating leaves of the stigmaria
ficoides. Every one of the coal
seams rests upon a stigmaria bed,
and there is one instance of the
stigmaria bed without superincum-
bent coal. The material of which
the stigmaria beds consists, is as
follows :

Sandstone of a gray colour and
ermmbly quality, st... ttepsiets) 6 O 00
Shale—
Gray argillo - arenaceous,°
frequently fit for fireclay 50 0
Green argillo-arenaceous.. 21 0
Red and gr-en argillo-are-
MACHOUSE A eens etd Mae

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (6),.-—LOGAN.

Sandstone—

Greenish gray or drab coloured, of
which much is fit for the purpose
of good grindstones, and it is in it
that the chief quarries of the Jog-
gins exist. Of this mass 350 feet
in various parts are filled with vast
collections of drift plants, coated
with erystalline coal. The plants
are in general confusion, and are
in general prostrate. Spherical
concretions, some 4 feet in diam-
eter with a rusty black exterior,

occur in. 51 feet Of Ab. a. si cee 1886
Grrcemigh ts sasewiccks ah nsthoisre ata comics 2
Yellow of a finer but less durable

quality than the drab ........ 25
Reddish gray (and gray 5)..... ig
redial tor eeniy. 75 tes outers los eles 15
Red and chocolate coloured ...... 95

Oo

ep (=) tes)

Ft.

—_——2043 6
Limestone of a concretionary character very

much resembling conglomerate generally
of a greenish colour and in very irregular

VA Oris et eels Seas oe Peiee shatore ck os
Shale—

Greenish gray arenaceous and argil-
WAC OOUS: Gens olathe os a sas te elte 136
Gray arenaceous and argillaceous
with a few small beds containing

TTOUSGONC) SDALISH cia ais alee aes ehecn 934
Red and green variegated ...... ts
Red and chocolate coloured ...... 592

491]

In.

43 0
0
0
0
2
—._ 1039 2
—— 3240 9

(Among the organic remains is to be remarked one

upright sigillaria. )

492 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

ie
Ft.
Meéasures.concealedyi est td seat Gos te ee elo
Ried Sanenaceousislialleg 4k ia: aiccs iris acne eaerene tek 1
Meéasuressconcealed at.sciaks asterism se cis nee Sil
Red: farénacenus: shale. zie cns hoceer creas eee 5 epee gall
Measures concealed, probably red shale ............. 139

(Here is said to occur a bed of gypsum. I am informed
that it has been occasionally seen when the beach was
washed clean by the tide. A fragmentary mass of
gypsum about half a hundred weight lay on the
beach. )

Measures concealed, probably red shale ............ 85

Red sandstone conglomerate with white, red, yellow and
black silicious pebbles. The black is lydian stone,
the others are quartz. The pebbles vary in size from
that. of jaypea‘to that of a,hen’s*ege: - 25.2555 Ate oallOs

Red sandstone conglomerate of a coarser quality. The
pebbles are of the same colour, but some of them would

WELSH Wor (DOUINdS A se. % oN ieee, By etucys ences ee 3
Red sandstone conglomerate, not quite so coarse ...... 16
Red arenaceous shale with several bands of sandstone.. 21
Redusandstone osc). Gy ieee ae eeees aeeeel cose ee eee 5
1.72 GIRS) ce Ve IRR eC aie gee MI RAE OMB MCR SARE IO Se tha ER ol 3
Reale studs Homes <sisihan.s instore! oichene eee eee kk ek sae 6
Red shale: sci. aie Be eS Oe REESE OEE 3G 3
Rted sandstone conglomerate with white, gray and black

silicious pebbles agshetorey).je..c 2. ose eee 16
Red <samdstone -....c.0c00 = ieee eaetennn edo. ware 22
Red and green spotty variegated sandstone .......... aah
Red: sandstone .ofy soli, qualitiye§vewiectsccs- a. Meee 3

Red and green spotty variegated sandstone. The green
colour constitutes the spots which are circular with a
black speck in the centre. The bed appears to be partly
Galeareous) 52. fads aes. siaeranecnart ne taas eee ste Soe ey ciseens 9

So Ore S45

WEST.RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (7).—LOUAN.

Red sandstone of a soft quality and red arenaceous shale
Retmearenaceons= sWaleai. sab sie Anos e the c's 48 ecarere e arets ;
Red sandstone conglomerate with white, red and yellow
quartz, and black lydian stone pebbles, varying in size
from, that olan pea, to that of amiege J... 4.05. . Fatt
Red sandstone of a very coarse grit, with streaks of
white parallel with the bedding .................
Red sandstone conglomerate with quartz and limestone
pebbles; Whe matrine 1s) coarde 1. y.iejr ow shs,e sot oe eich
Red sandstone with thin white streaks deposited in it. .
(This bed is cut by a regular vein of sulphate of barytes
3 inches wide. Its colour is tinged with red. The
course of the vein is N.& 8. The underlie E.< 82°.)
Red sandstone conglomerate. The bed is very uneven

and contains caleareous material ................
Greenish conecretionary limestone, looking very like a

conglomerate with limestone pebbles .............
Grecmishoray Sandstone. ccetiepers steel. cs Se te a eee
Greenish concretionary limestone as before .........
ved dashesamdstGne ss. tets re « <jebsioiemils wae ieisde'n ord wate « ie
Greenish concretionary limestone as before ..........
inedeor chocolate coloured shaleov... 0.4.2... onie an = «
Heep CST OIG ae ats asta Dys ccd oar area eet alegeae oo at sega che
ved. or, chocolate coloured shale) 4.2.40. (os. sec eh.

RECAPITULATION.

Sandstone—

Greenish bays hes a iem < sere scree 0)

ENTS VOSS Oem espn cen iP me eee AW)

eda Gi Oreenn 55 au.2) ta ens 06 os 20 0

1200 een ce Ss stout 65,7 0

937) 0
Red with white streaks ............ 51 0

Ft.
ali
24-

re bo CO OT OO eH CO

650

Sere So oa oe =>

SF

494 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Conglomerate, with red, white, gray and yel-

low quartz and black lydian stone pebbles, in

a matrix of med, sandstone, 4.2. ee ae eee 148 0
Limestone in concretionary nodules .placed in

a matrix of greenish sandstone and _ shale,

occasionally associated with carbonized frag-

IMEI Ss, Ol wp laItS ae As.c38 cet eva ee ioe Wve 16070
Shale—

Deep red and chocolate red arenaceous. 62 0

Measures concealed, but supposed to be

of the samet quality. .25.s¢s..00 ca: 280 0

Ft.

—§ 650

8

Greenish gray sandstone, red towards the top ........
Greenish gray arenaceous limestone, with a band of
concretionary limestone, resembling conglomerate. . .
Greenish concretionary limestone and coarse sandstone,
with «Carbonize. "dritt plants. 2:3°7.\....2 o- ee oerroee
Greenishteray gamdstome™..o% essays = Yoleta Sleeve ietageierete
Greenish gray sandstone, with two bands of concretion-
AIP Vap MIMO SEONG sg 6 6s aiheyc. x oe sais wy Vee EEO Ren ee
Reddish black and reddish brown shale, with beds con-
taming caleareous: septarize 2052 3... tsig tae ene
Dark gray sandstone, with nodules” of concretionary
limestomes ss .O 5 wattle a cucne teat ou ace nore ana aie naenee Sate
Reddish black argillaceous shale, with nodules of ferru-
PUUHOUS? LIMEStOMS ©.) saya eee ts cures iota rele oe Dae ncoeeeeneene
Greenishioray sandstones. sess ch: pleas ee eae
Greenish concretionary limestone .................-
Greenishgray sandstone... 4:5 tis tie ee ots suet deue iene

bo

In.

©

ere aS

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (8).—LOGAN.

Ft
Greenish concretionary limestone, with carbonized drift

JOLIN PE eRe Poca 5 Bo cy Reclonon sis Cacia ne mena ee cic ere t 3
GC Peet stiy ote SAMOStOME te ¢.c'eja ens erate, sous o."os0 clea getty: 17
Greenish concretionary limestone ...........-..00- 1
Greenish gray or drab coloured sandstone ........... 4.
verde claeal Ole tee eey arcane uae. ual aloe Nas wl guisles eVelte 0: Ga:6) 6.iehe Ob 8
Mees aS LONG ai Anat he a areeN ere cera aero G kate ode ss oh 12
Red shale, with some bands of soft red sandstone .... 37
Redsanustone of agsott quality 22.4 60 6 ee ee ene opie 6
Red shale, with bands of red sandstone ............. 40
SELSCMISHe OCA y GAIL ASLONE yale eal late aie) eerie Osh. «2's an one): 30
Greenish concretionary limestone .................. 1
Greenish gray sandstone, 10 feet; greenish concretion-

Epyylumesbome, 27 Pee by 2, sc Geeta sys acates 6 Siege gma eit 12
Greenish gray sandstone, at the bottom of which there

is a layer of carbonized drift plants, occasionally

replaced by gray sulphuret of copper invested with

a thin pellicle of the green carbonate ............. 8
eduehnles vad. 5 ha ere isis shale ms tG present 34 8
Rediss amas LONG wiry tenet rates aged Seahe Concer asateea Mansons « aly
reduc aller tess aeheases sos ches evo eracdplanits sae So siakae we 3
Greenish gray sandstone, at the bottom which is a layer

of drift plants converted into coal, and occasionally

replaced by gray sulphuret of copper invested with

EMS GTECTUMCOTOONGALC. .1.tat lee ahs Oa coogi mig Sols 9] oe ee 6
EV 2<0 gis vel CC Ree NP pre a a er Ree Er 9
iftedeshale und red sandstone! 2 2)2)-6 2). eiyer Jesse: « : 10
CMR MALS mee ce Rene alt) pie ahs Ait bae te cs gua ausiaarhishetalensleyel® « 10
GU ue SAMGSTONC) bc). sevctpece oie 4.9) 4 > eclele 3. ‘iat c via sie ates 7
AR perches till gerne ee nse ste ayy Ses arte 8 ued rach Siecian at aiid ng Shahin whe 8
Red and greenish gray sandstone 52... ose os eo 2s uke)

Greenish gray sandstone, with drift plants converted
into coal, and occasionally replaced by gray sulphuret
Of COpper with. GTeem COTDONdbe, 4.44.6 -6. 1 ~ alee ae = al

SKS SO eo eS) SoS

Se) oe

aX Sy oanS S&S) ©

496 CARBONIFEROUS- ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Red arenaceoussshigletnve ciao coe ee eee

Red sandstone of a soft quality
Greenish gray sandstone

ied hard<arenaceous shale’ «. Jncukele gcc eels ee renee
Reddish sandstone
Red shale
Greenish gray sandstone, with carbonized remains of

plants

Greenish concretionary limestone, 2 feet; red shale, 1
BOO bad tcnchee acer
Greenish gray sandstone, with concretionary limestone
and carbonized remains of plants at the bottom ....
Greenish gray sandstone, with one foot of red shale
on top
EGE SI AEY ac abate are hae exaust eras th Masrev elas ares oneltes teteetes
Red sandstone, with some of a drab colour at the bottom,
with carbonized remains of plants and balls of argil-
laceous shale

©) Mere) je) (0) “6 “e) ey ee, '@. 'e) (6) 'e'e. \e) (0 10 00, 0 (0 emo

©, (9)! 10) Co, (6 ee) (0. ©) \e, ‘0,10) @ 10) © 10; 10,10, (¢) ee) 0; 0 6; (0) fe \0 Je) (@ fae) (eo) 6, 0) :e) © 16:

Red arenaceous shale

Fed} eamdstomes 5 fics cisictewsuste a sedoe tone toh etenab enc cen ener are
Red arenaceous shale .......... ue iesiske Wer Shep eceee renee
Red sandstone of a coarse quality ....:.2.5...5..-%
Greenish gray sandstone, coloured red in parts .......
Riedvarenaceousselale 25 cic cis sus -lsvsjesyeteieces «sentenern te
Greenish gray sandstone, with remains of plants con-

MERVCUAMLO: COMM ia cayien: wave" g acaiae: yin. 6 oy ee aie saner eae
Red-aremaceoms, Shialle iy. a. ois ecto one oo 0 aise eene = clear
Red sandstone, fit for first quality flagging ........ ee
Greenish gray sandstone, with many remains of plants

converted into coal, and occasionally replaced by

gray sulphuret of copper with a pellicle of green car-

DOmatevamommgde ity 0 eveolc etn secs sencns os) =) <7) serene ate
Red’ arenaceous. shale 2... 2. cass eee «ewes oni ae
Redtsandstone fit for Hagemg =~. \t. ris.) oe akan

ion)

30
15

Sogo © ©;

So Ooo © ©

ey (=)

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (8).—LOGAN.

Ft.
eds aremaceous) ltalo. cfc." iets ade wis ose 019, dase ees 16
iKedesanstone fit for inferior flagging... .. =. char 3
edsaromaceousy ciale 25 tr sive seo fs sacle 5 2.60!» Wierntoprenepeee 100
edesandstone tit for flagowmoy, 520165. <. css. <)eamyelere 4
hedsarendceous ciale e255 iad © aeioss 2b » pean 29
Redmsandstone tito dlagoimer 7) Se hcs. 3). 6 a senses a Ao)
VEO arena CCOUs Smal ey ah. tetg ee hia o Peele die 2 5 410 @ ene 39
inedesandspone fit: for Tagging 22.2. cols stesso urone 30
Red arenaceous shale, with two bands of red sandstone 19
ied sandstone hit fom Maen 2.07.5 ae au: 3 J cindex aeeeee 22
ede aren ace gus shale caper ore x 3.152 ciove, 2 oy hai eee eS neler 119
(Here is said to occur gypsum of a red colour, in small
quantities, but the bank being rather obscured by
debris it was not visible. )
eedearenaceous shale: 5... "nied suas he ole wks ee oe 108
Red arenaceous shale, with bands of red sandstone .... 3
ued anemaceous Slialey su, seeisce Wis clays ete A canes at tase os ao
Red arenaceous shale, with bands of red sandstone .... 3
Redwarenaceous Shales. 21.644 bus! eles eps anes, os iicencts ekoiysatis LO
Red arenaceous shale, with green veins crossing it .... 19
Javasol Tech a0 e007 e acid pace aa ete, pais er eR RT rarer rae |
ediearenaceous stale s.2c.5... okey -hecare Watenre oo wena Bee See ee
Red sandstone ....... Seceeearer EES, en EMPL TREN
Red arenaceous; shale ~~... ..2....4.00. AIAG Oe Te TO Ty
Red sandstone, partly greenish gray ............ ene,
Red arenaceous shale ...... ee sie taleenct ate Se rcae Ue
hed sandstone of a sett quality 4. cc. e6.0- 8 oe sebadee Ao
Red arenaceous shale ......... Sate cee AND bot antic tiag 12
Red sandstone 255. sic.ct +. tees etd PEER Cre HOT Tan aL
Red arenaceous shale ...... sine igs PUAN As ies ot os ee ee
Red arenaceous shale of a hard quality, with a band of
PEG SATIOS ONEGAWOV Ole 5 ec ic abetld we Hind eels hove ai aie 9
edsandstone of a soft quality”... .15..o6.4005. 06% il

Measures concealed, probably red shale ............. 4

497

_
i}

SF Soares oS) ese}:

SATS SISOS Sey Sos Ss SS SO

oo

498 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
Red arenaceous shale, with a band of greenish gray
sandstone above ........... SCENT RS eee 14
Red arenaceous shale ............. a ialteilsth Anat. RE nents 10
Measures not well seen, but probably fon arenaceous
Gna eS See eA eie on Stee ea ace eh ett geet Sct a enone 27
Red arenaceous shale, with a band of red sandstone
BUD OWGine oo siseeca ata p tees Syeetiaay. Sri foe ac Rit ee a
nedvhiard-anenaceous shale oo... eka oe st oo eee 1
Measures concealed, but probably arenaceous shale .. 15
Redsanenaiceous shale’. 4 so <<sple lat ctonetnatathn 6 Sree 53
Measures concealed, but probably red arenaceous shale
of the same quality as before. Here occurs SraMAN’s
Broo «Mim mi@ovin ete ss es lara ae o eee eee io
1658

(In the exact strike of the lower gypsum above men-
tioned, in its course to Hebert River, there is a sink-
hole about half way, in which gypsum has been found
by excavation; and where the strike would come upon
the Hebert, a mass of the mineral, apparently in situ,
is seen in the bank, with red shale on both sides of it.
At such a distance to the north of this mass as gives
a vertical thickness of 300 feet of subjacent red shale,
there is exposed a deposit of limestone, which, with
some associated strata, appears to be about 100 feet
thick; and this may, therefore, be considered as ter-
minating the foregoing section. The limestone con-
tains organic remains, among which there is, in some
abundance, a bivalve shell, which I recognize as iden-
tical with the Producta Lyelli of Windsor, in Nova
Scotia. )

In.

0

Ser So) >

WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (8).—LOGAN. 499

Ft In. .
RECAPITULATION.
Sandstone—
Greenish gray, occasionally holding
carbonized remains of plants,
and in four instances the plants
(underlying the sandstone) are
replaced by gray sulphuret and
yreen carbonate of copper .... 206 0
U EV S0 (0 IS! enone ae ere 13 0
DYE STORD C70. (eee Semen e Pees exer Ose Ze 0
. —— 432 0
‘Concretionary limestone associated with the
ereenish gray sandstone. The concretions
are held. in an argillo-arenaceous matrix. In
one instance the whole of the bed is caleare-
ous, and there occur 9 beds altogether .... 20 0
Shale—
Red arenaceous, sometimes more
and sometimes less argillaceous.1186 0
Reddish black and gray, with eal-
careous septaria and nodules... 20 0
1206 0
G55. 0
TOTAL THICKNESS.
INO Moe ee rac caeus nnn tacaer avers Lone 0
Be Peer gee ts aye te nee archi : 650 0
a re Poke ee ORG eee aa 21384 1
ieee Sesrep nds Bi Sade he Leah eee , 20O0TaaL
Sa ml oer Cor eget oa ae Sts cg, shexs 2082 0
EO Beta eae hates ioe AOS
eal ee Dh 5c! sustel bes aa fe OOM! 10)
damalo ls ee ae Spaiueters stacy tho OLN AO
14570 11

Proc. &)}.TRANS. N. S. Inst, Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS.—GG

500 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Section of Rocks from Shulie to Spicer Cove, Cumberland Co., N. S.,
in descending order.—By Hugh Fletcher, B. A., of the Geological
Survey of Canada.

Section [.
ROCKS FROM SHULIE TO SAND COVE,

In descending order.

The section begins at a cove where the highest rocks come on
top of the cliff. From this cove a school-house on the opposite:
side of Shulie river lies S. 22° E., and a little wharf near a
point is N. 48}° E., the extreme tip of the point being N. 46° E.*

Ft. In.
1. Greenish gray and gray fine sandstone with
irregular layers of conglomerate. Dip N. 685°
E.< 2°, but becomes southerly immediately down
OMe RAVER casizceeoaint am. ale eax helenae ere Cn aemeteas 25 0:
2, ved. argillaccous: shale ‘2.2 e aes eee ee LOC
3. Gray fine sandstone in thick layers nearly massive,
passing on the strike into conglomerate. .... bo. DOMED
Al) Bed camidatl o/s, Sot ac thts ao exeka eer sites ate See gee DoF
5. Red and olive-green marl, finely banded, passing on
the istrike mnto .camdstone :%. Wty .7. oneal wteree oe Dy lide
6. Gray, very fine-grained, irregularly-bedded sand-
stone, passing into arenaceous shale. Cuts out all
the shales; contains at one point a lenticular layer
of coal, two feet long and two inches to half an
inch in thickness and with these there are patches
of yellowish underclay; passing in places into
conglomerate with pebbles chiefly of pre-Carbon-
IPOOUS LOCKS YL. amputee ee ohne dian tea daeeeee 5 5
7. Red marl with layers of greenish calcareous flag;
with very irregular interchanges............. aly paren 0

-*All bearings in Mr. Fletcher's sections are magnetic. The sections were measured.
from 9th to 18th November, 1896.— Ed.

(9)

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (1).—FLETCHER.

qreenish gray sandstone, passing into conglomerate,
more than half being in places conglomerate. . .

Greenish gray sandstone and conglomerate, ir-
re2ularly mixed; in places nearly all conglomer-
ate; many large fragments of carbonized plants.
One band at the point nearest the wharf opposite

is very fine and wavy........... br antl 2 cteeh tpemee :
Red mar] with layers of harder shale ...... Peter
Reddish-gray, very fine, shaly sandstone ........
HiWed Satin are eee eval ed a cette ibe tote eM wtp siesta

Red flaggy sandstone in layers four inches thick
BUNGE AG WOR WA ce 3s woe pices) le eh has er ee
Redvamarl 6%). 48.. Shale toasireee aah peter Mota nes
Red, somewhat massive sandstone in irregular
blocks, passing into red flags. The top of the bank
at the entrance of, Shulie River 254. 22.5. depois
Red marl, with olive green blotches ...... Spesgtics sack
Red shale, with greenish, harder, calcareous bands
Jndeve ies oath CPW emethenar Rea hye? ah Pa ere AY
Red and gray, very fine, glistening sandstone in
MA Saved DyeUG create: SWeus its, Geena ner eS tenes aa nitone avers
Red marl of somewhat irregular thickness, from
onewloob tour, amnches; to, nour eet =) cre. 2-s-
Very fine gray sandstone in beds from four feet
downward ...... Bor Pint rae otis Meena pac nena ES
Red and gray shale, lenticular, replaced by gray
sandstone
Gray, very fine, massive sandstone with coal pipes.
ted marl with greenish and gray streaks; very
imreenlars sometimes: alll red): 12). o,.). +. 2):
Gray sandstone with blackish stripes, interbedded
with red marl; all more or less lenticular ......
Greenish-gray, very fine calcareous sandstone; len-
ALCITIE ave mcepnt eee way oh oerane SS ere
LOCI S001 dM ara en a ere Pe NCL ee

bo

Or

10

GOOD S&S

HS

ADd.

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
Reddish-gray, very fine sandstone in flaggy layers. 4
Light-gray fine sandstone with comminuted plants 16

Greenishvargillaceous Shale! 30% 2b: yo. 3 sor ena 3
Rusty-gray, fine sandstone, massive, passing in
places into conglomerate, and in other places
altogether into greenish argillaceous shale...... 5
Gray, very coarse, pebbly sandstone, full of pros-
trate trees, with veins of bright coal half an inch
thir katte ee Me eA a ade ave eres ee Meossche ee iieka 0
Greenish, very fine sandstone, replaced by coarser
SES tome cc edie es Slyh cael 2 Sere beee ant edepowemal oe a
Greenish and reddish rusty-weathering marl,
replacedyby samdstomes.c.ciae. 2 ocmerols ciere Risener oi i
Greenish and reddish, very fine, argillaceous
sandstone, replaced by greenish-gray, pebbly
Sandstone nic vats aise ee oe ee ae ee ee 3

Red marl with layers of jointed sandstone and shale. 7
Very fine, coherent, calcareous sandstone, in two

Or dharée layers’ Moyet oie ae ecotaces arn ah eee eee 0
Etec rial UN ee SR ee Wieite steerer uee een hie Cie meee +
Gray flags, verv fine and sandy, replaced on the

strike by oraye camdspomens./1/5/. 2 cits oo. neni eae 6
Gray massive sandstone. Much thicker in places,

but replaced by the lower band of red marl...... 3
Greenishecrumilnlysmarl enn. task. ieee er eter 0
Red marl with a layer of harder rock ........... 6
Reddish and greenish, mottled, flaggy, rubbly rock ;

replaced by greenish sandstone .............. 2

Greenish-gray very fine sandstone, passing into
gray pebbly isamdstomessn i auc. «ian elution 6

Gray and rusty pebbly sandstone, with very
irregular surfaces. The rocks are unfit for grind-
stone; many of the layers show broken leaves and
fruit of fossil plants, with sometimes large

In.

0
4
0

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (1).—FLETCHER.

46. Red marly rock, seen for a great distance on the
strike with various replacements ...........
47. Gray, fine, massive, rusty-weathering sandstone all
replaced by red marl, and again by sandstone. .
AGE EEG rmanlOmas Ree tee meres ata me vce lh «+ bie ao aneete
AO ved dish sandy laos Ge los oe 20s os dc). se eee eee
Os Greenish-eray “Sandstone 8) 2)h 40 ifilo< acts vlad ante
51. Greenish argillaceous shale with a blackish streak
EI mEMCAI DR eekar ars hemercnte sh cys asta cyats eteMeuch sie ohe a Metres
52. Reddish and gray, very fine, flagev sandstone. ...
53. Red marl, replaced by sandstone. The bottom of
this bed is at water-level at a little broox......
54. Greenish-gray sandstone. An eight inch fault with
Up-throw-on the soubhyside cw.) 2 steake wet seeks
DD EMVOCmTIa TI: sete niger pei aley Ape and eaten stati se epee as
56. Greenish-gray calcareous rock in two layers .....

57. Red marl. Another little fault with upthrow on
MOY SMEG SUG OS aac seen NA cel gts oe. fons Be A etalclze Ata
58. Gray very coherent sandstone 0... J. 204.2 5%
59. Red argillaceous shale with greenish blotches. . .
GO Reddish-eray sandstone ©. 5... wd ste tes
Giles: icved@aretllaceous shale: 2.8414 si 2) isp eleksyens o> oe
62. Light-gray, very coherent, knobby sandstone... ..
63. Gray and greenish-gray very fine sandstone......
64. Red sandstone and argillaceous shale ..........
65. Reddish argillaceous shale with three layers of
PLAY LEM SANUS HOME a at saris ay als Secale, sul ep Acor veces!
66. Red marl and sandstone, replaced by the gray sand-
SLOMOUOENOL, Oil aeseptat saree Sei ectaya he esp ew oie btiete ool
67. Gray sandstone at water level at the mouth of a
HiT NOOO KG we htc sk cdots Paeths ced Aveta eee acl
GSx deoemar le ies ayepieia < cogs aca 2 deere, hist vals ak crete
69. Gray fine sandstone in three livers much thicker

UTA LACES oie sshanee tr seeeehe cay eevola Ai ee heel lahat Serna

Ft. In
2 0
5» 0
4 6
3 0
D0 ack:
2 0O
4 1
0
1 8
(Pe
0 10
56
a,
2 6
2 10
4 0
O38
Hen O
5 10
Ie
C26
2 0
5a G6
2 6

504 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft In.
70); (Red: inane 24a ae evi cenee enancoage Siemurrce neeance ae 4 0
71. Greenish-gray sandstone with lenticular layers of
red marl; blackish pebbly patches ............ 4 4
72. Greenish and red argillaceous shale ............ 1. %6
73. Greenish argillaceous shale and flaggy sandstone.
SDipSe 160 p00 Angel ae gas kre ie ee 5 0
74. Red marl and gray sandstone in layers. Dip
SEB OS RO eh aie ol Rael conn Meaney eacltaa tos a) GplO
75. Light gray very fine sandstone, passing into red
marl at the top and into arenaceous shale..... nti See
76. Gray, coarse and fine, pebbly sandstone at the
mouth of Fitzgibbon Brook ...... ted eda a A> AG

77. Greenish-gray conglomerate, with pebbles often
larger than a hen’s egg. Forms the base of the
island on the south side of the brook. The lowest

three fectias finer im placesmsispyen. (4s ee nrae oA DANG
78> Red “marly Ge lbtnader lies spe ek ees pol eee ies, ese 6520
79. Reddish, rubbly, argillaceous sandstone with

irregular thin layers:of red marly a2. -c5 2% -e a bis
80. Red marl with layers of rubbly argillaceous

SAMASTOME. .shertloe ls Wine eau Nuh) ss Se eee tee Mal AG
81. Reddish-gray, very fine, flaggy sandstone........ 4 0
S24 Red, joimbeds marl wikite a setae an cnet 2G
83. Greenish and reddish mottled sandstone and

arenaceous shale in alternate layers ........... PBR
84. Reddish-gray sandstone, a few inches on top pass-

ing into gray fine and coarse sandstone......... 6 0
85. Measures concealed in a cove at the mouth of a

lnttlon brook; n/t: ene a scre eee LOWS

86. Light gray, fine, micaceous sandstone, blackened
in places by minute plants; rusty spots, with
coal pipes and greenish shale. Thickens in places
bycencrouchine;mpon dio NSige eee cee ae LOO
87. Reddish and greenish argillaceous shale

‘93.
94,
DEE clcrntetisiie eee een yts vg ts ales beaks Sicko Gentedene ;

ii:

98.

100.
tO:

102.
103.

104.

105.
106.

107.

108.

109.
ttO:

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (1).—FLETCHER.

. Gray fine sandstone in irregular layers .....

Greenish-gray argillaceous shale with harder

layers. of sandstone ........6+..--- +e ee ees aes
Gray sandstone as before with lenticular layers of

sReCG PSG Soe ety Nae ee Cac cu ea EEE oR 2h
Eted-amarl rand sandstone (5...) sav @ 22 s/o ah- aa
Greenish arenaceous shale ...............04--
Gray pebbly sandstone, irregularly bedded ......
Greenish, soft, argillaceous underclay .........-

Gray sandy flags, not well seen ............---.-
Measmresicanceale dis itiac:. suis «sie av niee/ete oven stagers
Red marlvandssandiy, flags * 5. fc.0 sy) re anit «apt ol
Gray pebbly sandstone at the mouth of a little
La pyro eeslee ece, ae etch cas eg NE Go otek ae tosaet
Reedy maatl irc... over a - se eee Renee ay aah ,
Measures concealed at Cranberry Head to a little
pond or marsh. Dip S.20 Hi 4 2 2 ”
Light gray flaggy sandstone ........-.-.++--+-
Gray coarse pebbly sandstone with patches of con-
elomerate .j.\.o.a6 « AB Rerten Ot am tn Serene yor cero
Greenish and gray, reddish and rusty conglomer-
ate with pebbles as large as a hen’s egg; of ir-
TEM U AT SUMTCMOSS weet) ohehes ecco yernst os Sei keus meee lose!
Grary Coarse: SAMOShOMel fsa rsia tae: eierelle «clits “A2bsns tale fo) <
Creenishpareililaceoussstiale o715 9 ciastt ce clster sl 2s
eenbshtale sar. eh ances ante Sr ot eee Lio gdrs
Reddish-gray sandstone, passing into gray fine
Gams HOMO M MN Rerensyat hs. RS octave oye aeons} so, oh aha slo,
Greenish and gray and reddish argillaceous shale. .
Greenish and gray, rusty and reddish flaggy sand-
stone, and arenaceous shale with three patches of
greenish coarse shale and coal-pipes; lenticular
beds of conglomerate also

is)

peat
(S)

no wpokrFwoonrtr oe

23

ae) Cy S&S

Pa)

130.

2. Reddish-gray argillaceous shale
. Reddish, rubbly, argillaceous sandstone
. Red shale
. Red marl and sandstone in alternate layers
. Light gray arenaceous shale with a tinge of red on

. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale
. Light-gray fine flagey sandstone
. Gray, coarse, pebbly sandstone with patches of

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

» Greenish arellaceous shale a2) sae eee er ae
to)

» Red: areilllaceous: shale: scree Norio eee ee

. Greenish-gray and gray sandstone, passing into

red marl and flaggy sandstone ..............

URC aaa a8 eae b.0, 2 0s" eee ens erate nen
. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ...............
. Gray, coarse, pebbly sandstone in thick layers...

. Greenish arenaceous and argillacesus shale .....
. Red argillaceous shale and sandstone ...........
. Greenish and gray very fine sandstone and arena-

eceous shale

©, Koi! o) (0)).8! de: He Nie) ¢,0\0! (oN, \sew) 0 (en:s)fehlel el reuie teilelle? 0, sl Jello .e.

). Greenish and reddish, mottled, nearly compact

sandstone, passing into gray sandstone

jai, 0, (@) Je eee Je

. Gray and rusty sandstone in part pebbly and with

patches of conglomerate

Ofce) Kerle: ememiewjelje; 0) cme henlosie telieMemie
eye) (0) a) eine) velo jenle/\s) lelne) 10
@) je) seije es (ele) se:
COON OO EON CUNO MOE Cn OM On Uarn ONO wit OO) OF Choe O tO

top, passing into gray flagey sandstone; lenticular
patches of greenish argillaceous shale and red
marl, sometimes ten feet thick

ee; ee ee; @ ‘e))6'e) e ele
CO PON Om Oeciecy Dace 0 ONO 0 FOO

ot len ette, (eco) sem eure! rel yelleute, te) Le

conglomerate and a finer rock ; in part very rusty
with many streaks of coal and prostrate trees...
Measures concealed at the mouths of five little
brooks, Clam Cove. Dip N. 66° E.<12°. The
change of dip from S. E. to E. and then back to
S. E. requires further examination. That it

29

extends across this concealed interval is doubtful. 493

Aa Io oO SO

=)

od O~ a

S

151.

132.

133.

154.

135.
156.
137.

38.
139.
140.

141.

142.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (1).—FLETCHER.

Gray and rusty sandstone irregularly bedded;
patches of fine conglomerate in lenticular masses
sometumes six feet thick .2..05 0.02. + cise. ates ee

Red argillaceous shale and sandstone. Dip

HN ae (Gg Saas oa ines Be che at cbeere-aWansige ob 2s shire: oe Stee .
Light gray and greenish flagey sandstone ......-.
Light greenish and bluish gray argillaceous and

SRCMACEO Masini Cateye seats sche olevoue ciel cueveuelsns sgl
WS etipett e000 pene ve teak tet aloyemer sip tea tak o's oPoler'ewevexo,e a! Plats rotate
Dark gray argillaceous shale .........-.---++---
Red and greenish, more or less coneretionary

AUH WON ye AS KANO vapeeyonats: casio. lonelier svat smeor nsken Sotte
Red and greenish mottled argillaceous flag ......
Red and greenish argillaceous shale ........ Seieaas

Reddish and greenish coherent sandstone, very
fine and. atenllaceouss scp). asl /- ls ote a ae eps
Red marl with dark-greenish blotches and shaly
LSGRS siat ane eter ee Na mise hao eS are :
Greenish and gray very fine wavy sandstone and
SiG aeccee ie een aaa Os So cusise vob oh. cos clinic eltcetne
Greenish and light gray very fine sandstone, full
OLE CATHOMi Zed: Plats: 66 fie w ie, le metas Se
Gray, coarse, pebbly sandstone and conglomerate. .
Redsmarlwithshandersayerss. .nic00 racks scion + os
Greenish fine argillaceous sandstone in flaggy and
slitallvad lepyersan Getse tat tals oie ties oes ee ona HI ee econ as ons
Light gray and rusty jointed sandstone of fine tex-
ture with broken plants, wavy, with lenticular
Patches cot coal 2.5). stant ae
A lenticular layer of coal and pyrite in bands; from
dour tontwermenesi-thickyedn a's trestles th ao ere <u
Gray, rusty-weathering, irregularly bedded sand-
stone, with patches of conglomerate and wedges of
coal. Many of the sandstones are false-bedded
and hard to measure

Ft.

H= Or

Or

i

507

508 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER

Ft. In.

150. Red and green argillaceous shale .........-:... OnE
151. Gray fine sandstone, passing at the bottom into
pebbly, coarse sandstone with pebbles as large as

a “hen seepe eee te... ores. 0 a! see eu cena atta serene cae LOGS

152. Greenish coarse nut-and-egg conglomerate ...... 14 0

153. Greenish argillaceous shale, passing into rusty
coarse twisted sandstone with coal-pipes ...... 1 9
154. Rusty sandstone and fire-clay, light gray at the top 6 0
155. Alternate layers of sandstone and conglomerate,
replaced in part by greenish argillaceous shale.. 11 6
156. Arenaceous shale replaced by argillaceous shale... 2 0
157. Gray massive sandstone, broken by irregular joints,

with lenticular replacements of greenish and red-

Gish shia lars. c-s eee era eaten ane meeps Reale.)
158. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ............-. OES
159. Gray, rusty-weathering, fine sandstone with pebbly

PUG CINC ee (oe ccethes is ee sates pdcien Sake sRhsretlouat chs Caek ne ce SLO O

160. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale; in places replaced

by samdstomec.ncsotrcitin ion tok nate ays haholsionnsrommerett ee
161. Gray and greenish-gray flaggy sandstone, passing

at the bottom into pebbly coarse sandstone ..... 19 0
162. Dark gray argillaceous shale, more or less

bo

lembuc land sees, ates tence Rt nic outer 0
163. Gray broken and jointed sandstone. All the sand-

stones contain comminuted carbonized plants... 10 0
164. Greenish flaggy sandstone with thin layers of red

argillaceous shale. <A three-feet fault with

upthnow ome! west suden a) scat sore srcpen-bapedel meen am
165. Red argillaceous shale, with thin band of ereenish-

oraviCOWenenmt SalldstOme: coats Miele oe the jeust setae ee
166. Gray rusty-weathering sandstone in somewhat

flagey luyers, with small wedges of argillaceous

shale. Another fault of nine feet five inches with

upthrow cn the west. Dip of fault N. 42° E.

GTO. Oe Siansotntg an oa MCE to POE eee 2G

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (!)—-FLETCHER.

167. Red argillaceous shale and greenish-gray argil-
laceous flags with wavy arenaceous shale in alter-
nate bands, in part replaced by greenish sandstone

168. Greenish-gray fine flaggy sandstone, becoming
coarse at the bottom. A downthrow fault dips
S. 60° W.<85°. Another dips S. 28° W.< 85°,
the amount of downthrow to the south being nine
feet. The sandstone contains coal-pipes, and
wedges of argillaceous shale. Here the bottom of
No. 167 shows two inches of black coaly shale
and the upper surface of the sandstone becomes
rusty underelay. <A little further south is a
twenty-two feet upthrow on the south side, the
dip being N. 43° E.< 28°. The faults are easily
traced by the coalyishale = sce seta amae,- ciate oe

169. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ...............

170. Reddish and greenish sandstone in alternate layers
thrown up a few feet on the south side. On the
strike these beds pass at the bottom into dark

argillaceous shale ........ Sel Ee ate aces ee Ee
het Gray arenaceous shale oc). sn os < <dons hs 2 reer?

172. Greenish-gray and rusty conglomerate, jointed and
with small lenticular layers of red and greenish
argillaceous shale. In the joints are veins of
barytes7a quarter or an anch thick: «2:0: soln at

178. Greenish-gray and gray fine sandstone divided into
two by a foot of greenish argillaceous shale. An
upthrow-fault of perhaps twenty-five feet, not
well seen, separates No. 172 from this sandstone

174. Reddish argillaceous shale with blotches of greenish
shale; passes in places into greenish shale......

175. Reddish, rubbly, argillaceous sandstone and shale
in alternate layers, passing into sandstone with

coal-pipes. No. 67 of Section II (See page 514).

i)
pea ce)

25

12

509

6

510 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Fi ine
176. Gray jointed pebbly sandstone. At the water level
on the point of Sand Cove and following for some
distance to the southward, while still further
south the sandstone of No. 173 comes to the
WLLCE) LEV li essa bs a a-o1 2, Geos ree eee arene Serer nee 10 @
7. Greenish-gray conglomerate with layers of finer

be
~J
~I

ert and, of arenaceous: shale: (0.45...) eee 10 0
8. Greenish-gray and gray fine sandstone with a little

pean
Sy

coal, seen only on the reefs. The dip now turns
to S. 12° W.<18°. (All the bearings in these
sections are magnetic). A number of small faults,
not well seen now obscure the section which is
repeated in ascending order towards the large
brook that flows into Sand Cove, as in Section
dbs Bi Past ee he eds. Cae Nita eRe ma Scle bid’ oo.0)"S 6 Zoe Os

Total thickness*of Section. 2... ee . 1769 «4

From the top of the 25 feet sandstone (No. 173 of Section
I.) south along the shore at about 60 yards the dip changes to.
S.< 50°. At 155 yards, sandstone and conglomerate dip
S. 20° W.< 25°. At 260 yards, a 3-inch band of black shale-
underlaid by fine sandstone dips S. 35° W.<33°. At 365 yards,
sandstone dips S. 84° W.< 31°, but seems at 475 yards to dip
northerly at a very high angle. There is here every indication
of a fault with a downthrow to the north. The dip at one point
is overturned to S$ 1° E.< 69°; the red marl, sandstone and
conglomerate to the northward are greatly altered, then for 17
yards farther the dip is westerly, while for the next 100 yards.
the shore follows the strike, the dip being towards the sea.

Few rocks are then seen to 560 yards where the dip is.
perhaps N. 45° E.< 20°, beyond which for 526 yards to the
mouth of Sand Brook a sand beach conceals the rocks.

to

Q°2

14.
15.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (2),—FLETCHER.

511

From the outermost reef a section was measured as follows:

SrecTion II.
NORTIW OF SAND COVE,
In descending order.

Rusty conglomerate with bands of gray sandstone.
WSS OWES OO ete ts ates oe ees Sl hcl
Rusty and light-gray fine sandstone in thick beds,

seen at intervals on the reefs............ eens
Rusty and greenish-gray pebbly sandstone and con-
GLOMELALE: ic sci ee Oe ate. oe eae oe eee ee

Rusty and greenish-gray pea-and-nut conglomerate
with many larger pebbles. Extends to the fault.

. Light-gray argillaceous shale with a layer of blackish

Goalysmatter on. the:topic 2.2.4: ee :
Red argillaceous shale with arate of flag

léfe}

iS
mM
99
B
5

SURO LOLS tr Garry obi erator crud G cio ad Teo Ate ore ee
Greenish-gray and rusty nut-and-egg conglomerate.
Little downthrows on the east side ........ ‘
Reddish argillaceous shale with greenish layers fad

Gt Cheeta ace tac hoo taet So SOAS eos Ca
Greenish-gray argillaceous shale with red bands. .
Gray and greenish-gray, pebbly sandstone with

irregular layers of conglomerate .............
Greenish argillaceous shale and flags with reddish
AVG RA Teese yee pets et ee eis Sy eta a Bes Uaiaheyd

Greenish arenaceous shale with red_ spots an
Iblotchese iat cir toy tea ai ye nmr a cee a Si
Light-gray fine sandstone with coal-pipes and a few
paiches*of conglomerate 26%. 2). yas crocs «cet
Rusty and gray pea-and-nut conglomerate ........
Light greenish-gray fine sandstone with plants and
patches of argillaceous shale ............... :

11

10

10

10

~I

bo

—
~I bo

In.

512

16.

2
od.

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Red and green argillaceous shale. A band of black
shale and coal 3 inches on top (p. 510) .. .....
Light gray very fine sandstone with an underclay at
the. CO hss inde actd = Gass SE et ons ewe aie
Red: ancillaceousishale.2 su aeiciencks yeas oo Oe
Greenisharedlaceous shales. -./oa~ i.e so ee ore
Bright-red conglomerate, passing into red sandstone
Light-gray fine sandstone with coal-pipes ........
Greenish and gray pea-and-nut conglomerate ......
Greenish argillaceous shale, passing into harder flags
Greenish eoherent “Mar” oy. i.) ea Ss. ye leas se
Red argillaceous shale and sandstone or arenaceous
ehiate ainda das: ranitGed ss cere) veal weyeare eee
Light bluish-gray very fine sandstone ............
Red flags with greenish layers and blotches ......
Gray very fine sandstone with a reddish tinge
Red argillaceous shale with layers of greenish sand-

SOMO 2 5 ee eh acntees eso owa eine toh aac ales eer ation rink ele al .
Gray, coarse, pebbly Samdstome..(.y.%. 7-15 seusinioe
Red argillaceous shale with bands of greenish, fine

coherent; lacey. “sandstone -.\.70e jena segs ets
Light gray, ripple-marked sandstone with the foot-

prints;of some wand. animial~ <5 . 27.-.;- ee Oe ed cage
ed -aroillaceous sslialle i s).te1 ore vole, sett lenetabey) eaten tere
Light-gray and rusty very tine sandstone with
sinallll patches: ok conelomeraten ..1.)s5 6-0 seri
Red argillaceous shale and sandstone, not well

SRO SOU Meee ceva tie ate cakes Leet ene rereae ere eae :
Greenish-gray very fine sandstone .......... mishia
Red argillaceous shale, not well exposed but appar-

Cniblyamotekemlted . est iiNet ates okcareiat seeuete
Light-gray, fine, flaggy sandstone, with patches of

como lomleTaitio’ lus: .taroylewers reel enehe ketene eee tent tee

Greenish-eray and rusty sandstone and conglomerate
MITE ets Ae acer: Bs Soe Seite anaehs Bay tage :

Ft.

20

10

In.

0

=)

CSP Ray es) (9) 18)

—— — a)

for)

or)

40.

46.
47.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (2).—FLETCHER.

Red and green mottled argillaceous shale ........
Reddish sandstone with green spots ............
Red argillaceous shale with a layer of white clay
HEA TAPULE MEO [er wrt ne arse ee rales vac 6/2 75-5 so alee
Rusty-gray sandstone with a lenticular layer of
greenish and reddish argillaceous shale ......
Red and ereen, argillaceous’ shale): <2)... 5...
Greenish-gray and rusty, flaggy sandstone, with thin
layers of red areillacesus shale... 0... 5. Sato
Red argillaceous sandstone, flag and shale .......
Greenish and gray, fine, flaggy sandstone with ear-
bonized plants and argillaceous streaks ........

48. Greenish and gray, coarse, pebbly sandstone and con-

65.

glomerate, with lenticular layers of greenish

arenllaccous shale esoteric Semis eo jas Seas se
Red argillaceous shale with greenish flags........
Greenish, fine, flagey Sandstone .....0).2:.2......4
Greenish-gray and red argillaceous shale .........
Greenish-gray, fine, flaggy sandstone, lenticular ...
iRedtancnaceous shallot 2 eens Ian © Ocean syem eno

Red argillaceous shale with bands of red and green-
SES OTROS OMG Men J, LM a oye eaten am eee enee SS 5 :
Mieactmes;;concenled S20), aad indacansre ee a
Gray, fine, flagey and shaly sandstone ......... :
Rusty-gray fine sandstone, with pebbly patches ....
Measures concealed, probably soft .............
Gray and rusty, pebbly, coarse sandstone ........
Measures concealed (facia sce ete A ede Sars sis oe
Rusty and gray, crumbly, pebbly sandstone with
COT O11) 1? Sip ae ay ere eek Ae PS ee Ae
Red argillaceous shale, not well exposed..........

Greenish and gray and rusty, pebbly sandstone, with
plants and coal-pipes. The dip changes to easterly
Greenish-gray arenaceous and argillaceous shale. ..

bo

4
LO So Sy?

bo

SS ae ©

514 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

65. Red argillaceous sandstone with greenish patches, Bias:
Tubbly: andammrneewlar beds yo/27\-chee) eee arith ae S20

66. Red argillaceous shale with a light greenish clay-
parting at the top. Thinner in places ..... aye) 0)

67. Reddish arenaceous shale with greenish blotches
PROSE Gids SS o oO antes amtro dS Cue oe aperan chs ot Se

68 Greenish and gray arenaceous shale; passes into
FANG PSA CISION er ar Sisewieers soe) eieitco omadledaa eins loco to) Shane 2 6

69. Rusty-gray, fine sandstone with streaks of argilla-

eeous shale. To the water-level at the point of
Sand’ Cove..No, dG .0f Section Ti. in. Bye)
Motal’ “theless, i. 52\. jane: scotst esate cece gee DOremaG)

There is probably no break in this section which repeats the
measures of Section I. as far as the fault.

Across Sand Brook, at 344 yards farther south, gray pebbly
sandstone in a cliff dips N. 75° E.<19°. Including all the
rocks to the top of this and the succeeding cliffs, the section is

as follows:
Section III.

SOUTHWEST OF SAND COVE,

In descending order.

ie MG pery an ictrnale Soyer eMn ie niin cooRirscic nc 4 oe 20 0
2. Red argillaceous shale and sandstone ......... wo 40550
3. Gray sandstone with pebbly patches ........... 2080

4, Red argillaceous shale with harder layers of reddish

‘anud greenish sandstone. Some layers of reddish
sandstone are of coarse texture ............. DD Tag

5. Gray fine sandstone in broken layers. Thin bands

of greenish argillaceous shale and beds of arena-

ceous shale; coal streaks; very thin patches of
poblboliv: POCK sins es s:slene fmiereaesneaioncts 0 sis ote epee BOOED

Total thickwess. s% 20 Fee, eee eee 2051s

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (4).—FLETCHER. Ey Ls)

The first clifts include only Nos. 4, 5 and ten ft. of 8. Then a
downthrow fault on the south side brings red rock against the
eray sandstone the whole height of the cliff, the displacement
being probably sixty feet nearly vertical in a southeasterly direc-
tion. Further along, at another downthrow, a bed, perhaps 3.
is seen to be twenty feet thick, while overlying come 2 and 1
as given in the section.

Outside on the point, a band of sixty feet of fine gray sand-
stone is overlaid by red rocks and gray sandstone at another
fault.

Again a thick sandstone, perhaps 5, comes on the shore
and is faulted. This is nearly all of fine texture, whereas
further along the shore there are bands of coarser material. It
seems possible that for all this distance the same sandstone (5)
runs along on the strike, broken by many little faults.

Then comes a thickness of seventy-five feet of red rocks with
conglomerate bands nearly horizontal. Then a heavy gray sand-
stone with a band of conglomerate twenty feet thick, greenish
and reddish and gray, underlaid by pebbly sandstone.

Towards Sand River the section is in ascending order, red
shale, sandstone of coarser texture with more conglomerate being
abundant as far as a clean cliff of sandstone, nearly all fine,
about 100 feet high. The highest beds at Sand River show thin
layers of shale. A descending section is as follows:

Section LV.
FROM SAND RIVER EASTWARD,

In descending order.
Ft.- In

1. Red marl with green layers, broken in the bank,
beneath the first house behind the Post Office at
Sand” River «Dip Sel97 W.<20° to 44.
hickness wnderined rst. Se & ore aise acs ave: + Sitar Om a

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INsT, Scy., Vou. X1. TRANS.—HH

516 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

2. Gray and greenish, fine, wavy sandstone and

arenaceous shale, with rusty spots and small

Strenic Or scoala sees. see reece tate ooe ar Ba.

3. Red marl with flagey layers and greenish blotches

Pina I |Of2 11016 bel chy. oa ire PAE OER ices Ac aC acai A Gs ec

4. Reddish, somewhat massive. fine sandstone and

argrilaceousasitalle 2. eagarctnee ar ieeleieee treet a

5. Red marl with irregular bands of harder flags. Dip

Noa lng ea 5 ls a Ses Rae ORAS. tye cee

6. Red, very fine sandstone, in two wedge-shaped layers

dee wvediantarlits: meeeehale ra eats nied. ee By. a Re Pen eeee :

8. Red sandstone with greenish blotches .......... :

9. Red marl with light green blotches .............

10. Red argillaceous sandstone and flag with green
WALCHOSARUE WR. .t ade aesial ens Soe ots so Stare ota tier eon monsnen eae

11. Red marl or argillaceous shale with thin harder
La VERS eas rece haete ss oreatcateneyehe tse tcretion Wan sa ote onees :

12. Greenish, coherent, argillaceous flag ............
13. Red marl with two thin layers of sandy flag .....
14. Red argillaceous sandstone with green blotches;
passes into argullaceous shale... . 57-609. 4-22 .

15. Red argillaceous shale with green pipes and blotches
1G.+ Gray, oretusty tineroritit.. . sane. a cheats Sa gepate
ie med sarelllaceous: slnalet ts te census. beets ep ee
18. Greenish and rusty gray very fine sandstone with a
few pebbles, rusty spots and coaly blotches....

19. Greenish or bluish-gray argillaceous shale ........
20. Greenish-gray arenaceous shale and flaggy sandstone
21. Greenish and bluish-gray argillaceous shale; passes
Linbo Sandys dacs" osccrar pea. haere Crea

22. Greenish-gray flagey arenaceous shale and sandstone
23. Reddish argillaceous shale with greenish thin layers
and» bioteheswin.y. smeanie tw ee ica sy Feroue te Ropar

20. Teddish= tagevosandstome st. ier t).fsiaee eae eee

Ft.

lo

bo ke aT bo

pL o aI

bo

Or

In.

SS) “er ep ©) (ep) ep Sy ep >)

ior)

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (4).——FLETCHER.

Red argillaceous shale with a layer of rubbly fine
BAMASONG. cis. 2 cs ee ess
Reddish sandstone with green patches ...
Red crumbly argillaceous shale with. four layers,
sometimes lenticular, of arenaceous flag .......
Greenish-eray and rusty fine arenaceous shale and
sandstone, blackened with comminuted carbonized
plants; rusty and coaly spots; small lenticular
basins of greenish argillaceous shale; has in
places an Indian-red tint. The water-level of the
base of the sand bar is at 31 feet, the rest of the
measurement being on the outer shore. The
layers are usually thick, very irregular, and in
the lower part occur a few pebbles as large as a
hen’s egg. Dip at the bar 8. 5° E < 25°
Red argillaceous shale

wie) <0) .6, 6) 6) of 6b 60, fe (6 (01/6) 4 0. ¢' 61 eye! 16 6

Greenish-gray, gray and rusty, coarse sandstone with
patches of pea-and-nut conglomerate; pipes and
gash-veins of coal from one inch downward....

Greenish-gray argillaceous shale

Gray and greenish, flaggy, fine sandstone

hedrarcallacecous shale. faco2 AP ele ee at ok os

Greenish-gray shaly sandstone or arenaceous shale.

Rusty-gray thick-bedded sandstone, with a few small
pebbles

Red argillaceous shale

Greenish-gray arenaceous shale, passing into sand-
stone |

Rusty gray fine sandstone, jointed into rectangular
blocks, with pebbly patches

Greenish and bluish-gray argillaceous shale, of
irregular thickness

Greenish-gray arenaceous flag

135

CO

Serer ere

518 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

41.

42,

43.

44.

45.

46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.

53.
54.
55.
56.

57.
58.

59.

60.

Light-gray and greenish-gray, false-bedded, rusty-
weathering sandstone, of somewhat loose texture;
coal-pipes and pebbly patches .............-.

Rusty-gray and greenish pea-and-nut conglomerate
Wat, Lamoer eb BLES yo tucia< ley seunete ieee let ts teense dae

Greenish-eray and rusty, very coarse, pebbly sand-
stone in irregular beds, for the most part thick-
bec e dec 08 tye clear ee coat one geleraneeme nese eenoue foxes Oi

Greenish and rusty nut-and-egg conglomerate with
Aner Wands’ .c13 acs on Cie ls hee ae oer ie

Reddish argillaceous shale with greenish and dark
layers and blotches, probably No. 5 of next section

Greenish-gray arenaceous shale ................

Reddish-gray argillaceous shale and flags.........

Reddish-gray sandstone in bands .............+.

Red ‘areillaceous shale: .).)./: a1 seni seis\ cet estele

Greenish arenaceous shale and flagey sandstone ...

Rusty, thick-bedded, fine sandstone .............

Red argillaceous shale with greenish bands and
blotches: WipiSe1 7 Se tad Globes bane cnenon

Red and green argillaceous shale with harder flags. .

Reddish argillaceous shale with fewer green blotches

Greenish and reddish arenaceous shale ...........

Gray and rusty fine sandstone, false-bedded and in
tack Shayiens. 2h iia ws. suse, 6, bets ewes ae ear Se oman

Gray sandstone of the same texture, but pebbly....

Greenish pea-and-nut conglomerate, in irregular bed-
GLAMIS Se seh er ah Vaal Sita ae nee ena cae ON ee

Rusty and grav pebbly sandstone. Dip 8. 21° E. to
NoMa Ee) dl Os a1 oes: 70S aM rer eee. Cen Ara oh

Greenish-gray and rusty conglomerate and fine
sandstone mixed in lenticular beds. Below No.
60 the beds do not appear in the cliff but only on
reefs below high-water

Wud, (1,07 0, Geo ot er ajje 8. 18n 0 Ler eee tee ar

Ft.

25

67

In.

61.
62.
63.
64.
65.

66.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (5),—FLETCHER.

Ft.
Greenish-gray conglomerate ................ a es,
Greenish-sray sandstone... ..0.. 50.29. 20 Ses 5
Greenish and reddish, mottled argillaceous shale
wathi harder tacoy bands :.::.......4> ssaees 12
Greenish sandy flags and sandstone in a massive bed ;
conelomeratesatathe bottom. «4... 0... aera: 5
Measures concealed. Red marl and greenish argil-
laceous coherent flags seen on the reefs ....... 13
Greenish-gray and gray fine sandstone .......... 30
Motalsihi ckmess: 45 ees oa No ee ee 579

0
0

2

Here the section is broken by a fault with a downthrow of

considerable amount to the east, its dip being east and hade
nearly vertical. The throw could not be determined, but perhaps
the following beds succeed as indicated.

SECTION V.

BETWEEN SAND RIVER AND SAND COVE.

1. Greenish-gray sandstone like No. 48 of Section IV.
Dip S72 tO5, Wie PASS tOn PA ee. ily aied oe cee os 5
2. Greenish argillaceous shale passing into sandstone. 3
3. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale passing into sand-
SUOMI OE ha veters cab aursl Sin tou Meth a Shales mre Se hee A ee oon’ a)
4, Greenish-gray and gray fine sandstone with some
layers of greenish argillaceous shale ........... 20
5. Red argillaceous shale. Possibly No. 45 of the pre-
WAOUSHBECHOM Mt iiss ware ee att tae tora 2
Gmlved Gmarlystsandstone: < ..8 8 sc.ce ls ache cat Ac 6
7. Red argillaceous shale with greenish layers ....... 2
8. Rusty and greenish fine sandstone, with carbonized
plants.andipebbly patches\....4 5... 00. sess 10
9. Gray and rusty pebbly sandstone, with small patches

of pea-and-nut conglomerat* and veins of coal one
ineh) thickvamdadownwardsic . 6.) ses Mate eee 5

520 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.--LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft.
10. Greenish and rusty nut-and-egg conglomerate ; passes
partly ito sandstone. =)... Gite eile «Poteet ae 10
11. Rusty and greenish-gray pebbly sandstone,’ irregu-
larly: bed ded: (veer oui ns «tiie niteaeteaeneene ita ns ore 10
12. Red marl or argillaceous shale not weil exposed .... 23
13. Reddish-gray and gray arenaceous shale and flaggy
SA MASLOME yer tee ie, Gove’ Lie ere ede nate c eukers 3
14. Gray fine sandstone. Possibly No. 51 of Section IV. 5
15. Greenish-gray arenaceous shale, passing in part into
red arcililaceous sWale )-2cc,+ soto we letemen eens df
16. Gray and rusty fine sandstone with a few small
pebbly patches at the bottom .............5... 10
17. Greenish-gray conglomerate; passes into pebbly
GAIUS LOMO Aya Cntescvcl tue: cntyeecia orl chats Siw oho one Meslegs oeetinmens 3
18: Greenish-eray pebbly sandstone 2.1.20). 7.5.5. 2. 4
19. Greenish-gray and reddish argillaceous shale..... 4

. Red argillaceous shale

. Gray fine sandstone with coal-pipes, very irregularly

beddeditiowandsthetop Sse teeunap aes coe ae sae 12
. Greenish and reddish argillaceous shale in alternate

lawerssyith tharder tags. 22%. .eusc). adavscsed acne 6
. Greenish argillaceous shale and fine sandstone..... 4

. Rusty-gray pebbly sandstone in irregular beds ; coal-

pipes and lenticular layers of argillaceous shale... 25

© (0 @ [e\ @ © 6 fe (je! 6 6. 0 (e) ie) ee [ee <0) e116) @ fo

25. Reddish-gray argillaceous sandstone ............ 3
26. Red marl with a few greenish streaks ........... 9
27. Rusty-gray pebbly sandstone; many fossil plants in
SOMPOSIAW CIES sake nt elt om teats Bee ened meen 10
28. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ................ 1
29. Rusty-gray pebbly sandstone as above............ itl
30. Red argillaceous shale and -flags with greenish

blotehessat thesbottom: ..c.0) eee ee 9

. Greenish and gray argillaceous sandstone in one

layer

In.

0

oS

6

Ss eat >

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (5).-—FLETCHER. 52

Ft
32. Rusty-gray fine flaggy sandstone .......-....--- 5
33. Greenish and gray argillaceous flags ...........- 2
34. Red argillaceous shale; passes into rusty sandstone. 2
35. .Greemish fine SamdstoOne 2.225 << oe. oe hie © ohepters ily
86. Reddish argillaceous shale .............-+-+--- 5
87. Greenish-gray shaly sandstone ............++--- 4
38. Red argillaceous shale .......-...+.-...-020% 6
39. Greenish arenaceous shale and sandstone, with
prostrate trees and small lenticular layers of
greenish argillaceous shale ........-.++.-eeee+- 20
40. Red argillaceous shale and flags; passes into rusty
sandstone with prostrate trees ............--. if
41. Greenish, fine, evenly-bedded arenaceous flags .... 2
42. Red and greenish argillaceous shale and flags.... 1
43. Greenish argillaceous shale and flags ............ 3

46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.

. Rusty-gray, pebbly, thick-bedded sandstone with

prostrate trees and patches of conglomerate..... 85

. Red argillaceous shale with greenish bands and

streaks. The debris of the bank here obscures the
section so that the thickness given for 44 may be

POEAR EPG Se a cis Gait ae othe crc pele o.4 Soran 20
ed dish samdstone .. 7 as.sent 1 oe aa eee eee 4
Redearrillaceousvshale. pce certain 5
Reddish-gray fine sandstone .............5.+-4: 3
Red areiilaceoms shales cristae). oh needa e etee 5
Reddish sandstone with green spots ............. 2
Red arcilllaccousysiales i .75 cee alee eins 2
HOGG AIG SEONG ay see eee ago: ers lovee ia sons one aya berets 3
nedmareilaceoussewale Ags ce fe oe ee ea es 5
ed samidsioner ciate t:«, <2). t rate ts Se Gis ie os ot cuteeps ae 2
Redeareilllaccousrshales.0 5.) 9/525 era eraene warts oes 2
Reddishtsamd stones) .scctac. srs eye's oe air olehae letter oer 3

Red argillaceous TCHS ee eee ET Aga CL ed ee Mt sae BP ey ]

(Ss)

Oo & ©

SS SS

=)

SS 2] ero oS o=>

522 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft, In:
58. Reddish sandstone and argillaceous shale in alternate
beds ce isi ke ee ge tacts teu l> Saxceus seagate Nome Reeare te feerne tens PEE)
59. Greenish-gray flagey sandstone and argillaceous shale 2 0
60. Rusty-gray, thick-bedded, very fine sandstone with a

thin layer of argillaceous shale............ >)
61. Greenish-gray argillaceous shalé ............... a6
62. Very rusty fine and pebbly sandstone, passing into a
mixture of gray conglomerate and sandstone.... 22 0
G3onhed sargilllaceons-shiale ir, no '-ua le oti uennen lee 8 20

64. Gray pebbly sandstone with patches of conglomerate 5 0
65. Greenish-gray conglomerate with patches of fine

Samdstomert |. i tie sree <1 eve aecNcatens saps senerom enema tise 0
66. Greenish-gray, coherent, thick-bedded sandstone... 15 0
67. Measures concealed with perhaps one or more

breaks, Dip ts: SO Wei | .F23. aici slcve ans earns 22 0

68. Greenish and rusty sandstone in a cliff ........... 50 0
69. Reddish argillaceous shale and sandstone......... 25. 0
Motalithickmess! ae “hess: suet ce, ao ocen dl Oma)

Beds 68 and 69, instead of belonging to the base of the
section, may be a repetition of some of those above. Several
downthrows to the northeast then seem to repeat others, but are
perhaps counterbalanced by faults with downthrow to the
southwestward.

Ninety yards northeastward from the outerop of 69, after
two little downthrows have brought the red shale upon the
beach, the gray sandstone (68) is in the cliff to a height of forty
feet as before, the reefs striking apparently along the shore.
About 275 yards farther east, red rock is capped in the cliff
by gray and rusty sandstone, and at 140 yards still farther
northeast is brought against greenish and gray sandstone by a
fault. These latter are almost certainly the beds 45 to 58 of
Section IV.; and the succeeding strata are those of Section ITI.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE. (6).—FLETCHER. 523

The direction of the line of fault is N. 53° W., with down-
throw to the southwestward. At the last reefs, 225 yards west
of the mouth of Sand Brook, the dip is S. 61° E. <15° to 22°
near the landwash and N. 77° E. <10° farther seaward.

Ignoring faults, the strata west of Sand River appear to
overlie those on the east side and may represent some of those
between Sand Cove and Shulie. And unless there is a fault, the
uppermost beds of the Pudsey Point section must be near, or
repeat the lowest strata of Hetty Point. It may therefore be
possible from the measurements to shew the entire section from
Shulie to Spicer Cove.

On the west side of Sand River the first rocks exposed dip

N. 80°-83° E.< 91°, and their section is as follows:

SEcTION VI.
WEST OF SAND RIVER,

In descending order.

Ft. In.
1. Gray fine sandstone with layers of dark-gray argil-
laceous shale; coal-pipes. Dip N. 82° E.<21°.
At water-level 250 yards southwest of the end of
phemroad Monte Weal ..isgtslaksye ss lela teiiora esiel «ates 10 0
2. Gray, coarse, pebbly grit with layers of gray sand-
stone;, hulloficarbonized plants; ©... 22. .2 4.2 2. ib a)
3. Red and green mottled argillaceous shales........ 0 10
A> lightretay time sandstone 2). 04/4 ccn asi cls soe se 0 (oy)
5. Dark bluish-gray argillaceous shale, lenticular... .. On a6
6. Light-gray and greenish-gray fine sandstone, in thick

irregularly jointed beds, with a few pebbly patches
of grit, coarser at the bottom; for the most part
MEU RACE Cpa ection 8) of sosvale Scie toe: cece 2 Shay e682 49 0
7. Greenish argillaceous shale. Dip S.15° E.<9°... 0 9
A fault, the direction of which is S. 5° W. and
the dip apparently S. 85° E.< 85°, seems to pro-

524 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

10.

ile

12.

13;
14.

1s)

duce this change of dip from east to south. A thin
band of red and greenish argillaceous shale on the
east side is lost against the sandstone on the west,
and the amount of the fault may be more than 20
feet, for nothing is seen of the shale on top of the
bank. Usually at these faults very little of the
rock is turned on edge, the course being marked
only by a quantity of soft clay or “gouge”; but
here a block of 10 feet seems to have been dropped
off the gray sandstone on the west side. This fault
shows in the cliff 150 yards southwest of the first
rocks, or 400 from the end of the road to the beach
on the southwest side of Sand River.

. Red argillaceous shale. A two feet fault with a

nearly vertical upthrow on the west side.......
Gray and cream-colored, massive, fine sandstone...
Greenish and gray coarse grit; cut out at one point
and nearly all replaced by red argillaceous shale at
a qpillarsrocks gira oss ut ae eieuee is Cr pcm eee
Greenish and reddish argillaceous shale, replaced on
the strike by sandstome . 20.00 «zim c/.) terete
Reddish and greenish, mottled, argillaceous sand-
SIVONILES ale or pa enoi gaa morn it obo Oso Sioaciman Dro a,c. boo 760a.0
Gray, coarse, pebbly grit and conglomerate.......
Kted fine sandstone and argillaceous shale, replaced
in part at the bottom by gray sandstone..... ae ae
Gray and greenish fine and coarse sandstone in thick
beds, with thin lenticular patches of pea-and-nut
conglomerate; coaly streaks associated with the
coarser patches and some finer bands of gray
arenaceous shale are full of broken carbonized
plants. The bottom of the upper ten feet of this
band is at water-level at the mouth of the Mile
Brook, the lower, at the next little brook quarter of

Ft.

19

bo
bo

bo

6
16

10

In.

19.

24,

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (6).—FLETCHER.

a mile further west. On the strike there are of
course many changes. The upper part is in places
fine arenaceous shale and at the mouth of this
second brook patches of conglomerate contain
pebbles of gray, fine, micaceous sandstone and
shale almost certainly newer than Devonian. The
bedding is very irregular and ‘also the lenticular
layers of conglomerate and greenish shale ....... TT
Red argillaceous shale with greenish blotches..... 9
Greenish and reddish mottled argillaceous and
arenaceous rock

Or

Gray sandstone like No. 15, the upper part being in
places fine wavy arenaceous shale. Nearly all the
pebbles of the conglomerate are of Pre-Carbonifer-
ous rocks, the layers varying from six feet to two
inches in thickness

Dark bluish-gray argillaceous shale, with bands of
dark-reddish shale and lenticular layers of green-
ish very fine sandstone and shale; an upright
Calamite with the bark converted into coal. The
overlying sandstones are very rusty and full of
broken, carbonized: plamts') 25.0.2 225.3. acs 6 os 10

Gray and rusty fine massive sandstone, jointed at
right angles to the bedding; pebbly patches and
lenticular layers of dark shale

bo
Qo

fe) [eLn © Ley inl eo) fey) 0:0) (cielo) 0) ne) 0

Rusty nut-and-egg conglomerate with pebbles un to
three inches in diameter. Thicker in places, the
sandstone cutting it out

Red argillaceous shale with bands of light gray and
greenish very fine, coherent sandstone ......... 25

Light gray very fine sandstone, with thin layers of
red and gray argillaccous shale ...........-... 15

Red argillaceous shale interbedded with reddish fine
sandstone ...... a:

6

QO

0)

526 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft
25. Red crumbly argillaceous shale ........... heats

26. Dark reddish and gray argillaceous flags ..... ep o2
27. Gray fine massive sandstone, with lenticular patches

ofreddishvandidark-shales.:. ie secon a TAG

28. Bluish-gray rubbly argillaceous shale ...... en
29. Red argillaceous shale with greenish-gray blotches

and reddish sandstone in regular layers..... aa tele

30. Gray and cream colored fine flaggy sandstone..... 5
Red argillaceous shale with blotches and thin layers

of greenishiandi pray shale .22.. cee Pontius. 28

Total: thickmess' 2.2 sity. seas eee ener 424

0

7

The dip, 8.<41°, now takes the rocks out to sea and they
are repeated on the shore from the bottom of No. 29, but

reversed in the following section:

Section VII.

ROCKS REPEATED ON THE SHORE SOUTHWEST OF SAND RIVER,

In descending order.

1. Coal in layers with pyrite, about fifteen feet long.
It ends at a two fect fault with an upthrow on the
left side, followed by a much larger fault, apvar-
ently a similar upthrow, which brings up the shale
No. 38, the upper part of which is here red. No. 3
comes to the water level at a brook of some size,
where the overlying sandstone contains lenticular
bands of argillaceous shale. A little further west,
behind a narrow point, there is another brook, at
which again the dark shale is at water-level, but a
short distance further it is replaced by pebbly
sandstone, the whole cliff probably two hundred
feet in height, being composed of pebbly sandstone
duppine cat a low vaneless s)he oe onan s eens 0

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (7)——-FLETCHER.

2. Gray and ereenish-gray and rusty massive sandstone
with coal-pipes of large size; more or less pebbly.
In some places sandstone occupies the whole height
of the cliff, but in other places it shows a few inches
OF Orecnl lence iiss aH SSNs Se oreo ox Sic roma eRenONS oot 18
8. Greenish-gray and gray, rusty-weathering, somewhat
mupbily tarcillaceons: Saale cst .'s\-esec cle osc: «1 10
4, Gray thick-bedded sandstone containing patches of
conglomerate and a prostrate tree eight feet in
length. The lowermost forty feet come to the
water-level at the mouth of Two Mile Brook, where
there are exposed overlying beds which dip S. 5°
E.< 30°, and give a total thickness of 105 feet to
the old dam at the head of the cove. Certain
layers are coarse and pebbly, others fine and shaly,
but none are fit for building stone, containing very
irregular concretions. On the right bank of this
brook there is a lenticular layer of greenish-gray
argillaceous shale, five feet thick, overlaid by con-
glomerate and underlaid by fine sandstone, some of
which, about eighty feet from the bottom of the
mass, is of good grindstone grit. On the opposite
bank some of the beds turn to red shale, but only
for a few feet. There is a very persistent band
of ten feet of this shale with reddish-gray sand-
stone. Below this horizon the rocks to the south-
west change largely into conglomerate, the coast
nearly following the strike of the rocks ........ 105
5. Dark-gray argillaceous shale. Here occurs a down-
throw on the west side, of considerable amount, at,
a tiny brook. None of the measurement is, how-
CuCTS LOSER stAs 2 eeero at «tinier sialon eee to clherlassc tre 3
6. Red argillaceous shale and sandstone in alternate
ATA Bemeeh i Vast cra tenet etek rater neBohins) aga oe ahs 6 grail. Yotens 25

528 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB.

LO:

alate

Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ..’.............. 3
Rusty-gray coarse pebbly sandstone, with finer
layers and lenticular patches of conglomerate.... 50
Bluish-gray argillaceous flag, with concretionary
arenaceous.@ bullls-eyes” 2.2. . sas oo eo nee 12
Gray and greenish and rusty pebbly sandstone;
passes In part into conglomerate and contains len-
ticular patches of conglomerate and argillaceous

SINS: Pucte ts ei itrrcnce a sirch ot nps «SCS Neca Sr es cote sini Jactac aries 37
Rusty-gray nut-and-egg conglomerate. No. 21 of
LAST BECKTON, ses fs ct? se) wine ee hore he ilelec homeo en +

Red sandstone and shale with greenish and gray
layers and a lenticular layer of dark arenaceous

Shreule rita ceine. Vevey. Palaitas Sects an ates e togshon oot iia ote Poa ee
Greenish-gray and rusty fine sandstone. <A 10-feet
downthrow on'the west side<. ./: 0... mis ae eee 10
Red sandstone and argillaceous shale in alternate
VeaVOE Shz.ista bi ie vtane, byone twee S erciaas elen attee wae 25
Teg marl psxa tines Atckn\ abewacen betiesues tesa easter ian 10
Dark gray and greenish argillaceous shale ........ 0
Reddish argillaceous sandstone ......... ities Ree 4
Gray, very fine samdstome)..-c\.h00 cm ne sere 5
Bluish-oray argillaceous shale:. .<).... 25 suee cee BE
Gray and greenish argillaceous shale, with pebbly
DAbCWEGiT Sava sh aleststticun. ol adcued 2) dhe 4aabeyet cag ieee ee 5

Red shale and light-gray and greenish fine sandstone,
in alternate layers. No. 29 of previous section... 14

Lota thiekmess"."...fs 4.6 tieca ook eee 363

Section VIII.
DESCENDING BELOW NO. 3 OF LAST SECTION.

Gray pebbly sandstone of the usual character.... 20
Dark-gray argillaceous shale in a lenticular band
ranging from ten feet to one inch ............. 5)

CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

ce S&S Oe & ©

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (8).—FLETCHER.

3. Gray sandstone, fine on top but becoming pebbly

0.

6.

below. 388 feet of this sandstone comes to water-
level at the next little brook. With so much sand-
stone the measurement of some parts of the section
is incorrect no doubt, but the bedding is usually
PLATA state erersis whee AG

© (0) @: @). 0) 6) (0), ee ocr eee ee ee ee

Red argillaceous shale with bluish and greenish

layers; replaced by gray coarse pebbly sandstone.

Gray pebbly sandstone. In places the layers of shale

are thicker and contain bands of gray fine sand-
stone

Greenish and reddish argillaceous rubbly rock; also

replaced by gray sandstone

Rusty-gray or cream-colored fine sandstone, passing

into coarse sandstone and intermixed with pebbly
layers. In places it turns nearly all into nut-and-
eve conglomerate. Lenticular layers sometimes
six inches thick and ten feet long, show alternate
bands of impure coal and pyrite. At ninety feet
there is a landing place. Here the rocks are
largely conglomerate and in certain bands this
assumes a reddish tint as well as in patches of the
finer sandstone. Some of the pebbles are of brick-
red sandstone, others, of greenish-gray and gray
micaceous sandstone, ke Carboniferous. The
lower part is very rusty and full of veins and
blotches of coal

ese) @: (6) @: @ ‘e: © (6) 190 0,10‘, 6) (e, © \@) ‘eo! (e 0 0) 6 (e! '@ <0 6) 6 ©

8. Greenish-rubbly argillaceous shale with red patches

and layers

9. Gray-flagey argillaceous sandstone with a lump of

coal near the top

Ghee. 0/0 @) e's" 6,10: 1¢) 16) 0410, 1¢’ (0) -0 (0,0) 0) 10)16 10) (0: 8) 10 “e

10. Greenish-gray and cream-colored alternations of fine

sandstone, pebbly sandstone, and pea-and-nut con-
glomerate with larger pebbles; coal streaks and
UD ES grees unsees ea eee

50

9

5

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.
Ft In.
11. Reddish argillaceous shale. Al these bands are len-
Von esh aaeneareaco pes arg Got A nee! OkRNS eeeLand 6G E'S i)
12. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale. Thickens to the
WOSLWATG. fo Merete ea ae. uy. sl ec scanege pe tometer seems 2 0
18. Gray and rusty sandstone and conglomerate, irregu-
larly mixed. This is on the strike for some dis-
tance, then the overlying No. 12 comes to the
water-level. The top of No. 10 is at the water-
level at the first little brook in Birch Cove. Here
bands that represent Nos. 8 and 9 are, however,
Indian-red, the material being still sandstone and
conglomerate. Then rocks of a bright red color
overlie to \a height of fifty feet. Din S. 47°
Was 20 ra ei esuome eas Boaters Spier SS Jor

Motel thickmess: vice terse stiayo ssh aer stoner 259 0

The top of 110 feet of reddish and gray sandstone and con-
glomerate, for the most part red, with coal-pipes, and veins of
barytes in the joints, overlying No. 15, comes to the water-level
at the second little brook in Birch Cove.

From this point 60 yards west, a large brook empties and a
little brook comes into it. The brook turns from S. 15° W, the
shore runs N. 53° W. to a headland, then trends more westerly.
The top of the following descending section here comes to the
water-level, probably about 13 feet below the top of the 110 feet
above mentioned or 97 feet over No. 13.

Dip on the southeast side of the cove S. 8° W.< 14°.

Dip on the northwest side of the cove S. 60° E.<12°;
S. 24° to 17° E <14° to 16° (mean dip 8. 34° E.<14’).

Section IX.
FROM BIRCH COVE WESTWARD TO HETTY POINT,
In descending order.
1. Gray and greenish-gray pebbly sandstone and con-

glomerate with thin lenticular layers of Indian-red
conglomerate ait sis eucs ose eins Re RE 52 0

a

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE -(9).—FLETCHER.

Greenish-gray, dark-bluish-gray and reddish argilla-
ceous shale, the dark portions full of fossil plants
Gray and rusty fine sandstone, full of broken plants
and having a one-inch lenticular layer of coal,
sometimes in the bedding, sometimes in the joints
Greenish and bluish-gray pea-and-nut conglomerate
Gray and cream-colored pebbly sandstone, fin sand-
stone and conglomerate, a large proportion of
which is conglomerate. It passes on the strike into
Indian-red conglomerate, resembling that of Polly
Brook and the Morang River, and soon it all
turns to Indian-red. Many of the pebbles are as
large as a cocoanut. Where coal-pipes are seen
the rock.is rusty and gray. Dip S. 21° E.<15°..
Gray fine flaggy sandstone with a nine-inch len-
ticular layer of greenish-gray argillaceous shale. .
Red argillaceous shale or marl. These beds are all
lenticular andj itint-Outhy borira ets 6 Yours 355 62%"
Mottled red and green argillaceous shale .........

9. Greenish and gray coarse grit and nut-and-egg con-
POUR ATC seit. Sika rake miee Tee tuneet wits wh eae

10. Red argillaceous shale with greenish layers, cut out
to form,a fine cave behind a bluff...i5.........

ite eked: tubbly,-more coherent, flag’? ios eiss.. os 2 wetele's
12. Reddish sandstone with greenish blotches ........
13. Gray and greenish, fine, massive sandstone with
broken planets ci. aycr ate oy cet te tenet geo oe ung orh es

14. Gray and rusty fine sandstone, the upper surface of
which is spotted with prostrate plants ..........

15. Rusty-gray pea-and-nut conglomerate with layers of

sandstone, the latter being blackened with earbon-
ized plants. Veins of coal lie at various angles to
the bedding, seldom exceeding half an inch in
thickness. The gray sandstone is in very irregular

Rite kn
12-6
9 0
tay 0
90> 0
6 6
AY)
2 O
45 0
2 6
(Oeealal
0 10
4 10
Bie O)

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst,'Scy., Vou. XI. TrRans.—IlI

532 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft In.
wedges. Some of the pebbles are three inches in
diameter; they consist chiefly of various gray
Devonian rocks, but among them there are finer
soft micaceous bluish-gray sandstone and shales,
apparently derived from Carboniferous strata.
Twenty feet to high water-level at the bluff about
half a mile from Birch Cove Brook; and thirty-five
feet to the bottom of the same cliff, but all eut out
behind back to the band of red shale. Several fine
prostrate trees occur, and on the strike some of
these rocks turn again Indian or _ brick-red,
although for the most part they are gray and rusty 12 0

The overlying band thins out, but again takes
up in an attenuated form in a few places, the rocks
following the coast for a great distance on the
strike. The line of the red band (10 to 12) is
occupied by a definite bedding-joint, into which
lenticular small patches of argillaceous shale some-
times come, while above it about twenty feet and in
other parts of the high cliff, there are thin layers
of argillaceous shale.

Nearer McCarren Cove, the finer bands have a
tinge of reddish or brown, and are nearly all
pebbly. Further along, parts of the fine beds
become fit for grindstone, the red bands in the cliff
retaining their horizontal position, so that there is
absolutely no doubt that this part of the section is
on the strike. Dip not far from the cove, 8. 23° E.
<15°, S. 7° E.< 4° to 18°. The section here
below No. 9 is as follows:

1. Greenish-gray sandstone and argilla-
CCOUSeShaley s,s mip cr a ese awa ce ys
2. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale with
two layers Ot clay sa .t).ks am stoliecners E26

16.
alee

18.
19.

20.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (9).—FLETCHER.

3. Greenish-gray and reddish rubbly argil-
lnecous sandstomen i? 5a: < 5% ia0k. cen open

4, Reddish argillaceous shale with a len-
ticular layer of fine greenish sandstone 1 5
5. JRed and green fine flags ...5..5.....0% ZAG

6. Greenish and reddish very fine sand-

stone, in flaggy beds fit for grindstone,

probably a part of No. 15 but very
different im texture’. ..2...60-..5.4. 2.8

7. Light gray very fine massive sandstone

with pebbly patches, but no coarse
Neiyerse piscre css sete cleite ohne cia sherarets 45 6
Beyond the bluff at which this section ends,
conglomerate is again cut out in a cove, but the red
» band reappears on the next point, where the under-
lying sandstone is, however, somewhat pebbly, but
only in places, for on the whole there is a distinet
improvement in the texture. On the point west of
Birch Cove the thickness of the sandstone was
found to be forty-seven feet; on the next headland,
forty-five feet six inches as above, whereas on the
point near McCarren Cove, the lower part has

turned into the section as continued below:

Redwarcillaccousahiale pio. ws sins 055 eke ler. Sctehe oe
Greenish-gray argillaceous shale, with thin lenticular
layers of greenish arenaceous rock .............
Ol aie go att See aa cpt tesa GAS Gee eds eesti Paha
Greenish-gray arenaceous shale passing at the
bottom into greenish, coarse, pebbly sandstone,
with coal veins, two inches and downward, in
Pashessimnatine moe ler. c. ofc 15 eby aids aise Bets folks ehelts «
Gray sandstone of fine texture almost fit for grind-
stone, but with pebbly patches in some of the mass-
ive layers. The lower part passes into conglom-
SII NEY. cca CMR CACMO SR LEGED CRP Soe Ger gO eee Me erie nee el

Ft.

10

533

In

534 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In,
21. Gray conglomerate with lenticular patches of fine

sandstone; all very coarse, some of the pebbles

being three inches in diameter. Dip S.5° to

OF WE (sshd O Mmcrecae tees 1 2te ee ie ero es epee 6 0
22. Gray sandstone in thick layers, of fine grit but with

pebbles. In texture the rocks generally resemble

those‘ot Jhiver: Jolin. 6s. syact tencinc Se cules ame 12 0
23. ‘Greenish-cray, conglomerate (each ie eee 1 Ro
24. Gray fine sandstone of uniform texture, with very

few pebbles /.ciuc a enone oe eee eae 4 0
25. Measures concealed. Dip S. 34° to 33° E........ 6 8

26. Gray or brownish sandstone seen only on the reefs;
pebbles scattered throughout the mass and with
some beds of conglomerate. Not all exposed, but
seen in frequent reefs across McCarren Cove. Dip

SB. 84S FE SoG Se iacs cris a, ts eer aconmeet nt nee ar Eee 265 0
27. Gray pebbly sandstone in thick beds. ‘The first rock
of the cliff north of McCarren Cove ........... 15 0

28. Rusty-gray sandstone; irregular layers of pea-and-
nut conglomerate; coal-pipes and veins ........ dL SO
29. Reddish and greenish lenticular argillaceous shale,
replaced entirely at both ends by the sandstone and
contaimme layers of sandstone -ysn). 5 Gee eee 9. 20
30. Light gray sandstone, in thick beds, with a few
pebbles. Some beds have a reddish tinge and some
are fit for grindstones. Other small lenticular
replacements occur. A very large proportion of
the lower beds on the outer shore is of fine grain
and without pebbles. At the first pomt, a thickness
of forty-five feet is exposed, then higher beds
appear in a rough cove. Dip, about the middle of
the point, S. 45° E.< 12°; in places large regular
flags break out and the bottom becomes more shaly 70 0

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (9)—-FLETCHER.

81. Red argillaceous shale with bands of reddish
arenaceous shale; layers of greenish or whitish-
gray calcareous, fine sandstone and of bluish-gray
shalesin-ar deep, Wthlescoves<s ..0s-< 0. nieces 8 eee

32. Greenish and rusty-gray fine grained arenaceous
shale and sandstone, with carbonized plants; cut
into long blocks by irregular joints; some pebbly
patches occur towards the bottom, but the fine beds
greatly predominate. Changes in the lower part
into Indian-red sandstone like that of Birch Cove

33. Red argillaceous shale with greenish thin bands. .

34. Indian or brick-red fine sandstone with pebbly
patches containing layers of arenaceous shale, pre-
cisely like the greenish and gray varieties except
in color; shows the usual whitish and greenish
blotches of the red rocks. At the lhghthouse on
Hetty Point, the red layers are underlaid by gray
or brown, and these latter replace certain beds
ony thestrrke! 22525 .;.: Be ab dae Meehan ae ma

85. Greenish-gray and rusty fine sandstone with very
few pebbles, generally in thick beds, some patches
very rusty; in part concertionary, with “bulls-
eyes” ; many of the beds have wavy lines. Certain
layers at the bottom turn into red. Almost the
whole thickness may be said to he below high water
on Hetty Point and to extend to the lowest point

535

68 0
tbe .0

58 0

FS Si au TNE, FI E clig S21 Ls tas IR Rare eg Pade A ek De 140 0O

otal thickmesse eyo cake a oe Bey eset 10388 9

The beds now rise on the right bank of Apple River.

They

appear to be but very little higher than the strata of the follow-
ing section at Pudsey Point on the opposite side of the river, or

may represent a portion of the latter.

586 OCARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In.
SEoTIon X.
AT PUDSEY POINT AT THE MOUTH OF APPLE RIVER,
In descending order.
1. Gray sandstone, with a few pebbles ............. 5 (0

2. Greenish-gray conglomerate with occasionally a tinge
of red; pebbles six inches and downward, the
matrix always of coarse grit; small lenticular

TH ASSES RONEN OC Kg at, coe ius era ee svariaiece maereae b5 ey 0)

. 8. Red argillaceous sandstone with greenish streaks.. 1 6
4, Dark-gray, fine, flagey sandstone with layers of dark
argillaceous shale, in part almost carbonaceous

phinle: ssaw anys Aik, ee cee ree es ee aes 5a
5. Reddish fine sandstone mixed with conglomerate and
in part replaced by the dark sandstone; streaks of

coal ‘at dhe ibotlomy\3.- ja sas abet.dorees cpeuesens cane eae 520
6. Reddish conglomerate with lenticular layers of red-

dish shaly gandstomes 7 0). cei. sch-nevoapanecneaagaeane LOMO
7. Reddish sandstone, with lenticular layers of dark

bluishseray “shale: <5 2.0 be. esac cs excess cycleeew eet ene 510
8. Reddish somewhat finer conglomerate ........... 6 0

9. Reddish and dark-gray and greenish argillaceous
sandstone and shale, in lenticular irregular beds,

all of which pass into conglomerate ............ 8 0
10. Reddish nut-and-egg conglomerate .............. fea)
11. Reddish and greenish-gray, rubbly, very fine sand-

stone and aroillaceous shale ss cbse =. wenn 12\ 0
19. Reddish and eray. conglomerates...) inst ee: Sen)
13. Greenish-gray and reddish sandstone and argilla-

CepUs Mars NE Te sil pote se cure seyetntare teh Oia eek iene meete LO P0
i4:oGray; fine, flagey sandstone)... cy.\2 am «omit 3. 0

15. Reddish and gray sandstone with beds of binish sie
arcillaceous ishalenyy cewseue lteter oe etotedeuaks eee eee

16.
we.
18.

19.
20.

Ze

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

32.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (10).—FLETCHER.

Reddish, coarse, thick-bedded sandstone .........
Greenish: areillaceous:shale-s 2.0.0 o2< 3. fetnak se oe
Reddish, coarse sandstone, with partings of argil-

inceGusr silent! pore ee.h Sine) Saks sie5 2 Yocie ogee
Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ................
Greenish-gray and rusty conglomerate, replaced by

No. 19 and again passing into reddish conglomer-

ate; thin layers of reddish sandstone. The bottom

is at water-level on the beach at a pillar-rock....
Reddish and greenish sandstone and argillaceous
shaleansalenticulamdlayerrs: 2). wos tn veel seta
Reddish conglomerate with thin layers of arenaceous
shalesand sandstones 2% 2s civ ees) te tied ciote
Rusty arenaceous shale with reddish argillaceous and
anendceous cha lone cet eee ee cee eee
Red argillaceous shale with layers and blotches of
reddish and greenish mottled sandstone ........
Reddish pea-conglomerate, with finer layers; passes
into greenish) conglomerate sc... e036 casts es
Greenish and reddish flaggy argillaceous sand-
RF OTE IES yl Chon IP aye ee Rear sare PO Sar Om
Reddish conglomerate with thin layers of reddish
arenaceous shale and sandstone; passes into green-
HSH eOmPlOtora ce. cists atte srl eteie yee ale coThton se Akt

. Brick or triassic-red sandstone, of very coarse grit,

in thick beds; changes into conglomerate ......
Reddish and greenish flagey fine sandstone and
aroulaccous shale rye Sai ee. versie 2 SL ed wel:

. Light gray, pebbly sandstone, changing into greenish

. Measures concealed. Dip 8S. 31° E.<8°. Reefs of

ereenish-gray arenaceous shale in place at intervals
Greenish-gray arenaceous shale and sandstone, of
fine texture, seen on the reefs but not in the cliff. .

11

6

10

10

6

538 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In
338. Gray flaggy sandstone and arenaceous shale with a
few, pebbles 3.25. Geol a eo ee ees 4 6
34. Greenish-gray conglomerate .................5. Ses)
35. Greenish-eray argillaceous shale and sandstone..... Aer)
36. Greenish conglomerate, with pebbles more than six
imehes <midramieter 3:15:fey ati aes. else lore eae ee met)
37. Greenish and reddish argillaceous shale and sand-
StOmes, 2k HAM so ME elem inde eat Pera eae ens SeNEE 5 0
38. Greenish, pebbly sandstone in one bed; changes
into conglomerate. oc: tistsee bs lacieee $508 re ERs pO)
29: Greenish conglomerates .\p.lent-lactel. cence 4 0
40. Greenish and dark-gray argillaceous shale and
Sandstone; \\. 6). rrsita aoa sats cle tei ele he omnes 5 0
41. Greenish-gray fine conglomerate ............... 4 6
42, Greenish-gray arenaceous and argillaceous shale... 5 0

43. Rusty, knobby sandstone and greenish, pebbly sand-

stone and conglomerate, full of rusty concretions.. 12 0
44, Red argillaceous shale with greenish and bluish-gray

NAVers: {nel Lteepaceen np eca-ncG adobe ae eS ED ace 0
45. Measures:concealed, 2 /.kiw.isenekien ener one ere 5:0
46. Light gray sandstone of fine grindstone grit; some

flaggy layers; has been quarried on Pudsey Point. 14 0
47. Rusty and cream-colored and gray conglomerate and

sandstone in irregular beds (42.5 4-r02e6 sete 12 0
48. Gray shale and flaggy sandstone ................ 6 6
49. Gray fine sandstone in part fit for grindstones, but

im" places Ot COATsey Cart enix c eee hei cia sie ene eienenaes 5-30
50. Light gray and rusty arenaceous shale, in part

pebbly.) -Dipis: SS to1Go, bie<sS. toni: eee O70

51. Measures concealed by a sand beach, but showing on
the reefs rocks similar to the above, a reddish grit
about 48 ft. 6 inches from the top, and a band of
greenish-gray conglomerate immediately over-
Iyimgy FINO: 152s 22% cyad a ncvceretoeiy Ak eyo eae 74 0

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (10),-—FLETCHER.

52. Greenish arenaceous shale and sandstone with

patches of fine grit. Dip 8. 83° E.< 7° .......
538. Bluish-gray argillaceous shale full of plants......
54. Greenish-gray argillaceous sandstone with a few

59.
60.

61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.

67.

68.

69.

Poe oe cepa ene Peers Ss, ar annc, #9. ohatts al SE ols Sheen

. Red argillaceous shale with green spots. These shale

beds change to the westward ...............0.%

. Greenish-gray, very fine massive sandstone, passing

into red and green argillaceous shale on the strike

. Reddish and greenish mottled argillaceous shale...
. Greenish-gray fine sandstone with reddish spots and

layers of arenaceous shale, passing into greenish
conglomerate. These rocks are all regularly
bedded. <A fault throws them down five feet on
Hex sourtit, Gidey tct.siers Mt Aaet abcess srs a dna one
Dark gray, rubbly, argillaceous shale ...........
Greenish-gray sandstone with small patches of fine
conglomerate; becomes finer on the strike. On the
whole the beds are argillaceous ...............
Dark-eray-arcillaccous shale: .ci03/) 284 o Pea a.
Greenish-gray, fine, flagey, argillaceous sandstone. .
Greenish and dark-gray argillaceous shale ......
Clay with an eighth of an inch of coal...........
Greenish arpillaceous shale 225740 fos. ca. - th
Greenish-gray, coarse, pebbly sandstone with patches
of conglomerate; replaced by lenticular argilla-
Geousn sha lege tthe reuse eas ae Ge eee Ae
Red argillaceous shale with layers of reddish and
mottled sandstone. An upthrow of four feet six
iMmeheszon; the south} sidehts aici. se eee
Greenish-gray fine conglomerate and pebbly sand-
stone, with coarser layers at the base ..........
Greenish and gray, rubbly argillaceous shale and
flags

Oe) fe 8) -@.- 0) 16 <0: %) (a; 1: (0, 1e) ©) 0, /6\ (@. oF e,'¢, (6: 0) 0) 6 6) 0) 8 e: 6, [O06 0:18 © 8) 0) 0

Ft

10

Oo OrR OD >

540 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB

70. Gray and rusty and greenish nut-and-egg conglom-
CLAS eo oie © ie, aos lehey = Cale iaitelshwlianalob Abbe! el ethic nets -iaiielis
TA. Red argillaceous shiala! ye Giye atccleievet selena eles
72. Gray and greenish flagey sandstone .............
73. Gray and greenish and rusty, pebbly sandstone and
oa PAVE Len eyag ah) REMI Maly OLS Ate nS es oe ic
74. Reddish argillaceous shale with greenish layers, but
essentially aodisjng Wi. Atsuse ter pstee omer Sere eters
75. Greenish sandstone in one bed, replaced on the
strike by ishalesjandwlage) 0-7 te duu: msec
76. Red argillaceous shale ,with layers of reddish sand-
Seley sada daabonasabAgoonasosino bode adac
77. Greenish wavy sandstone and arenaceous shale.....
78. Cream-colored or rusty very fine sandstone, some-

Ho:
80.
Salt

82.
83.

84.

85.

. Red argillaceous shale.....

what concretionary, like certain layers seen on
Pudsey Point and also on Hetty Point; irregularly
jointed and all fine. A vein of coal at the bottom,
one inch thick, in an irregular joint ...........
Nut-and-egg conglomerate ..............+00+0%
Gray, “pebbly sandstone: :,. sts: e:ge aint aeey ce caer
Measures concealed. Reefs and broken banks of
gray and greenish fine sandstone occasionally seen,
from which, about the middle of the gap, grind-
stones have been cut; dip 8. 56° E.< 7°
Greenish arenaceous shale

OSORNO UE OST

@ © le @ 0 "0 0 (0 6 © ie ‘elje (0) 6 1 (0) “are

Rusty-gray pebbly sandstone, with concretionary
“‘bulls-eyes” at the top. Very lke certain rocks of
Hetty? Poin tyes io/aihea bauer eee ae eee

Dark or Indian-red pebbly sandstone, like that of
Hetty Point; contains small patches of conglom-
Cie ao nolo tos a bo Sidon Ss OuUcCoa eH OS OAS

Greenish-gray, wavy, arenaceous shale, blackened in
the bedding by plants, sometimes of large size....

Tene DOr eet ct Onn OOP CeO

CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

1Die, dit.
S= 0
30
oe 0)
Deas)
14 20)
tot
17 0
a6
Seo
52 20
Q A
148 0O
eed. 0)
1240
6.20
GAO
ee)

87.

88.

89.

90.
91.

92.

93.

94.

95.
96.
91:

98.
99.
100.
101.

102.
105.

104.

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (10).—FLETCHER.

Reddish or pinkish sandstone like that of Hetty
Point; patches of conglomerate; in thick layers,
SOMetINGs Maven ce sec a. fis <i. cicero se sare ete aie

Indian-red argillaceous shale and flaggy fine sand-
SUI ger Patebag crater oe ys adsl ous @ stehere «iol e010 ls: ss yer apap

Greenish-gray, wavy arenaceous shale, passing into
finlos SAMASEOME) 24 orgs Ose Sk Foal 0 sane Sou as [HOE

Rusty or cream-colored fine, thick-bedded sandstone.

Greenish-gray and dark-gray argillaceous shale,
TMOG eG ay iit MEG Tred «op. fo ore ap See es atv w deere ae

Reddish-gray and greenish, very fine argillaceous
sandstone, changing at the bottom into gray sand-
stone in flaggy layers and on the strike into massive
BaMASLONE 7ie.oe tees Wh a eomtenth ec ots Se) ena n ager aera Tor

Red argillaceous shale with bands of greenish and
PODiy SSAC LONGI ayaatc hs com Maeda os eats aeko etree odo

Dark-gray argillaceous shale with films and streaks
OL CORI a ee ert ates aac rane Waive edaje Ae leeds Wels

Light-gray underclay with Stigmaria rootlets......

Red argillaceous shale changing into sandstone....

Gray and dark-gray fine sandstone and arenaceous
shalestull ofsplamiise.pac. 5 scenes St S65 the lakes, ss ate

Dark-greenish-gray argillaceous shale ...........

Red argillaceous shale changing into red sandstone.

Dark-gray and greenish argillaceous shale........

Reddish-gray and mottled, arenaceous flags and
BHM LOM Ors at sc stet nau cere } eae ore as. 2

Greenish and dark-gray argillaceous shale........

Red argillaceous shale with greenish layers and
lenticular bands of fine sandstone..............

Gray and pinkish, fine and coarse sandstone, in
thick, irregular, jointed beds; pebbly patches, the
pebbles being nearly all of syenite.............

bo

Se So So

542 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Ft. In.
105. Reddish-gray nut-and-egg conglomerate, among the
pebbles of which are some of gray sandstone,
containing plants and perhaps Carboniferous,
although the greater number are of red syenite,
porphyritic felsite and various Devonian quart-
zites. Gray patches show carbonized markings of

StSmis Oke WMA toe es. se cttnaons clare te) cataven tear Rene 14 0
106. Pinkish and triassic-red, coarse sandstone, with
pebbly patches; forms the great cape north of
Spicer Cove. Dip 8. 41° E.< 12°. The strike
would apparently run the rocks against the con-
glomerate cliffs of the opposite side of the cove,
which they appear to represent. Fine reddish
sandstone and grit almost entirely replace the
coarser beds on the strike. The lower 33 feet are
repeated and the measures are then concealed by

the’ beach#of Spicer ‘Cove i222. es aan ee 55 (0

107. Measures concealed

@; (ef 0; le! 4s) <0) sive, ie) er (e) elie: (e: « Je! 67 01 le le oleic

Total thickness ci/.t2 nee pees ee 974 2

On the low shore northeast of the mill at Spicer Cove,

several good reefs seem to indicate a continuity of low southerly

dips between the cliff exposures and, consequently, an absence

of faults. If there is uo important fault, the measures of the

following section may be a repetition of the rocks below No. 80
of Section X.

Section XI.
AT SPICER COVE,

In descending order.

i (Gray sandstone ct cee necro bay sills sucicen spetiete C0
2. Greenish, reddish and dark-eray argillaceous shale,
not: welll. seem. \ vet. ov cmsqeaeers here ocean Sie)

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (1)}).—FLETCHER.

Ft. In.
2 Oark-binish-oray coaly shale:. ....7s/.p. close ne te 0 6
5. Bluish, greenish and reddish argillaceous flags. .... Gr 530
6. Dark-greenish-gray, rubbly argillaceous flags...... a. 0
fp mlackiohy cooly: shale: ecto. viet tess an + aloe a eee 0 4
8. Greenish argillaceous sandstone ...............% i £0
os Greenieh: argillaccous. sale... 6. c sees sos wees nhs OF <6
10. Greenish argillaceous sandstone in flaggy layers.. 8 0
11. Coal, lenticular, with an underclay. <A fault with an
upthrow of two feet on the south side.......... (al
12. Red and green mottled fine sandstone ........... doo
13. Reddish and greenish mottled argillaceous shale.
An upthrow of five feet on the south side....... O38
14. Greenish, fine, flagey sandstone ................ 8 6
15. Dark-gray argillaceous shale and flag, almost a coal
Amt Om COD erie Ses ncn pater ee cic prepa ness caters eaee epauek a 0 10
UGE pinlackscoaly Shales 24 (7 esa. erctabe., oes sat rae aaa? oh 0 2
17. Greenish and reddish, mottled argillaceous shale... 7 0
1S. baght eray fmevsanGstone . 2 9 ees ete cx sa %s 5 apec0s es 3. 0
19. Greenish argillaceous flags and shales ........... 1-56
20s Dark omay shalecoaly im: places: 2.1 .. i Sa cits 1 0
21. Black coaly shale yielding a*dark streak ........ 0 4
Zoesolmsh-oray areillacsous) SMAle. Resi cs. hiya. o 5 cia 0 8
ommeby lack <coaliy sie Osc 4 2 felatan dest ess boils ahnv suas depo dois, ee « Od
24. Dark, greenish-gray and rusty argillaceous under-
(SIE ceca re RRR POL REE et eek SER aE RAEN Eee 0
25. Gray and greenish, very fine sandstone, broken in
the-bank-anud, perhaps faulted...%.82 274.2. 5% . 156
26. Reddish and greenish, mottled, somewhat coherent
Aon CeO UGE rie Kel ex ey es ete Beye agaticsan oils. Sut Zz 0
27. Dark-greenish argillaceous shale with coaly layers.. 1 0
28. Light gray wavy arenaceous shale and sandstone; an
underclay withtine:Siigmaria 27. Sa a se 2X0)

The rocks are now obscured by a broken,
fanlted bank on a northeast and southwest roll

544 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

or anticline. About 60 yards to the westward
there is the following section:
1. Olive-green massive sandstone ...... 3) G
2. Dark argillaceous shale and bands of
sanstone with large erect trees.... 8 0

3. Dark argillaceous sandstone ........ 5 0
4. Warkercoaly shialle ts we... ee ste tor Ofss
5. Dark-gray fine sandstone .......... 0756
6. Black coaly shale, in part clean coal. O 4
7. Dark-gray argillaceous underclay.... 1 4

8. Black coaly shale, passing into green-
ish, argillaceous shale) "225-00. 0 6

9. Greenish arenaceous underclay passing
INO sani dstoney. crease ee a ae 2 10
10. Dark-green argillaceous shale ....... 3-0
11. Measures concealed .- 57Aaan ee os f-10

12. Greenish-gray coherent arenaceous
Shale rae oats ida ovine eee aya!
Rotallschickmesst ss <r. erie 29 3

About 55 yards to the westward and perhaps
separated from the foregoing by a fault, the fol-
lowing beds occur:

1. Greenish and reddish argillaceous shale

with layers of sandstone .......... 14 0

2.» Coally sband icc aiyes Sec fost eas Onks

3. Dark greenish shale with veins of coal. 1 6

4. Greenish coherent sandstone ........ Ge MON
5. Red argillaceous shale. Perhaps No.

ZOiOLsSeCtlOMi Dolley M55 Asana Nn ew 2 0

Rotal thickmessy cgercteac cea sec BRS H eps

At 70 yards farther west these broken sections
end at a great cliff of conglomerate. They are
perhaps a repetition of the beds of Section XI

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (11).—FLETCHER. 545

Ft. In.
below No. 13, and No. 28 may rest directly upon
the conglomerate, in which case that section may
be continued as follows:

29. Red conglomerate with veins of barite and celestite
near the top; its material is for the most part of
syenite, and it is associated with red, thick, fine
layers. The thickness here given is taken from
the boring drilled by My. J. A. Johnson. (See
Sie Siege C/E DAY Wiese ee eee eae Sila +6

30. Red syenite of Devonian age, or more generally an
obscurely granular and compact felsite and quartz-
felsite, hornblende being scarce except in dykes
and blotches of dark diorite, seldom more than ten
to fifteen feet wide. An epidote breccia occurs
near the contact of the conglomerate, and the fel-
site is so much brecciated as to resemble the con-
glomerate. These rocks in great cliffs oceupy the
coast south past Eatonville to Cape Chignecto, as
shown on Sheet No. 100 (and 101) of the
Geological Survey series of maps. A line of fault
at the first beds of red conglomerate is indicated by
the grooves as dipping N. 45° E.< 63°. First a
little piece of the conglomerate is thrown on edge;
then, further inland near a little brook from the
south, the dark rocks with the black shale and coaly
layers of No. 28 rest upon the conglomerate at a
low angle apparently conformably. The thickness
of the latter as given above is much greater than
the height of conglomerate in the cliffs, overlying
the syenite, and thus measures the downthrow of
the fault at about 500 feet.

Rota thiekness: "43 24: 8.5) sas ok oe ake S(S.-2

546 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER

The section of the boring referred to on page 545, is as

follows :
Section XII.
J. A. JOHNSON’S BOREHOLE AT SPICER COVE,
In descending order.
Ft.
1. Surface: reddish gravel and clay:........:...... 8
2. Light=cray timessamadstone i..ce etiaet ee fue ne 1
o: Wveddish ‘course and ine rockss> ur a.u. ere ree i
4. Light greenish-grey tine compact sandstone...../.. 6
5. Dark gray argillaceous shale with fossil plants 1
6. Light grey and reddish mottled argillaceous shale .. 28
4. Wveddishisandstomes Cet. cris. eric er i
8. Reddish nut-and-egg conglomerate .............. 3
9. Reddish fine micaceous sandstone................ 5
10. Reddish conglomerate, coarse grit and sandstone... 13
13: Reddish micacecus:sandstone s 22 2.2 es 2
12. 2Reddish’conglomerate: Soci ae ee 1
ie Reddish-erey argillaceous shale ...2 5.22 2..15.4-: 0
14. Black coaly shale and coal ........ Pew Fee ks 0
15. Greenish argillaceous shale with Stigmaria and
POOUCUS | a pace. fou. 2 ye BO ae Suga wines Ne Rok te een)
16. Greenish-gray argillaceous shale ..... ef eee ee
17. Greenish-gray and reddish shale showing graphite. 4
18. Reddish argillacous shale with greenish blotches
showane fosetlsplamts) <cis yere Sepa ee Sigs eae
19. Reddish-gray very hard sandstone .......... ae
20. Reddish conglomerate with thin bands of reddish
and greenish coarse grit, fine sandstone and argil-
laceous shale, of gray sandstone and shale, and
dark gray argillaceous shale with streaks of coal.811
21. Reddish granitic rocks.2-, i... Ae. - een Sow

Motalidepule face aceyae: ate crs Be Oe

In.

CASI Joy Oo eS So SS] ©

ee

Wo)

SHULIE TO SPICER COVE.—FLETCHER. 547

A correlation of these sections seems to show that only about
498 feet of the base of Section IX at Hetty Point extend beyond
the base of Section I (and II); that Sections IV, V and VI are
wholly repeated in Section I, the general similarity of the strata
of these four sections being evident.

A provisonal summary of the total thickness of strata from
the uppermost Permian beds at Shuhe River—the top of
Logan’s section—to the base at the Devonian syenite, south
of Spicer Cove, may be given as follows:

Strata of Section I (Shule to Sand Cove)........... 1769
‘ Section 1X (Birch Cove to Hetty Poimt).... 498
- Section X (Apple River to Spicer Cove).... 793
Se pecwom ol (Spicer Cove): 2-1. cea ee 811

Total thickness exposed in coast section... 3871

This conclusion, arrived at from comparison of the columnar
sections, does not contradict the evidence obtained from a study
of the dips, faults, ete., as may be seen on the accompanying
maps, on which the position of the various sections has been laid
down; but before accepting it, further comparison of the beds
supposed to be equivalent might be made.

Of the rocks of the Upper Coal Formation on the opposite
side of the basin, from Shulie toward Ragged Reef, Sir J. Wm.
Dawson says :* “Fossils are not abundant; but Calamates, Stig-
maria, Lepidodendra and large petrified trunks of the pine trees
of the Coal Formation still appear. The general asnect of these
beds is, to a great extent, similar to that of the Millstone Grit
series.”’

And in regard to the strata of the base of’ the section the
same writer observes: “At Mill Brook, southeast of Apple
River, there is a bed of coal one inch in thickness, and dipping

to the north at a small angle. It is associated with coarse sand-
*Acadian Geology, p. 155.
Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst, Scy., Vou. XI. TRANS.—JJ,

548 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

stones and conglomerate, and probably belongs to the Lower
Coal Measures or Millstone Grit series, the marine limestones
being apparently absent. At least this is the interpretation I
should be inclined to put upon the appearances in connection
with the fact that along the north side of the Cobequids, the
marine Lower Carboniferous is either absent or overlapped by
the higher beds of the series in all the localities which I have
explored.”

Note.—Besides the map accompanying these sections, the —
reader is referred to the Geological Survey’s map sheets of Nova
Scotia, Nos. 100 and 101, as well as to the forthcoming Nos. 81
and 102, with the bibliographies thereon given. The reader
may also consult Sir William Dawson’s Acadian Geology, pages
150-178, which treats of Logan’s section.

ERRATA.

Page 420, lines 17 and 28, for ‘ darb” read drab; p. 421, 1. 21, for ‘“‘reck” read rock ;
p. 426. last line. for ‘* calamities” read calamites; p. 427, line 30, for ‘“‘ grav” read gray;
p. 441, last line, ‘‘carbonaceous shale” should be in italics; p. 451, 1. 27, for ** carbon-
aceous shale 0°4” read Carbonaceous shale 1:0; p. 451, 1. 28, for * witht” read with ;
p. 452, omit line 1, “Gray argillo-arenaceous shale. with stigmarice (under-”; p. 452,
}. 15, for ** the turns” read then turns; p. 452, 1. 19, for “groved” read grooved ; p. 435,
1. 23, indent “Gray” one ‘‘em”; p. 473, 1. 23, for ‘‘grenish” read greenish; p. 481. 1. 22,
for ‘‘no less 10” read no less than 10; p. 487, 1. 2, for ‘* desseminated ” read dissemin-
ated ; p. 489, 1. 14, ‘* Dark green limestone” should be in italics ; p. 502, last line, add to
* with sometimes large” the omitted word trunks, and carry outdft.6in in column
of figures ; p. 505, 1. 31, omit comma after ‘‘flaggy sandstone”; p. 514, 1. 13, to make
sense more clear, place full stop after word ‘section,’ and for ‘* which” read Jé;
p. 030, for’ al” read alv; p. sal). 7, for “fin read jine’; p.535) 1.22, for concer:
tionary ” read concretionary; p. 543, 1. 32, for “Stigmaria” read Stigmaric; p. 546,
1, 24, for ‘‘argillacous” read argillaceous.

. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER, 549

CONTENTS.

{n order to assist the reader in consulting the foregoing geological sections, there
given below a list of those sections and the place-names that are mentioned therein,
with the pages on which they occur.

_ A. SECTIONS AT THE JOGGINS, FROM WEST RAGGED REEF TO MINUDIE (IN DESCEND-
ING ORDER), BY SIR WILLIAM E. LOGAN.

Page

Div. 1. Little Shulie to beyond North Branch of Two Rivers ........ Sic eit relerete eater 419
Wiest) Raered SRCeR <i sm astelefelcie 2 cso soles cleeiinieree Bee fa ees STOR CLOTS 422

SOULM BrOOk AWOL Vein. lesa) <class iis ericmiciierre ee see ene eee Ree 422
INOEEMEBraANeh Of awOuRVLV.eLpinc ceacereoccal eecaee rere eesti inert 423

Div. 2. Ragged Reef Point and tts vicinity. 22.22. cc cee cena se vee se wieies aleece 424
Rate CORE CESE OUNG eer aon shay ystersyarerstaaleicri a wis cis\ne OR.5 so stale cate ee lets Cae 425

Div. 3. Hast of Ragged Reef Point to the bay north of McCarren Cove... ........ 427
SoucheRaccred Weeks. < cuss soe lene ont ote aera kc oe rae eelctee cs be Sas 043

North) Ragared Reels «co accounctersce steistaee sas ee ste ia ete oto omarere co eeaieleiers meee dol
Mennigiiven(MoweAvicCarrenSrook)seeeeeameeceeer encore ete cer 436

Souuhvand: NorthiReefs; 1) enmisdhiveteccescrcces cise: sect oni ciccosetersieiee's 436
WenmnissRiver, OMG picwteore aoe rent seiersienareinro ease Avec omis eisatots eistcie'n Fa siaiareloreieients 437

Div. 4. North of McCarren Cove to a cliff south of Little River. .........6..0055- . 440
Joggins Main Seam, Coal No. 7..............- Monon res Me iolarsa a sjorsjoreiersioie oe 443

Qucen Seam CoalMNion Bierce cierto esis = cieerersvars elses aie e ete Mtererelcister tet crsierc intense po eee

(BSL ESB OO Kertepavevarsretere oreo on otote eal oiel eee ale ofouecclateie oon ies al isis ai eve lorererave’cfa so andzelarayor' 445

Coa CUP ONG rete ora lataror series ott ee eiee eter iee Gioia ine oie s cewiw sareloisio Serre. telore 418
HardscrabpblenscanimCoalsNon2on ee cmcrteee ecient sec rere oeran soca 455

Divan: “Southiof Ditile River to South Reef, Tower Cove: «...:ss0.060526026000055 0% 470
Dive 6- South Reef, Lower Cove, to Dogfish Cove .o....0c2.0. 22000 000s. pasate 475
South Reef (Atlantic grindstone'quarries) ........... ...-00 ss 0s0e.ee00s 475

NOT GHVPERC ER cis ee rterccartole ree stera eu ras ave etss cos Sts alae Acyoves esi eivO aT lal Rave custesers ow LAA 476

ISH Kcroyohd Celtel Sb NERA UB Onich ao ccHonc Seto ae ence Stan Soc an ener cane 478

Upper Cove Reef......... TEA OB ap bod Bot COtOROD ORO EUG OS OO CDE OTOnS . 483

PS OSSHI OU Diy ttrersteyeste vets clone taetsis Gace ise ee tie iors Nema amads SR eens aevoais ee 483:

IBS} ENR Ayoooadeody. ooardeno cobUqEanopEd od onoouboonacorosnucoaEpe aecooe 485
DogrfishReeh sasass.- soccer BSD CATS OnT ROL OUD CUTE A CaaS Ay Stina conte aot 488

Div. % Hastof Dogfish Coveto beyond Downing Cove: voc. 6 cine oe ccc ecicas eles ose 499
Div. 8. From beyond Downing Cove to Seaman Brook, Mill Cove ............4+4+ 494

_ Seaman Brook, IMATE COV Crs tecrecisersiecitee te atlases ane ects esinceeulesinn ae aeS.

B. SECTIONS FROM SHULIE TO SPICER COVE (IN DESCENDING ORDER), BY HUGH

FLETCHER.

Page

SCC task ue H70770e SLI LCLLOLS CLO CO UCL are aminns cn sicrietiseneicie cele tio tere ieee celeriac 500
SHUTTER EWC Tete ecreie rarer iacte oiaterersterstate sia eyeteleters aiaseterereieiete ie iese ois antes aml ateee 501

BYEZ ET DOMME TO OMG are oor 4 ove, s slevaracclers,iecelets cjaisvavelela aca sts Sissis cunevalajeye.<'eieiecerete 504
Oramberryseeaderrms cay wee eect ees levers relesereteve misio™ iotoherei cia splat oratcicteiets 505

Claimt COwiescen citer crccrsis oatetote, ste tota retary teeecatessla ore everase's “orerer ve/aravas i erenere sisters 506

San di Ove retesrotisanatsiomes sieteyerecic ie cone ew staiolate te ekicrtia ie trom ay gintere feensla Se 510

550 CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN CUMB. CO.—LOGAN & FLETCHER.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.

Sect.
Sect.

Il.

III.
IV.
Vv.

VI.

VALI

VALLE:

IX.

X.

XI.
XII.

IN RAO OPS THOOs COUR S006 comccacecadcoso0Dde 6 SD ONOOGUDE GOI oo roOUT ods 511
iehhavsli Cocos puoobodonoscoonddcnesauaconanbDo ono ogoDaSSbodonudOChoLds 514
Sand Brooks so fatovlscece cris) coenee tesceuee sre acteeeereleen elereteiniae airtee 514

SOM WESHIOTAS GILG COVE wecan aeons ere shee civeiite neler: Cleclee eee 514

OM SONOMA UCT NC OUSCUL TO ate pioiseleleticftereretaitenepeere Hela ctevcyelstuatehetetecotote 515
Postjiottice; Sand (Riven seers acecrere, Siecccicnivieiae ssi eaee erence eeeniee 515

Between Sand River and Sand Cove...........- Haiisliouisister con cautelne aeirse 519

WESEIOF SONA PRIVEN Sie « ienscis roc avs ict oTa cl etelac ar vers ai ero aloe sla clelel eee e lero Soe | YS!
Southwesticid cor sandukivier....s- oe eae eee een eeoeee soo. tay!
On BULKY OV R00) Steg meee ieers Gate cee eCe CeIn IA Lad onda saneaoneb ad auborrc.co 524

Rocks repeated on shore southwest of Sand Riv r........... ... ee 526
Mwo-mMilGsBroo ki. oscvscnccloek Cate kererat Gisea, Mee ntere cieles salle eee eee 527

Descending below No. 3 of the last section............0.--+.0506. « 528
ASID CO GY OL Sere ee aera odin orraiis ROOM eoRUs: CiaArcne Snisuso oS. 530

From Birch Cove westward to Hetty Point .........<.0..0+-0-.-see02es 530
Bircht@ ove Brooke -.ccccciitesii dona mantcek gua ot eyeternc ele clone eee
MceCarrent@oviers. pate acne ether Bishi: ah Strat cae OOS OE
1S (1 renga) 5001 cL geese ere Remeron co anes An asonbceb-roandap Oatea ue 535

At Pudsey Point at the mouth of Apple River .......2... 20+. seeeeeee 536
Pudsey, Point srindstemeyquarries seer sects yerelelets- lelarel-teteretolevaeraeye atetarers 538

BARS OOO COL iran maoba ners oa cnAPOBenoDoOUsoosdolodj0o adaaaavonsoG seGess 542

Jp A. JORNBON'S\DOTEROLE AL Spicenm (COVE mans ncieeiioaie elenielere erie ieee eee 546

SUPPLEMENTARY Note To A Paper on “THE SUNKEN LAND OF
Bus: 2—— by J, so. Poorer, Disc

Having otherwise failed to obtain information respecting the
origin of the above title, an enquiry was inserted in Votes and
Queries and the following reply was shortly afterwards obtained :

“Sunken Land of Bus’ (10s, v. 509) is named after one of Sir
Martin Frobisher’s ships in his third voyage in 1578. The relation
of the pretended discovery, given by Hakluyt (Voyages of the English
Nation, vol. iii, 160 e, p. 93), runs thus: ‘The Busse of Bridgewater,
as she came homeward to the southeastward of Frieseland, discovered
a great island in the latitude of 57 degrees and an half, which was
never yet found before, and sailed three dayes alongst the coast, the
land seeming to be fruitfull, full of woods and a Campion Country.’

“ John Barrow in his Chronological History of Vogages into the
Arctic Regions (Lond., 1818, p. 94) says that ‘a bank has recently
been sounded upon, which has revived the idea of the Frieseland of
Zeno and the Busse of Bridgewater having been swallowed up by an
earthquake.’

“A fall sammary of the subject of the Land of Bus is given by
Mr. Miller Christy as appendix B to C. C. A. Gosch’s Danish Arctic
Expeditions, 1605 to 1620, Hakluyt Soc., Book I, 1897. See also
The Annals of the Voyages of the Brothers Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, by
Fred. W. Lucas, Lond., 1898.”

Royal Library, Stockholm. (Signed) E. W. DAHLGREN.

*See Transactions of N. S. Institute of Science, vol. xi, p. 193.

(551)

“

a i) |

HE attention of members of the Institute is directed to the following

recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological

Bibliography and Publications :—

‘‘That ‘authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner.

‘‘ That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.

““That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when
possible.

‘‘ That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or
anonymous paragraphs.

““That references to previous publications should be made fully and
correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of
rules of quotations, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological

Society ”

d Ve
Wy, a o =

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ova Scotian Enstitute of Science,

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME XI.

PART 4,

SESSION OF 1905-i906.

, =h =4 Bye '-4\
\Oey2 Dy iy ae
Wes fos Te }
NZ aa Be
, Ra: ae 2
res

HALIFAX:
PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., LTD.
Date of Publication :—August, 1908.

Price To Non-MremsBers: Ont Haxur-Doucar.

CONTENTS

PROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1905-1906:
Presidential address.—By Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., A. R.S. M., F.G.8.,

SR S.C Mee ial erin te ia i Mma (es ciate brains Aietateel bape ee oh ea ana eee a
Therlustitwbesiwork.<.Gy ose a hues eos ye wataitlslalN eae ect Ne atic vel a L
Speculative thoughts; cy, sa oe ty eee i ey RSD eri ty ec thet Unc Perea Ra nea te
REpOrbiol treasurer icc SON SACs ke ee PaO a Serres Cait g Haier aah aap alae ae Da
RenerGiof Worariany 4a) peck sake one aee Ha Oaks ade te cp ae eee ween Wye De atari Ceol ai
Note on Dictyonema BeBetert (=D. r etiforme), —By R. Ruedemann........
Officers for 190-1906 i eee oe, ek a ee el Seg) ae SEUNG MN NG ere tA ct ea
ORDINARY, (MEETINGS Woo secrih Che won Malone eae ee isan ere EPR ry tre ebe fs
Mining, is it a science?—By W. E. Lishman, M. A. (Extract from)..... ...
Fungi of Nova Scotia: first supplementary list.—By A. H. MacKay, LL.D.,
POR SICH (See Wok xkle Deke Dy ALO ee cle tek te eae alee ak ce Me RU eee ee
Halifax water works.—By H. W. Johnston, C. E. (See vol. i pt., 1, p. 72)
Amphibian-iike remains from the Joggins. Note by L. M. Lambe .......
Notes on protective coloring.—By Frank H. Reid. (Title only) ............
Contribution to the study of hydroxylomine.—By G. M. J, MacKay, B. A.
(See vol. xi, pt. 2, p. 324) ....... Ur NU oR do Pass A PR RRNA AT AMAEY SD)
Occurrence of star-nosed mole and shrew in an eel trap.—By W. L. Bishop.
(BiG orale) aris sis atcier teha:e Sagatal Gore Sie laye cial sunset ecack's nl bdelpsane sobeatata dale hata rat ais onal RRs
The damage done to timber by Toredo navalis and Limnoria lignerum.—
By R. McColl, C. E. (Title only.) ...... ACD AR Tend Ae wR ME tA
Phenological observations, Canada, 1905.—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R.
8. C, (Printed in Proc. Royal Society of Canada.) ..........2..-..4.0.0-

TRANSACTIONS, SESSION OF 1905-1906 :
On the fiora of McNab’s Island, Halifax Harbour, N. S.: pt. 1, general
notes; pt. 2, work in special orders; pt. 3, narcotisation of plants; pt.
4, occasional notes.—By Captain John H. Barbour, M. D., R. A. M. C.
Catalogue of the birds of Prince Edward Island.—By John MacSwain.....
The Grignard synthesis: the action of phenyl magnesium bromide on
camphor.— By H. Jermain M. Creighton... ...........e.c ccc cee eee seene He
Oil fields of eastern Canada.—By R. W. Ells, Lh. D., F. R. S. C...........2;
Frost and drought of 1905.—By F. W. W. Doane, C. BH. ........ ee ce cee eee eee
Eels in water pipes and their migration.—By Watson L. Bishop...........
pik stag re on Smee Ss paper.--By F. W. W. Doane, C. E........ sired APs
ui SON d itl cS Ye. Ley ESTO WUT G Ic aie ial cletstamtese niines Racameiat cae
Water powers of the Mersey River, N. 8S.—By W. G. Yorston, C. E: .......
Water-rolled weed-balls.—By A. H,. MacKay, LL. D., F. R. 8. C............

APPENDIX IV:
List of members, 1905-1906 2... .. ee. cc cee eee wees Net e cus oer lee ist ae etme
List of presidents, 1862-1906.............. aiohaWaibis Wie Sia cate Octane aoe Or Seb la ale ate ee eet

xvii
xlviii
xlix

lit

lii

eet Nee ELC) INS

OF THE

Aova Scotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1905-1906

On THE Fiora oF McNap’s Istanp, Halifax Harbour, N. 8.:
Part 1, General Notes; Part 2, Work in Special Orders ;
Part 3, Narcotisation of Plants; Part 4, Occasional
Notes.—By Carrain Jonn H. Barzour, M. D., Royal
Army Medical Corps.
(Read 13th. November, 1905.)

Part J.—GENERAL NOTES.

It is not my intention to deal fully with the flora of this
island. I iatend rather to just mention some of the principal
things which struck me personally, leaving it to others who
know the locality much better than I do, to fill in the details in
after years, if this has not been already considerably done by
observers in the neighbourhood of Halifax.

When we consider the position of the island, its size, the
winters which occur, and the presence of the ocean around it,
I think that we have on it a most wonderful variety of flowers,
and the botanist may there find plenty of work to do in all
departments. for he comes across woodland, littoral, meadow and
sea plants growing in profusion within a small area.

One great peculiarity that one notices, is that the woodland
plants descend right on to the shore, even to high-water mark,

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Instr. Scr., Vou. XI. Trans. KK.

(553)

554 FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

and in fair numbers also. Never do I remember seeing so many
woodland plants on one shore before, especially on the side of
an island or district exposed to a good deal of the force, tides
and winds of the Atlantic ocean, as is the case on the south side
of the island looking out towards Devil’s Island. Here at high
tide one may cull raspberries with the water coming over one’s
boots, pick Scutellaria on the same spot, watch the milfoils grow-
ing in grand, profusion and to a great height—as much as 3
to 4 feet or more. Then we have rock roses, not really littoral
plants, everywhere, and at the proper season the margins are
decked with masses of purple irises, so that one feels inclined to
call the island ‘* a garden of irises,” for it is not only on the
shore they are to be seen, but all over it. Grasses and sedges
dip in the water and seem to enjoy the tide rippling over them.
Other plants we find are rose-root, sea pea, sea rocket, sedum,
asters, scarlet pimpernel, and the white nightshade, the evening
primrose, and many more too numerous to mention, Another
peculiarity which I noticed was the comparative poverty of the
Fucacew on the shores, that is of species which find their
habitat there. On the shore opposite Lawlor’s Island, one meets
with a couple or so of varieties of the Melanophycew. On the
side towards the ocean opposite Devil’s Island, it is about the
same, a stray Fucus vesiculosus or EF. serratus and Laminaria;
while on the shores looking towards Halifax, practically none
are to be seen. Along Meagher’s Beach we do find various
kinds of Fucus, Floridew, ete., but nearly all these are washed
up by the tides; few are settlers. Most shores exposed to the
ocean are covered more or less with a sea-flora of a beautiful and
varied character. The above flora generally appears to be that
of brackish water rather than of the true sea type, or true fresh
water one.

So far as the land flora generally is concerned, if I went
into it in detail, it would occupy a paper by itself, therefore my
remarks will of necessity be brief and general. Ferns are

FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 555

numerous, but considering the nature of the island, a greater
variety would have been expected, and that is by no means the
case. Mosses are few in variety also, while among the Equiset-
ace@ there are several species. The Conifer@ are much as on
the mainland, though the hemlock is very rare, and I found it
only in one spot on the island.

Looking now for a moment on the Phanerogames of the
island, it is curious to note the immense unmbers of beautiful
violets, and a contrasting absence of their little allies, the wild
pansies. I saw but one specimen of the Hypercinew, which is
peculiar, as they are very common on the mainland.

The island evidently is a veritable garden, in the season,
for raspberries, and this brings me to suggest that it appears
to me that McNab’s Island might easily be converted to some
good use as a spot wherein to grow various crops for economic
purposes. Take, for instance, raspberries: the island is well
suited for their production ; they were very plentiful and of good
size this last summer, wild as they are. With a little attention
what quantities could be placed on the market in Halifax; there
would be little or almost no train or transport rates to cut down
the producer’s results. Again, from the quantities or irises grow-
ing on it, the island is evidently well suited for the growing of
them. Would it not be possible to manufacture a cheap and
beautiful violet ink, stain, or dye from their rich, velvet per-
ianths? J obtained some good purple writing fluid by a process
of extraction from some this last summer, which had the proper-
ty of darkening on exporsure to sun and rain. I had not time to
complete my experiments, however, and the effect of time on the
ink on paper can only be judged by how it will look in a year or
two’s time, and under various conditions of climate, ete., so that
T do not iatend to make public any results for the present.

Strawberries and blueberries run wild, and what I said
about raspberries applies equally to the former. I think the
island would also yield grasses for baskets, mats and such like

556 FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

contrivances, though probably not in the same quantities as
might be obtained easier from elsewhere,

The fungi of the island are very numerous and varied.
Seldom, if ever, have I seen, certainly not in colour, so many
Basidiomycetes and Gastromycetes; they are beautiful, too, in
many instances.

Lichens also are abundant, but with neither of these
did I have much to do. What notice I did take of the mush-
rooms will be referred to in my notes at the end of this paper.

These few general observations are all I wish to offer on the
flora generally. I have looked at it from my own point of view,
and though probably I have told you nothing new, possibly
I have suggested a new light in which to consider it.

This brings me to Part II. of my subject, in which I deal
with work specially done in one or two orders. The results may
not appear large, but only a few plants can be dealt with care-
fully in a season. The work done is, as in a previous paper I
read before the Institute a couple of years ago, mainly on

variation.

Part II.—Work IN SPECIAL ORDERS.

Primulacee.

Trientalis Americana, Star flower.—One of your com-
monest spring flowers. 500 specimens at least examined, and
on that data results given. Variations in calyx and corolla
practically none. In a few specimens one sepal was normally
absent. It was in the stamens the variations occurred. In 77
specimens I found 7 stamens in each; in 167 specimens I found
8 stamens in each; in 205 specimens I found 6 stamens in each;
and this latter number seems to be the most usual number of
stamens present. In 17 specimens I found 5 stamens in each;
in 34 specimens I found 4 stamens in each. It is curious to

FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 557

notice, however, that while you had seven stamens present, often
with eight petals; in the case of those with eight stamens the
reverse did not hold good. Nearly always when eight stamens
were present, eight petals and eight sepals were. Those in
which the stamens were below seven, had petals and sepals
usually normal, and no corresponding decrease in numbers.

Oxalidacee.

Oxalis acetosella. White wood-sorrel—The number of
specimens examined ran into hundreds, but I have lost the exact
number. On going through a very large number I found so
very little variation, so directed my attention to the descriptions
of this plant in floras and compared them with what I noticed
for myself, and I think that a modification of those descriptions
is desirable, for they do not appear to be full enough or accurate
enough in some respects, judging from the results I have ob-
tained after examining at least four hundred or more plants.

The following is the flora’s deseription:—Low herbs with
an acid juice and alternate compound leaves, the three leaves
obeordate, and drooping in the evening; flowers long, heter-
ogonus; sepals, obtuse; petals, pink, rarely white, veined with
deep pink; capsule, subglobose, glabrous; seeds, ovoid, longitud-
inally grooved.

It is the petals which need a modified description :—Calyx
and corolla regular. Petals, unequally divided apex, or as an
alternate description, are unequally cordate. Petals may be
white, but more usually they are tinted with purplish-pink, due
to the ramifications of veins. The veins are of a darker purple-
pink than are the petals, usually seven to eight in number,
never more on each petal; they start from an orange-yellow
corona situated close to the base of each petal.

The remaining description of the flower is an ample one,
and does not appear to require to be changed.

558 FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

Rubiacee.

Houstonia cerulea. Bluets.—Quite one of the commonest
earlier flowers of the season. 1500 specimens examined, mainly
collected on MceNab’s Island, but some on the mainland in this
instance.

There is not much variation in the outer whorls of the
flower ; flowers with six instead of four petals were met with in
a couple of dozen instances, and four or five had as many as
seven.

The one great variation I noticed was seen in the length of
the style and the number of the stigmas. In the floras, the
flower is described as having one style and two stigmas. Now |
have found a heterogony of styles in these flowers. One variety
has a long style with two stigmas; the second variety has a short
style and most usually one stigma. The former I hold to be the
one usually described in our books on flora.

The latter I have ventured to distinguish from it by giving
it a new name—Houstonia cerulea var. Piersiimafter your
esteemed secretary, Mr. H. Piers, who has aided me in so many
ways in this kind of work.

The description, therefore, of the style in this new variety

may be said to be as follows :—Style—Short, not longer than
three-quarters, at most, of the length of the corolla tube.
Stigma—Single nearly always, but two may be present which
are partially united half way up their dorsal aspects.

This new variety | have found is based on the fact that
practically one-third of the flowers examined presented these
variations. They arise, too, not quite irregularly, for tufts of
flowers occur in which all the flowers consist of one or other
variety quite separate from those large patches where both
kinds may be found indiscriminately.

FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 559

TIridacee.

Tris versicolor. Blue flag.—Subject to little variation. 250
examined. The variations occurred in the flat, petaloid, arch-
ing stigmas. In 160, the stigmas possessed two irregular lobes
at the apex, which may be considered to be what usually hap-
pens; 66 specimens had three lobes; 20 specimens had but one
lobe. In four specimens I found one stigma absent, and in
these the corresponding stamen was also absent.

Sisyrinchium angustifoium. Blue-eyed grass.—300 speci-
mens examined. TI have practically nothing ‘new to add to what
I said about this flower in a paper read before this society two
vears ago. I have not examined so many specimens of this plant
this year as I did then, but the results work out the same,
There was but one new feature I noticed, and that occurred
only in six or eight specimens-—it was the presence of little
wings on the divisions of the perianth, one on each side.

A question was asked me at the time I read my last paper,
which then I could not reply to. I now wish to say the cotyle-
dons have nothing whatever to do with the variations observed ;
rather it is, as in [ris versicolor as well, a selective effort on the
part of the flower to increase its surface area to attract certain
insects more frequently and suitably, and it depends, I think,
on that instinctive faculty, uncoascious perhaps in a_ sense,
which I believe animals and plants possess in common, though
in varying degree, to reproduce more and more of their kind,
even to the detriment of others, if not obtainable otherwise.

Caprifoliacee.

Linnea borealis. Twin flower.—400 specimens examined.
No variations worth noting were seen. This flower is one of
the most regular plants I have ever examined, and its beauty
is only enhanced by its modesty.

560 FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

Hricacee.

Moneses uniflora. One-flowered pyrola.—This peculiar
flower, which is the last I have to offer any special notes on,
appealed to me much, on account of its prominent anthers, and
the apparent want of conformity in the arrangement of its
stamens; so much so, that I looked up different floras to see if
I could find out what was the most usual arrangement of the
whorl. I could not find anything on this subject, so I have
undertakea to try and determine what is the most usual arrange-
ment, and in this case, since I have a number of figures to deal
with, I will say only that over 1,000 specimens were examined,
and the following are the conelusions I arrived at:—(1)
that the stamens are in one whorl; (2) the corolla may be
complete or incomplete—that is, with five petals or less.

Considering now the flowers from the view that the stamens
are ten or less, I want you to look at them as regular or
irregular. Let us first consider the regular flowers :

(a) Regular flowers, with corolla complete. By far the
larger majority have the following arrangement of stamens in
the whorl, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1. The next commonest is a variation
on this, 3, 2, 2, 1, 2. Then come, some little way behind,
another arrangement—3, 1, 2, 3, 1, and its variant, 3, 1, 3,
2, 1. Then in order we get 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, and far behind, and
in only a few instances, comparatively speaking, 3, 2, 1,1, 2,1;
S535 Be Megs aatte Sx al al Oe

(b) Regular flowers with incomplete corolla—The above
arrangements hold good because only one or two flowers were
met with in which the corolla was incomplete, and they pos-

sessed only four petals.

Let us now consider the irregular flowers :—

(c) Irregular flowers with corolla complete—The usual
arrangement was for one of the last pairs of stamens to be
absent, if we consider the arrangement to be 3, 2, 2, 2, 1—

FLORA OF McNABS ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 561

thus we get 8, 2, 2, 1, 1. Nine stamens, instead of ten.
Next come those with only seven, aad then those with eight.
(d) Irregular flowers with corolla incomplete.-—The usual
arrangement is one of eight stamens to four petals—2, 2, 1, 2, 1.
Speaking generally, there is much variation in the arrange-
ments among the irregular flowers, the following being the

commonest :—

rte ell we alte

Bs Dar 2 ae

ed ep nal ;

SRR Rn eR ake - 9 stamens in the whorl.
Oe OmnOe ae cl 1.

3 Se Be

Dre Os 1,

Sa D,.. il, |

9” 9) 2

me? 1, 1, 2, 1. | § stamens in the whorl.
Sree) sb e2. |

Troon We Den le

Oe, So) 2 P

Re Re eae: 1. | 7 stamens in the whorl.
Oe ae {

aed ae Co Os 6 stamens in the whorl.

No other variants of any consequence noticed, so that these
may be held to be the principal arrangements and numbers of
stamens in the flowers.

In the irregular flowers with incomplete corollas, I wish to
point out that the numbers of the petals present in the corolla
weee usually four or five, and the sepals were decreased in a
similar ratio. The carpellary leaves also were decreased in
much the same manner.

Having given the conclusions obtained, it will be ‘necessary
to show you practically how these results have been got at, how
I started from a certain part of the whorl and went round it.
Take the much more usual arrangement, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1. I
always began with a three which I presumed to be on the side
nearest to me, and passed round the whorl from right to left;

562 FLORA OF. McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR

if I weat the reverse way I would only get the above result
reversed; but in all cases where three’s were present I started
to work from that number.

Look at these floral diagrams of flowers of the regular type
with complete corollas. I passed round in the direction of the
arrows from the spot marked by an x opposite a three.

(2) (2) (@) (e}

\o tia
a SS Sel
satoeo als 3, 2 aoe: Dee Zooks 3, 3, oy le
Fig. I. Kio. Lf. Fig. IIT. Pig. IV;

Of course it was only by chzervation for a while previous to
systematically proceeding, that I found the most suitable spot
to start from. I did the same when a two came first.

While doing this special work, one or two other peculiarities
were sometimes observed in the stigmas.

The stigma is usually described in books on flora as “ large
and peltate, with five narrow, acute, radiating lobes.” In a cer-
tain number I noticed that the lobes were only four in number,
and in about a dozen or more, the stigma itself as a whole
assumed a claw-shaped form like that of a bird, and was
sessile.

In conclusion, briefly reviewing the results of the staminal
arrangements, let me say that ia nearly half the specimens
examined, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1 was the formula, and consequently it
is the normal arrangement of the ten stamens present. Then
came its variant, and the other formule make up the
remainder.

FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—-BARBOUR. 563

Part III.—NARCOTISATION OF PLANTS.

This part of my paper consists of a few experiments made
on wet days when outdoor work could not be well done, The
plants used were mostly common ones found on the island, and
chloroform was the narcotic used. In many cases several exper-
iments were done with the same kind of plant. I do not claim
that the results gained are as accurate as they might be, but
looking over some works on physiology of plants, I can sav this,
that certainly some of them are borne out as correct to a great
extent; and remember, I was in camp with only rough contriy-
ances to work with. I am satisfied myself with my results, but
in any case I hope it may prove interesting to vou to hear them.
I take the flowers used in no special order; will say what I did,
briefly, and sum up results afterwards.

Moneses uniflora—Specimens dry. Placed in lethal cham-
ber entirely; that is, with only the air in the chamber. Narcotic
given. Flowers changed in colour to light brown in two min-
utes; corolla, brown; anthers, untouched; carpels blackish,
styles and stigma untouched. Jn half an hour all parts of flower
dark brown.

Trientalis americana.—Specimens dry. Placed in chamber
as Ya former case exactly. Little change in half an hour;
flowers just a little flaccid.

Oxalis acetosella—Specimen dry, and put into chamber as
in previous specimens. Almost at once the leaves fell down and
drooped; the petals of the flower curled back, instead of in, as
in sleep, in ten minutes. The flower became limp, but colour
remained unchanged. The leaves later opened again, but
remained flaccid. Compare these results with normal sleep.

Specimens moistened with water and placed in the chamber.
Effects less, leaves affected the most. Flowers became limp, but
colour unchanged in ten minutes.

Moss.—Quite unaffected in ten miautes, or half an hour.

564 FLORA OF McNAB’'S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

Cypripedium acaule-—Specimens dry when placed in
chamber. Affected in five minutes; the other greenish lobes, the
perianth, becoming discoloured and droop. Other effects
proceed very slowly indeed, it taking two to three hours to bring
results. Curious to say, the flowers transpired more or less
under the influence of the narcotic, and the final result is diffi-
cult to obtain,—complete anesthesia as it were.

Hieracium canadenis.—Specimens dry. Flowers began to
be influenced in 15 minutes. Completely under influence in
20 minutes. Stems below the head absolutely limp, so that the
flower head hung sharply down, The strap-like rays became
dark yellow, but not closed as in sleep; they remained one-half
to one-third open, and slightly curled on themselves. Another
curious effect was observed in this plant, that when a
specimen was placed dry, and just as it had been plucked, and
not under the influence of the narcotic, in a chamber free from
narcotic, but in which also was a narcotised orchid, this latter
plant seemed to affect the hawkweed, which became drowsy and
closed as in sleep, more or less,

Potentilla tormentosa.—Specimens used dry. In ten
minutes the leaves were affected. The flowers closed in twenty
minutes.

Drosera rotundifolia.—Specimeas dry. In ten minutes
leaves became flaccid and curled backwards. The tentacles
became irregularly twisted and crossed. Recovery from
influence took place if flower was placed in soil after a time,
which was most unusual in those flowers I experimented upon.

Specimens moistened or wet. Flowers more tardy about
coming under influence of the narcotic. At the end of fifteen
minutes, slight discoloration, but no closing of flowers or droop-
ing of the tentacles for fifteen minutes more, and then it was
incomplete. Leaves behaved as in previous experiments. Here
again the results differed from those obtained when ordinary
stimuli are applied. |

FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 565

Onoclea sensibilis—F ronds drooped in ten minutes, Pinne
curled back.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.—Specimens dry. Heads
began to droop in twenty minutes, when the root is present.
Heads without root drooped and closed, leaves darkened and
became limp in eight minutes.

Head with roots present, roots in lethal chamber completely,
but head and leaves outside chamber in fresh air. Little
affected. Leaves became slightly discolored, and flower just
began to close in two hours.

Cornus canadensis.—Specimens dry, Very resistant. No
effects in one hour. In one and a-half hours leaves just began
to turn yellowish. In two hours quite yellow. These flowers
sometimes transpire slightly under the influence of narcotic.

Trifolium pratense.—Specimens dry. Leaves affected in
ten minutes, becoming nearly black, and limp. The flowers
changed to purple from red in 28 minutes. Scent disappeared
first and early, in five minutes. Changes completed in one hour,

Prunella vulgaris—Specimens dry. Very rapidly affected.
Flowers turned brown and became limp in five minutes or less.
Leaves darkened. Results same, whether roots were present or
not.

Iris versicolor.—Specimens dry. Flowers drooped in 15
minutes. Transpired slightly.

Sedum acris.—Affected in five minutes.

Sarracenia purpurea.—Specimens slightly moist and wet.
Flowers affected in fifteen minutes, drooping. Discoloration
shght. Leaves not affected for a longer time.

Ranunculus acris.—Specimens dry. Heads drooped and
became a darker yellow in twenty minutes; leaves changed to a
deep olive colour, and became limp in ten minutes. In speci-
mens in which the roots were in lethal chamber and heads in
fresh air, leaves closed in ten minutes, but were not discolored.
The flowers were unaffected for a long time.

BARBOUR.

566 FLORA OF McNABS ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.

Taraxacum officinale—Specimens dry. Flowers closed in
ten minutes; closing complete.

Stellaria media and Cerastium arvense.—Specimens dry.
Tn 25 minutes flowers began to droop and close slightly ; leaves
were unaffected. In 30 minutes flowers were closed completely.
No discoloration of flowers or leaves.

Fragaria virginiana.—Specimens dry. esistant. Only
semi-nareotised in one hour.

Arctostaphylos wva-ursi.—Specimens dry. Influenced only
slowly. Leaves discolored, but not limp, and flowers semi-
closel in one hour. Specimens moistened, results the same.

Trifolium repens.—Specimens dry. Scent disappeared in
seven minutes. Leaves drooped ia ten minutes and became
brown. In one hour the flower is seen to have its florets mostly
lying with their apices pointed outwards instead of upwards as
when fresh.

Habenaria lacera——Specimens dry. Flaccid generally in
ten minutes. Flowers brown jin 15 minutes.—Specimens wet.
Flacecid generally in 15 minutes. Flowers brown in half an
hour.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum and Ovxalis acetosella were
both placed with their leaves and flowers in air, but with their
roots in chloroform fluid. In the ease of the former, the chloro-
form seemed to act as a stimulant; the flowers thrived in it for
24 hours. In the latter, however, the leaves fell in ten minutes,
and the flower drooped soon after. These were the only plants
experimented with in this way.

The conclusions drawn from these few rough experiments
were as follows, but they must not be considered conclusive, but
rather as incentives to others to more accurately work up this
physiological section :—

Conclusion I., is that some flowers are more gensitive to the
influence of the narcotic than others, and in various degrees
and times, even when removed from its direct influence.

FLORA OF McNAB’'S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 567

II.—It is through the leaves, flowers and stem that this influ-
ence acts, more than by the roots, for often when applied
to the latter, the results take longer to arrive at. Some-
times it even appears to act as a stimulant when appled
directly to the roots.

IJI.—Colour is always affected practically, and purple flowers
and leaves seem to be more influenced than a good many
lighter ones.

TV.—In many instances, the results obtained are more or less
the opposite to those seen when natural influences, such as
wind, rain, heat or cold are applied. They are also the
yeverse of natural sleep.

V.—Some flowers transpire under the influence of a narcotic,
and those which do most are the hardest to be affected.
VI.—Though I have ‘aot mentioned it in my experiments,
flowers slightly under the influence of a narcotic may
recover if removed from it; those deeply under it rarely, if

ever, do.

VIT.—Cell contents become altered. Granules may become dis-
organized or swell.

The practical reasons for my experiments are the same as So
many others have done them for, and resolve themselves into
three questions—What are the best flowers and plants for a
town or house in and around which noxious chemical products
are formed? Which are those least likely to be affected by soot,
dust, harmful vapours, ete., containing narcotising elements 2
How may we still keep our towns and parks beautiful under
such conditions? These simple experiments with wild flowers
throw little light, I grant, on such things, but possibly one or
two ideas may be gained, although similar experiments accurate-
ly conducted have oftea been done, which may be the stepping
stones to greater efforts on the part of those who are interested
in the beautifying of their native city, and who can teach those

568 FLORA OF McNAB’S ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR.

in slum-land the simple methods of keeping in the way of thriv-
ing, their few window plants, possibly their only knowledge of
the couatry beyond the city’s outskirts.

ParT [V.—OccASIONAL NOTES ON FLORA Or MCNAB’S ISLAND.

Karly fruit.—A ripe blackberry was found by me and eaten
on July 20th, before I saw ripe raspberries.

Instances of similarity in colour and shape between various
plants.—A couple of strawberry flowers which were found in
different spots, but im both cases in the middle of a patch of
‘Oxalis acetosella, had taken on the purple-white or pink colour
of this latter flower, and both had only four petals. At a dis-
tance they were indistinguishable from the Ovals, and it was
only by chance, when picking these flowers, I noticed those of
the strawberry.

Linnea borealis 1 found quite white in the middle of
bunchberries.

The Basidiomycetes, or mushrooms and toadstools of the
island also in many instances seem to take on the colour of
plants near which they grow; whether it is due to assimilation
of colouring matter from such plants which can be quickly
elaborated by these fast-growing fungi, or what is its special use
I cannot say. For protection it cannot be; for fertilisation pur-
poses it is very nearly unnecessary. As instances of what L
mean | give the following, which I saw myself:

IT saw a concolvulus flower trailing close to the ground;
beside it was a toadstool, purple-red in colour, with a dirty
white mottling as well, and a slight dimple on the upper surface
of the pileus. The convolvulus flower was almost exactly the same
in appearance, the white of the flower being dulled also. More-
over the opening of the tube of the corolla was so closed that one
would say it was more like a fissure or dimple. At the first
glance I thought both flower and toadstool were both the latter.

FLORA OF McCNABS ISLAND, HALIFAX, N. S.—BARBOUR. 569

Another instance: I was passing some bunches or iris leaves,
the veins of which are usually purplish in colour. Close to, in
fact touching, them was a stump of what looked to be the
remains of another bunch of leaves. I knocked it with my foot
and found it was the stipe and partially unopened cap of a
toadstool. The purple of the latter was exactly the same as the
former.

So have I seen orange-yellow coloured ones growing close
to the yellow loosestrite, bright red ones among the red bunch-
berries, perfectly white ones near the Indian pipe, and so alike
were they that they could not be distinguished till you were
right upon them. Little, tiny white specks of toadstools among
the moss, near where other lttle white flowers abound;
variegated near where variation in many colours abound.

Of course many occur in situations quite independent of
such conditions, but a certain number do find their habitat
according to the above, and many other instances I have not
noted,

Proc. & Trans. N. S. INST. Sci., VoL. XI. TRANS. LL.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.—
By JoHN MacSwain, Charlottetown, P. E. I.

(Read 13th Nove.nber, 1905; revised to 1907.)

This catalogue of the birds of Prince Edward [sland has
been compiled chiefly from field notes, beginning in 1895 and
continued to the present time. It contains the names of two
hundred and three birds seen by the writer during this period of
thirteen years ; and a supplementary list of thirteen additional
birds stated to occur in Prince Edward Island in the “ Catalogue
of Canadian Birds” by Prof. Macoun. ‘There is a similar list of
four species from “ Birds of Prince Edward Island,” by the late
Mr. Francis Bain.

There are few works which make special reference to the
birds of the Island. The most important is the interestingly
written book of Mr. Bain just mentioned, which describes one
hundred and fifty-two birds. It was published in 1891.
Besides this, Mr. Bain, in his “ Natural History of Prince
Edward Island,” devoted a section to the birds found here, and
he wrote two or more magazine articles on the same sub-
ject. “ Progress and Prospects of Prince Edward Island,” 1861,
by C. Birch Bagster, contains a list of forty-six birds. “A
Manual of the Geography and Natural and Civil History of
Prince Edward Island,” 1861, by Rev. D. Sutherland, has a
chapter on birds. These, with some articles which have ap-
peared in the Island newspapers and “The Prince Edward
Island Magazine,” make up the ornithological literature of
Prince Edward Island. Some tables on migration are appended
to the catalogue.

The nomenclature is that of the American Ornithologists’
Union “ Check-List,’ and the numbers in parentheses refer to

that work.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. by

OrpER PYGOPODES.
Fami.y PODICIPID.

1 (3). Colymbus auritus Linn. Horned Grebe——Have
seen one mounted specimen.
2 (6). Podilymbus podiceps (Linn.). Pied-billed Grebe.

—-Rare. .

Famity URINATORID.

3 (7). Urinator imber (Gunn.). Loon.—Not common,
but frequently seen during summer. Breeds.

4 (11). Urinator lumme (Gunn.). Red-throated Loon.
—Not seen as often as the preceding.

Famity ALCIDX.

5 (27). Cepphus grylle (Linn.). Black Guillemot.—Cap-
tured occasionally. All that I have seen were in the mottled
plumage. Breeds.

6 (30). Uvria troile (Linn.). Murre.— Rarer than the Black
Guillemot.

7 (34). Alle alle (Linn.). Dovekie; Little Auk.—More

frequently seen than either the Black or Common Guillemot.

OrpER LONGIPENNES.
Famity STERCORARIIDA.

8 (37). Stercorarius parasiticus (Linn.). Parasitic Jaeger.
—RHave seen one specimen only.

9 (40). Rissa tridactyla (Linn.). Kittiwake.—Common
during summer.

10 (42). Larus glaucus Brunn. Glaucus Gull; Ice Gull.
—Often seen in the autumn.

11 (45). Larus kumlieni Brewst. Kumlien’s Gull.—Taken
at Covehead, Oct. 7, 1905, and examined soon after it was
taken to the taxidermist. It is now in the museum of the
Academy, Truro, N.S. There are some ashy areas on some of
the primaries of this specimen.

572 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

12 (47). Larus marvnus Linn. Great Black-backed
Gull.—Quite common spring and autumn.

13 (51). Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. Ameri-
can Herring Gull.—-Common.

14 (54). Larus delawarensis Ord. Ring-billed Gull.
—Have seen one only.

15 (60). Larus philadelphia (Ord.). | Bonaparte’s Gull.
—Comnion.

16 (64). Sterna tschegrava Lepech. Caspian Tern.—One
was shot at Tracadie Bay, May 13th, 1905.

17 (70). Sterna hirundo Linn. Common Tern.—Com-
monest of the terns seen here.

18 (71). Sterna paradisea Brunn. Arctic Tern.—Not
common. .

OrvER TUBINARES.

Famity PROCELLARIID.

19 (94). Puffinus filiginosus (Strickland). Sooty Shear-
water.—-Very rare. One was mounted by Calder in 1904.

20 (104). Procellaria pelagica Linn. Stormy Petrel—
One was stuffed by Calder and sent to the museum of the Truro
Academy in the autumn of 1905. ‘T'wo were blown ashore on
the north coast of the Island during the great November gales
of 1906, and were brought to Mr. Calder.

21 (109). Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl.). Wilson’s Petrel.
—Oceasionally found on north coast of the Island.

OrpER STEGANOPODES.

Famity SULIDA.

22 (117). Sula bassana (Linn.). Gannet.—Not uncommon,
Saw one on St. Peter’s Bay, July 7th, 1905.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 573

Famiry PHALACROCORACIDE.
23 (119). Phalacrocorax carbo (Linn.). Cormorant.—A
few may be seen every summer.
24 (120). Phalacrocorax dilophus (Swainson). Double-
crested Cormorant.—Rarer than the preceding.

OrpER ANSERES.
Famity ANATID.

25 (129). Merganser americanus (Cass.). American Mer-
ganser ; Goosander.—Occasionally seen.

26 (130). Merganser serrator (Linn.).—Red-breasted Mer-
ganser. Common.

27 (132). Anas boschas Linn. Mallard.—Rare.

28. (133). Anas obscura Gmelin. Black Duck.—The
commonest of our ducks. Breeds here.

29 (135). Anas strepera Linn. Gadwell.—Very rare.

30 (139). Anas carolinensis Gmelin. Green-winged
Teal.—Frequently seen.

31 (140). Anas discors Linn. — Blue-winged Teal.—
Rarer than the Green-winged Teal.

32 (143). Dafila acuta (Linn.). Pintail—Not uncommon.

33 (144). Aix sponsa (Linn.). Wood Duck.—Very rare
indeed. Have seen none for some years. Saw one in 1893.

34 (148). Aythya muarila nearctica Stejn.—American
Scaup Duck. A rare spring and fall migrant.

35 (149). Aythya affinis (Eyt.). Lesser Seaup Duck.—
No commoner than the larger scaup.

36 (151i). Glaucionetta clangula americana (Bonap.).
American Golden-eye.—Common in autumn. Breeds.

37 (152). Glaucionetta islandica (Gmel.). Barrow’s Gold-
en-eye.—Have seen two only. These were shot at St. Peter’s
Bay in the spring of 1904.

574 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

38 (153). Charitonetta albeola (Linn.). Bufflehead. —
Rarely seen in early spring.

39 (154). Clangula hyemalis (Linn.). Old Squaw ; Long-
tailed Duck ; Cockawie.—Often seen with Golden-eyes in early
spring.

40 (160). Somateria dressert Sharpe. American Eider.—
I have seen but two specimens; mounted by Mr. Calder.

41 (163). Oidemia americana Swainson. American
Scoter.—Rare.

42 (165). Oidemia deglandi Bonap. White-winged Scoter.
—Sometimes seen on the northern coast.

43 (166). Oidemia perspicillata (Linn.). Surf Scoter ;
Sea Coot.

44 (167). Hrismatura rubida (Wils.). Ruddy Duek.—
One mounted specimen seen, Oct. 14th, 1904. Very rare.

45 (17la) Anser albifrons gaumbeli (Hartl.). American
White-fronted Goose.—On Oct. 21st saw a young goose, after-

Seen in autumn.

wards mounted, which corresponded in size and color with the
description of the young of this species.

46 (172). Branta canadensis (Linn.). Canada Goose ;
Wild Goose.—Common during migration, spring and autumn.

47 (172a). Branta canadensis hutchinsit (Swains.& Rich.).
Hutchins’s Goose.—Oceasionally with flocks of B. canadensis.

48 (173). Branta bernicla (Linn.). Brant.—Arrives in
large flocks soon after the breaking up of the ice in_ spring
and leave for the north early in June.

49 (180). Olor columbianus (Ord.). Whistling Swan.—
One was shot at Wheatley River, October, 1885. This speci-

men was mounted and is now in the possession of Judge

MeDonald.

-~T
Or

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 5

Orper HERODIONES.
Famity ARDEID.

50 (190). Botauwrus lentigenosus (Montag.). American
Bittern.—Not common.

51 (194). Ardea herodias Linn. Great Blue Heron —
Quite common. Seen in numbers at ebb-tide along the borders
of rivers. Breeds.

52 (202). Nycticorax nycticorax nevius (Bodd.). Black-
crowned Night Heron.—Very rare. A young specimen was
shot in the marshes at Mount Stewart by a Charlottetwn
sportsman, and examined by me at Mr. Calder’s.

OrpER PALUDICOLA.
Famity GRUIDZ.

53 (205). Grus canadensis (Linn.). Little Brown Crane.
—Accidental. A young specimen was shot at Earnsclitte, Oct.
23, 1905. I examined it at Mr. Calder’s. Length 30.50 in.,
wing 18 in., bill 2.75 in. Plumage dark gray, tipped with light
brown or bronze; feathers of head brown or chestnut. On May
22, 1899, I saw a mounted specimen of this bird exhibited in
Mr. Watson’s drugstore.

Famity RALLIDX.

54 (212). Rallus virginianus Linn. Virginia Rail.—
Saw a stuffed specimen which was collected by Mr. W. Earle at
Tignish, where they are occasionally seen. Mr. Earle also
shot one at Belle River, and it is now in his collection.

55 (214). Porzana carolina (Linn.). Sora; Carolina
Rail.—Collected by Mr. Earle at Tignish, and now in his
possession. Two were shot at Wisener’s Mills on Oct. 4, 1906,
by Mr. Frank E. Johnson of Yonkers, N. Y.

56 (221). Fulica americana Gmel. American Coot.—Not
common, but is occasionally seen in the low grounds bordering

576 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN,

streams. A specimen was taken and mounted by Bryenton,
who sold it afterwards to Calder. Though rare, the Coot, or
“ Mud-hen” as it is called, is well known to sportsmen here.

OrpER LIMICOLA.
Famity SCOLOPACID AL.

57 (228). Philohela minor (Gruel.). American Woodcock.
—Once common, but now rare. It arrives here in early spring,
sometimes in March. Soon afterwards it builds its nest and
rears its young.

58 (230). Gallinago delicata (Ord.). Wilson’s Snipe.—
Scarcely exceeds the Woodcock in number. Breeds.

59 (234). Pringa canutus Linn. Robin Snipe.—Shot
at Alexandra by J. H. Judson, 24th September, 1905, and
mounted by Calder.

€

60 (235). Tringa maritima Brunn. Purple Sandpiper.
——Saw one at Calder’s, which was shot at St. Peter’s Island,
Feb. 6th, 1901.

61 (239). Tringa maculata Viell. Pectoral Sandpiper ;
“ Jack Snipe.’—Four of these birds were in the market, Char-
lottetown, on Sept. 27, 1907. I do not remember to have noted
this species before.

62 (240). Tringa fuscicollrs Vieill. White-rumped Sand-
piper.—A few spring and autumn migrants.

63 (242). Tringa minutilla Vieill. Least Sandpiper.—
Common.

64 (246). Hreunetes pusillus (Linn.). Semipalmated
Sandpiper.—Common during the summer.

65 (248). Calidris arenaria (Linn.). Sanderling.—Com-
mon migrant.

66 (251). Lumosa hemastica (Linn.). Hudsonian Godwit.
—This species has become very rare. One specimen was
taken at Alberton and forwarded to Mr. Earle, who handed it

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 577

to Mr. Calder to be mounted. I have seen but two of these
birds.

67 (254). Totanus melaunoleucus (Gmel.). Greater Yellow-
legs.—Often seen along the sea beach in spring and autumn.

68 (255). Totanus flavipes (Gmel.). Yellow-legs.—Rather
rarer than the Greater Yellow-legs.

69 (256). Totanus solitarius (Wilson). Solitary Sand-
piper.—A few pass the summer and rear their young on the
borders of inland ponds. .

70 (258). Symphemia semipalmata (Gmel.). Willet.—
Rare.

71 (263). Actitis macularia (Linn.). Spotted Sandpiper.
—Common. Nests in border of woods or sometimes in a grain
field. Breeds.

72 (264). Nuwmenius longirostris Wils. Long-billed
Curlew.—Rare.

73 (265). Numenius hudsonicus Lath. Hudsonian
Curlew.—-A not uncommon summer visitor.

74 (266). Numenius borealis (Forst.). Eskimo Curlew.—
Commonest of the three curlews.

_ Famimy CHARADRIID.E.

75 (270). Charadrius squatarola (Linn.). Black-bellied
Plover ; Beetle-head.—Seen in flocks of the Golden Plover.

76 (272). Charadrius dominicus Mull. American Golden
Plover. Once quite common ; now rare.

77 (273). gialitis vocifera (Linn.). Kildeer.—Very rare.

78 (274). Agialitis semipalmata Bonap. Semipalmated
Plover ; Ring-neck Plover.—-Not uncommon.

79 (277). Mgwalitis meloda (Ord.). Piping Plover.-—
Common. Saw four on Souris beach, July 6th, 1905. Breeds.
Faminy APHRIZID.

80 (283). Arenaria interpres (Linn.). Turnstone.—Not
uncommon.

578 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E, ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

OrpER GALLINA.
Famity TETRAONIDA#.

81 (298). Dendragapus canadensis(Linn.). Canada Grouse.
—I have never seen the Canada Grouse anywhere here. Some
elderly sportsmen who claim to know the difference between
this and the Ruffed Grouse, state that if was not uncommon
not many years ago. Now it is probably extinct in Prince
Edward Island.

82 (3000). Bonasa wmbellus togata (Linn.). Canadian
Rutfed Grouse.—Rare a few years ago, but lately, owing to a
better game law, it is increasing in number. Breeds.

Orprer COLUMBA.
Famity COLUMBIDA
83 (315). Hetopistes migratorius (Linn.). Passenger Pigeon.
—At one time seen in large flocks; the last seen was in 1857.
84 (316). Zenaidura macroura (Linn.). Mourning Dove.
—Taken at Alexandra, Sept. 22, 1905, by F. H. Judson, and
mounted by Calder.
OrpER RAPTORES.
Famrty FALCONIDA.

85 (331). Cireus hudsoniws (Linn.). Marsh Hawk.—
Common. Breeds.

86 (332). Accipter velox (Wils.). Sharp-shinned Hawk.—
Not uncommon. Breeds.

87 (333). Accipiter cooper (Bonap.). Cooper's Hawk.—
Rare. This and the Sharp-shinned are our most destructive
hawks and are usually the raiders of poultry yards.

88 (3384). Accipiter atricapillus (Wils.). American
Goshawk.—-An occasional winter visitor.

89 (337). Buteo borealis (Gmel.). Red-tailed Hawk.—
Common in the more wooded parts of the country where it
breeds.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 579

90 (3470). Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis (Gwel.).
American Rough-legged Hawk.—Have seen but one winter
specimen,

91 (352). Haliwetus lewcocephalus (Linn.). Bald Eagle ;
White-headed Eagle-—Very rare visitor. There is a mounted
specimen in the hall of the Provincial Building. Three were
seen by me about a mile north of Souris on July 5th, 1906.

92 (3540). Falco rusticolus obsoletus (Ridg.). Black
Gyrfalcon—One was captured near Southport, November
7th, 1904.

93 (356). Falco peregrinus anatum (Bonap.). Duek
Hawk.—A young specimen was secured at Lowther’s Point on
October 3, 1906, by Mr. Frank E. Johnson of Yonkers, N. Y.

94 (357). Falco columbarius Linn. Pigeon Hawk.—

Rare, but found breeding.

95 (360). Falco sparverius Linn. American Sparrow
Hawk.—Rare. Breeds.

96 (864). Pandion haliaetus carolinensis — (Gmel.).
American Osprey ; Fish Hawk.— Not common.

Famity BUBONID.X.

97 (366). Asio wilsoniinus (Less.). American Long-
eared Owl.—Very rare; one on October 14th, 1904.

98 (867). <Asio accipitrinus (Pall.). Short-eared Owl.
—Commoner than the preceding.

99 (368). Syrnium nebulosum (Forst.). Barred Owl.—
Though not abundant, it is both a summer and winter resident.

100 (871). Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni (Bonap.).
Richardson’s Owl.—One was shot in a barn at Alexandra and
was brought to Calder to be mounted, December 26, 1905.

101 (872). Nyctala acadicu (Gmel.). Saw-whet Owl;
Acadian Owl.—Resident and not rare. Several specimen were
collected near Pownal, 1904.

580 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

102 (373). Megascops asio (Linn.). Sereech Owl. I have
seen one only.

103 (375). Bubo virginianus (Gmel.). Great Horned
Owl.—This and S. nebulosum are our commonest owls. Breeds.

104 (8750). Bubo virginianus — subarcticus (Hoy).
Western Horned Owl.—One, the only one I have seen, was
brought to Calder to be stuffed in February, 1906.

105 (376). Nyctea nyctea (Linn.). Snowy Owl.—An ir-
regular winter visitor. A great many were noted in the winter
of 1905-6.

106 (3877a). Surnia ulula caparoch (Mull). American
Hawk Owl.

the Provincial Building.
OrpER COCCYGES.
Famity CUCULID.

Rare. There are two mounted specimens in

107 (387). Coccyzus americanus (Linn.). Yellow-billed
Cuckoo.—One was shot by Bryenton at Brackley Point. It is
now in the museum of the Natural History Society, Charlotte-
town.

108 (388). Coccyzus erythrophthulmus (Wils.). Black-
billed Cuckoo.—-Rare.

Famity ALCEDINIDZ.

109 (390). Ceryle alcyon (Linn.). Belted Kingfisher.—
A common summer resident. Breeds, making its tunnelled
nests in river banks.
OrpeErR PICI.
Famity PICIDZ.

110 (398a). Dryobates villosus lewcomelas (Bodd.). North-
ern Hairy Woodpecker.—Resident summer and winter. Breeds.

111 (394). Dryobates pubescens medianus (Swains.).
Downy Woodpecker.—Commoner than the Hairy Woodpecker.
Seen at all times in the year. Breeds.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 581

112 (400). Picoides arcticus (Swains). Arctic Three-
toed Woodpecker.—A rare winter visitor.

113 (401). Picoides americanus Brehm. American
Three-toed Woodpecker.—Rarer even than the preceding.

114 (402). Sphyrapicus varius (Linn.). Yellow-bellied
Sapsucker.—Rare; but several were collected in May, 1904.

115 (405a). Ceophleus pileatus abieticola Bangs. North-
ern Pileated Woodpecker.—Becoming rarer as_ the forests
disappear. A mounted specimen is in the Provincial Building.

116 (412). Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs. Northern
Flicker; Yellow-hammer.—A common summer resident. Breeds.

OrpER MACROCHIRES.
Famity CAPRIMULGIDA.

117 (420). Chordeiles virgrvnianus (Gmel.). Nighthawk.
—Commonly known as the “ Mosquito Hawk.” A common
summer resident. Breeds. Bird on two eggs found on the
gravelled roof of Prince Street School, June 15th, 1905.

Famity MICROPODID.

118 (423). Chetura pelagica (Linn.). Chimney Swift.—
Apparently not so common as they were some years ago. Breeds.
Famity TROCHILID.

119 (428). Trochilus colubris (Linn.). Ruby-throated

Hummingbird.—A not uncommon summer resident. Breeds.

OrpDER PASSERES.
Famity TYRANNIDA.
120 (444). Tyrannus tyrannus (Linn.). Kingbird.—
Common summer resident. Breeds.
121 (456). Sayornis phoebe (Lath.). Phoebe.—Rare. Breeds.
122 (459). Contopus borealis (Swains.). Olive-sided
Flycatcher.—Common. Breeds.

582 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

123 (461). Contopus virens (Linn.). Wood Pewee.—Not
rare. Breeds.

124 (463). Empidonax flaviventris Baird. —Yellow-
bellied Flycatcher.—Very rare; one only seen.

125 (466a). Empidonax pusillus traillii (Aud.). Traill’s
Flycatcher.—Very rarely seen. :

126 (467). Empidonax minimus Baird. Least Fly-
eatcher.— Occasional.

Famity ALAUDIDE.

127 (474). Otocoris alpestris (Linn.). Horned Lark.—
Seen in migration in early spring and autumn. Sometimes with
Snow -buntings.

Famity CORVIDAh.

128 (477). Cyanocrtta cristata (Linn.). Blue Jay.—Com-
mon in summer and winter. Breeds.

129 (484). Perisoreus canadensis (Linn.). Canada Jay.—
Common many years ago, now quite rare. Breeds.

130 (486). Corvus corax principalis Ridg. Northern
Raven.—Accidental. Two were shot at Montague, March, 1904.

131 (488). Corvus americanus Aud. American Crow.—
Very common; resident. Not so many remain throughout the
winter. Breeds.

Famity ICTERIDA.

132 (492). Dolvchonyx oryzivorus (Linn.). Bobolink.—
A rare summer visitor.

133 (498). Agelaius pheniceus phaniceus (Linn.). Red-
winged Blackbird.—Two specimens were seen by Prof. Macoun
at Covehead, July, 1888. Two pairs of these birds were in this
place, Covehead, in July, 1905. Breeds.

134 (501). Sturnella magna (Linn.). Meadow-lark.-—
Have seen but one specimen, collected by Mr. Earle in Western
Prince County, where it is occasionally seen. It is in Mr. Earle’s
collection,

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 583

135 (507). IJecterus galbula (Linn.). Baltimore Oriole.—
One pair was seen by Prof. Macoun near Brackley Point, and a
specimen was taken at Tignish.

136 (509). Scolecophagus carolinensis (Mull). Rusty
Blackbird.—Not rare. Breeds.

137 (511b). Quiscalus quiscula eneus (Ridg.). Bronzed
Grackle-—Common within the last three years. Nests near
the city.

Famrity FRINGILLID©.
1388 (515). Pinicola enucleator (Linn.). Pine Grosbeak.
Some winters common; others, not seen.
139 (517). Carpodacus purpureus (Gmel.). Purple Finch.
—Common within the last few years. Breeds.

140 (—). Passer domesticus (Linn.). European House
Sparrow.—A rather too common resident. First seen in Char-
lottetown in November, 1886. Breeds.

141 (521). Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm). American
Crossbill.— Not uncommon.

142 (522). Loxi leucoptera Gmel. White-winged Cross-
bill—Less frequent than American Crossbill,

143 (528). Acanthis linaria (Linn.). Redpoll.—A_ rare
spring visitor.

144 (529). Spinus tristis (Linn.). American Goldfinch.—
A summer resident. Common for the last few years. Breeds.

145 (533). Spinus pinus (Wils.) Pine Siskin; Pine
Finch.—Not so common now as they were a few years ago.

146 (534). Plectrophenax nivalis (Linn.). Snowflake ;
Snow Bunting; Snowbird.—Flocks are often seen in late
autumn and winter.

147 (540). Pooewtes grumineus (Gmel.). Vesper Sparrow;
Grass Finech.—Loeal in distribution, not abundant in any
locality.

148 (542a). Ammodramus sandwichensis savanna (Wils ).
Savanna Sparrow.—A few may be found in any locality. Breeds.

584 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

149 (549b). Ammodramus caudacutus — subvirgatus
Dwight. Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow.—Rare. A few have
been seen on the marshes along the Hillsborough River.

150 (550). Ammodramus maritimus (Wils.). Seaside

Sparrow.—Very rare.

151 (554). Zonotrichia leucophrys (Forst.). White-
crowned Sparrow.—Found in a few localities.

152 (558). Zonotrichia albieollis (Gmel.). White-throated

Sparrow ; Kennedy Bird.—A common summer resident. Breeds.

153 (559). Spuzella monticola (Gmel.). Tree Sparrow.—

A few seen during the spring migration.

154 (560). Spizella socialis (Wils.). Chipping Sparrow.
Common. <A summer resident. Breeds.

155 (563). Spizella pusilla (Wils.). Field. Sparrow.—l
have seen this bird only on three occasions. — Breeds.

156 (567). Junco hyemalis (Linn.). —Junco.—Common.
Found everywhere. Breeds.

157 (581). Melospiza fascratu (Gmel.). Song Sparrow.—
This is our earliest, and next to the Junco, our most abundant
sparrow. Breeds.

158 (584). Melospiza georgiana (Lath.). Swamp Sparrow,
__A rare summer resident. Breeds.

159 (585). Passerella iliaca (Merr.). Fox Sparrow.—A
few are seen on their way north and south.

160 (587). Pipilo erythrophthalmus (Linn.). Towhee ;
Chewink.—Very rare. Saw a few on Malpeque Road in 1900.

161 (595). Habia ludovicwuna (Linn.). —Rose-breasted
Grosbeak.—Uncommon. All that I have seen have been taken
near Bradalbane.

162 (604). Spiza americana (Gmel.). Dickcissel ; Black-
throated Bunting.—Very rare. One mounted specimen seen.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 585

Famity HIRUNDINID,

163 (612). Petrochelidon lunifrons (Say). Cliff Swallow ;
Eave Swallow.—Not so common since the advent of the House
Sparrow. The latter has in some places taken possession of
the nesting places of the swallow. Breeds.

164 (613). Chelidon erythrogaster (Bodd.). Barn Swallow.
—A common summer resident, breeding chiefly in barns.

165 (614). Tachycineta bicolor (Vieill.). Tree Swallow.—
Not so common as our other species of swallows. Arrives
about the same time. Brveds.

166 (616). Clivicola riparia (Linn.). Bank Swallow.—
Nests in high banks of St. Peter’s Island and other suitable
places along the coast.

Famity AMPELID.

167 (619). Ampelus cedrorum (Vieill.). Cedar Waxwing.
—A not uncommon summer resident ; nests in August.
Famity LANIIDA.
168 (621). Lanius borealis Vieill. Northern Shrike ;
Butcher-bird.—A rare winter Visitor. -
169 (622). Lanius ludovicianus (Linn.). Loggerhead
Shrike.—Rarer even than the preceding.

Famity VIREONIDA,

170 (624). Vireo olivaceus (Linn.). Red-eyed Vireo.—
Not common. Breeds.

171 (627). Vereo gilvus (Vieill.). Warbling Vireo.—In
spring small flocks are sometimes seen on their way northward.
The specimen I examined was shot by Bryenton at Brackley
Point.

172 (631). Vireo flavifrons Vieill. Yellow-breasted
Vireo.—More numerous than the Red or White-eyed Vireo.

173 (631). Vireo noveboracensis Gmel. White-eyed Vireo.
—Not common.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. INST. Scr., Vou. XI. Trans. MM.

586 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

Famity MNIOTILTIDAE.

174 (636). Mniotilta varia (inn.). Black and White
Warbler.—Rare.

175 (642). Helminthophila chrysoptera (Linn.). Golden-
winged Warbler.—One was seen on June 5th, 1897.

176 (645). Helminthophila ruficapilla (Wils.). Nash-
ville Warbler.—Not common. Have seen two at Mermaid,
south of Hillsboro.

177 (647). Helmenthophila peregrina (Wils.). Tennessee
Warbler.—Saw three of these warblers in June, 1900. Have
seen no others.

178 (648). Compsothlypis americana (Linn.). — Parula
Warbler.—Not common.

179 (650). Dendroica tigrina (Gmel.). Cape May Warbler.
—One only has come under my notice. It was in a spruce grove
near Charlottetown, September 2nd, 1899.

180 (652). Dendroica cstiva (Gmel.). Yellow Warbler.
— Common; often builds its nest in a lilac bush in the
city.

181 (655). Dendroica coronata (Linn.). Myrtle Warbler.
—Common. The first to arrive and the most numerous of our
warblers. Breeds.

182 (657). Dendroica maculosa (Ginel.). Magnolia Warb-
ler.—Rare. More frequently seen a few years ago than now.
Breeds.

183 (660). Dendroica castanea (Wils.). Bay-breasted
Warbler.—Rare. There is a mounted specimen in the Provin-
cial Building.

184 (661). Dendroica striata (Forst.). Black-poll Warbler.
—Had seen one only up to 1905. Saw a second one on June
16th, 1905.

185 (662). Dendroica blackburnie (Gmel.). Blackburnian
Warbler.—Very few of this beautiful species have been seen
here.

MACSWAIN. 587

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.

186 (667). Dendroica virens (Gmel.). Black-throated
Green Warbler.—Common. Have seen it several years in suc-
cession in different localities. Breeds.

187 (671). Dendroica vigorsii (Aud.). Pine Warbler.—
Have seen it two summers in succession some years ago, not
since.

188 (674). Sevuwrus auwrocapillus (Linn.). Oven-bird.-—
Not common. Seen twice, different years, at Mermaid. Breeds.

189 (679). Geothlypis philadelphia (Wils.). Mourning
Warbler.—Rare.

190 (681). Geothlypis trichas (Linn.). Maryland Yellow-
throat.—Not common. Found always in low swampy thickets.
Breeds.

191 (687). Setophuga ruticilla (Linn.). American Red-
start.—A common summer resident. Breeds.

Famiry MOTACILLID.

192 (697). Anthus pensilvanicus (Lath.). American
Pipit.—Saw one that was shot out of a flock of five at Pownal,
January, 1904.

Famity TROGLODYTIDE.

193 (722). Troglodytes hiemalis Vieill. Winter Wren.
—Uncommon. A few are found in the eastern parts of the
Island. Breeds.

Famity CERIPHIDA.

194 (726). Certhia familiaris americana (Bonap.). Brown

Creeper.—Rarely seen here.

Famity PARIDAL,
195 (727). Sitta carolinensis Lath. | White-breasted
Nuthatch.—Common in some localities. Breeds.
196 (728). Sitta canadensis (Linn.). Red-breasted Nut-

hatch.—Commoner than the white-breasted species and more
widely distributed. Breeds.

588 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E., ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

197 (735). Parus atricapillus (Linn.). — Black-capped
Chickadee.—Common summer and winter. Breeds.

198 (740). Parus hudsonicus Forst. Hudsonian Chick-
Not as common as the Black-capped Chickadee. Breeds.

adee.
Faminy SYLVIID,
199 (748). Regulus satrapa — Licht. Golden-crowned
Kinglet.—Uncommon. Breeds.
200 (749). Regulus calendula (Linn.). Ruby-crowned
Kinglet.— Quite rare. Breeds.
Famity TURDIDA.
201 (756). Turdus fuscescens Steph. Wilson’s Thrush ;
Veery.—An uncommon spring visitor.
202 (759b). Turdus aonalaschke pallasii (Cab.). Hermit
Thrush.—Not common. A summer resident. Breeds.
203 (761). Merula migratoria (Linn.). American Robin.
—A numerous summer resident. An occasional one passes the

winter here. Breeds.

SPECIES REPORTED BY OTHER WRITERS.
From Professor Macoun’s “ Catalogue of Canadian Birds.”

In Professor Macoun’s “Catalogue of Canadian Birds”
there are thirteen additional species, the names of which I have
inserted here, with notes of their occurrence as given in that
catalogue :

1 (2). Colymbus holbelii (Reinh.). Holbcell’s Grebe ; Red-
Large flocks seen on P. E. L, August 8th, 1888

necked Grebe.
Macoun).

2. (214). Porzanu carolina (Linn.). Sora; Carolina, Rail.
—Breeding in P. E. I. (Macoun.)

3 (549. 1a). Ammodramus nelsoni subvirgatus (Dwight).
Acadian Sharp-tailed Finch.—A few birds on the salt marshes
at Tignish, P. E. J., were the only ones I could discover (Dwight).

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 589

4 (583). Melospiza lincolni (Aud.). Lincoln’s Sparrow.—
A pair was found breeding at Brackley Point, P. E. I, June
26th, 1888 (Macoun).

5 (611). Progne subis (Linn.). Purple Martin—A few
pairs breeding at Brackley Point, P. E. L, June, 1888 (Macoun.)

6 (629). Vireo solitarius (Wils.). Blue-headed Vireo.—
Seen at Hunter River, July, 1888 (Macoun).

7 (654). Dendroica cerulescens (Gmel.). Black-throated
Blue Warbler.—A few were detected at Souris (Dwight).

8 (672u). Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea Ridg.
Yellow Palm Warbler.—An incubating female taken at Tignish
(Dwight).

9 (675). Seiwrus novaboracensis (Gmel.). Water Thrush.
—A few individuals were met with at Tignish (Dwight).

10 (685). Wilsonia pusillu (Bonap.). Wilson’s Warbler.
—One specimen was secured at Tignish in an arbor-vite and
alder swamp (Dwight).

11 (686). Wilsonva canadensis (Linn.). Canadian Warbler.
—Rather common about Tignish, but not met with elsewhere
(Dwight).

12 (704). Guleoscoptes carolinensis (Linn.). Catbird.—
A few specimens were seen at Stewart’s Mill in July, 1888
(Macoun).

13 (758a). Turdus ustulatus swainsonii (Cab.). Olive-
backed Thrush.—Taken at Covehead Road, July 5th, 1888
(Macoun).

From Francis Bain’s “ Birds of Prince Edwurd Island.”

1 (106). Oceanodroma leucorhoa (Vieill.). Leach’s Petrel.
—Occasionally blown ashore during storms (Bain).

2 (169a). Chen hyperborea nivalis (Forst.). Greater Snow
Goose.—Individuals of the White or Snow Goose appear in the
flocks of Wild Geese early in the season (Bain).

590 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

3 (261). Bartramia longicauda (Bechst.). Bartramian
Sandpiper ; Field Plover.—The Bartramian Sandpiper is with
us in September and October, and in great numbers falls before
the sportsman’s deadly piece (Bain).

4 (349). Aquila chrysaetos (Linn.). Golden Eagle.—The
Golden Eagle visits us sometimes (Bain).

MIGRATION.

This table gives the dates of arrival in the neighborheod of
Charlottetown of six birds as given in the reports of phenolo-
gical observations made by the writer from 1895 to 1905.

1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905

arr ire eae SS ee eS |

Song Sparrow........ Ap 7| Ap 11 Ap 9/Mar19/Ap 8 Ap 14)Ap 14) Mar31|Mar 28) Mar27|Mar31
American Robin ..... Ap 13 Ap 12 Ap 12;Ap 3)/Ap 6 Ap 14/Ap 16)/4p 3)Mar26)Mar30)| Mar31
Juncom ade te Ap 13 Ap Fane 16|\p 3/Ap 22/Ap 21/Ap 15/Ap 2/Ap 6/|Mar30/Ap 6
Swallows?.-50- 020 oee Mayl2 Mayl7 May20)My 15 May20 May24 May24|May14|May25| May 5|/May13
Night Hawk ......... Jly £2 Jne Bie 11|/May27\|Jne 4\Jne 5\Jne 1)/May23|Jne 13) May 28|Jne 11

Canada Goose........ Mar17 Ap. 8 Mar27/Mar14| Mar31/Mar20)Mar18/Mar 3/Mar16|Mar 9|Mar22
| l

CATALOGUE. OF THE BIRDS OF P. E. ISLAND.—MACSWAIN. 591
¢

Table No. 2 gives approximately the times of coming of a
few sparrows, warblers and other birds. It does not assume to
give exact dates, as no special effort was made to ascertain the
times of arrival

II.
1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905
|
: |
Savanna Sparrow, ...|May19|May ‘| Sandalloooed May24|May24|/May17]......]......|-....>
White-throat Sparro v|May19| May 9) May 7|May22|Mayl14|......].....> Mayi8|Mayl12|...... May13
Chipping Sparrow... |......|...... acden|lacoosdldaqaac May24 | ereteccre.c||'areeereie Mayl0|May28|Jne 4
Yellow Warbler ..... May25| ..... ZA OeS Prg | oe ay Mays eee sl eee alte: |May23|......
Magnolia Warbler....|...... [exceed (May29].. -.-. dite aaa BI alle oo Aclloanecl bocaadllbosoe.
Blackburnian Warbler|...... lsaonee Feet I ee Mae eaoue WENA) Roaosa||bacodall coco |somoKd
Black& White Warbler} a scysclle sca ecllers «. ccilieevestere devs Ibi) Soaboll cdcanl|ooooes Jpihy74s} loourmed lag anac
MALY CELE WiATDIOL <o:crsic - |Is/0.0%e10/o}l sieretelorsills 15/1 Be ais ees: May17|May 7|May18 May12)May 9 May23
Maryland illw-throat) cece. «| ccesclaes sic Rpraed lated on JNCZT| eects nes lye as ellis Weel oMeN
tedstart ..... 5600.00) mereocia May25|Jne 12)...... MV 27 sy atezerell aresevereun] trai nator Jne 10) Jne 25)May31
Black-throated Green
May24 aye
Wa Le tieeystezererYosetctel| (ion eserctsl excualctstal Pmararaperallioveteliere |lsiatesciecel le teeveyale ree Qlrcreee May.25\/ > xe cleie Jne 26
Bratitie..io-s senap ates Ap 27/Oct 10j)Ap 19)...... ANP E29 ATIF renete:e s||lelsssieterell ercrelerersi||serereret Ap 26
PRIN DIT a orayvetesh see) aie May 2b recaysretait lisesi srellslevejeietal lstersiayeye MEWS licisve clevollletsreerevellltererarers Jne liJne 4

592 CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF P. E.
e

ISLAND.—MACSWAIN.

The following table gives some of the dates when the birds
named therein were seen. It indicates the time when they may

be expected to be found here :

Ill.
1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905

-—_-—| —_ , —_ |__| aes aS 2S ee) ee
Black-cap’d Chickadee}...... eee ener ta ree fodeue eee aa yg|Mayl0). ....|....-.
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Tur GRIGNARD SynrTHeEsis: THe Action or Puenyt Mac-
NESIuM BrRomMIpE on OCampuor.*—By H. JERMAIN
M..CREIGHTON, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. 8.

(Read April 9th, 1906.)

As is well known, the organo-metallic compounds have long
been used in a great many organic syntheses, as for instance, in
the synthesis of the hydrocarbons and the ketones, to take two
examples at random. In all these reactions the yields have
always been small, and most of the methods complicated, round-
about and unsatisfactory.

By means of the so-called “ Grignard reaction” these dif-
ficulties have been done away with, the syntheses of a great
many compounds effected, and many new compounds
prepared.

Compounds of the hydrocarbons with magnesium have long
been known, but it was not until recently (1900) that Grig-
nard investigated their action toward different organic com-
pounds.

Grignard found that when methyl iodide was allowed to
react with many organic compounds in the presence of mag-
nesium, a vigorous reaction took place and a new compound
was formed. When the air was ‘not excluded the mixture took
fire. He saw from the variety of ways in which the reaction
could be employed that magnesium was likely to make the com-
pounds of zine and sodium with organic radicles of secondary
importance in organic syntheses. Moreover, the reaction should
be expected to be more complete with magnesium than with
zinc, because magnesium is much more electro positive.

It has been found when an organo-magnesium halide is
allowed to act on an aldehyde, or ketone, and the reaction pro-

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University (Chemistry).

(593)

594 THE GRIGNARD SYNTHESIS: THE ACTION OF

duet decomposed with water, that secondary and _ tertiary
aleohols are formed respectively, the reactions taking place in
accordance with these equations :—

UOMgxX
R’/MgX + RCHO = RCH<
\R’
OMgX OH

RCH < +H = RC + MgiOH))+HX
NR’ ra \p: ©) )

IL. _/OMgX
R’/MgX + R-CO-R" = RCCR’
Re
/ OMgX R. 0H
RCH af! a5 H,0 = Cx a= Mg(OH)o+ HX
Se RY RY \ Re

In these reactions the double linking of the oxygen of the
aldehyde or ketone is broken, and one of the free bonds of the
oxygen unites with hydrogen to form hydroxyl, while the free
earbon bond takes up a hydrocarbon residue,

Japan camphor C,,H,,O contains the ketone group C=O;
under the influence of an organo-magnesium compound, it should
therefore form a tertiary alcohol. Zelvasky,* who has done a
great deal of work on the preparation of cyclic alcohols, found
that when camphor is treated with magnesium methyl] iodide,
and the reaction product decomposed with water, there is
obtained a tertiary aleohol whose composition is expressed by
the formula C,,H.,0.°

No work having been done on the action of organo-
magnesium halides of the aromatic series on ketones, it was
decided to investigate the action of magnesiumphenylbromide
on Japan camphor.

Experimental.

32 9. of phenyl bromide dissolved in 14 times its weight of

ether, was allowed to drop slowly on the calculated amount,

1 Ber. d deut. chem. Ges , 1901, 34, 2877.
2 Thid.

PHENYL MAGNESIUM BROMIDE ON CAMPHOR.—CREIGHTON,. 595

4.8 g., of cleaned magnesium ribbon contained in a round bot-
tomed flask, to which was fitted a reflux condenser. It is most
essential that the magnesium ribbon be perfectly free from
oxide. When about 4 of the halide had been added, the flask
became warm and a vigorous reaction set in, making it neces-
sary to cool the flask with running water, lest too great heat
should cause decomposition.

The calculated amount (17 g.) of camphor, the camphor
and halide reacting molecule for molecule, was dissolved in 15
times its weight of ether and allowed to drop slowly into the
magnesium halide. This compound was contained in a round-
bottomed flask fitted with a return condenser. The mixture was
kept at 60°C. The contents of the flask were allowed to stand
over ‘aight, the reaction being a gradual one. Next morning the
mixture was poured on crushed ice, containing a smal] excess
of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve the precipitated
Mg (O1),, and the new product separated out as an oily yellow
liquid. These equatioas illustrate the reactions taking place :—

, 7 OMgBr
CeHsMgBr + C@jHacC =O = Col eC
‘CeHs
OMgBr OH
CoH i6C 2H2O = CoHieC< + Mg(OH») + HBr
Ces > CoH;

The oil was separated from the rest of the mixture and
shaken up five times with sodium acid sulphite to remove any
ketone that had not been acted upon. It was then washed
with water to remove the sodium acid sulphite and dehydrated
over calcium chloride.

The cil was then heated in a distilling flask, and at
205-210°C. a vapour was given off, which on cooling, solidified
in the condenser to a white mass. This proved to be camphor.
The flask was allowed to cool and the contents heated in vacuo,
a pale yellow oil distilling over at 150°C.

596 THE GRIGNARD SYNTHESIS: THE ACTION OF

The yield was nearly ten grams, about twenty-five per cent.
of the theoretical yield. As has been mentioned above, the
action between the ketone and halide is a gradual one; the
small yield and the large quantity of uncombined camphor are:
probably due to the mixture not having been allowed to stand
sufficiently long.

This new alcohol is a pale yellow oil, with a balsam-like-
taste. It is miscible with alcohol, ether and chloroform. Its:
specific gravity is 0.977.

The boiling point of this oil is 148°-145°C. at 14mm.
pressure and 258°-260° at 760mm.

Molecular Weight.

Tits molecular weight was determined by the Victor Meyer
method.
I, The vapour 0.0600g of substance displaced 6.6 cc. air at 715mm.
and 19°C giving Mol. Wt. 231.9
IN 83 [> 300620) << és displaced 6.8 cc, airat 715mm.
and 19°C giving Mol. Wt. 232.6

Mean Molecular Weight, 232.1
Calculated for CigHa20, 230.17

Analysis.

Two analyses of the oil were made, but owing to an acci-
dent one was a failure, and there was not enough oil to make

a, third.
0 2510 g of substance ; 07722 CO» 0.2 83 HO
giving 83.89% C 9.287% H
calculated for CygH220 — 83. 427% C 9.638% H.

Specific Rotation.

The specific rotation was determined, but owing to the thick-
ness and colour of the liquid only a small quantity could be
used. Consequently the deflection of the plane of polarisation
was very small, less than one degree, and the percentage error
probably as great as 54%.

PHENYL MAGNESIUM BROMIDE ON CAMPHOR.—CREIGHTON. 597

The specific rotation (a), in alcohol solution was found
to be 7°.55’.

The foregoing results show that the compound obtained by
the action of magnesiumphenylbromide on Japan camphor is a
tertiary alcohol,whose composition is expressed by the formula,

OH

CioHie
CoH;

This is analogous to the tertiary alcohol,

_OH
methyl borneol, CioHie<

\

prepared by Zelinsky, and should therefore be called phenyl
borneol.

DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY, HALIFAX,
April ist, 1906.

THE OJIL-FIELDS oF EastERN Canapa.— By R. W. E ts,
LL.D., F. R. S. C., Geological Survey cf Canada,
Ottawa.

(Read 12th March, 1906.)

The occurrence of petroleum or rock-oi] has been known
from a very early date in the world’s history. It is referred to.
frequently in Holy Writ under such names as slime or pitch,
in connection with the building of the city of Babylon, the
construction of the ark, the preparation of the cradle of Moses,
ete. It was found in considerable quantity in the valley of the
Dead sea, whence it was transported to Egypt and to the ports.
on the Mediterranean, where it was exteasively employed in
ship-building, as well as by the Egyptians and other nations
in the embalming of the dead. Many references to this sub-
stance are also found in the works of profane writers, more
especially of Herodotus, Plutarch, and Josephus; while the
ancient sect of Guebers or Fire-worshippers of Persia appar-
ently derived the visible symbol of their religion from the oil-
springs and accompanying natural gas of the Baku district,
now in southern Russia, but till within the last 200 years a part
of the Persian empire; or from similar occurrences in other
parts of Persia and in India, in both of which countries the
presence of this substance has been known for many centuries.
In some places also, as in China and Japan, natural gas, which
is frequently an accompaniment of petroleum, has been used
for a long period for both heating and lighting purposes.

In certain parts of Europe where petroleum occurs in the
form of springs it has long been used medicinally, and has been
regarded as a valuable remedy for rheumatism and other
kindred diseases. So also in the early history of Canada and
the northern States, crude petroleum, under such names as
Seneca and British oil, was extensively employed for various

(598)

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA,—ELLS. 599

ailments and commanded quite a large price, the material being
obtained from the natural springs which are found in western
Ontario and southern New York or Pennsylvania adjacent to
the south.

Petroleum or rock-oil is in fact a substance of almost
world-wide oceurrence. It has been found in nearly every
country in Europe and Asia; in some of the islaads of the
Pacific and Indian oceans; in New Zealand and australia, and
in North and South America. It is especially abundant in the
United States and in Canada, occurring in many places from
the Atlantic to the Pacific. It has been asserted by some
authority that va its distribution it is only surpassed by water
itself, but whether this statement can be maintained or not, it
may safely be said that petroleum in some form is one of the
most widely known of mineral substances to-day.

Its wide range in distribution over the earth’s surface is
only equalled by its extended geological occurrence, since in
some one of its many forms it has been found in most of the
formations or systems from the earliest Laurentian to the latest
Tertiary. The result of the study of this material within the
last thirty years has been to do away very largely with the old
theory that rock-oil was practically confined to rocks of Devo-
nian and Upper Silurian horizons. In face, some of the largest
known deposits at the present day are found in the newest rock-
formations, while other very large oil-fields have their location
in rocks of Trenton age. In so far as the geological horizons
are concerned therefore, it would seem in the present state of
our knowledge, to be a difficult matter to predicate just where
petroleum or some one of its related substances may or may not
be found. A safer test as regards deposits capable of economic
development would appear to be connected with the geological
conditions which prevail in the special field to be exploited.

Petroleum, in the form of crude oil, is doubtless one of the
most important of the bituminous compounds. Several other var-

600 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

ieties are, however, found, among which may be mentioned an-
thraxolite, asphalt, ozokerite, albertite, manjak, ete. . Petroleum
can also be obtained in large quantities from certain rock forma-
tions which abound in bitumen, such as the Utiea shales of On-
tario and Quebee, the Albert shale of New Brunswick, the stel-
larite of the coal areas in Pictou, and various other formations
found in widely diverse portions of the globe. In a number of
cases these formations have been extensively utilized as a source
of supply for petroleum, as in the case of the bituminous shales
of Scotland, France and elsewhere, while in Canada in the early
years of the industry, quite extensive plants were erected in
Ontario for the distillation of the Utiea shale, and in New,
Brunswick of the Albert shale deposits. Unfortunately for these
industries the discovery of the great reservoirs of crude
petroleum in the United States and in western Canada
(Ontario) speedily reduced the price of the raw material so that
its further extraction from the shales became unprofitable, and
this industry was long since abandoned.

The mineral anthraxolite, appears to be to all intents merely
a hardened or thickened petroleum, and has been found in rocks
as low down as the Laurentian and Huronian, where it occurs in
vein form in granitic or associated rocks in Ontario; in slates
of lower Cambrian or Huronian age west of Sudbury,
at Chelmsford; and in the Black river limestone asso-
ciated with baryte near Kingston. In Quebee it has been
found in veins traversing slate and quartzite of lower Cambrian
age in Labrador; and in irregular deposits in slates of the
Sillery and Lévis formations near the city of Quebec. It 1s
very probable that future examinations may reveal its presence
elsewhere in these old rocks. In some places, as near Chelms-
ford, the quantity is considerable, and, if sufficiently pure,
might be worked, but the large percentage of ash in its com-
position interferes with its utilization as a suitable fuel for
domestic or steam purposes. At one time great hopes were

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA -—ELLS. 601

entertained by certain persons that Ontario had at last obtained
a fuel supply peculiarly its own, and it is to be regretted that
these expectations have not yet been realized. So also at (Quebec
it was at one time anticipated that workable deposits might be
obtained, the mineral found at this place giving fairly satis-
factory results as a fuel. It was, however, found, on attempt-
ing development, to be confined to mere strings and pockets ot
no commercial importance.

The presence of these carbon compounds in rocks of great
antiquity would, on the hypothesis that all these substances,
including graphite, are of organic origin, carry the life history
of the globe to a very remote period, While it is no doubt true
that organic remains are found as far back in time as the early
Cambrian period, and in some of these older rocks are abund-
antly displayed, crude petroleum in workable quantity has not
yet been found therein. Moreover, the presence of petroleum
and its kindred minerals in rocks of igneous origin, such as
basalts and various diorites, where there is no indication of
sedimentary rocks or traces of organic life opens up another
aspect of the question that should receive careful consideration.
In this connection it may be stated that petroleum in some of
its forms occurs in greenstone and basalt, hornblende rocks,
augite, feldspar, ete., at various places both in Kurope and
America. It is found in the Laurentian, both in Scotland and
Canada; in melaphyre at several places; in the granite of Corn-
wall, England; and in trap rocks both in the province of
Quebec at Gaspé, im connection with Devonian slates, and on
the west coast of the Queen Charlotte islands in basalts of
Tertiary age.

In so far as the petroleum deposits of economic importance
occur on this continent it may be said, generally speaking, that
in the eastern or Atlantic division these are confined to Silurian,
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks, while in the western or
Pacific division they belong to formations of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age.

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. TRANS. NN.

602 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

The various geological formations in which crude
petroleum is found in various parts of the world may be brietly
stated. Thus in the Baku district of southern Russia, where
probably the largest and most productive wells are situated, the
associated rocks are somewhat incoherent sandstones of recent
Tertiary age, so incoherent, in fact, that the oil which outflows
in immense quantities contains a large percentage of sand which
has to be separated after collecting the oil. Ta India, Burmah,
Assam, Beloochistan, Persia, Japan and China, oil is found im
workable quantity in rocks of the same general horizon or from
some portion of the Tertiary formations, wherever the con-
ditions are favourable to its occurrence. Of these an interest-
ing feature is seen in the oil wells of Beloochistan, where, ow-
ing to the disturbed and faulted character of the strata,
attempts to obtain the minerals in paying quantities have
proved a failure.

In the group of islands comprising Borne», Java, Sumatra
and Timor, as well as in the Phillipines, the oil-bearing rocks
are also of Tertiary age, and this 1s likewise the case with the
deposits of New Zealand and of Australia.

In the South American states it occurs in rocks of practical-
ly the same horizon, as well as in Mexico and in the islands of
Barbados and Trinidad; while along the west coast of United
States, from Texas on the south to Alaska on the north, as also in
territory bordering the east side of Rocky mountains, in oil-
fields of Colorado and in Alberta, the containing forma-
tions range from the Cretaceous into the Tertiary. In Canada
on the Pacific coast no oil-wells have yet been reported, but
traces of oil have recently been found in connection with the
Tertiary sandstone and shale of one of the interior coal basins.
On the east slope of the mountains, however, borings have been
carried on for several years in connection with oil springs
which are supposed to issue from Cretaceous rocks, while the
great deposits of tar sands which oceur along the Athabasea and

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 603

upper Peace rivers, in the district north of Edmonton, also
belong to the same horizon. The recent flows of natural gas
which have been struck at Calgary and at Medicine Hat in the
country of the plains, are also from strata of Cretaceous age.

In Europe it is also of interest to note that the oil-wells, m
so far as these are at present productive, belong to recent
rather than to Paleozic times. Thus in Italy petroleum is
found in Tertiary sediments along anticlines which follow gen-
erally the trend of the Appennines; in Germany in the
Tertiary in part and partly in the underlying Jurassic; while
in Great Britain, France, Spain, and Switzerland, in Europe,
and in Algeria and Kgypt in Africa; it ocewrs also in rocks per-
taining to the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations.

It will be seen, therefore, that in the greatest number of
petroleum producing countries the mineral is obtained from
formations which are quite recent as regards the geological
scale. Coming nearer home, however, we find, as a rule,
that petroleum pertains rather to rocks of Paleozoic age. In
Canada these have usually been assigned to the Devonian sys-
tem, since it was long supposed that it was from these forma-
tions that the wells derive their flow of oil; but in the United
States some of the most productive wells are sunk in formations
as far down as the Trenton. On this continent, therefore, there
appears to be a marked line of separation as regards the horizon
of both coal and petroleum, between the occurrences east of a
line defined by the Mississippi river for the United States side
of the boundary, and by the eastern edge of the prairie country
in Canada which divides the deposits of Paleozoic age on the
east from those of Cretaceous and Tertiary age on the west.

In character also petroleum varies greatly in different dis-
tricts. It ranges from a highly fluid condition and a light
colour in some areas, to a thick and exceedingly dark coloured
substance in others; the specific gravity of the mineral, accord-
ing to observations made by Boverton Redwood, having a

604 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

proportionally wide range, extending from 0.771 to 1.020. As
a rule, the lighter oils yield a larger percentage of kerosene than
the heavier grades. Comparing the oils of western Ontario
with those from the celebrated wells found in the United States
it is found that the Canadian product has a somewhat greater
specific gravity, while tests made on the oils taken from the
wells in Gaspé during the borings some years ago, gave some-
times a still higher specific gravity. The oils of western Ontario
have also a more offensive odor than manv of those to the south,
due presumably to the presence of sulphur.

In colour, native oils range from a light yellow to a black or
brownish-black, and often with shades of green. In regard to
density this is measured by what is known as the Baumé scale,
in which the lower the grade on Baumé the higher the specific
gravity of the oil; thus, 10 degrees Baumé is equivalent to
specific gravity 1.000, while 90 Baumé is the equivalent of an
oil with specific gravity 0.6363.

Turning now to the consideration of the conditions under
which petroleum in economic quantity is usually obtained, it
will be observed that the general arrangement of the rock
formation is a very important factor, whether the locality be
underlaid by rocks of the older or the newer horizons; and this
feature is sometimes lost sight of in search for new oil-fields.
For not only must the rocks in which the oil is supposed to
occur lie in a nearly horizontal attitude, or in the form of
low swelling anticlines but the oil itself must be kept in by an
impervious covering of shale or some other rock. If in the ease
of a rock series, which is supposed to carry oil in greater or less
amount, this covering is broken or faulted or the rocks, as a
whole, are more or less tilted and disturbed, it is probable that
the cementing cover is quite unequal to holding down the
underlying oil, which will therefore in some way tend to find
ain outlet to the surface, and will have been lost in ages long
since past. It is, therefore, evidently unwise, to say the least,

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 605

to waste much time or capital in an attempt to obtain oil in
quantity from an area where the rock formations are much dis-
turbed. In several such cases small quantities of petroleum
have indeed been obtained, sufticient for the time to lead the
explorer to invest additional sums of money, though the final
outcome, as might have been expected, has generally been
disastrous.

On the hypothesis now generally accepted, oils have
originated from the decomposition of animal or vegetable
organisms which have been buried during the process of rock
formation precisely as we see going along our sea shore at the
present day, where shells, seaweeds, fish, etc., are buried by the
accession of sands or other materials which are moved by tidal
currents or by wind action.

These decomposed organisms, with their resulting carbon
contents, were supposed by Dr. T. S. Hunt to be the actual
source from which petroleum was derived, and the resulting
oil to form a part of the formation in which they are deposited,
preferably in limestone, since their remains were easily recog-
nized and were often observed to be highly charged with oily
matter in the several strata encountered. He, therefore, con-
tended that petroleum originated from the primary decom-
position of organic matter and pertained to the stratum in
which the organisms were first laid down. Another school,
however, contended that the original source of the petroleum
was in some lower stratum, and that the oil resulting from the
decomposition of organic matter, as well as the accompanying
gases, rose or percolated through underlying sediments till
they encountered a non-pervious layer, being assisted in this
upward movement by the action of percolating waters at a
greater underlying depth.

On this latter theory the oils of the Petrolia district, which

may be taken as an example of the general principle, have
originated at some lower horizon than that in which they are

606 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

now found by boring, and have ascended gradually till they
have met the porous dolomite of Devonian age in which they
now seem to occur. They were held in place by the overlying
cover of grey shales which succeeds the limestone, and which by
the drillers is usually called ‘ soapstone”’, and by this im-
pervious cover, under great pressure, are hermetically sealed
till the overlying rock is pierced, when they make their escape
to the surface with tremendous force. The strata throughout
the Ontario oi] district lie in an almost horizontal position or in
gentle anticlines so low that the dip of the beds is scarcely
perceptible to ordinary measurements.

To go into elaborate details as to causes and effects would,
however, swell the present paper to too great lengths. They
can be well studied by reference to the excellent report by Dr.
Orton on the ** Occurrence of Petroleum, etc., in Kentucky,”
and in other bulletins of a special nature relating to the subject.

While vock-oil and natural gas are widely distributed
throughout the Dominion of Canada, and while attempts to
work many of these deposits have been made at a number of
places from time to time, it is to be regretted that in many cases
such efforts have been usually attended with a lack of fruitful
results. Much of this wanecessary expenditure could have been
avoided had due attention been given to the geological features
of the several areas which have been tested.

In so far as boring investigations for oil are concerned in
Canada it must be confessed that up to the present the original
field in south-west Ontario has been the only one that has given
satisfactory results. It is, however, confidently expected that
at some future time portions of the great Cretaceous nlain east
of the Rocky mountains, in which large sunnlies of natural gas
are now being developed, will be found to be also oil-producing ;
but this is still matter for future investigation. It may, how-
ever, be stated that the Pierre shales, in which the oils of the
Florence basin in Colorado oceur, have an extensive develop-

ment in the Canadian north-west.

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 607

In the Atlantic provinces of Canada explorations for
petroleum have been carried on at 1vatervals for many years,
in Nova Seotia, New Brunswick and Quebec as well as in
Newfoundland. So far only negative results have been obtain-
ed, but a study of the several fields in which operations have
been conducted will present some features of general interest.

In contrast with the oil-fields of western Ontario or of the
eastern States, in both which areas the oil-bearing rocks le
in nearly horizontal layers, either of sandstone, limestone or
shale, the rocks of the eastern areas in Canada are more or less
disturbed, being thrown into folds with their accompanying
faults and dislocations.

Although the island of Newfoundland is not politically a
part of Canada, geologically speaking its oil-fields are related
and may be considered in this place. Of these there are at
present but two in which operations have been carried on, viz.,
at Port au Port bay, north of St. George’s bay, and on the west
coast further north, at Parson’s pond.

In the article on petroleum published in the Annual
Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, these occur-
ences are assigned to Cambrian rocks. The reason for this is
not very clear, for during a visit to the former locality, several
years ago, a brief study was made of the district by the writer
which led to very different conclusions.

The two principal geological formations found around the
shores of Port au Port bay from the Gravels east and west, are
1st., a series of fossiliferous limestones of the Lévis or Cal-
ciferous formation, a part of the old Quebec group
of Canada, and 2nd., an wuneonformably overlying series
of fossiliferous shales and limestones of Lower Car-
boniferous and Upper Devonian age, portions of which
are faulted down into the Calciferous division which
forms prominent ridges along the shores of the bay. ‘Towards
the inner end of the long point, on which the borings are situat-

608 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

ed, these Carboniferous rocks occupy the shore for some
distance and extend for several miles out to the end of the
point itself, though concealed in part by peat deposits, in which
distance they also appear to include portions of an underlying
series of Devonian shales. On the eastern side of the bay,
where borings have also been made, the sales and sandstone are
again exposed, and include bands of bituminous shale, which
exactly resemble certain bands in the Albert shale series of
New Brunswick. The shales on both sides of the bay are much
disturbed, with numerous faults and dislocations, and in places
contain remains of plants. It is in this series of rocks that the
oil-wells of Long point have been sunk, as well as those on the
east shore already referred to.

While indications of petroleum are seen at several places
along the beach in the form of oozings or small springs, aud
while it was found in small quantity in several of the bore-
holes, the amount thus obtained was in all cases unimportant
from the economic standpoint, and the geological conditions
were such as to warrant the conclusion that the expenditure of
further capital in the locality was not advisable. Similar con-
ditions apparently exist at Parson’s pond to the north, where
the oil-bearing rocks are apparently of the same horizon, judg-
ing from the statements published on the work done in that
district, and are affected by a like series of folds and breaks as
at Port au Port. The results of the borings at this place are
apparently quite similar to those already described, the oil
occurring in small quantity, while the geological conditions
appear to be equally unfavourable as at Long point. The
geological horizon of these deposits, therefore, instead of
belonging to the Cambrian is assignable to the Devonian or
lowest part of the Carboniferous, probably the former,

Crossing the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gaspé peninsula,
in the province of Quebec, we reach another oil-field which has
been known for half a century, and in the exploitation of which

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 609

very large sums of money have been spent in a vain attempt to
find petroleum in paying quantity. More than fifty years ago
Sir William Logan recognized the existence of oil-springs in
this district, and they were described in his earliest reports as
situated in places sometimes near the shore and sometimes
inland. Attempts were made as far back as 1866 by a boring
located near one of these springs to find the souree from which
the outflow was derived, and the boring reached the depth of
nearly 700 feet. Here a small quantity of oil was reported,
but owing to the loss of the boring tools the hole was abandoned,
the occurrence of oil being apparently insufficient to warrant
further expenditure at that time. Subsequently the Petroleum
Oil Trust began an extensive series of borings in 1889, which
were carried on for nearly fifteen years, and in connection with
the Canada Petroleum company, an area extending inland for
some thirty miles and with a breadth of six to ten miles, was
very thoroughly explored. by boring, several of the holes being
sunk in close proximity to the original location near tle sprmg
already referred to. In all, more than fif*y holes were bored,
some of which reached a depth of over 379) feet. The results
of all these borings have been collected and were given to the
public in a report by the writer to the Geological Suzvey Depart-
ment in 1902. An interesting fact was disclosed in the several
borings made at the original site, in that, though a depth of
over 2400 feet was reached no oil was found beyond mere
traces ; the rocks are highly inclined at this place, and there is
probably a line of fault and an anticline in the vicinity.

The rocks of this district belong to the Devonian system,
of which a section ageregating 7000 feet is exposed along the
eastern Gaspé shore. Generally speaking, these rocks are
inclined at high angles, in some places reaching sixty to eighty
degrees. Faults are seen at several places, and intrusive dykes
of diabase also oceur, one of which of large size at Tar point is
remarkable for containing petroleum, sometimes as a solid, but

610 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.-—ELLS.

generally in liquid form, disseminated through the igneous rock
in drusy cavities, some of which are lined with chalcedony.

The area is also traversed by well defined anticlines,
running generally in an east and west direction; and in several
places these are affected by fault lines. It is near these lines of
fault that most of the oil-springs are situated.

As might be anticipated from a close study of these rocks
conditions favourable to the occurrence of oil in quantity are
absent, owing, in large part, to their usually highly inclined
character and to their broken condition. In fact, the area if it
ever contained petroleum in quantity, of which, however, there
is no particular indication, would have been deprived of its
stores long since by escape along these lines of fracture. Be
that as it may, it has been clearly demonstrated by the expendi-
ture of large sums of money and by the sinking of numerous
wells to great depths, that with but few exceptions, the rocks
passed through are now practically barren as regards oil. In
some of the wells it would appear that there is a small amount
of oil which finds its way into the bore-holes, probably by
seepage from the surrounding strata, which can be obtained by
pumping, but in most of the holes bored there was evidently no
trace of oil whatever, though from a number water is still
flowing freely.

The results obtained in this area, as in Newfoundland, tend
to strengthen the theory, already well proved in the western oil-
fields, that productive wells in eastera Canada must be sought
for in rocks which are comparatively undisturbed, and prefer-
ably with low anticlinal dips, and while the records of the wells
bored in the Gaspé district show tn several cases the occurrence
of oil, aggregating an output of some hundred of barrels, the
general principle laid down is still maintained.

In the province of Quebec no other occurrences of petro-
leum are as yet recorded, the bituminous matter found at Lévis

in the form of anthraxolite, and in Labrador being excepted.

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 611

In the flat country lying east of Lake St. Peter, which is an
expansion of the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Quebec,
boring operations have been carried on for more than twenty
years, some of the holes being sunk to depths of more than
1000 feet. The rocks of the district in which the borings have
been made belong to the Lorraine and Medina formations,
which le in a comparatively flat basin extending across the St.
Lawrence westward. Though natural gas in considerable quan-
tity has been found, this has not yet assumed large commercial
importance, but no petroleum has yet been met with.

In Nova Scotia, rocks supposed to be oil-bearing oceur at
several places. Probably the most important area of these is
found in Cape Breton on the shores of Lake Ainslie, where
attempts have been made for a number of years to find petro-
leum in quantity by boring. Tere, as in Gaspé, the indications
of rock-oil are observed in the form of springs and oozings,
which escape from shales along the lake shore.

The rocks consist of shales and sandstone, generaily of grey
or greenish shades, which contain plant stems and fucoids.
They have been classed provisionally as Lower Carboniferous,
but as they clearly underlie the lowest known rocks of this
formation it would seem more fitting to include them, on
stratigraphical evidence, as a part of the Devonian series. They
correspond closely in character and position with those rocks
which are regarded as of the Devonian age elsewhere in this
province and in New Brunswick.

Attempts to obtain oil by boring were commenced on the
east side of this lake half a century ago; but though many holes
have been put dowa, some of which reached a depth of 3000
feet, these have as vet been wnsuccessful in finding oil in
quantity. As in Gaspé and elsewhere, the strata are usually
much broken up and inclined at high angles, with a well marked
faulted structure iin places. This feature is pointed out by Dr.
I. C. White, of Virginia, in his report on the probable oc-

612 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

currence of oil in this distret, where he says “the area of the
field is so limited and the dip of the strata so high that there is
hardly a chance of its being obtained here in large enough
quantity to pay for its development.” The area has apparently
been fairly wel! proved in depth, and it would appear that any
petroleum that may at one tme have been present in these rocks
has long since passed off along the lines of fracture.

On the south side of Minas basin, at Cheverie, and on the
Avon river, near Hantsport, borings for oi] have been carried
on during the last three years. Along the Avon, below Hants-
port, a considerable thickness of shale and sandstone, with
occasional beds of limestone, outcrops. These are regarded as
the equivalent in age of the celebrated Albert shales of New
Brunswick, though the percentage of bituminous matter is much
less in the Avon, or, as they are usually styled, the “Horton
series”. Though for many years regarded as a portion of the
Lower Carboniferous formations they are now considered as
belonging to the Devonian system; since they uncomformably
underlie the lowest known Lower Carboniferous rocks in this
province.

These shales extend eastward from the Avon to the south
side of Cobequid bay, and at Cheverie underlie a considerable
thickness of gypsiferous rocks also associated with sandstone
and shales. In the borings which have been made at this place
the drill passed through these gypsiferous strata and entered a
series of shales, ete., which were supposed to be a part of the
oil-bearing series. In the underlying rocks indications of petro-
leum are found in cavities and crevices in the gypsum itself,
and the borings were put down on the assumption that when the
underlying bituminous shales were struck the souree of these
oils would be found. These underlying rocks are, however,
much disturbed, and no trace of petroleum was encountered
when these were reached.

This tilted and faulted character is well seen in the section
of these rocks exposed along the lower Avon, and the boring

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 613

made near Hantsport in this formation was also devoid of
results as regarded the fiading of either coal or petroleum. As
is Gaspé and elsewhere it may be generally inferred that in
such a series of titled and faulted strata the chances of finding
oil in eeconomie quantity are by no means good, and the ultim-
ate result of all these attempts, at places so widely separated,
will probably be the same.

The only other source of petroleum known to us in this
province is the band of ‘Stellarite”, found in association with
one of the coal seams of the Pictou basin. This mineral is
reported to yield more than 100 gallons of crude oil per ton by
distillation, equalling in this respect the Albertite of New
Brunswick and the Torbanite of Scotland, both of which are
now practically exhausted. No attempt has been made in recent
years to utilize this mineral for the manufacture of oil.

It would appear that as a rule the shales of the eastern
provinces do not, readily yield oil except by distillation
although in places containing a large percentage of bituminous
matter in composition; and from the results which have attend-
ed the borings at a number of points no large deep-seated
reservoirs of liquid petroleum are likely to be encountered
from which “gushers” may be derived.

The largest and most important body of these bituminous
shales occurs in Albert county, New Brunswick, whence the
name “Albert shale’. Attention was directed to this locality
more than half a century ago by the finding of a body of what
was at first supposed to be a coal of superior quality. Some
persons, however, contended that the substance had more of the
nature of hardened pitch or asphalt and was not a true coal,
and a legal contest ensued since the ownership of the
property depended upon the actual determination of this ques-
tion. Finally, after hearing a great mass of so-called expert
evidence, the finding of the court was to the effect that the min-
eral in question was a true coal and not an asphalt, only two

614 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS,

of the experts maintaining its asphaltic nature. Subsequent
investigation has clearly shewn that this early decision of the
court was erroneous, and it has long since been established that
Albertite, as the mineral was called, is merely an altered
petroleum,

The Albert shales were for many years regarded as a part of
the Lower Carboniferous formation, purely on the evidence of
certain fossils, chiefly the remains of fishes. The detailed in-
vestigations of 1876, however, shewed them to unconformably
underlie the lowest known Lower Carboniferous sediments, and
they are now generally held to form the upper part of the
Devonian system.

The peculiar feature of these Devonian shales is the pres-
ence of bituminous matter throughout their whole extent.
While the great bulk of these sediments are shales, beds of
sandstone and limestone also occur as a part of the series, and
both are also highly bituminous. Interstratified beds of a tough,
blackish and massive shale also occur, which break with a
roughly conchoidal fracture and contain a much higher per-
centage of bitumen than the shales of the general mass, which
are often thin-bedded.

The source of all this bituminous matter is somewhat obseure ;
for while according to strict orthodoxy the contained bitumen
is supposed to be derived from organic matter contained in the
mass of the rock itself, and while in certain layers the remains
of fossil fishes are fairly abundant and occasionally the traces of
plant life are visible, the proportion of fossiliferous strata, as
compared with the great body of bituminous shales, is very
insignificant.

The bands of rich oil-shale are sometimes styled Cannelite.
They are occasionally grey in colour but for the most part are a
blackish-brown. ‘They are clearly a portion of the series,
oceurring as regular beds. At the old Albert mines, which
were near the eastern end of the Caledonia mountain, a very

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 615

large deposit of Albertite occurred, and was worked extensively
some years ago. This was the mineral first discovered in this
district and which was pronounced to be bituminous coal by the
courts. It occurred in vein form, following a line of fissure
not far from the axis of an anticline in the shales. This
deposit extended from east to west for about half a mile, with a
width ranging from a few inches at either extremity to a thiek-
ness of from fifteen to seventeen feet near the middle of the out-
crop. In depth the fissure continued for 1500 feet, the lower
250 feet being for the most part filled with a breccia made up of
shale fragments cemented with Albertite.

The extent and value of this deposit can be understood from
the fact that during the time of working over 200,000 tons of
the mineral were marketed at prices varying from $16.00, in
the early years of the industry, to $22.00 per ton, for some
years before the mine ceased operations. It, yielded about
15,000 feet of gas per ton and more than 100 gallons of oil by
distillation.

The Albert shales with their associated oil-bands cover a
considerable area in the counties of Albert and Westmorland.
They extend from east to west for more than sixty miles, and
have a thickness of not far from 1,000 feet. They are thrown
into a series of folds, often with steep dips, and are broken by
faults at a number of points. To the west they again outcrop
near the line of the Intercolonial railway to the vicinity of
Hampton, in Kings county. They are in places overlaid by
Lower Carboniferous shale and conglomerate, with which
are associated large deposits of gypsum and thick beds
of limestone in parts also bituminous, and in other places are
capped directly by the coarse beds of the Millstone grit.

All the shales of the series yield oil by distillation, the bulk
of the formation probably from fifteen to thirty gallons per
ton of shale, while the rich oil-bands, or cannelite, yield from
50 to 80 gallons. These bands were about forty years ago

616 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

worked for the extraction of the contained petroleum at Balti-
more, N. B. They range in thickness from four to eighteen
feet, the thicker bands being of the grey variety and found
near the upper part of Turtle creek in the western portion of
the main field. They can be mined after the manner of ordin-
ary coal-beds, and while the amount of ash is large, reaching in
parts from 40 to 50 per cent., the shale burns readily, forming
an excellent fuel, both for grates and for the generation of
steam. As determined by actual experiment it is claimed that
their combustion yields a greater heat and calorifie power than
ean be obtained from ordinary bituminous coals, while the
large amount of ash is held to possess certain elements
which make it valuable as a fertilizer.

Although ;these shales contain so large a percentage of
bituminous matter they do not readily part with this in the
form of free petroleum either by shafting or boring. In sup-
port of this statement, it may be said that during the entire
period of mining operations at the Albert mines where one would
naturally suppose conditions were most favourable for the free
escape of the contained oils, according to the statement of the
late manager, but slight indications of crude petroleum were ob-
served in any part of the workings, except at one point near the
west end of the mine, where there was a slight dripping from the
end of the mine, where there was a slight dripping from the
sides of the drift. On the Petiteodiae river, near Dover, and
at several points in the vicinity, several oil-springs occur, and
have usually been regarded as indicating the presence of under-
lying reservoirs of this material. As at Gaspé and elsewhere,
however, in such disturbed rocks these are more probably
eseapes of petroleum along lines of fracture, and can scarcely
be held to indicate the occurrence of oil in quantity in the
underlying: rocks.

Boring operations have been carried on in this district for
more than fifty years. Apparently the first holes were sunk in

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 617

the area near Dover and Memrameook, between 1850 and 1560,
the exact date being somewhat uncertain, as records of these
borings are not now available. It was, however, reported at the
time, that small quantities of a thick oil were obtained. Sub-
sequent borings were made at intervals for some years with
apparently no better results, but within the present century a
systematic search has been carried on in the area between
Memrameook and Petiteodiae rivers, in which over sixty holes
have been bored, some of which reached depths of more than
3000 feet. While small quantities of oil were struck in some of
these holes, as was also the case in Gaspé and in Newfoundland,
in rocks of practically the same horizon, in so far as can be
learned no outflows have as yet been found in quantities suf-
ficient to warrant the erection of an extensive refining plant,
and at present operations have been suspended for some months.

The nearest geological formation to which these Albert
shales can be compared from the economic standpoint, are the
bituminous shales found in Scotland, and to some extent, in
England and Wales. They also occur and have been utilized
for the production of oil by distillation in some parts of Aus-
tralia, in New Zealand, in France, in Germany and in several
other countries. In none of these places, however, have they
been regarded as producers of crude petroleum in «ny other way
than by destructive distillation.

Their economic importance is evident from the fact that in
Scotland and elsewhere millions of pounds have been invested
in the erection of large plants for the distillation of the econ-
tained bituminous matter, and a brief comparison of some of
these Seotch shales with those of New Brunswick may possess
some points of interest.

In Scotland, since it is not necessary to diseuss the shale-
oil industry of other countries, the distillation of oil, first from
bituminous coal and then from bituminous shale, was begun by

Dr. James Young, of Renfrewshire, about the middle of the
Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Von. XI. TRANS. OO.

O1S THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.-—ELLS.

last century. The first experiments were made with the bitu-
minous coals, but the discovery of a mineral, very rich in
bitumen, which was known as Bog-head coal or Torbane hill
mineral or Torbanite, soon furnished a new supply of the raw
material. This Torbanite yielded as much as 130 gallons of
erude oil to the ton, as compared with a yield of from 70 to 90
gallons from the coal. After the exhaustion of the Torbane hill
mineral attention was directed to the bituminous shales of the
coal-measures which were first worked in 1862.

The growth of the shale-oil industry in Scotland may be
seen from the fact that the output of this material in 1874 was
only 361,970 tons, while in 1891 this has risen to 2,337,932
tons for Seotlaad alone, yielding 47,63,458 gallons of crude
shale oil, the amount of capital invested being for that year no
less than £2,664,431, the yield of oil being much greater than
the output of crude petroleum ia the whole of Canada for the
year 1904.

The shale series in Scotland is estimated to have a thick-
ness of about 3000 feet, and in this eight principal bands of
oil-shale oceur, varying in thickness from two to eighteen feet,

~

{

and are thus not very different in quantity from those found in
the Albert shales of New Brunswick.

Of the Seotch shale bands which most nearly resemble those
of Albert county, though none appear to contain as high a per-
centage of bitumen, the richest, known as the Fell shale, vields
from 36 to 40 gallons of crude oi] to the ton, and from 25 to 33
pounds of ammonium sulphate; the Broxburn band is probably
next in importance with a yield of 28 to 33 gallons erude oil,
and from 26 to 32 pounds ammonium sulphate; the Dunnet
shales yield from 15 to 30 gallons, and the Curley shales yield
about 19 gallons of crude oil and from 50 to 60 pounds am-
monium sulphate. In geological position these Seoteh shales
correspond almost exactly with those of New Brunswick, being
situated between the Lower Carboniferous limestone and the
Old Red sandstone of the Devonian.

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA -—ELLS. 619

These several oil bands are mined after the fashion of
bituminous coals, and are delivered at the distillation works at
a cost of four to six shillings per ton. There is also a royalty
of from three to tenpence per ton of shale, and the cost of the
finished illuminating oil, after crediting the value of the am-
monium sulphate, is two and a half pence per gallon. Mueb
of this detail is taken from the valuable work of Boverton
Redwood, in whose book on ‘Petroleum and its products” a
very full description of the industry in all its stages is given.

Comparing thea the small size of the Scotch seams and the
comparatively low percentage of the bituminous contents with
the generally thicker beds of Albert county and_ the mueh
higher percentage of bitumen, the economic importance of these
deposits, as a possible source of supply for crude petroleum
becomes at once apparent; and in the present strenuous search
for new oil-fields and the rising price of the finished product, it
would seem perfectly feasible under proper management, to
operate these New Brunswick areas with a fair margin of
profit; more especially in view of the now well establish-
ed fact that these shales, whenever thev are found, do
not readily yield up their bitumen contents except by distil-
lation. The further consideration of this question is, however,
a matter for the careful consideration of the best expert
engineering skill, and careful management is required in all its
stages.

Considered from the standpoint of fuel under steam gener-
ating boilers, it has already been hinted that some of these
heavy bands of oil-shale possibly could be utilized as a source
of heat and power. Of these there are two kinds, the black
being especially well developed at the old Albert mines and at
Baltimore in Albert county, as well as in parts of the district
between the Petiteodiac and Memramcook rivers, having been
shipped quite extensively from the latter area for distillation
in 1860-65. The grey shales are better developed in the area -
west of Baltimore on the head waters of Turtle Creek;

620 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

the analysis of these shales is of interest and may be here
given. They are from the laboratory of Ricketts and Banks,
of New York, and are as follows:—

Black oil-shale.

MOISt mene ee crane econ 0.36 0.64
Volatile e-paper 39.50 45.52
ixedmecar boner aeons 3.00 5.05
DNC ae oe Ae SALE, oe 56.10 48.79
Sully ase cae eee ae 1.04

100.00 100.00

MOISEIBEs Vora e cate eee 110 1.54
Wola tiller yg et: ete rae ales 45.32 51.22
Mixed AEWOM a ceaetetoe rere crake 1.29 3.03
GNIS bai iyaes Se aha ie ats oe sk a 50.69 44,91
Sul pity. sate onesseis wcaicie 1.70 ae

100.00 100.00

As already stated the origin of the immense amount of
bituminous matter contained in this body of shale and sand-
stone has never been satisfactorily explained, and is a very
interesting problem. On no hypothesis yet suggested can it
be accounted for either as arising from the decomposition of
organic matter im situ or as derived from underlying fossilifer-
ous sediments, since the underlying rocks being of pre-
Cambrian age are entirely devoid of all trace of organisms.
Similar difficulties are also met in the attempt to explain the
origin of the great deposits of bitumen found in the island of
Trinidad, where the associated rocks are shales of Tertiary age.
While the consideration of the several theories put forward
from time to time to account for the bituminous deposits
throughout the world would be of considerable interest, and
while the inorganic origin of bitumen and its compounds has
quite a number of supporters at the present day, such discus-

THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS. 621

sion is beyond the scope of this paper, and if indulged in would
probably leave the final determination of the problem in its

present unsatistactory position.

We may, however, glance for a moment at the enormous
output of crude Petroleum which has been obtained from cer-
tain parts of the well known oil-fields of the eastern and
western hemispheres. Without considering the amounts de-
rived from the smaller areas it will suffice to note that from
the official returns of the Geological Survey of the United
States, the number of barrels of crude petrolenm of 42 gallons
capacity, taken from the oil-fields of that country since the
commencement of the industry forty-five years ago, amounts to
1,382,815,000, or nearly sixty billions of gallons, by far the
greater part of which has been obtained from what is known as
the Appalachian district, comprising the states of New York,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, south-east Ohio and Kentucky,
only comparatively small portions of which are oil-bearing.
These oils are all obtained from the Paleozoic formations. The
recent discovery of the immense stores of petroleum in Texas,
California and from other areas on the Vacific slope is to some
extent already revolutionizing the industries of that portion of
the republic by the substitution of oil for fuel on railways and
steamships. These oils are from the much more recent, horizon
of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, and some of the
areas are already rivalling in productiveness the original seat of
the industry in the Appalachian district. The value of the oils
for the time mentioned for the entire output to the end of 1904
is given as $1,362,781,879.

The value of the petroleum produced in Canada from, the
commencement of the industry cannot be correctly stated owing
to the fact that for some years the returns were loosely kept.
For the period extending from 1881 to 1903, both inclusive, the
production of crude petroleum in this country was not far from
530,000,000 gallons, the output being practically all from the

622 THE OIL-FIELDS OF EASTERN CANADA.—ELLS.

small area in south-western Ontario. The actual value of the
output cannot be stated.

In southern Russia a most wonderful revelation as to the
amount of erude petroleum which ean be obtained from a
limited area is presented. Thus from the oil-fields of the Baku
district at the southern end of the Caspian sea, in an area of
about eight square miles only, and in a period extending only
from 1880 to 1904, the output of petroleum amounted to, in
round numbers, 950,000,000 barrels of some 40,000,000,000
gallons. The average depth of the wells ‘bored in this district
m 1894 was only 1260 feet, the depth having gradually
increased year by year. Of the 239 wells sunk in that year the
average yield was 384 barrels per day. Such a yield must
truly be characterized as enormous, and while some of the wells
become exhausted, others are bored from which the same tremen-
dous outflow occurs as when the field was first tapped. If we could
take into account the enormous amount of bituminous matter
which has passed off in the form of ‘natural gas in all these
years in this district, the figures of output would reach such
amazing proportions as to be scarcely comprehended, and make
the solving of the problem as to the source of such wonderful
deposits of bituminous matter, in so limited an area, still more

perplexing.

Tuer Frost anp Drovent or 1905.—By F. W. W. Doane,
M. Can. Soe. C. E., City Engineer, Halifax, N. S.

(Read 9th April, 1906).
Frost.

The severity of the winter of 1904-5 is still fresh in the
memory of the members of the Institute, and the record and
effect of the heavy snowfall may be found in detail in the
Transactions of last year. While the snowfall was extraordinary
in itself the extreme severity of the winter was caused by the
almost unbroken season of steady penetrating frost.

In ordinary soil in Nova Scotia a depth of two feet limits
the penetration of frost; and in designing foundations for
structures, footings three feet below the surface are considered
safe-and will rarely, if ever, be disturbed. In some other forma-
tions and under different conditions the penetration is much
greater.

In Manitoba frost penetrates at times to a depth of nine
feet, and in some towns water pipes are placed at a depth of
eleven feet to prevent them from freezing.

In Nova Scotia the lowest temperature reported is about 30°
below zero, while in Halifax the lowest record during the last
forty years is 21° below in January, 1873, the next being 16°
below in January, 1866.

The winter of 1903-4 was much colder than the average,
the lowest temperature reached being 9° below in January and
11° below in February. The penetration was almost as great
as in 1904-5, but the cold was not so continuous. The settling
pond in frotat of the gate house at Spruce Hill lake froze, so
that a man could walk over it—the first time since it was con-
structed, probably more than forty years ago.

(623)

624 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE.

In 1904-5 cold weather set in eayly and continued with
almost unbroken severity for nearly three months. The tem-
perature dropped in January to 7° below zero and in February
to 6° below.

The penetration of frost reached a depth in some of the
streets of Halifax of six feet. The unprecedented severity of
the winter caused water pipes to freeze where frost had never
been known before, and the usual waste was largely increased,
causing a falling off in pressure on the summits and a water
famine in the higher parts of the service.

Many service pipes were frozen, and after spending days
and money in cutting down to the pipes and thawing them the
greatest care was needed to prevent the frost from closing them
again. Hydrants and mats were not immune, and the thawing
operations overtaxed the staff of the water department all
through the long winter. The frost penetrates more readily
and to a greater depth where it can follow the water down a
wall, curb-stone or pipe, consequently the pipes are sometimes
frozen where the grownd around them is unfrozen. The frost
works down near the building and follows the pipe out under
the street. When a trench or hole has been opened during the
winter and refilled with frozen material, it is a ditheult prob-
lem to prevent the pipes from freeziag again. Frost also
penetrates more readily in trenches made in rock than in closer
fillimg. Apparatus has been provided for thawing frozen pipes
in future by electricity, so that it will not be necessary to open
trenches in winter and much delay, expense, annoyance and
inconvenieace will be avoided,

During the winter (1904-5) Barrington passage was closed
by ice for about four weeks. This is a strait through which the
tide rushes with a velocity of six to eight miles an hour. It has
been closed twice only within the memorv of the oldest inhabit-
ant. About forty years ago this passage was frozen over so

¢

that men crossed on the ice, and about sixty years ago a load of
hay drawn by oxen was taken across on the solid ice.

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—-DOANE. 625

The writer witnessed a similar incident at Annapolis in
1888. The tide runs very swiftly opposite the town, but ice
jammed in the river on the ‘night of January 21st, and during
the next thirty days steamers moored some distance down the
river were loaded with apples hauled over the ice.

Governor Murray, of Rockhead prison, has kept a record
for years of the date on which Bedford Basin froze over and the
date on which the ice went out. February 6th was the earliest
date for the closing and April 6th the latest day for the opening
of this sheet of water. Ta 1905 it was shut up for the winter
on January 24th, and remained frozen down to the Narrows
until the ice broke up on April 16th.

There were ice races in the Dartmouth rink on April 3rd,
and open-air skating o'n Milton pond, near Yarmouth, on April
5th.

The severity of the winter and the heavy snowfall chilled
the water to such an extent that the lobster fishery along our
- shores was commenced much later than usual, and it was feared
that the prosecution of this industry would be attended with
but small results. Fortunately, the worst fears were not
realized. The fishermen who followed this pursuit received
higher prices in consequence of the conditions, and the results
were even more satistactory than in ordinary years.

Notwithstanding the lateness of the cold season, hedges
were opening their leaves on May 8th, and the trees one week
later.

The following table shows the lowest temperature for

January and Kebruary in each year since 1864 :—

LS64—— January se. 9 below. Febuary -.... 4 below.
1865— ) Ree en on DONC: Psi e Nan MSarin tate 2 above.
I SOG2 oe hy ee ee 16 below. SRE I kee 12 below.
OSG ea FTE ok oe 8 below. AY Ae & 5 below.
1 fo) dtc Paar pa ONT LL ie A 4 below. parla ote eee 7 below.

1869— Fy alee a Ait ers 1 above. So tl ee ae 6 above.

626 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905..—DOANE.

1870—January ..... 3 below. February ..... + below.
te71— NRG SLY gee 15 below.

1873 to aay area 21 below. Set) Oeitansncies 5 above.
DoW a Sais be OME? aed. 5 below. aw TW BPR EAS ZeYX0.

SD NEO ee Ay ree 7 below. Sa.) Dene ae 14 below.
ESTOS to ie ee 1 below. eA a eee a 16 below.
Oe aene t.Aos 1) yh teees aaa 12 below. Seu Laake eae 6 above.
SOS ORE Ie arse 3 below. pep Bees tear 3 below.
1879— SA AM ye OLB Hain, 3 below. BER OME) fee eres it 1 below.
SS OS pa eee De below! Maan ese 6 below.
distoy et A kee ani Ses 2 below. AEP ect an 3 below.
3 c)oh = a mire (gens ae 12 below. Se Sin See Sia 6 below.
NS Arias ES Neher tece 11 below. aes ai Sige 6 below.
USSH=—? acini ids (dies, ote 9 below. Sia ccd 3 ot 2 below.
SB ie ent TAINAN ae T below. Sie: Sacco aos T below.
ASSO Saad (Sia). cake par 6 below. SN Site aE Or ES, 6 below.
TE OOS se OS make aces 13 below. NG iManage 4 below.
BS a Oar oS AT SOT Petes 2 below. SPS ire ie eee 5 below.
Doh a as ae a Lea DS ADOVES. oral fy sna eaeieneceeee 7 above.
TES GB eg a ate 2 above. oa ey 3 below.
Sey en ae ee er ene 3 below. Be al ne eae 10 below.
TO os Sven Cc lige, axe coe eee 2 below. eet sy pau cn tees 1 above.
WS OG pl: Raat a erat SelOwer. oe wince ere 3 below.
US ON is Wma) materi 5 below. SaaS Me 1 above.
BLES Sh eos die eR sie 10. below. DamieNe fa Ris sens Zero.

1899— SOT enka Maton Ditbeloyesure | Wicese Wye seen 9 below.
LOO Osco ANS hat eines 1 above. saath ae horace a 2 below.
1901— fk Nid Oe Sede 13. below. eave ipa eas 18 above.
TOO Gat erat ey ZeYO, ayo ketene 4 below.
OO Ba a pct lae ees 5 below. Sod Veena Se 4 below.
9 oe ea 9 below. Pera cena 11 below.
VO OS ay ee ee rn) Uae 7 below. Lae Reet e, 6 below.
L0G NG eae 2 below. PE TOs Pee 1 above.

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE. 627

Rainfall,

The amount of rainfall of any country is dependent upon
the situation of the country, its position, the elevation of its
hills and mountain ranges, aad the prevailing direction of the
winds. The influence of trees also has some effect.

The average annual rainfall in Halifax as deduced from

long-continued observations covering a period of thirty-seven

years, is 55.927 inches. The rainfall of 1905 was 47.795
inches—a deficiency of 8.132 inches, or 85 per cent. of the

mean. There was an excess of rainfall in January, February,
June, November and December, varying from 11 to 46 per cent.
and a deficiency during the remaining seven months. When
looked at in the dry light of statistics, the year recently ended
seems to have been not unprecedented, still it was an exception-
ally dry year. The number of days on which precipitation was
recorded, 182, was about the average, but the total precipitation
for the year was very near the minimum.

In the year 1894 the total precipitation was 45.808 inches,
about two inches less than in 1905. A comparison of the two
years shows, however, that at the end of November the rainfall
of 1905 was slightly less than that of 1894, the difference of
two inches being made in December. In fact, a study of the
accompanying tables shows that the year from November 1st,
1904, to October 31st, 1905, is the driest on record, the total
precipitation beiiag only 41.685 inches or 74.5 per cent. of the
mean. This minimum approaches within about two inches of
the rainfall 39.51 inches reported for the year 1860, before the
meteorological observatory was established. The accuracy of
the latter will be accepted with less reluctance in future.

Long Lake, our great low service reservoir, was raised to
overflow level by the melting of the great snows of 1904-5, and
water began to run over the waste weir on the 30th of March.
The lake continued to overflow until the 19th of May after
which the water began to fall. It reached its lowest level on

628 THE FROSE*AND DROUGHT OF. 1905.—DOANE.

November 4th—S feet 44 inches below the waste weir. On the
16th November Spruce Hill lake was 7 feet 9 inches below the
waste weir. The fall rains usually begin in September, but in
1905 the September rainfall was oaly 74 per cent. of the mean
and October 28 per cent. Steps were takea by the city to pre-
vent a water famine, but it was not until November 17th that
fears for the efficiency of the supply were relieved. Although
the rains came at last the lakes did not recover rapidly as the
ground was parched, and to-day Long lake is eight inches below
the waste weir, while Spruce Hill lake must rise 46 inches be-
fore it will overflow.

The season of 1905 was the driest for over ten years in the
eastern States, and reports from England state that it was much
below the average there.

The dryness caused much inconvenience in Halifax and was
a greater strain on the water system than in 1894, because the
consumption of water has increased considerably during the
eleven years since the last drought. There is no danger of the
low service supply running short, however, as over 1,000,000,-
000 gallons of water were allowed to run over the waste weir
during April and May. The high service lakes were equal to
the demand, although they fill up again more slowly in conse-
quence of the comparative difference in water-sheds.

Not every engineer has the time or the opportunity to
investigate im detail many points concerned in the observa-
tion of rainfall; that work appeals more to the meteorologist.
It is sufficient for the engineer that he be able to obtain a trust-
worthy record. The writer is indebted to the meteorological
agent of the Dominion government for the use of his records
and valuable assistaace in the compilation of the occompanying
tables. The means placed at his disposal for making precipita-
tion observations are not what they should be. He should be
provided with all necessary self-recording instruments, so that a
more complete record could be made and the greatest assistance

given to the engineer.

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.——-DOANE. 629

The importance of possessing a reliable and complete record
of rainfall appeals more strongly to the municipal engineer
than to any other, because drainage and water-systems and
water-power construction require for their fundamental basis a
reliable record of rainfall upon which the calculations for his
design may be based. In the design of drainage works the
mean fall is not the conelusive fundamental datum of the
engineer, not even the maximum yearly fall, but the heaviest
daily fall, and, more particularly, the greatest heavw fall in 1
short period. The value of having such records from. setf-
recording instruments is two-fold. First, they give an exact
indication of the carrying powers of existing sewers; second,
they show the demands likely to be made upon sewers and form
a valuable basis upon which calculations for the improvement
of existing or the design of new sewers can be based. A single
gauge is not always reliable for the measurement of the rain-
fall in any gathering ground as instances are reported of a
variation of 50 per cent. in one year where gauges were onlv
one-quarter of a mile apart.

The following form of record would be most valuable to
the municipal engineer :—

|
Rate per,20 minutes
precipi-| hour | of maxi- Rate per
———|tation in in | mum pre- hour. In.

i inches. | inches. | cipitation
Hours From | 2P.

Duration of Total
storm.

Period of greatest
precipitation,
Dare.

Hours. | From.

The rain gauge used by the city of Halifax is of brass
eylindrical in form, with a knife-edge rim. The diameter is

5

630 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE.

34 inches. This may seem a very small size for the purpose,
but this question was investigated many years ago. After a
long series of expernnents it was found that the size of gauge
or funnel made practically no difference, as gauges varying
from 1 to 24 inches in diameter were used with the following
results. The 24-inch gauge, being the largest, the rainfall col-
lected therein was taken as 100, alad the others were found to

read as follows :—

Diameter of gauges. 1) = 2 4 br “6 8) 12a eine
eeadimipes.. < : 2 938" 96. 100099) 102 A102, L007 100

These results show that except in the case of very small
gauges the difference in the amount of rain caugat never
exceeded two per cent. The adoption of a size from four inches
upwards then came to be a matter of convenience, the factors
which determine the size being that the instrument shall not on
the one hand collect per inch of rainfall an ineonveniently
small, or, on the other hand, an embarrassingly large volume of

water.

The city snow records at the lakes are measured on a board
placed in a carefully selected location where it will be free from
eddies and drifts. The board jis placed level and the snow
falling on it is carefully measured with a rule or seale. The
depth of melted snow is ascertained by imverting a_ brass
eylinder 34 inches in diameter on the board. Cylinder and
board are then turned upside down so that the cylinder will
contain the actual quantity of snow that has fallen within a
circle 34 inches diameter. The snow is melted and measured
ina graduated glass ta the same manner as rain is measured.

The government observer does not follow the same method
for snow measurement, but records the depth of melted snow as
one-tenth of the depth of snow falling.

After taking a measurement the snow board is again set
perfectly level and at the surface of the snow.

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE. 631

The selection of a site upon which to place a gauge is of
primary importance. It should be placed upon a flat stretch of
eround, not on the face of a slope, nor on the face of a cliff,
nor on a house top. It is a mistake to place it on the top of a
dam or embankment, as the accuracy of records obtained from
gauges in such positions will be somewhat doubtful. Where
the wind is blowing at right angles to the embankment an eddy
will be set up parallel to the slope of the bank, which will
have a tendency to lift the rain over the top of the bank and
produce a comparatively calm area around the gauge.

The volume of rain collected decreases with the height at
which the gauge is place above the ground, and experiments
have been carried out from time to time to investigate the cause
of this decrease. After many heated controversies over the
question, it has now been established that this decrease 1s
wholly due to the velocity of the wiad and the angle which the
rain makes with the horizon. Taking one foot above the ground
as representing a catch of 100, at 25 feet above the ground
the catch was found to equal about 79 per cent. This gives
approximately the ratio of diminution of rain caught with the
increase of height. It gauges are not placed at the same level
above the ground mueh of their utility is lost, because it be-
comes necessary, as in the case of barometic readings, to reduce
them to a fundamental level, and the appheation of such a
correction in rainfall work is always open to a doubt. The rim
of the gauge should be set perfectly level and one foot above
the ground.

While the precipitation records are most valuable in com-
puting the vield of our water-sheds, in order to determine with
any degree of aecuracy the percentage of rainfall collected and
the rwa-off available for water works or power the evaporation
sould be determined.

The value of the rainfall for water-works or power-systems
is usually determimed by the average of the two or three driest
years, according to the storage capacity available.

632 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE.

The wettest year was 1896, with a rainfall of 69.862 inches
or 25 ver cent. greater than the mean for 37 years (55.927 in.)

The driest year was 1894—45.808 inches or 82 per cent.
of the mean.

The driest two consecutive years were 1879-S0—47.835 and
52.853, an average of 50.344 inches, or 90 per cent. of the
mean.

The driest three consecutive years were 1879-80-81, with
an average of 50.814 or 91 per cent. of the mean.

The driest twelve months—November Ist, 1904, to
November 1st, 1905, 41.685 inches, or 74.5 per cent. of the
mean.

The driest twenty-four months, December Ist, 1903, to
December 1st, 1905, an average of 50,060, or practically the
same as for two calendar years.

The following table gives the maximum, minimum and
normal rainfall for each month and for the whole year for
thirty-seven years, together with the rainfall during 1905 and
the departures from the normal :—

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.— DOANE,

633

: _ |Maximum
MonrTu. é (inches)
eal
January ..../1895} 10.131
a ee ASO |asert cen. at:
February ...|1870! 9.780
ae Seed LO OIE Pesne sc creacads
Miarehwenye.: 1878} 10.284
Cel aca ate SSO eer charac:
April eee [1889] 7.403 |
Spin ot eyo HSS 6) creer Sai
May ee ae iccse 1886} 8.819 |
ca ANGOS| eee yk vs |
UNE ee 1874 7.920 |
See ees <=. (7A!) latin beeeretece
July , L896} 82.729
eee eer at SOA terse 5) scccNoneus
August .....|/1887| 8 351
af 5S Aya teks) leearoeichaiaios
September . .|1896) 12.092
ot WSS || tees ces
October..... 1896! 15.039
OD ob iaerete SO iiluceses areas
November ./1898) 10.248
ve SAS BZ ls Sip oe.ce as
December.. .|1893) 10.167
ae SFeqiiltsy Glineciotnon
Totals 1896 69.862
STS Ae Mell tae :

Minimum
(inches)

a wlenele
sieleherie le leuelts

Average | Rainfall | Excess | Per cent,
1869-1905) = 1905 or above or
(inches) | (inches) /deficiency| of mean.
5.682 8.290 | +2.608 | 46.
“4.769-! 5.326 | + 1657 | 12.
5.458 | 2.804 | -2.654 | 51.
4.000 | 1.260} -2.740 | 31.5
42025) 3,017 | — 1808 |. 80.
3.800 |. 4.970 | 41.170 | <30.°
[oui08) ea o27t etka 52.
OYA O87 2733.) 21.5540) 64 28
Poel eee ewecley hers ae
5.520 | 1.539 | -3.981| 28.
oe 26. 248) eet eal | 10
5.213 | 6.628 | +1.055 | 20.
55.927 LG ries “8.132 85. er

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI.

TRANS. PP.

634 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S.

TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DEPTH OF RAIN AND MELTED
SNowW, EXPRESSED IN INCHES; ALSO THE AMOUNT THAT HAS FALLEN FROM
JANUARY IST TO THE END OF EACH MONTH, INCLUSIVE DURING EACH YEAR.

Bi Ot) = 4 2
Boe = ( a = S
ee = < a A
os o°6 O¢ oa og
YEAR. Saas = =e me <5
E ler Ses ali aie Ae ai eee
3 3 i <= oo 2: S a oe F Cx
= Sap ie iene |e SOEs 22 S| 2S 2 2°
5 > | se = a = a & aS Sh Se
S ee ie Sas ales Seis Seine
|
1869s. esce 4.530) 4.380] 8910 7.950) 16.860) 2.870] 19.430] 5.576] 25.000} 3.920 28.920
ISTO eae 6.670} 9.780, 16.450; 3.080, 19.530; 3.860) 23.390) 3.190, 26.578, 1.690, 28.270
1S Gl creeear 3.730! 5880! 9610] 6.160] 15770] 4880] 20.650) 2.590] 23.240] 2.960] 26.200
1872) ceeee cs 3.880} 4.490] 8.370} 5.370] 13.7401 2859] 16.590] 4.440] 21.030] 4.230] 25.260
1S73 eee -_..{ 7.830] 1.610} 9440) 4090] 13.530] 2.860! 16390! 2.340] 18.730] 2.960] 21.690
1S74 eee: + 5.420] 5.310} 10730] 3.980! 14.710] 4.550) 19.260] 4.770] 24.030] 7 920] 31.950
ASTS eee 3481] 5877| 9.378] 2.113] 11.491] 3.378, 14.869] 3.977] 18.846] 4.067] 22.913
1876. ... ....] 3.451} 6.456] 9.907} 6.334] 16.241] 3.125] 19.366] 4 664] 24 030| 3.384] 27.414
1ST7e eos 420] 1.809} 6.009} 8.666] 14.675} 3.801] 18.476] 4.024] 22500] 3.841] 26.341
197s eee 7 622) 2697! 10.219] 10.284] 20.503} 3.502] 24.005! 5.759] 29 764) 4.477] 34.241
1Q7OMR ee 4.400) 3.00L} 7.401] 6.202] 13.603] 3.481] 17.084) 4.687] 21.771] 1.191] 22.962
1880.. .......| 7.733] 5.122] 12.855] 3.365] 16 220] 4.797] 21.717] 4.088] 25.105} 1.343} 26.448
11} eee 3.607| 5.329} 8.936] 6.556] 15.492] 3.498] 18.990] 2.460] 21.450] 5.308] 26.751
i Pomibalace ' 6.840] 5.949] 12.789] 7.068] 19.857} 4.824] 24.681] 4.677] 29.358] 5.507] 34 865
TSAI eee ei ‘ 4.930] 3.860| 8.790] 4 941] 13.731] 3.703] 17.434) 8.613] 26.047| 3.322] 29.369
ISSA Ren ; 4.406] 6.161) 10.567] 7.034] 17.601] 7.213) 24.814] 3629] 28.443] 3.773] 32.216
1885 ........., 6388] 5.090] 11.478] 3.889] 15.367} 3.520] 18.887] 3.282] 22.169] 2.749] 24.918
TSSGth ce Oaec os 8.670} 3.842] 12.512} 4.027] 16.539] 0.823] 17.362] 8.819} 26181] 2.708] 28.889
Wx aonoae 7.706| 6.735] 14.441] 4.449] 18.890] 6.396) 25.286] 2.126] 27.412] 2.121] 29.533
TSS ee eae 5.442| 6.284] 11.726]. 4.310] 16.036] 3.675] 19.711] 2.877] 22.588] 4.939] 27.527
1889 ..... ...| 4.391] 6.181} 10.572] 2.046] 12.618] 7.403] 20.021] 3.871] 23.892] 3.753] 27.647
1890..........| 3.963| 4645! 8.608] 9889] 18.497] 2.958] 21.455) 3.970] 25.425] 3.440] 28.865
Th) heehee -| 8.383] 8 740) 17.123] 2.685] 19.808] 4.010) 23 818] 4.195] 28 013] 4.131] 32.144
1892 Gerace ce 6.321] 2.605! 8.926] 5.986] 14.912] 2.653) 17.565) 5.459] 23.024) 3.638] 26.662
1993 eo eee 4.781| 5.979} 10.769) 2.303) 13.063] 4.209] 17.272] 5.044] 22 326) 1.753] 24.079
SV icwasoe ..| 7.122| 3.571! 10.693] 3 623] 14.316] 5.648] 19.964] 1.769] 21.733] 3.803] 25.536
TSOskeie ot ee 10.131} 4.605) 14.736] 5.931] 20.667) 3.956) 24.623) 4.089] 28.712] 1.827] 30 539
1896 SoceSe nce ! 1.720] 4.199} 5.919] 8.786] 14.705} 1.413] 16.118] 2.532] 18.650] 4.671] 23 321
TSOT Hi aoeoee i 5.896] 2.898] 8.794] 5.470] 14.264) 6.211] 20.475] 4.613] 25.088] 6.070] 31.188
TROR LER RCS 4.060| 4.422) 8.482) 4.068] 12.550] 7.346] 19.896] 2.366] 22.262] 5.598] 27.860
ES00 Me samen. : 5083} 3.613] $696] 7.178] 15874] 3.278] 19.152| 3.677] 22 829] 3 87] 26.704
LOO Ses eee 8.532} 5.277] 13.809] 6.577| 20.386] 3949) 24.335) 4.254] 28.589] 2.656) 31.245
GOI es ae ‘ 6.043} 0.966] 7.009} 4.102] 11.111} 6.318] 17.429] 5.556] 22.985] 6 959) 29.944
19025 eee 3.289] 2.735} 6.024) 7.757] 13.781] 3.067] 16.848! 3.725] 20.573] 4.908] 25.481
1903 ee 5.082| 3.712] 8.794] 7.294] 16.088! 5.515] 21.603] 0.676] 22.279] 3.493] 25.772
190 eee 6.318] 5.328) 11.646} 5.590] 17.236) 5.912] 23.148] 3.315] 26.463] 2.668} 29 131
1905. 8.29)| 5.326] 13.616] 2.804] 16.420] 1.260] 17.680] 3.217] 20.897] 4.970] 25.867
190 fee ee 7.122] 3.571) 10,693] 3.623] 14.316] 5.648) 19.964] 1.769] 21.733] 3.803] 25.536
Average ....! 5.682! 4.769] 10.451’ 5.458 15.909’ 4.000' 19.909 4.025 23.934! 3.800! 27.734

TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLY AND

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.—DOANE,

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S.,

ANNUAL DEPTH

635

oF RAIN AND MELTED

Snow, EXPRESSED IN INCHES; ALSO THE AMOUNT THAT HAS FALLEN FROM
JANUARY IST TO THE END OF EACH MONTH, INCLUSIVE DURING EACH YEAR

|

2 | = >)

© oe hes Onna 2 , a

ae Ze ae Be | Se 7

| Bis Sele aioe Sb Ae 2

eee Se ell aca a eee ae al hee a

a7) ro) aaert = oe) 4 ms = PS Q o

ze DH | oe 5 ae 2 aie r= os. = =

Sse) ee eee ae ese re eS Oe mee. | os

ee ae bo Sey || =o 8 =o z a2 9 £

= zo =] zw 5 ae 3) am {2} en o io}

a 5 = Wee Tale |e On irs Z 5 a =

| l |

1869 ..| 2.920 31.840] 2.580) 34.420] 1570, 35.990] 7.300) 43.290 5.470 48.760 5.770) 54.530
1870 3.210, 31.480) 2.200 33.680} 3.330 37.010] 6.830| 43.840 6.440) 50.280] 5.880 56.160
1871 3.380. 29.480) 3690 33.270] 4.810] 38.080 4.490] 42.570 4.180 46.750] 4.390 51.140
1872 2.880) 28.140) 6,820 34.960) 1.410] 36.370 4.880) 41.250, 6.600 47.900] 6.160) 54.060
1873 3.900, 25.590} 4.450 30.040] 4.480] 34.520 8.63)/ 43.150, 7.980, 51.130) 4.310) 55.440
1874 2.290| 34.240] 3.370 37.610] 5.040] 42.650 2.460] 45 110| 3.580! 48.690] 5.490, 54.180
1875 ..| 5.612 28.525] 3.555, 32.080] 2.060] 34.140 9.976] 44.116, 5.544 49.660] 1.614) 51.274
1876 ..| 3.914) 31328) 1.909) 33.237] 6.094] 39.33L 4.068] 43.397| 7.397, 50.796] 3.176! 53.972
1877 ..| 4.468 30.809} 3.539) 34.348] 3.164] 37.512 6.857] 44.369| 8.678 53.047) 4.493) 57.540
1878 ..| 1.483, 35.724] 3.127] 38.851| 0.800] 39.651 5 061) 44.712] 6.909| 51.621) 5.119} 56.740
1879 ..| 3.843) 26.805} 4 827] 31.632] 2.596] 34.228 4.755] 38.983] 4.823] 43.806] 4.029] 47.835
1880 ..| 3.086. 29.534) 3.920] 33.454] 5.712] 39.166 4.590] 43.756] 4.704] 48.460! 4.393] 52.853
1881 ..| 3.177) 29.935] 3.062) 32.990] 3.103) 36.095 4.206 40 301] 4.420) 44.721] 7.034) 51.755
1882 ..| 5.071! 39.936] 3.925] 43.861] 5.914] 49.775| 7.403] 57.178] 1.392] 58.570] 3 452] 62.022
1883 ..| 3.540 32.909] 5.34 | 38.251] 3.864] 42.115 5.841) 47.956] 3.478] 51.434] 6.678] 58.112
1884 ..| 8.294 40.510] 2.771] 43 281] 1.788] 45.069, 3.093) 18.162] 5.992] 54.154] 9.124] 63.278
1885 ..| 5.817. 30.735) 3.001| 33.736] 2.497) 36.233 6.280, 42.513] 5.423] 47.936] 8.693] 56.629
1886 ..| 6.525 35.414} 4.526] 39.940] 4.459) 44.399 2.135) 46.534] 5.284] 51.818] 5.469] 57.287
1887 ..| 2.045 31.578} 8 351| 39.929] 3.308) 43.237| 3.058! 46.295} 6.718] 53.013] 4.120) 57.133
1888 ..| 5.001 32.528] 7.000) 39.528] 5381] 44.859, 6.859) 51.718] 6.802] 58.520] 7.774) 66.294
1889 ..| 2.668 30.315] 2.633] 32.948] 1.399] 34.347| 4.179, 38.526] 7.145! 45.671| 2.988) 48.659
1890 ..} 2.141 31.006) 7.042) 38.048] 4.534] 42.582) 6.603. 49.185! 3.716] 52.901! 7.202) 60.103
1891 ..| 4.003 36.147) 3.385) 39.532} 3.052) 42.584! 9.621) 52.205| 2.388) 54 593) 4.076| 58.669
1892 ..| 2.710 29.372) 6.809] 36.181) 1.744] 37.925) 3.472) 41.397| 9.240) 50.637] 3.053} 53.690
1893 ..| 4.757) 28.836 5.954| 34790] 4.391] 39.181] 5.640) 44.821] 3.760] 48.581] 10.167| 58.748
1894 ..| 1.059 26.595) 3.993] 30.588] 1010] 31.598! 3.863 35.461| 5.785) 41.246) 4.562} 45 808
1895 ..| 3.924 34.463) 5.5 2) 39.965| 2.491] 42.456) 5.627) 48.083] 8.223] 56.306] 5.846] 62.152
1896 _.| 8.729 32.050), 3.037| 35.087| 12.092| 47-179] 15.039 62.218] 4.396] 66.614] 3 248| 69.862
1897 ..| 3.661 34.819} 5.185! 40.004] 1.169] 41.173] 0.716 41.919] 6.051] 47.970] 3.552] 51.522
1898 ..| 3.652 31512) 5.651! 37.163] 4.158] 41.321] 4.845; 46 166| 10.248] 56.414! 4.066] 60.480
1899 ..| 5.747) 32.451] 1.542] 33.993] 3.201] 37.19] 6.191! 43.385! 4.590] 47.975 5.038] 53 013
1900 ..| 1.872 33.117! 3.993] 37.110] 5.013] 42.153) 7.365! 49.518! 6858] 56.376. 3.321] 59.697
1901 ..| 1.585 31.529] 3656] 35.185] 6.872] 42.057] 4.906 46.963] 2560] 49.523 8 573] 58 096
1902 1.651 27.132| 4.767] 31.899] 4.657| 36.596] 4.252 40.808] 3.813) 41.621| 7.295] 51.916
1903 ..) 4313 30.085) 4.247) 34.332] 4.237] 38.569] 6.368, 41.937| 9.598) 54.539, 4.590) 59.125.
1904 ..| 2.323 31.454] 6.511) 37.965] 4.502] 12.467] 5.031! 47.498) 5007] 52.605, 1.859] 57.194
1905 1.927, 27.794) 2.733] 30.527| 2.753] 33.280| 1.539, 34.819| 6.348) 41.167) 6.268) 47.435
1894 ..| 1.059 26.595) 3.993) 30.588] 1.010] 31.598] 3.863 35.461) 5.785] 41246) 4.562) 45.808
Aver.-! 3708 31.442! 4.287! 35.729 3.747! 39.476 5520 44.996! 5.718! 50.714! 5213! 55.927

636 THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF 1905.-—DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S., 1905.

TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF DOMINION GOVERNMENT METEOROLOGICAL
AGENT, SHOWING DEPTH oF RAINFALL AND MELTED Snow IN INCHES
AND DURATION OF EACH STORM IN Hours. (T'=trace.)

| January. | Fepruary. | Marcu. APRIL. May. || Junz.
S gee || Raees i ee pis | Pe
ee | =) 8 Zoi ne Zul Se Z| 8 Zales
Sele ol eel alec Mies | eee Wecea sa sulee
fie |) LEO} 2050 Bi eNcerete ral ee 2p aye 27Os|||bererees| eveneeeteys Seelp ssi ill Soecllooooe
FA Seo! CRMs ooalle || epee lactose 13 ae TO ey GeO) eis
BOE cope IOl= sUlO | Soe ollmooad 6.0) .020|} 2.7/ .082)| 1.0] .054
Te {NUS eis) VE IPAS ls bss lloooea - Be A Sel Bal aes Bina Sie JUL SHEEN) Saeallsancsc
5 3 ea evegs | fete sestanll Ss as) T PAO) © SUPA Nooo! loco N iecteseshe Pareles
Gua testes 3.0} .030!!11.0} .240)| 19.5) .258 || 1.0} .020!/ 8.0) 1.681
Fae eile Si ae S44|| nS 22] es OOO) eevee ieee DEO cists TOROS SERA Gooalleode.
MISO GPA Woy AON SRL Eo a allooo beter (Sicha 6.8] .328
9 ail Nee emcee | heeceriees ZA co OIaaoellade og: A eeclvlll sawallboocac
10 |.4.3) .325]] 6.0) ©.220)/12.8) .402')|° 3.0) .034|) 2.5) .058}) 1.0) - .038
Ales Peceral nee ets 3] YOPD Ilo eelisoooee Wels OBYAll Sen cliépodoc oll Boaeutee
2 TY (MOSH AetsOIl| Ssselloocss = sees ll carse 6.0} .128 mi | hecapeeoes .8} .032
Te SOP SAID O, SSB Soca hic sig Boal ode. 612 Gary! = 5c
1 oe gets ecmasras TO) OLS Goon lla o6onr 1.0} .062 Aly od s aT
15 Banliteasrores USO) SOPL0 | Se alee aoe lobo lore cie 3 4b Relea
16 Ba eee Paria Uistsy(U\ltaeroeltcoocawe Wont laocioe.< 4 at Sr aL
iy? OOP Osaoll| Wes} O2D is allooo os A TS 7.0) .082 .5| .010
18 Ball aise 2D) 090) || eecralls Poylllsvsrere 9.3) .270|, 10.5) .696
19 2a2 067 Polaee | 2.0} .080 gti Serene | I ereteeae | rts wpa ea eee |
20 halle AS ee O40) 2nl ye CoO) | iterave!l relate LU SUSI Gape|loosec:
21 Bal etee 1S | ell O | ee velis 29) .056 fife © 1h 3.7| .054
90 | e.00 Jeet loeaaye Il eaeare|lboes Ase}| 474533 vefeee ae 7.5) .048
93 | 6.8} .820]| 7.5} .440 lrereece a3) ih dl ostecrc 5.5| ~.010
DU S| tea che: NOP GST eee Eecallnmreea: aha Be bas
Dy | SO ok ANN ICO)! ee) II oSenllaot ane ol) = O10 Pillar: 2.0) .010
oy hls) ALSausKO) II Ge callboooos 2.0) .120 sales Balleeic 8.5} .268
27 3.5) .140]) 5.5 Ol Boal sUQON Goosiiaacour 2.2) .036 || 12.0) .270
98° 8) 2020)|/ a6)" 2030 MOS!" S426 <a loe a 3.6!- .392 || 7.8! .082
29 DO) eco Sills 5o\) QUEEN Aces se .o| .010 |; 1.0) .012
SNe isacell natevcce||| cocks tooo ce allo nooc 4.8} .100]} 4.5) .222 Reais. si
Sa (Mls) ofl) Soe ‘oar neal eis tied 5 arenes ¢ eral eae Sgencke|| nana
8.290 5.326 2.804 1.260 Spalidalt 4.970

THE

FROST AND DROUGHT OF

1905.— DOANE,

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S., 1905

637

TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF DoMINION GOVERNMENT M®&TEOROLIGICAL

AND DURATION OF EACH STORM IN Hours.

Day of Month.

SCMmID TF WHR

|
JULy.
|
a a
aah lp ace
i8'3) “436
SD) Oil
ges | pamaan
‘2.51 160,
| 4.8] .088
Sor) ale

43/5) i.1d6

en leon7 ieee

AUGUST.
rapa
Ws &
| oO —]
feo fia =
2.8 028
a 315
4.5 .372
255) 5.986
1.5] .061
“"g| .028
ies O20)
13.8| .426
7.3} .165
1.0] .312
“73/020

2.733

SEPTEMBER |
5 n
oes
5 °
eS

12.6) 1.116
6.0] .558 |
4.7| .134
5.3] .182

ay trie

2.0
2"0) |

yw)

2.0

11.5

1.0
te

see eee

AGENT, SHOWING DeptH OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNow IN INCHES
(T =trace.)

OCTOBER.
g| i
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beececee

SOOO abou 20

NOVEMBER | DECEMBER.

eine
see
| oe
7.0 .460
1.5) .185
815)" o48
4.5) .608
8a) Tide
at) T
1.4) .098
ee
210) “646
6:5) “i73
19.3} 1.803
6:8] L010
$5] Tie
1.5} .020
17.0} 1.488
D-O|) ote

DOANE.

1905.

THE FROST AND DROUGHT OF

638

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Eris 1n Water Pires anp Tuerr Micrarion.—By Watson
L. BisHor, Superintendent of the Dartmouth Water
Works, Halifax Co., Nova Seotia.

(Read 9th. April, 1906.)

The early history of the eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is involved
in mystery. No other common fish has so completely baftled
scientific investigators. The Greek poets jocosely remarked
“that since all children whose paternity was doubtful were
ascribed to Jupiter, he must be considered the progenitor of the
eel.” Aristotle emphatically stated that eels are spontaneously
produced from the mud and moist earth. About sixty years
ago, Martens, a famous naturalist stated, “‘Among all the
animals that surround us, the eel is the only one which has never
unveiled the secret of its propagation, even. to the most per-
servering investigators.” From that time to the present the
most persistent efforts have been made to solve the mystery of
the sexual characteristies of this fish and its reproduction.

In 1896, G. B. Grassi, a professor in Rome, after four
years devoted exclusively to the study of this fish, and years of
previous inquiry, communicated a paper to the Royal Society of
London, which practically solved this mystery. He established
the fact that the ee] reproduced itself only in very deep water,
at least 1500 feet in depth; that the eggs deposited, float there
in these great depths; that the young when hatched take a form
not recognized previously as the young of the eel, but described
under the name Leptocephalus brevirostris, which proves to be
its larval form; that this fish passes through a metamorphosis
in a few weeks, and then becomes the eel known to all when
about two inches in length; that in a very short time it seeks
the fresh water to acquire sexual maturity and go on with
the work of reproduction; that the parent ee] then dies, and

(640)

EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP. 64]

therefore the mature eel never returns again to the fresh water.
He also shows with others, that the female eel grows to a much
greater size than the male eel, while the latter rarely exceeds
a foot or fourteen inches ia length, although the female fre-
quently attains a length of six feet, and a weight of from twelve
to fifteen pounds,

The fact that the eel has to seek such great depths in the
open ocean in order to become sexually developed, and has to
remove itself far from the usual haunts of man, and the further
facts that special ships and apparatus had to be fitted out for its
capture, and that but very few localities on the globe are
available for the study of the mature fish and its young, were
the causes which prevented scientists from learning sooner the
secrets of its life history.

As there is still a great deal left to be learned, from the fact
that this fish is noctural and secretive in its habit, 1 thought it
might be of some interest to place before you the result of some
investigations I have made during the past few years regarding
its habits.

Since the water system was installed in Dartmouth in 1892,
until 1904, eels caused considerable trouble by getting into the
main pipe at the intake, and thence finding their way through
the mains to the service pipes in the town, and plugging them
up. The lakes from which we draw our supply are about
eight miles from the sea by following the stream. This stream
passes through other smal] lakes before reaching the salt water.

The time of year when eels gave us most trouble was during
the months of September and October. At this season men
were constantly employed in digging up the service pipes to
take out these obstructions. It almost invariably happened that
the services which were troubled most by them were the ones
having leaky fixtures. The eel imprisoned in the pipes would
be constantly feeling for any curreat whereby it might escape,
and would thus get into the services. Digging up so many
pipes being so expensive, and also damaging to a well finished

642 EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP.

street surface, as well as being annoying to householders, I
eventually discovered a plan which proved more satisfactory
and economical. I found that by attaching a strong plump to
the service pipe into the house, by means of. which the cel could
be easily forced back into the main, (which we frequently did
against a pressure of 90 pounds), the eel being dead, or nearly
so, was easily carried along with the current and taken out of a
hydrant opened for this purpose. It was sometimes necessary
to shut a valve to divert the flow of water in the direction of
the hydrant.

During the above-mentioned migatory season, there had
beea no water going over the waste weir. The only water going
from the lakes was by way of the water pipes. From the above
facts, and from noting that after heavy rains occurred, many
eels would be taken from the water pipes, I came to the con-
clusion that at such times they must gather about the intake im
great numbers, trving to follow the current of the water .to
reach the sea.

The water enters the screen-chamber through an opening
two feet wide by nine feet deep. In this opening three screens
were placed one above the other. In the bottom sereen, which is
two by three feet, I cut in the centre a hole sixteen inches ia
diameter and fitted to it a funnel-shaped intake of screen cloth,
8 by 8 mesh, No. 16 wire, leaving a circular opening of one
and a half inches to admit eels. I thea boxed off the back of
the sereen with the same material. It can be readily seen that
eels trying to follow the flow of water would easily find their
way into this trap, from which there is no eseape except through
the small funnel opening by which they came in. The peculiar
construction of this trap makes this opening very difheult to
find from the inside; therefore, eels one in, remain there until
they are taken out.

The trap was put in position on the 29th of April, 1904,
and on May 6th eighty-nine eels were found in it. Three were

about one foot long, the remaining eight-six were small, from

EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP. 643

four to eight inches in length, the average length being 5.96
inches.

May 13th, forty-four were taken. The four largest were
about one foot, while the remainder were small, similar to the
ones taken the week before.

May 30th, sixty-one were caught. Two of these were large,
being about eighteen inches long, the others were small like
the ones previously taken,

June 17th, twelve were caught; seven of which were small,
and five quite large.

June 29th, the trap was empty.

July 19th, thirty-six were in the trap. Two were sinall,
the others quite large.

August 5th, twenty-three were caught, measuring from
twelve to eighteen inches in length.

August 19th, fifty-one were caught; all were the size of
those taken from the service pipes, about one foot long.

August 26th, three hundred and eight eels were found in
the trap, ranging in length from twelve to fourteen inches,
except two which were much larger. By referring to the pre-
cipitation of that year it will be seen that on the 21st the
rainfall was 2.44 inches, and on the 25rd 0.43 of an inch.

September 2nd, 11 were taken,

= Stlivelo wets ‘6
si 16th, Ake > = “
is Sis Dea ae “
October Glo a eas ‘
% 14th, 46. —~“ s
s DSi se Oo ae ‘“
5 OSes oe ‘

The trap was then taken out, fhe migratory season being
over, with a total cateh of seven hundred and eighty.

After the large catch on August 26th, as shown by the above
data, few had found their way into the trap for several days.

644 EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP.

It is likely, therefore, that nearly all the eels in the vicinity of
the trap were caught, and that they were scarce about the gate-
house until the few which were not in the first run had found
their way to the intake. It has also been shown that nearly all
the eels taken in the early spring were small, probably one year
old, and during their earlier life had remained in the lakes
nearer the sea.

The lakes in question being so far from the sea, and the
outlet from them passing through other lakes in its course, it
does not appear necessary that they should make the entire
journey the first year.

What confirms me in this belief is, that several years ago L
saw during the spring, at the head of the tide waters of the Corn-
wallis river, in King’s County, N. S., many thousands of small
eels working their way up the stream in the shallow water at
each side of the river. These were certainly not more than two
and a half to three inches long. To form an idea of the great
numbers passing along I judged that there was one hundred or
perhaps more in a space of two feet.

This stream of eels was continuous without a break as far
as they could be seen each way. It can readily be seen that
vast quantities were finding their way to the spacious still
waters in the meadows about half a mile further up the stream.
Unfortunately, I cannot give the exact date on which this
observation was made.

I am of the opinion that the first catches in the spring,
which were nearly all of small size, had just reached the lake
by way of the stream, and being naturally somewhat tired, had
settled in the deep water to rest, and had thus found their way
into the trap at the intake which was only about one hundred
feet from where they entered the lake. A subsequent experi-
ment, which is explained later, proved the foregoing assumption
to be correct.

On April 19th, 1905, the eel trap was again put in place in
the gate-house, and when visited on May 9th it contained one

EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP. 645

hundred and twenty-three small eels, the same size as the ones
taken in the early spring of the previous year. On this date,
May 9th, I also put a trap in the overflow with the opening
facing down stream to intercept eels that might be coming up
into the lake.

May 17th this trap was examined and found to contain
eighty-nine small eels, thirteen small trout, one small sucker,
and one minnow. On the same date only eighteen small eels were
taken from the trap in the gate-house.

June Ist sixty-six smal] eels, ten small trout, and four
suckers were taken from the trap in the overflow, and only 9
small eels were in the trap in the gate-house. This proves in
two ways that my theory was correct, and that the small
eels taken in the early spring of 1904 had just reached the lake.
A confirmation is found in the fact that while the two traps
were in use, the trap in the stream stopped nearly all that were
going into the lake, so that there were only a few to get into the
trap in the gate-house.

The trap in the overflow stream was taken out June Ist,
1905.

June 9th, six eels were in the trap in the gate-house;

June 24th, 2 were taken. Oct. 6th, 5 were taken.
linge lich a Dion _ eras Ch Oi ae ae
a 4th. cloawas: 7 oc ane sive oo ety:
rs 24th, 14 were “‘ ae toy Hi eeee ome
cy 20th On cS Nove S4tht 6
Ate ith By.) 6 Tile cla) tae = ()
Cro Ath 99.4 He Grisso fay Ops
rate thie 0 s — S25th.. «0
Sevivmeraiat.: Toor < = <> GeoObays a Sic eae
= tice Wie baie ef Dees s(ihes aly wwase a
pore WS fl seid Os) mere <3 lS tha Olwere, o-s

Nie ex
On December 27th no eels were found and I took the trap
out, the lake being then frozen over. The trap was kept in

646 EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.— BISHOP.

several week later thaa the previous year. The autumn (the
migratory season for eels) being unusually dry, they did not
seem to be moving as in the previous year. The trap was there-
fore kept in to find whether they would migrate when sufficient
‘ain had fallen to raise the lakes and streams. The rain held
off, however, until about the middle of November, and it was
then so late there was no noticeable movement of the eels.

Many water-works men have held that the way eels get into
the water pipes is by getting through the screens when very
small, and that they live in the pipes until they are about a foot
long aad then they find their way into the services. [I cannot
credit this, as they would then be giving trouble all the year
round, and would not get in the pipes periodically as they now
do. It has also been pointed out that if an overhanging dam
were put across the stream the small cels could not reach the
lake, and in a few.years there would be no small eels in the
lakes to get in the water pipes. This idea seems quite reason-
able, but I do not think it complete enough to be entirely sue-
cesstul. 1 think the ends of the dam should be arranged so as
to prevent eels passing around the end of the dam on the land,
and thus reaching the stream above.

That eels are well able to pass around or over a dam, there
‘an be no doubt. I tried an experiment with one lot takea from
the trap with the following results: They were put la a box
without water, and kept in a room where the temperature was
fifty-six degrees (Farenheit), and at the end of twenty-seven
hours two were put in water and soon became lively, and
appeared as well as though they had never been taken from the
lake. The others appeared to be ta about the same condition.
The largest one lived forty-three hours. Other experinents
tried later in the summer proved that cels fifteen to eighteen
inches long, will live longer than small ones. In one case [ had
one to live out of water for seventy-two hours.

Judging from these facts, these fish can leave the water in

the night while the grass is wet with dew or rain, and remain

EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.——BISHOP. 647

out of water for several hours without any inconvenience. As
they can move through wet grass very readily, it is therefore
evident that they can travel overland for considerable dis-
taaces should occasion require it.

What would likely be the most effectual way to prevent
them from getting into the lakes, would be to put lime in the
stream every evening, commencing in the spring as soon as the
stream is free from ice, and couatinuing until the migratory
season is over. It is a well known fact that eels have a great
dislike for lime, and it is not at all likely they would enter a
stream where the water was charged with it. Lime is often
used in earth dams to prevent eels from boring through and
thus caustag leaks or washouts.

I expect to continue catching eels both at the imtake and in
the overflow stream, to determine whether their numbers will
be lessened in the lake, and if by taking the small ones on their
way to the lake, it will decrease their numbers returning to the
sea in the autumn.

Since the trap has been in use, there have only been two or
three eels taken from the service pipes each year; whereas, in
former vear:, from thirty to fifty were taken out of the water
pipes each autumn during the downward migratory season. This
proves conclusively that the work for which it was intended,
that is, to catch the eels at the intake and thus prevent them
from entering the water-mains, has been successfully accom-
plished by the trap.

In conelusion, I find that this troublesome fish goes up
streams ia the spring months in large numbers, and that during
the autumn the mature fish returns to the sea. During the
summer months a few are caught in the trap, but I attribute
this to accident instead of migration. The eels are simply
feeding around or looking for a dark spot in which to hide
during the day, and thus get entrapped.

That they ean be effectually stopped from getting into the
service pipes is certain if sufficient care is taken.

648 EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.-—BISHOP.

Whether or not the quality of the water will be affected
adversely by keeping all the eels out of the lake is to me an open
question. The eel is well known to be a great scavenger ; but on
this subject I have not secured sufficient data to form an
opinion.

Discussion.

EF. W. W. Doanr.—The eel nuisance has been a most per-
plexing problem for every superintendent of a water system.
It is at times very difficult to account for their presence in
pipes. There is no doubt in the mind of the writer that eels
will climb over a screen projecting from eighteen inches to two
feet above the water. Traces of eels have been noted on the top
of the screens in the gate-houses, and on one occasion an eel was
caught in an effort to surmount the obstructing screens. The
carelessness of a gate-keeper sometimes permits their entrance
through a small hole worn or torn in the screen or where the
corner of the screen frame unprotected by metal has become
worn. In the Halifax screen chambers there are two sets of
grooves for screens separated only by a thin angle-iron. It was
suspected that eels got in while the screens were being chang-
ed, consequently a batten was placed on the back of the lower
front screen at the bottom edge so that the space between the
two sets of screens was completely filled. By always putting in
the new screens before removing the old set, there is no oppor-
tunity for eels to get between them.

Anguilla vulgaris is supposed to be long lived, one authentic
instance being recorded of an eel which was at least thirty-one
years old,

There is no doubt of the ability of eels to travel over land.
On more than one occasion Halifax water department officials
have seen them, when thrown out of a trench or stream (near
the lakes), start for the lake.

When migrating, no ordinary obstacle seems to stop them.
It is claimed that they have been known to cross from one water
to another by ascending a branch of a tree hanging in the water

EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP. 649

and dropping on the other side. They have been known to
climb steep ascents also.

It is probable that the migration down stream is made at
might, dark nights being chosen, and moonlight being sutticient
to stop them. The young eels going up in the spring travel by
day.

It is claimed that eels are peculiarly averse to cold, and that
the temperature of the brackish water of estuaries is always
higher than that of unmixed salt or fresh water. Eels bury
themselves in winter a foot or more in the mud near the outlet
of a stream, and are taken with a spear. It is uncertain whether
such eels spend the summer in salt or fresh water. To the
erdinary observer there is little difference in appearance be-
tween the eels taken during the summer in salt water and those
taken from the lakes.

On one occasion eels filled a main on Granville Street, Hali-
fax, so completely that when the pipe was cut it became neces-
sary to make an auger to bore the pipe out.

The result of Mr. Bishop’s study and experiments is most
interesting, and further work will add equally valuable in-
formation. A better acquaintance with the habits of eels will
be the means of saving much money and annoyance, and may
enable superintendents to prevent entirely the entrance of cels
to the pipes of water systems.

t. H. Brown.—At Sydney Mines, Cape Breton, some years
ago, we made a reservoir by closing the culvert in an embank-
ment on the colhery railway. The dry valley thus closed was
converted into a lake of a few acres in extent and some ten feet
deep at the middle. Its souree of water supply was the drainage
of the fields on the surrownding slopes, and its only outlet was
by pipes of four inches diameter and about two thousand seven
hundred yards in length, which conducted the water from this
reservoir to the colliery engines at the Princess pits. After a
few years eels were found in the pipes obstructing the flow of

Proce. & TRANS. N.S. Inst: Sctr., Vor. XI. TRANS. QQ.

650 EELS IN WATER PIPES AND THEIR MIGRATION.—BISHOP.

water. The eels taken out were of usually good ordinary size ;
but on one occasion when we found the water completely stopped
at a certain point, we had to break a pipe there, and found in
it a ving eel of about four inches in diameter (the full size of
the pipe) aad between three feet six inches and four feet long.
The eels had no possible waterway by which to get into our
reservoir, but must have travelled overland for about half a
mile from a brook that runs into the Big poad. The Big pond,
in which eels were plentiful, was a salt-water lake, having con-
nection with the sea by a channel through a sand bar. These
eels on their way had to pass over the railway embankment,
above meationed,

The eels in Cape Breton do not seem to migrate; they are
seen In abundance, both in summer and in winter, in all the
lagoons and estuaries arowad the coast and in the Bras @’Or
lake. In summer they move about among the long eel-grass
looking for food, and in winter they he dormant in the mud in
the same localities.

T once in July was watehrag a large shoal of smelts entering
the barrasois at Indiaa brook, near St. Ann’s, C. B., and noticed
a number of large eels passing along among them. At fre-
quent intervals an eel would be seen to turn quickly and bite a
smelt; the latter at once turned on its side and floated help-
lessly down the channel followed by the eel, who, I presume,

devoured it at his leisure.

WATER POWERS ON THE MERSEY RivEerR, N. S8.—By W. G.
Yorston, C. K., City Engineer, Sydney, N. 8.
(Read 2Ist. May 1906.)

The province of Nova Scotia is the second smallest of the
proviaces composing the Dominion of Canada. It comprises
about 21,000 square miles of territory in a shape of a rather
narrow peninsula about 350 miles in extreme length, and with
an average width of less than 100 miles. Owing: to its shape
the province cannot boast of any very large rivers, but in some
of those rivers that we do possess ‘nature has placed in our
hands rather valuable forces, which have up to the present time
been only partially made use of, partly from the lack of pur-
pose to apply the power to. The resources of the province are
rich and varied, and it is especially rich in its mines and
minerals. In the last few years a rapid development has taken
place in Nova Seotia, and in the course of such development
the question of power has naturally forced itself to the front,
cheap power being essential to the successful operation of large
factories, or even to the mining of any kind of mineral. My
own belief is that the development of the resources of the pro-
vinces is only beginning, and in a few years time great strides
will be taken in the opening up of resources that have already
lain tor too great a time undeveloped. Believing that such is
the case, the question of cheap power becomes at once a large
and important consideration, and it is safe to predict that
before very long every availbale water-power of any size in the
province will be producing energy for the operation of factories
and other purposes for which power is required.

Our neighbours in the south have for many years recog-
nized the value of their water-powers in connection with the
development of the country, and have created a special depart-

(651)

652 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

ment with the object of measuring and tabulating the quantity
of flowtof all the principal streams of the country. This
engineering department, which is called the Hydrography
Division of the Geological Survey, embraces amono its mem-
bers many of the best well known and foremost men in the
profession. They have already accomplished very much, and
the statistics gathered as to the flow of streams, the evaporation
from water surfaces, etc., are found to be invaluable. Data
such as are collected by this corps of men are of great value,
as the researches cover a period of time long enough to
determine beyond doubt that the results given are correct in
every detail, and that they can be absolutely relied on.

In making an estimate of a water-power it is essential that
accurate information be had on the following points :—

(1), The flow of the stream, both maximum and mini-
mum,

(2), The total fall at the power site selected.

(3), The practicability of providing storage.

(4), A record of the periods of drought.

The flow of the stream is the one thing most apt to be over-
estimated, for with a knowledge of a stream covering only a
short period of time it seems to be a most natural thing to for-
get that the minimum or dry summer flow is only a fraction of
the average flow of the stream, and consequently if a mistake
is made in designing or construction of a water-power it is
generally an over-estimate of the power to be derived from the
plant installed. Up to the present time no such data regarding
stream flow of any kind for Canadian streams have been col-
lected, but I have ‘no doubt but that in the near future the
rapid development of the country will lead the government
to undertake a work which would lead so directly to the
further employment of capital and tend to increased prosperity.

Of Nova Scotia rivers the Mersey is probably the largest,
and it is certainly the one best adapted for the development of

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSION. 653

water-powers. The main source of the river is in Annapolis
county, approximately 15 miles from the Bay of Fundy.
Branches to the main stream also come from the counties of
Shelburne and Digby. The extent of territory drained by the
river is 600 square miles, and on the water-shed are to be found
many lakes of large size, of which Rossignol, which has an
area of 18 square miles, is the largest. In all, about 40 square
miles of lakes are drained by the Mersey, and consequently the
river is much more steady in its flow than others of our rivers,
due to the large area of lake surface on its water-shed. It will
readily be seen that this steadiness of flow particularly adapts
this river for the development of water-powers, but after all,
the chief recommendation of the Mersey river is the fact that
in the last sixteen miles of its length it has a total fall of 260
feet. The river for this portion of its length is really a suc-
cession of many rapids or falls, and as the high ground
approaches close to the river, on both banks there are many
good power sites to be found, capable of development at a com-
paratively low cost. The portion of the Mersey river which I
speak of as being specially adapted for water-powers, is the
last sixteen miles of its length, from the point where it leaves
the lake (known as Indian Gardens) down to tide water, and
I intend giving a short description of the water-powers already
developed on this portion, as well as the possibilities of the
further development and its application to industries
particularly suited to the locality.

Jn the early days the Mersey river was used by the Indians
as a means of communication with the Atlantic coast. The
route followed was up the Lequille river to its source in a lake
about 14 miles back, and thence by a short portage of about
one mile to the head waters of the Mersey, from which point
it was comparatively easy to descend by canoe to the ocean at
the mouth of the Mersey. That this route was used extensively
by the Indians there is abundant evidence in the relics to be
found on the shores of some of the lakes on the river, and

654 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

guides will now point out what are known as the “ picture
rocks,” so named beeause of the rude Indian drawings made
with some hard tool on the flat surface of the rocks on the shore
of ** Widjmie Widjie’’ or Fairy lake.

The water-shed of the Mersey is covered with a good growth
of nearly eyery variety of our ‘native trees, and the many
branches of the river afforded such an easy mode of transport-
ing the logs that lumbering operations on the river have always
been prosecuted with vigor since the days of early settlement,
and up to the year 1893 this was practically the only use made
of the splendid water-powers on this river. As the great con-
sideration of the owners of saw mills was to deliver the sawn
lumber as near navigable tide water as possible, and as the
quantity of power required was not large, they were content to
utilize heads of 8 to 10 feet, and leave the larger power devel-
opments for the future. Accordingly the saw mills were built
on two dams about one mile apart, the lower dam being situated
just above the tide water at Milton Falls, about 24+ miles above
the town of Liverpool, from which place the lumber has always
been shipped.

In the year 1883 an engineer named Emil Veossnack,
made surveys and plans for the development of the
water-power at two sites immediately above the flowage of the
Potanoe or upper saw-mill dam. His purpose was to construct
two dams, one at Cowie’s Falls, and another at the head of
Rapid Falls, and his estimate of the power to be obtaimed from
both was 10,000 horse-power. A company was organized in
London to undertake the construction of the two dams, and
the necessary mill buldings, ete., for the manufacture of pulp
and paper. This company acquired all the necessary lands,
ete., for the construction of its dams and factories, but for some
reason construction was never started, and nothing further was
done until the year 1893, when the Acadia Pulp and Paper
Company, recogiaizing the very cheap power to be got, and the

great possibilities of its adaption to the manufacture of

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. 8.—YORSTON. 655

mechanical pulp, acquired the rights of the old) company, and
commenced the building of a pulp mill at the Rapid Falls site.
In the year 1900 the same company extended their operations
by building a second dam and mill at Cowie’s Falls, immed-
iately below the first one.

For the purpose of supplying power to generate electric
current for its ighting system, and motive power tor manutac-
turies, the town of Liverpool in 1903 acquired the water-
power on the river immediately above the Acadia Pulp Com-
pany’s property at the falls known as * the Guzzle,” and have
constructed an up-to-date electric plant operated under a 20
foot head. This plant owned by the town was a much more
costly plant to develop than those below it on the river, as the
dam and power-house are over three-quarters of a mile apart,
still even with the heavy cost of construction, the cost of power
to the town of Liverpool per horse-power is comparatively light,
and the town is operating a successful and up-to-date plant.

I give below a short description of the water-powers at
present on the river, beginning at the one lowest, and. going up

the river.
Water-power of the Mersey River.

Milton Falls.
21 miles from Liverpool. Two good wharves withia one mile
of the mills. Total height of the fall at low tide 13 feet. Tleight
of dam 7 to 8 feet. Total head developed, 8 to 10 feet, accord-

ing to height of water in the river. Dam is the ordinary style

Situate in Milton, just above tide-water,

of timber dam, built of cross sills and pointers.

Mills on these falls are as follows :—

(1), John Milhard’s saw mill, two rotaries and one gang,
with all the necessary machinery for doing general mill busi-
ness. Haladles lumber, laths, and box stuff of all kinds. Does
a large business in dimension timber. Mull cuts from 30 to 35

thousand per day.

656 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

(2), Tupper’s gang saw mill, purchased by Lewis Miller,
of Ingram Port. This mill runs mostly on custom work. Cuts
from 10 to 15 thousand per day.

(3), Power-house of the Milton Electric Power and Manu-
facturiag Co., Ltd. Provides power for lighting the village of
Malton, also for Claude Hartlen’s wood-working factory and
John Wolker’s turning shop. 100 horse-power developed.

Total power developed on these falls, 400 to 500 horse-
power. Can be greatly increased by the addition of more water
wheels.

Potanoc Falls.—Situate in the village of Milton, distance
from Liverpool 3+ miles. The dam at Milton Falls backs
water to the foot of this dam. Available head 8 to 10 feet.
Height of dam 7 to 8 feet. Dam built of logs, cross sills and |
pointers. Mills on this dam are as follows :—

(1), Harlow & Kempton’s gang and rotary saw mills.
Fitted up with all the necessary machinery for doing a first-
class saw mill business, capable of getting everything out of
the log. Cuts lumber and dimension stuff of all kinds, as well
as laths and box stuff.

(2), Harlow. & Kempton’s wood-working factory, manu-
facturing sashes and doors, boxes, mouldings, and house finish
of all kinds.

(3), L. H. Minard gang saw and plaaing mill. Besides
cutting his own stock this mill also does custom work.

(4), Ford Brothers’ rotary mill. Lately purchased by Geo.
P. MacLearn. This mill has been principally used in cutting
hardwood, for which there is a good demand.

Total power developed on these falls about 450 horse-power.
Capacity of mills about 50 thousand daily.

Cowie’s Falls.—Situate immediately above the Potanoe
Falls, about 34 miles from Liverpool. The dam at the Potanoe
Falls backs water up to the foot of this dam. Height of dam
20 feet, built of logs. Available working head 20 to 22 feet.

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. §.—YORSTON. 657

Mill owned by Acadia Pulp and Paper Company, manu-
factures ground pulp. 1500 horse-power developed. Daily
output of mill 22 to 25 tons.

Rapid Falls.—Distance from Liverpool 4% miles. Height
of dam 10 feet, built of logs. Available working head, 32 feet.
This power was developed by building a dam at the head of
Rapid Falls and diverting the water by means of a canal
excavated in the high ground, to a poiat about 1400 feet down
stream, at which place the mill is situated. Total power
developed, 2,827 horse-power.

This mill is owned by the Acadia Pulp and Paper Co.,
and manufactures ground pulp. Daily output, 50 to 60 tons.
In both these pulp-mills more power could be developed for a
large part of the year if additional wheels were installed.

Guzzle Falls—Town of Liverpool electric power station.
Distance from Liverpool about 54 miles. Height of dam 6 to 8
feet, built of logs. The dam at Rapid Falls backs water up
to the tail-race of this plant.

This power was developed by placing a dam at the head of
Guzzle Falls and diverting the water by means of a natural
channel nearly one-half mile long, into a basin or reservoir with
earth embankments from 2 to 18 feet in height. <A timber
flume, 350 feet in length, passes the water to the wheels. This
plant is laid out for further development, the penstock is built
for three sets of wheels, only one of which is yet installed.
Head 20 feet. 750 horsepower developed. Power stations
contain two 250 K. W. Bullock electric dynamos.

The above are all the water-powers so far developed. They
occupy a total length along the river of 34 miles, and the total
of all the different heads, together with an allowance made for
some fall that is unavoidably lost to prevent the flowage of one
dam interfering with the tail-water of the mill above it, will be
in the vicinity of 100 feet. As before mentioned the Mersey
river has a total fall in about 16 miles of 260 feet, so it will

658 WATER POWEKS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

be seen that there is still left undeveloped on this river a total
fall of approximately 160 feet, extending over a length of river
of about 13 miles. In this length of 13 nules there are at least
three possible power sites, namely, Lower Great Brook Falls,
Big Falls and Lake Falls. All of these are good powers, and
the site at Big Falls is probably the largest water-power on
the river. The falls have been named in their order going up
the river, and the distances from Liverpool are respectively

S miles, 12 miles and 18 miles.

Power at Present Developed.

A summary of the power developed on the Mersey river at

the present time is given below :—

NY Gri hero sanaed cell ee ee AN sie oa 400 horse-power.
FROTATIOR ti ao louse ben eee Aol 450 ce
Cowie say en ea ee di kee aie 1,500 -
Rapid PF ae EN ate 2,820 a
Guzzle aki oP ne eer ge AS 750 S

By these figures is meant that wheels to develop the power
enumerated here have been installed, or, as in the ease of the
Liverpool plant that flumes, ete., of capacity large enough for
that amount of power have been constructed. What I do not
wish, however, to convey is the idea that these plants are
developiag the amount of power mentioned every day im the
year, for they are doing that for probably only nine months on
the average in each year, and the minimum power in the dry
period is very likely only 25 per cent., or less, of the quantity
mentioned. I waat to show, however, that each of the power
plants at present im operation is capable of much further
development when advantage is taken of the immense natural
storage that nature has so hberally provided. The question of
storage 1s so intimately coanected with the Mersey Hydraulic
Company that I must first attempt a description of that com-

pany and its powers.

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON. 60

Mersey Hydraulic Company.

The Mersey Hydraule Company is a company incorpor-
ated in the vear 1902, and formed for the purpose of improving
the water-powers on the Mersey river. It is given power in its
act to aequire lands around the lakes, to build dams, ete., and
to store water in the lakes on the Mersey river for the purpose
of usiag it or selling it for power purposes, or for other uses.
The company has, since incorporation, expended in the vicinity
of $20,000 in acquiring flowage lands, building dams, ete., but
for some reason unknown to the writer, the dams for flowage
are in an incomplete state, and accordingly, it is unable at
present to give anything like the increase of power that might
be got. A small expenditure of not over $5,000 would suttice
to do all the necessary work to enable it to store
water over’ an extremely large area, and when I say
that. the completion of one dam will store. water in
three lakes aggregating 22 square miles in area and
a depth of six feet, it will readily be seen what large
increases of power may be got from storage. Besides, water
can readily be stored in other lakes if it is wanted. The effort
made so far by the Mersey Hydraulic Company to increase
the power on the river from storage, has not been an waqualified
success, and the writer cannot explain why this is so. [| think,
however, it must be admitted that the possibilities of improve-
ment are there, and some change in the management cr policy
of the company may be arrived at that will benefit and give
satisfaction to all the operators on the river. I have heard it
advoeated that the government should take control of the situa-
tion, but that, to my mind, would not be the solution of the
diticulty. The great object, first of all, is to get more mills
in operation, and when once you have more owners of factories
looking for the maximum continuous power to operate their
mills, then you will have a board of control that will either
dictate to the Mersey Hydraulic Company or merge itself into

660 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

the company, or be able to make such strong representations
that the government will enact such legislation as will enable
the most to be got out of the water-powers. As for the control,
I should say it should certainly be in the hands of the owners
of the water-powers, both to assess the proportion of expense to
be borne by each, and to direct the situation generally. One
thing to me seems sure, advantage must be taken of the very
large storage before the greatest benefit is obtained from the
water-powers on this river. I have already stated that 5,927
horse-power is developed in the river, but for — three-month
dry period in each year this much is not obtaimmed. Now were
the full storage properly developed and distributed, not only
could a larger amount of power be obtained every day in the
year, but every mill. owner would feel warranted in adding
additional wheels for the sake of the power to be got for two-
thirds of the year.

I would put the estimate of continuous power to be obtained
on the Mersey river as follows :—

Powers at present developed... 7,000 horse-power.

we

Undeveloped powers ....... 8,000

A Ot ad eeaNe cs eaters ae, 209-000

The above is a very conservative estimate, and one I am
perfectly sure can be obtained. In making the estimate I am,
supposing that the storage capacity is fully utilized, and the
stored water distributed over the dry summer period. This is
a very large amount for continuous power, and were it all fully
utilized for manufacturing purposes, this part of the country
would become one of the most prosperous and populous in the
province. For many manufacturing purposes it is sometimes
quite satisfactory 1f the mills cain operate eight or nine months
out of the year. This might be the case with saw-mills or even
with ground-pulp mills, and if I were to estimate the aniount
of power that it was possible to develop on the river under
that condition I would put it at not less than 40,000 horse-

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON. 661
power. Even at the figure 15,000 the power to be got is enor-
mous, and with the aid of electricity it can be adapted to almost
aay and all purposes, both close at hand or at a considerable
distance away.

The writer made a trip last summer down the Mersey river
and was at that time very much impressed with the great
possibilities for water-power development, and the more | have
thought over it since the greater has been my wonder that it
has not been taken advantage of. The Mersey has always been
one of our best rivers for lumbering operations, and many mil-
lions of feet have annually been shipped away to all parts of
the globe. Almost the whole of the lumber, however, has gone
in a rough state, and is manufactured in other places; and this
is just the point which I cannot reason out, for why should the
real manufacture of this lumber be done in other places when
the Mersey furnishes power at one-quarter the average cost in
other places. It would seem to me that there are almost
unlimited possibilities in the manufacture of wooden ware of
all kinds. Besides all the articles in hard and_ soft wood
required for the building trade, there are innumerable smaller
articles that could be made, such as broom handles, tool
handles, pegs and lasts, etc., in fact, no article so small as long
as it uses up all the good parts of the wood, and there is no
waste as there is when only rough lumber is shipped. There is
plenty of room, and lots of the best hardwood for a good fur-
niture factory. Hitherto, immense quantities of hemlock have
been cut on this river, and as the logs are stripped of bark
before they are rafted, the hemlock bark has been lost alto-
gether, but with a tannery on the river, or even improved
facilities for getting it out, another profitable industry could
be started. I shall not enlarge on the pulp industry, for it
seems to have been well demonstrated already, although per-
haps, more mills might be added. I think, however, my
remarks about the product of the saw mills might well be
applied to the pulp mills also, that is, that the process of manu-

662 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

facture should be carried further and paper manufactured:
The further the process of manufacture is carried forward the
larger the number of men employed, and the more money left
in the country for cireulation. I should not presume to dictate
to our lumber merchants, who I know full well are among our
best busiaess men, and yet it may be im certain of our indus-
tries we, as Nova Scotians, have got into a “rut.” Our neigh-
bors to the south are particularly quick to see a good business
opening, and if the Nova Scotians are to keep up im the race
they too must keep alive and take advantage of every possible
epportunity. This, too, is wa age of big things, to get the most
out of them, our industries must be on a larger seale, and in
the case of these water-powers the ideal state of things would
be that one factory should either use the product of another on
the river, or some part of the raw material not used by others,
and every small particle of our raw material should be manu-
facturel before it is shipped. If we consider the immense
tracts of woodland around the Mersey, it can be satis-
factorily demonstrated that the forest growth is practically
mexhaustible if properly looked after and protected fron. fires,
so that any industry located on the river for the manufacture
of anything in the line of wood would be an established fixture.
The further the process of manufacture is carried on the less
the cut of logs is likely to be, for nothing could be so destructive
to our forests as the way they have been depleted for the cutting
of deal.

I have said nothing so far about industries connected with
anything but lumber, as that seems the most natural use to put
the power to, as well as the most profitable. There are, how-
ever, other uses for power if transmitted to the mines rn the
country, for Queens county is rich in minerals, and its gold
mines are particularly valuable. In fact, electricity can be
so cheaply developed on this river that it can be delivered by

long transmission lines at comparatively small cost.

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON. 663
Facilities for Transport.

One of the greatest considerations with the manufacturer

of any kind of goods is the proxduity of his tactorv to his

market, and the cost of getting his product transported. A
manufacturer may be situated at quite a distance from where
his goods are sold, and yet, if he has good communieation and
cheap rates of freight he may be better situated than if he
were much nearer his market but had poorer transport facilities.
Now I want to show that as regards the powers of the Mersey
any manufacture can be readily marketed, and, in faet, I think
the situation could hardly be improved, and that it only re-
auires that the conditions become better known to have it
promptly taken advantage of. As stated before, the towns of
Liverpool and Milton are but 25 miles apart. Liverpool is the
shipping port, while the bulk of the manufacturing has always
been done at Milton. There has always been a friendly rivalry
betweea these two places, but to an outsider they are all the
same, a people busy, tadustrious and enterprising to no common
degree. That the people of these places have always had faith
in their towns, and in their prospects, is evidenced by the
uncommon number of neat aad pretty residences, and a
stranger to the place cannot but be impressed with the care and
taste displayed in the arrangement of the grounds and_ the
placing of beautiful shade trees. They have an air of pros-
perity not always worn by towns of their size. The town of
Liverpool has an excellent harbour opening out into the
Atlantic, and has exceptional advantages as a shipping: port.
in the town there is an up-to-date machine shop and foundry,
and other factories. They have also a marine railway operated
by electric power supphed by the town, and this is the only
marine railway on the continent that is so operated. Ship-
buildiag is carried on extensively in the town, and the products
of the ship-vards are in demand as being the staunchest and

hest. models of wooden ships obtainable.

664 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

Milton oceupies both sides of the river where it has been
broadened out by dams, and is one of the busiest places to be
found in the province. The buzz of machinery is heard all
ever the place, and everybody appears busy and contented.
Soon after the starting of the pulp mills a steam tramway was
built up the left bank of the river, connecting the mills with
the different wharf properties in Liverpool, aad has been used
to ship the produets of the mills, although pulp has been the
staple freight outward and pulp-wood inward. I am of opinion
that this tramway could be more economically and best opera-
ted by electricity, and I feel there will not be any great difficulty
in extending this line up the river as far as Indian Gardens,
and if this were done every water power on the river could be
profitably utilized, for, with more patronage for the road,
cheaper freight rates could be had, and with cheaper freight
rates and plenty of freight to carry, both tramway and the
manufacturer should make money. It does not seem that a
factory situated anywhere on the Mersey would pay any more
freight per ton for its product delivered on the wharf ready
for shipment than many concerns not so favourably situated do
for truckage. Now, the rates for water carriage are, as a rule,
very much below the rates for rail carriage, and any concern
so situated as to be able to ship by water has an immense
advantage in marketing its product. As Liverpool harbour is
open all the year round, no better shipping port could be
desired, and manufactured products from any mill or factory
situated in Liverpool or vicinity should be able to successfully
meet in competition with those from any other place.

The town of Liverpool supplies electricity for power pur-
poses at a very low rate as an encouragement to manufacturers.
There is still room for industries requiring a moderate amount
of power in the town, and there seems to be every advantage in
the location, cheap power, cheap water and light, and low rate
of taxation. Since starting this paper I have learned that con-
struction is already started on a paper box and paper mill at

WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N: S.—YORSTON. 665

Milton. It would seem that the manufacture of these articles
in the place would be an added inducement to other factories
which use paper boxes to hold their product, to locate here, as
they must get this part of their material at a cheap rate.

The counties of Queens and Shelburne were so long without
railway communication that hitherto their natural advantages
were not so widely known as they should have been, and there
was perhaps some excuse for the undeveloped state of this part
of the country. There have been, perhaps, a further excuse
that there was no useful work for these great natural powers
to do, but now that the old state of things is no more, and there
is good and free communication by rail with all parts of ‘the
province, coupled with the fact that at present there is a
decided activity in Canada in all industrial pursuits, the mag-
nificent water-powers on this river should not le idle any
longer, and I think it is safe to predict that with a little
judicious advertising to make the situation known, all the water
now going to waste will be harnessed to some useful work,
and the Mersey river, from its mouth to the Indian Gardens,
will have a succession of large mills and factories along its

banks making all kinds of goods for shipment abroad, and dis-

a,
bursing enough in wages to sustain many times the present
population.

Although the Mersey is undoubtedly the best water-power
stream in the province, yet it must not be forgotten that there
are many other excellent powers on other streams, and even In
the same county of Queens there are several water-powers both
developed and undeveloped. The Mersey powers, however, are
exceptionally well sustained, both as regards getting the raw
material to the factory, and the shipment of the manufactured
product, and this fact would, I think, commend them to anyone
looking into the situation. JT may say that I hold no “ brief ”
to speak for anyone or for any interest on the river. T have,

however, had it Impressed upon me as the result of a few weeks
Proc. & TRANS, N, S, INST, ScI., Vor. XI, Trans. RR,

666 WATER POWERS ON MERSEY RIVER, N. S.—YORSTON.

spent in this vicinity, that the powers on this river are likely
to become important factors in our commercial life, and a
source of wealth and profit to the owners as well as to our
native province. :

I think that we as Nova Scotians are beginning to realize
that our province is rich in its resources, and I am firmly con-
vinced that we as yet have only begun to find out how very rich
they are. We hear much of the boundless possibilities of
western Canada, and are, perhaps, too apt to give too little
attention to the development of the eastern portion, but there 1s
no doubt that if we would only emulate the push and energy
displayed in opening up the west, and at the same time take
full advantage of all the great natural advantages at our dis-
posal, this fair province could be made as prosperous and popu-
lous a country as any part of the British dominion.

In preparing this short paper I have been forced to put
several friends under tribute for information needed. I am
indebted to the provincial engineer, Mr. MacColl, and to the
Hon. Justice Forbes, for much help, but I am_ especially
indebted to Mr. John 8. Hughes, pulp manufacturer of Mil-
ton, for much detail information that could only be acquired
by one who had a long and intimate acquaintance with con-
ditions on the river.

|

TRANS. N. S._ INST. SC. VoL. XI,

WATER-ROLLED WEED-BALLS, SEA-BALLS, BURR-BALLS, OR VEGETABLE-BALLS,
Collected near Upper Kinsgburg, Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia,

(To tllustrate pater b) Dr, MacKay.)
(Face p. 667)

WATER-ROLLED WEED-Batis.—By A. H. MacKay, Lu. D,
F. R.S. C., Halifax.

(Read 21st May, 1906.)

In February, 1906, I received a letter and a ‘“ sea-ball”’
from the teacher at Upper Kingsburg, Lunenburg county, a °
school section in the north-eastern angle formed by the river
LaHave and the coast. The pupils were described as ** fairly
burdened with curiosity” about the strange things cast up by
the sea on this sandy beach on the Atlantic. The west bank of
the great LaHave, running at right angles into the ocean until
it reaches Gaff Point, where it is submerged to rise further out
in the far-famed Tronbound Island, protects this bit of shore
from the full force of the south-westers.

The teacher, Miss Mary L. H. Bowers, describes the natural
history of this beach in terms of the folk-lore of the coast as
tollows :—

“For years back, the weeds cast upon these shores were of the larger
kinds, such as Rockweed, Irish Moss, and Kelp or Laminaria. Sea urchins
were the pest of the lobster fishing. About three years ago the sea
cast up such immense numbers that the whole coast was abundantly sup-
plied with fertilizers for the farms. This wholesale destruction of animal
and vegetable life was looked upon as something which could not be
explained. Since then, however, the lobster fisherman believes that the
sea bottom shows fewer clean spots of sand, and a great increase of the
finer thread-branched sea-weeds. Last year great quantities of red sea-
weeds have been thrown ashore; and now, this winter, these ‘sea-balls,’
as they are called, are being cast up, and the people declare it to ba a new
cuing. Some take them to be the nests of shell fish. In proof, as many
as 400 minute shells, taken to be the young of clams, have been counted
out of the centre of one of these balls. But then the most of them have
few or no shells within them. I have seen perhaps two hundred balls on
a short strip of beach, of various sizes, and in different stages of perfec-
tion, specimens of which I am sending you.”

These *sea-balls ” are photogravured on the accompanying
plate, with a scale which allows them to be exactly measured.

(667)

66S WATER-ROLLED WEED-BALLS.—MACKAY.

The last one in the third horizontal row is cut in two, but shows
nothing in the centre different from the rest of the ball.

These specimens varied from spheres about five inches in
diameter to one and a half inches. Some were elongated. The
one oa the right, in the upper row, has a frond of Laminaria
digitata Lamx. passiag through the centre of the ball in its
longest direction, and has in addition at its opposite polar
extremities, Dictyosiphon feniculaceus Grey. growing on a
fragment of a waterworn clam shell, and other similar filamen-
tous branching alge, not worn off, as they are in the compact
equatorial region. A little more rolling in water over the sand,
or by the wind over the dry beach, would likely soon wear off
the appendages down to a compact spheroid.

Some of the balls contain the roots of one of the larger sea-
weeds within them, one a mass of Corallinu officinalis L. Others
contain embedded in them, various red sea-weeds, and even
masses of marine sponges. But they appear to be built up
mostly of the filamentous and fine branching olive brown alge,
such as Dictyosiphon, Desmarestia, Ectocarpus, Chordaria and
Cherda, with speeimeas of nearly every other local species of
seaweed, iacluding material to which they were attached
when growing, or with which they might become entangled
when massing into balls.

Their structure in the different forms examined suggest
their formation from hght ridges of ale left by the retreating
tide on the flat sandy shallows. Ulader the sun the weeds eurl
and lock into masses which, when moved over the sand by alter-
nate tides and winds, occasionally produce very round balls.
It would appear that the filamentous and fiae branching olive-
brown alge are more brittle than many of the red species which
are often found like the larger olive algw, extending beyond
the general contour of the rolling ball.

Mr. Harry Piers, curator of the Provincial Museum, has
received a similar ball, collected by Mr. J. Perrin, from the

WATER-ROLLED WEED-BALLS.—MACKAY. 669

sandy beach on MacNab’s Island at the mouth ot Halifax
Harbor, where others were noted, and also a specimen from a
fresh-water lake near New Ross, Lunenburg county.

Mr. P. B. Lantz, of New Ross, Lunenburg county, has found
them in a fresh-water lake near the head of Gold River, and
in Indian Lake in New Germany. The people think they are

nests made by the water newts found in these lakes—probably

the aquatic stage of Diemyctylus viridescens Ratinesque—Just
because these two objects are the two mysterious things found
together in the same place. The fresh-water balls are spoken
of as the nests of the newts or as burr-balls, the former suggested
by the proofless, popular hypothesis referred to, the latter by
their appearance.

Professor W. F. Ganong read, 3rd May, 1904, a paper “ On
Vegetable-, or Burr-, Balls from Little Kedron Lake, N. B.,”
which is published on page 304, vol. v., part Hi., mo. Xxill.,
of the Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Bruns-
wick with a photogravure of two balls, one from Lake Kedron
and the other from Sandy Pond in Lincoln, Massachusetts.
The former was found in a sandy cove of the lake, open to no
wind except from the south-east. The cove is surrounded with
fir and spruce, whose leaves fall into the water. The balls are
composed chiefly of these leaves, tacluding other vegetable
mnatter, such as small twigs, ete., all interlocked together.
The latter, from Flint’s or Sandy Pond, was composed mainly
of the tangled stems and leaves of the Duck grass (Hriocaulou
septangulare) which was growing in the lake. Thoreau, in
chapter ix of his Walden, describes this phenomenon in the
ideatical lake in the following words:

“T used to admire the ripple marks on the sandybottom at the north
end of this pond, made firm and hard to the feet of the wader by the
pressure of the water, and the rushes which grew in Indian file, in waving
lines, corresponding to these marks, rank behind rank, as if the waves had
planted them. There also I have found, in considerable quantities, curious
balls, composed apparently of fins grass or roots, of pipewort, perhaps,
from half an inch to four inches in diameter, and perfectly spherical.

670 WATER-ROLLED WEED-BALLS.——MACKAY.

These wash back and forth in shallow water on a sandy bottom, and are
sometimes cast on the shore. They are either solid grass, or have a little
sand in the middle. At first you would say that they were formed by
the action of the waves, like a pebble; yet the smallest are made of
equally coarse materials, half an inch long, and they are produced only
at one season of the year. Moreover, the waves, I suspect, do not so much
construct as wear down a material which has already aequired consist-
ency. They preserve their form when dry for an indefinite period.”

Professor Ganong wrote, August 1904, in the Hducational
Review of Saint John, New Brunswick; and 8th April, 1904,
in Science of New York; asking for references to similar
observations; but he obtained at that time only one additional
reference to a locality—‘‘ a lake in Idaho.”

The observations of Miss Bowers on the Atlantic coast near
the mouth of the LaHave, and the specimen reported from
MaecNab’s Island, extend our knowledge of the formation to
marine waters—even to oceanic beaches. The spheroidal, and
even cylindrical, masses point clearly to the action of the water
as the main cause. The deposition of a mass of eggs on a roll
of such algze would be one condition to ageglutinate into a
nucleus a mass which might later contain young marine life
within the centre of the future ball. Roots of algze and other
entangling forms are often conspicuous as nuclei. But often
the whole mass appears to be composed of the more attenuated
clive-brown alge. Although an addition has been made to our
knowledge, there are still wanting more definite demonstra-
tions of the exact manner in which these ball forms are origi-
nated as well as rounded. The phenomenon must also be
occurring more widely than hitherto observed. What has been
observed so far suggests as an appropriate title for them:

* Water-rolled Weed balls.”

HE attention of members of the Institute is directed to the following

recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological

Bibliography and Publications :—

“*That authors” separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner.

‘‘ That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.

‘‘That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when
possible. 7

‘‘ That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or
anonymous paragraphs.

‘‘That references to previous publications should be made fully and
correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of
rules of quotations, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological

Society ”

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova Scotian Institute of Scien

SESSION OF 1902-1908.

ANNUAL Business MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 24th November, 1902.
THE PresipentT, Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair,

PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS.—By A. H. MacKay. Lu. D., &e.

Gentlemen,—During the past year our Institute has been fortunate
in losing none of its members, Our membership and funds have
increased. The scientific work done by our members and affiliations
appears to be extending, so that we have reason to expect mvre in the
future than has been done in the past.

THE INSTITUTE’S WORK.

The work of last year commenced on the 7th of November, by a
lecture on Roman Coins, by Mr. R. W. McLachlan, of the Numismatic
and Antiquarian Society of Montreal, and an exhibition of the Roman
Coins of our own Provincial Museum, by Mr. A. H.C. Prichard, of
Brooklyn, New York, who studied and arranged the collection.

On the 9th of December, Professor Earnest Haycock, President of
the Wolfville branch of the Institute, presented his report on the
organization and work of the Wolfville Institute ; and the members
had tue pleasure of studying an interesting variety of Botrychium
ternatum, Swartz, (The Ternate Grape-Fern), collected at Blomidon,
by Mrs. R. R. McLeod, of Brookfield, Queens County.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INst..Scr., Vou. XT. Proc.—-A.

(i)

11 PROCEEDINGS.

On the 13th of January, Dr. R. W. Ellis, of the Geological Survey
of Canada, presented a valuable paper on the Progress of Geological
Investigation in Nova Scotia ; and we had the pleasure of inspecting
a mounted collection of flowering plants, brought from Labrador in
the months of July and August preceding, by Mr. Walter H. Prest.

On the 10th of February, Dr. H. M. Ami’s paper on the Cambrian
Age of the Dictyonema Slates of New Canaan and Kentville, opened
up an interesting discussion in which Mr. H. S. Posle took a leading
and most interesting part. Mr. Poole also exhibited a specimen of
slate from near Green Bank, Point Pleasant, Halifax, showing
curious markings like worm-trails.

Miss A. Louise Jagger, of California, prepared a provisional list
of the flowering plants observed in Digby County, which was presented
to the meeting, And Mr. T. C. Hebb, M. A., of Dalhousie College,
presented a valuable paper on the Determination of the Freezing-point
Depression Constant for Electrolytes.

On the LOth of March, Mr. Walter H. Prest read a supplementary
paper on Drift Ice as an Eroding Agent, exhibiting specimens of sand
and pebbles carried on ice along the Labrador coast. Professor
Davidson, of the University of New Brunswick, prepared an important
and elaborate paper on Agricultural Credit, which was presented to
this meeting. R. S. Boehner, B. Sc., of Dalhousie College, also
presented a paper on the Standardization of Hydrochloric Acid with
Borax ; and T. C. Hebb, M. A., of Dalhousie, presented a second
paper, this time on the Determination of the Freezing-point Depression
of Dilute Solutions of Electrolytes.

Owing to the impossibility of the completion of the remaining.
papers for presentation at the regular meetings subsequent, the Council
authorized their publication in the forthcoming volume with those
read before the Institute. These include the Phenological Observations
made in the Public Schools of the Province, and by members of the
Botanical Club of Canada ; which were summed up under the direction
of your president, and contain interesting obervations by Mr. C. B.
Robinson, B. A., of the Pictou Academy, on the Early Intervale
Flora of the North of Nova Scotia.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. jit

WORK OF AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS.

At the Wolfville local branch society, the attention of its members
was engaged by Professor F. R. Haley, on Wireless Telegraphy ; by
Mr. V. L. Q. Chittick, describing the Government drill and its work
at Hantsport, illustrated by specimens of cores produced by the
machine. Rey. F. G. Harrington exhibited Land and Water Shells
from the Loo Choo Islands. Professor Haycock gave an outline of the
Geological Structure of King’s County. Professor F. C. Sears demon-
strated the Habits of Mud Wasps, with examples. Professor Ernest
W. Sawyer discussed the Habitat and Habits of certain land and
water Mollusca of King’s County, illustrated by a collection of some
fifty varieties and species. Professor Haycock sketched the manner
in which veins of Minerals are formed. Dr. E. N. Payzant- made
remarks on Concentrates from Home and Foreign Mines, illustrated: |
by specimens. And Mr. A. H. Ruggles discussed the Parasites of
the Cabbage Worm, with illustrations. This course in itself was @
valuable one, even when considered from a Provincial point of view-

The Halifax Botanical Club, under the presidency of Principal
W. H. Waddell, of Halifax, met fortnightly during the winter months,
in the reading room of the Provincial Science Library. The marine
alge was the principal object of study, and Rev. Clarence MacKinnon
and other members made valuable additions to the local lists. During
the summer following, the Club met weekly in the City Hall, for the
study of the local flowering plants. Towards the end of the season
some progress was made in the special study of the local Solidagos and
Asters, in which some of the members became specially interested, on
account of the variability of the species. Some interest was also
developed in the violets, of which there appear to be more forms than
was hitherto suspected.

GENERAL PROVINCIAL WORK,

These institutions are more or less aftiliated with the Institute-
But as the leading scientific organization of the province, it is appro-
priate that we should take note of other work being done in the same
field. During the last two years the Marine Biological Laboratory of
Canada was stationed at Canso; and under the directorship of
Professor R. Ramsay Wright, Dean of the Science Faculty of the

lv PROCEEDINGS.

University of Toronto, the biological characters of that region, and
especially of the marine waters of the neighborhood were being studied.
It is to be regretted that there were so few biologists of our own
province who were prepared to work at the station during these years
—two only having put in some time at the station. Next year it is
possible the station may be somewhere on the Northumberland Straits ;
but whether it be on the Nova Scotian or the Prince Edward Island
side, it will be as accessible as it was during the past two years. The
work of the station has been hampered by the lack of sutticient grant
from the Dominion Government ; but it is hoped that this defect will
be remedied during the present winter.

Another advance in the facilities of scientific instruction which
should be noted, is the Summer or Vacation School, which was opened
for the first time in the new and well equipped science building of
the Provincial Normal School, which functions also as the School of
Agriculture in affiliation with the buildings, appliances and stock of
the Provincial Farm at Truro, About sixty students took advantage
of the five weeks of chemical, biological and agricultural courses given
there in July and August.

When we find that the Summer School of Science for the Atlantic
Provinces of Canada, which met on this occasion at St. Stephen, New
Brunswick, was also very largely attended, and that our Colleges
(Dalhousie with its new Mining School, especially), as well as high
schools are enlarging their facilities for giving good scientific instruc-
tion ; and that there is a general sentiment abroad that we should lay
more stress upon the development of the power to discover truth aud
apply it in useful action, than on the power of imagining and its
expression ;—when we see these signs we have reason to believe that

we are going to make more progress

RECOMMENDATION,

To return to our Institute again, I beg to suggest, that we may be
more useful if we make our monthly meetings more popular. The
popular presentation of subjects might be more simple and _ ele-
mentary ; and their function would be the inspiration of young
members to commence a course of special investigation. Such presen-
tations would not be published in cur Transactions, of conrse ; for the

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Vv"

publication department is for new knowledge. On the other hand,.
much of the new knowledge gathered up will be interesting only to
those engaged in these departments ; so that the abstruse but valuable
paper might be read merely by title, to be published for the careful
reading of workers interested in these subjects throughout the world.
Hitherto our audience has been world-wide, but not local. It may be
more valuable, perhaps, to introduce the public into our local audiences
for the purpose of stimulating a more rapid increase of local recruits,
when we can soarrange it as not to interfere with the wider audiences,
and the recording and publication of the new facts discovered in the
survey of our own small corner of the universe.

IMPROVING FACILITIES.

I have to note the great advantages which the Provincial Govern-
ment has conferred on the scientific public and on all the industries
dependent on scientific knowledge and skill, by the equipment of the
Provincial Science Library and its continued aid. The library has
been increasing rapidly from the exchanges of the Institute with all
the leading scientific societies of the world, from the co-operation of
the Mining Society, and from the direct addition of the most essential
books bearing on our provincial industries by the Government.

Under the indefatigable and intelligent direction of the librarian
the library will soon be completely and most effectively catalogued.
The undetermined material in the Provincial Museum has also been
to a great extent examined, classified and labelled by the same indivi-
dual, Mr. Harry Piers, who to the duties of librarian and secretary of
our Institute adds that of the curator of the Museum. But not:
content with the curatorship alone, he is constantly making arrange-
ments for the increase of the collections with a view of illustrating the
natural history and industrial potentialities of the province as com-
pletely as possible. This work must go on for ever, of Course ; but the
advance made during the past year is very creditable to the energy
and tact of our secretary.

There are many signs of increasing interest in the exploration of
the natural history and resources of the province, not only in the usual
quarters, but in connection with our public schools, which have already
made contributions to science in connection with their elementary local

vi PROCEEDINGS.

observations. And their initiative has been followed already in some
portions of Canada and in Europe. Some of our high school teachers,
aud even of our common school teachers, are now doing very valuable
local observation work ; and if the spirit continues not only shall we
be able to publish more original research in the future, but we will be
able to develope our resources more effectively.

THE CHECKING OF MALARIA.

I attempted to illustrate the value of original research work such
as we are eudeavoring to stimulate here under our local conditions, by
veference in my address of 1900 to the cumulation of the long series
of scattered and unproductive work in the discovery of the true natural
history of malaria, and-in my address of 1901, to the still further
atilitari ian result of deter mining the probable nature and general man-
ner of the communication of yellow fever. 1 am glad to be able to
say that knowledge has proved in these cases to be power to do what
millions of money and all of the beliefs of the world for the past ages
were unable to effect. The manner in which human life was tortured
and destroyed, in which business and commerce were upset, and in
which valuable property was wasted by quarantine and other regula-
tions based on a defective if not false theory of the natural facts, forms
in the light of present developments an overwhelming testimonial to
the ultimate value of the results or the long search after the truth and
truth only.

in some of the leading malarial centres the sanitary regulations
based on the new knowledge have promptly reduced this disease to
a fraction of its former prevalence. And although the control of the
mosquito nuisance is an admittedly tremendous contract, we can
confidently expect from the success already attained the future

extermination of malaria as one of the human ills.

THE EXTINCTION OF YELLOW FEVER.

Yellow fever may be considered to be already mastered, so com-
pletely have the experiments to which I last year alluded given the
power of control to man.

Taking Havana, where for 130 years yellow fever has been con-
stantly in the city, and near which the final experiments alluded to

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. vil

were made, we find.a most interesting illustration of my general
argument. When the United States Government took charge of the
city it was thoroughly cleaned and began to be supplied with the best
modern sanitary appliances. But while these improvements advanced
the general health of the city, yellow fever was not diminished at all.
On the contrary it was argued that it had been increased. In 1899
there were 103 deaths from it, notwithstanding more than a year’s
application of the most stringent modern sanitary regulations. And
in 1900 the death roll went over 300. The additional cleanliness of
the city had no beneficial effect, for the patients became more numerous,
especially among the well-to-do classes, who eajoyed all the advantages
of science up to that date. In fact, this year one-half of the members
of the Governor-General’s staff were carried of by the disease.

How are affairs now since the theory that the fever is always dis-
tributed by the particular mosquito called Stegomazia fasciata, has
been applied? Within two hours after a case is reported the patient
is covered with a mosquito netting. The roomand house is thoroughly
fumigated so as to kill all mosquitos present. Adjacent houses are
also fumigated. All open water in pools, cisterns or vessels that might
act as breeding places for the larvae, are emptied, cleaned and care-
fully covered. Still water of any kind in or near the city is drained
off or covered with a film of petroleum. No precautions are taken to
keep the well from the sick. Mosquitoes alone are the only prohibited
parties.

These measures were instituted towards the end of February, L901.
In January there had been seven deaths from the fever. In February
there were five deaths. In March there were but one. None were
reported in May and June. There was one in July and another case
in September. Since then, for over a year, up until this present
month, there has not been a single death from yellow fever in
Havana, the native nest of the disease for 130 years. One of the
most terrible scourges of humanity in the tropical regions of America
has been captured, and can now be handed bound into perpetual
imprisonment ;—all through the study of the plodding devotees of
science, who for years have been seeking for the truth of the little
things about them, without which the present productive development
could never have materialized, any more than there can be a harvest
without the seed-time of spring.

vill PROCEEDINGS.

Thanking the Institute for the high honor of my election to the
presidency for the last three years, and regretting that I was not
better able to fulfil the duties of so important a post, I now ask you
to proceed with the regular work of our annual meeting.

The TREASURER’S report was presented, and having been audited
and found correct, were received and adopted. The following is an
analytical statement of the expenditure for 1901-1902 :

PUBLICATION OF TRANSACTIONS :—

Vol, X , Part 3, (1900-1901) :

Engravings and expressage on same .........-...2-++-+-$ 20/85
Vol. X., Part 4, (1901-1902) :
BUA UWI Spe roe oo axaed rates Unreyebo aicieseucie bie! ster ncaa kanare erage renee 1 04
——— $ 21 89

DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS :—

Vol wk:, Rart-3:

Addressing and supervising distribution... .............. 15 00
LIBRARY EXPENSES :—
rele hich Yall: o¥esoisi 201) Osinigeein ae mo bibude ob oO OOUt ne oc. so cons $ 4 00
Hx pressae xO DOOKS acre tele anim ore oieternaia sete sree 1 70
57
Calling meetings.......... ae coc eG Hg OOD UP td Be CONS ONS hc : 10 32
Chins) forpee hime sess pas Pal ocerete sasch oxelictoios shaver se) negate re a aces 2 50
Advertising AmmuadlMiecetin gira. mae ates steyosecceieissucgt secon melst« cuales 9 50
iBostage:(Sectetaryss) 2. pia teans oammesee asia mesa: hao cients 78
4 WS even al ster oe hy ely Shen yA Ack RATE pie a pine cacy 30
etter flew. one Shik Mat oa Oeateirs: MLR Di A rae han OM reer Sinton 65
Typewriting report to Royal Society. 2 jcc e ees itsie es 50
Trackape-on-black-boatdy «cecil cpus ois nie ease Bie wine aie we 50
$ 67 69

The Report on the Library was presented by H. Piers, and was
received and adopted.

A report from Presrpentt E. Haycock, of the* Kina’s County
Brancu oF THE InstirutTr, Wolfville, N. S., on the work done by the
branch during its second session (1901-1902) was read by Mr. Prers.

KINGS COUNTY BRANCH. 1x

Papers PRESENTED TO THE KiING’s County BrancH OF THE N. S.

bo

6.

=I

u:

~ 0;

sas

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE (Session OF 1901-1902.) .

13th January, 1902.
Wireless Telegraphy ; illustrated by black-board diagrams.—By
Proressor F. R. Hauey, Acadia College.
Description of Government Drill and its work at Hantsport, N.S.;
illustrated by specimens of core produced by the machine.—

By V. L. O. Cuirrick.

LOth February, 1902.
Exhibition of Land and Water Shells from Loo Choo Islands. —
By Rev. F. G. Harrinaton.
Outline of Geological Structure of King’s County, N. 8. ; illus-
trated by black-board diagrams.—By Proressor ERNEST
Haycock, Acadia College.

Lith March, 1902.

Habits of the Mud Wasp ; illustrated by specimens.—By Pror.
F, C. Sears, N.S. School of Horticulture.

Habitat and Habits of certain Land and Water Mollusca of
King’s County, N. 8.; illustrated by a collection of some
fifty species.—By Proressor Everrerr W. Sawyer, Acadia
College.

Wireless Telegraphy ; illustrated by working apparatus.—By
Pror. F. R. Hatey, Acadia College.

22nd April, 1902.

Notes on Land and Fresh Water Mollusca of King’s County,
N. 8.; illustrated with specimens.—By Pror. Evererr W.
SAWYER.

Sketch of Manner in which Veins of Minerals are formed ;
illustrated by black-board diagrams.—By Proressor E. Hay-
COCK.

Remarks on Concentrates from Home and Foreign Mines ; illus-
trated by specimens.—By E. N, Payzanv, M. D.

Parasites of the Cabbage Worm ; with black-board diagrams.—
By A. H. Ruaaves, San Jose Scale Inspector.

x PROCEEDINGS.

The attendance at these meetings averaged about twenty-five. In
addition to those who became members of the parent institution
through the branch society, a number became associate members of
the local branch, paying a fee of twenty-five cents.

The report was received and adopted.

The RecorDING SECRETARY laid on the table the Proceedings and
Transactions of the Institute, Vol. X., Part 3, which had recently —
been published. |

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to
the Hon. Str Rosert Boak and His WorsHie THe Mayor for their
courtesy in granting the society the use of the Legislative and City
Council Chambers as places of meeting, and to the SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INstiruTION for continuing to admit the Institute to the
privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

The following were elected ofticers for the ensuing year (1902-1903):

President. HENRY SKEFFINGTON Pootr, A. R. 8S. M., F. G. S. F. RB.
S. C., ex-officio F. R. M.S

Vice- Presidents —F. W. W. Doane, C. E., and Prok EBENEZER Mac-
Kay, Px. D:

Treasurer.—W. C. SILVER.

Corresponding Secretary.—aA. H. MacKay, Lu. D., F. R. 8. C.

Recording Secretary.— HARRY Pinks,

Librarian.— HARRY PIrRS.

Councillors without Office. —MAyNAanD Bowman, B. A., Watson L. BisHop,
Mantrin Murpuy, D. Sc., Witttam McKeErron, Pror, STEPHEN M.
DIXON, Bb: ASB. Av.L, Howin, Giri, Jr. oh heneenees
ALEXANDER McKay.

Auditors —RovERick McComn, C. E., J. B. McCarruy, M. A., B. Sc.

~

A vote of thanks was presented to the retiring President, Dr.
MacKay, for the energy and zeal with which he had discharged the
duties of president during his term of office, and also for this excellent
presidential address.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. X1

First OrpdINARY MEETING.
Legislative Couns! Chamber, Halifax, Sth December, 1902.
Tue Presipent, H. 8. Poor, in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been elected corresponding
momoers + 24cHoRrGE: Uy ban D.Sc. BRS! ‘Cyst: Sohne Be
Joun McSwain, Charlottetown, P. E. I.; Paitie Cox, B. Sc., Ph. .D.,
Chatham, N. B.;-and E. R. Farisauyt, B. A., B. Se., Geological
Survey of Canada, Ottawa ; that Pror. J. Eymunp Woopman, M. A.,
D. Se., Dalhousie School of Mining and Metaliurgy, Halifax, had been
elected an ordinary member ; and that C. B. Ropinson, B. A., Pictou,
N.3., had been elected an associate member.

A paper by R. R. Garrs, of Mount Allison University, entitled,
“Middleton Fungi, with general remarks,” was read by Dr. A. H.
MacKay. (See Transactions, p.115. The list of species is incorporated
in Dr. MacKay’s list of the Fungi of Nova Scotia, Transactions, p. 122)-

A. H. MacKay, Lr. D., F. R.S. C., presented a paper on ‘Fungi
of Nova Scotia,” illustrating his remarks with dried specimens and
microscopic preparations, as well as blackboard drawings. (See
Transactions, p. 122).

\ Ssconp Orpinary MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 19th January, 190°.
The Presrpent, H. 8S. Poor, in the chair.

On motion of Dr. A. H. MacKay and W. McKeErron, it was
resolved that officers of the garrison in Halifax, who intimate a desire
to attend meetings of the Institute, be eligible for corresponding
membership, while resident in the province.

Masor Eveuisn, R. A., delivered a lecture on “Guns and Gunnery,

”

illustrated by models and diagrams.

The subject was discussed by the Presipent, Cou. F. H. Ox ey,
ist C. A., and Con. J. R. MacSHane.

A vote of thanks was presented to Mayor Enouisn for his highly
: instructive lecture.

Xll PROCEEDINGS.

THirp ORDINARY MEBTING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th February, 1902.
The Presipent, H. 8. Poo.s, in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been elected ordinary
members: Parker R. Covpirt, city electrician, Halifax ; RicHarb
H. Brown, M. E., Halifax; and that R. R. Garrs, Mt. Allison
University, Sackville, N. B., had been elected an associate member.

Pror. E. E. Prince, Commissioner and General Inspector of
Fisheries, Ottawa, presented a paper entitled “Toe Swim Bladder of
Fishes, a degenerate gland.”*

Pror. Prince also delivered a lecture on the ‘Colours of Animals,
their nature and meaning,” illustrated with lantern-slides.

The subject was discussed by the Presipent, Dr. A. H. MacKay,
CHARLES ARCHIBALD, and ArtHUR P. Sitver; and a vote of thanks
was presented to the lecturer.

The following paper was read by title :—‘“The Meso-Carboniferous
Age of the Union and Riversdale Formations of Nova Scotia, and of
their equivalents the Mispec and Lancaster Formations in New
Brunswick,” by Henry M. Amt, D. Se., of the Geological Survey
of Canada.

FourtH OrpbDINARY MEBTING.
Provincial Science Library, Halifax, 9th March, 903.
The Prestpent, H. 8S. Poous, in the chair.

A communication was read from the Royal Society of Canada,
requesting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the former
society's meeting in May next. The matter was referred to the
Council.

Attention was drawn to the recent death of the Institute's treasurer,
WitiiamM CHAMBERLAIN SILVER, and a resolution of regret. was unani-
mously adopted.

A resolution of regret was also passed on the death of A. CAMERON,
principal of Yarmouth Academy, Yarmouth, an associate member of
the Jnstitute.

* This paper will appear in part 2 of this volume.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. Xl

A paper entitled “The Mira Grant,” by Epwiy Gitpry, Jr., Lx. D.,
F. R.S. C., Inspector of Mines, was read by title. (See Transactions,
p89):

Dr. E. MacKay took the chair, while the PresipENnt read a paper
by Henry M. Ami, D. Sc., F. R. S. C., of the Geological Survey of
Canada, entitled, ‘‘The Meso-Carboniferous Age of the Union and
Riversdale Formations of Nova Scotia, and of their equivalents, the

”

Mispec and: Lancaster Formations in New Brunswick.

A paper entitled ‘“ Note on Dictyonema websteri,” was read by the
PRESIDENT, H. S. Poors, F. R. 8. C.

These papers were discussed by Drs. A. H. MacKay and Murpuy,
and H. Piers.

Harry Piers, curator of the Provincial Museum, exhibited and
described three abnomal zoological specimens recently received at the
Museum :—-

(1) A moose skull (Alce alces) from Sheet Harbour, N. S., with

unique cancerous development of the antlers.

(2) A melanistic specimen of the Garter Snake (Lutwnia sirtalis )

from Yarmouth, N. 8.

(3) An Abnomal Hare, taken at Stewiacke, N. 8.

The subjects were discussed by Dr. M. Cuisnoum, T. Varpy Hitt,
and others.

FirrH OrpINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 16th April, 1903.
The Presipent, H. 8S. Poo.s, in the chair.
It was announced that H.8. Lawrence, D. D.S., Wolfville, N.S.,

had been elected an associate member ; and Joun J. JenNey, Halifax,
an ordinary member.
Tt was announced that the Council had elected Witttram McKeErron,
Halifax, treasurer of the Institute, to succeed the late W. C. Silver.
A communication by C. B. Ropinson, B. A., of Pictou Academy,
entitled, “‘ Note on a Lichen-mimicing Caterpillar,’ was read by H.
Pisrs, as follows :—

X1V PROCEEDINGS.

“ While walking through the woods near Pictou one afternoon,
about the end of May or perhaps early in June, 1897, in company
with W. A. Hickman, I saw upon his coat what seemed to be a piece
of lichen. Picking it off with my fingers, I was surprised to find that
it was a lichen-mimicing caterpillar. Mr. Hickman expressed a desire
to keep it, and I took f.r granted that he would preserve it, and
probably call attention to its existence. He, however, subsequently
lost the specimen. In class one day at Cambridge, Pr. f. Newton
showed us specimens from Madagascar, which to my recollection were
almost identical with our form. The very fact that they are mimics
would make it exceedingly doubtful, however, that there was any real
attinity of species. In the intervening years I have searched again,
especially at the season indicated, but totally without success.”

Pror. J. E. Woopman, D. Sc., Dalhousie School of Mining and
Metallurgy, gave a lecture on “Yellowstone National Park,” illustrated -

Pe]

by lantern slides.

A yote of thanks was presented to the lecturer.

SrxtTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th May, 1902.
Vice-PRESIDENT DoANE in the chair.

It was announced that W. F. Jennison, of the Dominion Iron and
Steel Co., Sydney, had been elected an associate member.

The following papers were read by title :—

(1). Is there Coal beneath Prince Edward Island ?—By Henry
S. Pootr, F.G.S., F. R. 8. C. (See Transactions, p. 1).

(2). Geology of Moose River Gold District, Halifax County,
N. S.—By Pror. J. E. Woopman, D. Sc., Dalhousie School of Mining
and Metallurgy. (See Transactions, p. 18).

(3). Sections and Analyses of Nova Scotian Coals.—By Epwitx
Gitprn, Jr., Lu. D., F. R.S. C., Inspector of Mines. (See Trans-
actions, p. 8).

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XY

(4). Phenological Observations, Canada, for 1902.—By A. H.
MacKay, Li.D., F. R. 8. C., Superintendent of Education. (See
Transactions, p. 144).

(5). Botanical Notes.—By A. H. MacKay, Lr. D.

(6). Distribution of Puews serratus in Nova Scotia.
Roprnson, B. A., Pictou Academy.

By- .C.<B:

C. I. Pirrman described some ‘‘eskers” which he had observed in
the south western part of the province. Dr.. A. H. MacKay
described similar formations that had come under his notice, and
showed how they were probably formed by ice agency. J. H. Towns-
END thought there was a ridge of a similar character in the vicinity
of Salmon River, near Minesville, Lawrencetown, Halifax Co. N. 8.

Parker R. Cotpirr, city electrician, read a paper on ‘ Wireless
Telegraphy,” illustrated by apparatus in operation.

The subject was discussed by the CHarrmMan, and Dr. A. H.
MacKay, 8S. A. Morton, A.M. Hoare, J. Burcoynn, W. McK erron,
and J. H. Townsenp ; and a vote of thanks was presented to the
lecturer.

The Council was authorized to receive as read by title, such papers
as may be presented too late for this meeting.

HARRY PIERS,
Recording Secretary.

ERRATA.

Page 18, last line of foot-note, reference to Am, Geologist should read ‘* vols,
XXXii and Xxxiv.” :

PROCEEEINGS

OF THE

Hlova Scotian Institute of Science.

SHSSION OF 1903-1904.

ANNUAL Business MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 16th November, 1903.

THE Presipent, Dx. Henry 8. Poo ts, in the chair.

PRESIDENTIAL ADpRESS: (1) Progress or THE INstITUTE, (2) THE
APPLICATION OF SCIENCE To MINING.

By Henry S. Poon, D. Sc., Assoc. Roy. Sc. Mines, F. G.S.,
By io, Co, Eons Me Ie M. BE.) &e:

Members of the Institute of Science: Gentlemen,—A year ago,
when I was able to look back on a membership of thirty years, you
honored me by election to the chair of this Institute. New, as your
President, it becomes a duty to submit a report of our proeeedings
during the past year, and to bid .you welcome to-night to this, the
opening meeting of another session.

The reports of the various departments, which will be presented to
you by our indefatigable secretary, and our painstaking treasurer will
show our standing as a society, and the gains and losses we have sus-
tained in membership. Of the former we are hopeful of usefulness to
come, but of the latter we are in no uncertain doubt, as the Institute
has suffered the loss of two important members, Mr. W. C. Silver, full
of years and honors, and Mr. A Cameron, in the prime of life.

Mr. Williain Chamberlain Silver, who was born here of English
parents in 1814, was for over half a century a well-known figure at

Proc. & Trans. N. S. INstT. Scr. Vou. XI. Proc.—B.
(xvll)

Xvi PROCEEDINGS.

public meetings on various subjects, where his fine presence and
pleasing address always commanded attention. Almost from the
inception of this Institute, he took an active interest in its welfare,
and until the day of his death continued to fill the important office of
Treasurer.

In the loss of Mr. A. Cameron, the Institute is deprived of a con-
tributor of exceptional ability on astronomical subjects, and provincial
education, an acknowledged leader of the sort his country, Scotland, is
so proud, and which has so often made a mark in the outer world.

THE INSTITUTES WORK.

During the late session, in addition to papers of the usual class
that are read before us, we had meetings where the subject matter
was, to a large extent, popularized by illustrations, models and dia-
grams that appealed to the eye.

Major English, R. G. A., who ranks among those of tke service
who have made a special study of guns and gunnery, explained very
clearly, by blackboard and model, the advances in this direction that
have of late made such strides. At the same time he showed how several
branches of pure science, mathematics, chemistry, and metallurgy have
been applied to practical account, and with a precision of result that
is surprising to a civilian. Interest in his subject was excited at
the time by press criticisms on the relative merits of the guns employed
during the late Boer War.

Dr. A. H. MacKay, our President for many years, by ready free-
hand drawing on the blackboard, and by specimens, described typical
members of our native Fungi, while reading a paper on the subject
from Mr. R. R. Gates, of Mt. Allison University, a promising student
of this class of plants. He, at the same time, presented a summary of
the species already identified as Nova Scotian. He also submitted a
series of Phenological Observa ions conducted in 1902, in continuation
of those of several previous years. The full series, now covering
many years, should shortly enable deductions to be drawn of loca]
variations of climate that will prove of much value.

Dr. Woodman, Professor of Geology at Dalhousie College, and who
has lately brought among us the advanced views of Harvard Univer-
sity, entertained us and our friends by exhibiting slides of geologica]
structure in the Rocky Mountains.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. xix

Mr. P. R. Colpitt, the City Electrician, happily explained Wireless
Telegraphy, a subject of bewilderment to those whose daily observa-
tion led them to suppose a net-work of telegraph and telephone wires
was essential to the control of electrical impulses conveying definite
signals; and in this subject local interest has been excited by
the selection of Glace Bay, Cape Breton, as the station for transatlan-
tic communication. The great trouble to which Mr. Colpitt went to
illustrate his subject, and his success, were fully appreciated by his
audience.

Professor E. E. Prince, Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa,
explained the colors of animals, their nature and meaning, by the aid
of numerous lantern slides, which excited general admiration. The
apparatus used to show the slides of Professor Prince and Dr. Wood-
man was generously supplied and operated by Mr. Jenney. Professor
Prince also presented a paper on the Swim Bladder of Fishes, which
he described as a degenerate gland.

Geological subjects furnished the text of several papers: The
Meso-Carboniferous Age of the Union and Riversdale Formations of
Nova Scotia, and their equivalents the Mispec and Lancaster Forma-
tions of New Brunswick, by Dr. Ami, of Ottawa; a note on Die-
tyonema Websteri, was read by Mr. Poole, of Halifax, who also submitted
comments on the question, —Is there coal under Prince Edward Island ?
as a companion paper to the official report on the allied subject by Dr.
Ells, of Ottawa, an officer of the Geological Survey of Canada. The
Geology of Moose River Gold District, N. 8., was explained by Dr.
Woodman ; and Dr. Gilpin, the Government Inspector of Mines, gave
analyses and sections of Nova Scotia coals, and also presented a paper
on the Mira Grant. Mr. C. B. Robinson, of Pictou Academy,
described a Lichen-mimicing Caterpillar, and also noted the Distrib-
ution of Fucus serratus in Nova Scotia.

The Kings County Branch of this Institute, under the direction of
Professor E. Hayeock, of Acadia College, discussed a number of
subjects as mentioned in its report on p. Xxv.

APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO MINING.

Having been a worker among the mineral products of the province,
it is natural for me to turn in that direction for matter on which to
address you to-day. All of us have been constantly reminded during

xx PROCEEDINGS.

the past three years of the keen and wide-spread interest taken in our

chief mineral export—coal, and our principal mineral import—iron
ore. The disturbing influence which accompanied the rapid develop-
ment of iron and steel plants, and the re-equipment of old, and the
establishment of new collieries, affected all classes, and largely those
which had grown up since the local gold fever was epidemic in the
late sixties. The influence of general prosperity stimulated search for
mineral wealth in every direction, including the improbable and
impossible, regardless of the pessimistic records acquired in the interest
of science, without monetary stimulus. The onlooking student can
learn much of human nature by observing the ready acceptance of
alluring promises made by designing or untrained promoters, while
the cautious utterances of the experienced are waved aside. The unit
in the army of searchers, that the law of averages makes successful, is
individualized and quoted as an authority by the rest, pitted as it
were against individuals from the ranks cf science, whom the same
Jaw would allow to blunder, or be unfortunate, without detriment to
the correctness of a general truth.

And yet, of late, public confidence has been shown to a surprising
degree, in some general deductions of a scientific nature, when it was
assumed their successful application might result in financial success.
The investigations of Mr. H. Fletcher of the Geological Survey in
Cumberland and Colchester Counties, have made it possible that the
views hitherto held on the structure of that region might be erroneous,
and they have justified a letter I wrote to a member of parliament in
1894, urging a re-survey of that ground; and when this change of
view, the result of Mr. Fletcher’s explorations was realized, a boom
was created, and application for mineral rights over the entire area
brought in large sums to the provincial coffers, the supposition now
being held that extensions of the thick seams of Springhill may pos-
sibly occupy in depth the basins east and west of that elevation and to
the northward of the Cobequid Hills. To prove this theory, bore-holes
to considerable depths and systematically placed, alone can determine
the correctness of the hopes indulged in.

Mr. Fletcher’s examination goes to show that the upper members
of the series continue to the Cobequid Hills, without a reappearance
at the surface of the underlying Millstone Grit as was assumed on the

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. xxl

map of 1884. The rush for areas did not stop in Cumberland County,
but passed into Colchester and Pictou, and along the shore of Minas
Basin, where small coal seams have been discovered for half a century
or more, ‘To some of these localities no countenance has been given
by the survey, but encouragement by the prospector is taken on the
ground that the first Pictou Coal Field map was at fault east of the
Drummond Mine, and cut the coal field off too soon. This, it may be
explained, arose from credit for accuracy being given to maps of early
explorations made on behalf of the Drummond Mine, which late mining
operations have failed to confirm. Speculation once awakened on these
lines, hope, eternal hope, has underlaid the greater part of the Permian
series in the latter counties with concealed coal wealth, and this view
has been given official sanction in the catalogue of the minerals at the
late Provincial Exhibition. It will, however, be well to remember, that
that the Permian is known to rest in places directly on Millstone
Grit rocks, and that further study of the sub-Permian structure and
faulting is advisable before extensive explorations by bore-holes are
conducted. Ideas of what this structure may be in parts, have been
suggested by the work already done in the field, but any reference
would be altogether premature at the present time, and before full
counsel has been taken with men who have made a special study of
great continental movements.

In the mining of gold, a marked degree of confidence has of late
grown round certain theoretical deductions. It may even be said that
the conclusions reached by Mr. E. R. Faribault, working in our gold
districts on behalf of the Geological Survey, have been accepted by
the rank and file of the miners as proven.

It was not. very long after the public recognition, in 1860, of the
presence of gold in prying quantities, that Mr. John Campbell, a local
geologist, noted a regularity in the foldings of the strata, and that
many of the leads, which on account of their richness had attracted
the gold seekers, centred about anticlinal folds. Professor H. Y
Hind, about 1872, on behalf of the provincial government, extended
these ideas, but the ordinary prospector, for a time, preferred to let
chance govern his movements, and let those who chose to theorize
come after him. In early days the theorist had no following, and if
he failed to make a strike it was his fault and not his misfortune,

XXil PROCEEDINGS.

while if one of the great army of prospectors was singled out by the
law of averages, or was smiled on by the fickle goddess Chance, the
fortunate one so selected, became in the eyes of his fellows an expert.

Then it was, too, when the foreign miner criticised the skill of the
native ; while lavishly praising the richness of the district, singular to
say, he forgot to take advantage of his opportunity, apply his vaunted
knowledge, and make a fortune for himself.

Summing up the experience of tke first twenty years of mining in
the province, in general language it may be said that each paying lead
had yielded but one pay-streak, and when that was extracted, further
search had failed to disclose others in the same lead. The work of
collecting data relating to the structure of the gold field, and the
mode of occurrence of the mineral contents, dropped by the local
Department of Mines, was taken up by the Geological Survey under
direction from Ottawa, and now what patient investigation has
revealed is that leads other than those seen at the surface may con-
fidently be expected to be within reach of shafts snnk on the anticlines,
where the saddles of quartz will have their greatest thickness ; and
secondly that pay-streaks will be found to have a well-defined relation
to one another and to the axis of the anticline, together defining for
each gold district a zone of special enrichment. Evidence on both
these points has been given in the papers published with illustrations
in the transactions of the Mining Society of Nova Scotia, and which
explain the maps and sections issued by the Geological Survey in the
meantime, and until the final report on the gold fields has been
prepared.

Mr. Faribault having surveyed the field, noted the folds and their
faulting, and the relation of the pay streaks, with the result that he
found a structure after the manner of that at Bendigo, but on a larger
scale: a series of saddles of quartz, sitting on the axis of the anticline,
one over the other, in the spaces formed between the folded strata.
Parallel with the axes, he claims there are inclined zones of enrich-
ment, which passing from lead to lead in their courses, leave in each
a pay-streak of definite extent. If these conclusions are generally
confirmed in practice, the gold mining industry would be placed on a
more secure footing, much of its late restricted aspect removed, and
great inducement given to companies of sufficient capital to operate
under judicious management.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Xxiil

In the field of metallurgy a question has arisen, which, so far, has
not been satisfactorily answered. It has been found that of the gold
associated with the antimony ores of West Gore, one-half of the assay
value goes with the quartz tailings, which can be treated for the gold
in one or the other usual ways. The other half of the gold values
remains with the antimony concentrates, aud the question is how to
separate the two metals and obtain a high return for both.

Papers on the composition of many provincial minerals are given
in various publications, aceurate enough, doubtless, in themselves,
but, where of commercial value, often lacking in some of the details
which are essential to a full appreciation of the analyses. For
instance, one may find specimens of chalcopyrite labelled as containing
30 per cent. of copper, a percentage that tells the mineralogist it is
merely an assay of the richest portions picked out, and cannot be
of an average sample of a deposit, as the uninitiated may be led to
believe.

Again, in coal, in some of these analyses the percentages of ash
and sulphur shown do not agree with the practical results obtained by
the user and coke maker. They are too low, and this being well
known the chief purpose they serve is to bring discredit on any
carefully made reports with which they may be associated. Distrust
once aroused it is difficult to get confidence restored, and the only
remedy seems to be in accurately stating the associated circumstances,
whether the result is obtained from a hand-picked specimen or from a
specified quantity of ore properly sampled down ; or if of a coal seam,
then of a strip taken from top to bottom.

Men of experience are hence apt to ignore all analyses of the class
referred to, not endorsed with the name of the analyst, and to insist
on independent investigation ; while there are others less experienced,
who deceive themselves, and being of a sanguine temperament, mislead
others. No good purpose is served by this, and the country at large
is not benefitted. The Mining Society has had this matter under con-
sideration, and has advocated the appointment of a provincial assayer,
who, by the way, might well be also government instructor in the
schools of higher mining, which, it is felt, are much needed in this
province, to be associated in the work so well begun by Dalhousie
University.

XX1V PROCEEDINGS.

The Treasurer’s report was presented, and having been audited and
found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an

analytical statement of the expenditure for 1902-1903 :

PUBLICATION OF TRANSACTIONS :—
Vol. X , Part 3, (1900-1901) :

PEN NAN NGS s oo.ap ox Sapien A Sake erate MONA aT (otis sunterinedeost OO

Hngravine.(JOwes portrait) acct se eetasei cette rare cete 6 00

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Vol X., Part 4, (1901-1902) :

| Dien OUI Aden sian Sots MUO bio oo Ad Dog Ube Dos co GOD .- 2/4 44

Bugera vings (Downey portrait) erry seyeeslercleten tects ete toleiere 3 75

\NVige Nes odbancadocoonc sb00 6060 Tie ME CUS Oe ONO SORS 3 00

DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS : —
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$537 79

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— 64 99
$710 59

The Librarian’s report was presented and adopted.

KINGS -COUNTY BRANCH. XXV

A report was read from Prestipent Ernest Haycock, of the
Kines County Brancu oF THE Institute, Wolfville, N. S., on the
work done by the branch during its third session (1902-03). Meet-
ings were held and papers read as follows:

LOth February, 1903.
1. Review of previous year’s work and suggestions for the future.—
By Presipent Haycock.
2. Election of officers :

President : Proressor Ernest Haycock.
Vice-President : Proressor E. W. Sawyer.
Secretary-Treasurer: Proressor F. C. Srars.

3. Principles of the Dynamo.—By Proressor F. R. Hatey.

10th March, 1903.
4. Systems of Electric Lighting.—By D. R. Munro.
Dr. Alolf Loring and his Specialty. — By A. DrW. Barss,
IMESD.
6. Retreat of the Coast of Minas Basin at Long Island, Kings Co.,
N. S.—By Proressor E. Haycock.

wy]

21st April, 1903.

“I

Ice-borne Sediment in Minas Basin-—By J. A. Bancrorr. (See
Transactions, p. 158).

8. Teaching Material in Mineralogy recently added to the Acadia

College Collection.—By Proressor E. Hs ycock.

9. Life History of the Bud Moth.—By Proressor F, C. Sears.
The report was received and adopted.

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to
the Hon. Sir Rosert Boak, for his courtesy in granting the Society
the use of the Legislative Council Chamber as a place of meeting ; and
to the SECRETARY OF THE SmiTHsoniaN InstiTUTION for continuing
to admit the Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International
Exchanges.

XXV1 PROCEEDINGS.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1903-
1904) :

President, HENRY SKEFFINGTON Pootz, D.Sc., A. R. 8S. M., F.G.S.,
F. R. S.C, ex officio F. R. M. 8.

Vice- Presidents.—F. W. W. Doane, C. E., and PRroressor EBENEZER
MacKay, Pu. D.

Treasurer, —WILLIAM McKE&RRON.

Corresponding Secretary,—A H. MacKay, Lu. D, F. B.S. C.

Recording Secretary, —HARRY PIERS.

Librarian,—HArry PIERS. ;

Councillors without Office, —MAYNARD BowMAN, B A.; Watson Ll. BisHop;
Martin MurpHy, C. E, D. Sc.; Proressor STEPHEN M. Drxon,
BoA. B.A Ly Epwan.Ginein;. JiR 5 aD BRS © ase Ape
ANDER McKay ; Proressor J. E. Woopman, D. Se

Anditors, —RopErick McCouu, C. E ; J. B. McCarruy, M. A., B. Se.

First OrpDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 16th November, 1903.

THE PresipENt, Dr. H. 8S. Poots, in the chair.

It was announced that Masjor-GENERAL CAMPBELL Harpy, R. A.,
of Dover, England, had been elected a corresponding member, and
that D. Bupar, General Superintendent of Halifax and Bermuda
Cable Company, Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member.

Vick-PresiIpENT MacKay took the chair while the PREesipENt, Dr.
Poote, read a paper ‘“‘ On the Age of the Conglomerate capping the
Cambrian Rocks of Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions, p. 236). The
subject was discussed by Dr. Woopman, Dr. A. H. MacKay, H. Pimrs,
iV. fitsand W- {Ee Prust:

W.C. Mizner exhibited the manuscript of a geological map of
Nova Scotia, which will be issued with the mining number of the

“ Nova Scotian.”

Second Orpinary MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 21st December, 1903.
THE Presipent, Dr. Poor, in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been elected ordinary
members: JAMES H. WINFIELD, Manager N.S. Telephone Company,

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXV1l

Halifax; Grorce M. J. MacKay, Dartmouth, N. 8.; Proressor
Daniet A. Murray, Dalhousie College, Halifax ; Proressor FREDERIC
H. Sexton, Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Dr. A. H. MacKay took the chair while the PresrpENnT read a
paper by Kenneto Molnrosu, C. E., St. George's Channel, N. &.,
“The Question of Subsidence at Louisbourg, C. B.”, with introductory
notes by the reader. (Sce Transactions, pp. 262 and 264). The paper
was illustrated by a map of a recent survey of Louisbourg made by Mr,
MclIntosu, and also by some old plans. The subject was discussed by
Dr. H. H> Reap, Dr. A. P. Rei, H. Piers, Dr. Woopman and
Dr. Murpry.

T. Varpy Hitt read a paper on ‘‘ The Creation and Development
of the Inorganic Foundation of the Earth.” The subject was discussed
by Dr. Woopmay, and a vote of thanks was presented to Mr. HI.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.
Provincial Science Library, Halifax, 11th January, 1904.
Dr. A. H. MacKay in the chair.

On motion of H. Pirrs and Dr, A. P. Rep, it was resolved that
the Nova Scotian Institute of Science learns with deep regret of the
death of Aveustus ALutsox, Dominion Meteorological Agent at
Halifax. Mr. Allison was one of its oldest members, having been
elected in February, 1869, was a former vice-president, and for a long
period a member of the council. It was further resolved that the
Secretary be instructed to send a copy of this resolution to the family
of the deceased.

Captain J. H. Barsour, M. B, Royal Army Medical Corps,
Halifax, read a paper on ‘“ Local Variations and other Notes on Blue-
eyed Grass, (Sisyrinchium angustifelium).” (See Transactions, p.
190). The subject was discussed by the CHaiRMAN and others, and a
vote of thanks was presented to Dr. Barzour.

Owing to the unavoidable absence of the PREsIDENT, who was to
have taken part in the discussion on the subject, Dr. J. E. Woop-
MAN’S paper on the “Origin of Peneplanes” was postponed, and he
gave instead a lecture on “ Drainage Development of Rivers.” The
subject was discussed by several of the members, and a vote of thanks

was passed to the lecturer.

XXVlll1 PROCEEDINGS.

FourtH OrpDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Count! Chamber, Halifax, 10th February, 1904.

The Institute met in conjunction with the Canapran Forestry
Association, the chair being occupied by Dr. A. H. MacKay, Nova
Scotian Vice-President of the Forestry Association.

‘‘ Addresses on Forestry” were given by E. Strwart, Dominion
Superintendent of Forestry, and R. H. Campsext, Assistant Secretary
of the Forestry Association, both of Ottawa. Mr. Stewart's lecture
was illustrated by lantern views.

The subject was discussed by the Cuairman, Hon. J. W. Lonatiey,
Dr. M. Murpny, and Hon. Wm. CuisHoum, M. L. C.; and a vote of
thanks was passed to Messrs, Stewart and CAMPBELL.

FirtH OrpInArRY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th March, 1904.
The Presipent, Dr. Pootn, in the chair.

A paper by Frank H. Rerp, on “ Birds and the Selection of their
Nests” was communicated by Dr. A. P. Retp. The subject was dis-
cussed by R. H. Brown and W. L. Bisnop, and a vote of thanks was
presented to the writer.

Me. Pisrs read a paper by Henry Youtr Hinp, M. A., D.C. L.,
of Windsor, on “The Importance of a Knowledge of Rock Foldings
to Miners.” The paper was discussed by Dr. Woopman and Mr.
Piers ; and a vote of thanks was passed to Dr. H1np.

T. Truman Futton, B A., read a paper on “The Faults of Bat
tery Point, Sydney, C. B.”, illustrated by a section of the strata under
consideration. (See Transactions, p. 260). On motion, a vote of
thanks was presented to Mr. Futron.

The following paper was then read, by title :—‘‘ The Structure and
Succession at North Sydney, C. B.”, by Loran A. DEWotres, M. A.,
North Sydney ; being communicated by Dr. Woopman. (See Trans-
actions, p. 239).

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XX1X

SixtH OHDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 11th April, 1904.

THe PreEsIDENT, Dr. Poour, in the chair.

ALEXANDER McKay took the chair while the PresipENT read a
paper entitled “The Sunken Land of Bus (lat. 35° west, long. 53°
north).” (See Transactions, p. 193). The subject was discussed by
Dr. Woopman, Dr. A. P. Reip, J. Apams, First Officer of Cable S. 8.
“ Minia,” and H. Piers.

A paper by Francis H. Mason, F.C.S, metallurgist, Halifax,
entitled, ‘Notes on Hydraulic Lime and Cement,” was read by the
PRESIDENT. (See Transactions, p. 179). The subject was discussed
by Proressor F. H. Sexton, J. W. McKenzir, Proressor WoopMay,
the Prestpent, and H. Piers.

The following papers were read by title :—

“Contributions to the Study of Solution of Hydroxylamine and

its Salts,” by W: H. Ross, B.Sc. (See Transactions, p. 95).
“Structure of the Meguma (Gold-bearing) Series, with reference
to the Theory of Cross-folds,” by Prorgssor J. E. Woopmay,
D. Se., Dalhousie College.
“The Earthquake of March 21, 1904, in the Maritime Provinces,”
by Proressor Woopman. (See Transactions, p. 227).
SEVENTH OrpDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th May, 1904.
PROFESSOR STEPHEN M. Dixon in the chair.

Dr. A. H. MacKay read a paper entitled ‘ Phenological Observa-
tions in Canada, 1903.” (See Transactions, p. 271). The subject
was discussed by Dr. Barsour, R. A. M. C., who compared the time
of flowering of plants in Nova Scotia and England.

A paper by Proressor J. E. Woopman, D. Sc., Dalhousie College,
entitled ‘“ Bibliugraphy of the Meguma ‘Gold-bearing) Series of Nova
Scotia,” was read by title.

The council was authorized to receive, as read by title, such papers
as may be presented too late for this meeting.

Harry Piers,
Recording Secretary.

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Flova § Scotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1904-1905.

ANNUAL Business MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 17th October, 1904.
THe PresipentT, Dr. Henry 8. Poors, in the chair.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) Proaress oF THE INstITUTE, (2) Bor,
INGS IN SEARCH OF COAL. By Henry 8S. Poone; p: se;
ASSOC. ROY. SC. MINES, F. G. S., F. R. 8. C., HON. M. I. M. E., &e.

The honor, I have had of being your chairman for a second term,
gives me again the privilege of reporting the work of the past session,
and an opportunity to lightly touch on the papers submitted.

Progress of the Institute.

Besides the regular monthly gatherings, a special meeting to hear
papers by Mr. E. Stuart and Mr. R. H. Campbell, of Ottawa, on
Forestry, illustrated by drawings enlarged on a screen, appealed to
popular taste.

The subject matter of the papers at the ordinary meetings covered
a wide range, as might be expected from a maritime people with
diversified interests and familiarized by easy travel with the littoral
of many lands. The consideration of time and its effects during
periods that extended back into thousands of centuries, created no
surprise ; and geological questions, chiefly of local bearing, furnished
subjects for one-third of the papers presented to the Institute.

Proc. & Trans. N, 8S. Inst. Scr. Vou. XI. Proc.—C.

(exx1)

XXX PROCEEDINGS.

Zoology found an exponent in Mr. Frank H. Reid who had man y
interesting things to say on the nidification of some of our birds.

Chemistry was not neglected. Mr. F. H. Mason gave notes on
provincial hydraulic lime and cement, and Mr. W. H. Ross contri-
buted the results of a study of solutions of hydroxylamine and its
salts.

Botanical studies were shewn not yet to have been carried to
exhaustion, for Capt. J. H. Barbour, A. M. C., on the local varieties
of blue-eyed grass, suggested a new line of comparison. The value
of combined observation conducted under experienced supervision by
public school children was noted in the further additions to pheno-
logical records laboriously compiled by Dr. A. H. MacKay.

The veteran, Dr. H. Y. Hind, dwelt on the importance to miners-
of a knowledge of rock foldings ; and the new science courses at
Dalhousie College bore fruit in papers by two students, Mr. T. T
Fulton writing on the Faults of Battery Point, Sydney, and Mr. L.
A. DeWolfe on the cliff sections at North Sydney ; papers indicating
careful record of close observation. Dr. Woodman gave the biblio-
graphy and an exhaustive review of the gold-bearing rocks of Nova
Scotia which he proposed should be designated ‘ Meguma.” The
same gentleman recorded the earthquake shocks which were observed
in parts of the Maritime Provinces in March of the present year.
A criticism of the long received view that Louisbourg supplied
evidence of very recent subsidence came from the pen of Mr. Kenneth
McIntosh and met with general acceptance. To the writer was given
an opportunity to ask for a review of the age of the conglomerate
here and there capping the Cambrian rocks of the Atlantic coast. Jt
was also given to him to speak of the ‘“ Sunken Land of Bus,” where
the cabled depths of mid-ocean recalled the ancients’ story of the
fabled Atlantis.

Mr. 'T. Vardy Hill referred to the creation and development of
the foundation of the earth, and in this country was also heard an
echo of the revived discussion of the relation of scientific studies to
religious beliefs and something of the progress made among the
foothills of knowledge by such seekers after truth as have met the
outposts so long and strongly held by theological teachers. While
by the bulk of our people the views of forty years ago are still

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XXXili

unchanged, by students of both classes mutual forbearance is practised
and they are content to work side by side, although it is evident both
could not agree were they to continue to an issue the deductions to
which several of their teachings lead. We asa society cannot well
engage in controversies of this character, for it is not to be expected
that where individual convictions are involved that members as a
body could maintain a judicial position and a tolerant spirit.

Note also was taken of the interest in scientific research by the
Branch of the Institute established in King’s County and the addi-
tional five papers that were discussed at Wolfville.

Borings in search of Coal.

In my address of a year ago I referred to certain theoretical
deductions respecting the possible extension of workable coal seams
lying concealed under newer measures on the north side sof the
Cobequid hills from the Bay of Fundy eastward to Merigomish,

The interest that had there been aroused took practical shape,
and search in three localities was prosecuted. One borehole was put
down at Spicers’ Cove on the Bay of Fundy to a depth of 944 feet,
but as it turned out, it was placed too close to the hill range, for after
passing through a thick bed of conglomerate, largely composed of the
debris of the old rocks it entered, at 893 feet, igneous rocks in place.
A site for another hole in this locality has been selected further from
the hills, at Apple river.

The second locality is near Newville at Halfway River lake on
the Springhill and Parrsborough railway, and a borehole there also
met with conglomerate at the expected depths. Here it is found to
be composed chiefly of clastic rocks of Lower Carboniferous age, and
it has not yet been passed through by the borehole which has now
reached a depth of over 2200 feet.*

The third persistent effort to get at the underlying strata was
made at the mouth of Rear brook, below New Glasgow, on the East
river. After the loss of the first hole at a depth of some 900 feet
a second borehole was made alongside the first, and at 1900 feet
it had failed to reach the bottom of the conglomerate bed when

* Subsequently, at 2350 feet from the surface coal was struck which is reported
to be 9 feet in thickness, and the boring was stopped ata depth of 2359 feet.—Hd.

XXX1V PROCEEDINGS.

misfortune again met the borers and the hole was hopelessly lost.
Another 100 feet would have got down to the underlying beds
according to calculations based on surface outcrops.

The Treasurer’s report was presented by Mr. McKerron, and
having been audited and found correct, was received and adopted.

The Librarian’s report was presented by Mr. Pirrs. During the
year 1904, 2330 books and pamphlets had been received and catalogued
The total accessions of the Science Library, with which that of the
Institute is incorporated, were 3,115 for the year. The report was
received and adopted, and a vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Piers
for his services.

A report was read from the Kine’s Country BraNcH OF THE
Institute, Wolfville, N. S., on the work done by the Branch during
its fourth session (1903-04). The officers of the branch were as
follows :

President, —Prorrssor Ernest Haycock, M. A.
Vice-President, —Prorrssor F. R. Harry, M. A.
Secretary-Treasurer,— ProFessor E. W. Sawyer, B. A.

The following papers, etc., were communicated to the branch :
1. Constitution of Matter. (General discussion.)
2. The Atomic Theory of Dalton.— By Proressor E. Haycock,
M. A.
3. The Divisibility: of the Atom—By Proressor F. R. Haury,
M. A.

4. Influence of Climate on Fruits.— By R. W. Srarr.
d. The Black Knot of the Plum.—By Prorrssor F. C. Sears.

The report was received and adopted.

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to
the Hon. M. H. Gounas, President of the Legislative Council, for his
courtesy in granting the society the use of the Legislative Council
Chamber as a place of meeting during the past session; and to the
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INstiTuTION for continuing to admit the
Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXXKV

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1904-05) :

President, HENRY SKEFFINGTON Pook, D. Se., A. R. 8S. M., F. G.S.,
F.R S C., ex oficio, F. BR M.S
Vice-Presidents,—F. W. W. Doanr, C E., and PrRorrssor EBENEZER

MacKay, Pa D.
Treasurer,— WILLIAM MCKERRON.

Corresponding Secretary,—A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., F R.S. C.

Recording Secretary,— HARRY PIERS.

Librarian, —HARkY PIERS

Councillors without Office, -MAYNARD Bowman, B A.; Watson L BrsHop;
PROFESSOR STEPHEN M. Dixon, B. A., B. A. I; Epwin Ginrly, JR.,
Lu. D, F. R. 8, C., 1.8.0; AutexanpeER McKay; Proressor J.
EpmuNnD Woopmav, D. Sc.; J. B. McCartuy, M. A., B. Se

Auditors, —Roperick McCot, C, E.; and Proressor F H SeExton.

Dr. MacKay took the chair while the President, Dr. H. S.
Pook, read a paper on ‘ Pre-Cambrian Volcanic Bombs from near
Lake Ainslie, Inverness Co., N.S.” (See Transactions, p. 339).

Dr. Woopman gave the result of a microscopic examination of some
of these bombs.

First Orpinary MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 21st November, 1904.

THE PRESIDENT, Dr. H. 8. Poows, in the chair.

ProFessorR STEPHEN M. Dixon, M. A., B. A. I., read a paper
entitled, ‘‘ A Determination of the Elements of Terrestrial Magnetism
at Halifax, N. S., August, 1904.” (See Transactions, p. 245). The
subject was discussed by the Presipent, and Dr. A. H. MacKay and
Dr. Woopman, and a vote of thanks was presented to the lecturer.

SEconD OrpINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 23rd January, 1905.
The PresipENT, Dr. H. 8. Poor, in the chair.

The ReEcorDING SECRETARY announced that the Rev. BroiHER
JUNIAN PETER of Fall River, Mass., U.S. A., a corresponding mem-
ber, had presented to the Institute a collection of dried plants
collected in his district. The Secretary was directed to convey to
Brother Peter the thanks of the society.

Proressor J. Epmunp Woopman, D. Sc., gave a lecture on ‘“ The
Volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands,” illustrated by coloured lantern-
slides. A vote of thanks was presented to the lecturer.

XXXVI1 PROCEEDINGS.

TaHirD ORDINARY MEERTING,

Provincial Science Library, Halifax, 13th March, 1905.

The Prestpent, Dr. Poors, in the chair.

It was announced that Caprain E. B. Tintrne, R. N., of the
Marine and Fisheries Department, Halifax, had been elected an
ordinary member,

The Recorpine SecrETARY reported that there had been received
from the Royal Society of London, forty volumes of its earliest Pro-
ceedings (from vol. 1, 1800) so far as they were in print. It was
directed that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to the Royal
Society for this valuable gift.

In the absence of the author, Dr. A H. MacKay read a paper
by Watrer H. Prest of North Brookfield, N. 8., on ‘ Edible Wild
Plants of Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions, p. 387). The subject
was discussed by Drs. A. H. MacKay, Poo, Barsour, A. P. Rep,
and Messrs. Piers, Bisnop, Harris, and others. <A vote of thanks
was presented to Mr. Prest for his paper.

Dr. J. E Woopman read by title a paper entitled ‘ Distribution
of Bedded Leads in relation to Mining Policy.” (See Transactions,
p. 163).

FourtH Orpinary MEETING.
Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 17th April, 1908.
The Presipent, Dr. Poors, in the chair.

It was announced that L. C. Hartow, B. Se., Provincial Normal
School, Truro, N. S., had been elected an associate member.

The RecorpinG SECRETARY announced that the Proceedings and
Transactions of the Institute, vol. xi, part 1, had been published and
part 2 was now in press.

In the absence of the author, Dr. Woopman read a paper by
M. V. Granpvin of Cheticamp, entitled, ‘‘ Notes on the Ore Deposits
of South Cheticamp, Cape Breton Island, N.S.” (See Transactions,
p. 347). The paper was discussed by the Presmpent, Dr. Woopman,
and others ; and a vote of thanks was presented to the author.

F. H. McLearn read a paper, entitled, “A Structural Analysis
of the Goldenville Anticline, Guys. Co., N. 8.” The subject was
discussed by J. Recan, H. Piers, Dr. Woopman, and Proressor
Haycock ; and a vote of thanks was presented to Mr. McLrarn.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXXVll

FirrH OrpinAry MEETING.
Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 16th May, 1906.
Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair.
The Recorpinc Secretary reported that the Council had
appointed the Treasurer, Wu. McKerrron, to represent the Institute
at the forthcoming meeting of the Royal Society of Canada.
Proressor J. E. Woopman, DV. Sc, presented two papers: (1)
“Note on Crystallized Gold”; (2) ‘“‘ Detection of Vanished Coastal
iPlams:
The following papers were read by title :—
“ Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1904,”
by A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R. 8. C. (See Transactions,
p-. 373).

“* Meteorological Notes,” by F. W. W. Doans, C. E. (See
Transactions, p. 361).

“ Weathering of Building Stone in Halifax,” by Proressor J. E.

Woopman, D. Se.
Harry PIsErs,

Recording Secretary.

ae ee

L-
if hk Gat

ot E:
Pn)

PROCEEDINGS

Aova Scotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1905-1906

ANNUAL BusINESS MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th October, 1905.
THE PRESIDENT, Dr. HENrRy S. POOLE, in the chair.
PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS.—By Henry 8. Poors, D. Sc., F. R. 8. C.
THE INSTITUTE’S WORK.

We are onee more met together to hold an annual meeting, to
receive reports, elect officers for the ensuing year, and open another
session of this Institute. During the year that has closed, we sut-
fered no loss of members, and the interest taken in the meetings
remained at the standard customary of late.

The additional movement established a few years ago, viz. the
popularizing of special meetings, has been continued with a gratify-
ing attendance. Advantage was taken, through Mr. Jenney’s kind-
ness in placing his electric-lantern at the service of the Institute,
the better to display the carefully prepared and attractive illustra-
tions of volcanoes which Dr. Woodman was enabled to use at his
lecture to an appreciative audience. It will be noted that half the
papers read and submitted at the last session were more or less
geological. This should create no surprise in a province so given
over to mining, and possessed of so wide a range of strata well
exposed for study. Of a different class was the paper of Mr. W. H.
Prest on ‘* Edible Wild Plants of Nova Scotia,” which brought to

Proc. & TrRAans..N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. Proc.—D.

(XXxXI1x)

xl PROCEEDINGS.

the meeting when it was read, many members of the Botanical Club
of Halifax, and which led to a discussion of much interest, that
showed that all had not been learned of the twigs, leaves, barks and
roots, Which in cases of emergency would be available to sustain
life. The facts brought out at the discussion, in addition to those
given by the author, suggest that much good would ensue at future
meetings were the custom established of getting members and their
guests to submit in writing, for publication with the primary paper,
remarks thereon. Not only would a writer be gratified by the
notice his article elicited, even when there was not entire agree-
ment, but the subsequent reader of the paper would have also a
knowledge of the measure of credence or endorsement given to the
statements made at the time of presentation.

It was most unfortunate that the Kings County Branch of the
Institute, at Wolfville, was unable to hold meetings during the
year. ‘This was due, however, to no lack of interest in the branch,
which was organized in 1901.

The finances of the Institute have received the careful attention
of the Treasurer, and his report will be submitted :

The Recording Secretary, I was on the point of writing, gave
me invaluable assistance in the work of calling the meetings, pre-
paring statements, keeping accounts and editing the transactions ;
but I am sorry to say I cannot truthfully do this, for it was not
merely assistance that I got from him. The fact is, he was the
head and front of the Institute the past three years, and saw to
everything. We have taken so much as a matter of course the ser-
vices he has given, that I fear we have not fully appreciated the
sacrifices he has made, sacrifices which the Institute cannot expect
to continue forever, especially as he has duties in other directions
which are constantly growing. His is an interesting case of early
training to a sense of moral obligation, that I am selfishly thankful
extended to the end of my term of office, and I now would make all
due acknowledgments.

SPECULATIVE THOUGHTS,

And now before giving place in this chair to a busy man of

practical ideas, let me give utterance to a few vague speculations of

idle moments.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xli

When man wakes to consciousness in this material world, he
finds himself one of many varied organisms, stamped with one
general plan, automatic in part, and also in possession of a limited
amount of free-will and action. As he becomes sensible of his
position, and his bodily wants are met, he begins to realize he is not
so very independent or all-powerful, and that he is living on a
borderland of mysteries, surrounded by the inexplicable, and when
considered from a purely personal point of view, by what seem
malevolent as well as benign influences. The limitation to his
powers meets him on every hand, and he finds his very existence
depends on the range of the forces to which he is exposed being
circumscribed. He finds, moreover, his consciousness of sensation
also has its limits, as of sound proceeding from pulsations only
within fixed amplitude and frequency, the limit of perception vary-
ing somewhat with the individual, in harmony with the variability
of moderate degree everywhere observable in nature. Light and
heat also have to be restricted in their range if they are to be
utilized by man, while excess of the latter is made evident beyond
doubt by destruction of tissue.

At times man glories in the freedom he possesses, and especially
when he makes subservient to himself beings weaker or mentally
less endowed, beings whose sum of animal existence is to eat and to
be eaten, for few individuals in the ferine state escape the latter
condition, and, as a matter of fact, few animals of any condition.

As consciousness develops, and with a mind free of anxiety for
immediate wants, he seeks to know who and what he is in this
world’s economy, whence he has come, and whither will he go. His
untrained perceptions failing him beyond the compass of self-
preservation, he consults his fellows for their knowledge of these
matters. He becomes a student and so far as his enquiries and
experiments are systematic, a student of science.

Here, as in all cases of disturbance, whether physical or mental,
opposition is met with, and the student of truth has to contend
with errors of observation and assumption of conclusions unproved.
The latter especially hampers him, for recognizing his seeming
hopeless ignorance of much there is about him, he is only too ready

xlii PROCEEDINGS.

to accept the confident assertion of another individual grasping
every opportunity for self aggrandizement.

As a student he has first to carefully confine his observations to
that which is material and to oft trodden paths, to accept nothing
as true which cannot be put to the test over and over again, since
isolated cases, however suggestive of the truth of certain conten-
tions, may mislead when all conditions of a problem have not been
noted. Further than this faith in the teachings and reverence for
the fathers of modern science are not inculeated to pass beyond
respect. Their deductions of yesterday are subject to the cold
criticism of to-day equally with the latest theory of the youngest
tyro: and as for flights of fancy and the poet’s glamour, they are
not needed to enhance admiration, awe and wonder of the myster-
ious marvels that unfold themselves to his growing intelligence.

In the schools of chemistry and physics, natural phenomena
have no sporadic mysteries, though their controlling source be
obscure, and vast ignorance respecting them necessarily still pre-
vails. Repeated proof is essential, since fortuitous concurrences
mar the accuracy of findings based on solitary examples. The
world is full of superstitions derived from hasty generalizations,
and many have come down from pagan times and been engrafted
with modern belief.

The teachings of the nursery, with its first and indelible im-
pressions, have a lasting effect, and we grow up creatures largely of
habit, indisposed to put aside pre-conceived opinions and even
perhaps unable to dispassionately consider, on their merits, ques-
tions touching ourselves. This innate tendency of the mind to keep
alive the lore impressed in childhood and clung to generation after
generation, is in keeping with ancestral characteristics of the body
which we note in ourselves and our neighbours, and which the
breeder of choice strains of animals and plants is particular to
propogate.

The unbiassed student will take the stand that the intelligence
with which he is endowed calls for it exercise and growth; that he
is warranted in searching into all that appertains to himself and
his surroundings, although his powers are restricted and he is
incapable of reducing to order a fraction of the mysteries about

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xh

him; unable to grasp an idea either of creation or annihilation, or
a condition preceding the one and succeeding the other, or of a
beginning or ending of time or limitation of distance. While there
is much that he cannot hope to understand, there are suppositions
he cannot possibly accept, as that of birth without resultant death,
nor can he conceive of mental sensations, as joy, love and hope,
without crediting the converse possibilities. There would be for
him no pleasure if there were no pain, no recognition of light
without that of darkness, nor of heat without cold. The percep-
tion of the one necessarily demands the condition of the other.
All nature teaches this to be a truth, analogy with cause and effect,
is everywhere constant, whether it be among phenomena typified by
the satisfying of an acid for its base, or among an entirely different
group exemplified in the fatigue which follows strain.

Reverting for a moment to pain, to excruciating pain, which
some people tell us they find hard to reconcile with their standard
of faith, let us picture a stricken creature, the moment before stored
with vitality, now the innocent victim of an accident which deprives
his nervous energy of control, and lets loose the impulses which
ordinarily are used only slowly as required for the well-being of the
body. No longer under restraint, these become intensified with a
correspondingly rapid exhaustion of vitality, and the dews of
anguish mark that intensity as beyond endurance. It is lke the
burning of a candle at both ends in oxygen, the sum total of stored
energy is there used up in a very short time.

When the student awoke to the value of classifying his observa-
tions and realized that order prevailed even amoug details appar-
ently dissimilar, great advance was made, and he was then able to
satisfy himself by repeated experiment that phenomena of nature
were subject to fixed relation which could be expressed as laws, and
he was also able to convince his fellows that, under similar treat-
ment, like results would ensue in their hands.

Besides the phenomena he has systematized, he reasonably
assumes by analogy that there are others equally amenable to eluci-
dation, although efforts in many directions have so far met with

but indifferent success.

xliv PROCEEDINGS.

Retrospection raises hope to pursue further investigation among
the unexplained mysteries even of the organic world. Who a cen-
tury ago would have thought it possible to harness lightning to a
car, to prove a similarity of chemical elements in other worlds
than ours, to see with ordinary vision through walls of common
brick, to hear a whisper along one thousand miles of wire, or
instantly communicate through the air far beyond the reach of
sight and sound? ‘the success the student has achieved in pushing
back the fringe of the great unknown, has enabled him the better
to realize he is subject to a reign of law, and it has elevated his per-
ception of the infinite and the sublime.

At the same time it is equally true that that opposition to move-
ment of whatever sort or kind which, as already has been stated,
seems an essential corollary to it, is apt to lead in us, as individuals,
to pride in the dominant position we hold on earth, and leads us
to forget we are but as flies on the wheel, chips on the torrent, or
grains of sand in the whorl of the evclone: even to proclaim “ We
and God,” when a coupling with the beast of the field would be
more in keeping with man’s worldly relations.

There is also a growing belief among naturalists, who have
closely observed wild life at home and free of fear, that what in
man are called the finer feelings—friendship, affection and sym-
pathy, are exlibited in a marked degree by creatures of more
humble circles.

The student, moreover, has reason to suspect that as in the
material world law and order reign, so also among the spiritual
influences affecting free will, system prevails. Further than that,
as there is to the individual a birth, maturity and death, and to
communities a racial or national rise, a period of prosperity and
ultimate decay, so does it appear in the non-material region of
thought that a cycle holds good; that there have been to religions
an inception, a zealous purpose, an acceptance, and then decline;
also to ideas in other directions there comes the inspiration, the
spread of waves of intelligence throughout communities in sym-
pathy, and then a subsidence of the particular impulse, like as it
is with epidemics of pestilence and accident.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xlv

Views of this sort are not entirely new; something of the kind
was expressed by ancient writers, although it was left to modern
times to more fully confirm the mastery of law and order, and the
idea that activity meant the breaking away from harmonious
quiescence. Later ideas have recognized a similarity of purpose in
mundane interests which extends beyond a daily reawakening from
unconsciousness to a state of bodily and mental activity with
memory of previous periods of consciousness in the individual. It
includes the replacement of units and the succession of dominant
races. It goes even further and assumes the law of cycles to include
in its grasp intangible impulses, the temperament of races, the
family likeness and mental atavism; embraces the reincarnation of
ancestral traits of body, finding a homologue in the reappearance of
mental characteristics. These when purely animal and of the
automaton order, we call intuition. They direct the infant to ery,
the sheep to eat grass, the wolf to devour the sheep and the bird
to build a nest and migrate. Nor is this intuitive impulse confined
to the animal world, it is observable in the vegetable, in the shrink-
ing from touch and consequent tired feeling of the sensitive plant,
in the night-folding flower of the Gnothera and in the closing over
on its victim of the Drosera leaf. Nor is it absent from the mineral
world. Among growing crystals we detect it in the interlacing
spicules of ice, in a network of cyanite where each crystal in its
struggle to grow greater bends about to avoid its fellow crystal
imbued with a similar purport. How these several attributes are
maintained and stored in the germ, must remain forever a marvel-
lous mystery, although constant repetition would indicate a
governance by law.

Recognition has been made of the existence of influences, forces
or impulses, which may, from the aspect of the individual organism,
be malign. These the student contends are natural concomitants
of life, for the interests of the unit necessarily become subordinate
to the welfare of his community and his race in their competition
and struggle for continuance on the face of the earth. We have
to differentiate between Man, an order of beings, and ‘man’ an
egotistical unit whose naturally selfish aspect is to regard the world
as his oyster, and whose first instinct is self-preservation. Mal-

xlvi PROCEEDINGS.

thusian views prevail. Utopia with perfect peace, continuous bliss,
Jey, and love for all, is necessarily an impossibility, and encourage-
ment of any such idea a snare to the weak and emotional. The
world cannot be otherwise than one of strife, both of brain and
muscle, and the struggle must continue, of the weak with the strong
and of the oppressed with the oppressor, however much we may
disguise the unavoidable in euphonious terms.

While excess in all things is to be deprecated, and over-
indulgence in speculations in matters of science is to be avoided, a
generalization or two gives a fillip to enquiry and is helpful to the
student. As a stimulus to observation it may for the moment be
assumed there is no reavon why the same systematic and orderly
approach to the fields of the unknown, which method modern
research inculeates, should not be adopted also to the realms of
thought, nor why we should not assume that the energy of intelli-
gence and the limitations to voluntary action may not also be
under the dominion of law. If this be so, who shall say little is left
in the field of science for the observer outside the walls of a college
and a laboratory ?

W. McKerron presented the treasurer’s report, which having
been audited and found correct, was received and adopted.

The report on the library was presented by H. Prers, showing
that 2,330 books and pamphlets had been received by the Institute
through its exchange-list during the calendar year 1904, anl 1,354
had been received during nine months of the present year (1905),
viz., January to September. Increased use of the library was also
reported as shown by the number of books borrowed during the
year 1904, viz. 519, as against 296 in 1903. Particulars were also
given of the total number of books and pamphlets received during
the year 1904 by the Provincial Science Library with which the
books of the Institute are incorporated. This number was 3,115,
of which 2,330 were the society’s exchanges as above-mentioned.
The report was received and adopted.

The secretary reported that the KInas County BRANCH OF THE
INsTIruvE |.ad not met during this session of 1904-5.

OFFICERS, ETC. xl vil

W. Mckerrron presented a report as delegate to the meeting of
the Royal Society of Canada.

Votes of thanks were passed to Hon. M. H. Goupar, President
of the Legislative Council, for his courtesy in granting the society
the use of the Council Chamber as a place of meeting during the
past session; and to the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTI-
TuTION, Washington, for courtesy in continuing to admit the
Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International
Exchanges.

THE PRESIDENT brought to the notice of the meeting a note by
R. RuEDEMANN, assistant state paleontologist, Albany, N. Y., on
three specimens of Dictyonema websteri from New Canaan near
Kentville, Kings Co., Nova Scotia, belonging to the Webster col-
lection, Provincial Museum, Halifax. Mr. Ruedmann reports as
follows regarding these specimens:

“ Dictyonema websteri has been figured, but not described, by
Dawson in Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, vol. v, 1860, p. 139,
and again figured in Acadian Geology, 1891, p. 563, but not
described. Thus this species is nowhere described. A careful com-
parison with authentical material of D. retiforme, Hall, from the
Rochester (Niagaran) shale in New York, fails to show any differ-
ences sufficient for specific distinction, and it is, therefore, quite
sure that D. websteri is identical with D. retiforme.” He reports
further that a lot of Dictyonemas from Benton and Monument
Settlement, Carleton County, New Brunswick, and from Navy
Island, St. John, N.. B., labelled Dictyonema sociale, all belong to
one species, Dictyonema flabelliforme, Fichwald) (sp.) 9 (=
Dictyonema sociale, Salter |sp.], a Latin name). This species is
characteristic of the closing stage of the Cambric age.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1905-
L906"):

President—F. W. W. DOANE, C. E., ex-officio F. R. M. 8S.

Vice-Presidents—PROFESSOR EBENEZER MAcKAy, PH. D., and PROFES-
sor J. EDMUND WoopMAN, D. Sc.

Treasurer—WILLIAM MCKERRON.
Corresponding Secretary—A, H. MacKay, Lu. D., F. R. S.C.

Recording Secretary—Harry PIERS.

xlvil PROCEEDINGS.

Librarian—HARRy PIERS.

Councillors without Office—MAyNaRD BowMAN, B. A.; Watson L.
BISHOP; EDWIN GILPIN, JR., Lu. D.,. F. R. 8S. C., I. S. O.; Anux-
ANDER McKay; J. B. McCartuy, B. A., M. Sc.; PRoressor
FREDERIC H. Sexton, B, Sc.; HENRy 8S. Poor, D. Sc., F. R. S. C.

Auditors—PROFESSoR D. A. MurrAy, Pu. D.; R. McCort, C. E.

A vote of thanks was presented to the retiring President, Dr.
Poour, for the very able manner in which he had filled the position
during his term of office.

A vote of thanks was presented to H. Prers for his work as
secretary.

First ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 13th Nov., 1905.

THE PRESIDENT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been elected ordinary
members: A. A. HAywarp, Halifax: ArTHuUR STANLEY MaAc-
KENZIE, PH. D., Professor of Physics, Dalhousie College, Halifax ;
ErRNeEst Brypon-J Ack, M. A., C. E., professor of civil engineering,
Dalhousie College, Halifax; and that Monro ArcHrBaLp, B. A.,
B. Sc., had been elected an associate member.

Captain J. H. Barsour, M. D., Royal Army Medical Corps,
Halifax, read a paper, “ On the Flora of MeNab’s Island, Halifax
Harbour, N. 8.” (See Transactions, p. 553). The subject was dis-
cussed by Dr. A. H. MacKay, and a vote of thanks presented to
CAPTAIN BARBOUR.

In the absence of the author, H. Prers read a “* Catalogue of
the Birds of Prince Edward Island,” prepared by JoHn Mac-
Swarn, of Charlottetown. (See Transactions, p. 570).

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlix

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 11th Dec., 1905.

THE PRESIDENT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

W. E. Lisoman, M. A., M. I. M. E., of Durham, England, read
a paper entitled, “ Mining, Is it a Science ?,” in the course of which
he said:

“Tt is safe to say that mining up to within recent years has
stood in its own light. It has been regarded as essentially prac-
tical, the theoretical side of it being almost entirely ignored. It
used to be a sine gua non tor one holding an official position that
he should be, to borrow an expression used in coal mining, “a good
pitman.” We will not quarrel with this, as it is very essential that
a man who is to see to the actual working of a mine should be @
really practical man, and so long as mining was carried on in a

=]

rule-of-thumb fashion and simply consisted in raising compara-
tively easily obtained and accessible minerals to the surface, such
a man was the most suitable for the purpose. But now that in
many countries the process of extracting and raising minerals, so
far from being the simple affair it once was, has become one of the
most compheated and far-reaching that man is called upon to per-
form, we may well question the policy of setting so much store by
the purely practical man. And be it observed that it is just at the
time when mining is making this marked advance forward, when,
that is, methods are becoming more and more complicated, that
scientific education on its part is making a like advance. The one
is in fact complementary to the other. But such is the conser-
vatism in human nature that in spite of the increasing complexity
of mining operations on the one hand, and in spite ot the impetus
given to technical education on the other to meet this, yet those in
authority are only now beginning to give up their predilections for
the * practical man’ and to go in for one who by judicious training
in practical and theoretical work should in all senses of the word
prove more efficient for an official position than the former. It is
for this reason that I say that mining has to a certain extent stood
in its own light; but it is satisfactory to notice that a change is
now taking place, as indeed it was bound to do, and the value of

] PROCEEDINGS.

the scientific man is becoming more and more recognized every
day. This is still further emphasized in England by the recent
parliamentary enactment providing that two years’ study (with the
necessary diploma) at an accredited college or institution, and
three years’ practical experience at a colliery, may take the place
of the five years’ practical work which previously constituted the
qualification for sitting for the examination for colliery manager’s
certificate. In this connection, too, it may also be observed that the
Durham College of Science, Newcastle, and other universities, have
recently instituted degrees in mining, being I believe the first to
adopt such a course. So that it is beginning to be recognized that
mining should at least be regarded from a scientific stand-point.
It remains for those interested in the subject to see that this stand-
point is maintained, or if possible, improved upon. It is evident,
too, that much more will be expected of the future mining engineer
than has been the case in the past. And necessarily so, for as the
more accessible and more easily worked seams and veins are
approaching exhaustion, the need for more scientific and ingenious
methods of reaching those less accessible will become more pressing,
and will demand all the resources we are capable of rendering.”

The subject was discussed by Dr. A. H. Mackay, PROFESSOR
Sexton and Dr. WoopMan, and a vote of thanks was presented to
the lecturer.

Dr. A. H. MacKay read a paper entitled, “ Fungi of Nova
Scotia; first supplementary list,” (see Transactions, vol. xu, pt. 1,
p- 119), which was discussed by Dr. H. H. Reap, Dr. E. MacKay,
Dr. A. P. Rerp, W. L. BrsHop and H. Piers.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING,

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 12th Feb., 1906.

THE PresIpENtT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

H. W. Jounston, C. E., assistant city engineer, Halifax, read
paper on the “ Halifax Water Works.” (See Transactions, vol.
i, pt. 1, p. 72). The subject was discussed by the PRESIDENT,
ROFESSOR JACK, W. L. BisHop, Dr. A. H. MacKay, T. V. Hitt,
and Dr. E. Mackay; and a vote of thanks was presented to the

a
XT
P

lecturer.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. hi

FourtH Orpinary MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th March, 1906.

THE PRESIDENT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

In the absence of the author, Dr. PooLr read a paper by R. W.
Ets, Lu. D., F. R. S. C., of the Geological Survey of Canada, on
“The Oil-fields of Eastern Canada.” (See Transactions, p. 598).
Specimens illustrating the paper were shown from the collection of
Dr. Pootr. The paper was discussed by the PRESIDENT, and Drs.
WoopMAN and POooLe.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th April, 1906.
THE PRESIDENT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

Dr. Poo.e read a letter received by the curator of the Provin-
cial Museum, from LAURENCE M. LAMBE, of the Geological Survey
of Canada, relative to amphibian-like remains found by Dr. Poole
at the Joggins, Cumberland Co., N. S., and now in the Provincial
Museum. ‘The specimen, Mr. Lambe states, does not supply the
information necessary for its determination.

Dr. PooLe took the chair, while the PRESIDENT read a paper on
“The Frost and Drought of 1905.” (See Transactions, p. 623).

It was resolved that the question as to the desirability of having
a self-recording rain-gauge placed by the meteorological department
at Halifax, be referred to the council to take action if it sees fit.

Watson IL. BrsHop, superintendent of water works, Dart-
mouth, read a paper on * Hels in Water Pipes and Their Migra-
tion.” (See Transactions, p. 640). The subject was discussed .by
the PRESIDENT, Dr. A. H. MacKay, R. H. Brown and H. Prrrs.

Dr. A. H. MacKay communicated a paper by Frank H. Rep,
entitled, ‘“‘ Notes on Protective Colouring,” which was discussed by
Dr. Mackay, W. L. BrsHop and H. Prers; and a vote of thanks
was presented to Mr. Retp. }

li PROCEEDINGS.

The following papers were read by title: ‘The Grignard Syn-
thesis: Action of Phenyl Magnesium Bromide on Camphor,” by H.
JERMAIN M. CreicHron, Dartmouth, (see Transactions, p. 593) ;
and ‘* Contributions to the Study of Hydroxylamine,” by G. M.
JOHNSTONE MacKay, B. A., Dartmouth, (see ‘Transactions,
vol. x1, pt. 2, p. 324).

SixtH ORDINARY MEETING.
Room of Mining Society of N. S., Halifax, 21st May, 1906.

THE PRESIDENT, Mr. DOANE, in the chair.

Watson L. BrsHop, Dartmouth, brought to the notice of the
Institute the occurrence of Star-nosed Moles (C. cristata) and a
shrew in a submerged eel trap at the Dartmouth water-supply lake.

In the absence of the author, H. W. JoHNstTon read a paper by
W. G. Yorston, C. E., city engineer of Sydney, C. B., on “* Water
Powers of the Mersey River, Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions,
p. 651). The paper was discussed by the PrestpentT, R. McCot1,
A. A. Haywarp, W. L. Bishop, Dr. H. H. Reap, and Dr. A. H.
Mackay.

RopertcK McCoui, C. E., provincial engineer, Halifax, pre-
sented a paper “* On the Damage Done to Timber by Toredo navalis
and Limnoria lignorum.” The subject was discussed by the PRE-
SIDENT, Dr. A. H. MacKay, W. L. BisHop, and H. PIsrs.

A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., F. R. 8. C., superintendent of educa-
tion, Halifax, presented a paper entitled, “ Phenological Observa-
tions, Canada, 1905”: and also a paper on “ Water-rolled Weed-
balls.” (See Transactions, p. 667).

A vote of thanks was passed to PResipDENt Haywarp and the
Mining Society of Nova Scotia for their courtesy in permitting the
use of their room as a place of meeting.

Harry PIERS,
Recording Secretary.

APPENDIX I.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1902-03.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

PMS TAR PEATE Tea ST RVR 8 1 2 Wp ieee ee ee eRe ae aera Reh a Feb. 185, 1869
SYP Ne Evel SUbU A Ac odo EWI be Vp cae” fame ereR gtr aR ues ins ee aie ey Na RIN A lm ag RU March 4, 1890
Bishop WeatsonsuecDartmoubhesNs Sure see tose ean dene oe see cienioeenin bree Jan. 6, 1890
Bowman, Maynard, B. A, Public Analyst, Halifax. ... ... ..............March 18, 1884
Brownshichardull sHalifarsn dock they dee ced teice ISAs Seite Noe eR ee Feb. 2, 1903
STOW IEE DS alEG Ue VRE OU UN ag Neier ec croe f.oe ew oulrersn aeeleatel elenaren South naa es Jan. 10, 1891
eCamppell Donald: As Mab: selallahaxe iu ptes oe cite iota cates ses sacste PANY 2 rods eLOUO
CampbellaGeorzeeMurray, M.D vealitayx, acne ni Miele daw cterels viesh oreng vies’ Nov. 10, 1884
Colpibh. Parker k.,.Citysblectrician; Halifax, ooo. 0. caecde degen. oes OD. 2. 1903
Coies Andrew ti MED sls Re OP ere EL AILaR tcc near alctitee socio aie okt Jan. 27, 1893
Davis, Charles Henry; c. £., New: York ‘City, U..S--Al..- 2. ee Dec. 5, 1900
Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. a., B. A. 1., Dalhousie College, Halifax.April 8, 1902
DOANE WoW er Clby HMOINCER bl aliheuRer i. sac. sea hes cota aan eects een Nov. 3, 1886
Donleinssbirgm > O- i. Syaneyss Coon eset tae saaahe ste ltibu stink asec OW OOS oogie
i Dregenabe rd Ne Vorea oe (et a) B ket ht otcip- qed a eaeee ha acs oh tele Dear ge Aer WG epi Ma PS en Pe Jan. 6, 1890
Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Tech atian, Halitax aS .... May . 8, 1894
| Sora ps7 AVA eae BS) Bs 8 bee] & BN its b> Ge eater aa pret earch pric he Mdpme S ten Me ata wove Oct. 29; 1894
BORD ES TOMLIN El ch latey xs vests: i ea ee ces tate es Seis aday ae pI ate letosg wie ereres March 14, 1883
*Fraser, C. Frederick, Principal, School forthe Blind, Halifax............ March 31, 1890
Garess Herbert -h.--ATCGHIbeCt,. Hlalilax tes. sores qelnieene ahupaisse time nie ee tioleeS April 17, 1899
‘Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax...... April 11, 1873
Hathies Walham-Harrop.-M.D:, Dartmouthricn. << is os vcan cree eee soca Nov. 12, 1892
Irving, G. W.T.; KdueationDept., Halifax... 2.00... cewek cece ence ene Jan. 4, 1892
VACHUES HAL bl ey Ses Ne Dug ELIDA ser arecelne edhe eck ope pteitn duibca stale cleat core lis; oss May 8, 1894
<) er] paV eR pe (0) 10 0 bid epee g Kee DU irs ip apa eee Se mie ea ar pK os aks nN ng arch iE caer oe March 3, 1902
J ONMSEO IW. SEL ATT VW ot Oa Bie EVO, VILA Xe ok artes tere Ai opeleinsolct ns) wichoha oR Mtcr sie \siey sae sie Dec. 31, 1894
Giri Ge cece EXER yin BX 0) okey Bad a ke WU icy Ck Ceres Wm etn ota ern Mat nee ai OR ira ai Sea Nd Jan. 11, 1885
McCarthy, J. B:, B. A., B. Sc., peqenrs of Science, Coun.y Academy,

MET ea th eipmetne ceset eee EM erate eyo eeliera Pelsls NSIS Sra RTAN Son Coo here te biciahinigtatce aacotoms Dec. 4, 1901
McColl, Roderick, c. E., Assistant Provl. Engineer, Halifax.............. Jan. 4, 1892
Ii geWers Corote Co Gets ihacko) 22 Been beac eyts feel a PHB 2: > CaamaweneserT So Ne RAD Aen ett -March 14, 1881
*MacGregor, Prof. J. G., M. A., D. Se., F. R. 8., F. R. S. C., Edinburgh Wnt .

WeELSlbVs HHGIN MULE Hawt, pareosian ce Oriente wens te Bs Catt ae aes ASC EN 0 peed |) lala Noy
AVE GIMIMES SEE CEO Lbs Bk ERT LAI sas crv sign sate aye ere ke ioake seat heres fs, ckatiern te there Tov. 27, 1889
*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax ...... .......-2.-.--- Feb. 5, 1872
“MacKay, A. H., B. A., B. SC., LL. D., F. R.S. C., Superintendent of Educa-

ApLeay DeLee esse a opie tah ew eae fe dire Seana laralolne Marape rete Tays Palcceirece eee Ske Oct. 11, 1885
MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax . ... .......Nov. 27, 1889
MCKErepnesyVelbhi aries Eley Pa Xose sre. cise pene as <tepereia: oo efetovelaarsftye-t evecsteppiety Paes ‘Nov. 30, 1891

*Life Members.
Proc & Trans. N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. App, I,

II LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission

Marshall, Gilford R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax ....... ..... April 4, 1894
Morton, S. A., M. a., County Aeademy, Halifax ........5.0. 0c. eee neues Jan. 27, 1893
Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. Sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax............... Jan. 15, 1870
Newman: (Cala. Dair (maui eNe See cree aee tes cra tare ersten sie hVaten Se eta er tage re Jan. 27, 1893
O’Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick’s Boys’ School, Halifax............ Jan. 16, 1890
*Parker, Hon. Daniel MeN., M. D., M-L. C., Dartmouth, N.S...-.......... 1871
Pearsons Beh. Barrister: sevalifaxsy, svmgatie titi Genttionticssitmeae kant enti March 31, 1890
Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial ‘<

Science Wilbratyac bl alitaxs dcecwcese race avec iso ra aren eee rae Nov. 2, 1888
*Poole, Henry Skeffington, A. M, ASSOC. R. S. M., F. G. S., F. R. S. G., M.

CAN. SOC. C. E., HON. MEM. INST. M. E., Halifax............... Vaatte DNV. 2 ol Loonie
Read sbHerbert-H aMeDs, LR Cg. cebalifaxem oo, sh kien eos Pea cel Nov. 27, 1889

Robbe DW, SAM OrstioN cS ays ese eig eta cls pie era. aes he as Poca Set Soh rl aay March 4, 1890
Rutherford; ohn, MeW:.. Windsor e Nea Siracusa 1 Serra oe ater eee rae Jan. 8, 1865
*Smith, Prof. H. W., B. sec., Agricultural School, Truro, N. S.; Assoc

Mremib ss: Jans 6e1 690 eo. eect seca sores ae Peierls <i gel ULV ee 1960
*Stewalt, J Ohn,.MoBiuOmMs elalitarm 1. os coy heats aoa ety poems eae Jan. 12, 1885
Wiestherbe, Elon... Mr: Justice Halifaxus..sc-1ckt se ote ee ae eee March 28, 1895
Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N.S....Nov. 29, 1894
Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax ..........0.0.. wsaee May _ 3, 1889
Woodman. Prof. J. Edmund, M. A., D. Sc., School of Mining and Metal-

lurey, Dalhousie College; Halitiaix si icc iiseh ln atin vente olw alls sini Yocs ors Dec. 3, 1902

Vorstous WiaG-e Gk Sydney. (Ober teat apie On eee) Cee mene Noy. 12, 1892
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
* Cai emhobert.aV arm Obs Nees seri e-cctne vaca cists contr ease om tear Jan, 31, 1890
“Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commerc’al Cable Co., Hazelhill,

(ErubClovoy Coyne) a Ola RS WIN AIS) =e vader a oho Dane Sancdoecoeanaeeoncbaue none sans March 4, 1895
Hdwards: Arthur = Vico. Ds, eal. ss,aNe Walks: Niciciitisey-irelo eh eet eerie tees Dec. 12, 1898
Gates, Reginald R , Mt. Allison University, Sackville, N. B................ Feb. 2, 1903
Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S... ..c.......5..20.. Nov. 5, 1901
Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ...................May 17, 1899
Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B...... Jan. 6, 1890
Jaggar, Miss A Louise, Cambridge, Mass... 2.2... 22. nc: us cee eeeee ae Dee. 5, 1900
James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario.......... Dec. 3, 1896
Jenmson, TW. Ley Syd Mey CBee ees cteratsrarclaee atone castes Le saab ale « oe eles ea aaah a ea
+Johns vEbomas Wa, VaLrmoubh Neto. /e 2 ates ke eee eer Nov. 27, 1889
*Keating, E. H., c. &., Toronto Ry. Co., Toronto, Ont. ; Ord: Memb.,

Jay OF LE bel chs yee eon at te teens IR cen Mer hae Sohne .. April 11, 1900

*Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M, A., D. Sc., F. G. S., King’s Golleze: Windsor.

Vet eats a ec ince 1 9 PMLA tT os ane in ARONA, share ose tec Onn Meme nih yreitsin, 95.0% Nov. 9, 1882
Lawrence, H., D. D. s., Wolfville, N. See Act ae ar BD Siem te MIR OA oo ae March 9; 1903
MacIntosh, Kenneth, St. George’s Channel, C. B ; Ord. Memb, Jan. 4,

itso ete ete ora en Beene ai. AEM Rr ne SOU AGT oc He AD RO ees June, 1900
*MacKay, Hector H., M. p., New Glasgow, N.S...2... .....,.ce00e--- .... HED, 4, 1902
MekKernzie Wi, 3: s1G.E MUOM GOTH aN ban cir cal: Welesievieen eatin ss tence orem ean ioe March3l, 1882
Miciseod Ri akvs, -DroOlefiel GiiNii: Sanger cris ogee cis Manis cherarafetcerel ote tena es oe Dee. 3, 1897
Magee, W.H., PH. D:; High School, Parrsboro’y NwS:. 2s... .. seen ie ee NOVe 29, dood
MathesonsavesGre Ne Wa G laseOWwasNisSucecerentec sistenrdnelesnreyos his level ae sbel- arrears Jan, 31, 1890
Payzant.wNs MDs a WV OliV ae ING Scot bona. te ieee ees a eee ee April 8, 1902
Pinsos Avard WoL. B., Kentville, N.S.... .. vocal ieee ts NOV OM Loon
*Reid, A. P., M. D., L. BR. C.S., Tadee Pnnapolis ean N. Sisal seeea Jan. 31, 1890
*Robinson, C. B., B. A., Pictou Academy, Pictou, N.S............:. Be cats Dec. 3, 1902
~Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S............068 Noy, 29, 1894

“Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Ill

Date of Admission.

"Russell, Prof. Lee, B:-s.; Worcester, Masse. eec. cave es cc cee wee evo stcreeee Dec. 3, 1896
Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S............-.+5 Feb. 6, 1901
Sears, Prof. F. C., Director N. S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, N. S. Feb. 6, 1901

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Ami, Henry M., D. sc. F. G. S., F. R. S. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

LOTENE EY HO eC Gas eI Se ace it tv OT DOIG CIM eae: acs ACE SIA eae AISI E Jan. 2, 1892
Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D.. F. R. 8. C., Diy ersity of New Bruns-

wicks frederiGbore Nin Bis cc sssic.c seis els cie-s' Ba eS eh Serato Boca AES Jan. 6, 1890
Balle vy HieEle EW iCSUVALLO MINIS <4 see Ooeracioo cwlotis aie sMiare ond eeu austere eee Nov. 29, 1871
Bethune, Rev. C. J. S.,M. A., D. C. L., F. R. C. 8., London, Ontario.......... Dec. 29, 1868
GoexPhilip;-8; Sc.,- PH.D... Chatham, Ne Bi. 52:0 2)000 or iSicis oole ee orintin « w otern ot ae Deca: coso02
Davidson, Prof. John, PHIL. D., Univ. of N. B., Fredericton, N. B......... Dec. 12, 1898
Dobie, W. Henry, M.-D., Chester, England. .-. 2... 0.00.0. e ewe eee seex DEC NS1897
Duns, Prof. John, New ae HMoinburg hey SCOblan Gee! cmeje reine otol sielcre speietes Dec. 30, 1887
Ells, R. W. LL. D., F. G. S. A., F. R. 8. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..Jan, 2. 1894
Fairbault, E. Hoddishe B. A., B. Sc., Geological Survey of Canada,

Oftawans Assocs Membe, March: 618882 sen. 1. nee cajsactnelneleerdels sims «cine Dec. 3, 1902
Fletcher, Hugh, B. a., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario ...... ......... March 3, 1891
Fletcher, James, LL. D., F. L. S, F. R. S. C., Entomologist and Botanist,

Central Hxps Harm, Ottawa, Ontarior.c.« so. cea. occas cles tie ciesne March 2, 1897
Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

Usa recast ses eraser ee oy aa ag tenets Sharer Oa Sata el aah sla ere Sines. shaaminAern calely sjemin ale Jan 6, 1890
Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. Ss. C., Post Office Department, Oui Be haiats May 4, 1896
EaiyGeOLece: Ulisse. SC) cH. Rass. Ste JONMSN. JE ta ccassseiiesnsteatm tclee «spate Dec. 3, 1902
Litton, Robert T., Fr. G. s., vienna JMS REV ano OBtO nb ORO UCIes Ao -May 5, .1892
McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold. Kt., F.R.S..........-...-.....- ..June 10, 1880
McSwain, John. Charlottetown, es Te pee erase fake rateta te a east Wc, Sco ae) okerats Dec. 3, 1902
Matthew. Gis .M. A. D: SC: hs. -S) Gy Sb. JOHN WN. Bocce cs apse seh seals 6. 1890
Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. b., a AN ISDA Gia Os ti ae a on Sri Sera Nov. 30, 1891
Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, St. Joseph’s Commercial College, Detroit,

POTS eA eee, Meee Red, calsvcne Wes tse ae i | isl eae tale it cel Stvacreicsa, @PabeTw eee alate lato SA Dec. 12, 1898
Breck fore Charles mebalifamye is aenokee Mosalec volety anc comes Wie nels slasareneteretels Mar 2, 1900
Prest, Walter H., mM. £., Bedford ; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29 1894 ........... Nov. 2, 1900
Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper, Museum of Brooklyn Inst. of Arts and

Sciences sErOGlkelyas INGLY oie ae tevera tater steraitee ure aloe ualeverayaloleds ate e'alesiotacl eye Dec. 4, 1901
Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inapeekor of Fisheries,

Ottaway Ontario... 25-2 2¢.05008. soa. = PSA ee ae AM AI, Te AE Jan. 5, 1897
Smith; Hon? Everett, Portland, Maine, U.S.A: ..5.. ot et ede ee ce March 31, 1890
Spencer, Prof. J. W.. PH. n., F. G. s., Washington, D.C., U.S. A........ Jan. 31, 1890
Westone bnomagi@- 1 HaGasarl: nO tha Wid, OMUATION.c.c.ciesie calsl> uaitelo ae - tne stale = May 12, 1877

APPENDIX II.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1903-04.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.
Date of Admission.

BA VOrmrCUnU sen Flaite Xateyeversierustarstereicis sie acelereeinels oi ereie sie sepsis seielele wyelee sicisie syelsie's March 4, 1890
Bishop. Watson L., Supt of Water Works, Dartmouth, N.S.. ......... Jan. 6, 1890
Bowman, Maynard, B. A, Public Analyst, Halifax. ... ..........-.-..-..March 13, 1884
Browne chardeHestalita xem ee ste tee iaciins Oar nasaecidege ce oe Sess Feb. 2, 1903
IBLOW0y PED AlLOUL, YALIMOULDS IN aoe siaecisererinosied cies sel ots sel biel « elsines « Jan. 10, 1891
Budge, D., General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable wo., Halifax Servers sig Oct. 30, 1903
ACampuelly DomaldeA.s Maser (evallifarx cr ecirekaciacsci stele class eleisicloteleiaioiee m'eie Jan, 31, 1890
Campbells George Murray, Me Dee Halifaxe Geiciese care cescwie cl alee ....Nov. 10, 1884
Colpitt, Parker R., City Electrician, Halifax ............. .--:. AeheereoeeDs 2, 1903
*Davis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U.S. mM Ware aise Ul state aaron: sie's .- Dee. 5, 1900
Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. a., B. A. I., Dalhousie College, Halifax. April 8, 1902
WOaTIe eke Wie Wiel OlbYs Lin CIN CCT Alita Xe oe a ccyaciecsilelet eels) eere)siereiwicic «nic sielo Nov. 3, 1886
IDeA ain, Jahier Gs Jor, Clee Bae (Ob 8% —onnosenbaecondoaasndud, eoeseosedouc Nov. 30, 1892
SATE EOL AS Mee Pa R A Ne ere apetesacelcnteretetave coyyasctate se sisleieie)s ovals arco asisnysfelateretatel sarees Jan. 6, 1890:
Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax.....,.....May 8, 1894
PHOLDeS PION VLONGCUON yy Neg ise ancrare cYoictarh istrciesioteleaiicisre-s’ cial evslstolsinl= oft sims evclere cere March 14, 1883
*Fraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax ....March 31, 1890
Gates Herbert: HevArchi beets Elalitaxd aces aes Gieeteeeis! Cotas sie ca sies celdss ne April 17, 1899
‘Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL. D., F. R. Ss. C, Inspector of Mines, Halifax Teer Aprile 1 asis
Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth.......... Nov. 12, 1892
ENGI nese VV ier die PLOTS tLOMD1) © pts, pEVaLl Ua Kees crouniste o:0 ose a c1ainiore'e ele! aia) otal ajeraieis Jan. 4, 1892
PACGHUES PE ATOLCY:.S. Mia Dey ELA iPaxe cyacretiare srtouetaciee sisi sits lele) stele ea eis) fou eee May 8, 1894
WOMNS COMM ALT: Vise Cosa, Lge iLaNG ac crecvore eye wisieie) co(olavefoter sicie) a cioveistslets oi » Dec _ 31, 1894
SIN MELE VE ROD ELE GEL ALILA KAN oi5.cce </2'e.s ssicieisicisia, Jsicia ecjaja, se sie a evaisiaianctolevel ever aterave Jan. 11, 1885
MeCarthy, J. B., B. A., B. Sc., teacher of science, County Academy,

15 ENDS cael ABisk op Boman G0ad oo Ha HOO Tad 2 OnE OC OME RHO et rriceannocice Dec. 4, 1901
McColl Roderick, C..k:. erovl. Wnpineers Elalitax ccc. .ccsee see ccc cece. Jan. 4, 1892
MACHO aAla SIMON ect Gasse ELA iba Kc om see cteciersiee a clceicicisicie cae) sieieelel oe March 14, 1881
*MacGregor, fF rof. J. G., M. A., D. SC., F. R. S., F. R. S. C., Edinburgh Uni-

WOusag IsGbtl aha canon cael gone acen don aeoncooudanooRe oouSosD-sna Jan. 11, 1877
McInnes sector ein. BavEalifax) cow sc.ccnismnc ctimcc ac setetastiotece Secinas Nov. 27, 1889

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Holitaxteecen: tee kote Feb. 5, 1872
*MacKay, A. H., B. A., B. S¢c., LL. D., F. R.S. C., Superintendent of Educa-

(yale) 2 GW hi Chenoa GasGeicEe Setar aM RR ae Si ric AONE NCR tereritek as oeine Oct. 11, 1885
MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax . ... ....... Nov. 27, 1889
MacKay. Georze M. Johnstone, Dartmouth, N.S................--2e+ceee- Dec. 18, 1903
MeKerron nwailliam aR alitaxe och ce) sallew oe pieurremist. clerceianircielsleutelssi= stele alers Nov. 30, 1891

*Life Members.
Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou. XI. - App. II

VI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Marshall, Gilfori R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax ...,.... ..... April 4, 1894
Morton, S. A., M. A.; County Academy, Halifax .............ccscccecscess Jan. 27, 1893
Niurphy, Martin, (CH. DSCs 0. 8-.Or,) ELAliba xe eie telcisle | eicielsitielrmieiereciieters Jan. 18, 1870
Murray, Prof. Daniel Alexander, Ph. D., Dalhousie Golizee: Halifax .-. Dec. 18, 1903
Newman, ©. Dartmouth eNeisnecaeciclincicaietecte sacelrectetiasrsmicieeeteraieets Jan. 27, 1893
O’Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick's Boys’ School, Halifax...... So Goody 1 TS)
*Parker, Hon. Daniel MeN., M. D., Dartmouth, N. S...«... 0. .... eee ee. 1871
Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial

Science Wal bravyn vel alataixsy cris cttorcrsvecrece sia crel- terse ieole ei cialeleersrerneraisieercisreste Noy. 2, 1888
*Poole, Henry Skeffington, A. M , ASSOC. R. S. M., F. G. S., F. R. S. C., M.

GANZ SOC! CIE HON. MEIMESENSIM Mig Rass MEN Uc Xs. ate aayereeielelellelsremeterelete Nov. 11, 1872
Read.-Herbert He, WM. Ds. Ue Re Cas.) Palifasc. (0 ciccetereele siecle mcrcisinieicle -Nov. 27, 1889
sl SK OLDS ID Na, LatamlaVeydsitn ING Soneeon, cononaseoousocase Conde Mclnions In aT March 4, 1890
Rutherford johny Mesbes el alitaxc wae a or en tne aestererereyoee clots iecie cieiete ees Jan. 8, 1865
Sexton, Prof. Frederic H., Valhousie College, Halifax .......... ........ Dec. 18, 1903
*Smith, Prof. H. W., B. se., Agricultural School, Truro, N.S.; Assoc-

Memb: Sans G21 S890 irre sere coer te verse erate meteors POSSE ecto .. Dee. 1900
‘StewanbtclOhn MiB. CMe Wevalitacx. ear arcne ere aete ce hem matric cece Jan. 12, 1885
Wieatherbe: Hon vir Justice el alitarsnc sy cemcciel ce sic siceleeirde eleternecicients March 28, 1895
Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N.S....Nov. 29, 1894
Wilson Robert J.,-Secretary, School Board, Halifax ........... -., = «:«: May | 3, 1889
Winfield, James H., Manager, N.S. Telephone (Co., alifax... .......... Dec. 18, 1903
Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund, Mm. A., D. sc., School of Mining and Metal-

lurey; Dalhousie College; Hulifax {.s.--cs205-- 2 =e relae eee ee Dec. 3, 1902
*Yorston, WIG Coe Syn eye (CoB joie cee sak enn aioe sina cece sierneert Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

*Caile roberts, VanmoutheeNe Secs sce vetien Eileen ioe one Cn er eres eeiee Jan, 31, 1890
“Dickenson, S. S., Commercial Cable con INiew. Mork UR OseAteerc reise March 4, 1895
Edwards, Arthur M., IDR ay Wartshe INChWEhO ING d) sonoucosbuaysdoupodunnc -Dec. 12, 1898
Gates, Reginald R , Mt. Allison University, Sackville, .B...............- Feb. 2, 1903
Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S... ......2..-.0+0.. Nov. 5, 1901
Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ....-........-..05: May 17, 1899
Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....... Jan. 6, 1890
dagegar, MisssA Touise: Cambridge) Mass... cass. seccen ote eeeeiamien ae Dec. 5, 1900
James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario.......... Dec. 3, 1896
Jgennison:; (W.Hs Sydney. Ca B: sa. .4.occsnsc caste eee eee eee May 4, 1903
cJohbns -thomasiwemVarmouths INGeSesdeass nee eee mee en CLE nee mee Nov. 27, 1889
“Keating, E. H., c. E., Toronto Ry. Co., Toronto, Ont.; Ord. Memb.,

April 2 SV B82'922 cfsan case ectoeiamies a cise sian ae ores ee Re eee eee April 11, 1900
“Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T:,,M, A:; D: Sc., K) G.(S., Wolfville, INAS een icles Nov. 9, 1882
Lawrence, H.,, D. D. s., Wolfy 1 RUN its taennoamcter scorninogouconsacoscodaDocR 6c March 9, 1903
MacIntosh, Kenneth, St. George’s Channel, C. B ; Ord. Memb., Jan. 4,

n ses Ce TOR aa CG Sten te Pee et HOM R ete PRs GARAND nin SHAD QanbES June, 1900
MacKay, Hector H., M. p., New Glasgow, N.S....... eceeveeee Roocobauecalnel gs 4, 1902
McKenzies Wb... Ee MOonctonsNes Beene ee cence eee eee een: March3l, 1882
Niko Oererels Ieee IB ROTA INGIS) oosédanduscodsasd casos s00ddDs dbpOmEaano se Dec. 3, 1897
Magee, W. H., pH. p., High School, Parrsboro’, N.S.....+.... eS daracahe ofotel rover Nov. 29, 1894
Matheson, W:'G:,. New Glaszow:/ NaS): q....sccssene sacs onestueaenioeseenes Jan. 31, 1890
Payzant, E.N., M. D., Wolfville, N.S ......... een freee ak Ae Te April 8, 1902
Pineo, ada IM yey I MAAR ING (sh 50n go aodesandsa Goo0ede coo seor Nov. 5, 1901
*Reid, A. P., M. D., L. R. C.S., Middleton. Annapolis Co., N.S.....-.-. ... Jan. 31, 1890

rn ee

*Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Vil

Date of Admission.

*Robinson, C. B., B. A., New York Botanical Garden, New York, U.S. A.Dec. 3

“Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S...........0005 + Nov. 29,
PUURSOL POL MGC, Be Ss) VWWOLCESGCL; UASS. cert. ce oe ce cick c wieieicle ceieleletss =elelriere Dec. 3,
Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S...........----- Feb. 6,

Sears, Prof. F. C., Director N. S. School of Horticulture, Wolfvllle, N.S.Feb. 6,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. G. S., F R. S. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

1902
1894
1896
1901
1901

TNE SRE cic etaete renal ove Teloraeerah e/a nl eerste wVe stove ic Sis ahs Sree oer neta eee ater Jan. 2, 1892
Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D.. F. R. S. C., Univemiay of New Bruns-

wick, Fredericton, N. B........ So APSE Neco, gee ia ire ae SR Pe oer Jan. 6, 1890
Ball Reva Heels Barring tOnsy NeiSsrle asics cana. es clacisciss dafeo-s ois Soaasise.sereise Nov. 29, 1871
Bethune, Rey. C. J. S., M. A., D. C. L., F. R. Cc. S., London, Ontario.......... Dec. 29, 1868
Coxsehilips B.SC. PHD: Chathamas Ne Bias oe) siete sac eee el sieleeier= eieieiseieisl «e181 Dec. 3, 1902
ID ATA Gyend Byers Aso) hess 0800n Nancesaoneprooadaaa soscnuc 5 A ACEO O EES Dec. 12, 1898
Dobiex WwW. Henry, M..p:. Chester, Hngland so. .- cc.c cece c ccs sc cclesccs ccices Dec. 3, 1897
Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland... ................6. Dec. 30, 1887
Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. S. A., F. R. 8. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..Jan. 2, 1894
Faribault, E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. sce., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ootawars Assoc, Memb: MarchiG,1sss) seesacece s+) cele cleecieescieaes Dec. 3, 1902
Fletcher, Hugh, B. a , Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario ...... ......... March 8, 1891
Fletcher, James, LL. D., F. L. S, F. R. S.C., Entomologist and Botanist,

Centralilixp, arm) Ottawa, Ontarion...« o<+..o-eaceeece ss snc March 2, 1897
Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

SRSA era sr Pine Sp eT CS sree ae asic amsee Heine artnet aie Jan. 6, 1890
Hardy, Maj.-General Campbell, Dover, England .... ........--+-....0000 Oct. 3), 1903
Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. Ss. C., Post Office Department, Ottawa ...... May 5, 1896
HaiyaiG COLZC1U ss Da SC), Hoa Ss (Cea bn SOMIMS IN isis eel velsielcleleiets: | <isielates)s)eince Dec. 3, 1902
Hi¢tonhobert.l., H. GS. Melbourne; Australias 1. j..c- sc sce oie wee eels May 4, 1892
McClintock, Vice- aeniea Sree 1D Goyal bl, Ie, TINS) GE Gnosuncosdbaoodhoe ogor June 10, 1880
MeSwain, John. Charlottetown, PH Ness... 2. Sece scr one «eine Seiaeciee aL OCs arose G02
Matthew, Gh, M.A; D: Sel, FR. S.C, St. John. N3B ..:...-..---..----e..0an. 6,189)
IMRUr ave Vier My DbOMS ID) Ds Mb ACA ON, Necsus Ales. e\eceis ier + ofarelaieisielelsiotmics cs Nov. 30, 1891
Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, Fall River, Mass., U.S. A... .........-.... -Dec. 12, 1898
Picklords@harles.. Ela litaxcasen comes: ee cei eetelsieisiersteisrodnin ciels Meise fee laleleeleiotelorer March 2, 1900
Prest, Walter Henry, M. E., Bedford: Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29 1894 ........ Nov. 2, 1900
Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper, Collegiate School, Windsor, N.S.... --... Dec. 4, 1901
Prince. Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

ObbawariONFALiO gens cocci cc eee nels. ol cajsvaielsiaiele) carsis eleissie circ Serer alesse Jan. 5, 1897
Sinith, Hon. Hyerett. Lortland, Maine, Wi Si Avs cc. cece -ieccwinses nae Mar. 31, 1890
Weston, Thomas C., F.G. S. A., Ottawa, Ontario............. ---- NR ae May 12, 1877

* Life Members.

+

APPENDIX IIT:

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1904-08.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.
Date of Admission.

labia} Jaqihqe Chl stilubdb.< qaoam oognsOoOs COB GCnaAbO hotkoor MUDo mca ae aaaneeretan March 4, 1890
Bishop Watson L., Supt of Water Works, Dartmouth, N.S... ......... Jan. 6, 1890
Bowman, Maynard, B. A, Public Analyst, Halifax. ... .......... .-.--..March 13, 1884
TOW ICNAEG Seles Hlalitaoxs ee ce sivarsto rile ch cree aeeisemie eine eerie cee hep: 2, 1903
Brown ha palfour sa ulmrerviillles INe (Sacr sencece: clictscic eer see «cise sles Jan. — 10, 1891
Budge, D., General Supt. Halifax & Beemada Cable U0., Halifax BAe 2 Oct. 30, 1903
*Campbell, Donald A, me D:, Halifax, <..-2.-.... +. ..- Se Sock ae 6 seoodeng ail, Tet)
Campbell) George Murray, M.D:, Halifax <.2 (2... 24.:5..3-----:-5» -.-- Nov: 105.1884
CoipithwearkerR., CityMlectricians-Halifax 21:-.--cs9..-.2: ..1.----....Aeb. 2, 1903
‘Mavis. Charlesselenty, Cy b.. New WOrk City, (WSs Ate. 1. soe 3 -eleseel ele Dee. 5, 1900
Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. a., B. A. 1., University of Birmingham,

Birmin ohare olan te secre terete ya neicre tarsi eielelslotiers fetetel=\-tateke/a=' = seaeApril 8. 1902
Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax 2 FR SeaOE Tes Ean ee apc mprias Nov. 3, 1886
NonkinywHiram 7c: HeGlacewBay. Ca IB. sttaceinc sects. tee wes wceeiiece sce Nov. 30. 1892
Mca BOM As cs el eulitcasxan tesserae se ote cies eee aysiu isle oiaict a sea Aeee eM ate oto ciaioke eet Jan. 6, 1890
Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Daw imetieution® alifaxce ae ..... May 8, 1894
PMOL Td OMe WONGbOM Na bse e cecil cas eistete cle ciekrertenj arya on oteleieisisi= March 14, 1883
*Fraser, C. Frederick, Lu. p., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax....March 31 1890
Gates) terbertil. sArrchitect:, Halifax naca-te sclemniees clef Sein soci scleretetanta April 17, 1899
*Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.C., I.S.0., Inspector of Mines Halifax ..April 11, 1873
Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth...... .«2Nov. 12, 1892
irvine GayWeileMducation.) pbs Ela ltaxs =). crc cciciss sei ae > sels ai clients oe Jan. 4, 1892
Johnston, Harry W.,c. E., Asst City Engineer, Halifax........... .... Dec. 31, 1894
*Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax ..... oats oDe consooNie | Es iets
McCarthy, J. B., 3. A., M. S¢c., eR of science, fConhey cadet:

le EN hii: AER BES anbod HEn ae E GoOnG mica cc eae ber ecaot opooce ..Dec. 4, 1901
McColl, Roderick, c. £., Provl. Engineer, Halifax ..........-.......-..0.. Jan. 4, 1892
Wiican ib Shh Dksiobte hich 1a bili @ Goooacshscaonedonauosanoders enouu sr March 14, 1881
*MacGregor, Prof. J. G., M. A., D. SC., F. R. S., F.R. S.C., Edinburgh Uni-

VOLS GVO DOMES TS COb) AIG ise ceceteisria Pa toteiatale aisinte lee ieeel csYod-tay-t oan Jan. 11, 1877
WGIRGVESH NS Relel Hons Wop shy le eNhiEh.< ayoqopbaumsouconG LonoH CodecboMmDDHo odor Nov. 27, 1889
*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax ...... ............... Feb. 5, 1872
*MacKay, A. H., B. A., B. Sc., LL. D., F R.S. C., Superintendent of Educa-

(Ftole ys | ghey Whi owen een Sess Gora LOR eRONCo eo: mor nere Riscasistatet apie? Oct aelI1Ss5
MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie Golleze, lshybiepe Sako con eNiOve 94h IEEE)

*MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Dartmouth, N.S .................--.20.. Dec. 18 1903
Wildes, Mllbsbmy ISeNbiaecknom Ge ophonoesdome adcoonoavonuoDbdsnaconen Nov. 30, 1891

*Life Members.

Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., VoL. XI. App. IIT

x LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Marshall, Gilford R., Principal, Compton Avenue School, Halifax ..... April 4, 1894
Morton, S. A.. M. A., County Academy, Halifax ............. Ook aeesmva reer Jan. 27, 1893
Murphy, Miaetin! CaE:, DSC: 41. S1O>, SAS KAtOOn. SAS mae eemnenerr-reeee Jan. 15, 1870
Murray. Prof. Daniel Alexander, Ph. D., pee College, Halifax ....Dec. 18, 1903
*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., Dartmouth, N.S..................200.. 1871
Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial

Since lbilyghaglebyinty Conapacpomuadodoue. 400 Cosmoganan othodHoos Nov. 2, 1888
*Poole, Henry Skeffington, a. M., ASSOC. R.S M,F.G.8,F.R.S.C,M.

CAN. SOC. C. E., HON. MEM. INST. M. E., Halifax Davey siaietecainielante meer Nov. 11, 1872
Read bierberto He. Mas elses See eke hey Xe yereyejeyor aieitelerelNeyersiotnie ele oleleterereteieters Nov. 27, 1889
MROD Ds saws CAMINETSE Ay Neis ane tates e ie sienic ciciciere tetera clekerne eter crerelermokerreraee March 4, 1890
Rutherford, Johns eats we Mallia ye crea le vate tetetstetstejctelole oeisjeleus, -cyaretels ee Jan. 8, 1865
Sexton. Prof. Frederic H., Dalhousie College, Halifax .................... Dec. 18, 1903
*Smith, Prof. H. W., B.sc., Agricultural School, Truro, N.S.; Assoc.

Wen SAUCE. LRQ0 acs cikctte chee eink Genie Soe ee ne eee Dec. 1900
*Stewante GO, Mes Cs a. . Ela lih axe sess ace cicler icicle) sietatels/acictohfletnteterettetene ese Jan. 12, 1885
Tinling, Captain E. B., R. N., Marine & Fisheries Dept., Halifax ......Feb. 7, 1905
Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N.S....Nov. 29, 1894
Wilson, Robert J.,,Secretary, School Board, Halifax ...................... May 3, 1889
Winfield, James H., Manager, N.S. Telephone Co., Halifax.............. Dec. 18. 1903
Woodman, Prof J. Edmund, M. 4, D. Sc., School of Mining and Metal-

lurgy, Dalhousie College, Halifax ............... Se CEOS Aa Dec. 3, 1902
*Yorston, W. G., C.E., City Engineer, Sydney, ©. B... ......5-.5600.0. 22. Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

*Caie, Robert, peor ae INS ects apne cotnartezeneraie ope arciaasinie, satel inte ese ore eee Jan. 31, 1890
*Dickenson, S. S., Commercial Cable Co., New Works Um SscAu ee pacers March 4, 1895
Edwards, ae Mi 2s De, Mie ila5)'S: soNG tanks wINaidim scictrteericirscietueeriee Dec. 12, 1898
Gates, Reginald R., Mt. Allison University, Sackville, N. B.....,.... .. Feb. 2, 1903
Haley, Prof. Frank R , Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ........ ........ Noy. 5, 1901
Harlow, li-i@., B. Sc.,, Prove Normal School) Meuros Ne Satecaeiemektteserrtsiels March 23, 1905
Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ............. .-May 17, 1899
Hunton, Prof. S. W ,M. 4. Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....... Jan. 6, 1890
Jagegar, Miss A: duouise, Cambridge) Massi - <7 arin elicielan lejocior tars sjoletaleiel steers Dec. 5, 1900
James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario ........ Dee. 3, 1896
AiGioene(Oya Nod daqnencobeVenay (OnuISisbop. aun nod sboovoennecoGncOUne se duaan sogses May 5, 1903
Silane r Mayank yan yny, SCenodoCONNOS ING ISH cougAnes odo S40) GosnocoduoAeydadoocdos Nov. 27, 1889
*Keating, H. H., c.&., Toronto, Ry. Co., Toronto, Ont.; Ord. Memb.

IN NVIPL IGE) Whoa do seadosnocdossg cadence ObacAane Spyoooscsonomvsyoadl ail TNT)
*Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M. A., D. SC. F. G. S., Wolfv ile. N. Ss aise ese Nov. 9, 1882
Lawrence, H., bp. p. 8., Wolfville, N.S..... Henge tad tlre neers --......Mareb 9, 1903
McIntosh, Kenneth, St. George’s Channel, C. B.; Ord. Memb., Jan. 4,

2° VAR nS eta ee eee ai ae A ee eS homie eve an wei Sh OES Ew oP June 1900
*MacKay, Hector H., M. D., ies Glaszowi: NuS Metetics eater eee eens Feb. 4, 1902
WU OLEGTAVATES, AYVe BES (OR ob a opneumoy INE 18) CmanoooasnonodseScA5crjccd eauounde March 31, 1882
Melicod am: Ri, BrooktleldssNiasmecre-che terseisstee vices se cieie aerate Dec. 3, 1897
Magee, W. Hs, PH. D:, Ammapolis; INaiSi cree cite) slacceleaiees b Nieraleiacronsta eee Nov. 29, 1894
Mathesons Wie Gos New Glas Owe ENenSiccek smmecctss ital erste ute -reyseter ion eee Jan. 31, 1890
Pay.zantiek Ne Mi: Ds \WiOli vale; yNinsuercy tleteeitaler= areketcyefene/-eietersisisltereerstererarete April 8, 1902
Pineos Anvands View wliis> om tiv esp Newsy reyes rsterteyeieetrsterse= bate tote crete kek tet eae Nov. 5, 190;
*Reid, A, P., M. D., L. R. C. S., Middleton. Annapolis Co., N.S............ Jan, 31, 1890
*Robingon, C. B., B.A., New York Botanical Garden, New York, U.S. A.Dee. 3, 1902
*Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S............... .. Noy. 29, 1894

*Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XI

Date of Admission.

Ase PEP roreeOy Bas VVOLGCESLCE: LASS sincsiyee ccciencleicee cle cic clsletsicietieicl ate Dec. oF

Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S............-.-- Feb. 6,
Sears, Prof, F. C., Director N. S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, N.S.Feb. 6,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. @. 8., F R. S. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

1896
1901
190]

ON TATION pater steerer rcte teins cecil oe ate cee tron amet dis wien eaeen Jan. 2, 1892
Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D., F. R. S. C., University of New Bruns-

WACK HIPC OLIGCOI Nish Es rarctl Nats cist aie snyelar cere = Fics csc.gue Seraaclorneatee Shnooteners Jan. - 6, 1890
Ball Re Venki eels wari oi CrapN tose cccieersces, sitet oeiss sersarceiictsm acre on suinsicn dave Nov. 29, 1871
Bethune, Rey. Charles J. S. M. A., D.C. L., F. RC. S., Ontario Agricultural

Colleges Grrel pHs Oribrsverecieictacce wtrcts weiss clolers Selene wists i-(eisve ererteueie sie wrayer) cies Dec. 29, 1868
Cox Philips Base: Poe DD. Chatham Ne, Biss caselcernicates oeleciciscjclole a/erere o' ora,5) 6 Dec. 3, 1902
Davidsonveroted Ohm. PH iia Dismte saci secede cece cates scceeer SGA SACRO CaO aaa Dec. 12, 1898
DODO mW ELonryn Me iss1C NeShery Him olay Cys --saiatersssloteiatelnicreve aleve) ainiave ous) nisielers Dee. 3, 1897

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. S. A., F. R. S. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..Jan. 2,
Faribault, E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. se., Geological Survey of Canada,

1894

Ottawa ; Assoc. Memb., March 6, 1888. . ........--.-0. Bo syaeaie sistas date Dec. 3, 1902
Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Senses. Optawa Ontario: asec ecs eee March 8, 1891
Fletcher, James, LL. D., F. L. S,F.R.S.C., Entomologist and Botanist,

Central iixps Warm; Ottawa On GanriOs oo: iesies 2 clecs scsiaisisiee fcjere eines March 2, 1897
Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

ERS StA elects vrs estore coe ctevs reseeven aie fess ele ec tcte ih eiarere Gocorets elleroLeie te. Frei aroneie ei eidicvovousde Jan. 6, 1890
Hardy, Maj.-General Campbell ch AG SOMETHIN SLAM Gee ner icrarcieieitaicieietore’s Oct. 30, 1903
Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. , Post Office Pelee eae Ottawa ...... May _ 5, 1896
Hay, George U., D.Sc, F.R.S G., st. AO AGH ING 1ieennenedpodosS dacs sperms Dec. 3, 1902
Litton, Robert T., Hs Gar Ses Melbourne. ATISUE ANIA aoscac rec ace ee ec eer Soe e May 54, 1892
McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F. R.s., London, Eng. ........ June 10, 1880
MeSwains ohne Charlobbecow Nae. Hit lessees sei oiiciseisiciere seisle ceria cinecieth -Dec. 3, 1902
Watthew-s Gili Ms Ass DSC. pHa Re Se Czy Sta J Ol Ne IS elacnicielscesieis cerns Jan. 6, 1890
Marya even Vby,0bOn, iD ss. Mb nacan Nis Vics Ure Alcan ema ciemeine t cieteleleleieleietieiae Nov. 30, 1891
Peter, Rev.-Brother Junian, Fall River, Mass., U.S. A..........0002...08 Dec, 12, 1898
Pro arora Olrend iain 18 GY bude <bean Gononad uocageaoudodbagen abdcrodoequcondcdnec: March 2, 1900
Prest, Walter Henry, M. E., Bedford ; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29, 1894 ....... -Nov. 2, 1900
Prichard. Arthur He Coopers Boston Masse ssic<c) oie) cle) ie lelereis’ers)ele) ooicieie's Dec. 4, 1901
Prince. Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ota war tOntariwen crytoacncisace cite. lesicetstci mare Sicha swe bret rorsieracecuinee -Jan. 45, 1897
Smith; Hon: Hverett, Portland, Maine; WiiiS: Ass. s oj. scciccs seine vernt deuce Mar. 31, 1890
Weston, Thomas C., F.G. 8. A., Ottawa, Ontario ......... ERMA e se TNE May 12, 1877

* Life Members.

Sy Waianae

= See
2 Ay he

*?

APPBENDIZ< IV:

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1905-06.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

lefMyees IR UR Hal o MDL. cp Sean Ben AST Otc OOUEA Te TSAR aC Se cERy Mee aGHaReOreaner March 4, 1890
Bishop, Watson L., Supt. of Water Works, Dartmouth, N.S.............Jan. 6, 1890
Bowman, Maynard, B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax. ... ...,..............March 13, 1884
Brownenichards Mey Halifax aes cmeier erat em ecises anyacieeice sein acters verersicls Feb. 2, 1903
Budge, Daniel, General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable Uo., Halifax....Oct. 30, 1903
*Campbell, Donald A.,M. D., Halifax ....... ER Re dee hin bara s tte se OMe mols tOOU:
Campbell; George Murray, M--b>, Halifaxy -.., +26. sere. acces rm es- sas NOV. / 105 1884
ColpitiwParkenRe, City wlectricians Halitaxnessssssteceias) ee sess Le Ds 2,-1903
Davis, Charles Henry, Cab., New Mork City. Wes Avice a= cr icin oie ois Dec. 5, 1900
Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. a., B. A. 1., University of Birmingham,

Ey Hasbharedo neal, ID aye) Hye Ol Ye ceo uapoooageU poeoecOoUNU weoHdononboLE BOGE April 8, 1902
Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax ...............Nov. 3, 1886
Wonkante Eira Cs Eis, Gla Ce savas Cass surttersr-crsient te ele\o/cyere ariel mihicielefateleya) eine Jov. 30. 1892
Heane EhOmas) Js cRa@hit amy weckettemicicletes scot cee rinielein aera eile crnce eee Baer Jan. 6, 1890
Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax........... May 8, 1894
SOLVES Fe) OND VEOH ChOl sy Nim Es ecama ae einer cicero rrenistete sieves eat oie ieerere's eve March 14, 1883
*Kraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax....March 31 1890
Gates suenberth.. Archibect, bleu faxame a sey cctartal ters coe oreinctate eave) levers steele ore April 17, 1899
*Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.C., IS. Or Inspector of Mines, Halifax ..April 11, 1873
Hattie, William Harrop, mM. D., Supt. N.S. Hospital, Dartmouth.......... Nov. 12, 1892
Ebayer AAG MALT ax os oysisy st siaral toisysiatsselstale en! sharere arsveleia cles BIW REN cisti eters Noy. 7, 1905
Davina GaWiekeHidiuca tion) ete yk alltaranisacpiscrcieencteccteisieioteret=: sie stcloierste Jan. 4, 1892
Jack, Prof. Ernest Brydone, M. A., C. E., Dalhousie College, Halifax ...Nov. 7, 1905
Johnston, Harry W., c. £., Asst. City Engineer, Halifax................ Dec. 31, 1894
pairs EVE Vet OD ELGs ELIA ah Kaus Weteraciorereatcrtexttssciccocsstor acter istarsmaleraterse tare eines seouehne 8 JIE Sst)
McCarthy, J. B., B. A., M. SC., feacher of science, County Academy,

NETRA AAR ey sys favs yavssolete Pelvis ook Vol sta res ee eaece yc aera o aectaaral Sevaans Sate) shane erotaiepasatele ears ..Dec. 4, 1901
MeColl>Roderick,.c) bs Provil Engineer, sHalifax s..cc. ce. scene sees e Jan. 4, 1892
Maced onalas Sinton) ents Gauss, EVallifarm: peysiopcressisisisicrotaz¥-t ots eicteia ofotee eastaus mi stcleverey os March 14, 1881
*MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A., D. SC., F. R. S., F. R. S.C., Edin-

burgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland................ sie Nal Sraveereel ote Jan. 11, 1877
MiclainesMASCEOM ATT: pF. tybelall Pics dio sven crates ot iocansteclore:oxste seciets iarotciwun avetaueTaevazechele Nov. 27, 1889
*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax ...... ............... Feb. 5, 1872
*MacKay, Alexander Hector, B. A., B. SC., LL. D., F. R.S. C., Superintend-

CntiOoMMaucarlon elallitaxasdece och ot ciwielsot cr evar tered oteraieies ee ace mmr oty Octie sy 1885
MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax .........Nov. 27, 1889
*MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Dartmouth, N.S .................--000- Dec. 18, 1903
MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, Ph. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax ...Nov. 7, 1908
NE@Kerrony Wal lias. Gl ality xcue ec cract or Aer stataisiet aoc erase sy ctovonietercielelerelserersiniscietesta Nov. 30, 1891

*Life Members.

Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vou. XI. App. IV.

XIV LIST OF MEMBERS.

‘Date of Admission.

Marshall, Galore R., Principal, Compton Avenue School, Halifax .... April
Morton, S. A.. M. A., County Academy, Halifax ... .......... aoe ta tre eis spac edna,
Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. SC., I. S. 0., Saskatoon, Sask ......:... -:...... Jan.
Murray. Prof. Daniel Alexander, Ph. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax ....Dec.
*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., Dartmouth, N.S...................06..
Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial
Seranecy Plone Iskybiieps osdgencnos ,cncs5c0 820 onddsboudoasaooEnoc Nov.
*Poole, Henry Skeffington, a. M., ASSOC. R.S M, Sis HR Sse. Me
CAN. SOC. C. E., HON. MEM. INST. M. E., see Seine en Mahon tae cats Nov.
INIA SS (ErrloKae lela Nie hy, 1h IPA Ch Sty SAWN cose ne accapoausad Lodusbroesoor Nov.
pA EXo Lola el Daan vaganlive coun iAISy oaboun canes OOD o RAGS Tdab MO saouncupin co noob OdE March
Rutherford 40 hin Wie ekla lit arxee es eee craetcteretchaortale eet soe ke ashlee Jan.
Sexton. Prof. Frederic H. Dalhousie College, Halifax .... .. ............ Dec.
‘Smith, Prof. H. W, B.sc., Agricultural School, Truro, N.S.; Assoc.
WScilopacd has Ghul ie) Gono mabountoodensoraG COCUNN So 00h Open -sadenadoc Dec.
SiON fa dOlias Wieisy Ghia lat Whiine one soases cocoon potusoodooduenneosoapas Jan.
Tinling, Captain E. B., R. N., Marine & VWisheries Dept., Halifax ...... Feb.
Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S....Nov.
Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax ........ .............May
Winfield, James H., Manager, N. 8S. Telephone Co., Halifax.. a2. SD eee
Woodman, Prof J. Edmund, mM. a, D. sc., School of Mining andl ‘Metal
lurzy, Dalhousie College, Halifax .... 222. s05..6 - Sh ALES acca Dec.
*Yorston, W. G., c.E., City Hngineer, Sydney, C.B... ........ Sit Uh berate Nov.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Archibald; Monrose Acy by oCs DEUROs Nei Ssgecleecleeioetrteeelo neti elet-metere erage Nov.
“OAS Roles NGA HITOWUID INS So Seaosocods Gongs sauoooacsec et ok (ele eens Jan.
*Dickenson, S. S., Commercial Cable Co., New York, U.S. A............ March
Ndwards: Arthur Vesa Deh TtSaj ONG Wailtkeo Nin Jinnicdslsstel eels ce ele eiete Dec.
Gates, Reginald R., Mt. Allison University, Sackville, N.B. ........ .. Feb.
Haley, Prof. Frank R , Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ........ .......- Noy.
Harlow, L.JG.,.B. Sc:, Prov. Normal School, Truro, N./S!) 2-00. 2. doce eee March
Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S ........-.... ..May
Hunton, Prof. S. W , M. A. Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....... Jan.
Jaggar, Miss A Louise) Cambridge; Mass) <2. 22 2. c sce ee een eine nis Dec.
James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario .. ..... Dee.
ANA one ifs Wes spelen Coplsiicgns Sen sac" copaunoqdsccsopaos Ne aria May
Sol Mots, I Mako) saekss None NEDA eMOW INT INS aagaccobecq ase panaoaooeanasonoscab lS Nov.
*Keating, E. H., c. &., Toronto, Ry. Co, Toronto, Ont.; Ord. Memb.

Nae OUP Bog ouadie sauAsenit aA boteco Nb nédal ssh oOndies, ooscebars April
*Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M. A., D. sc. F.G. S., Wolfville, N.S .... .. 3...Nov.
IDE yAHe Tee LS le ID HUD Shee AOA WIDKS INAS) gatcombogeoceade desodoag Ls00hsboo Mareb
MelIntosh, Kenneth, St’ Peters, C. B.; Ord. Wenn Jan. 4, 18925... =:. June
*MacKay, Hector H., M.D., New Glasgow, N.S ............02.-.++.. .... Web.
Mekenzies Wiss. Cobh On CtOM Ne a ceee canes antes aerate enter re Mareh
WAG D eral TR Veten LEV ITCIG!, INES occ too Bokadnonsos choiaseuAs Barak Sache ee Dec.
Maree WH. PH--D:, Am Mapolisy iNet siecle ss meri teenie iste telat teri rete Nov.
Matheson, W. G., New se NigS ha eat Re ee Ae eee ea
Payzant, E N., M. D., Wolfville, N.S... Toe actos NUAL IE Rats April
Pineo, Avard V., iL. B., Kentville, 'N. ee SNARE pean teen Aeiaereei saa Cel .. Nov.
*Reid, A, P.,M. D., L. R. C--S ena Anneeoie ConeNeSaeorodte Jan.

*Robinson, C. B., B.A., New Yy ork Botanical Garden, New Y a Saat -Dee.

S

“Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S

*Life Members.

1894
1893
1870
1903
1871

1888

1872
1889
1890
1865
1903

1900
1885
1905
1894
1889

. 1903

1905
1890
1895
1898
1903
1901
1905
1899
1890
1900
1896
1903
1889

1900
1882
1903
1900
1902
1882

3, 1897

1894
1890
1902
1901
1890

3, 1902
- 1894

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XV

Date of Admission.

RUSSEL Erol We Gsndey Se VV OLCOSUEL sriWl SSelele\e se craleis cisiers efcvelrisiele/slslelsiielels elerot= Dec. 3,
Sawyer, Prof. Ev Brete oo ., Acadia College, Wolfville, NFS eras crctakezersraletsrsreteree Feb. 6,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. G. S., F R. S.c., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

LOXOUETT OO eect We om eich ae Bis Bek Sere Cr Steet Ream isin rm mR YE d Jan. 2,
Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D., F. R. S. C., University of New Bruns-

WICK Hed CLI ChOM se Niel sin. tabs rereiosveieiare nates oie cater alec aTSt iets Ue ee Jan 6;
Ball Reyer He wes e hAN Si CLIN sate. vets/ aah, silat o sicieinlfe sebeore nc bee Na euatunieramie need Jov. 29,
Bethune, Rey. Charles J. S., M. A., D.C. L., F. R. S. ©, Ontario Agricultural

Collezes Guelph Ontieseteessicisc) cee ns cn'e« a ateveeeinareiateted eh aicheneton a eiaeects Dec 20:
Cox Philip BSG. BHesD © ha bhamen Nas sejsieveoeiecisiceciswicle sos. acleceerete ae DEciaae:
Dobiemwe Henry M.D:. Chesberp, Hngland cere -mcecesec. 2. cesl ose sireies Dec: © .3;

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. S. A., F. R. S. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..Jan. 2,
Faribault, E. Rodolphe, B. a., B. sc., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa: Assoc: aMiemib:, March: 6, 1888-26 25 jasce vison to wietes a eseie Sosed OYE aun ah
Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario ......-......... March 2,
Fletcher, James, LL. D., F. L. 8S, F.R. S.cC., Entomologist and Botanist,

Centrallixp. Harn, Ottawa OmtariOyecrciesiecericten oe s« cleiacieetcce = March 2,
Ganong, Prof. W.F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

(U3 SE ay Oo as SRO RN SIGGRE GaORCORSOCUC cael CM eB Dome nears te mime ae rae a Jane! #6:
Hardy, Maj.-General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England..................... Oct. 30,
Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa ...... May 3,
HayetGeoree. UL eDs Ses Ha Rais iG tard OMT Nis nbs petra ecisjas ckere, winlarsveiel#fetete\«:< Decuria:
inten, Robert sh, Fs.G-s:,, Melbourne, Australiaies.c/o-0 cc. decienie sce ole May 4,
McSwain, John. Cee a sie 288 lbs (A 2 SG CuO Ce A er a ea et ane WDCC eo:
MattheweiGs, Hz.) M.cAss De SCe, Heke Ss Ossi bei Ol) Nit BS So orsse.c sieciclne ctelcie's« Jan. 40;
Maury, Rev. Se DED slg haGa Nie Viced OeposcAc. cf. 422° ei evar ste tral tveeretiicots Nov. 30,
Peters Kev. brother) sunian, Hall Rivers Mass;, Wat Aun......cscse co. Dec. 12,
Bickford aGharlessHalitasc cero, arene Ten, cha Denis onic rene eee March 2,
Prest, Walter Henry, M.E., Webbewood: Ont; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29. 1894, Nov. 2
Prichard. Arbonne Hen COOPeEE BOStON; IM aSsacieve.. ccc eist ciele coce see saoal Dees) Eh
Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

@titaw ase OnbaeiOws cece sents oc coke elon erase es cate ares namtreis amass Jane;
Smirpheons Hiverehu,, LOrtland plane) eis 5 Ae ase: ncyelstetereiers islets cisisreiols oles Mar. 31,
Weston; Ehomas'C.) iW: G'S:.A;,, Oltaway, Ontario’.<..s.006. 6c. --6-c.se6eene May 12,

1896
1901

1897
1890
1877

* Life Members.

XVI LIST OF PRESIDENTS.

EIST OF _PRESIDENTS

or THE Nova Scotian INSTITUTE OF NaTURAL SCIENCE, AFTERWARDS
THE Nova Scotian INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, SINCE I1S

FOUNDATION IN 1862.

Term
HonwebiliniCartere tblallsins7 Gs alsaereryerteeiierciatctericle eleretstatatatacs stele 31 Dec. 1862
Toh ne MatLbhHew; J OMS Hy WS, Hk pet Ont eierele elere/srayeleleotetelcia serie 26 Oct. 1863
John Bernard: Gilpin, oMeiAc, wit ss ale dR, |OsSenie's ciclejiage iets eke siete 8 Oct. 1873
William’ G OSSipnn sa acta neseitisreicite secveitstsleistecsie Seon aleisigiete stare arenie 9 Oct. 1878
JFONNISOMLELS WMA. ahielewte ioe aire veistatsieca ch stexole Sereeticieee mclelettereiee 13 Oct. 1880
FRODELEMNIOLLO Wy Adee eee ha citeer erate cisicetlem eo ckinee eramehiace 26 Oct. 1883
‘JTOHMASOMELS Mews saa otore cvessiel ale weeds eiele lence ieleehe owl nise setae ee 21 Oct. 1885
Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., D. SC., F.R.S.. F.R.S.C. 10 Oct. 1888
Man ting Murphys: Gisbs psi Cs, ila So Osiucietoteseterteretats ciaCelereisieterverararers 9 Noy. 1891
Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D., F. I. C., F. R. S.C. .-+..-- 8 Noy. 1893
Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M. A., LL. D., D. SC., F. G.S., F. R. 8. C., I.8.0.18 Nov. 1895
Alexander MeKaye cance cel siecle mene) ciel reie oxeieleiesorsieisreloreiereieers 8 Nov. 1897
Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A., B. SC., LL. D., F. R. S. C...20 Nov. 1899
Henry Skeftington Poole, M. A., D. SC., A. R. S. M., F. G. S.,
TMB SeSHKGs eoomduoD Srosb enue eaahe meee cre se amterAaten ie ainle Girvan 24 Nov. 1902
Francis» William Whitney Doane, C. BE. ....-..-.....0.1+-0<06% 18 Oct. 1905
Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D....- AEC ROC IT oer moat oo onenec 11 Nov. 1907

of Office.

to

ce

26 Oct. 1863
8 Oct. 1873
9 Oct. 1878
13 Oct. 1880
26 Oct. 1883
21 Oct. 1885
10 Oct. 1888
9 Nov. 1891
8 Nov. 1893

10 Nov. 1895
8 Nov. 1897

20 Nov. 1899

24 Nov. 1902

18 Oct. 1905
11 Nov. 1907

Nore—Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officiv Fellows of the

Royal Microscopical Society.

(Roman numerals refer to the Proceedings; Arabic numerals to the

Transactions. )

i PAGE
Address. See Presidential address.
Age of conglomerate capping the Cambrian rocks of Nova Scotia. By

dels Mote 2o%0) a DaNStos ta ihasin a outhenischd cache SRE RENE ae enol ees 236
Ainslie, Lake, Inv. Co., pre-Cambrian volcanic bombs from. By H. 8.

BOOED). SCSicee heer Ie ee LTO tr eek s Snstnle aie <i Stale 339
Ami, Henry M., ). Sc.—Meso-Carboniferous age of Union and Rivers-

dale formations of Nova Scotia. (Title only) ............ xiii
Analyses and sections of Nova Scotia coals. By E. Gilpin, jr., LL. D. 8
Bancroft, J. Austen.—Ice-borne sediments in Minas Basin, N. 8..... 158
Battery Point, Sydney, N. S.. faults at.. By T. Tf. Fulton .......... 260
Bedded leads, distribution of, in relation to mining policy. By Prof.

ee VV OO CIN ATS Ch Ae cme tree tree Rte ta Sense RNG cn taut ote 163

Barbour, Capt. John H., @. B—Flora of McNab’s Island, Halifax Har-
bour, N. S.: pt. 1, general notes; pt. 2, work in special
orders; part 3, narcotisation of plants; part 4, occasional

PIOUS a ergy cee ee aene ser came ret elacr cde raion rs here toes entre peters D935
Local variations and other notes on blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchiwm
IEG USUULOUUUDIy) Beast BiRat cree ek ney een hohe Oe nel oN eae oR TORS cr actos 19]
Birds of Prince Edward Island, catalogue of. By J. MacSwain...... 570
Bishop, Watson L.—Eels in water-pipes and their migration....... 640:
Occurrence of star-nosed mole and a shrew in an eel trap. (Title
OMY yere teen Bay proxi ct cys) Store tern Poot ray Pesta ee Yagees Seanad thocay a hit
Blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium angustifolium), local variations and
other notes on. By Capt. J. H. Barbour, M.B. ........... “191
borings, im searchvot coal. “By EH. S2 Boole; DiSe. 2. i... =. ea ne XXX1l1
Botanical notes in Nova Scotia. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D. ........ 286.
Bus, sunken land of, (lat. 53 N., long. 35 W.). By H. S. Poole,
IAS ess Sere etree: use Ake cred Rn Ste a EO Rha a mie at ae nee 193, 551
Campbell, R. H.—Address on forestry. (Title only) ............. XXVIiL

(xvii)

XVill INDEX.

PAGE
Camphor, action of phenyl magnesium bromide on. vy H. J. M.
Greightome 22 cite oo Ge elo teens ere © errant ae st Pete ostaas ep aceetae 593
Canada, eastern oil fields of. By R. W. Ells, LL.D. .............. 598
Carboniferous rocks in Cumberlana Co., N. 8., sections of. By Sir
Wm. Logan and H. Fletcher, B.A. (See also contents of
tWESE“SECLLONS: Ps D49))imas| cure tenis choke seus tees) stale ereg pene ieicods 417
Catalogue of Birds of Prince Edward Island. By J. MacSwain...... 570
Caterpillar, lichen-mimicing. By C. B. Robimson ................. xiii
Cement, notes on hydraulic lime and. By F. H. Mason, F.C.S. ..... 179
Cheticamp, South, ore deposits of. By M. V. Grandin ............. 347
Coal, borings in search of. By H. S. Poole, D.Sc. ................ XXXlil
Coal beneath Prince dward Island, is there? By H. 5. Poole, D.Se.. 1
Coals, sections and analyses of Nova Scotia. By E. Gilpin, jr., LL. D. 8
Colpitt, Parker R.—Wireless telegraphy. (Title only) ............ XV
Cenglomerate capping the Cambrian rocks of Nova Scotia, age of. By
HiiS: SPooles sDa Ses es en cis ee esos ekaletae ul auasst ade ee ee eT acne 236
Creighton, H. Jermain M.—Grignard synthesis: action of phenyl
mapnesim: bromide son camphor. \ wir. ein leu er dole) plea 593
Cumberland County, N. 8., section of Carboniferous rocks in. By Sir
W. E. Logan and H. Fletcher, B.A. (See also detailed con-
WEIN Off VUES SAAHWOUES fy GEE) Oke ccddogocubdedoooo coda cs 417
Determination of elements of terrestrial magnetism at Halifax, N.S.,
August, 19045) By. brotos Ve WixOnwrr isin eee 245
DeWolfe, Loran A., M@.A.—Siructure and succession at North Sydney
and! Sydney: Mines, .@suB van ser cox saith. aie Pele ne amen ee ee on ee 289
Dictyonema websteri (=WD. retiforme). By R. Ruedemann ....... xlvil
Distribution of bedded leads in relation to mining policy. By Prof.
JV IOWiOOEM AN MD ISCe at he oe aa Ley eae ee aC ee 163
Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, 1. A.—Determination of elements of
terrestrial magnetism at Halifax, N.8., August, 1904 ...... 245
Doane, Francis W. W., U. H.—Frost and drought of 1905 .......... 623
Meteorological. ANotes, U. cit ioc cietotegeacisay oat re ete nent iarcea a ree 361
Droughtsandstrostof 905: By. ha WeewWeeDoanesaen = sarah) aeons 625

Earthquake of March 21, 1904, in Nova Scotia. By Prof. J. E.

Woodman: D2 See 5 ei ee AB caret en oracle ete eae Tee eg 2
Edible wild plants of Nova Scotia. By.-W. H. Prest ............... 387
Eels in water-pipes and their migration. By W. L. Bishop ........ 640
Blls,; R. W:, £0.) —Oil-fields of eastern) Canaaa |) $2..2.5.55...5.. 598
English, Major C. E.—Guns and gunnery. (Title only) .......... xi
Faults, at. Battery Pomt, Sydney, No S) > By 2 22 Bualtont\ ess eee 260
Fishes, swim bladder of, a degenerate gland. By Prof. E. E. Prinece.. 199

Fletcher, Hugh, 6b. A.—Section of rocks from Shulie to Spicer cove,
Cumberland Co., N. 8. (See also contents, Den O49)) oe ee ees OO

INDEX. X1xX

Flora of MeNab’s ‘Island, Halifax Harbour, N. S.: pt. 1, general
notes; pt. 2, work in special orders; pt. 3, narcotisation of
plants; pt. 4, occasional notes. By Capt. J. H. Barbour, M.D. 553

Frost, and drought of 1909. By F..W. W. Doane ..... 02. ........:+: 623
Fulton, ‘Truman T.—Faults at Battery Point, Sydney, N.S. ........ 260
Rum said evon=wubie Ree Gates) te anc ciece aig Sites dese eae ens. See 115
Fungi of Nova Scotia: a provisional list. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D... 122
For supplementary list of Fungi, see vol. xii, p. 119.
Gates, Reginald R.—Middleton 1ungi, with general remarks ........ 115
Geology of Moose River gold district, Halifax County, N.S. By Prof.
OB NV OO GANA Su) Gye cbaetsgn toe SiN apa eel stad oheue Aeeh chats degen 18
Gilpin, Edwin, jr., LL. D., D.Sc., 1.8.0.— Mira Grant, C. B. Co. .... 89
Nections: and analyses-of Nova Scotian’ coals: )..052. 222-0... -- 8

Gold district, Geology of Moose River. By Prof. J. E. Woodman, D.Sc. 18
Grandin, M. V.—Notes on ore deposits of South Cheticamp, Cape

Bre tOmtals amd eterctsty sastceg eaves. sey a us us aeaest ae abate orale 347
Grignard synthesis: action of phenyl magnesium bromide on camphor.

IB yed ale Gls MANU Ess Orgenied eh (oval) cresary 8 Aerecrs us &iaey o ore Hacoebee olopenate Oidins 593
Halifax, determination of elements of terrestrial magnetism at,

PRUE IEA Many leitorig ise, Wis IDI eae woe Bo BOL ee oaoe 245
Hill, T. Vardy.—Creation and development of the inorganic founda-

HONMOLeChemea role (aves onllive\Run etait: fc hear XXVil
Hind, Henry Youle, D. C. u.—Imporiance of a knowledge of rock fold-

MOKA) Oy evUAKeES, © + (MTEC) hy) een 5 ode Dip Sorc oo colaner XXVill
Hydraulic lime and cement, notes on. By F. H. Mason, F.C.8. ..... 179
Hydroxylamine and its salts, contribution to study of solutions of.

Byard Wire Els: DROSS HARB NISC -fassisre ecole seins ste ss spepanalg, susiote o bet sde\s, stedeneess 95
Hydroxylamine, contribution to the study of. By G. M. J. MacKay,

IES SRNR Bea ee gta wer Oo occas cy ee oA aes, cee rt RMN romoesy al Ne edn: Saget rage toy. 324
Ice-borne sediments in Minas Basin, N. 8. By J..A. Bancroft ...... 158
Joggins, amphibian-like remains from. By L. M. Lambe .......... li
Joggins section. See Logan, Sir W. E., and —.etcher, H. ........... 417

Kings County branch of the N. 8. Institute of Science, report of.
Vill, XXV, XXxiv, xlv1

Lambe, Laurence M.—Amphibian-like reamins from the Joggins, N.%. hi
ihandwio RAB US ae Veskteins be OOlesg IS SC. ar. fe. os cian. See eine tees ke IB), Gyn!
Librarian’s report, (1901-2), viii; (1902-3), xxiv; (1903-4), xxxiv;

(LS O45) asxilov eee cease cots hace ee atey elist cutesy See euch coh os tie Sieh eva
Lichen-mimicing caterpillar, note on. By C. B. Robinson .......... xiii
Lishman, W. E., M. A.—Mining, Is it a science? (Extract.) ....... xlix

Logan, Sir William E.—Section of the Nova Scotia Coal Measures, as
developed at the Joggins, on the Bay of Fundy, from neigh-
bourhood of West Ragged Reef to Minudie. (Nee also
COMLETIUS cD ROA ON) rem it ven tatey each dy gaia am Sein AY Cae aided ne 419

xX INDEX.

PAGE

Louisbourg, C. B., question of subsidence at. By K. McIntosh...... 264
McColl, Roderick, C.#.—Damage done to timber by Toredo navalis

and Limnoria lignorum. (Title only.) ................... lil

MeIntosh, Kenneth.—Question of subsidence at Louisbourg, C. B. ... 264

MacKay, Alexander Howard, LL. ).—Botanical notes in Nova Scotia. 286

Fungi of: Nova? Scotia: a provisional Lists 520-000... renee 122

For supplementary list of Fungi, see vol. xii, p. 119.
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1902.... 144
a - es fe i es OOS eieeyemectiek
= s i fs “ 5 1904.... 373
Presidential address, 1902: institute’s work, work of affiliated
organizations, general provincial work, recommendation,
improving facilities, checking malaria, extinction of yellow

LOVER 9. Wie: oo Spor Rea enti. foe tie ve aha tas ope ae eg reo ee i
Water-rolled'\ weed-ballsic ic, ox sien cic Cetera dticuss sae keane oh acumen 667
MacKay, G. M. Johnstone, B. A.—Contribution to the study of
hydroxylamine a5 si2 ous sisi eicce len oie eee Suey Cee d24
McLearn, F. H.—Structural analysis of the Goldenville anticline, Guys.
CorsNe Se (Ditlevonlys) gsi ao eee tee eee” Cee eae eer XXXVI
McNab’s Island, Halifax Harbour, N. S., flora of. By Capt. J. H.
Barbour; Me MBS Se ke eyes shea tk sc ecaiece none gu eatt iG aout enh eae 553
MacSwain, John.—Catalogue of Birds of Prince Edward Island...... 570
Malaria ce occke erie cee eT AS Se arch ne eee ec ea eet ee ee vi
Mason, Francis H., /’. C.S.—Notes on hydraulic lime and cement.... 179
Members, lists of; 1902-3, appendix i; 1903-4, appendix v; 1904-5,
appendix ix; 1905-6, appendix xiii.
Mersey River, N. S., water-powers of. By W.G. Yorston, C.E. ..... 651
Meteorolocicalamotess Byam ol) Ooms ape etree ieee eee 361
Middleton, N. 8., fungi, with general remarks. By R. R. Gates ..... 115
Minas Basin, N. S., ice-borne sediments in. By J. A. Bancroft...... 158
Mining, is it a science? By W. HE. Lishman, M.A. (Extract.) .... xlix
IWbuey Cheney (Oouley (Con Ashe 1s (Callovin, WIG MDS Geo cnoconomocdssooce ok 89
Moose River gold district, Halifax Co., N. 8., geology of. By Prof.
J, Hy Woodman DSc. cose soat ce egniat: eee ee ee 18
Narcotisation of plants. See Barbour, Capt. J. H.: Flora of MeNab’s
Tslandy.> pts BiF sn. weis ee eaiecs ee icles eee esas ie eae 2 een anne 563
North Sydney and Sydney Mines, C. B., structure and succession at.
By. As De WoltesMi Aly ¥icihedeur angen oe ee een Case eae eee 239
Officers for 1902-3, x; 1903-4, xxvi; 1904-5, xxxv; 1905-6, xlvii.
Oil-fields of eastern Canada. By R. W. Elss, LL.D. ..:........... 598
Ore deposits of South Cheticamp, Cape Breton Island. By M. V.
ES o10 Ub OTe arn aenEe Sn i Ag Metin Aum Ie nAaA ROAR eah any alate. a us 347

Petroleum!” “Sées@il feldspar as. eRe eee ae Rie) ae ie eee 598

INDEX. Xxl

PAGE
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1902. By A. H.
MacKay’, Lalas yD testes i ccncwsy one desctel cnstcer ss ouehs cl oe tateneoe cremebarnter cbse octte 144
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1903. By A. H.
Mackay: La ao egay te aaicra te oly olatere ots) ond abalsh stale inves seat chorenene 271
Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1904. By A. H.
Hus x gael Bi Le D ar ohn SR ORI, Wh aro I Aes ae 373
Phenyl magnesium bromide, action of on camphor. By H. J. M.
Greve toner rinstrrn ye void Lena cernat tain ees aah ieancs: ict meter ne 593
Piers Harry.—Three abnormal zoological specimens at the Provincial
Wiirsenmisseen (Cercle omlby:.)) js eh oNarond, once, tthe, Attcshsie soy cic ac rt AM es xiil
Plants, edible wild, of Nova Scotia. By W. H. Prest .............. 387
Plants, narcotisation of. See Barbour, Capt. J. H.: Flora of MeNab’s
STAT GES po Uo Sieve tere tse dee cree cl spent. Bie erences, SNE N ne aes ahs 563
Poole, Henry Skeffington, D. Sc——Age of the conglomerate capping the
CambriansrocksroteNova Scoblanes ieee tae eis etree ani 236
Introduction to section of carboniferous rocks in Cumberland Co.,
by Sin WE nogamcand “EH. <Wleucherpssi na gore cia ne ce 3% aoe 417
Is there coal beneath Prince Edward Island? .................. 1
Note on Dictyonema websteri. (Title only.) ................. Xlil
Presidential address, 1903, xvii; 1904, xxxi; 1905, xxxix.
Pre-Cambrian voleanic bombs from near Lake Ainslie, Inv. C.,
TINS cr tetess cl ne Paeen cernentsLcies cetera Seer WM RN recta puma a SoM <3) 339
Subsidence of Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia ........+......... 262
Sunken and ot, Buse (lat7o3) Ne) Tomes sie Woy) setae chetelele rere ra shat 193
Supplementary note to paper on “ Sunken Land of Bus.” ...... Soil
Pre-Cambrian voleanie bombs from near Lake Ainslie, Iny. Co., N.S.
BY AEA SS POOLE DR SCM tins paeisesnnn sciet eee oe areh Soalcaahe pee ae eians 339
Presidential address, (1902, Dr. A. H. MacKay), malaria, yellow fever,
etce., i: (1903, Dr. H. S. Poole), application of science to
mining, xvii. (1904, Dr. H. S. Poole), borings in search of
coal, xxxi. (1905, Dr. H. 8. Poole), speculative thoughts,
ROKRCENG
Presidents of N. 8. Institute of Science, list of; appendix xvi.
Prest, Walter Henry.—Edible wild plants of Nova Scotia ......... 387
Prince, Prof. E. E.—Colours of animals, their nature and meaning.
(VEG e Se Oriliya) is Spvcey cr teeses se areueie Soswe rook eee at ls Sh ae xii
Swim-bladder of fishes, a degenerate gland). 225.5. .0. abc - 199
Prince Edward Island, catalogue of birds of. By J. MeSwain...... 570
Prince Edward Island, is there coal beneath? By H. S. Poole, D. Se. ]
Rainfall. See Doane, F. W. W.: Frost and drought of 1905........ 623

Reid, Frank H.—Birds and the selection of their nests. (Title only.) .xxviii
Notes’ on protective colouring.” (Title only.) 2.2.00... 35.6. ..; li

XXll INDEX.

PAGE
Report of librarian, (1901-2), viii; (1902-3), xxiv; (1903-4), xxxiv;

(1904-5), xvi.

Report of treasurer, (191-2), villi; (1902-3), xxiv; (1903-4), xxxiv;

(1904-5), xlvi.
iobinson, C. B.—Distribution of Hucus serratus in Nova Scotia.

(Bitle omy) i ies Osten Peer na Med acer clea eRe ay ah ata ee ae Xv

Note ‘om Tichen-mimicineicaiterpillai. Seo an tetsicis icon teeters xiil
Ross, W. H., B. Sc—Contribution to the study of hydroxylamine and

LUST Sal tS ap sasaies arise erebsesneeehede aces he leuse ieee ee A aA AAPA ARIA ia: 95
tuedmann, R.—On Dictyonema websteri (=D. retiforme) ........ xlvii
Section of carboniferous rocks in Cumberland Co., N. 8.: (1) Detailed

section of rocks from West Ragged Reef tothe Joggins Mines

and Minudie, by Sir William E, Logan, (republished) ; and

(2) from Shulie to Spicer Cove, by Hugh Fletcher, B. A.

(See also contents of these sections, p. 549.) .............. 417
Sections and analyses of Nova Scotia coals. By E. Gilpin, jr., LL. D. 8
Sediments, ice-borne, in Minas Basin, N. 8. By J. A. Bancroft..... 158
Sisyrinchium angustifolium, blue-eyed grass, local variations and

other noteson.) |. By Captus Jkickl 3 Barbour ai SB oa) jest sneer 19]
Stewart, E.—Address on forestry. (Title only.) .../............. XXVIi1
Structure and succession at North Sydney and Sydney Mines, C. B.

By? dit A Ge DeWioliie. a VIR r eiect thane arate cir: one Enc meee ERE 289
Subsidence of Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. By H. 15. Poole, D.Se. 262
Subsidence at Louisbourg, C. B. By K. McIntosh ................. 264
Sunken land "of »Bus, -(lat. “532N:; long: 35 "W.);. By, EeaSs.Roole;

ID Yah MARE see ae Scot Later no) ASUS ane ofa cbc aS teas nie 193, 551
Swim-bladder of fishes a degenerate gland. By Prof. E. E. Prince... 199
Sydney, NN. S:, faults at Battery Roimt.) By Ws 2. sbultons. 2 22 ye 260
Sydney Mines, N. S., structure and succession at North Sydney and.

By i: ASD eWrolties Miata meses atc sacs ti co eale otal ence ae 289
Terrestrial magnetism, determination of elements of, at Halifax, N. S.,

By Prot. S32) Me Dixon rads te elem aorta masctyens eee ae eR 245
Treasurer’s report, (1901-2), vili; (1902-3), xxiv; (1903-4), xxxiv;

(1904-5), xlvi.

Variation of compass. Nee Terrestrial magnetism.
Variations, local, and other notes on blue-eyed grass. By Capt. J. H.

Barbour. “Mei Ber ns Sales oe oe Ee ee ee 191
Volcanic bombs, pre-Cambrian, from near Lake Ainslie, Inv. Co.,

NeS2 By del StBoolesFDSSes Wary. ussite eee ect Ch ach eee 339
Waiter-pipes, meelstans Dy. Weel BiShOpee cer. > ee eee eee ae ees 640
Water-powers of the Mersey River. By W. G. Yorston, C.E. ....... 651.

Water-rolled weed-balls. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D. ................ 667

INDEX.

Woodman, J. Edmund, D. Sc.—Bibliography of the Meguma (Gold
bearing) series, of Noval Scotia: = ((@iutlev only.) stcae- ce e -
Detection of vanished coastal plains. (Title only.) ...........
Distribution of bedded leads in relation to mining policy........
Drainage development of rivers: (Title only.) .+........)..2.:
Harthquake of March 21, 1904; in Nova Scotia ................
Geology of Moose River gold district, Halifax Co., N.S. ........
Note.on crystallizeds wold. (a(Ticleionly: )) oc. snack... deaiecne eee

XX1ll

PAGE

XX1X
XXXV1i

18
XXXVII

Structure of the Meguma (Gold-bearing) series, with reference’

LOMtNeORY-|Ohecross-1Oldsey es(elitlemOnlye) hen a sees «ntti aee
Voleanoes of the Hawaiian Islands. (Title only.) ...........
Weathering of building stone in Halifax. (Title only.) .......
ellowstone, Nationale Park: ((divtlevonlys)) “ess ates oc cee

Mell Owen CVE sy Extn GHOM NOL ter tvs. sees ahtte tile eee, edeapeoonoeucray cn seteee) a oceans

Yorston, W. G., C. E.

Water-powers of the Mersey River, N. S.

‘

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(To illustrate paper by Sir William E. Logan and Hugh Fletcher on Carboniferous Rocks in Cumberla nd County.)

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PLAN AND Section From Spicer Cove to Seaman Broox, Cumnertanp Co., Nova Scorta.—No. 3 (Leary Rarr Brook to Seaman Brook) (To illustrate paper by Sir William F. Loganand Hugh Fletcher on Carboniferous Rocks in Cumberland Co.)

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